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Cornell University Library
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COMMENTARY

ON

THE OLD ‘TESTAMENT

VOL. [IX.—THE MINOR PROPHETS

BY

FREDERICK CARL EISELEN

Professor in Garrett Biblical Institute, Evanston, Illinois

New Yorx: EATON & MAINS
Cincinnatt; JENNINGS & GRAHAM
B.1696
Copyright, 1907, by
EATON & MAINS,
CONTENTS.

 

PAG

PREPA GH 4 sirndsnien Genie odvengaaielee td ooueainaees HSE 8S oa aishelei ers 5
Hosea:

Introduction...... é0 ia De Saas Oieamcnmecd eiee eigen nramtaeen nesee 9

Notes and Comments.......... 0... cece eecee cece ceeeees Sais 39
JOEL:

Introduction auc cars ecieteas a oe eon oes bce ck aidarsadies 125

Notes and Comments........... 0. cece cece cence ae ceeeeeness 151
Amos:

Introduction ......... Rseidbe Sd se ciasate cau aud oneen GeO BURA A nye abaMeR RRC NS 191

Notes and Comments..... Aap a ca eee ate Re, Sac la lr 223
OBADIAH:

IntroducttOne:. foewwaelstuaids 2: cag Basen kbs ee keds setae e's: 286

Notes and Comments...........cc cs eeccccccecssesecasevesees 296
JONAH:

Introduction........... ISAs petieaina ae eaee GunaaeRAe oe Sa 311

Notes and Comments............ 00 eee e cece esse eeeeecceeraes 341
Micau:

Introductlonss's iss casokene yas alee yeaa ee tes cs karo wewraaes 356

Notes and Comments................65 icine eeas's areceoaeated 376
Nauum: :

ANTOdUCHON Hiss 6scSe wit aos andaale dant sured eo samen 426

Notes and Comments.............csseeeeeeee eens $id yeaa wl 443
HABAKKUK:

Introduction ........... Siiivedin aameeieek ae ils resaeaeeneess 463

Notes and Comments.............eccee eee ee vaee sta eaewre re’ 480
ZEPHANIAH:

Introduction ..........eee0e0005 Mey ioit natant OE 505

Notes and Comments............- ord screen omaha pare a aca abet §22
Haae@at:

Introduction, sass sii s ceesewd cise ess womens iaodalaled avacnagalbtads 547

Notes and Comments...,............ hy esha qanerhese Xa a8 SMe 558
ZECHARIAH:

TntrOdu Ct OR een. < cose Sane aha odes csagrnctneteulen ea4.csdeailasauniie aus ». 571

Notes and Comments........-.. ssc cee cece cece trees eee eenens 607
‘Maacai:

Introduction ............ SiGe wg a ee eels aohniannitic ed aelete ok aauerteren 687

Notes and Comments................20055 ee 706
PREFACH.

 

During the preparation of this commentary the author has
had in mind constantly the many students of the Bible who
of necessity must confine themselves to its study in the English
translations. Therefore he has endeavored to furnish here
a commentary which will assist these to understand as nearly
as possible the thoughts which the prophets desired to express.
Much has been done within recent years for a better apprecia-
tion of the Minor Prophets by such scholars as Wellhausen,
Nowack, Marti, W. R. Harper, Driver, Cheyne, A. B. David-
son, W. R. Smith, G. A. Smith, Kirkpatrick, and others. To
the works of these men and of others who have written in
books other than commentaries and in periodicals the present
writer has given closest attention, and he desires to acknowl-
edge here his indebtedness to them for many valuable sug-
gestions, though he may state that in no case have conclusions
been adopted on the authority of any man, but simply because
the facts in the case seemed to point in that direction. Be-
cause of this last-mentioned fact, and because of the popular
character of this commentary, it has not been thought neces-
sary to fill this book with many references to other books.
Those acquainted with the books alluded to will see where
the present writer receives help from them, while to others it
would be of little interest.

In the very nature of the case, much critical material which
would have its proper place in a commentary intended for
6 PREFACE.

 

experts had to be omitted here; and yet the author has sought
to present to the reader, in a spirit of fairness, the critical
questions involved, while trying at the same time to ptt oe
only such conclusions as may be considered sufficiently well
established to be of practical value for a clearer apprehension
of prophetic teaching. In some cases the discussions might
well have been more extensive, but limited space would not
permit. However, the author has tried to say enough in each
case to make the points clear. If he has failed in this the
failure is not due to any desire to avoid difficulties or trouble-
some problems.

As in the other volumes of the series, the text of the so-
called Authorized Version has been made the basis of the
comments. In only one case has an exception been made,
namely, in the divine name represented in A. V. by Lorn;
for it has been substituted the preferable reading of the Ameri-
can Revised Version, Jehovah. This form has been adopted
rather than the more accurate Yahweh simply because it is
more familiar to the ordinary reader, and therefore better
adapted for a popular work. In many cases the more satis-
factory translation of A. R. V. or of the margin has been
added ‘to that of A. V., and where accuracy demanded inde-
pendent translations have also been given. Wherever the dif-
ference between A. V. and R. V. is not significant the reading
of the latter has been placed in brackets without an indication
of the source.

With perhaps two exceptions, the abbreviations used are
self-explanatory. The exceptions are G.-K., which stands for
Gesenius-Kautzsch, Hebrew Grammar, translated by Collins
and ‘Cowley; and K. B., an abbreviation for EB, Schrader,
Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek,
PREFACE. 7

 

The reader of this commentary cannot be urged too strongly
to acquaint himself with the introductory sections preceding
the comments on the separate books. In order to understand
properly any word, or verse, or section, it is important to have
the broader vision of the entire book which these introductory
sections are intended to give.

The author desires to take this opportunity to express to
his former teacher, Professor Robert W. Rogers, of Drew
Theological Seminary, his sincerest gratitude for the help and
inspiration he has been to him both during his student days
and since, an inspiration which is responsible to a very large
extent for the turning of his attention to the field of Old
Testament study.

If this commentary shall help students to a more living
appreciation of the permanent value of prophetic teaching the
author will feel well repaid for the labor and energy expended
in the preparation of the work.

Evanston, Ill. FREDERICK CARL EISELEN.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA.

—__+++____.

The Prophet.

Tue author of the first book in the collection of the Minor
Prophets is called “Hosea, the son of Beeri” (i, 1). The
English form of the name is derived from the Greek Osee;
the Hebrew, which means salvation, is identical with the orig-
inal name of Joshua (Num. xiii, 8, 16) and with that of the
last king of Israel (2 Kings xvii, 1).

Like Amos,, Hosea prophesied in the northern kingdom ;
he cast only side glances at Judah. Some go so far as to say
that he dealt with Israel exclusively, and that all references to
Judah are later additions (see pp. 35ff.). But while Amos was
a stranger, sent upon a temporary mission, all indications
combine to show that Hosea was a citizen of the north, bound
by a sympathetic. patriotism to the kingdom whose destruction
he was commissioned to predict. “In every sentence,” says
Ewald, “it appears that Hosea had not only visited the king-
dom of Ephraim, as Amos had done, but that he is acquainted
with it from the depths of his heart, and follows all its doings,
aims, and fortunes with the profound. feelings gendered of
such a sympathy as is conceivable in the case of a native
prophet only.” One: cannot help but feel that the pictures of
the religious, moral, social, and. political situation, drawn with
such vividness, force, and compassion, come from one who had
lived for many years amid scenes of hopelessness and corrup-
tion, and whose heart came nigh breaking as he beheld his
own countrymen throwing themselves headlong into ruin.
The general tone and spirit of the prophecy point to the north
as the home of Hosea with such force that further proof is
not needed. It is worthy of note, however, that the localities

mentioned in the. book belonged almost without exception. to
9
10 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA.

 

the northern kingdom, while Judah is mentioned very rarely,
Jerusalem not at all. Israel is “the land” (i, 2); the king of
Israel “our king” (vii, 5); it is the ruling dynasty of the
north, the house of Jehu, upon which the blood of Jezreel is
to be avenged (i, 4), and the kingdom of the house of Israel
that is to be made to cease (i, 4). The localities mentioned
most prominently are Lebanon (xiv, 5-7), Gilead (vi, 8; xii,
11), Mizpah and Tabor (v, 1), Gibeah (v, 8; ix, 9; x, 9),
Gilgal (iv, 15; ix, 15; xii, 11), Jezreel (i, 4; ii, 22), Ramah
(v, 8), Shechem (vi, 9), and particularly the sacred Beth-el
(iv, 15; v, 8; x, 5, 8, 15; xii, 4), and the capital, Samaria
(vii, 1; viii, 5, 6; x, 5, 73 xiii, 16). We may consider it,
therefore, beyond reasonable doubt that Hosea was a citizen
of the northern kingdom.

Little is known of the prophet’s personal history. His
father is called Beeri (i, 1). Early Jewish writers identified
this Beeri with Beerah, a Reubenite prince, carried captive by
Tiglath-pileser (1 Chron. v, 6). According to an early Chris-
tian tradition he was of the tribe of Issachar, from a place
called Belemoth, or Belemon. The prophet represents himself
as taking a wife, named Gomer, who became the mother of
several children, to whom he gave names symbolic of the
destiny of his people (chapter i). This Gomer proved unfaith-
ful, and left his home, but in the end was brought back by
Hosea and restored to his home, though, temporarily at least,
not to the full privileges of wifehood (iii, 1-3). He must
have prophesied for a number of years. A Jewish legend states
that Hosea died in Babylon, that his body was carried to Gali-
Jee and buried in Safed, northwest of the Sea of Galilee, on
the highest point in that region. According to another tradi-
tion he was a native of Gilead and was buried there; the grave
of Nebi Osha (the prophet Hosea) is shown near eiSall, the
ancient Ramoth-Gilead, south of the Jabbok.

There is nothing to indicate what was the occupation of the
prophet. Duhm has tried to prove that he was probably a
member of the priestly class. The most important points
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA. 11

 

advanced in favor of this conclusion are the frequent refer-
ences (1) to'the priests (chapter iv) ; (2) to the “law” (iv, 6;
vill, 12); (3) the reference to unclean things (ix, 3; compare
vy, 3; vi, 10); (4) to abominations (ix, 10); (5) to persecu-
tion in the “house of his God” (ix, 8). Similar expressions
are found only again in the prophecies of Ezekiel; and Ezekiel
undoubtedly was a priest. But these few scattered references
are not conclusive.

Whatever his occupation in life, Hosea was a keen observer
of the present, and he reveals a remarkable familiarity with
the past history and the ancient traditions of his people (xii,
3, 4,5; xi, 8; li, 15; xi, 1; xii, 9, 13; ii, 3; ix, 10; ix, 9; x, 9,
and many more). The bearing of this extensive knowledge
upon the questions of Pentateuchal criticism and of the place
of Amos and Hosea in the religious development of Israel is
discussed in connection with Amos.

If any inference may be drawn from the comparisons and
images in which the book is rich it will be that Hosea, like
Amos and Micah, belonged to the country rather than to the
city. (1) He is familiar with wild beasts, their mode of
living, and the means with which they are caught; for exam-
ple, the lion, leopard, and bear (v, 14; vi, 1; xi, 10; xiii, 7, 8);
the wild ass (viii, 9); birds (vii, 11; ix, 11; xi, 11); snares
and pits employed in trapping them (vy, 1, 2; vii, 12; ix, 8).
(2) He is not a stranger to agricultural life; for example,
the stubborn heifer (iv, 16); the yoke, and ways of easing it
(xi, 4); harnessing, threshing, plowing, harrowing (x, 11ff.) ;
the corn floor (ix, 1; xiii, 3), ete. (3) The imagery reflects
country life; for example, he makes reference to the vine and
the fig tree, and the time when their fruit is the choicest (ix,
10; x, 1); the furrows of the field (x, 11, 12; xii, 11), the
poppy (x, 4), thorns and thistles (x, 8), nettles (ix, 6), reeds
(xiii, 15), ete.

The question of Hosea’s marriage requires further discus-
sion. Chapter i, 2, 3, comes under consideration here (com-
pare also iii, 1): “When Jehovah spake at the first by Hosea,
12 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA.

 

Jehovah said unto Hosea, Go, take unto thee a wife of whore-
dom and children of whoredom; for the land doth commit
great whoredom, departing from Jehovah. So he went and
took Gomer the daughter of Diblaim.” ‘This account has
received various interpretations, all of which may be arranged
under three heads: I. It has been thought to mean that
Hosea, at the divine command, allied himself with a woman
who at the time was known to be a sinner, and that he did so
with the purpose of reclaiming her. Concerning this inter-
pretation it may be said: 1. There is no hint of such a pur-
pose given or implied in the narrative. 2. The question may
be raised, seriously and reverently, how a holy and wise God
could have given such a command to his servant, whose minis-
try he must have desired to be efficient. Or, to put the ques-
tion differently, how could Hosea have recognized the voice
of God in the impulse which prompted him to marry a woman
of unchaste life? Would he not rather have thrust from him
such impulse as a snare and temptation? An alliance of this
character would inevitably expose a prophet to well-merited
contempt; for it would make the impression that he was con-
doning the immorality of his countrymen, which it was his
mission to condemn. A. B. Davidson says on this point, “To
suppose that Jehovah would have commanded his prophet
to ally himself with a woman already known as of an unchaste
life is absurd and monstrous.” It is an entirely different
thing when afterward he seeks to reclaim the woman (iii, 1),
and represents his efforts. to do so as due to a divine command,
because she was then his wife. 38. The third and most serious
objection to this interpretation is the fact that the interpreta-
tion which considers the woman already a sinner when taken
to wife does not suit the symbolism. The relation between
Hosea and’ Gomer symbolizes the relation between Jehovah
and Israel. But it is the view of Hosea, as well as. of all the
early prophets, that Israel was pure at the beginning of her
union with Jehovah, and only corrupted herself at a later
period (ix, 10; compare Jer. ii, 2, etc.). Im order to have
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA. 13

 

consistent symbolism Gomer must have been pure when Hosea
married her, and must have become corrupt, at least openly,
later. The validity of these objections is generally recognized,
and this interpretation has few adherents now. II. Some
mterpreters have regarded the whole narrative as an allegory
without any historical basis in the domestic life of the prophet.
This view also is open to serious objections: 1. It is undoubt-
edly true that sometimes the prophets express their teaching
in the form of narratives of transactions which it is not neces-
sary to suppose actually took place (Isa. v, 1-7; compare espe-
cially Ezekiel); but it is equally true that sometimes the
prophets did perform real actions having a symbolic meaning
(Isa. viii, 1; Jer. xxviii, 10; 1 Kings xxii, 11, etc.). In the
narrative of Hosea there is certainly not the slightest hint of
its parabolic character; the entire narrative bears the stamp of
reality,and only a literal interpretation of the story as narrated
in i, 2-9; iii, 1-3, seems to satisfy the demands of language.
This difficulty is not removed by the theory that the transac-
tions related were revealed to the prophet in a vision, and that
therefore they impressed themselves upon his imagination as
vividly as though he had actually lived through them. 2. The
parabolic interpretation leaves us without a key to the prophet’s
teaching. How did he come to regard Jehovah as married to
Israel? Whence his conception of the intense and passionate
love of Jehovah for his faithless spouse? True, the repre-
sentation of the relation between a deity and his worshipers
or the land of the worshipers under the figure of the marriage
relation is not unknown in the religious literatures of other
Semitic nations, but the ethical and spiritual conception of
Hosea is as far above the conception of the surrounding peo-
ples as the heavens are above the earth. It is certainly not
without reason that Cheyne says, “He must have been prepared
by personal experience to find a moral element in this con-
ception which fitted it for the use of a prophet of Jehovah.”
3. The allegorical interpretation does not remove the moral
difficulty. If the transaction was one which would have been
14 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSHA.

 

repugnant to the moral sense, is it probable that the prophet
would have chosen it as the basis of an allegory? Moreover,
if the prophet had a faithful wife, is it credible that he would
have exposed her to the suspicion of unchastity and infidelity,
as he would have done by the use of this allegory, which cer-
tainly does not bear its allegorical character upon its face?
4. The name of the wife is strongly in favor of a literal inter-
pretation. If the story were an allegory we would expect the
wife to bear a significant name. Jezreel (i, 4), Lo-ruhamah
(i, 6), and Lo-ammi. (i, 9) tell their own story, but “Gomer
the daughter of Diblaim” (i, 3) yields no obvious symbolical
meaning. The natural inference is that it is the actual name
of a woman who became the prophet’s wife. III. The third,
and most probable, view regards the narrative as a record of
actual facts, and yet is different from the first interpreta-
tion in some very important respects. Gomer is thought to
have been unstained when she became the wife of Hosea. This
view is supported by the expression “a wife of whoredom”
(i, 2). Had Hosea actually meant to say that she was already
devoted to an unchaste life he would in all probability have
called her “a harlot.” (On “children of whoredom” compare
comment on i, 2.) The expression seems to denote a woman
of unchaste disposition. The evil tendencies were within
Gomer, but they had not yet manifested themselves. Hosea
loved her dearly, but his love was not sufficient to prevent the
outbreak. She finally abandoned him for her paramours, or
perhaps for the licentious rites connected with the worship of
the Baals.

As the prophet, his heart still burning with tender love for
his faithless spouse, sat and pondered over his. past domestic
experience he came to see that even this sad occurrence was
not a blind chance, but in accord with divine providence.
Jehovah led him into this experience in order to teach him
the lesson which he in turn was to teach Israel, and which he
could not have learned as well in any other way. The sig-
nificance of it all he did not know at.the time of the occur-
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA. 15

 

rence; only gradually it dawned upon him that so far as his
message to his people was concerned the unhappy alliance was
the first step in his prophetic career. From the vantage point
of the later revelation Hosea described the earlier experience.
This interpretation gives a natural meaning to the narrative;
it removes the serious moral difficulty and supplies the key
to Hosea’s teaching. It would be wrong, however, to assume
that Hosea was not a prophet until after all these experiences
had come to him. He must have been conscious of a prophetic
commission even before the birth of his firstborn, else how
would he have come to give him the symbolic name? Never-
theless, the tone of the entire book shows that his own personal
domestic experience was the means whereby God spake to him
and supplied him with his prophetic message to Israel. There-
fore Hosea is justified in calling the impulse to marry Gomer
the beginning of his prophetic ministry.

The experience of Hosea in thus recognizing at a later time
the hand of God in events already past is not absolutely unique,
for it often happens that God’s instruments act under his
direction without being conscious that they are thus guided;
only at a later time their eyes are opened so that they see the
reality of the divine providence. Some, still seeing a moral
difficulty, may ask why it is that God should lay this heavy
burden upon his servant. In reply it may be said that it
appears to be a universal law of this sin-stricken world that
God makes perfect through suffering; that redemption is
wrought out through sacrifice. But the preparation of Hosea
for his mission to Israel in accord with this law is something
entirely different from giving a command that would outrage
the prophet’s moral sense and expose him to the scorn of his
countrymen.

The Time of Hosea.

The title of the book (i, 1) gives as the time of Hosea’s
activity “the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah,
kings of Judah, and the days of Jeroboam, the son of Joash,
king of Israel.” If this title could be followed implicitly the
16 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA.

 

date of Hosea would be fixed during the latter half of the
eighth century B.C. The accuracy of the title has been ques-
tioned, however, and it is now generally thought that it is
not Hosea’s, and that it has not reached us in the form given
to it by its author. On the first point Adam Clarke wrote,
“T think the first verse to be a title to this book added by
the compiler of his prophecies”; and again, “It is therefore
very probable that the title is not Hosea’s, but some ancient
transcriber’s.” The modern view is based upon the following
considerations: 1. Internal evidence shows that chapters i—iii
belong to the later years of Jeroboam II, and that, on the
whole, iv—xiv belong to the troubled period subsequent to his
death; this being so, it would seem strange that the later date
(Uzziah to Hezekiah) should be given before the earlier (Jero-
boam), and that no reference should be made to the kings
following Jeroboam who were contemporaries of the kings
of Judah mentioned. 2. Hosea was a citizen of Israel (p. 9),
he spoke and wrote in and for the northern kingdom. Is it
not strange that in dating the book he should give preference
to the kings of Judah, mentioning only one king of Israel,
and him in the last place? 3. It is, to say the least, extremely
doubtful that any of the prophecies in the book date from a
period after 734; that is, from the greater part of the reign
of Ahaz and the whole of Hezekiah’s. In 734 Tiglath-pileser
III deported to Assyria the inhabitants of the trans-Jordanic
territory (2 Kings xv, 29; K. B., ii, p. 33), but no mention
is made in Hosea of any judgment already suffered by Gilead;
it is referred to as an integral part of the northern kingdom
(vi, 8; xii, 11; compare v, 1). In 734 Assyria was an enemy
of Israel; during the succeeding years it claimed sovereignty
over the latter; in the book of Hosea Assyria is nowhere
regarded as an actual enemy in the present or in the immediate
past, but as a worthless and dangerous ally (v, 13; vii, 11;
vili, 9; xii, 1; xiv, 3). Again, the book says nothing of the
invasion of Judah by Israel and Damascus, which took place
in 735-734. This was an important event in Hebrew history,
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA. 17

 

and if it had already taken place the silence of Hosea, so
familiar with every occurrence in the nation’s history, would
seem almost inexplicable. In these and other respects the
conditions reflected in iv—xiv are those existing in Israel sub-
sequent to the death of Jeroboam II down to about 735; they
are inconsistent with the period after 734.

While these considerations may fall short of actual demon-
stration, they cannot be disregarded, and practically all
modern commentators are agreed that they are sufficiently
weighty to forbid the acceptance of the testimony of the title
as decisive in determining the date of Hosea’s activity. The
original title may have contained simply the note, “in the days
of Jeroboam, the son of Joash, king of Israel,” and may have
been intended only for chapters i—iii. When a title had to
be found for the entire book by the collector of the Minor
Prophets, then, in order to indicate that the second part of
the book belonged to a later period, the other chronological
notes were added, perhaps to indicate at the same time that
Hosea was, approximately at least, a contemporary of Isaiah
and Micah (Isa. i, 1; Mic. i, 1). In 721 the northern king-
dom disappeared, while Judah maintaimed itself for many
years more; the restoration centered around Jerusalem, and
the postexilic community considered itself the descendant of
Judah; therefore it was perfectly natural that in dating the
book precedence should be given to the kings of Judah. At
any rate, it may be safe to conclude that, so far as we have
any record, Hosea’s activity ceased about 735.

It began probably after the close of the prophetic career of
Amos. 1. The title points in that direction, whatever the
value of its testimony. 2. The country, as described in i—iii,
the earliest portion, was in a prosperous condition, which
would make these chapters at least as late as Amos. 3. The
judgment as announced even in i—iii appears to be more immi-
nent than is represented by Amos. 4. Internal evidence places
it beyond doubt that iv—xiv belong to a later period than
the time of Amos. These chapters contain clear indications
18 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA.

 

of the state of anarchy and misrule into which the northern
kingdom fell upon Jeroboam’s death (vii, 7; viii, 3, 4; %,
3, 4; xiii, 10, 11, etc.). We may not be far wrong if we place
the beginning of Hosea’s ministry at about 750 and his activity
between 750 and 735. Hosea may have heard Amos; it is
probable that he at least knew of him and of his work, though
there are few traces of the earlier prophet’s influence in
Hosea’s teaching (compare iv, 15, with Amos v, 5; vill, 14,
with Amos i, 4).

For a picture of the political, social, moral, and religious
conditions in Israel during the first years of Hosea’s minis-
try the reader may turn to the Introduction to Amos.
The conditions described there continued to the close of
Jeroboam’s reign, only some of the vices became more
aggravated from year to year (iv, 1ff., 11ff.; vii, 1ff., etc.).
With the death of Jeroboam political conditions changed.
The reign of this king had been a long one, marked by suc-
cesses without and prosperity within; but the dynasty of
Jehu, of which Jeroboam II was the fourth ruler, did not
satisfy the eighth century prophets, though it had been placed
upon the throne with the sanction and aid of the prophetic
order (2 Kings ix, x). The luxury, selfishness, oppression of
the poor, and kindred vices, growing out of the prosperity,
were denounced in stern tones by Amos, and even he announced
the overthrow of the “house of Jeroboam” (vii, 9). Almost
the first words in the Book of Hosea announce judgment upon
this dynasty (i, 4, 5; reference is to 2 Kings x, 11). The
threat was fulfilled shortly after the death of Jeroboam. Party
spirit, no longer held in check by a strong hand, broke out,
and his son and successor, Zechariah, was slain in a conspiracy
after a reign of only six months. With him the dynasty of
Jehu came to an end. There followed a period of anarchy, of
which Hosea supplies a vivid picture (vii, 3-7; viii, 4). Kings
came forward in rapid succession; the external policy was one
of weakness and vacillation. Shallum, the murderer of
Zechariah, after one month was overthrown by Menahem. He,
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA. 19

 

to strengthen his position, bought the support of Tiglath-
pileser III (2 Kings xv, 19, 20; compare Hos. viii, 9, 10).
At the same time, or shortly after, another party was seeking
help from Egypt (xii, 1). Menahem died a natural death,
and was succeeded by his son, Pekahiah, who after two years
was assassinated by Pekah (2 Kings xv, 25). The new king
entered into an alliance with Rezin of Damascus, and together
they invaded Judah (2 Kings xvi, 6; Isa. vii, 1-3). Pekah
was deposed and murdered by Hoshea (2 Kings xv, 30), with
the connivance and support of the Assyrian king (K. B., ii,
p. 83), in 734, and Hoshea became the last king of the north-
ern kingdom. Little needs to be added to what is said in
connection with Amos concerning the moral and religious
situation. At the time of Hosea the excesses had become
even more marked. The latter sums up his indictments in
one word, whoredom. Israel, the spouse of Jehovah, had
proved faithless to her husband. The evidences of her unfaith-
fulness were seen in the sphere of religion, of ethics, and of
politics, and the sins provoking the anger of Jehovah and his
prophet center around these three heads. The Israelites were
without the knowledge of Jehovah (iv, 6; v, 4, etc.); as a
result they were ignorant concerning the real requirements of
Jehovah, and their worship was not acceptable to him. Nomi-
nally they paid homage to Jehovah (v, 6; vi, 6ff.) ; in reality
they honored the Baals (see on ii, 5). This illegitimate wor-
ship called forth Hosea’s severest and most persistent con-
demnation (ii, 2ff.; iv, 11ff.; viii, 4ff; ix, 10; x, 1ff.; xiii,
1ff.; xiv, 1-3). In the sphere of ethics their lack of the
knowledge of Jehovah resulted in conduct absolutely contrary
to the demands of Jehovah; immoralities, crimes, and vices
of every description were practiced openly and in defiance of
all prophetic exhortations (iv, 1, 2, 6ff., 13, 18; vi, 8, 9; vii,
1-7; x, 4, 9, 12ff.). In the sphere of politics the faithlessness
manifested itself in a twofold manner: (1) in rebellion against
all legitimate authority, and assassinations of various kings
and princes (vii, 1-7; viii, 4; xiii, 10, 11), and (2) in de-
20 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA.

 

pendence upon human defenses (viii, 14; x, 13; xiv, 3) and
in foreign alliances (v, 13; vii, 8, 11-13; viii, 9; xii, 1; xiv, 35
compare vii, 16; viii, 13; ix, 3ff.; x, 6; xi, 11) rather than

in the power of Jehovah.

Contents and Outline of the Book.

The Book of Hosea contains the substance of the prophet’s
earnest and persistent appeals by which he sought to bring the
faithless nation back to its divine Master. It falls naturally
into two well-marked divisions, chapters i—iii and iv—xiv.
The first division sets forth the prophet’s marriage (pp. 111f.)
and gives the “moral of the story,” Jehovah’s love and Israel’s
faithlessness. Chapters i, 2-9; iii, 1-8, contain the story, and
i, 10—ii, 23; ili, 4, 5, the exposition. “In chapters i—iii the
prophet has abstracted from his prophetic speeches and career
the essential conception of his teaching and set it as a kind of
program at the head of his book.” The second division, chap-
ters iv—xiv, differs widely from the first and has sometimes
been called the “Second Book of Hosea.” It contains not a
verbatim report, but only the substance of the prophet’s dis-
courses. A careful study will show that Cheyne is probably
correct when he says, “We cannot suppose that Hosea delivered
any part of this book in its present form; it can only be a
reproduction by the prophet himself of the main points of his
discourses, partly imaginative, partly on the basis of notes.”
It is impossible to trace in this second division a definite plan
of arrangement, though fresh beginnings may be noted in iv, 1;
v, 1; ix, 1; xi, 12; xili, 1; xiv, 1. Various attempts have been
made to subdivide the chapters according to the ideas empha-
sized in the separate sections. Of these attempts two may be
mentioned. Ewald made three subdivisions: (1) iv, 1—vi,
11a, The Arraignment; (2) vi, 11b—ix, 9, The Punishment; ~
(3) ix, 10—xiv, 9, Retrospect of the earlier history, exhorte-
tion and comfort. Similarly Kirkpatrick: (1) iv—viii, Tsra-
el’s Guilt; (2) ix, 1—xi, 11, Israel’s Doom; (3) xi, 12—xiy,
9, Retrospect and Prospect. Neither these nor any of the
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA. 21

 

other attempts can be called entirely successful. The prophet
from beginning to end has in mind the hopeless condition of
his people; he exhorts, laments, warns, pleads, denounces,
promises—in fact, uses every possible method of persuasion—
in order that he may win the people back to a pure and
acceptable service of God.

The contents of the book may be sketched briefly as follows:
Following the title (i, 1) the prophet relates how, at the divine
command, he took in marriage “a wife of whoredom,” Gomer,
the daughter of Diblaim (2, 3). By her he had three chil-
dren, to whom he gave symbolic names: Jezreel, symbolizing
the overthrow of the house of Jehu (4, 5); Lo-ruhamah,
announcing that Jehovah will no more have mercy upon Israel
(6, 7) ; Lo-ammi, symbolizing the utter rejection of Israel by
Jehovah (8, 9).

The next three verses (i, 10—ii, 1; see general remarks on
i, 10—ii, 1) contain a promise of glorious restoration. Jeho-
vah will again have mercy upon Israel, which will once more be
called “the people of Jehovah”, and the reunited north and
south, under one leader, will triumph over all enemies.

Before considering the contents of ii, 2-23, it will be neces-
sary to mention the contents of iii, 1-3, for these verses attach
themselves naturally and logically to i, 2-9. Chapter iii, 1,
is the continuation of the story of Hosea’s domestic life. He
is told to go and love “a woman beloved of her friend, and an
adulteress.” This woman can be no other than Gomer, the
daughter of Diblaim (i, 3). Lo-ammi (i, 9) suggests the step
in the domestic drama which is left unrecorded. The woman
left her home to give herself more unreservedly to her shame-
ful practices; and she seems to have become the slave con-
cubine of another. Hosea, impelled by love and a divine im-
pulse, brings her back, though for a while he does not restore
her to the full privileges of wifehood (iii, 1-3).

The application of this domestic tragedy is contained in
ii, 2-23; iii, 4,5. The historical persons in i, 2-9; iii, 1-3—
the prophet, his wife, and their children—become allegorical
22 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA.

 

figures: Israel is the adulterous wife, Jehovah the deceived
but still loving husband, the individual Israelites the children.
Some of the latter have remained free from the sins of the
mother; to these Jehovah addresses himself (verse 2), plead-
ing with them to attempt the conversion of the faithless
mother and wife. The prophecy opens with a description of
Israel’s whoredom (2-5), which is followed by an announce-
ment of the evil consequences of the faithlessness, first in
figurative (6, 7), then in literal language (9-13). The whole
is followed by the delineation of the efforts on the part of
Jehovah to win back the faithless wife, and of the glories
awaiting her when she comes to her senses. Israel will be
restored to the intimate fellowship with Jehovah enjoyed in
the beginning (14-17), peace undisturbed by man or beast
will reign (18); once more Jehovah will enter into marriage
relation with Israel, but the new union will be more per-
manent and spiritual (19, 20). Another feature of the future
blessedness will be the extreme fertility of the soil (21, 22) ;
Israel will be permanently established in the promised land,
cured forever from running after other gods (23). Chapter
iii, 4, is parallel in thought with ii, 14, 15. Chapter iii, 5,
introduces a new feature in the final blessedness, the advent
of the Messianic King. With this sublime promise the first
division closes.

The second division, chapters iv—xiv, opens with a solemn
summons to Israel to hear the indictment brought by Jehovah.
Religiously and morally the people are hopelessly corrupt (chap-
ter iv). In the first part of the chapter (1-10) the prophet
emphasizes the moral corruption in everyday life; in the rest
(10-19), the immoral practices connected with the religious
cult. Both sections close (verses 9, 10, 19) with announce-
ments of judgment. In connection with the general con-
demnation the prophet accuses the priests of being chiefly
responsible for the lamentable condition (especially verses
4-8). They have failed to instruct the people in the “law of
Jehovah.”
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA. 23

 

The next four chapters (v—viii) belong together, though not
necessarily forming one discourse. They present a detailed
description of the manner in which corruption penetrated the
entire public life and affected the state from the highest to
the lowest. Mingled with the pictures of corruption are ex-
hortations, warnings, and threats of inevitable destruction.
Of the four chapters, v falls naturally into two parts: 1-7, in
which the emphasis is preéminently, though not exclusively,
upon Israel’s guilt, and 8-15, which deal primarily with judg-
ment; the time of mercy is past. The words are directed
against the priests, the people, and the king with his courtiers.
The civil and ecclesiastical leaders are chiefly to blame, but
the whole nation must suffer the consequences. In v, 15, is
expressed the hope that Israel will yet “seek Jehovah.” This
hope will be realized; the people will return. The prophet
places in the mouths of the Israelites words of mutual exhorta-
tion to “return unto Jehovah” (vi, 1-3), but they return with-
out real heartfelt repentance. There is not one expression
of sorrow for wrongdoing, only anxiety to escape the distress
and punishment. For this reason Jehovah is not favorably
impressed with the supplication, as his reply (vi, 4—viii, 14)
shows. It is almost impossible to recognize any distinct break
throughout this reply. The whole is a severe condemnation
of the people’s attitude toward Jehovah. Verse 4 may be
regarded as the direct reply. He perceives that the senti-
ments expressed in 1-3 do not come from a truly penitent ,
heart. But if all he has done has failed to lead to repentance,
what can he do? From this question he passes immediately
to point out the people’s utter misconception of the divine
commands (6), and to delineate their sinful career; the cor-
ruption seems incurable (7-11la). With 11b commences a
new picture of the moral degradation and the resulting
anarchy. The mercy of Jehovah manifesting itself in his
willingness to remove the distress had no salutary effect.
Gradually their wrongs have completely surrounded them, so
that escape is impossible; even repentance seems to be out of
24 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA.

the question (vii, 1,2). While some details in the interpreta-
tion of 3-7 are uncertain the general drift of the prophet’s
argument is clear. He describes in vivid colors the corruption
of the whole nation, from the king down, and points out that
the existing anarchy is the inevitable result of the same: cor-
ruption, adultery, drunkenness, conspiracy, assassination every-
where; not one redeeming feature. Jehovah alone could
heal the disease, but no one calls upon him (7). Instead,
Israel has mingled with the “nations,” there to learn wisdom
and to find help (8). Disaster has been the result (9, 10),
but still it persists; hither and thither it turns, like a silly
dove (11), unaware that it is becoming entangled in a net
from which there can be no escape (12). Jehovah at one time
had high expectations for his children. What a disappoint-
ment they have become (13-16a)! Judgment is now inevita-
ble; rapidly it is approaching (vii, 16b—viii, 3). In viii, 4,
the prophet renews his attack upon Israel; the political revo-
lutions are in reality rebellion against Jehovah (4); the
idolatry is an abomination to him (4-6); they must reap what
they have sown (7); appeals to foreign nations will not save
them (8-10). Once more he condemns the religious practices,
then the section closes with a threat of judgment (11-14).

A new beginning is marked in ix, 1. The prophet beholds
the rejoicing of the people at the time of harvest, perhaps at
a joyous religious feast. Such rejoicing was perfectly natural,
but verse 1 implies that the celebration, though nominally in
recognition of Jehovah’s goodness, was in reality in honor of
the Baalim. This the prophet cannot endure. He warns the
people not to be too exuberant (1), for the occasions of rejoic-
ing will soon cease. On account of their apostasy Jehovah
will withdraw his blessings (2); yea, they will be carried into
exile (3), where, upon an unclean land, joyful feasts can no
longer be celebrated (4, 5); their own land will become a
wilderness (6). After announcing the impending doom the
prophet points out once more the spiritual and moral apostasy
responsible for the judgment (7-9).
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA. 25

 

Three times in chapters ix—xi (ix, 10; x,9; xi, 1) Hosea
reverts to the early history of Israel to show how loving had
been the divine care and how persistent Israel’s rebellion and
apostasy. In the beginning Israel appeared to Jehovah as a
desirable fruit (x), but erelong contact with the Canaanitish
religion caused contamination, and Israel becarhe an ahomina-
tion in the sight of Jehovah (10); therefore awful judgments
will come (11-17).

Once more Hosea reverts to Israel’s guilt in chapter x.
Under the figure of a luxuriant vine the prophet describes
Israel’s prosperity; steadily it increased, but instead. of pro-
ducing good grapes it produced bitter grapes. The greater
the prosperity the more flagrant the religious and moral cor-
ruption (1, 2). For this reason altars, idols, pillars shall be
broken down, the calves of Samaria shall be carried into
Assyria, priests and people shall mourn in consternation (3-6),
even the king shall be cut off (7); the high places shall be
destroyed, thorns and thistles shall grow over them; in terror
the people shall cry for the mountains and hills to fall upon
them (8).

A new presentation of Israel’s guilt begins with verse 9.
In the very beginning a great crime darkened their history,
and from that moment on they have stubbornly resisted every
and all efforts to lead them into a higher and purer life (9) ;
therefore death and destruction are awaiting them (10, 11).
The announcement of judgment is interrupted by an exhorta-
tion to repentance (12) which, however, immediately changes
again into a threat (13-15). In xi, 1, the prophet turns once
more to the beginning of Israel’s history. He points out how
great, strong, and tender has been the divine love (1, 2, 4),
and how ungrateful the favored people (3, 7). Hence justice
must have its way (5, 6). Yet the divine compassion goes
out for the prodigal (8); the judgment will be tempered
by mercy, and after it has served its disciplinary purpose
Israel will be restored to divine favor (9-11).

Chapter xi, 12 (xii, 1, in the Hebrew), begins a new series
26 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSBA.

eee

of indictments. Chapter xii also is one of peculiar difficulties.
The interpretation of details is by no means certain. The
general thought seems to be that Israel—the whole nation—
has played false with Jehovah in making covenants with for-
eign nations (xi, 12; xii, 1). Therefore the anger of Jehovah
is aroused (2). Three incidents in the history of the patri-
arch Jacob are mentioned, to bring out more distinctly the
contrast between the ancestor so anxious for the divine bless-
ing and the descendants so indifferent to Jehovah (3-5). If
only they would truly turn to the God of Jacob he would have
mercy upon them (6).

Israel’s, that is, the people’s, sole ambition has been to
accumulate wealth, and shameful have been the means by
which they have sought to attain it (7); they glory in their
success (8), but it shall avail them nothing, for Jehovah is
about to drive Israel back into the desert (9). Persistent have
been the efforts on the part of Jehovah to prevent the judg-
ment (10); therefore no one can be blamed but the people
(11). By a comparison of the experiences of the nation with
those of Jacob in Aram the prophet seeks to show what great
things Jehovah has done for the people, and how the divine
love was met with persistent ingratitude and provocation; in
view of this the sentence must stand (12-14).

Apparently a new discourse begins with xiii, 1. It opens
with a reference to the history of the tribe of Ephraim. In
the beginning it occupied a position of prominence in the
nation; when it apostatized from Jehovah it signed its own
death warrant (1). With this warning example before them
the Israelites should have learned their lesson, but they failed
to do so; they persisted in shaméless idolatry; therefore they
will vanish like the chaff before the whirlwind (2, 3). Their
attitude seems unintelligible, since the God whom they thus
reject is the God who has led them from the time of the
Exodus; but the more Jehovah has prospered them the more
arrogant they have become, the more forgetful of him. There-
fore he will devour them like a lion, wild beasts shall tear
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA. 27

them (4-8). The destruction of Israel is now inevitable; no
one can help; even Jehovah can no longer show mercy (9-14).
The discourse closes with a threat of utter destruction (15,
16).

Chapter xiv is permeated by a spirit different from that of
the preceding chapters; denunciation gives place to promise.
The prophet exhorts Israel to return to Jehovah in deep
humility and sorrow for sin (1, 2a); he puts into the mouth
of the people words expressive of the deepest repentance, and
of earnest determination to be forever loyal to Jehovah (2b, 3).
To this persistent cry Jehovah responds that he will graciously
pardon and will shower upon the God-fearing people blessings
hitherto unknown (4-8).

Verse 9 stands by itself as an epilogue to the whole book.
Whoever desires to become wise and prudent, let him become
acquainted with the oracles of Hosea; from them he may learn
that Jehovah’s ways are right, and that the destiny of men is
determined by their attitude toward the divine will.

 

Outline.
Tue TITLE—THE PERSON AND TIME OF THE AUTHOR. Chap. i, 1.

A. HosEa’s DOMESTIC EXPERIENCE AN ILLUSTRATION OF JEHOVAH’S
LovE AND ISRAEL’S FAITHLESSNESS. Chaps. i, 2—iii, 5.

I. Hosea’S WIFE AND CHILDREN......... eee eeeeceees i, 2-9; ili, 1-3
1. The marriage of Hosea and the birth of Jezreel....i, 2-5
2. The birth of Lo-ruhamah............ cece cece eee i, 6, 7
3. The birth of Lo-ammi.............. 0c eee eee eens i, 8, 9
4. The restoration of the outcast wife.............. iii, 1-3
II. APPLICATION. OF THE ACTS AND NAMES MENTIONED IN i, 2-9;
ATi; eB nes wing sea cutee ness Bae SEs S i, 10—ii, 23; iii,.4, 5
1. Promise of a glorious restoration...........- i, 10—ii, 1
2. The faithlessness of Isracl.........2.-e seer eens ii, 2-5
3. The evil consequences and the punishment of Israel’s
faithlessnesS... 1... cece cee eee eee eens ii, 6-13
4. The disciplinary effect of the judgment, and the future
exaltation of Isracl.........--+20+: ii, 14-23; iii, 4, 5

(1) Restoration of Israel to intimate fellowship
with Jehovah, ,..erseeereceverererdi, 14-17;
28

INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA.

 

I.

II.

(2) Permanent peace, undisturbed by man or

beast.........4- sik seae Mes atos pages «-...ii, 18
(3) The new betrothal in righteousness. .ii, 19, 20
(4) Extreme fertility of the soil......... ii, 21, 22

(5) Israel’s reéstablishment and loyalty....ii, 23
(6) The judgment and the subsequent Messianic
BLO. ss aaisad bats we Eels Suronseedl tna, B

B. Hosza’s PropuHetic DiscoursEsS. Chaps. iv, 1—xiv, 9.
AWFUL CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE DUE TO THE LACK OF KNOWL-
EDGE OF JEHOVAH, FOR WHICH LACK THE PRIESTS ARE
RESPONSIBLE... . eee e eee e cece c eee ence erence iv, 1-19
1. The moral corruption in everyday life..........iv, 1-10
(1) The moral corruption of the people....iv, 1-3
(2) The responsibility of the religious leaders
Siaase les 4 esehun tov eta valgibcbvb arate ire: eiacaune be Auanaea sav «iv, 48
(3) The judgment upon priest and people, iv, 9, 10
2. The moral corruption connected with the religious

CUE: sasaies ceiaese ata eves a oh witavae 3 aeeaie kane iv, 11-19

(1) The religious corruption of the people....

se hideaway edna covet) e saan 8 eeeeeeeedv, 11-14

(2) The inevitableness of judgment..... iv, 15-19
THE UTTER CORRUPTION OF ISRAEL—THE INEVITABLE DOOM

bee HANG Heels ae haee Sawa otto bveew ds weve s Vp 1—vill,, 14

1. Rebuke of Israel’s deostaey—=0he time of mercy is past.

Subtest nctvaven tessa wre ea gia 08 Semi dotendoeeanseNy Ll

(1) Rebuke of Israel’s apostasy............V, 1-7

(2) The time of mercy is past....... ween eV, 8-15

2. Israel’s superficial repentance and Jehovah’s reply.
ee Dehied eens SAAMI Se Wen cae Luss dee eV Usilla

(1) The people’s return to Jehovah........ vi, 1-3

(2) Jehovah’s reply: Superficial repentance not
acceptable to Jehovah—The corruption is

incurable ......... cece eee ee cee vi, 4-lla
8. New picture of the moral degradation—The resulting
anarchy and destruction............ vi, 11b—viii, 3

(1) The divine’ mercy and the people’s obstinacy.

cer Si anos RuapeNe waar aceon Suah arene Sze thats vi, 11b—vii, 2

(2) The coer state of anarchy......... vii, 3-7

(3) Israel, blinded by her folly, rushes headlong

to destruction......... 0.0. ..000e vii, 8-16a

(4) Imminence of a ‘hostile invasion............
vee ceee reece ccersererseveee Vil, 16b—Vili, 3
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA. 29

 

4. Israel’s political and religious practices an abomination

to Jehovah wc sd meeGadac acon hades sveewe ee viii, 4-14
III. THE PRESENT REJOICING CONTRASTED WITH THE DESPAIR OF
THE. WRIUWS hacer eatod ak tees ceed cveeaiaend nals avery ix, 1-9
IV. SERIES OF RETROSPECTS SHOWING THE UTTER CORRUPTION OF
ISRAEL...... seein apa Sae Wola atine wi eioligiatacnceatans ix, 10—xi, 11
1. Israel, apostate and rebellious from time immemorial,
doomed to destruction.................6.. ix, 10-17
2. Israel’s guilt and punishment...................-. x, 1-8
3. Israel’s history—one continuous crime; Israel’s destiny
—death and destruction................2005 x, 9-15
4, The father’s love for the prodigal son.......... xi, 1-11
V. A NEW SERIES OF INDICTMENTS........ Rkeasee est xi, 12—xii, 14
1. Condemnation of Israel’s faithlessness; exhortation to
TEPC LAN COs esos asin ear iue cee Sewbencane ti xi, 12—xii, 6
2. Israel’s unholy ambition and bitter disappointment.
eens Salosave le davesanarevaiasere aiduaceernarateres rT xii, 7-14
VI. ISRAEL’S GLORY TURNED TO SHAME........... eeeeested xiii, 1-16
1. Israel’s apostasy its own death warrant........ xiii, 1-3
2. Love—Ingratitude—Doom........... eee cece eee xiii, 4-8
3. Utter destruction the just punishment for Israel’s guilt
eiebaaina da ayesee Sieulidic syne onvammae aces ate sees xiii, 9-16
VII. ISRAEL’S REPENTANCE—GOD’S PARDON......eeeeeeeeeee xiv, 1-8
, 1. Israel’s penitent plea............. Spline Saleuaraye Biase xiv, 1-3
2. The divine pardon and benediction............. xiv, 4-8

The Epilogue—Exhortation to study the Book of
HOS€a) csccsees sei daa ser eas asker ese wet aes sXIV, 9

Teaching of the Book of Hosea.

It remains now to present the essential points in the con-
ception and teaching of Hosea. The message of Hosea was
comprehensive, touching upon the social and political as well
as upon the moral and religious situation, and yet the princi-
ples underlying his discourses are few and easily discovered.

1. Fundamental in the teaching of the prophet is his con-
ception of the nature and character of J ehovah. A lack of
the knowledge of Jehovah he considers responsible for the
corruption of Israel; to impart a correct knowledge is the
prophet’s earnest desire. (1) Like Amos, Hosea was a mono-
theist. There is but one God, and he is the God of Israel (ii,
30 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSBA.

 

 

5ff.; viii, 4ff.; xiii, 2; xiv, 3). True, these passages might be
interpreted as implying only that Hosea conceived Jehovah to
be the one God of Israel, saying nothing about the gods of the
other nations. But the manner in which he speaks of J ehovah
using the other nations to carry out his purpose (viii, 1 ff.,
13; ix, 3) makes it clear that Hosea believes the power and
sovereignty of Jehovah to extend over other nations (see also
on ix, 2). (2) If Jehovah is the only true God, the maker
of heaven and earth, the determiner of the destinies of nations,
it follows that he.is a God of supreme power, of omnipotence.
There are, however, no passages in Hosea such as are found
in Amos (iv, 13; v, 8, 9, etc.) calling attention to this omnipo-
tence; Hosea assumes it. (3) A more important question
was how Jehovah would use this power in dealing with Israel
and the other nations.. Here again Hosea agrees with Amos
in portraying Jehovah as a holy and righteous God, the use
of whose power is determined by ethical considerations. The
Israelites in the days: of Hosea and Amos seemed to: think
that, since Jehovah had chosen them, he would stand by them
whatever their. attitude and. conduct. Both prophets seek to
remove this misconception; they teach that Jehovah deals
with the nations of the earth, Israel included, according to
their attitude toward him; sin he would always punish, even
in Israel; righteousness alone could win his favor (xi, 9;
viii, 13). (4) A fourth, and perhaps the distinguishing, ele-
ment in Hosea’s conception of Jehovah is the thought that
God is love. This thought colors all of Hosea’s teaching. A
favorite expression of Hosea is “loving-kindness” (see on
ii, 19). This element is not completely absent from Amos,
though the latter never uses the former’s favorite word; never-
theless, to Amos Jehovah is primarily the God of righteous-
ness.. Amos thinks of him principally as king and judge,
Hosea as husband and father, with a love such as a husband
may feel for his wife, and such as a father may treasure for
his son. In chapters i—iii the sin of Israel is represented as
“whoredom” (i, 2; ii, 5, 8); but God has not forsaken his
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA. 31

 

erring spouse, he loves her as much as ever, and by the mani-
festation of his love he will win her back into permanent heart
union (ii, 19, 20). The greater part of chapters iv—xiv pre-
sents a different picture. Jehovah is the father, Israel is the
prodigal son; the loving father seeks earnestly to save the
wanderer (xi, 1, 8; compare vi, 4).

2. Closely connected with and dependent upon Hosea’s con-
ception of Jehovah’s character is his conception of Israel’s
relation to Jehovah and of the service acceptable to him.
(1) Hosea from beginning to end holds fast to the conviction
that Israel ts in a peculiar sense the people of Jehovah. It
has become such through the choice of Jehovah, and the union
was cemented by a national covenant, made at the very ‘begin-
ning of Israel’s history, that is, at the time of the Exodus
(ix, 10; xi, 1-4; xii, 9; xiii, 4). The intimacy of this cove-
nant relation is described under the two figures of marriage
(chapters i—iii) and filial relation (xi, 1; compare Exod. iv,
22). A covenant always involves mutual obligations. The
obligation taken upon himself by Jehovah was to look after the
temporal and spiritual needs of the people; this Jehovah has
carefully done throughout Israel’s entire history. He has sup-
plied the temporal wants (ii, 8; x, 1-11; xii, 8; xiii, 4-6),
and he has done his best to supply their spiritual needs. By
the voice of living prophecy and the words of law he has
sought to teach and direct them (xi, 1-4; vii, 15; vili, 12;
xii, 10). But, alas! Israel has “transgressed” the covenant
(vi, 7; viii, 1). Its obligations may be summed up in one
word, “faithfulness”; that is, loyalty to the husband, obedi-
ence to the father. Israel’s transgression also may be summed
up in one word, “faithlessness”; the wife followed after par-
amours (ii, 5); the son disregarded the will of the father as
revealed by the prophets and in the law. Passages such as
iv, 1; vi, 6; x, 12; xii, 6, call attention to the principal
requirements, obedience to which was Israel’s duty. Every
one of these has been willfully transgressed by the nation from
the beginning of its history (ix, 10; x, 9) until the prophet’s
32 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA.

 

days (x, 9; xiii, 2). (For a fuller discussion of the evidences
of Israel’s faithlessness see p. 19.) Israel having thus per-
sistently disregarded the covenant, Jehovah is compelled to set
it aside. “I will drive them out of my house; I will love
them no more” (ix, 15; compare ii, 9ff.). (2) Concerning
the service of Jehovah the common eighth century conception
seems to have been that the bringing of offerings and sacrifices
met all religious requirements. As a result the service of
God came to be regarded as a purely external and formal
thing. Against this misapprehension Hosea boldly raised his
voice: “I desire goodness and not sacrifice, and the knowledge
of God more than burnt offerings” (vi, 6; compare v, 6).
The ceremonial was only a means to an end, and therefore
secondary; even at its best it could never take the place of
pure and undefiled religion; if it ever displaced the weightier
matters it became an abomination. In order to secure the
divine approbation it must be backed by a right spirit and
a pure life. This principle needed to be emphasized by Hosea
the more strongly because in his days the ceremonial was far
from being at its best; the religious celebrations were accom-
panied by all manner of excesses (iv, 12ff.; vi, 7ff.). It
were better to abolish the sacrifice than to practice these things
in the name of religion. Still worse, true Jehovah worship
was unknown; it had become mixed with Canaanitish ele-
ments; in reality it was a worship of the Baalim, the gods
of the Canaanites (ii, 5ff.; iv, 12ff.; vill, 4ff.; ix, 95 xiii, 2).
Such insult Jehovah could not endure (ii, 12, 13).

The question has been raised, sometimes, whether Hosea con-
demned as such the calf worship and the worship at the local
shrines; in other words, whether Hosea taught that the worship
in the temple at Jerusalem was the only legitimate form of wor-
ship. This question cannot be answered dogmatically. Since
the calf worship and the worship at the other local sanctuaries
were utterly corrupt, it is quite possible that the prophet con-
demned them simply on account of the accompanying corrupt
practices, just as Isaiah (i, 15) condemned prayer not because
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA. 33

 

he was opposed to prayer, but because the hands lifted up in
prayer were stained with blood. On the other hand, a prophet
with the keen spiritual insight of Hosea might well go beyond
preceding prophets and condemn practices which before were
considered perfectly legitimate. Statements such as those con-
tained in viii, 5, and x, 5, certainly indicate that the prophet
has a low estimate of the “calves” at Bethel and Dan; his
estimate of the entire ceremonial is clearly expressed in vi, 6;
surely his conception of the essential religious requirements
is not very different from that expressed in Mic. vi, 8.

3. Other characteristic points in the prophet’s teaching are
connected with his promises of restoration. Judgment had
become inevitable; the religious, moral, and political apostasy
of Israel made it incumbent upon Jehovah to vindicate him-
self in order that true religion might not be lost to the
world. But Jehovah’s love is unquenchable; in wrath he
will remember mercy. The nation must die, but it will live
again. Hosea, like the other prophets, pictures the restora-
tion in the brightest colors. (1) Amos had described the
era subsequent to the restoration as one of extreme fertility
and prosperity (ix, 13); Hosea expresses a similar hope (ii,
21, 22; xiv, 5-8), but this temporal prosperity is not the
supreme goal of our prophet’s aspirations. More important
to him is the reéstablishment of a fellowship of life and love
with Jehovah, a fellowship that will make it possible for the
divine purpose concerning Israel to be completely realized (ii,
14, 19, 20; xiv, 1-3; compare vi, 1-3). (2) Another truth
emphasized by Hosea more than by Amos is the necessity of
sincere, heartfelt repentance as a condition of restoration.
“Hosea may be accurately styled the first preacher of repent-
ance, yet so thoroughly did he deal with this subject of eternal
interest to the human heart that between him and ourselves
almost no teacher has increased the insight with which it has
been examined or the passion with which it ought to be
enforced.” But whereas with us repentance, as, indeed, every
religious experience, is individual, with the prophet it was
34 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA.

 

national. The individual element in religion did not recelve
proper emphasis until more than a century and a half after the
time of Hosea. Nevertheless all essential elements of the New
Testament conception of repentance are found in the Book
of Hosea. To Hosea repentance implied the recognition that
all sin was committed against God, a deep sorrow for wrong-
doing, and an earnest determination to live henceforth in a
manner acceptable to God (xiv, 1-3). Sham repentance Jeho-
vah despises (vi, 4ff.). (3) When Hosea describes the glories
of the future he confines himself to the forlunes of the chosen
people. Some of the prophets expect the subjugation of the
outside nations by the redeemed Israel, some their destruction
by Jehovah himself, others anticipate their conversion. Hosea
is silent concerning their destiny. (4) Another feature de-
manding attention is the personal element in his Messianic
hope. Amos, without referring to an individual Messianic
king, had announced that the future glory would center around
the dynasty of David (ix, 11); Hosea declared that the north
and the south would be reunited under “one head” (i, 11),
and again, “They shall seek . . . David their king” (iii, 5):
That these passages refer to the establishment of the Messianic
kingdom cannot be doubted; but commentators are not agreed
as to whether the prophet had in mind a person, a second
David (Jer. xxx, 9; Ezek. xxiv, 23, 24; xxxvii, 24, 25), or
whether “David” is equivalent to “house (dynasty) of David”
(Amos ix, 11). The references are perhaps not numerous
enough to put the interpretation beyond question, yet it would
seem that the personal view is more natural. If so, Hosea is
the first prophet to mention the ideal ruler—the Messianic
King—in whom center the hopes and anticipations of future
generations. The designation David may imply an allusion
to the character of this king. In the words of Kirkpatrick,
“David must mean not merely a prince of David’s line, but a
second David, one who corresponds to David as the man after
God’s own heart, and who, as is plain from the position he
occupies, is to be Jehovah’s true representative.”
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA. 35

 

Integrity of the Book.

Only a very general discussion of the question is possible
in this connection; for details the student must turn to the
comments on the doubtful passages. Whenever the grounds
for questioning originality seem sufficiently weighty the sub-
ject receives due consideration, and the probable conclusion
is stated; silence indicates that the doubts appear unwar-
ranted. Not many years ago the discussion of the integrity
of Hosea’s prophecy would have occupied little space, because
then very few, if any, passages were denied to the prophet.
With the advance in critical study the difficulties have in-
creased, and especially since the publication of the commenta-
ries by Wellhausen and Nowack, and the more recent works
of Marti and Harper. The last one mentioned enumerates
as “the more important of the additions and glosses” the fol-
lowing: i, 1, 7, 9—ii, 1; ii, 2b, 4, 6, 7, 10, 14, 15, 16, 18-23;
ili, 5; vi, 11a, b; vii, 4; viii, 1b, 8b, 10-14; ix, 9; x, 3, 4, 10,
14b; xi, 8b, 9a, 10b, 11, 12b; xii, 3b-6, 12, 13; xiv, 1-9. Marti
considers as secondary (1) all the references to Judah in
i, 1, 7, 10; iv, 15; v, 5, 10, 12, 13, 14; vi, 4, 11; vill, 14; x, 11;
xi, 12b; xii, 2a; (2) all promises of restoration, i, 9—1i, 1;
ii, 13b-23; iii, 1-5; v, 15—vi, 3, 5b; xi, 10, 11; xiv, 1-9. Be-
sides, he recognizes the presence of a large number of smaller
additions and glosses. The lists of these two commentators
indicate to what extent textual criticism denies to Hosea pas-
sages now found in the book bearing his name. Apart from
words and sentences of minor importance the secondary ele-
ments are grouped by Harper as follows: 1. References to
Judah. 2. Passages picturing the glories of the future. Con-
cerning the first group the reader is directed especially to
the comments on i, 7; iv, 15; v, 5. The objections raised
against the second group are by no means convincing. The
subject is discussed in the introductory remarks to ii, 14-23.
The passages under this head are said (1) to be unsuitable for
Hosea’s situation; (2) to interrupt in an unnatural manner
36 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA.

 

his threats and announcements of judgment; and (3) 1? be

contrary to Hosea’s point of view. That Hosea’s time de-
manded messages of warning and judgment is undoubtedly
true, and such messages he did deliver; that promises of
future glory might be a proper incentive for the people to
change their conduct for the better is equally true. It should
be noted that these promises are not unconditional; their
fulfillment presupposes repentance and return to God on the
part of the people. Why such promises should be unsuitable
in the days of Hosea, or contrary to the prophet’s point of
view, cannot easily be seen. 3. The third group includes,
according to Harper, “phrases and sentences of a technical,
archeological, or historical character, inserted by way of
expansion and explanation.” Among others he mentions,
“because the shadow thereof is good” (iv, 13); “with their
flocks and with their herds” (v, 6); “as in the days of Gibeah”
(ix, 9); “for the glory thereof, for it is departed from it”
(x, 5). 4. The fourth group includes miscellaneous glosses
and interpolations for which, perhaps, no special motive may
be discovered; for example, “that they may be cut off”
(viii, 4); “how long will it be ere they attain to inno-
cency?” (viii, 5); vili, 10-14, entire; “with my God” (ix,
8), etc. Hach of these and similar cases must be examined
on its own merits, and whenever it is thought necessary
this is done in the commentary. In general it may be said
that the reasons advanced against the originality of these verses
and phrases are threefold: (1) They might be omitted with-
out disturbing the thought; (2) the poetic meter requires
their omission; (3) their connection with the context is not
clear; sometimes they even seem to contradict the context.
Of these (1) cannot be considered conclusive; (2) will be
convincing only to those who believe that the prophetic dis-
courses were arranged originally in the exact metrical and
strophical form advocated by President Harper. Those who
adhere to a different metrical systemi may retain some of the
passages rejected by him and suggest other textual alterations
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSBA. 37

 

as their system may demand. There are those, however, who
are not convinced that the metrical and strophical arrange-
ment suggested by President Harper is correct, nor do they
consider it proven that the discourses of the Hebrew prophets
were originally in strictly poetic form. When, for instance,
the same author says (p. clxix) that “the analogy of other
ancient literature should have suggested long ago the proba-
bility that Israel’s early prophetic literature was poetry,” and
then gives as illustrations the Gilgamesh epic of the Babylo-
nians and the Homeric poems of Greece, he seems to have
overlooked the fact that these are literary compositions of an
entirely different character from the discourses of the Hebrew
prophets. The additional statement that in view of the fact
that these pieces were spoken rather than sung we might expect
“a much larger freedom in form” and “a greater variety,”
and that this “occasions the chief difference between prophetic
poetry and psalm poetry,” would perhaps meet the case, pro-
vided it carries with it the recognition of sufficient freedom
in form; but if such freedom is granted changes in the text
for the sake of meter become unnecessary, or, at least, few in
number.

That there is in the prophetic books much more poetry than
was formerly supposed, and that this recognition is of great
value to textual criticism, is not doubted; but that in our
present state of uncertainty a hypothetical metrical system may
be used as an ultimate criterion by the textual student may be
seriously doubted; and one may be justified in refusing to
accept passages as secondary which upon this ground alone
are denied to Hosea. (3) In view of the statements below
even abruptness in transition cannot be regarded as proving
conclusively the presence of interpolations. The case against
originality may be stronger when actual contradiction exists ;
but sometimes apparent contradictions are due to the failure
to understand and interpret a passage correctly; a correct
interpretation often removes the difficulties.

For these reasons one cannot help but feel that the most
38 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HOSEA.

 

recent textual criticism has denied to Hosea more passages
than the facts warrant.

The abruptness in transition and apparent lack of 1
connection, which exist in Hosea in a more marked degree than
in any other Old Testament book, deserve additional considera-
tion. These phenomena are to be accounted for in large part
by (1) the corruption of the text; (2) Hosea’s peculiar style;
(3) the fact that the book does not contain a verbatim repro-
duction of the discourses, and (+) the fact that the separate
utterances are arranged neither in chronological nor in logical
order. (3) has already been touched upon (p. 20). If the
statement made there is correct, we can readily see how these
notes and summaries might have been collected without regard
for the logical connection between the separate oracles (4) ;
in fact, there may never have been such connection. That the
text of Hosea has suffered in transmission (1) cannot be
doubted. Even A. B. Davidson feels compelled to say, “A
multitude of passages are corrupt, some incurably.” Again
and again commentators must confess that the translation and
interpretation of certain passages are in doubt, and this in
many cases is due to corruption of the text (compare iv, 4; vii,
3-7; xi, 7, 12; xii, 1ff., and many more). (2) The style of
Hosea has long been recognized as being different from that
of any other Old Testament writer. Jerome spoke of it
as “consisting of short clauses”; Dr. Pusey describes it aptly
in the words, “Each verse forms a whole by itself, like one
heavy toll in a funeral knell”; and to this Cheyne adds, “Even
the fetters of grammar are almost too much for Hosea’s
vehement feeling.” The last quotation indicates the cause of
the abruptness and disconnectedness. Hosea was a man with
a sensitive nature; his emotions were stirred profoundly; he
could not deliver a stately and dignified discourse; the truths
burned in his heart; and in sympathy and anguish he poured
out his heart, without any attempt to indicate the logical con-
nection between separate utterances; this the hearers might

easily supply.

ogical
HOSEHA.

 

CHAPTER I.
HE word of the Lorp that came
- unto Hosea, theson of Beeri,
in the days of Uzziah, Jotham,
Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah,
and in the days of Jeroboam the son

of Joash, king of Israel. 2 The be-
praing of the word of the Lorp by

osea. And the Lorp said to
Hosea, *Go, take unto thee a wife
of whoredoms and children of whore-

doms: for >the land hath committed

 

CHAPTER I.

1, 2a. Title—intended as a heading
for the whole book. On its probable
original form, its accord with internal
evidence, etc., see pp. 15ff. Word—As
in Isa. ii, 1 (compare ‘‘vision,’’ Isa. i,
1), denotes the substance of the divine
revelation, whatever the manner in
which it was received (see pp.14f.). Je-
hovah—Thus the A. R. V. reproduces
throughout the entire Old Testament
the name of God rendered in A. V.
Lorp. Beeri—Introduction, p. 10.
The beginning of the word of Jehovah
by Hosea—R. V., “When Jehovah
spake at the first by Hosea.” A. V.
is more satisfactory, and is supported
by the ancient versions. The words
are a new heading, perhaps by Hosea
himself, for part of the book; not
chapters i-iii (Cheyne), but chapters
i, ii. To “beginning” corresponds
“again” in iii, 1. By—Better, R. V.
margin, “with” (Zech. i, 9; Num. xii,
2). In what sense this was the begin-
ning of Hosea’s prophetic activity,
see Introduction, pp. 15f. The narra-
tive—for such is chapter i—begins
with Jehovah said to Hosea; it closes
with verse 9, in Hebrew the end of
chapter i.

Hoseta’s Wire aNnD CHILDREN, 2b-9.

The prophet relates how, at the
divine command, he took in marriage
a wife of whoredoms, Gomer the daugh-
ter of Diblaim. By her he had three
children, to whom he gave names
symbolic of the truths he taught:

 

8 So chap. 3. 1.—-» Deut. 31. 16; Psa. 73,
27; Jer. 2. 13; Ezek. 23. 3, ete.

Jezreel, symbolizing the overthrow of
the dynasty of Jehu; Lo-ruhamah, an-
nouncing that Jehovah will have no
more mercy upon Israel; and Lo-
ammi, symbolizing the utter rejec-
tion of Israel.

2b-5. The marriage of Hosea and
the birth of the first child. 2. Take...
a wife—Common expression for mar-
ry. A wife of whoredoms—Not har-
lot, that is, a woman already a sinner,
whether in a literal or a spiritual
sense (ii, 5), but a woman with deeply
rooted tendencies toward unchastity
(Introduction, pp. 12ff.). Children of
whoredoms—Hither children inherit-
ing the mother’s evil tendencies, or
children born of a@ woman with such
tendencies, or both (ii, 4). The land
hath committed [“doth commit’’]
great whoredom—The reason for lead-
ing the prophet into this peculiar
experience. By his own domestic
life he was to apprehend more clearly
the relation of Jehovah to Israel. As
the prophet in his later life meditated
over his own sad experience he recog-
nized that the affliction came to him
from Jehovah to teach him, in order
that he might be a teacher of others.
That does not mean that he was not
a prophet until his eyes were thus
opened. He was conscious of a pro-
phetic call when his first son was
born, as is clear from the giving of
the symbolic name. In fact, he
understood the significance of his own
domestic experience because he had
the prophetic gift. Nevertheless, his
experience led him into a deeper ap-

39
40

HOSEA.

 

eras whoredom, departing from the
ORD. 3 So he went and took
Gomer the daughter of Diblaim;
which conceived, and bare him a
son. 4 And the Lorp said unto

him, Call his name Jezreel; for a
a little while, cand I will ‘avense of
blood of Jezreel upon the ag ae
Jehu, 4and will cause to oe 1
kingdom of the house of Israel.

 

¢2 Kings 10, 11.1 Heb. vtstt.—*2
Kings 15. 10, 12.

 

preciation of the most important
phase of his message to the people.
Israel, like his wife, had adulterous
tendencies; for a while they were re-
strained, but at the slightest provo-
cation they broke forth. 3. The proph-
et followed the command. Gomer
—Various efforts have been made to
find a symbolic meaning in this name
as well as in that of the father,
Diblaim, but without success. Both
are to be understood literally. In
time a son was born; to him the
prophet gave a name symbolic of one
important truth he was commissioned
to teach. In a similar manner Isaiah
gave to his sons the symbolical names
Shear-jashub and Maher-shalal-hash-
baz (Isa. vii, 3; viii, 3). There is no
reason to suppose that this son was
the offspring of adulterous intercourse
and that Hosea recognized him as
his son ‘for his mother’s sake.” It
is probable that Hosea did not find
out the true character of his wife, or
at least the hopelessness of the case,
until after the birth of the three chil-
dren. 4. Jezreel—That is, God sows.
The name was to be given, as the
next line shows, not on account of its
meaning but on account of its histor-
ical connections. Jezreel is the well-
known city of that name in the Plain
of Jezreel. Blood—Or, blood-guiiti-
ness (G.-K., 124n); the extinction of
the house of Ahab by Jehu, about 842
B. C. (2 Kings ix, x). The name,
therefore, points both backward and
forward—backward to the crime and
forward to the punishment. Not only
the dynasty of Jehu is to be destroyed,
but also the northern kingdom. The
events are thought to be imminent.
Yet a little while—In this the proph-
et was not mistaken, for the fulfill-
ment in each case took place within
a few years, though not at one time;

 

the former in the assassination of
Zechariah by the usurper Shallum
(2 Kings xv, 10), the latter in the fall
of Samaria and the exile of the north-
ern tribes in 722-721 B. C. (2 Kings
xvii). One cannot fail to see that
the standpoint of Hosea is not the
same as that of 2 Kings x, 30. There
Jehu is highly commended for the very
act condemned here. How are we to
explain the difference? The attempt
to prove that Hosea has in mind some
other crime is futile. The explana-
tion lies in the advance in religious
and ethical conceptions during the
intervening century. The character
of Jehovah never changes; but the
conceptions of his character, even by
the inspired prophets, did change and
advance. It seems that the prophets
of the ninth century had not yet
learned “that the cause of truth is
not permanently advanced by intrigue
and bloodshed,” while Hosea is ad-
vancing toward the Christian belief
that the kingdom of God must be
extended by the moral influence going
out from the kingdom; a view held
also by the author of Isa. ii, 2-4. It
should be noted, however, that some
deny that Hosea’s judgment differed
from that of the author of 2 Kings x,
30; and they explain the prophet’s
condemnation by assuming that he
recognized a wrong motive, unnoticed
by the historian, behind’ Jehu’s act.
“The same historical fact which, if it
had proceeded from high motives,
would have been praiseworthy as
pleasing to God may, if arising from
other motives, be unpardonable sin
in the sight of God.” In addition it
is claimed that Jehu went to excess
in executing the divine command
(2 Kings ix, 27; x, 13, 14). 5. The
valley of Jezreel—The ancient battle-
field of the Hebrews (Judg. iv, 13ff.;
CHAPTER I.

41

 

& eAnd it shall come to pass at that
day, that I will break the bow of
Israel in the valley of Jezreel.

6 And she conceived again, and
bare a daughter. And God said
unto him, Call her name 2Lo-ruha-
mah: ‘for *I will no more have mercy

upon the house of Israel; ‘but. I will
utterly take them away. 7 *ButI
will have mercy upon the house of
Judah, and will save them by the
Lorp their God, and "will not save
them by bow, nor by sword, nor by
battle, by horses, nor by horsemen.

 

e 2 Kings 15. 29.—? That is, Not having
obtained mercy.—t 2 Kings 17. 6, 23.—
38 Heb. I will not add any more to.

4Or, that I should altogether pardon them.
ies Kings 19. 35.—h Zech. 4. 6; 9.

 

vi, 33ff.; vii, 1ff.; 1 Sam. xxix, lff.),
therefore a proper place for the coming
conflict; besides, the crime to be
avenged had been committed there.
If the LXX. text of 2 Kings xv, 10, is
correct Zechariah was slain at Ibleam,
which lies in the valley of Jezreel.
The final blow, which marked the end
of the northern kingdom, was the fall
of Samaria. There is no reason for
regarding verse 5 as a later insertion
(Marti). Break the bow—Symbol of
military power. The enemy which
is to destroy Israel is not named;
he can be no other than the As-
syrian.

6, 7. Birth of Lo-ruhamah. 6. The
second child of the union was a daugh-
ter. Lo-ruhamah—Meaning She is
not pitied, or loved; that is, she does
not experience the love which is ordi-
narily bestowed by parents upon
their children. The reason for giv-
ing this name is also stated. Israel,
the child of Jehovah (xi, 1), is no
longer loved or pitied by him to the
extent that a child might expect love
and pity; but Jehovah has not yet
entirely cast off the people (verse 9).
But I will utterly take them away—
Better, with R. V., “that I should in
any wise pardon them”; a perfectly
legitimate translation (Jer. xii, 1;
compare Gen. xl, 15; G.-K., 166b).
There is no grammatical necessity for
the rendering, ‘No, rather I will
surely pardon them,” which Marti
makes the basis for omitting the
clause as a later addition, because
the thought expressed is out of place
in this connection. His translation
being unwarranted there is no neces-
sity for omitting the words. 7. While
Jehovah will not interfere in behalf

 

of Israel, he will have mercy upon the
southern kingdom. Judah—The proph-
et seems to think that Judah is in
better religious and moral condition
than Israel (iv, 15). In reality, judg-
ing from the messages of Isaiah and
Micah, the two eighth century proph-
ets of Judah, there was little differ-
ence between the conditions in the two
kingdoms. And if the references to
Judah in Hos. v, 5, 10, 12, 13, 14; vi, 4,
11; viii, 14; x, 11; xi, 12 (margin); xii,
2, are from Hosea - himself, this
prophet seeems to agree with the two
Judean prophets. The explanation
that i, 7,'and iv, 15, come from an
earlier period, before Hosea had be-
come properly acquainted with con-
ditions in Judah, is not considered
satisfactory by most commentators,
since the time elapsed between the
delivery of iv, 15, and chapter v, can-
not have been very long. It is not
without reason, therefore, that many
commentators regard verse 7 as a
later interpolation, reflecting the ex-
periences of Judah in 701 (2 Kings xix,
35ff; Isa. xxxvii, 36ff.). An additional
objection is raised on the ground that
the thought of verse 7 is foreign to
the rest of the chapter, in which the
prophet narrates his own domestic
life, and sets forth its significance as
illustrating the relation of Israel to
Jehovah. By Jehovah their God—
For the sake of emphasis, instead of
by me, describes very aptly the deliv-
erance of 701, as a reading of the
account in 2 Kings will show. It is
the constant teaching of the prophets
that Jehovah, and not human defen-
ses, is the salvation of his people (xiv,
8; Isa. vii, 1-17; xxxi, 8; compare
ii, 7).
42

HOSEA.

 

8 Now when she had weaned Lo-
ruhamah, she conceived, and bare a

TTT
son. 9 Then said God, Cal “
name *Lo-ammi: for ye are nO y

 

5 That is, Not my people.

 

8,9. Birth of Lo-ammi. 8. The
third child was a son. When she had
weaned—After two or three years, the
length of time allowed to elapse in
Palestine even now before children
are weaned. 9. Lo-ammi—That is,
Not my people. Israel is to be cast
off entirely, to be no longer the people
of Jehovah. The three names form
a climax—Jezreel symbolizes a defi-
nite judgment; Lo-ruhamah, the with-
drawal of the divine mercy; Lo-ammi,
the utter rejection of Israel, its treat-
ment as a foreign nation. I will not
be your God—Literally, J will not be
jor you, that is, on your side, to help
you. The thought remains the same,
but the ordinary translation brings it
out more strongly. Some manuscripts
of the LXX. read “your God,” and
this is favored by ii, 3 (compare Zech.
viii, 8). Perhaps the text has suf-
fered in transmission.

Promise or a Giorious REsTora-
TION, i, 10-ii, 1

With verse 9 chapter i closes in the
common editions of the Hebrew Bible.
The division of the English Bible—
found also in some Hebrew texts, in
LXX., Luther, Calvin, etc.—is cer-
tainly unfortunate, for i, 10-1i, 1,
belong close together. But scholars
have long disagreed as to the exact
relation of these verses to i, 2-9, and
ii, 2ff., since the transition from i, 9,
to i, 10, and also from ii, 1, to ii, 2, is
exceedingly abrupt. Some make i,
10-1i, 1, the continuation of i, 2-9,
regarding ii, 1, as the close of the first
section; others feeling that the prom-
ises of i, 10-ii, 1, following immediate-
ly upon the threats in i, 2-9, would
take from the latter much of their
force, regard the verses as the begin-
ning of the second oracle, which would
then begin witha promise (compare Isa.
ii, 2-4, a promise followed by threats
in ii, 5ff.). But this does not relieve
the situation, for the transition from

 

ii, 1, to ii, 2, is at least equally abrupt.
As a result, some scholars, seeing In
the verses nothing that would mili-
tate against the authorship of Hosea
and yet recognizing their loose connec-
tion with the context, think that the
verses have been misplaced. Steiner,
Cheyne, and others would place them
after ii, 23, A. B. Davidson after iii, 5.
The former find some support in Rom.
ix, 25, 26, where part of Hos. i, 10,
is quoted immediately after ii, 23.
This, however, is not conclusive,
since Paul might quote verses in any
order he chose. The objections to
the transposition theory, raised by
Nowack, Marti, and others, rest, in
part at least, upon misinterpretation
of i, 10, 11, and are of little weight.
The transition from ii, 23, or iii, 5,
would undoubtedly be smoother; but,
if the verses were transposed, how,
why, and when did it happen? The
reply that a later age sought to break
the sting of the prophetic denuncia-
tions by rearranging the prophecies
so that each would end with a promise
of a brighter future rests upon mere
assumption, and cannot be considered
satisfactory. The most recent com-
mentators, Wellhausen, Nowack, Mar-
ti, and Harper, take i, 10-ii, 1, to be
a later exilic or postexilic addition,
made for the purpose just suggested.
If so, the later writer must have fol-
lowed and imitated Hosea very close-
ly, for the verses are clearly dependent
in thought and mode of expression
on i, 2-9. All one can do is to state
the case and the views held; which is
the correct one it is impossible to say
with any degree of certainty, since
the data, indecisive themselves, will
appeal with varying force to different
readers. So far as the contents are
concerned, Hosea might be the author;
abrupt transitions are not infrequent
in the book; indeed, they are one of
its chief characteristics. On the
other hand, we know very little about
CHAPTER I.

43

 

Pcp and I will not be your
‘od.

10 Yet ithe number of the children
of Israel shall be as the sand of the
sea, which cannot be measured nor
numbered; ‘and it shall come to
pass, that tin the place where it was
said unto them, 'Ye are not my

people, there it shall be said unto
them, Ye are the sons of the living
God. 11 *Then shall the children
of Judah and the children of Israel
be gathered poeta and appoint
themselves one head, and they shall
come up out of the land: for great
shall be the day of Jezreel.

 

iGen. 32.12; Rom. 9. 27, 28.—k Rom.
9. 25, 26; 1 Pet. 2. 10.—®Or, instead of
that.—! Chap. 2. 23.

m John 1.12; 1 John 3. 1.— Isa. 11.
32, 138; Jer. 3. 18; Ezek. 34. 23; 37. 16-

 

the collection of prophetic oracles into
books, and it is not unlikely that
later additions were made to separate
oracles, as well as to whole books,
though one may not be ready to go
in this matter to the extent to which
some modern commentators are in-
clined. 10. Yet—In Hebrew the sim-
ple conjunction and. As the sand of
the sea—All the prophets are con-
vinced that from the judgment a
remnant will escape, out of which
shall rise the new people of God (Isa.
vi, 13). In this new nation the prom-
ise to the patriarchs (Gen. xxii, 17;
xxxii, 12), realized in a very small
degree under Solomon (1 Kings iv,
20), will be completely fulfilled. Is-
rael—Not the whole nation, but the
northern kingdom only, as in 4, 5, 6,
11. In the place where it was said—
So LXX. and Rom. ix, 26. But,
since the important thing is the fact
and not the place of the restoration,
the marginal reading, “instead of that
which was said,” a possible transla-
tion of the Hebrew, is to be preferred.
Not my people—Lo-ammi (verse 9).
Sons—The representation of the rela-
tion of the deity to his worshipers as
fatherhood is a common idea in
Semitic religions. Chemosh has sons
and daughters (Num. xxi, 29); the
expression is used even of idols of
wood and stone (Jer. ii, 27); outside
of Israel the expression seems to
imply, in the beginning at least, phys-
ical relationship; never so in Israel.
There the basis is an act of mercy on
the part of Jehovah; adoption, not
generation (xi, 1; compare Exod. iv,
22). The former intimate relation,
severed through Israel’s rebellion
(Isa. i, 2), is to be restored. Living

 

God—In contrast with the dead idols,
which are unable to do anything for
their worshipers. ‘One of the ear-
liess appearances of prophetic mono-
theism’ (compare Isa. xxxvii, 4;
Deut. v, 23). Restoration to son-
ship will mean a renewal of the divine
grace and favor to Israel. 11. Shall
...be gathered together—The com-
mon prophetic anticipation that in
the new era North and South will be
reunited (Isa. xi, 13; Ezek. xxxvii,
22; Zech. ix, 13, etc.). While the
tenth century prophets favored the
schism (1 Kings xi, 29; xii, 22ff.),
later prophets looked upon it as a
serious’ disaster (Isa. vii, 17). One
head—One common leader (Num. xiv,
4; 1 Sam. xv, 17). Who he will be,
whence he will come, is not stated;
he is possibly to be identified with
“David their king” (iii, 5). Shall
come up out of (“go up from”] the
land—If the verses are allowed to
retain their present position the words
cannot refer to a return from exile;
nor can they be interpreted primarily
in the sense suggested by Cheyne,
“The reconciled people, too numerous
for the land to bear them, shall seek
to enlarge their territory” (Amos ix,
12; Mic. ii, 12, 13); for before they can
enter upon a career of conquest they
must regain their former standing.
To do this is the purpose of the going
up, that is, to battle (Nah. ii, 1; Joel
i, 6). The day of Jezreel—Not iden-
tical with the day of disaster (verse
4), though this verse looks back to it,
as ii, 1, looks back to i, 6, 9. It is
the very opposite, a day of victory to
be won on the old battlefield of Jez-
reel. If the three verses are placed
after iii, 5, go up might refer to a
44

HOSEA.

 

CHAPTER II.
Se yeunto your brethren, !Am-
mi; and to your sisters, ?Ru-

eee 8 eae
hamah. 2 Plead with your mother,
plead: for «she is not my het
neither am I her husband: let her

 

1 That is, My people—— That |s, Hav-
ing obtained mercy.

atsa, 50. 1.

 

return from exile (iii, 4), though not
necessarily. Then Jezreel would bet-
ter be interpreted in connection with
ii, 22, 23, as pointing to the permanent
settlement of Israel in the promised
land, which will be followed by the
transformation indicated in ii, 1.
Great—Glorious; marked by manifes-
tations of the divine power.

CHAPTER II.

1. With this triumph a new era
opens, an era of prosperity and felic-
ity. This transformation warrants the
change of the names of ill omen into
their direct opposites. Say ye—The
members of the nation nearest the
prophet are to spread the good news
to their fellow countrymen. Ammi—
My people. Ruhamah—She is loved,
or pitied. As the three names in i, 4,
6, 9, symbolize the utter rejection of
Israel, so the names of i, 11, ii, 1,
symbolize the complete restoration of
the people.

APPLICATION OF THE SYMBOLIC ACTS
anp Names IN CuHaptTers I and
III—2-23.

Chapters i-iii are not arranged in
what appears to be the logical order:
chapter iii attaches itself to i, 9; iii, 1,
continues the story of Hosea’s domes-
tic life. He is told to go and “love
a woman beloved of her friend, and
an adulteress.” Marti thinks, but
without good reason, that this act is
entirely independent of chapter i.
The symbolism would be destroyed
if the woman of iii, 1, were any other
than Gomer, the daughter of Diblaim
(i, 3). Lo-ammi (i, 9) suggests the
step in the domestic drama which is
left unrecorded. The woman had
fled from her home to give herself
more freely to her shameful practices;
iii, 2 seems to imply that she had
become the slave concubine of anoth-
er. Hosea, impelled by love and a

 

divine impulse, buys her back, though
for a while he does not restore her to
the full privileges of wifehood (ii, 3).

This entire history is presupposed
in ii, 2-23; iii, 4, 5, which sections
contain the application of the proph-
et’s own experience to the history
of Israel. The historical persons in 1,
2-9, and iii, 1-3, the prophet, his wife,
his children, here become allegorical
figures. Israel is the adulterous wife,
Jehovah the deceived but still loving
husband; the individual Israelites are
the children. Some of the latter have
remained free from the sins of their
mother. To these Jehovah addresses
himself, that they should attempt
the restoration of the faithless wife
and mother, Israel, to the wronged but
yearning husband, Jehovah. The ut-
terance opens with a description of
Israel’s whoredom (ii, 5), which is
followed by an announcement of the
evil consequences of the faithlessness
(6-18); it closes with a delineation of
the efforts to be put forth by Jehovah
to win back the faithless wife, and of
the glories awaiting her when she
comes to her senses (14-23).

The faithlessness of Israel, 2-5.

2. Plead [‘‘Contend”}~The urgency
of the appeal is indicated by its repe-
tition. The individual Israelites who
are still sensitive to the divine influ-
ence are addressed; they are urged to
“exert a corrective, reforming influ-
ence on the corrupt aggregate” in
order to avoid more serious conse-
quences. The nation is called their
mother—Out of love to her they
should work for her best interests.
She is not my wife, neither am I her
husband—The marriage tie is already
dissolved through her whoredom; and
unless she repents there is no reason
why she should not be utterly cast
off. Out of her sight—Literally from
her face; as the next clause shows, to
be understood literally. The expres-
CHAPTER II.

45

 

therefore put away her >whoredoms
out of her sight, and her adulteries
from between her breasts; 3 Lest
cI strip her naked, and set her as in
the day that she was ¢born, and
make her ‘as a wilderness, and set
her like a dry land, and slay her

with ‘thirst. 4 And I will not have
mercy upon her children; for they
be the echildren of whoredoms. 65
‘For their mother hath played the
harlot: she that conceived them
hath done shamefully: for she said,
I will go after my lovers, ithat give

 

b Ezek. 16. 25. e Jer. 13. 22, 26; Ezek.
is 37, 39.—4 Ezek. 16. 4.—* Ezek. 19.

 

f Amos 8, 11, 13,—s John 8. 41.— Isa.
1, 21; Jer. 3.1, 6, 8, 9; Ezek. 16. 15, 16, etc.
i Verses 8, 12; Jer. 44. 17.

 

sion of the countenance reveals the
character (Jer. iii, 3). Adulteries
from between her breasts—Interpreted
by some as referring to the wearing
of amulets between the breasts in
honor of the deities with whom the
Israelites committed adultery; but
of such a custom we have no knowl-
edge. It is better understood as
another bold expression of her adul-
terous character, the shameless uncov-
ering of the breast. Another possible
interpretation is to regard the abstract
adultery used for the concrete adulterer,
a usage not uncommon in Hebrew.
The adulterer who lies between the
breasts (Song of Songs i, 13) is to be
driven away. 3. If this is not done
she must suffer the consequences of
her wrongdoing. Lest I strip her
naked—Seems to have been one way
of punishing an adulteress (Ezek.
xvi, 38, 39). As in the day that she
was born—At the time of the Exodus;
then Israel had nothing. All she
acquired subsequently she owed to
Jehovah; but if she continues in her
disloyalty to him he will withdraw
his support, and she will relapse into
a state of complete destitution. Wil-
derness—In punishment for Israel’s
adulteries the land will be robbed
of its glory and fertility; the fruitful
fields will be turned into a dreary
desert. The same thought is ex-
pressed in the next clause: as a result
of drought the land will become
utterly desolate. People andland are
not kept apart; both will suffer.
The last clause of verse 3 should
be combined with the first clause of
verse 4. And slay her with thirst—
The final punishment of an adulteress
was death (Lev. xx, 10; Deut. xxii, 22;
Ezek. xvi, 40). In this case Israel, or

 

rather the land, will perish of thirst,
that is, drought. Her children—The
inhabitants of the land must share in
the punishment of the mother, be-
cause they are children of whoredoms.
As said above, the children are the
individual Israelites; in their individ-
ual capacity they manifest the same
tendencies as the nation as a whole.
The phrase, therefore, means not
simply children born of a mother with
unchaste tendencies, but children
possessing such tendencies, and in-
dulging in unchaste practices.

The guilt of Israel is described
further in verse 5; the verse thus
supplies the ground for the earnest
appeal in verse 2. Played the harlot
—Openly she violated her obligations
to Jehovah; such conduct is rightly
called shameful. It was also premedi-
tated; deaf to all exhortations, she
declared firmly, I will go after my
lovers—Or, paramours. By these are
meant not thesurrounding nations, but
the Baalim (verse 13), the gods of the
native Canaanites. Among the latter
no supreme deity seems to have been
worshiped; separate districts each had
its own deity. The worship of these
probably arose in connection with
agriculture. ‘The local Baals ferti-
lized each his own district by his
streams and springs, and hence they
were the owners—this is the meaning
of the term Baal—of these naturally
fertile spots.” In time they were
regarded also as the spenders of rain;
and the Baals were worshiped as the
givers of fertility and prosperity.
When the Israelites came into the
land they, though nominally continu-
ing to worship Jehovah, were to some
extent influenced by the natives, so
that they came to see in these Baalim
46

_ HOSEA.

 

me my bread and my wafer, my
wool and my flax, mine oil and
my drink.

6 Therefore, behold, «I will hedge
up thy way with thorns, and ‘make
a wall, that she shall not find her

ter
paths. 7 And she shall follow af r
her lovers, but she shall not ee

take them: and she shall seek t ai
but shall not find them. then sha

she say, !I will go and return to my
first husband; for then wes it better

 

3Heb. drinks.—kJob 8. 23; 19. 8;

Lam. 3. 7, 9.—+4 Heb. wall a wall.

the givers of “every good and perfect
gift,” and to pay them the homage
belonging exclusively to Jehovah.
Herein consisted their whoredom
which the prophet condemns. The
Baal against whom Elijah fought was
an entirely different deity. Several
products are enumerated as being as-
cribed to the power of the Baalim.
These, the most important, are only
samples; everything else was thought
to come from them. Bread—Food.
Water—Because of its scarcity prized
very highly by an agricultural people.
Wool and flax—From which clothing
was made. Oil—See on Joel i, 10.
Drink—Literally, drinks. Wine and
other drinks made of fruit, such as
dates, figs, raisins. Food, clothing,
and articles of luxury were all traced
to the Baalim. For this disloyalty
to Jehovah Israel must be punished.
Jehovah must vindicate himself.

The evil consequences and punishment

of Israel's faithlessness, 6-13.

6, 7. I will hedge up—Israel will be
like a wanderer whose progress is
suddenly hindered by a thorn hedge.
Thy way—The change to the second
person might perhaps be explained
as due to the intense emotion of the
prophet; LX-X. and Peshitto read the
third person. A wall—Better, with
R. V., “a wall against her’’; is to
accomplish the same thing as the
hedge (Job iii, 23; xix, 8; Lam. iii, 7-
9). Thus obstructed she cannot find
her way to her paramours. How
Jehovah will wall up the way is stated
in 9ff. When Jehovah strikes the
blow the Baalim will be helpless.
Follow ...seek—In both cases the
intensive form of the verb: follow
earnestly, seek diligently. She will
leave no means untried to reach her
paramours, that they may help her

 

1 Chap. 5. 15; Luke 15. 18.—™ Ezek.
16. 8.

out of the distress and renew her
prosperity. Not overtake ..- - find—
Her efforts will not produce the de-
sired results. Then—When she be-
comes conscious of the hopelessness of
the situation. She will be brought to
her senses (Luke xv, 17), and will
decide to return to her first husband
—The God worshiped by the fathers.
Then—Before Israel began the wor-
ship of the Baalim. Now—Not at the
time of the prophet’s speaking, but
in the future when Israel sees the
awfulness of the calamity, when the
distress described in 9ff. becomes a
reality. With this conception, that
calamity and disloyalty to Jehovah
are closely connected, compare 2
Kings xvii, 7ff. The decision to re-
turn can hardly be regarded as ex-
pressive of repentance (Jer. iii, 21ff.);
all that is implied is anxiety to escape
the distress.

Verse 5 describes the sin and its
cause; 6, 7 announce the judgment
in figurative language; 9-13 expound
the figurative announcement. The
exposition is preceded by a restate-
ment of the facts that make necessary
the judgment. This arrangement of
the thought is not unnatural; and
there seems insufficient reason for
rejecting 6, 7 as a later interpolation,
or for placing these verses after verse
18, so as to bring together 5 and 8,
though the latter would make a good
continuation of the former. There
is no good reason even for rejecting
7b, to which Marti takes exception
as interrupting the connection and
emphasizing repentance and conver-
sion concerning which 8ff. are silent.
If the arrangement is interpreted as
just suggested thé conneetion is not
broken, and, properly interpreted,
nothing is said about repentance or
CHAPTER II.

47

 

with me than now. 8 For she did
not "know that °I gave her corn, and
‘wine, and oil, and multiplied her
silver and_ gold, *which they pre-
pared for Baal. 9 Therefore will I
return, and ptake away my corn in

the time thereof, and my wine in the
season thereof, and will 7recover my
wool and my flax given to cover her
nakedness. 10 And now will I
discover her *lewdness in the sight
of her lovers, and none shall deliver

 

o Isa. 1. 3.—° Ezek. 16. 17, 18, 19.
5 Heb. new wine.—® Or, wherewlth they
made Baal, chap. 8. 4.—p Verse 3.

 

7 Or, take away.—4 Ezek. 16. 37; 23. 29.
— Heb. folly, or, villainy.

 

conversion. 8. For—Hebrew, “and.”
She—The use of the Hebrew pronoun
before the verb places special empha-
sis upon the same: “she, though my
wife and enjoying countless bless-
ings.” Did not know—To know is
often used in the sense of acknowledge;
it may be so here; in life and worship
they failed to acknowledge; but the
prophet may think of the absence of
intellectual apprehension that Jeho-
vah was the source of all blessing.
Corn—(or grain),...[‘new’] wine,
..- oil—The chief products of Canaan
(Deut. vii, 13; xi, 14; see on Joel i, 10).
Silver and gold, which they prepared
(“used”’] for Baal—The possession of
silver and gold imported from afar
was, in a sense, also due to the divine
favor (compare Isa. ii, 7); the Israel-
ites, failing to recognize the true
source, used them—that the relative
clause belongs to both nouns seems evi-
dent—for Baal: that is, in his honor;
either they made more beautiful and
splendid his worship or, as the margin
R. V. reads, “they made the silver and
gold into the Baal,” that is, images of
Baal. In view of viii, 4, the latter
may be preferable (Isa. xliv, 17).
Several commentators reject the rela-
tive clause entirely because (1) the
plural they used is peculiar. Who is
the subject? Throughout this section
Israel is referred to as she; (2) the
singular Baal. Hosea seems to con-
demn throughout the worship of the
Canaanitish Baalim (ii, 5) and not
that of the one Baal, the god of
Tyre; (8) the emphasis is on the giving
by Jehovah, not on the use of the
blessings for any specific purpose.
Marti would go further and omit also
“gold,” because of the peculiar order
of the words in Hebrew, where silver

 

and gold are not connected. Objec-
tion (3) is of no weight. The other
peculiarities cannot be overlooked,
though opinions may differ as to
whether they are sufficiently serious
to warrant the rejection of the
words.

Verses 9ff., parallel with 6, 7, an-
nounce the judgment. Therefore will
I return, and take away—Equivalent
to take away again; R. V., “take
back.” Corn... wine....wool...
flax—See verses 5, 8. In verse 5 Is-
rael had called these things my bread,
etc. Here Jehovah suggests that in
reality they are his. Time...season
thereof—That is, at harvest time,
when under ordinary conditions men
may safely expect them. Given to
cover [“which should have covered”’]
her nakedness—A reminder that with-
out God’s mercy, in her natural con-
dition, “Israel was utterly helpless
and destitute.’ 10. By withholding
the crops at the time when the people
might expect them Jehovah will show
that it is he, and he alone, who con-
trols the forces of nature, and not the
Baalim (verse 5); the latter will be
absolutely helpless. Lewdness—R.V.
margin, ‘“shame’’; carries further in
figurative language the announcement
of verse 9. With the flax and wool,
intended for covering, gone, the
woman—here Israel—will stand ex-
posed naked. In the sight of her
lovers—The thought is not that, see-
ing her thus, they will begin to abhor
and despise her, but rather that,
though it is done in their very pres-
ence, they will be unable to help her
(compare Isa. i, 7). The Baalim
never have done anything, and their
helplessness will become self-evident
when Jehovah strikes the blow. No
48

HOSEA.

 

her out of mine hand. 11 ‘I will
also cause all her mirth to cease, her
"feast days, her new moons, and her
sabbaths, and all her solemn feasts.
12 And I will *destroy her vines and
her fig trees, twhereof she hath said,

These are my rewards that my lov-
ers have given me: and *I will ees
them a forest, and the beasts © a8
field shall eat them. 13 And I a

visit upon her the days of Baalim,
wherein she burned incense to them,

 

tr Amos 8. 10.—*1 Kings 12. 32; Amos
8. 5.—* Heb. make desolate. Verse 5.

one can rescue Israel. If this were
the only reference in Hosea to the
worship of other gods one might be
led to think that Hosea believed in
their existence though he considered
them less powerful than Jehovah; but
compare iv, 5, and xiv, 3.

11. An inevitable result of the ca-
lamity will be the cessation of mirth—
As the context shows, the merry-
making in connection with religious
celebrations. Feast days [‘‘feasts’’}—
The same word as the Arabic haj,
by which the pilgrimage to Mecca is
known. Probably not feasts in gen-
eral, but the three great feasts—of
Unleavened Bread, of Harvest, of
Ingathering—which were accompanied
by pilgrimages (Exod. xxiii, 14-17);
these were occasions of rejoicing (Isa.
xxx, 29). New moons—The new
moon, the first of the month, was from
the earliest time a sacred day among
the Hebrews and their neighbors (1
Sam. xx, 5; 2 Kings iv, 23). Its cele-
bration goes back probably to a period
when the moon was worshiped as a di-
vine being. (See article “New Moon”
in Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible.)
Sabbaths—Another day considered
sacred from the earliest period; its
observance is enjoined in the Deca-
logue, but it is not confined to the
Hebrews. (See American Journal of
Theology, 1898, pp. 312-352.) Ac-
cording to Amos viii, 5, on the two
sacred days mentioned last the peo-
ple abstained from common labor.
Solemn feasts [‘‘assemblies’’]}—Better,
festal gatherings; a general term for
festive seasons, including here all the
feasts not mentioned previously (com-
pare Amos viii, 10; Jer. vii, 34;
Lam. i, 4; v, 15).

Verse 12 is the natural continuation
of 9. Nowack, who considers verse

 

uPsa, 80. 12, 13; Isa. 5. 5.

10 a later addition, thinks the original
order to have been 9, 12, 11, 18.
Vines . . . fig trees—Two of the choic-
est products of Palestine; their de-
struction would be a serious calamity
(see on Joel i, 7). Since they grew
extensively and luxuriously, they
were regarded as indicating in a spe-
cial manner the favor of the Baalim.
Rewards [“‘hire’”’}+-The compensation
offered to the prostitute. How Jeho-
vah will destroy is not stated, it may
be by war or by drought. The gardens
and orchards will be neglected and
turn into forests—Better, jungles, the
abode of wild beasts. Beasts of the
field—Wild, undomesticated beasts
(compare Isa. vii, 23-25). On the
rapidity with which in the neglected
fields wild animals multiply, see 2
Kings xvii, 25.

13. The conclusion of this section
of the prophecy. All the judgments
threatened are the result of Israel’s
faithlessness. I will visit—As fre-
quently in the Old Testament, equiva-
lent to punish. Days of [‘the”]
Baalim—Not special religious feast
days celebrated in honor of the Baal-
im, but the feast days enumerated in
verse 11. Nominally the Israelites
continued to worship Jehovah; in
reality he had been displaced from his
preéminence and placed on a level
with the Canaanitish deities. A wor-
ship permeated with Canaanitish ele-
ments could not be acceptable to
Jehovah; therefore the feast days
were not sacred to Jehovah, but to the
Baalim, and might properly be called
days of the Baalim. Wherein (“unto
which”] she burned incense—A. V. ig
to be preferred; the days on which
she burned incense to them. The
verb is used in the later period in the

-narrower sense of burn incense; here,
CHAPTER II.

49

 

and she *decked herself with her
earrings and her jewels, and she

went after her lovers, and forgat
me, saith the Lorp.

 

= Ezek. 23. 40, 42.

 

asiniv, 13; xi, 2; Amos iv, 5, it means
offer sacrifice in general. Earrings—
Or, nose ring; since the noun is in the
singular, preferably the latter. Jew-
els—The reference is not to special
decorations to attract the paramours,
but to the common custom of attir-
ing one’s self in the best garments
and decorating one’s self with all
kinds of ornaments on holy days.
Compare the expression in the Koran,
“In the day of ornament,” that is,
the festival, and the Arabic saying,
“When the feast with its noise is past
everyone puts on his own rags again.”
She .. . forgat me—The Baalim alone
were in her mind (verse 8). Had the
Israelites thought of Jehovah at all
they would have seen the absurdity
of attempting to harmonize the wor-
ship of Jehovah with that of the
Baalim.

The disciplinary effects of the judgment
and the future exaltation of Israel,
14-23.

In this section appears a very
marked change in the tone of the
prophet. From threats he passes
abruptly to promises. To some
commentators (Nowack, Marti, Har-
per) this abruptness seems a suffi-
cient reason for denying these verses

to Hosea. But the sufficiency
of this reason is not beyond
question. Judgment, according to

the teaching of the prophets, has
always a disciplinary purpose. In
verses 6, 9ff., Hosea has announced
the judgment necessary to bring the
people to their senses; but Jehovah
still loves his faithless spouse. When
he has succeeded in making her again
sensitive to his influences he will
once more pour upon her expressions
of his love, just as the prophet did
upon his wife (iii, 1-3). If we have
regard for the line of thought pre-
sented in chapters i-iii (see general
remarks on ii, 2-23), and if we take

 

ii, 14-23, as the continuation of ii,
6-13, rather than as parallel to the
same, these verses find a natural in-
terpretation. That the emphasis
should be first upon the terrors of
the judgment is natural in view of
the sins of the people; that the
prophet should point to future glory
is in perfect accord with what seems
to be the ordinary line of prophetic
reasoning; and, far from breaking the
force of the prophetic warnings, the
promises would supply a very strong
incentive to become worthy of the
promised blessings. Moreover, an un-
biased interpretation can see no contra-
diction between ii, 14-23, and chapters
ivff., where the prophet emphasizes
repentance as an essential condition of
the divine favor. It goes almost
without saying that the fulfillment of
all Old Testament promises was de-
pendent upon the proper attitude to-
ward Jehovah. The verses before us
touch upon one side only, namely,
the part played by Jehovah. Surely
it is not necessary to emphasize
the condition every time a promise
is made. Nor is there, as is some-
times asserted, any difference between
the thought of these verses and that
of chapter iii. Again, similarities
with Ezekiel are not striking enough
to prove the dependence of these
verses upon any utterance of this
exilic prophet.

The modern tendency, to regard
practically all Messianic prophecies as
the products of the exilic or postexilic
period, is without adequate founda-
tion. It is almost inconceivable that
the preéxilic prophets, with their
lofty conception of the character of
Jehovah, should have no message but
that of doom. Their very conception
of the righteousness of Jehovah made
it impossible for them to believe that
judgment could be his last word.
There must be something beyond for
those who remained faithful. The
50

HOSEA.

 

14 Therefore, behold, I will allure
her, and vbring her into the wilder-
ness, and speak !° comfortably unto
her. 15 And I will give her her

vineyards from thence, x
alley of Achor for a door of ee
and she shall sing there, as 1D te
days of her youth, and Pas 1n e

 

 

y Ezek. 20. 35.—10 Heb. to her heart,
or, friendly.

promises of the prophets as found in
their books, including the passage be-
fore us, are no more than one should
expect from men with their lofty
religious conceptions. The possibility
of interpolations may, indeed, not be
denied, but these must be determined
on other grounds than their Messianic
character. Until more convincing
evidence to the contrary is offered we
may safely interpret these verses as
coming from Hosea, and as the nat-
ural continuation of verses 6-13.
14-17. Israel will be restored to the
intimate fellowship with Jehovah en-
joyed in the beginning. Therefore—
In view of the general situation, as
described in verses 2-13. It requires
divine interference. Therefore might,
however, be connected only with the
last clause of verse 13. Because Is-
rael has forgotten me, therefore J—
that the emphasis is on Jehovah’s
efforts is indicated by the use of the
separate pronoun with the verb form
—must reveal myself to her and thus
win her back. Behold, I will—Ac-
cording to G.-K., 116p, the con-
struction points to the immediate
future as the time of fulfillment;
equivalent to J am about to do. Allure
—G. A. Smith, “woo her.”” The verb
is used here in a good sense. What-
ever Jehovah does is done for the
purpose of winning back the faithless
wife. The prophet says nothing about
the means of persuasion; evidently
he has in mind the judgment which
will accomplish that which pleasanter
means have failed to do. Bring her
into the wilderness—The figure is that
of Israel’s early wanderings in the
desert (compare also verse 15). But
the question arises, whether the
prophet has in mind an actual de-
portation into the wilderness, that is,
an exile (Ezek. xx, 35), or whether
the removal into the desert is only a

 

2 Josh. 7. 26; Isa. 65. 10.—* Jer. 2. 25
Ezek. 16. 8, 22, 60.——» Exod. 15. 1.

picture of the complete desolation of
the land, such as is described in verses
6ff. Verses 21-23 and iii, 4, have
sometimes been thought to favor the
first interpretation; the former pas-
sage is ambiguous, the latter is more
readily interpreted as implying an
exile, but even its meaning is not be-
yond question. At any rate, ili, 4,
does not necessarily determine the
interpretation of this verse; verses
6-13 certainly favor the second view.
Speak comfortably unto her—Literally,
speak unto her heart. ‘To every Is-
raelite some of these terms must have
brought back the days of his own
wooing. J will speak home to her
heart is a forcible expression like the
German ‘an das Herz,’ or the sweet
Scottish ‘it com’ up roond my heart,’
and was used in Israel as from man
to woman when he won her” (compare
Isa. xl, 1). With Israel reduced to its
ancient poverty, and through such
reduction persuaded to listen to the
divine voice, a new beginning is to
be made, while Jehovah’s blessings
will fall in abundance.

15. From thence—As soon as Je-
hovah has succeeded in speaking to
her heart, as soon as she has come to
her senses and is ready to appreciate
the intimate relation formerly en-
joyed, she will be led forth from the
wilderness, and immediately upon
leaving—from thence—the vineyards,
which had been taken away (verse
12), will be restored. Valley of Achor
—The place where Achan was stoned
(Josh. vii, 26), meaning “valley of
troubling.” A very disheartening ex-
perience in the early days of the con-
quest. This is to become a door of
hope—The first Israelites entered upon
the conquest of the promised land
with a disheartening experience. Not
so the restored community; the first
experiences will be bright, an earnest
CHAPTER II.

51

 

day when she came up out of the
land of Egypt. 16 And it shall be
at that day, saith the Lorp, that
thou shalt call me !Ishi; and shalt
call me no more !*Baali. 17 For °I

will take away the names of Baalim
out of her mouth, and they shall no
more be remembered by their name.
18 And in that day will I make a
‘covenant for them with the beasts

 

That is, My husband.—-!2 That 1s,
My lord.—-° Exod. 23. 18; Josh. 23. 7;
Psa.16. 4; Zech. 13. 2.

4 Job 5. 23; Isa, 11.6-9; Exek. 34. 25.

 

of the good things to come. Sing—
R. V., ‘make answer.” If the trans-
lation of A. V. is correct the allusion
is probably to the song of triumph
in Exod. xv. That was sung in her
youth—The time of the Exodus (xi,
1). The new Exodus will again fill
her heart with singing. The verb is
literally “answer,” and might be used
of the antiphonal singing (compare
Exod. xv, 21). In this connection
antiphonal singing seems to be out of
place; yet R. V. is to be preferred.
Israel, seeing the renewed mercies of
Jehovah, will respond to the divine
love as formerly. This interpretation
gives an acceptable sense (compare
verses 21, 22), but leaves a grammati-
cal peculiarity. To remove this Buhl
suggests changing one letter of the
verb, so that it will read, ‘‘and she
shall go up thither’’—to the door of
hope—as she did at the time of the
Exodus. .

As a result of this reéstablished
union Israel’s tendency to turn to
the Baalim will be eradicated. This
is the thought of verses 16, 17. It
would remain the thought of 17 even
1f 16 should be an interpolation. The
chief objection to verse 16 Wellhausen
expresses as follows: “Was Jehovah
addressed at any time by Israel as
Baali—my Master? Does Hosea
really hope that instead he will now
be addressed as Jshi—my husband?”
Baali—Originally a common noun,
meaning master, lord, and even hus-
band; as such it might legitimately
be applied to Jehovah. The pres-
ent religious condition in Israel
showed how difficult it was to main-
tain the proper distinction between
Jehovah and the Baalim of the land.
This confusion was increased by the
application of the ambiguous Baal to

 

Jehovah. As Von Orelli says, “In
every age ambiguous language has
helped to distort religion.” In the
regenerated future all religious danger
must be removed, including the ap-
plication of the name Baal, obnoxious
to Jehovah only because of its asso-
ciation with foreign cults. This feel-
ing is also responsible for the change
of proper names such as Ish-baal
(1 Chron. viii, 33; ix, 39) into Ish-
bosheth (2 Sam. ii, 8; iii, 7). Ishi—
My husband, with practically the
same meaning as Baali; it is to be
substituted because it is without un-
pleasant associations. That the
Baalim are to be forgotten is taught
in verse 17; verse 16 is an attempt to
express the same truth in a vivid and
forceful manner, and a literal inter-
pretation need not be pressed. The
objection of Wellhausen, indorsed by
Marti, is therefore not convincing.
The latter weakens the text by emend-
ing it so as to read, “‘And it shall be at
that day, saith Jehovah, that she
shall call to her husband (that is,
Jehovah) and she shall not call to
her Baalim.” At that day—When the
old-time relation becomes reéstab-
lished. The change in person, from
third to second and back to third,
due to emotion and excitement, is
not uncommon in prophetic discourse
(G.-K., 144p). Names of [“the’’]
Baalim—The proper names of the
various Baalim are not known; they
were distinguished from one another
by the addition of the name of their
special locality (ix, 10). Remembered
—Better, with R. V., “mentioned”
(Exod. xxiii, 13; Zech. xiii, 2).

18-23. Picture of the ideal future
to be realized by the restored wife.
Verse 18 speaks of permanent peace,
undisturbed by man and beast. Cove-
52

HOSEA.

 

of the field, and with the fowls of
heaven, and with the creeping things
of the ground: and ¢I will break the
bow and the sword and the battle
out of the earth, and will make them
to ‘lie down safely. 19 And I will

betroth thee unto me for oye
I will betroth thee unto me 1n ne {

eousness, and in judgment, ana in
lovingkindness, and in mercies. 20
I will even betroth thee unto me in
faithfulness: and «thou shalt know

 

e Psa. 46.9; Isa. 2.4; Ezek. 39. 9, 10;
Zech. 9. 10.

nant—Requires two parties, who
take upon themselves mutual obli-
gations; here the emphasis is upon
the obligation laid by Jehovah upon
the beasts to abstain from injuring
men. Beasts of the field—These do
damage to field and crop, and even
to men (ii, 12). For them—For their
good. Fowls [‘‘birds’’}—Must refer
chiefly to birds of prey. Creeping
things—A gain especially those hostile
to man and his possessions. The con-
ditions enjoyed in the Garden of Eden
will be restored. A similar hope is
expressed in Isa. xi, 6-9. Both pas-
sages are to be interpreted as poetic
presentations of the truth that the
regeneration of human society is to
be accompanied by a restoration of
the harmony of creation (Rom. viii,
19-22). That this will be fulfilled in
a broad sense is certainly to be ex-
pected. To what extent a literal ful-
fillment will take place, or whether
the prophet expected a literal ful-
fillment in every detail, is uncertain.
A somewhat different expectation is
expressed in Ezek. xxxiv, 25. Why
the reference to birds and creeping
things should be considered a later
insertion is not clear. Bow ...sword
—The war implements of Israel’s
enemies will be broken; the result
will be a cessation of troublesome
wars. Out of the earth—Better, R. V.,
“Vand,” that is, of Israel. Safely—
Nothing will mar the God-given peace.

Verses 19, 20 describe the complete
restoration of Israel to its former re-
lationship with Jehovah; the new
union will be more permanent and
spiritual. The picture is that of a
pure, inviolable betrothal covenant of
love. The initiative throughout is
taken by Jehovah. Betroth thee—
Repeated three times for emphasis.

 

f Lev. 26. 5; Jer. 23. 6.—-® Jer. 31. 33,
34; John 17. 3.

The former union was_ completely
dissolved by the wife’s adulteries. A
second marriage had to be preceded
by a new betrothal. For ever—Im-
plies a transformation in the bride,
who had broken the former covenant;
she will do so no more (Isa. liv, 8-10;
Ezek. xvi, 60). The attributes enum-
erated form a bond of union between
Israel and Jehovah. That these at-
tach only to Jehovah’s part in the
transaction is not true; they are
rather the ‘future adornment of the
bride through which such a com-
plete and lasting union is brought
about.” Certainly the manifestation
of the same virtues on the part of
Jehovah is implied, since in man
they are only a reflection of the
character of God. It was the lack
of these very virtues that brought
about the break (iv, lff.; v, 11; vi,
4, 5, ete.). Righteousness—Subjec-
tive righteousness; the right state of
mind and heart. Judgment [‘‘jus-
tice’ }-Frequently connected with
the preceding; it marks the objective
side of the same; conduct in accord
with a right attitude of mind and
heart. Loving-kindness—A favorite
word with Hosea; is used to express
(1) the loving attitude of Jehovah to
his people; (2) the loving attitude of
the people toward Jehovah; and
(3) man’s loving attitude toward his
fellows as a reflection of the divine
love. The third idea seems most
prominent here (iv, 1; vi, 4, 6; x, 12;
xii, 6; compare Mic. vi, 8). G. A.
Smith renders “Jeal love,’’ because
the Hebrew words ‘means always
not merely an affection, but a rela-
tion loyally observed.” Mercies—
Compassion for the helpless and un-
deserving. Faithfulness—The same
word is translated in Hab. ii, 4,
CHAPTER IIT.

53

 

the Lorp. 21 And it shall come to
pass in that day, *I will hear, saith
the Lorp, I will hear the heavens,
and they shall hear the earth; 22
And the earth shall hear the corn,
and the wine, and the oil; iand the

shall hear Jezreel. 23 And ‘I will
sow her unto me in the earth; !and
I will have mercy upon her that had

not obtained mercy; and I =will say
to them which were not my people,
Thou art my people; and they shall
say, Thou art my God.

CHAPTER III.
HEN said the Lorp unto me,
2Go yet, love a woman beloved
of her *friend, yet an adulteress, ac-

 

h Zech. 8. 12,1 Chap. 1. 4.— Jer. 31.
27; Zech. 10. 9.—!Chap. 1. 6.

mChap. 1.10; Zech. 13. 9; Rom. 9. 26;
1 Pet. 2. 10. a Chap. 1. 2.—>» Jer. 8. 20.

 

 

“faith” (see comment there). Thou
shalt know Jehovah—In general it
may be said that Hosea and the other
prophets taught that the real secret
of the nation’s sin was an absence of
the true knowledge of Jehovah. On
the other hand, a moral transforma-
tion presupposes a knowledge of Je-
hovah, not purely intellectual, but
based on a living experience. This
latter will be the possession of Israel.
(Compare Methodist Review, July-
August, 1904, pp. 579ff.)

21, 22. Another feature of the fu-
ture blessedness will be the extreme
fertility of the soil (Amos ix, 13;
Joel iii, 18). The promise in these
verses presents a contrast to verses
9, 12, and a continuation of 18a.
When the judgment has done its
work Jehovah will restore prosperity
in a more abundant measure. The
thought is expressed very beautifully
under the picture of perfect harmony
between the physical and spiritual
spheres. Jehovah wil! no longer
restrain the powers of nature from
doing their work for the blessing of
Israel. “Israel asks its plants to
germinate; they call upon the earth
for its juices; the earth beseeches
heaven for rain; heaven supplicates
for the divine word which opens its
stores, and Jehovah responds in faith-
ful love.’ Hear—Better, R. V.,
“answer,” or “respond,” as the call
comes. The curse threatened in 9ff.
is removed. Jezreel—Used in i, 4,
for its historical associations; here on
account of its meaning, God sows.
Why the name is applied to Israel is
shown in verse 23: I will sow—Estab-
lish permanently. In the earth—As

 

in verse 18, better, ‘land.”” Unto me
—Not untothe Baalim. Thus the first
name symbolic of doom (i, 4) is trans-
formed into one of promise. The same
will take place with the others. Lo-
ruhamah (i, 6) will again experience
the divine favor and mercy;. and
Lo-ammi (i, 9) will again become
the people of God. This transforma-
tion in fortune is not wrought arbi-
trarily; it is based upon the inner
transformation described in verses
19, 20. Thou art my God—Forever
they are cured from running after
the Baalim; Jehovah alone they will
recognize as their God.

CHAPTER III.

RESTORATION OF THE Outcast WIFE
AND OF THE OvuTcasT Prop.e, 1-5.
In the introductory remarks to ii,

9-23, it was stated that chapter ili

is the natural continuation of i, 1-9;

it is so, however, not in the sense that

the events recorded in iii, 1ff., fol-
lowed immediately upon the birth of

Lo-ammi (i, 9), for in chapter i noth-

ing is said about the departure of

Gomer from the house of Hosea,

which is presupposed in iii, 1. The

connecting link is easily supplied.

Gomer is thought to have fled from

her husband’s home, evidently to de-

vote herself more freely to her shame-
ful practices; verse 2 seems to imply
that she had become the slave-con-
cubine of another. Impelled by love
and a divine impulse the prophet pro-
ceeds to buy her back.

1. Go yet [“again’’}—Connects this
command with the one in i, 2 (Zech.

i, 17; xi, -15). Love—As verse 2
54

HOSEA.

—_—

 

cording to the love of the Lorp
toward the children of Israel, who
look to other gods, and love flag-

ons lof wine. 2 So I bought her to
me for fifteen pieces of silver, and i of
an homer of barley, and an *ha

 

1 Heb. of grapes. —2 Heb. lethech.

 

shows, practically equivalent 1o take
a wife (@, 2); the verb is selected be-
cause the emphasis throughout is upon
the love of Jehovah, and to indicate
the character of the new union. By
his love the prophet is to overcome
the evil tendencies. A woman—The
symbolism, the form of expression,
and every other consideration make
it certain that this woman is Gomer.
Were it another the symbolic act
would suggest that Jehovah was about
to select another spouse in the place
of Israel, which is contrary to the
thought of Hosea. Beloved of her
friend—Or simply, of another. Though
she is fickle, and readily accepts the
love of another, the prophet is to take
her back. LXX. reads the active
participle “loving,”’ which gives good
sense; but evil for a friend is no im-
provement. Adulteress—Such she
had become by allowing others to
bestow their love upon her. The
task imposed upon the prophet was
indeed great. According to the love of
Jehovah toward [‘‘even as Jehovah lov-
eth’’]the children of Israel—The proph-
et forgave his faithless wife because
Jehovah forgave his faithless spouse,
Israel; the attitude of Jehovah taught
the prophet his own dutyin the matter.
It is undoubtedly equally true that
his own domestic experience enabled
Hosea to understand more completely
the attitude of Jehovah to his people,
an attitude of intense love, though
they look to other gods—That is, the
Baalim (ii, 5, 13). Flagons of wine—
More correctly, R. V., “cakes of
raisins”; literally, of (dried) grapes.
These are loved not by the gods, but
by the Israelites. The reference is to
cakes used in connection with the
sacrifices (Jer. vii, 18), partly as
offerings to the deity and partly in
the feasts accompanying some of the
sacrifices. Of this luxury the Israel-
ites were fond; this fondness is used

 

here as illustrating their love for
things connected with the worship of
the Baalim.

2. The command is carried out. I
bought her—The woman described in
verse 1. Why he had to buy her back
is not stated, nor is it quite clear. It
may have been simply to avoid an
altercation with the paramour, or be-
cause she had become a slave. Pusey
and others suggest that the verb does
not imply purchase, but refers to
some arrangement on the part of the
prophet to provide for the temporary
maintenance—until he might restore
her to wifehood—of Gomer, whom he
found in destitute circumstances,
though not in the possession of
another. This explanation would re-
move the necessity of assuming that
Gomer had become a slave; it would
make natural also the mention of
barley, which would serve as food,
while the money was to supply other
necessities. It is doubtful, however,
that such meaning can be assigned to
the verb translated J bought; it is
better to retain the common ren-
dering. Fifteen pieces (or, shekels) of
silver—A shekel of silver is equivalent
to about sixty cents; the entire amount
being about nine dollars. Homer of
barley—According to Ezek. xlv, 11,
the homer contains ten ephahs or
baths (but compare Exod. xvi, 36);
of the bath two calculations have
been handed down: that of the rabbis,
ascribing to it a capacity of 21.26
quarts, and that of Josephus, who
makes it equivalent to 40.62 quarts.
The homer would contain ten times
that amount. Half homer—Heb.
lethekh. A measure not otherwise
known; Hebrew tradition makes it
equivalent to a half homer. - LXX.
renders, “a bottle of wine,” which is
accepted by some moderns as original.
Admitting the correctness of the
Hebrew, Hosea would have paid one
CHAPTER III.

55

 

homer of barley: 3 And I said unto
her, Thou shalt cabide for me many
days; thou shalt not play the harlot,
and thou shalt not be for another
man: so will I also be for thee. 4

For the children of Israel shall abide
many days ‘without a king, and
without a prince, and without a
sacrifice, and without ‘an image,
and without an -ephod, and without

 

© Deut. 21, 13.—4 Chap. 10. 3,—3 Heb.
a standing, or, statue, or, pillar, Isa. 19.19.

° Exod. 28. 6.

 

homer and a half of barley in addition
to the fifteen shekels of silver. The
money value of the barley it is diffi-
cult to determine. 2 Kings vii, 18,
helps but little, since the price stated
there is not the normal price. If we
assume that the ordinary rate was
three seahs for one shekel, one homer
and a half—forty-five seahs—would
cost approximately fifteen shekels;
that added to fifteen shekels paid
cash would make thirty shekels—ac-
cording to Exod. xxi,‘32, the value of
a slave. Why Hosea paid partly in
barley and partly in cash we do not
know.

3. Gomer cannot be immediately
restored to her full privileges as wife.
Abide—Remain inactive; in what
sense the latter part of the verse
states. For me—As my possession.
Many days—Until the prophet shall
feel assured that he may safely re-
store her to her full privileges. Shalt
not play the harlot—Living in seclu-
sion, she is to discontinue her shame-
ful career. Not be for another man
[“any man’s wife’}—The preceding
expression points to the cessation of
illegitimate intercourse, but even the
legitimate conjugal intercourse is not
to be resumed for a while. So will I
also be for [“toward”’] thee—He will
abstain from all intercourse and yet
remain loyal to Gomer during the
probationary period. That this is the
meaning seems evident, though a
slight alteration may have to be
made to get it from the original.

For the prophet’s purpose it is not
necessary to describe further his do-
mestic experience; he turns imme-
diately, verse 4, to the application of
the experience described in verse 3.
As the reclaimed Gomer must pass
through a probationary period, in
which she is compelled to abstain

 

even from legitimate pleasures before
she is restored to complete favor, so
Israel must pass through a long period
of seclusion, when she will be deprived
of all her religious and civil institu-
tions, before she can enjoy the bless-
ings of Jehovah pictured in ii, 15ff.
Children of Israel—The northern king-
dom, to which Hosea primarily ad-
dresses himself. Abide—Remain in-
active so far as national activities are
concerned: The things enumerated
are those thought essential to the
nation’s life; their withdrawal will be
a serious loss. King—The secular as
well as the religious head of the na-
tion. Prince—During the period of
the monarchy the term designates all
civil and military officers, not only
members of the royal family. Sacri-
fice—In the popular conception bring-
ing of sacrifices covered almost all
religious requirements; the inability
to bring them would appear a very
serious loss to the people. For the
prophet’s estimate see vi, 6. This
threat seems to imply the expectation
of an exile; in a foreign and unclean
land sacrifices might not be offered
(ix, 4). Image [“pillar’}—See on
Mie. v, 13. Ephod—This term seems
to be used in the Old Testament with
two distinct meanings. In Exod.
xxviii, 6-14, is described the high
priest’s ephod or garment; in many
passages this is the meaning of the
word. There are other passages, how~
ever, where this meaning seems un-
suitable; for example, Judg. viii,
24-27. The root meaning of the
word is generally thought to be to
cover, to overlay. From this it has
been inferred that in some passages
the ephod is an image of Jehovah
overlaid with silver and gold (Judg.
viii, 24-27; xvii, 5; 1 Sam. xxi, 10;
xxiii, 6, etc.). This would give ac-
56

HOSEA.

 

fteraphim: § Afterward shall the
children of Israel return, and «seek
the Lorp their God, and David
their king; and shall fear the Lorp

{ Judg. 17. 5.—-=# Jer. 50. 4, 5; chap. 5.6.
— Jer. 30.9; Ezek. 34. 23, 24; 37. 22, 24.

ceptable sense here. Whatever its
exact form, it was undoubtedly
something used in connection with
the consulting of the oracle. (See
article “Ephod” in Hastings’s
Dictionary of the Bible.) The state-
ment does not necessarily imply that
Hosea regarded the ephod as valuable,
or that he considered its removal a
serious loss. He puts himself in the
place of the people; they would con-
sider the loss of all these things a
serious calamity. Teraphim—Another
uncertain word. That they were
idols is clear from Gen. xxxi, 19, 30;
xxxv, 2-4; Judg. xvii, 5, ete. Some-
times they must have been of con-
siderable size (1 Sam. xix, 13-16).
It is generally thought that they were
household gods, and as such they
have been compared with the Roman
lares and penates. Whether they can
be regarded as household deities ex-
clusively must remain uncertain in
view of Ezek. xxi, 21. That they
were the images of ancestors and
that they prove the prevalence of
ancestor worship in Israel is more
than can be naturally inferred from
the Old Testament references. Dr.
Foote, after careful investigation, con-
cludes that the ephod is a pouch used
in connection with the giving of
oracles, while the teraphim are the
lots used for determining the oracles.

5. The judgment will bring the

people to their senses and prepare

them for intimate fellowship with
Jehovah. Afterward—After the judg-
ment has exercised its salutary effect.
Return, and seek—Not necessarily
from exile. The construction is the
same as that in ii, 9, where R. V.
renders “take back”; here equivalent
to seek again—Cured from apostasy,
they will return from following the
Baalim and seek Jehovah. Him,
and him alone, will they recognize

 

and his goodness in the ‘latter days.

| | CHAPTER IV.
EAR the word of the LoRD, ye
i Isa. 2. 2; Jer. 30, 24; Ezek. 38. 8, 16;
Dan. 2. 28; Mic. 4. 1.

as their God. David their king—See
Introduction, p. 34. Shall fear {come
with fear unto”] Jehovah—The same
verb is translated “shall thrill,” that
is, with joyous emotion, in Isa. lx, 5
(compare Jer. xxxiii, 9; Hos. xi, 11);
that seems to be the thought here:
they will approach Jehovah trembling
with joyful anticipation, though a
sense of fear is not absent when they
think of their former sinfulness. His
goodness—As manifested in the res-
toration of the gifts withdrawn, in
his readiness to forgive, and in the
pouring out of countless blessings
in which the Messianic age abounds
(ii 21, 22; Amos ix, 11ff.; Jer. xxxi,
11-13, etc.). In the latter days—See
on Mie. iv, 1.

CHAPTER IV.

AwruL ConDITION oF THE PEOPLE
Due to a Lack or THE Knowt-
EDGE OF JEHOVAH, FOR wHIcH Lack
THE PRIESTS ARE RESPONSIBLE,
1-19.

With chapter iv opens the second
main division of the Book of Hosea
(iv-xiv). No definite plan of ar-
rangement can be traced, though
fresh beginnings may be recognized
in iv, 1; v, 1; ix, 1; xi, 12 (xii, 1, in
the Hebrew); xiii, 1; xiv, 1. The
section as a whole may be taken to
represent Hosea’s teaching after the
death of Jeroboam II. Throughout
the first few chapters the emphasis is
upon the people’s guilt. This is the
predominant note in chapter iv. In
the first part (verses 1-10) the moral
corruption in everyday life receives
special condemnation, in 11-19 the
moral corruption seen in the religious
cult. Both sections close with an-
nouncements of judgment (9, 10, 19).
At the same time the prophet accuses
the priests as responsible for the
CHAPTER IV.

57

 

children of Israel: for the Lorp
hath a “controversy with the inhab-
itants of the land, because there is
no truth, nor mercy, nor *knowledge
of God in the land. 2 By swearing,
and lying, and killing, and stealing,
and committing adultery, they
break out, and ‘blood toucheth

blood 3 Therefore ‘shall the land
mourn, and ‘every one that dwelleth
therein shall languish, with the
beasts of the field, and with the
fowls of heaven; yea, the fishes of
the sea also shall be taken away.
4 Yet let no man strive, nor
reprove another: for thy people

 

# Isa. 1. 18; 3. 13, 14; Jer. 25. 31; chap.
12. 3; Mic. 6. 2——b Jer. 4. 22; 5.4,

 

1 Heb. bloods.—<iJer. 4. 28; 12.4; Amos
5. 16; 8. . 1. 3.

6; 8. 8.—4 Zeph.

 

lamentable conditions (especially 4-8) ;
they have failed to instruct the peo-
ple in the law of Jehovah.

1-8. The moral corruption in every-
day life. Hear—The prophet sol-
emnly summons Israel. to listen to
the accusation he brings in the name
of Jehovah. Jehovah hath a con-
troversy—Jehovah is both plaintiff
and judge (Isa. i, 2; compare Hos.
xii, 2; Mic. vi, 2). He is proceeding
against the people because their life
and conduct are contrary to his will.
All virtue and godliness have dis-
appeared. Truth—Truthfulness and
fidelity in their transactions. The
lack of it is due to the want of mercy
[“‘goodness”}—The same word is
translated in ii, 19, “loving-kindness” ;
it is used here in the same sense as
there (see on ii, 19). The lack of love
in turn is due to the absence of the
knowledge of God—See on ii, 20 (com-
pare iv, 6; v, 4; vi, 3, etc.). Note that
Hosea does not say Jehovah; truthful-
ness and kindness are universally rec-
ognized virtues, not confined to the
worshipers of Jehovah. Verse 2 shows
what is found in Israel in the place of
virtue. By swearing—Better, with
R. V., “There is naught but swear-
ing.” Lying—R. V., “Breaking faith”
—The two expressions are closely
connected; oaths are taken lightly
and broken easily; the two combined
are almost equivalent to false swear-
ing or perjury (x, 4), the opposite of
truthfulness (verse 1). Perjury,
murder, theft, and adultery, all
caused by the absence of loving-
kindness (verse 1), are common; the
ninth, sixth, eighth, and seventh
commandments are thus_ broken.
They break out—lInto acts of violence.

 

Blood—Bloody, violent deeds (G.- K.,
124n)—toucheth blood—One bloody
deed follows closely upon another.

8. As a result the land is suffering
a terrible calamity. Shall... mourn
—The Hebrew tenses might be ren-
dered as futures announcing calamity
to come (so E. V.); it is more prob-
able, however, that the prophet is
thinking of a present calamity,
future judgments being announced
later in the chapter. The verbs should
therefore be rendered, in perfect ac-
cord with the Hebrew grammar, does
mourn, does languish, are taken away.
The calamity seems to be a drought,
from which men and beasts suffer.
The last clause shows the extent of
the drought. The sea—When the
large bodies of water dry up the rivers
and lakes do the same; then the fishes
can live no more. Taken away—
Perish (Isa. xvi, 10; 1x, 20, etc.).

The religious leaders are chiefly re-
sponsible for the sins of the people,
4-8.

Verse 4, as it stands ‘now, offers
considerable difficulties to the in-
terpreter, and has been variously ex-
plained. Yet let no man strive...
reprove—In 1-3 the prophet has con-
demned the people, in 5ff. he accuses
the priests; with these facts in mind
we must seek for an interpretation of
4. The verse seems to mark the
transition between the two sections.
It is best interpreted as the utterance
of the prophet, in a sense defending
the people, who are to be pitied
more than blamed. The words ap-
pear to be addressed partly to the
speaker himself, the prophet, as if
he desired to correct the harsh judg-
 

58 HOSEA.
are as they that strive with|also shall fall with thee in the
the priest. 5 Therefore shalt thou|night, and I will

fall ‘in the day, and the prophet

2destroy thy
mother.

 

e Deut. 17. 12.—f See Jer. 6. 4, 5; 15. 8.

2 Heb. cut off.

 

ment uttered in 1, 2, partly to the
people, who in the presence of the
serious calamity described in 3 would
accuse one another of being respon-
sible for it. In the latter part of 4 he
begins to point out where the real
trouble lies. Thy people are as they
that strive with the Priest—lIf this is
the original reading the suggested in-
terpretation of 4a cannot be correct,
for here the people are again severely
condemned. Following the present
text, Henderson and others interpret
the verse as meaning that the striving
among the people is ordered by Je-
hovah to cease since “all reproof on
the part of their friends and neigh-
bors generally would prove fruitless,
seeing they had reached a degree of
hardihood which was equalled by the
contumacy of those who refused to
obey the priest when he gave judg-
ments in the name of the Lord (Deut.
xvii, 12).” A similar comparison is
found in v, 10. Others interpret 4a
as spoken by the people, who are out
of patience with the prophet and de-
sire his denunciations and rebukes to
cease; for this they are condemned by
the prophet in 4b. There are serious
doubts, however, concerning the ac-
curacy of the text cf 4b. (1) In verse
6 the priests are addressed; 5 is most
naturally interpreted as addressed to
the same. If so, it is strange that in
or preceding 5 the priests are not
mentioned as being addressed di-
rectly. (2) In view of the fierce de-
nunciation of the priesthood in verse
6, would it not seem strange in Hosea
to demand of the people obedience
to priestly instruction, and that he
should consider disobedience the
limit of transgression? The trouble
was that the people followed the ex-
ample and instruction of the priests
too willingly. (3) Hosea opposed the
priests more vehemently than anyone
else in the nation, Is it natural to

 

suppose that he should hold up his
own prophetic attitude as the cul-
mination of apostasy? To relieve the
difficulty various emendations have
been suggested, all based more or less
upon the unvocalized text and upon
LXX. The most acceptable of these
seems that of Beck, followed by G. A.
Smith and others: “For my people
are as their priestlings. O priest
eaidue Verse 4 and the opening
words of verse 5 would then read,
“Let none find fault and none up-
braid, for my people are but as their
priestlings. O priest, thou shalt
stumble... .”’ This emendation re-
quires but slight alterations in the
consonantal text.

From the people (4a), for whom
the prophet has great sympathy, he
turns to denounce the religious leaders
(4b ff.). On priestlings, see on x, 5.
Marti rejects 5, 6a as “foreign to the
original context,” but his reasons are
not convincing. Fall—R. V., “stum-
ble.” Not with reference to sin, but
punishment; equivalent to perish
(xiv, 1). In the day ... night—Both
day and night; at all times. The
night is mentioned with the prophet,
since dreams and night visions (Num.
xii, 6; Zech. i, 8) form a very im-
portant means of prophetic revela-
tion; the priest’s work is chiefly in
the daytime. Prophet—Not spirit-
ually minded prophets like Amos and
Hosea, nor prophets of foreign deities,
but mercenary prophets, who prophe-
sied from low, selfish motives (Mic.
ili, 11; compare Amos vii, 12; 1 Kings
xxii, 6; Isa. xxviii, 7). Prophets and
priests who have become misleaders
shall fall together. Thy mother—In
ii, 2, where the Israelites are ad-
dressed, the whole nation. In Psa.
exlix, 2, the inhabitants of Jerusalem
are called children of Zion (compare
2 Sam. xx, 19). In these passages the
mother is the nation or city, of which
CHAPTER Iv.

59

 

6 «My people are ‘destroyed for
lack of knowledge: because thou
hast rejected knowledge, I will also

reject thee, that thou shalt be no
priest to me: seeing thou hast for-
gotten the law of thy God, I will also

 

e Isa. 5. 13.—% Heb. cut off.

 

the inhabitants are the children. The
priests who are here addressed are
the constituent parts of the priestly
order; the individual priests might be
called its children; thy mother is there-
fore probably the priestly order or
guild.

Verse 6 continues the condemnation
of the priests. My people are de-
stroyed—A prophetic perfect. The
event is still future, but the prophet
is so sure of its occurrence that he
pictures it as already present. The
people must suffer for their sins,
though these are due largely to the
neglectfulness of priest and prophet.
For lack of knowledge—Of Jehovah;
the secret of the people’s sinfulness.
For this lack the priests are respon-
sible (see on ii, 20). Thou—The
priest; the pronoun is emphatic in
Hebrew. Knowledge—Has the ar-
ticle in Hebrew; a specific kind of
knowledge, of Jehovah and his will,
of which the priests were the cus-
todians (Ezek. xliv, 23). Rejected—
They have failed to be guided by it
and to give proper instruction in it.
Jehovah can use them no longer;
they shall cease to be his priests.
The latter part of verse 6 repeats the
thought for the sake of emphasis.
Forgotten . . . forget—Practically
equivalent to reject; for as Jehovah's
knowing has an ethical aspect (see on
Amos ili, 2), so his forgetting. Law of
thy God—Parallel with knowledge in
the first part. The law supplies the
knowledge. That written laws ex-
isted in Hosea’s time is beyond doubt
(viii, 12); but the term law (Heb.
térah) in prophetic literature is not
limited to written law or to law in the
narrowsense of that term; frequently it
is synonymous with word (Isa. i, 10; ii,
3), wherein margin R. V it is rendered
“teaching,” or “instruction.” Like
many theological terms, the word has
a history, and ix the course of that

 

history it did not retain at all times
the same meaning. In the postexilic
period it became the technical term
for the Five Books of Moses, or Penta-
teuch. From the occurrence of the
word in various Old Testament books
it has been assumed that this fact in
itself proves conclusively the existence
of the Pentateuch in complete written
form at the time these books were
written. If law and Pentateuch were
always identical this would be valid
reasoning, but there are many pas-
sages throughout the Old Testament
in which the word does not refer to
the Pentateuch. The noun comes
probably—though this is questioned
by some—from a verb to throw, that is,
arrows; it is used also of the casting
of lots. The casting of lots was one
primitive way of determining the will
of the deity (Ezek. xxi, 21). From
this usage of the verb the noun re-
ceived its primary significance: every
kind of instruction received from the
deity by the casting of the lot. When
a higher stage of communion with
God was attained the noun came to
denote every revelation received from
God by prophet or priest, whatever the
means of communication. When these
expressions of the divine will were col-
lected and put in writing, at first
probably in small collections, the sep-
arate items and the entire collection
were called Térah—Law. At this
stage the term came to be restricted
to legal requirements. Only in a
more advanced stage, when it was
seen that practically all Hebrew law
was contained in the Pentateuch, the
term was employed to designate that
group of books. (Compare Journal of
Biblical Literature, xxiv, part i, pp.
1-16.) The significance of the word
in any given passage must. be deter-
mined very largely from the context.
Here it is used of written law
as well as of instruction otherwise
60

HOSEA.

 

forget thy children. 7 »As_ they
were increased, so they sinned
against me: itherefore will I change
their glory into shame. 8 They
eat up the sin of my people, and
they ‘set their heart on their ini-

quity. 9 And there shall be, ‘like
people, like priest: and I will spunish
them for their ways, and ‘reward
them their doings. 10 For ‘they
shall eat, and not have enough:
they shall commit whoredom, and

 

h Chap. 13. 6.—i 1 Sam. 2. 30; Mal. 2.
9; Phil. 3. 19.—4 Heb. lift up their soul
to thetr iniquity.—* Isa. 24. 2; Jer. 5. 31.

5 Heb. visit upon. Heb. cause to
return.—! Lev. 26. 26; Mic. 6. 14; Hag.
1. 6.

 

received and given. Thy children—
The individual members of the priestly
guild (verse 5).

7. They—The priests. Were in-
creased [‘‘multiplied” }-Not only in
numbers, but also in wealth and
prosperity, sharing in the glories of
the successful reign of Jeroboam II.
They sinned against me—Prosperity
led to moral and religious corruption
among the people; the priests instead
of stemming the tide of worldliness
were carried away by it, and
rather encouraged it (verse 8; com-
pare Mic. iii, 11). Change their glory
into shame—From their honorable
position as representatives of Jehovah
they will be cast into shame and deg-
radation. In verses 5 and 6 the
description of sin is followed by an-
nouncement of judgment; this is also
the order in verse 7 and gives accept-
able sense; emendations therefore
seem unnecessary. It should be
noted, however, that Targum and
Peshitto appear to have read “they
have changed” instead of “I will
change.” That would be an addi-
tional description of the priests’ cor-
ruption; they have exchanged the
glory which was theirs as priests of
the true God for the degrading posi-
tion of priests of the Baalim—not in
name, perhaps, but in deed Ancient
Jewish tradition recognizes this as a
more accurate text but goes further,
declaring that “their glory” was orig-
inally ‘my glory’; that is, they have
exchanged the glory of Jehovah for
the shameful service of the Baalim.
All three readings give satisfactory
sense; and in view of the conflicting
testimony it may be impossible to
say with certainty which is the orig-
inal,

 

Verse 8 continues the condemnation
of the priests. Their holy office they
use for selfish and mean ends. They
eat up the sin of my people—Better,
with R. V., “They feed on the sin of
my people.” It is not necessary to
translate sin offering for “sin”; and
the question whether sin offering, in
the technical sense of the term, was
known in the days of Hosea cannot
be determined from this passage; it
is quite possible that it did exist. In
a general sense all offerings may be
called sin offerings. The thought is
that “the more the people sin the
more merrily thrive the priests”; for
they receive a share of nearly all the
offerings (1 Sam. ii, 13-17). They
(the priests) set their heart—Literally
every one his heart. The expression
means to cherish a longing for, and
thus to encourage (Deut. xxiv, 15;
Psa. xxiv, 4). Their—The people’s.

9, 10. The judgment to fall upon
priest and people alike. And there
[it] shall be, like people, like priest
—Priest and people shall perish alike.
The fact that the former enjoys in his
official capacity special nearness to
Jehovah will not save him. This in-
terpretation, which brings out the
meaning of the Hebrew most nat-.
urally, is preferable to that which
sees in these words a summing up of
the preceding accusations and makes
the next clause the beginning of the
threat. Having made the general an-
nouncement of judgment, the prophet
proceeds to describe in detail its
character. Them—Hebrew, singular,
the priest, that is, the priestly class;
so throughout this section. The cor-
rupt priests will be dealt with accord-
ing to their deserts. The retribution
is according to the lex talionis; the
CHAPTER IV.

61

 

shall not increase: because they
have left off to take heed to the
Lorp. 11 Whoredom and wine and
new wine take away the heart.
12 My people ask counsel at their

sstocks, and their staff declareth
unto them: for °the spirit of whore-
doms hath caused them to err, and
they have gone a whoring from
under their God. 13 »They sacrifice

 

 

m Isa. 28, 7; see Eccl. 7. 7. n Jer. 2.27;

Hab. 2. 19

o Isa. 44. 20; chap. 5. 4.—pIsa, 1. 29;
57. 5, 7; Ezek. 6. 13; 20, 28.

 

unholy greed will be punished with
insufficiency of food (Lev. xxvi, 16;
Mic. vi, 14). They shall... not have
enough—Referring back to verse 8.
Commit whoredom—To be under-
stood not as in chapters i-ili ina sym-
bolic sense, but as in verses 11, 13, 14,
literally. This interpretation is sup-
ported by the character of the judg-
ment threatened. They... shall not
increase—They will be cursed with
childlessness. Jehovah will withdraw
his blessings because they, probably
both priest and people, have left off
to take [‘‘taking”] heed—Had no
regard for Jehovah or for his
will

11-14. The religious corruption. In
verses 1, 2 the prophet emphasizes
moral corruption. here religious im-
purities, though the latter are not
and cannot be separated entirely
from the former. The section begins
with what may be a proverb express-
ing the thought that sin blinds the
spiritual faculties (Isa. v, 12; compare
Joel i, 5). 11. Whoredom—The jux-
taposition of the word with wine shows
that it is to be interpreted literally.
Wine... new wine—The former is a
general term; on the latter see on Joel
i, 5, 10. Heart [‘‘understanding”’}—
See on Joel ii, 12. The weakening of
the understanding manifests itself in
the conduct described in the following
verses. 12. Stocks—Literally, wood,
or tree. May refer (1), as in Hab. ii,
19; Jer. ii, 27; x, 8, to idolatrous
images; or (2) to images thought to
represent Jehovah, such as the calves
at Beth-el and Dan (viii, 4, 5); or
(3) to tree cult, which survived for
some time in Israel (verse 13; com-
pare Isa. i, 29-31) and which is not
unknown to-day (S. I. Curtis, Prim-
itive Semitic Religions To-day, pp.
90ff.); or (4) to rabdomancy (see next

 

clause), practiced among the Semites,
the Scythians, the Germans, and
other ancient nations. (8) is the
most probable. Ask counsel—Consult
through the oracle the divine will con-
cerning proposed undertakings. The
oracle of Jehovah alone was legitimate,
and was frequently consulted (2 Sam.
ii, 1; Judg. i, 1); but the contempor-
aries of Hosea were using illegitimate
means. Their staff declareth unto
them—Upon staves they depend for
divine direction. Marti sees here also
a reference to tree cult; the staff he
takes to mean a small sacred tree or
the branch of a tree. Most commen-
tators think that the prophet has in
mind rabdomancy. Cyril of Alex-
andria calls this practice an invention
of the Chaldeans; he describes the
method of procedure as follows: Two
staves were held upright, and while
incantations were murmured over
them they were allowed to fall; the
oracle was determined from the direc-
tion in which the staves fell, whether
forward or backward, to the right or
to the left (Ezek. xxi, 21). These
practices are inspired by the spirit of
whoredoms—The impulse to practice
whoredom which had taken posses-
sion of the people (Zech. xiii, 2). 12b
reads literally, They have played the
harlot from under their God; they
played the harlot, and thus freed
themselves from the control of Je-
hovah. The expression is not quite
the same as that ini, 2. In this verse
also, as in 11, 13, 14, the expression
might, perhaps, be understood in a
literal sense, the immoralities and
the spiritual apostasy were closely
connected, but many commentators
interpret verse 12 as referring to
spiritual whoredom.

Verse 13 describes in greater detail
the religious corruption. Tops of the
62

HOSEA.

 

upon the tops of the mountains, and
burn incense upon the hills, under
oaks and poplars and elms, because
the shadow thereof is good: sthere-

a Amos 7. 17; Rom. 1. 28.

mountains . . . hills—Natural or arti-
ficial elevations were favorite spots
for the erection of altars and sanc-
tuaries; hence the designation high
place for the local sanctuaries (Amos
vii, 9; 1 Sam. ix, 12, etc. See ar-
ticle “High Place” in Hastings’s Dic-
tionary of the Bible). Burn incense—
See on ii, 13. Oaks... poplars...
elms [‘‘terebinths’”}—Probably a sur-
vival of tree worship, though the next
clause would seem to indicate that
the places under these trees were se-
lected on account of the shade (see on
verse 12 and reference there). The
trees mentioned are the most stately
in Palestine, and would therefore re-
ceive special attention. The oaks
flourished especially east of the Jor-
dan, where they are still found.
Tristram describes one thirty-seven
feet in circumference with foliage
having a circumference of ninety-one
yards. The terebinth is frequently
mentioned as a sacred tree. It grows
in Palestine to a height of fifteen to
twenty feet. Now the tree is com-
paratively rare west of the Jordan;
there are still fine specimens in the
territory of Moab. The poplar, liter-
ally, white tree, is mentioned only
twice in the Old Testament, here and
in Gen. xxx, 37. Someommentators
identify it with the storazx tree, chiefly
because of the similarity between the
Hebrew and the Arabic names. An
objection to the view that this is the
tree-in the mind of Hosea is the fact
that the storax is ‘nothing more than
a very bushy shrub, rarely more than
twelve feet in height, and neither from
its size nor from its form would it be
selected as a tree under the shadow
of which sacrifices or incense might be
offered.” More likely the prophet has
in mind the white poplar, which Tris-
tram says he saw in various parts of
Galilee, of the Lebanon, and of Mount

 

fore your daughters shall commit
whoredom, and your spouses shall
commit adultery. 14 71 will not
punish your daughters when they

7 Or, Shall I not, etc.

Hermon. The shadow thereof is good
—The shade made these spots desir-
able; if the prophet thinks of tree
cult, the thought may be implied
that from these trees went out special
virtue and power. Therefore—Be-
cause of the conditions described in
11-13a; it introduces the reference to
punishment in 14; 13b is a subordinate
clause; 13b and 14a might be trans-
lated, “Therefore, though your daugh-
ters play the harlot . . . commit adul-
tery, 1 will not punish your daughters.
. . -’ This removes the difficulty
felt by some commentators concern-
ing the loose connection betwéen
13a and 13b. The pronominal suf-
fixes of the second person in 13b and

14a are peculiar, since the spersoris “a
addressed there are in 14b referred to ©
in the third person. Marti proposes
to change all the suffixes into the
third person. To do this, or to change
the third into the second, would result
in a smoother reading. Commit
whoredom [play the harlot’’?}-The
context makes it clear that the im-
moralities are those connected with
the religious cult; they had crept
from the Canaanitish religion into
that of Israel. Originally there was
probably behind the giving up
of chastity in honor of the deity the
desire to offer the most precious pos-
session, but this motive was soon for-
gotten. In the worship of Jehovah
these practices were out of place; and
had the people known him they would
have understood that they were an
abomination to him. Spouses—R. V.,
“brides” ; margin, “daughters-in-law”’;
designation of a young wife; here in
general, wives.

14. Their shameful acts cannot be
justified, but Jehovah knows that the
chief fault is not with them; therefore
the heaviest punishment will not fall
upon the daughters and wives, but
CHAPTER IV.

63

 

commit whoredom, nor your spouses
when they commit adultery: for
themselves. are separated with
whores, and ey sacrifice with har-
lots: therefore the people that ‘doth
not understand shall fall.

15 Though thou, Israel, play the
harlot, yet let not Judah offend;
sand come not ye unto Gilgal,
neither go ye up to ‘Beth-aven, "nor
swear, The Lorp liveth. 16 For
Israel xslideth back as a backsliding

 

t Verses 1, 6.—§ Or,

be punished.
s Chap. 9. vase

15; 12. 11; Amos 4. 4; 5. 5.

t1 Kings 12. 29; chap. 10. 5.
8. 14; Zeph. 1,
Zech. 7. 11.

 

u Amos
5.—* Jer, 3.6; 7. 24; 8. 5;

 

upon those leading them astray by their
wicked example. Themselves [“they’”’]
—The fathers and husbands. Harlots
[‘‘prostitutes’’}—Literally, the conse-
crated ones (Deut. xxiii, 17, 18); that
is, women who are consecrated or
consecrate themselves to a life of
shame in honor of the deity. (See
article “Harlot” in Hastings’s Dic-
tionary of the Bible.) On the solemn
occasion of sacrifice licentiousness is
permitted to have full sway. The
rest of the verse is, according to the
English translations, an announce-
ment of judgment; because of their
corrupt condition the unthinking peo-
ple shall be overthrown. It is prefer-
able, however, to regard the words as
expressing the result of the wicked-
ness of the fathers and husbands, who
would be looked upon as leaders;
‘‘And so the people that does not con-
sider goes to its ruin.” That doth not
understand—Those who do not think
for themselves. Daughters are apt to
imitate the fathers, wives the hus-
bands. Shall fall—Or, go toruin. Not
through a judgment to come; their
present immoralities are their ruin.
Verse 16 continues the description
of the corrupt condition. Between 14
and 16 stands a verse containing an
appeal to Judah to take warning and
abstain from Israel’s transgressions.
The originality of this verse is ques-
tioned by many on the same grounds
as those mentioned in connection with
i, 7. Others question the originality
of 15a, referring 15b to Israel (com-
pare Amos iv, 4; v, 5); but if any is
denied to Hosea it should probably
be the whole verse. As the verse
stands at present the thought is that,
if Israel ig determined to continue in
its apostasy, Judah ought to refuse to
participate in its corrupt practices.

 

Play the harlot—If original, the con-
text favors a literal interpretation; if
secondary, it is quite likely that
spiritual harlotry is meant. Offend—
Better, with R. V. margin, “become
guilty,” by participating in the whore-
dom. Whether spiritual or physical,
this was committed at the sanctuaries
(18, 14); therefore Judah is admon-
ished to remain away from them.
Gilgal—See on Amosivy, 4. Beth-aven
—The name of a place southeast of
Beth-el (Josh. vii, 2; 1 Sam. xiii, 5);
but Amos iv, 4; v, 5, make it more
than probable that the prophet is
thinking of Beth-el, the chief sanc-
tuary of the northern kingdom. Its
name means house of God; it is such no
longer; therefore the prophet substi-
tutes the other name meaning, house of
vanity, or wickedness. On Beth-el see
Amos iii, 14. Nor swear, (“‘As’”] Je-
hovah liveth—The common formula
of an oath (Deut. vi, 13; x, 20; 1 Sam.
xiv, 39, etc.). To swear by the name
of Jehovah is ordered in Deuteron-
omy; it is hardly likely, therefore,
that the words of Hosea are to be
understood as an attempt to abolish
the formula entirely. What the
prophet does deprecate are the
oaths sworn by Jehovah in con-
nection with ~ the corrupt prac-
tices at Beth-el and Gilgal (Amos
viii, 14). What under normal con-
ditions would be perfectly proper,
under present conditions has become
an abomination. Chiefly in view of
Amos vy, 5; viii, 14, several commen-
tators suggest that Beer-sheba, the
third sanctuary mentioned by Amos,
was either read here originally or, at
least, implied: “Nor swear at Beer-
sheba, As Jehovah liveth.”

Verse 16 does not connect with 15,
but with 14, unless 15a is omitted and
64

HOSEA.

 

heifer: now the Lorp will feed them
as a lamb in a large place. 17 Eph-
raim is joined to idols: yvlet him

alone. 18 Their drink °%is sour: they
have committed whoredom contin-
ually: zher rulers with shame do

 

y Matt. 15. 14.—® Heb. ts gone.

15b is understood as addressed to
Israel; at any rate, 16 continues the
description of Israel’s depravity. For
—Better, verily, surely (G.-K., 148d).
Israel slideth back as a backsliding
heifer—R. V., “Israel hath behaved
himself stubbornly, like a stubborn
heifer’; or simply, Israel is stubborn,
like u stubborn heifer. Israel abso-
lutely refuses to submit to the divine
purpose (Deut. xxxii, 15). Now Je-
hovah will feed them as a lamb in a
large place—Understood commonly as
a threat. “As Israel would not sub-
mit to the yoke of the divine law, it
should have what it desired. God
would feed it like a lamb which, being
in a wide field, becomes a prey of the
wolves and wild beasts” (Keil). Sim-
larly Delitzsch, “Jehovah will find
means to make the obstinate heifer
which will not wear the yoke quiet as
a lamb; and the heifer which will not
plow the fields of its own country
shall roam like a tame lamb the wide
plains of strangers.’’ A serious objec-
tion to this rendering is that large
place everywhere else is a symbol of
prosperity (Isa. xxx, 23; Psa. xviii,
19; xxxi, 8, etc.). The difficulty dis-
appears if the clause is translated as
a rhetorical question or exclamation:
“(This being so) shall now Jehovah
feed them as a lamb in a large place?”
Answer, Certainly not. Or, as Cheyne
renders with some freedom, ‘Israel
is a stubborn heifer; how then should
it expect to be treated kindly as a
lamb?”

What its treatment shall be is stated
in verse 17. Marti omits the words
entirely; verse 17 he abbreviates; in
18a he alters the text so that 16, 17,
18a read, “For Israel hath behaved
himself stubbornly, like a stubborn
heifer; Ephraim is joined to idols, a
company of drunkards.” These
changes are unwarranted. Ephraim—
Israel. Ephraim was the most prom-

 

2 Mic.3.11; 7.3.—1!0 Heb. shields, Psa.47.9.

inent tribe of the north (xiii, 1).
Joined to idols—Is so bound up with
its idols that it cannot give them up
(Isa. xliv, 11). Nominally Israel re-
tained Jehovah worship, but it appro-
priated so many heathen elements
that to Hosea it appeared to be idol-
atry. Let hirn alone—The speaker is
Jehovah (compare verses 12, 14); the
one addressed can only be the prophet,
not Judah; he is to leave Israel to its
fate, since nothing can be done with
or for it (2 Sam. xvi, 11; 2 Kings xxiii,
18). LXX. offers a text which may
be rendered either ‘‘which (the idols)
he (Ephraim) made for himself stum-
bling-blocks,”’ or simply, ‘he made for
himself stumbling-blocks.” Whether
this represents the original it is diffi-
cult to say; the present Hebrew text
gives good sense.

Verse 18 is obscure; here, as else-
where in 15-19, the correctness of the
Hebrew text is open to question. The
uncertainty is increased by the con-
flicting testimony of the ancient ver-
sions. Assuming that the Hebrew
text is correct, the following appears
to be the most probable interpreta-
tion: Their drink is sour—Certainly an
incorrect translation. Drink appears
to be used in the sense of drinking,
carousing (1 Sam. i, 14; xxv, 87).
The verb means ts finished, is passed
(1 Sam. xv, 32); therefore R. V. mar-
gin is nearer the truth, “Their carouse
is over.” The first two clauses of
verse 18 are thrown together without
conjunction, due to the deep emotion
of the prophet. The connection must
be supplied and may be indicated thus:
“When their carousing is over they
play the harlot”; that is, when they
grow weary of one form of sin they
immediately plunge into another.
They have committed whoredom con-
tinually—The verb form describes a
common practice, and would better
be reproduced in the English by the
CHAPTER V.

65

 

love, Give ye. 19 “The wind hath
bound her up in her wings, and
bthey shall be ashamed because of
their sacrifices.

CHAPTER V.
E | BAR ye this, O priests; and
hearken, ye house of Israel;
and give ye ear, O house of the king;

 

a Jer, 4. 11, 12; 51. 1—bIsa. 1. 29;
Jer 2.26.

 

present tense; so R. V., “they play
the harlot continually.’”’ But this does
not reproduce fully the force of the
original. The emphasis is not upon
the continuation, but upon the eager-
ness with which the immoralities are
practiced; a better rendering would
be, ‘they indulge in whoredom.” Her
rulers with shame do love, Give ye—
R. V., “her rulers dearly love shame”’;
margin, “they are given up to love
(impure love); her rulers are a shame,”
while possible, is not so good. In the
Hebrew three letters seem to be acci-
dentally repeated; if they are omitted
the text reads, “her rulers love
shame”; a slight emendation would
give the more emphatic reading of
R. V. Rulers—Literally, shields (Psa.
xlvii, 9); the office of the rulers was to
guard and shield the people. This
they neglected to do; all they cared
for were the shameful practices.

The section closes with an an-
nouncement of judgment, in verse 19.
The wind hath bound [‘“‘wrapped’”’] her
up in her [“‘its’”] wings—The tense is
the so-called prophetic perfect; the
event is still future but imminent,
and the prophet is sure of its occur-
rence. The figure expresses the sud-
denness and violence with which Israel
will be swept away (Isa. lix, 19). They
shall be ashamed [‘‘put to shame”’]
because of their sacrifices—Sacrifices,
with an unusual plural ending in He-
brew, would stand for the religious
cult in general; its corruption (111f.) is
the cause of the nation’s overthrow.
Neither the margin, “their altars shall
be put to shame” nor LXX., “they
shall be put to shame because of their
altars,” is as good. Verses 18, 19
contain several linguistic peculiarities;
the freedom in the use of the pronouns
is unusual, and it is quite possible that
the text of 11-19 has not been handed
down in its original purity.

 

CHAPTER V.

Tue Utter Corruption or Israrn
—Tuz Imminent Doom, chap. v—
viii.

Chapters v-viii, which are closely
connected, present a detailed account
of the manner in which corruption
penetrated the entire public life and
affected the state from the highest to
the lowest. Interspersed are exhorta-
tions, warnings, threats of inevitable
destruction.

Resuke or Isragt’s AposTasy—
Time or Mercy is Past, v, 1-15.

Chapter v falls naturally into two
parts: 1-7, where the emphasis is upon
guilt ; 8-15, which deals primarily with
judgment. The address is directed
against (1) the priests, (2) the people,
(3) the king and his courtiers. Which
of these receives primary attention it
is not always easy to say. The civil
and religious leaders are largely to
blame, but all must suffer the conse-
quences.

Rebuke of Israel's apostasy, 1-7.

Verse 1 opens with a summons.
Priests—Already condemned in chap-
ter iv. House of Israel—The people.
House of the king—The king and his
courtiers. Toward [‘unto”]—Not all
three classes, but only the leaders,

as lb indicates. Judgment—Not ju-
dicial powers, but the sentence of
judgment about to be uttered. So
margin, “against you is the judg-
ment.” Because—The reason for
the judgment. They have caused
the people to stumble. The latter
are compared to unsuspecting birds,
which fly to the places where they
may expect to find shelter; instead
they are cruelly trapped. Mizpah—
Probably Mizpah in Gilead (Judg. x,
17; xi, 11), the same as Ramoth-
gilead (Josh. xx, 8; 2 Kings ix, 1,
66

HOSEA.

 

for judgment is toward you, because
*ye have been a snare on Mizpah,
and a net spread upon Tabor. 2
And the revolters are 'profound to
make slaughter, ‘though I have
been 2a rebuker of them all. 3. «I
know Ephraim, and Israel is not
hid from me: for now, O Ephraim,

éthou committest whoredom, and
Israel is defiled. 4 #4They will not
frame their doings to turn unto their
God: for ethe spirit of whoredoms 1s
in the midst of them, and they have
not known the Lorp. § And the
pride of Israel doth testify to his
face: therefore shall Israel and Eph-

 

aChap. 6, 9.—» Isa. 29. 15.—-—! Or, and,
etc.——* Heb. a correction.——° Amos 3. 2.
——d Ezek. 23. 5, etc.; chap. 4. 17.

3 Heb. They will not give.-—-—4 Or, Their
doings will not suffer them.——® Chap. 4.
12.—~-f Chap. 7. 10.

 

etc.) now es-Salt. Tabor—The well-
known mountain of that name, east
of Nazareth, in Galilee. Some have
thought that these localities represent
the territory east and west of the
Jordan respectively, the combination
of the two indicating that the wrong-
doing of the leaders covered the whole
land. It is more likely, however, that
the two places are mentioned because
there the immoral practices connected
with the cult were most dangerously
seductive. 2. And the revolters are
profound to make slaughter—R. V.,
“And the revolters are gone deep in
making slaughter.” For the last
three words margin suggests “in cor-
ruption,” which is to be preferred,
since the context says nothing about
murder, nor is there a reference to the
slaughter of sacrifice. The thought
would be that the apostate leaders
have gone to all possible depths of
corruption. The ancient versions
found the passage obscure. Modern
commentators are generally agreed on
an emendation, very slight in the
original, ‘And the pit of Shittim they
have made deep.” At Shittim the Is-
raelites gave themselves to the abom-
inations of Baal-peor (Num. xxv,
1ff.). It is thought that Shittim, like
Mizpah and Tabor, was a sacred
place where the people were led
astray. If this emendation is adopted
pit is parallel with snare and net, and
the clause contains an additional ac-
cusation against the nobles for causing
‘the unsuspecting people to stumble.
Though I have been a rebuker of
them all—Better R. V., “but I am
a rebuker’; Heb. rebuke. Tempt-
er and tempted alike will be visited
by Jehovah in judgment. Cheyne,

 

by transposing two letters, makes the
clause a continuation of the descrip-
tion of the people’s sin: “‘and there is
no correction for any of them,’’ that
is, improvement has become impos-
sible (verse 4).

Verses 3, 4 indicate the cause of
Jehovah’s anger. Their conduct is
well known to him. I—Emphatic in
Hebrew. Ephraim—Poetic synonym
of Israel. What Jehovah knows is
stated in 3b. Now—The force of this
word is uncertain. Keil thinks it is
used to designate the whoredom of
Israel as in fact lying before him.
It is not impossible, however, that
two similar sounding words have been
interchanged, now for thou, Heb.
‘attah for ’attah, and we should read,
‘for thou, O Ephraim.” They will
not frame their doings—R. V., ‘‘Their
doings will not suffer them,’’ is cer-
tainly to be preferred. Wrongdoing
has become their second nature; they
find it impossible to return to Jehovah
(vii, 2; Jer. xiii, 23). Spirit of whore-
doms—See on iv, 12. In the midst of
them—In their innermost being.
Have not known—R. V., “they know
not” (see on ii, 20; compare iv, 6).

Verse 5 announces judgment. Pride
of Israel doth testify—Repeated in vii,
10; is capable of two interpretations:
(1) If pride is used in an evil sense of
the haughty and arrogant attitude of
the Israelites, the meaning is ex-
pressed most satisfactorily by Marti:
“The strongest testimony against the
Israelites, and the most convincing
proof of their incapacity for improve-
ment is offered by their arrogance,
in which they regard their conduct,
their cult and service of Jehovah, as
acceptable to him, and therefore do
CHAPTER V.

67

 

raim fall in their iniquity; Judah
also shall fall with them. 6 «The
shall go with their flocks and wit
their herds to seek the Lorp; but

they shall not find him; he hath
withdrawn himself from them. 7
They have dealt treacherously
against the Lorp: for they have be-

 

& Pre

‘ov. 1. 28; Isa, 1.15; Jer. 11. 11;
Ezek. 8. 18; Mic. 3. 4

4; John 7, 34.

h Isa. 48. 8; Jer. 3. 20; 5. 11; chap. 6.7;
Mal. 2.11. en

 

not think in the least of a return.”
(2) The other interpretation is sug-
gested by the marginal rendering for
pride, “excellency’”; this many com-
mentators understand to be a title of
Jehovah; he is the “excellency of
Jacob” (Amos viii, 7; compare 1 Sam.
xv, 19). According to this interpre-
tation testify is used not in the simple
sense of bear witness, Jehovah is both
witness and judge; here the emphasis
would be upon the pronouncing of the
sentence, the sentence being con-
tained in the next clause. The render-
ing “the pride of Israel shall be hum-
bled,”’ though supported by some of
the ancient versions, is unsuitable
with “to his face.”” On the whole, the
first interpretation is to be preferred.
Nothing but judgment is possible. Fall
—Better, R. V., “shall stumble.” A
common figure of calamity (iv, 5; xiv,
1; Isa. viii, 15, etc.). In their iniquity—
Better, by, or through. Iniquity is the
cause. Judah also shall fall [“stum-
ble’}-In i, 7, and iv, 15. Judah is
represented as being better than Is-
rael; here, as in verses 10, 12, 13, 14,
etc., it is considered equally guilty.
The difference has sometimes been
explained as due to the fact that the
utterance in this verse and others like
it are of a later period than those in
i, 7, and iv, 15, when Hosea had be-
come more familiar with conditions in
Judah. ‘So far as i, 7, is concerned,
this is undoubtedly true; of iv, 15,
this cannot be said with equal cer-
tainty. Conditions began to grow bad
in Judah as early asin Israel. Whether
Hosea ever considered Judah better
than Israel is at least doubtful (see on
i, 7). All references to Judah are con-
sidered secondary by some commen-
tators, but in some cases, at least, on
insufficient grounds. In certain pas-
sages, it is true, they might easily be
omitted without affecting the thought,

 

sometimes the parallelism and even
the thought would be improved if the
reference were omitted, or changed to
Israel (for example, in this verse); in
other instances, however, the omission
would seriously affect the text and
require alterations which cannot read-
ily be justified (verses 12, 13, 14). In
the absence of decisive data the pas-
sages are treated as original unless
statements to the contrary are made.

6. It is impossible to appease the
divine wrath and to avert the threat-
ened judgment by the means with
which Israel is accustomed to seek
the favor of Jehovah. Go... seek
Jehovah—Chapter vi, 1-3, indicates
that they sought Jehovah only to find
relief from calamity; repentance was
lacking completely (see on Amos v,
4). Flocks ... herds—Multitudes of
sacrificial animals. These are of value
only when offered in the right spirit
and backed by a life acceptable to
Jehovah (Introduction, p. 32; com-
pare Amos v, 21ff.; Isa. i, 11ff.). He
hath withdrawn himself—He has cut
the ties which bound him to the peo-
ple; he can no longer be reached by
them (verse 15; compare Isa. viii, 17).
Why? Verse 7 supplies the answer.
Dealt treacherously—Better, They
have been faithless. The verb is used
of the infidelity of a wife to her hus-
band (Jer. iii, 20). The next figure
expresses a similar. thought. They
have begotten [‘‘borne’’] strange chil-
dren—Children not the offspring of a
legitimate union. ‘Israel ought to
have begotten children of God in the
maintenance of the covenant with
the Lord; but in its apostasy from
God it had begotten an adulterous
generation”—a generation which from
its infancy was led astray by the
example of the parents. The second
clause marks an advance. Not only
have they themselves become faithless;
68

TIOSEA.

 

gotten strange children: now shall
‘a month devour them with their

portions. § 'Blow ye the cornet in
Gibeah, and the trumpet in Ramah:

 

i Zech. 11. 8.

k Chap. 8. 1; Jcel 2. 1.

 

in addition they have brought into the
world a generation which is estranged
from Jehovah. Now shall a month de-
vour them with their portions—R. V.,
“now shall the new moon devour them
with their fields.” Marti alters the
text so as to read, “Now shall a de-
stroyer devour them; and wasted shall
become their fields.” Less radical
emendations have been proposed, but,
since all are based upon conjecture, if
we accept any we may as well accept
the one giving the best sense. But
what does the present Hebrew text
mean? Are emendations absolutely
necessary? If we follow A. V. in read-
ing month the meaning might be
either that within a month’s time the
destroyer will be upon them (Clarke),
or that a brief month will be sufficient
to completely destroy them and their
possessions. Astill different meaningis
suggested byiG.A. Smith; he translates,
“Now may a month devour them with
their portions,” which he interprets,
“Any month may bring the swift in-
vader.” These interpretations would
make the transition from 7 to 8 quite
natural. The destroyer will soon be
here; therefore (8) give the signal,
prepare for battle. The Revisers,
however, preferred the translation
“new moon,” one of the most ancient
festivals among the Hebrews, on
which it was customary to offer sac-
rifice (ii, 11; 1 Sam. xx, 6, 29; Isa. i,
13). Even with this translation
Cheyne finds in the passage a thought
similar to that expressed by G. A.
Smith: “Instead of watching gladly
for the new moon . . . they should
have a ‘fearful looking for of judg-
ment,’ increasing as each new moon
arose. If not this, then perhaps the
next would bring a_ slaughtering,
plundering horde of invaders.” A
vivid imagination is needed to see
this meaning in the words. A more
natural interpretation would be to

 

regard new moon as synonymous
with festival or, better, as represent-
ing the entire superficial sacrificial
system and worship. ‘Your hypo-
critical worship, so far from bringing
you salvation, will rather prove your
ruin” (Keil). If the portions or fields
of the individuals are destroyed it
will amount to the devastation of the
whole land. The differences among
commentators show the obscurity of
the passage. The interpretation of
G. A. Smith, on the one hand, and
that of Keil, on the other, reproduce
most faithfully the present Hebrew
text; of these that of G. A. Smith con-
nects more naturally with verse 8.
The time of mercy is past, 8-15.

The hopelessness of the situation is
manifest: Jehovah can show mercy
no longer, judgment is inevitable; it
is about to break upon the sinful na-
tions. The prophet summons them to
prepare for it, and declares that As-
syria and Egypt can offer no effective
help; there can be no salvation until
the people with heartfelt repentance
return to Jehovah.

8. The danger signal is to be given.
Cornet (or, horn) . . . trumpet—The
two words are synonymous here; or-
dinarily they designate two different
instruments. The former is the curved
horn of a cow or ram which seems to
have been used in early Israel chiefly,
if not exclusively, for secular purposes:
to give signals in war, to warn of ap-
proaching danger, to announce im-
portant public events, etc. When its
sound was heard everyone was ex-
pected to drop work and take his
place in the ranks. In later times it
appears to have been used also for
sacred purposes. The trumpet is long
and straight, made of metal; it is rarely
mentioned as being used for secular
purposes, and seems to have been pri-
marily a sacred instrument; it is pic-
tured on Jewish coins, and represen-
CHAPTER V.

69

 

lery aloud at ™Beth-aven, "after
thee, O Benjamin. 9 Ephraim shall
be desolate in the day of rebuke:
among the tribes of Israel have I
made known that which shall surely

be. 10 The princes of Judah were
like them that eremove the bound:
therefore I will pour out my wrath
upon them like water. 11 Ephraim
is Poppressed and broken in judg-

 

1Tsa, 10. 30.—” Josh. 7. 2; chap.
4,15.

 

n Judge. 5. 14. © Deut. 19. 14; 27. 17.
—P Deut. 28. 33.

 

tations of it were placed on the Arch
of Titus. (Compare article “Trumpet”
in Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible,
and the richly illustrated article
“Music” in the Encyclopedia Biblica.)
Gibeah ... Ramah... Beth-aven—On
the last see iv, 15. As a religious cen-
ter, to which people crowded in great
numbers, Beth-el would be « most
appropriate place in which to sound
the warning. The two other places,
as their names indicate—Gibeah, hill;
Ramah, height—were situated on ele-
vations, and for this reason were well
adapted for giving signals. The
former is Gibeah of Benjamin or of
Saul (1 Sam. xiii, 2; xi, 4), now Tel-el-
Fal; the latter, a little to the north,
was the home of Samuel (1 Sam. xv,
34), now er-Rdm. His summons to
sound the alarm would seem to indi-
cate that the prophet expected a for-
eign invasion, but the literal interpre-
tation must not be pressed. After
thee, O Benjamin—As in Judg. v, 14,
where LXX. reads a different text,
G. A. Smith suggests that this may
have been an ancient battle cry of
Benjamin, and he renders 8b, “Raise
the slogan, Beth-aven: ‘After thee,
Benjamin!” R. V., by rendering
“behind thee,’ seems to imply
another conception, that of a call of
warning to Benjamin: ‘The enemy
is already behind thee.” LXX. reads,
“Let Benjamin tremble,” which gives
excellent sense and is probably orig-
inal. 9. The alarm may indeed be
given, for Ephraim is doomed. Day
of rebuke—Of judgment. Tribes of
Israel—The northern tribes only.
Among—Perhaps better, concerning,
or with regard to. That which shall
surely be—Literally, that which is true.
There is no escape.

Verse 10 is preferably connected

 

with verse 11, the former describing
conditions in Judah, the latter those
in Israel. In verse 10 the prophet
turns to the third class named in
verse 1, the ‘house of the king,” here
called princes. Judah—Following the
theory that Hosea nowhere refers to
the southern kingdom, some commen-
tators read Israel instead. Like them
that remove the bound [‘landmark’’]
—The landmarks were under divine
protection (Deut. xix, 14); a curse is
pronounced upon him who removes
them (Deut. xxvii, 17, frequently in
the Assyrian and Babylonian inscrip-
tions). This crime the prophet re-
gards as the limit of transgression,
from which the political leaders of
Judah do not shrink (Isa. v, 8ff.; Mic.
ii, 2). Such conduct cannot remain
unpunished. Jehovah’s wrath will be
poured out like water—In abundance
and power like a rushing torrent.
Ephraim is equally guilty. Oppressed
. - - broken [‘‘crushed”}—The two
expressions—passive participles—oc-
cur together in Deut. xxviii, 33. LXX.
reads the active participles. Ephraim
is the one that oppresses and crushes
in judgment; and many commenta-
tors follow the LXX.; but to change
the forms is arbitrary, and passive
participles are not used in Hebrew
in an active sense, a usage found
frequently in Arabic. The com-
mon rendering is perfectly suit-
able.

In verse 10 the sin of Judah is con-
demned and judgment is announced;
in verse 11 the order is reversed, first
the announcement of judgment, then
a statement of the cause. The par-
ticiples stand in place of the pro-
phetic perfect. In judgment—Or, by
judgment, the one to be sent by Je-
hovah, Why? Because he willingly
70

HOSEA.

 

ment, because he willingly walked
aftersthe commandment. 12 There-
fore will I be unto Ephraim as a
moth, and to the house of Judah

a1 Kings 12. 28; Mic. 6. 16.

r Prov. 12. 4.—-5 Or, a@ worm.—=* Jer.
30. 12.

walked after the commandment—R. V.
“he was content to walk after man’s
command.” As the italics in R. V. in-
dicate, the original reads simply, “he
was content to walk after a com-
mand.” Command—in Hebrew a rare
word, occurring again only in Isa.
xxviii, 10, 13—is interpreted to mean
a human statute as opposed to the di-
vine command; here the institution
introduced in Israel at the command
of Jeroboam I, the worship of the
calves at Beth-el and Dan, which was
largely responsible for present re-
ligious conditions. One would expect
a less ambiguous phrase, if this
were the thought. LXX. and Peshitto
have a different word though similar
in sound, vanity, for commandment;
the former would be a designation of
the Baalim (compare Jer. xviii, 15);
Isaiah frequently calls idols ‘noth-
ings.” He was content might be trans-
lated “it pleased him,” or “he de-
sired.” These versions may have pre-
served the original: “he desired to
walk after vanity.” The result of
such conduct is the gradual dissolu-
tion of the nation, caused by in-
fluences from within, which, accord-
ing to verse 12, are set in motion by
Jehovah himself (compare Isa. iii,
1ff.). Therefore will I be—Better, but
as for me, I was, that is, in the past.
Moth . . . rottenness—The second,
better, worm eating, the process by
which the worm destroys wood and
flesh. Both symbolize forces that de-
stroy slowly but surely (Job xiii, 28).
The dissolution of Israel was caused
as much by anarchy and corruption
within as by invasion from without.

13. The eyes of the two kingdoms
could not remain closed forever to
this condition of affairs, but they
failed to seek help where alone it
could be found. “It is the old but

 

ras Srottenness. 13 When Ephraim
saw his sickness, and Judah saw his
swound, then went Ephraim ‘to the
Assyrian, "and sent *to king Jareb:

t2 Kings 15. 19; chap. 7.11; 12. 1.—
uChap. 10. 6.—® Or, to the king of
Jareb: or, to the king that should plead.

ever-repeated attempt to remove evil
within by the use of external means
instead of putting within the decay-
ing frame new and sound powers; to
rely upon the external cult and upon
politics rather than upon religion and
ethics” (Marti). Sickness ... wound
—Figures, not of corruption but of
disaster resulting from corruption (Isa.
i, 5). The Assyrian [‘‘Assyria’”’}—The
great world empire having its seat be-
tween the Euphrates and the Tigris.
Only a few years previous to this
prophecy, in 745, it had entered upon
the most flourishing period of its
history, when Tiglath-pileser III came
upon the throne. And sent—Who?
As the text stands there can be but
one answer, Ephraim. Comparing 13a
with 13b, some supply Judah. To do
this makes the line too long; there-
fore they omit the verb, so that the
clauses read, “Then went Ephraim to
Assyria, and Judah to King Jareb.”
The character of Hebrew parallelism
favors the insertion of the sub-
ject, but there are difficulties in the
way of making it Judah (see next
comment). King Jareb—The last
word is apparently a form of the verb
strive, contend; margin, R. V., “a king
that should contend”; x, 6, makes it
clear that it is an epithet of the king
of Assyria. As such it has been vari-
ously rendered by translators, “com-
batant,”’ “combative,” “ striver,”
“pick-quarrel,” “fighting cock,’ etc.
Any one of these would make a suit-
able nickname for several Assyrian
kings. Who is in the mind of Hosea?
That the prophet is referring to an
actual historical event cannot be
doubted; that he is thinking of a
recent event is quite likely. 2 Kings
xv, 19, 20, mentions Menahem as
sending a present to Pul of Assyria
in order to win his support. This was
CHAPTER V.

71

 

yet could he not heal you, nor cure
‘ee of your wound. 14 For *I will

e unto Ephraim as a lion, and asa
young lion to the house of Judah: yT,
even I, will tear and go away; I will

take away,and noneshall rescue him.
15 I will go and return to m
place, 7till they acknowledge their
offence, and seek ‘my face: *in their
affliction they will seek me early.

 

x Lam. 3.10; chap. 13. 7, 8.——y Psa.
50. 22. es Heb. tél they be guilty.

2 Lev. 26. 40, 41; Jer. 29. 12,13; Ezek.
6. 9; 20. 43; 36. 31. a Psa. 78, 34.

 

 

in the period of anarchy following the
death of Jeroboam II. The prophecy
of Hosea comes from that period; it
is therefore very probable that the ref-
erence is to this appeal. Pul is uni-
versally identified with Tiglath-pileser
III, a fighter through and through.
Judah was not involved in the event
recorded in 2 Kings xv, 19, 20; so far
as we know, no appeal was sent from
Judah to Assyria until the time of
Ahaz (2 Kings xvi, 7, 8), about four
years after Menahem’s appeal, and
subsequent to the date of Hosea’s
prophecy (see Introduction, p. 17).
For this reason it is not likely that
Judah should be supplied as the sub-
ject; it is better to leave the text as
it is; if it is thought necessary to
mention the subject, why not Israel?
(Compare verses 3, 5, 9, etc.) The in-
terpretation of Jareb suggested above
is based upon the supposition that the
present Hebrew text is correct. Other
interpretations need but to be men-
tioned. Hommel, also following the
present Hebrew text, translates “king
of Aribi,” a district in northern Arabia;
Winckler, with a slight change, ‘‘king
of Yathrib-Medina,” that is, North
Arabia; in view of x, 6, these inter-
pretations are improbable. Maintain-
ing that the reference is to the king of
Assyria, some have suggested a slight
alteration so as to read “the great
king,” identical with the Assyrian
sharru rabti found frequently in the
inscriptions (compare Isa. xxxvi, 4,
where a different word is used). LXX.
presupposes a still different reading,
which may be intended for ‘‘the high
king.” He is unable to render effec-
tive assistance since one mightier
than he has caused the disease.

In verse 14 the fierceness of the
judgment and the impotence of all
human helpers are pictured once

 

more. Jehovah likens himself to
a lion who seizes his prey, tears it,
carries it off, and no one has the
power to prevent it (xiii, 7; Isa.
v, 29; xxxi, 4). I-—Emphatic, to
call attention to the fact that Je-
hovah himself is the lion. Lion
- . - young lion—The Hebrew has
several words for lon _ which,
though originally having distinct
meanings, are used interchangeably.
The root meaning of the two words
used here is uncertain; it is thought
that the first callsattention to the lion’s
roar, the second to his mane. Lions
are found no longer in Palestine.
Verse 15 is the continuation of 14;
by some it is thought to be a later
expansion of that verse, but this sup-
position is not necessary; it may well
come from Hosea. As a lion with-
draws into his den, so Jehovah, hav-
ing executed judgment, will retire;
this will make it impossible for the
torn prey to find a deliverer or healer.
Only when he is sought earnestly will
he come forth from his hiding place.
My place—The heavenly dwelling
place of Jehovah (Mic. i, 3). Ac-
knowledge their offense—R. V., ‘‘have
borne their guilt,” that is, have suf-
fered the punishment for their guilt;
LXX., “they become startled.” The
ordinary rendering is to be preferred,
though it might be intensified by
translating, “become conscious of
their guilt.”” Seek my face—To plead
for his return and favor. Jehovah
knows that they will soon do it. In
their affliction—Affliction will be a
sign of the divine displeasure and a
proof of the people’s inability to help
themselves; therefore they will turn
to Jehovah (Amos viii, 12). Seek me
early—The R. V. translation ‘ear-
nestly” rests upon a misinterpretation
of vi, 1-3, which is taken wrongly as
72

HOSEA.

 

CHAPTER VI.
Coxe, and let us return unto the
Logp: for +he hath torn, and
bhe will heal us; he hath smitten,
and he will bind us up. 2 ¢After

= Deut. 32. 39; 1 Sam. 2. 6; Job 5. 18;
chap. 5. 14.

an expression of genuine repentance.
The verb is derived from a noun,
dawn, morning, and means to seek
early, or soon; it is used here in a
temporal sense. G. A. Smith repro-
duces the thought correctly, ‘they
will soon enough seek me.”

CHAPTER VI

Tut Preopie’s RETURN TO JEHOVAH,
vi, 1-3.

The first three verses of chapter vi
form the natural continuation of v,
15, with which LXX. connects them
by prefixing “saying.” This addition
explains them as a mutual exhorta-
tion to return to Jehovah. While
saying may have been added by
the Greek translator, it embodies
undoubtedly a correct interpretation.
As expected, they will return, but
without real, heartfelt repentance.
There is not one expression of sor-
row for wrongdoing, only anxiety to
have distress and calamity removed.
Therefore Jehovah is not impressed
with the supplication (verses 4ff.).
The verses offer “but one symptom of
the optimism of this light-hearted
people, whom no discipline and no
Judgment can impress with the real-
ity of their incurable decay.’”’ Giese-
brecht’s interpretation of the passage
as a new exhortation by the prophet
is less natural. He will heal us—The
context shows that they desire heal-
ing, not from corruption and sin,
but from the wounds inflicted by the
punishment. Such desire is no indi-
cation of repentance. Two days...
third day—The combination of a
numeral with the next above is called
ascending enumeration; it expresses an
indefinite or unlimited number (G.-K.,
134s); here an indefinite period but,
since the numbers are small, a short

 

two days will he revive us: in the
third day he will raise us up, and we
shalllivein hissight. 3 ¢Then shall
we know, if we follow on to know the
Lorp: his going forth is prepared

© 1 Cor. 15, 4.—4 Isa.

 

b Jer. 30. 17.
54. 13,

period. The deliverance will come in
the briefest time possible. Revive
... raise us up—A hope of a resurrec-
tion, but evidently not a personal
resurrection, and certainly not, as
some commentators used to say, a
direct prediction of the resurrection
of Jesus. Rather a hope of national
restoration from a period of calamity
and distress. The allegory of the dry
bones (Ezek. xxxvii, 1-10) is an ex-
pansion of this hope. That the verb
does not always mean restoration to
life from death is clearly shown by
such passages as Josh. v, 8, where it
is translated “become whole’; 2 Kings
viii, 9, “recover,” etc. The result of
the divine interference will be that
they live in his sight [before him’’]
—In his presence, with his eye
resting upon them in loving and
protecting care (Gen. xvii, 18; com-
pare the opposite thought in v,
15; Isa. viii, 17). Then shall we
know—Better R. V., “And let us
know.” The lack of the knowledge
of Jehovah (iv, 6; compare ii, 20),
the secret of all their trouble, they seek
to remove; again there is no confes-
sion of sin; no evidence that they
seek to know him in order to live
better, only that they may enjoy his
gifts. If we follow on—Better, R. V.,
“Jet us follow on.” The same verb is
translated in ii, 7, “follow after’; it
expresses the persistence with which
they will seek Jehovah. If only the
motive had been otherwise! They are
confident that Jehovah will speedily
respond. As surely as the morning
dawns from day to day, so surely will
Jehovah manifest himself. Going
forth—That is, to heal, to bind up,
to bless. LXX. suggests a different
reading, requiring a different division
and slight rearrangement of the con-
sonantal text, “As soon as we seek
CHAPTER VI.

73

 

eas the morning; and the shall come
unto us #as the rain, as the latter
and former rain unto the earth.

4 4O Ephraim, what shall I do
unto thee? O Judah, what shall I
do unto thee? for your 'goodness ts
ias a morning cloud, and as the

early dew it goeth away. 5 There-
fore have I hewed them "by the
prophets; I have slain them by 'the
words of my mouth: and thy judg-
ments are as the light that goeth
forth. 6 For I desired =mercy, and
»not sacrifice; and the -knowledge of

 

© 2 Sam. 23. 4,——f Psa. 72. 6.——£ Job
29, 23,—h Chap. 11. 8.—! Or, mercy, or,
kindness.— Chap. 13. 3.——* Jer. 1. 10;
5, 14.——1 Jer. 23. 29; Heb. 4. 12.

2 Or, that thy judgments might be, etc.
—™ ] Sam. 15. 22; Eccl. 5. 1; Mic. 6. 8;
Matt. 9. 13; 12. 7.—-9 Psa. 50.8, 9; Prov.

21. 3: Isa. 1. 11, Jer. 22. 16; John 17. 3.

 

 

him we shall find him,” which fits
admirably in the context and is
accepted as original by several
modern commentators. As the rain
—Heb. geshem (see on Joel ii, 23); in
contrast with the rain mentioned in
the next clause it might be called
winter rain. Not only as regularly
but also as beneficially as this rain
will Jehovah show himself. As the
jatter and former rain unto the earth
—R. V., more accurately, “as the
latter rain that watereth the earth.”
On this rain also see on Joel ii, 23.

Jenovan’s RepLy: SUPERFICIAL RE-
PENTANCE IS Not ACCEPTABLE TO
JrHovAH—THE CoRRUPTION SEEMS
IncuraBtig, vi, 4-1la.

No distinct break can be recognized
between vi, 4, and viii, 14. The whole
section is a severe denunciation of the
people’s attitude toward Jehovah.
Verse 4 may be regarded as the direct
reply to the people’s plea. Jehovah
perceives that the sentiments ex-
pressed in vi, 1-3, are superficial. But
if all he has done has not wrought re-
pentance, what can he do with them?
From this question he passes im-
mediately to point out their utter
misconception of the divine com-
mands and their rebellious career.

4, 5. What shall I do unto thee —
What more can I do to move you to
heartfelt repentance? Goodness—In
ii, 19, “lovingkindness” (see comment
there); here the loving attitude and
disposition toward Jehovah. It is
unstable and fickle; ‘evanescent and
transient, like the morning cloud
which is dispersed by the rising sun,”
and like the dew which remains but
for a little time. Therefore—This

 

fickleness has compelled Jehovah to
use severe means. Hewed... by the
prophets—He carefully carved them
like a piece of hard wood or marble,
which requires hard and effective
blows. He sought to make Israel a
holy nation through the efforts of the
prophets. Slain them by the words
of my mouth—As spoken by the
prophets. The words of Jehovah
have power to kill (Isa. xi, 4; compare
ix, 8; xlix, 2); here is meant not so
much extinction of life as infliction of
severe judgments. The activity of
Elijah and Elisha may be in the
prophet’s mind. Thy judgments are
as the light that goeth forth—Better,
R. V. margin, following several an-
cient versions, “my judgments,” that
is, the penal judgments of Jehovah.
The thought is the same as in the
preceding clauses, and the whole sen-

‘tence is translated most naturally,

“My judgment went forth as the
light,” that is, so that all could see
it and profit thereby. Sometimes the
Hebrew light is used in the sense of
lightning; if so in this case, it calls at-
tention to the terrible character of
the divine judgments.

6. Why does Jehovah use these se-
vere means? Because he has for the
people a lofty ideal of righteousness
to which they are strangers and
against which they rebel. His ideal is
mercy—R. V. “goodness.” See on ii,
19; used here in all the fullness of its
meaning. Sacrifice—The whole ex-
ternal ceremonial service. The atti-
tude of Hosea is that of the other
eighth century prophets (Amos v,
21ff.; Isa. i, 11ff.; Mie. vi, 6ff.). Did
these prophets intend to condemn
sacrifice as such? Did they desire to
74

HOSEA.

 

God more than burnt offerings. 7
But they ‘like men vhave trans-

gressed the covenant: there shave
they dealt treacherously against me.

 

3 Or, like Adam, Job 31. 33.

rt Chap. 8. 1.—9 Chap. 5. 7.

 

abolish it entirely? Some think they
did; but all the passages referred
to bear a different interpretation.
The people addressed were corrupt,
steeped in sin, living under the false
impression that the bringing of sacri-
fice met all religious requirements.
Condemnation of sacrifices offered by
these people, in this spirit, does not
necessarily imply condemnation of
sacrifice offered in the proper spirit
by a penitent people. Besides, there
are passages which show that the
prophets did not discard sacrifice en-
tirely. A prophet who considers
the discontinuation of sacrifice a
national calamity (ix, 1ff.; compare
iii, 4; Isa. xix, 21; Jer. xvii, 26; xxxiii,
18) cannot be understood as con-
demning all sacrifice. The prophets
were not abolitionists, but reformers;
they attacked the abuses of sacrifice
and sought to place the emphasis
where it belonged, on the life and
spirit (1 Sam. xv, 22). This the pas-
sage before us isintended todo. (See
article “Sacrifice” in Hastings’s Dic-
tionary of the Bible, and last sermon in
Driver, Sermons on the Old Testament.)
Knowledge of God—See on ii, 20.
Burnt offerings—The offerings en-
tirely consecrated to God and com-
pletely burned upon the altar (Lev.
i, 3ff.; compare Amos. v, 22; Mic. vi,
6

With verse 7 begins a description
of the people’s corruption, the depth
of which proves that they are incor-
rigible. Transgressed the covenant—
Made with Israel at the time of the
Exodus, when Jehovah adopted the
nation as his child. Like men—A
much-discussed expression. If the
translation of A. V. is correct, the
thought is, in human fashion, as men
are wont to do; recognizing a tendency
in unregenerate men to break cove-
nants, the law written in the human
heart (Job xxxi, 33). Others con-
sider men to be a designation of the

 

neighboring nations. Israel, with all
his special privileges, has broken the di-
vine covenant like the heathen nations
who enjoyed none of these. R. V. mar-
gin translates, with less probability
and force, “they are as men that have
transgressed a covenant.’ The Re-
visers embodied in the text a trans-
lation favored by many moderns,
“they like Adam have transgressed.”
True, there is no statement in the Old
Testament that Jehovah made a cov-
enant with Adam, or that the latter
broke such a covenant, but the com-
mand which God gave and which
Adam broke was in the nature of a
covenant; for on obedience to it de-
pended continued fellowship with
God. All the interpretations are
based upon the text as it now stands;
they all give fairly acceptable sense.
There—Where? Some say the north-
ern kingdom, to which the prophet
turns with a “gesture of indignation”’;
others, the localities mentioned in 8ff.
Ordinarily there refers to a locality
already named. The divergence from
the rule in this case leads some com-
mentators to suspect in the word
translated “like Adam” or “like men”
the corrupt name of a locality. With
very slight alterations one could read
‘Sn Edom,” or “in Aram,” or “in
Admah”’ (xi, 8); Marti suggests the
modern Tel-ed-Damije, near the junc-
ture of the Jabbok with the Jordan;
Cheyne, Beth-aven. None of these
places, except Beth-aven (Beth-el), is
known as connected with special
transgressions, and any conjecture
must remain more or less doubtful.
If the present Hebrew text is re-
tained there must refer to Israel.
Two illustrations of Israel’s de-
pravity are given in verses 8, 9.
Gilead—Here and in Judg. x, 17, ap-
parently the name of a city, every-
where else the name of the territory
east of the Jordan. If a city, its lo-
cation is not known. Among others,
CHAPTER VI.

75

 

8 ‘Gilead is a city of them that work
iniquity, and is ‘polluted with blood
9 And as troops of robbers wait for
aman, so *the company of priests
murder in the way *by consent: for
they commit ‘lewdness. 10 I have

seen tan horrible thing in the house
of Israel: there is tthe whoredom of
Ephraim, Israel is defiled. 11 Also,
O Judah, «he hath set an harvest
for thee, ywhen I returned the cap-
tivity of my people.

 

t Chap. 12. 11.—+4 Or,cunning for blood,
— Jer.11.9: Ezek. 22. 25; chap. 5. 1, 2.
—4 Heb.with one shoulder, or, to Shechem.

6 Or, enormity. Jer. 5.380.— Chap.
4. 12, 13, 17.——* Jer. 51. 33; Joel 3. 13;
Rev. 14. 15,——y Psa. 126. 1.

 

Ramoth-gilead, Jabesh-gilead, Miz-
pah-gilead, and Gal‘dd, south of the
Jabbok, have been suggested. Them
that work iniquity—Why this locality
receives special condemnation is not
known; it must have been the scene of
some startling outbreak of violence. If
Gilead could be interpreted as the
whole territory east of the Jordan the
reference might be to some of the
assassinations subsequent to the death
of Jeroboam II. Shallum (2 Kings
xv, 10) may have been a Gileadite
(compare name of his father); Gilead-
ites were also involved in the murder
of Pekah (2 Kings xv, 25). Polluted
[‘stained’”’] with blood—Not the blood
of idolatrous sacrifices, but a figure of
violence and bloodshed. The verb is
a derivative of the noun heel; Cheyne
renders aptly, “tracked with bloody
footprints.” By consent—Better, R.
V., “toward Shechem,” a town fre-
quently mentioned in the Old Testa-
ment; it is located among the hills
of Ephraim, about thirty-one and a
half miles north of Jerusalem; now
Nablas.

The Hebrew text of verse 9 is ob-
scure; it may have suffered in trans-
mission. As a translation of the
present Hebrew text, margin R. V.
is more satisfactory than R. V. or
A. V.: “And as robbers lying in wait,
so the company of priests murder in
the way toward Shechem; yea, they
have committed lewdness.” The
thought is that even the priests have
fallen from their holy estate and
have become highway robbers. The
prophet probably refers to a well-
known recent event, though now un-
known. For “the company” read,
with the Hebrew, “a company”; for
“murder,” “murdered.’”’ Lewdness—

 

Here equivalent to the more general
outrage.

Verses 10, 11 sum up the accusation.
Wherever the eye of Jehovah falls,
he sees a horrible thing . . . whore-
dom—The former signifies abomina-
tions and crimes of every kind (Jer.
xviii, 13); the second, the one out-
standing sin, spiritual and literal
whoredom. Israel is defiled—Com-
pare v, 3. In verse 11 the prophet
turns to Judah. This verse and vii,
la, are thought by some to be a later
addition; so that vii, 1b, ‘uncovered
is the iniquity of Ephraim,’ would
be the continuation of vi, 10. The
omitted words might, indeed, be left
out without affecting seriously the
thought of the prophet, but that is
not sufficient reason for rejecting
them. LXX. differs from the He-
brew, and in some respects is to be
preferred. Following LXX. part of
verse 11 should probably be con-
nected with vii, 1, chapter vi, closing,
“Also, O Judah, there is a harvest
appointed to thee.” Harvest—Figure
of judgment (Joel iii, 13; Jer. li, 33).
Judah, as corrupt as Israel, must
share the latter’s fate. 11b, in the
same construction as the opening
words of vii, 1, should be taken
with the latter and rendered, ‘‘When I
would turn the fortune of my people,
when I would heal Israel.” Returned
(“bring back’’] the captivity—The He-
brew phrase which is frequently thus
rendered in the Old Testament is
literally turn a turning. In some
cases the turning involved is the
restoration from exile; in others a
more general idea is expressed, a
turning in the fortunes of the people,
of calamity into prosperity; and this
latter meaning is suitable in every
76

HOSEA.

 

CHAPTER VII.
HEN I would have healed Is-
rael, then the iniquity of
Ephraim was discovered, and the
lwickedness of Samaria: for *they
commit falsehood; and the thief
cometh in, and the troop of rob-
bers 2spoileth without. 2 And they
sconsider not in their hearts that I

bremember all their wickedness : now
etheir own doings have beset them
about; they are 4before my face.
3 They make the king glad with
their wickedness, and the princes
ewith their lies. 4 ‘They ave all
adulterers, as an oven heated by the
baker, ‘who ceaseth ‘from raising af-
ter he hath kneaded the dough,

 

1 Heb. evtls.—® Chaps. 5.1; 6. 10.—
2 Heb. strippeth. Heb. say not to.—
b Jer. 17. 1.—-¢ Psa. 9. 16; Prov. 5. 22.

 

place where the phrase occurs (Amos
ix, 14; Zeph. ii, 7, etc.). So here,
“When I would turn the fortunes of
my people.”

CHAPTER VII.

New Picrure or THE Morau Cor-
RUPTION AND RESULTING ANARCHY,
vi, 11b-vii, 7.

1, 2. The mercy of Jehovah, mani-
festing itself in his willingness to
“heal,” wrought no change for the
better; it was interpreted as an indi-
cation of Jehovah’s weakness, and
only increased the people’s reckless-
ness. Iniquity . . . discovered [‘‘un-
covered”’}—The reflexive force of the
verb form may be expressed by ren-
dering ‘‘displayed itself.” Iniquity
broke out with ever-increasing force
and prevented the carrying out of
God’s gracious purpose. Samaria—
The capital of the northern kingdom
mentioned because it was the center
of the corruption. Wherein con-
sisted the iniquity? Commit false-
hood—Practice fraud and deceit to-
ward God and man. Thief cometh
(“‘entereth’’]in—Into the house. Theft
and highway robbery were common
(Joel ii, 9). Spoileth [“ravageth”]—
The highways were made unsafe by
robbers in quest of plunder. Con-
sider—Literally, they do not speak to
their heart; their consciences have be-
come seared. I remember—They
have no thought that Jehovah will
remember and punish, but they are
mistaken; their sins are constantly
before his face, where he can see them.
Their own doings have beset them
about—They are completely sur-

 

4 Psa, 90. 8—e Rom. 1. 82.—-f Jer. 9.
2.—-4 Or, the raiser will cease.—— Or,
from waking.

rounded by their wrongs, so that
escape has become impossible; even
repentance seems to be out of the
question. The verse closes with a
reaffirmation that Jehovah is not de-
ceived about their real condition (Psa.
xe, 8).

In verses 3-7 the text is in places
obscure, but concerning the general
drift of the thought there can be no

doubt. The prophet describes in
vivid colors the corruption that
pervades the whole nation, and

shows that the existing anarchy is
the inevitable result of the same:
adultery, drunkenness, conspiracy,
assassinations everywhere, not one
redeeming feature. They make the
king glad—The subject is the same
as in verses 1, 2, the Israelites. As
representatives of Jehovah king and
princes should rejoice in righteous-
ness and justice; their depravity is
seen in the fact that they not only
fail to punish crime, but actually de-
light in it. Princes—See on iii, 4.
The Hebrew gives good sense; the
emendation first suggested by Well-
hausen and since adopted by many
scholars, “they anoint’? instead of
“they make glad,” is not necessary,
though it would give equally good
sense and would make this passage
agree in meaning with viii, 4. They
are all adulterers—King, princes, and
people are filled with unholy passions
for revelry, licentiousness, etc. This
is a new condemnation, and is not to
be connected with the preceding as a
circumstantial clause. The rest of
the verse is doubtful. As an oven
heated by the baker—R. V. supplies
“they are,” which is an improvement,
CHAPTER VII.

77

 

until it be leavened. 5 In the day
of our king the princes have made
him sick *with bottles of wine; he
stretched out his hand with scorn-

ers. 6 For they have 7made ready
their heart like an oven, whiles the

lie in wait: their baker sleepeth all
the night; in the morning it burneth

 

© Or, with heat through wine,

7 Or, applied.

 

A different division of the consonantal
text would give, ‘‘they are like a burn-

ing oven,” and with “the baker” the.

new sentence might be begun. This
is preferable. In their madness the
people resemble a burning oven. The
heart is the oven, the unholy passions
the fire. Modern commentators are
inclined to regard this clause, as well
as the rest of verse 4, a later ad-
dition, a gloss to verse 6. Whatever
one may think of the rest of the verse,
which seems to be dependent on verse
6, this clause certainly sounds like a
part of the original denunciation;
verse 5 would make a good continua-
tion. The baker... ceaseth—As these
words stand now they describe the
apparent calm between one outbreak
of violence and the next. “The baker
ceases from stirring when the oven
has reached a certain heat; and then
he leaves the fire to smolder until the
fermentation of the dough is com-
plete and fresh heating is necessary.
So after passion has been gratified it
smolders for a time, but is afterward
kindled to a greater heat than before,
when some attractive object comes
within range.”

In verse 5 the prophet evidently
refers to a recent, event—Wellhausen
thinks to a royal assassination—when
passion found unrestrained expres-
sion. Day of our king—Perhaps the
king’s birthday (Matt. xiv, 6), or the
coronation day; at any rate, a day of
joyful celebration. The princes have
made him sick—R. V., “made them-
selves sick.” Either translation is
possible, though usage favors A. V.—
they made the king drunk and assas-
sinated him (2 Sam. xiii, 28, 29).
Royal assassinations are referred to
in verse 7; in this verse, however, the
thought implied in R. V. is more
probable, though usage may favor
A. V.—they gave themselves to such

 

excesses that they became ill. Bottles
of wine—Better, R. V., “heat of
wine,” or ‘with fever from wine”
(G. A. Smith). He stretched out his
hand—The meaning is uncertain, but
it is generally interpreted as meaning
that the king entered into intimate
relations with scoffers, that is, worth-
less, lawless fellows who are always
devising mischief. Perhaps the words
allude to “some lawless project de-
cided upon in the intoxication of the
revel.”’

Verses 6, 7 do not connect with 4,
giving the explanation and ground for
the simile of the oven, so that verse 5
would be parenthetical (Keil); they
contain wu new assertion, codrdinate
with the statements in verses 3, 4, 5.
The subject is the same as in the other
verses, the Israelites. For—Here not
a causal conjunction, but, as often, a
particle of asseveration—“‘truly,” “in-
deed” (G.-K., 148d). Have made
ready their heart like an oven, while
they lie in wait—The Hebrew con-
tains several peculiarities, hence the
translation and interpretation are un-
certain. Many attempts have been
made to interpret the present Hebrew
text and not a few emendations have
been suggested. It seems neces-
sary to alter the text. Following in
part LXX., we get, by only slight
alterations, an excellent thought:
“Indeed, like an oven their hearts
burn with their intriguing” (compare
iv, 1, “There is no truth in the land’’;
iv, 2, “There is naught but swearing
and breaking faith”). Their baker—
Who is their baker? The subject of
burneth is the same in Hebrew as that of
sleepeth. Can it be said of the baker
that he burns as a flaming fire? Two
ancient versions, Targum and Peshitto,
read “their anger” for “their baker”;
this requires no change of the con-
sonantal text in Hebrew and may be
78

HOSEA.

 

as a flaming fire. 7 They are all hot
as an oven, and have devoured their
judges; sall their kings are fallen:

ithere is none among them that call-
eth unto me. 8 Ephraim, he “hath
mixed himself among the people;

 

eChap. 8. 4.42 Kings 15. 10,14, 25, 30.

i Isa, 64. 7. Psa. 106. 35.

 

accepted as original: “Their anger
sleepeth all the night.”” The conspir-
acy is kept secret until it is matured,
then it breaks forth. The darkness
of the night is the time when the
schemes are developed; in the morn-
ing, the time for action having ar-
rived, the conspiracy blazes forth
(compare Mic. ii, 1). Verse 7 de-
scribes the result of these intrigues.
They are all hot as an oven, and have
devoured [‘“‘and devour’’}—Need not
be rejected as an unnecessary repe-
tition; it sums up in a few words the
thought of verse 6. It would be
better, however, to translate it as a
circumstantial clause, “Being (thus)
hot like an oven, they devour.”
Judges—Not to be understood in the
narrower sense of that term, but
equivalent to rulers, that is, king and
princes as the guardians of the law
and administrators of justice (Isa. xl,
23; Psa. ii, 10). Their kings are fallen
—By assassination; parallel to the
preceding clause. 2 Kings xv furnishes
acommentary. In all probability the
prophecy comes from the reign of
Menahem, which was preceded by
two royal assassinations, that of
Zechariah after a reign of six months
and that of Shallum after one month.
There is none among the people that
calleth unto me—“A prophetic touch to
the historical statement” which pre-
cedes. Notwithstanding the serious
condition of affairs, no one appealed
to Jehovah, who alone could bring
relief.

Isrart, Burnp In Her Fotty,
Rusoes Heaptone to Drstruc-
TION, vii, 8-16a.

Verses 8-16a connect very closely
with the last clause of verse 7, but
these verses differ so much from the
preceding in matter and form that
they may be treated as a separate
section. Instead of turning to Je-

 

hovah the people mingled with the
foreign nations, there to learn wisdom
and to find help; unaware that by
this policy they were courting certain
destruction. What a disappointment
the chosen nation has proved!
8. Ephraim—As elsewhere, Israel.
Hath mixed himself among the peo-
ple—R. V., following the Hebrew,
“peoples,” that is, the surrounding na-
tions. Israel has given up its divinely
appointed seclusion and has mingled
with the surrounding nations by
(1) adopting their customs and (2) ap-
pealing to them for help. The two
forms of apostasy were closely con-
nected, the first being the inevit-
able result of the second. The
people who had lost their faith in
Jehovah, which would prompt re-
liance upon him in political matters,
could not endure (compare Isa. vii);
their apostasy must be followed by
doom (Isa. vii, 9). A cake not turned
—tThe cake alluded to here is round
and flat, baked on a hot stone; if not
turned it burns on the bottom while
the top remains unbaked. A three-
fold interpretation of the figure is
possible. It is either a picture of
ruin—as a cake not turned is burned
on the bottom, so Israel is already
half ruined (verse 9 would furnish the
explanation); or a picture of folly and
inconsistency, like as the modern col-
loquial “half baked,” “an apt emblem
of a character full of inconsistencies”
(to this verse 11 would supply a com-
mentary); or, in the third place, a
picture of the internal condition of
the people—‘How better describe a
half-fed people, a half-cultured so-
ciety, a half-lived religion, a half-
hearted policy, than by a half-baked
scone?” Perhaps all three thoughts
were in the mind of the prophet.
Verse 9 calls attention to the blind-
ness which prevented Israel from rec-
ognizing its helpless condition. He,
CHAPTER VIL.

Ephraim is a cake not turned. 9
Strangers havedevouredhisstrength
and he knoweth i not: yea, gray
hairs are ®here and there upon fim,
yet he knoweth not. 10 And the

79

=pride of Israel testifieth to his face:
and "they do not return to the Lorp
their God, nor seek him for all this.
11 °Ephraim also is like a silly
dove without heart: pthey call to

 

1 Chap. 8.
m Chap. 5. 5.

 

7.— Heb.
13,

sprinkled,
a Isa. 9. 13.

° Chap. 11. 11.—->p See 2 Kings 15. 19;
17. 4; chaps. 5. 13; 9. 3;12. 1.

 

Ephraim, knoweth it not—Not only,
he does not understand the signifi-
cance of the calamity, but he is blind
and in absolute ignorance concerning
it. Strangers have devoured his
strength—The foreign nations, in-
stead of helping and strengthening,
have sapped his resources. If the
above-given interpretation is correct
the reference cannot be primarily to
territory lost in war, though this may
not be excluded entirely (2 Kings viii,
12; x, 32, 33; xiii, 3, 7), but to the
strength and resources lost by adopt-
ing foreign customs and entering into
alliances with foreign nations. The
introduction of foreign customs was
accompanied by moral degradation.
That immorality saps the strength of
nations needs no proof. ‘Moral decay
means political decay; sins . . . are the
gangrene of nations.” That foreign
alliances sapped the nation’s resources
is definitely stated in 2 Kings xv, 19,
20; compare xvi, 7,8. Hosea may have
had in mind the act of Menahem.
Gray hairs are here and there upon
him—Literally, are sprinkled upon
him. The nation is personified as an
individual passing through the vari-
ous stages of life (compare xi, 1; Isa.
xlvi, 4). Gray hair is an indication of
old age, of impending death and dis-
solution. To all this the nation is
blind.

The connection of verse 10 with the
preceding verse is obscure; perhaps it
is unfortunate that the verse division
was made where it now is, for 10a
closely connects with the preced-
ing, while 10b gives expression to a
new thought and logically connects
more closely with verse 11. The
pride of Israel testifieth—The proud
and arrogant attitude toward Je-
hovah, manifesting itself in blind-
ness (see on v, 5). For all this—

 

Though apparently all resources are
sapped, and the nation is rapidly ap-
proaching dissolution, they have not
returned to Jehovah nor sought him
who alone could heal and restore the
lost strength (Amos iv, 6ff.; compare
Isa. ix, 12ff.). Instead—verse 11—
like a silly dove they sought help
where not only no help could be found
but where their hurt increased. Marti
omits verse 10, but without sufficient
reason. Silly dove without heart
[‘‘understanding’”’]—The dove is cele-
brated for its simplicity and unsus-
picious nature (Matt. x, 16). An
Arabic proverb says, “There is noth-
ing more simple than a dove.”
Egypt .. . Assyria—To the action of a
silly dove is likened the policy of
Israel past and present. The point
of comparison is the absence of any
settled plan or fixed purpose. Now
they appeal to the one, now to the
other, without regard for possible
dangers. The additional thought
brought out by many commentators,
“As a dove fleeing from a hawk is
snared in the fowler’s net, so Ephraim
when afraid of Assyria calls in the
help of Egypt, and when afraid of
Egypt appeals to Assyria,” is not con-
tained in the text. Israel is seeking
to escape, not from Assyria or from
Egypt, but from its own helpless con-
dition (8, 9); in this attempt it does
not seek help from Jehovah (10), but
now from Egypt and now from As-
syria (11), as the Egyptian or the
Assyrian party may predominate.
2 Kings xv, 19, illustrates the pro-
Assyrian policy; of the pro-Egyptian
policy we have no indication in the
historical books as early as the date
of this prophecy, but compare 2 Kings
xvii, 4, which speaks of events about
a dozen years later.

12. Such policy is contrary to the
80

HOSEA.

 

Egypt, they go to Assyria. 12
When they shall go, sI will spread
my net upon them; I will bring
them down as the fowls of the heav-
en; I will chastise them, ‘as their

congregation hath heard. 13 Woe
unto them! for they have fled from
me: ‘destruction unto them! be-
cause they have transgressed against
me: though *I have redeemed them,

 

a Ezek. 12. 13. tT Lev. 26, 14, etc.;
Deut. 28. 15,etc.; 2 Kings 17. 13, 18.

 

9Heb. spotl— Mic. 6. 4.

 

will of Jehovah, therefore he will make
it of no effect; yea, he will severely
punish them for it. As they go to
Egypt or Assyria, thinking to find
relief, Jehovah will bring upon them
sudden ruin. Net—The figure of the
dove is continued. The silly dove,
Israel, will be entangled in the net of
calamity and ruin. I will bring them
down—A poetic parallel to the pre-
ceding. Just as the birds of the air
are brought down and captured by
the fowler, so Jehovah will bring
down Israel from the air of freedom
into the net of exile. The latter part
of verse 12 is obscure. As their con-
gregation hath heard—As has been
publicly proclaimed by the prophets,
for example, Amos and Hosea. The
ancient versions reproduce a different
text, and various emendations have
been proposed: Marti, “on account of
their sins,” Harper, “by the abund-
ance of their afflictions.” The Hebrew
is peculiar, but certainty as to the
original is impossible. Harper’s
transposition of “I will chastise” so
that it follows verse 10 does not im-
prove the text. That the words
might be omitted from their present
place is true; that they “furnish just
the required completion for the
thought of verse 10” is, to say the
least, doubtful, since verse 11 fur-
nishes a proper continuation of verse
10.
The announcement of judgment in
verse 12 is continued in verse 13 in
the form of a “Woe,” which is in
turn explained by the exclamation,
“destruction unto them!” There is,
indeed, no escape; their rebellion has
been too persistent. They have fled
[‘wandered”] from me—The special
sin condemned is not spiritual or
moral, but political, apostasy; in-
stead of seeking help from Jehovah

 

they have sought it from Assyria and
Egypt. As the second exclamation is
an explanation of the first, so the
second causal clause is an expan-
sion of the first. The wandering
away involved rebellion against
the rightful master. Transgressed
—Better, rebelled, or, apostatized.
The exact rendering and _inter-
pretation of 13b are uncertain.
Though I have redeemed . . . they
have spoken lies. Refers to actual past
deliverances and expressions of in-
gratitude. R. V., “though I would
redeem .. . they have spoken lies,”
emphasizes the willingness or desire
of Jehovah to redeem, which is met
by defiance. Others take the sen-
tence conditionally, “If I should re-
deem... they would only speak lies,”
or as a question of astonishment,
“And I, should I redeem them, and
they spoke only lies,” or, “when they
have spoken only lies!” A still dif-
ferent though similar rendering makes
it an exclamation of astonishment,
“And I redeem them when they have
spoken only lies!” The Hebrew per-
mits any one of these renderings;
the context must determine the cor-
rect one. Verse 14 makes it probable
that “they have spoken lies” refers to
an act of the past. As to the preced-

ing clause it would seem, in view of

the apparently unconditional an-
nouncement of judgment, that one
of the last two interpretations must
be accepted. Between the two there
is little to choose. The words are a
reply to a possible objection on the
part of the people that destruction
would be unjust; they set forth the
truth that divine displeasure is well
deserved. Additional justification is
offered in verse 14—they have never
sought Jehovah in sincerity. Spoken
lies—In saying by word or deed that
CHAPTER VII.

81

 

yet they have spoken lies against
me. 14 tAnd they have not cried
unto me with their heart, when they
howled upon their beds: they as-
semble themselves for corn and

wine, and they rebel against me.
15 Though I have bound and
strengthened their arms, yet do
they imagine mischief against
me. 16 "They return, but not

 

t Job 35. 9,10; Psa. 78. 36; Jer. 3. 10;
Zech, 7. 5.

10 Or, chastened.

 

uChap. 11. 7.

 

Jehovah was unwilling or unable to
help (Isa. xliv, 8); they surely did not
know God (compare iv, 6). Not cried
unto me with their heart—The people
had not ceased entirely to worship
Jehovah, or to call upon him, but
their petitions were insincere; they
did not come from the heart (Isa.
xxix, 13). Howled upon their beds—
In distress and despair they roll upon
their beds unable to sleep. Since 14b
refers to attempts to secure the favor
and good will of Jehovah by acts of
worship, the howling would better be
connected with religious celebrations,
perhaps the howling connected with
sacrificial feasts (Amos v, 23); for
“bed”? we must then read ‘‘divans,”
or “couches,” upon which they re-
clined during their meals. A simple
emendation would give “beside their
altars,” which is accepted by some
commentators. Other emendations
are less satisfactory. Assemble them-
selves—The derivation, and therefore
also the meaning of the Hebrew verb
form, is uncertain. The English
translation suggests a gathering to-
gether in solemn assembly at the
sanctuary for the purpose of implor-
ing Jehovah for a rich harvest.
Another possible rendering is, they
excite themselves, that is, in connec-
tion with the worship. LXX. presents
a different text; changing one con-
sonant, 4, into another, 7, it reads,
“they cut themselves’ (compare
1 Kings xviii, 28; Deut. xiv, 1; Jer.
xvi, 6, etc.). In some way this self-
mutilation, condemned by the re-
ligious leaders of Israel, was thought
to secure the divine favor. Whatever
the exact meaning of the word, the
prophet evidently speaks of some
selfish efforts connected with the
heartless worship to secure material
blessings from Jehovah. They rebel

 

against me—Notwithstanding their
religious zeal, they are rebels against
Jehovah’s majesty.

15, 16. Neither judgment nor the
divine mercy produced repentance
or loyalty to Jehovah. Bound—Bet-
ter, R. V., “taught” (Isa. xxviii, 26;
Prov. xxxi, 1); margin, “chastened.”
The object, their arms, in Hebrew
goes with both verbs; chasten, there-
fore, gives no suitable sense, “taught”
or “trained” is better; perhaps a ref-
erence to divine help in war (2 Kings
xiv, 27; compare Psa. xviii, 34); or
perhaps only a figurative expression
for restoration of prosperity. By
such help Jehovah expected to win
the hearts of the people, but he failed.
Symmachus, an early Greek trans-
lator, gives a different sense to the
passage by reading after the first
verb the pronoun, “I chastened
them,” that is, by the judgment im-
plied in verse 14; he understands only
the second verb as calling attention to
the giving of prosperity. Whether
Jehovah sent calamity or prosperity
the people persisted in rebellion.
LXX. omits the first verb; it makes
verse 14 refer, by implication, to one
method of God’s dealings, chastise-
ment; verse 15 to the other, loving-
kindness. In any case the thought
expressed remains the same, the com-
plete failure of Jehovah to win the
affections of the people. J—Em-
phatic in the original: “Though it
was J that taught... .” They im-
agine—R. V., “devise.” Mischief
against me—Not an accurate repro-
duction of the original. “With regard
to me they think,” or, even better,
“they keep thinking evil.” Verse 13
implies that the people had false con-
ceptions of Jehovah; here the same
complaint finds expression. No mat-
ter what Jehovah does, the people
82

HOSEA.

 

to the most High: they are like
a deceitful bow: their princes shall
fall by the sword for the vrage

= Psa. 78. 57.-—Y Psa. 73. 9.

of their tongue: this shall be
their derision ‘in the land of
Egypt.

* Chap. 9. 3, 6.

 

fail to understand him, they continue
to think evil of him. The strongest
evidence of the truth of this accusa-
tion is their disregard for Jehovah
while they appeal to Assyria and
Egypt. They return—Better, turn.
While not recognizing fully the hope-
lessness of their condition, they see
enough to be persuaded that they
need help; to secure it they turn
hither and thither; where they finally
decide to seek it is stated in verse 11.
Not to the most High—R. V., “not to
him that is on high,” that is, Jehovah
(verse 10; compare xi, 7). The He-
brew is obscure; a more literal ren-
dering, upward, would express _prac-
tically the same thought. LXX. and
Peshitto apparently transpose two
words and read “unto not’—that is,
unto that which is not, namely, idols
—which would be a good continua-
tion of verse 15. Concerning Jehovah
they think evil, therefore to the idols
—the Baalim—they turn (compare
especially chapter ii). Unto not,
which is a peculiar expression, is
thought by some to be an intentional
substitution for “unto Baal’ or “unto
Baals” (see on ii, 16), which is con-
sidered original. They are like a
deceitful bow—A bow which is ex-
pected to shoot in one direction but
disappoints by sending the arrow in
another, and thus fails to accomplish
its purpose (Psa. Ixxviii, 57). Israel
has proved a painful disappointmentto
Jehovah (compare Isa. v, 1-7). 16b is
more closely connected with viii, 1-3.

IMMINENCE OF THE JUDGMENT IN THE
Form or an Invasion, vii, 16b—
viii, 3.

Israel has proved a disappointment;
defiantly it persists in rebellion, there-
fore judgment has become inevitable
—indeed, it is rapidly approaching.
Chapter vii, 16b-viii, 3, deals with
the crisis that is imminent. The deep

 

emotion of the prophet is indicated
by the rapidity with which he moves
from one thought to another. Their
princes shall fall—All the eighth cen-
tury prophets insist that the ruling
classes are largely to blame for the
prevalent corruption, therefore the
first blow will fall upon them. Rage
of their tongue—The word translated
rage has received various translations
and interpretations: roughness, de-
ception, boasting, mockery, skepticism,
tnsolence, bitterness, etc. The most
satisfactory is probably ‘‘insolence,”’
that is, toward Jehovah. “The root
meaning is to make «a grumbling
sound, like an irritated camel.” They
have taken an insolent attitude to-
ward Jehovah, hence he must vindi-
cate himself by their overthrow.
This—The overthrow of the princes.
Their derision in the land of Egypt—
Their false friends in the land of
Egypt will laugh at them in scorn.
Why the reference to Egypt? The
eighth century prophets saw in As-
syria the divinely commissioned exe-
cutioner of judgment; the sword,
therefore, should probably be under-
stood as the sword of Assyria. During
the same period the policy of Egypt
was to incite, by promises of support,
rebellion against Assyria among the
nations throughout Syria and Pales-
tine. The scheme was to keep the
Assyrian armies busy, and thus pre-
vent their advance against Egypt.
Trusting in Egyptian promises, the
nations frequently rebelled, but in
the hour of need Egypt usually failed
her allies; she looked on, laughing,
while the nations suffered for their
folly. This the prophet declares will
happen now. It is quite possible that
just at this time the Egyptian party
in Israel was becoming prominent,
favoring an alliance with Egypt and
the throwing off of the obligations
assumed by Menahem. New foreign
CHAPTER VIII.

83

 

CHAPTER VIII.
HT »the trumpet to !thy mouth.
He shall come *as an eagle
against the house of the Lorp, be-
cause they have transgressed my

covenant, and trespassed against
my law. 2 ‘Israel shall cry unto
me, My God, ewe know thee. 3 Is-
rael hath cast off the thing that is
good: the enemy shall pursue him.

 

© Chap. 5. 8.—1! Heb. the roof of thy
mouth.—> Deut. 28. 49; Jer. 4.13; Hab. 1.8.

e Chap. 6. 7.—4 Psa. 78. 34; chap. 5. 15.
—~ Titus 1. 16.

 

entanglements the prophet condemns;
he announces the speedy advance of
Assyria, describes the overthrow of
the vacillating princes, and pictures
the derision with which Egypt will
watch the humiliation of Israel.
There is not sufficient reason for re-
garding “this shall be their derision”
as a gloss, and for connecting “in the
land of Egypt” with the preceding,
so as to read, ‘“ The insolence of their
tongue in the land of Egypt’”’—that is,
the insolence manifesting itself in the
negotiations carried on with Egypt.

CHAPTER, VIII.

After this general announcement
the prophet proceeds to call atten-
tion to the imminence of the judg-
ment (viii, 1), to describe the terror
that will befall Israel (2), and to point
out the futility of the appeal for de-
liverance (3). Set the trumpet to thy
mouth—Literally, to thy palate the
horn. Palate is equivalent to mouth
(as in Job viii, 7; Prov. v, 3, etc.). On
horn see on v, 8. The appeal is to the
watchman to give the signal of alarm
because the enemy is approaching
(compare Amos iii, 6). The second
exclamation is, literally, “As an eagle
against the house of Jehovah.” The
thought is evidently that the enemy,
on account of whose approach the
signal is to be sounded, is coming
with the swiftness of an eagle, or
vuiture (see on Mic. i, 16). Well-
hausen suggests to read—without
any change in the consonants apart
from a different division—‘for’” or
“because” an eagle (comes against
the house of Jehovah), instead of
“as” an eagle; thus bringing out the
causal relation existing between the
first and the second clauses. G. A.
Smith adds the pertinent comment,
“Where the carcass is, there are the

 

eagles gathered together.” As al-
ready suggested, the enemy is un-
doubtedly the Assyrian (compare Jer.
xlix, 22; Ezek. xvii, 3). House of
Jehovah—Not as commonly, the
temple, but, as in ix, 15, the land of
Israel. A similar expression, house of
Omri, equivalent to land of Omri, is
found in the Assyrian inscriptions.
1b sums up the accusations against
Israel, thus supplying the reasons for
the advance of the executioner.
Covenant—Since it stands in parallel-
ism with law it is probably equivalent
to ordinance (Jer. xi, 6); these ordi-
nances were based on the covenant
established between Jehovah and Is-
rael at Mount Sinai. Law—See on
iv, 6. The impending doom will drive
the people to Jehovah, temporarily at
least; in their calamity they will cry
unto Jehovah.

2. The reading of the R. V. is to be
preferred, “They shall cry unto me,
My God, we Israel know thee.” Such
attitude will be in great contrast to
their former turning from Jehovah;
but when no other help is near they will
remind him that they belong to him,
and this relationship they will urge as
a reason why he should help them
(compare Isa. xliii, 1). My God—
Each individual cries; the singular
passes into the plural, including the
whole nation. Wellhausen, disre-
garding the accents and slightly al-
tering the text, gets this translation,
“To me they cry, My God! but I
(Jehovah) know thee, O Israel.” And
knowing their true character he will
permit justice to have her way. The
time of mercy is past. 3. Israel hath
cast off the thing that [that which’’]
is good—Everything for which Je-
hovah stands; yea, Jehovah himself
(compare Amos v, 4, 6, 14). Cast off
—A strong word, to cast off with loath-
84

HOSEA.

 

4 ‘They have set up kings, but not
by me: they have made princes, and
I knew it not: sof their silver

{2 Kings 15. 13,17, 25; Shallum, Men-

ang. Now they must suffer the con-
sequences; the enemy will execute
judgment. The enemy shall pursue
him—May also be rendered, let the
enemy pursue him, expressing the de-
cision of Jehovah that the enemy is
to be allowed to proceed unhindered.

IsRAEL’s POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS
Practices AN ABOMINATION TO JE-
HOVAG, viii, 4-14.

In verse 4 the prophet renews his
attack upon Israel. The political
revolutions are rebellion against Je-
hovah (4); their idolatry is an abom-
ination to him (4-6); they must reap
what they have sown (7); their ap-
peals to foreign nations will not save
them (8-10). Once more he con-
demns their religious practices, and
the section closes with a threat of
judgment (11-14).

4. They have set up kings, but not
by me—Some understand this passage
as a condemnation of the kingship in
general; others, of the division of the
kingdom after the death of Solomon,
which led to the election of kings not
of the dynasty of David; still others
connect it with the chaotic condition
subsequent to the death of Jeroboam
II, when royal assassinations became
quite common. The last interpreta-
tion is the most probable, for the
prophet seems to be concerned with
the present and immediate past rather
than with events which occurred
centuries before his time. As in
chapter vii, the prophet condemns
the present condition of politics.
Princes—Nobles (iii, 4; vii, 3, etc.).
It seems to have been customary in
connection with the royal assassina-
tions to make « clean sweep, to de-
stroy the entire royal family and
court. With the new king a new set
of nobles came to the front. Knew—
The divine knowledge is not abstract;
it involves approval or disapproval,

 

and their gold have they made
them idols, that they may be cut
off.

ahem, Pekahiah.——s Chaps. 2. 8; 13. 2.

loving care or abandonment; here
equivalent to I did not approve (com-
pare Psa. i, 6; Job ix, 21).

As their political practices are an
abomination to Jehovah so also their
religious practices, culminating in
idolatry. They made them idols—
Though in verse 5 the ‘“‘calf of Sa-
maria” is specified—the bulls set up
by Jeroboam I in Beth-el and Dan
(1 Kings xii, 28, 29)—there can be no
doubt that Hosea is condemning the
idolatrous worship in general which
was one result of the close contact
between the Israelites and the Canaan-
ites. Here for the first time in pro-
phetic discourse we meet hostility to
images. From the silence of the earlier
prophets, Elijah, Elisha, and Amos,
the inference has been drawn that
they did not disapprove of them, and
the further inference that the Deca-
logue, found in Exod. xx and Deut. v,
with its prohibition of image worship,
was not known at or before this time.
It is doubtful, however, whether these
inferences are warranted. Every crisis
in Israel called forth a prophet. Every
prophet arose to meet a particular
crisis. The earlier prophets were
raised up to meet certain crises,
serious in their own day and genera-
tion, and to these they gave exclusive
attention. Their silence on other
matters proves only that, with more
important affairs in hand, they
thought it wise to leave others for
their successors. The earlier prophets
were concerned with having Jehoveh
recognized as the supreme God;
others might portray his nature
and character. The representation of
Jehovah by images was not a denial
of his supremacy, though it was due
to a misapprehension of his spiritual
nature; the emphasis of the lattr
might well wait until the former was
more generally recognized. That
they may be cut off—The Hebrew
CIIAPTER VIII.

85

 

5 Thy calf, O Samaria, hath cast
thee off; mine anger is kindled
against them: how long will it be
ere they attain to innocency? 6
For from Israel was it also: the
workman made it; therefore it is

not God: but the calf of Samaria
shall be broken in pieces. 7 For
ithey have sown the wind, and the
shall reap the whirlwind: it hat
no ’stalk: the bud shall yield no
meal: if so be it yield, ‘the strangers

 

h Jer. 13, 27.—i Prov. 22. 8; chap.
10, 12, 13.

2 Or, standing corn.—* Chap. 7. 9.

 

verb is in the singular; LXX. reads
the plural, which may be original.
Some interpret these words as re-
ferring to the people. Since Israel did
know, or at least could have known,
better, their idolatrous practices were
evidence that they were determined
upon their own destruction. It
seems better, however, to understand
the words as referring to the idols;
they make them only to be destroyed
again. 5. Thy calf, O Samaria, hath
cast thee off—R. V., ‘He hath cast
off thy calf, O Samaria.”’ The latter
is a more accurate reproduction of the
Hebrew, and gives better sense; but
when taken with the context a dif_i-
culty remains; for the context sug-
gests that Jehovah is the speaker, so
that we would expect “JI have cast
off.” The addition of one single con-
sonant to the verb form, with cor-
responding vowel changes, produces
this reading. The emendation be-
comes unnecessary if the verb is given
an intransitive meaning: ‘“Abomina-
ble is thy calf.” Calf is a contemptu-
ous designation of the bulls set up
in Dan and Beth-el, and perhaps in
Samaria, though the expression used
here does not necessarily imply the
presence of such calf in the capital,
Samaria; the name of the capital may
be used instead of the name of the
country, Israel. Throughout the en-
tire section the sentences follow one
another in rapid succession without
indication of the logical connection.
The righteous anger of Jehovah is
aroused, therefore he must make an
end of the calf. How long will it be
ere they attain to innocency?—An ex-
clamation prompted by disappoint-
ment and sympathy. The exact force
of the words “they attain to inno-
cency” is disputed. The literal trans-

 

lation, “how long will they be
incapable of innocency,” seems to
come nearer to the real thought. The
persistent idolatry reveals their in-
capacity for something better. Is
this condition to continue forever?
6. From Israel was it also [is even
this’|—What? Evidently the calf of
verse 5. In its establishment Jehovah
had no part; it is the work of Israel;
therefore the former has cast it off.
To join this clause more closely with
5a, 5b is transposed by some so as
to stand before verse 5, and 5c is ex-
plained as a later gloss. Since the
idol is made by human hands it can
be no God (R. V.)—These words
imply that the people identify the
image with the deity. To show its
impotence it will be broken to pieces.

Under the figures of sowing, grow-
ing, and reaping (compare x, 12, 13)
the prophet pictures once more, in
verse 7, the destruction of Israel.
“Whatsoever a man soweth, that
shall he also reap” (Gal. vi, 7).
Wind—A picture of vain, unprofitable
conduct. The harvest will be whirl-
wind—Not only will they derive no
benefit from their conduct, it will
result in actual destruction. Of the
sentences following G. A. Smith says,
“Indeed, like a storm Hosea’s own
language now sweeps along, and his
metaphors are torn in shreds upon
it.’ It hath no stalkk—R. V., “he
hath no standing grain.” The figure
differs slightly from the preceding.
Israel is pictured as sowing corn,
but it withers before the stalk de-
velops. A. V. is to be preferred.
The bud [“blade’’] shall yield no meal
—Even if the stalk forms it will yield
no grain from which meal might be
made. Should it bring forth grain
Israel will not be benefited, for
86

HOSEA.

 

shall swallow it up. 8 ‘Israel is
swallowed up: now shall they be
among the Gentiles as a vessel
wherein is no pleasure. 9 For "they

12 Kings 17. 6.— Jer. 22. 28; 48. 38.
n 2 Kings 15. 19.

 

strangers shall seize it. Nothing but
disappointment and ruin is ahead of
the nation.

In verses 8-11 the prophet, in a
sense, corrects himself. In verse 7
he has said that the destruction is
sure to come, but as he looks upon
the nation he sees that ruin is already
present, and he cries out in agony,
Israel is swallowed up—Foreigners
have already begun to devour the
nation (vii, 8, 9); complete destruc-
tion is only a question of time. Now
shall they be—Better, R. V., “now
are they”; the prophet is describing
a present situation. A vessel wherein
is no pleasure [“none delighteth’’}—
A worthless vessel. Its resources have
been sapped (vii, 9) by greedy na-
tions; now it is cast aside like a vessel
for which there is no further use (Jer.
xxii, 28; xlviii, 38). In illustrating
this phrase Thomson speaks of the
readiness with which pottery is cast
away in the East: “The coarse pottery
of the country is so cheap that even
poor people cast it away in contempt,
or dash it to pieces on the slightest
occasion.”

What has caused this condition of
affairs? Their own stubbornness.
9. They were determined to mingle
among the nations, and these proved
their destruction. Of the nations one
is singled out. Gone up to Assyria—
For assistance (vii, 11). A wild ass
alone by himself—To be taken with
the preceding words; it is a descrip-
tion of Israel’s foreign policy. The
point of comparison is obstinacy
(Gen. xvi, 12; Job xxxix, 5-8). Wild
asses ordinarily move in droves, but
sometimes a single animal, resisting
the gregarious instinct, will run away
and thus expose itself to danger. Is-
rael has been warned again and
again, but resisting all warnings is
determined to have its own way,

 

to Assyria, °a wild ass
alone by himself: Ephraim hath
hired ‘lovers. 10 Yea, though they
have hired among the nations, now

are gone wu,

o Jer. 2. 24.» Isa, 30. 6; Ezek. 16. 33,
34. 3 Heb. loves.

 

whatever the consequences. Ephraim
hath hired lovers—Literally, loves. In
the Hebrew there is a play upon
words, the original for wild ass and
for Ephraim being similar in sound.
The reference is apparently to the
gifts sent by Ephraim (Israel) to se-
cure the friendship of Assyria or
Egypt (vii, 11; xii, 1). LXX. has a
different reading, but it is no improve-
ment over the Hebrew. Various
emendations have been proposed;
for example, “Ephraim gives love
gifts,” which requires but a very
slight alteration. To restore the
parallelism, as in vii, 11, and xii, 1,
some read “Egypt” in the place of
“Ephraim”: “To Egypt they give
love-gifts.” The thought is not al-
tered by these emendations.

Of verse 10 it has been said, ‘No
single word of this entire verse is of
certain meaning.” As a result trans-
lations have been many and emenda-
tions not a few. The most recent
commentators, Marti and Harper, re-
lieve the situation by rejecting the
verse as a later gloss, but for this
there are no adequate reasons. For
10a, unless the text is changed, the
interpretation suggested by the Eng-
lish versions, especially R. V.,
“though they hire among the nations,”
seems the most satisfactory. Though
they may succeed to some extent in
gaining the support of the nations, Je-
hovah cannot permit the present
policy to continue, for its continua-
tion would frustrate completely the
purpose of Jehovah for Israel. Now
will I gather them—lIsrael, not the
nations. Israel is to be gathered in
like a flock, which is put in the fold to
prevent the wandering of the sheep.
They are to be put under restraint,
their reckless negotiations are to be
interrupted. Thus Jehovah may yet
be able to teach Israel his ways. What
CHAPTER VIII.

87

 

owill I gather them, and they
shall ‘sorrow a little for the burden
of ‘the king of princes. 11 Because

Ephraim hath made "many altars
to sin, altars shall be unto him to
sin. 12 I have written to him ‘the

 

a Ezek. 16. 37; chap. 10. 10,——4 Or,
begin,—* Or, in a litile while, as Hag.

r Jsa. 10. 8; Ezek. 26. 7; Dan. 2. 37.
s Chap. 12. 11.—+ Deut. 4. 6, 8; Psa. 119,
18; 147. 19, 20.

 

the method of restraint will be is not
stated, but the next sentence indi-
cates that the prophet has in mind
an exile. 10b is even more difficult.
And they shall sorrow a little for the
burden of the king of princes—R. V.,
“and they begin to be diminished by
reason of the burden of the king of
princes.” Margin, R. V., goes back
to A. V. With either translation the
sense seems to be that Israel, when
under restraint, will suffer from the
burdens imposed by the king of
princes—the king of Assyria (com-
pare Isa. x, 8). In the inscriptions
the Assyrian kings frequently call
themselves “king of kings.” The
translations do not agree as to the
derivation of the verb; A. V. derives
it from a verb to sorrow, to be sick, to
suffer pain, while R. V. traces it to a
verb begin, to which Von Orelli gives
the additional meaning, release, re-
lieve. As the form is written in the
great majority of the Hebrew manu-
scripts the translation of R. V. is to
be preferred. The policy of oppres-
sion practiced by the conquerors will
diminish the prosperity and numbers
of Israel. Why “begin”? A smoother
reading, requiring but few changes in
the original, is afforded by LXX.: “and
they shall cease for a little while from
the anointing of a king and of princes.”
While the exile lasts they will be com-
pelled to be without their own rulers
(iii, 4; compare xiii, 10). This threat
is exceedingly appropriate here, and
it is quite probable that LXX. has
preserved the original text. What
contrast to the ease with which they
now place kings upon the throne!
(viii, 4.)

Verse 11 introduces the justifica-
tion for the threat of judgment, which
is repeated in 13b., The substitution
of a cold, formal ceremonial for obe-
dience to the divine requirements is

 

responsible for the downfall. The
present text is made somewhat cum-
bersome by the presence of the first
“for sinning,” or “to sin.” To remove
the difficulty some read in its place
“to make atonement,” which requires
but a slight change in the vocaliza-
tion of the verb form. Ephraim made
the altars for purposes of atonement,
but their purposes have become per-
verted. This is an improvement, but
it is more likely that the first “for
sinning” has come into the text
through the carelessness of a copyist,
whose eyes lighted accidentally upon
the end of the second part of the
verse, and that it should be omitted.
With this omission the verse may be
translated, “For though Ephraim
made many altars, they have become
to him altars for sinning.”” The com-
mon notion was that the offering of
sacrifice was sufficient to win the di-
vine favor; the more numerous the
altars the greater the divine pleasure.
This false notion the prophet attacks
(Isa. i, 11ff.; Amos v, 21ff.); the altars
have only increased Israel’s guilt.
How? Chapter iv, 12ff., supplies the
answer.

Verse 12 also is full of difficulties.
The translation itself is uncertain.
R. V. differs from A. V. only in read-
ing “the ten thousand things” instead
of “the great things”; the latter is in
accord with the Masoretic suggestion,
the former follows the Hebrew text;
in this R. V. is preferable. For “my
law” LXX. and Vulgate read “my
laws,” which is probably original. To
get this reading no change in the con-
sonantal text is required. The trans-
lation of the tenses also is uncertain;
LXX. and Vulgate have the future,
Targum and Peshitto the past. The
first verb in Hebrew is an imperfect,
which expresses a variety of ideas
but always implies incompleteness.
88

HOSEA.

 

great things of my law, but they

ere counted as a strange thing.
13 " °They sacrifice flesh for the sac-
rifices of mine offerings, and eat it;
xbut the LoRD accepteth them not;

ynow will he remember their iniqui-
ty, and visit their sins: :they shall
return to Egypt. 14 *For Israel
hath forgotten this Maker, and
cbuildeth temples; and Judah hath

 

uJer. 7.21; Zech. 7. 6.—® Or, In the sac-
rifices of mine offerings they, etc.——* Jer.
14. 10, 12; chaps. 5. 6; 9. 4; Amos 5. 22.

y Chap. 9. 9; Amos 8. 7. 2 Deut. 28. 68;
chaps. 9. 3, 6; 11. 5.——® Deut. 32. 18.—
bisa. 29. 28; Eph. 2. 10. ¢ 1Kings 12. 31.

 

 

 

Here the verb might be rendered,
(1) “I did write’ (and am writing
still); (2) “I will write’; (8) “I am
writing,” or “I am wont to write’;
(4) “I did write repeatedly”; (5) it
might be hypothetical, “Were I to
write,” or (6) concessive, “Though I
wrote,” or “Though I should write.”
Which of these is the proper trans-
lation? Naturally, commentators dis-
agree. To the present writer the
choice seems to lie between (5) and
(6), and of these (6) seems the more
probable; and of the two possible
renderings the former seems more in
accord with the context. If this
translation is accepted the whole
verse will read: “Though I wrote for
him the ten thousand of my laws,
they were counted as strange things,”’
or ‘as those of a stranger.’’ The mis-
conduct of Israel is not due to ignor-
ance; Jehovah gave instruction con-
tinuously, but his laws were con-
sidered as something foreign, and
therefore of no authority. Ten thou-
sand or myriads is not to be under-
stood literally; it simply means a
great number. On daw see comment
on iv, 6. The passage certainly im-
plies the existence of written laws,
but it does not prove the existence of
the entire Pentateuchal legislation.
On the contrary, the context seems to
indicate that the laws did not deal to
any great extent with the ceremonial
or with sacrifice; of these Hosea
speaks very lightly. He seems to
emphasize rather the moral and civil
legislation, such as is found, for ex-
ample, in Exod. xxi-xxiii.

In verse 13 the prophet returns to
the religious practices. They sacri-
fice flesh for the sacrifices of mine
offerings, and eat it—R. V., “As for
the sacrifices of mine offerings, they

 

sacrifice flesh and eat it.” The latter
follows the Hebrew text more closely.
The word translated ‘mine offerings”
occurs only here; its meaning is not
quite certain, though it comes prob-
ably from a root to give. Sacrifices of
mine offerings is ordinarily interpreted
as equivalent to my sacrificial offer-
ings, and, unless we assume a corrup-
tion of the text, this is the best inter-
pretation. These sacrifices, consist-
ing of flesh, are offered, but Jehovah
does not care for them, since the
right disposition is wanting and the
givers neglect the weightier matters.
Therefore “the only positive result is
that the sacrificer has the luxury of a
dinner of fresh meat” (compare iv, 8).
The whole is a condemnation of the
heartless religious practices. The
measure is full. The blood of the
sacrificial animals cannot blot out
their sins; he will remember them
and will proceed to execute the judg-
ment, which will take the form of an
exile. They shall return to Egypt—
The house of their former bondage.
The mention of Egypt could not but
suggest the sufferings of the early
Israelites, but it is hardly correct to
regard Egypt here as “merely a type
of the land of bondage” (Keil), and
thus to interpret the reference as a
“poetic expression for captivity in
general.” The prophet undoubtedly
intended the words to be understood
as predicting an exile in Egypt (com-
pare ix, 3, 6; xi, 5). The Israelites ap-
pealed, now to Assyria, now to Egypt;
these very nations will prove the
ruin of Israel (compare Isa. vii, 18;
xi, 11, ete.).

Verse 14 sums up the cause of it all.
Israel hath forgotten his Maker—This
is the root of all evil (see on ii, 20),
but especially of the false policy which
CHAPTER IX.

89

 

multiplied fenced cities: but ¢I will
send a iire upon his cities, and it
shall devour the palaces thereof.

CHAPTER IX.
EJOICE not, O Israel, for joy,
as other people: for thou «hast

 

4 Jer. 17. 27; Amos 2. 5.

a Chaps. 4, 12; 5. 4, 7.

 

could see help only in human defenses,
and which led them to seek help
among the surrounding nations and
build temples—Better, with R. V.,
“palaces,” or “castles,” in parallelism
with fenced [‘‘fortified”] cities—The
building of palaces and fortified cities,
as such, is not condemned by the
prophet. What he does condemn is
the fact that in these, and these alone,
the people put their trust, to the ab-
solute disregard of Jehovah. The
latter will vindicate himself by ut-
terly destroying the human defenses.
Fire—War (as in Amos i, 4-ii, 5).
14b seems to be dependent upon
Amos (i, 4, 7, etc.), who prophesied
about twenty years earlier. Hosea
might, therefore, have been ac-
quainted with the words of the earlier
prophet. Most modern commenta-
tors consider verse 14 an addition.
The reasons for this opinion are
summed up by Harper: (1) The refer-
ence to Judah is not called for;
(2) the style resembles that of Amos
rather than that of Hosea; (3) the
natural conclusion of the discourse is in
verse 13, hence verse 14 only weakens
the climax; (4) the thought of Je-
hovah as Israel’s Creator is unex-
pected in Hosea’s time; (5) the verse
is superfluous in the strophic system.
Whether or not these reasons are
conclusive against Hosea’s authorship
of verse 14 each one must decide for
himself.

CHAPTER IX.

Tur Present Resorcine ofr IsraEL
CoNTRASTED WITH THE DESPAIR OF
THE Exits, 1-9.

Chapter ix, 1, marks a new begin-
ning. The prophet beholds the re-
joicing of the people at harvest time,
perhaps at a joyous religious festival.
Rejoicing at such a time is perfectly
natural, but, judging from chapter ii,

 

much of the celebration, though nom-
inally in recognition of Jehovah’s
goodness, was in reality in honor of
the Baalim. This the prophet cannot
endure. He warns the people not to
be too exuberant (1), for the occasions
of rejoicing will soon cease. On ac-
count of their apostasy Jehovah will
withdraw his blessings (2); yea, they
will be carried into exile (3), where,
upon an unclean land, joyful religious
feasts can be celebrated no longer
(4, 5); their own land will become a
wilderness (6). After announcing the
impending doom the prophet points
out once more the moral and spiritual
apostasy responsible for the judgment

1. Rejoice not—The occasion of the
exhortation is probably the noisy cele-
bration of a harvest festival. Harvest
time has always been a season of re-
joicing (Isa. ix, 3); for, on the one
hand, a rich harvest insures prosper-
ity, on the other, it is a sign of the
divine favor, for which people desired
to express their appreciation and grati-
tude. Why does the prophet oppose
the celebration? (1) Because it is
like the celebrations of other people
—That is, of the surrounding nations;
literally, the peoples, which, Well-
hausen suggests, is here used for the
first time in prophetic language in the
sense of heathen. Among “the na-
tions” these celebrations were noisy
and wild, accompanied by all manner
of excesses; but this revelry was out
of harmony with the prophet’s lofty
and spiritual conception of the re-
ligion of Jehovah. (2) 1b makes it
plain that, though nominally the fes-
tival may have been held in the name
of Jehovah (verse 4), the chief credit
for the blessings of harvest was given
to the Baalim (compare ii, 5-8); to
this also the Jehovah prophet must
take exception. For joy—Literally,
unto rejoicing—too loudly. LXX,
90

HOSEA.

 

pone a whoring from thy God, thou
ast loved a breward 'upon every
cornfloor. 2 °The floor and the
2winepress shall not feed them, and

the new wine shall fail in her. 3
They shall not dwell in ‘the Lorp’s
land; ‘but Ephraim shall return to
Egypt, and ‘they shall eat unclean

 

b Jer. 44. 17; chap. 2. 12.—1 Or, in,
etc.—° Chap. 2. 9, 12.— Or, winefat.

 

4 Lev. 25. 23; Jer. 2. 7; 16. 18.—-e Chaps.
8. 13; 11. 5.—f Ezek. 4. 13; Dan. 1. 8.

 

reads “exult not,” which would re-
store the parallelism.

1b is to be connected with verse 2,
setting forth the cause of the judg-
ment. The connection may be ex-
pressed, “Because thou hast gone a
whoring from thy God, (because) thou
hast loved a reward upon every
cornfloor, (therefore) the (threshing)
floor . . shall not feed them.”
Gone a whoring [played the har-
lot’”’] from thy God—In a spiritual
sense (see on ii, 2-5). Loved a
reward [“hire’}—Literally, harlot’s
hire (i, 12). Upon every cornfloor—
There are stored the blessings of
harvest, which are received as gifts
from the Baalim. To recognize them as
such would oblige the Israelites to
worship these Canaanitish deities,
but to worship these would imply
faithlessness to Jehovah; and any-
thing received from the Baalim which
might induce the Israelites to play
spiritual harlot to Jehovah could be
called harlot’s hire. This they were
fond of, else they would not have
been so enthusiastic in their worship.
2. Faithlessness to Jehovah will be
punished by a withdrawal of the di-
vine gifts (ii, 9). Wine press—The
Hebrew word denotes not the press in
which the grapes are pressed out, but
the receptacle into which flows the
juice after the grapes are crushed (see
on Joel ii, 24). Threshing floor—
where the grain is stored as well as
threshed out—and winepress stand
for grain and wine. New wine—See
on iv, 11. Feed them—LXX., with a
change of one consonant, “know
them.” Fail in her—Better R. V.,
“fail her,” that is, Israel. The change
to a feminine pronoun would have to
be explained by the representation of
Israel as a harlot (iv, 19). It should
be noted, however, that all the ver-
sions read the plural, as in the first

 

clause. Changes from the second per-
son (verse 1) to the third person
(verse 2) are not uncommon in
prophetic discourse. For the thought
compare Amos v, 11; Isa. v, 10.

The manner in which Jehovah will
execute the judgment is indicated in
verse 3. Israel is to be removed from
the land. Egypt—See on viii, 13.
The other power upon which Israel
relies for help, Assyria (vii, 11;
viii, 9), will also be a means of Israel’s
destruction. Jehovah’s land—The
land in which Israel now dwells.
So long as primitive religious con-
ceptions prevailed in Israel Pales-
tine was thought to be the land
of Jehovah in much the same
sense in which Moab was the land of
Chemosh or Ammon the land of Mil-
com (Judg. xi, 23, 24). Outside of
Israel Jehovah was powerful only as
he went to the assistance of his peo-
ple Israel against another people and
its deity. Even to David exile from
the land meant inability to worship
Jehovah (1 Sam. xxvi, 19; compare
Jonah i, 3). The eighth century
prophets had a broader conception of
Jehovah; he controlled other nations
as well as Israel (Amos i, 3-ii, 3; ix,
7), though they never ceased to be-
lieve that Jehovah had a peculiar
interest in the Hebrews. Neverthe-
less, in several places passages are
found which imply that the common
people continued to cling to the nar-
rower view. Thus may be explained
the latter part of this verse. Unclean
things [‘‘food’”’}—Not food which was
per se ceremonially unclean, but food
which was unclean because the land
in which it was eaten was unclean
(Amos vii, 17; Ezek. iv, 18); and the
land was unclean because Jehovah
could not properly be worshiped there
(compare 2 Kings v, 17).

To a people so scrupulous about the
CHAPTER IX.

91

 

things sin Assyria. 4 »They shall
not offer wine offerings to the Lorn,
ineither shall they be pleasing unto
him: ‘their sacrifices shall be unto
them as the bread of mourners; all
that eat thereof shall be polluted:

for their bread 'for their soul shall
not come into the house of the Lorp.
5 What will ye do in =the solemn
day, and in the day of the feast of
the Lorp? 6 For, lo, they are gone
because of ‘destruction :"Egypt shall

 

&2 Kings 17. 6; chap. 11. 11.——) Chap.
3. 4.——i Jer. 6. 20; chap. 8. 13.

k Deut. 26. 14.—! Lev. 17. 11.—™ Chap. 2.
11.-— Heb. spotl—-» Verse 3; chap. 6.

 

fulfillment of the ceremonial require-
ments one of the greatest calamities
of life in exile would be the inability
to continue properly the external
forms of worship. This calamity the
prophet brings before them in vivid
colors in verse 4. Whether the
prophet himself shared the common
notion, or whether he simply used
these expressions because they would
present the climax of calamity to the
minds of those whom he was anxious
to influence, is not made clear; that
Hosea conceived of the sway of Je-
hovah as extending over nations out-
side of Israel cannot, be doubted.
Offer [‘‘pour out’’] wine offerings to
Jehovah—Drink offerings will cease
(see on Joel i, 9). Neither shall they
(the wine offerings) be pleasing unto
him—Margin of R. V., which con-
nects the words differently, repro-
duces more accurately the Hebrew,
“neither shall their sacrifices be pleas-
ing unto him.’’ This presupposes the
bringing of sacrifice, only it will not
be acceptable to Jehovah. But the
first as well as the last clause of the
verse states that certain offerings shall
be discontinued. The same is implied
in the whole verse; iii, 4, also teaches
that sacrifice is to be entirely discon-
tinued in exile. To remove this ap-
parent contradiction scholars gen-
erally accept the emendation first
suggested by Kuenen, and read, with
a change of one single consonant,
“neither shall they prepare for him
their sacrifices.” Their sacrifices
shall be unto them as the bread of
mourners—That is, unclean. The
bread of mourning is the bread eaten
during the seven days of mourning
(Deut. xxvi, 14) and at funeral meals.
Everyone coming near a dead person
ig.unclean for seven days (Num. xix,

 

14), and everything such an unclean
person touches, even his food, be-
comes unclean (Num. xix, 22); any-
one eating this unclean food shares
the uncleanness. Their bread for their
soul—The last word means also ap-
petite, so R. V., “shall be for their
appetite’; sometimes it is even used
in the place of the pronoun—“for
themselves.” Whichever rendering is
adopted the thought remains the
same. Part of the bread (or food)
was presented to Jehovah in the form
of first fruits, offerings, or tithes, and
thus it assisted in securing the divine
favor; a part was used to satisfy the
hunger of the owner. In the exile there
will be no sanctuary, and offerings
cannot be brought; the food cannot
be used to secure or maintain the di-
vine favor; it serves only to satisfy
physical hunger. House of Jehovah—
Any sanctuary consecrated to Je-
hovah.

5. In exile what can Israel do in the
solemn day—The religious festivals
held on sacred days, such as the sab-
bath and new moon. In an unclean
land these celebrations become impos-
sible. LXX. reads ‘‘days,”’ which may
be original. Day of the feast of Jehovah
—Feast and solemn assembly are not
synonyms; the former is literally pil-
grimage, and is used of the three an-
nual pilgrimages (Exod. xxiii, 14-17);
of these it is applied in particular to
the harvest festival (1 Kings viii, 2;
xii, 32; Ezek. xlv, 25; see on Zech.
xiv, 19). When the pilgrimage season
comes around, whither will they go?

6. Already the prophet sees the peo-
ple leaving the land of Jehovah to ex-
perience the deprivations of the exile
pictured in verses 4, 5. They are
gone—The prophetic perfect in He-
brew. Because of destruction—If the
92

HOSEA.

 

gather them up, Memphis shall bury
them: 4 ‘the pleasant places for their
silver, enettles shall possess them:
thorns shall be in their tabernacles.

7 The days of visitation are come,
the days of recompense are come,
Israel shall know it: the prophet is
a fool, >the *spiritual man is mad,

 

4 Or, thetr silver shall be desired, the
nettle, etc.—5 Heb. the destre.

olsa. 5. 6; 32. 13; 34. 13; chap. 10. 8.
p Ezek. 13. 3, etc.; Mic. 2. 11; Zeph.
3. 4.—8 Heb. man of the spirit.

 

 

text is correct, better, with the R. V.,
“away from destruction’’—away from
the destruction of their native land.
Some alter the text so as to read “to
Assyria,” chiefly because Hosea fre-
quently joins Egypt and Assyria.
Shall gather them up—In exile (viii,
10); in connection with “bury” the
thought seems to be of gathering for
burial (Jer. viii, 2; xxv, 33). Memphis
shall bury—Memphis was the old
capital of Lower Egypt, and through-
out the entire history of Egypt it re-
mained a city of great prominence.
It is located on the Nile a short dis-
tance south of Cairo. Here, as a
representative city of the kingdom,
it is synonymous with Egypt. The
figure is taken from the numerous and
extensive burial grounds in Egypt,
many of which recent excavations
have brought to light. One of the
largest of these was uncovered
at Memphis, stretching twenty
miles from north to south. As the
dead are gathered in these burial
fields never to rise again, so Israel
will be swallowed up in Egypt.
Meanwhile their own land will be-
come a wilderness, covered with
nettles and thorns. Pleasant places
for their silver—The treasure houses;
but R. V., “pleasant things of silver”
—their valuable possessions made of
silver. The expression cannot be lim-
ited to idols. From the parallel clause
it seems that the reference is to houses
decorated and filled with silver. Net-
tles shall possess—They will grow over
them; and thorns shall cover their
tabernacles—Dwellings.

In verses 7-9 the text is in such
confusion that the exact meaning of
some parts cannot be determined.
The first part of verse 7 evidently con-
nects with verse 6. Are come—To
express his assurance that the days

 

of visitation, that is, of judgment and
recompense for wrongdoing (de-
scribed in 2-6), will certainly come
the prophet uses the prophetic perfect,
equivalent to shall surely come. Israel
shall know it—Find out by experience

(compare Isa: ix, 9). Shall know
what? Some answer, that “the
prophet is a fool, ...is mad.” In

other words, the people will discover
that they have been deceived by the
prophets who have promised con-
tinued peace and prosperity (Mice. ii,
11; iii, 5). This interpretation makes
the prophet and the spiritual man, or
man that hath the spirit, the false
prophet. If this is the correct inter-
pretation the words ‘Israel shall .. .
mad” must be regarded as a paren-
thetical sentence, since the latter part
of the verse, “for the abundance of
thine iniquity,’ must be connected
with the announcement of judgment
in the first part. But would a true
prophet call a false prophet a spiritual
man? This is at least doubtful (Ezek.
xiii, 3); the expression is certainly
more applicable to a true prophet. If
so here, the above interpretation can-
not be correct. A second interpreta-
tion connects “Israel shall know it”
with the preceding; Israel shall know
the terrors of the judgment. With
“the prophet” begins a new sentence,
which continues to the end of the
verse. According to this view, Hosea
says that the true prophet has be-
come a fool and madman; that is, he
has become beside himself at the sight
of the awful condition and the thought
of the impending doom of the people.
The awfulness of the expected calam-
ity was indeed sufficient to drive mad
a man with the sensitive nature of an
Hosea. A third interpretation sees in
the words ‘‘the prophet... mad” a
defiant reply of the people. They
CHAPTER IX.

93

 

for the multitude of thine iniquity,
and the great hatred. 8 The«watch-

man of Ephraim was with my God:
but the prophet 7s a snare of a fowler

 

aJer. 6. 17; 31.6; Ezek. 3. 17; 33. 7.

 

meet the exhortations of the prophet
with a contemptuous sneer that he is
a fool and a madman (2 Kings ix, 11;
compare Acts ii, 13). These words
the prophet takes up and says, The
prophet has indeed gone mad, but it
is your sin and his yearning sym-
pathy for you which has made him
so. It may be difficult to say which
of these is the right interpretation;
on the whole, the last seems prefer-
able. The great hatred—R. V., “the
enmity is great’; that is, the enmity
manifested against the prophet (ex-
plained further in verse 8) helps to
drive him mad. Some change the
text and read “greatness of thy sin,”
so as to bring it in accord with the
parallel clause.

Verse 8 also presents serious diffi-
culties. The watchman of Ephraim
was with my God—R. V., ‘Ephraim
was a watchman with my God.”
Most commentators seem to prefer
the construction, adopted by the Re-
visers, but all recognize the diffi-
culties of the clause. As a result

there have been many translations

and interpretations, and not a few
emendations. Delitzsch, understand-
ing watchman in a bad sense, inter-
prets, “The God who speaks by the
prophet has in Ephraim a malignant
spy instead of a humble observer’;
for this reason the prophet is perse-
cuted. More commonly, however, the
word is used in a good sense, a watch-
man appointed by Jehovah (Jer. vi,
17; Ezek. iti, 17; Hab. ii, 1, etc.).
Therefore Keil and others interpret,
“Ephraim (Israel) looks out for the
prophecies or divine revelations with
the God of the prophets, that is, at
the side of Jehovah; in other words,
it does not trust or follow its own
prophets, who are not inspired by
Jehovah.” These interpreters re-
gard the prophets mentioned in
the latter part of the verse as false
prophets, who are to the people

 

a snare of the fowler in all its
ways; that is, everywhere they
attempt to ensnare the people;

even in the house of Jehovah
they manifest their evil intentions
(compare Amos vii, 10-17). These
are two representative interpretations
of the text as it stands; of these that
of Delitzsch is preferable, for after
condemning so persistently the atti-
tude of Ephraim toward Jehovah it
is not probable that Hosea would
describe Ephraim as a watchman
waiting longingly for divine revela-
tions. But, even admitting that the
Hebrew may possibly yield the
thought suggested by Delitzsch, the
expression is peculiar and un-Hebraic;
and it is this feeling that accounts for
the many emendations proposed. Of
these the most simple is that of
Cheyne, which requires only the ad-
dition of one letter (9), which, he
assumes, has fallen out accidentally
at the beginning of one word because
the preceding word ends with the
same consonant. In addition, he
connects the first clause with the
second and reads the entire verse,
“The watchman of Ephraim (so A.
V.), appointed by my God (literally,
from my God), even the prophet—a
fowler’s snare is in all his ways,
and enmity in the house of his
God.” This gives a very satisfac-
tory sense. Watchman of Ephraim
—The prophet (compare Jer. vi,
17). Snare of a fowler—Spread by
the Israelites who seek to destroy the
prophet. The house of his God—
Either the sanctuary of Jehovah
(Amos vii, 10-17), or house may be
used, as in viii, 1; ix, 15, in the sense
of land. Nowhere in the land is the
prophet safe. All other emendations
require more radical changes in the
text. Nowack, by means of omissions,
transpositions, and other changes,
gets, “Hostility to the watchman is
found in the house of his God; the
94

in all his ways, and hatred 7in the
house of his God. 9 ‘They have
deeply corrupted themselves, as in
the days of *Gibeah: ‘therefore he
will remember their iniquity, he will
visit their sins. 10 I found Israel
like grapes in the wilderness; I saw

HOSEA.

your fathers as the firstripe in the
fig tree «at her first time: but they
went to yBaal-peor, and separated
themselves “unto that shame; band
their abominations were according
as they loved. 11 As for Ephraim,
their glory shall fly away like a bird,

 

 

7Or, agatnst. 10. 9.
-—— Judg. 19. 22,—+* . 13.—
ulsa, 28. 4; Mic. 7. 1.—* See chap. 2. 15.

tT Isa. 31. 6; chap.

Chap. 8.
prophet finds fowler’s snares in all his
ways.” Harper, taking “enmity”
over from verse 7, connecting the
latter part of verse 8 with 9a, and
changing the latter, reads, ‘“Enmity
exists toward Ephraim’s watchman;
the prophet (finds) the snares of the
fowler in all his ways; in the (very)
house of God they dig for him a deep
pit.”

Verse 9, as it now stands, forms a
suitable conclusion. They have gone to
the lowest depths of corruption. Asin
the days of Gibeah—Hosea refers again
to this crime in x, 9 (compare Judg.
xix, 22-30; xx, 46-48). That deed of
shame was severely punished. Would
Israel escape? Surely not. He will
remember . . . visit—See on vii, 2;
viii, 13.

IsRAEL, APOSTATE AND REBELLIOUS

FROM TIME IMMEMORIAL, IS DOOMED

to Destruction, 10-17.

Three times in chapters ix—xi (ix,
10; x, 9; xi, 1) Hosea reverts to the
early history of Israel to show how
loving had been the divine care and
how persistent Israel’s apostasy and
rebellion. In the beginning Israel ap-
peared to Jehovah like a desirable
fruit; but ere long contact with the
Canaanitish religion caused contami-
nation and Israel became an abomina-
tion in the sight of Jehovah (10). In
consequence, awful judgments will
come (11-17). The form which the
punishment will take is not quite
clear, as the description is highly
poetic. For the greater part Jehovah
himself speaks; in 14 and 17 the
prophet appears as speaker.

10. Like grapes in the wilderness—
As grapes unexpectedly discovered in

 

 

y Num, 25. 3; Psa. 106. 28. z Chap.
4, 14, a Jer. 11. 13; see Judg. 6. 32.—
b Psa. 81. 12; Ezek. 20. 8; Amos 4. 5.

 

the desert delight the heart of the
weary traveler, so Israel, in the be-
ginning, delighted the heart of Je-
hovah (compare ii, 15; Jer. ii, 3). In
the wilderness is to be connected with
like grapes, not with Israel, though
there may be an allusion to Israel’s
abode in the desert (Deut. xxxii, 10).
As the first-ripe in the fig tree at her
first time—R. V., ‘at its first season,”
that is, when figs first begin to ripen.
The appearance of the early figs is
greeted with much joy, especially
since they are regarded as of an extra
fine quality. With similar joy Je-
hovah looked upon Israel; but erelong
it proved a disappointment to him.
Baal-peor—Equivalent to Beth-peor,
or Peor (Deut. iii, 29; Num. xxiii, 28),
where the Baal of Peor was worshiped
(Num. xxv, 3; see on Hos. ii, 5); there
the apostasy of Israel had its begin-
ning. Separated—Or, R. V., “conse-
crated.” Shame [‘‘shameful thing’’?}—
Heb. bésheth—Baal. Probably shame
was substituted for Baal (see on ii,
16, and references there). And their
abominations were according as they
loved—Better, R. V., “and (they) be-
came abominable (literally, abomina-
tions), like that which they loved.”
The noun is used in the place of the
adjective for the sake of emphasis
(G.-K., 141¢)—they became abomina-
tion incarnate. Worshipers inevitably
grow into the image of the being they
worship; thus the Israelites partook
of the corrupt character of the Baal of
Peor.

While the prophet does not say so,
he certainly implies that the present
conduct of Israel is equally abom-
inable, for in verse 11 he. proceeds to
announce judgment. Glory—Not only
CHAPTER IX.

95

 

from the birth, and from the
womb, and from the conception.
12 Though they bring up their chil-
dren, yet ‘will I bereave them, that
there shall not be a man left: yea,
ewoe also to them when I ‘depart
from them! 13 Ephraim, «as I saw
Tyrus, is planted in a pleasant place:

‘but Ephraim shall bring forth his
children to the murderer. 14 Give
them, O Lorp: what wilt thou give?
them ia Smiscarrying womb and dry
breasts. 15 All their wickedness zs
in Gilgal: for there I hated them:
for the wickedness of their doings
I will drive them out of mine house,

 

eJob 27,14.—-4 Deut. 28. 41, 62.—~° Deut.
31.17; 2 Kings 17. 18; chap. 5. 6. £ See
1 Sam, 28. 15, 16.—eé See Ezek. 26;27; 28.

 

bh Verse 16; chap. 13. 16.—i Luke 23.
29.—8 Heb. that casteth the fruit.
k Chaps. 4. 15; 12. 11.1! Chaps. 1. 6.

 

children, but all the elements which
combine to make a nation glorious—
wealth, prosperity, great numbers,
etc. All these will vanish as swiftly
as birds fly. The greatest curse will
be the withholding of offspring (com-
pare Psa. cxxvii, exxvili). The three
threats are arranged in the form of a
climax, which is expressed more
clearly in R. V., “There shall be
no birth, and none with child, and no
conception.”” Women will not con-
ceive; if by accident they do, the off-
spring will perish in the womb; if
perchance it retains life it will die at
birth. The judgment is one suited to
sins against chastity (compare iv,
11ff.). 12. The children already born
will not escape. Though—More ac-
curately, Yea, though. Bereave—Or,
make childless (1 Sam. xv, 33). Not
be a man left [‘‘not a man shall be
left’’}—Children will not reach the
age of manhood. To them—lIs inter-
preted most naturally as referring to
the parents; they also will suffer.
When I depart from them—There is
no need for changing the text so as to
read, “I look away” (compare v, 6,
15).

Verse 13 presents grave linguistic
difficulties. The thought which the
English translators seek to express
seems to be: At present Israel is
flourishing like Tyre, but soon it will
become desolate, for it must bring
out its children to the slayer. Would
the prophet express this thought in
as awkward Hebrew as the verse now
contains? LXX. reads a different, and
in some respects a better text, and
by its aid we may reconstruct the He-
brew so as to read, “Ephraim, accord-
ing as I see, for prey has appointed

 

his children; Ephraim—he must lead
out his children to slaughter.” The
reading becomes still smoother if ac-
cording as I seeisomitted. With these
alterations verse 13 becomes an ex-
pansion of verses 11, 12, setting forth
the destruction of Ephraim’s youth in
war.

14. The judgment is richly deserved.
The prophet understands, with all
his love for the people, that mercy
has become impossible; in holy in-
dignation he prays Jehovah to exe-
cute his judgment. The abruptness
of the style indicates the deep emo-
tion of the prophet. What wilt thou
give—A rhetorical question. The
prophet meditates what he should
ask for. Shall it be mercy? That
cannot be; and he offers a petition
that Jehovah may allow justice to
proceed. The interpretation of the
verse as an “‘intercessory prayer on
the part of the prophet that God will
not punish the people too severely,
but condemn them to barrenness
rather than the loss of the young
men,” is less probable.

Verse 15 is the continuation of
verse 13. Their wickedness is in Gilgal
—Is focused there (iv, 15; xii, 10;
compare Amos iv, 4; v, 5). Gilgal
must have been a prominent center
of Hebrew worship. Perhaps the
prophet has in mind some recent
flagrant outburst of ‘wickedness, now
unknown. For—Better, yea. I hated
—The love for Ephraim (verse 10)
was transformed into hate as a re-
sult of their wickedness, which Je-
hovah can endure no longer. Drive
them out of mine house—As in viii, 1,
equivalent to my land; this will mean
separation from his presence (see on
96

I will love them no more: all their
princes are revolters. 16 Ephraim
is smitten, their root is dried up,
they shall bear no fruit: yea, "though
they bring forth, yet will I slay
even *the beloved fruit of their
womb. 17 My God will cast them

0 Verse 13.—9® Heb. the
© Deut. 28. 64, 65.

mJsa. 1. 23.
destres, Ezek. 24. 21.

 

 

verse 3; compare 1 Sam. xxvi, 19),
and from his interest and love—Je-
hovah will completely withdraw his
mercy and favor. All their princes
are revolters—Indicates one of the
chief reasons for Jehovah’s rejection
of Israel. The nobles who should
have been the leaders of the common
people have rebelled against their
great leader, Jehovah, and thus they
have become misleaders (Isa. iii, 12).
The original contains a play upon
words (as in Isa. i, 23), which may be
reproduced partly by rendering,
“Their princes are unprincipled.”
The judgment upon Israel is further
described in verse 16. In 16a, under
the figure of a plant whose roots are
dried up as a result of being smitten
with withering heat (compare Jer.
xvii, 8), or by a worm (Jonah iv, 7),
so that it can bear no more fruit (com-
pare verse 1lb); 16b returns to the
thought of verses 11, 12, the destruc-
tion of the nation by cutting off the
children and young men. 16b would
be most appropriate between 11 and
12; the former speaks of the cessa-
tion of childbirth; 16b continues, if
by some chance children should be
born, Jehovah will slay them; then 12
adds, if somehow they should live for
a while, they will die before reaching
manhood (so Marti). In verse 17
the prophet repeats, in his own words,
the threat expressed by Jehovah in
verse 15. My God—He is still the
prophet’s God, but no longer that of
Israel. Did not hearken—The ap-
peals of the prophet fell upon deaf
ears (compare iv, 10). Now Jehovah
must cast them off. Here the judg-
ment is thought of not as extermina-
tion, but as banishment among the
nations (verse 15). Wanderers—Or,

 

IIOSEA.

away, because they did not hearken
unto him: and they shall be °wan-
derers among the nations.

CHAPTER X. |
lie is *1an empty vine, he
bringeth forth fruit unto him-
a Nah. 2, 2,—1 Or, a vine emptying the
fruit which tt giveth.

fugitives (Gen. iv, 12); the same verb
is used in a different sense in vii, 13.
To secure a more satisfactory logical
connection Harper rearranges verses
10-17 as follows, 10, 11, 16, 12 (except
the last clause), 13, 14, 15, 12 (last
clause), 17.

CHAPTER X.

IsraEL’s GUILT AND PUNISHMENT,
1-8.

Using the figure of a luxuriant vine,
the prophet describes Israel’s ex-
ternal prosperity; it increased stead-
ily, but instead of bringing forth good
grapes it brought forth bitter grapes
(Isa. v, 1-7; Psa. lxxx, 8ff.). The
greater the prosperity the more fla-
grant the moral and religious corrup-
tion (1, 2). Therefore altars, idols,
and pillars shall be broken down, the
calves of Samaria shall be carried into
Assyria, priests and people shall be
in terror and shall mourn (2-6); even
the king shall be cut off (7). The high
places shall be destroyed, thorns and
thistles shall grow over them, and in
terror the people shall cry for the
mountains and hills to fall upon them
(8).
1, 2. Empty vine—Or, emptying
vine, that is, the vine that “pours
forth its internal strength in abund-
ance of growth and fruit’’; therefore
R. V., correctly, “luxuriant” (com-
pare ix, 10). He bringeth forth fruit
unto himself—Instead of bringing
forth fruit for his owner, Jehovah;
R. V. makes it a relative clause and
renders, “that putteth forth his fruit”;
the vine is also fruitful. Fruit—Pros-
perity, wealth, and power. Probably
a reference to the successes achieved
under Jeroboam II (2 Kings xiv, 23ff.).
The greater the prosperity the more
CHAPTER X.

97

 

self: according to the multitude of
his fruit »he hath increased the al-
tars; according to the goodness of
his land «they have made goodly
2images. 2 *Their heart is ‘divided;
now shall they be found faulty: he
shall ‘break down their altars, he

shall spoil their images. 3 ¢For now
they shall say, We have no king, be-
cause we feared not the Lorp; what
then should a king do to us? 4
They have spoken words, swearing
falsely in making a covenant: thus
judgment springeth up ‘as hemlock

 

b Chaps. 8.11; 12.11. © Chap. 8. 4.—-
2 Heb. statues, or, standing images.——3 Or,
Ile hath divided thetr heart.—-“1 Kings 18.
21; Matt. 6. 24

 

4 Heb. behead. Verse 7; chaps. 3. 4;
11. 5; Mic. 4, 9.—-f See Deut. 29. 18;
anes 5. 7; 6. 12; Acts 8 23; Heb. 12.
oO.

 

he (Israel) hath increased the [‘‘multi-
plied: his’’] altars—If interpreted in
the light of other expressions of Hosea,
the prophet seems to condemn here
not the multiplication of altars as
such; he condemns them rather on
account of the corruption of the wor-
ship centering there (ii, 5ff.; viii, 4,
11). The more their prosperity in-
creased the more forgetful of Jehovah
and the more devoted toa the Baals
they became. Goodness — Better,
margin R. V., “prosperity.” The
increase of prosperity made it pos-
sible to beautify the ceremonial.
Images [‘‘pillars’]}—Compare iii, 4;
see on Mic. v, 13. Their heart is di-
vided—Between the Baals and Je-
hovah. If this meaning of the verb,
favored by the ancient versions, is
accepted, the margin presents a more
literal translation, “He hath divided
their heart.” The meaning smooth,
or, slippery, suggested in R. V. margin,
is more probable, however; their
heart was slippery, that is, fickle and
insincere, in its devotion to Jehovah.
But the time of reckoning has come.
Found faulty—R. V., ‘guilty’; bet-
ter still, “they shall be dealt with as
guilty,” or ‘they shall atone for their
guilt.” The first blow will reveal the
inefficiency of their worship and Je-
hovah’s displeasure with the same.
He—Jehovah; the pronoun is em-
phatic in Hebrew. Break down
{‘smite’”’] their altars—Literally, break
the neck, a very forceful expression;
the breaking of the neck means utter
destruction.

Recent commentators call attention
to the fact that verse 5 is a more nat-
ural continuation of verse 2 than
verses 3, 4; this and other minor rea-

 

sons are urged against the originality
of the two verses, but the arguments
can hardly be regarded as conclusive.
Verse 3 may be understood as a con-
fession wrung from the Israelites by
the terrors of the calamity announced
in 2b. We have no king—No rightful
king; no king worthy of the name.
Feared—Fear of Jehovah is the com-
mon Old Testament expression for
piety; it means such reverence for
Jehovah as will prompt obedience to
his will; this was lacking when they
set up-their kings (viii, 4). What
then should a king do to us—R. V.,
literally and more satisfactorily, ‘and
the king (the one we do have) what
can he do for us?”—in the hour of
distress and calamity (compare verses
7, 15; xiii, 10). He is absolutely
powerless.

Verse 1 calls attention to religious
apostasy; verse 4 describes some
phases of the moral degeneracy.
Have spoken—Or, R. V., ‘‘speak.”
Words—Mere words, which come only
from the lips (Isa. xxxvi, 5; lviii, 13),
which R. V. interprets to mean “vain
words”; but the prophet means more
than that—actual falsehoods (Isa.
xxix, 21). Swearing falsely in mak-
ing a covenant—The two expressions
should be kept apart, as margin R. V.
suggests: “they swear falsely (see on
iv, 2), they make covenants.” Not
covenants made in ordinary life, but
the covenants with Assyria and Egypt;

| these are displeasing to Jehovah (v,

13; vii, 11; xii, 1). Judgment—Best
understood of the punitive judgment
of Jehovah. With 4b begins the an-
nouncement of the divine judgment.
If this is the correct interpretation,
the tenses must be understood as
98

HOSEA.

 

in the furrows of the field. 5 The
inhabitants of Samaria shall fear
because of sthe calves of +Beth-
aven: for the people thereof shall
mourn over it, and ‘the priests
thereof that rejoiced on it, ‘for the

glory thereof, because it is departed
from it. 6 It shall be also carried
unto Assyria for a Haier to king
Jareb: Ephraim shall receive shame,
and Israel shall be ashamed 'of his
own counsel. 7 ™As for Samaria,

 

£1 Kings 12. 28, 29; chap. 8. 5, 6.—
hChap. 4. 15.5 Or, Chemarim, 2 Kings
23. 5; Zeph. 1. 4.

i1 Sam. 4. 21, 22; chap. 9. 11.—-
k Chap. 5. 13,—1!Chap. 11. 6.——™ Verses
3, 15.

 

prophetic perfects, to be translated,
with margin of R. V., “shall spring
up.” As hemlock—From this passage
and from Deut. xxix, 18, where the
word is translated “gall,” it appears
that the Hebrew rdsh refers to some
poisonous plant, though it may be
difficult to say which one; it is cer-
tainly not equivalent to the simple
weed. Since the Hebrew word means
also head it is thought by many to
be a name for the poppy, of which
several specimens are found in Pales-
tine. Whatever it may be, it is always
used in the Old Testament as.a sym-
bol of bitterness (Lam. iii, 19; Amos
vi, 12, etc.); so that the thought is
that the judgment shall be as bitter
as the hemlock (?) which grows in the
furrows of the field.

5. The judgment will produce con-
sternation. Will the ‘‘calves” be able
tohelp? No! Instead, the people will
have the greatest concern for them.
This is certainly an ironical situa-
tion. Calves—LXX. and Peshitto
have the singular, calf, which is fav-
ored by his, that is, the calf’s, people
and priest. If the plural is correct
it would indicate that more than one
calf (1 Kings xii, 29) was worshiped
there. Beth-aven—Beth-el (iv, 15).
Mourn—Because of the impending
doom. Priests—Heb.Chemarim. Not
the common Old Testament term for
priests. In Syriac and Aramaic it is
the ordinary term for priests; in the
Old Testament it seems to be confined
to the priests ministering at the high
places and in connection with the
calf worship, which Hosea considers
a counterfeit Jehovah worship; it is
therefore a term of contempt (Zeph.
i, 4; 2 Kings xxiii, 5). The English
translation carries ‘shall mourn” over

 

to the next clause as the predicate of
the subject priests; but the Hebrew,
contrary to the English translation,
seems to connect ‘rejoiced’ with
priests, so as to read, “‘and the priests
thereof shall rejoice for it, for the
glory thereof, because it is departed
from it.” The thought of rejoicing
is out of place here; we expect a verb
similar to mourn. Some commenta-
tors, though admitting that elsewhere
the verb is used to express joyful
emotions, think that here it is used
in the sense of running about dis-
tracted with grief. The change of one
consonant produces a verb to writhe,
to tremble, and averb of such or sim-
ilar meaning is expected here. For
the glory—Defines more clearly for it;
the glory of the calf consists of its
prestige, its influence, and not only
of the “costly apparatus of its wor-
ship.” Its prestige vanishes when it
proves itself unable to assist its
oe or even to protect it-
self.

6. The calf itself will be carried to
Assyria for a present—Not a present
to secure help (vii, 11; xii, 1), though
LXX. reads, “they shall carry it’;
but after the conquest it is to be car-
ried off as a part of the booty, which
will be an additional proof of its help-
lessness. King Jareb—See on v, 13.
Shall receive shame, . . . shall be
ashamed—Not so much, they will
have a sense of remorse and shame,
but, they will be put to shame or con-
fusion (Isa i, 29). Of—Or, through.
His own counsel—Counsel is the abil-
ity to find ways and means and
to adapt them to proper ends (com-
pare Isa. xi, 2). The establishment
of the calf worship was thought to
be a master stroke (1 Kings xii, 26ff.) A
CHAPTER X.

99

 

her king is cut off as the foam upon
‘the water. s "The high places also
of Aven, °the sin of Israel, shall be
destroyed: the thorn and the this-
tle shall come up on their altars;

sand they shall say to the moun-
tains, Cover us; and to the hills,
Fall on us. 9 ‘O Israel, thou hast
sinned from the days of Gibeah:
there they stood: *the battle in Gib-

 

 

6 Heb, the face of the water.
ane: 4A. 15. © Deut. 9. 21; 1 Kings

p Chap. 9. 6.—4 Isa. 2, 19; Luke 23, 30;
Rev. 6, 16; 9. 6.—* Chap. 9. 9.—=See
Judg. 20.

 

it is that very policy that will prove
Israel’s undoing.

Verse 7 should be translated, “Sa-
maria is destroyed, her king is like
foam upon the water.’’ The tenses
are prophetic perfects, equivalent to
shall be, for the destruction is still
future (verses 6, 8). The judgment
will reach its climax in the fall of
Samaria. It did so when about fif-
teen years later the city was taken
by Sargon of Assyria, in 722-721.
Her king—The ruling monarch, not
the idol god (Amos v, 26). As the
foam—So Targum, Vulgate, and a
few modern commentators. The
meaning of the Hebrew word is
uncertain Probably, like a chip,
which is tossed about and, irresisti-
bly carried hither and thither by
the stream, finally vanishes for-
ever.

Verse 8 in a sense continues verse
6; the calf is to be carried away and
the very place where it has stood is to
be smitten by Jehovah. To prevent
the apparent interruption of: the
thought and to preserve the climax
Harper places 8a immediately after
verse 6. High places—See on iv, 13.
Aven—Beth-aven (verse 5). Sin—
They were the embodiment of Israel’s
sin (compare iv, 12ff.). The sanctuary,
the altar, everything will vanish so
completely that thorns and _ thistles
will be allowed to grow undisturbed
upon the ancient site (ix, 6). When
the king has been swept away, the
capital destroyed, the idols carried
away, the sanctuary leveled to the
ground, when all this has come to
pass the people that are left behind
will in their despair cry out for swift
death and destruction; they will call
for the mountains to cover them that
they may be compelled no longer to

 

endure the terrible judments of Je-
hovah (compare Luke xxiii, 30; Rev.
vi, 16).

IsrazL’s History—One ContTINUOUS
Crime; IsrarL’s Destiny—DrEata
AND DestructTIoN, 9-15.

With verse 9 the prophet begins a
new presentation of Israel’s guilt. In
the very beginning a great crime
darkened their history (9); from that
time on they have resisted every effort
to lead them into a higher and purer
life; hence death and destruction
await them (9-11). The announce-
ment of judgment is interrupted by
an exhortation to repentance (12),
which immediately changes again into
a threat (13-15). 9. From the days
of Gibeah—The reference is to the
outrage in Gibeah described in Judg.
xix-xxi (compare ix, 9). Beth-baal-
peor (ix, 10) marked the beginning of
religious corruption; Gibeah was the
scene of the first outbreak of deep
moral corruption. Since then con-
ditions had not changed materially.
This interpretation is preferable to
that implied in the marginal reading,
“thou hast sinned more than in the
days of Gibeah.” The latter part of
verse 9 is open to various interpreta-
tions. For the second ciause, there
they stood, the margin offers a more
satisfactory translation “there have
they continued.” For this meaning of
the verb compare Jer. xxxii, 14; Isa.
xlvii, 12. There—In Gibeah, or, rather,
in the criminal conduct of Gibeah.
The battle—In which judgment was
executed upon the guilty tribe (Judg.
xx, lff.). If 9b is rendered a declara-
tory sentence the verb must be re-
produced by a past tense, “did not
overtake them.” If so, the thought
is that, while the criminals of Gibeah
100
eah against the children of iniquity

did not overtake them. 10 ‘It ts in,

my desire that I should chastise
them; and "the people shall be gath-
ered against them, ’when they shall
bind themselves in their two fur-

HOSEA.

rows. 11 And Ephraim is as *an
heifer that is taught, and loveth to
tread out the corn: but I passed over
upon Sher fair neck: I will make
Ephraim to ride; Judah shall plow,
and Jacob shall break his clods.

 

t Deut. 28. 63.—v Jer. 16. 16; Ezek.
23. 46, 47; chap. 8. 10.—7 Or, when I
shall bind them for their two transgres-

received their reward, just punish-
ment has not yet been visited upon
Israel. But, verse 10 continues, the
judgment cannot be withheld forever.
9b may be translated also as a ques-
tion: “Shall not the battle . . . over-
take them?” that is, can these people,
persisting in vice, believe that they
will escape retribution? Verse 10 sup-
plies the answer: It is in my desire—
Better, R. V., ‘When it is my desire.”
Jehovah does not overlook the crimes;
when the proper moment arrives he
will execute judgment.

The verses following show that the
time of vengeance has arrived. The
punishment will take the form of
hostile invasions by Assyria (verse
6), by Egypt (ix, 6). When they shall
bind themselves in their two furrows
—In the rendering of the last word
the translators have followed the
Targum. The Hebrew is uncertain;
LXxX. and Vulgate translate “ini-
quities’; so R. V., “when they are
bound to their two transgressions.”
The two transgressions are not the
two calves at Beth-el and Dan, but
the twofold sin indicated in viii, 4:
the setting up of kings contrary to
the divine will, and the religious
apostasy expressing itself in reliance
upon foreign nations and in the wor-
ship of the Baals. When they are
bound is of uncertain meaning. Some
interpret it as a causal clause—be-
cause they are bound, inseparably
devoted, to their transgressions;
others, as a temporal clause—when
they are bound, or, when I bind
them, in punishment for their trans-
gressions. LXX. and Peshitto render
“chastise,” which favors the second
interpretation; and this is to be pre-
ferred unless the text is changed.

 

sions, Or, in their two habitations.—
x Jer. 50. 11; Mic. 4. 13.—-8 Heb. the
beauty of her neck,

By the alteration of one consonant
the whole clause may be made to
read, “In order to bind (chastise)
them for their two transgressions.”
Verse 11 contains a new figurative
description of the punishment to be
meted out. Now Ephraim is in peace
and prosperity, but soon suffering
and distress will overtake him.
Taught—Broken in to work. Loveth
to tread out the corn—A pleasant
and easy task, especially since
the animals were allowed to eat
freely of the grain (Deut. xxv, 4).
Some consider taught inappropriate
here, because, they say, the breaking
in to do heavy work is a part of the
punishment; for this reason they
either omit it, and read, “And Eph-
raim is a heifer that loveth to tread
out the grain’”—but he will not be
permitted to do this delightful work
much longer—or they add not; “a
heifer that is not taught.”’ All he has
done thus far is to tread out the grain,
but in the future he will be subjected
to severer treatment. But I passed
over upon her fair neck—TIt is a dis-
puted question whether this clause
continues the description of the kind
treatment—I have spared the beauty
of her neck—that is, thus far the
heifer has not been compelled to do
any hard work; the rest of the verse
would call attention to the change of
treatment about to take place; or
whether with it begins the threat: I
placed the yoke upon her fair neck.
If this interpretation, which seems
preferable because it restores the
parallelism, is accepted, the tense is
to be understood as a prophetic per-
fect. The Hebrew permits either in-
terpretation. Make Ephraim to ride
R. V., “set a rider on Ephraim.”
CHAPTER X.

101

 

12 »Sow to yourselves in righteous-
ness, reap in mercy; *break up your
fallow ground: for i is time to seek
the Lorp, till he come and rain

righteousness upon you. 13 "Ye
have plowed wickedness, ye have
reaped iniquity; ye have eaten the
fruit of lies: because thou didst trust

 

 

y Prov. 11. 18. = Jer. 4, 3.

a Job 4. 8; Prov. 22. 8; chap. 8.,7; Gal. 6.

 

An even more probable rendering is,
“T will make Ephraim to draw,” that
is, the plow or the cart. North and
south alike will share in the punish-
ment. Instead of treading out the
grain ithey will be compelled to do
the hard work of plowing and har-
rowing. Since nowhere in this con-
nection is there any reference to
Judah, it is probable that in the last
part of verse 11 Israel should be read
instead of Judah.

12. Momentarily the tone of the
prophet changes to one of exhorta-
tion. If Israel would only turn and
seek Jehovah the judgment might yet
be averted. For such turning the
prophet pleads. But he seems to
recognize the uselessness of the ap-
peal, for in verses 13ff. he reiterates
the threats of 9-11. The figures are
borrowed again from agricultural pur-
suits. Sow... in righteousness—Let
your conduct be governed by right-
eousness, by such attitude toward God
and man as is proper in view of the
covenant relation between Jehovah
and Israel. Reap in mercy [‘‘accord-
ing to kindness’’}—Let the effects of
your life be such as are in accord with
loving-kindness (see onii, 19). LXX.,
“reap the fruit of kindness.” Break
up your fallow ground—The transfor-
mation is to be thorough. ‘‘Husband-
men in the Hast are indolent and
sometimes sow among thorns (Jer. iv,
3; Matt. xiii, 7). The Israelites are
warned against committing this fault
in their spiritual husbandry.” The
three clauses “sow... reap... break
up” should be interpreted as con-
taining three distinct exhortations.
It is time—The door of mercy is still
open, the judgment may yet be
averted. Seek Jehovah—See on Amos
y, 4. Till he come and rain righteous-
ness upon you—This translation is to
be preferred over the one suggested

 

in the margin, “teach you righteous-
ness” (see on Joel ii, 23). Till he
come is to be understood as a final
clause, “in order that he may come.”
Rain is a picture of abundance, and
the entire clause may be paraphrased,
‘Gn order that Jehovah may manifest
his righteousness toward you in abund-
ant measure.” Jehovah’s righteous-
ness, like Israel’s righteousness, is the
attitude which is proper in view of
the covenant relation between Israel
and Jehovah. As such it may mani-
fest itself either in judgment or in
mercy. If Israel will follow the
prophetic exhortation it will mani-
fest itself in the merciful withholding
of judgment. LXX. reads, “in order
that (until) the fruit of righteousness
(prosperity) may come to you.” Fruit
of lies in verse 13 is in favor of the
LXX. reading.

18a contrasts their past conduct and
experiences with the conduct de-
manded in verse 12. Plowed wicked-
ness—Plowed is equivalent to sowed
(verse 12); they formed wicked plans
(Job iv, 8). Reaped iniquity—The
fruits of their lives have been iniquity,
not loving-kindness. Fruit of lies—
Or, of faithlessness, that is, to Jehovah
(xi, 12). They were compelled to en-
dure disaster and calamity. The tenses
in this verse are not prophetic per-
fects; they describe past experiences.

With 13b begins the reiteration of
the threat, 13b being the protasis,
verse 14 the apodosis. The transition
from one clause to the other is some-
what abrupt, but the reference in 13a
to the policy of “lies” prepares the
way for 13b, which makes it plain
wherein consisted the faithlessness:
instead of relying upon Jehovah they
put their trust in human defenses
(Isa. vii, 9). In thy way—Thy policy.
LXX. (except B) and Vulgate read,
“thy chariots” (compare xiv, 3; Isa.
102

HOSEA.

 

in thy way, in the multitude of
thy mighty men. 14 Therefore
shall a tumult arise among thy
pee and all thy fortresses shall
e spoiled, as Shalman __ spoiled
‘Beth-arbel in the day of battle:

b Chap. 13. 16.
19, 13.

 

ec 2 Kings 18. 34;

ii, 7), which is favored by the context-
Mighty men—The army. Therefore—
Because of the lack of confidence in
Jehovah (Isa. vii, 9). Tumult—Of
war (Isa. xvii, 12; Amos ii, 2). Among
—Better, R. V. margin, ‘‘against.”
Thy people—Hebrew, “‘thy peoples’;
the tribes of which the nation is com-
posed (Deut. xxxiii, 3). The emenda-
tion “against thy cities’ is not needed.
The destruction to be wrought is
compared with that of Beth-arbel by
Sialman—Both of these proper names
have been and are still subjects of
much discussion. Shalman has been
identified with (1) Shalmaneser III
of Assyria, who “‘made an expedition
to the Lebanon in 775 and to Damas-
cus in 773-772” (Harper) (for similar
abbreviations compare Jer. xxii, 24,
28, xxiv, 1, with 2 Kings xxiv, 6);
(2) Shalmaneser IV of Assyria (727-
722 B. C.), who undertook an expe-
dition against Israel in 725; (3) Sala-
manu, a king of Moab, a contempor-
ary of Hosea, who paid tribute to
Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria; (4)
Shalmah, a north Arabian tribe,
which invaded the Negeb; (5) the
Zalmunna of Judg. viii, 6. Arbela
has been identified with (1) Arbela,
near Pella, east of the Jordan; (2) Ar-
bela on the Tigris, near Nineveh;
(3) Arbela in the territory of Naph-
tali, in Upper Galilee (1 Mace. ix, 2).
The words which in Hebrew stand
together have also been taken as the
name of a city Shalman-beth-arbela.
(For similar formations see 2 Sam.
xx, 14, 15; Num. xxxiii, 46.) Thus
far no entirely satisfactory solution of
the question has been found. From
the reference it would seem that the
event in question was well known
and therefore probably one of recent
date and of considerable importance;

 

4the mother-was dashed in pieces
upon her children. 15 So shall
Beth-el do unto you because of
‘your great wickedness: in @
morning ‘shall the king of Israel ut-
terly be cut off.

d Chap. 13. 16.—® Heb. the evil of your
evil. Verse 7.

but our present historical knowledge
does not enable us to connect any of
the persons named with the destruc-
tion of any of the localities suggested.
The campaign of 775 is said to have
been against the ‘‘country of Erini,”
the country of the cedar trees; that
of 773-772 was undertaken probably
by the successor of Shalmaneser III,
Ashur-dan III. If it is Shalmaneser
IV the passage must be a later ad-
dition, since Hosea’s activity ended
before this king ascended the throne.
The ancient versions offer no solution;
they also seem to have been in the
dark. The mother was dashed in
pieces—A circumstantial clause to be
connected with the preceding, “when
the mother was dashed in pieces”
(xiii, 16; compare 2 Kings viii, 12;
Amos i, 13; Psa. exxxvii, 8, 9).

In verse 15 Jehovah addresses the
Israelites directly, announcing that a
similar fate is awaiting them on ac-
count of their great wickedness. The
construction of the first senterice is
uncertain. So shall Beth-el do—Beth-
el as the center of idolatrous worship
is to bring about the downfall of Is-
rael. This translation is a little awk-
ward. Others have interpreted Beth-
el as an accusative of place, “at
Beth-el,” while they have supplied
the subject of the verb, either Je-
hovah or Shalman, ‘‘So shall he do
at Beth-el.” But if Beth-el is not
the subject it is better taken as a
vocative: “So shall he do unto thee,
O Beth-el.” Beth-el, the religious
center, stands for the whole country
or nation, just as sometimes the
capital, Samaria, is used in the place
of Israel. LXX. presents a more
satisfactory reading, ‘Thus I will do
unto you, O house of Israel.”’ Your
great wickedness—Literally, the wick-
CHAPTER XI.

CHAPTER XI.
HEN ®*Israel was a child, then
I loved him, and called my

103

son out of Egypt. 2 As they called
them, so they went from them:
‘they sacrificed unto Baalim, and

 

a Chap. 2. 15.—» Matt. 2. 15.

 

© Exod. 4.

edness of your wickedness (compare
Song of Songs—the song par excel-
lence; holy of holies—the most holy)
In a morning—R. V., “at daybreak.”
The meaning is uncertain. Some see
in the phrase the thought that at
daybreak it will be discovered that
during the night the king has been
slain; others, that he will be cut off in
the early morning hours—the king’s
death is the first event of the day
(Psa. xc, 14); still others, “as sudden-
ly as comes the dawn after a night of
slumber.” Keil understands it as the
dawn of prosperity; just as prosperity
begins to dawn the king will perish.
The expression remains peculiar. A
change of one consonant would give
‘Gn the storm,” that is, of battle.
King of Israel—Not one particular
king, but the institution of the mon-

archy.
CHAPTER XI.

Tue Fatuer’s Love ror THE
Propicgau Son, 1-11.

Once more the prophet reverts to
the early history of Israel (compare
ix, 10;x, 9). He points out how great,
strong, and tender has been the di-
vine love (1, 3, 4), and how unappre-
ciative and ungrateful the chosen peo-
ple (2, 7); hence justice demands the
execution of judgment (5, 6). But
Israel is still the son of Jehovah, and
the divine compassion goes out for
the prodigal (8); therefore the pun-
ishment will be tempered by mercy;
and after the judgment has accom-
plished its disciplinary purpose Israel
will be restored to the divine favor
(9-11). Verse 12 (in Heb. xii, 1) is con-
nected more closely with chapter xii.
_ 1. A child—The childhood of Israel
is the earliest stage of its national
existence, here identified with the
stay in Egypt (compare ii, 3; ix, 10).
I loved him—Or, I began to love him
(compare ix, 15). Called my son out

 

22,23,—-4 2 Kings 17. 16; chaps. 2. 13; 13, 2.

of Egypt—Literally, called for my son,
that is, to be my son. Out of all the
nations of the earth Jehovah selected
Israel to sustain filial relations to
him. Other passages (Exod. iv, 22;
Deut. xiv, 1, etc.) imply that Jehovah
regarded Israel as his son even while
in Egypt, not that he called him from
Egypt to become his son. This seem-
ing difference of conception has led
commentators to propose various
emendations. The simplest, sup-
ported in part by LXX., is to omit
the preposition le. With this omis-
sion the text reads, “I called my son.”
It should be noted, however, that,
especially in later Hebrew, the prepo-
sition Je is used to introduce the direct
object (G.-K., 117n). Following this
rule even the present text might be
read, “I called my son.” 1b is in-
terpreted as Messianic in Matt. ii, 15.

2. Jehovah’s love was met with bit-
teringratitude. As they called—R.V.,
“The more the prophets called.” The
prophets is not in the Hebrew, but the
Revisers were correct in supplying it
as the subject (compare verse 7). Je-
hovah did not cease calling when the
efforts of Moses proved a partial fail-
ure; he raised up prophets (Amos ii,
11, 12), but the more earnestly these
labored the more stubborn the re-
sistance of the people (compare Isa.
vi, 9, 10; Jer. vii, 25, 26). Notwith-
standing the people’s obstinacy, the
activity of the prophets was not a
failure; it resulted in the preservation
of a remnant out of which might grow
a new nation of God. Much did the
prophets expect of this remnant, and
much did it accomplish, though not
all that the prophets expected. Never-
theless it prepared the way for him
who alone was able to finish the work.
A very slight change in the text, sup-
ported in part by LXX. and Peshitto,
would give, ‘* The more I called them,
the more they went from me.” Baalim
104

TIOSEA.

 

burned incense to graven images.
3 cI taught Ephraim also to go, tak-
ing them by their arms; but they
knew not that ‘I healed them. 4 I
drew them with cords of aman, with
bands of love: and «I was to them

as they that !take off the yoke on
their jaws, and ‘I laid meat unto
them.

5 ‘He shall not return into the
land of Egypt, but the Assyrian
shall be his king, "because they re-

 

© Deut. 1,31; 32.10,11,12; Isa.46. 3.—
{ Exod. 15. 26.—-# Lev. 26. 13.—1 Heb.

lift up. Psa. 78. 25; chap. 2. 8.—i See
chaps. 8. 13; 9. 3.—k 2 Kings 17. 13, 14.

 

—See on ii, 5. Burned incense—See
onii, 13. Graven images—See on Mic.
v, 13. Verses 1, 2 aptly describe the
religious history from the Exodus to
the days of Hosea; on the one hand,
the intense love and care of Jehovah,
on the other, the persistent rebellion
of the people.

Verse 3 presents the tender care of
Jehovah under the figure of a parent’s
gentle dealings with his child. I—
Emphatic in Hebrew; in contrast to
the Baalim. Ephraim—The northern
kingdom. Taught... to go—Directed
their footsteps in a providential way,
kept them from falling and, when
they did fall, helped them to rise
again. Taking them by their arms—
Literally (though the Hebrew form is
peculiar), he took them upon his arms.
R. V., following most ancient ver-
sions, “I took them on my arms.”
A climax to the preceding. I lovingly
taught the young child to walk, and
when he grew weary I lovingly took
him upon my arms and carried him
(Isa. ]xiii, 9; Deut. i, 31). They knew
not—See on ii, 8. That I healed them
—A common figure in Hosea (v, 13;
vi, 1; vii, 1; compare Exod. xv, 26).
To get the full meaning it is necessary
to supply the thought, “When in
their attempt to walk they fell and
hurt themselves.”

Verse 4 contains a new figure of the
fatherly care of Jehovah. “Israel is
no longer the wanton young cattle of
the previous chapter (x, 11), which
needs the yoke firmly fastened on the
neck but a team of toiling oxen
mounting some steep road.” Jehovah
acted not the part of a cruel driver,
but in a humane manner assisted the
animal to accomplish its task. Drew
—Not drove; he lent a helping hand
to the weary beast. Cords of a man—

 

Such as are adapted to a human being;
these are bands (cords) of love—Used
in a spirit of love. Through love he
sought to control and guide. Take off
[lift up’] the yoke on their jaws—
While he gladly assisted the animal,
he did not—and could not—take the
whole task upon himself. The yoke
remained upon the animal, but he
placed it so it would not press too
heavily upon the neck and jaws
(cheeks) and make them sore. The
manner of easing the yoke to which
the prophet refers is not quite clear,
since we do not know sufficiently the
form of the ancient yoke. I laid meat
unto them [‘‘food before them’’}—Lit-
erally, and gently I laid food before
them, or, better still, And I bent to-
ward him and gave him food. The task:
done, plenty of food was given to the
animal. Thus in an indulgent and
compassionate manner Jehovah sup-
plied the needs of his people.

5-7. All this loving-kindness Israel
met with shameful ingratitude; there-
fore judgment, in the form of an exile,
will surely come (viii, 13; ix, 3). He
[“they”] shall not return into .. .
Egypt—An evident contradiction of
vill, 13; ix, 3-6; xi, 11. What we
would expect is, “they shall return to
Egypt.” UXX. removes this diffi-
culty by connecting the word trans-
lated not with the preceding sentence
and rendering it for him, which in-
volves the change of one consonant
without affecting the pronunciation;
but this creates a grammatical diffi-
culty in the preceding clause. Another
attempt to remove the difficulty is to
read 5a as a rhetorical question:
“Shall they not return?” This im-
plies the answer, ‘They surely shall
return.” A rhetorical question, how-
ever, seems out of place, and a more
CHAPTER XT.

105

 

fused to return, 6 And the sword
shall abide on his cities, and shall
consume his branches, and devour
them, 'because of their own counsels.
7 And my people are bent to “back-
sliding from me: "though they called
them to the most High, “none at all

 

would exalt him. 8 eHow shall I
give thee up, Ephraim? how shall I
deliver thee, Israel? how shall I
make thee as pAdmah? how shall I
set thee as Zeboim? "mine heart is
turned within me, my repentings
are kindled together. “9 I will not

 

! Chap. 10, 6.—™ Jer. 3, 6, etc.; 8 5;
chap. 4. 16. —9 Chap. 7. 16.—— Ileb. fo-
gether they eralted not, © Jer. 9. 7; chap.

 

6, 4.—P Gen, 14, 8; 19. 24, 25; Deut. 29.
23; Amos 4. 11.—~9 Deut. 32. 36; Isa. 63.
15; Jer. 31. 20.

 

natural way out of the difficulty is to
omit the negative. Assyria is, as in
the other passages, joined with Egypt.
But—Hebrew, ‘‘and.” The exile will
come because Israel failed to turn to
Jehovah in repentance and obedience
(compare Amos iv, 6ff.).

Verse 7 is the natural continuation
of 5b, verse 6 of 5a. Some omit verse
6 as a later insertion, but without
sufficient reason; nevertheless it is
possible that the text has suffered in
transmission. Verses 6, 7 contain an
emphatic and explanatory reiteration
of the thought of verse 5. Sword—The
symbol of war (Ezek. xiv, 17). Abide
on [‘‘fall upon’’]—The literal rendering
is stronger, rage in, or, whirl about in.
Branches—Better R. V., “bars.” De-
fenses in general (compare Amos i, 5).
The meaning of the Hebrew word
used here is not quite certain. Be-
cause of their own counsels—Compare
x, 6. Modern commentators, almost
without exception, consider the text
of verse 7 hopelessly corrupt. The
Hebrew is awkward and obscure, and
the ancient versions differ both from
the Hebrew and from one another.
If the text is correct the translations
of A. V. and R. V. are on the whole
as satisfactory as any; however, the
translation of 7b may be improved
by reading: “Though they call them
upward, none at all will lift himself
up.” There is a complete moral
apathy, no one even attempts to

end his ways; and this apathy is
due to the spirit of apostasy which
has taken complete possession of
them. They—The prophets. Called
them—The people. To the most High
—To higher things in morals and re-
ligion. It is not necessary even to

 

enumerate the different attempts to
improve the text of verse 7. The re-
construction by Harper may serve
as an illustration of the radical char-
acter of some of these proposed
emendations: ‘And my people having
wearied me with their rebellions, unto
the yoke (that is, captivity) Jehovah
will appoint them, since he has ceased
to love them.”

Justice demands the casting off of
Israel. Will the divine love and com-
passion permit it? Verse 8 pictures
the struggle between love and justice.
The result is, in a sense, a com-
promise. Judgment will indeed be
executed, but instead of annihilating
the nation it will serve to purify it.
The judgment having accomplished
its disciplinary purpose, Jehovah will
visit his people with salvation. How
—Introduces an exclamation, not a
question. Give thee up—To destruc-
tion. The parallel clause is a repeti-
tion of the same thought, for the sake
of emphasis. Admah ... Zeboim—
Two cities near Sodom and Gomorrah
(Gen. x, 19; xiv, 8), which, according
to Deut. xxix, 23, were destroyed
with the cities of the Plain. In Gen.
xix nothing is said concerning their
overthrow (but compare verse 25).
Mine heart is turned—In sympathy
and sorrow (Lam. i, 20). My repent-
ings—Better, R. V., “my compas-
sions.” Are kindled together—Are
thoroughly aroused. G. A. Smith,
“my compassions begin to boil.”
The same author calls this “the great-
est passage in Hosea—deepest, if not
highest, of his book—the breaking
forth of that exhaustless mercy of
the Most UWigh which no sin of man
can bar back nor wear out.”
106

HOSEA.

 

execute the fierceness of mine anger,
I will not return to destroy Eph-
raim: ‘for I am God, and not man;
the Holy One in the midst of thee:
and I will not enter into the city.

10 They shall walk after the LORD:
she shall roar like a lion: when he
shall roar, then the children shall
tremble ‘from the west. 11 They
shall tremble as a bird out of Egypt,

 

r Num. 23.19; Isa. 55. 8,9; Mal. 3. 6.—* Isa,

31, 4; Joel 3. 16; Amos 1. 2.—+ Zech. 8.7.

 

The outcome of the struggle is ex-
pressed in verse 9. Not return (or,
turn) to destroy Ephraim—Though
judgment is decreed it will not be
executed in the fierceness of the di-
vine wrath. Having chosen and
trained Israel for his own purpose,
Jehovah cannot now turn around and
undo all his former work. Why? I
am God, and not man—Jehovah is,
‘Gn the grandeur of his covenant
steadfastness and long-suffering, re-
moved to an infinite height above the
vacillations and impatience of man.”
The covenant was intended to be an
everlasting covenant, and to it Je-
hovah must remain faithful. Holy
One—Consequently free from the re-
sentments of vengeance. The pro-
phetic conception of the divine holi-
ness is admirably expressed in the
words of Kirkpatrick: “Primarily the
Hebrew root from which the word is
derived seems to denote separation.
It represents God as distinct from
man, separate from the creation which
he has called into existence. Then,
since limit is the necessary condition
of created things, and imperfection
and sinfulness are the marks of hu-
manity in its fallen state, the term
grows to denote the separation of God
from all that is limited, imperfect, and
sinful. But it does not rest here in a
merely negative conception. It ex-
pands so as to include the whole essen-
tial nature of God in its moral aspect.
. .. His purity and his righteousness,
his faithfulness and his truth, his
mercy and his loving-kindness, nay,
even his jealousy and his wrath, his
zeal and his indignation—these are
the different rays which combine to
make up his holiness.” In the midst
of thee—These words affirm the close
relation existing between Jehovah and
Israel (compare Isaiah’s “the Holy One

 

of Israel”’). I will not enter into the city
—A meaningless sentence. R. V., giv-
ing an entirely different meaning to the
last word, reads “I will not come in
wrath” (compare Jer. xv, 8), which is
to be preferred. Some, changing one
letter, read, “I will not come to con-
sume.”

Verses 8, 9 are in the highest degree
anthropomorphic; but it is not proper
to infer from this poetic portrayal
that Hosea thought of Jehovah as
being fickle, and subject to the same
mental or spiritual processes as man.
He simply attempted to describe
vividly and forcibly the love and com-
passion of Jehovah, the depth of
which had been impressed upon him
by his own domestic experience; and
this he could do only by comparing
divine emotions with human emo-
tions, and describing them in language
familiar to his hearers.

10, 11. No promise is made that
judgment will be withheld entirely.
It must come, but it will not result in
destruction. When it has accom-
plished its purpose the divine mercy
will again manifest itself in the home-
gathering of the dispersed exiles.
They shall walk after Jehovah—Can, in
this connection, mean only that when
he gives the signal they will readily
respond. Roar like a lion—That is,
with a powerful voice. Not as in v,
14; xiii, 7, but to summon the scat-
tered people (Isa. xi, 12; xxvii, 13;
xlix, 22). When the signal is heard
the exiles shall tremble [‘‘come trem-
bling”}—Though they recognize the
call as the call of love, they tremble
before the majesty and power of the
caller (compare iii, 5). The children
—In Hebrew without the article,
“sons” or “children”; only those
whom he may acknowledge as sons
(verse 1; i, 10). From the west —Lit-
CHAPTER XI.

107

 

tand as a dove out of the land of
Assyria: xand I will place them in
their houses, saith the Lorp. 12
yEphraim compasseth me about

with lies, and the house of Israel
with deceit: but Judah yet ruleth
with God, and is faithful *with the
saints.

 

u Isa. 60. 8; chap. 7, 11.—* Ezek. 28.
25, 26; 37. 21, 25.

iz Chap. 12. 1.—3 Or, with the most
oly.

 

erally, from the sea, the Mediterranean,
which is west of Palestine; perhaps
equivalent to ‘‘the islands of the sea”
(Isa. xi, 11). Hosea expects the Is-
raelites to go into exile to Assyria
and to Egypt (verse 11), that is, to
the south and east. Only in this pas-
sage he introduces a third place of
exile. This peculiarity leads some to
change the text so as to read, “from
their captivity.” Bird .. . dove—
Ordinarily the flight of birds repre-
sents swiftness (Psa. lv, 6; Isa. lx, 8).
If so here, come trembling cannot be a
correct reproduction of the prophet’s
thought. ‘A thrill of eagerness doub-
ling the speed of motion is what is
meant”; equivalent to they shall come
swiftly (see the comparison in vii, 11).
I will place them—For the promise to
reéstablish Israel in the old home see
also ii, 23.

Most recent commentators consider
verses 10, 11 later additions, because
(1) they are thought to be out of
harmony with verse 9 where the
withdrawal of judgment is announced,
while in these verses a dispersion is
presupposed; (2) the verses contain
expressions foreign to Hosea. To
these verses are sometimes added
verses 8, 9, in part, or even entire.
The chief objection to these two
verses is that they contain a promise
which, it is said, weakens the preced-
ing threat. In reply it may be said
(1) verses 8, 9 do not imply a com-
plete withholding of judgment; (2) the
only peculiar expression is “from the
west” (verse 10); (3) a promise does
not necessarily weaken a previous
threat. It would do so only if the
promise were unconditional. Hosea
believes that the divine favor may be
regained; but he makes it perfectly
clear that it can be done only on con-
dition of sincere repentance (xiv, 1-3).
As soon as the conditional character of

 

a promise is recognized, the promise,
far from weakening a threat, may be-
come a strong incentive to repentance,
to avert the fulfillment of the threat.
Hence it will be seen that the objec-
tions raised against the originality of
these verses are not conclusive.

ConpEMNATION OF IsRAEL’s FarrH-
LESSNESS; ExXHORTATION TO RE-
PENTANCE, xi, 12-xii, 6.

The following appears to be the
most probable interpretation of this
exceedingly difficult section. xi, 12,
begins a new series of indictments.
Israel proved false to Jehovah when
it entered into covenants with foreign
nations (xi, 12; xii, 1). If the refer-
ences to Judah are original they can-
not be interpreted as a eulogy of
Judah, for north and south were
equally guilty. The three incidents
in the life of the patriarch Jacob are
mentioned in order to present in glar-
ing colors the contrast between the
ancestor so anxious for the divine
blessing and the descendants so in-
different to Jehovah (2-5). If they
would only turn to the God of Jacob
he would surely have mercy upon
them (6).

12. Compasseth me—The lies were
so numerous that Jehovah could see
nothing ‘else; they surrounded him
completely. Lies [“falsehood’’] . - .
deceit—Practiced not against one
another (verse 7), but against Je-
hovah. A condemnation of their for-
eign policy (vii, 11; x, 4,13). Ephraim
. . » House of Israel—The northern
kingdom. 12b is of uncertain mean-
ing. But Judah yet ruleth with God,
and is faithful with the saints—
Margin, ‘‘with the most holy,’’ that is,
God; R. V., “with the Holy One” (see
on verse 9). This translation makes
12b a eulogy of Judah, which is
thought to be better than Israel.
108

HOSEA.

 

CHAPTER XII.
PHRAIM «feedeth on wind, and
followeth after the east wind:
he daily increaseth lies and desola-
tion; ’and they do make a covenant
with the Assyrians, and coil is car-

ried into Egypt. 24The Lorp hath
also a controversy with Judah, and
will punish Jacob according to his
ways; according to his doings will
he recompense him.

3 He took his brother «by the heel

 

4 Chap. 8.7.—> 2 Kings 17. 4; chaps. 5.
13; 7. 11.—= Isa. 30. 6; 57. 9.—-4 Chap.

 

Such sentiment seems out of place
here (xii, 2; see also oni, 7). The Re-
visers, conscious of this difficulty,
offer in the margin the alternative
reading, “and Judah is yet unstead-
fast (faithless) with God, and with
the Holy One who is faithful.” This
is certainly to be preferred; otherwise
12b must be regarded as a later addi-
tion. Yet—The faithlessness has con-
tinued for a long time, and still there
is no sign of improvement.

CHAPTER XII.

1. Feedeth on wind—Israel seeks
sustenance where sustenance cannot
be found (viii, 7). Followeth after—
See comment on “follow on” in vi, 3.
East wind—The Sirocco; the most de-
structive wind of Palestine, blowing
from the desert, accompanied by
clouds of sand, and bringing suffering
and anguish, and sometimes even
death, to man and beast. The figure
adds to the preceding the idea of
destructiveness. They run not only
after that which is unsubstantial and
empty, but even after that which is
positively harmful (v, 13; viii, 7).
Lies—See on xi, 12. Desolation—
The result of the policy of lies.
Another possible translation is vio-
lence—acts of violence, which would
be parallel with ies (compare iv, 2, 3).
LXX. seems to have read a different
word, though similar in appearance,
“falsehood,” rendered in x, 4, “‘false-
ly.” “Lies and falsehood” would give
good parallelism (xi, 12). 1a is ex-
plained in 1b. The policy of ‘‘wind”
and “lies” found expression in ap-
peals to Assyria and Egypt (v, 13;
vii, 11, 12). Covenant—See on x, 4.
Oii\—One of the chief products of
Palestine (see on Joel i, 10); it was
offered to Egypt as a bribe to secure

 

4. 1; Mic. 6. 2.—1 Heb. visit upon.—
° Gen. 25. 26.

her favor (Isa. vii,
2 Kings xv, 19).

2. The southern kingdom was
equally guilty. Controversy—See on
iv, 1. Judah—Some substitute “Is-
rael.”” Also, which is in the English
translations, is not in the original (see
onv,5). Jacob—Since the name stands
in parallelism with Judah it would
seem to be a poetic synonym of the
latter. If Israel is substituted in the
first clause Jacob may be regarded as
a poetic synonym of Israel, used so as
to prepare the way for the references
to the patriarch Jacob. If xi, 12b,
is original still another interpreta-
tion is possible: Judah—the southern
kingdom; Jacob, which is equiva-
lent to Israel—the northern king-
dom: the two together make up
the whole nation. The third inter-
pretation is favored by verse 13,
which seems to imply that in chapter
xii Hosea compares the whole nation
with its ancestor. His ways...
doings—The faithless conduct con-
demned in xi, 12; xii, 1 (compare iv,
9; vii, 2).

In verses 3-5 (compare verse 13)
the prophet introduces abruptly a
reference to three incidents in the
life of the patriarch Jacob: one con-
nected with his birth (Gen. xxv, 26),
another with his return from Aram
(Gen. xxxii, 22ff.), and a third with
his journey to or from Aram (Gen.
xxviii, 10-22; xxxv, 9-15). The place
of these historical references in the
argument of Hosea is variously in-
terpreted. Some see in them a com-
mendation of the patriarch, whose
acts indicated his anxiety for divine
and paternal blessings; this commen-
dation implies a condemnation of
his descendants who are spiritually
indifferent. Others see in them a

9; compare
CHAPTER XII.

109

 

in the womb, and by his strength
he 2?thad power with God: 4 Yea,
he had power over the angel and
prevailed: he wept, and made sup-

plication unto him: he found him
wm &Beth-el, and there he spake
with us; 5 Even the Lorp of
hosts; the Lorp is his memorial.

 

2 Heb. was a prince, or, behaved himself
princely.

condemnation of the patriarch, who
even before his birth practiced deceit
and who in manhood sought to take
advantage of God and man. Small
wonder that his descendants are full
of lies and falsehoods. Still others
see a condemnation of Jacob in the
first reference and a commendation
in the others. On the whole, the first
interpretation is to be preferred.
Took his brother by the heel—Though
the exact meaning of the verb is un-
certain, the thought is that Jacob de-
sired to be born first, so as to enjoy
the rights of the firstborn (Gen. xxvii,
36). The prophet does not justify
the act. For purposes of illustra-
tion it is not-necessary to pass judg-
ment on the merits of an act (compare
Luke xvi, lff.). In later life the
patriarch manifested still greater
anxiety for the divine blessing. By
his strength—R. V., “in his man-
hood” (Gen. xlix, 3). Had power
with God—Margin R. V., “strove”;
margin A. V., “behaved himself
princely.” Again the exact meaning
of the verb is uncertain. The ref-
erence is to Gen. xxxii, 22ff.

Verse 4 describes the conflict in
greater detail. The angel—HEquiva-
lent to “God” in verse 3 (see on
Zech. i, 11). Prevailed—His per-
sistence was rewarded. Wept—Ja-
cob’s tears were a further evidence of
his anxiety. The shedding of tears
is not mentioned in Genesis. Made
supplication—Compare Gen. xxxii, 26.
If only Israel would follow the foot-
steps of Jacob they too would receive
the divine blessing. He—It seems
best to carry over the subject from
the preceding and make he refer to
Jacob. Him—Jehovah. Both the
order and the prophet’s purpose, to
impress upon the Israelites the truth
that the vision at Beth-el was the
result of Jacob’s spiritual longings,

 

f Gen. 32. 24, etc.—e Gen. 28. 12, 19;
35. 9, 10, 15.—» Exod. 3. 15.

make it probable that he thought of
that vision as having been granted
on Jacob’s return from Aram (Gen.
xxxv, 9-15). He spake—That is, Je-
hovah. With us—What Jehovah said
to Jacob applied equally to his de-
scendants. The text is greatly im-
proved, however, if we read, with
Peshitto and other ancient versions,
“with him,” that is, with Jacob.
LXX. also seems to have read the
pronoun of the third person singular,
though in other respects its text of
4b is inferior to the Hebrew.

Verse 5 is thought by many to be
a later addition, “by some pious
reader of « very late date.’ The
English translators evidently took 5a
in apposition to he, the subject of
spake (verse 4). By identifying the
God who blessed the yearning Jacob
with Jehovah, whom, nominally at
least, they worshiped as their deliv-
erer and helper, the prophet prepared
the way for the exhortation in verse
6. If he rewarded the perseverance
of your ancestor he will in the same
manner reward you, if you earnestly
seek him. The thought remains the
same if we regard, as seems more
probable, verse 5 in construction in-
dependent of the preceding: “And
Jehovah is the God of hosts; Jehovah
is his memorial name.’’ Memorial—R.
V., “memorial name.” The name by
which the God of Israel is to be re-
membered (Exod. iii, 15). Jehovah
God of hosts—Identical in meaning
with the shorter “Jehovah of hosts.”
As used by the prophets this title
designates Jehovah as the Lord of all
powers in the world and in nature.
There is still a difference of opinion
as to the original significance of host.
1. Some think that host referred
primarily to the angels. According
to Ewald the phrase arose on the oc-
casion of some great victory, when it
110

HOSEA.

 

6 iTherefore turn thou to thy God:
keep mercy and judgment, and
kwait on thy God continually.

7 He is *a merchant, !the balances

of deceit are in his hand: he loveth
to 4oppress. § And Ephraim said,
2Yet ti am becomerich, I have found
me out substance: ‘in all my labors

 

i Chap. 14.1; Mic. 6. 8.— Psa. 37. 7.
— Or, Canaan, see Ezek. 16. 8.—! Prov.
11. 1; Amos 8. 5.—-4 Or, deceive.

m Zech. 11. 5; Rev. 3. 17.—--5 Or, all
my labors suffice me not: he shall have
puntshment of iniquity in whom Is sin.

 

seemed as if the host of heavenly
beings had come down to the relief of
the people (compare Psa. ciii, 21;
Neh. ix, 6). 2. Others think that the
hosts were originally the armies of
Israel, whose leader Jehovah is repre-
sented as being (Exod. vii, 4; xii, 41,
51). 3. Still others take it to refer
primarily to the stars, which are fre-
quently called “the hosts of heaven’
(Deut. iv, 19; Isa. xxxiv, 4). 4. Sayce
connects it with Babylonian mythol-
ogy. Jehovah he identifies with Sin,
the moon-god. Sin is called ‘‘the en-
chanter of the spirits of the hosts.”
This title in its Hebrew form was, he
thinks, transferred from Sin to Je-
hovah. But whatever the primary
usage of the title the prophets gave
to it a sublimer content.

6. Therefore—Because thy God is
identical with the God of thy ancestor
Jacob, a God whose pleasure it is to
show mercy to every one who earn-
estly seeks him. To thy Goed—The
Hebrew reads “in” or ‘‘into,”’ the
real force of which can be expressed
only by a paraphrase: ‘‘Turn to thy
God in such a manner as to enter into
fellowship with him’ (compare Isa.
x, 22). <A turning such as that de-
scribed in vi, 1-3, is not sufficient.
Wherein does the turning consist?
Keep mercy [““kindness’”’}—Now lack-
ing completely (iv, 1; compare vi, 6).
Judgment [“justice’’}—See on Mic. vi,
8 (compare Amos v, 24). Wait on
[“for’’] thy God continually—Exercise
implicit faith in Jehovah; cease from
putting confidence in human alliances
and human defenses (verse 1; vii, 11;
x, 13, etc.).

Israrv’s UNHOLY AMBITION AND Brr-
TER DISAPPOINTMENT, 7-14.

Israel’s sole ambition had been to

 

accumulate material wealth, even by
the use of the most shameful means.
This ill-gotten gain, the prophet says,
will avail nothing, for Jehovah is about
to reduce Israel to poverty (7-9). The
latter part of the section is obscure,
due perhaps to a disarrangement of
the verses. They seem to contain a
complaint of Jehovah because the
people disregarded and rejected the
prophets whom he had raised up.
This obstinacy makes the judgment
inevitable (10-14).

7. He is a merchant [‘‘trafficker’’}—
Literally, Canaan, without “he is”;
hence margin of R. V., “As for
Canaan, the... ,” is preferable.
Addressed to the degenerate Israel.
Because of the commercial habits of
the Canaanites, including the Phoe-
nicians, Canaan became a synonym
of merchant (Job xli, 6; Prov. xxxi, 24;
compare Zeph. i, 11; Ezek. xvii, 4),
just as Chaldean, at a later period,
became a synonym of astrologer. ‘“In-
stead of seeking high gifts from
heaven, like its progenitor, Israel
strives after money and goods, like
the huckstering nation of the Canaan-
ites.” Israel adopted also the fraud-
ulent ways of the Canaanites (compare
Odyssey, xiv, 290, 291). Balances of
deceit—Balances with which deceit is
practiced. They “doctored” the
scales in order to take advantage of
the buyer (Amos viii, 5). Oppress—
Better, with margin, R. V., “defraud.”
It is significant that the prophet con-
demns as strongly the people’s atti-
tude toward one another (compare
iv, 1) as he condemns that toward
Jehovah.

8. Israel had been successful in
realizing its ambition; now arrogantly
it congratulates itself on the acquisi-
tion of wealth and riches. They shall
CHAPTER XII.

they shall find none iniquity in me
sthat were sin. 9 And ®I that am the
Lorp thy God from the land of

6 Heb. which. Chap. 13. 4.—-° Lev.
23. 42, 43; Neh. 8. 17; Zech. 14. 16.

d11

Egypt owill yet make thee to dwell
in tabernacles, as in the days of the
solemn feast. 10 PI have also spok-

pP2 Kings 17. 13.

 

find none iniquity in me that were
sin—Thus rendered 8b is a continua-
tion of Israel’s boast, maintaining
that the wealth had been gained hon-
estly; and even if some things should
have been done that might seem in-
consistent these could not be called
real sins. This interpretation implies
a distinction between the Hebrew
words translated iniquity and sin,
which cannot be traced in the rest of
the Old Testament. Besides, the
rendering takes considerable liberty
with the Hebrew and makes the transi-
tion from 8 to 9 very abrupt. A much
better connection and more satisfac-
tory sense is had if in 8b the reading
of LXX. is followed, which requires
only very slight changes in the He-
brew. Then the whole of verse 8 will
read, “Ephraim indeed said, Surely
I am become rich, I have found
wealth; but”’—now follows Jehovah’s
reply to this boast—‘all his gains
are not sufficient for (to expiate) the
guilt which he has incurred.”’ This
translation makes the transition to
verse 9 quite natural, for the latter
supplies the reason for the doom of
Israel implied in 8b, and at the same
time makes a more distinct announce-
ment of the judgment. And [“But’’]
—A more common translation of the
Hebrew is “for,” which is to be pre-
ferred here if in 8b the LXX. reading
is accepted. Thy God from the land
of Egypt—These words may suggest
several thoughts: (1) All they are and
all they have they. owe to him;
therefore their ingratitude is the more
culpable. (2) Since he is the source
of every good gift, violence and
fraud are not the proper means by
which to acquire wealth. (3) Je-
hovah has proved himself a faithful
helper and friend since the days in
Egypt, but he has also shown himself
ready to punish whenever punishment

 

was needed (Amos iv, 6ff.; iii, 2). He
may punish again. The last thought
is most prominent in the mind of the
prophet. Will yet—R. V., “I will yet
again make thee to dwell in tents’;
A. V., “tabernacles.” <A. V. regards
this evidently as a promise, but in
this connection the words must be
taken as a threat (compare ii, 14).
Jehovah will drive them from their
comfortable homes and their ill-gotten
riches; they will be led back into the
desert (see on ii, 14), there to live in
tents, as during their former weari-
some wanderings. The solemn feast
—Better, simply feast, or, festal season
(see on ix, 5). The reference is to one
of the three ancient feasts of the
Hebrews, the Feast of Tabernacles
(Exod. xxiii, 16; compare Lev. xxiii,
42, 43). This was a season of grati-
tude and rejoicing, but of this the
prophet does not think. The tent
dwelling is the only point of compari-
son.

It is exceedingly difficult to trace
the logical connection between the re-
maining verses of chapter xii. Most
recent commentators agree with G. A.
Smith, who says, concerning verses
10, 11, ‘‘One does not see.the connec-
tion of these verses with the preced-
ing,” and concerning verses 12-14, “I
cannot trace the argument here.” A
few attempts have been made to dis-
cover the underlying connection, but
all must admit that more or less un-
certainty remains. Numerous at-
tempts have been made to remove the
difficulties by omissions, transposi-
tions, and alterations of the text.
Some of these result in a smoother
text, but one cannot feel confident
that they have restored the words of
Hosea. Taking the text as it stands,
the line of argument seems to be this:
In verse 9 the prophet announces
doom; in 10 he points out that Je-
112

TIOSEA.

 

en by the prophets, and I have mul-
tiplied visions, and used similitudes,
"by the ministry of the prophets.
11 os there iniquity in Gilead ? sure-
ly they are vanity: they sacrifice

bullocks in 'Gilgal; yea, ‘their altars
are as heaps in the furrows of the
fields. 12 And Jacob ‘fled into the
country of Syria, and Israel served
for a wife, and for a wife he kept

 

7 Heb. by the hand.—4 Chaps. 5. 1; 6. 8.
t Chaps. 4,15; 9. 15; Amos 4, 4; 5. 5.

 

hovah has made repeated attempts
through the prophets to avert it.
Verse 11 is obscure. The prophet ap-
parently singles out two prominent
religious centers, and, speaking of
their destruction, he desires to im-
press upon the people the truth that
no one can be blamed for the disaster
but they themselves; verses 12-14
present a new indictment and a new
announcement of judgment. By a
comparison of the experiences of the
nation with those of the patriarch
Jacob in Aram the prophet seeks to
show what great things Jehovah has
done for Israel, and how the divine
love has been met with ingratitude.
Again and again they have roused
the divine anger; therefore the sen-
tence must stand.

10, 11. In manifold ways Jehovah
sought to warn the people. By the
prophets—This is better than R. V.
“unto” (compare Amos ii, 11; Jer.
vii, 25). Visions—One of the means
whereby the prophets received divine
revelations (Num. xii, 6; see on Obad.
1). (Compare the articles ‘ Vision”
and “Prophecy and Prophets” in
Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible.)
Similitudes—Literally, have made
comparisons, that is, have spoken in
similes and parables (vii, 4ff.; ix, 10;
compare Isa. v, 1-7). To all these
warnings Israel remained deaf; the
result is ruin, and no one but Israel
is to blame. Gilead—See on vi, 8.
Gilgal—See on iv, 15. Both were re-
ligious centers; both were seats of
corruption; and both will be de-
stroyed for their sins. It has been
claimed sometimes that the two cen-
ters are intended to represent the
entire kingdom—Gilead the territory
east of the Jordan, Gilgal the territory
west of that river. Whether this is so
or not, the fate of the two cities will

 

* Chaps. 8. 11; 10. 1.—-t Gen. 28. 5;
Deut. 26. 5. u Gen. 29. 20, 28.

 

be the fate of the entire nation. Is
there iniquity in Gilead—R. V., “Is
Gilead iniquity?’ Surely they are
vanity—R. V., “they are altogether
false.” Neither translation repro-
duces the sense of the original, which
should be rendered, “If Gilead is
worthless (that is, morally), nothing
but vanity (nothingness) shall they
(the Gileadites) become.”” Those who
disregard Jehovah’s warnings and re-
main moral and religious apostates
can expect nothing but utter destruc-

tion. In a@ similar manner Gilgal
must reap that which it has
sown. Sacrifice bullocks. ‘ Bullocks

marks the sumptuousness of offer-
ings.” That this passage proves
that “‘the sacrificing of bullocks at
Gilgal must have seemed to the
prophet wrong in itself” is at least
doubtful (see Introduction, p. 32f.). It
is quite conceivable that he con-
demned Gilgal and its worship only
because of the corruption prevalent
there (iv, 11ff.; ix, 15). Are as heaps
—The tense is the prophetic perfect,
equivalent to “shall be.” Heaps—
Heaps of stones piled up in the fields,
which are entirely worthless. In the
original there are two plays upon
words: between Gilgal (Heap-town)
and heaps, and between sacrifice and
altars.

Verses 12, 13 present a contrast be-
tween the fortunes of the patriarch
Jacob and those of the nation Israel.
The latter experienced wonderful
manifestations of the divine mercy.
Jacob fled into the country of Syria
(“field (territory) of Aram’’}-Which
to him was a strange country (Gen.
xxvii, 43). On the other hand, Israel
was delivered from a strange country
and restored to the land of its fore-
fathers (13). Israel served —The pa-
triarch Jacob, here called Israel (Gen.
CHAPTER XIII.

113

 

sheep. 13 *And by a prophet the
Lorp brought Isracl out of Egypt,
and by a prophet was he preserved.
14 yvEphraim provoked him to
anger 8most bitterly: therefore shall
he leave his "blood upon him, ‘and

his «reproach shall his Lord return
unto him,

CHAPTER XIII.
\\/7 HEN Ephraim spake trem-
bling, he exalted himself in Is-

 

x Exod. 12. 50, 51; 13. 3; Psa. 77. 20;
Tia, O3: 11; Mic. 6. 4.—-¥ 2 Kings 17.
11-18.

8 Heb. with bilternesses.—® Heb. bloods;
see Ezek. 18.13; 24. 7,8. = Dan. 11. 18.
—-4 Deut. 28. 37.

 

 

xxxii, 28), had to render service;
the nation, on the contrary, was
freed from servitude and bondage.
Kept sheep—Jacob had to endure the
hardships of a shepherd’s life; Israel
was the flock under the tender care of
a loving shepherd. For a wife—Gen.
xxix, 18-20. Though this may have
been an adequate reward, it is insig-
nificant when compared with the
countless blessings held out to Israel
by Jehovah. By a prophet—Moses
(compare Deut. xxxiv, 10); and from
the time of Moses Jehovah continued
to raise up prophets to exercise a
shepherd’s care over Israel (Amos ii,
11).

14. Surely Jehovah was justified in
expecting gratitude; but he was dis-
appointed. Ephraim—Israel (13).
Provoked .. . to anger—By its lack of
gratitude and open rebellion. The
anger of Jehovah is one phase of his
holiness, which manifests itself in in-
tense love for everything that is pure
and good and in intense hatred for
everything that is impure and bad.
Blood—Bloodguiltiness (G.-K., 124n).
Shall he leave—R. V., ‘‘shall . . . be
left.” The Hebrew verb is even
stronger, “shall be thrust upon him.”
Under no consideration will it be re-
moved, and being left upon the crim-
inal it will surely bring punishment.
His reproach—Or, insult; the dishonor
heaped upon Jehovah by the sin and
rebellion of Ephraim (Isa. Ixv, 7).
Unto him—Ephraim. “Whatsoever a
man soweth, that shall he also reap.”

CHAPTER XIII.
Israry’s GLoRY TURNED TO SHAME,
1-16.
The beginning of a new discourse,
which, according to G. A. Smith, “has

 

every mark of being Hosea’s latest.”
Whether or not this is so, it is one of
the most powerful and comprehensive
in the book. It opens with a reference
to the tribe of Ephraim, which in the
beginning occupied a position of prom-
inence in the nation but when it apos-
tatized from Jehovah signed its own
death warrant (1). From this well-
known example Israel should have
learned its lesson, but it failed to do
so; it persisted in shameless idolatry,
therefore it will vanish like chaff be-
fore the whirlwind (2, 3). The re-
bellious attitude of Israel, the prophet
continues, is unintelligible, since the
God whom they have rejected is the
God who led them from the time of
the Exodus. Strange to say, the more
Jehovah prospered them the more ar-
rogant they became, the more forget-
ful of Jehovah; hence he will devour
them like a lion (4-8). By rebelling
against Jehovah Israel courted de-
struction, which is now inevitable.
No one can prevent it, Jehovah him-
self can show mercy no longer (9-14).
The discourse closes with a threat of
utter destruction (15, 16).

1-3. Israel’s apostasy its own death
warrant. Though the interpretation
of verse 1 is not quite certain, that
embodied in the translation of R. V.
and suggested in the introductory
remarks above is preferable to
all others that have been proposed.
Ephraim’s experience should have
been a warning to the whole people.
Ephraim—Not synonymous with Is-
rael, as in practically every other case
in the book, but the tribe of Ephraim.
When .. . spake trembling, he exalted
himself—If rendered thus the mean-
ing of the passage would be, ‘“When
the Ephraimites in trembling accents
114

rael; but :when he offended in Baal,
he died. 2 And now 'they sin more
and more, and thave made them
molten images of their silver, and

a2 Kings 17. 16, 18; chap, 11. 2,—-
1 Heb. they add to stn.» Chaps. 2. 8; 8. 4.

responded to the divine call, they rose
to the exalted position which their
prophetic ancestor foreshadowed”
(Gen. xlix, 22-26). This translation
and interpretation are open to criti-
cism on linguistic and other grounds,
and there can be no doubt that R. V.
has come nearer the truth: ‘When
Ephraim spake, there was trembling.”
The other tribes looked up to Ephraim
with fear and trembling (Judg. viii, 1;
xii, 1; compare Gen. xlix, 16; Deut.
xxxili, 17). He exalted himself—Not
in a bad sense, “he became proud,”
but, “he became a leader, a prince.”
Many commentators read, with a
slight alteration, “he was a prince.”
He died—Loyalty to Jehovah con-
tained elements insuring permanence;
apostasy, on the other hand, con-
tained those elements that made
death and destruction inevitable
(Hab. ii, 4). As soon ds Ephraim
apostatized the dying process began
(Gen. ii, 17). He offended in Baal—
Or, became guilty through the Baal
(compare x, 2). He became guilty
when he accepted from the Canaanites
Baal ideas and allowed ,these to cor-
rupt the Jehovah worship (ii, 5ff.).
Baal is identical with Baals in other
parts of the book (see on ii, 5).
There may be also an allusion to the
setting up of the “calves” (viii, 5;
x, 5) by Jeroboam I (1 Kings xii, 29),
who was of the tribe of Ephraim
(1 Kings xi, 26). The tribe of Eph-
raim, once so powerful, had become,
in the days of Hosea, of little signifi-
cance. The words of the prophet by
no means imply that Ephraim alone
was guilty, or that he alone suffered;
only, in his experience the contrast
between the former glory and the
present oblivion illustrated most per-
fectly the lesson Hosea desired to
teach. The experience of this one
tribe should have had a wholesome

 

HOSEA.

idols according to their own under-
standing, all of it the work of the
craftsmen: they say of them, Let
ethe men that sacrifice ckiss the

2Or, the sacrificers of men.—-e 1K ings
19. 18.

effect upon the others. Not so. Now
—In the prophet’s own day. They—
The whole nation. Sin more and
more—Or, they continue to sin (G.-K.,
114m) notwithstanding the warnings.

The offense of Ephraim consisted in
apostasy to the Baals; the nation as a
whole gave itself to even grosser idol-
atry. Molten images—See on Nah. i,
14 (compare Exod. xxxiv, 17). These
images may have been intended prim-
arily to be representations of Jehovah
(1 Kings xii, 28). Idols—The general
term for an image of a deity. Ac-
cording to their own understanding—
Their own skill and proficiency. What
power can there be in such images?
LXX. reads, and other ancient ver-
sions, in part, favor the reading,
“They made them molten images of
their silver according to the likeness
of idols.” The work of the craftsmen
—Whatever the exact reading of the
preceding, this clause brings out the
point of greatest importance: the
images are man-made; there is noth-
ing divine about them.

2b is obscure. Various transla-
tions, all more or less forced, have
been proposed. The text may be
corrupt; at any rate, many emenda-
tions have been suggested. They—
The indefinite people. Say of them
—Or, concerning them, that is, the
idols. Let the men that sacrifice
kiss the calves—The kiss is the kiss
of homage (Psa. ii, 12; 1 Kings
xix, 18). Those who offer sacrifice are
urged ironically to bestow the kiss of
homage upon the idolatrous calves.
How absurd for human beings to kiss
calves! Another possible translation
is suggested in the margin, “Let the
sacrificers of men kiss the calves.”
This rendering emphasizes even more
the absurdity of the religious prac-
tices. Men they sacrifice and beasts
they kiss, instead of sacrificing beasts
 

CHAPTER XIII. 115
calves. 3 Therefore they shall be} Yet ‘I am the Lorp thy God from
las the morning cloud, and as the| the land of Egypt, and thou shalt

early dew that passeth away, cas
the chaff that is driven with the
whirlwind out of the floor, and as
the smoke out of the chimney. 4

know no god but me: for «there is
no saviour beside me.

5 ‘I did know thee in the wilder-
ness, ‘in the land of *great drought.

 

aChap. 6. 4.—* Dan. 2.35.—! Isa, 43.
11; chap. 12. 9.—~# Isa.43. 11; 45. 21.

h Deut. 2. 7; 32. 10.—i Deut. 8. 15;
32. 10.—% Heb. droughts.

 

and kissing men. That human sacri-
fices were offered in Israel at this time

is not definitely stated in Hosea (but

compare 2 Kings xvii, 17); in Judah
the practice was not unknown (2 Kings
xvi, 3; xxi, 6). A third possible trans-
lation, secured by dividing the words
into two clauses, reads, ‘“To them (the
idols) they speak (in prayer).”” How
absurd to address prayers to the work
of their own hands! ‘Men that sac-
rifice (or, sacrificers of men) kiss the
calves.” Sacrificers of men is the more
natural translation of the Hebrew, but
the other is not impossible (G.-K.,
1281). The two clauses would have
to be understood as exclamations of
disgust by the prophet. Which one
of these interpretations is right can-
not be asserted with certainty. The
Hebrew is peculiar and may be cor-
rupt. Of proposed emendations two
may be mentioned. Marti, omitting
several words, reads, “Sacrificers of
men they are; calves they kiss.”
Harper, “People sacrificing to demons;
men kissing calves.”

Such a condition of affairs cannot
be permitted to continue. 3. Swift
retribution will overtake them. This
thought is expressed very emphati-
cally by the accumulation of four
separate figures, each one describing
utter destruction. On the first two
see vi, 4. As the chaff—The threshing
floors were usually located on eleva-
tions, so as to take advantage of every
breeze. The grain was winnowed by
throwing it up into the air with
shovels. The solid grains fell back to
the ground, while the chaff was car-
ried away by the wind. The stronger
the wind the more quickly the chaff
vanished; a whirlwind would drive it
out of sight in a very short time (Psa.

 

i, 4; Isa. xvii, 13; xli, 15, 16, etc.).
Smoke—I# also is swiftly driven away
by the breeze (Psa. xviii, 2). Chim-
ney—The same word is sometimes
rendered “window”; literally, lattice
(see on Joel ii, 9).

4-8. Love — Ingratitude — Destruc-
tion. The conduct of Israel was the
more shocking because Jehovah had
always proved himself ready to be
their helper and friend. I am Jehovah
—Here the emphasis is upon the as-
sistance rendered by Jehovah to Is-
rael throughout their entire history
(compare xii, 9). Thou shalt know—
Better, R. V. margin, ‘‘knowest.”
The prophet appeals to present and
past experiences. No god but me—
Israel found no god able to help and
to save besides the one who delivered
them out of Egypt; the entire history
revealed him and him alone as
saviour and friend. Indeed, there
is no other deliverer. How serious
has been the mistake of the people
(ii, 5ff.).

5. The loving care of Jehovah mani-
fested itself in a special manner during
the wanderings in the desert, when
hunger and thirst threatened to de-
stroy them. I did know—The Hebrew
is more emphatic: “It was J (not some
other god) who knew thee.’”’ See on
viii, 4; here in a favorable sense—
care, protect (Psa. i, 6). Some of the
ancient versions read, ‘I shepherded
thee,” which is in accord with the
figure in verse 6. Land of great
drought—Or, of burning thirst (Deut.
viii, 15; Exod. xvii, 1ff.; etc.).

6. Jehovah’s care for Israel and the
resulting prosperity failed to inspire
gratitude; on the contrary, it made
the people proud and arrogant and
caused them to forget God. Accord-
116

6 ‘According to their pasture, so
were they filled; they were filled, and
their heart was exalted; therefore
‘have they forgotten me. 7 There-
fore =I will be unto them as a lion:
as "a leopard by the way will I ob-
serve them: 8 I will meet them -as

HOSEA.

a bear that is bereaved of her whelps,
and will rend the caul of their heart,
and there will I devour them like a
lion: ‘the wild beast shall tear
them.

9 O Israel, Pthou hast destroyed
thyself; sbut in me %is thine help.

 

E Deut, 8. 12,14; $2, 15.1 Chap: 8.
14.—™ Lam. 3. 10; chap. 5. 14.2 Jer.

5. 6. ° 2 Sam. 17. 8; Prov. 17, 12.—

 

4 Heb. the beast of the fleld.—p Prov. 6.
32; chap. 14. 1; Mal. 1. 9——4 Verse 4.——
5 Heb. in thy help.

 

 

ing to their pasture—The rich blessings
bestowed upon them. ‘They were
filled—With prosperity; but they
failed to recognize the giver (ii, 8;
iv, 7; x, 1; compare Deut. viii, 11ff.;
xxxi, 20, ete.). The verb is repeated
for the sake of emphasis. It is pos-
sible, however, that the two verb
forms, with a slight change in the
second, should be combined to form
one expression, ‘They were com-
pletely filled”’ Their heart was ex-

alted—Prosperity caused pride and
arrogance. Forgotten me—Arrogance
led to forgetfulness of God (viii, 14;
Isa. xvii, 10); they felt that they could

get along without the divine help.

7, 8. The flock, Israel, despised the
good shepherd; now he will transform

himself into a beast of prey seeking to
devour the sheep. Lion—See on v, 14.
Leopard—Mentioned on account of its
fierceness (compare Isa. xi, 6). Leop-
ards are still found in Mount Lebanon,
though in small numbers. Will I ob-
serve them—R. V., “will I watch by
the way,” waiting for the proper
moment to spring. “It (the leopard)
is specially noted for the patience
with which it waits .. . expecting its
prey, upon which it springs with
deadly precision” (compare Jer. v,
6). Several of the ancient versions
and some of the Hebrew manuscripts
read, “in the way to Assyria” (v, 13;
vii, 12). This would require only a
slight change, but the other is to be
preferred. Bear—When the country
was covered with more abundant
forests than at present bears were
more numerous in Palestine; they are
still quite numerous in the wilder
regions of the Lebanon and Anti-
Lebanon, rarer in the mountains east

of thc Jordan, and very rare in western
Palestine (compare Lam. iii, 10; Van
Lennep, Bible Lands, 259ff.). Be-
reaved of her whelps—And therefore
even more ferocious than usual (2
Sam. xvii, 8; Prov. xvii, 12). The
caul of their heart—Literally, the in-

 

closure of the heart. In popular
language probably equivalent to
breast. There—In the very spot
where he seizes the prey. There will
be no delay. Like a lion—R. V.,
‘Jioness.”” It is difficult to distinguish
between the different words for lion
used in Hebrew; the one used here is
thought to denote the female, but
this is not beyond question. The wild
beast shall tear them—The beasts will
assist Jehovah in despoiling Israel.
“The end of the verse suggests a
battlefield, where beasts of prey at-
tack the corpses as the last avengers
of God.” Certainly the whole is to
be understood as a figurative descrip-
tion of the judgment about to fall.

Utter destruction the just punishment
for Israel's guilt, 9-16.

This discourse closes with another
description of the hopelessness of Is-
rael’s condition. It has rebelled
against Jehovah, who alone can save;
therefore destruction has become in-
evitable; it has already begun and will
not stop until the whole nation has
been consumed. O Israel, thou hast
destroyed thyself; but in me is thy
help—This is one of the most abrupt
sentences in the book of Hosea. On
the assumption that the text is cor-
rect the abruptness has been ex-
plained as due to the profound emo-
tion of the prophet, which caused him

 

to break off before completing his
CHAPTER XIII.

10 °I will be thy king: where is any
other that may save thee in all thy
cities? and thy judges of whom
*thou saidst, Give me a king and

117

princes? 11 ‘I a thee a king in
mine anger, and took him away in
my wrath. 12 "The iniquity of Eph-
raim 7s bound up; his sin és hid.

 

6 Rather, Where ts thy king? King Ho-
shea being then in prison, 2 Kings 17. 4.
Verse 4; Deut. 32.38; chap. 10. 3.

—1

s 1 Sam, 8. 5, 19—+1 Sam. 8. 7; 10.
19; 15. 22, 28; 16. 1; chap. 10. 3.— Deut.
32. 34; Job 14. 17.

 

thought. A more satisfactory render-
ing of the Hebrew—though several
words must be supplied in the English
—and in more complete accord with
the context, is that of R. V.: “It is
thy destruction, O Israel, that thou
art against me, against thy help’;
that is, by rebelling against Jehovah
Israel signed its own death warrant.
LXX. and Peshitto present a reading
which removes in some measure the
unusually elliptical character of the
sentence, and adds strength to
the utterance. Both read the latter
part as a question: ‘who will be thy
help?” In addition Peshitto reads the
first part, ‘‘I have (a prophetic perfect)
destroyed thee.” Following these
translations, the whole verse may be
read, “I am,” or, “he is,” “thy de-
struction; yea, who shall be thy
helper?” This question connects nat-
urally with verse 10. Neither king
nor princes can save. Here again
R. V. is to be preferred: ‘‘Where now
is thy king, that he may save thee in
all thy cities?” According to x, 14;
xi, 6, the destruction will fall upon
the fortresses and cities; in their dis-
tress they will need and cry for help,
but in vain. The king will be power-
less against the wrath of Jehovah.
Verse 11 goes even further and states
that the king will be entirely removed.
Thy judges—Equivalent to “rulers,”
as in vii, 7, including “king and
princes” mentioned in the last line.
The second question is practically
equivalent to the first. Princes—See
on iii, 4. Give me—Some commenta-
tors see here a reference to the de-
mands for a king in the days of Sam-
uel (1 Sam. viii, 5ff.). It is more prob-
able, however, that the prophet has in
mind more recent events, when the
people by actions rather than by

 

word of mouth expressed their de-
mands for new kings and placed them
upon the throne (vii, 3ff.; viii, 4).
When the calamity falls it will be seen
how helpless is the king in whom they
place their confidence.

The tenses in verse 11 are frequenta-
tives. Jehovah did it on more than one
occasion, and he is still doing it. In
vii, 7, and viii, 4, the prophet speaks
of the frequent changes in dynasties
as having been brought about by vio-
lence and assassination. This was
done without consulting Jehovah and
without his approval. In this verse
the prophet considers the same events
from a different viewpoint. He makes
the additional statement that, though
Jehovah was not consulted, the
changes could not be made without
his consent and codperation. In one
sense, therefore, the people made the
kings, in another, Jehovah gave them.
“God humored them; but these kings
who were wrung from him (viii, 4)
he gave them in anger; they were not
kings by God’s grace, but by his dis-
pleasure.” As he gave them, so he
took them away; and the anarchy and
disorder following were equally due
to his wrath (Isa. ix, 18ff.).

Verses 12-16 do not contain a prom-
ise, as is sometimes asserted, but an
additional threat. Bad as is the
present confusion, severer judgments
are yet to come. Ephraim—The
northern kingdom. Iniquity . .
sin—Synonyms. Bound up.. . hid
—R. V., “laid up in store’—Also
synonymous expressions. The case
is closed, all the evidence is in, and
carefully preserved. Nothing will be
overlooked on the day of reckoning.
With this record of iniquity before
him, what can Jehovah do but allow
justice to have its way? Sorrows
118

HOSEA.

 

13 *The sorrows of a travailing
woman shall come upon him: he zs
yan unwise son; for he should not
zstay “long in the place of the break-
ing forth of children. 14 *I will ran-

x Isa.13.'8; Jer. 30. 6.—y Prov. 22. 3.—
22 Kings 19. 3.——7 Heb. a time. a Isa.
25. 8; Ezek. 37. 12.—+% Heb, the hand.

 

som them from *the power of the
grave; I willredeem themfrom death:
’O death, I will be thy plagues; O
grave, I will be thy destruction: cre-
pentance shall be hid from mine eyes.

 

b1 Cor. 15. 54, 55. e Jer. 15.6; Rom.
11. 29.

 

(better, pangs) of a travailing woman
—A common figure of extreme an-
guish and distress (Mic. iv, 9; Isa.
xili, 8; xxi, 3, etc.). Ephraim is lik-
eried to the mother who is in the pangs
of childbirth, but unable to bring
forth and thus to put an end to the
suffering. In the very next line the
prophet changes the figure and likens
Ephraim to the child about to be born.
His folly is delaying the birth and is
responsible for the continued suffer-
ing. Again and again the prophet
shows that, whatever calamity may
come, Israel alone is to blame for it.
Unwise—Though aware of his duty
in the matter, he failed to do his part.
The exact translation of 13b is un-
certain: For he should not stay long
in the place of the breaking forth of
children—R. V., “for it is time he
should not tarry in the place... ”;
margin, ‘when it is time, he standeth
notin...” It may be difficult to
decide between these and _ similar
translations suggested, but the point
of the argument is easily seen. Eph-
raim prevented the birth at the
proper moment, either by not present-
ing himself for birth at the proper
time or by retarding the process. By
his attitude he increased the pain and
endangered the life of both mother
and child, in this figure one and the
same person. Applied to the history
of Israel, the figure illustrates the
folly of the people, manifesting itself
in their failure to heed the warnings
and exhortations of the prophets. The
latter pictured the possibilities of a
new life, and set forth the man-
ner of entering into it; but Israel
stubbornly refused to enter in, and
thus came to the very verge of de-
struction.

Death seems inevitable unless a

 

skillful physician can be secured. In
Israel’s crisis Jehovah alone can bring
relief. Will he interfere? Verse 14
supplies the answer. This verse has
received all kinds of interpretations.
Broadly speaking, the different views
may be grouped under two heads:
(1) those interpreting verse 14 as a
promise; (2) those interpreting it as
a threat, continuing the threats of
verses 9-13. The former interpreta-
tion finds its chief support in the use
made of the passage in 1 Cor. xv, 55.
But New Testament usage does not
decide finally the primary meaning of
an Old Testament passage (compare
xi, 1, with Matt. ii, 15); and there can
be no doubt that the demands of the
language and of the context are best
satisfied by the second interpretation.
If this interpretation is accepted, 14a
as well as 14b must be read as a ques-
tion. With either interpretation the
translation of 14b in R. V. is to be
accepted instead of A. V. If the in-
terpretation of verse 14 as a threat
is correct the verse must be trans-
lated, “Shall I ransom them from the
power of Sheol? Shall I redeem them
from death? O death, where are thy
plagues? O Sheol, where is thy de-
struction? repentance shall be hid
from mine eyes.” The first two are
rhetorical questions. Ephraim had
endangered his life in spite of the
physician’s advice. Shall Jehovah
now rescue him from impending
death? The answer is an emphatic
No! He rather encourages death and
Sheol to do their worst. I will be thy
plagues; ... I will be thy destruction
—Better, R. V., “Where are thy
plagues? ... where is thy destruction?”
Bring them hither! You shall have un-
hindered sway. Repentance shall be
hid—I will show no compassion (Amos
CHAPTER XIII.

119

 

15 Though ‘the be fruitful amon,
his brethren, ean east wind shal
come, the wind of the Lorp shall
come up from the wilderness, and
his spring shall become dry, and his

fountain shall be dried up: he shall

spoil the treasure of all *pleasant
vessels. 16 !°Samaria shall become
desolate; ‘for she hath rebelled

against her God: sthey shall fall by

 

dSee Gen. 41. 52; 48. 19. Jer. 4. 11;
Ezek. 17. 10; 19. 12; chap. 4. 19.—® Heb.
vessels of destre, Nah. 2. 9.

10 2 Kings 17. 6.—‘ 2 Kings 18. 12.—
#2 Kings 8. 12; 15. 16; Isa. 13. 16; chap. 10.
14, 15; Amos 1. 13; Nah. 3. 10.

 

vii, 8). Verses 15, 16 expand the
threat of destruction.

The interpretation just suggested
is certainly more in accord with the
general argument of the prophet than
that which sees in verse 14 a promise.
The latter view, which is based upon
the translation of R. V.—that of
A. V. is universally admitted to be
incorrect—assumes between verses 13
and 14 an abrupt change of sentiment;
verse 13 pictures Ephraim at the point
of death, but the divine father heart
cannot endure the prospect of disso-
lution. His compassion is aroused,
and in 14a he promises deliverance
from death and Sheol. Having
reached this decision, he turns to
these powers and asks triumphantly,
‘Where are now your plagues and
destruction?” They can do no more
_harm, since Jehovah has taken the
part of Israel. The last clause is a
promise that Jehovah will not change
his mind concerning the promise just
made. Ransom . . . redeem—Not
simply deliver. Death is so certain
of its victim that it will not let go
without a ransom. Grave—Better,
with R. V., “Sheol,” the place of de-
parted personalities (Hab. ii, 5; Isa.
vy, 14). Both Paul (1 Cor. xv, 55) and
Hosea call upon death and Sheol to
do their worst, but there is a difference
between the two. Hosea is in earnest
because he can see only darkness and
gloom beyond. Not so Paul; he de-
fies their powers because he was ac-
quainted with Him who brought im-
mortality to light.

15, 16. Whatever the prosperity in
the past, whatever the condition in
the present, the future has only de-
struction in store. He—Must be the
entire nation. Fruitful—A play upon
Ephraim, for its Hebrew equivalent

 

and the original of fruitful are similar
in sound (Gen. xlix, 22; Hos. viii, 9).
Among his brethren—This translation
requires that he be interpreted of the
tribe Ephraim, his brethren being the
other tribes; but the context makes
this impossible. For this reason many
modern commentators favor the read-
ing, “among the reed grass” (Gen.
xli, 2, 18), which is found in a few
Hebrew manuscripts and was ac-
cepted as original by a few early Jew-
ish scholars. The word translated
reed grass is an Egyptian loan word;
this fact and its similarity in Hebrew
to the original for brethren may ac-
count for the confusion. Whether
this reading is accepted or not, Israel
is pictured as a flourishing plant with
every prospect of bearing plentiful
fruit. East wind—It will swiftly de-
stroy the prospects (xii, 1), Wind of
Jehovah—So called because Jehovah
uses the wind as an instrument of
judgment. Spring . . . fountain—
From it the plant draws moisture and
nourishment. In the case of Israel,
the resources needed for success. If
the reading “reed grass” is correct,
it may be an allusion to Israel’s de-
pendence upon Egypt; at any rate,
the “east wind’ seems to be a figure
of the Assyrian conqueror, who comes
from the east (Isa. xxi, 1). That a
foreign invasion is in the prophet’s
mind is made clear in the last clause
of verse 15, which describes the ca-
lamity without the use of a figure.
He—Emphatic in Hebrew. The
enemy described as east wind. All
pleasant [‘‘goodly’’] vessels—All ar-
ticles of value (Nah. ii, 9; Jer. xxv,
34). Verse 16 (xiv, 1, in the Hebrew)
is the final summing up. Samaria—
The capital represents the whole na-
tion. Shall become desolate—R. V.,
120

HOSEA.

 

the sword: their infants shall be
dashed in pieces, and their women
with child shall be ripped up.

CHAPTER XIV.
ISRAEL, return unto the

a Chap. 12. 6; Jocl 2. 18.——» Chap. 13. 9.

more correctly, ‘shall bear her guilt’’
(x, 2), which consists in rebellion
against Jehovah (vii, 14; Isa. i, 2).
Shall fall by the sword—Compare xi,
6. The most horrible cruelties of
ancient warfare shall be visited upon
them (x, 14; Amos i, 13; compare Psa.
cxxxvii, 9; 2 Kings xv, 16). Indeed,
a horrible fate is awaiting the apostate
children of Jehovah.

CHAPTER XIV.

Repentance—JEHOVAH’S
Parpon, 1-9.

Aside from the question of author-
ship (see Introduction, p. 35ff.) chapter
xiv presents several exegetical diffi-
culties, especially in its latter part.
Verse 9 stands by itself as an epilogue
to the whole book. The author of
this verse, who seems to look back
over the fulfillment of Hosea’s oracles,
expresses the thought that whosoever
desires to become wise and prudent
should become acquainted with the
Book of Hosea. From it he may learn
that Jehovah’s ways are right, and
that the destinies of men are de-
termined by their attitude toward the
divine will. There is some uncer-
tainty concerning the interpretation
of verse 8, but the general thought of
1-8 is clear. The prophet exhorts Is-
rael to return to Jehovah in humility
and sorrow (1, 2a). He puts upon the
lips of the Israelites words expressive
of the deepest remorse, and of an
earnest determination to remain for-
ever loyal to Jehovah (2b, 3). To
this penitent prayer Jehovah re-
sponds that he will graciously pardon,
and shower upon the God-fearing peo-
ple blessings hitherto unknown (4-8).

1. Return—Israel was an apostate;
had gone after the Baals. To enjoy
again the divine favor the people must
return to their own God, Jehovah, in

IsRAEL’s

 

Lorp thy God; 'for thou hast
fallen by thine iniquity. 2 Take
with you words, and turn to the
Lorp: say unto him, Take away
all iniquity, and ‘receive us gra-
ciously : so will we render the ccalves

¢ Heb, 13. 15.

 

10Or, give good.

obedience and love (compare vi, 1;
Joel ii, 12; Amos iv, 6ff.). Out of the
Old Testament idea of a return to
Jehovah grew the New Testament
idea of conversion. Jehovah thy God
—In view of their constant tendency
to run after other gods (ii, 5; iv, 12,
etc.) they needed to be reminded
again and again that Jehovah was
their only legitimate God. Hast
fallen—Or, stumbled; they were over-
taken by calamity (iv, 5; v, 5) as a
result of their sin.

2. The Israelites were all familiar
with the command, “None shall ap-
pear before me empty” (Exod. xxii,
15; xxxiv, 20), and they brought to
Jehovah manifold gifts and offerings
(v, 6; Amos v, 21ff.; Isa. i, 11ff.), but
for these Jehovah did not care. This
Hosea had already made plain (see
on vi, 6); now he proceeds to give
instruction concerning the things .
which will be acceptable to Jehovah.
Words—Not meaningless phrases, but
words expressing sincere repentance,
such as he puts into their mouths in
2b, 3. Take away—It is natural that
the prayer should begin with a peti-
tion for forgiveness (compare Mic. vii,
18, 19; Psa. li, 9). Hebrew, ‘“Do thou
completely take away,” so that it shall
be remembered no more. Receive us
graciously—R. V., “accept that which
is good.” Literally, take good; which
may mean either, “Take and use that
which is good,” that is, thy mercy,
“and receive us again into thy favor”
(so A. V.), or “Do thou take (accept)
from us the only good we can offer,
namely, words of supplication and
repentance” (so R. V.). The expres-
sion is peculiar. If the text is correct
the second is a more natural interpre-
tation of the Hebrew, though the first
would seem to give a more acceptable
sense. So will we render the calves of
CHAPTER XIV.

121

 

of our lips. 3 4Asshur shall not save
us; ewe will not ride upon horses:
fneither will we say any more to the
work of our hands, Ye are our gods:

*for in thee the fatherless findeth
mercy.

4 I will heal 'their backsliding, I
will love them ‘freely : for mine anger

 

a Jer. 31. 18, etc.; chaps. 5. 13; 12. 1.

-f Verse 8; chap. 2. 17.—* Psa. 10, 14;
h r.

 

— Deut. 17. 16; Psa. 33. 17; Isa. 30. 2, | 68. 5.——} Jer. 5. 6; 14.7; chap. 11. 7.—
16; 31. 1. i Eph. 1. 6. oneP, hes
our lips—R. V., ‘So will we render as | hands—Idols (viii, 4). These they

bullocks the offering of our lips.”” The
translation of A. V. disregards He-
brew grammar. R. V., as the italics
indicate, attempts to remove the diffi-
culty by giving a paraphrase rather
than a translation. The thought im-
plied in the latter is that the Hebrews,
having learned their bitter lesson, will
offer no longer bullocks of the herd,
which are not acceptable (vi, 6), but
will substitute, as sacrificial animals,
words of penitence and prayer (Psa.
li, 16, 17; lxix, 30, 31). The expres-
sion itself is so peculiar, however, that
many doubt the correctness of the
text. DLXX. reads, ‘We will render
the fruit of our lips,” and this is gen-
erally accepted as the original (com-
pare Isa. Ivii, 19). The “fruit of the
lips’ are the confessions, petitions,
and promises of loyalty contained in
verse 3. The whole prayer in 2b may
be rendered, “If thou wilt completely
take away iniquity, and if thou wilt
receive the (only) good (we can offer),
then we will render the fruit of our
lips.” Following these words Harper
reads the last clause of verse 3, “For
in thee the fatherless findeth mercy,”
as supplying the ground for the con-
fidence underlying the promise in the
last clause of verse 2. This transposi-
tion is proposed not so much because
it improves the thought as because
the strophic arrangement demands it.

3. Israel promises also to abstain
from the very sins condemned so
strongly and persistently by Hosea:
(1) Trust in Assyria (v, 13; vii, 11;
vili, 9; xii, 1); (2) reliance upon
horses—Human defenses (i, 7; x, 13).
There may be implied a promise to
cease trusting in Egypt, since Egypt
furnished horses to Israel (1 Kings x,
28; Ezek. xvii, 15; compare Isa. xxx,
16; xxxi, 1). (8) The work of our

 

will no longer regard as gods (compare
xiii, 2). Cheyne sees in the expression
“the work of our hands” “an early
anticipation of the splendid morsels of
irony in which a later prophet lashes
idolatry” (Isa. xlii, 17; xliv, 9ff.). In
thee the fatherless findeth mercy—Is
to be connected with all the clauses,
but especially with the last one.
Neither foreign alliances, nor human
defenses, nor man-made idols can help.
Jehovah aloneisalways willing and able
to show mercy and loving-kindness.
4-8. The sentiments expressed in
xiv, 1-3, are essentially different from
those expressed in vi, 1-3. The lat-
ter were superficial; to them Jehovah
could give no favorable response; the
prayer in xiv, 2, 3, gives evidence of
Israel’s sincerity; to it he responds
with the promise of gracious redemp-
tion. The response is not addressed
directly to Israel, but to the prophet;
the former is referred to in the third
person. Heal—The people’s condi-
tion is likened to a disease which re-
quires the presence of a physician
(vi, 1). Backsliding—In vi, 1, the
people express the hope that Jehovah
will heal, not their sin, but the
damage caused by sin. Some com-
mentators see in xiv, 4a, a reference
to this expectation that Jehovah will
restore their prosperity. That Je-
hovah will heal all “the damage which
their backsliding has brought upon
them” is undoubtedly true (5-7), but
Jehovah will do something more; he
will remove the cause of the calamity
—the spirit of apostasy which is
responsible for the present hope-
less condition (xi, 7; compare Jer.
xxxi, 31-33). Freely—Spontaneously.
They need not purchase his love as
they purchased the favor of Assyria
and Egypt. Mine anger is turned
122

is turned away from him. 6 I will
be as "the dew unto Israel: he
shall 2grow as the lily, and %cast
forth | is roots as Lebanon. 6 His

HOSEA.

branches ‘shall spread, and ‘his
beauty shall be as the olive tree,
and his smell as Lebanon. 7 »The
that dwell under his shadow s

 

k Job 29. 19; Prov. 19. 12.—-? Or, blos-
som.——3 Heb. strike.—4 Heb. shall go.

away—The change of attitude on the
part of Israel has made it possible for
Jehovah to manifest himself again in
love and mercy (xii, 14). 4b belongs
really to verse 5, and not to 4a. The
two clauses in 4a form a complete
parallelism, similarly 4b and 5a form
a parallelism. Because Jehovah’s
anger is turned away he will be as
dew unto Israel. The disease healed,
the ruins of the past removed, a life
of prosperity and peace may begin;
to it Jehovah will give his blessing.
Dew—"The dews of Syrian nights are
excessive; on many mornings it looks
as if there had been a heavy rain.”
This dew is of great importance in
Palestine, since it is the only slacken-
ing of the drought which the country
feels from May till October. In view
of this fact it is only natural that dew
should become a symbol of that which
is refreshing, quickening, and in-
vigorating (Psa. exxxiii, 3). Jehovah
will put new energy and life into Is-
rael (compare Mic. v, 7). The figure
of dew is used in vi, 4, with an en-
tirely different meaning.

The following verses (5-7) describe
under various figures the splendor of
the temporal and spiritual prosper-
ity of the regenerated people. Grow
as the lily—R. V., “blossom.” The
figure suggests beauty (Song of Songs,
ii, 1,2; Matt. vi, 28, 29) and stateliness;
perhaps also rapidity of multiplica-
tion. Pliny states that the lily is un-
surpassed in its fecundity, one single
root often producing fifty bulbs.
Cast forth—That they may strike far
and deep. His roots as Lebanon—
Mountains are represented as having
roots (Job xxviii, 9); therefore the
comparison may be with Lebanon
itself, or the prophet may think of the
cedars of Lebanon. In either case it
is a figure of stability. His branches—
Better, his saplings (compare Isa. Jiii,

 

1 Psa, 52, 8; 128. 3——m Gen, 27. 27;
Cant. 4. 11. nPsa. 91. 1.

2, “tender plant’); the shoots that
spring up from the roots around the
parent stem. Shall spread—lIsrael is
not to be a single tree, but a whole
garden. As the olive tree—The olive
tree ranks high for its beauty. It is
an evergreen, and its leaves have a
beautiful appearance; the ‘‘arrange-
ment of colors makes an olive tree at
a little distance appear as if covered
with a filmy veil of silver gauze, which
gives a soft dreamy sheen to the
landscape (Jer. xi, 16).”’ The addi- °
tional thought of serviceableness may
be implied (see on Joel i, 10). His
smell as Lebanon—J.ebanon is ren-
dered fragrant by its cedars and aro-
matic shrubs (Song of Songs, iv, 11).
A figure of the delight with which God
and man will look upon Israel.

The interpretation of verse 7 is un-
certain. Most modern commentators
consider the text corrupt and attempt
emendations. The English transla-
tions do not reproduce the Hebrew
correctly. If the translation is
changed, fairly good sense may be
had from the present text; render:
“They that dwell under his shadow
shall again bring to life corn; they
shall blossom as the vine.’ The
mixed figures in the two clauses—
namely, the representation of one
and the same person, on the one hand,
as cultivating corn, on the other hand,
as flourishing like a vine—are thought
by some to constitute a serious objec-
tion to the correctness of the Hebrew
text, but this is not conclusive; even
Isaiah is at times inconsistent in his
use of figures (Isa. v, 24). His shadow
—The shadow of Israel. They that
dwell—The individual Israelites. The
nation is pictured as a tree under
whose shadow its members dwell. In
a similar manner the mother, Israel,
is distinguished from the children, the
individual Israelites (ii, 2). Revive—

 
CHAPTER NIV.

123

 

return; they shall revive as the corn,
and ‘grow as the vine: the “scent
thereof shall be as the wino of Leb-

anon. 8 Ephraim shall say, >What

have I to do any more with idols?
"I have heard him, and observed
him: I am like a green fir tree.
"From me is thy fruit found.

 

5 Or, blossom——® Or, memortal.

°Verse 3.—P Jer. 31.18.—1 James 1. 17.

 

Better, bring to life—a picture of
abundant fertility and prosperity (x,
1; Psa. exxviii, 3). The scent thereof
—Of the vine, Israel. Literally, his
memorial, or, renown. The wine of
Lebanon—Iiven Pliny speaks of the
excellence of this wine; and more re-
cent travelers praise it very highly
(lizek. xxvii, 18). G. A. Smith and
others do not consider verse 7 a con-
tinuation of Jehovah’s promises in
verses 5, 6, but an utterance of the
prophet. The former reads, following
in part the LXX., “They (Israel) shall
return and dwell in his (Jehovah’s)
shadow; they shall live well watered
as a garden; till they flourish like a
vine, and be fragrant like the wine of
Lebanon.”

8. Ephraim shall say, What have I
to do—So Targum and Peshitto. R. V.
margin reproduces the Hebrew more
accurately, “OQ Ephraim, what have
I to do.” The question is spoken by
Jehovah, not by Ephraim (Israel).
Jehovah knows that he can supply
every need of his people; why, he
inquires, should idols be joined with
him in worship? The rest of the verse
presents a justification of Jehovah’s
claim to their whole-hearted service;
he will supply all their needs. LAX.
represents a slightly different text:
“Ephraim, what hath he to do?” The
answer implied is that he has nothing
more to do with idols; he has entirely
discarded them (verse 3). In view of
Israel’s conversion Jehovah will sup-
ply all their needs. LXX. may have
preserved the original text. I have
heard—R. V., ‘“answered’’—The pro-
noun is emphatie, J on my part, or It
is IT who. The touse is a prophetic per-
fect, though the perfect may be used
to indicate that in the divine mind
the change of attitude has already
been determined upon. Jehovah will
respond to Israel in the same spirit

 

in which Israel approaches him (ii,
15, 21, 23; compare Isa. Ixv, 24).
Observed—R. V., “will regard,”
that is, with loving care and tender-
ness (Isa. viii, 17; Deut. xxxi, 7). I
am like a green fir tree—The precise
kind of tree in the mind of the prophet
may be uncertain, but there can be
no doubt that he is thinking of the
splendid forests of Mount Lebanon.
The pronoun is again emphatic. Who
is the speaker? The preceding clauses
are evidently placed in the mouth of
Jehovah; so is the last clause of verse
8. It seems natural, therefore, to
ascribe these words also to him. Under
the figure of an evergreen tree he
seeks to teach the people that his
interest in their welfare is unchange-
able; that the protection and shelter
he offers them will continue forever.
Against this interpretation it is urged
that Jehovah is nowhere else likened
to a tree, and that such cofnparison
is alien to the spirit of prophecy (iv,
13; compare Isa. i, 29). Conse-
quently the words are placed in the
mouth of Israel as a ‘naive self-
congratulation on the part of Israel.”
The last clause is interpreted as a
reply by Jehovah, warning them not
to boast in their prosperity, but to
remember that Jehovah is the giver
of every good and perfect gift. In
favor of this view is the comparison
of Israel with the forests of Lebanon
(verse 5). The abrupt change in
speakers, without indication of such a
change, cannot be urged against this
interpretation, for similar changes are
found in other parts of the Old Testa-
ment (compare Psa. exxxii). Some
have gone so far as to make Jehovah
speak twice and Israel twice, assign-
ing lines 1 and 3 to Israel, lines 2 and
4 to Jehovah. But if line 3 is spoken
by Israel, of itself, and line 4 by Je-
hovah, of Israel, it is strange that the
124

HOSEA.

 

9 ‘Who is wise, and he shall under-
stand these things? prudent, and he
shall know them? for ‘the ways of

tT Psa. 107. 43; Jer. 9. 12; Dan. 12. 10;
John 8, 47; 18. 37.

nation should be likened to two dif-
ferent kinds of trees in two successive
clauses—to a fir tree and to a fruit
tree. For this reason it may be better
to assign the whole of verse 8 to Je-
hovah, and regard it as a continuation
of the divine promises to Israel. From
me is thy fruit found—All the fruitful-
ness and prosperity of Israel comes
from Jehovah. There may be in the
original a play upon the name Eph-
raim, as in xiii, 15.

With verse 8 closes the direct pro-
phetic message. Verse 9 is the epi-
logue, summoning the people to lay
to heart the lessons of the Book of
Hosea. This epilogue is similar in
import to the words of Jesus, “He
that hath ears to hear, let him hear”
(Matt. xi, 15; xiii, 9, ete.). Because of
its similarity in tone and language
with the Wisdom Literature, the fact
that the appeal seems to presuppose
the fulfillment of Hosea’s oracles, and
the lacR of similarity with Hosea’s
style, scholars are agreed almost uni-
versally in declaring the verse a later
addition by some prophetic spirit who
lived at a time and in surroundings
which called for a message similar to
that of Hosea. Whether Hosea is the
author or not the meaning remains
the same, but neither A. V. nor R. V.
makes this meaning very clear. Both
translations emphasize the difficulties
presented by the divine providence as
set forth by Hosea; few, if any, can
comprehend them. Nevertheless, the
author insists, they are straight, lead-
ing the faithful to life, the transgressor
to destruction. While this interpre-
tation brings out an important truth,
it does not seem to touch the real
thought of verse 9. This thought be-
comes plain if 9a is rendered as fol-

 

the Lorp are right: and_the just
shall walk in them: but the trans-
gressors shall fall therein.

® Prov. 10.

29; Luke 2. 34; 2 Cor. 2. 16;
1 Pet. 2. 7, 8.

lows: “Whosoever is wise, let him
understand these things; (whosoever
is) prudent, let him know them.”
Wise—A very common word in the
Wisdom Literature; a wise person is
one who knows and does what is right
and proper or is anxious to do the
same; such a one is exhorted to under-
stand and lay to heart. These things
—The warnings, exhortations, prom-
ises, etc., contained in the Book of
Hosea. The advice is enforced by a
parallel appeal. Why? For the ways
of Jehovah are right—There is no in-
justice in the acts of his providence
(Psa. xix, 9; Deut. xxxii, 4). Just—
He who is obedient to the divine will.
Transgressors—The opposite of just;
the man who is not obedient. The
word just occurs nowhere else in
Hosea. Shall walk in them—TIn the
divine ways. To walk in God’s ways
is ordinarily to “conduct one’s self in
accordance with the divine will.” If
this is the meaning here the statement
of the author becomes equivalent to
“the obedient to the divine will are
obedient.” This is meaningless. To
walk is in this verse equivalent to “to
walk without encountering any ob-
stacles.” He who learns the divine
will as taught in the Book of Hosea,
and is obedient to the same, shall live
continually a happy and prosperous
life; but the man who does not profit
by these lessons, the transgressor who
is disobedient to the divine will, shall
meet his fate. Shall fall therein—
Shall come to utter ruin. Whatever
the outcome, the ways of Divine
Providence are right. To one they
mean life, to another death. Which it
will be is determined by the individ-
ual’s attitude toward the will of God
(1 Cor. i, 18; compare Prov. xi, 5).
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL.

 

The Prophet.

THE second book in the collection of the Minor Prophets
is ascribed to Joel, the son of Pethuel (according to some of
the ancient versions Bethuel or Bathuel). The Old Testa-
ment mentions thirteen other persons bearing the name Joel,
but it is not probable that the prophet is to be identified with
any one of these. The name signifies Jehovah is God—this
etymology is undoubtedly the one accepted by the Jews—and,
like the name Micah, contains a “brief confession of faith.”

Of the personal history of Joel nothing is known beyond
what may be gathered from the prophecy itself. His message
centers around Jerusalem and Judah; and the manner in
which he refers to the land and to the city, Zion (ii, 1, 15, 32;
iii, 16, 17, 21), the children of Zion (ii, 23), Judah and Jeru-
salem (ii, 32; iti, 1, 16, 17, 18, 20), the children of Judah and
Jerusalem (iii, 6, 8, 19), makes it probable that his home was
in southern Palestine, perhaps in Jerusalem. He displays
intimate acquaintance with the temple and its service, with
the priests and their duties (i, 9, 13, 14, 16; ii, 14, 17); but
it is not probable that he himself was a priest; the character
of his references to the priests would indicate that he was not
one of them.

Of Pethuel nothing is known. The name of the father was
perhaps added to distinguish the prophet from the other men
bearing the same name. The suggestion of Professor Cheyne,
that Bethuel (the form of the name in some of the versions)
is a corruption for Tubal, the name of a North Arabian tribe,
has nothing in its favor. ,

Date of the Prophet.

Perhaps no other book in the Old Testament has been
assigned to so many different dates as the Book of Joel. Even
126 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL.

 

during the nineteenth century, when investigation is supposed
to have proceeded on scientific principles, scholars have differed
regarding its date by a space of more than five centuries; in
other words, the book has been dated as early as the reign
of Rehoboam, the son of Solomon, that is, before 900 B, C.
(Bunsen, Pearson), and as late as the fourth century B. C.
In addition, it has been located in every century between these
extreme dates.

There are especially two periods, however, around which the
most earnest attempts to fix the date of Joel may be grouped: -
(1) The minority of King Joash, or Jehoash, of Judah, about
830 B. C. (2 Kings xi, xii). This date was first defended
with great ability by Credner in 1831; he was followed by
Ewald, Hitzig, Bleek, Delitzsch, Keil, and others. Among the
more recent defenders of the early date are Kirkpatrick, Von
Orelli, Beecher, Robertson, Sinker, Cameron, and, less posi-
tively, Baudissin. (2) On the other hand, an ever-increasing
number of scholars favor a postexilic date. The first to pro-
pose a late date was Vatke, in 1835; he was followed by Hil-
genfeld, in 1866, Duhm, in 1875, and since then the great
majority of Old Testament scholars have declared in favor of
the late date—among them Kuenen, A. B. Davidson, Driver,
Wellhausen, Merx, W. R. Smith, Holzinger, Farrar, G. B.
Gray, Kautzsch, Cornill, Wildeboer, G. A. Smith, Nowack,
Briggs, Marti, R. W. Rogers, H. P. Smith, Bennett, W. R.
Harper, and others. Two other attempts to determine the
date of the Book of Joel should receive mention. E. Koenig
places the activity of Joel near the close of the seventh cen-
tury: “Unquestionable indications point to the seventh cen-
tury, and probable (indications) to the last years of Josiah,
or perhaps to those immediately following.” Strack seems to
favor this view, though he is not positive, and in one para-
graph he speaks rather favorably of the theory about to be
mentioned. J. W. Rothstein has attempted to prove that the
Book of Joel is not a literary unit. He bases his argument
chiefly upon the difference in the historical background which
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL. 127

 

a comparison of i, 1—1ii, 27, with ii, 28—iii, 21, is said to
bring to light. He points out that in the first part the state
and the nation are pictured in healthy political condition.
The only calamity mentioned is a terrible plague of locusts
and drought; more severe judgment is to be withheld if the
people repent and turn to God. This section, he thinks, may
come from the preéxilic period. The background of ii, 28—iii,
21, on the other hand, he supposes to be purely political. The
nation no longer enjoys safety, the people of Jehovah are in
distress, and great numbers are in exile; hence he favors for
these verses a postexilic date. This view is favored also by
the French scholar Vernes, who admits, however, that the
arguments are not conclusive. Over against these various
attempts to fix definitely the date of Joel a few are ready to
admit that the date cannot be determined (Calvin, Ryle).

In view of this extraordinary diversity of opinion the ques-
tion arises naturally how this lack of unanimity may be
accounted for. Disagreement in conclusions based upon in-
vestigations of this character may be traced ordinarily to one
of two causes—either the use of faulty working principles, or
lack of decisive data upon which to base a conclusion. The
principle by which every careful investigator in any field of
knowledge should be guided is the free and unprejudiced inves-
tigation of all the facts in the case. Surely this is a good
working principle, and we are assured by every scholar that
his conclusion is based upon the most careful investigation of
all the facts. The difficulty, then, does not appear to be here.
Many scholars readily admit that the data concerning the date
of Joel are few, and that most of these are capable of more
than one interpretation; and it is to this absence of decisive
data that we must trace the great uncertainty concerning the
point under discussion. External evidence, the most satis-
factory kind of evidence, is entirely lacking, unless we regard
as external evidence the place the book occupies in the series
of the Minor Prophets. Jerome, arguing from this position,
makes Joel a contemporary of Hosea, following his rule that,
128 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL.

 

when there is no certain proof of the time in which any
prophet lived, we are to be directed in our conjectures by the
time of the preceding prophet whose date is better known.

It is chiefly internal evidence, therefore, that must decide
the question. For convenience’ sake we may group this evi-
dence under four heads: (1) Historical Situation; (2) The-
ological Ideas; (3) Literary Parallels; (4) Linguistic Fea-
tures. :

1. Historical Situation Stated or Implied.—The prophet
speaks of a great famine (i, 11, 12) caused by the devastation
of the land by locusts (i, 4, 6, 16; ii, 4-11, etc.), by drought
(i, 17ff.), and, perhaps, by conflagrations (i, 20). Egypt and
Edom are denounced for shedding “innocent blood” (iii, 19).
Tyre, Sidon, and Philistia aré said to have-been the chief
offenders in the ill treatment of the Israelites; they have taken
the silver and gold of Jehovah; his “precious things” they
have carried into their temples; and they have sold Jews to
the Greeks as slaves (iii, 4-6). The “heritage” of Jehovah
is described as “scattered among the nations” who have
“parted” his land (iii, 2). The term Zsrae? is used in the
sense of Judah, as representing the entire chosen people (com-
pare ii, 23, with ii, 27; iii, 1, with iii, 2; and iii, 16b, with
ili, 16a, 17). Llders and priests are prominent (i, 9, 13, 14;
ui, 17). The valley of Jehoshaphat is the scene of the final
conflict (iii, 2). The silence of Joel also may not be without
significance. He makes, for example, no mention of king or
princes; the northern kingdom is disregarded; the long-time
enemies of the Hebrews—the Syrians, the Assyrians, and the
Chaldeans—appear nowhere on the scene.

2. Theological Ideas—The Law is not mentioned, but the
insistence upon some of its requirements (i, 9, 13, 14; ii, 12-17)
is very marked. Great consternation is expressed at the cut-
ting off of the meal offering and the drink offering (i, 9, 13,
16; ii, 14); the greatest blessing that Jehovah can give in
response to the prayers of penitence is the restoration of the
daily sacrifice (ii, 14). The formal fast and the solemn
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL. 129

 

assembly play an important part (i, 14; ii, 15ff.). The inter-
est in the religious cult is very prominent (i, 9, 13, 14; ii,
12-17). In summoning the people to repentance Joel calls
upon the priests to take the initiative (i, 13; ii, 17). There
is no thought of the conversion of the nations; they are all
doomed (chap. iii); the outpouring of the Spirit is to be
limited (ii, 29); the day of Jehovah occupies an important
place. Attention may be called also to the silence of Joel con-
cerning specific sins, especially idol worship on the high places,
and concerning a future exile as a divine means of purification.

3. Literary Parallels—The book of Joel, containing only
seventy-three verses, presents a remarkable number of parallels
with other Old Testament books. The most important of
these are: i, 15, iii, 14—Isa. xili, 6, Ezek. xxx, 2, 3, Zeph.
i, 7; ii, 1, 2—Zeph. i, 14, 15; ii, 3—Hzek. xxxvi, 35; ii, 6—
Nah. ii, 10; ii, 17—Psa. xlii, 2, 9, Ixxix, 10, exv, 2; ii, 2%,
i, 17—Ezek. xxxvi, 11, and other passages in Ezekiel, Lev.
xvill, 2, 4, 80, etc.; ii, 28—Ezek. xxxix, 29; ii, 32, iii, 17—
Obad. 17; iti, 2—Hzek. xxxviii, 22; iii, 3—Obad. 11, Nah. iii,
10; iii, 4, 14—Obad. 15; iii, 10—ITsa. ii, 4, Mic. iv, 3; iii, 16—
Amos i, 2; ili, 1?—Ezek. xxxvi, 11; Obad. 17, ete.; iii, 18—
Amos ix, 13; iii, 19—Obad. 10. Altogether about twenty
parallels may be noted.

4. Linguistic Features. Like every writer, Joel has his own
linguistic peculiarities. His style is smooth and flowing, he
uses peculiar constructions, gives uncommon meanings to
common words, uses several words not common in Hebrew
but frequent in Aramaic, and some of his words, phrases, and
constructions are found again only in the later literature of
the Old Testament.

On the basis of these data the date of the Book of Joel
must be determined. Concerning the character and value of
the evidence the most diverging opinions are held. Cornill,
for example, claims, on purely internal grounds, that in the
Book of Joel the question of date is less open to doubt than
in the case of any other book; and he, with many others, is
130 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL.

 

convinced that it belongs to a late date: “We have in the Book
of Joel a compendium of the late Jewish eschatology, written
about 400 B. C., rather later than earlier.” On the other hand,
Pusey and others consider the internal evidence too vague to
be of assistance in determining the date of Joel. Therefore
the former thinks it wise to acquiesce in the tradition by which
the Book of Joel is placed next to that of Hosea, and to
regard Joel as “the prophet of Judah during the earlier part
of Hosea’s office toward Israel and rather earlier than Isaiah.”
Adam Clarke, on the basis of the same data, places Joel in
the days of Manasseh; John Wesley, in the time of Amos—
“Amos in Israel, Joel in Judah”; Koenig, in the last years
of Josiah; Kirkpatrick and many others, during the minority
of Jehoash; Pearson and Bunsen, during the reign of Reho-
boam, “soon after the invasion of Shishak.”

In view of this diversity of opinion it may be well to examine
the evidence in detail. The fact that Joel occupies second
place among the Minor Prophets may “raise a presumption in
favor of an early date”; to some it may even be of sufficient
value to leave out of question a postexilic date;° but the posi-
tion of the book is by no means conclusive, for it is generally
recognized that, while in the main intended to be chronological,
the arrangement of the Minor Prophets cannot be followed
implicitly when a question of date is under consideration.
Even those who rely upon the argument admit the uncer-
tainty; else why should they place Joel before Hosea (in the
days of Jehoash), or after Amos, Micah, Nahum, and Zepha-
niah (in the later years of Josiah), when in the canon he
occupies second place? Moreover, it is universally agreed that
chronologically Amos preceded Hosea, while canonically he
follows Hosea; again, there are at least good reasons for
believing that the Books of Jonah and Obadiah are later pro-
ductions than the Book of Micah. It is clear, then, that the
argument from the position of the book lacks strength. Exter-
nal evidence does not take us very far.

The investigation of the internal evidence is beset with many
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL. 131

 

difficulties, for almost every statement to be examined is capa-
ble of more than one interpretation. Locusts, drought, and
forest fires are not uncommon in Palestine; from the earliest
times to the present the land has been exposed to these calami-
ties. Hence the prevalence of these plagues at the time the
prophecies were uttered does not assist us in the attempt to
fix the period of Joel’s activity. True, it is claimed that the
prophet’s absorption in the ravages of the locusts reflects the
feeling of a purely agricultural community, such as Israel
was before the eighth century B. C., but an exactly similar
condition existed in Palestine during a part of the Persian
period. The silence of the prophet concerning the Syrians,
Assyrians, and Chaldeans points either to a very early or to a
very late period; either to a period when these nations had
not yet exerted any influence upon Judah or when they had
again disappeared from the scene. The minority of Jehoash
would account for the absence of Assyria and Babylon; for
at that time these powers had not yet come into serious conflict
with Judah.* But the latter had been drawn into conflict
with Syria even before the time of Jehoash (2 Kings viii,
25ff.); and again during his reign it suffered severely at the
hands of the Syrians (2 Kings xii, 17ff.); it is quite proba-
ble, therefore, that even during the minority of Jehoash the
danger was threatening, and the silence concerning Syria may
point to a different period. In postexilic times these nations
had ceased to be world powers, and silence concerning them
would be perfectly intelligible. The nations condemned are
Egypt, Edom, Tyre, Sidon, and Philistia. The defenders of
the early date explain the charge against Egypt by Shishak’s
invasion of Judah (1 Kings xiv, 25ff.), about a century before
Jehoash, that against Edom by the revolt of the latter against
Jehoram (2 Kings viii, 20-22), about 848 B.C. “What more

 

* The silence concerning Assyria in Amos and in the early discourses of Isaiah
does not present an analogy, for, although the name Assyria is absent there, the
descriptions of the enemy are so vivid that the reader cannot but feel that the
Assyrians are in the minds of the prophets, while here we have absolute silence.
132 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL.

 

probable,” says Kirkpatrick, “than that the revolt was accom-
panied by a massacre of Israelites resident in Edom?” The
condemnation of the Philistines is justified by their attack
upon Israel at about the same time (2 Chron, xxi, 16ff.). The
Pheenicians are not represented as enemies of Judah in the
early historical books, but, since they are condemned as treach-
erous slave traders by Amos (i, 9, 10), they may have been
guilty of cruelty against Hebrews at the earlier date. Amos
does not state, however, that the slaves were stolen from Judah,
and the theory of the early date leaves the reference to the
Pheenicians obscure. In exilic and postexilic times the Edom-
ites showed themselves intensely hostile to the Jews (Hzek.
xxv, 12ff.; Psa. exxxvii, 7, ete.) ; Tyre and Sidon carried on
an active slave trade; Egypt was an old-time enemy of Judah,
and might be mentioned equally well after the exile as before.
It is difficult, on this theory, to account’ for the condemnation
of Philistia, for no expression of hostility on the part of the
Philistines against the Jews is known in the postexilic period.
On either theory difficulties remain which must be traced to
the incompleteness of the historical material. There is no
reason for believing that the biblical historians purposed to
narrate every event in the nation’s history. Koenig, in order
to prove his theory, must also assume “a gap in the historical
records concerning the time of Jeremiah,” and place the events
of Joel iii, 4-7, in this gap. The Phcenicians sold their slaves
to the Greeks. Intercourse between Phoenicia and Greece was
more common in postexilic times than in the ninth century
B. C.; we know that during the later period slave trade was
carried on between the two nations; but the possibility of
commercial intercourse between the two at an early date can-
not be denied. The name Yawan occurs on the Tel-el-Amarna
tablets, about 1400 B. C.; the form, however, in which the
name occurs in Joel seems to point to a late date. Absence of
any mention of the northern kingdom might be explained by
the exclusiveness of the vision and of the mission of Joel;
he was the prophet of Judah, his interest was in Judah; there
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL. 133

 

was no necessity that he should mention Israel. Besides, the
feeling between Israel and Judah at this early time was not
the friendliest. In a similar manner may be explained the use
of “Israel” to designate the whole people. On the other hand,
it would be perfectly legitimate to say that the silence is due
to the fact that the northern kingdom was no longer in exist-
ence, and so to place the prophecy either after the fall of
Samaria in 722 B. C. (Koenig), or after the exile. The
most important historical reference is that in iii, 1, 2, 5:
“When I shall bring back the captivity of Judah and Jeru-
salem ... I will plead with them there for my people and
for my heritage Israel, whom they have scattered among the
nations, and parted my land. . . . Forasmuch as ye have taken
my silver and my gold, and have carried into your temples my
goodly pleasant things.” Those who accept the early date give
the following explanation of these expressions: “I will bring
back the captivity” is a phrase used as early as the time of
Amos (ix, 14) and Hosea (vi, 11), and therefore does not
necessarily presuppose the presence of the exile; besides, the
phrase may be rendered, “I will restore the fortune,” with no
specific reference to an exile. The dispersion of the Israelites
among the nations (verse 2) refers not to the dispersion of
the entire nation (in 722 or 597 or 586), but “rather to the
sale of captives as slaves to distant nations” (compare Amos
i, 6,9). The division of the land is explained by the successes
of the Philistines, the Edomites, and other surrounding
nations during the reign of Jehoram. These explanations,
however, do not seem to do justice to the language of ili, 1-5;
the calamity that has befallen the people of God seems to be
more serious and far-reaching than this explanation would
permit. True, “I will bring back the captivity” is more or
less ambiguous, but the definite statement, “my heritage Israel,
whom they have scattered among the nations, and parted my
land,” presupposes a very serious calamity. In verse 5 the
plunder of the temple isimplied. All these expressions become
perfectly intelligible if uttered after the destruction of the
134 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL.

 

temple and of the city in 586, but there seems no calamity in
the history of Judah before that time of which such language
could be used. Another link in the historical argument is the
absence of all reference to a king or to princes, while elders,
and especially priests, appear to be prominent. This points
to a period when there was no king, or at least when the king
had retired into the background. The first condition is met
by the exile; the second by the peculiar circumstances of the
minority of Jehoash, who came to the throne in his seventh
year (2 Kings xii, 1ff.). The silence concerning the king may,
however, be purely accidental. The “valley of Jehoshaphat”
is the scene of the final conflict. Jehoshaphat gained a great
victory over the combined forces of the Moabites, Ammonites,
and Edomites only about a quarter of a century before the time
of Jehoash (2 Chron. xx, 26); and it is thought by some that
the remembrance of this recent event may account for the name
given to the final battlefield. However, it is more likely that
we have here no historical allusion at all, but that the name
was given to the scene of the final overthrow simply because of
its meaning, “Jehovah judges.”

We see, then, that the historical references, with one excep-
tion, may be interpreted as pointing either to the minority of
Jehoash or to a postexilic period. The exception is ili, 1-5;
the expressions there receive a natural interpretation only if
the fall of Jerusalem is presupposed.

We next turn to the theological ideas of the book. The Law
ig not mentioned, it is true, but the references in i, 9, 13, 14;
ii, 12-17, clearly imply the existence of some well-defined cere-
monial requirements; but they imply more, namely, that the
prophet regarded the bringing of the meal offering and of
the drink offering as a very essential part of the religion of
Jehovah. That such or similar requirements were known in
the early prophetic period cannot be doubted in view of the
frequent references to them in the eighth century prophecies;
but in the emphasis which Joel places upon the ritual service
he differs in a very marked manner from all the early
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL. 135

 

prophets. His utterances are “very unlike the way in which
all the other prophets down to Jeremiah speak of the sacrificial
service.” Irrespective of the date of the origin of the ritual-
istic and sacrificial legislation, it is a matter of history, as may
be clearly seen from the unquestionably postexilic writings,
that the emphasis upon the ritual on the part of the religious
leaders did not kecome prominent until after the fall of Jeru-
salem in 586. While during the minority of Jehoash the
priests under the leadership of Jehoiada undoubtedly occupied
a very prominent position in Judah, the same may be said with
even greater justice of the postexilic period. The silence of
Joel concerning the specific sins of the people—idolatry, and
the high places—presents a very strong contrast to the utter-
ances of the earlier prophets. Not that Joel omits the moral
element in his preaching; but he emphasizes the side of reli-
gion which the earlier prophets considered of little or no
importance, such as the formal fast and the solemn assembly,
while he puts less stress than they upon the purely ethical
requirements. That he does not speak of the conversion of
the heathen, but only of their destruction, may be accounted
for by an early date or by the particularistic spirit of the later
Judaism; in the same way either a very early or a very late
date may explain the silence concerning a future exile. Thus,
while the religious ideas of the book may not be absolutely
decisive, they are all more easily accounted for on the hypothe-
sis that Joel is a late prophet. For a discussion of the day
of Jehovah see page 148.

The literary parallels furnish another set of data. When
the parallels are as striking as they are here it becomes impos-
sible to deny all relation of dependence, and we are shut up
to one of two conclusions: Either Joel is a very early and
popular book, constantly used by writers from Amos to Mala-
chi, or it is very late and makes extensive use of earlier prophe-
cies. In view of the extreme brevity of the book the extraor-
dinary influence implied in the former view could be accounted
for only by the presence in the book of unusual features. Why
136 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL.

 

should so many prophets, whose originality is beyond question,
borrow from this book of seventy-three verses? But it would
be difficult to find in the Book of Joel anything calculated to
give it such extraordinary influence. Certainly the possibility
of the prophets borrowing from Joel cannot be denied unless a
comparison of the parallels themselves should DIONE this to be
impossible, or at least improbable. Any conclusion, however,
must be based upon a study of all the passages, and not, as
has been done so often, upon an examination of one or two
passages that may particularly favor one’s pet theory.

In the consideration of two parallel passages it is always
more or less difficult to state with certainty which one of the
two is dependent on the other; and it is almost unavoidable
that one should be influenced in his final decision by outside
considerations. If one starts out with a theory he is very apt
to find that the parallels favor his theory. G. B. Gray, who
has examined this question more thoroughly, perhaps, than
anyone else, reaches the conclusion that Joel is dependent upon
the other prophets. On the other hand, Von Orelli insists
that “decisive evidence of the preéxilic origin of the writing is
found in the literary references to it, . . . but the references
to this prophet take us not only to preéxilic times, but even
to the time before Amos.” A study of the parallels is cer-
tainly most instructive, but I venture to say that in no case will
it be possible to state—apart from other considerations—which
writer is the borrower. Indeed, the words of Driver are very
appropriate: “The parallels cannot be used for determining
the date of Joel; we can only, after having determined his date
on. independent grounds, point to the parallels as illustrating
either his dependence upon other prophets or their dependence
upon him.” (Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testa-
een 313.) In his Commentary on Joel, Driver, after care-

amination of all the parallel passages, asserts that they
confirm the conclusion, reached on other grounds, that Joel
belongs to the postexilic period (pp. 19ff.).

Many scholars ridicule and reject entirely arguments based
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL. 187°

 

upon diction and style, while others depend almost exclusively
upon linguistic features to determine the date of a writing.
Both extremes should be avoided. The linguistic character of
a literary production depends as much upon .the individuality
of the author as on the time of its composition. Nevertheless,
in the history of every language may be distinguished great
epochs whose peculiarities are strongly marked. This is true
of the Hebrew language. In its history we may distinguish
at least two such epochs, the first extending down to the Baby-
lonian exile, the second from that event onward. To which
period does the language of Joel point? The question is
answered by Pearson: “Joel’s peculiar style is certainly an
early one—flowing, elegant, the primary meaning of the words
for the most part easy to understand, while poetry and prophecy
intermingle, and sometimes pass into metaphors hard to under-
stand.” Over against this Holzinger, after the most painstak-
ing examination of the book, thinks himself justified in saying
that “the linguistic character of the Book of Joel makes its
composition at an early date seem impossible; the book is
rather to be assigned to the youngest layer of Old Testament
literature.” With this claim in mind Kirkpatrick writes: “It
is doubtful if the argument from Joel’s style and language
can be laid in the scale on either side. But it is a strange
misrepresentation to say that ‘the language of Joel plainly
bears the character of the latest period of Hebrew literature.’
If any argument can be drawn from it it is in favor of an
early date.” Koenig also finds evidence in the language of the
book to support his theory. Again we have a case in which the
data do not seem to be very decisive. The style of Joel is
smooth and flowing, but that may be due either to a date dur-
ing the golden age of Hebrew literature or to an intimate
acquaintance with earlier writers. The diction of Joel is in
the main pure and classical, but Holzinger has satisfactorily
shown that there are peculiarities in the use of words and in
grammatical constructions which manifest considerable Ara-
maic influence and thus point rather to the second period of
138 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL.

 

Hebrew literature—in other words, to the period after the
fall of Jerusalem in 586 B. C.

The examination of the data for the determination of the
date of Joel is complete. With the exception of a very few
they are indecisive—so indecisive, indeed, that for some time
to come universal agreement need not be expected. It seems,
however, that the few exceptions, namely, the historical refer-
ences in iii, 1-5, the emphasis on the more external elements of
religion, and some of the linguistic peculiarities, favor a post-
exilic date. The exact date during this period it may be impos-
sible to determine, though a date subsequent to the final estab-
lishment of the law under Nehemiah (444-432 B. C.), perhaps
about 400 B. C., is the most probable.

Contents and Outline of the Book of Joel.

The utterances of Joel were called forth by what seems
to have been a threefold calamity: locusts (i, 4), drought
(i, 16-18), and conflagrations (i, 19, 20). But, while this
calamity furnished the occasion for the prophet’s declaration,
his horizon was not limited by it; on the contrary, his chief
interest is with a manifestation of Jehovah still in the future,
yet in the prophet’s conception near at hand, the day of
Jehovah, and during the entire discourse he keeps this day
prominently before his hearers and readers.

The prophecy falls naturally into two parts, i, 1—ii, 17, and
ii, 18—iii, 21. The first section of the first part, i, 1-20, deals
mainly with the present condition that rouses the prophet’s
emotions. He begins by calling the attention of the hearers
to the present calamity, which is without parallel in the mem-
ory of even the oldest inhabitant. The whole country is waste
and desolate (i, 2-4). In view of this calamity he calls for a
universal lamentation (5-12), because (1) all luxuries are cut
off (5-7), (2) the worship of Jehovah is threatened with inter-.
ruption (8-10), (3) all means for the sustenance of life are
destroyed (11, 12). But this is only the beginning of the
great final blow, the judgment of the day of Jehovah. Is there
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL, 139

 

no escape? Jehovah alone can save; but communion with
him is at an end, or is at least threatened. If, however, he is
approached rightly he may yet have mercy (13, 14). The
prophet continues by giving the reason for his earnest appeal ;
he sees looming up in the near future the “day of Jehovah
as destruction from the Almighty” (15). In justification of
his terror he calls attention once more to the awful condition
of the land, and closes with a petition to Jehovah for mercy
and deliverance (16-20).

The second section, ii, 1-17, presents the thought of chapter
i from a somewhat different viewpoint. Now the prophet,
while starting again from the present unparalleled calamity,
looks upon it chiefly as the harbinger of the day of Jehovah,
near at hand (ii, 1-3). The next paragraph presents a word
picture of the plague of locusts in “the strongest language of
Eastern hyperbole.” The appearance of locusts is “as the
appearance of horses. . . . Like the noise of chariots on the
tops of the mountains do they leap. . . . At their presence the
peoples are in anguish. . . . They run like mighty men; they
climb the wall like men of war. . . . They leap upon the city;
they run upon the wall; they climb up into the houses; they
enter in at the windows like a thief” (4-11). This scourge
introduces the terrible day itself. Though near at hand it is
not too late to avert it, and his summons to repentance is even
more earnest than before (12-17).

With verse 17 closes the first division of the book. Here we
must assume an interval during which the assembly was held,
and solemn rites of penitence and humiliation were observed
(18).

The second part, ii, 19—iii, 21, is marked by an entirely
different tone. Jehovah is introduced as replying to the peti-
tions of the penitent people. He will remove the plague and
grant abundant temporal prosperity (19-26). The temporal
blessings will be surpassed by the wonderful spiritual gifts, the
presence of Jehovah in the midst of Israel (27), and the out-
pouring of the Spirit upon all flesh (28, 29). Although tem-
140 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL.

 

porarily postponed, the day of Jehovah will surely come as a
terrible day, inaugurated by wonders in the heavens and in
the earth; its terrors, however, will not fall upon the Jews,
“for in Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there shall be those that
escape” (30-32), but upon the nations that have cruelly
wronged the “heritage of Jehovah” (iii, 1-3). Of the doomed
nations, Tyre, Sidon, and the Philistines are singled out on
account of special hostility to Judah (4-8). The judgment
scene is continued in verse 9. The nations are challenged to
muster their forces, only to be utterly annihilated in the
“valley of decision,” under darkened sky, while “Jehovah roars
from Zion and utters his voice from Jerusalem.” But the day
of judgment upon the nations will be a day of triumph for
his people, for “Jehovah will be a refuge unto his people, and
a stronghold to the children of Israel” (9-16). The crisis
passed, “Jerusalem shall be holy, and there shall no stranger
pass through her any more.” Then the land will be blessed
with extraordinary fertility, while Egypt and Edom lie waste
“because they have shed innocent blood in their land.” Judah,
on the other hand, “shall abide forever, and Jerusalem from
generation to generation” (17-21).

Outline.

TirLe—Tur AUTHOR OF THE PRropHecy. Cnap. i, 1.
A. Tue HarBINGER OF THE Day or JEHOVAH. Cuaps. i, 2-ii, 17.

I. THE SCOURGE OF LOCUSTS, DROUGHT, AND FIRE............ i, 2-20
1. Graphic description of the scourge............... i, 2-4
2. Call upon various classes to mourn.............. i, 5-12
Because—
(1) All luxuries are cut off.................. 5-7

(2) The worship of Jehovah is interrupted. .8-10
(8) Means for the sustenance of life are lack-

TUR 34.9 CASE RES STORET ew eeeee es 11, 12
3. Exhortation to repentance..................4.. i, 13,14
4. The awful calamity the forerunner of the day of
Jehovah—Prayer for mercy................ i, 15-20

Il. THE SCOURGE THE FORERUNNER OF THE DAY OF JUDGMENT;
HIGH TIME FOR REPENTANCE (expansion of i, 14, 15)..ii, 1-17
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL. 141

 

1. More vivid description of the calamity..........ii, 1-11
2. Urgent exhortation to repentance............ . ii, 12-17

B. Tue Day or Jewovan a Day or Biessine To Israni, A Day oF
TERROR TO THEIR Enemies. Cuaps. ii, 18-iii, 21.

I. THE PEOPLE’S REPENTANCE (IMPLIED); JEHOVAH’S GRACIOUS

CHANGE OF PURPOSE.......cceccccccccrcccece avatars hve ii, 18
II. BLESSINGS PROMISED...........ccceeeeeceecees sevexiqnevdly 19229
1. Temporal blessings........ 0... ccc ccc ee cee cece ii, 19-26
2. Spiritual blessings...............c cece eee eeeee li, 27-29
(1) Restoration of Jehovah’s presence........ 27
(2) Outpouring of the Spirit.............. 28, 29
III. SiIegNs OF APPROACHING JUDGMENT......... od, asia aredly, OO) od
IV. ESCAPE OF A REMNANT....... ccc ec cee cc eceesesneceevces ii, 32
V. JUDGMENT ON THE NATIONS.........0ccceecceeeeceeee iii, 1-16a
1. All wrongs committed against the people of Jehovah
(Oi DE AVEN SOO a etiatanllas aurad ease eeu seared lii, 1-3
2. The bitterest enemies to suffer the severest punish-
MCNE salod saggy eee tee PARES Pte ea eiale eee iii, 4-8
83. Description of the judgment scene............ iii, 9-16a
VI. GLORIFICATION OF THE PEOPLE OF JEHOVAH.......... iii, 16b-21
Israel’s final felicity contrasted with the desolation of her
enemies.

Interpretation of the Book.

As the date of the Book of Joel has been and still is a mat-
ter of dispute, so the interpretation of the first part of the
prophecy (i, 2—ii, 17), and in this section the description of
the plague of locusts presents the chief difficulties.

The view commonly accepted in ancient times and supported
by a few moderns regards the description as allegorical. The
locusts symbolize hostile armies, the four swarms four suc-
cessive attacks either by one enemy or by successive world
powers. A second view interprets the picture of the locusts,
especially that in ii, 1-11, as an apocalyptic description of the
terrors of the last days. This view understands the locusts
of chapter ii to represent locusts, not, however, the locusts of
the desert, but “weird supernatural creatures, a mysterious host
of unearthly warriors.” A third view interprets the descrip-
tion literally. The locusts are locusts such as may be seen
142 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL.

 

in the East today, though in chapter ii they are described with
a touch of poetic imagination and Oriental hyperbole.

Another question that enters into the interpretation of the
book is whether the prophet describes in i, 2—ii, 17, a plague
present to the eyes of his hearers or predicts a future calamity.
Again the answers vary. The defenders of the allegorical
view disagree here. Hilgenfeld thinks that the four
swarms are to be explained by four attacks of the Persians
upon the Jews, in 525, 484, 460, 458, and he locates the
prophecy near the last-mentioned date. Pusey, Hengstenberg,
and others regard the calamity as still in the future. The
former sees the fulfillment in the ravages of the Assyrians,
Chaldeans, Macedonians, and Romans; the latter, in the
attacks of the Assyrian-Babylonian, the Persian, the Greek,
and the Roman armies. The apocalyptic view makes the book,
with the possible exception of chapter i, a prediction; the
plague of chapter ii will come as a sign or accompaniment of
the day of Jehovah. The historical theory sees in the plague
an event of history and experience which formed the occasion
for the prophecy; the day of Jehovah alone is still in the
future.

Two questions are, therefore, involved in this discussion:
1. Is i, 2—ii, 17, to be understood literally or not? 2. Are
these verses to be regarded as descriptive or predictive? In
favor of the allegorical view Pusey, following Hengsten-
berg, advances eight distinct arguments, supplemented by some
minor considerations: (1) The expression the northerner
(ii, 20) cannot refer to locusts, since they never invade
Palestine from the north. (2) The prayer, “Give not thine
heritage to reproach, that the nations should rule over them”
(ii, 17), obviously points to fear of subjection by a foreign
foe. (3) The enemy is alluded to as possessing moral respon-
sibility (i, 6; i1, 18, 20). (4) The prophet speaks of fire,
flame, and drought (i, 19, 20), which proves that he has in
mind something more than a plague of locusts. (5) The
imagery would be too extravagant, if used of a mere plague of
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL. 148

 

locusts: (a) nations (plural) are terrified; (b) the sun and
moon are darkened, the shining of the stars is prevented;
(c) towns are devastated, while in reality fields are the scenes
of the devastation of the locusts; in towns they are destroyed.
He adds that, since locusts are a common scourge, no one
would use such extravagant imagery in describing their de-
structiveness. (6) The effects of the scourge are such as do
not result from mere locusts: (a) The quantity used for the
meal offering and drink offering (i, 9) was so small that even
a famine could not occasion their discontinuation; (b) The
promise, “I will restore to you the years that the locust hath
eaten” (ii, 25), cannot refer to locusts, because locusts are only
a passing scourge; they destroy the fruit of only one year,
not that of several years; (c) The exhortation to the beasts
of the field to rejoice because the tree beareth her fruit (ii, 22)
must be a metaphor, for trees are not food for cattle; (d) The
scourge is spoken of as greater than any which they or their
fathers knew of, and as one ever to be remembered (i, 2, 3),
“but Israel had many worse scourges than any plague of
locusts, however severe.” (7) “The destruction of this scourge
of God is described in a way taken doubtless in its details from
the destruction of locusts, yet as a whole physically impossible
in a literal sense.” (8) Pusey regards the day of Jehovah as
identical with the scourge described by the prophet, but “the
day of Jehovah includes more than any plague of locusts.”
The weakness of some of these arguments is self-evident.
For instance, it is nowhere stated that the locust plague is the
only calamity (4); the prophet in all probability means just
what he says, that drought and fires accompanied the plague
of locusts. The prophet, in pointing out the severity of the
plague of locusts, does not compare it with all kinds of
calamities (6, d); he simply says that it was the severest
plague of locusts. In a similar way the identification of the
plague with the day of Jehovah (8) rests upon misinterpreta-
tion (compare i, 15; ii, 1, etc.). Several of the other argu-
ments lose their force when we consider that the description
144 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL.

 

of an historic event by no means excludes the use of poetic
or imaginative language. Joel’s style is highly poetic and
imaginative; this explains the apparent endowment of the
locusts with rational powers, and accounts for the description
of the devastation wrought by the locusts, which Pusey con-
siders “physically impossible.” It is difficult to understand
how this eminent commentator could make this statement, in
view of the fact that he quotes in his commentary a large
number of extracts from reports of travelers describing the
ravages of locusts in the East. If the following accounts are
true—and we have no reason to doubt their accuracy—we must
readily admit that Joel does not exaggerate unduly: “They
seemed to march in regular battalions, crawling over everything
that lay in their passage, in one straight front. They entered
the inmost recesses of the houses, were found in every corner,
stuck to our clothes, and infested our food.” “But their num-
ber was astounding; the whole face of the mountain was black
with them. On they came like a disciplined army. We dug
trenches and kindled fires, and beat and burned to death heaps
upon heaps, but the effort was utterly useless. They charged
up the mountain side, and climbed over rocks, walls, ditches,
and hedges, those behind coming up and passing over the
masses already killed... . While on the march they con-
sumed every green thing with wonderful eagerness and expedi-
tion” (Thomson). Scores of travelers have given similar
testimony. There is not one feature in the description of
Joel that is not supported by the testimony of one or more
travelers. Only three arguments in favor of the allegorical
view remain: the use of the term northerner, the prayer which
seems to imply fear of subjugation by a foreign invader, and
the implication that the plague continued for more than one
year. It is readily admitted that ordinarily locusts do not
appear in successive years, but this is not a universal rule;
and the plague described by Joel was one of unusual severity.
The designation the northerner may also be explained. While
locusts do invade Palestine generally from the south or the
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL. 145

 

southeast, there is not sufficient ground for saying that they
never come from the north (see on ii, 20). But this is not
the only solution possible. It is quite probable that the term
was applied to the locusts to designate “their office as heralds
of the last day.” According to Jer. i, 14, and Ezek. xxxviii,
6, 15, the instruments of Jehovah’s wrath in the final judg-
ment are to come from the north. From these passages the
term might have received a typical meaning, typical of doom,
and in this sense Joel applies the word to his locusts.

The only argument remaining receives its entire force from
a misinterpretation, or even a mistranslation. Certainly the
original may be rendered “that the nations should rule over
them,” but, as suggested in the margin of A. R. V., another
translation is within the range of possibility: “that the
nations should use a byword against them.” “The calam-
ity which had befallen them would seem to be due to the
unwillingness or inability of Jehovah to protect them, so that
the heathen would mockingly ask, Where is thy God?” But,
granting the correctness of the common translation, Pusey’s
argument is not justified. The passage reads not, “Give not
thy heritage to the nations to rule over them,” “but “give not
thy heritage to reproach, that the nations should rule over
them.” In other words, the prophet recognizes an intermedi-
ate stage between the calamity and the nation’s subjugation.
A scourge of locusts such as is described in these chapters
would exhaust the resources of the country, and an alert
enemy might improve the opportunity to overwhelm the
nation.

Not only are the arguments in favor of the allegorical view
inconclusive; the terms of the description itself make this
interpretation impossible. The locusts are compared to an
army; it is hardly like that any writer would compare a
symbol with the reality it is intended to. symbolize. More-
over, to speak of a victorious host as entering the con-
quered city like a thief (ii, 9) would be an indication of
considerable thoughtlessness. Even a modified form of the
146 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL.

 

allegorical view, which admits that the references in chap-
ter i are to real locusts, but insists that in chapter ii we
must see an army of soldiers, is untenable, since a comparison
of ii, 11, “Jehovah uttereth his voice before his army; for
his camp is very great,” with ii, 25, “I will restore to you the
years that the locust hath eaten, the cankerworm, and the
caterpillar, and the palmerworm, my great army which I sent
among you,” with i, 4, “That which the palmerworm hath left
hath the locust eaten; and that which the locust hath left
hath the cankerworm eaten; and that which the cankerworm
hath left hath the caterpillar eaten,” proves that the army of
chapter ii is expressly identified with the locusts of chapter i.

To this should be added that the prophet speaks (ii, 25)
only of such acts of devastation as are actually wrought by
locusts. There is no hint of ravages wrought by a human
army, of bloodshed, destroyed cities, and captives.

The weakness of the apocalyptic argument is revealed by the
arguments advanced against the allegorical view; its abso-
lute untenableness will be seen as we pass to the consideration
of the second question: Is i, 2—1ii, 17, descriptive or pre-
dictive?

The answers to this second question are determined very
largely by the attitude of the student toward the first ques-
tion. It is not necessary to discuss in detail the arguments
advanced in favor of the predictive interpretation. All that
is needed is to call attention briefly to the indications which
seem to put the descriptive interpretation beyond question.

1. The General Character of Prophecy—The horizon of
the prophet is not limited by his own immediate future; he
may, and very often does, look forward to events even beyond
our own time; but the prophet, if we judge from the prophe-
cies whose dates are fixed with certainty, always starts from
the circumstances of his own day. The prophecies are not
abstract productions of the study; they are direct messages
to the people for the purpose of meeting a present crisis. If,
now, the plague is removed into the future the occasion for
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL. 147

 

the message disappears, and the prophecy becomes a “mere
learned study or midrash on preceding prophetical literature.”

2. But we need not depend upon a priori reasoning alone.
The impression made by the appeal, “Hear this, ye old men,
and give ear, all ye inhabitants of the land. Hath this been
in your days, or in the days of your fathers? Tell ye your
children of it, and let your children tell their children, and
their children another generation. That which the palmer-
worm hath left hath the locust eaten; and that which the
locust hath left hath the cankerworm eaten; and that which
the cankerworm hath left hath the caterpillar eaten,” is cer-
tainly that the hearers have experienced the calamity of which
he speaks. Or read the exhortation to the priests in verse 13,
or the utterances of the prophet in 15-20. Surely the only
natural interpretation is that which recognizes that the
prophet addresses the priests and the people out of an actual,
present experience. The same is true of il, 12ff.: “Turn ye
unto me with all your heart, and with fasting, and with weep-
ing, and with mourning: and rend your heart, and not your
garments, and turn unto Jehovah your God.” There is, in-
deed, no feature of the description of the plague that would
indicate that this part of the book is to be regarded as pre-
dictive.

We may conclude, then, that the most probable, yea, the
only natural, interpretation of the Book of Joel is that which
regards the references to the locusts as descriptive of an actual
plague of locusts, accompanied, as is the case frequently, by
drought, and perhaps by forest fires. This calamity formed
the occasion for the prophecy and influenced the prophet’s con-
ception of the day of Jehovah; in return his description of
the plague cannot have remained uninfluenced by the thought
of the terrible day toward which the present calamity was
thought to point.

Teaching of the Book.

Whatever the date of the Book of Joel, and whatever the

interpretation of individual parts, its teaching is obvious, since
148 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL.

 

 

it expresses no essentially new or mysterious truths. “If the
prophecy were very ancient it would be interesting as being a
kind of prophetic chart which subsequent writers followed.
If it be late, as modern writers are inclined to conclude,
though it still has its interest, it loses the originality and
novelty which would otherwise belong to it.”

The teaching of the prophet centers, as already indicated,
around the day of Jehovah, the great, future crisis in which
Jehovah will manifest his majesty and power in the destruc-
tion of his enemics and in the deliverance of those who trust
in him; the day which marks the beginning of the Messianic
age. Concerning this day he teaches: (1) Its approach is
marked by great convulsions and extraordinary phenomena in
the sphere of nature. This thought is implied in the prophet’s
interpretation of the significance of the calamity that called
forth his prophecy; and it is expressed definitely in ii, 30, 31.
(2) The character of the day will be determined by the atti-
tude of heart and life toward Jehovah. It will be a day of
terror to all the people if they continue in their present spir-
itual condition (i, 15; ii, 11); but it may be a day of bless-
ing if they truly repent (ii, 12-14, 19-29). (3) When the
day of Jehovah finally does come those who call upon the
name of Jehovah shall be delivered (ii, 31), but the enemies
of the people of Jehovah, and as such the enemies of Jehovah
himself, will be annihilated (chapter iii).

Now, while all the essential features of the eschatological
vision of Joel are found in other prophetic writings (for
example, Amos ix, 13; Hos. ii, 21, 22; Isa. iv, 2-6), it must
not be thought that Joel simply repeats the messages of the
earlier prophets. He is acquainted with them, yet he im-
presses upon them the stamp of his own personality, and, in
some cases at least, he enlarges upon them.

1. He differs from other prophets in his emphasis upo.
the outpouring of the Spirit. That in the new age the Spirit
of Jehovah will be more prominent is announced by others,
but nowhere else do we meet a promise so comprehensive, the
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL. 149

 

fulfillment of which would mean the realization of the wish
of Moses, “Would that all Jehovah’s people were prophets,
that Jehovah would put his Spirit upon them” (Num. xi, 29).
This promise will live in the hearts and thoughts of Chris-
tians forever because of the use made of it by Peter on the
day of Pentecost (.\ets ii, 144f.), and because that day actually
marked the beginning of the era during which the promise has
been and is being fulfilled with ever-increasing fullness, and
in a manner far superior to the expectation of our prophet.
2. Another point deserving special mention is the absence
of the universalism of Messianic prophecy, such as we have,
for example, in Isa. ii, 3, 4: “And many peoples shall go and
say, Come ye, and let us go up to the mount of Jehovah, to
the house of the God of Jacob; and he will teach us of his
ways, and we will walk in his paths: for out of Zion shall
go forth the law, and the word of Jehovah from Jerusalem.
And he will judge between the nations, and will decide con-
cerning many peoples; and they shall beat their swords into
plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks; nation shall
not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war
any more.” Joel apparently sees no salvation for the nations ;
Israel is-to be saved and glorified, the nations are to be judged
and destroyed. Even the promise concerning the outpouring
of the spirit upon all flesh is, on closer study, seen to be lim-
ited to the descendants of Abraham. ‘The promise is to “your
sons and your daughters, . . . your old men, . . . your young
men.” But it would not be proper to condemn the prophet
for this seeming exclusiveness. It was this very limitation
during the centuries following the exile that made possible
the existence of the religion of Jehovah in unadulterated form,
so that the promise, “and in thee shall all the families of the
carth be blessed” (Gen. xii, 3), might be fulfilled. That Israel
remained Israel in spite of the attempts of the Samaritans and
other surrounding nations, in spite of the influence of the
Persians, “in spite of the Greek arms and the Greek mind,
was due to the legalism of Ezra and Nehemiah, and to what we
150 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JOEL.

 

may call the narrow enthusiasm of Joel.” That a later genera-
tion failed to see that the crisis had passed, that it was time
to “go into all the world” to spread the knowledge of Jehovah
to “every creature,” that an illegitimate exaggeration and a
false interpretation of the utterances of men of God, such as
our prophet, was responsible even for the rejection by the Jews
of the Messiah when he actually appeared among men, surely
cannot be made a basis of accusation against the prophet Joel.

3. In another feature of his representation Joel differs from
some of the prophets that preceded him. Isaiah predicted that
the kingdom of God was to be established under the rule of a
“shoot out of the stock of Jesse” (Isa. ix, 6, 7; xi, 1); Jere-
miah announced that Jehovah would at the time of the restora-
tion “cause a branch of righteousness to grow up unto David;
and he shall execute justice and righteousness in the land”
(xxxili, 15). In a similar manner other prophets speak of
an earthly, personal representative of Jehovah. According to
Joel’s conception, when the final crisis arrives it is Jehovah
himself who interferes, both in judging the nations and in
delivering his children. It is he who in his own person will
rule in Zion: “I am in the midst of Israel” (ii, 27), “I am
Jehovah your God dwelling in Zion, my holy mountain” (iii,
17), “Jehovah dwelleth in Zion” (iii, 21). There is no
reference to a Messianic king.

4. On account of his emphasis on the externals of religion
(i, 9, 13, 14; 11, 12-17), in which attitude he differs from the
preéxilic prophets, Joel has sometimes been accused of neglect-
ing entirely the “weightier matters’ of the law. Here, as
always, we must guard against extremes. That his attitude
toward sacrifice is not that of Amos v, 21ff., or of Isa. i, 11ff.,
may be readily admitted; that he entirely lacked interest in
the fulfillment of moral requirements is not true. For he
promises deliverance to the people not on the basis of the
painstaking observance of the form of religion, but on the
basis of “godly sorrow that worketh repentance for salvation”
(compare especially ii, 12, 13).
JOEL

 

CHAPTER I.
HE word of the Lorp that came
z to Joel the son of Pethuel.
2 Hear this, ye old men, and give
ear, all ye inhabitants of the land.
*Hath this been in your days, or

even in the days of your fathers?
3 Tell ye your children of it, and
let your children tell their children,
and their children another genera-
tion. 4 ° !That which the palmer-
worm hath left hath the locust

 

 

 

hap. 2. 2,——» . 78, 4, e . 1 2 e -

ye ee On Psa. 78. 4 Deut, ‘eae The restdue of the palmer.
CHAPTER I. in a case where appeal to past ex-

1. The title. The word of Jehovah | periences is made. This—That is, a

—A title similar to that in Hos. i, 1;
Mic. i, 1; Zeph. i, 1 (see on Hos. i, 1).
Brevity and simplicity are in favor
of authenticity, but that its “sim-
plicity testifies to its great antiquity”
(Hitzig) cannot be maintained (com-
pare Nah. i, 1; Hab. i, 1; Mal. i, 1).
For names see Introduction, p. 125.

Tue Scourcs or Locusts, Drouext,
AND Firp, i, 2-20.

Out of the midst of a terrible ca-
lamity (i, 2-4) the prophet summons
the people to universal lamentation
(5-12). He sees in the present dis-
aster the harbinger of the day of Je-
hovah. To avert its terrors he ex-
horts all to turn to Jehovah in peni-
tent supplication (13-15). He calls
attention once more to the present
awful condition, and closes with a
prayer for deliverance (16-20).

2. Hear this—A solemn summons
to give attention to the words about
to be uttered (Amos iii, 1; iv, 1; v,
1). Inhabitants of the land—With
Joel Judah, since all his interest seems
to center there (see verse 14; ii, 1, 32;
iii, 1, 17, etc.). Old men—Not “eld-
ers” in an official sense, for, if men-
tioned at all by Joel, these do not
appear until verse 14; but those who
have lived longest, who have ex-
perienced most, whose memories run
back farthest, and whose testimony,
therefore, will be of greatest weight

151

 

calamity such as the one described in
verse 4. The witnesses are asked
whether such a calamity had been in
their days, or whether the present
generation had been told that there
had ever been one like it. In the days
of your fathers—“Among the people
of the East memories of past times
were handed down from generation
to generation for periods which to us
would seem incredible.” 3. The reply
is not stated; the prophet continues,
well aware that the answer could only
be an emphatic No! He requests his
hearers to hand down the story of
the calamity from one generation to
another as an event unique and un-
paralleled. Tell—The Hebrew verb
comes from the same root from which
is derived the word “book.” Here
the verb is in the intensive form; it
means more, therefore, than ordinary
telling; it means the giving of careful,
detailed information. This verse may
be compared with Psa. Ixxviii, 5-7;
Deut. iv, 9; vi, 6, 7, 20-24; xi, 19,
etc. The memory of the wonders of
Jehovah’s love, his deliverances, his
laws and statutes were to -be handed
down from father to son; here the
memory of unparalleled woe and
judgment; such story would not be
without its lessons.

4. Description of the calamity to
which verses 2, 3 point. ‘The land is
bare, swarm after swarm of destruc-
152

JOEL.

 

eaten; and that which the locust
hath left hath the cankerworm eat-
en; and that which the cankerworm
hath left hath the caterpiller eaten.

5 Awake, ye drunkards, and weep;
and howl, all ye drinkers of wine,
because of the new wine; ‘for it is
cut off from your mouth. 6 For ‘a

 

dJsa. 32, 10.

© So Prov. 30. 25, 26, 27; chap. 2. 2,11, 25.

 

tive locusts have devoured the crops
and the foliage.’ What are we to
understand by the four classes of lo-
custs mentioned: (1) gazam, (2) arbeh,
(3) yeleg, (4) hastl; The first may be
rendered “shearer,” the second
“swarmer,” the third “licker,” the
fourth “devourer.”’ Of these four
names arbeh seems to be the generic
term for locust; it is the one -used
most frequently in the Old Testa-
ment. Gdazam occurs again only in
ii, 25, and Amos iv, 9; in Amos the
name is selected in the place of the
common one because it suggests in
itself destructiveness. Yeleg seems to
be used in Psa. cv, 34, as equivalent
to arbeh, and in Nah. iii, 15, the two
are used apparently as synonyms. In
a similar way hdsil is used as equiva-
lent to arbeh in Deut. xxviii, 38; Isa.
xxxiii, 4, etc. From these facts it
may be safe to infer that gazam,
yeleq, and hdsil are all epithets
applied to arbeh. The prophet piles
up these names simply for rhetorical
purposes, “to picture the work of
destruction as complete and final.”
So Wellhausen and Nowack, ‘The
names are heaped up to exhaust the
genus even to its last individual.”
This is a more probable interpreta-
tion than that which makes the four
names designations of four different
kinds of locusts, or of locusts in four
successive stages of development. The
latter view is advocated by Credner,
Wuensche, and others, but it is made
impossible by ii, 25, where the four
names occur in different order; again,
the stage designated by arbeh would
be an undeveloped state, which is im~
probable, since it is the most common
term for locust; besides, it would be
difficult to distinguish between four
separate stages in the life of the
locust. That four different kinds of
locusts are meant cannot be shown

 

from the context, and the use of the
names in other passages speaks
against this view. Driver’s view,
also, which regards the four names in
part as synonymous designations of
the same species, in part as designa-
tions of different species and in part
as designating the ordinary locust in
different stages of development is
improbable.

5-12. The prophet calls upon all to
lament, because all luxuries are cut
off (5-7); the worship of Jehovah has
suffered through the interruption, or
at least threatened interruption, of
the meal offerings and the drink of-
ferings (8-10); and the means for the
sustenance of life are destroyed and
cut off by the locusts (11, 12).
5. Wine—Frequently spoken of as a
blessing from God (Hos. ii, 8, etc.),
which was often abused. One of the
results of abuse is the blinding of the
spiritual faculties. One of the six
woes in Isa. v, 8ff., is against the dis-
sipating nobles who, as a result of
their revelries, “regard not the work
of Jehovah, neither have they con-
sidered the operation of his hand.”
Though the judgment has fallen, the
stupefied drunkards are not yet aware
of it. Awake—It is high time to
awake from the sleep of intoxication
(Gen. ix, 24; Prov. xxiii, 35). Weep
—If no other and higher motives ap-
peal to them, at least the loss of the
wine should arouse them; the supply
will soon be exhausted, the luxurious
living, the revelries, must cease. New
[“‘sweet”] wine—Heb. ‘asts, “that
which is pressed out”; therefore, ‘the
newly pressed wine,” “sweet wine,”
“must.” In iii, 18, it is regarded as
a blessing from God (Amos ix, 18).
In Isa. xlix, 26, it is referred to in a
way that would indicate its intoxi-
cating character (compare Song of
Songs, viii, 2). The exhortation was
CHAPTER I.

153

 

nation is come up upon my land,
strong, and without number, ‘whose
teeth are the teeth of a lion, and he

hath the cheek teeth of a great lion.
7 He hath «laid my vine waste, and
*barked my fig tree: he hath made

 

f Rev. 9. 8.—# Isa. 5. 6.

2 Heb. laid my fig tree for a barking.

 

very appropriate if the vintage was
near at hand when the locusts ap-
peared and laid waste the vineyards
(7, 12).

The drunkards, startled from their
slumber, might inquire for the cause
of it all. Verses 6, 7 furnish the an-
swer. First the prophet calls atten-
tion to the immense numbers of the
enemies, then to their terrible weap-
ons, finally to the awful results of
their attack. Nation—Heb. gdy. The
locusts devastate the land like a
hostile army. The use of géy fur-
nishes no support to the allegorical
view; it is synonymous with ‘am
Gi, 27), which is used of animals
(Prov. xxx, 25, 26; Zeph. ii, 14); here
specially appropriate, because the fig-
ure of a hostile army is continued.
Come up upon—A military term used
of the approach of an enemy (1 Kings
xx, 22; Isa. xxi, 2; Nah. ii, 2). My
land—A comparison with ii, 1, “my
holy mountain,” might justify the
explanation that the prophet means
Jehovah’s land (Pusey, Von Orelli,
and others), but it is better to in-
terpret the pronoun as referring to
the prophet, who identifies himself
with and speaks in the name of the
people (7, 13, 19, etc.). Strong—Not
easily tired, able fo take a long
journey, and to persevere until the
destruction is complete. Without
number—No exaggeration, if we ac-
cept the testimony of those who have
experienced calamities of this sort.
“Myriads upon myriads of locusts
were about us, covering the ground
and shutting out the view in all di-
rections.”’ Teeth—These are the
weapons of the enemy. ‘The lo-
custs’ teeth are edged like a saw and
very powerful; hence, though in-
finitely smaller, they may for de-
structiveness be compared with those
of a lion.” It is said by Morier that
the teeth of the locust “appear to

 

have been created for a scourge; since
to strength incredible for so small a
creature they add sawlike teeth ad-
mirably calculated to eat up all the
herbs in the land.” An interesting
parallel to “a lion’s teeth” is Ecclus.
xxi, 2, where the teeth of sin are
likened to the “teeth of a lion slaying
the souls of men.’”’ Cheek teeth—Bet-
ter, jaw teeth—the sharp and promi-
nent eyeteeth. Lion,.. . . great lion
—Or, lioness—The second line is not
a useless repetition, but an advance
over the first. It is generally thought
that the lioness is even fiercer than
the lion in attack, especially when
she tries to defend her whelps (see on
Hos. xiii, 8). An early writer,
fflianus (Historia, xii, 39), says,
“Not only among the Greeks, but also
among the barbarians, the lioness is
thought to be the strongest animal
and the one hardest to be fought.”
Verse 7 deals with the destruction
wrought. Literally, He has made my
vine to waste, and my fig tree to splinter.
The Hebrew for the last word occurs
only here; its meaning is, therefore,
somewhat uncertain. The same word
in its masculine form is found in Hos.
x, 7, where it is translated (in R. V.
margin) ‘“‘twigs,’”’ so here, “twigs” or
“splinters.” The interpretation im-
plied in the rendering of A. V. is un-
doubtedly correct, for the prophet has
in mind the “gnawing and eating
away” of the bark. The vine and the
fig tree are the principal fruit trees of
Palestine, the pride of the land; their
destruction would be the greatest pos-
sible calamity. Clean bate—Literally,
making bare he has made it bare.
Through constant gnawing the locust
has made the tree entirely bare; the
blossoms, the foliage, the bark, every-
thing that can be gnawed off he has
taken away. ‘It is sufficient if these
terrible columns stop half an hour on
a spot for everything growing on it,
154

JOEL.

 

it clean bare, and cast it away; the
branches ‘thereof are made white.

8 »Lament like a virgin girded
with sackcloth for ithe husband of

 

hb Isa, 22, 12,—i Prov. 2. 17; Jer. 3. 4.

 

vines, olive trees, corn, to be entirely
destroyed. After they have passed
nothing remains but the large
branches and the roots, which, being
underground, have escaped their
voracity.” (From an account of the
devastation caused by locusts, in
Spain in 1841.) ‘The bushes were
eaten quite bare, though the animals
could not have been long on the spot.
... They sat by hundreds on a bush
gnawing the rind and the woody
fibers” (Lichtenstein, Travels in South
Africa, p. 251). And cast it away—
R. V. margin, ‘“down’’—to the ground.
As the italics indicate, there is in the
original no pronominal suffix to in-
dicate what is cast down. Hardly
the trees themselves (Keil); more
probably, that “which is not green
and contains no sap, that which is
uneatable’”’; it the locust flings away
with anger and contempt. And the
branches thereof are made white—
Literally, they make white, show white-
ness. Branches, as the etymology of
the word, something intertwined, in-
dicates, are the branches of the vine
only; through the gnawing off of the
bark the white of the vine becomes
visible. “The country did not seem to
be burned, but to be covered with
snow on account of the whiteness of
the trees” (Fr. Alvarez, das Indias,
quoted by Pusey in loco). H. Ludolf,
in History of Hithiopia, speaking of lo-
custs, says: “Neither herbs, nor
shrubs, nor trees remain unhurt.
Whatever is either grassy or covered
with leaves is injured as if it had been
burned with fire; even the bark of
the trees is nibbled with their teeth,
so that the injury is not confined to
one year alone’”’ (ii, 25).

With verse 8 begins a new para-
graph. The prophet turns from the
winebibbers to the entire community
(8-10), urging it to bewail the dev-
astation of the land, as a virgin
would mourn the death of the beloved

 

of her youth. All prospects for the
future are blighted; want stares them
in the face. The most serious aspect
of the calamity, however, is the fact
that the means to maintain the legal
worship have become or are about to
become exhausted. 8. Lament—Heb.
‘alah; only here, but the meaning is
clear from the Aramaic and Syriac.
The form is feminine; this and the
comparison with the bereaved virgin
indicate that a feminine is addressed,
perhaps “my land” (verse 6); at any
rate, the whole community. Like a
virgin—Heb. bethilah; literally, one
who is separated, that is, one who is
separated from all others to cleave to
one, and also one who has not “been
known by any man” (Gen. xxiv, 16);
always a virgin in the strictest sense
of the term. Girded with sackcloth—
Sackcloth is a coarse material woven
from goats’ and camels’ hair, used for
sacks, tent covers, etc. The wearing
of this cloth around the loins was one
of the symbols of mourning, both in
cases of private bereavement (Gen.
xxxvii, 34; 2 Sam. iii, 31) and in
lamentations over public calamities
(Amos viii, 10; Jer. xlviii, 37). What
the origin of the custom and what the
form of the garment worn is uncer-
tain. (See article “Sackcloth,” Hast-
ings’s Dictionary of the Bible.) The
husband of her youth—The word
rendered “husband” means literally
possessor, owner (Exod. xxi, 28; Isa.
i, 3), so also the verb connected with
the noun (Isa. xxvi, 13; 1 Chron. iv,
22); but it is used very frequently in
the sense of husband, the usage being
due undoubtedly to the earlier con-
ception of the marriage relation, when
the wife was considered the property
of the husband. But, since bethtilah
is apparently always used of a young
woman who has not yet entered into
actual marital relations, the word
ba‘al is used here in all probability in
the sense of “betrothed” (ag. Nowack
 

CHAPTER I. 155
her youth. 9 The meat offering | the house of the LorD; the priest:
and the drink offering is cut off from |the Lorp’s ministers, Pour

 

k Verse 13; chap, 2. 14.

 

and Wellhausen whose explanations
do not remove the difficulty but
simply transfer it to bethilah); and
in the light of the marriage customs
of the ancient Hebrews such a use of
the word is perfectly legitimate. The
first important step in the betrothal
procedure was the settlement of the
amount of the mohar, the so-called
dowry, and the payment or part pay-
ment of the same. The modhar was
not a dowry in the modern sense of
that term, that is, a portion brought
by the bride into the husband’s fam-
ily, but a price or ransom paid to the
father or brother of the bride. (See
article ‘Marriage,’ Hastings’s Dic-
tionary of the Bible; W. R. Smith,
Kinship and Marriage in Early
Arabia; Tristram, Eastern Customs.)
“After the betrothal the bride was
under the same restrictions as a wife.
If unfaithful, she ranked and was
punished as an adulteress (Deut. xxii,
23, 24); on the other hand, the bride-
groom, if he wished to break the con-
tract, had the same privileges, and
also had to observe the same formali-
ties, as in the case of divorce. The
situation is illustrated in the history
of Joseph and Mary, who were on the
footing of betrothal (Matt. i, 19).”
The grief of the community is to be
like the intense, bitter grief of one
whose brightest hopes and most joy-
ful anticipations have been shattered
‘by the death of her loved one before
she was ever led to his home. The
comparison of the land with a virgin
was especially appropriate, since in
Hebrew the land, or city, or their in-
habitants, are often personified as
daughter, or, virgin (Amos v, 2; Isa.
i, 8; Lam. i, 1).

Verse 9 gives the justification for
the call to universal lamentation.
The meal offering and the drink of-
fering are cut off from the house of
Jehovah. These offerings must of
necessity cease, as a result of the gen-

 

eral devastation described in verse 10.
Meat offering—Better, R. V., ‘meal
offering”; Heb. minhah, literally, gift,
present; therefore, perhaps, the oldest
word for offerings in general. It is
used in the Old Testament to desig-
nate the cereal or meal offerings, cona-
sisting of fine meal or of unleavened
bread, cakes, wafers, or of ears of
roasted grain, always with salt and,
except in the sin offering. with olive
oil (Lev. ii, 1, 4, 13, 14; v, 11). The
meal offering might be offered by it-
self; if so, part might be offered upon
the altar while the rest would go to
the priests, or the whole might be
consumed on the altar, as in the case
of the burnt offering. The meal offer-
ing might also be an accompaniment
of other offerings; then again it might
be either wholly consumed, or part
might be burned and the rest be given
to the priests (Amos v, 22). Drink
offering—Heb. nesekh. Not an inde-
pendent offering; a libation made with
the meal offering usually accompany-
ing a burnt offering (Num. xv, 5;
xxviii, 7, 8). Wine was the common
material used; sometimes oil was sub-
stituted (Gen. xxxv, 14), in a case of
necessity perhaps even water (1 Sam.
vii, 6; 2 Sam. xxiii, 16). In this verse
the reference is undoubtedly to the
meal offering which, according to
Exod. xxix, 38-41; Num. xxviii, 3-8,
accompanied the daily morning and
evening burnt offerings. The house
of Jehovah—The temple. According
to Joel it is the only place where Je-
hovah is worshiped. Whether the
bringing of the offerings had already
ceased or was only threatened we
cannot say; even the possibility of
such serious calamity might call for
loudest lamentation, for these daily
offerings were a bond between heaven
and earth; to discontinue them would
be a breaking of the bond, a severing
of the covenant relation between Je-
hovah and his people, and so would
156

JOEL.

 

10 The field is wasted, the Jland
mourneth; for the corn is wasted:

 

1 Jer. 12.11; 14. 2.——™ Verse 12; Isa. 24. 7.

 

mark the utter rejection of the peo-
ple by their God. This symbolic
meaning of the daily sacrifice accounts
for the determination of the priests,
during the siege of Jerusalem by
Pompey, to continue the daily sacri-
fice at all costs: “And anyone may
hence learn how very great piety we
exercise toward God, . . . since the
priests were not at all hindered from
their sacred ministrations, . . . but
did still twice each day . . . offer their
sacrifices on the altar; nor did they
omit those sacrifices if any melancholy
accident happened by the stones that
were thrown among them; for al-
though the city was taken... and
the enemy then fell upon them, and
cut the throats of them that were
in the temple, yet could not those
that offered the sacrifices be com-
pelled to run away, neither by the
fear they were in of their own lives,
nor by the number that were already
slain, as thinking it better to suffer
whatever came upon them, at their
very altars, than to omit anything
that their laws required of them”
(Josephus, Antiquities, xiv, iv, 3).
The terror of the Jews at the inter-
ruption of the daily sacrifice during
the siege of the city by Titus is also
described by Josephus (Wars of the
Jews,” vi, ii, 1.) The priests—The
priests received a part of the meal
offerings as a means of support; their
grief might be due to the fear that
their income would be cut off (Wuen-
sche); but the additional thought
seems to be in the mind of the proph-
et, that as the religious leaders they
would feel more intensely the disaster
and understand more fully its sig-
nificance. Jehovah’s ministers—Not
the ordinary word for servant, but
mesharéth, the word commonly used
in later times for a minister at the
sanctuary; in New Hebrew the term
for priestly service is derived from the
same root. The ancient translations

 

=the new wine is ‘dried up, the oil
languisheth. 11 "Be ye as amed, O

 

3 Or, ashamed. Jer. 14. 3, 4.

 

of this verse differ from the Hebrew;
the Septuagint reads “the servants of
the altar,” and one manuscript (B)
adds, “of Jehovah.” It also takes
the first two words of verse 10 to
verse 9, connecting them with what
precedes by “because.” The Arabic
reads, “Grieve, ye priests, who min-
ister at the altar, for it (the altar) is
in need”; the Syriac, “the kings and
princes sit in sorrow.”

Verse 10 explains why the daily
offerings must be discontinued. The
fields are wasted, the prospects for
harvest gone. The real force of the
original cannot be brought out in a
translation; “Joel loads his clauses
with the most leaden letters he can
find, and drops them in quick suc-
cession, repeating the same heavy
word again and again, as if he would
stun the careless people into some
sense of the bare, brutal weight of
the calamity which has _ befallen
them.” G. A. Smith translates the
verse:

The fields are blasted, the ground

is in grief;
Blasted is the corn, abashed is the
new wine, the oil pines away.
The field is wasted—A play upon
words in the original. The land
mourneth—Land and field are prac-
tically synonymous, but when used
together a distinction may be noted:
sddheh, ‘‘field,” is in a narrower sense
the cornfield, as distinguished from
orchards and vineyards; ’adhamah
“land,” all cultivated land, be it corn-
fields, or orchards, or vineyards. The
land is endowed with powers of per-:
sonality (Jer. xii, 4, 11; xxiii, 10;
Isa. xxxiii, 9; in a similar way, Psa.
Ixv, 13, “The valleys . . . shout for
Joy, they also sing’). The calamity
is so great that even the lifeless
ground is touched by it and partici-
pates in the lamentation. The loss is
complete. Corn... new wine...

oil—The three principal products of
CHAPTER I.

157

 

ye husbandmen; howl, O ye vine-
dressers, for the wheat and for the
barley; because the harvest of the

field is perished. 12 °The vine is
dried up,and the fig tree languisheth;
the pomegranate tree, the palm tree

 

° Verse 10.

 

Palestine, frequently mentioned as
blessings from Jehovah which he may
withdraw as a punishment (Num.
xviii, 12; Deut. vii, 13; xi, 14; Hos.
ii, 8). “The words, though they
may be used with reference to the
corn in the ears, and the juice in the
grapes and in the olives, denote more
particularly these products after they
have been adapted partially for the
food or use of man.” Corn (Heb.
daghan) signifies the grain of wheat
after it has been threshed; new wine
(Heb. tirdsh), the grape juice after it
has passed the stage of ‘asis (verse 5)
and has become partly fermented (see
Driver, Joel and Amos, p. 79); oil
(Heb. yishdr), the freshly made juice
of the olive. Along with corn and
wine, oil may be regarded as one of
the indispensable necessities of life
to the Oriental. Oil was used for
illumination (Exod. xxv, 6; Matt. xxv,
3), for food (Ezek. xvi, 18), for baking
(1 Kings xvii, 12; Lev. ii, 1-7), for
medicinal purposes (Isa. i, 6), for
anointing the body, especially after
a bath (2 Sam. xiv, 2), for the anoint-
ing of the king (1 Sam. x, 1). (See,
further, Van Lennep, Bible Lands,
pp. 124ff.; Nowack, Archeologie, pp.
237ff.) Dried up—Margin, “ashamed.”
Tt is not quite certain whether the
verb is from a root “to be ashamed,”
or from one “to dry up’; as far as the
form is concerned, either is pos-
sible. The latter is the meaning
adopted by the ancient versions, but
the former is more probable in the
sense of ‘“‘be frustrated,” ‘‘fail.”” The
verb taken with the first word of
verse 11 may indicate an intentional
play upon words. Languisheth—
Used of plants in the sense of “to
wither” (verse 12; Isa. xvi, 8; xxiv,
7); in a secondary sense of a city (Jer.
xiv, 2); of a childless woman (1 Sam.
ii, 5; compare Jer. xv, 9); of persons
disappointed in their hopes (Isa. xix,

 

8; compare Hos. iv, 3). The sense of
the verse is clear: the locusts have
wasted the grain, so that there will
be no harvest; the vineyards, so that
they can bear no grapes; and the olive
orchards, so that they can bear no
olives for oil.

11, 12. Call to the plowmen and to
the vinedressers. They too have
ground for lamentation, since their
prospects are completely ruined. It
is better to regard verse 11 as an ap-
peal and not as a declaratory sentence.
The special appeal in verse 5 advances
to the general in verse 8, then returns
to the special in verse 11. Be ye
ashamed—The Hebrew verb is used
also in the sense of “to be disap-
pointed” (Isa. i, 29; xx, 5); it expresses
intense disappointment, which mani-
fests itself in the terrified look, the
change of color; we might render, with
Keil, “turn pale.” The cause for
terror is stated in the latter part of
the verse, ‘for the wheat and for the
barley, because the harvest of the
field is perished.”” The locusts have
devastated everything. Howl, O ye
vinedressers—Since the destruction of
various trees (verse 12) seems to be
the cause for the lamentation of the
“‘vinedressers,” it is necessary to
seek a more comprehensive term;
kerem means “vineyard,” but also
“garden” or “orchard” (Judg. xv, 5);
the kérém is therefore the keeper of
the orchard, the gardener as well as
the vinedresser. The fig tree—Native
in Western Asia; very plentiful in
Palestine. It was highly prized, and
is often mentioned along with the
vine (Deut. viii, 8; Jer. v, 17). To
“sit under one’s vine and fig tree”
is a symbol of prosperity and security
(1 Kings iv, 25; Mic. iv, 4). Figs were
dried and pressed into cakes, and
they formed a staple article of food
(1 Sam. xxv, 18); they were used also
ag a poultice (2 Kings xx, 7; Isa.
158

JOEL.

 

xxxviiil, 21). Grapes and figs are
called by Josephus (Wars, iii, x, 8)
“the principal fruits of the land’;
and it is said by travelers that “many
houses are entirely covered with vines
and are hidden almost entirely behind
fig trees.” Pomegranate tree—The
Scripture references to the pomegran-
ate are very numerous (Num. xiii, 23;
xx, 5; Deut. viii, 8; 1 Sam. xiv, 2; Song
of Songs iv, 3, 13). It is a shrub or
low tree, from ten to fifteen feet high,
with small dark green foliage; the
fruit is about the size of an orange,
with a hard rind, yellowish or brown-
ish, with a blush of red; it is filled
with numerous seeds, each enveloped
in bright red pulp, whence the Latin
and English names grained apple. The
fruit is of two varieties, the sweet and
the acid. The pulp is most refreshing
to the taste; the juice of the acid kind
is sweetened as a beverage (Song of
Songs viii, 2), and is also used in salads.
The name “Gath-rimmon” (Josh. xxi,
25) signifies winepress of the pome-
granate, and implies that the wine-
presses of the city were used for the
making of pomegranate wine. The
rind and bark and outer part of the
root are valued for the tannin which
they contain. The pomegranate is
highly prized and extensively culti-
vated even now. (See Van Lennep,
Bible Lands, 140f.; Thomson, The
Land and the Book, ii,392). Palm tree
—The palm tree has existed “since
prehistoric times over a vast area in
the dry warm zone which extends
from Senegal to the basin of the
Indus, chiefly between the fifteenth
to thirtieth degrees of latitude.” It
is uncertain where it was cultivated
first, but there is sufficient evidence
to show that it was cultivated very
early in Babylonia, Egypt, and
Arabia. In Syria, including Palestine,
the tree seems to have been common;
the name Phcenicia is thought by
some to be connected with its
Greek name. The coin struck at
Rome to commemorate the capture of
Jerusalem in 70 A. D. represented a
weeping woman, the symbol of the

 

country, sitting under a palm tree,
with the inscription Judea capta. At
present palm trees are not found in
great numbers in Syria except in the
plain of Philistia, in the neighborhood
of Beirfit, and near Jericho. Tamar,
the word used here, is the name of
the date palm, a tree consisting of a
single stem or trunk fifty to sixty
feet high, without a branch, and
“crowned at the summit by a cluster
or tuft of leaves that droop and shape
themselves somewhat in the form of
an umbrella.” The uses of the palm
are numerous. The leaves are useful
for covering the roofs and sides of
houses, for fences, mats, and baskets.
The palm yields ‘‘an excellent kind of
honey, not much inferior in sweetness
to other honey” (Josephus, Wars, iv,
viii, 8). The fruit grows in large
clusters which hang from the trunk,
and it constitutes an important ar-
ticle of food. Even the stony seeds
are ground and yield nourishment for
the camels. Old Testament refer-
ences to the palm trees are frequent.
(See Van Lennep, Bible Lands, 146ff.;
Tristram, Natural History of the Bible,
378ff.) The apple tree—Heb. tappiiah.
Opinions vary as to the tree designated
by this name. It has been identified
with the quince, the citron, the
orange, the apricot, and the apple.
To decide the question we must ex-
amine the references to the tree in the
Old Testament, that we may see
which one meets all the conditions.
According to Song of Songs ii, 3, it
must be a majestic tree suitable to sit
under; according to viii, 5, its branches
must expand sufficiently to over-
shadow a tent or a house; according
to ii, 3, its fruit must be pleasant to
the taste; according to vii, 8, its smell
must be desirable; according to ii, 5,
it must refresh the weary. Tristram
(pp. 334ff.) declares that it cannot be
the apple, “for though that fruit is
cultivated with success in the higher
parts of Lebanon, out of the bounda-
ries of the Holy Land, yet it barely
exists in the country itself... . The
climate is far too hot for the apple
CHAPTER I.

159

 

also, and the ere tree, even all the
trees of the field, are withered: be-

cause joy is withered away from
the sons of men. 13 4Gird your-

 

PIsa. 24. 11; Jer. 48. 33; see Psa.

4, 7; Isa. 9. 3.—9 Verse 8; Jer. 4. 8.

 

tree. There is one fruit, however,
that meets all the requirements of
the context, and the only one which
does so—the apricot.’”’ Nevertheless,
it is doubtful if the apricot would be
mentioned as a fruit of special fra-
grance; nor is it used above others to
refresh the weary. The quince cannot
be meant, for its fruit is sour, never
sweet. The citron was introduced into
Palestine probably later than Old Tes-
tament times; so also the orange.
Notwithstanding ‘Tristram’s  state-
ment, there seems no serious objec-
tion to identifying the tappiah with
the apple, for, as G. E. Post says,
“The apple fulfills all the conditions
perfectly; it is a fruit tree which often
attains a large size, is planted in
orchards and near houses, and is a
special favorite of the people in Pales-
tine and Syria. It is true that the
fruit of the Syrian apple is far in-
ferior to that of Europe, and especially
to that of America; nevertheless it is
a favorite with all the people, and in
a few places fine varieties have been
introduced and thriven well... .
They have the aroma of the better
kinds, and it is for this quality that
they are most prized. It is very
common, when visiting a friend, to
have an apple handed to you just to
smell” (article “Apple,” Hastings’s
Dictionary of the Bible; Thomson, The
Land and the Book, ii, 328, 329). The
trees mentioned by name are the
most precious, but they are not the
only ones that have suffered; all the
trees of the field are withered—The
verb might be used of the devastation
by the locusts; so Jerome, “All trees,
whether fruit-bearing or not, are con-
sumed by the destructive locusts’;
but, as Credner first suggested, it
may have reference to the effects of
a drought accompanying the plague
of locusts (17-20). The last clause of
verse 12 is rendered better, “yea, joy
is vanished from the sons of men.”

 

It emphasizes at once the effect of
the general destructicn and the cause
of the universal lamentation. The
joy is the rejoicing in anticipation of
the harvest and of the vintage, and
at those seasons of the year (Hos. ix,
1). There will be neither harvest nor
vintage. Is withered—Or, is van-
ished. The same verb is translated
in verse 10, “dried up”; in verse 11,
‘be ashamed’; in verse 12, ‘dried
up”: a play upon words throughout.
Literally, showeth shame. As a person
whose nature it is to be running over
with gladness is ashamed of his hilar-
ity in the presence of grief and with-
draws, so rejoicing, out of place in the
midst of this calamity, vanishes.

13, 14. The affliction is not removed
by lamentation and mourning; on the
contrary, in the prophet’s mind it is but
beginning. To him it is a sign of the
approaching day of Jehovah, a day
of terror to Israel because of the peo-
ple’s rebellion against God. There is
but one means to drive away the pres-
ent calamity and to avert the one still
in the future, namely, repentance and
supplication. The prophet, there-
fore, proceeds to call upon the priests
and the people to institute a day of
fasting and prayer; in 13, 14 the
weeping priests (verse 9) are exhorted
to put off their festal garments and
clothe themselves in the garment of
mourning—sackcloth—and, as the
spiritual leaders, to gather the people
to a solemn assembly, for prayer and
penitence (compare Isa. xxxii, 12).
Gird yourselves—With sackcloth (8).
The wearing of sackcloth by the
priests, dressed ordinarily in their
peculiar festal garments, would add
solemnity to the occasion. Lament—
Not the common Hebrew word (8),
but the verb used elsewhere especially
of mourning for the dead; therefore
expressive of intense grief. LXX.,
“smite yourselves” (Isa. xxxii, 12)—
that is, upon the breast. Among the
160

JOEL.

 

selves, and lament, ye priests: howl,
ye ministers of the altar: come, lie
all night in sackcloth, ye ministers
of my God: for ‘the meat offer-
ing and the drink offering is with-

Boon from the house of your
God.

14 "Sanctify ye a fast, call ta 4so-
lemn assembly, gather the elders
and all the inhabitants of the land

 

r Verse 9.—=5 2 Chron. 20. 3, 4; chap.
2, 15, 16.

ancients external expressions of grief
were much more common than among
more highly civilized peoples, though
their grief was not necessarily more
real or intense. Ordinarily grief was
expressed by the tearing of the outer
garment (ii, 13), the smiting of the
breast, the wringing of the hands,
deep sighs and loud wailing. Cer-
tainly to the prophet these external
expressions were only to symbolize
the heart-sorrow (ii, 13). Ministers
of the altar—Parallel to ‘“Jehovah’s
ministers’ (verse 9; compare Ezek.
xlv, 4). Wearing the sackcloth the
priests are to come to the temple and
there lie all night—The verb means
not necessarily “lie,” but also simply
“remain.” That seems to be the
thought here; the prophets are to
wear the sackcloth and offer suppli-
cations, without interruption day or
night, as long as the condition of the
land calls for such service (ii, 17;
compare 1 Kings xxi, 27; 2 Kings xix,
1). Ministers (or, servants) of my
God—The God whom I serve, in whose
name I speak, and “from whom I can
promise you a hearing.” The reason
for this appeal is the same as that for
the lamentation in verse 9—the cessa~-
tion of the daily sacrifice, which is
regarded as the greatest calamity. To
this personal appeal is added an earn-
est exhortation that the priests should
arrange for a public day of penitence
and prayer in order that the people
might be impressed more strongly
with the belief that the national ca-
lamity was a punishment from God,
and that a return to him in sincerity
of heart was the only means of turning
it aside. Sanctify—In the use of the
verb gaddésh in this connection ap-
pears the primary meaning of the
verb, to set apart, that is, from that
which is profane; hence, appoint. A

 

t Lev. 23, 36.—4 Or, day of restratnt.
— 2 Chron. 20, 13.

fast—Fasting in a religious sense is
the voluntary abstinence from food,
expressive of sorrow and penitence.
The origin of the custom is not quite
clear from the Old Testament, though
it was very widespread. Ib was
practiced during the period of mourn-
ing (1 Sam. xxxi, 13; 2 Sam. i, 12),
especially on the occasion of great
calamities (Judg. xx, 26; 1 Sam. vii,
6; 2 Sam. xii, 16); for it was thought
that in this manner the divine favor
could besecured. Fasting was to sym-
bolize a spiritual condition, the earnest
yearning of the heart which finds ex-
pression in right doing (ii,13; Isa. viii).
In the later period this inner, spiritual
significance was lost sight of, and it was
thought that the painstaking observ-
ance of the form was sufficient to se-
cure the desired ends. It is this
overemphasis of the external which
accounts for passages such as Matt. xi,
18,19;xv,11; xvii, 21. Calla solemn
assembly—Extend the call to a public
religious gathering, an hour of prayer.
It is interesting to compare with this
passage Isa. i, 13; Amos v, 21. Every-
one is to participate in these solemn
exercises. Elders [‘‘old men’’}—Since
a distinction is made between old men
and all the inhabitants of the land, it
is probable, if not certain, that the old
men are the elders in an official sense
(Gen. 1, 7; Josh. ix, 11, etc.; not so in
i, 2; ii, 16). The elders, while holding
official positions, were in religious
matters subject to the priests. Kue-
nen, Merx, and others give a different
meaning to the passage; they regard
elders as a vocative, inhabitants as the
object: the elders are to gather the
inhabitants. But the first interpre-
tation is to be preferred. The pur-
pose of it all is to cry to Jehovah
from the depths of the heart, that he
may have mercy, remove the present
CHAPTER I.

161

 

into the house of the Lorp your
God, and cry unto the Lorp, 15
xAlas for the day! for ythe day of

the Lorp is at hand, and as a de-
struction from the Almighty shall
it come. 16 Is not the meat cut off

 

x Jer. 30. 7.—Y Isa. 13.6, 9; chap. 2. 1.

 

calamity, and withhold the further
blow.

15-20. Not a petition which the
prophet puts into the mouths of the
priests, but the prophet’s own words,
explaining the seriousness of the ca-
lamity and thus presenting the reason
for the appeal in 13, 14. The wail
turns into a supplication in verse 19.
The terror of the prophet is increased,
because he sees in the present ca-
lamity the forerunner of the day of
Jehovah—Among the Hebrews, as
frequently among the Arabs, the word
day is sometimes used in the definite
sense day of battle (Isa. ix, 4). This is
the sense of the word in the common
Old Testament phrase, day of Je-
hovah (Amos v, 18; Isa. ii, 12-21;
Zeph. i, 7, etc.). We first meet the
expression in Amos v, 18, where the
prophet condemns the popular con-
ception of it. The day of Jehovah is
essentially a day of battle, on which
Jehovah will manifest himself in the
destruction of his foes and the exalta-
tion of his friends; but there are dif-
ferences in the statements concerning
the extent of the conflict and con-
cerning the persons who constitute
the enemies of Jehovah. At the time
of Amos the popular mind identified
the enemies of Israel with the enemies
of Jehovah; while the day of Jehovah
would mark the destruction of these,
to Israel it would be a day of glory
and triumph. This misapprehension
the prophet seeks to remove. He
points out that the day would not
necessarily be a day of triumph for
Israel; its character would depend
entirely upon their moral condition,
for on his day Jehovah would vindi-
cate his righteousness against sin,
whether among foreign nations or
among his own people. Sometimes
Jehovah is thought of as employing
human agents to strike the decisive
blow, at other times he strikes the

 

blow himself (Schultz, Old Testament
Theology, ii, 354ff.; Encyclopedia
Biblica, article “Eschatology,” 34ff.;
Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible, i,
735ff.). The day does not bring final
destruction to all; it is followed by a
period of permanent felicity for the
pious; it is therefore the threshold
of the Messianic age. In this verse
we have the same thought that we
find in Amos, that the chosen people
are not necessarily excluded from the
terrors of the day; they will be spared
only on condition of repentance. At
hand—See ii, 1; iii, 14; compare Zeph.
i, 7, 14; Obad. 15; Isa. xiii, 6; Ezek.
xxx, 3. The near approach of the
great judgment was often suggested
by a great political crisis; the onward
sweep of the Scythians (Zeph. i, 7),
the struggles around Babylon (Isa.
xiii, 6), the operations of Nebuchad-
rezzar (Ezek. xxx, 3). To Joel the
suggestion came from the plague of
locusts, but he does not identify this
plague with the day itself. As a
destruction from the Almighty—In the
original a very effective play upon
words: shddh, destruction, shadday,
almighty. Driver seeks to retain the
play by rendering ‘‘overpowering from
the overpowerer”’; Rueckert gives a
somewhat free rendering in German:
“Graussen vom grossen Gott.” Asa
destruction—Not a comparison such
as is marked ordinarily by as; it is
here the so-called kaph veritatis, used
where the comparison is to be em-
phasized; equivalent to in every respect
like (G.-K., 118x). The day of Je-
hovah will be in every respect like a
blow from the Almighty, in sudden-
ness, strength, and effect. Almighty
—A translation of the Greek ravtw-
xpatwp, supposed to be a translation
of the Hebrew shadday, used here pur-
posely because of its similarity in
sound with shédh. The etymology of
the Hebrew word is obscure. Some
162

before our eyes, yea, ‘joy and glad-
ness from the house of our God?

zSee Deut. 12. 6, 7; 16. 11, 14, 15.

think that it comes from the verb
shadhah, overpower, treat with vio-
lence, destroy; if so, the name would
represent God as powerful, or as the
destroyer. There are several other
explanations; the one sure to become
popular connects the word with the
Assyrian shada, mountain, and ren-
ders él shadday, “God, my mountain”
(Delitzsch), or ‘‘God of the two moun-
tains’—that is, heaven and earth
(Radau). Isa. xiii, 6, is almost iden-
tical with this verse, which may
be dependent upon the former, or the
expression may have been a popular
saying, a proverb, used by both au-
thors independently.

In justification of his fear the
prophet points in verses 16ff. to the
awful condition of the country. Verse
16 expresses two thoughts, one
touching the physical, the other
the religious life. Physical life is
threatened because the fields are dev-
astated, so that there can be no
harvest. Before our eyes—We have
to watch the process of destruction
and can do nothing to prevent it.
Helplessness on the part of the ob-
server seems always implied in the
Hebrew expression (Isa. i, 7; Deut.
xxviii, 31; Psa. xxiii, 5). The ca-
lamity has a more serious aspect be-
cause of its effect upon the religious
cult: the communion between the peo-
ple and Jehovah is broken; there-
fore he also cannot help (9). Joy
and gladness—The joy of the re-
ligious gatherings and of the presen-
tation of the first fruits. These were
to be offered at the temple with re-
joicing (Deut. xxvi, 1-11). The more
plentiful the harvest the greater the
rejoicing; the freewill offerings can no
longer be presented, and the joyful
feasts accompanying them can no
longer be held; the rejoicing of the feast
of weeks and of the feast of taberna-
cles (Deut. xvi, 9-15) is made impossi-
ble; all is sadness and lamentation.

 

JOEL.

17 The ‘seed is rotten under their
clods, the garners are laid desolate,

6 Heb. grains.

The interpretation of verse 17 is
made difficult by the presence of at
least four uncommon words and the
disagreement among the ancient ver-
sions; the general thought, however,
is clear. Evidently there is reference
to a drought accompanying the plague
of locusts. Is rotten—Better, shriv-
eled. The Hebrew verb is found only
here in the Old Testament. The
translation of A. V. is adopted from
medieval Jewish commentators, who
compared the verb with a similar one
in Arabic; but rot would presuppose
excessive moisture, which is contrary
to the context; another similar Arabic
verb suggests the meaning to contract
(the forehead), wrinkle, which would
correctly describe the effects of
drought upon the seed. It shrivels,
and thus loses its germinating power.
The Hebrew words for “seed” and
“clods” also occur only here. About
the meaning of the former there can
be no doubt, and through comparison
with the Arabic the translation ‘‘clod”
seems well established, though the
rendering “shovel” (Driver) is not
without justification. A calamity of
this character would destroy the
harvest for a second year (ii, 25).
Merx, who takes exception to all
these uncommon words in a single
verse, after careful consideration (pp.
101ff.) suggests the following trans-
lation of verse 17 and the first clause
of verse 18: ‘The cattle stamp at their
cribs; the garners are laid desolate,
the winepresses are broken down, for
the grain is not, grapes and olives are
lost. What should we place in them?”
There does not seem to be sufficient
justification for these radical emenda-
tions. Garners—The places where the
grain is stored. Are laid desolate—
Because all that has been stored there
has been used, and since the grain is
shriveled in the ground there will be
no harvest the following year; there-
fore the garners are allowed to go to
CHAPTER I

163

 

the barns are broken down; for the
corn is withered. 18 How do @the
beasts groan: the herds of cattle are
perplexed, because they have no
pasture; yea, the flocks of sheep are
made desolate. 19 O Lorp, to
thee will I cry: for cthe fire hath de-

voured the *pastures of the wilder-
ness, and the flame hath burned all
the trees of the field. 20 The beasts
of the field ¢ery also unto thee: for
ethe rivers of waters are dried up,
and the fire hath devoured the pas-
tures of the wilderness.

 

a Hos. 4. 3.—» Psa. 50. 15.
10; chap. 2. 3.

 

© Jer. 9.

6 Or, habitattons.—4 Job 38.41; Psa.
104, 21; 145. 15.—e 1 Kings 17. 7; 18. 5.

 

ruin. Barns—The Hebrew word is
used only here; a similar one meaning
barn is in Hag. ii, 19; probably a
synonym to “garner.” Whether sep-
arate sections for the preservation of
various kinds of grain or fruit are in-
tended (Credner) is not certain. The
corn [“grain’’] is withered—This gives
the reason for the condition of the
garners; the same word as in verse 11.

18. Even the irrational animal
world cries out in agony. How do
the beasts groan!—Or, sob. Everyone
knows that the cattle do not sob, but
in astyle like that of Joel such highly
poetic personification is perfectly per-
missible. The fact that the verb is
used nowhere else of animals is hardly
sufficient reason for doubting its gen-
uineness; it serves its purpose well;
we can almost see the agony of the
cattle and hear their sobs. The read-
ing of the Septuagint, “(What shall we
lay up in them?’—that is, the
garners of verse 17 (accepted as
original by some scholars)—is a weak
close of verse 17, and rests upon a
misunderstanding of the Hebrew. The
herds of cattle are perplexed—They
look in vain for food, perplexed they
huddle together, or go back and forth
not knowing how to still their hunger,
since the, drought has withered the
pastures. For “are perplexed” LXX.
reads “weep,” which would make a
good parallel to “sob.” Yea, the
flocks of sheep—Intended for a climax;
the sheep do not require as rich pas-
ture as the cattle, yet even their lim-
ited wants cannot be supplied. Are
made desolate—Literally, suffer pun-
ishment, or, are held guilty. In poetic
style it may be permissible to speak
of the animal world as suffering for
sins committed by men, but the ex-

 

pression is peculiar. The translators
have felt the difficulty, for they trans-
late the Greek rather than the He-
brew, and most commentators follow
LXX.

Overcome by the awful sight, the
prophet in 19, 20 sends up to God an
agonizing cry for deliverance. He
seems to be prompted chiefly by the
sufferings of the irrational, therefore
guiltless, brute creation; the people
deserve the blow. To thee—No one
else can help, but Jehovah “preserveth
man and beast”’ (Psa. xxxvi, 6). Will
I cry—Better, do I cry. Fire...
flame—Might be two figures for the
excessive heat of the sun: like fire
the rays consume the meadows and
even scorch the trees; or simply a
poetic description of the ravages of
the locusts (ii, 3). Modern travelers
do compare the ravages of the locusts
to the destruction wrought by fire:
‘‘Whatever of herb or leaf they gnaw
is, as it were, scorched by fire.” “TI
myself have observed that the places
where they had browsed were as
scorched as if the fire had passed
there.” “They covered a square mile
so completely that it appeared, at a
little distance, to have been burned
and strewed over with brown ashes.”
(See also Pusey, on ii, 3.) It is not
impossible, however, that the prophet
has in mind an actual fire or con-
flagration, for these are not uncommon
in Palestine during very dry summers.
“Throughout the summer the prairie
and forest fires are not uncommon;
the grass and thistle of the desert
will blaze for miles. (G. A. Smith,
Historical Geography of the Holy Land,
66). Wilderness—The English word
suggests ideas that are entirely for-
eign to the Hebrew. The notion of a
164

JOEL.

 

 

CHAPTER II.
eee ye the ust in Zion,
and »sound an alarm in my

® Verse 15; Jer. 4. 5. 1 Or, cornet.——

b Num. 10. 5,9.

 

sandy waste must be banished. The
Hebrew word designates a tract of
land to which herds are driven, an
uncultivated region, but one where
pasturage, however scanty, may be
found; usually without a settled popu-
lation, although in certain districts
there may be cities and towns oc-
cupied by nomads (Josh. xv, 61, 62;
Isa, xlii, 11). In verse 18 the agony
of the domestic animals is described,
in verse 20 that of the wild animals.
The beasts of the field—They join the
prophet in his petition, for they also
are about to perish. Cry—Better,
with R. V., “pant”; literally, ascend,
with longing and desire, that God may
turn away the affliction so that they
may satisfy their hunger and their
thirst. Even the wild beasts, though
they can roam over a large territory,
can find nothing to satisfy them. As
a result of the continued drought the
rivers (better, as R. V., ‘water
brooks”) have run dry. The word
really means channel, and refers to
the water bed rather than to the water.
During the rainy season in Palestine
“every highland gorge, every lowland
valley bed, is filled with a roaring
torrent,” but during the dry season
most of these river beds run dry;
only a few of the streams are peren-
nial, In the calamity described by
Joel there are no exceptions, all are
dried up. The address is rhetorically
rounded off by the repetition of a
clause from verse 19.

CHAPTER IL.

Tue Scource THe ForERUNNER or
THE Day or Jesovan; Hice Time
To Repent, ii, 1-17.

Several expositors see in the locusts
of ii, 1-11, a swarm different from
that described in chapter i. Credner
thinks that the swarm of chapter i
appeared in the fall, and on its de-

 

holy mountain: let all the inhahbi-
tants of the Jand tremble: for *the
day of the Lorp cometh, for a 78

eChap. 1. 15; Obad. 15; Zeph. 1. 14,
15.

parture left eggs which, in the follow-
ing spring, were hatched out, and so
formed an even more numerous host.
It is more likely, however, that we have
to do with only one swarm. The dif-
ference in the description is due to the
fact that in chapter i the prophet is
concerned primarily with the calamity
already wrought; only briefly does
he touch upon its deeper significance
(15). Inii, 1-11, the same scourge of
locusts is in his mind, but now he thinks
of it chiefly as the immediate pre-
cursor of the terrible day of Jehovah.
Chapter ii, 1-17, therefore, is an
expansion of i, 14, 15. This apocalyp-
tic significance of the locusts accounts
for the highly poetic description of the
swarms which, likened to a hostile
army, are called the army of Jehovah
coming to judgment (ii, 1-11). Al-
though the command is already given
there is still a possibility of mercy.
If the people return to God with a
contrite heart the calamity may yet
be averted (12-14). The address
closes with an earnest summons to
the whole congregation to assemble
for prayer and fasting in the house
of God, and with instruction to the
priests concerning the manner of their
ministry (15-17).

1. By the blowing of the horn the
priests are to warn the people (Amos
ui, 6) of the near approach of the day
of Jehovah and to gather them into
the temple to pray. The latter
thought is not expanded until verse
15, Trumpet—Better, horn. See on
cornet, Hos. y, 8. Evidently the
priests are addressed, which would
indicate that the signal was intended
also to summon the people to worship.
Before speaking of the latter the
prophet describes the calamity that
calls for penitence and prayer. Zion
—One of the hills on which Jerusalem
stood. First mentioned ay a Jebusite
CHAPTER IIL.

nigh at hand; 2 4A day of darkness |
and of gloominess, a day of clouds '
and of thick darkness, as the morn-

ing spread upon the mountains: «a |

165

pet people and a strong; ‘there
ath not been ever the like, neither
shall be any more after it, even
to the years °of many generations.

 

&@ Amas 5. (8, 20.—-* Verses 5, 11,25;
ellap. 1. 6.

fortress which David captured, and
whose name he changed into Ctéy of
David. Its exact location is still a
matter of dispute. Christian tradition
identities it with the southwest spur,
but it was more likely in the south-
east. After the building of the temple
the name was extended so as to in-
elude the temple hill; so here. The
signal is to be given from the top of
the temple mount, so as to be heard
far and wide. Holy mountain—Called
holy because it was separated as the
dwelling place of the Holy One of
Israel (Psa. ii, 6; see on Hos. xi, 9;
Zech. xiv, 20). Tremble—It is high
time to awake from careless indiffer-
ence, for this is not an ordinary ca-
lamity: it forebodes the near approach
of the day of Jehovah Ui, 15).

In order to make more effective the
appeal which is to follow, the prophet
Pictures in 2ff. the terror of the day |
as signalized by the present calamity.
The tirst half of the verse is closely
connected with verse 1, it describes
the day as a day of darkness .. .
gloominess ... clouds . . . thick dark-
ness—Four synonyms, for the sake of
emphasis—intense, impenetrable dark- ’
ness (Zeph. i, 15; Ezek. xxxiv, 12).
Three of the words are used in Deut.
iv, 11, of the dirkness in which Sinai
was enveloped when Jehovah de
scended upon it in fire: the fourth is:
applied in Exod. x, 22, to the plague
of darkness. Darkness is in the Old
Testament a very common figure for
calamity (Isa. v, 30; viti, 22; ix, 2);
here it is a very appropriate picture,
for all writers agree in speaking of
loeusts as clouds darkening the sun.
“These creatures do not come in
lezions, but in whole clouds. .. . All|
the air is full and darkened when they
fly. Though the sun shine ever so

 

t Exod. 10.14.—= Heb. of generation
and generation,

most clouded.” “Soon after my ar-
rival at Barosh I saw a swarm of
locusts extending a mile in length
and half a mile in width. They ap-
peared in the distance like a black.
cloud. When they came nearer from
the east the black swarm darkened
the rays of the sun and cast a dark
shadow like an eclipse’ (Forbes). As
the morning—Better, R. V., “dawn.”
This does not belong to the preceding;
it opens the description of the present
calamity, which is not the day itself,
only the dawn. As—See on i, 15.
It is in every respect like the dawn,
because (1) as the dawn introduces
the day, so the present calamity
marks the beginning of the day of
Jehovah; (2) the reflection of the sun-
light from the wings of the locusts
produces a glimmer that may be
likened to the light of dawn. “The
day before the arrival of the locusts
we could infer that they were coming
from a yellow reflection in the sky,
proceeding from their yellow wings.
As soon as the light appeared no one
had the slightest doubt that an enor-
mous swarm of locusts was approach-
ing’”’ (Alvarez). (3) Whether there is
the additional thought that the locusts
came from the east. where the dawn be-
comes first visible, is doubtful. Spread
upon the mountains—Not in apposition
to “day” (A. V.), nor is paris,
“spread out,’ the predicate of an
indefinite subject (Keil); it is rather
the predicate of the subject “‘a great
people and a strong’; so that the
whole sentence should be read, “Like
dawn lies spread out upon the moun-
tain a great people and a strong”
(verse 5). People—The army of verse
11 and of verse 25, the swarms of
locusts (i, 4). The rest of verse 2
points back toi, 2. The present ca-

=~

bright, it is no brighter than when! lamity has no analogy in the past, no
166

JOEL,

 

3 A fire devoureth before them; and
behind them a flame burneth: the
land is as "the garden of Eden be-
fore them, ‘and behind them a deso-

late wilderness; yea, and nothing
shall escape them. 4 *The appear-
ance of them 7s as the appearance of
horses; and as horsemen, so shall

 

2 Chap. 1.19, 20.—» Gen. 2. 8; 13. 10; Isa.

51. 3.—i Zech. 7. 14.— Rev. 9. 7.

 

matter how far back one goes; nor
will it ever be equaled in the future;
it stands out unique and without
parallel (Exod. x, 14). It is because
of the enormity of the plague that
Joel regards it as the forerunner of
‘the final judgment, and it is on this
account that he uses the hyperbolical
expressions.

The destructiveness of the great and
powerful people is further described
in verse 3. All is lost; the beautiful
country has become « wasted desert.
Fire ... before . . . behind them a
flame—Literally, him, or it, the swarm
of locusts. Like fire the locusts have
swept over the country; whatever was
in their way they have devoured, they
have left behind nothing but destruc-
tion and ruin (compare comment on
i, 19). A most appropriate figure.
“A few months afterward a much
larger army alighted and gave the
whole country the appearance of hav-
ing been burned.” ‘Wherever they
settled it looks as if fire had devoured
and burned up everything” (Forbes).
“Tt is better to have to do with the
Tartars than with these destructive
animals; you would think that fire
follows their track” (Volney). “Bam-
boo groves have been stripped of their
leaves and left standing like saplings
after a rapid bush fire, and grass has
been devoured so that the bare ground
appeared as if burned” (G. A. Smith,
The Book of the Twelve, 403; also
Tristram, 316). The following expres-
sion emphasizes the destructiveness
still more: before them the land was
as the garden of Eden—Fertile, rich in
verdure, pleasant to look upon (Gen.
ii, 8ff.). A similar comparison of the
restored land with the garden of Eden
is found in Ezek. xxxvi, 35; our pas-
sage may be dependent on that in
Ezekiel, though not necessarily. Deso-
late wilderness—Such as Egypt and

 

Edom will become (iii, 19; compare Jer.
xii, 10). Nothing shall escape—Better,
R. V., “none hath escaped.” The fu-
ture tenses in verses 3-11 should be ren-
dered, as in R. V., as present or past
tenses, describing a condition present
to the prophet and his listeners.
4-11. Having described in general
terms the destructiveness of the peo-
ple great and strong, the prophet
pictures most vividly the appearance
of the host and its terrible advance.
The locusts he compares to horses (4),
the noise accompanying the advance
to the noise of advancing armies and
of a consuming fire (5), producing ter-
ror wherever they go (6), their attack
to the attack of a well-equipped, well-
organized army (7-9); even the sky is
darkened (10); surely the day of Je-
hovah is at hand (11). The prophet
has been so successful in his descrip-
tion that the thing compared and the
object to which it is compared have
been confused, and the locusts have
been regarded as mere symbols of a
hostile army (compare above, pp 142ff).
4. As ... horses—The head of the
locust bears « strong resemblance to
the head of a horse, as Theodoret
(ec. 450 A. D.) remarked: “If you
carefully consider the head of the
locust you will find it exceedingly
like that of a horse.” Tristram, re-
ferring to this passage, says, “To this
day the same metaphor is familiar in
every Arab camp. One of my Arabs
gave me a long list of reasons why the
locust is like the horse or horse-
man.” It is this similarity that ex-
plains one of the German words
for locust, Heupjerd (hay-horse).
Not only in appearance, but also in
rapidity of motion, locusts resemble
horses. For A. V. “horsemen” read
margin of R. V., “war-horses.” In
verse 5 the noise accompanying the
advance of the innumerable horses ig
CHAPTER IL

167

 

theyrun. 5 'Like the noise of char-
iots on the tops of mountains shall
they leap, like the noise of a flame
of fire that devoureth the stubble,
mas a strong people set in battle

array. 6 Before their face the peo-
ple shall be much pained: "all faces
shall gather *blackness. 7 They
shall run like mighty men; they
shall climb the wall like men of

 

1 Rev. 9. 9.——™ Verse 2.—2. Jer, 8, 21;

Lam. 4. 8; Nah. 2. 10.—%3 Heb. pot.

 

compared to the rattling of chariots
—Low two-wheeled vehicles used for
military and other purposes. Char-
iots were not adapted to the hills of
Palestine, but the Canaanites used
them in the valleys (Josh. xvii, 16;
Judg. iv, 3). They were common also
among other ancient nations. The
Persians armed the axles and some-
times the tongue with scythes, and
such chariots were known in Pales-
tine during the Seleucidan period
(2 Mace. xiii, 2). For an expansion
of this picture compare Rev. ix, 7ff.
On the tops of mountains—Not to be
connected with “chariots,” for char-
iots cannot well be used on the moun-
tains, but with they leap—The locusts
are seen to approach over the moun-
tains, and “they come so near the
top of the mountains that they seem
to leap over them rather than to fly.”
The noise meant is the indistinct
sound heard in the distance; the next
comparison brings them nearer. Trav-
elers compare the noise made by the
wings of the locusts to the blowing
of a wind, the rush of a torrent, the
roar of the sea. ‘The noise made by
them in marching and foraging was
like that of a heavy shower falling
upon a distant forest’? (Thomson).
Having pictured the locusts ap-
proaching from the distance, he now
describes them as they are devouring
herbs, plants, shrubs, and trees.
Flame—The noise made while eating
is like the noise of a flame that sweeps
over a dry field. Stubble—Fires dur-
ing the dry season are not uncommon
in Palestine (i, 19; Isa. v, 24; Amos
vii, 4); sometimes the stubbles are set
on fire for purposes of fertilization.
Our passage refers to fire, whatever
its origin. Strong people in battle
array—The point of comparison is not
the noise, but the orderly steady ad-

 

vance. ‘Their number was astound-
ing; the whole face of the mountain
was black with them; on they came
like a disciplined army” (Thomson).
“They seemed to march in regular
battalions, crawling over’ everything
that lay in their passage’’ (Morier).
The impression made is the same as
that made by a hostile army. Every-
body is terror-struck. The people—
R. V., “the peoples.’”’ Neither is cor-
rect; the Hebrew has no article—
“peoples,” that is, whole nations.
Shall be much pained—Or, with R. V.,
“are in anguish,” a very strong word,
used especially of the anguish of
women in travail (Deut. ii, 5; Isa.
xiii, 8; Mic. iv, 9). Hardly an exag-
geration, for locusts do cause im-
mense loss of property and are re-
sponsible for disastrous famines. ‘In
Algiers after an invasion of locusts
in 1866 two hundred thousand per-
sons are said to have perished from
famine’ (Driver). “The Bedouins
who occupy the Sinaitic peninsula are
frequently driven to despair by the
multitudes of locusts’ (Burkhardt).
All faces . . . gather blackness—So
Targum, Peshitto, Vulgate, and a few
later writers, but an impossible trans-
lation of the Hebrew; better, R. V.,
“all faces are waxed pale”’; literally,
all faces draw in redness, that is,
beauty, healthy color. As a result of
terror the blood leaves the face and
returns to the inward parts of the
body; only paleness remains (Jer. xxx,
6

7-10. The comparison with a well-
equipped army is taken up again and
carried further; the advance is irre-
sistible; there is no confusion or dis-
order in their ranks; they climb the
highest walls; they penetrate the in-
most recesses of the houses. They
+». run—To the assault; advance,
168

JOEL.

 

war; and they shall march every one
on his ways, and they shall not
break their ranks: 8 Neither shall
one thrust another; they shall walk
every one in his path: and when they

fall upon the ‘sword, they shall not
be wounded. 9 They shall run to
and fro in the city; they shall run
upon the wall, they shall climb up
upon the houses; they shall center

4 Or, dart.——° Jer. 9, 21.

 

 

charge (Psa. xviii, 29; Job xv, 26).
There is no delay (verse 4); if they
have decided upon a point of attack
they carry out their plan; nothing
can impede their progress; walls they
climb like men of war. They do not
get into one another’s way, they ad-
vance straight ahead, without turning
to the right or left. An admirable de-
scription of the advance of locusts
(compare remark on verse 4). Jerome
says: “When the swarms of locusts
come and fill the whole atmosphere
between earth and sky, they fly, ac-
cording to the appointment of the
commanding God, in such order that
they preserve an exact shape, just
like the squares drawn upon a tes-
sellated pavement, not diverging on
either side by, so to speak, so much
as a finger’s breadth. ... There is no
road impassable to locusts; they pene-
trate into fields, and crops, and trees,
and cities, and houses, and even the
recesses of the bedchambers.” So
also Theodoret: “You may see the
locusts like a hostile army ascending
the walls, and advancing the roads,
not suffering any difficulty to dis-
perse them, but steadily moving
forward as if according to some con-
certed plan.” And when they fail
upon the sword, they shall not be
wounded—Better, R. V., “and they
burst through the weapons, and break
not off their course.” No resistance is
effective; they throw themselves upon
the weapons and pass on without
being disturbed or confused. Some
may be wounded and drop, but
the great mass continues in regular
order. This is a better interpretation
than that implied in the translation,
“They did not cut themselves to
pieces” (Keil), or “without being
wounded” (Von Orelli). The verse
would seem to imply that the people

 

were accustomed to meet the locusts
with weapons to fight them off; and
that is actually done, according to
the statements of some travelers.
“Both in Asia and Europe they some-
times take the field against the lo-
custs with all the implements of war”
(Hasselquist). “The guard of the
Red Town attempted to stop their
irruption into Transylvania by firin

at them; and indeed when the balls
and shot went through the swarm
they gave way and divided; but hav-
ing filled up their ranks in a moment
they proceeded on their journey”
(quoted by Pusey). Thomson also
speaks of the impossibility of stopping
their progress: ‘‘We dug trenches and
kindled fires, and beat and burned to
death heaps upon heaps, but the effort
was utterly hopeless.” Livy and
Pliny seem to have known of similar
methods of fighting the locusts.
Sword—R. V., ‘‘weapons’; Heb.
shelah; not the ordinary word for
weapon, bub one used only in late
writings; it seems to have been a
weapon that was extended or held in
front.

Held back by nothing, the host (9)
forces its way into the city. They
shall run to and fro in the city—Heb.
shaqagq; literally, drive, impel to run,
then, run hither and thither; here not,
“they run to and fro in the city” after
mastering it (A. V., Driver, Hitzig),
but “they throw themselves upon the
city” (Isa. xxxili, 4; Nah. ii, 4). Again
they are successful; they run upon the
wall, yea, they get into the houses
themselves. On verse 9 Theodoret
makes this comment: “And this we
have frequently seen done, not merely
by hostile armies but also by locusts,
which not only when flying but by
creeping along the walls penetrate
into dwellings by the light holes,”
CHAPTER II.

169

 

in at the windows -like a_ thief.
10 “The earth shall quake before
them; the heavens shall tremble:
‘the sun and the moon shall be dark,
and the stars shall withdraw their
shining: 11 *And the Lorp shall

utter his voice before this army: for
his camp is very great: for he is
strong that executeth his word: for
the «day of the Lorp is great and
ray terrible; and »who can abide
it?

 

P John 10. 1.—-—4 Psa. 18, 7,—" Verse 31;
Isa. 13 10; Ezek. 32. 7; chap. 3. 15; Matt.
24, 29.—= Jer. 25. 80; chap. 3 16; Amos

 

1, 2,—+* Verse 25. u Jer. 50. 34; Rev.
18. 8.—* Jer, 30.7; Am¢s 5. 18; Zeph. 1. 15.
—y Num. 24, 23; Mal, 3. 2.

 

“During the great plague of locusts
in 1865 many inhabitants of Nazareth
were compelled to leave their homes”
(Riehm). Windows—Glass was and
still is exceedingly scarce in the Orient,
therefore expensive and used but
rarely for windows; the latter con-
sist ordinarily of lattice work, and
serve also as chimneys out of which
smoke may escape; so it was quite
easy for locusts to creep through.
Like a thief—Would hardly be said
of a hostile army, but is true of the
locusts.

With verse 10 a new start is made.
The whole earth is terrified, for it be-
comes clear that the judgment is of
unusual significance. The thought of
the day of Jehovah becomes more
prominent and influences the de-
scription to a large extent. Before
them—The singular, as in verse 6,
while the verbs in the preceding
verses referring to the locusts are in
the plural; yet the pronoun refers
undoubtedly to the swarm of locusts
which are looked upon as a unit. The
preposition is not the same as in
verse 6; in the latter causality is
implied, here the phenomena spoken
of may be regarded not as caused by
the locusts, but simply accompanying
them; it leaves it undecided whether
the locusts of 2-9 or Jehovah (verse
11) is the cause. The earth shall
quake ... the heavens shall tremble
—It is not that the strength of the
locusts is so great that it can move
the heavens and shake the earth, but
that, to those who suffer from such
calamities, through the greatness of
their own terror the heavens appear
to shake and the earth to reel”
(Jerome). Shall be dark—Heb. ka-
dhar, ‘‘coal black’; not a particle of

 

light is to be seen. The day of Je-
hovah is inaugurated by extraordin-
ary phenomena in the sphere of nature
Gi, 30, 31; iii, 15; Isa. xiii, 10, 13;
Amos viii, 9). The locusts do darken
the sky, but here the reference seems
to be to something more—we are in
the sphere of the apocalyptic—to the
approach of Jehovah himself, before
whom all nature stands in awe and
terror. The thought of an actual
earthquake, eclipse, or severe thunder-
storm may have been in the mind of
the prophet; but this is not certain,
though the coming of Jehovah is often
pictured in the imagery of a storm
(Psa. xviii, 7ff.). The whole is a vivid
picture of the terror that overcomes
man and nature when it is discovered
that Jehovah approaches for judg-
ment. Jehovah is the leader of the
hosts. Utter his voice—Of command;
Heb. nathan qél; a very common Old
Testament expression to designate
thunder. Only so can he make him-
self understood, because the camp is
very great—It stretches far into the
distance, and the noise made by the
locusts must be drowned; it is this
vastness of the army also that makes
it necessary to have a divine com-
mander. The introduction of the next
two clauses with “for” rather weakens
the message of the prophet; they should
be translated as exclamations (G.-K.,
148d), emphasizing the vastness of
Jehovah’s army: ‘Yea, strong is he
that executeth his word’”—the army
of locusts (2-9, 25), which carries out
his command; “‘yea, the day of Je-
hovah.” Here again the day cannot
be identified with the calamity al-
ready experienced; it is still in the
future, though near at hand. Al-
ready the wonderful phenomena that
170

JOEL.

—_—

 

12 Therefore also now, saith the
Lorp, zturn ye even to me with all
your heart, and with fasting, and

with weeping, and with mourning:
13 And «rend your heart, and not
byour garments, and turn unto the

 

= Jer. 4. 1; Hos. 12. 6; 14. 1.—— Psa.
34, 18; 51. 17.

b Gen. 37. 34; 2 Sam. 1. 11; Job 1.

20.

 

announce the day are seen in the sky
(verse 31; Mal. iv, 5). Who can abide
—Or, endure. No one can stand its
terrors. The forerunner has ex-
hausted all resources, all strength.
Complete annihilation threatens, un-
less somehow the final blow can be
turned aside.

12-14. There is stdl hope. The door
of mercy is open, and if the people
turn to Jehovah in a spirit of peni-
tence he may yet pardon. 12. There-
fore also now—Better, R. V., ‘Yet
even now.” At the eleventh hour,
when destruction seems imminent.
Saith Jehovah—Literally, whisper of
Jehovah. A very solemn asseveration,
giving to the utterance special weight
and demanding earnest attention. The
expression is common in the prophetic
books. “Whisper,” Heb. na’zim, is a
passive participle from a root “to
utter a low sound”; hence, the whis-
pered or murmured utterance of
revelation that falls upon the mental
ear, Turn ye... to me—Leave your
self-chosen paths of rebellion, come to
your senses, recognize me as your
God, and follow my instruction. This
is the appeal of all the great prophets
(compare Hos. xiv, 1; Isa. i, 2; Amos
iv, 6, etc.). Turn emphasizes the
idea of conversion in its practical
aspect. The exhortation indicates
clearly the purpose of all the prophets
in delivering their dark messages of
judgment. The judgments them-
selves were primarily disciplinary;
and the interpretations of these judg-
ments by the prophets had for their
sole object repentance and a return to
God on the part of the people. But
it is not to be merely a formal, ex-
ternal return. With all your heart—
In Hebrew thought the heart is the
seat not only of the emotions, but of
all the powers of personality, intellect,
sensibility, and will (Delitzsch, Sys-

 

tem of Biblical Psychology, 292ff.). It
includes the entire activity of the
human spirit; all thoughts, all affec-
tions, all volitions. These are to be
centered upon Jehovah. In Deuter-
onomy the same thought is expressed
by the phrase “with all thy heart and
with all thy soul” (iv, 29; vi, 5, ete.).
The heart turning manifests itself in
outward signs of grief for past sins:
Fasting (i, 14), . . . weeping, ...
mourning—The last literally, beating
the breast (i, 9, 18, 14). In the em-
phasis on externals Joel differs greatly
from the earlier prophets. To them
fasting and the entire external cere-
monial was of very little or no im-
portance; but the statement, “It
comes in the end to this, that to
repent is equivalent to to hold a day
jor fasting and prayer; and that is the
real goal of Joel in ii, 1-17, and i,
1-20; certainly along with it comes
the exhortation: rend your heart, and
not your garments; water alone can-
not do it’ (Wellhausen), does not
recognize sufficiently the emphasis of
the prophet upon heart repentance.
He does not place exclusive emphasis
upon externals. Lest the people
should be satisfied with external,
formal turning, the prophet repeats
(verse 13) his summons to repentance,
with even greater emphasis on the
inner change. Rend your heart, and
not your garments—The rending of
the garment was among many ancient
nations an expression of deep grief
or terror. It was practiced in be-
reavement, as soon as the report of
the death was received; the custom
was weakened afterward to a con-
ventional tearing of the garment at
the breast for a hand's breadth (Josh.
vii, 6; 2 Sam. iii, 31; compare Hast-
ings’s Dictionary of the Bible, article
“Mourning”). The mere tearing of
the garments is not sufficient; for
CHAPTER II.

171

 

Lorp your God: for he ts ¢gracious
and merciful, slow to anger, and of

great kindness, and repenteth him
of the evil. 14 ¢Who knoweth 7f he

 

e Exod. 34. 6; Psa. 86. 5,

15; Jonah
2,—4 Josh.

14. 12; 2 Sam, 12. 22;

2 Kings 19. 4; Amos 5. 15; Jonah 3. 9;
Zeph, 2. 3.

 

this reason the prophet insists most
strongly on the spiritual conditions
accompanying it. The rending of the
heart signifies true contrition (Psa. li,
19; Ezek. xxxvi, 26; Jer. iv, 4).
They should be moved to such re-
pentance by past experience, for Je-
hovah has shown himself to be gra-
cious—Literally, inclined, that is, to
pardon the repentant sinner. Merci-
ful—Possessing mercy in abundance;
equivalent to full of compassion, in-
dicating the benevolent attitude of
Jehovah toward all mankind, worthy
and unworthy; his sympathy with
man’s miseries. Slow to anger—Lit-
erally, long as to the breathing of the
nostrils, that is, in anger. He does
not allow his anger to break forth
immediately on the discovery of sin
and shortcoming; he waits to see
whether the sinner will repent and do
better. Of great kindness—R. V.,
“sbundant in loving-kindness.” Heb.
hesedh; used (1) of the love of God
toward man, (2) of the love of man
toward God, (3) of the love of man
toward man (see on Hos. ii, 19);
here, in the first sense, might be re-
produced by paternal affection. It
indicates the chief characteristic of
God’s dealings with men, especially
with those who are needy and help-
less; and thus it includes all the virtues
spoken of before. Think, says the
prophet, of the paternal affection
manifested by Jehovah toward you
in all your past history, and let that
thought become so vivid that it will
lead you to repentance. This de-
scription of the character of God is
taken from Exod. xxxiv, 6. Re-
penteth him—Continuation of the de-
scription of the character of Jehovah.
Better taken as a participle, trans-
lated by a relative clause, “and one
who repents.”” The usual meaning of
the verb niham, “to repent,” is “to
change one’s mind or purpose out of

 

pity for those whom one’s actions
have affected, or because the results
of an action have not fulfilled expec-
tations.’ That God repents is often
stated in the Old Testament; this
does not mean, however, that God
ever changes his absolute will be-
cause he has been mistaken, or that
he ever substitutes a worthier idea for
one unworthy of his dignity. His essen-
tial attitude does not change, but the
expression of God’s character toward
man depends upon man’s attitude to-
ward God. Now, since the announce-
ment of a future manifestation of
God is always conditional, its fulfill-
ment depending upon the future atti-
tude of man, cases may occur in which
the announcement results in a com-
plete change of attitude on the part
of those doomed to destruction (com-
pare Jonah and Nineveh). In such a
case God may revoke the punishment
in perfect accord with the immutabil-
ity of his character. Such change on
the part of the people is presupposed
here. An unphilosophical, primitive
people, whose apprehension of the
infinite God was limited, must use
expressions whose contents could be
understood, though they were not
literally true of God (Jer. xviii, 5-12;
Jonah iii, 10). The evil—The evil
that Jehovah has threatened to send
as punishment of their guilt. In view
of the merciful character of Jehovah
the prophet hopes that even in this
crisis there may be a withholding of
further judgment, and the change of
the present calamity into a blessing.
14. Who knoweth—Equivalent to
perhaps. “He speaks after the man-
ner of a terrified conscience that is
lifted up again with difficulty after
a season of affliction and begins to
aspire after hope and the mercy of
God. . . . The expression does not in-
dicate doubt, but rather affirmation
coupled with desire; as if we were to
172

JOEL.

 

will return and repent, and leave «a
blessing behind him; even ‘a meat
offering and a drink offering- unto
the Lorp your God?

15 «Blow the trumpet in Zion,
bsanctify a fast, call a solemn as-

sembly: 16 Gather the people,
‘sanctify the congregation, ‘assemble
the elders, !gather the children, and
those that suck the breasts: =let the
bridegroom go forth of his chamber,
and the bride out of her closet. 17 Let

 

e Isa. 65. 8; Hag. 2. 19.— Chap. 1. 9,13.
£ Verse 1; Num. 10. 3——) Chap. 1. 14.

 

i Exod. 19. 10, 22.——k Chap. 1. 14.—
12 Chron. 20. 13.—™ 1 Cor. 7. 5.

 

say, God will, if it please him, turn
again” (Luther). A more confident
expression might have made the peo-
ple even more reckless. Return—
Turn back from the judgment upon
the execution of which he has already
entered (verse 11). Repent—See on
verse 13. That instead of devastation
and ruin he will leave behind him a
blessing can mean in this connection
only removal of the locusts, cessation
of. the drought and the fire, and res-
toration of fertility. But the true
significance of the new fertility lies
not in supplying means for the sus-
tenance of life, but in that it will
make possible the resumption or con-
tinuation of the daily sacrifices and
thus assure the continued presence of
Jehovah (i, 9). The restoration of
the daily sacrifice seems to be the
greatest blessing desired. Fertility,
harvest, vintage, are always in the
Old Testament regarded as direct
gifts from God (Hos. ii, 5ff.).

Verses 15-17 are an emphatic re-
iteration of the exhortation in i, 14.
Verse 15 takes us back to verse 1,
where the priests are exhorted to blow
the trumpet. There it was intended
to be chiefly a signal of danger, here
a call to a religious gathering. 15b is
a repetition of i, 14a. No one is to be
excluded or excused from the pro-
posed service; all are to take part.
Even the smallest children are to
join. Verse 16 is an expansion of i,
14b. Gather the people—In i, 14,
“all the inhabitants of the land.”
The purpose of the gathering is indi-
cated in the following expression:
Sanctify the congregation [‘‘assembly’’]
—Call a holy meeting of the congre-
gation and consecrate the thus gath-
ered people so that they can approach

 

God properly (Exod. xix, 10; 1 Sam.
xvi, 5). The act of consecration was
external, but it signified an inner
spiritual preparation (13). In order
that none might consider themselves
exempt, the people are precisely de-
fined as old men, children, and suck-
lings. No one is free from sin, no
one can escape the judgment; there-
fore no one can afford to stay away
from the service of prayer: Elders
—Better, R. V., “old men.” Persons
of old age (i, 2), not elder in an official
sense (i, 14). Those that suck the
breasts—‘‘Nothing could evidence the
deep and universal guilt of the entire
nation more than the fact that on the
great day of penitence and prayer
even the newborn babes were to be
brought together in the arms of their
parents” (Umbreit). Bridegroom ...
bride—Even the newly wedded, who
are least inclined to mourning, and
who might possibly claim exemption
(Deut. xxiv, 5), are to come forth and
participate in the solemn worship.
Chamber (Heb. hedher) . . . closet
(Heb. huppah)—The two words are to
be understood as synonyms; the bride
and groom are thought to be together
in the bridal chamber or nuptial pa-
vilion (Psa. xix, 5). A common Arabic
phrase for the consummation of mar-
riage is ‘‘he built a tent over his wife,”
and even to-day a special tent or hut
is built for the bride on the night
of marriage (W. R. Smith, Kinship
and Marriage in Early Arabia, 167ff.).

It is the duty of the priests, who are
the mediators between the community
and God, to convey the petition to
the throne of Jehovah; in verse 17
they are exhorted to discharge their
duty in the religious gathering. Weep
—In sorrow and repentance. Be-
CHAPTER II.

173

 

the priests, the ministers of the
LORD, weep "between the porch and
the altar, and let them say, *Spare
thy people, O Lorp, and give not

thine heritage to reproach, that the
heathen should ‘rule over them:
rwherefore should they say among
the people, Where is their God?

 

n Ezek. 8. 16; Matt. 23. 35.
11, 12; Deut. 9. 26-29.

 

© Exod. 32.

5 Or, use a byword against them.—pP Psa.
42.10; 79. 10; 115. 2; Mic. 7. 10.

 

tween the porch and the altar—As in
Fizek. vii, 16. The porch is the fore
court on the east side of the temple,
twenty cubits long and ten cubits
wide (1 Kings vi, 3), which separates
the inner court, or court of the priests
(1 Kings vi, 36; 2 Chron. iv, 9), from
the great court (2 Chron. iv, 9) in-
tended for the laity. In the court of
the priests was the great altar of
burnt offering, perhaps near the fore
court and thus in sight of the people
in the outer court (1 Kings viii, 64;
2 Chron. viii, 12). Here, with their
faces turned toward the temple, they
are to entreat Jehovah with tears.
The prayer is prescribed by the
prophet. Spare—Have mercy, and
withhold further judgment. Thy peo-
ple ... thine heritage—The fact that
Israel is the people, the heritage, of
Jehovah is made the basis of appeal
(Deut. ix, 26, 29); he should be in-
tensely interested in their welfare.
Give not . . . to reproach—To be an
object of reproach and mockery.
Again and again Jehovah is reminded
that, should he forsake Israel and
permit it to be destroyed, his own
power would be called in question.
That the heathen [‘‘nations’’] should
rule over them—The greatest disgrace
in the thoughts of the Jews was the fact
of being governed by heathen nations,
as is shown at a later period by their
frequent revolts against the Roman
power. The severity of the plague of
locusts has exhausted their resources;
in case of hostility the Jews would fall
an easy prey to their enemies, and
thus become an object of reproach.
The above meaning is reproduced in
the ancient versions and is adopted
by some moderns; it is supported by
Psa. evi, 41; Deut. xv, 6; Lam. v, 8,
and is in perfect accord with the
context. For its bearing upon the
allegorical interpretation see above,

 

p. 145. Most commentators, however,
favor the marginal reading, “use a
byword against them.” Mashal be
means ordinarily ‘‘to rule over,” but
the other translation is possible, and
the last clause of the verse rather
favorsit. (The claim of Merx, Nowack,
and others, that the same construc-
tion is found in Ezek. xii, 23; xviii,
3, is not well founded; the preposition
be is used there in a sense entirely
different from that required here.)
The country having been so severely
afflicted, the surrounding nations
might be tempted to mock the Jews,
and declare that they were forsaken
by their God, or that he had no power
to help them (Exod. xxxii, 12; Num.
xiv, 13-16). Where is their God?—A
sneer at the covenant relation be-
tween Jehovah and his people to
which Jehovah could not be indiffer-
ent. The ancients traced every ex-
traordinary event directly to the
deity. The prosperity of a people
was evidence of the power of its God,
and even surrounding nations would
look up to such a deity with a feeling
of respect. On the other hand, dis-
aster was proof of the weakness of the
deity, and he would be mocked (Isa.
x, 10, 11; xxxvi, 18, 20). The only
way to avoid such mockery is for
Jehovah to avert the calamity (Exod.
xxxli, 12; Psa. Ixxix, 10).

With this appeal, presenting the
strongest reason why God should
avert the judgment, the first division
of the book closes. The prayer was
not in vain; Jehovah heard it, and
turned in mercy and loving-kindness
toward his penitent people.

PRoMISE OF JEHOVAH TO AVERT THE
JUDGMENT AND TO Brestow ABUN-
DANT BLESSINGS, ii, 18-iii, 21.

Though not expressly stated, it is
implied that the prophet’s exhorta-
174

JOEL.

 

18 Then will the Lorp “be jealous
for his land, ‘and pity his people.
19 Yea, the Lorp will answer and
say unto his people, Behold, I will

send you ‘corn, and wine, and oil,
and ye shall be satisfied therewith:
and I will no more make you a re-
proach among the heathen: 20 But

 

a Zech. 1. 14; 8. 2.

 

tT Deut. 32. 36; Isa.60.

10.—=* See chap.1. 10; Mal. 3. 10, 11, 12.

 

tion was heeded; the solemn assembly
was held, the people turned to Je-
hovah in penitence, and as a result
Jehovah altered his purpose. Now
he promises to remove the locusts and
to restore prosperity, such as has not
been known before, until all will know
that Jehovah himself dwells in the
midst of the people (ii, 18-27). The
manifestation of his mercy will not
stop there; to the temporal blessings
he will add rich spiritual gifts (28, 29).
When the day of judgment finally
comes, introduced by extraordinary
phenomena (30, 31), it will not strike
the chosen people; they will be spared
(32), and those who are still in exile
will be brought back to Zion (iii, 1);
but the enemies of the Jews will be
annihilated in a terrible conflict in
the valley of Jehoshaphat (2-16).
Zion will continue in the enjoyment
of highest felicity under the direct
protection of Jehovah, while her ene-
mies will be turned into desolation and
ruin (17-21).

The promises, then, refer, on the
one hand, to the immediate future
(18-27); on the other, to times more
remote (28ff.).

Blessings to be enjoyed in the immediate
future, 18-27.

Verse 18 marks the transition to the
promises. The future tenses of A. V.
have been rightly changed into past
tensesin R. V. Then—The time is not
definitely stated but is implied,
when the people turned to Jehovah
in penitence of heart. Jealous...
pity—Jealousy is frequently ascribed
to God in the Old Testament. The
expression is probably adopted from
the marriage relation, which is
often used to describe the relation of
Jehovah to the people of Israel (Isa.
liv, 5; lxii, 5; Hos. ii, 19). Though at
present the word is used commonly
in a bad sense, it was not always so.

 

The jealousy of Jehovah is aroused
when his power is doubted, or when
he is robbed of his proper dues, or when
proper treatment is refused to one
who is the object of his peculiar care
and love. In the last case Jehovah
interferes not merely to secure what
belongs to him, but he interposes in
behalf of his loved one. The calamity
that had befallen the people had
caused the surrounding nations to
ask mockingly, “Where is their God?”
Now Jehovah must vindicate himself;
but he was moved also by pity for his
people. “Love, having been made
jealous by misrepresentation or ill
treatment on the part of a third per-
son, undergoes a strong reaction
against the latter in favor of the
former” (Exod. xx, 5; Zech. i, 14;
viii, 2; Ezek. xxxvi, 5, 6).

19. The jealousy and pity bring
about a change in the purpose of God,
which change is indicated in the reply
to the petitions. The things needed
immediately will be restored at once.
I will send—Heb. hinnéh with the
participle, “I am about to send”
(G.-K., 116p.). Corn [“grain’]...
(‘new”’] wine . . . oil—The very things
that the locusts had destroyed (i, 10);
they were needed for the daily sacri-
fice (i, 9), and for daily life (i, 11, 12).
These products will be given not in a
scant measure but in abundance, so
that the people will be satisfied. The
new prosperity will remove the re-
proach (ii, 17) that Israel is a poor
people whose God is unable or unwill-
ing to assist it; the surrounding na-
tions will recognize once more the
presence of Jehovah. The very fact
that the removal of the reproach is con-
nected with the new fertility makes it
probable that the danger of becoming
a reproach was due to the absence of
fertility, not to the invasion of a for-
eign foe.
CHAPTER II.

175

 

‘I will remove far off from you the
northern army, and will drive him
into a land barren and desolate,

with his face toward the east sea,
and his hinder part ytoward the
utmost sea, and his stink shall come

 

t See Exod. 10. 19.—-4 Jer. 1.14.—-* Ezek.

47. 18; Zech. 14. 8.—-y Deut. 11. 24.

 

The contents of the promise do not
seem to be enumerated in the chrono-
logical order in which they will ac-
tually be realized. The blessings of
verse 19 follow, they do not precede,
the destruction of the locusts an-
nounced in verse 20. From you—
Literally, from upon you. Two prepo-
sitions in Hebrew; the locusts had
been resting upon the land as a burden
(Amos v, 23; Exod. x, 17). The
northern army—Literally, the north-
ern one (see above, p. 144). The con-
text requires that we regard the ex-
pression as an epithet of the swarm
of locusts. True, ordinarily they do
not come from the north, but it can-
not be proved that they never come
from there. All that Jerome was
willing to say is that ‘‘the swarms of
locusts are more generally brought by
the south wind than by the north.”
Niebuhr tells of a tract of land, on the
road from Nisibis.to Mosul, completely
covered with young locusts. Locusts
are also found in the Syrian and
Palmyrene desert, whence they might
easily be carried by a northeast wind
into Palestine toward Jerusalem; in
such case the designation “the north-
ern” would be perfectly appropriate.
While this is a legitimate interpreta-
tion, it is more likely (see above, p.
145) that the term is used here not
in a literal but in an apocalyptic
sense, derived from passages such as
Jer. i, 14; Ezek. xxxviii, 6, 15. A
similar change from an historical to
an apocalyptic conception may be
seen in the corresponding Arabic
word (Wellhausen). The army which
came from the north will be carried
away by a north wind into a land
barren and desolate—Not only the
desert shores of the Dead Sea (Cred-
ner), but the great Arabian Desert
south and southeast of Palestine.
There the main body will go. The
following clause would better be ren-

 

dered, with R. V., “its forepart into
the eastern sea, and its hinder part
into the western sea.’’ Face—R. V.,
‘“forepart”; that which is in front, the
van. East sea—Literally, front sea.
The Hebrews and other Oriental na-
tions, in fixing the points of the com-
pass, faced eastward; hence front—
east, behind—west. The “East Sea”
is the Dead Sea, which is eastward
from Jerusalem (Zech. xiv, 8; Ezek.
xlvii, 18). Hinder part—Literally, end,
the rear; Heb. sdph, an Aramaic word
(Dan. iv, 8, 29) found only in late
Hebrew writings. Utmost sea—Lit-
erally, hinder sea; R. V., “western
sea,” the Mediterranean (Deut. xi,
24; Num. xxxiv, 6, 7; Zech. xiv, 8).
The expressions are not to be under-
stood as signifying that three winds
would blow at one and the same time,
one from the north, one from the east
or northeast, the third from the west
or northwest; they present a rhe-
torical picture of rapid and total de-
struction “which is founded upon the
idea that the wind rises in the north-
west, then turns to the north, and
finally to the northeast, so that the
van of the swarm is driven into the
Dead Sea, the greatp mass into the
southern desert, and the rear into the
Mediterranean.” The dead locusts
will soon decay, their stench will rise
(Isa. xxxiv, 3; Amos iv, 10). Il
savor—The Hebrew word is found
only here, but its meaning is deter-
mined by the cognate languages and
is correctly reproduced by the ancient
versions. The Hebrew construction is
peculiar. Hence, many commenta-
tors think that the two clauses, ‘‘and
his stink shall come up, and his ill
savor shall come up,” are an expan-
sion of one clause. ‘And his ill
savor shall come up” they regard as
the original of the two, while they
consider the other, “and his stink
shall come up,” a later gloss intended
176

JOEL.

 

up, and his ill savor shall come
up, because the hath done great
things.

21 Fear not, O land; be glad and
rejoice: for the Lorp will do great

things. 22 Be not afraid, «ye beasts
of the field: for *the pastures of the
wilderness do spring, for the tree
beareth her fruit, the fig tree and
the vine do yield their strength.

 

6 Heb. he hath magnified to do.

 

2 Chap.

1. 18, 20.—=* Zech. 8.12. See chap. 1. 19.

 

to explain the rare word translated
“ill savor.” “Even in our own times,”
says Jerome, “we have seen the land
of Judah covered by swarms of lo-
custs, which as soon as the wind arose
were precipitated into the first and
the hindermost (Dead and Mediter-
ranean) seas. And when the shores
of both seas were filled with heaps of
dead locusts, which the waters had
thrown up, their corruption and
stench became so noxious that even
the atmosphere was corrupted, and
both man and beast suffered from
consequent pestilence.” Because he
hath done great things—Literally, he
hath shown greatness to do. Affirmed
of Jehovah in verse 21. When used of
men or other creatures the idea of
haughtiness is implied; they have
gone beyond their proper bounds
(Lam. i, 9; Psa. xxxv, 26); like the
German “grossthun,” to brag, to glory
in one’s strength and success. Here,
not only “‘it has accomplished a great
devastation,” but, “it has accom-
plished it and brags about it.” In
a strictly literal sense the expression
is inapplicable to irrational creatures,
but this does by no means prove that
the locusts symbolize hostile armies.
The prophet is at liberty, in a poetic
description, to endow even irrational
creatures with rational and moral
powers (Isa. xliv, 23). It is interest-
ing to note that Hebrew legislation
holds even animals accountable for
acts of violence (Gen. ix, 5; Exod.
xxi, 28-32).

Verses 19, 20 are placed in the
mouth of Jehovah; in 21 the prophet
steps in once more as the speaker.
In the presence of calamity joy had
vanished from the sons of men (i, 12);
the promises of 19, 20 mean a com-
plete transformation. In view of the
new prospects he calls upon the land

 

(21), the beasts (22), and the chil-
dren of Zion (23) to be glad and re-
joice. 21. Land—In i, 10, it is repre-
sented as mourning; now the danger
is past, therefore, it is time for rejoic-
ing. The land rejoices when it greens
and brings forth abundant harvest.
Jehovah will do great things—R. V.,
“hath done.’”? The same phrase as
that applied to the locusts in verse 20
(Psa. cxxvi, 2, 3). The great thing is
the change of purpose and the destruc-
tion of the foe that ‘‘had done great
things.” The tense is the so-called
prophetic perfect; the deliverance is
not yet accomplished, but to the
prophet it is as good as accomplished,
since Jehovah has decided upon it.
22. Beasts—They had groaned on ac-
count of the destruction of all vege-
tation (i, 18, 20); all is changed now,
food will no longer be wanting. Pas-
tures—Devoured by the fire (i, 19).
Do spring—They bring forth new
grass (Gen. i, 11, 12; Psa. xxiii, 2).
The tenses as in verse 21. The beasts
are called upon to rejoice because the
trees bear fruit once more. The tree
beareth her fruit—The fruit bearing
of the trees, especially of the vine and
fig, has no direct bearing on the hap-
piness of the beasts; but they are to
enter into sympathy with the in-
habitants and rejoice with them over
the new fertility. There is, however,
another reason for their rejoicing. In
i, 20, the water brooks are described
as dried up, producing great suffering
among the beasts. Without water
there can be no vegetation. On
the other hand, vegetation presup-
poses plenty of water, and new
growth of the trees implies abundance
of water to relieve the thirst of
the beasts; therefore they may well
rejoice. Yield their strength—They
produce fruit, not sparingly as in the
CHAPTER II.

177

 

23 Be glad then, ye children of Zion,
and ee in the Lorp ines God:
for he hath given you ’the former

rain &moderately, and he ewill cause
to come down for you “the rain, the
former rain, and the latter rain in

 

bIsa. 41.16; 61. 10; Hab. 3. 18; Zech. 10.
7.—7 Or, a teacher of righteousness.—

8 Heb. according to righteousness.—« Lev.
26. 4; Deut. 11. 14; 28. 12.——4 James 5. 7.

 

past, but in accord with their full
powers. 23. Children of Zion—In the
narrower sense this expression includes
only the inhabitants of Jerusalem;
here probably all who suffered from
the locusts, the inhabitants of Judah.
Especially in a religious community
the capital might stand for the whole
land, for in it the whole life was cen-
tered. In Jehovah—In their rejoicing
they are to remember that it is the
mercy of Jehovah that has caused the
transformation. The former rain
moderately—R. V., “the former rain
in just measure’; margin, “a teacher
of righteousness”; or, rendering the
first word “former rain,” it translates
the second “according to righteous-
ness”; margin R. V., “in (or, for)
righteousness.” It has been well said
that “from time immemorial there has
been a diversity of opinion as to the
meaning of these words.” The teacher
unto righteousness is a perfectly cor-
rect translation; it is the translation
and interpretation of ancient Jewish
commentators, and is adopted by a
few moderns (Merx, Von Orelli, Keil,
and others). The expression is ex-
plained by passages such as 1 Kings
viii, 36; 2 Chron. vi, 27, according to
which “the answer to prayer for rain
must be preceded by divine instruc-
tion respecting the good way” (Von
Orelli). There is a difference of opin-
ion, however, as to who is this teacher.
Some suppose him to be the Messiah,
some a future teacher, some the ideal
teacher or the collective body of mes-
sengers from God, others the prophet
Joel himself, and still others the en-
tire procession of teachers culminat-
ing in the Messiah. While the possi-
bility of this translation is readily
admitted, the rendering embodied in
the text is preferable, because (1) the
“teacher unto righteousness” would
be a spiritual gift, but we do not ex-

 

pect a reference to a spiritual gift
here. The blessings announced in this
section are purely physical—the de-
struction of the locusts and the res-
toration of fertility. The announce-
ment of the higher spiritual gifts
marks « distinct advance, and these
are not expected by the prophet until
a more distant future. (2) The word
méreh is used again in the last clause
of the verse, where it refers undoubt-
edly to “early rain.” It is at least
doubtful that the prophet, anxious
to be understood, would use, with-
out explanation, the two words in
so close connection with different
meanings. On the whole, the ren-
dering “former rain” is more satis-
factory. Moderately—Or, in just
measure. It is exceedingly doubtful
that the word sedhakah is ever used
in the physical sense of correctness or
correct measure, as is implied in the
above rendering. It seems to be used
exclusively in an ethical sense; there-
fore here better, “according to right-
eousness” (Hos. x, 12), that is, as
Jehovah’s righteousness prompts him
(Isa. xlii, 6; xlv, 13); which means, in
abundant measure. This is more sat-
isfactory than the translation of
Ewald and others, “‘rain for justifica-
tion’”’—the rain which is a sign that
they are adopted again into the right-
eous consideration of God. Rain—
Heb. geshem. General term for abun-
dant rain, but especially the heavy
rains beginning, as a rule, toward the
close of October and continuing until
February. Former rain—The rains at
the opening of the rainy season,
September-October. Latter rain—
The showers of March and April.
Since they come just before the dry
season sets in, they are of the greatest
importance in Palestine. In the first
month—The first month would be
Nisan, March-April, which is the
178

the first month. 24 And the floors
shall be full of wheat, and the fats
shall overflow with wine and oil.
25 And I will restore to you the
years ethat the locust hath eaten,
the cankerworm, and the caterpiller,
and the palmerworm, ‘my great
army which I sent among you. 26

JOEL.

And ye shall seat in plonty, and be
satisfied, and praise the name of the
Lorp your God, that hath dealt
wondrously with you: and my peo-
ple shall never be- ashamed. 27
»And ye shall know that I am ‘in
the midst of Israel, and that 'I am
the Lorp your God, and none else:

 

e Chap. 1. 4.—-f Verse 11.—~¢ Lev. 26.
5; Psa. 22. 26; see Lev. 26. 26; Mic. 6.
14.

h Chap. 3. 17.—i Lev. 26. 11, 12;
Ezek. 37. 26, 27, 28.—* Isa. 45. 5, 21,
22; Ezek. 39. 22, 28.

 

time for the latter rain, but it could
not be connected with the former
rain as it seems to be connected in the
text. If the Hebrew text is correct
it is better translated, with the mar-
gin, “at the first,” in contrast with
“afterward” (verse 28) when the
spiritual gifts are bestowed. Some
of the ancient versions, followed by
some modern scholars, read “‘as be-
fore,” that is, before the calamity.
This gives excellent sense, and re-
quires but a slight emendation of the
text. Wellhausen suggests to omit
the second ‘‘former rain,” since it ap-
pears to be a useless repetition. If
this suggestion is accepted we have
in this text the three principal rains of
the season in their regular order;
all three are essential for fertility,
therefore Jehovah will restore them.
24-27. The heavens are open once
more, the drought will come to an
end, the locusts will disappear, the
harvest and vintage will be plentiful,
so that the presence of Jehovah will
indeed be realized. 24. A repetition
by the prophet of the thought ex-
pressed by Jehovah in verse 19. The
conditions described in i, 10-12, are
to be reversed; corn, wine, and’ oil
will be plentiful. Floors—Threshing
floors, where corn is threshed out and
heaped up (Thomson, ii, 314-316).
Fats—Modern form, vats. Not the
wine presses, but the receptacles into
which the wine flows from the presses,
usually excavated in the natural rock
(Isa. v, 2), a little lower than the
presses (Van Lennep, 117ff.); applied
here also to the receptacles for the oil.
The vintage will be so plentiful that
the vats will overflow (Prov. iii, 10).

 

25. By means of the bountiful harvest
promised in verse 24 Jehovah will
restore to the people the loss they
have suffered through the locusts.
Years—The calamity was not lim-
ited to one year, and it is not easy to
see how the effects of a calamity like
that described in chapter i could have
been confined to one year. Locusts—
For the names see comment on i, 4;
here they occur in different order, an
indication that the names cannot
refer to locusts in successive stages of
development. My great army—The
locusts are identified with the “army”
of verse 11 (compare verse 2); that
takes us back also to i, 4, proving that
the prophet is concerned throughout
with locusts as such, and not as sym-
bols of hostile armies.

26. As a result of the bountiful
restoration, the Jews will recognize
Jehovah as their God and praise him
for his divine interposition. Name of
Jehovah—Equivalent to person of Je-
hovah (see on Amos ii, 7; Mic. v, 4;
Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible,
article “Name,” 5). Shall never be
ashamed—Having been brought to a
true recognition of God, they may
now enjoy his favor; he need not turn
away from them again, or send ca-
lamities that would disgrace them in
the eyes of their neighbors (ii, 17;
compare Isa. xlix, 23; Psa. xxii, 5).
27. The calamity was an evidence of
the displeasure of Jehovah (Hos. ii,
6, 7, 9; v, 15;~Ezek. x, 18, 19; xi, 23),
in the same manner prosperity will be
a proof of his favor and presence.
In the midst of Israel—As the source
of blessing, as protector and refuge

in all need (Isa. xii, 6; Hos. xi, 9;
CHAPTER II.

and my people shall never be
ashamed.

179

28 'And it shall come to pass after-
ward, that I =will pour out my spirit

 

l Isa. 44. 3: Ezek. 39. 29; Acts 2. 17.—
m Zech. 12. 10; John 7. 39.

 

Deut. vii, 21). Israel—Evidently the
theocratic community made up of the
reunited Israel and Judah (Isa. xi,
12, 13). This verse is a reply to the
taunt in verse 17, ‘‘Where is their
God?” I am Jehovah your God—
Every religious leader from the time
of Moses insisted that Jehovah was the
God of Israel (Exod. xx, 2; Deut. v,
6), but the people too frequently for-
got it and went “whoring after other
gods” (Hos. ii, 5, 8). To bring them
to their senses Jehovah must pour
out judgment again and again; but
the present blow will cure them, and
they will recognize in him, and in him
only, their God. The phrase is a very
common one in the Old Testament,
used always, in connections similar to
this one, ‘‘to denote the conviction
produced by some great act of judg-
ment or deliverance upon those who
witness it.’ None else—‘By their
fruits ye shall know them.” The
gods who in the past lured away the
people are seen to be worthless; they
have no. power to protect or help
(Hos. ii, 7; Isa. i, 29-31; Isa. xlv, 5,
6, 18; Deut. iv, 35). The closing
words are a repetition, from the pre-
ceding verse, rounding off in a rhe-
torical manner the promises of the
immediate temporal blessings and of
permanent protection.

Spiritual gifts to be bestowed in a more
distant future, ii, 28-32 (Hebrew
chap. iii).

This section takes us to a more dis-
tant future; how far is not stated.
In addition to the temporal blessings
promised for the immediate future
(verses 19-27), higher spiritual bless-
ings are awaiting the people. The
Spirit will be poured out upon them,
so that the spiritual perception of all
will be clarified and intensified (28,
29); and being in a new fellowship
with Jehovah they have nothing more

 

to fear. The day of Jehovah will
come, inaugurated by extraordinary
phenomena in nature (30, 31), but
those who through the outpouring of
the Spirit have become true children
of God shall escape (32).

28. Afterward—After the realiza-
tion of the temporal prosperity. Not
the expression used by other prophets
(Isa. ii, 2; Mic. iv, 1). Joel seems to
point to a date nearer than that sug-
gested by the other expression, but
he also leaves the exact time indefin-
ite. I will pour out—‘Shaphakh does
not mean merely to give in drops, but
to pour out in great abundance” (Cal-
vin). My spirit—The spirit is the life
principle in man, the invisible power
to which all external actions must be
traced. In a similar way all the vis-
ible manifestations of Jehovah, what-
ever the sphere, are caused by the
Spirit of Jehovah: creation (Gen. i, 2;
Job xxxiii, 4); the endowment of Is-
rael’s heroes with warlike energy and
administrative power (Judg. i, 10;
xi, 29; compare Journal of Biblical
Literature, xix, i, 140ff., and xxiii, i,
13ff.). It is, however, especially in
the sphere of the ethical, the religious,
and the spiritual that the Spirit is
active. The Spirit produces the pro-
phetic power in its lower and higher
forms (1 Sam. x, 6, 10; xix, 20; Isa.
lxi, 1, etc.); it inspires the high ethical
and spiritual ideas and ideals of the
prophets. Thus far the Spirit had
been the possession of only a select
few; in the afterward the limitation
will be done away with. Moses had
expressed the wish (Num. xi, 29),
“Would that all Jehovah’s people
were prophets, that Jehovah would
put his Spirit upon them!” Of the
realization of this wish in the future
Joel is now convinced. Upon all
flesh—A phrase used by the Hebrews
sometimes in a wider sense, including
all living creatures, both man and
180

upon all flesh; "and your sons and
eyour daughters shall prophesy,
your old men shall dream dreams,
your young men shall see visions:

JOEL.

29 And also upon the servants and
upon the handmaids in those days
will I pour out my spirit. 30 And
aI will shew wonders in the heavens

 

© Acts 21, 9.——P 1 Cor.
11.

nIsa, 54. 13.
12. 138; Gal. 8. 28; Col. 3.

 

beast (Gen. vi, 13; vii, 15; ix, 11, 15);
at other times in a narrower sense, of
mankind alone (Jer. xxv, 31; Psa. Ixv,
2); here only mankind, since animals
nowhere appear as recipients of the
Divine Spirit and the following clause
seems to exclude them. It isa further
question, however, whether all man-
kind is included or whether the prom-
ise is to be limited to Israel. Keil
argues for the former, yet it is more
probable, judging from the context,
that the prophet has in mind Israel
only. The specifications of 28, 29
point in that direction, and the ex-
pectation of the destruction of all
nations (chapter ili) decides the point
in favor of Israel alone (compare Acts
x, 45). But while the outpouring is
to be confined to Israel, within the
nation no one is to be excluded; all
are to become active organs of the
divine revelation. Shall prophesy...
shall dream dreams . . . shall see
visions—No distinction will be made
of sex, age, or position, but the
prophet distinguishes between dif-
ferent methods in which the revela-
tion is to be received and the prophetic
gift to be exercised. He does not
mean, however, that each of the
methods is peculiar to the age with
which it is connected. That the
Spirit manifests itself to the weak-
ened mind of the old man in dreams
of the night, to the lively fancy of the
youth and maiden in sights during
the day—that is, true visions—and to
the soul of the child, less able to re-
sist, merely as a divine influence—
cannot be proved from the Bible.
Visions and dreams are two forms in
which prophetic revelation is im-
parted (Num. xii, 6). All that the
prophet means with the specification
is that “their sons, daughters, old
persons, and youth would receive the

 

q Matt. 24, 29; Mark 13. 24; Luke 21.

20,

Spirit of Jehoyah with all its various
gifts.” Prophesy—They will be able
to do the work which in the past was
limited to the prophets; they are to
become “organs of divine revela-
tions,’ to make known to those out-
side of Israel the will of God. (For an
excellent discussion of the inspiration
and activity of the Hebrew prophets
see Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible,
article “Prophecy and Prophets.’’)
29. And also—Better, and even. In-
troduces something very extraordin-
ary. The position of slaves was very
humble; ordinarily they would not be
thought of in connection with these
great spiritual gifts; but in the Mes-
sianic age, there will be no distinction
between “bond and free,’ so far
as spiritual possessions are concerned;
all alike will share in the outpouring
of the Spirit. LXX. reads, “my serv-
ants and my handmaidens,” that is,
of God and not of men; the change
may be due to failure to under-
stand the extension of the divine
promises so as to include even slaves.
Whether there is any thought of the
non-Israelitish slaves, who as a result
of their connection with families of
the chosen race are to become par-
takers of the Spirit, is not clear. For
the fulfillment see above, p. 149.

In this new relation the people of
Jehovah are forever safe; they will be
protected when the day of Jehovah,
temporarily postponed, comes; its
terrors will fall only upon those who
are outside of the covenant relation.
This day the prophet appears to ex-
pect soon afier the outpouring of the
Spirit. 30, 31. Wonderful indications
of the approach of the judgment.
Show—Literally, give. Wonders—
Heb. méphethim. “Any object of sig-
nificance which surpasses expectation
or the ordinary course of nature, and
CHAPTER ILI.

181

 

and in the earth, blood, and fire, and
illars of smoke. 31 ‘The sun shall
e turned into darkness, and the
moon into blood, ‘before the great
and the terrible day of the Lorp
come. 32 And it shall come to pass,

that twhosoever shall call on the
name of the LoRD shall be delivered:
for "in mount Zion and in Jerusalem
shall be deliverance, as the Lorp
hath said, and in *the remnant
whom the LorD shall call.

 

tT Verse 10; Isa. 13. 9, 10; chap. 3. 1,
15; Matt. 24. 29; Mark 13. 24; Luke 21.
25; Rev. 6. 12.—= Mal. 4. 5. +t Rom. 10.

 

13. Isa. 46. 13; 59. 20; Obad. 17; Rom.
11, 26.—x Isa. 11. 11, 16; Jer. 31. 7; Mic.

4,7; 5. 3, 7,8; Rom. 9. 27; 11. 5, 7.

 

excites wonder in consequence’; here
extraordinary phenomena on earth
and in the sky. Blood... fire...
pillars of smoke—If the phenomena
mentioned in this verse are such as
take place upon earth, these words
point to the terrors of war, bloodshed,
violence, and the columns of smoke
rising from burned cities. Wars will
be on an unprecedented scale, and
thus may well be regarded as portents
of the day of Jehovah (Isa. xiii, 6;
Zeph. i, 7). Some commentators,
however, prefer to connect this verse
more closely with verse 31, and to
interpret the phenomena mentioned
in 30 in the light of those in 31. They
see in the fire, blood, and pillars of
smoke “abnormal atmospherical phe-
nomena’’: blood—the blood-red color
of the moon; smoke—the smoke clouds
filling the air as a result of volcanic
eruptions; fire—lightning, since “thun-
derstorms often accompany earth-
quakes.’ The former interpretation
is to be preferred. Jn 31 the phe-
nomena in the sky are mentioned.
“The darkening and extinction of the
lights of heaven are frequently men-
tioned as harbingers of approaching
judgment, or as signs of the breaking
of the day of judgment” (ii, 2, 10;
iii, 15; Isa. xiii, 10; xxxiv, 4; Jer. iv,
23, etc.; compare, in the New Testa-
ment, Matt. xxiv, 29; Mark xiii, 24;
Luke xxi, 25; Rev. vi, 12). Sun...
darkness, .. . moon... blood—The
figures may have been suggested by
eclipses of the sun and moon (Amos
viii, 9), or by strange obscurations
caused by other disturbances (ii, 2,
10), or as described in the following
account: “A dreadful whirlwind oc-
curred here (in Allahabad) on June
2, 1838. The whole sky was blood-

 

red, not with clouds, for there was not
a cloud to be seen. Overhead moved
immense masses of dust, but below
there was not a breath of wind.
Shortly after the wind arose, carrying
with it sand and dust. It soon became
extremely dark, although the sun was
still up. The darkness was not only
visible but tangible’ (Driver, quoted
from Asiatic Journal, Nov., 1838).
These phenomena, according to the
declaration of the prophet, will an-
nounce the approach of the great day,
just as previously the locust plague
pointed to its coming.

32. Though a day great and terrible,
it will be such only to the nations
(ili, 2); the true worshipers of Je-
hovah need have no fear. Whosoever
—A very comprehensive word, but it
is clear from the context, “for in
Mount Zion and Jerusalem there shall
be those that escape’ (R. V.) that
the prophet is concerned primarily
with the Jews. Call on the name of
Jehovah—Not merely with a cold
ceremonial or heartless repetition of
phrases, but with spiritual, heartfelt
worship. To call is equivalent to to
worship. The condition of escape is
not membership in the Israel accord-
ing to the flesh; even those within
Israel need something more to assure
their salvation on that, day—namely,
a true, whole-hearted devotion to
God. For in mount Zion and in
Jerusalem shall be deliverance—Bet-
ter, with R. V., ‘those that escape.”
This limits salvation to the Jews,
and, among the Jews, to only a part.
As Jehovah hath said—This sounds as
if Joel were referring to an earlier
prophecy. The promise actually oc-
curs in Obad. 17; it is quite possible,
therefore, that Joel is dependent on
182

JOEL,

 

CHAPTER III.
OR, behold, *in those days, and
in that time, when I shall

bring again the captivity of Judah
and Sieruedieny 2 i will also gather
all nations, and will bring them

 

a Jer. 30. 3; Ezek. 38, 14,

b Zech. 14.2, 3, 4.

 

the latter. The remnant—Those that
escape the judgment of the great day.
The thought of the prophet seems to
be that not only the Jews who are in
Jerusalem on that day will escape,
but that some true worshipers are
found also among the Jews who are
scattered among the nations. These
Jehovah will call to his salvation.
That the prophet has in mind believers
among the heathen is made improb-
able by the threat of the utter de-
struction of the nations in chapter iii.

The apostle Peter quoted verses 28—
32a, after the outpouring of the Holy
Spirit on the day of Pentecost, as hav-
ing been fulfilled by that event. How-
ever, the fulfillment cannot be lim-
ited to that one event; the outpouring
of the Spirit on the day of Pentecost
was simply the beginning of the fulfill-
ment which is being continued even
now, and will continue until all flesh
shall be blessed with divine illumina-
tion. Therefore the promise should
be regarded “not as a prediction of
the event of Pentecost, but of the
new order of things of which the day
of Pentecost was the first great ex-
ample’ (A. B. Davidson, Expositor,
1888, p. 208).

CHAPTER III.

Jupemrent Upon Tur Nations; Gio-
RIFICATION oF ZION, chap. iii.

When the great day, announced by
extraordinary phenomena (ii, 30, 31),
really breaks, its terrors will fall only
upon the nations hostile to the chosen
people. The purpose of this final
judgment is twofold: on the one hand,
to bring about a complete and final
separation between the faithful and
their enemies; on the other hand, to
establish the kingdom of Jehovah
upon earth in triumphal glory.

The conflict is to take place in the
valley of Jehoshaphat (1-3); the na-

 

tions that have manifested the great-
est hostility will suffer the most (4-8);
in spite of their great numbers and
active preparation, they will be utterly
annihilated, while the people of Je-
hovah will suffer no harm (9-16); the.
enemies of Zion will no more pass
through her; in quietness and peace
the city will abide forever, with Je-
hovah as her king (17-21).

1, For—Connects iii, 1, with ii, 32.
The prophet explains why he men-
tions the deliverance of only a rem-
nant of the Jews—the other nations
will be utterly destroyed. At the
same time he indicates by what means
the salvation of the dispersed is to
be wrought; the judgment upon the
nations will help to free the Israelites
from bondage. Behold—The truth
to be announced is of the greatest
importance, and is worthy of the
closest attention (Isa. iii, 1; vii, 14;
Amos vi, 11). In those days, ... in
that time—Refers back, not to ii, 28,
but to ii, 32, the time of the deliver-
ance of the Jews (Jer. xxxiii, 15);
the exact time is determined by what
follows. When I shall bring again
the captivity of Judah and Jerusalem
—The judgment upon the nations
(verse 2), the restoration of the cap-
tives (verse 1), the salvation of the
remnant (ii, 32), all fall into the
same period. Whether this is the
right translation, or the one men-
tioned on page 133, “I shall restore
the fortune,” there can be no doubt
that the prophet intends to promise
a radical change in the condition of
the people; and, according to the
context, an essential element in the
restoration of the fortune is the de-
liverance of the Israelites from the
power of the surrounding nations into
whose hands they fell after the de-
struction of Jerusalem in 586 B. C.

2. At the time of the restoration
Jehovah will gather all nations—All
CHAPTER III.

183

 

down into cthe valley of Jehosha-
phat, and ¢will plead with them
there for my people and for my heri-
tage Israel, whom they have scat-
tered among the nations, and parted

my land. 3 And they have «cast
lots for my people; and have given
a boy for an harlot, and sold a girl
for wine, that they might drink.
4 Yea, and what have ye to do with

 

© Verse 12; 2 Chron. 20. 26.——4 Isa. 66.

16; Ezek. 38. 22.—e* Obad. 11; Nah. 3. 10.

 

that are guilty of hostility toward the
people of God; and that included all
the nations known to the prophet,
for all had sinned at some time against
the covenant people. Valley of Je-
hoshaphat—This name is given to the
scene of the final conflict because of
the meaning of the name: Jehovah
judges. It is thought by some that
the place is to be identified with the
valley in which several nations were
conquered by Jehoshaphat (2 Chron.
xx, 26ff.), and which received the
name, valley of blessing. That valley,
however, was farther from Jerusalem
than the scene of this conflict. Tra-
dition, from the time of Eusebius on,
has identified the valley of Jehosha-
phat with the depression between
Jerusalem and the Mount of Olives,
otherwise called valley of the Kidron.
This may be a correct identification;
but it is by no means certain that the
prophet had in mind any particular
spot; the meaning of the name would
account satisfactorily for the use of
the same. Hostility against the peo-
ple was hostility against the God of
the people; he now interferes on their
behalf. Plead—Or, enter into judg-
ment; R. V, “execute judgment.”
Heritage—They belong to Jehovah,
and they are as dear and precious to
him as an heirloom; therefore he will
not “on any terms part with them or
suffer them to be lost.”

Now follow the specific charges
against the nations; they are twofold:
(1) they have deported the Jews, and
(2) they have parted—divided among
themselves—the land of Jehovah.
Scattered among the nations, .. .
parted my land—These words cannot
refer to the invasion of Judah by the
Philistines and Arabians in the time
of Jehoram (2 Chron. xxi, 16, 17),
for their deeds of violence would not

 

warrant the use of these expressions;
they can refer only to a dispersion of
great numbers of Jews and the oc-
cupying of their territory by foreign
invaders. But the statement of Keil,
that this takes us to the dispersion
of the Jews after the fall of Jerusalem
in 70 A. D., and that therefore we
have the prediction of an event in the
distant future, finds no _ support
in the context. The words are ex-
plained best as presupposing the ex-
iles of 597 and 586 B. C. (Ezek. xi,
17; xii, 15). The attempt of Koenig
to identify Israel with the northern
kingdom only cannot be considered
successful, since the terms Israel and
Judah are used interchangeably in the
Book of Joel. For the expression
‘parted my land” compare Mic. ii, 4;
Amos vii, 17.

Verse 3 depicts the ignominious
treatment which the captive Jews re-
ceived from their conquerors. Cast
lots—The distribution of captives
among their captors by lot seems
to have been a common custom
with ancient peoples (Obad. 11;
Nah. iii, 10; Thucid., iii, 50). This
made the captives the absolute prop-
erty of their masters, who could do
with them as they pleased, even might
dispose of them if they could do so
to greater advantage. Boy—Since he
would be of little immediate use, they
exchanged him for a harlot—To sat-
isfy their lusts. A girl—Too young to
serve their purposes, or after having
satisfied their lusts, they give away
for wine—To indulge in licentious
revelry.

4-8. The prophet turns aside for a
moment to address the nations who
had been especially hostile to the
Jews; he points out their special
wrongdoings, and promises to them
swift and righteous retribution for
184

me, !O Tyre, and Zidon, and all the
coasts of Palestine? ¢will ye render
me a recompense? and if ye recom-
pense me, swiftly and speedily will

return your recompense upon your
own head; 5 Because ye have taken

f Amos 1. 6, 9,—s Ezek. 25. 15, 16,
17.

JOEL.

my silver and my gold, and have
carried into your temples my good-
ly 'pleasant things: 6 The children
also of Judah and the children of
Jerusalem have ye sold unto ?the
Grecians, that ye might remove

1 Heb. desirable; Dan. 11. 38.—2? Heb.
the sons of the Grecitans.

 

their crimes. Tyre, Zidon [‘‘Sidon’”’ }—
The two chief cities of Phoenicia; both
are extremely old, Sidon being com-
monly, though perhaps wrongly, con-
sidered the older (Gen. x, 15). Tyre
was situated originally on the main-
land, but to protect it against in-
vaders it was transferred to a neigh-
boring rocky island. Tyre was nearer
to Israel than Sidon; this fact and
the ever-increasing power of the
city account for the priority of
Tyre in the great majority of Old
Testament passages in which the
two are named together. Here
the two cities stand for all Phcenicia.
Coasts of Palestine—Better, R. V.,
“regions of Philistia.” The territory
in southwest Canaan, about fifty
miles long and fifteen miles wide,
divided among five chief cities; in-
dependent in time of peace, ordinarily
united in time of war. “Regions,”
literally, circles, probably refers to
this division. The Philistines were
exceedingly hostile to the Jews
throughout their entire history, from
the time of the Exodus on. What
have ye to do with me?—R. V., “what
are ye to me?” This question,
which is addressed to the nations, is
left uncompleted, but it is taken up
again and explained in the following
question. The translation in the
margin of R. V. brings out the thought
best: “will ye repay a deed of mine,
or will ye do aught unto me? swiftly
and speedily will I return your deed
upon your own head.” Explain your
hostile attitude toward my people.
Have I done any wrong to you which
you would avenge by assailing my
people, or is this attack upon them
without any provocation? A rhetori-
cal question, to which but one answer
can be given: There is nothing to

 

avenge, no occasion for an attack
upon my people. But, if you think
that you have an occasion that de-
mands retaliation, let me warn you
that I will, and that speedily, bring
back your doings upon your own head
(Obad. 15; Lam. iii, 64; Psa. vii, 16).

Verses 5, 6 explain what these na~-
tions have done to Jehovah: they have
stolen his silver and gold and filled
their temples with his precious things,
and his children they have sold as
slaves. My silver... my gold,...
my goodly pleasant things—Not ex-
clusively the things stolen from the
temple, but also those taken from the
palaces and homes of the rich. These
things belong to Jehovah, because
they are the possessions of his people.
In ancient times plundering always
followed the conquest of a city
(1 Kings xiv, 26; 2 Kings xiv, 14).
The temple was rich in golden vessels,
the palaces full of jewels and valuables
of every kind; these the enemies put
into their own temples—The Hebrew
word means palace as well as temple
(Isa. xiii, 22; Amos viii, 3; Prov. xxx,
28). Those who insist on an early
date for Joel regard this a reference
to the invasion of the Philistines and
Arabs (2 Chron. xxi, 16ff.); but there
the Phcenicians are not mentioned.
Neither do we know of a postexilic
event to which this accusation could
apply. It is impossible, therefore, to
say with certainty what invasion is
in the prophet’s mind. The historical
books of the Old Testament do not
give a record of all the events in the
history of Israel; especially concern-
ing postexilic times is our knowledge
very limited. Not only Jehovah’s
possessions but also his people have
they maltreated. Sold—As_ slaves.
The Grecians—Not the inhabitants of
CHAPTER III.

185

 

them far from their border. 7 Be-
hold, *I will raise them out of the
place whither ye have sold them,
and will return your recompense
upon your own head: 8 And I will
sell your sons and your daughters

into the hand of the children of
Judah, and they shall sell them to
the iSabeans, to a people far off:
for the LorD hath spoken it.

9 'Proclaim ye this among the
Gentiles; *Prepare war, wake up the

 

_ 4 Isa. 43. 5, 6; 49. 12; Jer. 23. 8—
i Ezek. 23. 42.——k Jer. 6. 20.

1 See Isa. 8. 9, 10; Jer. 46. 8, 4; Ezek. 38.
7.—§ Heb. Sanctify.

 

a city in Arabia Felix (Credner), nor
Yawan in Yemen (Hitzig), but the
Grecians; literally, Ionians (Gen. x,
2; Isa. Ixvi, 19; Ezek. xxvii, 13, 19,
etc.). The slave traffic of the Phceni-
cians is frequently mentioned in the
Old Testament and in postbiblical
writings (Amos i, 9; Ezek. xxvii, 13;
1 Mace. iii, 41). That the Phoenicians
and the Greeks had commercial inter-
course at a very early period is at-
tested by Greek writers; that slave
trade may have been carried on at
that early period cannot be denied;
that an extensive slave trade between
these nations was carried on in post-
exilic times is certain. In the fifth
century B. C., and later, Syrian slaves
—and that would include Jewish—
were sought after in Greece. Far
from their border—So that there
would be no possibility of returning.
Such separation from home would be
a severe blow to the Jews who thought
of a foreign country and a foreign na-
tion as unclean. The prophet may
have in mind the distant western
colonies of the Ionians.

7, 8. Indeed, these enemies deserve
punishment; and ‘“‘with what measure
ye mete it shall be measured unto
you.” All they have done will be
recompensed to them according to
the lex talionis. Behold, I will raise
them [stir them up’’}~Better, J am
about to stir up. The event is im-
minent (compare ii, 19). Them—The
children of Judah and Jerusalem;
they will be roused into activity in
their place of exile, and will be
brought home (verse 1); there under
the blessing of Jehovah the Jews will
become strong and powerful, and by
means of them Jehovah will do unto
the Tyrians, Sidonians, and Philis-
tines as they have done unto Judah

 

and Jerusalem—sell them into slav-
ery. Sons and daughters—Not chil-
dren, but citizens of the countries
(Hos. ii, 2). Sabeans [“‘men of Sheba’”’]
—A celebrated commercial nation in
southwest Arabia; well known from
the descriptions of ancient geogra-
phers, and more recently from the in-
scriptions found in the district itself.
They traded not only in the products
of their own land, but also in those of
India and Ethiopia (Gen. x, 7, 28;
xxv, 3; 1 Kings x, 2, 10). A people
[“nation”] far off—The Jews had
been sold into the far west (verse 6);
their enemies are to be sold to the
far southeast. LXX. reads, “into
exile’; which presupposes only a
slight change in the Hebrew text and
is favored by some as the original
reading. The prophet assures the
nations that the prediction will surely
be fulfilled. For Jehovah hath spoken
it—A common formula of asseveration
in the Old Testament (Isa. i, 20; xxii,
25; Obad. 18).

9-16. After this condemnation of
the bitterest enemies of the chosen
people the prophet returns to the
announcement broken off in verse 3.
The nations are urged to equip them-
selves for the conflict, to gather in
the valley of Jehoshaphat; but when

they gather at the command of Je-

hovah they are annihilated, while his
own people remain secure. 9. Pro-
claim ye—Not the pious Jews (Wuen-
sche), but those whose duty it is to
make such proclamation, the heralds,
who are at the command of Jehovah
(Amos iii, 9, 18). This—The message
which follows. Gentiles—Better, R.
V., “nations.” Prepare war—Liter-
ally, sanctify. Bring the sacrifices,
perform the religious rites customary
before the opening of a war; by these

r
186

JOEL.

 

mighty men, let all the men of war
draw near; let them come up: 10
=Beat your plowshares into swords,
and your “pruninghooks into spears:
"let the weak say, Iam strong. 11
eAssemble yourselves, and come, all
ye heathen, and gather yourselves
together round about: thither ‘cause

m See Isa. 2. 4; Mic. 4. 3.—+4 Or, scythes.
2 Zech, 12. 8. © Verse 2,—®* Or, the
LORD shall bring down.—? Psa. 103. 20;
Isa. 13. 3.—4 Verse 2.

 

 

means the campaign is brought under
the divine sanction and favor (1 Sam.
vii, 8, 9; Jer. vi, 4). Wake up—Or,
stir up. In a transitive sense, arouse
the heroes, for this is no time for
slumber. The verbs now change to
the third person, a very common
transition in vivid poetic or prophetic
style. Draw near—To battle. Come
up—Against the enemy (i, 6). Both
are technical terms. In Hebrew two
short words, which could be uttered
very rapidly and thus add force and
vividness to the appeal. 10. The
agricultural implements are to be
beaten into weapons of war. Plow-
shares—Heb. ittim, a rare word (Isa.
ii, 4); in 1 Sam. xiii, 20, the same
word is employed alongside of one
meaning plowshare; for that reason
many, following Symmachus, prefer
the translation ‘“‘hoe,” ‘“mattock.”
Spears—Not the same word as in the
parallel passages, Isa. ii, 4; Mic. iv,
3, but a word otherwise used only in
writings from the northern kingdom
or from the later period of Hebrew
literature. Even the weak is to arouse
himself into activity, into heroism,
“as it happens frequently when war-
like enthusiasm seizes a whole nation.”
Compare Schiller: “But war brings
strength to light; it raises all above
the common, even in the coward it
begets courage.” The injunction here
is the very opposite of the promise in
Isa. ii, 4; Mic. iv, 3, that in the Mes-
sianic age the weapons of war will be
turned into agricultural implements.
The first part of verse 11 is better
translated, with R. V., “Haste ye,
and come, all ye nations round about,
and gather yourselves together.” As-

 

thy mighty ones to come down, O
LorD. 12 Let the heathen be wak-
ened, sand come up to the valley of
Jehoshaphat: for there will I sit to
judge all the heathen round about.
13 ‘Put ye in the sickle, for tthe
harvest is ripe: come, get you down;
for the “press is full, the fats over-

r Psa. 96. 13; 98. 9; 110. 6; Isa. 2. 4; 3.
13; Mic. 4. 3.—-* Matt. 13. 39; Rev. 14. 15,
18

.—t Jer, 51. 33; Hos. 6. 11.——¥ Isa.
63. 3; Lam. 1. 15; Rev. 14. 19, 20.

semble yourselves [‘‘Haste ye’’}~The
matter is to be settled speedily, no
delay can be permitted. All ye
heathen [‘‘nations’”] . . . round about
—Not merely the immediate neigh-
bors, but all nations outside of Israel.
In the latter part of verse 11 Joel
utters a prayer that Jehovah may
send down his heavenly warriors to
the assistance of his chosen people.
Thither—Where the nations have
gathered. Thy mighty ones—Not the
heroes, the mighty ones of Judah,
but heavenly powers, angels, who
execute the commands of God (Psa.
lxviii, 17; ciii, 20; Zech. xiv, 5). In
all periods of their history the Israel-
ites believed that Jehovah was fight-
ing their battles; so in this last great
conflict he will be the one supreme
moving power; he will use his own
hosts to bring victory to his people.
To this brief petition Jehovah re-
plies, though not directly, in verses
12, 13. He will look after the inter-
ests of his people. Let them come;
I will be there to meet them. Sit to
judge—Not to listen to further pleas,
but to pronounce sentence. On Je-
hoshaphat compare verse 2; another
play upon words in Hebrew. All the
heathen [‘‘nations’] round about—As
in verse 11, all the nations of the
earth. The sentence is announced in
verse 13 in words addressed to the
mighty ones of verse 11. They are to
discharge their judicial office. The
judgment itself is represented under
a twofold figure, the reaping of grain
and the treading out of grapes (Rev.
xiv, 15f., 19f.); the latter is a
common picture of terrible judgment.
Harvest—Not “vintage” (Hitzig, R. V.
CHAPTER III.

187

 

flow; for their wickedness is great.
14 Multitudes, multitudes, in «the
valley of ‘decision: for ythe day of
the Lorp is near in the valley of de-
cision. 15 The ‘sun and the moon
shall be darkened, and the stars
shall withdraw their shining. 16

The Lorp also shall «roar out of
Zion, and utter his voice from Jeru-
salem; and >the heavens and the
earth shall shake: ‘but the Lorp
will be the 7hope of his people, and
the strength of the children of Isra-
el. 17 So 4shall ye know that I am

 

x Verse 2.—® Or, conciston, or, thresh-
ing.—y Chap. 2. 1. 2 Chap. 2. 10, 31.
—4 Jer. 25. 30; chap. 2. 11; Amos 1. 2.

 

b Hag. 2. 6.——e¢ Isa. 51. 5, 6.7 Heb.
place of repatr, or, harbor.——4 Chap.

 

margin). Is ripe—They are so sin-
ful that they are ready for judgment
(Amos viii, 1). Press—R. V., “wine-
press.” Is full—Another picture of
extreme sinfulness, parallel to the pre-
ceding and to the following. Fats—
Better, vats. The receptacles for the
juice after the grapes are pressed out
(ii, 24). The grapes of sin are so num-
erous and ripe that even before they
are artificially crushed the juice is
pressed out by their own weight.
The same thought is expressed in the
last clause of the verse without
metaphor.

In the next few verses we have a
picture of the judgment. First (verse
14), the tumult made by the nations
as they are assembling; the prophet
hears them coming. Multitudes—The
word is repeated for the sake of em-
phasis: great multitudes; literally,
tumults, which refers rather to the
noise made by the great multitudes
than to the numbers. Valley of
decision—Defines the term used in
iii, 12; the judgment will be decisive,
the chaff will be separated from the
wheat; the doom of the former is cer-
tain. Decision—Margin, “threshing”;
so the great Jewish commentator
Kimchi and a few moderns. The
judgment is so severe that it may be
likened to the threshing of grain (Isa.
xxviii, 27; Amos i, 3); but the first
interpretation is preferable. The na-

tions are gathered because the judg- |}.

ment is ready to burst forth.

15, 16 While the nations are gath-
ering, the supernatural forebodings of
the day are seen (compare ii, 10, 30,
31). In ii, 10, from which passage
verse 15 is quoted, these phenomena
marked the beginning of the day of

 

judgment upon Judah; here upon the
nations. Nothing is said of the exe-
cution of the judgment, but the de-
scription of the events accompanying
it is so vivid that there can be no
doubt about the final outcome. Je-
hovah ... shall roar—The figure of an
angry lion is in the prophet’s mind.
The verb used describes the angry
roar with which the lion springs upon
the prey (Amos i, 2; Jer. xxv, 30).
Jehovah is ready to leap upon the
nations. Utter his voice—The ap-
pearance of Jehovah is described fre-
quently in the imagery of a thunder-
storm; his voice is the thunder (Psa.
xvili, 9-13). Zion, . . . Jerusalem—
The temple on Mount Zion in Jeru-
salem is the earthly abode of Jehovah;
from it the manifestations of his
power proceed. The very fact that
Jehovah has not left the holy city is
a favorable sign to the people. The
heavens and the earth shall shake—A
severe earthquake is to accompany
the storm.

Thus far the prophet takes us; the
sequel imagination must supply. The
roaring lion will not allow his prey to
escape; in the. storm and the earth-
quake the nations will be annihilated.
But it is only to his enemies that Je-
hovah shows himself terrible. From
the awful judgment scene the prophet
turns abruptly to describe the fate
of the pious people of God. Hope
. . strength—Better, with R. V.,
“vefuge . . . stronghold,” or “strong
tower.” They may flee to Jehovah
for refuge as terrified inhabitants flee
to the citadel of a city for protection.
These and similar terms are often
applied to Jehovah in the Psalms
(xiv, 6; xviii, 3). 17. The present
188

the Lorp your God dwelling in Zion,
emy holy mountain: then shall Jeru-
salem be Sholy, and there shall no
‘strangers pass through her any
more.

18 And it shall come to pass in

eDan. 11.45; Obad. 16; Zech. 8. 3.—
8 Heb. holiness.— Isa. 35. 8; 52. 1; Nah.
1. 15; Zech. 14. 21; Rev. 21. 27.——s Amos

 

_ JOEL.

that day, that the mountains shall
edrop down new wine, and the hills
shall flow with milk, band all the
rivers of Judah shall *flow with wat-
ers, and ia fountain shall come forth
of the house of the Lorp, and shall

9. 13.—h Isa. 30. 25.—9 Heb. go.—
i Psa, 46. 4; Ezek. 47. 1; Zech. 14. 8; Rev.
22. 1,

 

crisis, the destruction of the nations,
and the deliverance of Israel will
teach the latter that Jehovah is their
God—They will now recognize him in
his supremacy (ii, 27; Hos. ii, 8;
Ezek. xxxviii, 23). Dwelling in Zion
—Synonymous with “in the midst of
Israel” (ii, 27); near enough to re-
spond to any appeal for assistance.
Then shall Jerusalem be holy—Set
apart for God, and pure in character
(compare ii, 1). Judgment, in the
thought of the prophets, always has
a purifying effect (Isa. iv, 4). The
destruction of the enemies will pre-
vent future defilement by them (Nah.
i, 15). Strangers—Aliens, members of
foreign nations, who have no interest
in nor love for the things precious to
the Jews (Hos. vii, 9; Jer. xxx, 8).
18-21. After the judgment upon
the nations, Judah, under the care
and protection of Jehovah, will enjoy
the fullness of the divine blessing.
The seat of the former world powers
will become a barren waste, while in
Judah there will be fertility and peace.
18. In that day—The day of judgment
upon the enemies and of deliverance
for the Jews, and so the beginning of
the Messianic age. Now follows a
hyperbolical description of extreme
fertility. Mountains . . . hills—The
territory of Judah was “strewn with
limestone rocks. The little soil be-
tween yielded only a meager subsist-
ence in return for the most wearisome
labor.” But the fertility in the new
age will be so great that it will seem
as if the mountains and hills them-
selves were giving forth the wine and
milk. New [‘‘sweet’’] wine—See on i,
5 (compare Amos ix, 13). Milk—
Canaan is called a “land flowing with
milk and honey” (Exod. iii, 8). The

 

prophet, on the whole adopting the
language of Amos, takes the liberty
to make the change in accord with
the rest of the description. Rivers
(i, 20) shall flow with waters—Water
was doled out but sparingly in Judah,
most of the brooks dried up entirely
during the dry season. That will
happen no more; water will be plenti-
ful for man and beast. A fountain
... of the house of Jehovah—There
are two other passages speaking of a
fountain that shall come forth from
Jerusalem or from the temple of
Jehovah (Zech. xiv, 8; Ezek. xlvii,
1-12). All three passages may have
been suggested by the fact that there
was a spring which came forth from
beneath the temple in a perennial
stream (Isa. viii, 6; compare Psa. xlvi,
4; John ix, 7). ‘The idea which the
three prophets share in common is
that these waters should be increased
in volume to such an extent as to be
capable of fertilizing effectually the
barren parts of Judah.” Valley of
Shittim—R. V. margin, ‘That is, the
valley of acacias.” Valley—Heb.
nahal. Not the same word as in iii,
12, 14; it corresponds to the Arabic
wady, a gorge between hills, through
which runs a water course which in
the rainy season becomes a rushing
torrent, while in the dry season it
dries up partly or entirely. Shittim—
Literally, acacias—The name of the
last encampment of the Israelites be-
fore their entrance into Canaan (Num.
xxv, 1; Josh. iii, 1); but this does not
seem to be the place in the mind of
Joel, for “it is hardly likely that the
prophet would picture the stream as
crossing the Jordan and fertilizing the
opposite side.” There is to-day a de-
pression southwest of Jerusalem,
CHAPTER III.

189

 

water «the valley of Shittim. 19
1Kgypt shall be a desolation, and
mEidom shall be a desolate wilder-
ness, for the violence against the
children of Judah, because they
have shed innocent blood in their

land. 20 But Judah shall !dwell
"for ever, and Jerusalem from gen-
eration to generation. 21 For I will
°cleanse their blood that I have not
cleansed: P "for the LorpD dwelleth
in Zion.

 

k Num. 25. 1.—1! Isa. 19. 1, ete.
m Jer. 49.17; Ezek. 25. 12, 13; Amos 1.
11; Obad. 10.—?° Or, abide. 2 Amos 9.

 

15.» Isa. 4, 4.——p Verse 17; Ezek.
48. 35; Rev. 21. 3.—1l! Or, even I the
LORD that dwelleth in Zion,

 

Wady-es-Sunt (Sant), probably iden-
tical with the vale of Elah (1 Sam.
xvii, 2), through which runs the road
to Ashkelon. Sunt, the modern name
of this Wady, is identical with Shittim,
and a few scholars (Wellhausen,
Nowack) identify the valley men-
tioned by Joel with this depression.
The great majority of scholars, how-
ever, think that the prophet uses the
name to designate the Kidron valley,
or at least a part of the same, now
called Wady-en-Nar. It begins north-
west of Jerusalem, runs along the
east side of the city, separating it
from the Mount of Olives, then con-
tinues in a southeasterly direction, and
finally reaches the Dead Sea about
ten miles from its northern end.
Acacias still grow on the west shore
of the Dead Sea (Tristram, Land of
Israel, 280, 295). That Ezekiel has
this depression in mind is beyond
doubt. Whether it or the Wady-es-
Sunt is referred to here cannot be
determined. Wherever located, the
term was chosen to designate a barren
valley, as the acacia grows in dry soil;
even the dry, barren soil will, in the
new age, become fertile and pro-
ductive. That fertility and material
prosperity are an essential element of
the divine blessing in the Messianic
age is frequently taught by the proph-
ets (Hos. ii, 21, 22; Amos ix, 13;
Isa. iv, 2).

19. While Judah is thus prospering,
the curse of desolation (ii, 3) will fall
upon Edom and Egypt on account of
the crimes committed against the
children of Israel. Egypt—Much had
Israel suffered from Egypt from the
time of the Exodus to the Exile. The
only time when friendly relations
existed was for a brief period during

 

the reign of Solomon (1 Kings iii, 1;
ix, 16, ete.). The friendship during
the Assyrian period, condemned by
the prophet Isaiah, was not sincere.
Egypt was well watered by nature
and by artificial irrigation, but this
will avail nothing when the blow from
Jehovah will fall. Edom—Located
south and southeast of the Dead Sea.
After the destruction of Jerusalem the
Edomites occupied territory in south-
ern Judah. They also were long-time
enemies of the Israelites, and they are
severely condemned for rejoicing over
the fall of the holy city (Psa. exxxvii,
7). It is quite possible that these two
hostile nations are mentioned merely
as types of all enemies of Israel and of
the God of Israel. Violence—This
violence consisted in the shedding of
innocent blood. In their land—Not
in the land of the Judzans (Wuen-
sche), but of the Egyptians and Edom-
ites. Shed innocent blood—Not in
time of warfare, but in unprovoked
massacres of peaceable Jews dwelling
in these lands (Exod. i, 16; Amos i,
11; Obad. 10).

20. While the surrounding nations
become desolate Judah and Jerusa-
lem, the dwelling place of Jehovah
and of his saints, shall flourish for-
ever. Dwell—Margin, ‘abide’; lit-
erally, sit. A poetical expression of
the idea of continued habitation and
prosperity (margin R. V.; Isa. xiii, 20;
Jer. xvii, 6,25). Forever—Heb. ‘élam.
An endless period only in so far as the
speaker cannot see the end; the actual
extent may be long or short, and
must be determined by other con-
siderations. Here synonymous with
from generation to generation. 21. For
I will cleanse their blood that I have
not cleansed—The meaning is ex-
190

pressed more clearly in margin of
R. V., “And I will hold (or, declare)
as innocent their blood, that I have not
declared innocent.” For [‘And’}-—
Better, And so, that is, by the exe-
cution of judgment upon Edom and
Egypt and the showering of abundant
blessings upon Judah and Jerusalem.
“T will declare as innocent”—The He-
brew is chosen with reference to the
expression “innocent blood” in verse
19 (compare Exod. xx, 7; Job ix, 28).
So long as Jehovah permitted the
Jews to suffer and their enemies to
prosper it might be supposed that
the former had deserved all their
afflictions; but the judgment sent as
punishment upon the oppressors is
decisive proof of the latter’s guilt,
and so implies the innocence of the
Jewish victims. The emendation of
Nowack, “and I will avenge their

 

JOEL.

blood, nor will I suffer (the enemies)
to go unpunished,” is unnecessary.
Jehovah dwelleth in Zion (ii, 27; ili,
17)—This clause does not state the
reason why all the promises will be
fulfilled—namely, because Jehovah is
in Zion; nor is it a corroboration of
the preceding promise: this shall come
to pass as truly as Zion is the habi-
tation of Jehovah; rather a reitera-
tion of the greatest of all promises:
The judgment executed, Jehovah will
establish himself in Zion forever;
never again will he forsake his people
so that they become a reproach
among their enemies.

The prophecy of Joel opens with a
picture of utter hopelessness and de-
spair; it closes with the promise that
even the highest hopes of the most
optimistic Jews shall be realized in
all their fullness.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS.

—\—*_+o »>—_____

The Person of the Prophet.

Amos is the name of the prophet whose book occupies in the
Hebrew as well as in the English Bible third place among
the Minor Prophets; in LXX. second place, following Hosea.
It may be regarded as settled, however, that with the possible
exception of the authors of a few prophetic fragments we have
in Amos the first of the literary prophets, the prophets records
of whose discourses have been preserved. The exceptions are
Isa. xv, 1—xvi, 12, which Isaiah himself refers to as some-
thing having been delivered “in time past” (xvi, 13), and
Mic. iv, 1-4 (see at the close of Mic. iv, 5; compare Isa. ii,
2-4). Asa result the Book of Amos-is of great importance
in the study of the religious development of Israel, as a wit-
ness to the beliefs current among the Hebrews in the eighth
century B. C.

The name of the prophet—Heb. ‘Amés—means burdened,
or burden-bearer; it must not be confused, as was done by
the Greek and Latin fathers, with “Amés, the name of the
father of Isaiah, which comes from an entirely different root
in Hebrew.

About the personal history of Amos we know only what the
book tells us. Where he was born we are not told; his home
was in Tekoa (i, 1), which has been sought in different parts
of Palestine but is undoubtedly to be identified with the
modern Tekii‘a, on the high ground of Judah; about twelve
miles south of Jerusalem and six miles south of Bethlehem.
Jerome speaks of Tekoa as abounding in shepherds with their
flocks, the soil being too sandy and dry to be cultivated for

grain. Amos was not a prophet by education or profession,
191
192 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS.

 

nor did he enter the prophetic office by way of the prophetic
guilds. His occupation was that of a herdsman (i, 1; vu, 14)
—Heb. ndkédh, the keeper of a certain species of sheep called
among the Arabs nakad. It is a sheep small and stunted in
growth, with short legs and ill-formed face, but esteemed on
account of its choice wool. Its lack of beauty has given rise
to a saying, “More homely than a nakad.” In Arabie the
nakkad is the keeper of this kind of sheep, and the Hebrew
nékédh is a word of similar import. The same term is apphed
in 2 Kings iii, 4, to King Mesha of Moab, Eng. “sheep master.”
In vii, 14, Amos calls himself a “tender of cattle,” Heb. béker,
a word which occurs only here and may be a mistake for
nokedh, the two resembling each other quite closely in Hebrew;
or békér must be used in the general sense “herdsman” (so

English versions).
Amos calls himself also bélés shikemim (vii, 14)—A. V.,

“a gatherer of sycomore fruit”; R. V., “a dresser of sycomore
trees.” “As you will still find everywhere on the border of the
Syrian desert shepherds nourishing a few fruit trees round
the chief well of their pasture, in order to vary their milk
diet, so in some low oasis in the wilderness of Judea Amos
cultivated the poorest but the most easily grown of fruits, the
sycomore” (G. A. Smith). Balas in Ethiopic means fig; in
Arabie also it denotes a certain species of fig. In Hebrew, it
may be inferred, it denoted the similarly shaped fruit of the
sycomore; and the verb derived from it must signify to deal
with, to handle, or to dress the fruit of the sycomore. The
shikemah, “sycomore,” or “fig mulberry tree,” not our syca-
more, grew abundantly in southern Palestine. It attains the
size of a walnut tree, has wide-spreading branches, and on
account of its shade is often planted by the wayside (Luke
xix, 4). The fruit grows on little sprigs rising directly out
of the stem, in clusters like grapes. It is like a small fig in
shape and size, insipid and woody in taste. It is infested
with a small insect, and, unless the fruit is punctured to allow
the insect to escape, it does not become eatable. With the
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS. 193

 

insect escapes a bitter juice, and then the fruit ripens and
becomes eatable, though never very palatable. The operation
of puncturing the fruit is probably meant in the case of Amos.
LXX. renders “to prick,” or, “to nip.”

The sycomore does not grow at so high a level as Tekoa in
Judah, and this fact has been urged against locating the home
of Amos there; but there is no necessity for supposing that
his sycomore trees were located in Tekoa, or even in the imme-
diate neighborhood of the town. Tekoa was situated on a
detached hill, about twenty-seven hundred feet high; eastward
this hill slopes down to the wilderness of Judah; to the south-
east there is a deep valley running to the Dead Sea. Some-
where in these lower parts, where a milder temperature pre-
vailed, these groves may have been located.

Both occupations were rather humble. Amos may have
partly or entirely owned the flocks and the trees, but the state-
ment that he “followed the flock” (vii, 14) indicates that he
was not a wealthy sheepmaster; yet he must have been pros-
perous enough to employ an assistant when he journeyed to
Beth-el; for it is not likely that he took the flocks with him,
or that he disposed of them before undertaking the journey.
The language of the prophecy and the favorite figures bear
witness that Amos was a countryman accustomed to life in
the open air (ii, 13; ili, 4, 5, 12; iv, 2, 13; v, 8; vi, 12; vii, 1-3;
ix, 5, 6, 9, ete.).

It was while following his daily occupation that the divine
call reached him (vii, 15) ; but the call did not find him unpre-
pared. He belonged to the “right-minded minority” among
the Hebrews that in spite of all influences to the contrary
retained its faith and loyalty to Jehovah. With an open mind
and a quickened conscience he undoubtedly often meditated
upon the things of God as he dwelt in the solitude of the desert.
Accustomed to the simpler life of the herdsman, he would feel
more keenly the extravagance, luxury, and corruption of the
aristocracy. Compelled to defend himself and his flock against
the dangers of the desert, he would not easily shrink back
194 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS.

 

from the dangers confronting a prophet of Jehovah. Care-
fully watching every shadow and noise, not knowing how soon
a wild beast would rush upon him from the apparent quiet-
ness, he readily developed the vigilance and power of discern-
ment which kept him from being deceived by the superficial
piety and prosperity of his countrymen.

The influence of the lonely shepherd life in shaping Amos
into a “vessel meet for the Master’s use” cannot be easily over-
estimated. But Amos did not receive his training exclusively
in the solitude of the desert. “As a wool grower Amos must
have had his yearly journeys among the markets of the land;
and to such were probably due his opportunities for familiarity
with northern Israel, the originals of his vivid pictures of her
town life, her commerce, and her worship at the great sanc-
tuaries.” To these sights Amos brought from the desert a
penetrating vision, a quickened conscience, and keen powers of
discernment. “He saw the raw facts—the poverty, the cruel
negligence of the rich, the injustice of the rulers, the immorali-
ties of the priests. The meaning of these things he questioned
with as much persistency as he questioned every suspicious
sound or sight upon the pastures of Tekoa. He had no illu-
sions; he knew a mirage when he saw one. Neither the
military pride of the people, fostered by recent successes over
Syria, nor the dogmas of their religion, which asserted Jeho-
vah’s swift triumph over the heathen, could prevent him from
knowing that the immorality of Israel meant Israel’s political
downfall. He was one of those recruits from common life by
whom religion and the state have always been reformed.
Springing from the laity and very often from among the work-
ing classes, their freedom from dogmas and routine, as well
as from the compromising interests of wealth, rank, and party,
renders them experts in life to a degree that almost no pro-
fessional priest, statesman, or journalist, however honest or
sympathetic, can rival. Into politics they bring facts, but
into religion they bring: vision.”

Such a man, prepared, under the divine providence, by his
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS. 195

 

very occupation, was Amos when he heard the call of Jehovah.
A man of his character cannot refuse to obey the divine voice.
He left his flocks and sycomore groves and journeyed to
Beth-el, the religious center of the northern kingdom. There
under the shadow of the royal sanctuary (vii, 13) he delivered
his God-given message of warning and exhortation. How long
he remained at Beth-el we do not know. Finally Amaziah,
the chief priest, aroused by the announcement of the over-
throw of the sanctuaries and of the dynasty of Jeroboam,
accused Amos of treason and bade him return to his own home
and make a living there. Amos was not frightened so easily ;
he defended his action and repeated his message of judgment.

Of Amos’s later life we know nothing. But in view of the
well-planned disposition of his prophecies, and in view of the
reference “two years before the earthquake” (i, 1)—showing
that the words were not written until after the earthquake had
occurred—it is reasonable to suppose that after he had com-
pleted his prophetic ministration he returned to Tekoa, took
up his former occupation, and at his leisure arranged his
prophecies in their present form in writing, or at least, that
they were written down under his direction. A late Christian
tradition, whose origin is obscure, asserts that Amos was fre-
quently struck by Amaziah, and that finally he was fatally
wounded by the latter’s son, because the prophet rebuked him
for worshiping the “calves,” that Amos survived until he
reached his own land, died there, and was buried with his
fathers. Jerome and Eusebius affirm that in their days the
tomb of Amos was shown at Tekoa.

The Time of the Prophet.

1. Date—According to i, 1, Amos prophesied (1) while
Jeroboam was king of Israel, and Uzziah king of Judah. The
longest possible reign that may be ascribed to Uzziah covers
approximately 789-737 B. C.; that of Jeroboam II, 782-741.
According to this note the ministry of Amos falls between
782 and 741 B. C. That Jeroboam was still upon the throne
196 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS.

 

is implied in vii, 9, 10. (2) “Two years before the earth-
quake.” This earthquake is spoken of. also in Zech. xiv, 5,
as having occurred in the days of Uzziah, but its exact date is
not known. No more direct information concerning the date
of Amos is found anywhere in the Old Testament, but the
date may be fixed more definitely by inference. In 2 Kings
xiv, 25, it is said of Jeroboam II that he restored “the border
of Israel from the entrance of Hamath unto the sea of the
Arabah.” In vi, 14, Amos predicts that an enemy will afflict
Israel “from the entrance of Hamath unto the brook of the
Arabah.” From this we may safely infer that the conquests
of Jeroboam had already taken place when Amos arose. Be-
sides, the tone of the entire book places it beyond doubt that
the evil consequences of the prosperity resulting from the suc-
cessful undertakings of Jeroboam had made themselves felt in
a marked degree when Amos was called to his prophetic work.
We may not be far out of the way, then, if we place the activity
of Amos after the middle of Jeroboam’s reign, about 760-755
B.C.

2. Condition of the Country.—The period in which Amos
arose as a prophet of Jehovah was one of great external pros-
perity for both Israel and Judah. Israel had but very recently
recovered from a state of extreme depression. During the
reigns of Jehu and Jehoahaz it had suffered very severely from
the Syrians. Hazael took all the territory east of the Jordan
(2 Kings x, 32, 33); and of Jehoahaz’s reign it is said that
“the anger of Jehovah was kindled against Israel, and he
delivered them into the hand of Hazael king of Syria, and
into the hand of Ben-hadad the son of Hazael, continually”
(2 Kings xiii, 3). And again, “He left not to Jehoahaz of
the people save fifty horsemen, and ten chariots, and ten thou-
sand footmen; for the king of Syria destroyed them” (verse 7).

Israel seemed on the verge of destruction; but it revived
once more. Under the successor of Jehoahaz, Joash (or Jeho-
ash), the fortunes of Israel began to turn. He “took again
out of the hand of Ben-hadad the son of Hazael the cities
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS. 197

 

which he had taken out of the hand of Jehoahaz his father
by war. Three times did Joash smite him, and recovered the
cities of Israel” (2 Kings xiii, 25). In part, at least, these
victories may have been due to the fact that at about this
time the forces of Syria were needed for the defense of their
home land against a powerful enemy in the southeast, the
Assyrians. The success of Israel continued under Jeroboam
IT; he became a saviour of Israel (2 Kings xiv, 27), recov-
ered all the territory that had been lost, and added to Israel’s
territory in every direction; he even captured Damascus (2
Kings xiv, 23-29). As a result of these successes in war, the
revival of commerce, and the new development of the internal
resources Israel rose to a pitch of power and prosperity greater
than the nation had enjoyed since the division of the kingdom.

But the prosperity was accompanied and followed by grave
evils. The brief record in the Book of Kings does little more
than give an outline of the external history. The internal
social, moral, and religious conditions appear more plainly in
the writings of the eighth century prophets, Amos and Hosea
in Israel, Isaiah and Micah in Judah.

The Book of Amos presents a vivid picture of the prosperity
in Israel. The luxury of the rich, made possible by increased
wealth, met the eyes of the simple herdman on every hand.
The palaces built of “hewn stone” (v, 11), some of them
“paneled with ivory” (ili, 15), the pretentious summer resi-
dences and winter residences (iii, 15), the extravagant interior
finish (iii, 12; vi, 4), all were to him evidence that the former
simplicity and stability were threatened with extinction. He
could not avoid seeing or hearing the drunken revelries (vi,
5, 6), nor could he be blind to the mad extravagance which
found satisfaction only in possessing the choicest and best of
everything, the chief oils (vi, 6), the most delicate meats
(vi, 4), the best music (vi, 5). The sanctuaries shared in
the general prosperity. The chief sanctuary at Beth-el was
under royal patronage (vii, 13), it was thronged with worship-
ers (ix, 1); other sanctuaries were diligently visited (iv, 4;
198 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS.

v, 5; viii, 14); offerings and tithes were brought regularly
and in abundance; feasts were celebrated with all possible
pomp (iv, 4, 5; v, 21-23).

A nation so prosperous and so zealous in the fulfillment of
its religious obligations might well be called blessed. But the
prophet was not deceived by the superficial prosperity; he saw
the dark side of the nation’s life with equal clearness. ‘The
wealth and luxury of the rich were obtained by violence and
robbery (iii, 10); by oppression of the poor and needy, who
were driven into actual slavery by their cruel creditors (1i, 6, 7;
viii, 6); by dishonest trading, in which every possible advan-
tage was taken of the unsuspecting buyer (viii, 4-6) ; by exact-
ing presents and bribes (v, 11, 12). Women were no better
than men; to satisfy their appetites they urged their husbands
to greater cruelties (iv, 1). Public and private virtue had
almost completely died out. The corruption of the courts of
justice was notorious (v, 7, 10, 12; vi, 12); the poor could
get no satisfactory hearing, justice was bought and sold (v, 12).
Immoralities were practiced without shame (ii, 7). Trades-
men were impatient at the interruption of their greedy pur-
suits by the sacred days (viii, 5). Humane feelings were
smothered (ii, 8). The situation was the more hopeless because
the leaders, who should have been the protectors and guardians
of the people, were the leaders in vice and crime (vi, 1-6), and
were indifferent to the “affliction of Joseph” (vi, 6). Those
who attempted to reprove the wrong and uphold the right
were despised and abhorred (v, 10; vii, 10-13). With this
flagrant disregard of all human and divine law there went,
strangely enough, a feeling of absolute security and self-right-
eousness. ‘The great mass of people believed that in view of
their painstaking observance of the external ceremonial they
had a claim upon the divine favor, and that Jehovah was bound
to be with them and to protect them from all harm (v, 14).
This deplorable religious, social, and moral condition was all
due to a false conception of the character of Jehovah (see
below, p. 207). “When men corrupt the image of God in their

 
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS. 199

 

hearts, they forthwith proceed to the debasing of themselves,
and then to such enmity and strife that the bonds of society
are wholly broken.”

In the midst of the social abuses, the moral corruption, and
the religious self-contentment the message of Amos fell like
a thunderbolt.

The Book of the Prophet.

1. General.—lIt was suggested (p. 195) that Amos himself
may have put his prophecies into writing, but that admission
does not decide what was the extent of the book as it came from
the hand of the prophet (see below, pp. 213ff.) ; nor does it
prove that he embodied in the book the utterances as they were
spoken originally. He may have omitted in writing some
things which he had spoken; on the other hand, he may have
added things not spoken previously. At any rate, the words of
Kirkpatrick seem quite justified: “The book bears evidence of
more orderly and systematic arrangement than would be likely
to have characterized the spoken prophecies.”

‘That the prophecies were arranged in the chronological order
of their delivery may be doubted, but a logical arrangement is
clearly visible. In broad outline the development of the:
thought is as follows: The book opens with threats of judg-
ment against the surrounding nations, against Judah, and
especially against Israel; these are followed by a presentation
of the reasons for the judgment. five visions of the execution
of the judgment; and after a brief reference to the effects
upon both godly and ungodly the book closes with a description
of the exaltation and glory of the remnant that will escape the
judgment.

Opinions concerning Amos’ style have changed greatly since
Jerome called him “rude in speech but not in knowledge.” A
few quotations will illustrate the estimate placed by modern
scholarship upon the literary skill of the prophet: “He deserves
to rank among the first of the sacred writers.” “He is very
little inferior to the best Old Testament writers.” It would
be difficult to form a better brief characterization of the style
200 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS.

 

of the Book of Amos than that by Driver: “The style of Amos
possesses high literary merit. His language. . . is pure, his
syntax is idiomatic, his sentences are smoothly constructed and
clear. The even flow of his language contrasts remarkably with
the short, abrupt clauses which his contemporary Hosea loves
[see p. 38]. Amos’s literary power is shown in the regularity
of structure which often characterizes his periods, as i, 3—ii, 6
(a cleverly constructed and impressive introduction of the
prophet’s theme, evidently intended to lead up to Israel,
ii, 6ff.), iv, 6-11 (the fivefold refrain), and in the visions
(vii, 1, 4, 75 vili, 1; ix, 1); in the fine climax (iii, 3-8) ; in the
balanced clauses, the well-chosen images, the effective contrasts,
in such passages as i, 2; ili, 23 v, 2, 21-24; vi, 7, 11; viii, 10;
ix, 2-4, as well as in the ease with which he manifestly writes,
and the skill with which his theme is gradually developed.”

2. Contents—The Book of Amos falls naturally into three
divisions: _ Chapters i, ii, the Prologue; chapters iii—vi, a
series of discourses; chapters vii—ix, a series of visions, inter-
rupted by a piece of narrative and short remarks on the same
subjects as are discussed in chapters iii—vi.

After the title (i, 1), giving the name, home, occupation,
and approximate date of the prophet, and the preface (i, 2),
announcing in general terms the approach of judgment, Amos
proceeds to announce the wrath of God upon the surrounding
nations “for three transgressions and for four,” upon Damas-
cus (3-5), Philistia (6-8), Pheenicia (9, 10), Edom (11, 12),
Ammon (13-15), Moab (ii, 1-3), Judah (4, 5). Having gained
the good will of his hearers by declaring the doom of their
enemies, he breaks into a message of denunciation and judg-
ment against Israel, for whose temporal and spiritual well-
being Jehovah had made extraordinary efforts (6-16). The
condemnation is chiefly an account of two transgressions: op-
pression of the poor, and immorality and self-indulgence prac-
ticed in the name of religion. These verses (ii, 6-16) may be
called the thesis of the whole book.

The second main division (chapters iii—vi) contains several
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS. 201

 

discourses expanding and justifying the indictment and sen-
tence in ii, 6-16. The first discourse (iii, 1—iv, 3) is intended
primarily for the ruling classes. The prophet calls attention
to the special favors received by Israel from Jehovah, and
implies that these favors carried with them unusual oppor-
tunities and obligations. Since Israel failed to embrace these,
Jehovah is bound to visit upon the neglectful people all their
iniquities (ili, 1, 2). This startling announcement made it
necessary for the prophet to defend his message and authority.
He does this by a series of illustrations showing that every
effect presupposes a cause (3-6); on the same principle his
prophesying presupposes a commission, a call to prophesy
(7,8). Having presented his credentials, he continues the
message of denunciation and judgment. He summons the
surrounding nations, who possess much less moral and religious
light than the Hebrews, to testify against Israel, to decide
whether, according to their lower standards, the judgment is
not merited (9,10). The sentence is declared just; therefore
Jehovah will speedily send ‘an avenger, who will lay waste the
corrupt city and the sanctuaries of the land so that only a
small remnant shall escape (11-15). The noble women of
Samaria who, in order to satisfy their unholy appetites, urge
their husbands to greater exactions and more cruel oppression,
must share the punishment; they will be driven into exile
(iv, 1-3).

The second discourse (iv, 4-13) is addressed to the people
at large. In an ironical vein Amos exhorts them to persist in
their heartless ceremonial worship, “for this pleaseth you,”
implying that Jehovah takes no delight in it (4, 5). By a
long series of calamities Jehovah has sought to make plain
his dissatisfaction with their conduct, and to bring them to
their senses, but in vain (6-11), hence he will strike a final
blow (12, 13).

The next address (v, 1-17) contains lamentations, exhorta-
tions, reproofs, and threats of ruin. It opens with a dirge over
the downfall of Israel (1-3). This fate is merited because
202 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS.

 

the people have utterly disregarded the demands of Jehovah ;
they have sought him by a ritual which he does not value, and
have spurned the virtues which he prizes (4-10). Improve-
ment seems out of the question, therefore swift judgment will
overtake them (11-13); nevertheless, sincere repentance may
yet result in the salvation of at least a remnant (14, 15).
The prophet seems to be conscious that such a hope is vain; at
any rate, he reiterates the announcement of doom (16, 17).

In verses 18-27 follows a new section, whose theme is the
darkness and despair of the day of Jehovah. It begins with
a startling woe upon those who are anxious for that day to
come. They will be disappointed, for instead of being a day
of salvation and triumph it will be a day of terror and disaster
(18-20). This is due to the fact that they are enemies of
Jehovah, their service is an abomination to him, for it is utterly
opposed to his requirements (21-25) ; therefore the terrors of
Jehovah will fall upon them (26, 27).

In vi, 1-14, the final discourse in the second main division
of the book, a woe is pronounced upon the luxurious, the self-
confident, and the proud. In vi, 1, the prophet turns to the
leaders of the people, who, reveling in their wealth and luxury,
were perfectly content with the present state of things, and
were absolutely indifferent to the ruin threatening the people.
For this indifference they shall surely be carried into exile
“with the first that go captive’ (1-7). The whole city and
nation shall be given up to destruction, because they have per-
verted truth and righteousness and have placed their confidence
exclusively in their own resources (8-14).

The third main division (vii, 1—ix, 15) consists princi-
pally of visions picturing the execution of the judgment threat-
ened in chapters iii—vi. The first two visions—the swarm of
locusts, and the devouring fire—describe calamities whose ter-
rors are already felt, and which threaten complete annihilation,
but Jehovah, at the intercession of the prophet, averts the final
catastrophe (vii, 1-6). The third vision—the master builder
with the plumb line—does not picture the calamity itself, but

B
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS. 203

 

presents Jehovah as decreeing the utter destruction of the pco-
ple (7-9). The three visions are followed by an historical
section (10-17), in which Amos relates his experience in
Beth-el; how Amaziah attempted to drive him from the sanc-
tuary there, how he refused to be silent, and how he reiterated
and expanded his previous threats. The fourth vision—the
basket of summer fruit—announces that the time of mercy is
past: “The end has come upon. . . Israel” (viii, 1-3). To
this vision are added fresh denunciations and threats (4-14),
intended especially for the greedy merchants. The fifth vision
—the smitten sanctuary—differs in form from the preceding
four, but its purpose is the same: it declares that Jehovah is
determined to make an end of the “sinful kingdom” (ix, 1-6).
The prophet combats again the misapprehension that the peo-
ple’s former choice by Jehovah is a guarantee of permanent
security (7,8). Once more he announces judgment, this time
emphasizing its disciplinary purpose, and promising the pres-
ervation of a sound kernel (9, 10).

The book closes with promises of a bright future to this
faithful remnant. The dynasty of David will be restored to
power (11), the surrounding nations will be reconquered
(12), extreme fertility will bless the soil (13), the exiles will
be restored to their own land, there to live forever in prosperity
and joy (14, 15).

Outline.
TITLE—THE ORIGIN OF THE Boor. Chap. i, i.
A. THe PROLOGUE—THE APPROACHING JUDGMENT. Chaps. i, 2—ii, 16.

I. THE PREFACE—JEHOVAH’S TERRIBLE MANIFESTATION.......... i

Il. THE SINS AND PUNISHMENTS OF SIX NON-ISRAELITISH

DATION S talc osc Ace Aleet aise she aud aa Bos Guncace dec uauadaeysrater sara Geng i, 3—ii, 3
1 SyPia. S26. sas tewciodt amg whee AUG ears es i, 3-5
D5 PU TASCIA: ici Ghevatcs ce auedevarolg welsas ns tal onjeleare rote Oa aeere toes i, 6-8
3: Phoenicia: s.cvarciuiw alesse ase neal@accademaeagads i, 9, 10
AHO carey feos ease NG 8 aS SAG ae ea i, 11, 12
Bic ONS 5 55 Je cade mus eniteeuactiseratscmednan eee Re Gems Rae i, 13-15
Gi. MOAD: Ac saiiechceee a esas teeieas sea Sues ii, 1-3
204 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS.

 

 

III. THE SIN AND PUNISHMENT OF JUDAH.......--++0+- wee eeli, 4, 5
IV. THE SIN AND PUNISHMENT OF ISRAEL. .....-eeeeeeeeeere ii, 6-16

B. DIscouRSES OF WARNING AND EXHORTATION. Chaps. iii, 1—vi, 14.

I. CONDEMNATION OF THE RULING CLASSES.....---+--065 iii, 1—iv, 3
1. Failure to recognize responsibilities brings punish-
MONE wie iin ng He BRASS Nae Ee EAS iii, 1, 2
2. The prophet’s authority...........+ eee ee eee eee iii, 3-8
3. Summons of the surrounding nations to testify
against Israel. ...... ccc cee eee ee teens iii, 9, 10
4. Sentence of doom... ... 6... 60. e ee eee eee eee iii, 11-15
5. The heartless luxury and self-indulgence of the
noble ladieS........ cee eee ce ee ee ee eee eens iv, 1-3
II. ISRAEL’S FAILURE TO UNDERSTAND THE DIVINE JUDGMENTS. iv, 4-13
1. A mistaken religious geal... . 6. sece gen Keen cneens iv, 4,5
2. Seven unheeded chastisements..........----00-- iv, 6-11
(1) “Manin 6. .icceyisas hess cases ees Wide ears ee iv, 6
(2) DPrOUs bt ris a deaiedases cated preter eae eae a iv, 7, 8
(3) Blasting and mildew................-- iv, 9a
C4) TOUS a caaca med takes Vase es eee on aces iv, 9b
(DY. PEStiHlenee” asics cenesiee coe Red co deownwet iv, 10a
(CO): Wat wikis sch ae Vien buealeakios eahoee Skis iv, 10b
C1) arthquake gcades eed ua va REx Rees eres iv, 11
3. Threat of a final destructive blow............. iv, 12, 13
III. ADDRESS CONTAINING LAMENTATIONS, EXHORTATIONS, RE-
PROOFS, AND-THREATS OF RUIN... ccc cece eee eee ee eee v, 1-17
1. Dirge over the downfall of Israel................. v, 1-3
2. Justification of the judgment; exhortation to repent-
ANCES geese Hiigrdcouga ia. g ol srewalesues oe Wies Masieare awe Ge v, 4-10
3. Israel’s moral depravity demands retribution...v, 11-13
4. Renewed exhortations................. 00.0008 v, 14, 15

5. The imminent doom and universal lamentation.v, 16, 17

IV. THE DARKNESS AND DESPAIR OF THE DAY OF JEHOVAH....vV, 18-27
1. The day of Jehovah a day of calamity and ruin. .v, 18-20
2. The people’s worship an abomination to Jehovah. .v, 21-25
3. Threat of an exile to a far-distant region........ v, 26, 27

DIOS ec cee Gctises stds SS ae oe Sianeieuda Ginigeouete OSs vi, 1-7
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS. 205

 

C. Five VISIONS PICTURING THE EXECUTION oF THE J UDGMENT, WITH
INTERLUDES. Chaps. vii, 1—ix, 15.

I. THREE RELATED VISIONS......... ie ansaincond tao tnes yeGts «....Vii, 1-9
1. The swarm of locustS........... ec eee cence eae vii, 1-3
2. ‘THe GevOuring: fre vi s.saine soe eee enw eae wew ane vii, 4-6
8. The master builder with the plumb line.......... vii, 7-9

II. HisToricaL sECTION—THE EXPERIENCE OF AMOS AT BETH-EL
Dawe oa iden Syebcaileualsi aia gta “ondla Waite, shout Oiseau alsionecomuads Vdc 1 =U

III. THE FOURTH VISION—THE BASKET OF SUMMER FRUIT... .Viii, 1-3

IV. EXPLANATORY DISCOURSE. ........ cece eee ee eeceeaes viii, 4-14
1. The greedy merchants of Israel................ viii, 4-6
2. Figurative description of the impending judgment
and of the resulting lamentation............ viii, 7-10
3. Some effects of the judgment.......... seyuthateta viii, 11-14

(1) Eagerness for the word of Jehovah. . viii, 11, 12
(2) Destruction of the beauty and strength of

The HALO co yaa be sce cece rin Koa x viii, 13, 14
V. THE FIFTH VISION—THE SMITTEN SANCTUARY, WITH APPLI-
CATION: spipiru, ofa lesacs Sige 8 ecb ha a Walaa Maas aide eden ho ix, 1-6
VI. JEHOVAH NOT A RESPECTER OF PERSONS, BUT A RESPECTER OF
CHARACTER, (5 cst eevee Meee ee ba ceEAeN a ix, 7-10
VII. THE EpmLocuE—PROMISES OF A BRIGHTER FUTURE...... ix, 11-15
1. Restoration of the Davidic dynasty............... ix, 11
2. Conquest of the surrounding nations.............. ix, 12
38. Extraordinary fertility of the soil................ ix, 13
4, Return of the exiles and their reéstablishment in
the Promised Land..............+22eeeeeee ix, 14, 15

The Teaching of Amos.

For convenience’ sake the teaching of Amos may be dis-
cussed under two heads: 1. The Theology of Amos, that is,
the prophet’s conception of Jehovah, the God of Israel; 2.
Amos’s conception of Israel, the people of Jehovah.

1. The Theology of Amos.—Amos is an uncompromising
monotheist; he believes that there is but one true God, namely,
Jehovah, whose prophet he knows himself to be. That Jeho-
vah was the only God of Israel had been taught by religious
leaders since the days of Moses; some may have had a glimpse
206 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS.

 

even of the larger truth that he is the God of the whole world;
Amos has no doubts on this point. Jehovah is to him, in a
special sense, the God of Israel, but he also controls the
destinies of other nations (ix, 7; i, 3—ii, 3). He is nowhere
called the “God of Israel,” and there is no suggestion anywhere
that Amos believed in the existence of other gods. True, he
nowhere teaches the dogma of monotheism, but, as Cheyne says,
“He is to all intents and purposes an ethical monotheist.” So
also Marti: “No one can fail to observe how in this belief of
Amos monotheism is present in essence even if not in name.”
Concerning the nature and character of this one God Amos
teaches: (1) He is a person. Jehovah “swears by himself”
(vi, 8; compare iv, 2). He is capable of every emotion and
volition of which a person is capable: he “repents” (vii, 3) ;
he communicates with others (ili, 7); he “issues commands”
(ix, 8-4); he determines upon lines of action (vii, 8; vi, 8);
he “hates” and “abhors” (v, 21, 22; vi, 8). (2) He is all-
powerful. The omnipotence of Jehovah is seen in creation.
Jehovah created the heavens and the earth and all the hosts of
them (iv, 13; v, 8, 9; 1x,.6). But Amos is not a deist; his
God did not withdraw when the universe was created; he is
still supreme, and his hand controls all the laws and forces of
nature. He changes darkness into light, and light into dark-
ness, whether in the ordinary course of nature or by an eclipse.
He “calleth for the waters of the sea and poureth them out
upon the face of the earth”; he withholds rain, sends locusts,
causes blasting and mildew, pestilence and earthquakes (iv,
6-11, 13; v, 8; viii, 9; ix, 5,6). An even stronger proof of the
supreme power of Jehovah is the fact that he determines the
destiny of the nations, of Israel (ii, 9-11; ix, 7), of the Ethi-
opians, the Philistines, and the Syrians (ix, 7; compare
i, 3—ii, 3). He directs the movements of the Assyrian world
power and uses it to execute judgment (i, 3—ii, 3; ii, 13ff.;
iv, 2, 3; v, 273 vi, 14, ete.). The supreme majesty and power
of Jehovah is expressed also in the divine titles used by the
prophet: “The Lord Jehovah” (twenty times) ; “Jehovah, the
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS. 207

 

God of hosts” (iv, 13; v, 14, 15; vi, 8, 14; compare v, 27) ;
“the Lord, Jehovah of hosts” (ix, 5); “the Lord Jehovah, the
God of hosts” (iii, 13) ; “Jehovah, the God of hosts, the Lord”
(v, 16). See on Hos. xii, 5. (3) The omnipresence of Jeho-
vah is at least implied in chapters i and ii (compare ix, 8),
and is unambiguously taught in ix, 2ff., one of the most terri-
ble, and at the same time most sublime, passages in the book.
(4) The same passage implies the divine omniscience. Jeho-
vah knows the abode of the fugitive sinners. Omniscience is
needed also that he may declare “unto man what is his (man’s)
thought” (iv, 13). (5) Another very important element in
the theology of Amos is his conception of Jehovah as an ethical
being. Righteousness is the chief attribute of Jehovah. This
truth did not originate with Amos, but his contemporaries seem
to have forgotten the teaching of Amos’s predecessors; they
believed that Jehovah was partial to them, no matter how sin-
ful their conduct (v, 14), and that he took no delight in for-
eigners, no matter how good and sincere they might be. This
false idea of Jehovah the prophet sought to remove, in part by
pointing out that Jehovah’s sway extends over the whole known
world, but more especially by emphasizing that in the adminis-
tration of his government he is guided by ethical principles.
He deals with the nations of the earth, Israel included, accord-
ing to their attitude toward him (iii, 1, 2; vii, 7-9; viii, 1-3;
ix, 8, and passim). The popular misapprehension of the char-
acter of Jehovah found expression in a mistaken religious zeal ;
the people thought that so long as external religious require-
ments were met the favor of Jehovah was assured (iv, 5); but,
says Amos, a righteous God can take no delight in such super-
ficial ceremonies; he hates them; they are an abomination to
him (iv, 4, 5°; v, 5, 21ff.). That Jehovah is no respecter of
persons, but of character, is implied also in the obedience with
which Amos responded to the divine call (vii, 15; compare
iii, 8). Jehovah chooses his workmen regardless of rank or
occupation. (6.) The persistent emphasis upon the righteous-
ness of Jehovah gives to the message of Amos a stern and
208 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS.

 

 

severe tone; nevertheless, it is not correct to say, as has been
done, that Amos saw only the stern side of the divine charac-
ter, that he thought of God exclusively as the righteous king
and merciless judge. True, the word “love,” or “loving-kind-
ness,” a favorite word with Hosea, is not found in the Book
of Amos, but there is evidence that the prophet conceived
Jehovah to be a merciful God. He was not afraid to intercede
twice on behalf of the sinful nation (vii, 2, 5), and he held out
the hope that under certain conditions Jehovah might be “gra-
cious to a remnant of Joseph” (v,15). On the other hand, his
promise of salvation (ix, 9) was due less to his conception of
Jehovah as a merciful God than to his conviction that Jehovah
was righteous and just; fairness and justice demanded the
preservation of the faithful.

To what extent Amos condemned the “calf” worship of
Jehovah at Beth-el and Dan as such it may be difficult to say.
The condemnation of the local sanctuaries (ili, 14; iv, 4, 5;
vy, 4; viii, 14) may have been due to the corruption prevalent
at these places, and not to a desire to express disapproval of
that form of worship. On the other hand, the passages may
be interpreted as implying a repudiation of “calf” worship as
such. A. B. Davidson, for many years a close student of
Hebrew prophecy, may be right when he says: “Those passages
(ili, 14; iv, 4, 5; v, 4) appear to carry in them a repudiation
of the calves. . . . If the prophet’s language be not a verbal
protest against the calf worship it is because it is a great deal
more; it is a protest which goes much deeper than the calves
and is directed to something behind them. The calves and
the whole ritual service, as it was practiced, were but symptoms
of that which gave offense to the prophet, which was the spirit
of the worship, the mind of the worshipers, the‘ conception of
Deity which they had in worshiping and to which they offered
their worship.”

2. Amos’s Conception of Israel—-The prophet’s teaching
concerning Israel is intimately connected with his theology ;
indeed, it is “but a reflection of nis doctrine, or a deduction
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS. 209

 

from it.” (1) Fundamental is the conviction that Israel is
the people of Jehovah. He chose the sons of Abraham and
delivered them from Egypt; he led them in the wilderness
and established them in the promised land. He has an interest
in Israel such as he has in no other people (ii, 9, 10; iii, 1, 2).
(2) The Israelites, being the people of Jehovah, should reflect
the character of their God; otherwise intimate fellowship be-
tween God and people is not possible (iii, 2; v, 4; vi, 14; v, 24).
(3) To enable Israel to know the will of God and reflect his
character Jehovah revealed himself to them through prophets
and Nazirites (ii, 11; iii, 7), through the law (ii, 4-of
Judah), through Amos (iii, 8; vii, 15), and through the acts
of his providence (iv, 6-11). In this manner he favored Israel
beyond all other nations; but the prophet makes it also clear
that these special privileges brought increased responsibilities
and obligations. (4) These responsibilities the people failed
to meet; consequently they fell far short of the divine ideal
for them. Righteousness was trampled under foot (v, 7); the
poor and needy were mercilessly oppressed (ii, 6, 7; ili, 10;
v, 11, 12, etc.); the name of Jehovah was dishonored by the
immoral practices connected with the worship (ii, 7, 8); the
whole worship was carried on in a manner that made it an
abomination to him (v, 21-25). From beginning to end the
prophecy abounds with pictures of Israel’s disregard of the
divine purpose for them. (5) Israel’s utter corruption is respon-
sible for the threats of judgment so frequent in the book. The
very righteousness of Jehovah demanded that he should execute
judgment upon the sinful kingdom: (ix, 8; ii, 13-16; iii, 14,
15). Ordinarily the prophet speaks of the judgment as taking
the form of a foreign invasion and an exile (ili, 11; iv, 3; v,
27; vi, 14, etc.), which will result in the destruction of Israel
as a nation. (6) Though Amos looked for the passing away
of the nation, he expected the preservation of a remnant (v, 15;
ix, 9). Around this remnant centers his hope for the future.
It is worthy of note that the prophet’s picture of this remnant’s
glorification is one of temporal felicity, and that it does not
210 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS.

 

include a personal Messiah, though the future glory is con-
nected with the dynasty of David. The latter is to be restored
to influence and power, and under its leadership the surround-
ing nations are to be reconquered. The soil is to be blessed
with extreme fertility, and in the enjoyment of extraordinary
prosperity the restored nation is to be established forever. A
very simple picture indeed. With much truth says Kirkpatrick
of the prophet Amos, “He is still the representative of a rudi-
mentary stage of the prophetic revelation, to be enlarged,
developed, spiritualized by his successors.”

The same author points out the following as the most im-
portant permanent moral and religious truths in the Book of
Amos: (1) Justice between man and man is one of the divine
foundations of society; (2) Privilege implies responsibility ;
(3) Failure to recognize responsibility will surely bring pun-
ishment; (4) Nations, and, by analogy, individuals, are bound
to live up to the measure of light and knowledge granted to
them; (5) The most elaborate worship is but an insult to God
when offered by those who have no mind to conform to his
demands.

The Place of Amos in the Religious Development of Israel.

The significance of Amos and of the other eighth century
prophets for the development of pure Jehovah religion cannot
easily be overestimated. During that century the religion of
Jehovah was confronted by two serious dangers. One of these
arose out of the new prosperity which had come to Israel under
Jeroboam IJ. The moral and religious conditions in Israel
at the time of Amos have already been discussed (pp. 197ff.) ; it
remains only to say a few words concerning the real significance
of this condition of affairs. It meant that the great mass of
people had an entirely false conception of the character of
Jehovah. If this misconception was suffered to continue the
religion of Jehovah was destined to sink to the level of that of
the surrounding nations; true religion would be lost to the
world. The other danger arose from the steady advance of the
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS. 211

 

Assyrian armies. The Assyrians seemed invincible, and nearer
and nearer did they come to Israel. Would Jehovah protect
his people? If he failed to do so, was it not because the gods
of the invaders were stronger than he? If he could not save
his worshipers, was it worth while to remain loyal to him?
Upon a correct answer to these and similar questions, which
would inevitably arise, hung the faith of the Hebrews. In
this crisis the eighth century prophets saved Israel’s faith by
placing in a clearer light than ever before the true character
of Jehovah. They pointed out that he was holy and righteous;
that the nation was guilty in his sight; that his very character
compelled him to punish them; that he was using the Assyrian
world power as an instrument of scourging; and that the ulti-
mate purpose of God in all this was to purify his people, in
order to prepare them for the carrying out of his gracious
purpose. The emphasis of the divine holiness and righteous-
ness was to counteract the internal religious danger; the
emphasis of the control exercised by Jehovah over the Assyri-
ans was to show that the victories of the Assyrians did not
prove the superiority of their deities, that Jehovah was still
supreme.

Amos was the first of the four great prophets to restate the
true conception of Jehovah; and with him opened an era of
constructive thought hardly surpassed in the world’s history.
It is not without reason, therefore, that Cornill exclaims,
“Amos is one of the most wonderful appearances in the history
of the human spirit”; or that G. A. Smith says, “The Book of
Amos opens one of the greatest stages in the religious develop-
ment of mankind”; or that W. Robertson Smith calls Amos
“the founder of a new type of prophecy.” Nevertheless, though
these eulogies are well merited, it is not correct to say, as has
been done at times, that Amos “marks an entirely new depart-
ure in the religious history of Israel”—in other words, that he
is the original founder of Yahwism, the religion of Jehovah.
The entire tone of the book, as well as specific references,
refute this idea. Amos regards himself as a reformer, not as
212 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS.

 

an innovator. He evidently assumes that the people might
have known Jehovah and his will, for he represents their wrong-
doing not as the result of intellectual ignorance, but as due to
the stubbornness of their hearts (ii, 12) ; he is not conscious of
preaching a new faith, but he strives to recall the people to
allegiance to Jehovah, from whom they have wandered. Be-
sides, Amos refers to former prophets (ii, 11; compare iii, 7),
and apparently he considers himself the legitimate successor
of these. A. B. Davidson expresses the true view when he
says: “The springs at least of all prophecy can be seen in the
two prophets of northern Israel; but the rains which fed those
fountains fell in the often unrecorded past.” Another evi-
dence that Amos was preceded by a line of prophets is presented
by the theological style and terminology of the Book of Amos.
It is almost incredible that a pioneer in this field should use
as fluent style and as fixed terminology as does the author of
this book. Is it not much more rational to believe that the
prophets alluded to in ii, 11, developed gradually what may
be called a prophetic style?

In this connection may be noted briefly Amos’s knowledge
of the nation’s history, laws, and religious practices. The
prophet manifests a very remarkable familiarity with events in
‘the early history of his people. As illustrations may be men-
tioned the history of Jacob and Esau (i, 11), “Moab shall die
with tumult” (ii, 2; compare Num. xxiv, 17), the Exodus
(ii, 10), the wanderings in the desert (ii, 10; v, 25), the stature
of the Amorites (ii, 9), the fame of David as musician (vi, 5).
This humble countryman is thoroughly familiar with the his-
tory of his nation and understands its religious significance;
but what is more, he presupposes the same familiarity in his
hearers and readers; otherwise his appeals would frequently
be without force. He is also acquainted with some of the
laws contained in the Pentateuch. In ii, 8, he condemns tl2
breach of the law concerning pledges (Exod. xxii, 26). Judah
he accuses of rejecting the law of Jehovah and his statutes
(ii, 4). The existence of a fully developed and well-ordered
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS. 213

 

ceremonial is presupposed in the book. The offering of “leay-
ened” sacrifices is condemned (iv, 5); new moons and Sab-
baths were observed by abstaining from ordinary labor (viii,
5); feasts were kept and solemn assemblies were held (v, 21;
viii, 10) ; sacrifices, burnt offerings, meal offerings, peace offer-
ings, and freewill offerings were presented to Jehovah (v, 22;
iv, 5); tithes were paid (iv, 4).

This familiarity’is certainly remarkable, and from it some
have argued that Amos was familiar with the Pentateuch in
its present form. But this sweeping inference is not warranted
by the facts. Not a single statement of Amos proves or even
implies the existence of the Pentateuch in its present form.
One may go even farther and say that there is nothing in the
Book of Amos to place it beyond doubt that any part of the
Pentateuch was known to the prophet in written form. The
only thing beyond question is that much of the material found
in the Pentateuch was common property of the people in the
eighth century B. C. Beyond this point we are in the realm
of conjecture and speculation. Nevertheless, if Amos com-
mitted his own prophecy to writing (p. 195), it is at least
possible, or even probable, that he was acquainted with some
written documents. There may have been, there probably
were, in existence some historical documents or some writings
of a legal character from which the prophet gathered his his-
torical and legal information; but their extent or exact con-
tents cannot be determined from the Book of Amos. Hos. viii,
12, makes it certain that in the eighth century B. C. written
laws were in existence, but this passage also leaves undecided
the extent of the legal system.

The Integrity of the Book of Amos.

As in the case of Hosea, until quite recently no doubts were
raised concerning the integrity of the Book of Amos. Ewald
said: “This little book forms a whole complete in itself and
left Amos’s hands just as we have it. The heading alone is
probably from another, but in any case from an early, hand.”
214 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS.

 

Hitzig also seems to have been convinced that there are no
interpolations in the book. Duhm, in 1875, questioned the
authorship of ii, 4, 5; iv, 13; v, 8, 9; ix, 5, 6, on the ground
that these passages interrupt the connection. However, the
additional statement that the last three passages presuppose
Job makes it probable that he was influenced also by theological
considerations. Nearly all commentators who have written
since the publication of Duhm’s doubts have rejected some
parts of the book as later interpolations. Wellhausen added
to the passages questioned by Duhm; and Cheyne, in the
Introduction to W. R. Smith’s The Prophets of Israel, rejected
altogether about twenty verses; this number he increased to
over thirty in his more recent article “Amos” in the Hnceyclo-
pedia Biblica. The reasons advanced are largely theological,
as in the case of i, 2; ii, 4, 5; iv, 18; v, 8, 9; ix, 5, 6, 8-15,
and historical, as in connection with i, 6-12; vi, 2. Abruptness
in transition is also argued against some passages, and, as in
the case of Hosea, some consider all references to Judah out
of place in a message to the northern kingdom. Of the most
widely known recent writers on Amos, Driver, after examining
carefully the objections urged against ii, 4, 5; iv, 13; v, 8, 9;
ix, 5, 6, 8-15, reaches the conclusion that in no case are the
arguments convincing. G. A. Smith rejects ix, 8-15, and he
suspects the passages questioned by Duhm as well as i, 11, 12;
v, 14, 15; vi, 2; viii, 13. Taylor (Hastings’s Dictionary of
the Bible, article “Amos”) declares, “There is good reason for
thinking that the following passages are later additions: i, 1,
2; li, 4, 5; iv, 13; v, 8, 9; vi, 23 ix, 5, 8-15.” Nowack rejects
i, 11, 12; ii, 4, 5, 15b, 16a; iii, 14b; iv, 12b, 13; v, 8, 9, 13, 14,
15, 26; vi, 2, 9, 10; vii, 1b; vili, 6, 8, 11, 12; ix, 5, 6, 8-15.
Marti, who questions more passages than any other writer,
rejects (1) all references to Judah (ii, 4, 5; iii, 1b; vi, 1, in
part); (2) certain historical additions (i, 6-12; ii, 10, 12;
v, 25, 26; vi, 2); (3) theological glosses (i, 2; ili, 7; iv, 13;
v, 8, 9, 13; vili, 8, 11-14; ix, 5,6); (4) the Messianic promise
(ix, 8-15); (5) some expressions and phrases of minor im-
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS. 215

 

portance (for example, in iii, 3; iv, 7). President Harper, in
the most recent commentary on Amos, considers as secondary
i, 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, 12; ii, 4, 5, 12; iv, 7b, 8a, 13a, d; v, 8, 9,
18b, 22b; vi, 2, 9-1la; vii, 1d, 8a; viii, 2a, 6, 1la; ix, 5, 6,
8e, 9-15.

The objections raised against some of these passages seem
so inconclusive and far-fetched that they require no refuta-
tion. Others receive due consideration in the comments.
There are a few passages, however, that are rejected with such
unanimity that they deserve more extended discussion. These
passages are, i, 6-12; ii, 4, 5; iv, 13; v, 8, 9; ix, 5, 6; and
ix, 8-15. :

1. Chapter ix, 8-15, is a picture of the glories of the Mes-
sianic age. Its authenticity has been questioned as persist-
ently as that of any portion of Amos. The objections are
due, in part at least, to the assumption widely held at the
present time, though without good reason, that the preéxilic
period was without Messianic hopes. “In the exile, therefore,
we must locate the beginnings of what we may call the Mes-
sianic hope” (H. P. Smith, Old Testament History, p. 338).
For a discussion of this point the reader may turn to the intro-
ductory remarks on Hos. ii, 14-23, and Introduction, pp. 35, 36;
also Amos v, 15. In this connection are to be considered only
the specific objections raised against the authenticity of the
verses. (1) The linguistic argument may be omitted since the
data are not sufficiently numerous or clear to be decisive (com-
pare Introduction to Joel, p. 187). (2) The second objection
may be stated as follows: The sentiment of ix, 8-15, is foreign
to Amos; everywhere else he predicts utter destruction, here
a bright future; such abrupt change would weaken the rest
of his message. “Such hopes,” it is said, “would be natural
and legitimate to people who were long separated from their
devastated land, and whose punishment and penitence were
accomplished, but are they natural to a prophet like Amos?”
In reply it may. be said: (a) The promises contained in ix,
8-15, are not for all. This the first hearers must have under-
216 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS.

 

stood as readily as the unbiased modern reader can see it.
Chapter ix, 8-10, states positively that only a remnant shall
be saved, while “the sinners of my people shall die by the
sword.” A promise following a statement of this kind cannot
be understood as intended for all. But if intended only for
the faithful, how can it weaken Amos’s message of judgment?
Must it not rather prove an encouragement to the faithful
and an incentive to some of the “sinners” to cast their lot with
the righteous? (b) It is not true that Amos holds out no
hope anywhere else. In v, 15, he speaks of the possibility
that a remnant may be preserved. True, v, 15, is rejected by
some, but on insufficient grounds, the chief reason being that
its testimony is troublesome. But even if v, 15, is omitted
the testimony of vil, 2, 5, remains. (c) Chapter ix, 7, cannot
be the conclusion of the book or of a discourse. Harper
retains 8a, and this provides a suitable close; but it does not
follow that 8b-15 is not a part of the original; it provides
an even more appropriate conclusion of the book. The sub-
ject resolves itself into the more general question whether or
not all Messianic predictions are later attempts to modify the
severity of the earlier prophets. Proofs to sustain this posi-
tion are still wanting. (3) A third objection is based upon
the expressions in verse 11, which seem to presuppose that the
awful calamity has already fallen. But, it is said, there is
nothing in the history of Israel before the time of Amos that
could be described in such extravagant language; only the
exile satisfies the language; hence the expressions must come
from the exilic or postexilic period. Is this conclusion war-
ranted? True, the English reads “is fallen,” making the
fall a thing of the past, but the Hebrew has the participle,
which leaves it undecided whether the event lies in the past, or
in the present, or in the future. As a result there is no reason
why the expressions of verse 11 should not be interpreted as
referring to a future overthrow of the dynasty of David. That
Amos expected a great calamity to fall upon Judah is clear
from ii, 4,5; on the other hand, in view of his lofty concep-
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS. 217

 

tion of the character of Jehovah it seems incredible that he
should rest satisfied with announcing judgment without a ray
of hope for anyone. Other prophets did not do it. It is
certainly worthy of note that Jeremiah and Ezekiel, whose
denunciations were as severe as those of Amos, and whose con-
viction that Judah and Jerusalem would fall was unwavering,
should draw, while the destruction of the city was still future,
the brightest pictures of the restoration. But even in the
days of Amos the dynasty of David had lost much of its
splendor. Well might the prophet wish for a restoration “as
in the days of old.” The division subsequent to the death of
Solomon had robbed Judah and the dynasty of David of much
prestige and power and was greatly deplored by Isaiah (vii,
17); again, only about a generation before Amos, Judah had
suffered great humiliation (2 Kings xiv, 13, 14). In view of
these facts the testimony of ix, 11, cannot be regarded as con-
clusive. (4) A further objection claims that a promise made
to Judah exclusively has no place in a prophetic book intended
for Israel. This objection rests upon a misapprehension.
The promise is not for Judah exclusively, but for the “kernel”
preserved out of “the sinful kingdom,” Israel. All that can
be said is that the exaltation is connected with the dynasty
of David; but this is an essential element of the Messianic
hope from the time of David.

There may still be room for uncertainty, but the objections
cannot be considered conclusive. Some of the chief difficul-
ties would vanish completely if we could assume that these
verses were not a part of the message as spoken at Beth-el,
but that they were added when Amos put his prophecies into
writing and prepared them for a wider circle.

2. Amos iv, 13; v, 8, 9; ix, 5, 6, are similar in character
and import and may be considered together. The objections
raised against the authenticity of these verses are: (1) Lack
of connection with their contexts. Chapter iv, 12, it is said,
forms a natural conclusion; verse 13 adds nothing to the
utterance. Closer study, however, shows that verse 13 is by
218 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS.

 

no means without significance. If it does nothing else, it
serves to secure a reverent hearing for the prophetic message
(see in loco). At any rate, the fact that a passage may be
omitted without disturbing the context is not sufficient reason
for denying its originality. The same may be said of ix, 5, 6.
With v, 8, 9, the situation is different, for there the thought
of the prophet seems interrupted, though this is denied by
Mitchell. May not in this case the difficulty be due to a dis-
arrangement of the text? (See in loco.) (2) A second objec-
tion is that “such ejaculations in praise of Jehovah’s creative
power are not elsewhere met with in Hebrew prophecy before
the time of the exile.” That similar ejaculations become
more frequent in the exilic and postexilic period must be
admitted (Isa. xl, 22; xlii, 5; xliv, 24; Job ix, 8, 9, etc.),
but is this sufficient reason for denying the verses to Amos?
It cannot be denied that the passages are in the style and
spirit of Amos. Is it unthinkable that a prophet whose heart
was deeply moved should burst forth in sublime doxologies?
Certainly they serve an important purpose (see in loco). W.
R. Smith finds no difficulty in accepting the passages as com-
ing from Amos. “That such an appeal takes an ejaculatory
form is not surprising under the general conditions of proph-
etic oratory, and in each case the appeal comes in to relieve the
strain of intense feeling at a critical point in the argument.”
Even a keen critic like Kuenen sees no reason for denying the
verses to Amos. (3) G. A. Smith states an additional objec-
tion, which to him seems the strongest, in the words: “Jeho-
vah is his name (which occurs in two passages) or Jehovah of
hosts is his name (which occurs in at least one) is a construc-
tion which does not happen elsewhere in the book, except in a
verse where it is awkward, and where we have already seen
reason to doubt its genuineness (v, 27). But still more, the
phrase does not occur in any other prophet, till we come down
to the oracles which compose Isa. xl—lxvi.” (In Jeremiah,
where the expression occurs eight times, he thinks it due to
later interpolations.) When we compare these phrases with
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS. 219

 

other similar divine titles in the Book of Amos (see pp. 206f.)
the weakness of this objection becomes apparent. Later
writers who reject the passages have added no new arguments
to substantiate their position. In view of this inconclusive-
ness of the arguments it may be safer to heed the cautious
remark of G. A. Smith: “At the same time, a case which has
failed to convince critics like Robertson Smith and Kuenen
cannot be considered conclusive, and we are so ignorant of the
conditions of prophetic oratory at this period that dogmatism
is impossible.”

3. To show the inconclusiveness of the case against ii, 4, 5,
it is only necessary to state the objections. The most com-
plete summary of these is found in Harper: (1) The sim-
ilarity in form puts the section into the same category with
i, 9, 10, and i, 11, 12, and any doubt which attaches to these
oracles must attach also to this. (2) The introduction of this
oracle removes entirely the force of the surprise which the
Israelites would have felt. (3) It is impossible to suppose
that Amos would have treated Judah so cursorily, and in a
manner so like that in which he treated other nations. (4)
The terms of Judah’s sin are of a Deuteronomic character and
of later origin. (5) The style is tame, vague, and weak.
(6) The term Israel in ii, 6-16, includes Judah (ii, 10).
(7) The concluding formula “saith Jehovah” is lacking. (8)
The sin described as transgression of the “instruction” and the
“statutes” of Jehovah was too indefinite, not so flagrant as to
call for its introduction in this place; in fact, unlike any
charges made elsewhere by Amos, and out of harmony with
the formula “for . . . transgressions,” since it could not be
specified as one of the three or four.

A few brief remarks on these objections must suffice: (1)
The first objection is better discussed in connection with i,
6-12. (2) The verses make a very appropriate transition
from the surrounding nations to Israel. (3) There was no
more need for dealing with Judah at length than in the case
of the surrounding nations, since Amos was sent to Israel
220 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS.

 

(vii, 15); on the other hand, it would be strange if a citizen

-of the south had been completely silent concerning his home.
(4) The resemblance with Deuteronomy is not very close. A
comparison with Isa. v, 24, and Exod. xviii, 16, both older
than the now generally received date of Deuteronomy, shows
the weakness of the objection. (5) Objections (5) and (8)
belong together. That the indictment is indefinite is true;
but why should it be made definite? It was specific enough
to serve the prophet’s purpose, which seems to have been to
make specific charges only against Israel. (6) Does Israel
in ii, 10, or anywhere else in ii, 6-16, include Judah? How
else could the prophet have expressed himself conveniently,
had he desired to confine himself to the northern kingdom?
(7) Were this a later insertion, it is almost beyond doubt
that an imitator would have added the closing formula. The
omission may be due to a copyist.

4. Chapter i, 6-12. Several recent writers agree in reject-
ing i, 9-12; to these verses Marti adds i, 6-8. Wellhausen, one
of the first to question i, 9, 10, advanced three reasons: (1)
The indictment against Tyre is the same as that against Gaza.
(2) Nothing is said concerning the other Phcenician cities.
(3) The closing formula “saith Jehovah” is absent. Later
writers have added two further objections: (4) The metrical
structure is different from that of the preceding oracles. (5)
If the geographical order prevailed as elsewhere from north
to south verses 9, 10 would have to precede 6-8. Against
i, 11, 12, Wellhausen urged: (1) It is strange that Amos
says nothing about Sela, the capital of Edom, while mention-
ing Bozrah and Teman. The latter take the place of the
former only in exilic and postexilic literature. (2) In the time
of Amos Israel had no ground for complaint against Edom;
the latter had suffered more from the former than Israel from
Edom. A change came at the time of the exile. (3) The
description of Edom’s crime is more vague than in the un-
doubted sections. To these objections Harper adds (4) the
similarity of structure when compared with i, 9, 10; ii, 4, 5,
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS. 221

 

Marti is the only commentator to reject i, 6-8. (Cheyne, in
Critica Biblica, rejects verse 8, because it is out of harmony
with his Yerachmeelite theory.) The chief objection urged
by Marti is the non-mention of Gath among the cities of the
Philistines, which silence, he thinks, presupposes the destruc-
tion of Gath; but since this city was not destroyed until 711
(see in loco), i, 6-8, cannot be earlier than 711, which is subse-
quent to the death of Amos. The similarity of i, 6-10, with
Joel iii, 4-6, leads him to believe that the verses in Amos are
dependent on Joel; consequently he makes the Amos passage
even later than Joel, whom he dates about 400 B. C. He con-
cludes: “The word against the Philistines is, therefore, a
product of the activity of the scribes . . . of a later century.
Amos, as a true prophet, was represented as having foreseen,
like Ezekiel (xxv, 15-17), the fate of the Philistines, whose
realization was expected at that time as a preparation for the
dawn of the Messianic age.”

In reply to Marti it may be said that the dependence of the
Amos passage upon Joel is by no means certain (see Joel,
p. 136), and that the silence concerning Gath may be explained
satisfactorily without assuming its destruction (see on i, 8).
Some of the objections against the other verses (i, 9-12) are
based upon unwarranted assumptions. (1) Why must Amos
express all his denunciations in the same metrical form?
Dissimilarity can be made a ground for rejection only on
the basis of an unproved theory of the metrical structure of
the prophetic books (see on Hosea, pp. 36,37). (2) How can
we know that Amos intended to follow the geographical order ?
(3) Must Amos use in every case the closing formula “saith
Jehovah”? (4) The indictment against Tyre is not identical
with that against Gaza. Why may not the two have been
guilty of similar crimes? (5) In no case does the prophet
mention all the cities of a land; only the more prominent are
mentioned in each case. Tyre being the most prominent city
in Phoenicia, its mention was sufficient. In Moab Kerioth
alone is named; in Ammon, Rabbah. (6) If a prophet
222 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF AMOS.

 

desired to describe the hostility between Edom and Israel dur-
ing the greater part of their history rather than a specific out-
break of this hostility, could he have used more appropriate
language than that of i, 11? That Edom’s attitude at the
time of the destruction of Jerusalem would justify the con-
demuation of verse 11 (compare Obad. 10-14; Psa. exxxvii, 7)
more than any other known manifestation of Edom’s hatred
may be readily admitted; but it must always be borne in mind
that we are not in possession of complete historical records
concerning the relations between Israel and Edom. Never-
theless, there is enough said and implied in the Old Testament
to indicate that at no time—even when temporarily united
against the same foes—the feeling between Israel and Edom
was very cordial. It is equally certain that the fault was not
always with Israel (compare Num. xx, 14-21; 2 Kings viii,
20-22). (7%) The only objection remaining is the mention of
Bozrah and Teman instead of Sela. There is no reason for
thinking that Sela was ever superseded by Bozrah or Teman
as the capital of Edom; but if at a later period Bozrah and
Teman might be mentioned as representative cities of Edom,
in the place of the capital, why not at an earlier period? Be-
sides, Sela is mentioned but rarely in the prophetic writings,
if at all (Isa. xvi, 1; xlii, 11); Cheyne considers the word
always a common noun, and goes so far as to say that no city
bearing the name of Sela is mentioned in the Old Testament.
If this is true the objection vanishes; whether it is true or
not, Sela may have been selected as the capital because of its
location (Obad. 3), though Edom had other more prominent
cities.

In conclusion, it may be said that the question of integrity
is one of evidence. The possibility of later insertions cannot
be denied; but it is too much to say that the arguments
advanced against the authenticity of any portion of Amos are
conclusive. Later investigation may increase their force and
add to their number, but at present there is still room for
difference of opinion even among scholars.
AMOS.

 

CHAPTER I.
THE words of Amos, *who was
mone the herdmen of >Te-
koa, which he saw concerning Israel

cin the days of Uzziah king of Judah,
and in the days of ‘Jeroboam the
son of Joash king of Israel, two
years before the earthquake.

 

® Chap. 7. 14.— > 2 Sam, 14, 2; 2 Chron.
20. 20.

 

¢ Hos. 1. 1.—4 Chap. 7. 10.—.° Zech.
14, 5. . ae

 

CHAPTER I.

THe ProLocuE—THE APPROACHING
JUDGMENT, chaps. 1, 2.

Substance and form combine to
prove that chapters i and ii constitute
one connected whole. Following the
title (i, 1) and the preface (i, 2) comes
a preparatory section (i, 3-ii, 5), lead-
ing up to the central thought, the
condemnation of Israel (ii, 6-16).
Every listener would give his assent
that the surrounding non-Israelitish
nations, Damascus (i, 3-5), Philistia
(i, 6-8), Phoenicia G, 9, 10), Edom
(i, 11, 12), Ammon (i, 13-15), and
Moab (ii, 1-3), were deserving the
wrath of Jehovah; they would even
agree that Judah, since the division
more or less hostile to the north,
merited punishment (ii, 4, 5). Hence
these denunciations would awaken a
ready response and win the good will
of the prophet’s hearers. Having ac-
complished this, he burst forth in
ii, 6-16, in the message for which he
had been preparing the way, denun-
ciation and judgment upon Israel.
By their silent consent to the con-
demnation of the other nations they
had pronounced the sentence of doom
upon themselves.

It is to be noted that Amos is not
partial to Israel; he does not condemn
the surrounding nations exclusively
for sins committed against Israel, but
for sins against commonly recognized
principles of humaneness and moral-
ity (ii, 1). The guilt of Israel is
greater because of its special priv-
ileges. Even in this section Amos

 

emphasizes the two central truths of
his theology, that Jehovah is God over
all, and that he governs all in right-
eousness.

1. Title. Each prophetic book has
a title, sometimes brief (Obad. 1),
sometimes running through several
verses (Jer. i, 1ff.). This title indi-
cates the name, home, occupation,
and approximate date of the author,
and the nation in whose interest he
prophesied. Words of Amos—Of the
other prophetic books only Jeremiah
contains a similar expression, ‘‘words
of Jeremiah,” that is, the prophecies
are assigned primarily to their human
author; everywhere else it is stated
or implied that the primary author
is God: “The word of Jehovah” (Hos.
i, 1; Joel i, 1, etc.); “The vision of
Isaiah” (i, 1; compare Obad. 1; Nah.
i, 1), granted by Jehovah; ‘The bur-
den” (Hab. i, 1; compare Nah. i, 1;
Mal. i, 1), imposed by Jehovah. It
does not follow, however, that the
utterances of Amos and Jeremiah are
less divine than those of the other
prophets (compare Jer. i, 2, ‘‘to whom
the word of Jehovah came”; Amos i,
1, “which he saw’; i, 3, “Thus saith
Jehovah,” compare vii, 14). A rab-
binical tradition says that the pe-
culiarity is due to and is a rebuke of
the fault-finding spirit of Amos and
Jeremiah. Herdmen—Literally, na-
kad-keepers (see p.192). Tekoa—See p.
191. Israel—The northern kingdom,
to which Amos was sent (vii, 15). He
saw—See on Hab. i, 1. On the
chronological data see pp. 195f. The
relative clause ‘who was among the

223
224

AMOS.

 

2 And he said, The Lorp will froar
from Zion, and utter his voice from
Jerusalem; and the habitations of

the shepherds shall mourn, and _the
top of ¢Carmel shall wither. 3 Thus
saith the Lorp; For three transgres-

 

f Jer. 25. 30; Joel 3. 16.

£1 Sam. 25. 2; Isa. 33. 9.

 

herdmen (of Tekoa)” is thought by
some to be a later, though historically
reliable, addition.

2. Preface. A verse by itself, con-
taining a general announcement of
judgment. It is but loosely con-
nected with its context; hence it has
been claimed that Amos borrowed it
from Joel. This cannot be, since Joel
is later than Amos. The more recent
commentators regard the verse a late
interpolation in Amos, dependent on
Joel iii, 16. Proof of this is lacking;
it is equally possible that the passage
in Joel is dependent on Amos, espe-
cially since the thought of the former
is an expansion and exaggeration of
that of the latter. Harper advances
six reasons against the authenticity
of the verse, but not one of them car-
ries conviction. As a preparation for
the more detailed delineation of judg-
ment, which is the substance of the
book, the verse is not inappropriate.
A Judean prophet would naturally
consider Zion the center of Jehovah’s
activity; Carmel, which feels the heav-
iest blow, is a locality in the north,
whither Amos was sent. Roar—The
figure is that of a lion roaring as he
leaps upon his prey; therefore a herald
of imminent destruction. Utter his
voice—Thunder (Psa. xviii, 13; xlvi,
6, etc.), proclaiming the breaking forth
of a destructive tempest. Both
phrases express the idea of God’s
manifestation in awful judgment
(compare Jer. xxv, 30). Zion...
Jerusalem—The earthly habitation of
Jehovah, from which his manifesta-
tions proceed.

2b calls attention to the conse-
quences of the divine manifestation.
Habitations—R. V., “pastures” (Joel
ii, 22; Psa. xxiii, 2). A pastoral term,
equivalent to homestead, including
both land and dwellings. Mourn—
Partly in consternation (viii, 8; ix, 5)
when they hear the roar of Jehovah,

 

partly in grief over the destruction
wrought and impending. Top of
Carmel—In Hebrew with the article,
“the Carmel,” that is, “the garden
land.” A mountain ridge in Israel,
about twelve miles long, varying in
height from five hundred to eighteen
hundred feet, running from southeast
to northwest, and projecting into the
Mediterranean. It is famous because
of the events described in 1 Kings
xviii. Its name was given to it on
account of its beauty and fertility
(ix, 3), which in a measure it still re-
tains. Its top is filled with luxuriant
growth of every kind. Wither—Or,
dry up. No more vivid picture of de-
struction could be painted (Isa. xxxiii,
9; Nah. i, 4). “As the blood runs
cold through terror, so Amos pictures
the sap of the plants and trees as
ceasing to flow when Jehovah’s
thunder is heard pealing over the
land” (compare Joel iii, 16).

3-5. The sin and punishment of
Damascus. Thus saith Jehovah—A
solemn formula repeated before each
denunciation (i, 6, 9, 11, 18; ii, 1, 4,
6). The prophet desires to make it
plain that in all he says he is the
spokesman of Jehovah (compare Zech.
i, 3). Three . . . four—There is no
reason for thinking that Amos had in
mind three or four specific transgres-
sions which exhausted the patience of
Jehovah, as Kimchi undertook to
show: (1) the campaign against
Baasha (1 Kings xv, 18ff.), (2) against
Ahab (1 Kings xx, 1ff.), (3) against
Jehoahaz (2 Kings xiii, 3), (4) against
Ahaz of Judah (2 Kings xvi, 5, 6).
The last one took place about twenty-
five years after this prophecy was de-
livered. The numbers must be ex-
plained as ascending enumeration (see
on Hos. vi, 2); the prophet wants to
say that the measure of their guilt is
more than full. Transgressions—More
correctly, rebellions. Damascus—The
CHAPTER I.

225

 

sions of hDamascus, Jand for four, I
will not turn away the punishment
thereof; ‘because they have threshed

Gilead with threshing instruments
of iron: 4 *But I will send a fire
into the house of Hazael, which shall

 

h Tsa. 8. 4; 17. 1; Jer. 49. 28; Zech. 9. 1.
—10r, yea, for four.—-® Or, convert tt,

or let it be quiet, and so verse 6, etc.— | 2

i2 Kings 10. 33; 13. 7,——k Verses 7,
10, 12; Jer. 17. 27; 49. 27; chap. 2.

 

capital of Syria, here representing the
whole country. The beginnings of the
hostility between Israel and Syria may
be traced to the days of Solomon,
when Rezon established himself in
Damascus and became ‘“‘an adversary
to Israel all the days of Solomon”
(1 Kings xi, 23-25). The Syrian
power increased steadily, until in the
ninth century B. C. Syria became the
most powerful nation in western Asia
and seriously troubled Israel. In
Amos’s days its prestige had begun
to decline, Jeroboam II having waged
successful war against Damascus
(2 Kings xiv, 25, 26; compare xiii, 25).
I will not turn away the punishment
thereof—Literally, IZ will not turn
it back. The object must be supplied
from the context. Since it is left so
indefinite there has been great dif-
ference of opinion with regard to it.
The more important interpretations
are, “I will not convert it,” that is,
Damascus; “I will not revoke it,”
that is, the wrath of Jehovah, or the
resulting sentence of judgment, or a
threat uttered at an earlier period and
now recalled by Amos. The English
translation gives a correct interpreta-
tion by adding “punishment.” Be-
cause—Introduces a typical example
of the transgressions of Damascus.
Threshed—Literally, tread down. One
primitive method of threshing was to
make animals tread out the grain
with their feet (Mic. iv, 13; Deut.
xxv, 4). Even when other methods
of threshing were adopted the term
was retained. With threshing instru-
ments of iron—The threshing ma-
chines to which reference is here made
are described by Thomson in The
Land and the Book, ii, p. 315, as fol-
lows: “The most common mode of
threshing is with the ordinary slab,
called mowrej, which is drawn over
the floor by a horse or yoke of oxen,

 

until not only the grain is shelled out,

but the straw itself is ground up into
chaff. To facilitate this operation bits
of rough lava (or iron teeth, Isa. xli,
15, 16) are fastened into the bottom
of the mowrej, and the driver sits or
stands upon it... . The Egyptian
mowrej is a little different from this,
having rollers which revolve on the
grain, and the driver has a seat upon
it. ... In the plains of Hamath I saw
this machine improved by having
circular saws attached to the rollers.”
Whether the prophet means that the
Syrians actually used these instru-
ments to torture captives, or whether
he simply uses the expressions to give
a vivid description of cruelties of
every sort is not certain (compare
2 Kings xiii, 7; Prov. xx, 26). Gilead
—In the narrow sense, the east Jor-
dan territory between the Yarmuk
and the Arnon (Deut. iii, 13), in the
broader sense, the whole Hebrew ter-
ritory east of the Jordan; so here,
equivalent to ‘inhabitants of Gilead.”
Gilead, being nearest to Syria, would
suffer first in the case of a Syrian in-
vasion. The prophet may have in
mind the invasion under Hazael dur-
ing the latter half of the ninth cen-
tury (compare 2 Kings viii—xili).

4, 5. Jehovah cannot endure the
perpetration of such cruelties. The
form which the announcement of
judgment takes is practically the
same in each case (i, 7, 10, 12, 14;
ii, 2, 5; compare Hos. viii, 14). Fire
—Symbol of war and its horrors.
House of Hazael—Not ‘dynasty,’
but “palace” or “city” or “land” of
Hazael (compare Hos. viii, 1; ix, 15).
Hazael usurped the throne of Damas-
cus about 843 B. C. (2 Kings viii,
7ff.); he was the contemporary of
Kings Joram, Jehu, and Jehoahaz,
and inflicted heavy defeats upon all
three. Since he was the founder of
226

devour the palaces of Ben-hadad.
5 I will break also the 'bar of Da-
mascus, and cut off the inhabitant
from ‘the plain of Aven, and him

1 Jer. 51. 30; Lam. 2. 9.—% Or, Bikath-
aven. #

the then ruling dynasty, Amos calls
Syria “the house of Hazael,’” just as
Israel is called in Assyrian inscrip-
tions “the house of Omri.” Ben-
hadad—Three kings of Damascus by
that name are definitely known, two
preceding Hazael, the third his son
and successor (2 Kings xiii, 3, 25).
The allusion may be to the third, who
in time was nearest to Amos, though
it is not likely that he was then on
the throne. However, it is not im-
possible that the reigning monarch
bore the same name. Some suggest
that Hazael and Ben-hadad are men-
tioned simply as typical, representa-
tive names of Syrian kings without
reference to any particular monarch;
still others think that Ben-hadad
(that is, the son of the deity Hadad)
was a title of the Syrian kings as
Pharaoh was of the Egyptian rulers.
Bar—The bar of iron or bronze used
to fasten the gates of ancient cities;
here a symbol of defense in general.
No human defenses can stand against
the wrath of Jehovah. Inhabitant—
R. V. margin, “him that sitteth on
the throne” (Isa. x, 3)—the ruler;
which is preferable, in view of the
parallel, “him that holdeth the scep-
ter” —the reigning monarch (Judg. v,
14). The rulers will be smitten; only
in the last clause of verse 5 is the fate
of the people indicated. The plain
[‘valley’”’] of Aven—R. V. margin, “of
Vanity,” or Idolatry. LXX. reads
“On” for “Aven,” which presupposes
a different vocalization of the same
Hebrew consonants. This reading, in-
decisive though it may be in view of
the LXX. rendering of the same
word in Hos. iv, 15; v, 8; x, 5, 8,
pointed the way to the now almost
universally accepted explanation. The
word translated ‘‘valley” is used even
to-day as a proper noun, denoting
the valley between the Lebanon and

 

AMOS.

that holdeth the scepter from ‘the
house of Eden: and ™the people of
Syria shall go into captivity "unto
Kir, saith the Lorp.

4 Or, Betheden.m—® Fulfilled, 2 Kings
16. 9. o Chap. 9. 7.

Anti-Lebanon (Josh. xi, 17), in Arabic
el-Buka‘a. In this valley, about sixty
miles north-northeast of Dan, are lo-
cated the ruins of Baalbek, the ancient
Heliopolis, formerly, as its name in-
dicates, a center of sun worship.
According to two ancient authorities,
Macrobius and Lucian, sun worship
was introduced in the Syrian Helio-
polis from Heliopolis in Egypt. The
Egyptian name of Heliopolis in
Egypt is Aunt, Heb. On (Gen. xli,
45, 50; xlvi, 20). This name may
have been brought, with the sun
worship, from Egypt to Syria, and at
one time Heliopolis in Syria may have
been known as On. If this is the cor-
rect interpretation, instead of ‘“val-
ley of Aven” we should read Buka‘a-
On, or “valley of On,” the valley
around the city On. Intentionally the
word was changed by Amos or a later
copyist into “vanity” to express con-
tempt for the worship practiced there.
The house of Eden—Margin, ‘“Beth-
eden,” making the two words the
name of a locality. A village Edhen
is located about twenty miles north-
west of Baalbek, which may have
served as a summer residence to the
Syrian kings. Though the place men-
tioned by Amos has often been iden-
tified with this village, it is more
likely that he has in mind a district
mentioned frequently in the Assyrian
inscriptions and called Bit-adini. This
district is about two hundred miles
north-northeast of Damascus on both
sides of the Euphrates (2 Kings xix,
12; Ezek. xxvii, 23), and may have
been at one time a vassal state of
Damascus. If this is the correct in-
terpretation, the prophet says that
the chief ruler in Damascus as well as
the vassal princes will be smitten by
the divine judgment, while the people
will be carried into exile. Kir—
Amos ix, 7, makes Kir the original

 
CHAPTER I.

jh
pa

 

6 Thus saith the Lorn; For three
transgressions of °Gaza, and for four,
I will not turn away the punishment
thereof; because they ‘carried away
captive the whole captivity, »to de-
liver them up to Edom: 7 «But I

thereof:

will send a fire on the wall of Gaza,
which shall devour the palaces
t of: 8 And I will cut off the
inhabitant ‘from Ashdod, and him
that holdeth the scepter from Ash-
kelon, and I will sturn mine hand

 

o 2 Chron. 28. 18; Isa. 14. 29; Jer. 47.
4,5; Ezek. 25. 15; Zeph. 2. 4.——5 Or, car-
ried them away with an entire captivity, 2

Chron, 21. 16, 17; Joel 3. 6.—P Verse 9.
——1 Jer. 47. 1.—* Zeph. 2, 4; Zech. 9.
5, 6.—= Psa. 81. 14.

 

home of the Syrians. According to
2 Kings xvi, 9, the prediction was ful-
filled in less than a generation; but
it is to be noted that LXX. in the
passage in Kings omits “Kir.” Tig-
lath-pileser III states that he took
Damascus (in 732), and that he car-
ried a large proportion of its inhabi-
tants into exile, but the place of exile
is omitted. Kir is mentioned again
in Isa. xxii, 6. Concerning its location
opinions vary. It has been identi-
fied most commonly with a district of
Armenia, near the river Kur, which
flows into the Caspian Sea; but this
district does not appear to have been
a part of Assyria in the days of
Tiglath-pileser. At least ten other
identifications have been proposed,
not one of which can be considered
entirely satisfactory.

Amos does not state by whom he ex-
pected the judgment to be executed;
nevertheless, it is very probable that
he was thinking of the Assyrians, the
most powerful nation in his day. As
a matter of history, after several un-
successful attempts the Assyrians,
under Tiglath-pileser, finally did over-
throw the Syrian power in 732, cap-
tured Damascus, put to death King
Rezin, and carried thousands of its
inhabitants into exile.

6-8. The sin and punishment of
Philistia. Three . . . four—See on
verse 3. Gaza—The southernmost
city of Philistia and splendidly lo-
cated for trade; about fifty miles
southwest of Jerusalem, and three
miles from the sea. Being just on the
edge of the desert, it became a com-
mercial center, commanding the cara-
van routes to Syria, to Egypt, and to
Arabia. Its present population is said
to number about eighteen thousand.

 

Here the city represents the whole of
Philistia; it is possible, however, that
Gaza was most guilty; its location
would naturally make it the center of
slave trade with Edom. The whole
captivity—R. V., “the whole people’;
literally, an entire captivity. The
meaning is that they spared neither
sex nor age; they took the entire
population of the places attacked.
The reference is probably not to a
national invasion (2 Chron. xxi, 16,
17), but to raids undertaken for the
specific purpose of securing slaves.
Deliver them up to Edom—The Edom-
ites probably resold the slaves. The
same charge is brought against Tyre
(verse 9), and a similar charge against
both in Joel iii, 4-6. It is not stated
here that the communities attacked
were Hebrew. On Edom see verse 11.
Fire—As in verse 4. Inhabitant—See
on verse 5. Ashdod—About twenty-
one miles north-northeast of Gaza,
about three miles from the seacoast,
a strong fortress on the caravan route
from Gaza to Joppa. It suffered from
an Egyptian siege about 650 B. C.,
but recovered and was a place of im-
portance at the time of Nehemiah;
now a small village called Esdud.
Holdeth the scepter—The chief cities
of the Philistines each had its own
king (see below and on Joel iii, 4).
Ashkelon—Was located on the sea-
coast, about halfway between Gaza
and Ashdod; it is mentioned on the
Tel-el-Amarna tablets (about 1400
B. C.), now an insignificant place
called Askelan. Turn mine hand
against—As long as God leaves man
to himself his hand is said to rest;
to turn his hand is to take an active
interest in man’s affairs, either to
save or to punish (Isa. i, 25; Zech,
228

against Ekron: and ‘the remnant of
the Philistines shall perish, saith
the Lord Gop.

9 Thus saith the Lorp; For three
transgressions of vTyrus, and for

 

t Jer. 47. 4; Ezek. 25. 16. utsa. 23. 1;
Jer. 47. 4; Ezek. 26; 27; 28; Joel 3, 4, 5.—
x Verse 6.

xiii, 7); here to punish. Ekron—An
inland city, about twelve miles north-
east of Ashdod, and nearer to the ter-
‘ritory of Judah than any of the other
cities; it was the seat of an oracle
(2 Kings i, 2), but otherwise it is of
little importance in the Old Testa-
ment; now Akér, on the railway from
Joppa to Jerusalem. The remnant—
All in the districts enumerated who
escape the destruction announced and
the inhabitants of the parts of Philis-
tia not included in the four districts
mentioned. Philistia was divided into
five city states, independent in times
of peace, usually united in times of
war; four of these centers are named.
here. Why not the fifth, Gath? If
it was still prominent in Amos’s day
it must be included in the remnant;
there certainly was no reason why
Amos must mention it by name; and
the omission does not prove, as some
think, that the city was already de-
stroyed (2 Kings xii, 17; see further
on vi, 2).

The four cities mentioned suffered
severely from the Assyrians subse-
quent to the delivery of this threat.
Gaza was attacked by Tiglath-pileser
in 734 and was compelled to pay a
heavy tribute. Ashdod refused in 711
to pay tribute imposed at an earlier
date; in punishment the city was re-
duced and its inhabitants exiled. In
701 both Ashkelon and Ekron joined
in the revolt against Sennacherib and
were severely dealt with. However,
all four cities seem to have become
again more or less powerful; all are
named as tributaries to the later As-
syrian kings, Esar-haddon and Ashur-
banapal (compare Neh. iv, 7; xiii, 23,
24; Zech. ix, 5-7). Saith the Lord
Jehovah—A reiteration, for the sake
of emphasis, of the truth that Amos

 

AMOS.

four, I will not turn away the punish-
ment thereof; *because they deliv-
ered up the whole captivity to
Edom, and remembered not *the
brotherly covenant: 10 ¥But I will

6 Heb. the covenant of brethren, 2Sam.,
4.11; 1 Kings 5. 1; 9. 11-14.——¥Y Verses
5,7 ete.

was commissioned by Jehovah to de-
liver this message. The Lord Jehovah
is a favorite expression in Amos and
Ezekiel; it is used rarely in the other
prophetic books. Lord calls attention
to Jehovah’s supremacy. On _ the
authenticity of this oracle see pp. 221 f.

9,10. The sin and punishment of
Phenicia. Tyrus [‘Tyre’”}—The most
important of the cities of Phoenicia,
representing here the entire nation
(see on Joel iii, 4; Zech. ix, 2). The
crime condemned is similar to that
of Philistia. They delivered up the
whole captivity [‘‘people’’}—See on
verse 6. If the last clause of verse 9
is a condemnation of a second crime,
independent of the slave trade, it
may be correct to say that “the
Pheenicians are not charged with
taking captives, as are the Philistines
(verse 6), but with delivering them,
that is, acting as agents for those who
actually took them.” However, the
last clause of verse 9 may be a circum-
stantial clause, ‘‘without remember-
ing the brotherly covenant.” If so,
the two are brought into closer rela-
tion, and the crime condemned is
most probably the taking and selling
of slaves in violation of some sacred
agreement. The brotherly covenant—
Literally, and margin, “the covenant
of brethren.” This is commonly in-
terpreted of the covenant between
Solomon and Hiram of Tyre (1 Kings
v, 1ff.; compare ix, 13). Against this
interpretation Driver urges with some
justice, “It is scarcely likely that the
crowning offense of Tyre should be
forgetfulness of a treaty entered into
nearly three hundred years previ-
ously.” If the two clauses are con-
nected, the breaking of the covenant
and the taking or delivering of slaves
sustain some relation to each other;
CHAPTER I.

229

 

send a fire on the wall of Tyrus,
which shall devour the palaces
thereof.

11 Thus saith the Lorp; For
three transgressions of "Edom, and
for four, I will not turn away the

 

2 Isa. 21. 11; 34.
Ezek. 25. 12,18, 14;
Obad. 1, etc.; Mal. 1

5; Jer. 49. 8, etc.;
ar 2, etc.; Joel 3. 19;

 

when the slave raids were under-
taken the breaking of a covenant was
involved. It is nowhere stated that
the slaves were Hebrews, or that the
covenant was a covenant with Israel.
Chapter ii, 1, makes it certain that
Amos’s denunciations were not lim-
ited to sins against the chosen nation.
Hence it is not unreasonable to sup-
pose that the slaves were taken from
other Phoenician or from Canaanitish
communities with which the Tyrians
sustained treaty relations, the break-
ing of which constituted the breach
of the “brotherly covenant.” Tyre,
being a commercial city, would find it
advantageous to maintain friendly
relations with its neighbors, which
might be sealed by treaties, as in the
case of Israel. For selfish purposes
these sacred treaties were broken,
and this treachery called forth the
severe denunciation of the prophet.
It is mere assumption to say that the
covenant between Hiram and Solo-
mon “had an especial provision against
selling them (that is, captured Jews)
away from their own land.”

Other prophets agree with Amos in
foretelling the doom of Tyre (Isa.
xxiii; Jer. xxv, 22; Ezek. xxvi-xxviii;

Joel iii, 4; Zech. ix, 3, 4); but it was a| pp

long time before the ruin of Tyre was
accomplished. The Tyrian policy, to
purchase peace by the payment of
heavy tribute rather than to en-
counter the Assyrian armies, post-
poned the disaster for centuries. This
policy had its origin even before the
time of Amos. Ashur-nasir-pal of As-
syria (885-860) received tribute from
Tyre and other Phoenician cities.
Shalmaneser II (in 842, 839) and
Tiglath-pileser II] (in 734) also_re-
ceived tribute. Shalmaneser IV is
said to have attacked the city; he
was defeated on sea and a siege from
the land side, after having been

 

maintained for five years, had to be
raised. Sennacherib and Esar-haddon
appear to have been no more success-
ful; but in 664 Ashur-banapal took
the city by storm. It soon regained
its prestige, and at a later time Nebu-
chadnezzar besieged the city; the
siege continued for thirteen years,
and its outcome is in doubt (Ezek.
xxix, 18). The heaviest blow fell in
332, when, after a siege of seven
months, the city fell before Alexander
the Great. In the taking of the city
six thousand are said to have per-
ished by the sword, two thousand to
have been crucified, and thirty thou-
sand women, children, and slaves to
have been sold. It recovered rapidly
and played an important role until
1291 A. D., when it fell permanently
into the hands of the Saracens. Now
its site is covered by an insignificant
Arab village. “After having been the
mother of colonies and the mistress
of the seas, bearing her merchandise
into otherwise unvisited lands and
adjusting the supply and demand of
the world, Tyre is now content, at
the close of her career, to be a stag-
nant village in stagnant Turkey.” On
the authenticity of this oracle see
. 220 ff.

11, 12. The sin and punishment of
Edom. Edom—The Edomite terri-
tory was located south and southeast
of the Dead Sea and east of the
Arabah, the deep depression connect-
ing the southern end of the Dead Sea
with the Gulf of Akabah (see on vi,
14). During the exile the Edomites
(Idumzeans) crossed this depression
and settled in southern Judah. Edom
was not as fertile as Palestine or Moab,
though it is described as possessing,
in the days of Moses, fields, vine-
yards, wells, and a highway (Num.
xx, 17-19). With the exception of a
few places the land was not suitable
230

punishment thereof; because he did
pursue *his brother >with the sword,
and ‘did cast off all pity, cand his
anger did tear perpetually, and he

a Gen. 27. 41;
b 2 Chron. 28.

 

Deut. 23. 7; Mal. 1. 2.
17.

for agriculture, and it yielded scarcely
enough for the keeping of flocks. As
a result the Edomites became desert
robbers, forcing a living from the
caravans passing through their ter-
ritory and from the neighboring more
fertile regions. They were the dread
of the Hebrews during the desert wan-
derings (Num. xx, 14ff.) and during a
large part of their national history.
His brother—lIsrael (see on Obad. 10).
Pursue ... with the sword—An apt
characterization of the relation be-
tween Israel and Edom throughout
their entire history (Num. xx; Obad.
10-14; Psa. exxxvii, 7; compare Joel
ili, 19; Mal. i, 2-5). This hostility
merited the greater condemnation be-
cause the two nations were related so
intimately. It is not necessary to
suppose that the prophet had in mind
any specific outbreak, though analogy
with the other denunciations would
point in that direction. A revolt
against Judah is mentioned in 2 Kings

vili, 20-22; but others, unrecorded in | 3)

the Old Testament, may have been
undertaken against Israel. Cast off
all pity—Margin, “corrupted his com-
passions.” Other translations are un-
natural and need not be mentioned.
Corrupt is used in the sense of sup-
press, or stifle, the natural instinct of
compassion which may be expected to
exist between brothers. His anger did
tear perpetually—Or, in his anger he
did tear perpetually; that is, his anger
did not exhaust itself in one outbreak
(Job xvi, 9; Psa. vii, 2). Peshitto
and Vulgate favor an emendation
which gives a smoother parallelism,
and is accepted by most modern
scholars, “and he cherished his anger
perpetually” (Jer. iii, 5; compare Nah.
i, 2; Psa. ciii, 9). Kept his wrath for-
ever—Time was not allowed to dis-
sipate it; carefully it was nursed.
Such conduct calls for judgment.

 

AMOS.

kept his wrath for ever: 12 But ¢I
will send a fire upon Teman, which
shall devour the palaces of Boz
rah.

7 Heb. corrupted his compassions.—
e Ezek. 35. 5.——4 Obad. 9, 10.

Teman—Mentioned again in Jer. xlix,
7; Obad. 9; Job ii, 11, ete. According
to Eusebius and Jerome, Teman was
a district of Edom, but also a village
about fifteen miles from the capital,
Petra. The direction from Petra is
not certain; in Ezek. xxv, 13, however,
it is mentioned as being in the op-
posite direction from Dedan; the latter
was in the southeast; Teman, there-
fore, must have been in the northwest
or north or northeast. Since no walls
are mentioned (compare i, 7, 10, 14,
etc.), it is thought that the reference
here is to the district. Bozrah—
Named again in Gen. xxxvi, 33; Jer.
xlix, 13, ete.; not the city bearing the
same name mentioned in Jer. xlviii, 24.
It is identified with the modern el-
Busaireh, a small village surrounded
by extensive ruins, about thirty-five
miles north of Petra and about twenty
miles southeast of the Dead Sea.
The capital of Edom in Amos’s day
was Sela, the later Petra (see on Obad.

The fulfillment of this oracle also
may be traced in part in the later his-
tory of Edom. With other states in
western Asia, Edom paid homage to
Tiglath-pileser JII, after having paid
tribute to an earlier king, Adad-nirari
III (about 800 B. C.). Of later kings
Sennacherib, Esar-haddon, and Ashur-
banapal enumerate the Edomites
among their vassals; evidently they
were never able, though they made
frequent attempts, to free themselves
from the Assyrians, while the prestige
of the latter endured. Edom became
a part of Nebuchadnezzar’s domain
(Jer. xxvii, 3,4). During the exile the
Edomites crossed the Arabah and set-
tled in southern Judah. At the time
of Malachi Edom seems to have been
desolate (i, 3, 4); and toward the close
of the fourth century B. C. Arabian
tribes established themselves _per-
CHAPTER I.

231

 

13 Thus saith the Lorp; For three
transgressions of ethe children of
Ammon, and for four, I will not turn
away the nishment thereof; be-
cause they have 8 tripped up the wo-
men with child of Gilead, sthat they
might enlarge their border: 14 But I

will kindle a fire in the wall of »Rab-
bah, and it shall devour the palaces
thereof, ‘with shouting in the day of
battle, with a tempest in the day of
the whirlwind: 15 And "their king
shall go into captivity, he and his
princes together, saith the Lorp.

 

e Jer, 49. 1, 2; Ezek. 25. 2; Zeph. 2. 9.—
8 Or, divided the mountains.—1 Hos. 13.
16.—« Jer.49. 1.

h Deut. 3. 11; 2Sam. 12, 26; Jer. 49.
re Bees 25. 5.—i Chap. 2. 2.—¥ Jer.

 

manently in the territory of Edom.
After the Mohammedan conquests the
Edomite cities disappeared entirely.
On the authenticity of this oracle see
pp. 220ff.

13-15. The sin and punishment of
Ammon. Children of Ammon—Am-
monites (compare ‘Children of Is-
rael’’—Israelites). The Ammonites,
like the Moabites and Edomites, were
closely related to the Hebrews. Their
territory was east of the Jordan,
north-northeast of Moab. The more
desirable districts along the river were
occupied in the earlier days by the
Amorites and later by the Hebrews;
as a result the Ammonites had to be
content with the less desirable dis-
tricts bordering on the desert. Con-
sequently they were dependent upon
their flocks, and never ‘passed over
entirely to an agricultural life. They
possessed few large cities, and as a
people they stood midway between
the wandering Arab tribes of the
desert and. the settled agricultural
peoples of Palestine. Gilead—Imme-
diately west of Ammon (see on verse
3). Ripped up the women with child
—The Ammonites came frequently
into hostile contact with the Hebrews
(Judg. xi, 32; 1 Sam. xi, 11; 2 Sam.
xii, 31). After the division Ammon
became tributary to Israel, but re-
mained so only a little while. To the
very end it manifested a spirit of
hostility (2 Kings xxiv, 2; Jer. xl, 14;
Neh. ii, 10). From the definiteness of
the accusation it may be inferred that
the prophet has in mind a particular
event, though it is impossible to iden-
tify it with certainty; some connect it
with the invasion of Israel by Hazael
(2 Kings xiii, 3; compare viii, 12).

 

That the Ammonites were capable of
the most inhuman practices is seen
from 1 Sam. xi, 2. The special form
of cruelty condemned was not un-
known in ancient times, even in Is-
rael (2 Kings xv, 16; Hos. xiii, 6;
compare Nah. iii, 10; Isa. xiii, 16).
It is frequently spoken of in Arabic
literature in connection with inter-
tribal border warfare. Enlarge their
border—The cruelties could not be
excused on the ground of self-
defense; they were practiced in the
pursuit of a policy of conquest.
Kindle—In all the other passages
“send.” Rabbah—The capital of Am-
mon (Ezek. xxv, 5; Deut. iii, 11), and
the only city of the Ammonites men-
tioned in the Old Testament. It is
situated at the head of the Jabbok,
about twenty-five miles northeast of
the Dead Sea. By Ptolemy Phila-
delphus (about 250 B. C.) its name
was changed to Philadelphia; its ruins
now bear the name Amman. Shout-
ing—Not the cry of despair of the
defeated Ammonites, but the joyful
shouts of the victorious conquerors
(Josh. vi, 5; Jer. iv, 19, etc.). Tem-
pest . . . whirlwind—A figurative de-
scription of the onward sweep of the
hostile armies; nothing can withstand.
King and princes will be carried into
exile. Their king... his princes—On
the latter see Hos. iii, 4. The reading
“his princes,” analogy with the other
oracles (ii, 3), the absence of all refer-
ence to idolatry in the preceding de-
nunciations, and the LXX. and Tar-
gum favor the present Hebrew read-
ing, “their king’; on the other hand,
in Jer. xlix, 3, which seems to be
dependent upon this passage, Vulgate
and Peshitto read in the place of
232

AMOS.

 

CHAPTER II.
HUS saith the Lorp; For three
transgressions of *Moab, and
for four, I will not turn away the

4 Isa. 15,16; Jer. 48; Ezek. 25.°8; Zeph. 2.8.

punishment thereof; because he
bburned the bones of the king of
Edom into lime: 2 But I will send
a fire upon Moab, and it shall devour

b 2 Kings 3. 27.

 

“their king,” ‘‘Milcom,” which is the
name of the national deity of Ammon
(1 Kings xi, 5, 33). If the same read-
ing is adopted here, as is done by
some, his princes becomes equivalent
to his (Milcom’s) priests. In Jeremiah,
where “his priests” is added, Milcom
(R. V., ‘“Maleam’’) is probably cor-
rect; here the present Hebrew text is
preferable.

The later history of Ammon is
shrouded in obscurity; hence it is not
easy to trace the fulfillment of this
oracle. From the time of Tiglath-
pileser III the Ammonites are men-
tioned in inscriptions as paying tribute
to the Assyrian kings. Jeremiah
prophesied against them (xlix, 1-6;
compare also Ezek. xxv, 1-7). In
the time of Nehemiah they were still
hostile to the Jews (ii, 19); and even
at a later period they are spoken of as
enemies of the Jews (1 Macc. v, 30-
43). Justin Martyr speaks of them as
still numerous, but Origen states that
they had become merged into the
Arab tribes.

CHAPTER II.

1-3. The sin and punishment of
Moab. Moab—The third nation east
of the Jordan closely related to the
Hebrews (i, 11, 13). The territory of
the Moabites was to the south of
Ammon, on the uplands east of the
Dead Sea. It was well adapted to
agriculture, for it contained many
broad valleys and well-watered fields.
As a result the Moabites became at a
very early period a settled people
with large cities. War was waged be-
tween Israel and Moab from an early
time (Judg. iii, 16; 1 Sam. xiv, 47;
2 Sam. viii, 2; but compare Ruth i, 4;
1 Sam. xxii, 3). After the division
Moab seems to have secured its inde-
pendence, for Omri was compelled to
conquer it (2 Kings iii, 4; compare

 

Moabite Stone, ll. 4, 5). Subsequently
King Mesha revolted and secured his
independence (2 Kings iii, 5ff.; com-
pare Moabite Stone, ll. 5ff.), which was
never again lost to Israel.

Burned the bones of the king of
Edom into lime—The exact nature of
this crime is uncertain. Was the
king burned alive, or after he had
died but before he had been buried,
or was his body taken from the tomb
and burned? To burn the king alive
would be extreme cruelty, but to
prevent proper burial by burning a
corpse or to desecrate a tomb by re-
moving the corpse would also be con-
sidered a heinous crime; for, according
to,ancient Semitic conception, the de-
parted who received no proper burial
(Jer. xxxvi, 30) or whose resting place
was disturbed found no rest in Sheol.
Many sepulchral inscriptions contain
awful curses upon disturbers of the
resting places of the departed. Esh-
munazar of Sidon, for example, prays
that he who desecrates his tomb “may
have no root beneath, or fruit above,
or any beauty among the living under
the sun.” Amos’ sentiments are not
due to any heathenish superstition; he
is aroused by the spirit of hatred and
vindictiveness that manifests itself in
the crime. The fact that Moab is con-
demned not for sins committed against
Israel but against the very enemies of
the Hebrews is another indication of
the high ethical standards of Amos.

Of the crime mentioned nothing is
known otherwise; it may have been
committed after the joint attack upon
Moab by Judah, Israel, and Edom
(about 850 B. C.). According to
2 Kings iii, 26, the king of Moab seems
to have harbored special hatred
against the king of Edom. Perhaps
he was unable to avenge himself while
the king was alive, and therefore pur-
sued him even after death. Fire—As
CHAPTER ILI.

2338

 

the palaces of °Kirioth: and Moab
shall die with tumult, ¢with shout-
ing, and with the sound of the trum-
pets 3 And I will cut off «the judge
rom the midst thereof, and will slay
all the princes thereof with him,
saith the Lorp.

4 Thus saith the Lorp; For three
transgressions of Judah, and for
four, I will not turn away the punish-
ment thereof; ‘because they have de-
spised the law of the Lorp, and have
not kept his commandments, and
«their lies caused them to err, after

 

 

e Jer. 48. 41.—4d Chap. 1, 14. e¢ Num.
24, 17; Jer. 48. 7, Lev. 26. 14,15; Neh.
1. 7; Dan. 9. 11.

® Isa, 28. 15; Jer. 16. 19, 20; Rom.
A 25.—» Ezek. 20. 13, 16, 18, 24,

 

in i, 4. Kirioth—R. V., “Kerioth.”
Since it represents the whole country,
it must have been a city of promi-
nence. It is mentioned again in Jer.
xlviii, 41, and on the Moabite Stone,
-]. 18. Its location is not certain.
Some identify it with Kir (or Ar) of
Moab (Isa. xv, 1), chiefly because of
the similarity of the names and
the fact that wherever Ar or Kir
is mentioned no mention is made of
Kirioth. Another name for the same
locality is thought to be A7r-hareseth
or Kir-heres (Isa. xvi, 7,11). This, on
the testimony of the Targum, is iden-
tified with the modern Kerak, about
eleven miles east of the southern
bay of the Dead Sea, eighteen miles
south of the Arnon. Others think that
Kerioth may be identified with the
modern Kurezyat, north of the Arnon,
which it has been customary to iden-
tify with the ancient Kiriathaim.
With tumult—The noise and confusion
of battle. Jeremiah calls the Moabites
“sons of tumult” (xlviii, 45; compare
Num. xxiv, 17) There is no warrant
for Hoffmann’s suggestion that the He-
brew translated ‘‘tumult”’ is the name
of the acropolis of Ar, and that the
preposition should be rendered “in,”
the name of the acropolis being used
instead of the name of the city, as
Zion is used sometimes in the place of
Jerusalem. With shouting—See on i,
14. Sound of the trumpet—Or, horn
(see on Hos. v, 8). The sound is the
signal to advance. Judge—Since Moab
was governed by kings, the use of
judge has been explained by assuming
that Moab at the time of Amos had
no independent king, that judge is
equivalent to governor or viceroy, and
that Jeroboam II had deposed the
king and placed a governor upon the

 

throne of Moab. However, 2 Kings
xiv, 25, is not a sufficient basis for
this assumption; the verse does not
prove even that Moab was subject to
Jeroboam (see on vi, 14); besides,
Mesha, who was a vassal of Omri, is
called ‘‘king’”’ (2 Kings iii, 4). It is
better to interpret judge as equivalent
to king (compare Mic. v, 1). The
title is appropriate since one of the
chief functions of the ancient king
was the administration of justice
(2 ace viii, 15; xv, 2; 1 Kings vii, 7,
etc.).

When this prophecy found its ful-
fillment it is impossible to say. The
kings of Moab are mentioned as tribu-
taries in the Assyrian inscriptions
from the time of Tiglath-pileser III
onward. Isa. xv, xvi; Jer. xlviii;
Ezek. xxv contain announcements of
judgment and disaster upon Moab
(compare also Zeph. ii, 8-10).

4,5. The sin and punishment of Ju-
dah. Judah—The southern kingdom,
the home of Amos, in distinction from
the northern kingdom, against which
Amos prophesied. The other nations
had sinned against Jehovah without
external law (Rom. ii, 12); Judah had
received a law, therefore its guilt was
greater. Law of Jehovah—See on
Hos. iv, 6. Despised [‘‘rejected’’?}—
As authoritative (Hos. viii, 12); they
refused to obey it and to be guided by
it. Commandments [“statutes’?}—
Literally, the things engraven, that is,
on public tablets. The word is found
frequently in Deuteronomy (iv, 5, 8,
14; v, 1, 31, etc.) and designates
enactments of « moral, religious, or
civil character. As the next clause
indicates, here it refers primarily to
statutes enjoining loyalty to Jehovah.
Lies—The worthless idols that have
234

AMOS.

 

the which their fathers have walked:
5 iBut I will send a fire upon Judah,
and it shall devour the palaces of
Jerusalem.

6 Thus saith the Lorp; For three
transgressions of Israel, and for
four, I will not turn away the pun-
ishment thereof; because ‘they sold

 

i Jer. 17. 27; Hos. 8. 14.

k Isa. 29. 21; chap. 8. 6.

 

no existence, and whose imagined
power and ability to help are not real
(Isa. lxvi, 3; Jer. v, 7; Lev. xix, 4,
etc.). The fathers put their trust in
these; the children followed in the
footsteps of their ancestors. The his-
tory of Judah presents numerous illus-
trations of this apostasy. True, there
were some kings who remained more
or less loyal to Jehovah (1 Kings xv,
11; xxii, 43; 2 Kings xii, 2, 3; xiv, 3),
but there were others who looked with
favor upon idolatry (1 Kings xv, 3;
2 Kings viii, 18, 27; xi, 1). Amos
himself says little concerning religious
conditions in Judah, but there can be
no doubt that even in his day idol-
atry was prevalent there (compare
Isa. ii, 8). Utter destruction of the
state and of Jerusalem, the political
and religious center, will be the pun-
ishment.

A partial fulfillment of Amos’s
threat took place when Sennacherib
overran Judah and besieged Jerusa-
lem (2 Kings xviii, 3ff.; Isa. xxxvi,
1ff.). At that time Jerusalem escaped,
but fire did “devour the palaces of
Jerusalem” when in 586 B. C. the
city was taken and destroyed by the
armies of Nebuchadnezzar. After the
restoration it was rebuilt, and the
city has had a continuous history
since. Its present population is said
to be about fifty thousand.

Tue Sin AND PuNISHMENT or IsRAEL,

The denunciations in i, 3-ii, 5, are
preparatory to ii, 6-16, which is the
thesis of the entire book. Chap-
ters iliff. are an elaboration of this
thesis. If other nations, less favored
than Israel, are to be punished for
their sins, can Israel, with its superior
privileges and advantages, hope to
escape judgment? The prophet be-
gins his accusation in the same stereo-

 

typed form, but he departs from it
after the first verse. He opens with
the presentation of the indictment
(6-8), containing two counts: (1) op-
pression of the poor, (2) immorality
and inordinate self-indulgence prac-
ticed in the name of religion. With
this conduct he contrasts the divine
care for Israel and condemns the base
ingratitude of the corrupt nation (9-
12). He closes with an announce-
ment of the speedy destruction of the
people (13-16).

6, 7a. Oppression of the poor. Sold
the righteous for silver—This accusa-
tion is commonly interpreted as a
separate count in the indictment,
maladministration of justice. It is
thought to refer to the acceptance of
bribes on the part of the judges, for
which they pronounce guilty the in-
nocent and cause him to be sold into
slavery. The next clause, “the poor
for a pair of shoes,” is said to mark
an advanced degree of corruption,
when the judges do the same “for a
pair of shoes” (see below). Others in-
terpret the second clause as referring
to the oppression of poor debtors by
rich creditors; the latter sell the
former into slavery, though the in-
debtedness involved may be insignifi-
cant. The latter interpretation of
“(they sold) the poor for a pair of
shoes” is to be preferred (viii, 6;
but compare v, 12; Isa. i, 23; iii, 14,
15); and it seems best to interpret
the first clause also of the oppression
of the poor by rich creditors rather
than of maladministration of justice.
They—The wealthy and powerful
creditors. Sold—That is, into slavery.
In a figurative sense the verb may be
used of less severe treatment. Right-
eous—Not in an ethical but in a
forensic sense—innocent; those who
have come into the control of their
ereditors without any fault of their
CHAPTER II.

235

 

the righteous for silver, and the poor
for a pair of shoes; 7 That pant after
the dust of the earth on the head of
the poor, and 'turn aside the way of

the meek: and a man and his father
will go in unto the same ‘maid, "to
pele my holy name: 8 And they
ay themselves down upon clothes

 

1 Isa, 10. 2; chap. 5. 12,—m™ Ezek.
22.11. P i

10Or, young woman.—x Lev. 20. 3;
Ezek. 36. 20; Rom. 2. 24.

 

own. Silver—The money for which
they are said to be indebted. Poor—
R. V., “needy.”” Those who are un-
able to meet their obligations and
have no one to take their part. For
a pair of shoes—A proverbial expres-
sion for something of little value;
equivalent to the modern “for a song.”
“One of the commonest crimes of
Amos’s day was that of land-grabbing
on the part of the rich (Isa. v, 8),
and it is this that Amos is here
denouncing.”

The greed of the rich is further de-
scribed in 7a, in Hebrew in the form
of a participial clause, reproduced in
English by a relative clause, con-
nected with “they” of verse 6. Pant
after the dust of the earth on the head
of the poor—A peculiar expression. If
the text is correct, a twofold inter-
pretation is possible. With both,“‘dust
on the head”’ is a sign of distress and
mourning (2 Sam. i, 2; xv, 32; Lam.
ii, 10). The meaning, then, may be
either that they are “so avaricious
that they begrudge the poor even
the little dust used as a token of
mourning,” or, that they are so heart-
less that they yearn to see the poor
reduced to a state of misery and dis-
tress in which they will sprinkle the
dust upon their heads. Jerome reads
a different, though similar, verb, “to
crush” for ‘‘to pant,’’ and omits the
preposition before ‘‘the head.” He
reads, “who crush upon the dust of
the earth the head of the poor,”
which gives excellent sense, and is ac-
cepted by many as original. With this
forceful figure of extreme cruelty may
be compared Isa. iii, 15, “grind the
faces of the poor,” and Mice. ili, 2, 3,
“strip the flesh off their bones.”
Other emendations suggested are
less probable. Meek—Simple-minded,
God-fearing persons, who harm no
one and who do not know the crafti-

 

ness and deceitfulness of this world,
to guard against it. Turn aside the
way—They place obstacles in the
way of the meek; thus they prevent
the carrying out of their plans and
purposes, and throw them into diffi-
culties where they become an easy
prey.

7b. Immoralities. A man and his
father will go in unto the same maid—
The addition of same, which is not in
the original, is based upon a misap-
prehension. The emphasis is not upon
the fact that the father and the son go
in to the same girl, but upon the uni-
versality of the immoral practices.
The article is used in u generic sense,
to indicate that the maiden alluded
to is a member of a well-known class
(G.-K., 126g). In English the in-
definite article may be used. The
allusion is to the sacred prostitutes
at the shrines of Ashtoreth, who
were found even in those Hebrew
sanctuaries where, nominally at least,
Jehovah was worshiped (see on Hos.
iv, 13). A man and his father—father
and son; the practice is universal;
there is no attempt to conceal it.
To profane my holy name—A final
clause, “in order to.’’ The Israelites
should have known better (verse 11),
and Amos assumes that they did
know better; therefore he represents
the practice of these immoralities as
deliberate premeditated acts in de-
fiance of the well-known will of God,
by which acts discredit and dishonor
were brought purposely upon the
name of Jehovah, that is, upon his
character; for “God’s name is equiv-
alent to the sum of his attributes as
revealed to his chosen people” (Isa.
Ivii, 15; Psa. exi, 9; see on Mic. v, 4).
On profane see on Joel ii, 17.

The immoralities condemned in 7b
are those practiced in the name of
religion; the excesses condemned in
236

AMOS.

 

laid to pledge »by every altar, and
they drink the wine of *the con-
demned in the house of their god.

9 Yet destroyed I the «Amorite

before them, whose height was like
the height of the cedars, and he was
strong as the oaks; yet I sdestroyed
his fruit from above, and his roots

 

° Exod. 22. 26.—P Ezek. 23. 41; 1 Cor.
8. 10; 10. 21.— Or, such as have fined,
or, mulcted.

aNum. 21. 24; Deut. 2. 31; Josh. 24.
8. r Num. 13. 28, 32, 33.—— Isa. 5.
24; Mal. 4. 1.

 

 

verse 8 also are connected with the
religious cult, though “clothes taken
in pledge” goes back to the first count
in the indictment. Lay themselves
down... by [“beside’’] every altar—
In drunken carousal (8b). There may
be an allusion to the practice con-
demned in 7b. Clothes laid to [“taken
in”] pledge—The term used denotes
the outer garment, a large square cloth
with a hood, thrown over the body
and held together from the inside.
To the poor. people this garment
served also as a covering at night,
and since the nights are at times very
cool it is indispensable. Sometimes
the garment was given in pledge, but
the humane law in Exod. xxii, 26,
demands its return to the owner at
sundown. This law the unrighteous
nobles neglected to observe in their
mad desire to satisfy their lusts.
They drink the wine—At feasts con-
nected with the peace and thank offer-
ings (v, 23; Exod. xxxii, 6, etc.);
these feasts had become occasions
of revelry and débauchery. Of the
condemned—Better R. V., “‘such as
have been fined.” The wine was
purchased with money received from
fines; whether just or unjust Amos
does not say; that in many cases
they were unjust there can be
no doubt. The house of their god
—R. V., “God.” It is also pos-
sible to render “gods” or even “the
houses of their gods.” The Hebrew
is ambiguous. To Amos the chief
earthly dwelling place of Jehovah
was Jerusalem (i, 2). Whether he
considered all local sanctuaries ille-
gitimate and the worship practiced
there idolatry is not certain. At any
rate, he evidently has in mind here
the practices at such sanctuaries as
Beth-el, Gilgal (iv, 4), and Beer-sheba
(viii, 14); that he thinks of more than

 

one place is indicated also by “beside
every altar.”

9-12. What contrast between the
actual conduct of the people and the
conduct that might be expected of
them in view of Jehovah’s loving care
for them throughout their entire his-
tory! He brought them out of Egypt
and led them in the wilderness (10);
he destroyed the Amorites (9); he
raised up religious teachers (11, 12).
In the present Hebrew text the
chronological order of events is not
observed; chronologically the verses
should be arranged 10, 9, 11, 12, and
this Harper thinks to have been the
original order.

Yet destroyed I—The contrast is
brought out more emphatically in the
Hebrew, “But I (on my part), I de-
stroyed.”” Amorite—In verse 10
Palestine is called “the land of the
Amorite,” an expression found also
in early Babylonian inscriptions. In
the Old Testament Amorite is used
(1) as synonymous with Canaanite, to
designate the inhabitants of the whole
of Palestine (Josh. xxiv, 8, 15, 18;
Deut. i, 7, 19, etc.); (2) to designate
the peoples ruled by Sihon and Og,
east of the Jordan (Num. xxi, 21-25).
As verse 10 makes plain, here the
reference is to the inhabitants of the
entire land. Cedars—Among the He-
brews the “type of loftiness and
grandeur” (Isa. ii, 13; compare i, 30,
31). Oaks—The type of strength and
endurance (Isa. ii, 13; compare i, 30,
81; Zech. xi, 2). For the belief that
the inhabitants of Palestine were of
giant stature see Deut. i, 28; Num.
xiii, 32, 33. Fruit . . . roots—The
highest and the lowest parts, equiv-
alent to root and branch—completely.
A similar expression is read on the
sarcophagus of Eshmunazar (see on
verse 1; compare Hos. ix, 16; Isa. v,
CHAPTER II.

237

 

from beneath. 10 Also ‘I brought
you up from the land of Egypt, and
sled you forty years through the
wilderness, to possess the land of
the Amorite. 11 And I raised up of
your sons for prophets, and of your
young men for *Nazarites. Js it not

even thus, O ye children of Israel?
saith the Lorp. 12 But ye gave
the Nazarites wine to drink; and
commanded the prophets, ysaying,
Prophesy not. 13 *Behold, *I am
pressed under you, as a cart is
pressed that is full of sheaves.

 

t Exod. 12. 51; Mic. 6, 4.——¥ Deut, 2.
6. 2; Judg. 13. 5.—
11. 21; chap. 7. 12,

x

7;_ 8. 2. um.
y Isa. 30. 10; Jer.

13; Mic. 2. 6.—zIsa. 1.14——3 Or, I wtil
press your place, as a cart full of sheaves
presseth.

 

 

24). Also I—The pronoun is again
emphatic. Brought you up— Up, be-
cause of the mountainous character of
Palestine as compared with Egypt.
From the land of Egypt—The Exodus
from Egypt was the supreme manifes-
tation of Jehovah’s love and power in
Hebrew history; hence it is frequently
made the basis of prophetic appeals
(iii, 1; Hos. xii, 9; xiii, 4, etc.). Forty
years through the wilderness—Lov-
ingly and tenderly he cared for them
and supplied their wants (v, 25; Deut.
ii, 7; vili, 2; xxix, 5); his ultimate pur-
pose being to bring them into the
promised land.

Jehovah raised up among them re-
ligious and moral teachers, which was
a special mark of divine favor, en-
joyed by Israel exclusively. Prophets,
‘ Nazarites [‘‘Nazirites’’}~Two
classes of religious teachers and work-
ers; the former taught principally,
though not exclusively, by word of
mouth, the latter by example. Both
played important parts. From the
beginning of Hebrew history to its
close no serious crisis arose without
God raising up a prophet to lead the
people through it. e Nazirites
(separated, or, consecrated) tried to
stem by example the tide of worldli-
ness and self-indulgence, which threat-
ened to sweep away the simplicity of
ancient Hebrew life. (See articles
“Prophecy and Prophets” and ‘‘Naz-
irites,” in Hastings’s Dictionary of the
Bible.) The law regulating the con-
duct of Nazirites is found in Num.
vi, 1-21 (compare Jer. xxxv). Is it
not even thus—An appeal to confirm
or deny the preceding statements.
Denial was impossible. Saith Jehovah
—This particular expression is very

 

common in prophetic writings; it is
a solemn asseverative interjection
(see on Joel ii, 12); and by calling at-
tention to the fact that the prophet is
delivering the word of Jehovah it sets
a seal of truthfulness upon the mes-
sage.

The Israelites failed to appreciate
the divine goodness; not only did they
refuse to listen, they even sought to
silence the prophets and compel the
Nazirites to become unfaithful to
their vows; by these acts they in-
sulted Jehovah himself. Gave...
wine to drink—One of the principal
obligations of the Nazirites was to
abstain from intoxicating drinks
(Num. vi, 3). Prophesy not—Such
prohibitions are not infrequent (1
Kings xiii, 4; xviii, 4; xix, 2; xxii, 8,
26, 27; 2 Kings i, 9ff.; vi, 31); for the
time of Amos and later see vii, 13,
16; Hos. ix, 8; Isa. xxx, 10, 11; Mic.
ii, 6; Jer. xx, 7-10.

13-16. The punishment. Righteous
retribution will overtake the sinful na-
tion. Verse 13 is rendered more ac-
ceptably in the R. V., “Behold, I will
press you in your place, as a cart
presseth that is full of sheaves.” Be-
hold I will—The Hebrew construction
implies the imminence of the judg-
ment; better, “Behold, I am about
to” (G.-K., 116p). Press you in your
place—The meaning of the verb,
which occurs only here in the Old Tes-
tament, is doubtful. The cognate
verb in Arabic means ‘“‘to hinder,”
“to cause to stop’; hence, “I will
cause a stop under you.” If this
meaning is accepted, the form of the
second verb demands the transla-
tion “as a cart causes a stop.” This
is strange, since we would expect “as
238

14 *Therefore the flight shall perish
from the swift, and the strong shall
not strengthen his force, neither
shall the mighty deliver ‘himself:
15 Neither shall he stand that han-
dleth the bow; and he that is swift of

a Jer. 9.23; chap. 9. 1, etc.—> Psa.
35. 16.

a cart is caused to stop.” Others—so
R. V.—connect the verb with the
Aramaic and read, “I will press you
in your place’; literally, J will press
under you, which is thought to mean
that he will hold them fast in their
place, so that they cannot escape.
This also is not without difficulties.
(1) “I will press you in your place”
would be quite satisfactory, but “I
will press under you,” the literal ren-
dering, is not so intelligible; and in
the second clause, ‘‘as a cart is
pressed,” would give good sense, not
so “as a cart presseth.” (2) The
presence of an Aramaic word in He-
brew at the time of Amos is peculiar.
(3) Verse 14 implies flight, though the
fugitives will be overtaken; nothing is
said there about inability to move.
For these reasons most commentators
accept the emendation of Hitzig, who
reads verse 18, ‘Behold, I am about
to cause it to totter under you, even
as a wagon totters that is full of
sheaves’; that is, the ground will tot-
ter under them—a figure of approach-

ing ruin.
14-16. The swiftest and _best-
equipped warriors cannot escape.

Therefore—R. V., better, “and.”
Flight—Rather the place of flight or
of refuge. Shall perish—Better, R. V.
margin, “‘shall fail.””, Swift—He would
be expected to be the first to reach a
place of safety; but when the divine
blow falls the qualities ordinarily of
the greatest advantage will profit
nothing. Shall not strengthen his
force—The strong man will be so ter-
rified that he cannot collect his
strength or make use of it. Mighty—
The warrior, whose bravery might be
expected to save him, cannot save
his life (margin). Handleth the bow
—The armed man. Shall he stand—

 

 

AMOS.

foot shall not deliver himself: neith-
er shall he that rideth the horse
deliver himself. 16 And he that
is 5courageous among the mighty
shall flee away naked in that day,
saith the Lorn.

4 Heb. his soul, or, life. ¢ Psa. 33.
17—— Heb. strong of his heart.

Stop in his flight (Nah. ii, 8). The
swiftness of man (2 Sam. i, 23; ii, 18)
or of horse shall avail nothing. Cour-
ageous—Literally, the strong in his
heart (Psa. xxvii, 14; xxxi, 24). Naked
—He will throw away everything that
might hinder his flight—weapons,
armor, and superfluous clothing. In
that day—The day of judgment.
Saith Jehovah—As in verse 11.

The judgments announced in chap-
ters i, li are expected by the prophet
to take the form of foreign invasions
and war. In no case does he call
the executioner by name; but it is
beyond doubt that throughout he is
thinking of the Assyrians, who, be-
ginning with the reign of Ashur-nasir-
pal (885-860 B. C.), became an ever-
increasing menace to all the nations
enumerated. Why Amos does not
call them by name is not quite clear.
It may be because in his days the As-
syrian power was on the decline—it
revived under Tiglath-pileser III
(745-727 B. C.)—and therefore the
mention of their name would have
added no force to his message, but, on
the contrary, might have weakened
it. It is worthy of note, however,
that neither Isaiah nor Jeremiah men-
tion the national enemies by name in
their earlier discourses. Wellhausen
is undoubtedly right when he calls.
Amos “the leader of the prophetic
choir of the Assyrian period.”

CHAPTER III.

Discoursrs or WARNING AND Ex-
HORTATION, ili, 1—vi, 14.

 

Chapters iii-vi form the main part
of the Book of Amos. It consists of
several discourses, in which the in-
dictment and sentence of ii, 6-16,
are expanded and justified. Most
CHAPTER III.

239

 

CHAPTER III.
EAR this word that the Lorp
; hath spoken against you, O
children of Israel, against the whole

family which I brought up from the
land of Egypt, saying, 2 *You only
have I known of all the families of
the earth: >therefore I will ‘punish

 

2 Deut. 7. 6; 10. 15; Psa. 147. 19, 20.—
b See Dan. 9. 12; Matt. 11. 22; Luke 12. 47;

Rom. 2. 9; 1 Pet. 4. 17.—1! Heb. visti
upon.

 

commentators divide the chapters into
three discourses, new starts being
made with iii, 1; iv, 1; v, 1. The ad-
vantage of this division is that each
section begins with the solemn sum-
mons, “Hear ye.’ Nevertheless, it
seems more accurate to distinguish
four, or even. five, discourses, begin-
ning with iii, 1; iv, 4; v, 1; v, 18; vi, 1.

Appress INTENDED PRIMARILY FOR
THE RULING CuassEs iii, 1-iv, 3.

Two fundamental religious misap-
prehensions of the common people were
(1) that Jehovah was interested solely
in the affairs of Israel, (2) that he
was arbitrary in his dealings with
men, especially in his dealings with
Israel as compared with his treatment
of other nations. Amos sets himself
to rectify these misconceptions. He
makes the attempt in chaptersi and ii
by showing that Jehovah’s rule ex-
tends over all nations. In iii, 1, 2,
he repeats the attempt in a more
startling manner. That Jehovah had
known Israel in a special sense Amos
does not question, but he does deny
that the special care of Jehovah for
the nation in the past is a guarantee
of the continuation of the divine
favor or of the nation’s safety irre-
spective of their present life and con-
duct. The prophet points out briefly
that the popular belief is unwar-
ranted, that the inferences drawn
from the divine choice are false, that
this choice brought to Israel certain
privileges, and that these privileges
involved special obligations. Since
they failed to meet these obligations
the fact of their divine choice only
increased their guilt, and now makes
inevitable their punishment by a
righteous God.

This new and startling announce-
ment would arouse derision and op-
position. To ward off these the

 

prophet proceeds to point out that,
strange as the declaration may seem,
it is of Jehovah (3-8). In 9ff. he calls
upon the surrounding nations to tes-
tify against Israel. The privileges of
Israel were superior to those of other
nations, nevertheless their crimes are
so heinous that they startle even
heathen nations (9, 10). This condi-
tion of affairs makes judgment in-
evitable (11-15). A special judgment
will fall upon the luxury-loving and
self-indulgent ladies of the capital,
who are in part responsible for the
prevailing corruption (iv, 1-3).

1, 2. Failure to recognize responsi-
bilities brings judgment. If ii, 6-16,
is called the thesis of the Book of
Amos, iii, 1, 2, may properly be called
the thesis of chapters iii—vi, for the
four chapters are entirely given up to
an expansion of the truth that the
failure of Israel to recognize its ob-
ligations makes inevitable its doom.

Hear this word—A solemn sum-
mons to pay strictest attention to the
words of the prophet, for he is about
to utter a divinely given message.
The whole family—Both Israel and
Judah, though Amos deals chiefly
with Israel. Family—nation (com-
pare verse 2; Mic. ii, 3). Brought up
—See on ii, 10. Have I known—And
know still (G.-K., 106g). On the
significance of know see on Hos. viii,
4; here the word is used in a favorable
sense, including choice and continuous
care (Hos. xiil, 5; Isa. i, 2; v, 1-7;
Jer. iii, 1). In a qualified sense Je-
hovah knew all the nations of the
earth (ix, 7; compare i, 3—ii, 5). To
this assertion of Amos the people
would readily assent, but the inference
drawn by the prophet would bring a
surprise; they would have continued,
“therefore he will always be on our
side.’ How different the prophet’s
inference! Therefore—Because I have
240

AMOS.

 

you for all your iniquities. 3 Can
two walk together, except they be
agreed? 4 Will a lion roar in the
forest, when he hath no prey? will

a young lion 2cry out of his den, if
he have taken nothing? 5 Can a
bird fall in a snare upon the earth,
where no gin is for him? shall one

 

2 Heb. give forth his voice.

 

chosen and blessed you (compare ii,
Off.). Punish—‘‘To whomsoever much
is given, of him shall be much re-
quired. The greater the measure of
grace, the greater also is the punish-
ment, if it is neglected or despised”
(compare Jer. vii, 3-15). All—No
excuses will be countenanced, no
mercy shown.

3-8. The prophet’s authority. Amos
anticipated the startling effect of his
message. Many would consider him
a madman, and pay no attention to
his words, unless he could convince
them that they were indeed a message
from Jehovah. This he attempts to
do in iii, 3-8. By a series of illustra~
tions he points out that every effect
presupposes a cause (3-6); on this
principle his prophesying presupposes
that he is sent by Jehovah, who de-
sires to make known beforehand his
purpose (7, 8). The illustrations are
taken from everyday life, and their
very simplicity would make them im-
pressive. It is gratuitous to call the
philosophy underlying some of the il-
lustrations unsound, or to bring for-
ward exceptions which would inval-
idate the prophet’s argument. Neither
the prophet nor his hearers were ac-
quainted with the Christian phi-
losophy of the twentieth century;
they held the philosophic conceptions
implied in the illustrations, and they
were concerned with general rules
rather than with exceptions; there-
fore to them the arguments would be
convincing.

In spite of all that has been said to
the contrary, this interpretation of
iii, 3-8, which is accepted by most
commentators, seems the most nat-
ural; the interpretation revived and
defended at length by Harper, which
considers 3-8 an announcement of the
dissolution of the covenant relation
between Jehovah and Israel and of the
impending doom, is less probable.

 

Can [“shall’”] two walk together,
except they be [“‘have”’] agreed?—A
symbolical or allegorical interpreta-
tion, “unless they are of the same
mind or opinion,” is out of place.
Hence it is useless to speculate
whether the “two” are Jehovah and
the prophet, or Jehovah and Israel,
or Jehovah and Assyria, etc. Amos
uses a simple illustration, which is to
be understood literally. They be
agreed is literally, they have pointed
out to each other, that is, they have
come to an agreement. The force of
the question is, “Do any two men
walk together unless they have previ-
ously agreed to meet and travel to-
gether?” Everyone familiar with con-
ditions in Palestine would see the
point. The roads are not always safe.
Therefore a man does not travel alone
if he can avoid it; but rather than join
himself to a stranger or chance ac-
quaintance, who might prove to be a
robber, he remains by himself. Con-
sequently, if two men are seen traveling
together, the inevitable conclusion is
that they have met by previous agree-
ment. G. A. Smith says, “For there
(in the wilds of Palestine) men meet
and take the same road as seldom as
ships at sea.” Lion... young lion—
See on Hos. v, 14. Roar—The He-
brew has several words to describe
the lion’s roar. The word used here
denotes the roar of the lion as he
springs upon the prey (i, 2; Isa. v,
29a; Psa. civ, 21). Forest—Or, jun-
gle. The roar is an unfailing indica-
tion that the lion has found a prey.
Cry out—Literally, give forth his voice;
not, as before, the roar with which the
lion springs upon his prey, but the
“growl of satisfaction” uttered as he
devours the prey. When this sound
is heard the hearer knows that the
prey has been taken. In a snare upon
the earth—LXX. omits “in a snare,”
and may be correct. If a bird falls
CHAPTER III.

241

 

take up a snare from the earth, and
have taken nothing at all? 6 Shall
a trumpet be blown in the city, and
the people ‘not be afraid? cshall
there be evil in a city, 4and the
Lorp hath not done it? 7 Surely

the Lord Gop will do nothing, but
dhe revealeth his secret unto his
servants the prophets. 8 °The lion
hath roared, who will not fear? the
Lord Gop hath spoken, ‘who can
but prophesy?

 

8 Or, not run_together?. ¢ Isa. 45. 7.
arate and shall not the LORD do some-
wha’

 

d Gen. 6. 138; 18. 17; Psa. 25. 14; John
15. 15.—<e Chap. 1. 2.—f Acts 4. 20; 5.
20, 29; 1 Cor. 9. 16.

 

upon the ground it proves that a gin
or snare has been set for him. If ‘in
a snare” is retained “gin” would bet-
ter be rendered “bait”; the whole
clause, ‘‘and there is no bait to it,”
which is a more literal rendering of
the Hebrew. The word does at times
designate the instrument with which
birds are caught, but in general it
means anything that allures to de-
struction (Exod. xxiii, 33; Deut. vii,
16). Shall one take up a snare from
the earth—Better, R. V., “shall a
snare spring up from the ground.”
By snare is meant a kind of clap net;
its workings as described here would
point to a trap similar to those*used
by the ancient Egyptians, which con-
sisted of network spread over two
flaps moving on a common axis, to
which was attached a spring. The
bait was placed upon this spring;
when the bait was touched the two
sides flew up from the ground and the
net enveloped the bird. The spring-
ing up of the sides was evidence that
something had touched the spring and
was now entrapped. Trumpet—Or,
horn (see on Hos. v, 8). The sounding
of the horn was the danger signal;
everyone knew when he heard it that
danger was near, and was terrified.
Evil—Not moral evil, but calamity or
misfortune, such as famine or pes-
tilence. Jehovah hath not done it?—
The modern Christian may hesitate
to say that Jehovah is directly re-
sponsible for every calamity and dis-
aster. The ancient Hebrew knew no
such hesitation, for he disregarded
entirely what we are accustomed to
call secondary causes, and ascribed
every event, good or bad, the cause of
which he could not perceive with his
senses, to the direct activity of Je-

 

hovah (iv, 4ff.; Isa. vi, 9, 10; 2 Sam.
xxiv, 1ff.).

To a pious Hebrew of ordinary in-
tellect the illustrations adduced would
be conclusive. The prophet now pro-
ceeds to apply the illustrations to the
point in hand (8). He prepares the
way by a statement of what he con-
siders the-general method of divine
procedure (7). Jehovah, before un-
dertaking anything, reveals his pur-
pose to the prophet. The Lord Je-
hovah—See on i, 8. His secret—His
purpose. His servants—The prophets
are so called because their duty was
to carry out the divine commission
(1 Kings xviii, 36; 2 Kings ix, 7).
Some may be inclined to consider this
statement an exaggeration, yet the
fact remains that every great crisis
in Israel was accompanied by the
appearance of one prophet or more
(see on ii, 11). Now follows the ap-
plication. The message of the prophet
may seem strange; it is indeed start-
ling, but there is a reason for it. The
lion hath roared—A figure of Jehovah
approaching for judgment (Hos. xiii,
7); he is ready to spring upon his prey;
already his terrible roar may be heard
G, 2); it is time to tremble. Hath
spoken—To reveal his secret (com-
pare verse 7); the prophet is bound to
proclaim it.

9, 10. Summons of the surrounding
nations. Verse 9 connects with verse
2. The prophet, having presented his
credentials, continues his message of
denunciation and judgment. The in-
iquities for which judgment is to be
executed (verse 2) are so heinous that
they startle even the heathen nations.
These the prophet summons to testify
against Israel. “Even the inhabitants
of the great cities of Philistia and
242

AMOS.

 

9 Publish in the palaces at Ash-
dod, and in the palaces in the land
of Egypt, and say, Assemble your-
selves upon the mountains of Sa-
maria, and behold the great tumults
in the midst thereof, and the *op-
pressed in the midst thereof. 10

For they sknow not to do right,
saith the Lorp, who store up vio-
lence and ‘robbery in their palaces.
141 Therefore thus saith the Lord
Gop; An adversary there shall be
even round about the land; and he
shall bring down thy strength from

 

5 Or, oppresstons.—8 Jer. 4. 22.—% Or,

spoil. 2 Kings 17. 3, 6; 18.9,10,11.

 

Egypt,” says Wellhausen, ‘who were
by no means timid and could endure a
great deal, would be amazed on seeing
the mad confusion and injustice in
Samaria.” Publish—The speaker is
Jehovah, or the prophet in his name.
No one in particular is addressed; the
imperative is equivalent to ‘Let it be
published,” by anyone in a position to
do so. Inthe palaces—Literally, upon
or over the palaces. Hither from the
high palaces, so that everyone may
hear, or let the proclamation be spread
over the palaces of the nobles. Since
the condemnation fell chiefly upon the
nobles of Samaria (11-15) it would
seem fitting that the sentence should
be announced in the presence of their
equals. Ashdod—LXX., “Assyria.”
Hosea frequently mentions Assyria
and Egypt together, Amos never.
Ashdod represents Philistia. Why he
mentions Philistia and Egypt rather
than other neighboring nations is not
clear; perhaps because they, as long-
time enemies of Israel, would rejoice
most over the downfall of the latter.
Mountains of Samaria—LXX.., ““moun-
tain,” that is, the mountain upon
which Samaria was built (iv, 1; vi, 1),
and this is considered by many to be
the original, but the present Hebrew
text gives good sense. Samaria was
situated upon a hill, which was sur-
rounded on all sides by higher hills.
From these outer elevations the wit-
nesses were to behold the outrages in
Samaria. Samaria—Founded as the
capital of the northern kingdom by
Omri (1 Kings xvi, 24), it remained
the capital until the end of the king-
dom in 722-721. It continued to
exist even after that catastrophe,
and Herod the Great, who prac-
tically rebuilt the city, called it

 

Sebaste. Its site is identified with the
modern es-Sebustieh, a village and ruin
on a hill about six miles northwest of
Shechem, in the center of Palestine.
Great tumults—Confusions and dis-
orders resulting from the violence of
the ruling classes. Oppressed—Better,
R. V., “oppressions” (Job xxxv, 9);
great is to be supplied (compare ii, 6,
7). 9b may be rendered more forcibly,
“And, behold! confusions manifold in
the midst of her! oppressions to her
very core!” They know not to do
right—Literally, straight. Their sinful
conduct has continued so long that
their consciences have become seared
andrall sense of right has been lost;
wrongdoing has become their second
nature. Violence and robbery—That
which is secured through violence and
robbery. In their palaces—From now
on it becomes clear whom Amos ad-
dresses, the nobles who are robbing
their weaker fellow citizens.

11-15. The sentence. Jehovah will
speedily send an enemy to avenge the
wrongdoing; he will lay waste the cor-
rupt city; even the altars of Beth-el
will be overthrown. The sentence is
introduced by the solemn “Thus saith
the Lord Jehovah.” Therefore—Be-
cause of the utter corruption. An
adversary—A word rendered more
often ‘‘trouble”’ or ‘‘distress,” but
“adversary” is most suitable here.
There shall be even round about the
land—This is undoubtedly the sense
of the passage, but the Hebrew is
awkward. A very slight change, sup-
ported by Peshitto, gives “shall sur-
round the land.”’ With the land com-
pletely surrounded, every avenue of
escape will be cut off. He shall
bring down thy strength—May be
rendered also, “thy strength shall
CHAPTER III.

243

 

thee, and thy palaces shall be spoil-
ed. 12 Thus saith the Lorp; As the
shepherd ‘taketh out of the mouth
of the lion two legs, or a piece of an
ear; so shall the children of Israel be
taken out that dwell in Samaria in

the corner of a bed, and tin Damas-
cus in a couch. 13 Hear ye, and
testify in the house of Jacob, saith
the Lord Gop, the God of hosts, 14
That in the day that I shall *visit
the transgressions of Israel upon

 

7 Heb. delivereth.—8 Or, on the bed’s fect.

9 Or, punish Israel for.

 

be brought down” (G.-K., 144d.)
Strength—Defenses, that is, the walls
and the citadel; they will be torn
down. Thy palaces—In which the
plunder is stored. Shall be spoiled—
The retribution is according to the
lex talionis.

Following verse 11 Harper reads
verse 15, then 12-14, but there is
no necessity for the transposition.
12. The people will be swept away,
only a small fraction will escape.
Taketh—R. V., “rescueth.’” The
Davids who could kill the wild beasts
and save the lambs unharmed (1 Sam.
xvii, 34, 35) were the exception; or-
dinarily the lion devoured the prey.
Two legs—Literally, shin bones. Piece
of an ear—That is, small fragments
which were overlooked by acci-
dent. As a shepherd Amos would be
familiar with such happenings. Chil-
dren of Israel—Perhaps not the whole
nation, but the nobles of Samaria
who are described in the following
words. Corner of a bed—Better, R.
V., “couch,” or divan. The divan in
an Oriental home runs around three
sides, the seat of honor being in the
corner opposite the door, “where upon
the usual cushions is set a smaller one,
against which he may rest his head
and take a nap” (Van Lennep, Bible
Lands, 460, 461). The prophet evi-
dently has in mind the extravagant,
luxury-loving nobles of Samaria. In
Damascus in a couch—R. V., ‘‘on the
silken cushions of a bed.” Some He-
brew manuscripts and LXX. read
“Damascus” (so A. V.), but the com-
mon Hebrew text has a word with a
slightly different vocalization, the
meaning of which is uncertain. Da-
mascus is out of the question, since
Amos is not concerned in this con-
nection with inhabitants of a foreign
country. Most commentators read

 

damask—similarly R. V , “silken cush-
ions’’—the fine material which derives
its name from Damascus. However,
it is, very doubtful that in Amos’s
day Damascus had already given its
name to this material. Nevertheless,
we expect a word of some such mean-
ing, or possibly one parallel with
corner. 2

In verses 13-15 the judgment is
announced once more, in the form of
a proclamation. Hear—As in verse
9, no one in particular is addressed.
This mode of expression is chosen for
rhetorical purposes, to introduce in a
more vivid and forceful manner the
announcement of judgment. Testify
—Announce solemnly (Gen. xliii, 3;
Deut. iv, 26). The house of Jacob—
Israel; here in the narrower sense, the
northern kingdom. The Lord: Je-
hovah, the God of hosts—The accu-
mulation of divine titles indicates the
solemnity of the announcement. On
the first’ two see on i, 8; on the whole
title, which is used again in iv, 13;
v, 16, 27; vi, 14, see on Hos. xii, 5.

Verses 14, 15 emphasize the com-
pleteness of the destruction. Not even
the sanctuaries will escape. Beth-el—
The chief sanctuary of the northern
kingdom. Dan also enjoyed royal
patronage (1 Kings xii, 29), but the
former was supreme. It was situated
about ten miles north of Jerusalem,
on the road to Nablfis. Its name—
house of God—testifies to its sanctity;
and very early in Hebrew history it
appears as a sacred place (Gen. xii, 8;
xxxv, 7; 1 Sam. x, 3). It was at
Beth-el that Amos delivered his mes-
sage (vii, 13). The ruins of the old
town, now called Beitin, lie on the
summit of a hill sloping to the south-
east, and cover three or four acres. It
appears from this verse (compare ii,
8) that numerous altars were at Beth-
244

AMOS.

 

him I will also visit the altars of
Beth-el: and the horns of the altar
shall be cut off, and fall to the
ground. 15 And I will smite ithe
winter house with ‘the summer
house; and '!the houses of ivory shall

erish, and the great houses shall
fave an end, saith the LORD.

CHAPTER IV.
| I EAR this word, ye *kine of Ba-
shan, that are in the mountain

 

i Jer. 36. 22.——k Judg. 3. 20.—11 Kings
22. 39.

a Psa. 22. 12; Ezek. 39. 18.

 

el; whether they were all, nominally
at least, consecrated to Jehovah, or
whether some were sacred to other
deities, is not certain—probably the
former. Horns of the altar—Im-
portant fixtures of the altar (Lev. iv,
7, 18, 30), which offered « place of
refuge and safety (1 Kings i, 50, 51;
ii, 28). When they are gone the last
ray of hope must vanish. The horns
of the altar are mentioned frequently
in the Old Testament, but their origin
is not yet satisfactorily explained.
They were found also on altars out-
side of Israel. On amonument found
in Teima, southeast of Edom, an altar
is represented with horns curved like
those of an ox, rising from the corner.
With the sanctuaries the magnificent
palaces of king and nobles will be de-
stroyed. Winter house . . . summer
house—To be understood as collec-
tives; the summer residences and
winter residences of king and nobles.
For the latter compare Jer. xxxvi, 22;
for the former Judg. iii, 20. Ordinar-
ily the summer and winter houses do
not appear to have been separate
buildings, they were rather different
parts of the same house. The upper
rooms, if there are two stories, or the
outside rooms, if there is but one
story, are still the rooms occupied
preferably in summer, while the lower
story or inside rooms are preferred for
winter (Thomson, The Land and the
Book, i, 478). In exceptional cases
people have separate dwellings for
summer and winter respectively (Van
Lennep, Bible Lands, 115). The lan-
guage here would seem to indicate
separate dwellings. An Aramaic in-
scription found in Zinjirli, near Alep-
po, furnishes an interesting parallel to
these expressions. In it Bar-rekub,
king of Sham’al, a vassal of Tiglath-

 

 

pileser III, and therefore a younger
contemporary of Amos, relates that he
beautified his father’s house in honor
of his ancestors; then he continues,
“and it is for them a summer house
and a winter house.” Houses of
ivory—Houses whose walls are pan-
eled or inlaid with ivory (1 Kings
xxii, 39; compare vi, 4). Since ivory
was very costly, only the wealthy
could afford this luxury. Great
houses—Or, magnificent (v, 11; vi,
11); R. V. margin, ‘many houses.”
The word is so rendered in Isa. v, 9;
if so here, it points to the wide extent
of the threatened ruin.

CHAPTER IV.

The Heartless Luxury and Self-Indul-
gence of the Noble Ladies, 1-3.

These verses are best taken as the
continuation of iii, 9ff. The women
of Samaria, who by their debaucheries
have encouraged the oppression of
the poor, must share the punish-
ment.

1. Hear this word—As in iii, 1;
v, 1. Ye kine—Jerome, who was fol-
lowed by some later writers, under-
stood this to apply to the effeminate
nobility, ‘the rulers of Israel and all ~
the leading men of the ten tribes who
spent their time in pleasure and reb-
bery”; others limit it to the nobles
condemned in iii, 9ff. However, it is
better to understand the words as ad-
dressed to the wanton women of Sa-
maria, whose thoughtlessness and lux-
ury had transformed their gentle
natures into those of brutes (compare
Isa. iii, 16ff.; xxxii, 9ff.). Bashan—
The very fertile district east of the
Jordan and north of the Yarmuk,
which was rich in pasture land (Mic.
vii, 14; compare Psa xxii, 12). Moun-
CHAPTER IV.

245

 

of Samaria, which oppress the poor,
which crush the needy, which say
to their masters, Bring, and let us
drink. 2 The Lord Gop hath sworn
by his holiness, that, lo, the days
shall come upon you, that he will

take you away ‘with hooks, and
your posterity with fishhooks. 3
And ye shall go out at the breaches,
every cow at that which is before her;
and lye shall cast them into the
palace, saith the Lorp.

 

 

b Psa. 89. 35. e Jer. 16, 16; Hab. 1.
15.—4 Ezek. 12. 5, 12.

10Or, ye shall cast away the things of
the palace,

 

tain of Samaria—See on iii, 9. Which
oppress . . . crush—Indirectly, by in-
sisting upon the gratification of their
appetites, though the means with
which to do this had to be secured
unjustly. The two verbs are com-
bined in Deut. xxviii, 33; 1 Sam. xii,
3, 4, etc. Masters—R. V., “lords”;
or, husbands, which is another mean-
ing of the word. Let us drink—Or,
feast, the feasts including drinking and
carousing of every sort.

2. This shameful conduct has
aroused the anger of Jehovah. Hath
sworn—An anthropomorphism. Asa
man affirms a statement by an oath
and thus makes certain its fulfillment,
so Jehovah is represented as having
affirmed the sentence of doom by an
oath (vi, 8; viii, 7; compare Gen. xv,
9-18). By his holiness—Mitchell ren-
ders, “by his sacred, awe-inspiring
personality.” Jehovah has pledged
his holiness that he will fulfill his
threat. The expression is practically
equivalent to “by himself” (vi, 8).
A. B. Davidson says, “The two
phrases have virtually the same
sense.” ‘Holy as applied to Jehovah
is an expression that in some way de-
scribes him as God, either generally
or on any particular side of his nature,
the manifestation or thought of which
impresses men with the sense of his
Godhead.” For a discussion of holi-
ness see on Hos. xi, 9. That, lo, the
days shall come—Better, Lo, the days
are about to come (see on ii, 13). The
conjunction translated “that” serves
here to introduce the direct address
(G.-K., 157b). He will [‘‘they shall’’]
—Literally, one shall take yowu—you
shall be taken (G.-K., 144d). The
prophet expects the punishment to
take the form of an exile (v, 27; vi,
7; vii, 17). With hooks—Both words

 

so translated mean primarily thorns;
probably the latter served as fish-
hooks to primitive man. The figure
apparently changes in verse 2 to that
of catching fish. As fish are taken by
fishermen with hooks, so the women
are to be carried away by the foreign
invader (Hab. i, 14). The picture
may be based upon the Assyrian cus-
tom alluded to also in Isa. xxxvii, 29;
Ezek. xxix, 4 (compare Rawlinson,
Seven Great Monarchies, i, plate 35).
Some, to retain the figure of verse 1,
understand it to allude to the putting
of hooks into the nostrils of unruly
cattle, ‘but so many should the catile
of Samaria be, that for the last of
them fishhooks must be used.” Marti
understands both words to designate
hooks in general, and he thinks that
the prophet has in mind the removal
of the carcasses of the fat cattle with
hooks put in the nose and the hinder
part. Whatever the basis of the
picture, the figure is one of absolute
helplessness. Posterity—R. V., “Tesi-
due.” Posterity cannot be correct,
since the prophet looks for the judg-
ment in the immediate future (vu,
17); the thought is “every last one of
you’’; not one shall escape.

In verse 3 the figurative language is
abandoned. Ye shall go out—As cap-
tives. At the breaches—Made by the
besiegers. Every cow at that which
is before her—Better, R. V., “every
one straight before her,” which some
interpret to mean that there will be
no need of looking for a gate, since the
breaches are so numerous (Josh. vi, 5,
20); others, without turning to the
right or to the left; hurriedly they will
be driven away “‘as a herd of cows go
one after another through a gap in a
fence.” Ye shall cast them—The con-
text fails to indicate who is addressed.
246

4 ‘Come to Beth-el, and trans-
gress; at ‘Gilgal multiply transgres-

e Ezek. 20. 39.—*‘ Hos. 4, 15; 12. 11;
chap. 5. 5.

This difficulty was felt by the Re-
visers, who translate, without warrant
in the Hebrew, ‘‘ye shall cast your-
selves,’ and state in the margin,
“The text (including the next two
words) is obscure.” The difficulty
vanishes if one vowel point is altered;
then it may be translated ‘‘ye shall
be cast,” that is, by your captors.
Into the palace—R. V., “into Har-
mon.” A. V. is incorrect. The
word is the name of the city or dis-
trict to which the women are to be
exiled. Concerning the identification
of the locality there exists disagree-
ment both among the ancient ver-
sions and among modern commenta-
tors. A few of the latter consider
the case hopeless; many attempt
emendations, but none are quite sat-
isfactory. In all probability the text
is corrupt. If it is the name of a city
or district it must lie “beyond
Damascus” (v, 27). The district sug-
gested by three of the ancient ver-
sions (Peshitto, Targum, Symmachus),
and by Jerome in a note, namely,
Armenia, would meet this condition,
and this translation might be de-
fended on linguistic grounds without
serious difficulties.

Israzu’s FarturrE To UNDERSTAND
tHE Divine JupeMEntTs 4-13.

With iv, 4, begins a new discourse,
addressed to the people at large. The
occasion was probably a religious
gathering, when the people, by their
zeal for the external requirements, ac-
companied by an utter disregard of the
divine ethical demands, had revealed
their utter misapprehension of the
will of Jehovah. In an ironical vein
Amos exhorts them to continue their

heartless ceremonial worship, ‘for

this pleaseth you,’ implying at the
same time that Jehovah takes no de-
light in it (4, 5). Again and again he
sought to make them understand his

 

AMOS.

sion; and sbring your sacrifices
every morning, 4and your tithes

« Num. 28. 3, 4. Deut. 14. 28.

dissatisfaction with their conduct,
and to bring them to their senses, but
in vain (6-11). Hence he can do noth-
ing but send a final blow, for which
they must now prepare themselves
(12, 13).

4, 5. A mistaken zeal. Beth-el—
See on iii, 14. Gilgal—The first camp-
ing ground of the Israelites west of the
Jordan. Its very name (circle, that is,
of stones—cromlech) testifies to its
sacred character. It is mentioned fre-
quently in the Old Testament; and
even after the ark had been removed
to a more permanent location it con-
tinued to be a favorite sanctuary
(1 Sam. x, 8; Hos. iv, 15, etc.). It is
commonly identified with the mod-
ern Jiljil, four and one half miles
from the Jordan, one and one half
miles east-southeast of Jericho. Oth-
ers identify the sanctuary mentioned
by Amos and Hosea with Juléjil, two
and one half miles southeast of
Nabliis, near Mount Ebal and Mount
Gerizim (Deut. xi, 30), while some
suggest a still different location
(2 Kings iv, 38), the modern Jil-
jiliyeh, about seven miles north of
Beth-el, in a southwesterly direction
from Shiloh. Come—The tone of
voice would indicate whether Amos
was in earnest or not; that he was not
is proved by the next verb. Trans-
gress—Their religious observances
were of no value; they were an abomi-
nation, a transgression in the sight
of Jehovah. Why? Not because the
prophet or Jehovah was opposed to
sacrifice and forms of worship as such
(see on Hos. vi, 6), but because their
coming and ther sacrificing was of a
character to arouse the divine wrath.
This was due to the absence of the
proper spirit in their worship, the
inconsistency and corruption of their
lives, the introduction of foreign
heathenish practices into their wor-
ship (ii, 7, 8), and the consequent dis-
CHAPTER IV.

247

 

after *three years: 5 iAnd ‘offer a
sacrifice of thanksgiving with leav-
en, and proclaim and publish *the

free offerings: 'for ‘this liketh you,
O ye children of Israel, saith the
Lord Gop.

 

2 Heb. three years of days.—i Lev. 7.

13; 23. 17.——3 Heb. offer by burning.— | 81

k Lev. 22. 18, 21; Deut. 12. 6! Psa.
. 12.—‘4 Heb. so ye love.

 

regard of Jehovah as the supreme God
of Israel and his reduction to the level
of the Baalim of Canaan. At Gilgal—
The construction reproduced in R. V.
is preferable: “‘(Come) to Gilgal and
multiply transgressions.” For the
reasons just suggested, the more zeal-
ous they were in their heartless wor-
ship, the farther they traveled to the
sanctuaries, and the more numerous
the places visited, the greater the in-
dignation of Jehovah. Sacrifices—A
general term for sacrifices and offer-
ings, though the word used here is
employed frequently in the restricted
sense of animal sacrifice. Tithes—
The tenth part of the income conse-
crated to the deity. The system of
tithing was known among many na-
tions of antiquity. The Hebrew laws
on the subject are not very explicit,
and it seems, that the details in
the administration of the system were
not always the same (Deut. xii, 6, 11,
17; xiv, 22-29; xxvi, 12). Every
morning, ... after three years—R. V.,
following more closely the Hebrew,
reads for the last, “‘every three days.”
The reference is to the bringing of the
annual sacrifice (1 Sam. i, 3, 7, 21),
and to the triennial payment of tithes
(Deut. xiv, 28; xxvi, 12). The prophet
exhorts the people ironically to in-
‘crease their zeal; to bring sacrifice
every morning, instead of once a year,
and to pay tithes every three days,
instead of every three years. Well-
hausen suggests a different transla-
tion, which is permitted by the He-
brew, “in the morning . . . on the
third day.” He assumes that it was
customary to offer sacrifice on the
morning after arrival, and to pay the
tithes on the third day; and he inter-
prets the ironical exhortation as call-
ing for the punctilious observance of
the prescribed routine. This in-
terpretation does not imply the ex-

 

aggeration involved in the other,
but its accuracy is doubtful be-
cause it is based upon an apparently
unwarranted assumption. Offer—
Margin, “offer by burning.’”’ See on
Hos. ii, 138, where the same word is
translated “burn incense.” Sacrifice
of thanksgiving—Offered in recogni-
tion of unmerited and unexpected
blessings (Lev. vii, 12, 13, 15; Jer.
xvii, 26, etc.). With leaven—R. V.,
“of that which is leavened”; Targum,
‘from violence’; some translate
“without leaven.” The translation
of the R. V. is to be preferred. Ac-
cording to Lev. ii, 11; Exod. xxiii, 18,
the use of leaven as a part of sacrifice
was forbidden; on the other hand,
Lev. vii, 13, would seem to permit its
use, and the language of Amos im-
plies that its use was regarded as an
indication of special virtue, a concep-
tion that may be traced to the ex-
treme zeal of the people, which would
cause them to consider hard, unleav-
ened bread too common for their God.
Assuming this viewpoint of the peo-
ple, the prophet exhorts them to do
even more than the law requires.
Proclaim and publish—Not in the
sense of exhorting others to bring
them, but of letting everyone know
their piety and good works; they are
urged to sound the trumpet before
them (Matt. vi, 2). Free [‘‘freewill’’]
offerings—The offerings brought out of
aspontaneous impulse as am expression
of irresistible love (Deut. xii, 6, 17).
This liketh you—Better, R. V., ‘this
pleaseth you,” with the emphasis on
you; Jehovah has no delight in their.
performances.

6-11. Seven unheeded chastisements.
Through various acts of providence
Jehovah attempted to win back the
rebellious people, but without success.

6. Famine. And I also—The con-
trast is brought out more clearly by
248

AMOS.

 

6 And I also have given youclean-
ness of teeth in all your cities, and
want of bread in all your places:
myet have ye not returned unto me,
saith the Lorp. 7 And also I have
withholden the rain from you, when
there were yet three months to the

harvest: and I caused it to rain upon
one city, and caused it not to rain
upon another city: one piece was
rained upon, and the piece where-
upon it rained not withered. 8 So
two or tLree cities wandered unto
one city, to drink water; but they

 

m Verse 8, 9; Isa. 26. 11; Jer. 5. 3;

Hag. 2. 17.

 

rendering, “But I on my part” (ii, 9).
Have given—See on iii, 6. Cleanness
of teeth—That is, famine, identical
in meaning with ‘‘want of bread.”
All your cities, ... all your places—
Throughout the whole land. Several
famines are recorded in the Old Testa-
ment. The two most recent preceding
the time of Amos are those mentioned
in 1 Kings xvii, 12; 2 Kings iv, 38.
These, severe enough to be remem-
bered for a long while as special divine
judgments, or other famines, unre-
corded in the Old Testament, may be
alluded to by Amos. The judgment
was sent for a purpose, to bring the
people to their senses and to lead
them back to Jehovah in obedience
and love; but the purpose was not
accomplished. Returned—See on
Hos. xiv, 1. The fivefold repetition
of the phrase, ‘‘yet have ye not re-
turned unto me, saith Jehovah,”’ em-
phasizes both the love of Jehovah,
who wearied not in his efforts to win
back Israel, and the stubbornness of
the people who would not yield to his
pleas.

7, 8. Drought. The rain—Heb.
geshem (see on Joel ii, 23), here rain
in general. When there were yet
three months to the harvest—Since
the harvest is in April and May, the
drought must have set in during
January or February. A drought at
that time would be disastrous, and
might completely destroy the pros-
pects of harvest. A similar phe-
nomenon occurred in Palestine in the
winter of 1894-95. “After raining
several times quite heavily in De-
cember, especially on the coast, the
weather has been since before Christ-
mas pleasant and mild, and if no more
rain falls there will be great suffering,

 

for up till now (February 16) no one
has filled his cisterns.” Caused it to
rain—The tenses in verses 7, 8 are
frequentatives. Jehovah did the things
mentioned again and again. To the
ancients the phenomenon of a partial
drought would be an even stronger
proof of the presence of the super-
natural than a universal withholding
of rain. Partial rainfall such as is
described here has been experienced
in Palestine in more modern times.
“There has been a smart shower here
(Tiberias), while at Samakh the
ground was baked hard, and the grain
drooping sadly. The same was true
on a former occasion when I came up
the Jordan valley. The ground in the
Ghor was like a parched desert. There
had not been sufficient rain to bring
up the grain, .. . while here at Tiberias
the whole country was a paradise of
herbs and flowers.” And again, “It
was literally so about Samakh and
’Abadiyeh, while their nearest neigh-
bors were rejoicing in abundant
showers” (Thomson, li, p. 66). Piece
—Field (Ruth ii, 3; iv, 3). Two or
three cities—That had suffered from
the drought. For the ascending
enumeration see on i, 3. Wandered—
Literally, tottered, or, staggered. The
people were so weak from thirst that
they could not walk with a firm step.
One city—One favored with rain.
With reference to this passage Thom-
son says (on the same page): “A fact
often repeated in this country. No
longer ago than last autumn it had
its exemplification complete in Belad
Besharah, the ancient inheritance of
Naphtali.” Since there are few
springs throughout Palestine, people
are dependent largely upon rain water
stored in cisterns; when the rainfall
CHAPTER IV.

249

 

were not satisfied: "yet have ye not
returned unto me, saith the Lorp.
9 eI have smitten you with blasting
and mildew: ‘when your gardens
and your vineyards and your fig
trees and your olive trees increased,
rpthe palmerworm devoured them:
yet have ye not returned unto me,

saith the Lorp. 10 I have sent
among you the pestilence *safter the
manner of Egypt: your young men
have I slain with the sword, 7and
have taken away your horses; and
I have made the stink of your camps
to come up unto your nostrils: 'yet
have ye not returned unto me, saith

 

n Verse 6, 10, 11. ° Deut.
Hag. 2. 17,— Or, the multitude of your
gardens, etc.,d1d the palmerworm, etc.——
P Joel 1. 4; 2. 25.

28. 22;

 

6 Or, in the way.—4 Exod. 9. 3,6; 12 29;

Deut. 28. 27, 60; Psa. 78. 50.—7 Heb.
with the captivity of your horses, 2 Kings
13. 7. r Verse 6

 

 

is irregular the water supply soon be-
comes exhausted. They were not sat-
isfied—The water was not sufficient
to supply the needs of all. This judg-
ment also was in vain.

9a. Blasting and mildew. 9b. Lo-
custs. You—Your fields and crops.
Blasting and mildew—The two words
are frequently joined (Deut. xxviii,
22; 1 Kings viii, 37; Hag. ii, 17). The
former, from a verb to burn, describes
the disastrous effects of the scorching
east wind or Sirocco (see on Hos. xii,
1); the latter, literally, greenness, is
“a, blight in which the ears turn un-
timely a pale yellow, and have no
grain.”

One word in the Hebrew makes the
rest of verse 9 awkward. With a very
slight change, favored by most mod-
ern commentators, it may be trans-
lated, “I laid waste your gardens and
your vineyards; and your fig trees and
your olive trees hath the palmerworm
devoured.” I laid waste—By some
blow not specified by the prophet.
Fig trees—See on Joel i, 7. Olive trees—
See on Hos. xiv, 6; Joeli, 10. Palmer-
worm—See on Joel i, 4, where refer-
ence is made to the frequency with
which locusts visit Palestine.

10. Pestilence and war. Pestilence
—‘What we should term an epidemic
accompanied by great mortality.” Af-
ter the manner of Egypt—Of the many
interpretations suggested the two
most probable are, (1) with the sever-
ity with which the plagues fell upon
Egypt at the time of the Exodus
(compare Exod. xv, 26; Deut. vii, 15;
xxviii, 60); and (2) with the severity
with which pestilence is accustomed
to visit Egypt. The latter interpreta-

 

tion sees no specific historical allusion
in the phrase. Violent plagues were
not infrequent in the Nile lands; it is
said that “a violent plague used to
occur formerly about once in ten or
twelve years.” The Hebrew is liter-
ally in the way of Egypt, which has
been interpreted also as equivalent to
from Egypt, or, from the direction of
Egypt, indicating not a comparison
but the direction from which the
pestilence came. It is a matter of
history that the northeast corner of
the Nile Delta, which is “in the way
of Egypt,” has always been a nursery
of epidemics (compare G. A. Smith,
Historical Geography of thé Holy Land,
157ff.). Slain with the sword—In
battle. War is thought to come from
Jehovah (i, 4, 7, etc.). Young men—
The strength and flower of the nation.
2 Kings ixff. records how bloody the
wars, and how great the losses during
the century preceding the time of
Amos. Have taken away your horses
—Literally, with the captivity of your
horses, that is, with your captured
horses, the words connecting with the
verb “have slain” (2 Kings xiii, 7).
Since horses were scarce in Pales-
tine, their destruction would be an
additional calamity. Stink—R. V.,
“stench.” Camps—After the defeat
(Isa. xxxiv, 3). The slaughter was so
great that the bodies of the dead
soldiers and the carcasses of the
beasts could not be buried; in a short
time they filled the air with a sicken-
ing stench. LXX., “I caused your
camp to go up in fire in my anger,”
Again the effect was disappointing.
11. Earthquake. Some consider
verse 11 a summary of all preceding
250

the Lorp. 11 I have overthrown
some of you, as God overthrew
sSodom and Gomorrah, tand ye

were as a firebrand plucked out of

®Gen. 19, 24, 25; Isa. 13. 19; Jer. 49. 18.

judgments, not a description of a new
calamity; others, a figure of devastat-
ing wars (2 Kings xiii, 4, 7); but it is
more natural to interpret it as a de-
scription of an earthquake causing seri-
ous havoc in Israel. Palestine has
suffered frequently from earthquakes,
especially in the border districts. Dur-
ing the past ten years four earthquakes
are said to have visited the country.
The most disastrous of which more or
less complete accounts have been pre-
served were those of 31 B. C.,in which,
according to Josephus, some thirty
thousand persons perished, and of
January 1, 1837. A vivid account of
the horrors of the latter is given in
Robinson, Biblical Researches in Pales-
tine, ii, 529-531, note xli. The only
earthquake mentioned in the Old Tes-
tament is that mentioned in the days
of Uzziah (i, 1; compare Zech. xiv, 5),
unless we class in the same category
the destruction of the cities of the
Plain (compare G, A. Smith, Histori-
cal Geography, p. 508f.). The allusion
cannot be to the one mentioned in i, 1,
unless we suppose that Amos re-
touched his prophecies when he col-
lected them subsequent to the earth-
quake (see p. 195). He may have in
mind any similar catastrophe. Some
of you—R. V., “cities among you”;
literally, among you. Not the whole
country suffered; nevertheless, all
should heed the warning. God over-
threw Sodom and Gomorrah—The
point of comparison is the complete-
ness of the ruin. As an illustration of
this the destruction of these cities
(Gen. xix) is mentioned several times
in the Old Testament (Deut. xxix, 23;
Jer. xlix, 18; Isa. i, 7, etc.). Ye—
Those that escaped. A fire brand
plucked out of the burning—A picture
of narrow escape. They were almost
consumed, only the divine mercy
saved them (Isa. i, 9; compare Zech.

 

AMOS.

the burning: "yet have ye not re-
turned unto me, saith the Lorp.
12 Therefore thus will I do unto
thee O Israel: and because I will do

tZech. 3. 2;-Jude 23.—¥ Verse 6.

iii, 2). But even in the face of ruin
and with this overwhelming evidence
of the divine love the people hardened
their hearts. The divine love and
mercy (ii, 9ff.), as well as the divine
judgments (iv, 6ff.) failed to ac-
complish the divine purpose. Noth-
ing more can be done. Destruction is
inevitable. 7

On the philosophy underlying iv,
6-11, see in part comment on ii, 6.
To it may be added that in the ancient
world it was customary to ascribe all
calamities to the wrath of the deity,
manifesting itself either arbitrarily or
on account of sins committed by the
devotees. The Hebrew prophets be-
lieved that Jehovah’s wrath was
aroused by sin, that his righteousness
demanded the punishment of sin,
and that the punishment would take
the form of some calamity to be ex-
perienced in this present life. They
believed also that these calamities had
a corrective purpose. These two be-
liefs underlie the prophetic explana-
tion of calamities. Since secondary
causes and the working of natural
laws were entirely disregarded, it
never occurred to the prophets that
any calamity could come without
Jehovah’s direct interference, and
without a punitive or corrective pur-
pose. With a clearer conception of
the character of God we may hesitate
to believe that every time a famine
or drought or earthquake occurs God
is especially angry with those who
have to suffer, and yet there can be
no doubt that “the instinct is sound
which in all ages has led religious
people to feel that such things are
inflicted for moral purposes.”

12, 18. The sentence. The corrupt
nation must bear a heavier blow.
Therefore—Because previous judg-
ments have failed. Thus—How? One
would expect a description of the
CHAPTER IV.

251

 

this unto thee, *prepare to meet
thy God, O Israel 13 For, lo,
he that formeth the mountains,
and createth the 8wind, yand declar-
eth unto man what is his thought,

‘that maketh the morning dark-
ness, ‘and treadeth upon _ the
high places of the earth, >The
Lorp, The God of hosts, is his
name.

 

xSee Ezek. 13.5; 22. 30; Luke 14, 31,
oe oas Or, spirit. y Psa. 139, 2; Dan.

 

2 Chap. 5. 8; 8. 9. 2 Deut. 32. 13; 33.
29; Mic. 1. 3.—b Isa. 47.4; Jer. 10. 16;
chap. 5. 8; 9. 6,

 

 

threatened judgment, for the words
point to something not yet mentioned,
but no description is given. This very
indefiniteness suggests the worst. This
—Points to the same thing as thus.
Because—Because this terrible and
indescribable judgment is about to
fall. Prepare to meet thy God—Who
is coming in judgment. The words
cannot be interpreted as an exhorta-
tion to repentance, except in the sense
in which “every prediction of disaster
was in itself an exhortation to re-
pentance.” They are addressed to
the whole nation; but Amos, when
delivering this discourse, evidently no
longer expected national repentance
(but compare v, 4ff.). They are rather
an appeal to prepare for the worst.
However, this does not exclude the
possibility of repentance on the part
of isolated individuals (v, 15). 18.
The fulfillment of the threat is assured
by the character and power of Him
who inspired it. For—The transition is
abrupt; there is an ellipsis in thought.
The connection may be expressed
thus: “Prepare to meet thy God. Do
not mock or disregard this announce-
ment, for he who formeth the moun-
tains ..., the almighty Jehovah, is
the author of it.’ Verse 13, there-
fore, serves a purpose similar to that
of ii, 3-8, to win a reverent hearing
for the prophet’s message. The verbs
are participial forms throughout, and
may be translated, without the rela-
tive construction, ““He formeth

he createth....”? Formeth the moun-
tains—The verb is one used of the
occupation of the potter. Jehovah
finds it as easy to fashion mountains
as it is for the potter to fashion a
vessel (Gen. ii, 7, 8, 19; compare Psa.
civ, 8). Createth—While the verb does
not imply the making of ‘‘something

 

out of nothing,” it is used in the sense
of producing something fundamentally
new by powers transcending the ordi-
nary powers of man. Wind—Not
“spirit’?; may include all the “unseen
but mighty forces of nature.” What
is his thought—Not the thought of
Jehovah, but the thought of man.
It requires greater powers to discover
the secret thoughts of man than to
make known one’s own thoughts to
another. Jehovah possesses the
greater power; that he can do the
other is assumed throughout the Old
Testament. The ancient versions
present different readings, each one
going its own way. Maketh the morn-
ing darkness—Or, maketh darkness
into morning. The last word is liter-
ally dawn. He does this by his sud-
den appearance in a storm cloud (Psa.
xviii, 9), or by the natural change of
day into night, or night into day.
Some interpret it, with less probabil-
ity, of the transformation of spiritual
darkness into light. Treadeth upon
the high places of the earth—Jehovah
is described frequently as riding upon
the clouds; in doing so he treads upon
the high places, the mountains of the
earth (Psa. xviii, 10; Mic. i, 3; com-
pare Judg. v, 4, 5). Jehovah, The
God of hosts—The mention of this
title would in itself call attention to
the majesty and power of Jehovah
(see on Hos. xii, 5; compare Amos iii,
15). On the authenticity of iv, 13,
and the similar passages v, 8, 9; ix,
5, 6, see Introduction, pp. 217ff.

CHAPTER V.

Appress Containing LAMENTATIONS,
ExHorTATIONS, REPROOFS, AND
Tureats or Ruin, 1-17.

It seems more in accord with the
contents of chapter v to separate
252

CHAPTER V.
EAR ye this word which I «take
up against you, even a lamen-
tation, O house of Israel. 2 The
virgin of Israel is fallen; she shall no
more rise: she is forsaken upon her

AMOS.

land; there is none to raise her up.
3 For thus saith the Lord Gop; The
city that went out by a thousand
shall leav: an hundred, and that
which went forth by an hundred
shall leave ten, to the house of Israel.

 

a Jer. 7, 29; Ezek. 19. 1; 27. 2.

 

verses 1-17 from verses 18-27; verse
18 introduces a new thought, and the
form of address differs from that in
the preceding verses, resembling more
closely vi, 1ff. Even within 1-17,
distinct breaks may be recognized.
In some cases the logic would be im-
proved by a rearrangement of the
verses. As they stand now, the dis-
course opens with a dirge, in which
the overthrow of Israel is represented
as accomplished (1-3). This fate is
well merited, since the people have
disregarded utterly the demands of
Jehovah. They have sought him by a
ritual which he does not value; on the
other hand, they have spurned the vir-
tues which he prizes (4-10). Verses 8, 9
contain another ascription of praise
to Jehovah (compare iv, 13), to re-
mind the hearers of the majesty of
Jehovah, and thus to impress them
with the importance of heeding his
message. They are apparently in-
corrigible, therefore swift judgment
will overtake them (11-13); never-
theless, sincere repentance may re-
sult in the salvation of at least a
remnant (14, 15). But the prophet
seems to realize that such hope is
vain; at any rate, he reiterates the
sentence of doom (16, 17).

1-3. A dirge. Hear ye this word—
Compare iii, 1; iv, 1. Lamentation—
Heb. kinah. A technical term for a
dirge in memory of a departed friend.
It is not a spontaneous expression of
grief, but a formal composition, long
or short, artificially constructed.
These dirges are composed in a pe-
culiar meter, the so-called kinah verse,
in which the lines are longer than ordi-
narily in Hebrew poetry, each con-
sisting of two parts, of which the sec-
ond is a little shorter than the first,
the ratio being about 3 to 2, The

 

lament is contained in verses 2, 3;
verse 3 giving the explanation of
verse 2. The kinah meter is observed
only in verse 2; it may be restored ap-
proximately in verse 3 by omitting
the introductory words and “to the
house of Israel” at the close. While
it is not possible to reproduce exactly
the meter of the Hebrew, the follow-
ing rendering of verses 2, 3 (with the
omissions suggested) indicates ap-
proximately the character of the
kinah compositions:

(a) Fallen, no more shall she rise, (b)
virgin Israel,

(a) Flung down on her own ground (b)
no one to raise her.

(a) Thecity that goeth forth a thousand
(b) shall have left a hundred,

(a) And she that goeth forth a hundred '
(b) shall have left ten,

Virgin of Israel—‘‘The earliest extant
example of the personification of a
nation or community as a woman.”
Later such personifications became
quite common (Jer. xviii, 13; xxxi, 4,
21; compare Isa. x, 32; xxxvii, 22,
etc.; see on Hos. ii, 2). Is fallen—
The prophetic perfect. The calamity
is still future, but the prophet is so
certain of its coming that he sings the
dirge as if the nation had already died.
The wounds inflicted are so grievous
that she cannot rise, nor is there any-
one to help her up. Forsaken—R. V.,
“east down.” The verb implies the
use of force—flung down—and the
abandonment to destruction (Ezek.
xxix, 5; xxxil, 4). Verse 3 indicates
the nature of the calamity that will
reduce Israel to such sore straits; her
fighting force is to be reduced to one
tenth of its present numbers. Went
out—To battle. A thousand—A city
that can furnish a thousand fighting
men must be of considerable size,
CHAPTER V.

253

 

4 For thus saith the Lorp unto
the house of Israel, Seek ye me,
cand ye shall live: 5 But seek not

4Beth-el, nor enter into Gilgal, and
pass not to *Beer-sheba: for Gilgal
shall surely go into captivity, and

 

b Verse 6; 2 Chron. 15. 2; Jer. 29. 138.—

eIsa. 55 3.——4d Chap. 4. 4.—° Chap. 8. 14.

 

An hundred—A smaller town. Great
and small cities shall suffer alike.

Justification of the judgment, and ex-
hortation to repentance, 4-10.

That Amos believed in the possi-
bility of a universal “return” of Is-
rael is nowhere stated or implied;
that he hoped for some salutary ef-
fects of his preaching cannot be
doubted; it is implied in v, 15, and
in the fact that he continues his ex-
hortation to “seek Jehovah.’ Who
of the people would repent and who
would persist in rebellion he could not
know; therefore he must exhort all
that he may “save some.” This he
does in verses 4ff. At the same time
his exhortation supplies the justifica-
tion for the divine judgment; they
have done the things that are not ac-
ceptable to God, and have left undone
the things in which he takes delight.
Notwithstanding the abruptness of
transition from 1-3 to 4 the logical
connection between the two parts is
not difficult to see. In 1-3 the prophet
bemoans the humiliation of Israel.
He would have been unfit to act as a
messenger of Jehovah had not the con-
templation of this fate moved him to
compassion and aroused a longing
that the terrible calamity might be
averted. In the anxiety of his heart
he bursts forth in a new exhortation,
hoping that, perchance, he may yet
succeed in bringing at least some to
repentance, and thus avert the doom.
Harper interprets verses 4, 5 as in-
junctions given in the past, disobedi-
ence to which furnishes the reasons
for the disaster described in verses
2, 3; and he makes verse 6 the be-
ginning of Amos’s exhortation. This
interpretation is less natural; it cer-
tainly is no improvement over the
one commonly accepted. .

4, 5. The prophet begins again with
the solemn “Thus saith Jehovah.”

 

Seek ye me, and ye shall live—Heb.
“Seek ye me, and live’; that is, If ye
seek me ye shall surely live (G.-K.,
110f.). Return to Jehovah will save
them from the threatened calamity.
To seek the Deity has a twofold mean-
ing in the Old Testament: (1) To go
to the shrine to offer sacrifice (verse
5), or to consult the oracle (Gen. xxv,
22; 1 Sam. ix, 9, etc.); (2) to enter
into fellowship with the Deity in love
and obedience (Hos. x, 12; Isa. ix, 13,
etc.). In the latter sense Amos uses
it here. Seek not Beth-el—See on iii,
14. Nominally they went to the
sanctuaries to “seek” Jehovah (see
preceding comment); in reality their
desire was to participate in the joyous
festivals celebrated there under the
guise of religion. Such worship could
awaken no response in Jehovah. Gil-
gal—See on iv, 4. Beer-sheba—Also
a very ancient sanctuary (Gen. xxi,
14; xxvi, 25; xlvi, 1). Israelites de-
sirous of visiting it had to pass over
their borders and the borders of
Judah, for it was located in the ex-
treme south, in the Negeb. The long
journeys were undertaken probably
only on special occasions. The char-
acter of the worship at Beer-sheba,
in all probability, differed but little
from that at the other Hebrew sanctu-
aries. Its ruins are represented by the
modern Bir-es-Seba‘, about fifty miles
south-southwest of Jerusalem, about
twenty-eight miles southwest of
Hebron. These sanctuaries can offer
no permanent refuge, for they also
are doomed (compare Isa. i, 29-31).
It is difficult, to reproduce the parono-
masia which is very marked in 5b,
Gilgal galoh yigleh and Beth-él (beth)
aven. ‘“Gilgal shall taste the gall of
exile’ (G. A. Smith). “Beth-el (the
house of God) shall become Beth-aven
(the house of naught).’’ Wellhausen
offers a striking translation: ‘Gilgal
wird zum Galgen gehen, und Beth-el
254

fBeth-el shall come to nought. 6
eSeek the Lorp, and ye shall live;
lest he break out like fire in the
house of Joseph, and devour zt, and

f Hos. 4. 15; 10. 8.——£ Verse 4.

AMOS.

there be none to quench i in Beth-el.
7 Ye who "turn judgment to worm-
wood, and leave off righteousness 1n
the earth, § Seek him that maketh

h Chap. 6. 12.

 

wird des Teufels werden” (Gilgal will
go to the gallows, and Beth-el will be-
come the devil’s). Come to naught—
Heb. dven. See on Hos. iv, 15.

In verse 6 the exhortation is re-
peated with a few changes. Jehovah
is used instead of me, as if Amos were
taking up the exhortation uttered
previously by Jehovah himself. A
new motive for obedience is intro-
duced. Obedience will mean life;
disobedience—what? (Compare Isa.
i, 20.) Lest he break out—A forceful
verb, equivalent to cleave, penetrate.
Like fire—The point of comparison is
destructiveness. Joseph—As the an-
cestor of Ephraim and Manasseh, the
two most powerful tribes of the north
(Hos. xiii, 1), Joseph stands here for
Israel, that is, the northern kingdom
(v, 15; vi, 6). Hosea uses in the same
sense Ephraim (v, 3; vi, 4, etc.).
House of Joseph—house of Israel—
kingdom of Israel. And devour it—
An unexpected change in the original
from masculine to feminine, as if
from now on fire were the subject.
This makes the construction harsh;
therefore Nowack suggests a slight
emendation: “lest he will kindle the
house of Joseph with fire, which will
devour. ...’’ The conflagration will
prove disastrous, for there is no one
to quench it (Isa. i, 31; Jer. iv, 4).
Jehovah alone could do it, but he is
sending the fire. In Beth-el—Liter-
ally, for Beth-el; LXX., “for the house
of Israel.” While this is the thought
expected here, it is not necessary to
suppose that the present Hebrew text
is incorrect. Beth-el, as the religious
center, might represent the entire
kingdom.

The transition from verse 6 to 7ff.
is again abrupt, and the logical connec-
tion between the two parts has been
variously explained. The most nat-
ural explanation is to regard verse 7

 

a justification of the prophet’s earnest
exhortation to seek Jehovah. The
exhortation is needed, for at present
they are not seeking him in a manner
that will enable them to find him; far
from it, they are doing the very things
that will cause him to hide his face.
As in ii, 7, the participial construction
is used, which is reproduced correctly
in English by the relative clause con-
nected with the subject implied in
seek (verse 6): “You who are living
such godless and immoral lives, seek
Jehovah.” Wormwood—A plant hav-
ing a bitter juice (Deut. xxix, 18;
Prov. v, 4), unpalatable and, when
drunk to excess, noxious. In Scrip-
ture it is always used as a symbol of
that which is unpleasant and bitter
(vi, 12; Jer. ix, 15). Judgment—R.
V., “justice”; here the administration
of justice. Under normal conditions
this is desirable and of great value,
but they have changed its character
so that it has become undesirable and
bitter. Leave off righteousness in the
earth—More accurately, R. V., ‘cast
down righteousness to the earth,” in-
stead of “establishing” it (verse 15).
Righteousness—justice, equity (2 Sam.
vill, 15; Jer. xxii, 3). This they
trample under foot, while they exalt
violence and oppression. Primarily
these are crimes committed by those
in authority, but all have become cor-
rupt (compare Isa. iii, 12), so that the
description fits all.

The next two verses (8, 9) resemble
closely iv, 13. Like the latter, and
for similar reasons, they are denied to
Amos (see Introduction, pp. 217ff). In
this instance the objections derive ad-
ditional weight from the fact that the
interruption of the thought is more
apparent, verse 10 being the natural
continuation of verse 7. Whether
from Amos or not, the verses, like
iv, 13, present a reason why the list-
CHAPTER V. 255

 

the iseven stars and Orion, and turn-
eth the shadow of death into the
morning, ‘and maketh the day dark
with night: that ‘calleth for the
waters of the sea, and poureth them

out upon the face of the earth:
=The Lorp is his name: 9 That
strengtheneth the ‘spoiled against
the strong, so that the spoiled shall
come against the fortress. 10 "They

 

i Job. 9. 9; 38, 31.—k Psa. 104. 20.

1 Job 38. 34; chap. 9. 6.—-™ Chap. 4.
13,—1 Heb. spoil. on Isa. 29. 21.

 

 

eners should receive the prophetic
message with reverence and ready
obedience. Assuming that they are
authentic, two ways seem open for
removing the apparent interruption
in thought: (1) It is proposed to
change the order, so as to read 7, 10,
8, 9, which would require no altera-
tion in the text itself. True, this
would make the transition from 10
to 8 abrupt, but no more so than
at present, from 7 to 8. (2) Another
possibility is to place 8, 9 after 6,
in apposition to Jehovah in 6, fol-
lowed by 7, 10. If this is done, 7, 10
cannot be connected very well with
the preceding, but must be inter-
preted as introducing a new thought.
To make the beginning more natural,
it is proposed to prefix “‘Woe” (com-
pare verse 16; vi, 1): “Woe unto those
who turn....”’ A few commentators
deny that the thought is interrupted.
Mitchell, for example, seeks to show
the logical connection between 7 and
8ff. in the following paraphrase: ‘Ye
oppressors (verse 7), know ye not that
Jehovah, whose mercy ye have
spurned, is the maker and ruler of all
things (verse 8), a mightier than the
mightiest (verse 9)? Therefore, ye
enemies of righteousness (verse 10),
because ye trample . . . (verse 11).”
Absolute certainty on this point is
impossible.

8. The seven stars—R. V,,
“Pleiades”; literally, a cluster, that
is, of stars. Orion—Hebrew, literally,
a fool, a name that may embody an
ancient mythological notion, namely,
that this star is some fool who dared
to rebel against the majesty of the
deity, and who in punishment was
chained in the sky. The two constel-
lations attracted notice also among
the early Greeks, partly on account
of their brilliancy and partly ‘‘because

 

their risings and settings with the sun
marked the seasons.” The two repre-
sent the whole host of stars as a
striking manifestation of Jehovah’s
creative power (Job ix, 9; xxxviii, 31).
Turneth the shadow of death—R. V.
margin, “deep darkness.’’? The ety-
mology of the word is not quite cer-
tain. If it is a compound word it is
literally ‘“‘shadow of death’; if it is
derived from a root found in Arabic
and Assyrian, but not otherwise in He-
brew, it means simply “darkness’”’—
so LXX. Whatever the etymology,
the darkness is the darkness of night,
which Jehovah turns into day. With
equal ease he turns the day into
night. Calleth for the waters of the
sea—A poetic description of the giv-
ing of rain (ix, 6); the waters hear the
divine voice and immediately they
respond. The natural phenomena
enumerated are all evidences of the
supreme power of Jehovah. It is less
natural to see in the expressions ref-
erences to extraordinary phenomena,
such as eclipses of the sun or the flood.
Jehovah is his name—With a similar
statement close the doxologies in iv,
13, and ix, 6; here it should stand at
the close of verse 9. Is its presence at
the close of verse 8 another evidence
of a possible disarrangement of the
verses, or is verse 9 a later addition
either by Amos or by some one else?
From the manifestation of the divine
power in nature the prophet passes,
in verse 9, to their manifestation in
God’s dealings with men. That
strengtheneth the spoiled—Better, R.
V., “that bringeth sudden destruc-
tion’; margin, more literally, “that
causeth destruction to flash forth.”
Against the strong—Who are able to
withstand ordinary foes. The spoiled
shall come—Better, R. V., ‘“destruc-
tion cometh”’; as a result of the divine
256

AMOS.

 

hate him that rebuketh in the gate,
and they eabhor him that spea! eth
uprightly. 11 Forasmuch therefore
as your treading is upon the poor,
and ye take from him burdens of
wheat: rye have built houses of

hewn stone, but ye shall not dwell in
them; ye have planted 2pleasant
vineyards, but ye shall not drink
wine of them. 12 For I know your
manifold transgressions and your
mighty sins: sthey afflict the just,

 

°1 Kings 22. 8.—p Deut. 28. 30, 38,
39; Mic. 6.15; Zeph. 1. 13; Hag. 1. 6.

. 2 Heb. vineyards of destre.—4 Chap.
3 Oe

 

manifestation. Against the fortress—
The defenses in which the strong put
their trust, and which in time of
ordinary danger serve as a place of
refuge. LXX., “be bringeth destruc-
tion” instead of “destruction com-
eth,”’ which is preferable.

Verse 10 continues the accusation of
verse 7, presenting other evidences of
the corruption which impels the
prophet to exhort so earnestly. They
persecute those who take a stand for
the right. Rebuketh—R. V., “re-
proveth.” In the gate—The principal
public place in an ancient Oriental
town, where court was held and justice
administered (verses 12, 15; Deut.
xxv, 7; 1 Kings xxii, 10). The rebuke
is that uttered in connection with the
administration of justice, chiefly by
the judge, who condemns unjust prac-
tices and silences false accusers, but
also by anyone who rises in defense of
the right (Isa. xxix, 21). Speaketh
uprightly—In defense of those accused
unjustly. Abhor—A stronger word
than hate.

11-13. Israel’s moral depravity de-
mands speedy judgment. Thesin which
arouses the indignation of the prophet
most is the oppression of the poor
(ii, 6, 7). In punishment the unjustly
gained possessions will be withdrawn.
Therefore—Introduces the sentence,
as in ili, 11; iv, 12. Your treading is
upon the poor—R. V., “ye trample
upon the poor.’”’ A figure of excessive
cruelty (compare ii, 7). Take from
him burdens [‘‘exactions’’] of wheat—
This corn tax does not refer to bribes
given to corrupt judges, but to
“presents which the poor fellahin had
to offer to the grasping aristocrats”
in order to secure permission to retain
at least a part of their products (1 Sam.
xxv, 7ff.). Hewn stone—In ancient

 

times the houses of the Israelites were
built of baked or sun-dried bricks;
the use of hewn stone, a sign of wealth
and luxury, may have been intro-
duced during the prosperous eighth
century B. C. The means which en-
abled the rich to build these houses
were acquired by oppression (Mic. iii,
10). But Jehovah will drive them
from the magnificent palaces. Pleas-
ant vineyards—The vineyards in the
fruit of which they expected to take
delight. In these expectations also
they will be disappointed (Deut.

‘xxviii, 30, 38, 39; Isa. v, 8-10; Zeph.

i, 13; compare Amos ix, 14). In order
to secure a more perfect parallelism,
consisting of three sentences, each
having a protasis and an apodosis,
Hitzig suggests as a better transla-
tion for the first two clauses, ‘‘Foras-
much, therefore, as ye trample upon
the poor, ye shall take presents from
him of wheat”; that is, you will be-
come so poor that you will be com-
pelled to accept alms from him who
is now poor.

In justification of this sentence the
prophet continues, in verses 12, 18,
the description of the deplorable con-
dition, the maladministration of jus-
tice receiving the severest. condemna-
tion. In verse 12 the translation of
R. V. is to be preferred: “For I know
how manifold are your transgressions,
and how mighty are your sins—ye
that afflict the just, that take a bribe,
and that turn aside the needy in the
gate from their right.” The popular
idea was that Jehovah took little or
no notice of their conduct (Hos. vii,
2); he assures them that he knows
both the magnitude and the multitude
of their sins. Afflict—G. A. Smith,
“browbeat.” Just—See on righteous
(ii, 6). Bribe—The Hebrew word so
CHAPTER V.

257

 

they take *a bribe, and they ‘turn
aside the poor in the gate from their
right. 13 Therefore sthe prudent
shall keep silence in that time; for
it is an evil time. 14 Seek good,
and not evil, that ye may live: and

so the Lorp, the God of hosts, shall
be with you, tas ye have spoken.
15 "Hate the evil, and love the good,
and estabiisi judgment in the gate:
xit may be that the Lorp God of
hosts will be gracious unto the rem-

 

3 Or, @ ransom.
2. 7.—* Chap. 6.10.

 

tr Isa, 29. 21; chap.
+ Mic, 3. 11.

 

uw Psa. 384. 14; 97. 10; Rom. 12. 9.—
x Exod. 32. 30; 2 Kings 19. 4; Joel 2. 14.

 

translated is used ordinarily in the
sense of ransom, the price paid for a
life (Exod. xxi, 30). Num. xxxv, 31,
forbids the taking of a ransom for the
life of a murderer. In the light of
this passage the words of Amos are
thought by some to be a condemna-
tion of the judges who allow rich
murderers to escape capital punish-
ment on the payment of an illegal
ransom. .It is not impossible, how-
ever, that here, as in 1 Sam. xiii, 3,
the word is used in the more general
sense suggested by the English bribe,
an illegal gift presented to the judge
to secure exemption from merited
punishment of any sort. Turn aside
the poor [“needy’’} Discrimination
was shown against the needy, who
were unable to offer bribes (Isa. i, 23;
x, 2; compare Isa. i, 17; Exod. xxiii,
6, etc.). In the gate—See on verse 10.

Marti thinks that verse 13 bears
every mark of a later interpolation,
but without good reason, for the verse
fits admirably, not as a reiteration of
the announcement of judgment but
as an additional indication of the
hopelessness of the present situation.
No longer are any attempts made
to bring about a reformation. The
prudent—The worldly wise, who
knows when he is well off, and who is
interested primarily in his own wel-
fare. There is no indication that Amos
approves the attitude of these prudent
men; he simply states a fact. He him-
self, caring first of all for the interests
of the people, does not and cannot
keep silent (iii, 8; vii, 15). Shall keep
silence—Better, does keep silent; does
not lift up his voice in rebuke or ex-
hortation, because he fears the hos-
tility of the powerful. In that time—
R. V., “such a time’—as described
in verse 12, An evil time—Not only

 

because exhortation is futile, but also
because personal inconvenience and
suffering come to him who attempts
to stem the tide.

14, 15. In spite of the apparent
hopelessness, the prophet renews his
appeal, declaring that, if the exhorta-
tion is heeded, Jehovah may yet be
gracious to a remnant of Joseph.
Seek good—Practically the same as
“seek Jehovah” (verse 6; compare
verse 4). Jehovah is found by him
who is anxious about doing good (Isa.
i, 16, 17; Mic. vi, 8). Not evil—As
they were doing (verse 12). Live—
See on verse 4. And so—If you seek
good. Jehovah, the God of hosts—
See on ili, 13. With you—To bless
and protect. As ye have spoken—See
general remarks on iii, 1; iv, 3 (p. 207;
compare verse 18; Mic. iii, 11). The
exhortation is repeated and explained
in even stronger terms in verse 15. A
complete transformation is needed.
Hate the evil—Not uprightness (verse
10). Love the good—The morally
good instead of an elaborate cere-
monial (verse 5; iv, 5), or actual
wrongdoing (iii, 10). Establish judg-
ment [‘justice’}}—Enthrone it, in-
stead of trampling it upon the ground
(verse 7). This phase of right doing
demanded special emphasis in the
days of Amos. In the gate—The
place of judgment (verse 10), where
it was most persistently outraged
(verse 12). ~If the warning is heeded
Jehovah may yet save from utter
annihilation. Joseph—See on verse 6.
Remnant—The prophet undoubtedly
has in mind the remnant mentioned
frequently in the prophetic writ-
ings, of whose future glorification
speaks ix, 11-15. All the prophets
are convinced of the certainty of
judgment; and all believe that out of
258

AMOS.

 

nant of Joseph. 16 Therefore the
Lorgp, the God of hosts, the Lord,
saith thus; Wailing shall be in all
streets; and they shall say in all the
highways, Alas! alas! and they shall
call the husbandman to mourning,

Nah.

 

y Jer. 9. 17. 2 Exod, 12. 12;
1. 12.

it will be saved a penitent, faithful
few, the holy seed (Isa. vi, 13), which
will grow into a new nation of God.
Some writers suppose, though without
warrant, that the use of the term im-
plies that Israel had already been re-
duced, at the time of such use, to a
remnant, that is, a fragment of its
former prestige and power (see gen-
eral remarks on Hos. ii, 14-23, and
Introduction, pp. 35ff.).

The prophet continues in verses 16,
17 as if the people had declared their
determination to persist in rebellion,
and he proceeds to announce once
more the imminent doom. Therefore
—Because of their corruption and
unwillingness to heed the warning.
Again weight is given to the announce-
ment by the accumulation of divine
titles (ili, 13). Wailing ... mourning
—For the slain (see on Joel i, 13).
This wailing will be heard everywhere,
in city and country. Streets—Better,
R. V., “the broad ways”; literally,
wide places, that is, in the open squares
in the cities, especially near the gates
(Neh. viii, 1), where the people were
accustomed to gather. Highways—
Literally, as R. V., “streets,” of cities
and villages. Alas! alas!—Hebrew,
H6! hé! probably the usual cry of
lamentation. They shall call—The
subject is indefinite—(he) shall be
called (G.-K., 144f.). Husbandman—
Who is at work in the fields. He is
called to mourn for some loved one.
lividently the judgment is expected
to fall suddenly. And such as are
skillful of lamentation to wailing—
Literally, and wailing unto those who
are skillful of lamentation. In either
case the verb “they shall call” must
be supplied. The English translators
are probably correct in suspecting
the accidental transposition of two

 

and such as are skilful of lamenta-
tion to wailing. 17 And in all vine-
yards shall be wailing: for I will
pass through thee, saith the Lorp.
18 *Woe unto you that desire the
day of the Lorp! to what end ts it

a Isa. 5. 19; Jer. 17. 15; Ezek. 12. 22,
27; 2 Pet. 3. 4.

words. The skillful of lamentation are
the professional mourners, ordinarily
women, hired, whenever a death oc-
curs, to sing songs of mourning (Jer.
ix, 17; Matt. ix, 23). The word lamen-
tation used here is a more general
term than that in verse 1. Vineyards
—Where joy and gladness are ordina-
rily looked for (Judg. ix, 27; Isa. xvi,
10). The whole land will become a
land of mourners. Why this lamenta-
tion? Pass through—In judgment
(compare Exod. xii, 12).

Tur DARKNESS AND -DESPAIR OF THE
Day or JeHovaAnH, 18-27.

The new section opens with a
startling woe upon those who desire
the day of Jehovah. They will be
sorely disappointed, for it will be a
day of terror and disaster (18-20).
It cannot be otherwise since, in truth,
they are enemies of Jehovah. Their
service is an abomination to him, be-
cause it is not in accord with his re-
quirements (21-25). As a result the
terrors of Jehovah, in the form of an
exile, will fall upon them (26, 27)

18-20. The day of Jehovah a day of
calamity and ruin. Woe—lIntroduces
frequently announcements of judg-
ment (Isa. v, 8ff.; x, 1, etc.). In the
light of Amos’s general attitude it
becomes exceedingly doubtful that
it “implies commiseration rather than
denunciation” (Driver). Desire—Lit-
erally, desire for themselves, because
they expect it to be a day of triumph.
Day of Jehovah—See on Joel i, 15.
To what end—R. V., ‘Wherefore
would ye have.” A question of amaze-
ment that they should desire that
day. What good will it be when it
does come? The prophet does not
leave them in uncertainty as to what
they may expect. Would it not be
CHAPTER V. 259

 

for you? >the day of the Lorp is
darkness, and not light. 19°Asifa
man did flee from a lion, and a bear
met him; or went into the house,
and leaned his hand on the wall, and
aserpent bit him. 20 Shall not the
day of the Lorp be darkness, and
not light? even very dark, and no
brightness in it?

21 “I hate, I despise your, feast
days, and «I will not ‘smell in your
solemn assemblies. 22 ‘Though ye
offer me burnt offerings and your
meat offerings, I will not accept
them: neither will I regard the peace
offerings of your fat beasts. 23
Take thou away from me the noise
of thy songs; for I will not hear the

 

b Jer. 30. 7; Joel 2. 2; Zeph. 1. as
© Jer. 48. 44,.—4 Prov. pe 27; Isa. 1. 11-
16; Jer. 6. 20; Hos. 8. 13

° Lev. 26. 31.——4 Or,
days.—1 Isa. 66. 3; Mi
thank offerings.

smell your holy
ic. 6. 6, 7.— Or,

 

wiser to shrink from it? Darkness—
A picture of calamity and distress
(compare Joel ii, 2, 31; iii, 15; Isa. v,
30; viii, 22, etc.). Light—A picture
of prosperity and salvation.

The awful character of the day of
Jehovah is described in verse 19 by
illustrations familiar to the prophet
and easily understood by the people.
Though one danger may be avoided,
another is sure to come; escape is
absolutely out of the question. Lion
—See on Hos. v, 14. Bear—See on
Hos. xiii, 8. From the one the peasant
escapes to meet the other; from him
he seeks refuge in the house, only to
meet his doom there. Serpent—Here
is meant, probably, the small adder
(Psa. xci, 13; Isa. xi, 8), which some-
times hides in the cracks and crevices
of old walls, and which “‘is one of the
few serpents that manifest an ag-
gressive disposition” (Van Lennep,
Bible Lands, p. 308). Being dis-
turbed by the terrified fugitive it
comes forth to inflict a deadly bite.
Verse 20 is an emphatic restatement,
in the form of a rhetorical question,
of the truth that the day of Jehovah
is one of utter darkness and despair;
there is in it not one ray of light and
hope.

21-25. The popular service is an
abomination to Jehovah. The prophet
represents Jehovah as out of sym-
pathy with and even hostile to the
popular worship. In what sense this
is to be understood see on Hos. vi, 6.
Hate, .. . despise—Exceedingly strong
expressions of displeasure: The em-
phasis throughout is on the pronoun.
Their practices are an abomination to
Jehovah. Feast days—See on Hos. ii,

e

 

11. Will not smell—R. V., “will take
no delight.”” The metaphor is based
upon the primitive material concep-
tion that the Deity literally smelled
the sweet odor of the sacrifice. He
indicated his displeasure by refusing
to smell it (compare Gen. viii, 21;
Isa. xi, 3; Lev. xxvi, 31). Solemn
assemblies—See on Joel i, 14; compare
on Hos. ii, 11, where a different He-
brew word is used. The prophet next
enumerates the most common and
most popular kinds of sacrifice which
Jehovah despises. Burnt offerings—
See on Hos. vi, 6. Meat offerings
—R. V., “meal offerings.” See on
Joel i, 9 (compare Lev. ii, 1ff.;
Num. xv, 1ff). Peace offerings—
Margin, ‘thank offerings.” Not the
same word as in iv, 5. They are the
offerings prompted by a desire to re-
store peace, to renew intimate fellow-
ship with God, after, in some manner,
it had become interrupted (Lev. iii,
1ff.; vii, 15ff.). Fat beasts—Only the
choicest animals were used for sacri-
fice. The joyful music accompanying
the sacrifices also was displeasing to
Jehovah. From me—Literally, from
upon me. It is oppressing Jehovah
like a heavy burden (Isa. i, 14).
Noise—The use of this word implies
a feeling of disgust. “The best music
becomes mere noise when, for any
reason, it ceases to appeal to him
who hears it.” Songs—Songs and
music were undoubtedly a part of
religious celebrations from an early
period, but their exact nature among
the Hebrews in preéxilic times is not
definitely known. Viols—Our knowl-
edge of musical instruments in an-
cient times is very fragmentary. The
260

AMOS.

 

melody of thy viols. 24 «But let
judgment run down as waters, and
righteousness as a mighty stream.
25 "Have ye offered unto me sacri-

® tos, 6. 6; Mic. 6. 8.—-® Ileb. roll,—-
h Deut, 82. 17; Josh. 24. 14; Ezek. 20. 8,

instrument named here is probably a
harp-shaped instrument with strings.
Josephus says that in his day it had
twelve strings (compare Psa. xxxiii,
2) and was played with the fingers.
Here it represents all musical instru-
ments used in connection with wor-
ship (compare Encyclopedia Biblica,
article ““Music’’).

Verse 24 is to be interpreted not as
a threat, that the righteous judgment
of Jehovah will sweep over the land
with the destructiveness of a flood,
but as an exhortation. In the place
of a meaningless ceremonial Jehovah
desires a righteous life (Isa. i, 10-17).
Judgment [“justice’”’]... righteousness
—Practiced in the ordinary relations
of life (sce on verse 7). Run—R. V.,
“roll”; literally, roll itself; that is,
manifest itself continually. As waters
—Circat masses of water; a picture of
abundance and continuity. A mighty
stream—It. V. margin, “ever-flow-
ing.” The allusion is to a perennial
stream. In nearly all the rivers of
Palestine the flow of water is inter-
rupted during the dry season. It is
not to be thus with the practice of
justice and righteousness; it is to go
on unobstructed and uninterrupted
forever.

Lack of space will not permit even to
enumerate the different views held by
commentators concerning verses 25, 26.
The interpretation suggested here is
the one in most complete accord with
the context. In verse 25 Amos points
out, by the use of a.rhetorical ques-
tion, the absurdity of the people’s
attempt to secure the favor of Jehovah
by their heartless ceremonial worship;
sacrifice is not an essential element in
worship at all. Sacrifices—Animal
sacrifices. Offerings—It. V. margin,
“meal offerings.” The same word as
in verse 22, here all offerings not con-
sisting of animals. The two cover all

 

fices and offerings in the wilderness
forty years, O house of Israel? 26
But ye have borne 7the tabernacle
iof your Moloch and Chiun your irmn-
16, 24; Acts 7, 42,48; sec Isa. 48, 28,—~
7 Or, Stecuth your king.—-i 1 Kings 11. 33.

forms of sacrifice (Isa. xix, 21; Psa.
xl, 6). In the wilderness—During the
wanderings preceding the conquest of
Canaan (Num. xiv, 33, 34; Josh. v, 6).
Have ye offered [“Did ye bring’
The answer expected is an emphatic
No! And yet, the prophet would say,
during these forty years Jehovah was
as near to you as at any time in your
history (ii, 9, 10). If so, his presence
and favor cannot depend upon the
bringing of numerous sacrifices (Jer.
vii, 22), hence you are mistaken when
you expect your present elaborate
ritual to secure for you the divine
favor. Sacrifice antedates the time
of Moses, and that some sacrifices
were offered during the desert wan-
derings cannot be doubted. But thisis
not a contradiction of the statement
of Amos, for his question does not
necessarily imply a denial of the bring-
ing of all sacrifice. The demands of
the language are satisfied if his words
are interpreted as meaning that dur-
ing the desert wanderings the people
did not conform to a ritual as elabor-
ate as that practiced in his own day;
and such interpretation satisfies also
the demands of his argument.

26, 27. The sentence. The transla-
tion of verse 26 and its relation to the
context are matters of much dispute.
Does it refer to the past, the present,
or the future? Should it be rendered
“ye have borne,” or “ye lear,” or
“ye shall bear’? Js it a condemna-
tion of past or present idolatry, or a
threat of judgment? Is the text cor-
rect, or has it suffered in transmission?
Are the words translated tabernacle
and shrine common or proper nouns?
Is verse 26 to be connected with 25
or with 27? These and similar ques-
tions are responsible for the greatest,
variety of opinion among interpreters.
To the present writer it seers best to
connect verse 26 with 27 as a threat
 

CHAPTER V. 261
ages, the star of your god, which ye | ‘beyond Damascus, saith the Lorp,
made to yourselves. 27 Therefore|'whose name is The God of

will I cause you to go into captivity

hosts.

 

k 2 Kings 17. 6.—1!Chap. 4. 13.

 

of judgment, and to translate, with
R. V. margin, “ye shall take up.”
This is in harmony with the prophet’s
reasoning and is supported by Hebrew
usage. He believes also that the order
of the words in LXX. is to be pre-
ferred, and that the first word, A. V.,
“But,” R V., “Yea,” should be ren-
dered “Therefore,” which is permis-
sible. The transposition of the words
suggested by LXX. results in a more
satisfactory connection for the rela-
tive clause and in a smoother reading
throughout. Verse 26, then, may be
rendered, “Therefore ye shall take up
the tabernacle of your king, and the
shrine of your star-god, your images
which ye made to yourselves.” Some,
taking greater liberties with the text,
propose as the original, ‘‘Ye shall lift
up the shrine of your king and the
image of your god, which ye have
made for yourselves.” Tabernacle
. . . Shrine—Both these nouns occur
only here in the Old Testament;
hence the exact meaning is doubtful.
The former resembles very closely the
common Hebrew word for tabernacle,
and it has been customary, from very
early times, to regard it as a synonym
of the same. With the meaning of
this word fixed, the laws of parallel-
ism required that in the next line a
word of similar import should be read;
hence the rendering shrine, though
the most important of the ancient
versions take the second as a proper
noun. If this translation is adopted
king must be understood as a poetic
synonym of god (but compare Acts
vii, 43); and the thought is that they
will be compelled to carry the shrines
of the false gods with them into
exile.

In more recent times, as a result of
archeological discoveries, it has be-
eome customary to interpret both
words as proper nouns, names of As-
syrian deities. In order to do this the

 

vocalization of the Hebrew must be
changed, though the consonantal text
may remain the same. Schrader was
the first to identify the first word—
Heb. stkkvtth—with the Assyrian sak-
kut, a name of the god Ninib. Oppert
recognized in the second—Heb. kiy-
yuan—the Assyrian kaiwan, the name
of the planet Saturn. Ninib is the
god of Saturn, and the two names
have been found together on a Baby-
lonian tablet (see Encyclopedia Bib-
lica, article “Chiun’’). These identi-
fications are accepted by nearly all
modern commentators, and verse 26
is now commonly rendered, “There-
fore ye shall take up (to carry into
exile) Sakkut your king and Kaiwan
your star-god, the images which you
made to yourselves.” This transla-
tion sees here an implied condemna-
tion of Assyrian idolatry, which had
been introduced into Palestine and
had helped to corrupt Hebrew religion.
The “host of heaven’? was worshiped
in Israel before the fall of Samaria
(2 Kings xvii, 16); however, 2 Kings
xvii, 31, places the introduction of
Assyrian religious practices subse-
quent to the deportation of the north-
ern tribes. That similar customs had
been adopted before the time of Amos,
as the above interpretation assumes,
cannot be asserted with absolute cer-
tainty, nor can it be denied. The fu-
ture may throw additional light on
the interpretation of this much-
discussed verse.

Verse 27 continues the threat.
Therefore will I—Better, literally,
and I will. Go into captivity—See
iv, 3; vii, 17. Beyond Damascus—
The place is not named, but the ex-
pression implies a far-distant country.
Armenia (see on iv, 3) was beyond
Damascus, and far distant from Pales-
tine. Acts vii, 43, reads, “beyond
Babylon.” Jehovah, ... The God of
hosts—See on iv, 13,
262
CHAPTER VI.
OE to them that Jare at ease
in Zion, and trust in the

a Luke 6. 24.—! Or, are secure.

AMOS.

mountain of Samaria, which are
named ?>chief of the nations, to
whom the house of Israel came!

2 Or, first-frutts.—>» Exod. 19. 5.

 

CHAPTER VI.

Wok UPON THE LuxURIOUS, THE SELF-
ConFIDENT, AND THE Provup, 1-14.

In vi, 1, the prophet turns once
more to the leaders of the people,
who, reveling in wealth and luxury,
were perfectly content with the pres-
ent state of things, and were com-
pletely indifferent to the ruin threat-
ening the people (1-6). Exile will be
their punishment (7). The whole city
and nation will be given over to de-
struction, because the inhabitants
have perverted the truth and right-
eousness and have put their trust in
their own resources (8-14).

Condemnation of the nobles, 1-7.

1. Woe—See on v, 18. That are at
ease—Margin, “secure.” In a bad
sense, those who are recklessly at ease,
who are insensible to the dangers
lurking on every side (Isa. xxxii, 9).
Zion—Jerusalem (i, 2), the center of
the southern kingdom. There is no
reason for regarding this a later in-
terpolation. While the commission
of Amos was primarily to the north,
it would be strange if, as a citizen of
Judah, he would never make mention
in his discourses of the home land;
especially since conditions in Judah
called for the same denunciation as
those in the north. Nor is there any
reason for giving to the clause a mean-
ing different from that suggested by
the English translation. Trust—R. V.,
“are secure.” Not, who put their
trust in the mountain of Samaria
rather than in God, but identical in
meaning with “are at ease” (Isa.
xxxii, 9, 11). Which are named chief
of the nations—R. V., ‘the notable
men of the chief of the nations.” The
Hebrew is ambiguous. A. V. con-
nects chief with the subject of the
preceding relative clauses. Those who
live at ease and are secure are the

 

chief, or leaders, of the nations, that
is, of Israel and Judah. The Revisers
understood the words differently. The
first word in Hebrew, apparently en-
tirely misunderstood by A. V., they
took in apposition to the preceding
relative clauses, at the same time con-
necting chief with nations. The first
word means literally the marked ones,
those who stand out prominently on
account of wealth and position; there-
fore, notable, or, distinguished. These
persons are further described as be-
longing to the chief of the nations,
Israel, which, as the chosen people of
Jehovah, occupied a unique place
among the nations of the world (Exod.
xix, 5). Some, with less probability,
consider the expression ironical: Is-
rael is the chief only according to the
erroneous estimate of the people. In
order to indicate even more clearly
the responsibilities of the leaders and
the guilt arising from their failure to
meet them, the prophet adds, to
whom the house of Israel came—For
judgment and guidance. The house
of Israel includes the inhabitants of
both kingdoms.

The natural continuation of verse
1 is 3ff.; verse 2 seems to interrupt
the thought. For this and the ad-
ditional reason that the verse is
thought to contain historical allusions
unsuitable in the time of Amos many
commentators consider verse 2 a later
interpolation. The second reason is
not conclusive, for the historical situa-
tion presupposed in verse 2 is by no
means certain (see below). Hence,
other commentators see no sufficient
reason for denying it to Amos, but
they admit that it may not be in its
original place. Still others, though
conceding that the abruptness in
transition is very marked, accept it
as coming from Amos and retain it in
its present position. In view of this
divergence of opinion, it may be best,
CHAPTER VI.

263

 

2 ‘Pass ye unto 4Calneh, and see;
and from thence go ye to -Hamath

the

reat: then go down to ‘Gath of
the S

hilistines: «be they better than

 

e Jer, 2. 10,—4 Isa. 10. 9.—» 2 Kings

18. 34.— 2 Chron. 26. 6.—# Nah. 3. 8.

 

for the present, to retain the verse
where it now stands and to interpret
it as an utterance of Amos. But when
this is done the interpretation still
remains doubtful. In fact, two in-
terpretations are possible: one con-
necting verse 2 more closely with
verse 1, the other joining verse 2 to
3ff. If the former is accepied, the
verse is an illustration of the su-
periority of Israel, justifying the
designation “‘chief of the nations’;
the localities named are examples of
marked prosperity, which is, however,
far inferior to that of Israel. By im-
plication attention is directed to Is-
rael’s greater ingratitude. The latter
thought receives additional emphasis
in 3-6, leading up to the announce-
ment of judgment in verse 7. The
other interpretation sees in the cities
mentioned examples of fallen great-
ness and makes the verse a warning to
Israel. These cities, once prominent,
are now in ruin; therefore, let Israel
take heed, for it may suffer a similar
fate. To the first interpretation the
objection may be made that the cities
named, especially Calneh and Gath,
were not among the most prominent
cities of the eighth century B. C.
Would not the prophet have selected
more celebrated localities, had he de-
sired to bring before the people ex-
amples of marked prosperity? Against
the second it may be said that it is
exceedingly doubtful that the three
places were in ruin at the time of
Amos. Gath, it is true, is not named
in i, 7, 8, but the silence is not con-
clusive evidence of the city’s dis-
appearance from the scene. On the
whole, the first interpretation is pref-
erable. If we knew more of the
history of the places mentioned we
might understand why Amos selected
these rather than some that, judging
from our present knowledge, appear
to have been more prominent in his

 

day. Calneh—Not the Calneh of Gen.
x, 10, but the Calno of Isa. x, 9. Where
the place is to be sought is not quite
certain. Various identifications have
been proposed; the most probable
is that which connects Calneh with
the Assyrian Kullani, mentioned in
the Eponym Canon as having been
conquered by Tiglath-pileser III in
738. Since in that year the latter was
fighting in northern Syria, Kullani
must have been located there; and it
‘has sometimes been identified with
the modern village Kullanhou, about
six miles from Arpad, a little north of
Aleppo. This identification is sup-
ported by Isa. x, 9, where Calno and
Arpad are named together. Hamath
—In ancient times a city and city
state of great prominence (2 Sam. viii,
9; 2 Kings xxiii, 33; xxv, 21; Isa. x,
9). It is mentioned frequently in the
Assyrian inscriptions; its armies
fought in the battle of Karkar in 854;
Tiglath-pileser III annexed a large
part of its territory to Assyria; in 720
Sargon reconquered the city and
flayed its king alive. The present
name of the city is Ham; it is located
on the Orontes, about one hundred
and fifty miles north of Dan. Its
population at the present time is esti-
mated variously from thirty thousand
to sixty thousand.

From the far north they are to
sweep down to the far south. Gath—
One of the five principal cities of
Philistia (see on i, 6-8). Its location
is not altogether beyond doubt,
though many scholars are inclined to
identify it with the modern Tei-es-
Safi, about eleven miles southeast of
Ekron (i, 8). The Tel-el-Amarna
tablets bear witness to its great
antiquity. In an inscription of Sar-
gon a city Gimtu Asdudim (Gath of
Ashdod?) is mentioned, but it is not
certain that this is the Gath of the
Old Testament. They—The cities
264

AMOS.

 

these kingdoms? or their border
greater than your border? 3 Ye
that put far away the ievil day,
kand cause 'the ‘seat of violence to
come near; 4 That lie upon beds of
ivory, and ‘stretch themselves upon

their couches, and eat the lambs out
of the flock, and the calves out of the
midst of the stall; 5 =That *chant
to the sound of the Fol and invent
to themselves instruments of music
slike David; 6 That drink ‘wine in

 

h Ezek. 12, 27.—i Chap. 5. 18: 9. 10.
— Verse 12; chap. 5. 12.—! Psa. 94.
20.—3 Or, habitation. Or, abound with

enumerated. These kingdoms—Israel
and Judah. Their border—The extent
of their territory. Having named the
cities, the prophet requests his hearers
to compare their own resources with
those of the three cities and to decide
which is the more favored. The de-
cision he expects to be in favor of
Israel. But if Israel is the more
favored, how base its ingratitude!
Verse 3 continues the condemnation
of the reckless skepticism and luxury
of the nobles. Put far away—Not in
reality, but in their own minds; they
refuse to believe that it is near. Evil
day—aAs described in v, 18-20. Cause
the seat (literally, sitting) of violence
to come near—‘‘They prepare in their
very midst a place where, instead of
justice, violence may sit enthroned.”
Emendations are not necessary.
Verse 4 describes the luxury and
self-indulgence. Beds—Better, di-
vans, or, couches. Of ivory—With
frames made of ivory, or whose
frames were inlaid with pieces of
ivory. These “ivory couches’ are
often mentioned in the Assyrian in-
scriptions. Sennacherib claims to
have received some as a part of the
tribute paid by Hezekiah of Judah
(Taylor Cylinder, III, 1. 36). Stretch
themselves—While eating. The an-
cient custom seems to have been to
sit while eating (Judg. xix, 6; 1 Sam.
xx, 5, 24; 2 Kings i iv, 10). Reclining
is first mentioned in this passage; it
may have been a foreign custom in-
troduced by the self-indulgent nobles.
The innovation would appear to the
simple shepherd prophet an abomina-
tion. At a later period reclining at
the table became the common custom
(Matt. x, 9). Another indication of
wanton luxury is the eating of only

 

superflutites.—™ Isa. 12-— Or, qua-
ver. 21 Chron. 23 8 _—6 Or, in bowls
of wine.

 

the tenderest and most delicate meats.
Lambs—Not the common Hebrew
word for lamb, but one implying
choice quality (Deut. xxxii, 14; 1 Sam.
xv, 9). Calves out of the midst of the
stall—Kept there to be ey
fattened (Jer. xlvi, 21; Mal. iv, 2;
compare Luke xv, 23). The feasts
were accompanied by excesses of
every sort (5, 6). Chant—R. V.,

“sing idle songs.” Various transla-
tions and interpretations of the verb
have been suggested. That the ref-
erence is to music accompanying the

feasts (v, 23; Isa. v, 12; xxiv, 9) can-

not be doubted, but since the verb
occurs only in this place in the Old
Testament its exact meaning is un-
certain. However, R. V. is probably
correct. Viol—See on v, 23. Of un-
certain meaning and subject to much
discussion is also the last clause of the
verse, in which LXX. differs con-
siderably from the Hebrew. Invent—
Or, devise, the most natural meaning
of the verb here. Instruments of
music, like David—Since no other
canonical book speaks of David as
the inventor of musical instruments,
margin R. V. reads “like David’s,”
that is, like those owned by David
(1 Sam. xvi, 18). Cheyne changes the
text so as to remove all reference to
David and reads verse 5, “who play
on timbrel and harp, and rejoice at
the sound of song.” Marti reads,
“who consider themselves equal to
David in understanding songs.”
There is no external evidence war-
ranting these emendations. If the
present text is original, whether we
accept the usual or marginal transla-
tion, the passage is important in a
discussion of the dates of the psalms
and of the relation of David to the
CHAPTER VI.

265

 

bowls, and anoint themselves with
the chief ointments: ebut they are
not grieved for the ‘affliction of
Joseph.

7 Therefore now shall they go cap-
tive with the first that go captive,

and the banquet of them that
stretched themselves shall be re-
moved. 8 »The Lord Gop hath
sworn by himself, saith the LorD
the God of hosts, I abhor «the ex-
cellency of Jacob, and hate his pal-

 

© Gen, 37, 25.—7 Heb. breach.—p Jer.
51. 14; Heb. 6. 13,17.

 

ee Psa. 47. 4; Ezek. 24. 21; chap.

 

Psalter, as showing that even at this
early date David enjoyed the reputa-
tion of possessing extraordinary musi-
eal skill, even though the allusion here
is not to sacred hymns. For the rea-
son mentioned above some commen-
tators, thinking a reference to musical
instruments out of place, translate
the Hebrew “melodies of song’ or
“airs of song.’’ This translation, how-
ever, is contrary to the common usage
of the word. Drink wine in bowls—
The noun is used commonly to desig-
nate the basin in which the sacrificial
blood was received; but the emphasis
is not on this fact; rather on the large
size of the drinking vessels. Cups of
ordinary size were too small, they sub-
stituted large bowls. Chief ointments
[“‘oils”}+The finest and most expen-
sive (see on Joel i, 10).

The thoughts of the nobles were en-
tirely self-centered; their chief ambi-
tion was to satisfy their own lusts
and fancies; others, even those whose
guardians and protectors they should
be, must look out for themselves.
Grieved—Literally, made sick. The
present condition and prospects for
the future were such as to make a
sensitive person sick in heart and
mind, but the selfish nobles had no
concern. Affliction—Literally, breach,
or, wound. Including the present cor-
ruption, which was a sore in the body
politic, and the coming calamity,
which would inflict incurable wounds
(Isa. i, 5, 6). Joseph—See on v, 6.

Verse 7 announces the inevitable
judgment. Therefore now—The force
of the latter is logical, not temporal;
the two should be read together, as in
Hebrew, “Therefore now,” that is,
because of the utter incompetence of
the nobles. Go captive—See on iv, 3;
vy, 27; vii, 17. With the first—Now

 

they regard themselves superior to all;
they will retain the lead when the ca-
lamity falls. Banquet—Better, R. V.,
“Tevelry”; literally, loud  novse.
Stretched themselves—The same word
as in verse 4 (see there). Shall be
removed—Lamentation (v, 16) will
take its place. The three Hebrew
words of which 7b consists are very
similar in sound; this paronomasia
would make the utterance even more
impressive.

The extent of the judgment, 8-14.

The divine indignation finds ex-
pression in an oath that Jehovah
will destroy the entire city (8). The
threat is followed by an episode illus-
trating the completeness of the
destruction and the resulting con-
sternation (9, 10). The sentence is
expanded in verse 11, and in the next
two verses the prophet tries to im-
press upon the people the absurdity
of their boastful attitude toward Je-
hovah and of their immoral deeds
(12, 13). Jehovah will raise up an
enemy that will scourge the whole
land (14).

8, 9. Lord Jehovah—See on i, 8.
Hath sworn—See on iv, 2. By him-
self—Literally, by his soul. The most
solemn oath, since there is no greater
than Jehovah (see also on iv, 2; com-
pare Jer. li, 14). Jehovah the God
of hosts—See on Hos. xii, 5. The
oath embodies a threat and the justi-
fication of the same. The threat is
the result of God’s abhorrence for
Israel, which is due to their arrogant
attitude toward him. Once their
father, protector, and friend (iii, 2),
now their enemy. How great must
have been the provocation! (ix, 4;
Hos. v, 12, 14; xiii, 7, 8.) Excellency
—Better, R. V. margin, “pride,” that
266

AMOS.

 

aces: therefore will I deliver up the
city with ali *that is therein. 9 An
it shall come to pass, if there remain
ten men in one house, that they
shall die. 10 And a man’s uncle

8 Heb. the fullness thereof.

d|eth him, to brin,

shall take him up, and he that burn-
out the bones out
of the house, and shall say unto him
that is by the sides of the house, Js
there yet any with thee? and he shall

 

is, the arrogant attitude which led
them to rebel against Jehovah (Hos.
v, 5) and to trust in wealth and human
defenses. Palaces—See on iii, 10, 11
(compare Isa. iii, 14). Deliver up—
To the enemy, for plunder (iii, 11)
and destruction (verse 11; ii, 14-16;
iii, 11ff.). Again the prophet thinks
of a foreign invasion. The city—Sa-
maria (verse 1), the capital; it will
suffer most heavily from the invasion.
All that is therein—Men, cattle, and
possessions of every kind. The origin-
ality of verses 9, 10 is questioned by
some modern commentators. ‘This
verse (9) and the following introduce
a new element into the description of
the future punishment, and at the
same time a new form and a new
style. After these verses the old idea,
style, and form recur. The new ele-
ment is the plague, the new form is
the individual experience, the new
style, conversational prose, the poetic
form being abandoned” (Harper).
Marti retains the verses, Oettli re-
arranges them, reading them in the
order 7, 11, 8, 9, 10, which in some
respects is an improvement over the
present arrangement. As the verses
stand now they illustrate the extent
of the judgment and the resulting
terror. It shall come to pass—When
the city is delivered up to the invader.
While there is agreement concerning
the general import of verse 9, there
is difference of opinion respecting de-
tails. Some interpret: I'ven large fam-
ilies, having as many as ten members,
will be completely blotted out. Others
see in house a reference to the large
households of the nobles. If of these,
numbering perhaps hundreds of peo-
ple, ten should escape the terrors of
the siege, they will be slain in the
slaughter following the capture. Or,
if ten should escape the slaughter,

 

they will surely perish in the pestilence
following the slaughter.

Verse 10 carries further the
thoughts of verse 9, calling special
attention to the effect of the judg-
ment upon the survivors. R. V.
translates more accurately, ‘And
when a man’s uncle shall take him up,
even he that burneth him, to bring
out the bones out of the house, and
shall say unto him that is in the inner-
most parts of the house, Is there yet
any with thee? and he shall say, No;
then shall he say, Hold thy peace;
for we may not make mention of the
name of Jehovah.” Uncle—Perhaps
better, R. V. margin, “kinsman.” All
the members of the immediate family
having perished, a more distant rela-
tive comes to care for the body. He
that burneth him—Literally, his
burner. A. V. considers this a sep-
arate person, accompanying the kins-
man. R. V., more correctly, identi-
fies the two. It would seem most
natural to see here a reference to
cremation; but that method of dis-
posing of the dead does not seem to
have been prevalent among the Is-
raelites. Criminals were, indeed,
burned (Lev. xx, 14; Josh. vii, 15);
so were Saul and his sons (1 Sam. xxxi,
12), but these were exceptional cases.
If cremation is in the mind of the
prophet, it must be because he ex-
pected conditions to become such as
to make burial impossible, either be-
cause the dead would be too numerous,
or because the enemies would prevent
it. An alternative rendering is, “who
burneth for him,” that is, incense;
which would make the expression a
reference to the burning of incense
in honor of the dead (Jer. xxxiv, 5;
2 Chron. xvi, 14). Bring out the bones
—The corpse, to care for it. The sides
—Better R.V., “the innermost parts.”
CHAPTER VI.

267

 

say, No. Then shall he say, ‘Hold
thy tongue: "for °we may not make

will smite the great house with
10breaches, and the little house with

12 Shall horses run upon the rock?

mention of the name of _ the| clefts
Lorp. 11 For, behold, ‘the
LorpD commandeth, vand he

will one plow there with oxen? for

 

t Chap. 5. 13,—=+ Chap. 8. 3.—® Or, they
will not, or, have not,

t Isa. 55. 11.— Chap. 3. 15.
droppings.

 

10 Or,

 

Set apart for the women (compare
Psa. cxxviii, 3); in this part the lone
survivor has taken refuge. As the
kinsman pursues his solemn task he
discovers the terrified individual. Is
there yet any with thee—Dead or
alive. The answer is, No. Hold thy
tongue [“‘peace’’|—Literally, hush.
The speaker is the survivor who, in
his anxiety and despair, attempts to
silence the kinsman. Then shall he
say—Literally, and he shall say. The
subject is again the survivor. The
verb is repeated to separate “two
parts of the answer which have no
immediate connection with each
other.’ We may not—Or, we must
not. The reason for the prohibition
is not quite clear. Perhaps the
speaker had a superstitious fear that
the mention of the divine name
would result in additional judgment.
The sense is little altered if the words
“Hold thy peace...” are placed in
the mouth of the kinsman, who, by
the prohibition would seek to prevent
the terrified survivor from adding to
his No a formula of confirmation con-
taining the divine name. To consider
the words an explanatory statement
by Amos is less natural.

Verse 11 is the continuation of the
sentence in verse 8. For, behold, Je-
hovah commandeth—The invader
(14). The words are added to make
the transition between 10 and 11 less
abrupt, but there is no reason for
denying them to Amos. Great house
—Used collectively; the palaces of the
nobles (iii, 15). Little house—The less
pretentious dwellings. With breaches
—Or, into fragments. With clefts—
Or, into splinters. Palaces and huts
will suffer the same fate.

The connection of verses 12-14 with
the preceding does not appear on the
surface; nevertheless there exists a

 

logical connection. The threat seems
to be without effect, and the people,
boasting in their own strength, show
no concern. Have they not been suc-
cessful against the mighty Damascus?
Let the invader come; they will soon
drive him from their borders. Such
boast, the prophet says, is absurd
(12a), because they have forfeited
the support of Jehovah through dis-
obedience to his will (12b); besides,
they overestimate their past successes
and present resources (13). The in-
vader will surely come and overrun
the whole country (14).

12. Shall horses run upon the rock?
—Or, cliff. The answer is an em-
phatic No. The attempt would re-
sult in the horses’ undoing, Will one
plow there with oxen?—Again the
answer is, No. The plow would be
broken and the oxen hurt. Every
one of Amos’s hearers would see the
absurdity of doing these things. So,
the prophet means to say, it is equally
absurd for you to expect the divine
help while you arouse Jehovah’s anger
by perverting justice and righteous-
ness, or to trust in your own resources,
whose true value you overestimate
greatly; your past successes do not
warrant the present optimism. The
second question is literally, “Will one
plow with oxen?” The answer to this
is in the affirmative. The context,
however, as already suggested, de-
mands a negative answer. To remove
the difficulty the English translators
added “there,” that is, upon the rock,
which meets the demands of the con-
text, and upon this addition the
above interpretation is based. Most
recent commentators, following the
suggestion of Michaelis, divide the
last word in Hebrew into two and
make «# slight change in the vowel
points, which results in the reading,
268

AMOS.

 

xye have turned judgment into gall,
and the fruit of righteousness into
hemlock: 13 Ye which rejoice in a
thing of nought, which say, Have
we not taken to us horns by our
own strength? 14 But, behold, »I

will raise up against you a nation,
O house of Israel, saith the LORD
the God of hosts; and they shall
afflict you from the ‘entering in of
Hemath unto the "river of the wil-
derness.

 

x Hos. 10. 4; chap. 5. 7.—y Jer. 5. 15.—

“Will one plow the sea with oxen?”
This meets the demands of the con-
text, and gives excellent sense. For
—Better, R. V., “that.” Judgment
[justice]... righteousness—See on
v,7. Turned... into gall—In defiance
of all prophetic exhortations. Gall is
the same word as in Hos. x, 4, where
the translation is “hemlock” (see
there). Fruit—Result or effect. Hem-
lock [‘‘wormwood”’}—See on v, 7. The
effects of a faithful administration of
justice are always wholesome and de-
sirable; by an unfaithful administra-
tion the Israelites have made the
effects undesirable and detrimental.
For this reason they can expect no
help from Jehovah.

13. Will their own resources be suffi-
cient? Certainly not. Rejoice—In a
spirit of boasting. A thing of naught
—Literally, no-thing. Something that
has no real existence. Here not
equivalent to tdol (Deut. xxxii, 21),
but their own wealth and resources,
which are only temporary, and will
fail when most needed. Horns—
Symbols of power (Deut. xxxiii, 17;
1 Kings xxii, 11; Jer. xlviii, 25). Take
horns—acquire power. By our own
strength—Without assistance from
God orman. The marvelous successes
of Jeroboam II (2 Kings xiv, 25ff.;
see Introduction, p. 197) might cause
the unthinking to boast in the na-
tional strength; Amos declares it will
speedily vanish; he places, indeed, a
low estimate upon the strength of
Israel. He justifies his pessimism in
verse 14 by once more calling atten-
tion to the determination of Jehovah
to overthrow Israel by an enemy
against whom resistance will be vain.
This interpretation of verse 13 is
quite satisfactory, but a few recent
commentators, following Graetz, take
the two words translated “a

 

zNum. 34. 8; 1 Kings 8. 65.—11 Or, valley.

thing of naught”? and “horns” as
proper nouns, names of two cities
east of the Jordan, in whose conquest
the Israelites boasted. The first—
Heb. lé-dabhar—is identified with Lo-
debar (2 Sam. ix, 4, 5; xvii, 27), the
second—Heb. karnayim—with Kar-
naim (1 Mace. v, 26), called Ashteroth
Karnaim in Gen. xiv, 5. It is thought
that the two places were among the
recent conquests of Jeroboam, and
that these were selected rather than
more important localities on account
of the suggestiveness of their names.

14. But—Better, R. V., “For.” Be-
hold, I will—See on ii, 13. Raise up
—As an agent to execute judgment
(Hab. i, 6). A nation—See at the
close of comment on ii, 16. Jehovah
the God of hosts—The solemn address,
the introduction of Jehovah as speak-
er, the divine title, all combine to add
weight to the threat. Afflict—Liter-
ally, crush. Used frequently of foreign
oppression (Exod. iii, 9; Judg. iv, 3).
Entering in of Hemath—R. V., ‘‘the
entrance of Hamath.” On Hamath
see vi, 2. The entrance of Hamath is
a very indefinite geographical term,
but it is generally identified with the
mouth of the pass between the Leb-
anon and Anti-Lebanon, which was
considered the starting point of the
road to Hamath. This was the north-
ern limit of the territory promised to
Israel (Num. xxxiv, 8), and to this
point Jeroboam II extended his
borders (2 Kings xiv, 25f.). River
of the wilderness—Better, R. V.,
“brook of the Arabah.” The Arabah
(see Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible,
article ‘““Arabah”’) is, in a wider sense,
the entire depression through which
flows the Jordan and in which are
located the Sea of Galilee and the
Dead Sea, and which extends to the
Gulf of Akabah, the eastern arm of
CHAPTER VII.

269

 

the Red Sea. In a narrower sense
the term applies only to the part of
the declension between the Dead Sea
and the Gulf of Akabah. Opinions
differ concerning the identification of
the brook of the Arabah. Evidently
it marks the southern limit of Israel
(not Judah), and is practically equiv-
alent to sea of the Arabah in 2 Kings
xiv, 25. The latter is undoubtedly
identical with the Dead Sea (Deut.
iii, 17), but by no stretch of the im-
agination can the Dead Sea be called
a brook. The brook must be one flow-
ing into the Dead Sea, but where? It
has been identified with the Arnon,
flowing into the Dead Sea about half-
way down its eastern shore. Most
commonly it has been identified with
the wady el Ahsa, flowing into the
Arabah from the southeast about
three miles south of the Dead Sea,
then turning northward and empty-
ing into the latter. To this identifica-
tion G. A. Smith objects, not without
reason, on the ground that the wady
was outside the territory of Israel;
it marked the boundary line between
Moab and Edom, not between Israel
and another country. It could mark
the southern border of Israel only if
Jeroboam had conquered Moab, but
evidence of such conquest is lacking.
It seems more natural to look for the
brook of the Arabah near the northern
boundary of Moab. The Arnon meets
this condition (Num. xxi, 13). Some
commentators believe the brook to be
one of the streams flowing into the
Dead Sea in its northeastern part,
while they understand 2 Kings xiv,
25, to mean that Jeroboam extended
the territory “as far as the Dead Sea.”
In any case, Amos means to say that
the entire territory, from its northern
to its southern limits, will be wasted
by an invader.

With this announcement of utter
ruin closes the main part of the Book
of Amos. The prophet endeavored to
lead the people to repentance, but
apparently all his efforts have failed.
The leaders show no sign of contrition,
and the people continue rebellious.

 

CHAPTER VII.

Visions Picturing THE EXECUTION
or JUDGMENT, vii, 1-ix, 15.

With chapter vii begins the third
division of the Book of Amos. Its
distinctive characteristic is the pres-
ence of five visions, by means of which
the prophet seeks to enforce, if pos-
sible, the contents of the discourses in
the preceding parts, laying special
emphasis upon the certainty and
finality of the judgment. Two visions
—the swarm of locusts and the de-
vouring fire—describe a calamity
which had already caused much suf-
fering, and was threatening complete
destruction, when Jehovah, in his
mercy, averted the final catastrophe
(vii, 1-6). The third vision—the
master builder with the plumb line—
does not picture the calamity itself,
but portrays Jehovah as decreeing the
utter destruction of the house of Is-
rael (7-9). The three visions are fol-
lowed by an historical section (10-17),
in which Amos narrates how the an-
nouncement of the judgment stirred
the antagonism of the chief priest at
Beth-el, who attempted to drive Amos
back to Judah. The prophet could
not be silenced; he justified his pres-
ence by an appeal to the call he re-
ceived from Jehovah, and repeated
his threat, adding a personal woe upon
the chief priest and his family. The
fourth vision—the basket of summer
fruit—announces that the time of
mercy is past; the end has come upon
Israel (viii, 1-3). To this vision Amos
adds fresh denunciations of Israel’s
sins and announcements of judgment
(4-14). The fifth vision—the smitten
sanctuary—differs in form from the
preceding four, but its purpose is the
same, to make clear that Jehovah is
determined to make an end of the
“sinful kingdom” (ix, 1-6). The
prophet combats again the misappre-
hension that their former choice by
Jehovah can be regarded as a perma~-
nent safeguard (7, 8), and once more
he predicts judgment, now calling
special attention to its disciplinary
270

AMOS.

 

CHAPTER VII.
IHUS hath the Lord Gop shewed
unto me; and, behold, he
formed !grasshoppers in the begin-

ning of the shooting up of the latter
growth; and, lo, zit was the latter
growth after the king’s mowings.
2 And it came to pass, that when

 

1 Or, green worms.

 

purpose, promising the preservation
of a sound kernel (9, 10). The book
closes with promises of a bright future
to this faithful remnant (11-15).

1-3. The swarm of locusts. The
Lord Jehovah—See on i, 8. Showed
unto me—Literally, caused me to see—
presented in a vision. A just regard
for the language forbids the interpre-
tation of the form in which the truths
are presented in these chapters purely
as a literary device, adopted by the
prophet to express in a forceful man-
ner certain truths and convictions
which impressed themselves upon him
as the result of ordinary processes of
thinking. The vision is mentioned as
one of the divine means of communi-
cation (Num. xii, 6), and the reality
of such visions cannot be denied.
Modern psychological researches have
made possible « clearer understand-
ing of the nature of these visions. The
prophet, meditating upon the nature
and character of Jehovah, the divine
claims upon Israel, and the people’s
failure to recognize these claims, be-
came so lost in contemplation that he
fell into a trance, when all external
objects were entirely removed from
his mental horizon, he being alive only
to the subject uppermost in his heart
and mind. While in this sensitive
mood, receptive to anything related
to the subject of his contemplation,
there was impressed upon him, in
the form of calamities familiar to
the prophet, the certainty of the
nation’s doom. He in turn presented
the pictures to the people. He formed
—Literally, was forming. Amos saw
the process. LXX. apparently reads
in the place of the verb a noun, “a
swarm” or ‘a brood” (of locusts).
Grasshoppers—R. V., “locusts.” The
word used here occurs again only in
Nah. iii, 17. Many think that it is
descriptive of locusts in the larva

 

stage, when they are first hatched,
but this is not certain. For other
terms see on Joel i, 4. The latter
growth—The exact meaning of the
Hebrew word is doubtful. It is from
the same root as a word translated
latter rain—the rain falling in March
and April (Joel ii, 23); and the word
used here is thought by some to refer
to the spring crops, which mature
quickly after the fall of the latter rain.
After the fall rains the seed springs
up and begins to grow, but the growth
is checked by the cold of the winter
months; in the early spring the rise in
temperature and the latter rain put
new life into vegetation. Others in-
terpret the word as referring to the
aftermath, the second growth after one
crop has been gathered. This is the
meaning suggested by the English
translations. After the king’s mow-
ings—Whichever translation of the
preceding word is accepted, these
words, if they are a correct reproduc-
tion of the original, must mean that
the first crop went to the king as a
sort of taxation (1 Kings xviii, 5;
compare 1 Kings iv, 7); only the sec-
ond growth went to the people.
While the people were preparing to
gather their share the locusts ap-
peared and threatened to devour all.
To this interpretation two objections
may be raised: (1) It is not certain
that it was customary for the king to
claim the first crops; the passages
quoted in support are not conclusive.
(2) The interpretation causes Amos to
contradict himself. Everywhere else
he makes the king and the nobles suf-
fer most severely (compare verse 9),
here he would exempt the king from
all judgment; he allows him to gather
his share, only the people he makes to
suffer. The second objection holds
good against another interpretation,
which makes king’s mowings a desig-
CHAPTER VII.

271

 

they had made an end of eating the
rass of the land, then I said, O herd
oD, forgive, I beseech thee: 8 2by
whom shall Jacob arise? for he és
small. 3 >The Lorp repented for

this: It shall not be, saith the
Lorp.

4 Thus hath the Lord Gop shewed
unto me: and, behold, the Lord Gop
called to contend by ‘fire, and it de-

 

4 Verse 5; Isa. 51. 19.—2 Or, who of,
or, for, Jacob shall stand?

b Verse io Deut. 32. 36; Jonah 3. 10;
James 5. 16.

 

nation of the harvest season; the
mowing of the royal fields would be
the signal that the proper time for
mowing had arrived, but out of re-
spect for the king the common people
waited until his fields had been mowed.
The weakness of this interpretation is
shown also by the last suggestion.
Respect for the king cannot have been
a sufficient reason for letting crops
become overripe.

The difficulties vanish if the word
translated “mowings” is given a dif-
ferent meaning. It comes from a root
meaning originally to shear (sheep);
only in a secondary sense is it used of
the shearing of the fields—mowing.
If the primary meaning is retained
here the time indicated is after the
king’s sheep-shearings. The shearing
of the king’s sheep may have been a
signal for others to do the same, and
this may have become a common
designation of the shearing season.
If thus interpreted the words deter-
mine more definitely the time when
the plague of locusts appeared. The
spring rains had fallen, vegetation
looked promising; but after the sheep-
shearing season, perhaps in the late
spring, a swarm of locusts covered the
land, threatening to destroy complete-
ly the spring crops. When they had
made an end—The Hebrew underlying
this translation is peculiar. Besides, it
requires the assumption that a second
calamity appeared before the mental
vision of the prophet; for ¢t (verse 3)
cannot refer to a calamity already
past. A slight emendation results in
“as they were making an end,” that
is, as they were preceeding to ravage
the country, but before they accom-
plished it. A similar meaning, ‘when
they were on the point of devouring,”
is given to the present Hebrew text

 

by Mitchell, but this seems grammat-
ically impossible. Grass—Better, herb
(as in Gen. i, 11, 12, 29, etc.); it in-
cludes all vegetation.

Seeing that complete devastation
is imminent, the prophet appeals for
mercy (compare Num. xiv, 19). For-
give—The petition shows that Amos
thought of Jehovah not exclusively
as a stern, uncompassionate judge.
The reason for the plea is added.
Jacob—The people of Israel cannot
endure such calamity; they would
never recover from it. Small—Their
resources are limited. LXX. and
other versions read, ‘‘Who shall raise
up Jacob?” Repented—An anthro-
pomorphism like “swear” (iv, 2;
see on Joel ii, 13). Jehovah responded
to the prophet’s prayer. This—
Not some new, unnamed calamity,
but the plague of locusts, which was
still in its initial stage. It shall not
be—Shall not be allowed to proceed.

4-6. The devouring fire—A second
vision, presenting essentially the same
truth as the first. Called to contend
by fire—Called the fire to contend
with it. Instead of the locusts Je-
hovah selected the fire as the agency
through which to execute judgment.
For representations of Jehovah as
entering into judicial controversy ae
his people see Hos. iv, 1; Mic. vi, 2;
Isa. iii, 18-15. Thei imagery was sug-
gested probably by conflagrations or
by excessive summer heat accom-
panied by drought (see on Joel i, 20).
The great deep—The deep subterra-
nean waters upon which the earth was
thought to rest, and which was
thought to supply the water for
springs and rivers (Gen. vii, 11; Psa.
xxiv, 2, etc.). The fire or heat was so
intense that the water dried up. The
language is hyperbolical. And did eat
272

voured the great deep, and did eat
up a part. 65 Then said I, O Lord
Gop, cease, I beseech thee: cby
whom shall Jacob arise? for he zs
small. 6 The Lorp repented for
this: This also shall not be, saith the
Lord Gop.

7 Thus he shewed me: and, behold,
the Lord stood upon a wall made by
a plumbline, with a plumbline in his

AMOS.

hand. 8 And the Lorp said unto
me, Amos, what seest thou? And I
said, A plumbline. Then said the
Lord, Behold, 4I will set a plumb-
line in the midst of my people Israel:
eI will not again pass by them any
more: 9 ‘And the high places of
Isaac shall be desolate, and the
sanctuaries of Israel shall be laid
waste; and «I will rise against the

 

© Verses 2, 3.—-4 See 2 Kings 21. 13; Isa.
28.17; 34.11; Lam. 2. 8.—e Chap. 8. 2;
Mic. 7. 18.

{ Beersheba, Gen. 26. 23; 46. 1; chaps.
5. 5; 8 14.——s Fulfilled, 2 Kings 15.
10.

 

up—Better, R. V., “and would have
eaten up.” A part—R. V., “the land”;
literally, the portion, the portion set
apart for human habitation. The ex-
pression cannot be restricted to the
land of Israel; it means the land as
distinguished from the great deep.
The land was about to be devoured,
when the prophet interceded once
more. Cease—Not “forgive” (verse
2). The provocation was too great;
Amos felt that he did not dare ask
for pardon; but perchance Jehovah
might avert the final doom. And again
Jehovah graciously granted the peti-
tion. The description is poetical but
not allegorical. The imagery in the
two visions was selected because
plagues of locusts and disastrous con-
flagrations were familiar to the people.

7-9. The master builder with the
plumb line. The third vision differs
from the preceding two in that it does
not bring to view the judgment itself
but Jehovah decreeing the same.
Amos sees him as a master builder
with plumb line in hand testing a
city wall—a figure of Israel—as to
its straightness. It is found crooked,
and the decree goes forth that it
must be torn down. Upon—R. V.,
“beside.” A wall made by a plumb
line—Literally, a wall of a plumb line.
The fact that the wall is now con-
demned cannot be used as an objec-
tion to the correctness of the reading.
A wall may be built straight by the
aid of a plummet, yet in time it may
settle and become crooked. This is
what happened to this wall; and if
the latter represents Israel it is an
accurate picture of the facts of He-

 

brew history (Hos. ix, 10; xi, 1, etc.).
With a plumb line—He seeks to de-
termine whether it is still straight and
may be allowed to stand.

This time it is Jehovah who breaks
the silence. To understand the lesson
it was necessary that the prophet
should not lose sight of any feature of
the picture. To assure himself on
this point and to prepare the way for
the explanation Jehovah asks the
question, What seest thou?—Compare
viii, 2; Jer. i, 11, 13. The answer
being satisfactory, Jehovah proceeds
with the explanation, retaining the
figure of the plumb line but inter-
preting that of the wall. I will—Or,
I am about to (ii, 13). Set a plumb
line—The plumb line serves as a
standard by which both to build and
to tear down (2 Kings xiii, 13; Isa.
xxxiv, 11). Whatever cannot stand
the test of the plummet is condemned
to destruction. What was the result of
the test in this instance is not defi-
nitely stated, but the fact that an
announcement of judgment immedi-
ately follows indicates that Israel was
found wanting. Pass by them—With-
out noticing and punishing their guilt
(compare v, 17). Jehovah gives no
opportunity for intercession; and the
prophet, recognizing the justice of the
proceedings, has nothing more to say.

Verse 9 describes the character of
the judgment. It will strike with
special force the religious centers and
the ruling dynasty. High places—See
on Hos. iv, 13; Mic. i, 5. Isaac—A
poetic synonym of Israel (next clause;
compare verse 16). Sanctuaries—See
on iv, 4; v, 4; viii, 14. They will be
CHAPTER VIL.

273

 

house of Jeroboam with

the
sword.

10 Then Amaziah "the priest of
Beth-el sent to ‘Jeroboam king of
israel, saying, Amos hath conspired
against thee in the midst of the

house of Israel: the land is not able
to bear all his words. 11 For thus
Amos saith, Jeroboam shall die by
the sword, and Israel shall surely be
led away captive out of their own
land. 12 Also Amaziah said unto

 

h1 Kings 12. 32.—i 2 Kings 14. 23.

 

utterly destroyed (iii, 14). House of
Jeroboam—tThe ruling dynasty (In-
troduction, p.195). Whether the judg-
ment will come during the lifetime of
Jcroboam or later is not stated (com-
pire verse 11). Hosea also announces
ie doom of the same dynasty (i, 4).
Oa the fulfillment of the threat see
p. 18. Sword—Of the invader (vi, 14).

The experience of Amos at Beth-el,
10-17.

The account of the fourth vision is
separated from that of the third by
an historical section, in which is
recorded the experience of Amos at
Beth-el. The incident related is
closely connected with the vision im-
mediately preceding. In connection
with the latter Amos made startling
announcements concerning the destiny
of Israel and of the ruling dynasty.
These aroused the resentment of the
chief priest, who accused Amos of
treason and sought to drive him from
Beth-el. Amos refuses to go, how-
ever, and justifies himself and his mes-
sage by an appeal to the divine call
which impelled him to enter upon the
prophetic career. Fearlessly he re-
peats the previous denunciations and
adds a personal woe upon Amaziah
and his family.

10-13. The opposition. Then—
When Amos had uttered the startling
announcements contained in verse 9.
Amaziah the priest—Probably the
chief priest at the sanctuary of Beth-
el. Nothing is known of him other-
wise. Jeroboam—See Introduction, p.
195. Conspired—Not, has entered into
conspiracy with others, but, his words
are such as will result in conspiracy
against the throne. Under normal
conditions denunciation of the gov-
ernment and the prediction of the

 

overthrow of the national institutions
may rightly be considered treason;
and to an unspiritual politician the
words of Amos must have seemed
treasonable, but the priest, a repre-
sentative of Jehovah, should have
understood the attitude of the proph-
et. In reality the latter was the only
one who did not betray the best in-
terests of the nation. It was only
because he considered it essential to
the welfare of the people that he was
willing that the nation should be
exiled and the dynasty over-
thrown, if only a pious remnant could
be preserved to form a nucleus of a
new kingdom of God. In the midst—
At the very center of the national life;
that is, at Beth-el, which was the re-
ligious center. Not able to bear—The
message is so revolutionary, the priest
means to say, that it will surely lead
to serious disturbances. To prove his
case he sends to the king a summary
of Amos’s message. Jeroboam shall
die by the sword—Not an exact repro-
duction of the words of Amos (verse 9).
The manipulation may have been
caused by a desire to arouse more
readily the king’s resentment. Shall
surely be led away captive—This the
prophet had asserted repeatedly (v,
5, 27; vi, 7). Also Amaziah said—
Nothing is said of Jeroboam’s attitude.
Hence Amaziah’s attempt to silence
Amos has been variously interpreted.
Some think that Jeroboam took no
notice of the priest’s message, or that
the reply was not satisfactory, and
that, therefore, Amaziah, who had
reason to fear for his own position
(verse 9), endeavored, on his own au-
thority, to drive out Amos. Others
think thatit was at the king’s command
that Amaziah bade Amos flee, though
the authorization is not mentioned.
274

Amos, O thou seer, go, flee thee
away into the land of Judah, and
there eat bread, and prophesy there:
13 But ‘prophesy not again any
more at Beth-el: ‘for it is the
king’s *chapel, and it is the ‘king’s
court.

14 Then answered Amos, and said
to Amaziah, I was no prophet, neith-

k Chap. 2. 12.—!1 Kings 12. 32; 13. 1.

—— Or, sanctuary.—‘ Heb. house of the
kingdom.

Still others interpret the priest’s
words as a friendly advice to the
prophet to leave the country before
the wrath of the king should be felt
by him. The last interpretation is
shown to be impossible by Amos’s
reply in 14-17. It is, perhaps, best
to suppose that Amaziah addressed
Amos as soon as he had dispatched the
messenger to the king. Having made
an appeal to Jeroboam, he thought
himself in a position to rid the coun-
try, in any manner whatever, of this
“troubler of Israel.”” Seer—According
to 1 Sam. ix, 9 (where a different
word, though identical in meaning, is
used), this is an older designation of
the men called in later days prophets;
here the word is used probably with
a touch of sarcasm—visionary, fa-
natic. Land of Judah—The home of
Amos (Introduction, p. 191). Eat
bread—Make a living. The early
seers made their living in much the
same way as modern clairvoyants
(1 Sam. ix, 7, 8); and even among
later prophets there were those who
prophesied “for a reward” (Mic. iii,
5, 11; 1 Kings xxii, 13), who followed
the adage, ‘‘Whose bread I eat, his
song I sing.”’ Such a one Amaziah
took Amos to be. Prophesy there—In
his own country Amos might say
anything he pleased; Beth-el needed
no prophet, its spiritual interests were
well cared for. The king’s chapel—
R. V., “sanctuary.” The king’s court
—R. V., “a royal house.” From the
time of Jeroboam I the sanctuary at
Beth-el enjoyed the royal patronage
(1 Kings xii, 29, 32), and it is quite
likely that the king had a palace
there.

 

AMOS.

er was I ™a prophet’s son; *but I
was an herdman, and a gatherer
of *sycomore fruit: 15 And _ the
Lorp took me *as I followed the
flock, and the Lorp said unto me,
Go, prophesy unto my _ people
Israel.

16 Now therefore hear thou the
word of the Lorp: Thou sayest,

m1 Kings 20. 35; 2 Kings 2. 5; 4. 38; 6,
n Chap. 1. 1; Zech. 13.5.— Or, wild
6 Heb. from behind.

le
ngs.

14-17. The prophet’s reply. 14, 15.
Amos was a prophet not by profes-
sion, but by divine call. I was no
prophet—Better, throughout verse 14,
with margin, “I am.” I am not a
professional prophet, guided by mer-
cenary motives. A prophet’s son—
This expression is not to be under-
stood in the sense that the father of
Amos was not a prophet, but in the
sense, “I am not a member of a
prophetic guild.” Son is used in that
sense of the companies of prophets at
Beth-el, Gilgal, and other places
(1 Kings xx, 35; 2 Kings ii, 3, 5, 7,
etc.). This interpretation is sup-
ported also by the use of the word son
in the general sense of belonging to in
other Semitic languages. Herdman—
Literally, tender of cattle (Introduction,
p. 192). Gatherer of sycomore fruit—
R. V., “dresser of sycomore trees”
(Introduction, p. 192). Jehovah took
me... said—While he was following
his ordinary occupation the divine
call came to forsake all and become a
prophet of Jehovah to Israel. This
call he could not resist (iii, 8). Of
these verses G. A. Smith says, “It is
the protest of a new order of prophecy,
the charter of a spiritual religion.”
Amos was indeed “the founder and
the purest type of the new order of
prophecy.”

16, 17. Amos, having justified his
preaching by an appeal to his divine
commission, reiterates and expands
his previous message. Now therefore
—The defense in 14, 15 had put the
case in its proper light; now the argu-
ment may proceed. Thou sayest,
+ +. Thus saith Jehovah—A striking
antithesis. ‘Whose words will prevail

 

 
CHAPTER VIIL.

275

 

Prophesy not against Israel, and
edrop not thy word against the house
of Isaac. 17 Therefore thus saith
the Lorp; "Thy wife shall be an
harlot in the city, and thy sons and
thy daughters shall fall by the
sword, and thy land shall be
divided by line; and thou shalt die
in a polluted land: and Israel shall
ae go into captivity forth of his
and.

CHAPTER VIII.

HUS hath the Lord Gop shewed
unto me: and behold a basket

of summer fruit. 2 And he said,
Amos, what seest thou? And I
said, A basket of summer fruit.
Then said the LorpD unto me, »The
end is come upon my people of Israel;
>IT will not again pass by them any
more. 3 And cthesongs of the temple
Ishall be howlings in that day, saith

 

° Ezek. 21. 2; Mic. 2. 6.—p See Jer.
28. 12; 29. 21, 25, 31, 32,4 Isa. 13. 16;
Lam, 5, 11; Hos. 4.13; Zech. 14. 2.

 

eerie s 7. 2.—» Chap. 7. 8. © Chap.
5

3.—1 Heb. shall howl.

 

can easily be imagined. Prophesy not
—Compare verse 13. Drop not—That
is, thy words (Mic. ii, 6, 11); a syn-
onym of prophesy. Isaac—As in
verse 9. Therefore—The attempt to
silence a divinely commissioned
prophet deserves severest punish-
ment; and this Amos proceeds to an-
nounce in verse 17. An harlot—Now
she is a lady of the palace, but the
invader will dishonor her and compel
her to live a life of shame. In the
city—In public (Zech. xiv, 2; Isa. xiii,
16); compare the colloquial ‘‘street-
walker.” Such outrages were com-
mitted by the Assyrians, as we learn
from the inscriptions; Ashur-nasir-pal
boasts, “Their boys and maidens I
dishonored” (Records of the Past, iii,
p- 51). His children will be slain,
and his land divided among new set-
tlers (compare Mice. ii, 4; Jer. vi, 12;
2 Kings xvii, 24). Line—The meas-
uring line. Polluted land [land that
is unclean” }—See Hos. ix, 3, on “Je-
hovah’s land” and “unclean food.”
Israel shall surely go into captivity
[‘‘be led away captive’’]—He repeats
the very words which Amaziah had
made the basis of his accusation.
The closing words of the historical
section take us back to the message
of the third vision, and thus they
prepare the way for the fourth.

CHAPTER VIII.

Tue Basket or SumMER Fruit, 1-3.

Under the figure of a basket filled
with ripe fruit Jehovah shows the
prophet that Israel is ripe for judg-

 

ment. The picture is chosen (1) be-
cause of the similarity in sound be-
tween the words translated “summer
fruit’—Heb. kayis—and ‘end’—
Heb. kés; (2) because of the similarity
in the ideas of the two words. The
opening formula is the same as in
vii, 1, 4. Basket—The word occurs
again only in Jer. v, 27 “cage’’; it
is a general term for any receptacle.
Summer fruit—Ripe fruit, ready to be
gathered in. On the question see re-
marks on vii, 8. The prophet having
replied, Jehovah explains the vis-
ion. The end is come—It is close at
hand; the time of mercy is past (vii,

8).

Verse 3 gives a brief and forceful
description of the end. Slaughter and
mourning will be everywhere. Har-
per, without sufficient reason, places
verse 3 after verse 9. Songs—Ex-
pressions of joy and happiness (verse
10; v, 23; vi, 5). Temple—If this is
the correct rendering the reference
must be to the rejoicing accompany-
ing the religious feasts (v, 23). The
word may also mean “palace” (so
margin R. V.), and the context favors
this rendering. If so, comparison
should be made with vi, 4, 5. The
above is the common translation of
the Hebrew. However, the original
presents two peculiarities: (1) A lit-
eral translation is, ““And the songs of
the palace shall howl,” or, wail—songs
being the subject; but this is a strange
construction. The sense is improved
but little if songs is made the object,
“They shall how] songs of the palace.”
(2) The feminine plural ending with
276

the Lord Gop: there shall be many
dead bodies in every place; ‘they
shall cast them forth “with silence.

4 Hear this, O ye that «swallow up
the needy, even to make the poor of

4d Chap. 6. 9, 10.—? Ileb. be stlent,—
© Psa. 14. 4; Prov. 30. 14.—-4 Or, month.

 

the word song is unusual; ordinarily
it has the masculine ending. To re-
move these peculiarities a slight
emendation has been suggested, “The
female singers of the palace shall
howl” (v, 16), that is, for the dead.
In that day—The day of the end.

3b is rendered more accurately in
R. V., “The dead bodies shall be
many; in every place shall they cast
them forth with silence.” The orig-
inal is even more forceful: “Many
the corpses! In every place they are
cast forth! Hush!” The tenses in
3b are prophetic perfects; the prophet
represents the calamity of the future
as already present. Dead bodies—
The avenger will do his worst; death
and despair will be everywhere (vi, 9,
10). They shall cast them forth—Lit-
erally, he shall cast them forth—that is,
Jehovah. Hestrikes the blow through
the human agent, and dead bodies are
scattered everywhere. The construc-
tion may be intended, however, to be
understood as impersonal, “one shall
cast forth’—they shall cast forth—
they shall be cast forth (G.-K., 144d)
From streets and houses the dead
bodies are gathered, but there is no
time for honorable burial; they are
thrown anywhere. With silence—Lit-
erally, hush. An interjection, as in
vi, 10, “Hold thy peace.”

Aw Expianatory Discourse, 4-14.

In the oral delivery this discourse
may not have followed immediately
upon the presentation of the fourth
vision, but logically there is a close
connection between viii, 1-3, and 4-
14. In the vision Israel is pictured as
ripe for judgment; in 4-6 the prophet
expands this thought: they are ripe
because they are utterly corrupt;
their measure of iniquity is full and
running over. As an illustration he

 

AMOS.

the land to fail, 5 Saying, When
will the ‘new moon be gone, that we
may sell corn? and ‘the sabbath,
that we may ‘set forth wheat, *mak-
ing the ephah small, and the shekel
16,—4 Heb.

f Neh, .138. 15, open.——

& Mic. 6. 10, 11

 

singles out the conduct of the greedy
and dishonest merchants. In pun-
ishment terrible judgments will fall
(7). In 8-14 these are described under
various figures.

4-7. The greedy merchants of Israel.
Hear this—See on iii, 1. Swallow up
the needy—Literally, pant after (ii, 7).
Here also Jerome renders ‘crush.’
The verb is explained in the next
clause. Even to make the poor of the
land to fail—Literally, and better,
and are for making the poor of the
land to cease; that is, they seek to
make an end of them as free men and
property holders. To accomplish this
end various means might be em-
ployed, in this case commercial dis-
honesty. The construction is some-
what unusual; according to G.-K.,
114p, the thought of the whole verse
may be expressed as follows: “O ye
that pant to make an end of the needy
and of the poor of the land.”’

Verse 5 shows that the prophet
thinks primarily of the greedy
merchants (but compare ii, 7; Isa.
v, 8-10; Mic. ii, 2). New moon...
sabbath—See on Hos. ii, 11. When
will... be gone—It appears from the
present passage that on sacred days
ordinary pursuits of life were dis-
continued; this the greedy merchants
considered a foolish interruption of
their profits. Set forth—Literally,
open up, that is, for sale. In various
ways they took advantage of their
customers; they gave scant measure,
charged exorbitant prices, “doctored”
the scales, and adulterated the goo7s.
Ephah—The measure in which tlicy
measured the grain for the buyer (<-2
on Hos. iii, 2); this they made smal,
perhaps by putting a false bottom in
it. Shekel—Before money was coined
a weight was used for the weighing of
gold and silver. Its value has been
CHAPTER VIII

277

 

reat, and falsifying the balances
y deceit? 6 That we may buy the
poor for ‘silver, and the needy for
a pair of shoes; yea, and sell the re-
fuse of the wheat? 7 The Lorp

hath sworn by ‘the excellency of
Jacob, Surely «I will never forget
any of their works. 8 'Shall not the
land tremble for this, and every one
mourn that dwelleth therein? and it

 

5 Heb. perverting the balances of deceit,
Hos. 12. 7.

h Chap, 2. 6.— Chap. 6. 8.—* Hos. 8.
13; 9. 9&.—! Hos. 4. 3.

 

variously estimated; the most com-
monly received estimate gives the
value of a shekel of gold as ap-
proximately equivalent to $10.80; of
silver, 60 cents (see on Hos. iii, 2).
This weight they made heavier, so as
to get more than the legitimate price.
In 1890 Dr. Chaplin found, on the
site of the ancient Samaria, a weight
which is thought, from an inscription
on it, to represent a quarter of a
shekel. Its weight is greater than
that of a legitimate quarter of a
shekel; and W. R. Smith has sug-
gested that it is one of the heavy
shekels condemned by Amos. Falsi-
fying the balances by deceit—R. V.,
“dealing falsely with balances of de-
ceit’’; literally, perverting the balances
of deceit. They tampered with the
scales in order to deceive the buyer,
and thus to take advantage of him.

Verse 6 expresses the motive which
caused the merchants to wish for the
resumption of business; they sought
to get under their control the poor
and the needy. Buy—As slaves, when
the poor found themselves unable to
meet their financial obligations (Lev.
xxv, 39). For silver—The money
which the poor owed them. A pair of
shoes—See on ii, 6. Refuse—Liter-
ally, that which falls, that is, through
the sieve—the chaff. It is worthless,
but they mix it with good grain and
sell it.

Verse 6 is rejected by several mod-
ern commentators as being unneces-
sary and out of harmony with the
context. Marti says, ‘The connec-
tion of 6a with 4, 5 is unintelligible;
the rich corn merchants are not in-
terested in buying the poor and
needy, but rather in selling their
grain and securing for it the highest
price.’ However, the one does not
exclude the other, and the objection

 

cannot be considered conclusive.
While 6b does not follow quite nat-
urally upon 6a, ib also fits in the
prophet’s thought.

7. The heartless greed and dis-
honesty has aroused the indignation
of Jehovah and makes judgment in-
evitable. Hath sworn—See on iv, 2.
Excellency of Jacob—Jehovah (vi, 8).
The word translated “excellency” is
used nowhere else in this sense, but a
warrant for the translation is found in
1 Sam. xv, 29, where Jehovah is called
“strength (literally, splendor) of Is-
rael.”” The common meaning of the
word is “pride” (vi, 8, R. V. margin;
Hos. v, 5; vii, 10). If so here, the oath
would be by the pride and arrogance of
Israel. Jehovah sees this pride deeply
ingrained in the very nature of the peo-
ple; he knows it to be permanent and
incurable, and for this reason he se-
lects it in scorn as an object by which
to swear. Any of their works—Of
dishonesty and injustice. All will be
remembered and punished (Hos. vii, 2).

8-10. Figurative description of the
impending judgment and of the result-
ing lamentation. The description of
the judgment is introduced by a
rhetorical question, the answer to
which is in the affirmative. Surely
their conduct deserves the severest
and most terrible retribution. Shall
not the land tremble—In an earth-
quake. In iv, 11, Amos called atten-
tion to the terrors of a former earth-
quake; do they not deserve another
similar visitation? For this—Or, on
account of this—the wickedness and
corruption described. Mourn—In
terror, and over the destruction
wrought. 8b may be translated as
continuing the rhetorical question,
“shall it not rise up wholly like the
River, and shall it not be troubled
and sink again, like the River of
278

shall rise up wholly as a flood; and
it shall be cast out and drowned,
mas by the flood of Egypt. 9 And
it shall come to pass in that day,
saith the Lord Gop, "that I will
cause the sun to go down at noon,
and I will darken the earth in the
clear day: 10 And I will turn your
feasts into mourning, and all your
songs into lamentation; eand I will

AMOS.

bring up sackcloth upon all loins,
and baldness upon every head; rand
I will make it as the mourning of an
only son, and the end thereof as a
bitter day. :
11 Behold, the days come, saith
the Lord Gop, that I will send a
famine in the land, not a famine of
bread, nor a thirst for water, but
sof hearing the words of the LORD:

 

m Chap. 9. 5.—1* Job 5. 14; Isa. 13.
10; 59. 9, 10; Jer. 15. 9; Mic. 3. 6.—
olsa, 15. 2, 3; Jer. 48. 37; Ezek. 7. 18;

27. 31.—v Jer. 6. 26; Zech. 12. 10.—
a1 Sam. 3.1; Psa. 74. 9; Ezek. 7. 26.

 

Egypt?” Or, following the English
translations, it may be understood as
the reply to 8a. That which they
deserve shall indeed come to pass.
It—The land. As a flood—Better, R.
V., “like the River.”’ The last word,
when in the singular, is used almost
exclusively of the Nile. Cast out—
R. V., “shall be troubled,” by being
driven hither and thither in restless
convulsions (Isa. lvii, 20). The verb
is omitted in LXX. and in the parallel
passage (ix, 5), and may not be orig-
inal. Drowned—Better, R. V., “sink
again.” As by the flood of Egypt—
Better, R. V., “like the River of
Egypt’”—the Nile, when its waters
subside after the inundation. The
rise and fall of the Nile are perhaps
not the most appropriate figures for
an earthquake, since the latter causes
sudden convulsions, while the rise and
fall of the Nile are gradual.

Verse 9 adds a new feature to the
terror of this day of Jehovah (see on
Joel ii, 10, 30, 31). Cause the sun
to go down at noon—The imagery is
probably borrowed from an eclipse
of the sun. Amos may have seen the
eclipse of 763 B. C., which was ob-
served as a total eclipse in Nineveh
on June 15, and which must have
been visible in Palestine as a “fairly
large partial eclipse.”” Go down—Lit-
erally, goin. The sun appeared to go
into the earth when it set. Darken
the earth—By hiding the sun. Clear
day—Literally, day of light—broad
daylight.

10. Whether interpreted literally or
figuratively verses 8, 9 speak of a ter-

 

rible visitation of Jehovah, the result
of which will be universal wailing and
lamentation. Feasts—See on Hos. ii,
11. Under normal conditions these
were occasions of rejoicing (v, 21-23;
Isa. xxx, 29); in that day they will
be seasons of mourning (v, 16, 17;
vill, 3). Songs—Joyful songs (see on
viii, 3). Lamentation—For the dead.
The same word as in v, 1 (see there).
Sackcloth—A symbol of mourning (see
on Joel i, 8). Baldness—Artificial
baldness was another sign of mourn-
ing (see on Mic. i, 16). Of an only son
—the bitterest grief imaginable (Zech.
xii, 10; Jer. vi, 26). The end—Of the
mourning. As a bitter day—Time
heals most wounds and makes most
sorrows less intense; not so in this
case—the end will be as bitter as the
beginning or even worse.

11-14. Some effects of the judgment.
In the agony and despair of the judg-
ment people will hunger and thirst
for the word of Jehovah, but they will
not find it. The days come—Better,
are about to come (see on ii, 13; com-
pare iv, 2); “the days” is identical
with “that day” (verse 9). Famine
... thirst—Calamities with which they
were familiar (iv, 6-8); but this ex-
perience will be unique. Hearing the
words of Jehovah—The ancient ver-
sions and some Hebrew manuscripts
read the singular ‘‘word,” and this is
to be preferred (verse 12); it is the
common expression for a communi-
cation from Jehovah (2 Kings iii, 12;
Jer. xxvii, 18, etc.). The word which
they seek is either the word of instruc-
tion—this they desire to know, and
CHAPTER VIIL.

279

 

12 And they shall wander from sea
to sea, and from the north even to
the east, they shall run to and fro
to seek the word of the Lorp, and
shall not find #. 13 In that day
shall the fair virgins and young men

faint for thirst. 14 They that
‘swear by ‘the sin of Samaria, and
say, Thy god, O Dan, liveth; and,
The *manner ‘of Beersheba liveth;
even they shall fall, and never rise
up again.

 

r Hos. 4. 15.—*s Deut. 9. 21.—® Heb.
way, see Acts 9. 2; 18, 25; 19,9, 23; 24.14.

t Chap. 5. 5.

 

they are willing to heed it, in order
that they may escape further distress
—or the word of consolation, which
they need and for which they long in
their distress.

The intensity of the people’s yearn-
ing is depicted in verse 12. Far and
wide they seek it, but in vain. Wander
—Literally, totter, or, reel (iv, 8).
Though exhausted, they continue,
with uncertain steps, their search,
hoping that their efforts may yet be
rewarded. From sea to sea—Since
the prophet is concerned with the He-
brew people exclusively (verse 14),
this is best interpreted as meaning
“from the Dead Sea to the Mediter-
ranean,” the southern and western
limits of Israel (Joel ii, 20; Zech. xiv,
8; compare 2 Kings xiv, 25). From
the north even to the east—Literally,
to the rising (of the sun). This com-
pletes the circle. The Dead Sea is
called also the eastern sea (Zech. xiv,
8). Though the four expressions are
not exactly synonymous with “from
north to south, from east to west,”
that is their meaning. In every di-
rection do the people seek for relief,
but in vain.

Verse 13 is thought by many to be
a later interpolation, chiefly because
it seems to speak of physical thirst,
while its immediate context, 11, 12,
speaks of spiritual famine and thirst.
Others, thinking that the prophet has
in mind throughout material famine
and physical thirst, omit 11, 12 or
parts of these verses. Harper omits
only “for thirst” in verse 13, and thus
brings 13 in harmony with 11, 12.
It may be asked, however, whether it
is necessary to establish complete har-
mony between verses 11, 12 and verse
18. May not 13 introduce a new
thought? If an emendation is

 

thought necessary that of Harper
seems the most satisfactory; “for
thirst” could easily have come in at
a later time. Fair virgins and young
men—The beauty and strength of the
nation. Even youth, which ordinarily
can endure severe strains, will be
unable to stand up under this ca-
lamity. But if the strongest succumb
what will become of the weak? Thirst
—To be understood literally. It is
mentioned rather than hunger be-
cause of the more intense suffering
accompanying it. 14. They that swear
—Must be the “fair virgins and young
men’ (verse 13; see on Hos. iv, 15).
Sin of Samaria—The allusion is un-
doubtedly to the calf at Beth-el (see
on Hos. viii, 5), which was the em-
bodiment of Israel’s guilt (Hos. x, 8).
Samarva, the capital, stands for Israel,
the people or the land. The fact that
Amos nowhere else uses Samaria as
equivalent to Israel is not sufficient
reason for changing it into Beth-el;
nor is it necessary to change the word
translated ‘‘sin.” Most modern com-
mentators, however, read “god of
Beth-el.” The Israelites made their
oaths by the calf of Beth-el rather
than by Jehovah; and since men swear
by that which they hold dearest, these
oaths were evidence that the Israel-
ites had transferred their affections to
the calf. Thy god... liveth—R. V.,
“As thy god... liveth.”” The com-
mon formula used in swearing an oath.
Dan—Where Jeroboam set up the
other calf (1 Kings xii, 29). The city
was located near the northern boun-
dary of Israel, at the foot of Mount
Hermon, near the head of the main
source of the Jordan River. It is now
called Tel-el-Kadt. Its deity also was
the calf. The manner of Beer-sheba
liveth—Better, R. V., “As the way of
280
CHAPTER IX.

Ll SAW the Lord standing upon

the altar: and he said, Smite

the lintel of the door, that the posts

1 Or, chapiter, or, knop.—— Or, wound
them.

Beer-sheba liveth.” ‘To swear by a
way” has always impressed Bible stu-
dents as a peculiar expression; hence
way has been interpreted in the sense
of worship, or, manner. But this does
not relieve the difficulty. As a result
many emendations have been pro-
posed. It is doubtful, however, if any
one of these is more satisfactory than
the present text, which is not altogeth-
er unintelligible. The sanctuary at
Beer-sheba was undoubtedly ex-
pected by the common people to
abide forever; therefore the road lead-
ing to the sanctuary might be thought
to remain always; consequently it
would not be so very strange that the
pilgrims passing over it should swear
by it. Even to-day Arabs swear “by
the sacred way to Mecca”; and
Mitchell quotes Riickert’s Hariri, i,
189, “By the pilgrimage and the
height of Mina, where the pious host
stone Satan.” Beer-sheba—See on v,
5. All those who have thus forsaken
Jehovah will be utterly destroyed

(vy, 2).
CHAPTER IX.
Tue Smitten Sanctuary, 1-6.

These verses contain an account of
the fifth vision, followed by an ex-
position setting forth the inevitable-
ness and completeness of the judg-
ment. The prophet beholds the sanc-
tuary crowded with worshipers, and
Jehovah standing beside the altar;
he hears the divine command to smite
the sanctuary, so that it will fall upon
the worshipers and crush them. If
some should escape by accident they
will meet their doom in other ways.
Wherever they may seek a hiding
place Jehovah will find them and blot
them out. The threat is enforced, as
in iv, 13; v, 8, 9, by a solemn descrip-
tion of the majesty and power of Je-
hovah. If the words were spoken

 

 

AMOS.

may shake: and 2cut them in the
head, all of them; and I will slay the
last of them with the sword: the
that fieeth of them shall not flee

a Psa. 68. 21; Hab. 3. 13.——» Chap.
2. 14. :

under the shadow of the sanctuary at
Beth-el (vii, 13), this vision would be

especially appropriate and impressive.

1. I saw—The other visions are in-
troduced with “Jehovah showed unto
me.” The Lord—He is the central
figure in this vision, not a symbolic
object or act. Standing—As in vii, 7.
A more accurate rendering would be
stationed, since the word denotes a
more formal attitude than is indicated
by the simple standing. Beside—Lit-
erally, upon (Num. xxiii, 3, 6; 1 Kings
xxi, 1). Altar—It is most natural to
suppose that the prophet has in mind
the altar at Beth-el, the chief sanc-
tuary of the north, where he was de-
livering his message. He said—To
whom? See on “publish ye’ (iii, 9;
compare iii, 13). Lintel—The Hebrew
has the singular, which is used in a
collective sense, therefore R. V. reads
the plural, “capitals”; the ornaments
on top of the columns which support
the roof (Zeph. ii, 14; compare Exod.
xxv, 31). A blow upon these capitals
would cause the roof to fall, especially
if the blow was severe enough to cause
the foundations to tremble. Posts—
Better, thresholds, since the word is
used almost exclusively in the latter
sense. Threshold is equivalent to
joundation, and the clause indicates
the force of the blow. Cut [‘break’’]
them—The Hebrew underlying this
translation is peculiar (G.-K., 61g).
The pronoun (plural in Hebrew) is
interpreted most naturally as re-
ferring back to “capitals” (singular
in Hebrew). Such construction is
unusual; it may be a construction ac-
cording to the sense (G.-K., 1350), or
the prophet may be thinking of the
pieces made by the blow. Most com-
mentators suspect a corruption of the
text. All of them—The worshipers
gathered within the sanctuary. The
last of them—Or, the residue of them,
CHAPTER IX.

281

 

away and he that escapeth of them
shall not be delivered. 2 °*Though
they dig into hell, thence shall mine
hand take them; ‘though they
climb up to heaven, thence will I
bring them down: 3 And though
they hide themselves in the top of
Carmel, I will search and take them

out thence; and though they be hid
from my sight in the bottom of the
sea, thence will I command the ser-
pent, and he shall bitethem: 4 And
though they go into captivity be-
fore their enemies, ethence will I
command the sword, and it shall
slay them: and ‘I will set mine eyes

 

¢ Psa. 139. 8, etc.—d Job 20. 6; Jer.
51, 538; Obad. 4.

e Lev. 26. 33; Deut. 28. 65; Ezek. 5. 12.
f Lev. 17. 10; Jer. 44. 11.

 

 

that is, any who may escape from the
sanctuary; they shall fall subse-
quently by the sword.

For the rest of verse 1 R. V. reads,
perhaps less literally than A. V.,
“there shall not one of them flee
away, and there shall not one of them
escape.” Not from the smitten sanc-
tuary, for both the preceding clause
and verse 2 imply that some will
escape from it, but from Jehovah
(v, 19). If any succeed in escaping
from the ruins Jehovah will follow
them, until he overtakes them and
somehow causes their destruction.

This thought is expanded in 2-4,
with which may be compared Psa.
exxxix. The prophet enumerates the
places which might be expected to
provide safe hiding places, but Je-
hovah will penetrate all. Hell—Bet-
ter, R. V., “Sheol”; the place of the
departed (Hos. xiii, 14; Hab. ii, 5;
see article “Sheol”? in Hastings’s Dic-
tionary of the Bible). Sheol was
thought to be located in the center
of the earth (Eph. iv, 9). Heaven—
The dwelling place of God on high.
The two represent the lowest depth
and the highest height (Isa. vii, 11;
Job xi, 8); both are inaccessible to
living men. If somehow the sur-
vivors should succeed in reaching the
places Jehovah’s wrath will pursue
them.

Verse 3 mentions two other ordi-
narily inaccessible places, which in
this instance will offer no safety.
Top of Carmel—See on i, 2. Mount
Carmel would be a promising hiding
place, because (1) it was rich in
natural caves—there are said to be
about two thousand “close together
and so serpentine as to make the dis-

 

covery of a fugitive entirely impos-
sible’; (2) its top was thickly wooded.
Strabo relates (xvi, 2, 28) that in the
first century A. D. the forests of
Carmel were favorite hiding places
of robbers. If hunted from Mount
Carmel they might seek refuge in the
neighboring Mediterranean, but even
the deep sea bottom will offer no
shelter. Serpent—This is not an ordi-
nary marine serpent, such as are
found in tropical climates in the sea
—not in the Mediterranean—but a
mythological sea monster (Gen. i, 21;
compare Isa. xxvii, 1), called also
Leviathan (Job xli, 1); it is probably
to be connected with the Babylonian
Tiamat. With no other agent near,
this serpent will be called upon to
execute judgment. Go into captivity
—The enemy may be willing to spare
their lives; not so Jehovah. He has
decreed their utter destruction. Set
mine eyes upon—An expression used
frequently in a good sense, equivalent
to keep watch over (Gen. xliv, 21;
Jer. xxiv, 6); here in a bad sense, to
look upon in anger. For evil—In order
to destroy (compare Jer. xxi, 10;
Ezek. xv, 7).

5, 6. The people might think the
prophet mad; hence he proceeds to
disabuse their minds by informing
them that it is Jehovah who makes
the threats. Once more he depicts
the divine majesty and omnipotence.
The verses are similar in tone to iv,
13; v, 8, 9, and they serve the same
purpose (see comments on_ those
verses and Introduction, pp. 217ff.).
They certainly add force to the preced-
ing threats, and Harper is hardly justi-
fied in saying, ‘The proposed logical
connection of this verse (5) with the
282

AMOS.

 

upon them for evil, and not for
good. § And the Lord Gop of hosts
as he that toucheth the land, and it
shall «melt, and all that dwell there-
in shall mourn: and it shall rise up
wholly like a flood; and shall be
drowned, as by the flood of Egypt.
6 It is hethat buildeth his 3 4 istor-
ies in the heaven, and hath founded
his ‘troop in the earth; he that

kealleth for the waters of the sea,
and poureth them out upon the
face of the earth: 'The Lorp 7s his
name. 7 Are ye not as children of
the Ethiopians unto me, O children
of Israel? saith the Lorp. Have
not I brought up Israel out of the
land of Egypt? and the Philistines
from *Caphtor, and the Syrians
from °Kir? 8 Behold, »the eyes of

 

& Mic. 1. 4,.—~)» Chap. 8. 8—% Or,
spheres. ——* Heb. ascensitons.——i Psa.
104. 3, 13.—* Or, bundle.

k Chap. 5. 8.—1! Chap. 4. 13.—® Jer. 47.
4,—» Deut. 2. 23; Jer. 47. 4. © Chap.
1. 5.» Verse 4.

 

 

preceding, ‘God is able to bring such
punishment because he is the al-
mighty one,’ is unnatural and far-
fetched.” The Lord Jehovah of hosts
—Compare iv, 13. Toucheth the land
—In a thunderstorm. Melt—See on
Mic. i, 4; Nah. i, 5. Mourn—See on
i, 2. 5b describes an earthquake;
see on viii, 8b, of which it is an almost
verbatim repetition. Stories—R. V.,
“chambers”; literally, upper chambers,
the dwelling place of Jehovah above
the ‘firmament’ (Psa. civ, 3, 13).
Troop—Better, R. V., “vault.” The
“firmament” of Gen. i, 6, which, to the
eye ignorant of the truths of astron-
omy, seems to rest as a huge cupola
upon the earth (Job xxvi, 11). Calleth
for the waters ... poureth them out—
See on v, 8. Jehovah—LXX. adds “of
hosts” (compare iv, 13).

JeHovaH Not a RespectTer or PEr-
sons, 7-10.

Once before (iii, 1, 2) Amos at-
tempted to correct the misapprehen-
sion that Jehovah was partial to Is-
rael, and that his choice of the nation
could be regarded as a guarantee of
its safety (see introductory remarks
on iii, 1-iv, 3). A false confidence,
based upon this misapprehension,
might destroy the effect of the mes-
sage in ix, 1-6. To avoid this the
prophet emphasizes once more the
truth that Jehovah is interested in
all the nations of the earth, and that
any special favors granted to the
Israelites must have their justification
in the latter’s moral superiority.
Since they have shown themselves a
“sinful kingdom” they are unworthy

 

of special favors; on the contrary, Je-
hovah is compelled to proceed against
them in judgment. Nevertheless, he
will “not utterly” destroy them; a
faithful remnant will be preserved.
7. The universality of Jehovah’s
government the prophet illustrates
from the past history of several
representative nations. The divine
hand could be seen in the deliverance
of Israel from Egypt (ii, 9, 10); but
it was not less visible in the move-
ments of the other peoples. Children
of the Ethiopians—Hebrew, “‘of the
Cushites.” Cush was a district in
Africa, immediately south of Upper
Egypt (see on Zeph. ii, 12; Nah. iii, 9).
The inhabitants of this region, de-
spised, perhaps, also on account of
their color (Jer. xiii, 23), are, in a
sense, as dear to Jehovah as Israel.
Philistines—See on Joel iii, 4 (com-
pare Amos i, 6-8). The reference to
the Philistines would be startling.
Could Jehovah care for Israel’s ene-
mies? Caphtor—Mentioned also in
other passages as the original home
of the Philistines (Deut. ii, 23; Jer.
xlvii, 4). Opinions still differ con-
cerning the identification of Caphtor.
Of the three most important locations
suggested, the coast of the Nile Delta,
the south coast of Asia Minor, and the
island of Crete, the last named is the
most probable, but it is quite possible
that the other districts also were oc-
cupied, at some period, by people of
the same race. In favor of this iden-
tification is the name Cherethites, ap-
plied to the Philistines in 1 Sam. xxx,
14 (compare Zeph. ii, 5), because this
name contains the same consonants
CHAPTER IX.

283

 

the Lord Gop are upon the sinful
kingdom, and I ¢will destroy it from
off the face of the earth; saving that
I will not utterly destroy the house
of Jacob, saith the Lorp. 9 For,
lo, I will command, and I will ‘sift
the house of Israel among all na-

tions, like as corn is sifted in a
sieve, yet shall not the least
7grain fall upon the earth. 10 All
the sinners of my people shall die
by the sword, twhich say, The evil
shall not overtake nor prevent
us.

 

i Jer. 30. 11; 31. 35, 36; Obad. 16,

6 Heb. cause to move.’ Heb. stone.
r Chap. 6, 3.

 

 

as the word Crete. Kir—See on
i, 5.

After shattering the false hope of
the people Amos repeats, in his own
words, the threat of 1-6, but with an
essential modification; he now holds
out hope to a remnant, whereas be-
fore he announced complete annihila-
tion. The eyes ... are upon—Or,
against (see verse 4; compare Psa.
kxxiv, 16). The sinful kingdom—Je-
hovah must punish every sinful king-
dom, but the use of the article indi-
cates that the prophet has in mind
one particular nation, namely, Israel.
On account of its wickedness it must
be wiped from the face of the earth.
Saving that I will not utterly destroy—
As a kingdom and people Israel had
forfeited the divine favor, but there
always had been (1 Kings xix, 18)
and there still was within the nation
a “holy seed,” a remnant that con-
tinued faithful to Jehovah, out of
which he might form a new people
and kingdom of God. The divine
righteousness and justice demanded
the salvation of this remnant (com-
pare on v, 15). House of Jacob—Not
Judah, as distinguished from Israel,
or the whole nation, as distinguished
from the northern kingdom, but a
poetic variant for “house of Israel”
(verse 9; v, 3, 4, 25, etc.), and “house
of Joseph” (v, 6), identical with “the
sinful kingdom.”

Verses 9, 10 carry further the
thought of 8b. The judgment has a
disciplinary purpose, to separate the
pure from the corrupt; the pure will
be preserved, the corrupt destroyed.
This teaching is in accord with the
philosophical conceptions of the
times; the prophet does not consider
the possibility of a righteous man

 

being cut off, while an ungodly per-
son might escape. I will—Better, J
am about to (see on ii, 13). Command
—The divine executioner (vi, 14).
Sift—R. V. margin, “cause to move
to and fro,” as the grain in the sieve
is shaken back and forth. House of
Israel—All, good and bad alike.
Among all nations—Among which the
Israelites were to be scattered in
exile. That experience would test the
loyalty of the people, just as the sift-
ing process tests the character of the
grain. Grain [‘kernel’’}—Literally,
pebble. In view of the figure of the
sieve it seems best to interpret the
word figuratively of the solid, sound
grain of corn. Not even the smallest
sound kernel will be allowed to fall to
the ground and be trampled under
foot; carefully it will be preserved, to
be used according to the wishes of the
husbandman. Thus the righteous
kernel among the exiles will be pre-
served for God’s own use; only the
godless chaff will perish. Some in-
terpret the word literally, pebble, or
little stone. The pebbles are kept in
the sieve while the good grain is al-
lowed to fall through, to be gathered
and preserved; so the wicked will be
retained in exile, while the pious will
be restored. In either case the
thought is that the fate of the right-
eous will not be the same as that of
the wicked; the former will be pre-
served for a brighter future. The
sinners—Not the righteous, who have
been separated by the sifting process.
By the sword—Of the enemy. A
figure of violent death, whatever the
means. The evil shall not overtake
nor prevent us—For the second verb,
now obsolete in the sense required
here, R. V. reads “meet us.” This is
284

11 *In that day will Iraise up the
tabernacle of David that is fallen,
and &close up the breaches thereof;
and I will raise up his ruins, and I

s Acts 15. 16, 17.—-8 Heb. hedge, or,
wall. Obad. 19.

undoubtedly the sense of the passage
but to justify this translation two
slight changes in the verb forms may
be necessary. Evil—Misfortune or
calamity. The prophet has in mind
especially the self-secure sinners who,
relying upon their membership in the
chosen race (verse 7; ili, 2), or upon
their religious zeal (v, 21ff.), fancy
that the judgment cannot touch them
(vi, 3; compare Mice. iii, 11; Isa. v, 19).

THE EpimLtoGuE—PROMISES OF A
Brieuter Fururs, 11-15.

In verse 9 the prophet promises the
preservation of a remnant, in verse 10
the destruction of the wicked. Noth-
ing more need be said about the lat-
ter, for they are annihilated; but what
will become of the former? It will
be exalted to glory and honor. This
exaltation is the subject of 11-15.
Like the other prophets, our author
is convinced that the remnant will
be the nucleus of the new kingdom
of God, which will be ruled by the
restored dynasty of David (11); its
boundaries will extend to the limits
of the empire of David (12); famine
and want will be no more, for the soil
will be blessed with extraordinary
fertility (13); the exiles scattered
abroad will be restored and the waste
cities will be rebuilt (14); and in
prosperity and felicity the people will
be established in their own land for-
ever (15).

11. In that day—When the judg-
ment has fallen, the sinners have been
destroyed, and a righteous nucleus has
been saved. Tabernacle of David—
The word, also translated “hut,” is
used of a temporary structure of
boughs, or the reed hut of soldiers in
the field (2 Sam. xi, 11; Isa. i, 8); it
is descriptive here, by way of con-
trast, of the house of David (1 Kings

 

AMOS.

will build it as in the days of old, 12
‘That they may possess the remnant
of "Edom, and of all the heathen,
®which are called by my name, saith

u Num, 24, 18—® Heb. upon whom
my name ts called.

xii, 19, 20; Zech. xii, 7, 8; compare
2 Sam. vii, 11, 16), the royal dynasty,
which at that time will be in dire
straits, but which will be raised again
to honor from its humiliation (see
further Introduction, p. 216). Fallen—
Into ruin. It is no longer a desirable
hut (compare Isa. xi, 1). In the next
three clauses the figure of a broken
wall is substituted. Breaches—Made
by the enemy; a figure of damages in-
flicted upon the dynasty of David, by
which it is rendered defenseless. His
ruins—David’s. R. V., “its,” that is,
of the tabernacle. In either case the
sense remains the same. Build—Or,
rebuild. It—The tabernacle. As in
the days of old—During the splendid
reign of David. Once more the dy-
nasty will become a house stately and
majestic.

12. The restoration of the dynasty
is needed in order that the splendor
of the kingdom may be reéstablished.
The new kingdom will be harassed no
longer by its neighbors, but will
triumph over all. Remnant of Edom
—All that may be left of Edom after
the conquest. Edom is singled out on
account of the long-continued hostil-
ity between Israel and Edom (i, 12;
Obad. 18-21; Joel iii, 19; Psa. exxxvii,
7). All the heathen—Better, R. V.,
“nations.” Which are (better, R. V.
margin, ‘‘were’’) called by my name—
Literally, over which my name was
called. The meaning of the expression
may be gathered from 2 Sam. xii, 28.
Joab, while besieging Rabbah of the
Ammonites, invited David to come
and take the city, “lest I take the
city and my name be called over tt,”
that is, lest I get the credit for the
capture. The nations are those con-
quered by David, for whose conquest
he gave the credit and glory to
Jehovah. The thought of verse 12 ig
CHAPTER IX.

285

 

the Lorp that doeth this. 13 Behold,
xthe days come, saith the Lorp,
that the plowman shall overtake
the reaper, and the treader of grapes
him that 1°soweth seed; yand the
mountains shall drop “sweet wine,
and all the hills shall melt. 14 *And
I will bring again the captivity of
my people of Israel, and «they shall

build the waste cities, and inhabit
them; and they shall plant vine-
yards, and drink the wine thereof;
they shall also make gardens, and
eat the fruit of them. 15 And I will
plant them upon their land, and
bthey shall no more be a il up out
of their land which have given
them, saith the Lorp thy God.

 

x Lev. 26. 5.—10 Heb. draweth forth.
y Joel 3, 18.—! Or, new wine.
* Jer. 30. 3.

 

@ Isa. 61. 4; 65. 21; Ezek. 36. 33-36.—
b Isa. 60. 21; Jer. 32. 41; Ezek. 34. 28;
Joel. 3. 20.

 

evidently that the territory of the new
kingdom is to be extended as far as
during the reign of David (1 Kings iv,
21). That doeth this—The fact that
Jehovah is interested in it assures its
fulfillment (Jer. xxxiii, 2). For a
free New Testament application of
the verse see Acts xv, 16-18.

13-15. The outward extension of
the territory will be followed by in-
ternal peace and prosperity. Verse 13
promises extreme fertility of the soil
(see on Hos. ii, 20, 21; compare Joel
ii, 22ff.; Lev. xxvi, 5). The transla-
tions of A. V. and R. V. are not
quite accurate. Literally the verse
reads, “Behold, the days are about
to come, saith Jehovah, that the plow-
man and the reaper shall touch each
other, as well as the treader of grapes
and the sower of seed; and the moun-
tains shall drop sweet wine, and all
the hills shall melt.’ This rendering
leaves it undecided whether the plow-
man is to overtake the reaper and the
treader of grapes the sower, or the
reaper the plowman and the sower the
treader of grapes. Undoubtedly the
latter is the thought. The ground
will be so fertile that the plowman has
hardly completed the work of plowing
and sowing when the grain is ready
for harvest, and the vintage will be so
plentiful that it will not be completed
when the time for plowing comes
around again. Ordinarily the plowing
in Palestine takes place in October,
the sowing in November, the barley
and wheat harvest in April and May,
the vintage in August and September.
Treader of grapes—The grapes were

 

thrown into the winepress, where, in
ancient times—and even now in some
cases—they were pressed with the feet
(for illustrations see Van Lennep,
Bible Lands, p. 118; compare Joel ii,
24). For 1b see Joel iii, 18. Melt—
The vintage will be so bountiful that it
will seem as if the hills themselves were
being dissolved into streams of wine.

14. To this fertile soil the exiles
will be brought back, there to live
in prosperity and happiness. Bring
again the captivity of my people—See
on Hos. vi, 11, and p. 133. Build the
waste cities—Destroyed by the in-
vader (iii, 15; v, 11; compare Jer.
xxxiiil, 10; Isa. liv, 3). Inhabit—
Compare the threat in v, 11. Plant
vineyards, drink the wine—
Compare iv, 9; v, 11; for a similar
promise see Isa. Ixv, 21; Ezek. xxviii
26. Make gardens, ... eat the fruit—
They will be permitted to enjoy the
fruit of their labor (compare iv, 9).

15. The enjoyment of these bless-
ings will be forever. I will plant
them—A picture of firm and perma-
nent establishment. Their land—The
promise given to Abraham (Gen. xii,
7) is transferred to the remnant.
Never again will they be disturbed in
their possessions. Thy God—The pro-
noun is meant emphatically (see on
Hos. ii, 1, 23).

The nonfulfillment of the Messianic
promises in ix, 11-15 (see pp. 209,
210) must be interpreted in the light
of what is said at the close of the
comments on Mic. iv, 5 and v, 15.
On the authorship of ix, 8-15, see
Introduction, p. 215ff.

eee
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF OBADIAH.

 

The Person of the Prophet.

Tue Book of Obadiah, with its twenty-one verses, is the
shortest book in the Old Testament. Of the personal history
of its author nothing is known. Obadiah seems to have been
a very common name among the Hebrews, for it occurs very
frequently in the Old Testament. The best-known person
bearing the name is the minister of Ahab, who offered pro-
tection to the prophets of Jehovah (1 Kings xviii). Delitzsch
thinks that the prophet may be identical with the Obadiah
mentioned in 2 Chron. xvii, 7, as being sent by Jehoshaphat
to teach in the cities of Judah, but this identification is, to
say the least, exceedingly doubtful.

It is quite probable that the author was a native of Judah,
for all his interest seems to be centered in the south. The
suggestion has been made, though without sufficient reason,
that Obadiah is not the real name of the author, and that, the
author being unknown, the name was placed at the head of
the oracle because of its meaning, worshiper of Jehovah, or
—with a slight emendation—servant of Jehovah. The prophet
may have lived in exile (see on verse 20).

The Date of the Prophecy.

The prophecy of Obadiah has been dated very early and
very late. Of recent writers Kirkpatrick assigns it to the
ninth century; Cornill and others, to the fifth; Strack, after
587; Cheyne, in Founders of Old Testament Criticism, dates
15-21 about 350; in Encyclopedia Biblica, article “Obadiah,”

286
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF OBADIAH. 287

 

he is content to say, “It (15-21) must have been later than
588, but not so late as 312,” which implies that, in his opin-
ion, the book did not reach its present form until the late
postexilic period. Marti makes the date of the latter part
as late as the second century, while he assigns the earlier por-
tion to the period of Malachi.

In the case of Obadiah the date of the book cannot be con-
sidered apart from its unity. Concerning these two points
four distinct views have been and are still advocated: 1. The
book is a unity and preéxilic. 2. It is a unity and exilic or
postexilic. 3. It consists of two portions, both postexilic.
4. It consists of an early, preéxilic, and a late, postexilic,
portion.

Lack of space prevents a detailed discussion of the different
theories; and it may be well to pass immediately to a con-
sideration of the evidence upon which any conclusion must
be based. This evidence is chiefly internal and may be con-
sidered under three heads: 1. The position of the book in
the series of Minor Prophets. 2. The historical references in
11-14. 3. The literary parallels with Old Testament litera-
ture, especially the resemblances between 1-9 and Jer. xlix,
7-22,

1. The Position of the Book.—In the Hebrew as in the
English Bible the Book of Obadiah occupies fourth place; in
LXX., fifth, the order there being Hosea, Amos, Micah, Joel,
Obadiah. This place near the head of the list is thought by
some to constitute an argument in favor of the early date of
Obadiah. But the position of a book, though it may serve
as a starting point for investigation, is by no means conclu-
sive evidence; and its testimony cannot stand if strong con-
tradictory evidence is discovered. Our further study will show
whether such evidence is found in this book. Here it may
be sufficient to say that the position of Obadiah may, perhaps,
be due to other than chronological reasons. The collector or
collectors of the Minor Prophets may have placed the book
between Amos and Jonah because they regarded it “an expan-
288 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF OBADIAH.

 

sion of the short prediction against Edom” which occurs at
the close of the prophecy of Amos (ix, 12), and because they
saw in Jonah an illustration of Obad. 1, “an ambassador is sent
among the nations.”

2. The Historical References in 11-14.—Verses 11-14 pre-
suppose a capture and devastation of Jerusalem. If the time
of this disaster can be determined the earliest possible date
of these verses is fixed. The Old Testament records four
occasions when the southern capital fell into the hands of
invaders; and it is very probable that one of these is in the
mind of the prophet. 1. Jerusalem was taken by Shishak of
Egypt during the reign of Rehoboam (1 Kings xiv, 25, 26;
2 Chron. xii, 1-12); but at that time Edom was subject to
Judah, and could not have committed the crimes described
here; therefore this capture is excluded. 2. The city was
sacked again by the Philistines and Arabians during the reign
of Jehoram (2 Chron. xxi, 16, 17). This is the occasion
favored by those who believe in the preéxilic date of Obadiah.
It is open to question, however, whether that calamity was
serious enough to justify the strong and vigorous language of
the prophet. 3. The wall of the city was broken down by
Jehoash of Israel (2 Kings xiv, 8-14; 2 Chron. xxv, 17-24).
This disaster cannot be meant, because the Israelites could not
be called strangers and foreigners (verse 11). 4. Jerusalem
was taken by Nebuchadnezzar in 597, and again in 586, when
the city was plundered and destroyed (2 Kings xxiv, 10ff.;
2 Chron. xxxvi, 9ff.). For the reasons given 1 and 3 seem
to be out of the question; hence the choice must be between
2 and 4, but, as already indicated, the description of Obadiah
seems to exclude also 2. No events such as are alluded to by
Obadiah took place, so far as is known, in the days of Jehoram,
or in connection with any of the occupations of the city
recorded except the one in 586. A comparison of 11-14 with
the passages mentioned will readily show the truth of this
statement.

The prophecy, then, should be understood as a denunciation
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF OBADIAH. 289

 

of Edom’s hostility during the crisis which resulted in the
downfall of the kingdom of Judah. True, the historical books
do not name the Edomites as taking an active part in the
destruction of Jerusalem, but the Old Testament asserts again
and again that the Edomites were bitter enemies of Israel;
and it is evident from other allusions in exilic and postexilic
writings that during the closing days of Judah’s national
existence the old hostile spirit revived. In Lamentations the
poet bids the daughter of Edom to rejoice and be glad over
the fall of Judah; but he immediately adds a threat of venge-
ance (iv, 21); Ezekiel also announces the doom of Edom
(xxv, 12-14; xxxv, 1-15); and in Psa. exxxvii the poet recalls
with indignation the malice of the Edomites: “Remember,
O Jehovah, against the children of Edom the day of Jerusa-
lem; who said, Rase it, rase it, even to the foundation
thereof.” This spirit of hostility the prophet condemns in
11-14. Well has it been said that the curse upon Edom is
the “one implication which breaks forth from the Lamenta-
tions of Jeremiah; it is the culmination of the fierce threats
of Ezekiel; it is the whole purpose of the short, sharp cry
of Obadiah; it is the bitterest drop in the sad recollections
of the Israelite captive by the waters of Babylon; and the
one warlike strain of the evangelical prophet is inspired by
the hope that the divine conqueror would come knee-deep in
Idumean blood.”

The conclusion that the allusion is to the destruction of
Jerusalem does not fully determine the date of the prophecy.
Before that is done another question demands consideration,
whether Obadiah describes an historical event of the past
or present, or whether he is projected into the future and
enabled, through divine inspiration, to speak of things still
future as if they were present or had already passed. Pusey
argues very emphatically for the second view, but his argu-
ments are not convincing, for they are based upon an arti-
ficial, unscriptural conception of inspiration and prophecy.
The language, the context, analogy with other prophetic books,
290 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF OBADIAH.

 

and other considerations combine to make it more than proba-
ble that Obadiah is commissioned to announce judgment
upon Edom for wrongdoings with which he has become
familiar during his own lifetime. The statement of Pusey
that the events to which the prophet alludes could not be a
thing of the past at the time of the prophet’s writing, “be-
cause God does not warn men against sins already committed,”
rests upon a misapprehension of the purpose of the book.
The prophecy is not so much a warning as an announcement
of judgment; its purpose is not so much to prevent new out-
breaks as to condemn outrages already committed, though
the former is also kept in mind (12-14). A due regard for
this purpose of the prophecy causes the objection of Pusey
to lose its entire force; and yet it may be true that Obadiah,
speaking in the midst of the confusion subsequent to the fall
of the city, hoped to prevent, by his message, further excesses
of Edom.

The historical references of 11-14, therefore, make it highly
probable that the prophecy in its present form comes from
a period subsequent to the fall of Jerusalem in 586.

3. The Interary Parallels——No one can read Obad. 1-9 and
Jer. xlix, 7-22, without feeling that the marked resemblances
between the two passages cannot be mere coincidence. Hence
they must be explained in one of three ways : either Obadiah
borrowed from Jeremiah, or Jeremiah borrowed from Oba-
diah, or both utilized for their own purposes an older prophecy.
A careful examination of the resemblances as well as of the
differences between the two passages has satisfied practically
all scholars that, on the whole, Obadiah presents the more
original form of the oracle. This conclusion is based both
upon the linguistic features and upon the logical connection.
Practical unanimity on this point would seem to exclude the
first alternative and favor the second, that Jeremiah adopted
the words of Obadiah. This inference would receive additional
justification from the fact that Jeremiah does, at times, appro-
priate expressions of earlier prophets (compare, for example,
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF OBADIAH. 291

 

Jer. xlvili, 29, 30, with Isa. xvi, 6; Jeremiah xlix, 27, with
Amos i, 4). Nevertheless, this view is not without difficul-
ties. 1. In a few places (see comments) the originality
seems to be with Jeremiah, which would favor the first alterna-
tive, unless it is supposed that the text of Obadiah suffered
after Jeremiah had embodied the original words of Obadiah
in his own prophecy. 2. A more serious objection is the
fact that Jer. xlix, 12, “they to whom it pertained not to
drink of the cup shall assuredly drink,” seems to imply that
judgment upon the Jews, that is, the destruction of Jerusalem,
is still in the future. If so, Jeremiah must have delivered his
prophecy before the destruction of the city, which excludes the
possibility of his borrowing from an oracle delivered after
the fall of Jerusalem (see above). We are driven, then, to
the third alternative, that both passages are dependent upon
an older utterance. It is worthy of note that the similarity
of Jer. xlix, 7-22, extends only to Obad. 1-9; and it would
seem peculiar that Jeremiah, with the whole of Obadiah before
him, should confine himself to the first nine verses, when
the rest contains much that would have suited his purposes
admirably. The differences between Obad. 16 and Jer. xlix,
12, are so great that in this case independence seems not im-
probable; if, however, the resemblances between the two verses
should be thought to warrant the conclusion that one must be
dependent on the other, it should be borne in mind that, if
Jeremiah uttered his oracle about twenty years before Oba-
diah’s appearance, the latter may have been influenced by Jere-
miah’s words, though for the whole prophecy dependence of
Obadiah upon Jeremiah seems excluded.

The most satisfactory explanation of the parallels between
Jer. xlix, 7-22, and Obad. 1-9 seems to be—though it is readily
admitted that it is only an hypothesis—that both prophets
derived the elements common to them from an earlier prophecy,
which Obadiah incorporated with few alterations, while Jere-
miah treated it with greater freedom, and that Obadiah was
familiar not only with the original oracle but also with the
292 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF OBADIAH.

 

utterance of Jeremiah dependent upon the same. On the
whole, the earlier prophecy would be the same as Obad. 1-9,
which contains no allusions to the destruction of Jerusalem
in 586. This older utterance the prophet appropriated after
the fall of the city and expanded it in 10-21, imitating to
some extent the language of the earlier portion.

Some recent commentators who deny xlix, 7-22, to Jeremiah
and bring the section down to a late date deny that any portion
of Obadiah is preéxilic; but the reasons advanced against the
authenticity of Jer. xlix, 7-22, are not conclusive, and the
above interpretation seems the most satisfactory.

The date and occasion of the earlier prophecy cannot be
fixed with certainty. Ewald supposed it to have been spoken
when Elath was restored to the Edomites (2 Kings xvi, 6;
margin R. V.), while others place it in the days of Jehoram
(2 Kings viii, 20-22; 2 Chron. xxi, 8-10); but see on verse 1.
Since it seems quite probable that the book contains two
separate sections, it must remain undecided whether Obadiah
is the name of the author of the earlier utterance, or of the
writer who supplemented this and gave the book its present
form, or of both prophets.

With Joel also Obadiah shows resemblances; in some in-
stances (compare Joel ii, 32, with Obad. 17) it seems beyond
question that Joel is the borrower; Obadiah, therefore, must
have preceded Joel.

The terminus a quo, then, of the prophecy in its present
form is 586 B. C. How much farther down it is necessary to
go is somewhat uncertain. On this point Selbie, a careful
and competent investigator, says: “It appears upon the whole
most probable that not only the exile but also the return belong
to the past. Note that there is no prediction of the rebuilding
and repopulation of the capital, Jerusalem. The expressions
in the closing verses are best satisfied by a date such as Nowack
postulates for 1-14 (about 432 B. C.), or, perhaps preferably,
later still. It is unfortunate that the text and the meaning
of these verses are so doubtful.” This is the view of several
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF OBADIAH. 293

 

very prominent commentators; on the other hand, there are
other scholars, equally competent, who believe it unnecessary
to go down so far. There is nothing in 15-21 that presupposes
the return from exile. In fact, everything—the hopes of
restoration, of the destruction of Edom, and of the establish-
ment of the kingdom of God—points to the period before the
restoration. On the whole, therefore, the most probable date
would seem to be one soon after 586 B. C.

A full discussion of the more complicated theories of Well-
hausen, Nowack, and others may be found in Hastings’s Dtc-
tionary of the Bible, article “Obadiah”; compare also Driver,
Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament.

The Book of the Prophet.

1. T'eaching—tThe prophet seems to have a twofold purpose:
1. To announce judgment upon Edom. 2. By the announce-
ment of the speedy overthrow of this hated enemy to bring
comfort and hope to the cruelly wronged people of God. This
twofold aim is easily. seen in the contents of the book: verses
1-16 deal with the judgment upon Edom, verses 17-21 with
the restoration of the exiles.

In setting forth his convictions the prophet, directly or
indirectly, gives expression to several truths prominent in all
prophetic books. The more important of these are: 1. The
special interest of Jehovah in Israel. Temporarily he may
permit its enemies to triumph, but in the end he must vindi-
cate himself and his people. 2. Obadiah shares with other
prophets the hope for the establishment of a new kingdom of
God, centering in Mount Zion and Jerusalem. 3. Holiness
will be the chief characteristic of the new kingdom. 4. There
is no direct reference to a Messianic king; “the kingdom shall
be Jehovah’s.” Compare, however, “saviours shall come up
on mount Zion to judge the mount of Esau”; in a certain
sense these saviowrs are representatives of Jehovah like the
Messianic king of other prophetic books, 5, Obadiah sees no
294 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF OBADIAH.

 

conversion, only disaster for the nations outside of Israel
(16-18).

2. Contents——Following the brief title the prophet an-
nounces his theme: He is charged with heavy tidings against
Edom. An ambassador is gone forth from Edom to summon
the surrounding nations to war against Judah (1); but Jeho-
vah will thwart the scheme; the doom of Edom is decreed (2).
Though she thinks herself secure in her lofty rock-hewn dvwell-
ings, though she may rise like an eagle and build her nest
among the stars, Jehovah will bring her down and humble
her (8, 4). The destruction will be complete; even the most
securely hidden treasures will be removed (5,6). The nations
with which she sought alliances will prove treacherous; her
own wise men and men of war will be cut off (7-9).

The judgment will fall because Edom has done violence to
Jacob in the day of Jerusalem’s calamity (10, 11). The
prophet, either in reality or imagination, sees the Edomites
rejoicing in their inhumanities, and bids them emphatically
to desist from cruel looks and words (12), from overt acts of
spoliation (13), and from cutting off the fugitives at the
crossways, and delivering to the enemies “those of his that
remain in the day of distress” (14).

From the description of the crimes the prophet turns once
more to the retribution. The Edomites are to be cut off for-
ever; and though the judgment will fall upon all nations the
Edomites will suffer most (15, 16).

The announcement of doom upon its enemies is followed
by a promise of restoration to Israel. A remnant will escape
in Mount Zion (17); the redeemed of the house of Jacob and
of the house of Joseph will be used by God to bring destruction
upon the house of Esau (18). Edom destroyed, the territory
of the purified remnant will be extended in every direction
(19, 20). “Saviours” will arise in Zion, whose sway will ex-
tend over the Mount of Esau, and over all will be established
the rule of Jehovah (21).
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF OBADIAH. 295

 

3. Outline —

INTRODUCTION—EDOM’S HOSTILE PURPOSES AGAINST JUDAH....Verse 1

I. THE UTTER DESTRUCTION OF EDOM............ cee ceceeeceace 2-16
1. Announcement of the judgment..................... 2-9
(1) Inability of Edom’s natural defenses to save
DOr Sane tee viene tara wens deraen.e 2-4
(2) Completeness of the destruction.......... 5, 6
(8) Treachery of her allies.............020000s qT
(4) Failure of Edom’s wisdom and might..... 8,9
2. Causes of the judgment............. ccc eee eens 10-14
(1) The unbrotherly conduct of Edom toward
DUGAN: 2 catia eiaeles Heels poate 10, 11
. (2) Warning to desist from this conduct... .12-14
8. The terrors of the day of Jehovah............... 15, 16
II. THE EXALTATION OF THE JEWS.... ccc. cece cee e cece eeueees 17-21
1. Restoration of a remmant............ 0 cece eee ee ee 17

2. Conquest of Edom and other surrounding nations. .18-20
8. Jehovah’s universal SWay..........seeeeeee Bei Ghandi 21
OBADIAH.

 

HE vision of Obadiah. Thus
saith the Lord Gop «concerning

Edom; *We have heard a rumor
from the Lorp, and an ambassador

 

aqTsa. 21. 11; 34. 5; Ezek. 25. 12-14; Joel

3. 19; Mal. 1. 3—+»Jer. 49. 14, etc.

 

Tue Urrer Destruction or Epom,
1-16.

Edom’s hostility against Judah has
become so bitter that Jehovah can
no longer endure the ill treatment of
his people; he therefore decrees the
downfall of the house of Esau (1, 2).
Nothing can save; natural defenses,
allies, men of wisdom and might will
be unable to avert the doom (3-9).
The measure of Edom’s guilt was filled
to the brim at the time of Jerusalem’s
calamity (10-14). The day of Je-
hovah will be a day of terror to all
nations, but especially to the people
of Edom (15, 16).

The Announcement of the judgment,
1-9.

1. The prophecy has two titles: (1)
“The vision of Obadiah”; (2) ‘Thus
saith the Lord Jehovah concerning
Edom” (compare Nah. i, 1). The
first is the title of the whole book,
supplied either by the prophet him-
self or, what seems more probable,
by the collector of the Minor Prophets.
The second, which is intimately con-
nected with what follows, contains
the opening words of the prophet’s
denunciation of Edom, which serve
at the same time as an introduction
to the quotation from the more an-
cient oracle (see p. 291), the quotation
itself beginning with ‘We have
heard.” The first title gives only the
name of the author, and this is all we
know concerning him (see on verse 20).
Vision—The use of this word, like that
of the verb to see, goes back to the
period when the ecstatic vision was
a common method of receiving the
divine truth. It signifies properly

 

that which appears before the mental
eye of the prophet during a trance;
but in the greater part of the Old
Testament the word is used in a wider
sense of all prophetic perception of
divine truth, whatever the process.
Here, as in other places, it is used in
a still wider sense, as the heading of
an entire prophetic book (Isa. i, 1;
ii, 1; Nah. i, £; compare 1 Chron.
xxi, 9). Obadiah—See Introduction,
p. 286. Thus saith the Lord Jehovah—
A common formula claiming divine
authority for a prophetic message. It
is clear, however, that no theory con-
cerning the manner in which the truth
was made known can be based upon
the use of the verb say. Like see, it
has a narrower and a wider meaning,
and in the prophetic books it is used
in the wider sense (see on vision).
Concerning Edom—Directly or in-
directly the entire book deals with
Edom (see on Amos i, 11). In bitter
resentment the prophet announces her
doom, and while rejoicing in the down-
fall of Edom he glories in the future
exaltation of the people of God.

Now follows the quotation from the
earlier oracle, which Obadiah applies
to his own period (see ‘:p. 291). We
have heard—The parallel passage in
Jer. xlix, 14, reads, ‘“‘I have heard.”
Which is the original, it may be diffi-
cult to decide, and it matters little.
In one case the author speaks as an
individual, in the other he identifies
himself with his countrymen. Rumor
—R. V., “tidings” ; literally, that which
is heard (Isa. xxviii, 9; liii, 1). The
tidings are those revealed by Jehovah
to his people, in order to prepare them
for impending emergencies (Amos iii,

296
OBADIAH.

297

 

is sent among the heathen, Arise ye,
and let us rise up against her in
battle. 2 Behold, I have made thee

7). The rest of verse 1 gives the con-
tents of the tidings. It has common-
ly been interpreted as meaning that
Jehovah communicates a message to
his people, and that at the same time
he dispatches a herald to the sur-
rounding nations with a similar mes-
sage, to stir them up against Edom.
Against this interpretation two ob-
jections may be raised: (1) It finds no
support in the rest of the prophecy;
(2) It takes unwarranted liberty with
the text (see below). The difficulties
vanish if a different meaning is given
to lb. Jehovah sends to his people a
message which reveals to them that
an ambassador has been sent by Edom
to the surrounding nations to per-
suade them to join Edom in a sudden
attack upon Judah.

This interpretation does complete
justice to the language, and it may
enable us to fix, approximately at
least, the date of the earlier prophecy.
The closing years of Jehoash were
troublesome times for Judah; Hazael
of Syria threatened Jerusalem, and in
order to save the city Jehoash paid
an enormous tribute (2 Kings xii,
17ff.). Dissatisfaction arose in the
capital, and a revolt broke out which
resulted in the king’s death. These
internal disturbances would be an op-
portune moment for a foreign inva-
sion, and Edom, the long-time enemy,
would quickly recognize it. It is
worthy of note that immediately fol-
lowing the statement that Amaziah
established himself upon the throne
and punished the murderers of his
father, 2 Kings xiv, 7, continues, “He
slew of Edom in the Valley of Salt ten
thousand, and took Sela by war.”
Might not the severity of the king be
explained by the discovery of a plot
such as is alluded to in Obad. 1?
And... is sent—An object clause de-
pending on “we have heard tidings”;
a better rendering would be “that

. is sent” (G.-K., 157a). Am-
bassador—Or, herald. He was sent to

 

small among the heathen: thaqu art
greatly despised.
3 The pride of thine heart hath

stir up the nations to war. Heathen
—Better, R. V., ‘nations’; a designa-
tion of all nations outside of Israel.
Arise ye, and let us rise up—These
words are not to be understood as
giving both the appeal of the herald,
“Arise ye,” and the reply of the na-
tions, ‘‘and (or, yea) let us rise up.”
The entire sentence belongs to the
herald; he urges the nations to rise,
and then, associating the power he
represents with them, he calls out,
“Yea, let us rise’ (compare Jer. xlix,
14, where the second verb is omitted).
Against her—Ordinarily interpreted as
referring to Edom; if so, the feminine
form of the pronoun is peculiar, since
“the writer always uses the masculine
in referring to Edom.” Some remove
the peculiarity by changing the form
of the pronoun; it seems better, how-
ever, to interpret the pronoun as re-
ferring to Judah (see above). ‘True,
Judah is not mentioned by name, while
Edom is; but it must be remembered
that this is a quotation removed from
its context, in which the name may
have been found.

In verse 2 Jehovah appears as the
speaker. Having revealed to his peo-
ple the conspiracy of Edom, he com-
forts them by assuring them that the
scheme cannot succeed, since he has
resolved to take the part of Judah
against Edom. Behold—Calls atten-
tion to the denunciation contained in
2-9. I have made thee small—A
prophetic perfect. Jehovah has already
decided upon the humiliation of
Edom, and this decision makes the
result as certain as if it had al-
ready been accomplished. Thou art
greatly despised—Also a prophetic per-
fect. When Edom’s glory is brought
low she will be despised by the other
nations. Among the heathen—R. V.,
“nations”; which she sought to stir
up against Judah (verse 7). Greatly—
Jer. xlix, 15, reads “among men,”
which would give perfect parallelism
with “among the nations.” Here Jere-
298

OBADIAH.

 

deceived thee, thou that dwellest in
the clefts cof the rock, whose habi-
tation zs high; ‘that saith in his
heart, Who shall bring me down to
the ground? 4 °Though thou exalt

thyself as the eagle, and though thou
fset thy nest among the stars, thence
will I bring thee down, saith the
Lorp. 6 If sthieves came to thee,
if robbers by night, (how art thou

 

°2 Kings 14. 74 Isa, 14. 18, 14, 15;
Rev. 18. 7.

e Job 20. 6; Jer. 49. 16; 51. 53; Amos 9.

2. f Hab. 2. 9.—# Jer. 49. 9,

 

 

miah may have preserved the orig-
inal; the Obadiah reading may be due
to a later corruption.

Calvin, Pusey, and others favor a
different interpretation of verse 2.
They think that the tenses refer to the
past. The divine providence assigned
to Edom a humble position among
the nations of the earth, but in their
pride (verse 3) the Edomites exalted
themselves contrary to Jehovah’s pur-
pose; therefore Jehovah must bring
them down (verse 4). The first in-
terpretation seems preferable.

3, 4. It was the pride and arrogance
of Edom that caused her to scheme
against the people of Jehovah. This
arrogance was based very largely upon
the almost impregnable position of
the Edomite strongholds; but, says
Jehovah, these natural defenses will
not be able to withstand the divine
attacks. Pride—Not the rock-castles,
though these furnished the basis for
the pride. For the sake of emphasis
the subject is, contrary to common
Hebrew usage, placed first. Clefts of
the rock—The word translated “rock”’
—Heb. sela‘—might be understood as
a proper noun, Sela, which is the
name of the ancient capital of
Edom, changed at a later time to
Petra,.a word of similar import. If
so, the reference would be to the
rock-hewn dwellings of the capital.
“Sela was situated on either side of a
deep ravine, which runs winding like
a stream through precipitous and
overhanging cliffs for a distance of
not less than a mile and a half. The
cliffs are honeycombed with caverns,
and in these caverns, reached by
artificial means of access, the Edom-
ites dwelt’? (compare Hastings’s Dic-
tionary of the Buble, article ‘“‘Sela’’).
It is more probable, however, that
the allusion is to the rocky features of

 

the entire country. Who shall bring
me down to the ground?—To the
proud Edomites their position seemed
impregnable; they might laugh at
every attempt to displace them. “The
great strength of a position such as
Sela’s was shown during the war of
the independence of Greece, in the
case of the monastery of Mega-
spelion, which was situated, like Sela,
on the face of a precipice. Ibrahim
Pasha was unable to bring its de-
fenders down by assault from below
or above, and though ungarrisoned it
baffled his utmost efforts.” The
failure of the natural strongholds of
Edom to protect the inhabitants
would bring out more prominently
the irresistible power of Jehovah (Jer.
xlix, 16).

4. No human expedient can prevent
the execution of the divine purpose.
Though thou exalt thyself—R. V.,
“Though thou mount on high.” The
verb is transitive, and the object ‘‘thy
nest’? should be supplied: ‘Though
thou place high thy nest as the eagle”
(so Jer. xlix, 16). The eagle builds
his nest in places almost inaccessible
to men, but God can reach it; and
though the nests of the Edomites
should be among the stars Jehovah
will find it easy to bring them down
(Amos ix, 2; compare Job xx, 6, 7;
Isa. xiv, 13).

In verses 5, 6 the prophet pictures
the completeness of the destruction
by a comparison of the calamity to
come with familiar experiences.
Thieves . . . robbers . . . grape-
gatherers—R. V. brings out the
thought more satisfactorily by read-
ing the first question of verse 5,
“would they not steal only till they
had enough?” The second reads,
“would they not leave some gleaning
grapes?” Thieves and robbers, it is

 
OBADIAH.

299

 

cut off!) would they not have stolen
till they had enough? if the grape-
gatherers came to thee, would they
not leave !some_ grapes? 6 How
are the things of Esau searched out!

how are his hidden things sought up!
7 All the men of thy confederacy
have brought thee even to the bor-
der: 2:the men that were at peace
with thee have deceived thee, and

 

h Deut. 24. 21; Isa. 17. 6; 24, 13.—
10Or, gleanings?

2Heb, the men of thy peace.—i Jer.
38. 22.

 

true, take and carry off whatever
they can lay their hands on; but
when they have satisfied their desire
they go away leaving some things
behind. In a similar manner grape-
gatherers do not pick every single
berry or grape; with (Lev. ix, 10;
Deut. xxiv, 21) or without intention
they leave some gleanings. Not so
Edom’s conqueror; he will leave be-
hind nothing but waste and desola-
tion. How art thou cut offl—A
parenthetical exclamation by the
prophet, forced from him by the
awful character of the judgment
which, in his prophetic vision, he sees
already accomplished. How are the
things of Esau searched out!—Lit-
erally, How are they searched out,
Esau! An expression of amazement
at the completeness of the ruin.
Every corner of Edom will be
searched thoroughly and the plunder
will be carried off. Hidden things—
R. V., “hidden treasures.” The
treasures ‘stored in the treasure
houses hewn in the rock in inacces-
sible places. These hiding places will
be discovered and the treasures will
be taken away as booty. Edom will
be completely despoiled (Jer. xlix, 9).

Verse 7 takes us back to verse 1.
There we are told that Edom attempt-
ed to instigate a conspiracy against
Judah; verse 7 states that her at-
tempts will be futile; the allies in
which she puts her trust will prove
her ruin. The erroneous interpreta-
tion of verse 1 (see above) is respon-
sible for many wild statements con-
cerning the meaning of verse 7; if
the interpretation suggested above is
accepted the difficulties vanish. There
certainly is no reason for separating
verse 7 from the preceding verses;
verses 1-9 form one continuous oracle.
All the men of thy confederacy—

 

Those who joined or were expected to
join the confederacy planned by Edom
(verse 1); hence identical with “the
nations’ (verse 1). Have brought
thee even to the border—R. V., “‘on
thy way, even to the border’’; margin,
“have driven thee out.” This mar-
ginal reading is accepted by several
recent writers, and the driving out
of the Edomites is interpreted of,
their expulsion from their borders by
Arab tribes during the sixth or fifth
century B.C. Others understand the
words as signifying that the allies
sent “their troops with them as far
as the frontier and then ordered them
to turn back.” Neither view is cor-
rect. The meaning is rather that the
ambassadors whom Edom had sent to
negotiate the alliance, and who thus
represented the nation, were sent
back to the frontier with due respect
and ceremonies, with fair speeches and
pleasing promises. In reality not one
of the nations cared to entangle her-
self in such an alliance. The men that
were at peace with thee—The sur-
rounding nations; identical with “men
of thy confederacy” and “the na-
tions” (verse 1). The Edomites ex-
pected to experience no difficulty
in persuading their friendly neigh-
bors to join the conspiracy. Have
deceived thee—By making fair prom-
ises when they had no intention
of keeping them. Prevailed against
thee—Standing by itself this expres-
sion might mean that “these very na-
tions with whom they have hitherto
been on terms of amity and peace
shall turn their forces against them
and prevail.” But this is not the
meaning in this passage. Jer. xxxviii,
22, offers a good parallel. There
R. V. margin reads, “The men of thy
peace (the identical expression) have
deceived thee, and have prevailed
300

prevailed against thee; *they that eat
thy bread have laid a wound under

3 Heb. the men of thy bread.——k Isa.
19. 11, 12.

over thee: now that thy feet are sunk
in the mire, they are turned away
back.” The meaning of this passage
is that the false advisers got the king
into trouble and then left him to his
fate. This is the thought of Obadiah.
The nations made fair promises and
thus encouraged the scheme of Edom;
they overcame any scruples or hesi-
tancy on the part of the latter; but
when the real crisis arrives Edom
will have to fight her battles alone.
They that eat thy bread have laid a
wound under thee—R. V., “lay a
snare under thee”’; literally, thy bread
they lay a snare under thee. A very
difficult and much-discussed expres-
sion. Following the rather free ren-
derings of A. V. and R. V., it is com-
monly interpreted in the sense that
those who are bound to the Edomites
by sacred ties of hospitality will make
a treacherous assault upon them.
Keil translates, “They make thy
bread a wound under thee,” but his
interpretation closely resembles the
one just given (see below). Nowack
considers the case hopeless, while
other recent writers have suggested
more or less radical emendations.
Thus Marti reads, ‘they will settle in
thy place”; Winckler, “‘thy flesh they
will devour, thy sustenance they will
take away.’ Cheyne substitutes
proper names in accord with his
peculiar Yerachmeelite theory. The
difference of opinion among scholars
is due to uncertainty with regard to
two points. In the first place, it is
not certain what part of the sentence
is “thy bread’’; in the next, the mean-
ing of masdér cannot be fully deter-
mined. Does it mean snare or wound?
Evidently “thy bread” is not the sub-
ject of the verb, for the former is in
the singular while the latter is in the
plural. Hence Keil takes it to be the
first object of the verb. Then he con-
tinues: “And consequently the sub-

 

OBADIAH.

thee: ‘there is none understanding
4in him. 8 'ShallI not in that day,

4Or, of U—! Job 5. 12, 13; Isa. 29.
14; Jer. 49. 7.

ject of the previous clause still con-
tinues in force: they who befriended
thee make thy bread, that is, the
bread which they ate from thee or with
thee, into a wound under thee, that
is, an occasion for destroying thee.”
Recognizing the need of a more lucid
interpretation, he adds: ‘We have not
to think of common meals of hospi-
tality here, ... but the words are to
be taken figuratively, after the anal-
ogy of Psa. xli, 10, which floated be-
fore the prophet’s mind, .. . as de-
noting conspiracies on the part of
those who were allied to Edom, and
drew their own sustenance from it,
the rich trading nation, to destroy
that very nation.” Keil thus under-
stands masér to mean “wound,” and
for this he finds support in such pas-
sages as Hos. v, 13; Jer. xxx, 13;
compare Isa. i, 6. Others supply
from the preceding clause only “men,”
and combining this with “thy bread”
read ‘men of thy bread”—that is,
men who have eaten bread with thee
and thus are bound to thee by the
sacred ties of hospitality; or, men who
draw their sustenance from thee (so
A. V. and R. Y.). Hitzig reaches the
same result by supplying a participial
form, “‘they that eat thy bread.’”’ What-
ever rendering we may give to the
Hebrew, the expression remains pe-
culiar. A smoother reading is offered
by LXX., which omits the first
troublesome word entirely, carries the
subject over from the preceding clause,
and translates masér “snare,” giving
to it a meaning not found elsewhere
in the Old Testament. Following the
LXX. we may read, “The men that
were at peace with thee have deceived
thee, and have prevailed against thee;
they have placed a snare under thee.”

Ordinary intelligence should have
recognized the deception, but Edom
was blind; hence the exclamation,
There is none understanding in him—
OBADIAH.

301

 

saith the Lorp, even destroy the
wise men out of Edom, and un-
derstanding out of the mount
of Esau? 9 And thy mighty men,

O »Teman, shall be dismayed, to
the end that every one of the
mount of Esau may be cut off by
slaughter.

 

m Psa. 76. 5; Amos 2. 16.

n Jer. 49. 7.

 

That is, in Edom (masculine through-
out, see on verse 1). This does not
mean, “in consequence of the ca-
lamity which thus bursts upon the
Edomites they lose their wonted dis-
cernment, and know neither what to
do nor how to help themselves”; nor
is it equivalent to “all this is caused
by thy want of understanding”; it
is simply an exclamation of amaze-
ment that the Edomites should fai!
to see the evident deception. The
change in the same address from the
second person to the third is not un-
common in Hebrew prophecy, and
in the present case it is quite natural,
since the exclamation is not addressed
directly to Edom, nor to anyone else
in particular.

In verse 8 the prophet explains the
lack of wisdom. Jehovah will cause
the wise men to cease. This thought
is expressed by a rhetorical question,
equivalent to Surely I will destroy. In
that day—The day in which the events
recorded in verse 7 will take place.
Destroy the wise men—This threat is
not to be understood as meaning that
the wise men will suffer death, but
that they will be destroyed as wise
men; in other words, their wisdom
and understanding will be withdrawn.
As a result they will be unable to dis-
cover the schemes of “the nations,”
or give counsel to their own rulers.
For the sake of emphasis the same
thought is repeated. Understanding
—Or, discernment; the power to see
and estimate things correctly. Mount
of Esau—Mount Seir. After the oc-
cupation of the territory southeast of
the Dead Sea by the descendants of
Esau the two names came to be used
interchangeably. Some commenta-
tors seem to think that the parallel
passage in Jer. xlix shows no acquaint-
ance with this verse. It is quite prob-
able, however, that Jer. xlix, 7,

 

reflects the thought of this passage
(compare Isa. xix, 3, 11; xxix, 14).
Eliphaz, one of Job’s “wise” friends,
was an Edomite (Job ii, 11); and later
traditions seem to imply that the
Edomites boasted in the possession of
special wisdom. In presenting a list
of nations claiming extraordinary wis-
dom Baruch iii, 22, says, ‘The
Agarenes that seek wisdom upon
earth, the merchants of Meran and
Teman, the authors of fables and the
seekers out of understanding, none
of these have known the way of wis-
dom, or remember her paths.”

9. Mighty men—Warriors. When
they realize at last that they have
been entrapped, that wisdom and dis-
cernment have taken their flight, the
warriors will lose heart, and the result
will be the complete undoing of Edom.
O Teman—The change to the direct
address adds force and intensity to
the threat. On Teman see comment
on Amos i, 12. By slaughter—Or-
dinarily this is taken to refer to the
slaughter to be inflicted upon Edor
by her enemies; but according to the
above interpretation there is nothing
in this section (compare 17ff.) to in-
dicate that the overthrow of Edom
will be wrought by her enemies—Je-
hovah himself will strike the blow.
Hence Ewald suggested the transla-
tion “without battle,” which is gram-
matically possible but makes an ex-
tremely weak conclusion of the threat.
It seems better to carry the word over
to verse 10 (so LXX., Peshitto, Vul-
gate). The preposition is the same as
that before “violence” in verse 10,
so that “for slaughter” might be read
instead of “by slaughter,” the two
together “for slaughter, for the vio-
lence done... ,” or even “for the
slaughter and violence done”; the
two words indicating two causes of
the judgment to come. Keil objects
302

OBADIAH.

 

10 For thy cviolence against thy
brother Jacob shame shall cover

thee, and Pthou shalt be cut off for
ever. 11 In the day that thou

 

©Gen. 27.41; Psa. 137.7; Ezek. 25.12; 35.

to this change on the ground that,
if adopted, the stronger and more
specific term would precede the
weaker and more general. In this
Nowack agrees with Keil, and he gets
out of the difficulty by rejecting ‘for
slaughter” as a marginal gloss to “for
violence,” “originating with a reader
to whom the latter expression did not
appear pointed enough” (so also
Marti). However, the objection of
Keil is not well founded, and the omis-
sions suggested by the other two
commentators mentioned are arbi-
trary. It is not true that the stronger
and more specific term precedes the
weaker and more general; the two
words refer to two distinct crimes, of
which the second, according to Jewish
conceptions, was the more’ serious.
Verses 10-14 evidently refer to the
destruction of Jerusalem in 586 (see
p. 288). In this calamity the afflic-
tions of Israel were twofold: on the
one hand, they suffered personal
losses; on the other, their sanctuary
was desecrated and destroyed. ‘The
author of Psa. cxxxvii seems to be
concerned with the religious afflic-
tions; and the deep feeling manifest-
ing itself in his imprecations was
undoubtedly due to the fact that the
religious losses were to him of far
greater consequence than any tem-
poral privations. Of the two expres-
sions in this passage ‘‘slaughter” may
well stand for the personal wrongs
suffered, “violence” for the wrongs
done to the religious life and institu-
tions. Of these the second was felt
more keenly than the former; there-
fore the order of the words is perfectly
natural.

Causes of the judgment, 10-14.

In verse 10 the prophet who gave
to the book its present form begins
to speak. In the contents of 1-9 he
saw a message suitable to his own
age; and since it expressed his own

 

5; Amos 1, 11.—p Ezek. 35.9; Mal. 1.4.

thoughts in a vivid and forceful
manner, he adopted it for his own
use. But the causes responsible for
the threat at the earlier period were
probably not the same as those which
led him to proclaim the same judg-
ment. The latter grew out of his own
present historical situation; hence he
must set them forth in his own lan-
guage. This he does in 10ff., begin-
ning (verse 10) with the general
statement that the judgment is made
necessary by the hostility of Edom
toward Judah, which statement is fol-
lowed by a reiteration of the previous
threat. In 11-14 he describes in
greater detail the crimes of Edom.
10. Violence—As already stated
(see on verse 9), “‘slaughter’’ (verse 9)
should be connected with ‘violence’;
the one referring to personal suffering,
the other to the violence done to re-
ligious customs and institutions. Thy
brother Jacob—Throughout the entire
Old Testament the ancestor of the
Israelites, Jacob, and the ancestor of
the Edomites, Esau, are regarded as
brothers. The reference to this in-
timate relationship makes the crime
appear in even more glaring colors
(see on Amos i, 11). The origin of
the hostility between the two is
traced to the time of their birth (Gen.
xxv, 25, 26; compare xxvii, 41).
From the ancestors the hostility ap-
parently descended upon their pos-
terity; at any rate, the history of the
two nations is marked by repeated
outbreaks of hostility (for example,
Num. xx; Amosi, 11). The fact that,
the Israelites are urged repeatedly to
observe a friendly and brotherly at-
titude toward Edom (Deut. ii, 4, 5;
xxili, 7) may indicate that the natural
tendency of Israel was not in the
direction of returning good for evil.
Shame—Or, disgrace. Cover—A pic-
ture of abundance. The disgrace will
seem the greater because of the former
boastfulness. Shalt be cut off—The
OBADIAH.

303

 

stoodest on the other side, in the
day that the strangers ®carried away
captive his forces, and foreigners

entered into his gates, and ‘cast lots
upon Jerusalem, even thou wast as
one of them. 12 But ‘thou should-

 

5 Or, carried away his substance.—4 Joel

3.3; Nah. 3. 10.—® Or, donot behold, etc.

 

punishment is described here in its
ultimate completeness; it is described
more fully in 15ff.

In 11-14 the prophet proceeds to
describe in greater detail the crimes
of Edom. In the calamity that befell
the people of Jehovah the Edom-
ites proved themselves as hostile
as the more active enemies. They
manifested their hostility by ma-
liciously rejoicing in the misfortune
of Judah (12), by committing acts of
robbery (13), and by cutting down
fugitive Jews (14). In the day that
thou stoodest on the other side—The
next clause shows that this is the day
of the calamity of Jerusalem. “Stood-
est on the other side” might possibly
refer to neutrality; they stood by idly
when they should have rendered assist-
ance to their brother. The context,
however, favors a different interpreta-
tion; they stood on the side of the
enemies, in a spirit of hostility, not
neutrality (2 Sam. xviii, 13). Even
thou wast as one of them—Though, at
least in the beginning, not taking an
active part in destroying and plunder-
ing the city and the people, the Edom-
ites manifested the same hostile spirit,
and therefore were as culpable as the
“strangers” who did the actual work.
Strangers . . . foreigners—The Chal-
deans and their allies in the expedition
against Judah in 588-586. Carried
away ... his forces—R. V., “his sub-
stance”; the forces or substance of
Jacob. Since the verb is literally,
carry into exile, and is used but rarely
of the carrying away of booty, the
reference may be to the carrying into
exile of the military forces and of the
inhabitants of the land, rather than to
the carrying away of the spoil. -En-
tered into his gates—The gates of
Jacob, which cannot be limited to the
gates of Jerusalem. The prophet
means the gates of all the cities of
Jacob; the enemies overran the whole

 

land. The next sentence speaks of
the calamity that befell Jerusalem.
Cast lots upon Jerusalem—The city
and its inhabitants and contents. The
lots were cast for the purpose of divid-
ing the spoil among the captors (see
on Joel iii, 3; compare Amos vii, 17).
If A. V. could be followed in the
translation of the tenses in 12-14
the interpretation of these verses
would be an easy task; the verses
would then be an expansion of the
condemnation contained in verse 11.
R. V., however, changes the transla-
tion, following more closely the He-
brew, so that 12-14 are made to con-
tain a series of warnings addressed to
the Edomites. These warnings have
created much difficulty for interpre-
ters (see, for example, p. 290); how-
ever, if the verses are assigned to the
proper historical situation the case
becomes less complicated. Verse 11
evidently speaks of events connected
with the destruction of Jerusalem,
probably events of the recent past.
But the humiliation of Judah was
not the work of a single day. Jer.
xli makes it plain that for several
months there were outbreaks of hos-
tility against the small community
lefs behind under Gedaliah. If the
delivery of the oracle is placed in the
period following the sack of the city
by the Chaldeans, during the months
or even years in which the Am-
monites and other surrounding na-
tions continued to harass the Jews,
the interpretation becomes less diffi-
cult. In deep emotion the prophet
beholds the continued hostility of
Edom; the reference to past crimes
(verse 11) rouses him still more; and
moved by righteous indignation he
warns the Edomites to abstain from
further crimes, giving as one reason
the fact that by persisting in wrong-
doing they will only increase the
severity of their judgment (15, 16).
304

OBADIAH.

 

est not have ‘looked on sthe day of
thy brother in the day that he be-
came a stranger; neither shouldest
thou have trejoiced over the chil-
dren of Judah in the day of their
destruction; neither shouldest thou
have 7spoken proudly in the day of

distress. 13 Thou shouldest not
have entered into the gate of my
people in the day of their calamity;
yea, thou shouldest not have looked
on their affliction in the day of their
calamity, nor have laid hands on
their 8substance in the day of their

 

t Psa. 22. 17; 54. 7; 59. 10; Mic. 4. 11;
7. 10.—=s Psa. 37. 13; 137. 7.—* Job 31.
29; Prov. 17. 5; 24. 17, 18; Mic. 7. 8.

Marti, who dates the verses in the
fifth century, explains the warnings
by saying that the author transposed
himself in thought in the midst of the
calamity, though in reality it was a
thing of the past; and he holds that
the practical force of the warnings is
similar to that implied in the render-
ing of the A. V. This interpretation,
however, seems less natural than the
one suggested above.

The comments on 12-14 are based
upon the translation of R. V. The
warnings in these verses proceed from
the lower to the higher. The prophet
warns Edom “not to rejoice in Judah’s
troubles (12), nor to make common
cause with the conquerors (13), nor to
outdo and complete the work of the
enemy (14).” A climax may be
noticed also within verse 12. Look
not—The Hebrew construction im-
plies the idea of looking with pleasure
and satisfaction—take delight in.
Rejoice not—An advance over the
preceding; to give expression to the
delight. Speak proudly—Literally,
make thy mouth great, in contempt and
derision. This marks the climax. It
“may refer either to proud, boastful
words, or to mocking grimaces and
contortions of the mouth.” The day
of thy brother—The day when the
calamities mentioned in verse 11
fell upon Jerusalem (compare Psa.
exxxvii, 7, “the day of Jerusa~
lem’’). The other three clauses de-
scribe the day more definitely.
The day of his disaster—The He-
brew word translated disaster occurs
only here; a similar word is used
in Job xxxi, 3, in the same sense.
Both come from the same root from
which is derived the word foreigner

 

7Heb. magnified thy mouth. Or,

forces.

(verse 11); hence the primary meaning
of the word would seem to be “‘treat-
ment such as is accorded to a
stranger,” which in many cases would
be cruel and unjust, or ‘treatment
which makes of a person a stranger.”
The expression used here may mean
either “the day on which he re-
ceived cruel treatment” or “the
day on which he was made a stranger
by being carried into exile.” The
day of their destruction—Or, undoing.
A stronger term than the preceding.
Distress—The deplorable condition
subsequent to the fall of the city.

In verse 13 the prophet warns Edom
not to make common cause with the
conquerors who are plundering the
city and state. Again the prophet
presents the warning in the form of a
climax, to enter in, to look upon, to
seize. The gate of my people—Gate—
city (Mic. i, 9); here evidently Jerusa-
lem. In the day of their calamity—
Repeated three times for the sake of
emphasis, to indicate the greatness of
the calamity, and at the same time
to call attention to the greater crime
of Edom, “since it is precisely at the
time of a brother’s calamity that
such treachery and malicious joy is
doubly culpable.” Yea, look not thou
—Literally, look not thou, even thou.
The emphasis is on the pronoun. “A
brother should be the last to gloat
over the misfortunes of a brother”
(see on Amos i, 11). Neither lay ye
hands on their substance—Do not join
the foreign robbers in plundering the
city (compare verse 11, where the
same noun is used).

In verse 14 the prophet reaches the
climax. He warns them against seiz-
ing Jewish fugitives to murder them
OBADIAH.

305

 

calamity; 14 Neither shouldest thou
have stood in the crossway, to cut
those of his that did escape; neither
shouldest thou have *delivered up
those of his that did remain in the

day of distress. 15 "For the day of
the Lorp is near upon all the hea-
then: xas thou hast done, it shall be
done unto thee: thy reward shall
return upon thine own head. 16

 

 

° Or, shut up, Psa. 31. 8. Ezek. 30. 3;

Joel 8. 14 ——* Ezek. 35. 15; Hab. 2. 8.

 

or deliver them up to their enemies.
Stand thou not in the crossway—The
place where one or more roads meet,
or where one road divides into two or
more. There the greatest number of
fugitives could be seized. To cut off—
Not merely to cut off their escape, but
to murder them after they had escaped
from the general slaughter. Deliver
not up—To the enemy from whom
they had escaped. The allusion may
be to fugitives who took refuge in
Edom.

The terrors of the day of Jehovah,
, 16.

In verse 10 the prophet announces
judgment upon the Edomites for
their ill treatment of Judah; in verse
11 he describes in greater detail their
wrongdoings; in 12-14 he warns them
to abstain from further violence.
These warnings he backs up in 15, 16
by calling attention to the day of
Jehovah, when Edom and all other
enemies of Jehovah will receive their
just dues. For—Connects with verse
14 more directly than with verse 9.
The day of Jehovah is near upon all
the heathen—R. V., “‘all the nations.”
Edom is joined here with the other
enemies of Jehovah; but 15b sets her
apart again from the rest. Though
the transition from 15a to 15b is
abrupt there is insufficient reason for
rejecting the latter as out of harmony
with the former. The seeming diffi-
culty may be removed by regarding
15b as an attempt on the part of the
prophet to emphasize the special
guilt of the Edomites, which might
possibly be overlooked, were they
not singled out for condemnation.
In a sense, therefore, 15b is a paren-
thetical clause. Day of Jehovah—
See on Joel i, 15. As thou hast done
—The latter part of verse 15 lays

 

down the basis of recompense, the
lex talionis (compare Ezek. xxxv, 15;
Psa. cxxxvil, 8; see on Joel iii, 7).
This idea is continued, in somewhat,
different form, in verse 16. “With
what measure ye mete, it shall be
measured unto you.”

The interpretation of verse 16 de-
pends upon the determination as to
who are the persons addressed with
you. 1. Are they Edomites? “As ye
Edomites have drunk in triumphant
revelry and carousal on my holy
mountain, rejoicing with unhallowed
joy over its destruction, so shall (ye
and) all the nations drink continually
the wine of God’s wrath and indigna-
tion.” 2. Are they the Jews? ‘As
ye have drunk (who are) upon my
holy mountain; as even you who are
my chosen people, and inhabit the
mountain consecrated by my presence,
have not escaped the cup of my wrath,
so all the nations shall drink of that
same cup, not with a passing salutary
draught as you have done, but with a
continuous swallowing down, till they
have wrung out the dregs thereof and
been brought to nothing by their
consuming power.” Against the first
and in support of the second inter-
pretation it is urged: (1) The former
would necessitate a change of meaning
in drink; in the first sentence it would
have to be understood literally, in the
second figuratively. (2) In other parts
of the book Edom is addressed in the
singular, here in the plural. (3) The
Edomites are a part of “all the na-
tions” (15a); it would be peculiar to
have them separated in verse 16 (15b
is of a different nature). (4) “The
contrast between the Edomites revel-
ing upon Mount Zion and the nations
drinking the cup of Jehovah’s wrath
gives no sense.” (5) It is also urged
that the second interpretation alone
306

OBADIAH.

 

yFor as ye have drunk upon my
holy mountain, so shall all the hea-
then drink continually, yea, they
shall drink, and they shall swallow

y Jer. 25. 28, 29; 49. 12; Joel 3.17; 1 Pet.
4. 17.—!0 Or, sup up.—-—# Joel 2. 32.

does justice to continually “by virtue
of the contrast which it suggests be-
tween the Jews for whom the bitter
draught was only temporary, for
amendment and not for destruction,
and the heathen who were to drink
on until they perished.” (6) The
parallel passage (see, however, p. 291)
in Jer. xlix, 12 (compare xxv, 15-29;
Lam. iv, 21, 22) is also quoted in sup-
port, But the second interpretation
is by no means free from difficulties:
(1) The rendering, ‘‘As ye have drunk
who are upon my holy mountain,” is
grammatically impossible; “upon my
holy mountain” belongs to “as ye
have drunk.” This objection, how-
ever, is valid only against the above-
mentioned translation of the passage;
a proper translation might remove
the difficulty. (2) Throughout the
whole prophecy Edom seems to be
addressed, never the people of Judah
directly. (3) The parallelism with
“even as thou hast done,” referring to
Edom (verse 15), favors the first view.
(4) The meaning which Jeremiah
gives to the passage cannot determine
the meaning of Obadiah. If the two
passages are dependent the one on the
other, which is by no means certain
(p. 291), the borrower evidently took
considerable liberty with the passage
borrowed, and he may have gone so
far as to alter the original meaning.
On the whole, the first interpretation
seems to be the more natural. It is
in more perfect accord with the con-
text, and it gives to the expression
“drunk upon my holy mountain” its
natural meaning. The use of drink
in a twofold sense is not a serious ob-
jection; on the contrary, such change
would be striking, and thus would
add force to the prophetic message.
The word continually would not lose
its significance. Abrupt transitions
from singular to plural, or plural to

 

down, and they shall be as though
they had not been. .

17 ‘But upon mount Zion, *shall
be deliverance, and there shall

a Amos 9. 8.—!1 Or, they that escape.—
12 Or, it shall be holy, Joel 3. 17.

singular, are not uncommon in
prophetic literature; and in this case
the change may easily be accounted
for by assuming that the prophet de-
sired to include, in thought at least,
all the nations. This assumption is
supported by the fact that in 15, 16
the Edomites and the other nations
are thought of as intimately asso-
ciated, both in oppressing Judah and
in enduring the judgment. For these
reasons we may consider the words ad-
dressed to the Edomites, and by
implication to all the nations. As ye
have drunk—There is nothing im-
probable in the thought that the
Edomites joined the destroyers in
carousals and revelry to celebrate the
downfall of the Jewish nation and the
capture of the city, and that they did
this on the temple mountain. My
holy mountain—See on Joel ii, 1. So
shall all the heathen [‘‘nations’’] drink
—AlIl who have manifested hostility
toward the chosen people of God
must drink the cup of the divine
wrath. Continually—‘‘So that the
turn to drink never passes from the
nations to Judah” (Isa. li, 22, 23).
Swallow down—R. V. margin, ‘“‘talk
foolishly.” Of these the former is to
be preferred. They will be com-
pelled to empty the cup to the bot-
tom. A figurative description of the
severity and completeness of the
judgment. The result will be utter
destruction for the nations that have
been the enemies of Jehovah and of
his people.

The exaltation of the Jews, 17-21.

The judgment upon the nations is
accompanied and followed by the
restoration and glorification of Zion
(compare Joel ii, 32ff.). The prophet’s
hope of the future embraces four ele-
ments: (1) the restoration of the
remnant (17); (2) the annihilation of
OBADIAH.

307

 

be holiness; and the house of Jacob
shall possess their possessions. 18
And the house of Jacob »ghall be a
fire, and the house of Joseph a flame,
and the house of Esau for stubble,

and they shall kindle in them, and
devour them; and there shall not be
any remaining of the house of Esau;
for the Lorp hath spoken it. 19
And they of the south ‘shall possess

 

bIsa, 10. 17; Zech. 12, 6.

°c Amos 9. 12.

 

Edom (18); (3) the expansion of the
territory of the Jews (19, 20);
(4) the supremacy of Jehovah (21).

17a is rendered more accurately in
R. V., “But in mount Zion there
shall be those that escape, and it
shall be holy.” For the interpreta-
tion of the first clause see on Joel ii,
32. The nations are to be destroyed
(16); even some Jews seem to be
doomed, but not all; a remnant con-
sisting of the loyal sons of Jehovah
shall be saved (see on Amos ix, 9).
It—Mount Zion. Shall be holy—Lit-
erally, holiness; the noun is used in-
stead of the adjective for the sake of
emphasis (G.-K., 141c). The na-
tions that defiled the temple mount
(verse 16) having been destroyed, it
will be consecrated to Jehovah, who
sanctifies it- by his presence; no un-
clean stranger will be allowed to pass
through it and defile it again (Joel
ili, 17). The house of Jacob—Identi-
cal with “those that escape.’”’ Since
the prophetic expectation includes a
reunion of Judah and Israel at the
time of the restoration (Hos. i, 11;
Ezek. xxxvii, 15ff.; Zech. x, 6, etc.),
‘house of Jacob” must include all
Hebrews, whether of Israel or of
Judah, who pass through the crisis
unhurt (compare verse 18). Shall
possess their possessions—Not the
possessions of Edom and of the na-
tions, which is promised in verses 18,
19, but their own former possessions
(verse 20) which, through their sin,
they had lost in 721 and 586. The
restoration of the exiles to the prom-
ised land is considered by all prophets
the first step toward the realization of
the felicity of the new kingdom of
God. Vocalizing the last word some-
what differently, LXX. renders “and
the house of Jacob will possess those
who possessed them,” that is, those

 

who formerly robbed the Jews of
their possessions. Several modern
commentators accept this as original,
but, since this thought is the burden
of verses 18, 19, the above interpre-
tation of verse 17 is to be preferred.

18. The restored exiles will execute
vengeance upon Edom. Several
times the prophet has made it plain
that Jehovah will destroy Edom;
but, if the above suggested interpre-
tation of verse 1 is correct, he has
failed to state thus far how it is to be
accomplished. This lack he supplies
in verse 18, where he nemes the exe-
cutors of the divine purpose. House
of Jacob... house of Joseph—Though
common usage may be urged against
it, the context seems to require that
the former should be interpreted as
referring to the southern kingdom,
the latter to the kingdom of the ten
tribes. The two will become re-
united at the time of the restoration
(Hos. i, 11; Ezek. xxxvii, 15ff.; Isa.
xi, 13, 14), and will be used by Je-
hovah as instruments of judgment
(Zech. ix, 13). Fire, . . . flame—The
figure is based upon devastation
wrought by prairie and forest fires,
which are not uncommon in Palestine
during the dry season (see on Joel i,
19; compare Isa. v, 24;x,17). Stubble
—Which is readily devoured by the
flames. The destruction will be so
complete that no one will survive.
Jehovah hath spoken it—Therefore
nothing can prevent the carrying out
of the threat (Joel iii, 8).

The remaining verses of Obadiah
present grave difficulties, and the de-
tails of interpretation are more or
less uncertain. However, the general
thought seems tobe that Israel, hav-
ing destroyed Edom, will enter upon
an era of prosperity and territorial
expansion. This expansion is made
308

OBADIAH.

 

the mount of Esau; 4and they of the
plain the Philistines: and they shall
possess the fields of Ephraim, and

4 Zeph. 2. 7.

 

necessary by the large number of
restored exiles. The old territory of
Judah cannot hold them; they over-
flow in every direction. Lack of
space forbids the consideration of the
different translations, emendations,
and interpretations proposed; all that
can be done here is to point the way
to the most probable interpretation.

An examination of verse 19 and a
comparison of it with LXX. and with
Josh. xv, 20ff., where the divisions of
the territory occupied by Judah are
named, leads to the following observa-
tions: 1. The verbs in verse 19 are in
the plural, while the nouns that are
ordinarily considered the subjects are
in the singular. This creates ap-
parently a difficulty; but construction
according to the sense rather than
according to strict grammatical rules
is not uncommon in the Old Testa-
ment (G.-K., 145b), especially when a
noun expresses a collective idea. Hence
the English translators are undoubt-
edly correct in making neghebh the
subject and rendering it “they of the
south,” the inhabitants of the Negeb.
2. The first verb is followed imme-
diately by its subject; after the second
verb the subject of the first must be
supplied, which results in an un-
usually heavy and somewhat awk-
ward sentence. 3. LXX. reads after
the second verb 76 dpoc, “the mount,”
which may be taken as subject in the
Greek, and it omits the first, “the
field of.” 4. In Josh. xv, 20ff., the
territory of Judah is divided into
three sections (or four, but the fourth
is very small); the first is called
“South” or “Negeb” (verse 21), the
second “Lowland” (83), the third
“Hill Country” (48), Heb. har, which
corresponds to the Greek dpoc. Bear-
ing in mind these considerations it
seems legitimate to emend the text
of verse 19 so that it will read: “And
the Negeb (the inhabitants of the

 

the fields of Samaria: and Benjamin
shall possess Gilead. 20 And the
captivity of this host of the children

 

Negeb) shall possess Mount Esau, and
the Lowland (shall possess) the Philis-
tines; the Hill Country shall possess
(the field of) Ephraim and the field of
Samaria, and Benjamin (shall pos-
sess) Gilead.” Negeb—Commonly
translated “south.” A geographical
term, denoting the southern section of
the Central Range of Palestine. It is
generally spoken of as extending from
south of Beer-sheba to the wilderness
of Tih; the Old Testament, however,
places its northern border near Heb-
ron. The new inhabitants of this
district will expand eastward and
occupy the territory of Edom (see
on verse 18). Lowland—Heb. she-
phélah. Also a geographical term,
denoting the low foothills between
the Central Range and the Philistine
Plain; the inhabitants of this region
will spread to the west and southwest
and occupy Philistia. Hill country—
That portion of the territory of Judah
which covered the Central Range, be-
tween the Shephelah and the Jordan
valley or the Dead Sea. Itsinhabitants
will reach northward and claim the ter-
ritory south of the Plain of Esdraelon,
which before 721 had belonged to the
northern kingdom, and part of which
seems to have fallen to Judah after
the deportation of the northern tribes
(2 Kings xxiii, 15). Nearly the entire
territory here promised to Judah is al-
lottedin Josh. xv to that tribe. During
its national existence Judah never
possessed all this territory; here the
prophet promises that subsequent to
the day of Jehovah it will surely enter
upon its possessions; yea, in the south
at least, it will go even beyond its
ideal borders (compare Gen. xxviii,
14). Benjamin shall possess Gilead—
The popular impression is that Ben-
jamin joined Judah after the division
subsequent to the death of Solomon,
though 1 Kings xii, 20, says, “There
was none that followed the house of
OBADIAT.

309

 

of Israel shall possess that of the
Canaanites, even cunto Zarephath;

and the captivity of Jerusalem,
which is in Sepharad, ‘shall pos-

 

e¢1 Kings 17. 9, 10.—15 Or, shall possess

that which \s in Sepharad.— Jer. 32. 44.

 

David, but the tribe of Judah only.”
In reality the border line ran through
the territory of Benjamin, the greater
part belonging to the northern king-
dom. Obadiah’s promise is for those
Benjamites who allied themselves with
Judah. They will share the pros-
perity of Judah; and while the latter
will possess the territory west of the
Jordan as far north as the Plain of
Esdraelon, the former will receive the
entire territory east of the Jordan.
Verse 20 is another exceedingly diffi-
cult verse; it perplexed the Eng-
lish translators, as may be seen from
the marginal notesin R. V. Nowack
considers the text “hopelessly corrupt,”
and his opinion is shared by other
commentators. The most probable
rendering of the present Hebrew text
is offered in R. V. margin, “And the
captives of this host of the children of
Israel, that are among the Canaanites,
even unto Zarepbath, and the cap-
tives of Jerusalem, that are in Sep-
harad, shall possess the cities of the
South (or Negeb).’’ In verse 19 the
prophet seems to have in mind the
great body of exiles in the far east;
but we know that many Jews took
refuge among the neighboring na-
tions (Jer. x], 11, 12). Of two colonies
made up of these fugitives the prophet
seems to speak in verse 20. Israel,
+ » « Jerusalem—Most commentators
think that the prophet distinguishes

here between the descendants of the

exiles coming from the northern king-
dom, Israel, and those coming from
the south, Judah, called here by the
name of its capital, Jerusalem. It is
better, however, to understand “Ts-
rael’”” as synonymous with “Jacob”
(verse 18), denoting the people of
Judah; and in distinction from ‘“Jeru-
salem” the rural population, which
scattered before the Chaldean armies.
The one company addressed by the
prophet is made up of these people,
and the other is composed of former

 

inhabitants of the capital. This host
—The force of this is not quite clear,
unless we assume that Obadiah is
speaking of and to a company of
which he himself is a member. To
know that the prophet himself was
an exile would add interest to his ut-
terances. It has been explained also
by assuming that he was addressing a
definite company which he desired to
comfort on its way into exile. The
land of the Canaanites—Palestine; the
prophet seems to think, however, es-
pecially of the northern portion, in-
cluding a part of Phcenicia. There is
nothing impossible or improbable in
the thought that some of the Jews
fled to these regions when they saw
the Chaldeans approaching. Zare-
phath—In Luke iv, 26, R. V. margin,
“Sarepta” (compare 1 Kings xvii, 9-
24). At one time a city of consider-
able size; now an Arabic village called
Sarafend, about midway between Tyre
and Sidon. Sepharad—The Targum
of Onkelos and many Jewish authori-
ties take Sepharad to mean Spain;
hence the name of Spanish Jews,
Sephardim, as distinguished from Ger-
man Jews, who are called Ashkenazim.
Keil thinks of Sparta. Most modern
commentators identify it with a region
in Asia Minor, mentioned several
times in Persian inscriptions; Winckler
understands the name to be a designa-
tion of the whole of Asia Minor, The
latter, however, was not subject to
the Chaldeans; it was first conquered
by Cyrus; and was organized into a
satrapy by Darius Hystaspis. If the
last-mentioned interpretation is cor-
rect the name points to a date sub-
sequent to the fall of Jerusalem; and
it is the presence of this name that
has led many commentators to give
a very late date to the prophecy in
its present form. Others identify it
with a Shaparda in Media, mentioned
in the annals of Sargon. Until new
information is brought to light the
310

OBADIAH.

 

sess the cities of the south. 241 And
fsaviors shall come up on mount

«1 Tim. 4, 16; James 5. 20,

place mentioned in Obadiah cannot
be identified with absolute certainty;
nor is it wise to base upon the presence
of the name any conclusions as to the
date of the prophecy. This uncer-
tainty, however, does not affect the
general sense of the utterance, which
is that not only the exiles in Babylon
but also those scattered throughout
other portions of the world shall be
brought back to their old homes in
the south, from which the invasion of
the Chaldeans had driven them. If
this is the right interpretation of
verse 20 its logical position would be
before verse 18.

An entirely different meaning is
given to the verse by the translators
of A. V., which agrees, in part at
least, with R. V. They give to it the
meaning that the first company of
exiles named will come into possession
of northern Palestine, including a
part of Phoenicia, while the second
will occupy the southern portion, the
two together the entire promised land.
Certainty cannot be had; the proba-
bility is that the text has suffered.

21. With the enemies destroyed and
the exiles restored, a life of perma-
nent peace and prosperity will begin
under the rule of earthly representa-
tives of the Divine King. Saviours—
The same name is given to the cham-
pions raised up by Jehovah during the
period preceding the establishment of
the monarchy (Judg. ii, 16; iii, 9, 15,
etc.). Nothing is said of the char-

 

Zion to judge the mount of Esau; and
the "kingdom shall be the Lorn’s.

h Psa, 22. 28; Dan. 2. 44; 7 1d, 27:
Zech, 14. 9; Luke 1. 38; Rev. 11, 15; 19. 6.
acter and nature of these Messianic
saviours; their types are the ‘‘sa-
viours” of the Book of Judges, and
in its general aspects their work may
have been expected to resemble that
of the latter. Judge—Rule (see on
Amos ii, 3). The saviours will rule
on Mount Zion, the center of the king-
dom of God during the Messianic age
(verse 17; Isa. ii, 2-4), but their sway
will extend beyond the borders of
Judah. The territory of Edom, which
will be in the possession of the re-
stored exiles (verse 19), will be a part
of the dominion of these “saviours”’ ;
but it should be noted that they will
not rule over the Edomites, for they
are annihilated (verse 18).

To this climax the prophet has
been moving steadily from the begin-
ning; the arrogance and unrighteous
schemes of the domites (verse 1) will
result in their own annihilation, and
in the annexation of their territory
by the despised Jews. The “saviours”
in this verse correspond to the “Mes-
sianic king” of other prophetic utter-
ances.. The kingdom shall be Jehovah’s
—Over these “saviours” Jehovah
will be the supreme ruler; the expres-
sion of his purpose will be supreme
law, obedience and loyalty to him
will be the chief ambition. With ref-
erence to the Messianic significance of
verse 21 and the fulfillment of the
Messianic expectations see the re-
marks on Mic. iv, 5, and at the close
of chapter v.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH.

 

The Prophet.

THE events recorded in the Book of Jonah center around
Jonah, the son of Amittai (i, 1). A prophet bearing the same
name is mentioned in 2 Kings xiv, 25, and since the two names
are found nowhere else in the Old Testament it is exceedingly
probable that the Jonah of 2 Kings xiv, 25, and the hero of
this little book are identical. According to the passage
in Kings Jonah prophesied in the northern kingdom previ-
ous to the conquests achieved by Jeroboam II, which would
make him a predecessor of Amos and Hosea. In addi-
tion we learn that he came from Gath-hepher, which was a
village on the border of Zebulun and Naphtali, near Japhia
and Rimmon (Josh. xix, 12, 13), a place commonly identified
with the modern village of e/-Meshhed. Here may be seen one
of the numerous tombs of Jonah, and the natives, both Chris-
tians and Mohammedans, regard this as the home of the
prophet. Their belief finds support in ancient Jewish and
Christian traditions. Jerome, for example, states that the
home and tomb of Jonah were shown two miles from Sepphoris
on the road to Tiberias. Sepphoris is identified with the
modern Seffirieh, a village about two and one half miles from
el-Meshhed.

Of the personal life of Jonah nothing is known except what
is recorded in the book bearing his name and in 2 Kings xiv,
25. (On the historical value of the book see pp. 314ff.; 338ff.)
Some modern commentators, following the suggestion of
Hitzig, have thought that Jonah is the author of Isa. xv, 1—
xvi, 12, of which Isaiah says that it was spoken in time past,
or at least of the prophecy underlying the two chapters, but
this is mere assumption and is not probable. That numerous

311
312 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH.

 

traditions and legends concerning Jonah should grow up
among the post-biblical Jews is not surprising, in view of the
peculiar character of the Book of Jonah, but these legends are
of little or no importance in our study.

The Book of Jonah.

1. Contents——The Book of Jonah narrates certain incidents
connected with the prophet’s commission to preach in Nineveh.
It opens with an account of the commission of Jonah (i, 1, 2).
Jonah, unwilling to obey, decided to flee “from the presence
of Jehovah”; he went to Joppa and embarked for Tarshish,
in Spain (3). Soon a great tempest arose, which threatened
to destroy the ship (4). The terrified sailors attempted to
save the vessel, but the danger only increased (5a). Mean-
while Jonah was asleep; he was finally aroused by the captain,
who implored him to pray to his God for help. This he did,
but no relief came (5b, 6). Then the sailors, convinced that
the storm was due to the anger of a deity against some
one on board, decided to discover the guilty one by casting
the lot. It fell upon Jonah, who then made a confession
and urged them to cast him overboard (7-12). At first they
hesitated, but finally they cast him out, and immediately the
sea “ceased from its raging” (13-15). As a result the men
recognized that the God of Jonah was the God, and to him
they offered sacrifice (16).

Jonah did not perish, for a “big fish” swallowed him, in
whose belly he remained for three days (i, 17); at the end of
that period he was cast forth “upon the dry land” (ii, 10).
While in the fish’s belly he offered a prayer consisting of
thanksgiving for deliverance wrought and a promise forever to
remain loyal to his God because “salvation is of Jehovah”
(ii, 1-9).

After this wonderful deliverance the command to go to
Nineveh was repeated, and this time the prophet obeyed.
Having found a suitable place in the city, he delivered the
message, “Yet forty days, and Nineveh shall be overthrown”
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH. 313

 

(iii, 1-4). The effect of the preaching was immediate; king
and people turned to Jehovah in sorrow and repentance, where-
upon Jehovah determined to withhold the threatened judg-
ment (5-10).

This displeased Jonah, and he complained bitterly because
Jehovah showed mercy to the Ninevites; and finally he prayed
that Jehovah should take his life (iv, 1-3). Jehovah rebuked
him gently and afterward taught him by the miraculous growth
and destruction of a “gourd” the absurdity of his complaint
and the justice of the divine mercy (4-11).

2. Outline.—
I. JONAH’S COMMISSION, HIS DISOBEDIENCE, AND HIS PUNISHMENT
PMe eta sue Lege Sole pane eee RE Ue Swe Meee ew Chap. i, 1-16
1. Jonah’s commission and disobedience............. i, 1-3
2. The discovery of Jonah’s guilt.................0. i, 4-10
38. Jonah’s punishment........... cece cece eee eens i, 11-16
II. JONAH’S WONDERFUL DELIVERANCE............+0000- i, 17—ii, 10
1. Jonah, preserved in a fish’s belly, reaches dry land
SWE RMaRGERY WE Bide alee tule Vid oeded Viexanekce 6 i, 17; ii, 10
Qe, PONAD’SPLAVCL ay sak hee seesaw Sree ie Aesassd are Wits eee sepa ii, 1-9
III. JONAr’S PREACHING AND NINEVEH’S REPENTANCE........ iii, 1-10
J. Jonah’s second commission and preaching....... iii, 1-4
2. The repentance of the Ninevites................. iii, 5-9
8. The withholding of the judgment................ iii, 10
IV. JONAH’S COMPLAINT AND REBUKE.........0. eee eeeeeee iv, 1-11
1. Jonah’s displeasure and prayer for immediate death
Lie Glee Re ENR DOES Habe ae AA RO RW Ree REReNe eRe iv, 1-3
2. Jehovah’s remonstrance........... 0c eee e eee eee iv, 4
3. Rebuke of Jonah’s narrowness and justification of
the divine Mercy......... cee eee eee eee eee iv, 5-11

Interpretation of the Book.

The Book of Jonah is unlike any other prophetic book in
the Old Testament canon. All the others record chiefly pro-
phetic utterances, though sometimes embodying brief narra-
tives of events; this book records a prophet’s work and experi-
ences, giving little space to his utterances. The Book of
Daniel does not come into consideration here, since it is an
apocalyptic and not a prophetic book in the narrower sense of
314 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH.

 

that term. In some respects the Book of Jonah is unlike any
other book in the entire Old Testament. It is unquestionably,
as a Jewish tradition says, a book by itself. This being so, it
cannot be thought strange that the most widely diverging views
have been held concerning it.

For convenience’ sake the various interpretations of the book
may be divided into two classes: 1. The interpretation that
views it as a true history of actual events. 2. The interpreta-
tions—there are several—that consider the purpose of the book
to be primarily didactic, without intending to record actual
history. Though interpreters belonging to the second class are
constantly increasing in numbers, there have been even within
recent years those who have insisted very strongly on the his-
torical character of the book. Among scholars of a genera-
tion ago Pusey and Keil defended the historical interpretation
so ably that more recent writers have added little or nothing
to their arguments. Of the two Keil presents the arguments
in a more systematic manner, and his outline may be followed
here to indicate the grounds upon which the historical inter-
pretation rests.

Before passing to these arguments it may be noted that the
use of parables by Jesus forbids the a priori denial of the
presence in the Old Testament of a didactic book which is not
history. It is well also to bear in mind in this connection that
the Old Testament itself is rich in symbolism, especially when
speaking of the exile. Attention is called again to this fact
in discussing the teaching of the book (p. 330); however, it
may not be amiss to mention here one or two of such passages.
The vision of the dry bones in Ezekiel xxxvii, one of the
most sublime chapters in the Old Testament, is a sym-
bolical representation of the restoration from exile (compare
verse 12). An even closer, indeed a remarkably close, parallel
to the picture of Jonah in the fish’s belly and of his deliverance
is presented by the prophet Jeremiah: “Nebuchadrezzar the
king of Babylon hath devowred me, he hath crushed me, he
hath made me an empty vessel, he hath, like a monster, swal-
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH. 315

 

lowed me up, he hath filled his maw with my delicacies; he
hath cast me out” (li, 34). And again in verse 44: “And I
will execute judgment upon Bel in Babylon, and I will bring
forth out of his mouth that which he hath swallowed.” If the
Book of Jonah were regarded as a symbolical representation
of the exile and the restoration, how natural it would sound
_as an expansion of this vivid picture of Jeremiah (see further
p. 330).

Keil says concerning the book: “Its contents are neither
pure fiction, allegory, nor myth; nor yet a prophetic legend,
wrought up poetically with a moral and didactic aim, embel-
lished into a miraculous story, and mingled with mythical ele-
ments; but with all its miracles it is to be taken as a true
history of deep prophetico-symbolic and typical significance.”
In support of this position he advances the following reasons:
1. Traditions handed down both among Jews and among Chris-
tians agree in interpreting the book historically. 2. The many
historical and geographical statements in the book are of a
genuine historical character. For example, the mission of
Jonah is in perfect keeping with the historical relations of his
time; the description of the greatness of Nineveh (iii, 3) is
in harmony with the statements of the classical writers; its
deep moral corruption is testified to by Nah. iii, 1, Zeph. ii,
13ff.; and the mourning of man and beast (ili, 5-8) is con-
firmed as an Asiatic custom by Herodotus (ix, 24). 3. The
fundamental thought of the book, that Jehovah would show
mercy even to the heathen if they repented (ili, 10; iv, 10),
excludes everything fictitious; the psychologically truthful
delineation of the personality of the prophet, of the mariners,
and of the Ninevites favors an historical interpretation. 4.
The position of the book among the prophetical writings
points in the same direction. “Had the collector of the canon
not believed in the historical truth of this fact, had he beheld
only religious truths in the garb of an allegory or fable in
this book, why did he not place it among the Hagiographa ?”
5, The historical character of the book is raised above all
316 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH.

 

doubts by the utterances of the Lord in Matt. xii, 39ff.; xvi, 4;
Luke xi, 29-32, which at the same time throw light upon the
prophetico-typical character of the prophetic mission. 6. The
origin, contents, and tendency of the book become incompre-
hensible as soon as we reject the historical character of the
narrative. 7. The objections raised by the opponents of the
historical view rest partly upon an unjustifiable denial of the
miraculous, partly on misunderstandings, unfounded assump-
tions, and untenable assertions.

To a superficial observer these arguments may appear over-
whelming; but if they were so it would seem very strange that
so many modern interpreters have remained unconvinced, that
very few, if any, experts in Old Testament study to-day hold
the historical view. It may be well, therefore, to consider
these arguments briefly: 1. That the post-Old Testament Jew-
ish writings, such as Tobit, 3 Maccabees, Josephus, Philo, and
the Talmud considered the narrative of the book of Jonah as
literal history may be readily admitted; and it is equally true
that the historical view was commonly accepted by the early
church fathers; but this fact is far from proving the historical
character of the book, for Jewish traditions have been found
very frequently to be unreliable, and it is universally admitted
that in no case can their testimony be accepted as final. Early
Christian traditions concerning Old Testament subjects have
little or no independent value, since most of them were taken
over bodily from the Jews without any inquiry into their
accuracy or reliability. At the most, these traditions may
serve as starting points in investigations, but they cannot be
adhered to in the presence of legitimate contradictory evidence.
2. The phenomena mentioned under the second head are more
weighty; but are they conclusive? That a Hebrew prophet
might have visited Nineveh about 770 B. C. is undoubtedly
true, but the possibility of such a visit by no means proves
that it was actually made, or that all the events recorded in
the Book of Jonah are historical. It is not quite accurate to
say that the size of Nineveh as given in iii, 3, is in accordance
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH. 317

 

with the statements of classical authors; nor does it seem to
be in accord with modern research (see on iii, 3). Koenig, a
very cautious scholar, says that “the diameter of even the four-
fold city (Gen. x, 11) was not equal to a three days’ journey” ;
and he quotes Friedrich Delitzsch as saying, “The length of
the road from Kouyunjik to Nimroud is only some twenty
English miles.” Similarly, the fact that the moral condition
of Nineveh is described accurately, or that the writer is
acquainted with ancient Asiatic customs is far from demon-
strating that the whole book is intended to be historical nar-
tative. Modern novels frequently embody accurate descrip-
tions of moral conditions prevailing at a certain period, yet
no one would claim that, for this reason, they must be accepted
as historical throughout (compare Quo Vadis). 3. Why the
fundamental idea of the book should exclude everything ficti-
tious even in the external form cannot easily be seen. The use
of parables by Jesus as a means of instruction indicates that
the sublimest religious truths may be taught in the literary
form of fiction. It is generally recognized that Shakespeare
gives in his works “psychologically truthful” delineations of
human nature; does it necessarily follow that his plays are
historical in every detail? 4. With reference to the fourth
point, C. H. H. Wright, who is exceedingly conservative and
cautious, says, “If the book had been regarded as an historical
narrative when the Hebrew canon was arranged, it would
scarcely have been inserted among the prophetical books, or
have been placed among them in the order in which it now
stands.” 5. The references of Jesus appear to some to decide °
the question finally in favor of the historical interpretation ;
on the other hand, there are devout Christian scholars who
believe that the references of Jesus are in perfect accord with
the didactic interpretation of the book. Many of the latter
would be perfectly willing to accept the testimony of Jesus
as final even in this purely literary question, if it could be
shown that he gave or intended to give any decision affecting
the point under consideration; but since they can find no
318 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH.

 

indication, direct or indirect, of any such desire or purpose on
the part of Jesus they consider the question one that must be
determined by scientific investigation. Of the verses men-
tioned, Matt. xii, 40, is thought by many not to be an original
part of Jesus’s utterance; but even granting that it is original,
do the words of Jesus prove conclusively that the Book of
Jonah is an historical book? The question is not whether the
words may not be interpreted as implying an historical view—
this may be readily admitted; this admission, however, leaves
the question open, to be decided finally on other grounds. The
question is rather, whether or not the words of Jesus do “raise
above all doubt the historical character of the book.” There
are those who insist that they do, and who consider any other
view a sure indication of infidelity and hostility to the Chris-
tian faith. “Our Lord says, ‘Jonah was three days and three
nights in the whale’s belly,’ and no one who really believes
him dare think that he was not” (Pusey). On the other
hand, there are those equally devout and pious who in all
sincerity believe that the question is not settled and was never
intended to be settled by the utterances of Jesus. Says C. H.
H. Wright: “The New Testament references decide nothing
except that the book is in some way or other a book of prophecy.
Consequently the question whether the book is also historical
must be decided from internal evidence alone.” Even Von
Orelli admits, “It is not, indeed, proved with conclusive neces-
sity that, if the resurrection of Jesus was a physical fact,
Jonah’s abode in the belly of the fish must also be just as
*historical.” The present writer indorses most heartily the
admirable statement of Dean Farrar: “If it could be shown
that Jesus intended by these words to stamp the story as lit-
erally true, every Christian would at once, and as a matter of
course, accept it. But this is an assumption, and it is a bad
form of uncharitableness to adopt the tone of those commenta-
tors who charge their opponents with setting aside the authority
of Christ. Seeing that our Lord so largely adopted the method
of moral allegory in his own parabolic teaching—seeing that
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH. 319

 

it was part of his habit to embody truth in tales which were
not literal facts, but were only told to fix deep spiritual les-
sons in the minds of the hearers—nothing is more possible
than that he should have pointed to the deep symbolism of an
Old Testament parable without at all intending to imply that
the facts actually happened.” The scribes and Pharisees had
come to Jesus asking for a sign; he refused to give it, and
declared that they already had a sign before them, his own
preaching, and that one supreme sign should be given, “the
Son of man shall be three days and three nights in the heart of
the earth.” The prediction of the resurrection is the essential
point; the reference to Jonah is only by way of illustration.
For purposes of illustration it is of no consequence whether
he draws upon the realms of poetry or of fact. Surely the
point to be emphasized loses none of its reality or power if it
is illustrated from allegory, parable, or poetry instead of from
history. “Suppose we tell slothful people that theirs will be
the fate of the man who buried his talent, is this to commit
us to the belief that the personages of Christ’s parables actually
existed? Or take the homiletic use of Shakespeare’s dramas—
‘as Macbeth did,’ or ‘as Hamlet said.’ Does it commit us to
the historical reality of Macbeth or Hamlet? Any preacher
among us would resent being bound by such an inference.
And if we resent this for ourselves, how chary we should be
about seeking to bind our Lord by it.” These words of G. A.
Smith call attention to the injustice of insisting that Jesus,
by referring to the Book of Jonah, put upon it the stamp of
historicity ; though it might have been better to state the
argument in a slightly different form. The historicity of the
person Jonah is not under investigation; therefore the paral-
lels of G. A. Smith are not quite to the point. The question
should have been worded, whether such references would prove
that the parables of Jesus are narratives of actual historic
facts, or that the plays of Shakespeare are historically true in
every detail. We may conclude, then, that, unless it can be
shown that Jesus meant to confirm the historical character
320 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH.

 

of the Book of Jonah, his references cannot be used legiti-
mately to prove its historical character. The utterances them-
selves contain nothing that would in any way throw light on
the question, and the point of his teaching remains the same
whether the book is history, or parable, or allegory. There
is, however, one consideration in connection with Jesus’s utter-
ances that favors the nonhistorical interpretation. The de-
fenders of the historical view are compelled to admit that the
repentance and conversion of the Ninevites were without per-
manent results. Says Huxtable, “The impression, like that
made by Elijah on Israel, was no doubt as superficial and
short-lived as it was for the moment marked by passionate
earnestness.” Over against this it should be noted that the
words of Jesus imply that the repentance and conversion of
the Ninevites were permanent; its results were to be mani-
fested in the day of judgment to the confounding of those
listening to one greater than Jonah. Indeed, the validity and
significance of our Lord’s argument is closely bound up with
this permanence; it is completely invalidated by the admis-
sion that the Ninevites soon relapsed into their wickedness.
Similarly, the Book of Jonah represents the conversion of the
Ninevites as real and permanent; else how could it have been
acceptable to Jehovah and caused him to withhold the judg-
ment? But if the book is to be taken as historical the silence
of the entire Old Testament concerning this remarkable con-
version and the extensive information furnished by the inscrip-
tions concerning life in Assyria during the eighth century B. C.
create a serious historical difficulty (see further p. 322). On
the other hand, if the book is an allegory or parable this dif-
ficulty disappears, for these forms of literature retain their
value though they may not be based upon actual historical
events. To say the least, therefore, the New Testament refer-
ences to the Book of Jonah fat! to establish the historical char-
acter of the book. 6. Whether the origin, contents, and ten-
dency of the book become incomprehensible with the didactic
interpretation of the same will be seen later in the discussion,
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH. 321

 

as also, 7, the justice or injustice of the statement that the
objections to the historical interpretation are based upon
unwarranted assumptions and an unjustifiable denial of the
supernatural.

In an address published in Bible Student and Teacher, Sept.,
1905, Rev. John Urquhart mentions another argument in favor
‘of the historical interpretation: “Of all parables this was the
most impossible to any Jewish writer. For what are the con-
tents of the book? An Israelitish prophet, with regard to
whom we have the distinct assurance that he prophesied to
the Ten Tribes, and that he uttered predictions that were
verified. Now, here is a book given to us by the ministry of
that Israelitish prophet that has not a single particle of Israel-
itish ministry in it from beginning to end. This man is con-
fined to whom? To a Gentile people. It has for its sphere
what? Not any city of Israel, but the city of Nineveh, the
capital of the great opponent of the Ten Tribes of Israel.
And the whole scene is confined to his ministry in regard to
that Gentile people, and the Gentile people are the object of
divine commiseration, and Jonah himself is the object of
divine complaint, if not of condemnation. Now, I say it was
another (sic/ = an utter?) impossibility that any Jewish mind
would have conceived fiction after that pattern. It would
have been to the glorification of Israel and not to the glorifica-
tion of Nineveh. It would have been to the setting forth of
God’s fierce anger against the Gentile people, and not his
commiseration toward the destroyer of the people of God.”

The present writer does not profess to know what a Jewish
mind “could” or “would” have conceived or written; and yet
for the sake of argument it may be admitted that no ordinary
“Jewish mind would have conceived fiction after that pattern.”
Why? Because the ordinary Jewish mind seems to have failed
to appreciate the lofty conception of the character of Jehovah
implied in the Book of Jonah. The truth of this statement is
confirmed by the utterances of all the prophets, who sought
to give to the people this loftier conception, and by the utter-
322 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH.

 

ances of Jesus himself. It was on account of this narrow
exclusiveness that Jehovah inspired a “Jewish mind” with a
loftier conception of himself and impelled this “inspired Jew-
ish mind” to present to his contemporaries in the Book of
Jonah a more adequate conception of the character of Jehovah.
This, as we can see from the parables of Jesus, might be done
by the use of a parable as well as by the use of an historical
narrative.

Thus far our investigation has been confined to an examina-
tion of the arguments in favor of the historical interpretation,
and it has been found that they fail to establish their point.

What, then, are the arguments advanced against the his-
torical, in favor of the didactic, interpretation? 1. If the
conversion of the Ninevites to Jehovah took place on the scale
recorded in the Book of Jonah, it is one of the most marvelous
events in human history, and certainly the most marvelous
event in Hebrew history. Such event would have furnished
Hebrew prophets with abundant material with which to empha-
size their earnest appeals for repentance to their contempora-
ries, and with which to support their frequent denunciations
of Nineveh. Surely it is not without reason that one writer
asks, “On what principle is the silence about such a remarkable
fact of the Book of Kings, and the silence of such prophets
as Isaiah, Jeremiah, Nahum, Zephaniah, to be accounted for ?”
2. The statement of Layard has often been quoted in favor
of the historical view: “I have known a Christian priest to
frighten a whole Mussulman town to tents and repentance, by
publicly proclaiming that he had received a divine commission
to announce a common earthquake or plague.” But neither
the book itself nor the use of the incident by the Master per-
mits the placing of the conversion of the Ninevites on the same
level as this temporary, superficial, and superstitious turning to
God. If, however, the conversion was as far-reaching as the
Book of Jonah would indicate, such wholesale conversion of a
world city like Nineveh from heathenism to the worship of
Jehovah, as the result of the preaching of a single individual,
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH. 323

 

is without analogy in the religious history of the world. 3. The
Old Testament everywhere represents the Ninevites as idolaters,
and gives no indication that any time they worshiped Jehovah.
4, The history of Assyria and Nineveh during the eighth cen-
tury B. C. is well known from the inscriptions, at least in its
broad outlines; and yet nowhere is there even the slightest hint
of a religious revolution such as is described in the Book of
Jonah. The kings of Assyria during the period of Jonah are
fairly well known, and it is not easy to imagine a monarch of
the type depicted in the Assyrian inscriptions behaving as the
king of Nineveh is represented in the Book of Jonah. 5. From
the time of Ashur-nasir-pal (about 880 B.C.) to the time of Sen-
nacherib, whose reign began in 705 B. C.—the date of Jonah
being about 770—Nineveh does not seem to have been the capi-
tal of Assyria, but Calah. “For nearly two centuries Calah
remained the capital, and it was only under Sennacherib that
Nineveh resumed its place as the chief city of the empire”
(Sayce). 6. The size of the city and the number of the inhabit-
ants are said not to be in accord with the modern measure-
ments of the site (see p. 317 and on iil, 3). 7% The very
structure of the narrative seems to indicate the didactic charac-
ter of the book. The author introduces just such details as
serve to illustrate this purpose; had his primary object been
history, his silence concerning several points would be peculiar.
“He says nothing of the sins of which Nineveh was guilty, nor
of the journey of the prophet to Nineveh, nor does he men-
tion the place where he was cast out upon the land, nor the
name of the Assyrian king. In any case, if the narrative were
intended to be historical, it would be incomplete by the fre-
quent fact that the circumstances which are necessary for the
connection of events are mentioned later than they happened,
and only where attention has to be directed to them as having
already happened.” Here should be noted also the abrupt
close of the story. The author, having pointed out, so to
speak, the moral of the story, has no occasion to pursue the
narrative further. “Indeed, throughout the book the truths
324 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH.

 

it enforces are always pushed more to the front than the facts.”
Baudissin has also called attention to the symmetrical struc-
ture of the book as indicating that the author was not con-
cerned primarily with the narration of history as such, but
with the artistic and forceful arrangement of certain material
at his command for didactic purposes. As illustrations he
mentions the similarity in the opening words of the two main
divisions of the book (i, 1, 2; iii, 1, 2); the words of the ship
captain and of the king of Nineveh (i, 6; 111,9). Twice Jonah
desires death in almost identical words (iv, 8, 8); twice
he is reproved by Jchovah in the same language (iv, 4, 9);
ete. 8. Professor Ladd (What Is the Bible? p. 84) calls atten-
tion to another objection in these words: “A narrative in
which a man is represented as composing a poetical prayer,
surrounded with water, his head bound with seaweed, and
drifting with marine currents, while inside a monster of the
sea, was surely never intended by its author to be understood
as literal history.” 9. So far no reference has been made to
the miraculous element in the book; the objections enumerated
are principally historical; and, though some students may
consider them more weighty than others, it must not be for-
gotten that no interpretation which fails to take them into
consideration can be regarded as satisfactory. There must be
mentioned now one other objection, and it.is based upon the
miraculous element in the book. Here one must move very
cautiously. The accusation has been frequently made that dis-
belief in miracles or in the supernatural is the chief ground
for denying the historical character of the book (see p. 316).
“But for them (the miracles) it may well be doubted whether
anyone would ever have taken the Book of Jonah to be any-
thing but history” (Perowne). This sweeping accusation is
unwarranted and unjust; for there are many devout com-
mentators who entertain no doubts concerning the reality of
the supernatural, or the possibility of miracles, who neverthe-
less doubt the historicity of the Book of Jonah; and when
such men assert that their attitude on this question is not due
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH. 325

 

to a disbelief in miracles it is certainly unfair and unchristian
to accuse them either of falsehood or of self-deception. Says
Dr. Dale, “I receive without a shadow of doubt many miracu-
lous stories of actual facts, but this book, on the whole, looks
to me unlike a story of actual facts.” Again, it should be
noted that the defenders of the historical interpretation center
the question of the supernatural and miraculous around the
ability of a fish to swallow a man. Urquhart, having proved,
as has been done many times before him, that a certain kind of
whale can easily swallow a man, exclaims in triumph, “And
who will tell me now that the whale is not able to swallow a
prophet ; that there isn’t a whale in all the seas able to swallow
Jonah? It could have swallowed six Jonahs and given them
up again.”

As a matter of fact, the swallowing of Jonah is only one
comparatively unimportant incident in the narrative; and it
may be readily admitted that any one of several kinds of fish
might swallow a human being. It is not the impossibility of
miracles, or the presence of any one miracle—not even one of
those much more startling than the swallowing of Jonah—
that is urged against the historical interpretation, but the
long succession, in such small compass, of a considerable num-
ber of miracles. There is a miracle at every step. The dis-
obedient prophet is pursued by a miraculously wrought tem-
pest; the lot is miraculously directed to Jonah; the prophet
is cast overboard and immediately the storm ceases. To pre-
serve the life of the prophet, immediately a great fish appears ;
without injury Jonah passes into his belly; there he is
miraculously kept alive for three days and three nights, when,
as Luther remarked, “in three hours he might have been
digested and changed into the nature, flesh, and blood of that
monster.” In the fish’s belly his mind remains clear enough
to compose a song of thanksgiving; then at the divine com-
mand he is cast upon the dry land. Greatest wonder of all,
at the preaching of Jonah the whole wicked city of Nineveh
immediately repents and turns to Jehovah. A “gourd” is
526 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH.

 

made to spring up in one night; in one night it is caused to
wither; and, finally, Jehovah causes an east wind to blow.
Here are twelve miracles recorded in a book of forty-eight
verses. Is there anything like it anywhere in sacred writ?
That God might have done these things is not and need’ not
be questioned; whether God did do it is a question of evidence.
The fact that nowhere else in divine economy, even in con-
nection with much more serious religious crises, is there any.
indication of such lavish use of miracles raises the question in
this case.

To say that the statements in the book itself put the sub-
ject beyond doubt is begging the question, since it is not yet
proved that the book is intended to record history.

The difficulties felt with regard to the miraculous element
in the book may be summarized thus: (1) The miraculous
character of the book from beginning to end is unique in the
sacred literature of the Bible; (2) the book presents no crisis
demanding this extraordinary display of divine power; (3) so
far as we know the processes of the divine economy, the mira-
cles of the Book of Jonah are without parallel.

The defenders of the historical view seem to be conscious of
a peculiarity or difficulty, for, strange to say, almost without
exception they seek to minimize the miraculous element and
to explain the events, as much as possible, as due to natural
causes. In this attempt some have not hesitated to force the
text into saying things far removed from the clear meaning
of the words. Even Henry Clay Trumbull, in his attempt to
establish at least the possibility of the historical character of
the book, has fallen into this error. But it is significant that
he is conscious of the extraordinary character of the miracu-
lous in the book; for he asks, “Where in the New Testament
or in the Old Testament except in the Book of Jonah is there
such a seemingly unnecessary miracle as the saving of a man’s
life by having him swallowed in a fish, instead, say, of having
the vessel that carried him driven back by contrary winds to
the place of its starting ?”
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH. 327

 

These are the nine most important reasons urged against
the historical interpretation. That they amount to a mathe-
matical demonstration of the nonhistorical character of the
book is not and need not be claimed. In questions of this
kind such demonstration is impossible, especially when exter-
nal evidence is absent. The exact weight of these arguments
may be variously estimated by different readers, but that some
of them possess considerable weight cannot be denied. At
any rate, the most careful students of the Book of Jonah are
almost universally agreed that the primary purpose of the book
is not historical, but didactic. With some this conviction is
the result of a careful consideration of the facts enumerated ;
with others it seems to be the outgrowth of their general intel-
lectual and spiritual development. Of the latter class is Dr.
Dale, who writes: “If you ask me why I have come to this
conclusion, I should answer: Very much in the same way in
which you have come to the conclusion that the Pilgrim’s
Progress is a work of the imagination. When we know what
real life is, Bunyan’s story does not look to us like a story of
real life. And so quite apart from the story of the great fish
which swallowed Jonah, and which after three days discharged
him alive on the dry land, this book does not look to me like
a plain story of events which really happened.”

Teaching of the Book.

When the conclusion is reached that the Book of Jonah is
primarily didactic, the question remains, what is the teaching
of the book? To this question various answers have been given
from time to time. Among the more prominent views are
the following: Ewald thinks that the aim of the book is to
teach the truth that “true fear and repentance bring salvation
from Jehovah.” When the sailors give Jehovah alone the
glory they are saved; when the Ninevites forsake their evil
ways and turn to Jehovah their doom is averted. Chapter iv,
he thinks, teaches that the ultimate basis of this truth is to
be found in Jehovah himself. It “makes evident the supreme
328 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH.

 

divine love as the true and necessary basis of the above redemp-
tion of the penitent of all classes without exception.” Hitzig
ascribes to the book an apologetic purpose. It seeks to justify
the prophets for the nonfulfillment of their oracles against the
heathen nations by pointing out that the prophets did not speak
of themselves, but under divine compulsion; therefore, if any
justification is needed it is needed by God, who is behind the
prophet. At the same time it seeks to justify God and to
silence all complaints arising out of the nonfulfillment of
these oracles (iv, 10, 11). Vatke’s view is. almost identical
with this. Similarly Riehm: “The practical purpose of the
little book is to give instruction as to the proper attitude
toward prophetic threats; they are to be respected as God’s
words, which the prophet must proclaim even against his own
will; but their fulfillment may be averted by repentance, and
when this has happened no exception must be taken to the
nonfulfillment of the divine message.” This purpose the book
fulfills by showing, (1) that a prophet must carry out any
commission imposed upon him; that neither his own efforts
nor external circumstances can excuse him from doing his
duty (chapters i, ii); (2) that God is not absolutely bound
to fulfill the threat uttered by the prophet; even heathen
nations, if they repent, may be shown mercy (chapter iii), and
in this manifestation of mercy God is perfectly justified (chap-
ter iv). As another illustration of the difference of opinion
may be mentioned the view formerly held by Volek. He saw
in the book an attempt to set forth the true nature of the
prophetic calling. “We learn from it, (1) that the prophet
must perform what God commands him, however unusual it
appears; (2) that even death cannot nullify his calling; (3)
that the prophet has no right to the fulfillment of his predic-
tion, but must place it in God’s hand.”

There is an element of truth in all these views; all the
lessons mentioned may be learned from the book; but the
views indicated fail to emphasize sufficiently that which seems
to be the very heart of the matter. In some respects the Book
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH. 329

 

of Jonah reaches the sublimest heights of Old Testament reli-
gion. A general idea of its worth is given in these words of
Cornill: “This apparently trivial book is one of the deepest
and grandest that was ever written, and I should like to say
to everyone that approaches it, “Take off thy shoes, for the
place whereon thou standest is holy ground.’ In this book
Israelitish prophecy quits the scene of battle as victor, and
as victor in its severest strugele—that against itself.”

What, then, gives to the little book this significance? What
is the lesson that “runs like a red thread through the whole
and at last becomes a knot whose unloosing in iv, 10, 11, forms
the glorious finale”? It is the universality of the divine plan
of redemption. Nowhere else in the Old Testament is such a
continued stress laid upon the fatherhood of God, embracing
in its infinite love the whole human race. The Book of Jonah
is indeed a “missionary book,” teaching that God does not wish
that “any should perish, but that all should come to repent-
ance.” Some of the postexilic writings of the Old Testament
indicate that there was growing among the Jews an exclusive,
particularistic tendency (see on Joel, p. 149), which produced
the idea that salvation was for the Jews only, an idea against
which early Christianity had to battle with all her might. To
counteract this narrow Jewish particularism is the aim of the
Book of Jonah; to show that it was a false assumption that
Jehovah would save only the Jews and destroy all other nations.
“The national limits of the old covenant are here wondrously
broken through; the entire heathen world opens as a mission
field to the messengers of Jehovah. Thus the book with its
wide-hearted outlook on God’s ways, and the sharp criticism
of the selfish spirit of the Jewish people, as a didactic work,
is itself a miracle in the literature of this people.” No one
but a prophet, filled with the spirit of Jehovah, could have
written this, the most Christian of all Old Testament books.

If this central lesson is once recognized it matters little
whether ,the book is called a prophetic parable, or an allegory,
or an historico-symbolic prophecy, or even a Midrash. It is
330 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH.

of little consequence whether it is a parabolic history of all
Israel, as Kleinert, Cheyne, C. H. 1. Wright, G. A. Smith,
and others see to think, or is understood as describing and
condemning only a party in the postexilic community. Nor
does it make much difference whether it is, so far as the nar-
rative part is concerned, entirely a product of the imagination,
or an elaboration of certain traditions centering around the
prophet Jonah mentioned in 2 Kings xiv, 25; it does not
matter even if it could be shown that the author drew upon
mythology for the figure of the “great fish.”

If the book is an allegory of Israel’s history Jonah sym-
bolizes the nalion. Isracl] had received a divine commission to
muke known Jehovah to all the earth (Isa. xli, 5-9; Gen.
xii, 3; compare Jonah i, 1, 2); but Israel was disobedient
and failed to carry out the divine purpose (Isa. xlii, 19-24;
compare Jonah i, 3, 4), and in consequence was swallowed up
by the “monster” (Jer. li, 34; compare Jonah i, 17; the word
translated “monster” in Jeremiah is translated “sea monster”
in Cen. 1, 213 Job vii, 12, ete.). In exile Isracl turned to
Jehovah (that the exile would have this effect is stated again
and again in the prophetic writings; compare Jonah ii, 1ff.) ;
then Israel was delivered from the “monster” (Jer. li, 443
Ezra i, 1ff.; compare Jonah ii, 10). The duration of Israel’s
judgment is represented by Hosea as lasting three days (see
on Hos. vi, 2; compare Jonah i, 17).

While the exile brought the Israclites, in some measure, to
their senses, they were not entirely cured. Their mission was
not revoked; it remained their duty to carry the knowledge
of Jehovah to the ends of the earth. But Israel remained
silent. There were many who were thinking of the nations
as doomed; they were displeased because the threats of the
preéxilic prophets remained unfulfilled. To teach such the
folly and wickedness of their attitude is the aim of chapters
iii, iv.

This may be the correct view. On the other hand, the
coincidences with the earlicr history may be purely accidental.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH. 331

 

The author may have in mind only the unspiritual Israelites
of the postexilic period; and the purpose underlying the book
may be to convince these of the iniquity of their selfish par-
ticularism and to give them a more adequate vision of the
divine purpose. In this case Jonah would represent not the
whole nation, but only the unspiritual portion of the post-
exilic community; yet the chief lessons of the book would
remain the same.

Budde, accepting, on the whole, the latter view of the teach-
ing of the book, that it is directed “against the impatience
of the Jewish believers who are fretting because, notwithstand-
ing all predictions, the anti-theocratic world empire has not
yet been-destroyed, because Jehovah is still postponing his
judgment upon the heathen, giving them further time for
repentance. Jehovah, it is hinted, is hoping that they will
turn from their sins in the eleventh hour; and he has com-
passion for the innocent ones who would perish with the
guilty,” believes that the Book of Jonah is a Midrash, that is,
an imaginative development of a thought | or theme suggested
by Seripture, a didactic or homiletie exposition, an edifying
religious story. He thinks that the book is a section of a
Jfidrash on the Books of Kings, either that mentioned in
2 Chron. xxiv, 27, or one otherwise unknown; and he sug-
gests that the passage underlying it is 2 Kings xiv, 25-27, the
only Old Testament passage in which Jonah is mentioned.
“The author of the Book of Kings puts into Jehovah’s mouth
warm words of mercy toward the northern kingdom. It is
easy to see how a Midrash might be added showing that his
mercy extended even to an alien, heathen empire.” Budde’s
suggestion is worthy of consideration, but it cannot be regarded
as fully established. It is, indeed, doubtful that the Midrash
used by the Chronicler was permeated by the universalistic
spirit so prominent in the Book of Jonah. Nevertheless, it is
not impossible that the author secured the narrative material
for the work from such Midrash. But these are all secondary
questions.
3382 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH.

 

Whatever the final conclusion as to the kind of literature to
which the little book belongs, the significance of its teaching
will in no wise be affected. 1t must ever be considered as
reaching the summit of Old Testament vision. “In no book
of the Old Testament,” says Bleek, “is the all-embracing
father-love of God, which has no respect for person or nation,
but is moved to mercy toward all who turn to him, exhibited
with equal impressiveness, or in a manner so nearly approach-
ing the spirit of Christianity.”

The Date of the Book.

Tf the interpretation of the book suggested in the two pre-
ceding sections is correct, it follows almost inevitably that
the Book of Jonah was not written by the prophet bearing
that name; that its origin must be assigned to a period
separated from the time of the prophet by several centuries.
Indeed, to such late date the book is assigned by all commenta-
tors who interpret the book as having primarily a didactic
purpose. But even some of the defenders of the historical
view believe that the book was not written by Jonah. Says
Harman, “The language seems altogether inconsistent with
such an early date, and would indicate a period just before,
or soon after, the Babylonian captivity.” Defenders of the
authorship of Jonah rarely advance specific reasons for their
belief; they are content with pointing out that there is nothing
in the book to prove that Jonah was not the author. Beardslee
advances five reasons, two of which have no bearing on the
question of authorship; the remaining three are: 1. Its place
among the Minor Prophets. 2. “All details of the narrative
lead us to regard it as a personal record.” 3. “The tone of
the book ... is more in harmony with Jonah’s time than
with the later postexilic period.” The weakness of these argu-
ments can be shown best by considering the arguments on the
other side.

The question of date must be determined wholly on the basis
of internal evidence; for the position of the book in the
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH. 333

 

collection of the Minor Prophets proves nothing (see Joel,
p. 130; Obadiah, p. 287); it certainly does not prove that the
compilers of the canon “were firmly convinced that the prophet
Jonah was the author.” Its didactic character would make
the prophetic collection its only suitable place; its brevity
would secure for it a position among the Minor Prophets, and
its mention of the prophet Jonah would determine its admis-
sion among the books considered the earlier. Jewish tradition
is silent concerning the authorship, perhaps, because it took for
granted that Jonah was the author. “In the Talmudic period,”
remarks Fiirst, “the question respecting its author was left
altogether undecided.”

Jt remains, then, to consider the arguments—aside from
what has been said in the preceding sections—in favor of the
late date of the book:

1. The Literary Arguments —(1) Jonah is nowhere men-
tioned as the author; he is always spoken of in the third
person, except where the author places in his mouth direct
utterances (i, 9; ii, 2ff., etc.). While this use of the third
person does not establish diversity of authorship, it certainly
does not militate against it; and Koenig calls attention to
the fact that Hosea, who also opens with the third person
(i, 3{f.), in the course of the story passes to the first (iii, 1ff.).
(2) “Although there are many vivid details, they are such as
might be suggested by ordinary experiences, a storm at sea
or exposure to the sun; there are none of those casual allu-
stons to time, place, or person which we expect in a man’s
account of his own experiences.”

2. The Linguistic Argument.—(For a general estimate of
the linguistic argument see on Joel, p. 137.) It is generally
admitted that the Book of Jonah contains several linguistic
peculiaritics, especially Aramaisms; but concerning the ex-
planation of these and their bearing upon the question of
authorship opinions have differed very widely. Keil is content
with saying that none of the unusual words and expressions
“can with certainty be said not to belong to the old Hebrew
334 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH.

 

modes of expression.” Others point out on the basis of the
Book of Hosea that the dialect of the north differed from that
of the south, and that, the northern kingdom being nearer
the territory in which the Aramaic was spoken, it would not
be strange if in the language spoken there Aramaic elements
were found, even at an early period. Were the peculiarities
fewer in number, this might serve as a sufficient explanation ;
but when so many peculiarities are found crowded in so short
‘a space, it seems, to say the least, more reasonable to explain
them as due to the fact that, when the Book of Jonah was
written, the literary language of the Hebrews had already
been considerably influenced by the Aramaic. That takes us
down to the period of or after the exile. (A list of these
expressions may be seen in Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible,
ii, p. 748; Driver, Introduction, p. 322.)

3. The Theological Argument.—All, including those who
defend the historical interpretation, admit that the book has a
didactic purpose. Now, if any one of the views concerning
the teaching mentioned above (pp. 827ff.) is correct, the
theological ideas expressed and the general tone of the book
favor a period subsequent to the activity of the great pre-
exilic prophets. or the expression of its ideas no period was
more suitable than that after the exile, when a living voice
was needed to counteract the particularistic tendencies of the
age (see on Joel, p. 149).

4. The Historical Argument.—(1) Nineveh enjoyed its
greatest splendor subsequent to the time of Jonah, but even
during its most flourishing period it did not reach the extent
suggested in ili, 3 (see there and p. 317). It would seem,
therefore, that one familiar with the city from personal
observation could hardly use the terms employed in the book;
on the other hand, they would not appear strange if the author
had never seen the city, if he wrote after the destruction of
Nineveh in 607-606, and was dependent for information upon
oral tradition or upon a late Midrash. (2) Driver suggests
that the “non-mention of the name of the Assyrian king, who
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH. 335

 

played such a prominent part in chapter iii, may be taken as
an indication that it was not known to the author of the
book.” (3) “King of Nineveh” as a title of the kings of
Assyria is very unusual. The conservative archeologist Sayce
remarks that this title could never have been applied to the
kings of Assyria while the Assyrian empire was still in exist-
ence; and this conclusion is supported by the exhaustive study,
by Professor Wilson, of the titles of the Assyrian kings found
in the inscriptions and in the Old Testament (Princeton
Review, July, 1904 and 1905). (4) The definite statement in
iii, 8, “Nineveh was an exceeding great city.” It has been
attempted to weaken the force of this tense by calling it a
“synchronistic imperfect”; Jonah looking back to his first
impression of the city says that Nineveh was a great city—
that is, at the time when Jonah first saw it. In support of
this interpretation reference is made to Gen. i, 2, where the
same tense is used, “and the earth was waste and void.” But
this passage rather confirms the interpretation that the great-
ness of the city was a thing of the past; to the author of
Gen. i, 2, the earth was no longer waste and void.

5. The Argument from Literary Parallels—The Book of
Jonah presents many literary parallels with other Old Testa-
ment writings. With iii, 9, compare Joel ii, 14; with iv, 2,
compare Exod. xxxiv, 6, Joel ii, 13, Psa, Ixxxvi, 15, ciii, 8.
More marked are the parallels exhibited by the prayer in
ii, 2-9: with verse 2 compare Psa. xviii, 5, 6, cxx, 1; with verse
3 compare Psa. xlii, 7, xviii, 4, 5; with verse 4 compare Psa.
xxxi, 22, Lam. iii, 54; with verse 5 compare Psa. xviii, 4,
lxix, 1, cxvi, 3; with verse 7 compare Psa. cxlii, 3; with verse
9 compare Psa. iii, 8,1, 14. These numerous resemblances can-
not be due to accident; the only natural explanation is that
the author of the prayer adopted and adapted passages from
the psalms with which he was familiar, though it would be
incorrect to consider the prayer merely a string of quotations.
Some of the psalms used are certainly later than the age of
‘the prophet Jonah. Consequently the literary parallels also
336 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH.

 

point to a late date for the composition of the Book of Jonah,
or at least of the prayer (see below).

These five lines of argument all point in the same direction,
namely, that the book was not composed by the prophet Jonah,
and that the date of the book is several centuries later than
the age of the prophet. How late, it may be impossible to
decide definitely. If the dates of the psalms quoted could be
determined absolutely, or if it were beyond doubt that the
author quoted Joel, this might be done with greater assurance.
But the whole question of the dates of the psalms is one of
peculiar uncertainty, and the resemblances with Joel are not
of the character to establish direct dependence of the one
author upon the other. We need not be surprised, therefore,
to find that, while nearly all scholars are agreed on a late
date, there exists great diversity of opinion when they come
to fix the exact period of writing. Kleinert thinks of the
exile; Ewald, of the sixth or fifth century; Driver, of the
fifth; Von Orelli, of the latter part of the Chaldean or the
earlier part of the Persian period; Cornill, of the close of the
Persian or the early years of the Greek period; Nowack, after
Joel; G. A, Smith, probably about 300; Marti, about 300 or
the third century; Koenig, not later than 300; Hitzig, the
Maccabean age; etc. If the prophetic canon was completed,
as is now generally thought, about 200 B. C., the Book of
Jonah cannot be of a later date; and if the interpretation of
its teaching set forth in this commentary is correct, it is
probably not earlier than the reforms under Ezra and Nehe-
miah, which to some extent were responsible for the rise of
the particularism condemned in the book. Hence the date
of the Book of Jonah may be placed somewhere between 450
and 200 B. C.

The arguments from literary parallels, based upon ii, 2-9,
are of value in determining the date of the whole book only
if the “prayer” formed a part of the book in its original form.
This raises the question concerning the unity of the book, and
especially concerning the relation of the “prayer” (ii, 2-9)
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH. 337

 

to the rest of the book. Against the prayer being an original
part of the book it is urged that it is not suitable in its present
position, that it is not appropriate in the mouth of Jonah
while he was in the belly of the fish, but only after he had been
cast out upon the dry land; hence it would be more suitable
after ii, 10. This being so, the author of the book, were he
also the author of the prayer, would undoubtedly have placed
it after ii, 10. These considerations have led most recent com-
mentators to regard the prayer a later addition, made by some
one who may have “found the psalm ready-made and in a
collection where it was perhaps attributed to Jonah, who
inserted it after verse 2 (Eng. verse 1), which records that
Jonah did pray from the belly of the fish, and inserted it there
more readily because it seemed right for a book which had
found its place among the Twelve Prophets to contribute, as
all the others did, some actual discourse of the prophet whose
name it bore.”

While there is some weight in the arguments advanced in
favor of this view, others hold that it is not necessary to deny
the prayer to the author of the rest of the book. Whether
he composed the prayer or found it “ready-made” may be
difficult to determine, nor is that of much consequence; but
it is quite conceivable, they say, that he inserted it in the
book and gave to it its present place. The author knew, when
he wrote i, 17, that his hero would be saved, for he stated
that God “prepared a great fish to swallow up Jonah.” As
soon as Jonah had entered the belly of the fish he was safe—
from the viewpoint of the author—and a song of thanksgiving
was in order. “Given the fish,” says G. A. Smith, “and the
divine purpose of the fish, the psalm is intelligible and appears
in its proper place.” Absolute certainty on this point may
be impossible. That the prayer was not composed by the
author of the Book of Jonah is quite likely, for he would
probably have selected expressions more suitable to the eon-
dition of his hero; on the other hand, it cannot be regarded
as certain that it was not he who inserted it in the book.
338 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH.

 

A few attempts have been made to prove that, even aside
from the prayer, the book is a compilation from several dif-
ferent sources. Nachtigal distinguished three sources, the
oldest being the prayer, which was thought to have been uttered
by Jonah “after God had delivered him out of the hand of
the king of Assyria.” To it were added chapters ili, iv by
an exile in Babylonia, and still later i, 1-17; ii, 1, 10, by a
contemporary of Ezra and Nehemiah. Koehler also thought
that he could discover an early and a late stratum. Boehme,
after careful examination, reached the conclusion—based upon
what he considered contradictions in the narrative, differences
in the language, the use of different divine names, ete.—that
the work of four hands may be distinguished in the book,
besides a few minor later additions. He distributed the con-
tents among the contributors as follows: (1) A, the author
of the kernel of chapters i—iv; (2) B, the author of the
narrative, found in chapters iii, iv—in some instances parallel
with the second part of A, in others differing from it; (3) R,
the redactor who combined A and B; (4) the reviser who
expanded ABR in chapters i and iv, and inserted the prayer
composed by an unknown poet; (5) a few smaller additions,
the latest of which is i, 8a, subsequent to the LX X. translation.
The oldest of these sources (A) Boehme assigned to the fourth
or third pre-Christian century. Compare also Zeitschrift fuer
die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 1905, pp. 285ff. These
various attempts to disprove the unity of the book have not been
favorably received by scholars, the common opinion being that,
with the possible exception of the prayer, the Book of Jonah
is a unit—that it is substantially what it was when it left the
hands of the author.

One other question needs to be considered, namely, whether,
so far as the narrative portions are concerned, the book is
entirely a work of imagination or not; and if not, where the
author found the material out of which he constructed his
narrative. Hitzig, Cornill, and others consider the narrative
portions purely a work of imagination. Other commentators
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH. 339

 

have thought that they could discover in it traces of ancient
myths, either Greek or Babylonian. Thus the book has been
connected with the myth of Hercules, who delivered Hesione,
the daughter of King Laomedon, from a sea monster; and
with that of Perseus, who is said to have freed Andromeda
from a monster near the city of Joppa. There is, however,
little similarity with these myths, and it is highly improbable
that there is any connection between them’ and the story of
Jonah. In more recent times the “great fish” has been con-
nected with Babylonian mythology. F. C. Baur suggested that
Jonah had some connection with the Babylonian Oannes, men-
tioned by Berosus. Cheyne and others suspect a dependence
upon the Babylonian Tiamat myths. Marti calls attention
also to the Buddhist story of Mittavindaka, and to an Egyptian
legend of the third pre-Christian century. All of these con-
tain certain resemblances to the narrative concerning Jonah,
but a direct connection between the latter and any one of these
myths and legends is more than improbable. On the other
hand, there may be some indirect connection between the
“oreat fish” and Z%iamat, other reflections of which may be
seen in the Old Testament figures of Rahab (Isa. li, 9; Psa.
Ixxxix, 10), and Leviathan (Isa. xxvii, 1; Job ili, 8; compare
also Jer. li, 34, 44; Tob. vi, 3ff.). If this were so, the rest
of the story might still be a work of imagination.

But this raises the question, why should the author make
his imaginary story center around the name Jonah? Cheyne
replies, because “the custom was springing up of calling Israel,
symbolically, a dove” (Psa. lxviii, 13), whose Hebrew name
is identical with the proper name Jonah. He finds no con-
nection between this figure Jonah and the Jonah of 2 Kings
xiv, 25. By why is this “dove” called a prophet? Because,
he replies, the mission of Israel, which is symbolized by the
“dove,” is a prophetic mission (Isa. liv, 13, margin; compare
xlii, 4, ete.). A different explanation is favored by G. A.
Smith: “In history Jonah appears only as concerned with
Israel’s reconquest of her lands from the heathen. Did the
340 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF JONAH.

 

author of the book say: I will take such a man, one to whom
tradition attributes no outlook beyond Israel’s own territories,
for none could be so typical of Israel, narrow, selfish, and with
no love for the world beyond herself ?”

If the narrative portion of the book must be regarded as
purely a work of the imagination, Smith’s answer is more
natural and satisfactory than that of Cheyne. There are many,
however, who think that the narrative is not purely imagina-
tive, that the author of the Book of Jonah owes much of his
material—just how much it may be impossible to say—to tra-
dition; and that the narrative centers around Jonah because
the traditions utilized centered around the prophet Jonah.
The traditions may have told of a journey of the prophet to
Nineveh, of a shipwreck and other experiences, or of a dis-
course uttered by him against the great Assyrian city. This
material the author cast into literary form in such a manner
as to set forcibly before his readers the truths he desired them
to take to heart.

For an appreciation of the permanent religious value of the
book, however, it matters little whether the narrative is entirely
a work of the imagination or not, and if not, whence the author
received his material. The narrative is only the garment in
which the author clothed the truth, which is the substance; the
latter is the all-important. It certainly is not a product of
the imagination, nor is it derived from tradition; it is a divine

truth, impressed upon the heart and mind of the author by
the Spirit of the living God.
JONAH.

 

CHAPTER I.
OW the word of the Lorp came
N unto * Jonah the son of Amit-
tai, saying, 2 Arise, go to Nineveh,

that >great city, and cry against it;
for etheir -wickedness is come up be-
fore me. 3 But Jonah ‘rose up to
flee unto Tarshish from the presence

 

a2 Kings 14. 25.—1!Called, Matt. 12.
39, Jonas.—> Gen. 10.11, 12; chaps. 3. 2,

3; 4. 11.—* Gen, 18, 20 21: Ezra 9. 6;
James 5. 4; Rev. 18. 5.—4 Chap. 4. 2.

 

CHAPTER I.

Jonau’s Commission; His DisoBepi-
ENCE AND PUNISHMENT, 1-16.

Jonah, the son of Amittai, is com-
missioned by Jehovah to preach to the
Ninevites (i, 1, 2); he disobeys and
embarks on a vessel sailing in the op-
posite direction (3). A severe tempest
arises which threatens to destroy the
vessel; to save it the sailors cast the
cargo overboard (4, 5). The captain
appeals to Jonah to pray to his God
for help (6). When the tempest con-
tinues the sailors decide to find out
by lot on whose account the calamity
has befallen them. The lot falls on
Jonah (7). On inquiry he tells that
he is a servant of Jehovah (8, 9). The
information fills them with fear, but
when no relief comes they finally cast
him overboard (10-15). The sea‘be-
comes calm, and the sailors worship
Jehovah (16).

Jonah’s commission and disobedience,
1-3.

Unlike the majority of the other
Minor Prophets, the Book of Jonah
has no formal title, verse 1 being an
integral part of the narrative (com-
pare Hag. i, 1; Zech. i, 1). Now—
Literally, And. The prophecy of
Ezekiel and several of the historical
books begin in the same manner. The
occurrence of this “‘and” is one reason
why the Book of Jonah has been con-
sidered an extract from a larger book
(see p. 331), the beginning of which is
omitted. The exact force of “and” is

 

not clear, but the above conclusion
is warranted no more in this case than
it would be in the case of Ezekiel.
Word of Jehovah—See on Hos. i, 1;
Joel i, 1. Came—How, is not stated.
Jonah the son of Amittai—See p. 311.
2. The commission. Nineveh—One of
the chief cities of the Assyrian em-
pire. It is mentioned as early as
2700 B. C. in the inscriptions of Gudea
of Lagas. So far as we know, it be-
came a royal residence about 1100
B. C., and it continued to be such
until the reign of Ashur-nasir-pal
(about 880 B. C.), when Calah was
rebuilt. It resumed its chief place
under Sennacherib (705-681), and for
nearly a century its glory and mag-
nificence continued, until it was de-
stroyed in 607-606 (compare the
prophecy of Nahum). Its ruins con-
sist chiefly of two great mounds,
Kouyunjik and Nebi Yunus, on the
eastern shore of the Tigris, north of
the greater Zab, opposite the modern
town of Mosul. Great—In size and
power (see on iii, 3; compare iii, 2;
iv, 11). Cry against—Implies that
his message is to be one of judgment
(chapters iii, iv). Their wickedness is
come up before me—Their iniquity is
so great that tidings of it have
reached even to heaven, the dwelling
place of Jehovah (Gen. xviii, 21;
1 Sam. v, 12). He can endure it no
longer.

3. Jonah proceeds on his journey,
but in the opposite direction. Tar-
shish—This city has been identified
with Tarsus in Cilicia, the home of the

341
842

JONAH.

 

of the Lorp, and went down to
‘Joppa; and he found a ship going
to Tarshish: so he paid the fare
thereof, and went down into it,.to
go with them unto Tarshish ‘from
the presence of the Lorp.

4 But «the Lorp 2sent out a great

wind into the sea, and there was a
mighty tempest in the sea, so that
the ship was ‘like to be broken.
5 Then the mariners were afraid,
and cried every man unto his god,
and cast forth the wares that were
in the ship into the sea, to lighten 7

 

e Josh. 19, 46; 2 Chron. 2. 16; Acts 9.
36.—! Gen. 4. 16; Job 1. 12; 2. 7,—
& Psa. 107. 25.

2Heb. cast forth.’ Heb. thought
to be broken.—So Acts 27. 18, 19,
38. .

 

apostle Paul; but it should be identi-
fied with Tartessus, a Phoenician col-
ony in southwest Spain, not far from
Gibraltar. Nineveh was in the far
east, Tarshish appears to have been
the most distant city toward the west
then known. The author evidently
desires to represent Jonah as attempt-
ing to get away from his mission as
far as possible. From the presence of
Jehovah—The prophet is anxious to
get out of God’s sight, lest God, seeing
him, might be reminded of the com-
mission imposed. The motive leading
to the flight is indicated in iv, 2. The
expression goes back to a time when
it was actually thought that removal
from the land of the Hebrews was re-
moval from the presence of Jehovah
(1 Sam. xxvi, 19; compare Dan. vi,
10). At the timewhen the Book of
Jonah was written the phrase had lost
its older, primitive significance, for
the omnipresence of Jehovah had long
been recognized (see Amos, p. 207).
Nevertheless, it continued to be used
in a figurative sense. Joppa—One of
the harbors on the eastern shore
of the Mediterranean, which from
ancient times has served as a seaport
of Jerusalem (2 Chron. ii, 16; Ezra iii,
7). It is still a flourishing town;
Cheyne says (Encyclopedia Biblica)
that its population was estimated in
1897 at over thirty-five thousand; but
Mackie (Hastings’s Dictionary of the
Bible) estimates its population at
“about eight thousand.” The present
name of the city is Yafa, Eng. Jaffa.
The city is the western terminus of
the Jaffa-Jerusalem railway. There
Jonah found a ship which was ready to
sail; he paid the fare and set out for
Tarshish; but Jehovah overtook him.

 

Jonah’s punishment, 4-16.

4, 5. Great wind . . . mighty tem-
pest—Two synonymous expressions.
The statement is repeated to indicate
the fierceness of the tempest. Je-
hovah sent out—Literally, hurled
(verses 5, 12, 15). The verb is used of
the casting of the spear (1 Sam. xviii,
11; xx, 33). The tempest was the
weapon of the divine wrath (see on
Amos iii, 6; also concluding remarks
on Amos iv, 6-11). Was like to be
broken—Literally, was thought to be
broken. Its destruction was almost
in sight. G. A. Smith, “threatened to
break up.” A storm of this char-
acter would strike terror everywhere.
The sailors sought relief (1) by appeal-
ing to their gods, and (2) by casting
overboard everything that could be
spared. Every man unto his god—
There were probably few Jewish sail-
ors or passengers. The crew was
made up, undoubtedly, very largely
of Phcenicians, and may have in-
cluded representatives of other na-
tions, who were worshipers of dif-
ferent deities; besides, the ship may
have carried passengers from various
cities and peoples. However reckless
at other times, the danger drove them
to their knees. Compare Shakespeare
(The Tempest, i, 1), “All lost! to
prayers, to prayers! all lost!’ Wares
—Whether this means the furniture
(Acts xxvii, 19), or the cargo (Acts
xxvii, 38), or both, is not known;
nor is the nature of the cargo indi-
cated. Some have supposed that it
was a corn ship, as in the case of Paul.
To lighten it of them—Better, R. V.,
“to lighten it unto them”; literally,
jrom upon them. Not, to lighten the’
CHAPTER I.

343

 

of them. But Jonah was gone down
‘into the sides of the ship; and he
lay, and was fast asleep. 6 So the
shipmaster came to him, and said

unto him, What meanest thou, O
sleeper? arise, ‘call upon thy God,
lif so be that God will think upon
us, that we perish not. 7 And they

 

i1 Sam. 24, 3.— Psa. 107. 28.

1 Joel 2. 14.

 

ship, but their distress; to remove it
as if it were a burden (Exod. xviii, 22).

Meanwhile Jonah seems to be un-
aware of the danger. Was gone down
—Perhaps before the storm broke out,
so that he was unconscious of it. Into
the sides—R. V., “innermost parts”
(as in Amos vi, 10); here perhaps the
lowest part of the ship. Fast asleep
—Some have explained this as a sign
of a troubled conscience—that Jonah
had thrown himself down to forget,
and thus to escape the danger and
the hand of God; or, that, utterly
exhausted by the mental struggle and
the realization of the danger, he had
fallen asleep: “Troubled with the
gnawings of conscience and over-
powered with mourning, he had sought
comfort in sleep and fallen into a
deep sleep.’”’ On the other hand,
Jerome regards it as an indication of
a calm mind; the others, who know
not Jehovah, are seriously troubled,
but the prophet feels so secure even
in the midst of the storm that he
calmly sleeps on. That the sleep is
an indication of calmness of mind is
probably true; but the feeling of se-
curity was due not to confidence in
Jehovah, but rather to the belief that
he had succeeded in escaping “the
presence of Jehovah.” The sleep of
Jonah has been frequently compared
with that of Jesus in a severe storm
(Mark iv, 35-41); but what a dif-
ference in the frame of mind that
made possible the sleep! Jesus was
calm in the assurance that God’s
protecting care was over him; Jonah,
because he thought he was outside
the reach of Jehovah.

6. The very fact that Jonah re-
mained sound asleep and did not join
the others in their frantic efforts to re-
lieve the situation would direct at-
tention to him and arouse suspicion.
Shipmaster—Literally, the chief of the

 

handlers of the ropes (Ezek. xxvii, 8,
27-29); the captain. What meanest
thou, O sleeper?—How can any man
sleep, with doom so imminent? Call
upon thy God—The gods implored by
the others had failed to still the
tempest; perhaps the God of Jonah
can bring relief. If so be—Perhaps.
God—Literally, the God. “It is not
clear that the speaker identified
Jonah’s God with the God .. . Per-
haps all that the shipmaster meant
was, that, if they all called, each man
upon his god, the fruit of their piety
might perhaps be that God, whatever
god was the God, would spare their
lives.” Only later events led the men
to identify Jonah’s God, Jehovah,
with the God. Will think upon us—
Literally, will bethink himself for us—
that is, for our benefit. An anthropo-
morphism (see on repent, Joel ii, 13).
The above is a possible translation of
the verb, but Cheyne proposes to sub-
stitute a slightly different verb, used,
in the same sense, in Psa. xl, 17.
Some translate the present verb “will
brighten,” or “shine upon us’—that
is, will show himself favorable to us.
The thought remains the same.
Whether Jonah arose and followed
the advice of the captain is not stated;
probably he did, but in vain, for the
storm continued. 7. There could no
longer be any doubt that a desperate
sinner was on board, on whose ac-
count the calamity had fallen (see
concluding remarks on Amos iv, 6-
11; compare Josh. vii, 1ff.; 1 Sam.
xiv, 36-46). If he could be discov-
ered and removed from their midst
the divine wrath might cease; hence
they proceed to discover the guilty.
Cast lots—Only a deity could reveal
the culprit; therefore appeal was made
to the deity by the casting of the lots,
which was an ancient method of de-
termining the will of a god (Ezek. xxi,
344

said every one to his fellow, Come,
and let us ™cast lots, that we may
know for whose cause this evil 7s
upon us. So they cast lots, and the
lot fell upon Jonah. 8 Then said
they unto him, "Tell us, we pray
thee, for whose cause this evil zs
upon us; What is thine occupation?
and whence comest thou? what is

JONAH.

thy country? and of what people art
thou? 9 And he said unto them, 1
am an Hebrew; and I fear ‘the
Lorp, the God of heaven, °which
hath made the sea and the dry land.
10 Then were the men ‘exceedingly
afraid, and said unto him, Why hast
thou done this? For the men knew
that he fled from the presence of

 

m Josh. 7. 14,16; 1Sam. 10. 20, 21; 14.
41,¢42; Prov. 16. 33; Acts 1. 26.—
nJosh. 7. 19; 1 Sam. 14. 43.

4 Or, JEHOVAH.— Psa. 146. 6; Acts
17. 24,5 Heb. with great fear.

 

 

21). It is used even in the New Tes-
tament (Acts i, 26), but not again
after Pentecost. For whose cause—
On whose account. The lot fell upon
Jonah—Jerome’s comment on these
words is worthy of quotation: ‘“The
fugitive is taken by lot, not from any
virtue in lots themselves, least of all
the lots of the heathen, but by the
will of Him who governs uncertain
lots” (Josh. vii, 18; 1 Sam. xiv, 42).
8. The case seemed clear against
Jonah. The sailors, however, do not
condemn him unheard; they give him
an opportunity to clear himself, if
possible. For whose cause this evil
is upon us—As in verse 7. After the
decision by lot there could remain no
question in the minds of the sailors
as to the cause of the calamity. The
only ground for putting the question
to Jonah could be a desire to secure a
confession from him. It should be
noted, however, that LXX., B and
several Hebrew manuscripts omit this
question, and it may not be original.
The four questions which follow,
and which are flung at the prophet in
rapid succession, deal with his occupa-
tion, his home, and his nationality.
Occupation—His occupation might
possibly be offensive to the god of the
tempest. Whence—City or town.
The prophet’s home or people might
be under a divine curse. The mystery
could be cleared only by his answers.
9. Only the answer to the fourth
question is stated; but verse 10 indi-
cates that his reply was even more
complete than they had requested;
and it is quite possible that Jonah
made a full confession. It seems that
the rapid succession of startling events

 

brought him to his senses, for through-
out the rest of the chapter his bearing
is pictured as dignified and manly;
but it is a little too much to see in
this change of attitude an evidence of
conversion (compare especially chapter
iv). Hebrew—The name used by the
descendants of Abraham when speak-
ing of themselves to foreigners (Gen.
xl, 15; Exod. ii, 7; iii, 18, ete.). I
fear Jehovah—Not, I am afraid of,
but, I am a worshiper of. He thus
boldly acknowledges himself to be a
servant of Jehovah; but there is no
intention, as some have supposed, of
claiming special piety or feigning in-
nocence. God of heaven—A title of
Jehovah indicating his supreme maj-
esty; found chiefly in postexilic writ-
ings (Ezra i, 2; Neh. i, 4; Dan. ii, 18,
etc.). Made the sea and the dry land
—He is the creator. What folly to
attempt to escape from the presence
of such a God (i, 3).

10. The words of Jonah recorded in
verse 9 would be sufficient to create
fear and restlessness; but if the closing
words of verse 10 are original, Jonah
made known his attempt to flee from
this God of heaven and earth. No
wonder they were “sore afraid’’; for
the attempt to escape from the su-
preme God is the climax of crime and
the height of folly. Why hast thou
done this?—R. V., “What is this that
thou hast done?” Not a question of
inquiry, but an exclamation of aston-
ishment and indignation at his crime
and folly. The men knew that he fled
—While the presence of Jonah in the
boat and the storm viewed in the
light of the confession in verse 9
might have been sufficient to lead the
CHAPTER I.

345

 

the Lorp, because he had told
them.

11 Then said they unto him, What
shall we do unto thee, that the sea
*‘may be calm unto us? for the
sea 7 8wrought, and was tempest-
uous. 12 And he said unto them,
pTake me up, and cast me forth into
the sea; so shall the sea be calm
unto you: for I know that for my
sake this great tempest is upon you.
13 Nevertheless the men °rowed hard

to bring it to the land; «but they
could not: for the sea wrought, and
was. tempestuous against them.
14 Wherefore they cried unto the
Lorp, and said, We beseech thee,
O Lorp, we beseech thee, let us not
perish for this man’s life, and ‘lay
not upon us innocent blood: for thou,
O Lorp, shast done as it pleased
thee. 15 So they took up Jonah,
and cast him forth into the sea: tand
the sea 1°ceased from her raging.

 

 

6 Heb. may be silent from us.—7 Or 9 Heb. digged.—44 Prov. 21. 30.—
grew more and more tempestuous.-—|* Deut. 21. 8.—* Psa. 115. 3.—t Psa.

Heb. went.—p John 11. 50. 89.9; Luke 8. 24.10 Heb. stood.
sailors to suppose that they had be-| ness and disobedience. 13. The men

fore them a fugitive from the presence
of Jehovah, there seems insufficient
reason for questioning the originality
of the closing words of verse 10, which
state that the prophet informed the
men of his attempt. 11. What shall
we do—Though terror struck, the
sailors are ready to deal with Jonah,
who alone was responsible for their
plight, in all fairness. Something
must be done, but they are willing to
receive any suggestion as to the
proper course to pursue. Unto us—
Literally, from upon us, that is, so
that it may cease from rushing upon
us like an enemy (verse 5). The sea
wrought, and was tempestuous—R.
V., “the sea grew more and more
tempestuous”; literally, was (is)
going on and was (is) being tempes-
tuous. A peculiar Hebrew idiom,
which is rightly reproduced in R. V.
(compare Gen. viii, 3; 1 Sam. ii, 26;
2 Sam. iii, 1). The words may be in-
terpreted as the utterance of the
sailors, giving the reason for their
anxious appeal to him; it is high time
that something should be done, since
the raging of the sea is constantly in-
creasing.

12. Cast me forth—Jonah meets
them frankly. He has learned that
his attempt to flee from the presence
of Jehovah is a failure; that he alone is
responsible for the divine wrath which
has caused the tempest; and that
the only way to remove the danger is
to get rid of him. Hence he is willing
to suffer the consequences of his rash-

 

rowed hard—Literally, broke through.
They tried to break through the
waves (Ainos ix, 2). The manly at-
titude of Jonah may have aroused the
sympathy of the sailors; they did
their best to save him, but in vain.
The tempest only increased in fury.
14. When all efforts failed they finally
decided to cast Jonah overboard, but
first they prayed to Jonah’s God that
he would not hold them guilty of
murder. They cried unto Jehovah—
Jonah, as the worshiper of Jehovah,
was under the latter’s protection. He
might avenge any injury done to his
prophet. Against this divine ven-
geance they sought to protect them-
selves. For this man’s life—Which is
about to be destroyed (Deut. xix, 21;
2 Sam. xiv, 7). Lay not upon us
innocent blood—These words do not
imply that they considered Jonah in-
nocent, and they do not mean that
they prayed Jehovah to interfere so
that they might not be compelled to
destroy the life of an innocent man.
The casting of the lot had settled the
question of Jonah’s guilt; but they,
with other ancients, believed that a
deity might act arbitrarily, and were
afraid that, after they had thrown
Jonah overboard, Jehovah might im-
pute his death upon them as blood-
guiltiness (Deut. xxi, 8), as if he were
an innocent man, and thus demand
their death in turn. Thou... hast
done as it pleased thee—In sending
the storm and in overruling the lot.
In casting Jonah overboard they were
346

JONAH.

 

16 Then the men "feared the LorpD
exceedingly, and offered a sacri-
fice unto the Lorp, and made
vows.

17 Now the Lorp had prepared a
great fish to swallow up Jonah.
And *Jonah was in the belly of the
fish three days and three nights.

 

uMark 4. 41; Acts 5. 11.—11 Heb.
sacrificed a sacrifice unto the LORD,

and vowed vows.—* Matt. 12. 40; 16 4;
Luke 11. 30.—!2 Heb. bowels.

 

only carrying out the divine pleasure
as revealed in the acts of the divine
providence. 15, 16. The prayer ended,
they cast Jonah out, and immediately
the sea grew calm. The men feared
Jehovah exceedingly—The sudden ces-
sation of the tempest was unfailing
evidence that the God of Jonah was
the God (Mark iv, 41). In his pres-
ence they were utterly helpless, and
they were still more afraid (verse 10).
Offered a _ sacrifice—Immediately.
Partly to express their gratitude and
partly to receive the good will and
favor of Jehovah. Made vows—The
things which they might consider
necessary for suitable sacrifices to this
powerful God may have heen scanty
on the ship, therefore, they promise
that on the safe completion of the
voyage they will bring additional and
richer gifts. Nothing more is heard
of the sailors.

JoNAH’s WONDERFUL DELIVERANCE,
i, 17-ii, 10 (in Hebrew, ii, 1-11).

The deliverance of Jonah is re-
corded in i, 17, and ii, 10. Jehovah
prepared a great fish, which swallowed
Jonah. After he had been in the
fish’s belly for three days and three
nights he was, at the divine command,
cast upon the dry land. Chapter ii,
1-9, contains a poem, a prayer which
Jonah is said to have offered from the
belly of the fish. If so, one would ex-
pect it to be a petition; in reality it is
a hymn of praise and thanksgiving for
the deliverance already wrought. This
peculiarity has been explained either
by assuming that it was spoken by
Jonah after he was vomited out by the
fish, and that its proper place is after
ii, 10; or that it is a song of thanks-
giving uttered in the fish’s belly when
the prophet discovered that he was
preserved alive. This preservation he

 

regarded as a pledge of final deliver-
ance, and for it he praised God in
anticipation (sse Introduction, p. 337).

Prepared—The verb does not mean
“created,” as if Jehovah had created
the fish for this special purpose, but
“ordain” or “appoint.” Jehovah
appointed some great fish, already in
existence, to swallow Jonah. “By
God’s immediate direction it was so
arranged that the very moment when
Jonah was thrown into the waves the
‘great fish’ was on the spot to receive
him.” Great fish—This is the literal
translation. Nothing is said of the
species of the fish; but for a long time
the popular idea has been that it was
a whale. Against this identification
it has been urged that the whale is not
found in the Mediterranean, and that
he has such a small gullet that he
could not swallow a man. However,
of the existence of whales in the Medi-
terranean there can be no doubt, and,
while the gullet of the common whale
is not large enough to let a man pass
through whole, there are whales that
would not have this difficulty; and
of these the great spermaceti whale is
said to wander sometimes into the
Mediterranean. Most commentators,
however, who interpret the narrative
literally, identify the “great fish” with
the shark. The latter is not uncom-
mon in the Mediterranean. G. E.
Post says that he saw one at Beirut
twenty feet long; and this fish would
have no difficulty in swallowing a
man. To illustrate the capacity of
the shark it has become customary
to call attention to the following in-
cident: “In 1758 in stormy weather a
sailor fell overboard from a frigate
in the Mediterranean. A shark was
close by, which, as he was swimming
and crying for help, took him in his
wide throat, so that he forthwith disap-
CHAPTER II.

347

 

CHAPTER II.
HEN Jonah tee unto_ the
Lorp his God out of the fish’s
belly. 2 Andsaid,I seried Iby reason

of mine affliction unto the Lorp,
band he heard me; out of the belly
of 2hell cried I, and thou heardest
my voice. 3 °For thou hadst cast

 

= Psa, 120, 1; 180. 1; 142. 1; Lam. 3.55
56.—1 Or, out of mine affliction.

b Psa. 65. 2.—2 Or, the grave, Isa. 14.
9.—¢ Psa. 88. 6.

 

peared. Other sailors had leaped into
the sloop to help their comrade, while
yet swimming; the captain had a gun
which stood on the deck discharged at
the fish, which struck it so that it cast
out the sailor which it had in its
‘throat, who was then taken up, alive
and little injured, by the sloop which
had now come up.” From this and

similar incidents it would seem that.

there are fish that might swallow a
man whole; though it would be re-
markable for him to remain alive and
uninjured. :
Three days and three nights—
Whether this is interpreted as mean-
ing three full days and full nights, or
simply “a space of time reaching
backward and forward beyond twenty
four hours” (Matt. xii, 40), is of little
consequence; according to all natural
laws it would be impossible for any
man to remain alive for any con-
siderable length of time in the belly
of a fish (see Luther’s words quoted
on p. 325). Only by direct, divine,
miraculous interference could Jonah
be kept alive. At the end of this
period the fish, at the divine com-
mand, vomited out Jonah. Dry land
—Where, is not stated. The author
probably intended it to be understood
that the fish carried Jonah back to
the place from which he had em-
barked. The traditional site of the
ejection of the prophet is near Sidon.

CHAPTER II.
Tur Prayer or JoNAH, 1-9.

Verse 1 is the introduction, indi-
cating the circumstances under which
the prayer was offered. The prayer
itself opens with an acknowledgment
that Jehovah heard the petition of-
fered in distress and wrought the
petitioner’s deliverance (2). After

 

repeated figurative descriptions of the
danger and distress into which he had
been plunged, he glorifies Jehovah for
the salvation wrought (3-6). The sup-
plicant closes with the assurance that
he will not forget the divine mercy’
but will forever praise Jehovah, the
author of all deliverance (7-9). The
prayer consists for the most part of
reminiscences from the Psalms (see
Introduction, p. 335).

1. Prayed—The verb is used here
in the wider sense of any turning of
the heart toward God, whether in
supplication or praise (1 Sam. ii, 1).
At what period of his imprisonment
Jonah is thought to have offered the
prayer is not stated; ii, 10, would
seem to imply, however, that it was
toward the close. His God—Before
(i, 3), he tried to escape from Je-
hovah’s presence; now, in danger of
his life, he is driven to appeal to him
as his God.

2. I cried ... he heard—R. V., “I
called ... he answered.” The tenses
indicate that both the petition and
the reply are experiences of the past
(verse 6). By reason of mine affliction
—Better, R. V. margin, “out of mine
affliction”; which is further described
in 3ff. Belly of hell—R. V., ‘‘Sheol.”’
On the latter see on Hos. xiii, 14. It
is frequently pictured as a ravenous
beast, with a greedy appetite (Prov.
xxx, 16; Hab. ii, 5), with a wide-open
mouth (Isa. v, 14). Here a belly is
given to it, which may have been sug-
gested by the belly of the fish. As in
Psa. xviii, 5; xxx, 3, Sheol is a poetic
picture for the dangers of death, from
which there seems no escape. With
2a compare Psa. cxx, 1, or xviii, 6;
with 2b compare Psa. xviii, 5.

Verse 3 describes the affliction from
which came deliverance. For thou
hadst cast—Literally, And thou didst
348

JONAH.

 

me into the deep, in the *midst of
the seas; and the floods compassed
me about: 4all thy billows and thy
waves passed over me. 4 ¢Then I
said, I am cast out of thy sight; yet
I will look again ‘toward thy holy
temple. 5 The swaters compassed

me about, even to the soul: the depth
closed me round about, the weeds
were wrapped about my head. 61
went down to the ‘bottoms of the
mountains; the earth with her bars
was about me for ever: yet hast thou
brought up my life *from ‘corrup-

 

3 Heb. heart.——4 Psa. 42.7.— Psa. 31.
22.—1 1 Kings 8. 38.— Psa. 69. 1; Lam.

cast. This can hardly be interpreted
as giving the reason for the thanks-
giving. Better, Yea, thou didst cast.

: This is a perfectly possible translation.
It certainly is not necessary to sup-
pose that a clause has dropped out.
In the case of Jonah, Jehovah was the
real author of the calamity (i, 14;
compare also i, 4, and the references
there). Deep, ... midst of the seas;
-.. floods... billows... waves—
Taken in connection with the ex-
periences of Jonah these terms might
all be interpreted literally. On the
other hand, in the psalm literature,
these or similar terms are used figura-
tively of the depths of trouble and
distress. The ‘midst (R. V., “heart’’)
of the seas” (for plural compare G.-K.,
124a), which defines “deep,” is the
bottom of the sea (Exod. xv, 5; Mic.
vii, 19). Floods—Literally, river; the
currents of the sea (Psa. xxiv, 2).
Thy—Jehovah made them (i, 9) and
controls them (Psa. xviii, 4, 5). For
the last clause compare especially Psa.
xlii, 7.

4. Two emotions struggled within
the supplicant At first despair seized
him. Cast out—He thought Jehovah
had no further interest in him or care
for him (Psa. xxxi, 22). But the
despondency was only temporary. He
determined, even in his apparently
hopeless condition, to appeal to Je-
hovah (verse 7). Look again toward
thy holy temple—The position of
prayer (1 Kings viii, 38; Psa. v, 7).
On holy see on Joel ii, 1; Zech. xiv,
20. The temple in Jerusalem is the
earthly dwelling place of Jehovah.
The words do not necessarily express
the expectation that the supplicant
will be delivered and that after the
deliverance he will “look toward the

 

3. 54.—4 Heb. cuttings off—» Psa. 16.
10.— Or, the pit.

temple.” Even now, from the midst
of the danger, in spite of the ap-
parent hopelessness of the situation,
he will again, as in times past, lift up
his heart in prayer. There is no rea-
son for changing 4b so as to read,
“How can I again look toward thy
holy temple?”

Verse 5 continues the description of
the deadly peril. Even to the soul—
The most vital part; it seems all over
with him (Psa. xviii, 4, 5; lxix, 1;
for the second line compare Psa. lxix,
2). The weeds were wrapped about my
head—The sea grass grows at the
bottom. Another indication, there-
fore, of the depth of trouble to which
the petitioner has sunk (verse 3).
Wellhausen calls attention to the fact
that sea grass does not grow in the
belly of a fish. 6. The bottoms of the
mountains—Literally, the cuttings off;
the extreme ends. The mountains are
thought of as extending their roots to
the bottom of the sea (Psa. xviii, 5).

The earth with her bars was about me .

—Literally, as to the earth, her bars were
behind me. He thinks himself cast out
from the earth; the earth has put
down the bars so as to make return
to the dry land impossible forever.
The comparison is with a city whose
gates are barred so that no one can
enter. Marti reads 6a, “I went down
to the nether parts of the earth, to
the people of old time’; that is, the
people who died in ancient times
(Ezek. xxvi, 20; xxxii, 18, 24); in
other words, to Sheol.

The depth of affliction and the
deadly character of the peril make the
deliverance the more wonderful. To
this deliverance the singer now turns.
Yet hast thou brought up my life—
Thou hast brought me up alive, in
CHAPTER III.

849

 

tion, O Lorp my God. 7 When my
soul fainted within me I remem-
bered the Lorp: iand my prayer
came in unto thee, into thine holy
temple. 8 They that observe ‘lying
vanities forsake their own mercy.
9 But I will 'sacrifice unto thee with
the voice of thanksgiving; I will pay
that that I have vowed. =Salvation
is of the Lorp.

10 And the Lorp spake unto the
fish, and it vomited out Jonah upon
the dry land.

CHAPTER III.
ND the word of the Lorp came
unto Jonah the second time,
saying, 2 Arise, go unto Nineveh,
that great city, and preach unto it
the preaching that I bid thee. 3 So

 

i Psa. 18. 6.——k 2 Kings 17.15; Psa. 31.
6; Jer. 10. 8; 16. 19.—! Psa. 50. 14, 23;

116. 17, 18; Hos. 14. 2; Heb, 13. 15,—
m Psa. 3. 8.

 

spite of the apparent hopelessness.
From corruption—R. V., “from the
pit.” The former is the meaning
given to the word by the ancient ver-
sions, but R. V. is to be preferred.
The word is practically synonymous
with Sheol (verse 2; Psa. xxx, 3, 9).
Jehovah my God—See on verse 1.
Verse 7 goes back to verse 4, calling
attention once more to the conflicting
emotions while in the midst of danger.
My soul fainted—Literally, was over-
whelmed; became exhausted (Psa.
exlii, 3; exliii, 4). I remembered—
When about ready to give up the
struggle he thought of Jehovah, and
decided to appeal to him (4), and his
prayer was heard (Psa. xviii, 6; v, 7).
8, 9. The wonderful deliverance has
taught the singer a lesson. Whatever
others may do, he will remain loyal to
Jehovah, the God of his deliverance.
The main thought is expressed in
verse 9; verse 8 serves to emphasize
the determination of the speaker.
They that observe [‘‘regard’’] lying
vanities—All who pay homage to
idols and put their trust in them
(Deut. xxxii, 21; Psa. xxxi, 6; com-
pare Hos. x, 10). The idols are called
“lying vanities’ because they are
ever disappointing those putting their
trust in them. Forsake their own
mercy—Forsake Him who is their
mercy, or who alone can show them
mercy. The same word is translated
in Psa. exliv, 2, “loving-kindness”
(see on Hos. ii, 19). From Jehovah
and from manifestations of his mercy
they foolishly cut themselves off. Not
so the psalmist; he will seek to retain
the divine favor by meeting all his

 

obligations to Jehovah. This deter-
mination is based upon his past ex-
perience of the power,and mercy of his
God. Marti thinks that before verse
9 two lines have fallen out, and he
supplies, “But I trust in thee, Je-
hovah, my saviour” (Psa. xxxi, 6).
Sacrifice unto thee with the voice of
thanksgiving—He will offer his sac-
rifices with expressions of praise and
thanksgiving (Psa. xlii, 4). Pay that
that I have vowed—While in distress
(Psa. 1, 14, 23). Nothing is said in
the rest of the prayer or in the nar-
rative of a vow made by Jonah (com-
pare the vow of the sailors, i, 16).
Salvation is of Jehovah—“The sum
and substance of the whole hymn”
(Psa. iii, 8). Jehovah alone can de-
liver; therefore in him he will trust
forever. On verse 10 see after com-
ments on i, 17.

CHAPTER III.

JoNAH’s PREACHING AND NINEVEH’S
REPENTANCE, 1-10.

Jehovah repeats the command to
Jonah, to preach to Nineveh (1, 2).
This time Jonah obeys and delivers
the message, “Yet forty days, and
Nineveh shall be overthrown” (3, 4).
The preaching results in the conver-
sion of king aud people, who give
every evidence of heartfelt repentance
(5-9); whereupun Jehovah withholds

-the judgment (10).

1-4. The preaching of Jonah. Chap-
ter ili, 1, is almost identical with i, 1,
the only difference being the addition
of “the second time” and the omission
of “the son of Amittai”; iii, 2a, is
350

JONALIL

 

Jonah arose, and went unto Nine-
veh, according to the word of the
Lorp. Now Nineveh was an !ex-

ceeding great city of three days’
journey. 4 And Jonah began to
enter into the city a day’s journey,

 

1 Heb. of God; so Gen, 30. 8; Psa. 36, 6;
80. 10.

 

identical with i, 2a; but 2b is different.
Preach—The same word as in i, 2,
“ery”; “preaching,” derived from the
same root, occurs only here in the Old
Testament. The message is to be
determined by Jehovah.

Jonah has learned a lesson; and,
though still rebellious in heart (iv, 2),
he proceeds immediately to carry out
the divine commission. The narrative
of Jonah’s preaching is interrupted by
a brief description of Nineveh’s great-
ness (verse 3; compare iv, 11). Was
—Definitely expressed in Hebrew;
may indicate that Nineveh was no
longer a “great city,’’ when the de-
scription was written (see p. 335). An
exceeding great city—Literally, a city
great unto God, that is, great even in
the estimation of God (compare Gen.
x, 9); Kautzsch renders in German
“unmenschlich gross” (superhumanly
great). Probably an anticipation of
iv, 11, where the size of the city and
the number of the inhabitants are
given as a reason for God’s desire to
save it. Three days’ journey—It
seems more natural to interpret this
of the diameter than of the circum-
ference. True, some of the classical
writers make it appear that the diam-
eter was only one day’s journey, while
the circumference was approximately
three days’ journey. But, as Marti
suggests, there is no reason why
Herodotus and the Book of Jonah
should agree on this point; besides,
if we should interpret “three days’
journey” of the circumference, and
make the diameter only one day’s
journey, Jonah must have passed
through the entire city before de-
livering his message, while verse 4
declares that he “began to enter into
the city a day’s journey,” which ex-
pression certainly presupposes that
there was considerable distance to
traverse before he could reach the

 

other end (see further on verse 4).
It seems best, therefore, to interpret
“three days” of the diameter. The
extent of the city walls is given by
C. H. W. Johns as follows: ‘The city
on the river side of the Tigris ex-
tended about two and one half miles;
its north wall measured about seven
thousand feet, the eastern wall was
nearly three miles long, and the
southern about one thousand feet.
. .. The actual extent of Nineveh
proper is about eighteen hundred
acres... . Outside this citadel city lay
the ‘outskirts.’ ... Farther afield, and
apparently close to Khorsabad, lay
Rébit Ninvia.” The latter is perhaps
the Rehoboth-Ir of Gen. x, 11. In
order to get a city three days in diam-
eter or three days long, it is necessary
to include all the cities mentioned in
Gen. x, 11, 12, Rehoboth-Ir, Calah,
and Resen, which, though ‘not all
identified, must have been in the im-
mediate neighborhood of Nineveh
proper. Koenig insists that even this
combination would fail to give the
required size (see p. 317). Began to
enter into the city a day’s journey—A
day’s journey is still called a begin-
ning, because two more were beyond.
The natural interpretation seems to
be that he journeyed one day; then,
having found a suitable place, he de-
livered his message. Others give a
different interpretation. ‘He began
to perambulate the city, going hither
and thither, as far as was possible in
the first day.”” While thus going from
street to street, and market place to
market place, he is thought to have
delivered his message again and again.
While the former is the more natural
interpretation of the Hebrew, the
latter has this advantage, that,
with it, verse 4 throws no light
on the meaning of “three days"
journey” in verse 3. It would be pos-
CUAPTER III.

351

 

and she cried, and said, Yet forty
days and Nineveh shall be over-
thrown.

5 So the people of Nineveh »be-
lieved God, and proclaimed a fast,
and put on sackcloth, from the
greatest of them even to the least
of them. 6 For word came unto
the king of Nineveh, and he arose
from his throne, and he laid his robe

from him, and covered him with
sackcloth, cand sat in ashes. 7
sAnd he caused itt to be Proslatnes
and “published through Nineveh by
the decree of the king and his ‘no-
bles, saying, Let neither man nor
beast, herd nor flock, taste an

thing: let them not feed, nor drin

water: 8 But let man and beast be
covered with sackcloth, and cry

 

8 See Deut. 18. 22.—b Matt. 12. 41;
Luke 11. 32.—e Job 2. 8.

42 Chron. 20. 3; Joel 2, 15.—~ Heb.
satd.— Heb. great men.

 

sible, then, to understand the extent
indicated of the circumference, which
would reduce the size of the city, and
thus remove a geographical difficulty.

Yet forty days ...—A very simple
message, but one destined to create
consternation. Apparently the words
of Jonah contained an unconditional
announcement of judgment; but later
developments showed that it was con-

ditional, that the execution depended’

upon the people’s attitude toward
the prophetic message.

Several modern commentators in-
sert chapter iv, 5, after iii, 4. Jonah,
after having delivered his message, is
thought to have left the city to await
further developments. Chapter iv, 5,
would make a good continuation of
iii, 4, but the transposition is not
necessary. Marti’s statement, “Un-
doubtedly Jonah did not await the
coming of the fortieth day in the city,
but left the same previously,” is not
conclusive.

5-9. The effect of the preaching. The
effects were immediate. The Nine-
vites believed God and humbled them-
selves before him in sincere repent-
ance. Believed God—Or, believed in
God (Gen. xv, 6). They regarded him
as the supreme God, to whom they
owed allegiance. This recognition
made them conscious of their past
transgressions, and immediately they
set about to secure divine forgiveness.
How Jonah, a Hebrew, made himself
understood in Nineveh is not stated;
some refer, in explanation, to Isa.
xxxvi, 11, as if he had used the
Aramaic language, but the passage
does not prove that in Jonah’s days the

 

common people, either among the He-
brews or among the Assyrians, spoke
or understood that language. Pro-
claimed a fast, ... put on sackcloth—
See on Joel i, 8, 13, 14. Greatest
. »» least—In rank as well as in age;
all without exception.

For word came—This translation
seems to imply that the acts of mourn-
ing mentioned in verse 5 were insti-
tuted at the royal command, which
does not seem to be the thought of the
author. The Hebrew is simply, “And
the word came”; R. V., “And the ti-
dings reached”; which marks a new
step in the proceedings. When the
report of Jonah’s preaching and of its
effect reaches the king he also imme-
diately humbles himself before Je-
hovah. King of Nineveh—For the
more common “king of Assyria”; see
Introduction, p. 335. Arose from his
throne—In order to descend from it.
His acts are recorded in detail, so as
to portray more forcibly the humility
and sincerity of the king’s repentance.
His robe—The splendid garment of
royalty. What a contrast between it
and the garment of mourning! Sack-
cloth—See references on verse 5 (com-
pare Jer. vi, 26; Ezek. xxvii, 30, 31).
Sat in ashes—Another sign of deepest
mourning (Job ii, 8). A. B. Davidson,
commenting on the latter passage,
says, “By the ‘ashes’ is probably
meant the Mazbalah, the place out-
side the Arabic towns where the zibi,
that is, dung and other rubbish of the
place, is thrown.”

In addition to this personal re-
nunciation the king proclaimed, by
royal decree, a day of fasting and sup-
352

JONAH.

 

mightily unto God: yea, ‘let them
turn every one from his evil way, and
from ‘the violence that is in their
hands. 9 «Who can tell 7f God will
turn and repent, and turnaway from
his fierce anger, that we perish not?

10 "And God saw their works,
that they turned from their evil
way; and God repented of the evil,
that he had said that he would
do unto them; and he did i
not.

 

° Isa. 58. 6.—f Isa. 59. 6.——¢ 2 Sam 12.

22; Joel 2. 14.» Jer. 18. 8; Amos 7. 3,6.

 

plication, and exhorted all to bring
forth “fruits worthy of repentance,”
in the hope that God may yet be
merciful. 7a, the introduction to
the decree itself, may be rendered
more accurately, “And he made
proclamation and published through
Nineveh. By the decree of the king
and his nobles, thus: . ..” The
first clause contains the words of
the narrator; the second those of the
heralds by whom the proclamation
was made, indicating the authority
for the command about to be given.
Decree—The Hebrew word occurs
only here in this sense; it is found
quite frequently in the Aramaic por-
tions of Ezra and Daniel; evidently it
was a technical term for royal edicts,
at least for those of Babylonian and
Persian kings. Nobles—The ministers
associated with the king in the gov-
ernment.

Man and beast are to join in the
fast. Beast—The domestic animals;
defined more closely in “herd nor
flock,” that is, cattle and sheep. They
are not to taste anything; the beasts
are not to be driven to pasture, nor
are they to drink water. Both man
and beast are to beclothed in sack-
cloth and ‘‘cry mightily” unto God
in penitent supplication. God—The
proclamation does not use the name
Jehovah. Turn—The repentance is to
be real; a godly sorrow that impels
men to turn from their evil ways.
Even the Assyrian idolater is repre-
sented as realizing the essential re-
quirements of the God of the Hebrews
(Mic. vi, 8; compare Joel ii, 18).
R. V. presents a more accurate render-
ing of 8a, “But let them be covered
with sackcloth, both man and beast,
and let them cry mightily.” Some
modern commentators consider “both
man and beast” in this passage a later

 

interpolation. If this view is correct,
verse 8 speaks of men only, while
verse 7 joins the beasts with the men.
With reference to the participation of
animals in the mourning G. A. Smith
says, ‘“The beasts are made to share in
its observance, as in the Orient they
always shared and still share in
funeral pomp and trappings.” Herod-
otus (ix, 24) records that the Per-
sians, after the fall of their com-
mander, allowed horses and beasts of
burden to participate in the mourn-
ing.

Verse 9is the concluding portion of
the royal edict. The king expresses
the hope that the evidences of grief
and repentance may move God to
stay the judgment. Who can tell—
Perhaps. He does not want to pre-
sume too much. Turn and repent—
The same words as in Joel ii, 14 (see
on Joel ii, 13). His fierce anger—The
holiness of God manifests itself in
hatred for everything that is impure.
The fierceness of the divine wrath is
due to the greatness of the wickedness
of the Ninevites (i, 2), which the king
seems ready to acknowledge.

10. When God beheld their sincere
repentance he stayed the judgment
(see on iii, 4, and Amos ix, 15).
God repented—See on Joel ii, 13 (com-
pare Amos vii, 3).

CHAPTER IV.

JonaH’s CoMPLAINT AND REBUKE,
1-11.

When Jonah found that his threat
was not being fulfilled he became
angry and prayed Jehovah to kill
him, since life was no longer worth
living (1-3). Jehovah remonstrated
with him (4). The prophet left the
city and, having prepared a booth,
settled down to await developments
CHAPTER IY.

353

 

CHAPTER IV.

UT it displeased Jonah exceed-

ingly and he was very angry.
2 And he prayed unto the Lorp,
and said, I pray thee, O Lorn, was
not this my saying, when I was yet
in my country? Therefore I *fled
before unto Tarshish: for I knew
that thou art a >gracious God, and
merciful, slow to anger. and of great

kindness, and repentest thee of the
evil. 3 eTherefore now, O Lorp,
take I beseech thee, my life from
me; for 4it is better for me to die
than to live.

4 Then said the Lorp, 'Doest
thou well to be angry? 5 So Jonah
went out of the city, and sat on the
east side of the city, and there made
him a booth, and sat under it in

 

a Chap. 1. 3.—» Exod. 34. 6; Psa. 86.
5; Joel 2. 13.

e1 Kings 19. 4.—4 Verse 8.—-! Or, Art
thou greatly angry?

 

(5). By an object lesson Jehovah
taught Jonah the folly and sin of his
displeasure over the salvation of Nine-
veh and showed that God was perfectly
justified in averting the doom of the
city.

1, 2. Displeased Jonah exceedingly,
... was very angry—Since his message
remained unfulfilled, he feared that
his honor as a prophet was at stake;
which would be of supreme moment
to aselfish person. He prayed—Many
commentators have considered the
prayer an expression of pious devo-
tion, but its contents make this
impossible. Keil comes nearer the
truth when he says, “He tried to
quarrel with God by praying.” Was
not this my saying—Not openly, per-
haps, but in his heart he suspected
that Jehovah would save the Nine-
vites, if they repented. Therefore—
Because of this suspicion. I fled be-
fore—R. V., “I hasted to flee.” The
Hebrew construction is peculiar (G.-
K., 114n, note 3), and the exact mean-
ing is doubtful. Either “I fled be-
fore,”’ that is, when thou didst call
me the first time; or “I was before-
hand in fleeing,” that is, I sought to
avoid the commission because I knew
the message would remain unfulfilled;
or “I sought to prevent by fleeing,”
the very thing that has now hap-
pened. Tarshish—See on i, 3. For I
knew—His conviction as to what God
would do arose from his knowledge of
the divine character. For the rest of
the verse see on Joel ii, 13.

3, 4. Therefore now—Since he is
discredited as a prophet (Deut. xviii,
21, 22), life is no longer worth living;

 

yet he does not think of taking his
own life; he asks Him who gave it to
take it away. It is better for me to
die than to live—Flijah also (1 Kings
xix, 4) prayed God to take his life
(compare Num. xi, 15), but his weari-
ness of life was due to another cause.
G. A. Smith points out the difference
between the two prophets in these
words: ‘Elijah was jealous for Je-
hovah, Jonah was jealous of him.”
The former failed in his attempt to
convert the people to whom he was
sent; the latter did succeed, but was
disappointed when the Ninevites were
converted; he grudged them the di-
vine pardon. Jonah was too narrow;
he “could not bear to see the love
which, as he thought, was promised to.
Israel alone, and cherished by her,
bestowed equally on her heathen
oppressor.”” He would rather die than
see this done. Jehovah does not con-
demn Jonah harshly for this unreason-
able outbreak; he rather attempts to
brings him to his senses. Doest thou
well to be angry?—‘It is the gentle
question of suggested reproof, de-
signed to still the tumult of passion
and lead to consideration and re-
flection.”

5. Jonah’s reply is not given, but
evidently he continued to sulk. He
would have nothing more to do with
the city; hence he withdrew and de-
termined to watch further develop-
ments, hoping, perhaps, that his an-
nouncement of destruction would yet
be fulfilled. East side—Probably on
some elevation from which he might
overlook the city. Made him a booth
—He evidently intended to remain
354

the shadow, till he might see what
would become of the city. 6 And
the Lorp God prepared a 2 gourd
and made it to come up over Jonah,
that it might be a shadow over his
head, to deliver him from his grief.
So Jonah ‘was exceeding glad of the

2Or, palmertst.—-3 Heb. K ikajon.—-4Heb.

for some time. Till he might see—
Von Orelli supposes that when Jonah
left the city the forty days had not
yet expired, and that the prophet de-
termined to wait for the expiration of
the fixed period to see whether judg-
ment would be executed. It is more
likely, however, that Jonah discovered
the will of God to save the city from
the nonfulfillment of the prophecy at
the end of the forty days. Only then
his anger was aroused; nevertheless
he hoped in his heart that the judg-
ment was not withdrawn, but only
postponed.

In this hope he was again disap-
pointed; instead he was taught an-
other lesson of the divine mercy.
6. Jehovah God—As in Gen. ii, 4.
Both names are used to indicate that
God, mentioned as supreme so fre-
quently in the book, and Jehovah, the
God of Jonah, are identical. Pre-
pared—See on i, 17 (compare verse 7).
Gourd—This translation of the He-
brew word, which occurs only here
(6-10), is based upon LXX. The
plant meant is the Palma Christi, or
castor-oil plant (Ricinus communis).
It is described by Jerome as being
very abundant in Palestine, growing
especially in sandy places. The same
author (so also Pliny) calls attention
to its rapid growth: “In a very few
days what you saw as nothing but a
herb you now look upon as a small
tree.” Its broad leaves are admirably
adapted to protect against the sun.
Made it to come up—Or, %t came up—
over the booth erected by Jonah;
thus it protected the prophet’s head
against the rays of the sun. To de-
liver him from his grief—R. V., ‘from
his evil case.” A. V. seems to have in
mind the displeasure of Jonah (verse
1), as if the offered shade could re-

 

JONAIL

gourd. 7 But God prepared a worm
when the morning rose the next day,
and it smote the gourd that it with-
ered. 8 And it came to pass, when
the sun did arise, that God paper
a ‘vehement east wind; and the sun
beat upon the head of Jonah, that

rejoiced with great joy.—5 Or, silent.

move the irritation and displeasure.
But his trouble was so deep-seated
that the “gourd” could hardly do
away with it. It is better to think of
the heat of the sun beating upon the
prophet’s head. This affliction (so
the Hebrew might be rendered), which
may have increased the bitterness of
his spirit, the plant was to remove.
Most commentators consider the
words a later interpolation. Jonah
was exceeding glad—When the sun
burned him no longer. It is not
unlikely that with the heat went
some of his bitterness.

7. The joy was short-lived. At the
divine command a worm came which
gnawed the roots of the “gourd,” so
that it perished. Smote—As in verse
8, to indicate the suddenness of the
effect. Concerning the suddenness
with which the castor-oil plant per-
ishes Dr. Pusey says: “On warm days
when a small rain falls, black cater-
pillars are generated in great num-
bers on this plant, which in one night
so suddenly and so often cut off its
leaves that only their bare ribs re-
main; which I have often observed
with much wonder, as if it were a copy
of that destruction of old at Nine-
veh.” 8. With the “gourd” dead, the
hot rays of the sun could again beat
mercilessly upon the head of Jonah.
Vehement [‘‘sultry’’] east wind—See
on Hos. xii, 1. When these east winds
are blowing the temperature rises
very rapidly (G. A. Smith, Historical
Geography, p. 67). The exact mean-
ing of the word translated ‘““vehement”’
or “sultry” is not known; but it is
clear that the author intends to de-
scribe the wind as extraordinarily in-
tense and disagreeable. Jonah soon
became aware of the change. He
fainted—Not necessarily, “he became
CHAPTER IV.

355

 

he fainted, and wished in himself to
die, and said, °It is better for me to
die than to live. 9 And God said
to Jonah, *Doest thou well to be
angry for the gourd? And he said,
7I do well to be angry, even unto
death. 10 Then said the Lorp,
Thou hast &had pity on the gourd,
for the which thou hast not labored,

neither madest
®°came be

which
erished
d not I

it grow;
in a night, and
in a night: 11 And sho
spare Nineveh, ‘that great city,
wherein are more than sixscore
thousand persons #that cannot dis-
cern between their right hand and
their left hand; and also much
beattle?

 

© Verse 3.—® Or, Art thou greatly an-
gry?—? Or, I am greatly angry.
* Or, spared.

9 Heb. was the son of the night.——
£ Chaps. 1. 2; 3. 2, 3.—« Deut. 1. 39.—-
h Psa. 36. 6; 145. 9.

 

unconscious,” for he retained his
senses sufficiently to wish for death;
but, “he became completely ex-
hausted” (Amos viii, 13). The old
despondency returned, increased by
the intense heat, and once more he
prayed for death (verse 3).

9. God again deals very patiently
with Jonah. He addresses him as in
verse 4: ‘“Doest thou well to be
angry?” To which the prophet re-
plies that he has every reason to be
exceedingly angry, even so far as to
desire death (Judg. xvi, 16; Matt.
xxvi, 38). “The reply betrays a
strange degree of willfulness; it shows
the prophet in the attitude of a sullen
child toward a loving father who is
remonstrating with it.”

10, 11. By his answer Jonah un-
wittingly offers Jehovah the oppor-
tunity to put him to shame. The
prophet’s attitude is absurd. He
grieves over the destruction of an in-
significant plant, in which he could
have no vital interest; he had ex-
pended no labor upon it, nor had he
caused its growth. How absurd to
find fault with Jehovah for sparing
Nineveh with its thousands of in-
habitants! The two verses are full of
marked contrasts. Thou... I—The
pronouns are emphatic in Hebrew.
Gourd . . . Nineveh—The former small
and insignificant, the latter great and
magnificent. The superiority of the
latter’s claim upon the divine mercy
is further indicated: That cannot dis-
cern between their right hand and
their left hand—Children of the ten-
derest age. They have as yet done no
wrong; surely for their sake alone God
would be justified in saving the city.

 

The age limit to which this expression
may be applied is variously estimated.
Some think of three years, others of
seven. The latter is favored by the
fact that among Orientals seven years
seems to be a favorite period by
which to reckon childhood. Since, as
commonly estimated, children under
seven years of age constitute about
one fifth of the entire population, the
number given here would make the
population of Nineveh about six
hundred thousand. If the other es-
timate is accepted the number would
be considerably increased. Nineveh
proper cannot have contained such a
large population; the city in its widest
extent must be in the mind of the
author (see on iii, 3). Much cattle—
The animals also were guiltless. Be-
sides, as Calvin remarks, ““Oxen were
certainly superior to shrubs. If
Jonah was right in grieving over one
withered shrub, it would surely be a
harder and more cruel thing for so
many innocent animals to perish.”
An additional reason for the divine
mercy is at least implied. Jonah had
expended no labor upon the plant, but
how much effort and care had Jehovah
bestowed upon the population of
Nineveh! The fact that he sent a
prophet to preach there (i, 2; iii,
2) was evidence of his interest in
the city. Could he cast off the
inhabitants when they turned to
him?

What an insight these words give
into the divine love and mercy, into
the very heart of God! Jonah had
condemned himself; “che was obliged
to keep silent, defeated, as it were, by
his own sentence.”
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH.

———_> ¢>——___—_——_-

The Person of the Prophet.

For information concerning the prophet Micah we are de-
pendent almost exclusively upon the book bearing his name.

The name Micah is an abbreviated form of Micaiah, as the
prophet is called in Jer. xxvi, 18, and means Who is like Jeho-
vah? It contains, therefore, a confession of faith on the part
of his parents. The family of Micah is unknown; his father
is not named, which omission may be an indication of humble
parentage.

In i, 1, Micah is called the “Morashtite” (R. V.), that is,
an inhabitant of Moresheth, a village probably identical with
“Moresheth-gath” in i, 14. His home town is named in order
to distinguish him from an older prophet Micaiah (1 Kings
xxii, 8ff.), and from the numerous other persons bearing the
same name. The exact location of Moresheth is not yet deter-
mined. From i, 14, it would seem that it was near the city
Gath (see on Amos vi, 2). Jerome refers to it as a small
village near Eleutheropolis, about twenty-five miles southwest
of Jerusalem, in the lowlands of Judah, near the Philistine
border. .

The only passage outside of the Book of Micah which men-
tions the prophet is Jer. xxvi, 18, 19. From that passage it
would seem that Micah was, at least in part, responsible for
the reformation under Hezekiah (2 Kings xvili, 4). Of the
later life of Micah nothing is known. Some think that his
activity continued into the dark reign of Manasseh (see pp.
359, 366).

356
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH. 357

 

The Time of the Prophet.

The date of Micah is to be discussed in a subsequent section ;
here it may be sufficient to state that, according to the head-
ing in i, 1, and Jer. xxvi, 18, Micah prophesied in the days of
Hezekiah. The political, social, moral, and religious condi-
tions in Judah during the prophetic activity of Micah and of
his older contemporary Isaiah were essentially the same as in
Israel during the activity of Amos and Hosea (see pp. 18ff.,
196ff.).

The Chronicler furnishes more complete information con-
cerning the reign of Uzziah than the author of the Book of
Kings. Combining the information furnished by the two, we
learn that Uzziah, who died about 740 B. C., left to his son
Jotham a kingdom enjoying a great measure of external pros-
perity. While Jeroboam II was extending the borders of Israel
in the north (see p. 197), Uzziah was strengthening the king-
dom of Judah in the south. He waged successful wars against
the Philistines, and annexed part of their territory to his own.
The Ammonites and Edomites were his vassals. He fortified
Jerusalem and other cities, reorganized the army, and stocked
his arsenals with ammunition of war.

In addition, he was not unmindful of the arts of peace. He
developed very extensively the natural resources of the coun-
try. Being a lover of agriculture, he possessed many fields
which were carefully tilled, watchtowers were erected for the
protection of the king’s cattle, and cisterns were dug for the
collection and retention of the winter rains.

Uzziah was interested also in commerce. He rebuilt the
‘port of Elath on the eastern arm of the Red Sea, by which
foreign commerce might find its way into Judah. Sela, which
had been captured by the king’s father, Amaziah, commanded
the trade route to southern Arabia.

All this brought to Judah a prosperity unequaled since the
days of David and Solomon.

Uzziah was succeeded by his son Jotham, who continued
358 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH.

 

his father’s policy. Jotham’s independent reign—he had been
coregent with his father for some years (2 Kings xv, 5)—was
very brief. Toward its close Judah was threatened with an
invasion by the allied forces of Damascus and Israel. The
real crisis, however, did not come until he had been succeeded
by his son Ahaz. At first the hostile armies were successful,
and “the heart of the king trembled, and the heart of his peo-
ple, as the trees of the forest tremble with the wind” (Isa.
vii, 2). In despair Ahaz, against the protest of the prophet
Isaiah, appealed for assistance to Tiglath-pileser III, of As-
syria. The Assyrians advanced with great rapidity, and the
two nations were punished severely. Judah was saved, but at
the cost of her national independence; henceforth she became
a vassal of the Assyrian king. During the remainder of his
reign Ahaz seems to have remained loyal to Assyria; and
during the early years of Hezekiah Judah kept out of difficul-
ties by quietly paying tribute. The fall of Samaria in 722-721
made an impression that was not soon forgotten, and this
impression became intensified when in 720 Sargon II defeated
an Egyptian army near Raphia, on the borders of Egypt.
Nevertheless, the states along the eastern coast of the Mediter-
ranean bore impatiently the Assyrian yoke. As early as 711
Judah came near being involved in a revolt against Sargon.
The death of the latter in 705 was the signal for uprisings
throughout the entire empire. Merodach-baladan made him-
self again king of Babylon, and he succeeded in stirring up
rebellion in the west, in which Judah joined. Sennacherib,
the successor of Sargon, was compelled to spend several years
in the east, in order to quell disturbances there; but in 702-
701 he marched westward. Tyre, Sidon, and other states fell
before him, Judah was overrun (2 Kings xviii, 13), Hezekiah
was shut up in Jerusalem “like a bird in a cage,” and the fall
of the city was confidently expected. It was at that point that
a divine Providence compelled Sennacherib to raise the siege
of the city and return to Nineveh. Jerusalem was saved.
Little more is known of the events during the reign of Heze-
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH. 359

 

kiah; even the year of his death is uncertain; he died some-
time between 697 and 686.

Since certain prophecies in the book are thought by some
to come from a period subsequent to Hezekiah, it may be well
to consider briefly the political events under his successor
Manasseh. According to 2 Kings xxi, 1, Manasseh was twelve
years old when he began to reign, and he ruled fifty-five years.
He seems to have been an opponent of the pure and spiritual
Jehovah religion proclaimed by the eighth century prophets,
and under him a great religious reaction swept over Judah.
Concerning political events in his reign information is meager.
He must have continued to pay tribute to the Assyrian kings,
though 2 Chron. xxxiii, 11, states that he brought upon himself
the anger of the king of Assyria and was carried in chains to
Babylon. On the whole, the political life of Judah seems to
have remained unchanged under Manasseh.

Socially and morally Judah presented a dark picture during
the latter part of the eighth century and the first part of the
seventh century B. C. Conditions are pictured most vividly
in the prophecies of Isaiah and Micah, the Book of Kings deal-
ing almost exclusively with political events. Of the two
prophets, Isaiah views the situation from the standpoint of the
patrician, the man of the city, Micah from that of the humble
peasant from the country.

Foremost among the evils seen by Micah was the greed of
the nobles manifesting itself in the attempts to build up large
estates by forcibly ejecting the smaller property holders (ii,
1, 2). The judges were quite willing to assist their powerful
friends in robbing the weak (ili, 11); the poor widows and
orphans, who were without defenders, were cruelly robbed and
plundered, and even sold into slavery (ii, 9). Creditors were
heartless. The common people were oppressed by excessive
taxation, that the magnificent palaces of the capital might be
erected. The hopelessness of the situation is aptly described
in vii, 5, 6, though these verses may not come from Micah
himself: “Trust ye not in a neighbor; put ye not confidence
360 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH.

 

in a friend; keep the doors of thy mouth from her that lieth
in thy bosom. For the son dishonoreth the father, the daugh-
ter riseth up against her mother, the daughter-in-law against
her mother-in-law; a man’s enemies are the men of his own
house.” Every man’s hand seems to have been against his
neighbor; even the most sacred relations of life were disre-
garded.

Like the other prophets, Micah saw that the nobles were
chiefly to blame for the awful social and moral corruption.
He likened them to cannibals, who tear the flesh of the people
from their bones and eat it (iii, 3). Their greed and rapacity
knew no limits; like highway robbers they pounced upon
passers-by and stripped off their garments (ii, 8). Helpless
women and children were their special prey (ii, 9). Under
the guise of the law decisions were given in favor of the one
offering the largest bribe (iii, 11). It may be interesting to
read in this connection Isa. ii, 6—v, 24; ix, 8—x, 4.

Concerning religious conditions Micah says less than the
other eighth century prophets, but the few remarks on the
subject confirm the statements of his greater contemporary
Isaiah. Religion had become a matter of form; ceremonial
observances were thought to meet all religious requirements,
and, as in Israel (see Amos, p. 198), the misapprehension was
widespread that, so long as the external acts of worship were
scrupulously performed, the people were entitled to the divine
favor and protection (vi, 6, 7). This false notion seems to
have found encouragement even among the religious leaders
(iii, 11): “yet will they lean upon Jehovah, and say, Is not
Jehovah among us? none evil can come upon us.” In addi-
tion to this perverted Jehovah worship idolatry was quite com-
mon (compare Isa. ii, 8). Ahaz sought to please his Assyrian
masters by introducing foreign elements in the temple worship
(2 Kings xvi, 10ff.). Hezekiah, it is true, sought to bring
about a religious reformation, but it was hardly as sweeping
as 2 Kings xviii, 4, would, at first sight, seem to indicate; for
in the days of Josiah, about a century later, there were still
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH. 361

 

found undisturbed high places reared by Solomon in or near
Jerusalem (2 Kings xxiii, 13).

Under Manasseh religious conditions grew worse very
rapidly. The idols torn down under Hezekiah were carefully
restored; the Asherim were again set up; the enchanters and
soothsayers exercised their old influence (2 Kings xxi, 6);
even human sacrifice was offered (xxi, 6; compare xvi, 3).
The worship of other deities was introduced into the temple
itself; as was natural, those of Assyria received first place
(xxi, 8, 5; xxiii, 11, 12). The popular worship of Judah
at this time must, indeed, have been a strange combination of
foreign and native cults.

Surely amid these conditions the task of a prophet was not
an easy one.

The Date and Integrity of the Book.

That the prophet Micah labored during the period and under
the conditions described in the preceding section can be easily
shown; it is a more difficult task to fix the date of the entire
Book of Micah. Chapter i, 1, written probably at a later time
by the collector of the Minor Prophets into one book, is
intended to be the title of the entire book. Apparently it
ascribes all the prophecies in the book to Micah; and it assigns
the prophet’s activity to the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and
Hezekiah; in round numbers, to the years between 740 and
700. That Micah prophesied in the days of Hezekiah is
affirmed also in Jer. xxvi, 18, 19, where Mic. iii, 12, is quoted.
The passage quoted is so closely connected with the preceding
verses that verse 12 undoubtedly carries with it the entire
third chapter; and certain striking similarities between it
and chapters i, ii place it almost beyond doubt that all three
chapters, in substance at least, proceeded from the same author.
But internal evidence—for example, i, 6—makes it clear that
i, 1ff., belong to the years immediately preceding or following
the fall of Samaria. If that city fell in the sixth year of
Hezekiah (2 Kings xviii, 10), internal evidence would seem
362 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH.

 

to support the testimony of the title and of Jer. xxvi, 18, 19,
that Micah prophesied in the days of Hezekiah.* <

Until near the middle of the nineteenth century the testi-
mony of the title was accepted as final. Ewald was the first
to question the authorship of chapters vi, vii, which he assigned
to another prophet living during the dark reign of Manasseh.
Since then a constantly increasing number of passages have
been denied to Micah. Of more recent writers on the book
Cheyne (Encyclopedia Biblica, article “Micah”) declares:
“One result is that in no part of chapters iv—vii can we ven-
ture to detect the hand of Micah. What the real Micah was
must be learned from chapters i—iii, which are mostly genu-
ine.” In i—iii he is inclined to question i, 10-15; ii, 5, 10,
12, 13; iii, 2b, 3b. Nowack is somewhat more conservative.
Chapters i—iii, with the possible exception of ii, 12, 13, he
unhesitatingly ascribes to Micah. With regard to chapters
iv, v he is more skeptical: “If there are any words of Micah
at all in chapters iv, v, these can include no more than iv, 9,
10, 14; v, 9-13.” The next section, vi, 1—vii, 6, he thinks
“might, so far as their contents are concerned, proceed from
Micah; . . . but not only the tenderness of feeling exhibited
in vi, 1ff., but also the dramatic and exceedingly animated
descriptions, make the composition of this section by Micah
very improbable.” Of vii, 7-20, he says emphatically that it
“cannot possibly be attributed to Micah.” Marti assigns to
the prophet Micah only i, 5b, 6, 8, 9, 16; ii, 1-3, 4, 6-11; iii,
1, 2a, 3a, 4, 5a, 2b, 5b-8, 9, 10. These passages, he thinks,
were arranged by Micah himself in one collection, which was
the Micah book known in the days of Jeremiah.

 

* The chronology of Judah during the latter part of the eighth century B.C. is
very obscure. If we follow 2 Kings xviii, 9, Hezekiah began to reign about 728; if we
follow 2 Kings xviii, 13, his reign must have begun about 715. There is no intimation
of a coregency, and apparently the two dates stand irreconcilable. The subject cannot
be discussed here at length (see Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible, article “Chronol-
ogy’). There seems to be good reason for believing that Hezekiah came to the
throne before the fall of Samaria; and, tentatively at least, the dates of the three
kings named in the title may be given as follows: Jotham, 737-735; Ahaz, 735-728;
Hezekiah, 728-697.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH. 363

 

These three scholars represent the more extreme tendency in
the criticism of the Book of Micah; and a close examination
of the questioned passages as well as of the objections raised
against them may show that it is not necessary to follow them
all the way.

Leaving aside, then, a few minor passages in the first part
of the book—which can be discussed, when necessary, more
readily in the notes—an inquiry into the integrity of the Book
of Micah must give attention to ii, 12, 13; iv; v; vi, 1—-vii, 6;
vii, 7-20. Only i, 2—ii, 11; iii, 1-12, are generally admitted
to come from Micah, and to have been delivered near the fall
of Samaria; and within these chapters, as already indicated,
Cheyne and Marti question a number of verses.

Verses 12, 13 of chapter ii are questioned because “they are
foreign to the line of thought expressed in chapters i, ii, for
they presuppose the exile, and occupy themselves with the
restoration of the people”; to which objection may be added
the claim that linguistically they are closely connected with
the exilic and postexilic literature. The linguistic argument
is always precarious, and in this case it is without sufficient
foundation. If the truth of the other objection, that ii, 12, 13,
presuppose the exile as already present, could be established,
the verses would have to be assigned to the exilic period; but,
as will be shown in the notes on these verses, there is nothing
in them that presupposes the exile as a present reality; in
fact, there exists a rather close logical connection between
11 and 12. In view of this fact the objection to the originality
of these verses cannot be considered conclusive (see below,
comments on ii, 12, 13).

There are those, however, who do not deny the verses to
Micah, but who consider them out of place in their present
position. Steiner, for example, would place them after iv, 8;
but, as already indicated, there is a real.thought connection
between 12, 13 and the preceding verses, so that a mere external
abruptness of transition cannot be regarded as conclusively
proving that the verses are out of place, especially since such
364 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH.

 

abrupt transitions are not infrequent in prophetic literature.
Besides, though the transposition would remoye in part abrupt-
ness, it would not do so entirely.

Chapters iv, v, with the possible exception of a few verses,
have been denied to Micah chiefly on two grounds: 1. The
strange and frequent juxtaposition of Messianic hopes and
announcements of judgments is said to weaken the message
of the prophet. Hence, it is said, Micah cannot be responsible
for it. This objection is raised against all similar passages
in other prophetic books (see Hosea, pp. 35f.; Amos, p. 215).
When it is once admitted, however, that the prophets enter-
tained a hope of the preservation of a remnant, the difficulty
vanishes almost completely. The promises are made not to
the entire people, but to this remnant. Since the doctrine of
the remnant cannot be removed from the utterances of the
other eighth century prophets, why may it not have formed a
part of Micah’s religious thinking? But if this doctrine can
be found in Micah the presence of these ideal pictures of the
future presents no difficulty; it would be more surprising
not to find them. When it is further borne in mind, as is
pointed out in the introductory remarks to chapters iv, v and
in the notes on these chapters, that the two chapters are a
collection of short oracles, all dealing with the same subject,
the Messianic outlook, but not coming from the same period
of the prophet’s activity, and describing the Messianic age
from different points of view, suggested by the ever-changing
historical background of the various utterances, the objection
will be found to lose all its force. 2. The second objection
is closely related to the first. It is pointed out that mutually
exclusive views present themselves in these chapters (compare
iv, 6-8, with iv, 9, 10; iv, 11-13, with v, 1; v, 2-4, with v, 5ff.) ;
that in several instances a connection can be established only
by artificial means (compare iv, 4, with iv, 5; iv, 8, with iv, 9,
10; iv, 11-13, with v, 1-4) ; that ideas are expressed which were
not current until after the time of Micah (compare iv, 11-13,
with Ezek, xxxviii, xxxix); and that certain relations are pre-
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH. 365

 

supposed which are foreign to Micah’s era (for example, iv,’
6-8; v, 1ff.). This series of objections would have considerable
weight if it were necessary to take chapters iv, v as containing
one discourse, delivered at one and the same time. But, as
soon as it is recognized that the chapters contain a collection
of oracles, delivered at different times, under different circum-
stances, growing out of different historical situations, the objec-
tions lose their force, unless it can be shown that the separate
oracles contain linguistic, historical, or religious features that
militate against the authorship of Micah. For a detailed dis-
cussion the reader should turn to the commentary on these
chapters; here it may be sufficient to say that the arguments
against the authenticity of the chapters or of any part of them
do not appear to be in any sense conclusive.

So far as the contents of vi, 1—vii, 6, are concerned, this
section might, according to Nowack’s admission, have pro-
ceeded from Micah. The objections to this portion are based
chiefly on the differences in style and intensity of emotion as
compared with the earlier chapters of the book. But these
differences are by no means so marked as to exclude unity of
authorship. True, the conditions presupposed in the verses
are not quite the same as those presupposed in chapters i—ili;
the corruption seems to be more extensive and more marked.
This fact in itself would account for the depth of feeling shown
by the author of these utterances; this intenser feeling, in
turn, would lead to more earnest and passionate appeals; and,
surely, it would be only natural that these should influence
the style. Nowhere can be discovered anything that makes
impossible the belief in Micah’s authorship.

If the testimony of the title in i, 1, can at all be relied upon,
the prophet lived through a very eventful period (see above,
pp. 357ff.). In that general period the reign of Ahaz seems to
furnish a most. suitable occasion for these utterances, as a few
comparisons will show. Ahaz was inclined toward the worship
of foreign deities (2 Kings xvi, 10ff.) ; the complaint of Jeho-
vah in Mic. vi, 1ff., implies that the people were forsaking
366 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH.

 

-him. Ahaz caused his son to pass through the fire (2 Kings
xvi, 3; compare Mic. vi, 7). Ahaz walked “in the ways of the
kings of Israel” (2 Kings xvi, 3); Mic. vi, 16, complains,
“The statutes of Omri are kept, and all the works of the house
of Ahab, and ye walk in their counsels.” To the reign of
Jotham, only a year or two before Ahaz’s accession, belong the
prophecies in Isa. ii—v; and it may be interesting to compare
Mice. vii, 1-6, with Isa. iii, 1-15; especially Mic. vii, 5, 6, with
Isa. iii, 5; compare also Mic. vii, 4, with Isa. x, 3.

Though it has become customary, since the days of Ewald,
to assign chapters vi, vii to the dark reign of Manasseh, written
either by Micah himself, who might easily have continued his
ministry into the reign of Manasseh, or by some other prophet,
whose name has not been preserved, it seems more probable
that vi, 1—vii, 6, comes from near the beginning of Micah’s
ministry, the reign of Ahaz. Kirkpatrick says rightly, “Chap-
ter vi, at any rate, is a piece of public preaching which is more
likely to belong to the time of Ahaz than to that of Manasseh,
when the true prophets were silenced.”

Most modern commentators agree in regarding vii, 7-20, as
the product of a later age. Wellhausen says, “Between vii, 6,
and vii, 7, there yawns a century.” In his commentary he
makes the interval even longer, for he places vii, 7-20, in the
postexilic period. Nowack, “vii, 7ff.,cannot possibly be attrib-
uted to Micah; for what in vi, 1—vii, 6, is yet in prospect
is in vii, 7ff., actually come to pass—Zion suffers for her sins,
and the prophet looks to a better time, when Jehovah will again
interest himself on behalf of his people and build the walls
of the city.” Marti, following Stade’s suggestion, divides vii,
7-20, into two sections, 7-13, 18b, 19a, and 14-18a, 19b, 20;
both sections he assigns to the second century B. C. G. A.
Smith calls vii, 7-20, “a canto of several fragments, from
periods far apart in the history of Israel.”

The chief ground for assigning the verses to the exilic or
postexilic period is the alleged fact that in them the exile is
presupposed as an accomplished fact; and some hold that even
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH. 367

 

the return and the later dispersion of the Jews are things of
the past. However, this is by no means self-evident; even the
expression in verse 11, “a day for building thy walls,” does
not establish the truth of the claim. All the eighth century
prophets seem to expect the divine judgment, which they
announce, to fall in the immediate future; all expect it to
take the form of an invasion, in which the land will be over-
run; and Micah certainly announces the destruction of the
capital (iii, 12); all expect the preservation of a remnant;
and all make glorious promises to this remnant. But if Micah
expected the salvation of a remnant, and if he had any desire
of picturing the future exaltation of this remnant, was it not
perfectly natural for him to include in his picture of the
restoration the rebuilding of the city, even though its destruc-
tion was still in the future? In this Micah does not stand
alone (compare Jer. xxxiii, 10ff.). Hence it is quite possible to
regard “a day for building thy walls” a part of the prophetic
picture of the future calamity and restoration. The case is
entirely different in Isa. xl—lxvi, with which Wellhausen com-
pares these verses. Isa. xl—lxvi contains numerous unambigu-
ous references to the Babylonian exile as a present fact; but
in Mic. vii, 7-20, there is not a single clear reference of that
character.

On the other hand, it has been argued that Assyria was the
world power (verse 12), and that in verse 14 there may be an
allusion to the ravaging of the territory north of Esdraelon and
east of the Jordan by Tiglath-pileser III in 734. Hence vii,
14, has been taken to favor the view that vii, 7-20, belong to
the same period to which were assigned vi, 1—vii, 6 (see above;
but compare comment on vii, 14). When it is possible to base
two so widely different conclusions upon the historical allu-
sions in an utterance it must be admitted that the historical
background is uncertain.

The argument from style is in this case of more weight.
Even the reader of the English translation must be impressed
with the marked differences as he passes from vii, 6, to vii, 7ff.
368 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH.

 

Certainly a change in style would be expected when an author
passes from exhortation to supplication or praise, as is done
in these verses. But the closer one studies vii, 7-20, the
stronger becomes the impression that the differences in style
are almost too great to be compatible with unity of authorship,
and the firmer becomes the conviction that either Micah was
a man of peculiarly vivid imagination, of unusual poetic genius
and wonderful dramatic power, or the verses cannot come from
him. To a later date point also the similarities with some of
the later psalms. G. A. Smith may be correct, therefore, in
calling vii, 7-20, “a canto of several fragments, from periods
far apart in the history of Israel” (see further the comments
on vii, 7-20).

A few words must be added concerning the arrangement of
the book. It falls naturally into three parts: chapters i, il;
chapters iili—v; chapters vi, vii; each part beginning with
“Hear ye.” Each part contains a description of the present
corruption, an announcement of imminent judgment, and one
or more promises of a bright and glorious future. In a broad
sense each section marks an advance over the preceding. It
would be erroneous, however, to suppose that the three parts,
even aside from vii, 7-20, represent three connected discourses
of the prophet delivered to the people on three different occa-
sions. They are rather three collections of the essential con-
tents of oral utterances of the prophet during his entire
prophetic activity. The brief notes or summaries were
arranged in the order in which they are found now either by
Micah or by a later collector, probably the latter. The princi-
ple of arrangement is not chronological, but, in a broad sense,
logical; that is, the collector or collectors kept in mind the
general scheme—corruption, judgment, salvation of a remnant,
promise—but within the general scheme itself the separate
utterances were arranged with less care and without the intro-
duction of any connecting links. As a result abruptness in
transition is frequent, and it is difficult at times to trace the
exact line of thought.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH. 369

 

Contents and Teaching of the Book.

Contents——The Book of Micah falls naturally into three
parts. The first part (chapters i, ii) begins with a majestic
description of the approach of Jehovah in judgment (i, 2-4).
His anger has been aroused by the transgression of Israel and
Judah; and in punishment he will reduce Samaria, the capital
of the northern kingdom, to a heap of ruins (6,7). But the
calamity will not stop there; it will advance to the very gates
of Jerusalem (9). The prophet, moved by sympathy for the
stricken country, bewails the devastation of his home district ;
in a series of agonizing cries, making extensive use of parono-
masia, he describes the fate of several cities and villages located
in it (8-16).

This lament is followed by a woe upon the proud nobles of
the realm, whose deeds of violence have made inevitable the
judgment (ii, 1, 2). The punishment will be meted out
according to the lex talionis; they have robbed others, there-
fore they will be robbed of their ill-gotten possessions (3, 4).
The prophet foresees an attempt on the part of the people and
the false prophets to silence him by-declaring his utterances
to be absurd; hence he insists that his preaching is in perfect
accord with the ethical principles underlying Jehovah’s gov-
ernment of the world. God promises good only to him who
walks uprightly; this Israel has failed to do, hence disaster
must come (5-9). The sentence of verses 3, 4 is reiterated ;
the rascals must leave the land—“this is not your resting
place” (10). The prophet next describes the kind of prophet
they would like to hear, one who promises peace and prosperity,
who flatters the self-righteous hypocrites (11). Micah is not
one of these; he can declare only what Jehovah desires, and
at present the divinely given message is one of judgment.
Nevertheless, it is not one of unmitigated doom. He too has
a message of salvation, though not for the immediate future,
nor for all the listeners, but for the loyal worshipers of Jeho-
vah. These, purified through suffering, will be assembled
370 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH.

 

again; Jehovah himself will redeem them and restore them to
their old home (12, 13).

The second part (chapters iii—v) opens with a vivid descrip-
tion of the present corruption; civil and ecclesiastical leaders
abuse the privileges of their offices. All humane feelings have
been stifled (iii, 1-3). These human brutes Jehovah will for-
sake in the hour of judgment (4). For the decline in virtue
the false prophets are largely responsible; they have become
mercenary and care nothing for the truth; the priests also
are actuated by a spirit of avarice and greed. Yet in spite
of the universal corruption they presume to claim Jehovah’s
favor—“Is not Jehovah in the midst of us? no evil shall come
upon us” (5-11). On account of this failure to do the will of
Jehovah the capital will be completely ruined (12).

But the ruin will not continue forever. There will be a
turn for the better. A remnant will survive the judgment;
and this remnant, restored to its former home, will be raised
to highest honor and glory. This exaltation is the subject of
chapters iv, v. However, these two chapters do not form one
single, continuous discourse; they are rather a collection of
oracles, all dealing with the same subject, namely, the Mes-
sianic outlook, but they do not come from the same period in
the prophet’s activity, and they describe the Messianic age from
various points of view. The first section presents a sublime
picture of Zion’s future glory as the center of the universal
religion (iv, 1-5). When the era of Messianic peace dawns
the dispersed of Israel will have a share in its glory. Jehovah
will bring back and heal a remnant of those whom in his anger
he cast off. This remnant will grow into a strong nation that
will suffer no more from weak and incompetent rulers, for
Jehovah himself will rule forever (6-8).

The distant future is bright, but the immediate future is full
of gloom and despair. The prophet sees the impending de-
struction; he hears the lamentation (9); nevertheless, with
sublime faith he predicts, “Jehovah will redeem thee” (10).
From a different period in the prophet’s ministry comes the
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH. 871

 

next oracle, which again starts from the present calamity but
ends with the triumphant exhortation, “Arise and thresh, O
daughter of Zion; for I will make thy horn iron, and I will
make thy hoofs brass; and thou shalt beat in pieces many peo-
ples: and I will devote their gain unto Jehovah, and their
substance unto the Lord of the whole earth” (11-13).

The next section again takes a brief glance at the present
distress and shame (v, 1), but immediately it soars to the
loftiest heights of Messianic promise (2ff.). The prophet
introduces the personal Messiah, to be born in Beth-lehem (2) ;
though temporary distress is inevitable, the sequel will be glori-
ous (3). Like a kind shepherd will the Messiah feed his
flock (4); he is peace personified, and his rule will be peace.
Should an enemy attack the kingdom of God there will be a
superabundance of leaders to hasten to its defense (5, 6).

The prophet proceeds to consider the restored nation’s rela-
tion to other peoples; to some it will dispense blessings and
prove a source of increased vitality (7); to others it will be
terror and destruction (8). That Israel may be successful in
its conquests is his prayer (9).

When the people have learned to rely upon Jehovah he will
destroy all implements of war (10, 11), and remove all witch-
craft and soothsayers (12). Idolatry will come to an end (13,
14); and Jehovah will be the avenger of his people (15).

In the third part (chapters vi, vii) the standpoint of the
speaker changes. Once more the whole nation is addressed.
In vi, 1—vii, 6, is a dramatic representation of Jehovah in a
controversy with Israel. Jehovah opens the case by inquiring
what he has done to merit Israel’s ingratitude and neglect
(vi, 1-5). The people do not deny the truth of the accusation
implied in the words of Jehovah; apparently they are ready
to admit their guilt, but they plead ignorance of the true
requirements of Jehovah. They are willing to take upon them-
selves the severest tasks if they can only secure the divine favor
(6,7). To this plea the prophet replies that there is no excuse
for their ignorance. Jehovah has made known his will again
372 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH.

 

and again: “He hath showed thee, O man, what is good; and
what doth Jehovah require of thee, but to do justly, and to
love kindness, and to walk humbly with thy God?” (8).

With verse 9 begins a new accusation and denunciation.
Jehovah is the speaker. He denounces, in righteous indigna-
tion, the injustice, oppression, and violence prevalent in the
capital, and threatens judgment in the form of an invasion,
desolation, disgrace (9-16). The accusation continues in chap-
ter vii; but now the prophet is the speaker. He describes the
desperate condition of the nation: anarchy, injustice, judicial
corruption, the dissolution of the tenderest ties of family rela-
tion (1-6),

Here another change of speaker occurs. The penitent com-
munity, the remnant now sitting in darkness, addresses Jeho-
vah; it pleads for deliverance, and expresses the assurance that
Jehovah will bring it out into the light, and give to it victory
over the arrogant enemy (7-10). To this expression of con-
fidence Jehovah, or the prophet in his name, replies with
words of encouragement; the loyalty of the petitioner will be
rewarded with a glorious restoration (11-13). In verse 14 the
prophet becomes the spokesman of the people. He pleads for
the fulfillment of the promise of the restoration, and rejoices
in the terror and humiliation of the nations of the world
(14-17). The Book of Micah closes with a doxology. The
prophet, reveling in the thought of a glorious future, sings a
hymn in honor of Jehovah, who alone is God; he celebrates the
divine attributes of loving-kindness, compassion, and faithful-
ness as about to be manifested in the deliverance promised by
Jehovah (18-20).

Teaching—The teaching of Micah is simple and forceful.
In many respects it resembles that of Amos and Hosea; hence
it seems unnecessary to outline in detail the various points
of his teaching (see Amos, pp. 205ff.; Hosea, pp. 29ff.). A
few points, however, deserve special mention. His theology
insists on the holiness of Jehovah, and the universality and
righteousness of the divine government. Jehovah deals, even
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH. 373

 

with Israel, on the basis of ethical principles. So long as his
people will do right they will enjoy the divine favor (ii, 7) ;
when they turn against him they must suffer punishment.
His good will is secured not by carefully observing the ritual,
or by bringing sacrifices, whatever their intrinsic value, but
by a life in accord with principles of righteousness, by the
diligent practice of kindness and brotherliness, and by a living
fellowship with God in the spirit of humility, which should
ever govern the intercourse of weak and sinful man with a
holy and perfect God (vi, 6-8).

The prophet did not deceive himself into an expectation that
his high moral and religious ideals would be sufficiently attrac-
tive to bring about a complete transformation in the whole
nation. He foresaw that the majority would continue in rebel-
lion, and that, therefore, a destructive blow must fall which
would make an end of the national existence of both Israel
and Judah. But he saw with equal clearness that a remnant
would be saved, and that under the Messianic king this rem-
nant would enjoy a life of permanent peace and prosperity
(v, 2-6). Through the moral influence going out from these
faithful ones (v, 7) the knowledge of Jehovah would spread
to all the nations, and all would flock to him (iv, 1-4). In
his description of the Messianic king Micah passes beyond Amos
and Hosea (v, 2-5).

A comparison of Micah with his greater contemporary, Isa-
iah, is of interest. The two “resemble each other in style, in
thought, in topics, and even in phrases”; yet the contrasts
between the two in origin, training, and sphere of work are
equally marked. The one was a city prophet, of high social
standing, the counselor of kings; the other a simple country-
man, born of obscure parentage, in close touch and sympathy
with the peasant class. However, both cherish lofty concep-
tions of the character of God and of the obligations resting
upon the people of Jehovah, and both have firmly established
convictions concerning the nature and ultimate triumph of the
kingdom of God.
374 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH.

 

Never in the history of the Hebrew people, and one might
almost say never in the history of the human race, arose within
one brief lifetime (760-735 B. C.) four men who have left a
greater and more permanent impress upon the religious de-
velopment of the world than did the four divinely inspired
leaders, Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah. They, more than any
other set of men during the Old Testament period, were respon-
sible for the preservation and development of the religion out
of which sprang, at a later period, the religion of life and
power, Christianity.

Outline.

TITLE—THE AUTHOR OF THE PROPHECY. Chap. i, 1.

A. JUDGMENT UPON SAMARIA AND JUDAH—SALVATION OF A REM-
NANT. Chaps. i, 2—ii, 13.

I. JUDGMENT UPON SAMARIA AND JUDAH......... 2 ee eee eens i, 2-16
1. Message of judgment............ 0... eee eee ee eee i, 2-7
2. Lament over the devastation of Judah............ i, 8-16

II. CAUSES OF THE IMPENDING JUDGMENT.......-...00e 0 eee ee ii, 1-11
1. Woe upon the arrogant nobles who have become mis-
leaders of the people............ see eee ee eeaee ii, 1-4
2. Futile attempts to silence the prophet—Reiteration of
the message of judgment.................0005 ii, 5-11

JII. RETURN OF A PURIFIED REMNANT UNDER THE LEADERSHIP OF

DE OV AT ois cose trai reesei na eee artice ewig We ee UE SS ian ii, 12,13

B. CONTRAST BETWEEN THE PRESENT DEGRADATION AND THE FUTURE
EXALTATION. Chaps. iii, 1—v, 15.

I. THE PRESENT CORRUPTION. ........ 00sec eeeee cree ee eeeee ili, 1-12
1. Outrages committed by civil rulers.............. iii, 1-4
2. Condemnation of the mercenary prophets........ iii, 5-8

3. Renewed condemnation of the nation’s political and
religious leaders. The doom of Jerusalem... .iii, 9-12

II. THE MESSIANIC OUTLOOK....... 0... cece e eee eens iv, 1—v, 15
1. Zion the center of the universal religion of the future
sina bude Cer EEY ieee Ser aust caNlere ane Sie Roe uat aia cayenne: RReueNOaareE Saar iv, 1-5
2. Restoration and healing of the dispersed—Revival of
the kingdom of David.................... 0000, iv, 6-8
3. Distress and subsequent redemption............ iv, 9, 10

4. Deliverance of Jerusalem; destruction of the enemy..
Bie VM odwa ea steed ea Glemres Siew Mesias ekg alban iv, 11-13
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MICAH. 375

 

5. The Messiah and the Messianic era.............. v, 1-15
(1) The Messiah’s birth and reign......... v, 1-5a
(2) Supremacy over Assyria.............. v, 5b, 6
(3) The restored nation’s attitude toward other
POODLES ew cata sence eee perddwae donk v, 7-9
(a) A source of blessing............. v,7

(b) A source of terror and distress. .v, 8,9
(4) Divine achievements on behalf of the redeemed

POM G 30.3 sce chraceinaaeies aie Selous ee v, 10-15
(a) Destruction of all implements of war
Lyaxe evan none seeees v, 10, 11
(b) Removal of witchcraft and sooth-
SAV OTS. ones ss pancake v, 12
(c) Extinction of idolatry....... v, 18, 14
(d) Jehovah the avenger of his people..
SERRA EEE RED CDS SARA PEG RRA v, 15

’

C. JEHOVAH AND ISRAEL IN CONTROVERSY—THE ULTIMATE SETTLE-
MENT. Chaps. vi, 1—vii, 20.

I. JEHOVAH’S COMPLAINT CONCERNING ISRAEL’S INGRATITUDE AND

NEGLECT 3 eccie tea Gass Meee hae ye CMe S Rew ea ce eves< vi, 1-5
II. THE PEOPLE’S PLEA OF IGNORANCE.........000ce eee eceeee vi, 6, 7
III. THE DIVINE DEMANDS...... ccc ccc ve ce cceceecceceseeecees vi, 8
IV. FIERCE DENUNCIATION OF PREVALENT CRIMES............ vi, 9-16
V. HOPELESSNESS OF THE NATION’S CONDITION...........000- vii, 1-6
VI. UTTERANCES DEALING WITH THE ULTIMATE SETTLEMENT OF THE
CONTROVERS Yosga.cid ne Sites ediniokia dealdlsa ous wale ekowas vii, 7-20
1. Confidence of the penitent community in a final deliver-
ANG se 4o2taieidas eee ag desues dew tee eet ees vii, 7-10

2. Jehovah’s promise of a glorious restoration....vii, 11-13
3. The prophet’s prayer for the fulfillment of this promise
shinuas Bateiat aguas Seavaynteke aia taNatG, or awh a Iisa ee aor Malan aa vii, 14-17
4. Doxology—aAscription of praise to Jehovah, who alone
1S? QOD iis dieies oats Nise andoelews Seviwe'e 4s Mee «s...Vii, 18-20
MICAH.

 

CHAPTER I. %
HE word of the Lorp that came
to *Micah the Morasthite in the
days of Jotham, Ahaz, and Heze-
kiah, kings of Judah, >which he saw

concerning Samaria and Jerusalem.
2 \Hear, all ye people; chearken, O
earth, and 2all tnt therein is: and
let the Lord Gop ¢be witness against
you, the Lord from chis holy temple.

 

a Jer. 26. 18—bAmos 1. 1.—! Heb.
Hear, ye people, all of them.——¢ Deut. 32.
1; Isa. 1. 2.

 

2Heb. the fullness thereof.m4 Psa.
50. 7; Mal. 3. 5.—e Psa. 11. 4; Jonah 2.
7; Hab. 2. 20.

 

CHAPTER I.

1. Title. Indicates the author and
the time of his activity. On the person
of the prophet see Introduction, p.356;
on the chronological data, pp. 361ff.
Samaria—The capital of the northern
kingdom (i, 6). Jerusalem—The cap-
ital of the southern kingdom (iii, 12).
JUDGMENT UPON ISRAEL AND JUDAH,

Micah is impelled by the Divine
Spirit to announce the destruction of
Samaria and Jerusalem, the capitals
of Israel and Judah. The latter may
not suffer as soon as the former;
nevertheless, escape is impossible.
The prophecy opens with a sublime
apostrophe to the nations of the earth
and a magnificent picture of the ap-
proach of Jehovah in judgment (2-4).
Samaria will be laid in ruins on ac-
count of her sins (5-7). In time the
judgment will fall also upon Judah
(8-16). The announcement to Judah
the prophet puts into the form of a
lament over its fall, a lament indi-
cating the deep emotion which sways
the prophet as he contemplates the
terrible calamity.

The judgment upon Samaria, 2-7.

Verses 2-4 picture the coming of
Jehovah in judgment. All ye people;
...O earth, ... all that therein is—A
sublime apostrophe to the whole
earth. All the nations of the earth
are to listen and take warning, for
a world judgment is decreed by Je-

 

hovah. Because these verses speak
of a world judgment, while ordinarily
the book speaks of judgment upon
Israel or Judah only, Stade and Marti
consider 2-4 a later interpolation by
some one who could not understand
how Judah and Israel alone could be
punished, when other nations de-
served even more the divine judgment.
This conclusion does not follow neces-
sarily; as an introduction to a more
specific announcement these verses
are perfectly natural. Similar expres-
sions are found in other parts of the
Old Testament (Deut. iv, 26; xxx, 19;
xxxi, 28; Isa. i, 2). In 1 Kings xxii,
28, the words may be a later interpo-
lation from this passage (compare
LXX.). And let the Lord Jehovah
be witness against you—Perhaps bet-
ter, that the Lord Jehovah will be wit-
ness against you. Be witness is equiv-
alent to be accuser. Since in 2a the
nations are addressed, it seems only
natural to interpret these words as
addressed to the same. Micah means
to announce the coming of Jehovah
to a general judgment, though at
present he will confine himself to Is-
rael and Judah (5ff.). To understand
verse 2 as addressed to Israel, “peo-
ple” (literally, peoples) referring to
the tribes constituting the nation, is
arbitrary and unnatural, and to refer
2a to the nations and “against you”
in 2b to Israel is even less warranted.
From his holy temple—Not the temple
in Jerusalem, but, as “come down” in

376
CHAPTER I.

377

 

8 For, behold, ‘the Lord cometh
forth out of his «place, and will
come down, and tread upon the
bhigh places of the earth. 4 And
ithe mountains shall be molten un-
der him, and the valleys shall be
cleft, as wax before the fire, and as

the waters that are poured down ‘a
steep place. 5 For the transgres-
sion of Jacob is all this, and for the
sins of the house of Israel. What
ws the transgression of Jacob? is it
not Samaria? and what are the
high places of Judah? are they not

 

—f Isa. 26. 21.—« Psa. 115. 3.» Deut.
32. 13; 33, 29; Amos 4. 13.—i Judg. 5.

5; Psa. 97. 5; Isa. 64. 1-3; Amos 9. 5;
Hab. 3. 6, 10.—* Heb. a descent. —

 

verse 3 shows, the dwelling place of
Jehovah on high (Psa. xi, 4). On
holy see comment on Joel ii, 1; Zech.
xiv, 20. :

For—Verse 3 does not state the rea-
son why the people should give ear;
it is rather the continuation of the
statement in 2b. A better transla-
tion would be, Yea, behold. Cometh
—More accurately, is about to come
(G.-K., 116p.). The event is thought
to be imminent. The language of
verses 3, 4 is highly poetic. As fre-
quently in the Old Testament (for
example, Psa. xviii, 7ff.), verse 4 de-
scribes the appearance of Jehovah in
the imagery of a thunderstorm, while
verse 3 seems to think of him as
a mighty hero leaving his castle and
going forth to war. His place—Tem-
ple (verse 2). Come down—From
heaven to earth. Tread upon the high
places—See on Amos iv, 13.

The present Hebrew text does not
show the several clauses of verse 4
in their logical order. A more natural
arrangement would be, “And the
mountains shall be melted under him
as wax before the fire, and the valleys
shall be cleft as waters that are poured
down a steep place.” Whether or not
this was the original order, the present
arrangement being due to a later copy-
ist, cannot be determined. The pic-
ture is that of a terrible thunderstorm.
Molten—Some have interpreted this
simile of the flashes of lightning, which
seem to dissolve the mountains. It
is better, however, to think of streams
of water that pour from heaven until
the very mountains appear to be dis-
solved by them (Judg. v, 5; Psa.
Ixviii, 8). Cleft—This is a continua-
tion of the first simile. The water
rushes on with such force that it cuts

 

out deep channels, until the valleys
seem to be cleft asunder. The force
of these torrents is likened to the
force of water falling over a high
precipice. Both similes imply utter
destruction, and they are intended to
teach that, when Jehovah passes
through the earth in judgment, noth-
ing but ruin and desolation is left
behind.

5. In this instance the judge of all
the earth comes for a specific purpose,
to execute judgment upon Israel.
Jacob . . . Israel—Some suppose that
Jacob means the whole of the chosen
people, including Judah, while Israel
is thought to refer to the northern
kingdom only; but there seems to be
insufficient warrant for this differen-
tiation. In view of the distinction be-
tween north and south in 5b it would
be natural to expect the same dis-
tinction in 5a. Since “Jacob” desig-
nates the northern kingdom in 5b, it
can hardly be used of Judah in 5a.
Hence the question suggests itself,
whether in the place of “Israel” the
text did not read originally ‘‘Judah.”
If the present text is correct “Israel”
and “Jacob” in 5a should probably be
regarded as synonyms, both denoting
the whole nation, which only in 5b
is divided into north and south, called
Jacob and Judah respectively. Trans-
gression—A weak reproduction of the
original. The rendering “rebellion,”
or “apostasy,” which implies tak-
ing a determined hostile attitude,
comes nearer the original. High
places—The technical Old Testament
term for the local sanctuaries scat-
tered throughout the land; they were
so called because they were com-
monly located on natural or artificial
elevations. Nominally the worship
378

MICAH.

 

Jerusalem? 6 Therefore I will make
Samaria ‘as an heap of the field, and
as plantings of a vineyard: and I

ill pour down the stones thereof
into the valley, and I will ‘discover

k 2 Kings 19. 25; chap. 3. 12.

practiced there was in honor of
Jehovah, but it became so_per-
meated with immoral, heathenish
elements that it threatened the
very life of the Jehovah religion.
As a result the prophets hurl the
severest condemnation against this
cult; and finally, under Josiah (621
B. C.), worship at the local sanctua-
ries was abolished (compare also
2 Kings xviii, 4). Instead of “high
places” three of the most important
ancient versions present a different
reading; Peshitto reads “sin”; LXX.
and Targum, “sin of the house of.” If
either of these is accepted as original
the parallelism between the two parts
of 5b will resemble more closely that
between the two parts of 5a. If the
present Hebrew text is followed, “high
places” must be understood as prac-
tically equivalent to “transgression.”
The suggestion that 5b is a later mar-
ginal gloss to 5a is without sufficient
warrant. What is the transgression—
Literally, Who is. Transgression, the
abstract, is here equivalent to the
concrete transgressor, or better, orig-
inator of transgression. The thought
is that the apostasy of the people is
due to the influence that went out
from the two capitals. Here the court
and nobility were to be found; and
it is the teaching of all the eighth
century prophets that these were in a
large measure responsible for the sins
of the people.

The indictment is followed by the
announcement of judgment; verses 6,
7 deal with Samaria, the rest of the
chapter with Judah. The former will
be destroyed. As an heap—Liter-
ally “into an heap.” It will be-
come like a heap of stones in a field.
The prophet seems to think of stones
gathered out of the field by the hus-
bandman. The emendation “into

 

the foundations thereof. 7 And all
the graven mages thereof shall be
beaten to pieces, and all the “hires
thereof shall be burned with the
fire, and all the idols thereof will

1 Ezek. 13. 14.—™ Hos. 2. 5, 12.

jungle,” favored by some, is not
needed. As plantings of a vineyard—
R. V., “as places for planting vine-
yards.” Again better, into. If the
city was allowed to remain in ruins,
in time people would plant vineyards
on the sides of the fertile hill upon
which Samaria was located. The rest
of verse 6 presents a picture of com-
plete ruin. Houses and walls will be
broken down to their very founda-
tions (Psa. exxxvii, 7); and since the
land is to be cultivated, the stones are
removed by hurling them down the
hill on which the city was built
(1 Kings xvi, 24). Cheyne quotes
from a report describing the ruins of
Samaria in modern times as follows:
“There is every appearance of the
ancient buildings having been de-
stroyed, and their materials cast down
from the brow of the hill, in order to
clear the ground for cultivation;
masses of stones are thus seen hanging
on the steep sides of the hill, acci-
dentally stopped in the progress of
their descent by the rude dykes and
terraces separating the fields. ... The
materials of the ruins... are piled up
in large heaps, or used in the con-
struction of rude stone fences; many
of these heaps of stones are seen in
the plains at the foot of the hill.” A
later destruction of Samaria by John
Hyrcanus is described by Josephus
(Antiquities, xiii, 10, 3).

With the city the images of the
gods will be destroyed, which will
prove their impotence and nothing-
ness (Isa. ii, 20; xxx, 22). Graven
images—Representations of deities
made of stone; the expression
“shall be beaten to pieces” would
hardly be applicable to wooden
idols (compare v, 13). Hires—Refers
to the love gifts offered by the wor-
shipers to the illegitimate deities, in
CHAPTER I.

379

 

I lay desolate: for she gathered it of
the hire of an harlot, and they shall
return to the hire of an harlot.

8 Therefore *I will wail and howl,
eI will go stripped and naked: PI
will make a wailing like the dragons,

 

nJsa. 21. 3; 22. 4; Jer. 4. 19. © Isa.

 

 

order to secure their favor; ‘gifts
suspended in temples and_ sacred
places in honor of the gods.” These
along with the idols and graven images
will be swept away in the impending
judgment. This will happen because
they have gathered it—R. V., “them.”
This word is not in the original, but
the context makes it clear that the
images, votive offerings, idols, etc.,
are meant. Of the hire of an harlot—
Not to be understood literally of
wages of prostitution; nor is the ex-
pression to be connected with the
licentious practices at the local sanc-
tuaries (Deut. xxiii, 17, 18); it is to be
explained rather in the light of Hos.
ii, 5ff. Israel had prospered; the
prosperity she regarded as the gift of
her lovers, the Baalim; it could be
called the hire of a harlot, because it
allured the pure wife Israel from her
faithful husband Jehovah, to run after
illegitimate paramours, the gods of
the land. The things made of the
harlot’s hire will return “unto the
hire of a harlot.” If the preceding
figure is continued this must mean
that the things will be regarded by the
enemies who will despoil the city as
gifts from their deities, given in order
to increase the love of the worshipers.
It is not necessary, however, to sup-
pose that the same figure is retained.
The prophet may intend to change it
and mean that the things carried
away will be used by the captors in
their idolatrous worship; they will
present them to the deities to secure
their favor. If so, the second “hire
of a harlot” is equivalent in meaning
to “hire’’ earlier in the verse. It was
customary in ancient times, when a
city was captured, to carry away its
idols and temple treasures (Joel iii, 5;
Hos. x, 6; Isa. xlvi, 1, 2; Dan. i, 3).
The suggestion of Wellhausen, fa-
vored by other scholars, to read ‘‘her
Asherahs” (v, 14) for “her hires’’ is

 

20. 2-4.——P Job 30. 29; Psa. 102. 6.

 

worthy of notice. The emendation is
based upon the opinion that in view
of the expressions “her graven
images” and “her idols” in thé two
parallel lines we should expect a sim-
ular expression in the third line.

Lament over the fall of Judah, 8-16.

The sins of the south (verse 5)
demand the punishment of Judah.
The judgment is already present to
the vision of the prophet, and in
verses 8-16 he gives expression to his
grief over the fall of the southern king-
dom. In a series of plays upon their
names he pictures in 10-15 the fate
awaiting the cities and villages in the
south. In 16 he calls upon Zion to
mourn, because her children have
gone into exile.

The speaker in verse 8 is the
prophet as an individual, not the
nation with which the prophet may
identify himself. He bewails the
calamity that has befallen Samaria,
in part because he sympathizes with
the inhabitants of the north as fellow
Israelites, but chiefly because he
realizes the danger threatening his
native state (verse 9), ‘for it is come
even unto Judah; it reacheth unto the
gate of my people, even to Jerusalem.”
Micah was a native of Judah, hence it
is but natural that he should enter
with deeper compassion into the ex-
periences of his own people. In a
similar manner, Hosea, a native of
Israel, feels more deeply for the north
than Amos, a native of Judah.* Go
stripped and naked—This is to be
understood not in the sense of being
stripped of all clothing and entirely
naked, but in the sense of barefooted
and stripped of the upper garment
(compare Isa. xx, 2). This act was a
symbol both of mourning and of
exile; by it the prophet gives expres-
sion to his grief, and at the same time
seeks to exhibit the fate which the na-
380

MICAH.

 

and mourning as the ‘owls. 9 For ‘her
wound its incurable; for sit is come
unto Judah; heis come unto the gate

of my people, even to Jerusalem.
10 ‘Declare’ ye it not at Gath,
weep ye not at all: in the house

 

4 Heb. daughters of the owl.— Or, she
is grievously sick of her wounds.

a 2 Kings 18. 13; Isa. 8. 7,8.——* 2 Sam.
1. 20.

 

tion must suffer. Dragons, .. . owls—
Better, R. V., “jackals, . . . ostriches.”
The long piteous cry of the jackal,
which Riehm describes as a “heart-
rending wail, sometimes like the
whimpering and the loud cry of chil-
dren,” and which in its penetration
is “suggestive of a lost soul,” and the
“fearful screech” of the ostrich, a
“peculiar call, now a shrill outery,
now a low moan,” aptly describe the
mournful wail of the grief-stricken
prophet (for similar comparisons see
Job xxx, 29; Isa. xxxviii, 14; lix, 11).

Verse 9 points to the impending
ruin of Judah as one of the reasons
for the grief and consternation of the
prophet. He knows that, if Samaria
falls, the enemy will sooner or later
attack the south. This fear was seen
to be justified when in 702-701 the
army of Sennacherib advanced to the
very gates of Jerusalem (Isa. xxxvi,
37; compare Isa.i, 7). Wound—More
accurately, stripes; the devastation
wrought by the enemy. Incurable—
Nothing can cure the effects of the
judgment, or prevent the spread of
the disaster; it will steadily spread
until the very heart, Jerusalem, be-
comes affected. Not even the pres-
ence of Jehovah in the temple can
save the city.

It is not possible to reproduce in
English the plays upon words so evi-
dent in the original of 10-15; some-
times it is difficult to apprehend
the- allusion of the prophet, and
in more than one place the cor-
rectness of the present Hebrew text
is not beyond question. The word
plays are not due to the playful mood
of the prophet. ‘He could not pos-
sibly jest about the fate of his friends.
No, he is in sober earnest, and sees a
preordained correspondence between
names and fortunes.” Some consider
the artistic character of the passage

 

sufficient reason for denying the
verses to Micah. The apostrophes to
the cities remind one of Isa. x, 28ff.
It is possible that Micah, like Isaiah,
intends to describe the route taken by
the enemy toward the capital, though
in view of the uncertainty with regard
to some of the cities this cannot be
proved. Jf this is the prophet’s pur-
pose, Micah, unlike Isaiah, expects
the advance to come from the west,
the territory of the Philistines; and
this is the direction followed by Sen-
nacherib in 702-701.

10. The prophet fears the malicious
joy of the heathen neighbors, which
would be an insult to Jehovah. Hence
he pleads with the people not to per-
mit the news to become known in the
surrounding territory. Declare ye it
not at Gath—R. V., “Tell it not in
Gath.” Gath was one of the five
chief cities of the Philistines (see on
Amos i, 6-8; vi, 2). The words are
found also in 2 Sam. i, 20; they
may have become a proverbial say-
ing. Weep ye not at all—This is the
literal rendering of the present He-
brew text; but (1) the form of the
verb is unusual; (2) in all the other
instances each proper noun is con-
nected with only one verb. For these
reasons many are inclined to accept
as original the common LXX. read-
ing, ‘weep ye not in Acco.” Acco,
the later Ptolemais, was situated on
the Mediterranean coast north of
Mount Carmel. In this passage it
would represent the heathen neigh-
bors in the north, as Gath represents
those in the south. According to
Judg. i, 31, the Canaanites were not
driven out from Acco. Any disaster
of the Hebrews would cause them to
rejoice, hence they are to be kept in
ignorance. If weassume a contraction
for the purpose of making the rhythm
smoother or producing a more perfect
CHAPTER I.

381

 

of ¢Aphrah ‘roll thyself in the dust.
11 Pass ye away, ‘thou ‘inhabitant

of Saphir, having thy tshame naked:
the inhabitant of *Zaanan came not

 

 

6 That is, Dust.—=* Jer. 6. 26.—7 Or,
thou that dwellest fairly.—8 Heb. inhab-

atress. t Isa. 20. 4; 47. 2, 3; Jer. 13. 22;
Nah. 3. 5.—#®Or, the country of flocks.

 

 

paronomasia, this translation might
perhaps be justified by the present
Hebrew text. However, such contrac-
tions are unusual, and it may be bet-
ter to suppose that the original text
was accidentally altered as a result of
the similarity in Hebrew between the
word reproduced in English by “at
all” (literally, to weep) and the original
of “in Acco.’’? The other LXX. ren-
dering, ‘‘in Bochim,” is less probable.
The house of Aphrah—R. V., ‘“Beth-
le-aphrah,” which means “house of
dust.” Throughout these verses the
towns are selected not because of
their importance, but rather because
of the suggestiveness of their names.
In Josh. xviii, 23, is mentioned an
Ophrah in Benjamin, and with it the
place referred to here has often been
identified; but since most or all of
the places named by Micah seem to
be located in the Shephelah, between
Judah and Philistia, Beth-le-aphrah
should probably be looked for in the
same district. Thus far, however, no
satisfactory identification has been
proposed, and the various emenda-
tions suggested are equally unsatis-
factory. The element Aphrah has
been compared with the second ele-
ment in Beto-gabra, that is, Eleuthe-
ropolis, and with the last element in
the name Wady-el-Ghufr, south of the
same place. Roll thyself in the dust
—R. V., “have I rolled myself.” The
latter reproduces the present Hebrew
text, the former follows a Masoretic
suggestion. LXX. and other ancient
versions read, “roll yourselves,’”’ thus
codrdinating this verb with the other
two in the verse, and this last reading
may be original. The verb is found
in three other places in the Old Testa-
ment, and in all three it is translated
“wallow,’”’ so that there seems no jus-
tification for rendering it here “be-
sprinkle” (with dust or ashes); and
such rendering would greatly weaken
the thought of the prophet. Sprink-

 

ling ashes or dust upon the head was
a common symbol of mourning
(2 Sam. xiii, 19; Amos ii, 7); the im-
pending calamity will be so severe
that extraordinary expressions of
grief are called for; instead of sprink-
ling dust or ashes upon their heads,
they are urged to wallow in it.

Much has been said concerning the
obscurity of verse 10, but, as inter-
preted above, it seems perfectly clear
and intelligible. The prophet desires
that the news of the disaster should
be withheld from the surrounding ene-
mies, but, he continues, in Beth-le-
aphrah, that is, within your own
borders, wallow in the dust as a sign
of distress and mourning.

11. The text: of this verse is very
obscure, which may be due in part
to the attempt to secure paronomasia
even at the cost of clearness, and in
part to corruption of the text. The
presence of several grammatical pe-
culiarities and difficulties make it
highly probable that the text has
suffered in transmission. Various
emendations have been proposed, but
all are more or less unsatisfactory.
The comments here are based upon
the assumption that, essentially at
least, the text is correct. Pass ye
away—Into exile. Saphir—R. V.,
“Shaphir”’; meaning ‘“Beauty-town.”
It has been identified with Shamir
(Judg. x, 1) in Mount Ephraim; but
the town must be looked for farther
south, near the border of Philistia.
The Shamir in the hill country of
Judah (Josh. xv, 48) would be more
suitable. Robinson identified Shaphir
with one of the mud villages, called
es-Stdfir, about three and one half
miles southeast of Ashdod; the same
place seems to be mentioned by Je-
rome and Eusebius, and may be the
place meant by Micah, but the iden-
tification must still be regarded as
doubtful. Having thy shame naked—
R. V., “in nakedness and shame’;
382

MICATI,

 

forth in the mourning of !°Beth-
ezel; he shall receive of you his
standing. 12 For the inhabitant of
Maroth waited carefully for good:
but evil came down from the Lorp

unto the gate of Jerusalem. 13 O
thou inhabitant of *Lachish, bind
the chariot to the swift beast: she
is the beginning of the sin to the
daughter of Zion: for the transgres-

 

10 Or, a place near.— Or, was grieved.

with shame uncovered. If the text
is correct it implies a warning to the
inhabitants of Shaphir that they will
be driven into exile and subjected to
shameful treatment. Zaanan—Mean-
ing, perhaps, ‘‘March-town.” It is
not yet identified; perhaps it is iden-
tical with Zenan (Josh xv, 37). Came
not forth—R. V., ‘is not come forth.”
The inhabitants of Zaanan are so ter-
rified that they do not dare leave
their city to fight or to flee. Their
terror increases as they learn of the
fate of the neighboring towns. Beth-
ezel—May be the same as A zel (Zech.
xiv, 5; see there). The meaning of the
name is “The house hy the side of,”
and the city is named here on account
of this meaning. Being in the neigh-
borhood, it should become a place of
refuge to the fugitives; but in this
crisis the city belies its name, for it
fails to give support. He shall re-
ceive of you his standing—R. V.,
“shall take (better, takes) from you
the stay thereof.” An obscure ex-
pression, which has received manifold
interpretations. The most satisfac-
tory, though not free from difficulties,
is that which makes the sentence to
mean that the presence of the enemy
in Beth-ezel will make it impossible
for any fugitive from Zaanan to take
refuge there; therefore, the inhabi-
tants of the latter city, when they
hear of the distress of the neighboring
town, will hesitate to leave their own.

12. Maroth—Means Butternesses.
The place is entirely unknown; the
context suggests that it was near
Jerusalem. Waiteth carefully—R. V.,
“anxiously.” The derivation of the
verb form is uncertain; the margin,
tracing it to another root, translates,
‘Ss in travail for,” that is, is in pain
and distress like a woman in child-
birth. If the meaning “wait” is pre-

 

u Amos 3, 6.—*x2 Kings 18.14, 17.

ferred a slight change in the form
may be necessary. For good—De-
liverance from distress, liberty; or,
perhaps, the possessions which they
have lost or are about to lose. The
expression is somewhat peculiar, and
the text may be in disorder; but
Marti’s emendation, ‘How can Maroth
expect anything good?” is no im-
provement.

12b does not connect with 12a, as
if it gave the cause of Maroth’s feel-
ings, but with verse 8, giving another
reason for the prophet’s lamentation
—in fact, the chief reason; the ‘‘evil,”
that is, the calamity sent by Jehovah,
will threaten the holy city itself.
However, it is possible to read ‘‘yea’
instead of “for” in the beginning of
12a and of 12b; then verse 12 would
be a continuation of the preceding
verses, containing additional state-
ments concerning the calamity about
to fall. 13. Lachish—The modern Tel-
el-Hesy, in the Shephelah, sixteen
miles east of Gaza, in a slightly north-
erly direction; at one time it was a
city of considerable importance (Josh.
xv, 39; Jer. xxxiv, 7). Theplay is
between the name of the city and the
word translated ‘“‘swift beast” (R. V.,
“steed”’). Lachish is exhorted to flee
as swiftly as possible, for the retribu-
tion about to overtake her will be
exceptionally severe. Beginning of
the sin—The prophet makes Lachish
responsible for the corruption and
idolatry of Judah. Daughter of Zion
—A personification of Jerusalem and
its inhabitants, standing here prob-
ably in the wider sense of Judah.
The last clause seems to imply that in
some way the corruption of Israel had
been transplanted to Lachish, and
from there in turn to Judah; or, per-
haps, that corruption similar to that
of Israel was found in Lachish.
CHAPTER I.

383

 

sions of Israel were found in thee.
14 Therefore shalt thou ygive pre-

sents !2to Moresheth-gath: the hous-
es of 13 sAchzib shall be a lie to the

 

a
y2 Sam. 8. 2; 2 Kings 18. 14, 15, 16.—12 Or

for.—13 That 1s, a lie-—* Josh. 15. 44.

 

Certainty on this point cannot be
had. If the former is the proper
interpretation, nothing is known of
how all this came about.

It is difficult to determine who is
addressed in 14a; following so closely
upon the mention of Lachish, one
would naturally suppose that the words
are intended for it; but did Moresheth-
gath ever belong to Lachish? If the
text is correct it seems more satisfac-
tory to interpret the words as ad-
dressed to Judah. It will be com-
pelled to give up to the enemy Mor-
esheth-gath (see p. 356). The play is
upon Moresheth and the Hebrew word
Me’érasah (Deut. xxii, 23), ‘“be-
trothed,” though the latter does not
occur here. It suggested, however,
the word translated “presents” (R.
V., “a parting gift’). This word is
used in 1 Kings ix, 16, to denote the
marriage portion given by the father
to his daughter when she is married
and leaves his home; in general it
“denotes anything belonging to a
man which he dismisses or gives up
for a time, or forever.’’ In the latter
sense the word is used here. Some
suppose Moresheth to be addressed,
and they change the text so as to
read, “Therefore parting gifts shall
be given to thee, O Moresheth-gath.”’
Achzib—Mentioned again in Josh. xv,
44, along with Mareshah; it may be
the same as Chezib (Gen. xxxviil, 5)
and Cozeba (1 Chron. iv, 22). It is
probably to be identified with the
modern Ain-Kezbeh, about eight
miles north-northeast of Bezt-Jibrin,
in the Shephelah. For “the houses of
Achzib” we might read “the two
Beth-Achzib,” and this is favored by
some writers. The second Achzib is
thought to be identical with the one
mentioned in Josh. xix, 29; Judg. i,
31, and situated in the territory of
Asher; which is identified with the
modern £z-zib, on the coast between

 

Acco and Tyre. The ordinary trans-
lation is to be preferred, since in a
list of towns in Judah a city in the
far north is out of place. Lie—R. V.,
“deceitful thing.’”” The Hebrew word,
akhzabh, is applied, in Jer. xv, 18, to a
stream that dries up during the hot
season, and thus deceives the traveler,
who expects to refresh himself with
its water (compare also Job vi, 15).
Kings of Israel—Since the lament is
concerning Judah, one would natu-
rally expect “kings” or “king of
Judah,” unless, on the basis of verse
9, it is assumed that Micah expected
the calamity to fall upon the north
and south simultaneously. In that
case ‘Israel’? might be used of the
whole people and “kings” of the
monarchs of both Israel and Judah;
they would find no refuge in Achzib,
either because it is in ruin or because
it is occupied by the enemy. If this
is the right interpretation the trans-
lation “the two Achzib’” becomes
more probable; the king of Judah
flees to the one in the south, the king
of Israel to that in the north. Others
take “Israel”? to be equivalent to
“Judah”; but this use of “Israel’’ is
late and would point to a date sub-
sequent. to the eighth century B. C.
Besides, Judah having but one ruler,
what would “kings of Judah” mean?
In reply it has been said, (1) that
“kings” is equivalent to “dynasty,”
and that the use of this term is per-
fectly justified, because when one
king suffers the entire dynasty, repre-
sented in his person, suffers; (2) that
after the prediction of the fall of the
northern kingdom (verses 6, 7) “Is-
rael” might be applied to Judah, for
the latter was, after the destruction of
Samaria, the sole representative of the
nation Israel. To most students this
reasoning will appear inconclusive,
and it may be best to admit that much
uncertainty remains.
384

MICAH.

 

kings of Israel. 15 Yet will I bring
an heir unto thee, O inhabitant of
*Mareshah: ‘he shall come unto
bAdullam the glory of Israel. 16

Make thee bald, and poll thee for
thy ‘delicate children; enlarge thy
baldness as the eagle; for they are
gone into captivity from thee.

 

a Josh. 15. 44.—14 Or, the glory of Is-
ral shall come, etc.—»2 Chron. 11. 7.—

Verse 15 contains the last play upon
words, Maréshah and Y6résh, “the
possessor,” translated in A. V. “‘heir,”’
in R. V. “him that shall possess.”
Mareshah—Josh. xv, 44, implies that
this place is located near Achzib; it is
generally identified with aruin Merash,
one mile south of Beit-Jibrin. The
Israelites took the city from the
Canaanites, but they will be dis-
placed by a new possessor sent by
Jehovah. Adullam—The reference is
to the “cave of Adullam,’” where
David hid himself (1 Sam. xxii, 1ff.).
In that out-of-the-way place the
“glory,” that is, the nobility (Isa. v,
18, 14), will be compelled to seek ref-
uge, or, the wealth and possessions
must be hidden, because the rest of
the land is overrun by the enemy.
Adullam was in the lowland of Judah
(Josh. xv, 35), but its exact location
is uncertain, though it has been iden-
tified with several modern ruins.
Clermont-Ganneau identified it with
the modern A7d-el-ma, a steep hill
covered with ruins, about three miles
southeast of Soco and about eight
miles northeast of Mareshah. The
suggestion has been made to separate
the original for Adullam into two
words and, with changed vocaliza-
tion, to translate “forever”; the whole
sentence, ‘“‘the glory of Israel shall set
forever.’”’ Elhorst thinks that in the
text of 15b, which he considers cor-
rupt, another play upon words is
hidden; he restores it and translates,
“The inhabitants of Adullam shall go
under the yoke,”’ that is, into exile.

The above interpretation of 8-15 is
based, with few exceptions, upon the
present Hebrew text. It must be ad-
mitted, however, that in several in-
stances the uncertainty is very great,
and many modern scholars treat the
Hebrew text with much greater free-
dom.

 

ce Job 1. 20; Isa. 15. 2; 22. 12; Jer.7. 29;
16. 6; 47. 5; 48. 37,—4 Lam. 4. 5.

With verse 16 the prophet’s lament
closes. Judah, conceived as a mother,
is urged to mourn for her children, be-
cause they are doomed to exile. Deli-
cate—R. V., “of thy delight”; they
are very dear to Judah. Baldness—
Artificial baldness was a symbol of
mourning (Amos viii, 10; Isa. iii, 24);
in Lev. xix, 27, 28; Deut. xiv, 1, it is
prohibited, probably on account of its
heathen associations. The appeal is
repeated, in slightly different lan-
guage, three times for the sake of
emphasis. Eagle—Better, R. V. mar-
gin, “vulture.” Baldness is not a
mark of the eagle, but it is of the vul-
ture. The prophet probably has in
mind the carrion vulture, common in
Egypt and in Palestine, the front part
of whose head is entirely bald, while
the back part has only a thin covering.

CHAPTER II.

CaUSEs OF THE IMPENDING JUDGMENT,
1-11.

It is commonly assumed that chap-
ters ii and iii form a “single prophecy,
the subject of which is the cause of
the coming judgment.” That both
chapters deal substantially with the
same subjects is undoubtedly true,
but it is equally clear that, as the
chapters stand now, there is a dis-
tinct break at the close of the second
chapter. Hence there seems good rea-
son for separating ii and iii, and join-
ing the latter more closely with iv, v.
Only by cutting out ii, 12, 13, can a
connection between ii and iii be es-
tablished; on the other hand, if chap-
ter iii is connected with iv, v, at least
some of the reasons for omitting these
verses disappear (see p. 363, and on ii, |
12, 13). The following comments are
based upon the assumption that chap-.
ters i, ii form a complete whole, and
that chapter ii is intended to
CHAPTER II.

385

 

CHAPTER II.
OE to them «that devise in-
iquity, and »work evil upon
their beds! when the morning is
light, they practice it, because cit
is in the power of theirhand. 2 And
they covet fields, and take them by
violence; and houses, and take them
away: so they Joppress a man and

his house, even a man and his her-
itage. 3 Therefore thus saith the
Lorp; Behold, against ethis family
do I devise an evil, from which ye
shall not remove your necks; neither
shall ye go haughtily: ‘for this time
ts evil.

4 In that day shall one etake up a
parable against you, and "lament

 

 

a Hos. 7. 6.—» Psa. 36 4.—¢ Gen. 31.
29.—4 Isa. 5. 8.—! Or, defraud.— Jer.

 

8. 3.—f Amos 5. 13; Eph. 5. 16.—e Hab.
2, 6.—4 2 Sam. 1. 17.

 

set forth the causes making inevit-
able the judgment threatened in
the preceding chapter. It opens with
a woe upon the proud nobles, who
have become misleaders of the peo-
ple (ii, 1-4). The accused resent the
denunciation; the attempt is made to
silence the prophet, and to find con-
solation in the message of the mer-
cenary prophets. But, the prophet
insists, there is no escape from the
wrath of Jehovah; as they have
driven the poor from their homes, so
they will be driven from their posses-
sions into exile (5-11). From this
exile only a remnant will return under
the leadership of Jehovah (12, 13).

1, 2. A vivid description of the cor-
rupt conduct of the aristocracy. Work
evil upon their beds—To be distin-
guished from ‘“‘they practice it” in the
next clause; the first refers to the
preparation of the ways and means
with which they carry out their evil
schemes. In the darkness of the
night they lay their plans; in the
morning they carry them out. In the
power of their hand—No one can pre-
vent their crimes, for their wealth and
power enable them to do anything
they please (vii, 3).

The general accusation in verse 1 is
followed by a specific condemnation
of the greed and avarice manifesting
itself in the attempts to rob poor
property owners of their holdings.
Elijah (1 Kings xxi) and Isaiah (v,
8ff.) championed the rights of the
common people against similar out-
rages. The accumulation of wealth
and resources in the hands of a few
seriously threatened the national sta-
bility and permanence. ‘‘The old Is-

 

raelite state was so entirely based on
the participation of every freeman in
the common soil, and so little recog-
nized the mere possession of capital,
that men were in danger of losing
civil rights along with house and fields,
and becoming mere hirelings or even
slaves.” Oppress—Margin, ‘‘defraud.’
Heritage—The hereditary portion of
the land assigned to each family at
the time of the conquest and guarded
by the “Jubilee Law” (Lev. xxv, 8ff.;
compare Num. xxvii, 1-11; Deut.
xxvii, 17).

Verses 3, 4 announce the judgment.
Therefore—Because they devise: evil.
I devise an evil—Or, calamity (Amos
iii, 6). Jehovah will bring upon the
evil doers a calamity from which there
can be no escape. This family—May,
perhaps, include the whole nation
(Amos iii, 1), though it could be used
of Judah alone. Shall not remove
your necks—The evil is likened to a
yoke that rests heavily upon the
neck and cannot be shaken off.
Haughtily—The pressure of the yoke
makes impossible walking with heads
erect, a sign of pride and arrogance.
Evidently the prophet expects the
calamity to be inflicted by a foreign
conqueror, who will place his yoke
upon the nation’s neck. This time is
evil—R. V., “it is an evil time.’”’ The
expression is used again in Amos v, 13,
but with a slightly different meaning.

The downfall of Israel will cause re-
joicing among the conquerors and
lamentation among the conquered.
Parable—Heb. mashal, which denotes
any figurative saying; here probably
a “taunt song” (compare Isa. xiv, 4;
Hab. ii, 6). Against you—By the suc-
386

MICAH.

 

2with a doleful lamentation, and
say, We be utterly spoiled: ihe hath
changed the portion of my people:
how hath he removed it from me!

sturning away he hath divided our
fields. 5 Therefore thou shalt have
none that shall ‘cast a cord by lot
in the congregation of the Lorp.

 

2Heb. with a lamentation of lamenta-
tions.

i Chap. 1. 15.—3 Or, instead of restor-
ing.—* Deut. 32. 8, 9.

 

cessful opponents. This seems to be
the most natural interpretation,
though the Hebrew does not make it
absolutely necessary to suppose that
it is to be uttered by the victorious
conqueror. Lamentation—To be ut-
tered by Israel over the calamity suf-
fered (Amos v, 16). A supposed play
upon words in the original, Pusey
reproduces by, ‘“They shall wail a wail
of woe.” The whole verse is in poetic
form and may be rendered more ac-
curately:

In that day men will raise against

you a taunting song,

They will lament a lamentation:

It is finished, they shall say,

Weare utterly ruined;

The portion of my people he

changeth,

How doth he remove it from (liter-

“ally, for) me;

Unto the rebellious he divideth

our fields.

The purport of the verse is clear.
The enemies will taunt Israel because
their God has failed to deliver them;
Israel will lament because enemies
have taken possession of the holy land
and divided it among themselves. At
the same time it is recognized that all
this is Jehovah’s doing; he takes back
the land formerly assigned to Israel
and hands it over to the enemy.

The Hebrew text of verse 4 contains
several peculiarities; the most marked
of these are the abrupt transition,
without even the slightest indication,
from the enemies to Israel (lines 1 and
2), and the unexpected change from
plural to singular and singular to
plural (lines 4-7; “we” .. . “my”
-+- “me”... “our”); besides, LXX.
varies considerably from the present
Hebrew text. For these reasons mod-
ern commentators are inclined to re-
gard the text as more or less corrupt.
Nowack, following Stade, reconstructs
it, partly on the basis of LXX., and

 

 

partly by conjecture, so that it reads,

“Then will be uttered over you a

proverb and a lamentation, as follows:

The portion of my people is divided off
with a measuring rod, there is none
to give it back; ‘ :

To those who have led us into exile are
apportioned our fields; we are utterly
ruined.”

The lament itself Marti restores:

Alas! how are we utterly ruined! our
land is apportioned!

Alas! how our captors do mock! our
land is divided!

In both reconstructions the Kinah

verse (see on Amos v, 1-3) is used,

which is very appropriate in this con-

nection.

With verse 5 the difficulties increase.
That in verse 6 the prophet takes up
the words of some one else and bases
his words upon this utterance is be-
yond doubt; but who pronounces the
curse in verse 5? Some consider the
verse a continuation of verses 3, 4.
There loss of property and deporta-
tion are threatened; but, it is said, the
prophets always look forward to a
restoration, and this was in the mind
of Micah when he uttered verse 5; he
means to say that when the restora-
tion becomes a reality the ungodly
will have no part in the redistribution
of the land. Others insist that there
is no thought of a restoration in this
verse; hence they refer the threat to
the immediate future; the ungodly are
to have no longer any part in the in-
heritance of Jehovah, because their
families will be cut off in the impend-
ing judgment. The singular “thou” is
thought to be used in order to indicate
that every individual sinner is to be
punished; not one will escape the
threatened judgment. The first in-
terpretation is perfectly possible, the
second is highly improbable, because
the context makes no distinction be-
CHAPTER IL.

387

 

tween the fate of the good and the
bad at the time of the judgment. In
verses 3, 4 the threat is made against
the whole people; it will be utterly
ruined, the enemy will take possession
of the entire land, everybody is ex-
pected to go into exile. In the exile
some will remain loyal to Jehovah,
others will apostatize. Between the
two classes a separation will be made
at the time of the restoration; only
the faithful will return to their former
home. In this restored community,
which is the congregation of Jehovah,
the ungodly will have no part.
Others, who insist that the only
reference to a restoration in this
chapter is in verses 12, 13, give a still
different interpretation. They con-
sider verse 5 the utterance of a by-
stander who, as the spokesman of the
people, attempts to interrupt the de-
nunciatory discourse of Micah. To
a great majority of the people the
words of verse 4 would seem blas-
phemy. How could a man dare to
announce that Jehovah was weaker
than the gods of the Assyrians, that
he could not or would not protect his
chosen people; that the sanctuary
would be desecrated? A man who
uttered words such as Micah dared to
utter must be a blasphemer or a mad-
man; in either case he deserved the
wrath of God. These thoughts a by-
stander put into words. ‘Because of
his blasphemous words, the Jews
think, Micah should be killed (com-
pare Jer. xxvi, 8, 9, 11), destroyed
with his entire family (Jer. xi, 19),
so that his possessions would fall into
the hands of strangers (Amos vii, 17);
he should suffer the punishment of the
false prophet (Deut. xiii, 9), and
with him will suffer his descendants
(Jer. xxii, 30), who are rooted out be-
fore they see the light. The form of
this threat corresponds with the pro-
phet’s prediction; he is to suffer the
very fate which he threatens them, lose
permanently his inheritance.” The
most recent commentators, Nowack
and Marti, consider verse 5 a later
gloss. If the verse is original the

 

choice lies between the first and the
third interpretations, and of these the
third seems to be, on the whole, the
most satisfactory.

6. Attempts to silence the prophets
were not infrequent; undoubtedly
Micah’s patience was tried many
times by those who resented his teach-
ing. But he cannot be silenced; he
flings back the prohibition and makes
it the starting point for new denuncia-
tions. If verse 5 contains the utter-
ance of a bystander, “Prophesy not,”
in verse 6 may be understood as a
summary of the prohibition implied
in the threat there. The new con-
demnation falls chiefly upon the
faithless religious teachers.

The text of 6ff. is in many places
obscure; frequently the translation is
doubtful, and there is much uncer-
tainty as to where the objections
which Micah takes up end, and where
his own condemnations begin. G. A.
Smith includes verses 6, 7 in the ob-
jection, and he renders the two verses
as follows:

Prate not, they prate, let none prate

of suc ings!

Revilings will never cease!

O thou that speakest thus to the

house of Jacob,

Is the spirit of Jehovah cut short?

Or are such his doings?

Shall not his words mean well with
him that walketh uprightly?

This differs considerably from the
translations found in A. V. and R. V.,
but it requires only very slight altera-
tions in the present Hebrew text..
Of the two English translations
that of R. V. is certainly superior to
that of A. V. That even the Revisers
found it difficult to understand the
present text is shown by the numer-
ous marginal readings.

If Smith’s reproduction of the orig-
inal is accepted as correct, the mean-
ing of the two verses becomes clear.
The people or the false prophets insist
that Micah discontinue his foolish talk,
his eternal revilings. Everyone can
see that his statements are absurd.
Does he mean to say that Jehovah will
cast off his people? Has he ceased to
388

MICAH.

 

645 \Prophesy ye not, say they to
them that prophesy: they shall not
prophesy to them, that they shall
not take shame.

 

4Or, Prophesy not_as they prophesy.
—45 Heb. Drop, etc., Ezek. 21. 2.

be long-suffering? Is this the method
of God’s dealings with his chosen
people? This last question forms the
basis of the prophet’s reply. He ad-
mits the truth implied in the question,
but he points out in 8ff. that they are
mistaken in their estimate of them-
selves. They are not upright; on the
contrary, in every possible manner
have they set aside the will of Je-
hovah; hence, according to their own
reasoning, they can expect no favor
from him. Prophesy—Literally, drop,
that is, words (see on Amos vii, 16).
Here the word is used in an unfavor-
able sense, equivalent to “grumble,”
“find fault.” In the following clause
“the prophet flings the same word
back at them sarcastically.” In this
case the verb is in the frequentative
tense, ‘‘they prophesy (or, prate) con-
tinually.” To them—lIf the above
interpretation is correct a better ren-
dering would be “of these things”
(so R. V. margin). The prophet is
told to let alone politics and social
conditions—the politicians will look
after these things; he is to confine
himself to the preaching of the “sim-
ple gospel.” In the last clause of
verse 6 the above translation repro-
duces the Hebrew more accurately;
the words are those of the prophet’s
opponents, who are weary of listening
to his grumbling. The opening words
of verse 7 have proved a puzzle to all
commentators, and practically all
favor emendations. Smith alters
the words so that they may be under-
stood as an address to Micah, intro-
ducing several questions which are
intended to show the absurdity of his
attitude. Straitened—Or, impatient;
literally, shortened. Has Jehovah
ceased to be long-suffering? These—
The things described in verses 3, 4.
Mean well—God can send no message

 

7 O thou that art named the house
of Jacob, is the spirit of the Lorp
estraitened? are these his doings?
do not my words do good to him

 

1Jsa. 30. 10; Amos 2. 12; 7. 16.—®0Or,
shortened?

of judgment to those who serve him |
faithfully.

A second interpretation divides the
sentences of verses 6, 7 between the
prophet and his opponents. ‘“Proph-
esy ye not” is assigned to the opposi-
tion, “thus they prophesy” are
thought to be the words of Micah,
introducing the preceding quotation.
To this attempt to silence him the
prophet replies with two rhetorical
questions: (1) “Shall one not preach
to these?’—that is, to such as are
described in verses 1, 2; they cer-
tainly deserve the condemnation.
(2) “Shall not reproaches depart?”
Is it not time for the reproaches
heaped upon the prophet to come to
an end? In verse 7 the prophet is
thought to introduce an additional
objection raised to his preaching:
“Shall it be said, O house of Jacob,”
or “by the house of Jacob.” These
are understood to be the words of the
prophet, introducing the objection it-
self, which is expressed in two ques-
tions: (1) “Is the spirit of Jehovah
shortened?” The prophet’s words
seemed to imply that Jehovah has
ceased to be long-suffering; this accu-
sation against Jehovah the objectors
indignantly deny. (2) ‘ Are these his
doings?” The forsaking of his peo-
ple, as announced in verses 3, 4. This
also they are unwilling to believe. To
these objections the prophet replies,
introducing Jehovah himself as the
speaker, by asking a question which
points out, by implication, that he is
not blaspheming Jehovah, but that
they, by their own conduct, have
made it impossible for Jehovah to
show them any favor. The objections
raised by the people indicated that
they had failed completely to under-
stand the ethical character of Jehovah
and of his government. Like Amos,
CHAPTER II.

389

 

that walketh 7uprightly? 8 Even
Sof late my peop e is risen up as an
enemy: ye p off the robe *with
the garment from them that pass

by securely as men averse from
war. 9 The !°women of my people
have ye cast out from their pleasant
houses; from their children have ye

 

7 Heb. upright?—-8 Heb. yesterday.

9 Heb. over against a garment.——" Or,
wives,

 

Micah is compelled to show that Je-
hovah cannot save Israel simply be-
cause they are his chosen people;
they must maintain the proper atti-
tude of heart and life if they would
enjoy his goodness (vi, 8). Their
shortcomings and failures are further
described in verses 8, 9. In view of
this condition of things there is left
no doubt that the denunciation of
verses 3, 4 is perfectly justified,
hence the sentence is repeated in verse
10.
These are the two most important
interpretations of verses 6, 7; others
need not be mentioned. The force of
the verses remains essentially the
same with either. The second follows
more closely the present Hebrew text,
but it is by no means certain that the
latter has come down to us in its
original purity; it may have suffered
in the course of transmission.

Verses 8, 9 contain a picture of the
corruption and oppression found on
every hand. Of late—Literally, yes-
terday. This is certainly not equivalent
to “long ago,” but points to the recent
past. The prosperity growing out of
theefficient reign of Uzziah waslargely
responsible for the corruption that
met the prophet’s eye (see pp. 357ff.).
My people—This expression is used
sometimes of the whole people, some-
times primarily of the poor and needy
who suffer oppression and whose only
defender is Jehovah (Isa. iii, 12, 15).
A comparison of verse 8 with verse 9
shows that in the former the reference
is primarily to the oppressing nobles,
in the latter to the oppressed poor.
As an enemy—The nobles prove them-
selves enemies of Jehovah, whose
property is to have mercy, by the
cruel treatment they accord to the
poor and needy, who are under the
special care of Jehovah (Exod. xxii,
21ff.; Deut. xxvii, 19). Pass by se-

 

curely . . . averse from war—They
pounce upon their victims without
provocation; as they pass by peace-
ably, attending to their own busi-
ness, they fall upon them. Pull off
the robe with the garment—R. V.,
“strip the robe from off the garment.”
A very obscure clause; A. V. evi-
dently means that they take both the
robe and the garment, though it may
be difficult to distinguish between the
two pieces of clothing named. The
accusation clearly implies highway
robbery; there may also be an allusion
to the crime condemned in Amos ii, 8.
However, it is practically impossible
to justify the translation of A. V.;
R. V. is more accurate, but what does
it mean to “strip the robe from off
the garment”? The difficulty is gen-
erally recognized, and various emenda-
tions have been proposed, affecting
also other parts of verse 8. With a
few changes, justified in part by
LXX., verse 8 might be read, “But
ye are the foes of my people, rising
against those who are peaceful; the
garment ye strip from them that pass
by quietly, averse to war.”

9. Women—The prophet has in
mind widows, who, being without de-
fenders, fall an easy prey to the greedy
nobles; they are driven from their
possessions. Their children—Who
were unable to defend themselves.
Have ye taken away my glory forever
—This glory was their citizenship in
the nation of Jehovah. When they
were sold as slaves they were cut off
from the nation, and thus they lost
a privilege and glory belonging to
them. Special care for the fatherless
and the widows is enjoined in Exod.
xxii,-22; Deut. xxvii, 19; compare Isa.
i, 17; and the neglect of this duty is
condemned again and again by the
prophets (compare Isa. i, 23; x, 2).

Wellhausen and others propose a
390

taken away my glory for ever.
10 Arise ye, and depart; for this zs
not your rest: because it is »pol-
luted, it shall destroy you, even with
a sore destruction. 11 If a man

o Lev. 18. 25, 28; Jer.

 

m Deut. 12. 9.
3. 2. °

slight alteration of the text, which,
though not necessary, emphasizes
even more the heartless cruelty. They
change “from their pleasant houses’
into “from their pleasant children”’;
literally, from the children of their
pleasure. This would add the thought
that they tear the mother from the
children by selling them to different
masters.

10. In the face of such outrages
mercy and long-suffering are out of
place; judgment must be executed,
and in verse 10 the sentence contained
in verses 3, 4 is reiterated; the guilty
ones must be cut off from their
pleasant homes and cast into exile.
Arise ye, and depart—Their punish-
ment will be according to the lex
talionis; they have sold others into
slavery, now they must suffer a sim-
ilar fate. Your rest—R. V., “resting
place.” ‘‘Rest was one of the chief
aspects under which Canaan was re-
garded” (Deut. xii, 9), but ib cannot
be a resting place for such as are not
on good terms with the owner of the
land, Jehovah. As the text reads at
present, the rest of the verse states
why the land can no longer be a rest-
ing place for them. Asa result of the
defilement the land will “vomit out
its inhabitants.” A better rendering
is that of R. V., “because of unclean-
ness that destroyeth, even with a
grievous destruction”; an even better
translation would be, “because of un-
cleanness that brings destruction, even
grievous destruction.” LXX., how-
ever, suggests a different reading,
which may be original. It separates
10b more completely from 10a, and
reads the former, “because of un-
cleanness ye shall be destroyed with a
grievous destruction.”

11. In verses 6, 7 the listeners had
expressed their unwillingness to accept

 

MICAH.

4 ewalking in the spirit and false-
hood do lie, saying, I will prophesy
unto thee of wine and of strong
drink; he shall even be the prophet
of this people.

1l Or, walk with the wind, and lte falsely.
© Ezek. 13. 3. ;
the kind of preaching Micah was giv-
ing them. The opposition did not
silence the prophet, it only stimulated
him to new efforts; he pointed out that
the present demanded the message he
was delivering, and reiterated the
announcement of judgment. Verse 11
presents the close of the threat; in it
the prophet gives a description of the
kind of prophet the people would like
to hear, one who has always a mes-
sage of peace and prosperity, and who
at all times heaps flattery upon the
self-righteous sinners. In the spirit
and falsehood—R. V., “in a spirit of
falsehood.” A. V. gives a literal ren-
dering of the original, except that be-
fore “spirit” the definite article should
not be used. But “a spirit,” standing
by itself, is not equivalent to “a false
spirit,” and the context makes it im-
possible to think of the Spirit of God.
Hence it is better to follow R. V. mar-
gin and read “‘in wind and falsehood.”
“Wind” is a picture of the vain and
worthless things after which such a
false prophet chases; “falsehood” has
reference to the purpose for which he
delivers his message; he purposes to
deceive the people in order that he
may serve his own personal interests.
Lie—In seeking to deliver an accept-
able message, he announces peace and
prosperity when the message of Je-
hovah is one of calamity and judg-
ment. Wine and... strong drink—
To be understood in a wider sense of
all “earthly blessings and sensual en-
joyments.”” This is what they like,
and the prophet knows that any man
who preaches such a gospel will be
received with open arms.

 

Return of a purified remnant, 12, 13.

Verses 12, 13 transpose us abruptly
from the present corruption, facing
imminent doom, to the distant future,
CHAPTER II.

391

 

12 PI will surely assemble, O Ja-
cob, all of thee; I will surely gather
the remnant of Israel; I will put
them together .as the sheep of
Bozrah, as the flock in the midst of
their fold: they shall make great
noise by reason of the multitude of

men. 13 The breaker is come up
before them: they have broken up,
and have passed through the gate,
and are gone out by it: and ‘their
king shall pass before them,
tand the Lorp on the head of
them.

 

 

P Chap. 4. 6, 7.—4 Jer. 31. 10. t Ezek.

 

36. 37.—+ Hos. 3. 5. tIsa, 52. 12.

 

when a remnant of the people carried
into exile (3, 4) will be restored. On
the surface the transition from verse
11 to verse 12 appears abrupt, but
there is a real logical connection be-
tween the two verses. The people are
ready to turn to a prophet who will
promise pleasant things. This Micah
cannot do; nevertheless his message
is not one of unmitigated doom; he
too has salvation to proclaim, though
not for the immediate future or for
all. Judgment, distress is all he sees
ahead of him; all will be banished
from the land. In exile the corrupt
will be annihilated, but the loyal rem-
nant, purified through suffering, will
be assembled again by Jehovah; he
himself will redeem it and restore it
to its old home. Jacob, ... Israel—
Seem to be identical in meaning, de-
noting the whole nation; similarly
“all” and “remnant” appear to be
synonymous. The thought is one
found in other prophetic utterances,
that at the time of the restoration the
present distinction between north and
south will be obliterated, that the call
will be extended to the whole nation,
but that only a remnant will respond
(Ezek. xxxiv, 11-14). This remnant
will be numerous, however, and noisy
like a flock of sheep. As the sheep of
Bozrah—If the text is correct the
“sheep of Bozrah” must be regarded
as a popular saying like “kine of
Bashan” (Amos iv, 1), alluding to
Bozrah’s wealth in sheep (see on Amos
i, 12). The suggestion that a Moabite
city is meant here rather than the
Edomite Bozrah has little in its favor.
LXX. suggests a different translation;
it read the same consonants that are
contained in the Hebrew word for
Bozrah, but evidently it took these
consonants as representing two ele-

 

ments, the preposition ‘in’ and the
noun “affliction.” “In affliction” is
not suitable here; still the reading of
LXX. may indicate that “Bozrah” is
not the original. The parallel line
would lead one to expect here an ex-
pression similar to “in the midst of
their fold.” There is a modern Arabic
word meaning “‘sheepstall,” contain-
ing the same consonants as the word
“affliction” but different vowels,
which is applied to the place in which
the sheep are kept during the night
to protect them against wild beasts.
The corresponding Hebrew word may
be intended here; the erroneous vocal-
ization being due to the Masorites,
who were more familiar with the
proper noun Bozrah than with the
common noun. With this change the
sentence may be read, “I will put
them together as sheep in the sheep-
fold,” that they may be safe from all
enemies Great noise—Their numbers
will be great; hence the noise made by
them will be loud.

The gathering will take place before
the actual deliverance; united, the
remnant will be strong enough to over-
come all obstacles and return to its old
home. The breaker—The one who
breaks down the obstacles and opens
the way. If the picture of the flock is
continued the expression is best un-
derstood as denoting the shepherd
who opens the gate to let the sheep
pass through; if, as is not impossible,
the figure changes to that of an army
it denotes the captain who is to lead
the host in triumph from exile. In
either case the term is of Messianic
import (see on Hos. i, 11). Through
the gate—The land of exile is likened,
in the one case, to a sheepfold; in the
other, to a prison house. Through
the gates the remnant will march in
392 P

triumph on its way home. Broken up
(‘broken forth’’] ... passed through
... gone out—‘‘The three verbs...
describe in a pictorial mauner pro-
gress which cannot be stopped by any
human power” Their king—Before
the returning host will go their king,
Jehovah, as at the time of the Exodus
(Exod. xiii, 21; compare Isa. lii, 12);
Jehovah is not identical with the
“breaker.”

The connection of verses 12, 13
with verse 11 is not very close; the
leap into the future appears to be

abrupt. This abruptness is responsi-.

ble for a great deal of discussion con-
cerning these two verses. Some have
held that the words were spoken not
by Micah, but by the false prophets.
This view is shown to be improbable
by the following considerations: (1)
The restoration of a remnant implies
a carrying into exile, but the latter
is the very thing the false prophets
deny. (2) In verse 12 Jehovah is the
speaker—‘‘J will assemble.” Would
Micah introduce Jehovah as speaking
through the prophets whom he con-
demns so severely? (3) The prophecy
is a true prophecy; it is one which in
essence is found in all the prophetic
books (compare iv, 6). It is not likely
that Micah would put a true prophecy
into the mouth of a false prophet.
Others consider the verses exilic or
postexilic, and thus a later addition
to the oracles of Micah. ‘They pre-
suppose the exile and dispersion”
(Wellhausen). However, it is by no
means certain that the exile is pre-
supposed as an actual fact. All the
prophets seem to have penetrated the
darkness of the present and the imme-
diate future and to have seen, in a
more distant era, a ray of light and
glory. The modern tendency, which
treats as later exilic or postexilic in-
terpolations all passages in preéxilic
prophecies which promise a restora-
tion, does not appear to be well
founded (see pp. 35f.). It seems almost
unthinkable that the prophets, with
their lofty conception of Jehovah,
should leave the nation in the de-

 

MICAH.

spair of exile. If the existence of pre-
exilic prophecies pointing to a restora-
tion is granted, the only objection
remaining against these verses is the
looseness of connection with their con-
text This looseness of connection has
led some to think that, while the
words may be Micah’s, they are not
in their original position. ‘The entire
context leads me to expect after verse
11 # return to and repetition of the
threat of punishment, and there can
be no question that the contrast be
tween ii, 11, and iii, 1, is greatly
weakened by these two verses. To
deny them to Micah we have no rea-
son, but it is possible that they may
have been transposed from another
context. Their original place might
have been after iv, 8, preparing the
way for chapter v, but separated from
it by iv, 9-14, which verses look back
to the present.” The only support,
then, for this view is the seeming
abruptness with which the prophet
passes from denunciation to promise,
and the interruption in thought be-
tween ii, 11, and iii, 1. The latter ob-
jection vanishes if chapter iii is taken
as the beginning of a new section
rather than as a continuation of chap-
ter ii (see p. 384); the first loses much
of its force if logical connection can
be established between ii, 11, and ii,
12, 13. The existence of such con-
nection has already been pointed out
in the beginning of the comments on
verses 12, 18, and it seems close
enough to warrant the belief that the
verses are from Micah and that they
are in their original place. It is not
even necessary to suppose that the
fall of Samaria occurred between the
time when ii, 11, was uttered and the
time when ii, 12, 13, was spoken;
the prophet simply looks beyond the
exile announced in ii, 3, 4.

CHAPTER III.

ContTRAST BETWEEN THE PRESENT
DEGRADATION AND THE FuTURE
Exa.tation, iii, l-v, 15.

__ If the above conclusion concerning

ii, 12, 13, is correct, chapter iii cannot
CHAPTER IIL

CHAPTER III.

A NDI Baa) Hear, I pray you, O
heads of Jacob, "and ye princes

of the house of Israel; «Is it not for
rou to know judgment? 2 Who
ate the good, and love the evil;
who pluck off their skin from off
them, and their flesh from off their

393

bones; 3 Who also beat the flesh of
my people, and flay their skin from
off them; and they break their
bones, and chop them in pieces, as
for the pot, and ‘as flesh within the
cealdron. 4 Then 4shall they cry
unto the Lorp, but he will not hear
them: he will even hide his face

 

a Jer. 5. 4, 5.—b Psa. 14. 4.—o¢ Ezek.
11. 3, 7.

4 Psa. 18. 41; Prov. 1. 28;

Isa. 1. 15;
Ezek. 8. 18; Zech. 7. 13.

 

be the continuation of chapter ii;
“And I said” (iii, 1) does by no means
prove it to be such continuation, as
Keil seems to think. Chapter iii, 1,
is the beginning of a new section, in-
cluding chapters iii-v. The opening
words of the address, ‘Hear, I pray
you,” as compared with i, 2, and vi,
1, are in favor of this view. The line
of reasoning in these chapters is sim-
ilar to that in chapters i, ii. The
section opens with a vivid description
of the present corruption, of the civil
rulers (iii, 1-4), and of the religious
leaders (5-11), hence the doom of the
city is sealed (12). Dark, indeed, and
hopeless the present appears to be,
but it will not remain thus forever.
In chapters iv, v the prophet paints
in brightest colors the glories of the
Messianic age, to be enjoyed by a
redeemed remnant.

Outrages committed by civil rulers,
1-4.

The denunciation in iii, 1-4, is ad-
dressed to the nobles, called “heads”
nd “princes” or “magistrates” (com-
pare Isa. i, 10). They are reminded,
by means of a rhetorical question, that
it is their duty to know the principles
of righteousness and equity ; ignorance
of these does not excuse their un-
righteous conduct. Jacob, .. . Israel
—These are synonymous expressions,
which, in the light of verse 10, must
refer to Judah (verse 9; but com-
pare ii, 12). Samaria may have fallen
before these words were uttered, so
that Judah had become the sole repre-
sentative of Israel. Know judgment
—R. V., “justice,” or equity. In
view of the special privileges enjoyed
by Israel (Amos ii, 11; Hos. xi, 1-4;

 

Isa. i, 2) there was no reasonable ex-
cuse for ignorance concerning the
principles of righteousness on the part
of anyone, certainly not on the part
of the leaders of the people.

Their conduct is so different from
what one might expect. Hate the
good—Wrongdoing has become their
second nature (Amos iii, 10); their
disposition has become utterly per-
verted, so that they hate that which
they should love and love that which
they should hate (compare Isa. i, 16,
17). This corruption expresses itself
in appalling cruelties. 2b, 3 describe
in the strongest language possible the
cruelties of the nobles. They flay the
poor people alive, tear the flesh from
their bones; they break their bones
(others, ‘‘they lay bare their bones’),
chop them in pieces, boil them in the
caldron, and devour them. It is hard-
ly necessary to state that the expres-
sions are not to be understood liter-
ally as implying cannibalism; they are
vivid pictures of heartless cruelty and
oppression. Similar expressions are
found in Isa. iii, 15, “What mean ye
that ye crush my people and grind
the faces of the poor?” and Amos ii,
7 (Jerome), “Who crush the heads of
the poor upon the dust of the earth.”
For the simple “as for the pot” LXX.
reads “asflesh for the pot,” which
furnishes a suitable parallel to the
next clause.

4. Such criminals Jehovah will for-
sake in the hour of judgment. Not
hear—They will cry unto him for de-
liverance, but he will leave them to
their terrible fate. As they would not
heed the cry of the oppressed, so Je-
hovah will not heed them. Hide his
face—In anger (compare Hos. v, 15).
394

MICAH.

 

from them at that time, as they
have behaved themselves ill in their
doings.

5 Thus saith the Lorp ¢concern-
ing the prophets that make my
people err, that ‘bite with their
teeth, and cry, Peace; and she that
putteth not into their mouths, they
even prepare war against him.
6 *Therefore night shall be unto

e Isa. 56. 10,11; Ezek. 13.10; 22. 25.—
{ Chap.2. 11; Matt. 7. 15.—« Ezek. 13. 18,
19.—h Isa. 8. 20, 22; Ezek. 13. 23; Zech.

Then... at that time—The context
leaves no doubt that these words
refer to the time of judgment. Cheyne
says, ‘“‘We must suppose that, when
Micah delivered this prophecy (of
which we can have but a summary),
he introduced between verses 3 and
-4 a description of the ‘day of Jeho-
vah,’ the day of just retribution.”
That we have but a summary of the
prophet’s message is probably true,
but it is not so certain that a descrip-
tion of the day of Jehovah, or even a
specific reference to it, was needed;
the people would comprehend the
prophet’s meaning without it (com-
pare the use of “now” in Amos vi,
7; Hos. ii, 10).

Condemnation of the mercenary
prophets, 5-8.

5. Micah considers the mercenary
prophets largely responsible for the
moral and spiritual decline of the
nation. Make my people err—They
lead the people astray by preaching
the divine favor and peace, when their
message should have been one of re-
pentance and judgment. 5b sets forth
the motives determining the character
of their message. That bite with their
teeth, and cry, Peace—If they receive
something to eat, or, in a more general
sense, if by doing so they can serve
their own interests, they announce,
without regard for the truth, peace,
that is, something that will please the
hearers. The rough expression “bite
with their teeth,” instead of the sim-
ple “eat,” is in perfect harmony with
the strong language of verses 2, 3.
He that putteth not into their mouths

 

e shall not have a vision;
and it shall be dark unto you, *that
ye shall not divine; ‘and the sun
shall go down over the prophets,
and the day shall be dark over
them. 7 Then shall the seers be
ashamed, and the diviners con-
founded: yea, they shall all cover
their *lips; ‘for there is no answer of
God.

you, !that

13. 4.——! Heb. from a vision.—? Heb.
from divining.—i Amos 8. 9.——3 Heb,
upper lip.—* Psa. 74. 9; Amos 8. 11.

—He who fails to purchase their favor.
Prepare war—Woe to such a one; for
him they have only unpleasant things;
unto him they declare the wrath of
Jehovah and all sorts of calamity (see
on Joel iii, 9). ‘‘The satisfying or non-
satisfying of their stomach determined
the character of their prophecy.”
Verses 6, 7 are addressed directly to
the mercenary prophets, not to the
“heads” of the nation. Night...
dark—Figures of calamity and dis-
tress. At such time the advice of a
prophet is most needed, but they will
have no advice to give. Sun... day
—The “sun” of prosperity will set
and the “day” of judgment, which is
“darkness and not light” (Amos v,
18), will dawn. Have a vision...
divine—At present the mercenary
prophets may claim that they receive
their message in the same manner as
the ‘‘true” prophets, but in the day of
calamity a difference will be seen, for
they will have no message with which
to encourage their grief-stricken coun-
trymen. The reason for the silence is
stated in verse 7. Seers .. . diviners
—Synonymous terms denoting the
mercenary prophets, the second calling
attention to the illegitimacy of their
pursuit. Ashamed, . . . confounded—
Also synonyms. They will “stand
ashamed, because their own former
prophecies are proved by calamity to
be lies, and fresh, true prophecies fail
them, because God gives no answer.”
Cover their lips—Literally, beard.
They will no longer venture to speak.
The phrase means covering the face up
to the nose, which is a sign of humilia-
tion, shame, and mourning (Lev. xiil,
CHAPTER III.

395

 

8 But truly I am full of power by
the spirit of the Lorp, mad of judg-
ment, and of might, ito declare unto
Jacob his transgression, and to Is-
rael his sin. 9 Hear this, I pray
you, ye heads of the house of Jacob,

and princes of the house of Israel,
that abhor judgment, and pervert
all equity. 10 =They build up Zion
with " ‘blood, and Jerusalem with
iniquity. 11 °The heads thereof
judge for reward, and the priests

 

lIsa. 58. 1—®™ Jer. 22. 13.

5 n Ezek,
22. 27; Hab. 2. 12; Zeph. 3. 3:

4 Heb.

 

 

 

bloods. °Isa. 1. 23; Ezek. 22. 12; Hos.
4, 18; chap. 7. 3.—-p Jer. 6. 13.

 

45; Ezek. xxiv, 17). For a study of
the phenomenon of “false” prophecy
in Israel see Hastings’s Dictionary of
the Bible, iv, pp. 116ff. All that needs
to be said here is that there were two
distinct classes of false prophets: (1)
The mercenary prophets, who are con-
demned here for their insincerity;
(2) the political prophets, who may
have been sincere, but who lost sight
of the religious mission and destiny
of the nation, and whose prophecies
were determined entirely by political
ambitions.

In verse 8 Micah contrasts himself
with the mercenary prophets. Spirit
—He is animated by a higher spiritual
force than they; he is under the in-
fluence of the Divine Spirit (see on
Joel ii, 28). Power—Authority,
strength, and courage to withstand
the popular clamor. Judgment—A
keen moral sense that enables him to
see what is right and true; he does not
call evil good or black white (compare
Isa. v, 20). Might—Manliness, cour-
age. He remains unmoved by flattery
or threat, by gain or loss; he stands
firmly for what he considers right and
true. Hence he does and forever will,
in spite of false prophets, fearlessly
expose sin and apostasy.

Some commentators are inclined to
omit “by the spirit” as a later gloss,
on account of its peculiar position in
the sentence and its grammatical con-
struction. There may be good reason
for this omission, but this would not
affect the thought of the verse, since
the virtues named are, in other pas-
sages, traced to the influence of the
Divine Spirit (see on Joel ii, 28; com-
pare Isa. xi, 2).

Renewed condemnation of the nation’s
religious and political leaders—

Doom of Jerusalem, 9-12.

 

After the direct denunciation of the
prophets Micah sums up the sins and
crimes which may be laid to the
charge of nobles, priests, and proph-
ets, and announces the utter de-
struction of Jerusalem.

Verses 9, 10 are addressed exclu-
sively to the “heads” and “princes”
(R. V., “rulers”) of the nation, whose
duty it was to administer justice. It
is worthy of notice that not one word
is said in condemnation of the king.
This silence concerning the king may
be due to the fact that the prophecy
was uttered at a time when a king in
sympathy with the prophetic teaching
was upon the throne, namely, Heze-
kiah (compare Jer. xxvi, 17-19;
2 Kings xviii, 3, 4). The “heads,”
instead of administering justice, ab-
horred and perverted it. How they
did this is stated in verse 11. The
capital owed its splendor and mag-
nificence very largely to the crimes
condemned in verse 9. Blood—Blood-
guiltiness (Isa. i, 15; compare G.-K.,
124n) that is, “violent conduct leading
to the ruin of others.” By extortion
and other illegitimate means they se-
cured the material needed for the
erection of palaces and other majestic
structures. The last clause repeats
the same thought for the sake of
emphasis. Verse 11 contrasts the con-
duct of the rulers, priests, and proph-
ets with their religious professions ;
and so it contains a summary of all
the accusations uttered in the pre-
ceding verses, and paves the way for
the announcement of doom in verse
12. Reward—Better, bribe. All the
eighth century prophets find it neces-
sary to preach against corruption of
this sort (see on Amos v, 12; compare
Isa. i, 23; Mic. vii, 3). The priests
... teach for hire—It was the duty of
396

thereof teach for hire, and the
prophets thereof divine for money:
ayet will they lean upon the Lorp,
‘and say, Is not the LorD among
us? none evil can come upon us.

a Isa. 48. 2; Jer. 7. 45 Rom, 2, 17.—
5 Heb. saying.

the priests to teach the Torah (see on
Hos. iv, 4ff., especially verse 6) and
to give judgment in difficult legal
cases; this they were to do unin-
fluenced by any personal considera-
tion (Deut. xvii, 11); but in time the
priests became unfaithful, and the
question of reward played an im-
portant part in the discharge of their
duties. Divine for money—See on
verse 5.

Lean upon Jehovah—In the face of
this moral depravity rulers, priests,
and prophets claimed to be entitled
to the favor and protection of Je-
hovah. Is not Jehovah among us?—
In their opinion the prophet of judg-
ment was a fanatic, a fool; they were
convinced that, since Jehovah was on
their side, no evil could befall them
(see introductory remarks to Amos iii,
l-iv, 3; iii, 2; v, 14). The mass of
people might, perhaps, be excused for
laboring under a misapprehension, but
not so the leaders; they should have
known that Jehovah demands holi-
ness of heart and life rather than a
painstaking ritual service.

12. The inevitable results of such
criminal folly must be severe judg-
ment. Zion... Jerusalem ...moun-
tain of the house—The three names
might denote three distinct sections
of the capital: Zion, the southeast
spur of Mount Ophel, the ancient
Jebusite stronghold, including the
royal palaces; the mountain of the
house, the temple area; Jerusalem,
the city proper; or they might be
understood as synonymous expres-
sions, each denoting the entire city,
the three expressions being used to
make possible the use of several verbs;
such usage would emphasize the com-
pleteness of the destruction. Which-
ever of these two interpretations one
may accept, there can be no doubt that

 

MICAH.

12 Therefore shall Zion for your
sake be "plowed as a field, sand Jeru-
salem shall become heaps, and ‘the
mountain of the house as the high
places of the forest.

t Jer. 26. 18; chap. 1. 6.—— Psa. 79. 1.
—t Chap. 4. 2.

the prophet means to foretell the utter
destruction of Jerusalem. It will fall
into ruin and will be plowed like a
field; even the temple mount will be
forsaken and will be turned into
jungle. Concerning the fulfillment of
this prophecy Stanley says: ‘The de-
struction which was then threatened
has never been completely fulfilled.
Part of the southeast portion of the
city has for several centuries been
arable land, but the rest has always
been within the walls. In the Macca-
bean wars (1 Macc. iv, 38) the temple
courts were overgrown with shrubs,
but this has never been the case
since.” With this prophecy compare
Isa. xxxii, 13, 14. The utterance of
Micah is quoted in Jer. xxvi, 18, in
defense of Jeremiah, who was accused
of blasphemy because he predicted a
similar destruction of Jerusalem.

CHAPTER IV.
Tur Masstanic Ourvoor, iv, I-v, 15.

Chapter iii pictures the present cor-
ruption, chapters iv, v the glory to be
enjoyed by the remnant after its re-
demption from the calamity an-
nounced briefly in iii, 12, and alluded
to several times in the two chapters.
To emphasize this contrast is un-
doubtedly one purpose of the present
arrangement of the three chapters. It
should not be supposed, however, that
the three chapters form one connected
whole, or that the pictures in iv, v
were all drawn at one and the same
time. The abrupt transitions and
loose connections within the chapters
make it certain that they contain
rather a collection of short oracles, all
dealing with the same subject, but not
coming from the same period of the
prophet’s activity, and describing the
Messianic age from various points of
view.
CHAPTER IV.

397

 

CHAPTER IV.

UT «in the last days it shall

come to pass, that the moun-
tain of the house of the Lorp shall
be established in the top of the
mountains, and it shall be exalted
above the hills; and people shall
flow unto it. 2 And many nations
shall come, and say, Come, and let
us go up to the mountain of the
Lorp, and to the house of the God

of Jacob; and he will teach us of his
ways, and we will walk in his paths:
for the law shall go forth of Zion,
and the word of the Lorp from
Jerusalem.

8 And he shall judge among many
people, and rebuke strong nations
afar off; and they shall beat their
swords into >plowshares, and their
oe into Jpruning hooks: nation
shall not lift up a sword against

 

a Isa. 2. 2, etc.; Ezek. 17. 22, 23.

b Isa. 2. 4; Joel 3, 10.—1 Or, scythes.

 

Zion the center of the universal religion
of the future, 1-5.

These five verses furnish the first
sublime picture of the glory of the
Messianic era. 1. In the last days—
Better, R. V., “latter days’’; literally,
sequel of days. ‘Last’? days is am-
biguous; the prophet does not mean
to point to the end of the world, or
to the end of the Jewish dispensation,
but to some indefinite future. The
phrase is used by the prophets only in
referring to the Messianic age. The
mountain of the house of Jehovah—
The temple mount. In the top—Bet-
ter, at the head. The meaning is not,
“Zion will be so exalted above all the
mountains and hills that it will ap-
pear to be founded upon the top of
the mountains,” but rather that it
will be at the head of the procession,
towering above all others. By some
this phrase has been taken literally,
as if the prophet expected that, at
some future time, the temple mount
would in reality become the highest
mountain, and Ezek. xl, 2, and Zech.
xiv, 10, have been quoted in favor of
this interpretation. On the other
hand, Psa. Ixviii, 15, 16, shows that
to the Hebrew the physical elevation
of the temple site was not a neces-
sary element of its preéminence as
a sanctuary, and it is better to in-
terpret the words figuratively as mean-
ing that the fame of Jehovah will be-
come so great that it will eclipse that
of all other deities. The metaphor
may be based upon an ancient belief
that there was a mountain reaching
from earth to heaven, on whose sum-
mit the gods dwelt. People shall

 

flow unto it—Even outside nations
will come to recognize Jehovah as the
true God and Jerusalem as his earthly
dwelling place; hence they will flock
to Jerusalem in great numbers and
will exhort others to come, that they
may receive instruction in the prin-
ciples of true religion. 2. Law—
Parallel with “word.” Not “law”
in the technical sense, but in the gen-
eral sense of instruction (so R. V.
margin). This instruction Jehovah
gives through his servants, the proph-
ets and priests (see on Hos. iv, 6).
Zion—As the holy city was the re-
ligious center of Israel, so the prophet
expects it to be the center of the uni-
versal religion during the Messianic
era, the city in which Jehovah will
dwell and from which all his activities
will proceed Of his ways—The
‘ways’ of Jehovah denote the prin-
ciples of ethics and religion laid down
by Jehovah; of these he will teach the
nations:as the needs or circumstances
of each may demand.

3 When Jehovah will be thus rec-
ognized as the Lord of all, an era of
permanent world peace will set in.
Judge—Better, arbitrate. Rebuke
—RBetter, R. V., “decide concerning.”
Difficult international disputes, whicli
at other times would have caused war
will be decided by Jehovah. With
such an arbiter war will disappear;
then the implements of warfare will
be needed no longer, and they will be
turned into implements of agriculture;
and in time the art of warfare will be
entirely forgotten (compare Joel iii,
10).4 In that blessed era the people
of Jehovah will be allowed to enjoy
3898

MICAH.

 

nation, cneither shall they learn war
any more. 4 ‘But they shall sit
every man under his vine and under
his fig tree; and none shall make
them afraid: for the mouth of the

 

¢ Psa. 72. 7.—4 1 Kings 4. 25; Zech. 3. 10.

 

undisturbed the blessings of peace; no
enemies will be there to make them
afraid. For the expression “they
shall sit... ,”’ describing a condition
of peaceful felicity, compare 1 Kings
iv, 25; 2 Kings xviii, 31. In the course
of time the words may have be-
come a proverbial saying (see on
Joel i, 12). To dispel any doubt that
might arise concerning the fulfillment
of the glorious promise the prophet
seals it by adding the solemn formula,
“The mouth of Jehovah of hosts hath
spoken it” (Isa. i, 20).

The exact meaning of verse 5 and
its connection with the preceding
verses is somewhat uncertain. Per-
haps it is best, following Isa. ii, 5, to
interpret it as containing an exhorta-
tion to the listeners to do their share
toward a realization of the promised
felicity. The enjoyment of the glory
described in verses 1-4 is still a matter
of expectation; the other nations are
joined to their idols, and there is no
move on their part to turn to Je-
hovah; even Israel is hopelessly cor-
rupt (iii, 1ff.) Hence, the prophet
continues, if the ideal is to be realized
it is high time to make a beginning,
and this beginning must be made by
the chosen people; Israel must turn
to its God and live in harmony with
his will. Walk in the name—“The
name of God is that side of his nature
which can be revealed to man; and
to walk in his name means to live in
mystic union with God as he has re-
vealed himself, and under his protec-
tion” (see on Amos ii, 7). To walk in
the names of false deities must be
understood similarly. Forever and
ever—The union is not to be broken
again (see on Hos. ii, 19, 20). If the
above interpretation of verse 5 is cor-
rect a better rendering would be,
‘Since (at present) all the peoples

 

Lorp of hosts hath spoken #. 5
For call people will walk every one
in the name of his god, and ‘we

walk in the name of the LoRD our
God for ever and ever. 6 In that

e Jer. 2. 11.—f Zech. 10. 12.

 

walk every one in the name of his
god, therefore we will (or, det us) walk
(the more resolutely) in the name of
Jehovah our God forever and ever.”

To sum up, the chief features of the
Messianic age emphasized in this pas-
sage are: 1. Zion will be recognized as
the seat of Jehovah’s universal do-
minion. 2. The spread of the true re-
ligion will be accomplished not by the
force of arms but through the moral
influence going out from Zion.
3. There is to be no external world
power; the nations will retain po-
litical independence; Jehovah, not
Israel, will rule the world. 4. War
will come to an end; international dis-
putes will be settled by arbitration,
Jehovah himself being the arbiter.

A few remarks concerning the ful-
fillment of this and similar prophecies
may be in order in this connection.
The hope expressed in this passage
is not yet fulfilled; literally it will
probably never be fulfilled; in spirit
and essence it will reach its fulfill-
ment, according to the universal
Christian belief, when the Spirit of
God or the Spirit of Jesus comes to
be the dynamic of individual and
national life and conduct everywhere.
For a clear understanding of the de-
tails of the prediction and its fulfill-
ment the following facts should be
borne in mind: The prophets had a
sublime conception of the character
of Jehovah, and it is this conception
which enabled them to apprehend, in
a measure at least, the ultimate pur-
poses of Jehovah for mankind; they
were convinced that the character of
the age in which man would permit
God to have his own way must corre-
spond to the character of the God
whom they knew. But the glimpses
and visions of the future did not re-
move the prophets from their present,
CHAPTER IV.

399

 

and it is but natural that in their
thoughts concerning the manner (not
the fact) in which God would carry
out his purposes they should be in-
fluenced by the circumstances of their
present. For example, when the
words found in Mic. iv, 1-5, were
spoken, Israel was the chosen nation
in which “all the nations of the earth
should be blessed”; Jerusalem was the
earthly dwelling place of Jehovah.
The author looked upon Israel as a
“servant” with a sublime mission, and
he was sure that the nation would
have an important part in the work-
ing out of the divine plan of redemp-
tion. That there ever could come a
time when not even a remnant would
be ready and qualified to carry out the
divine commission, does not seem to
have suggested itself to the minds of
the prophets; and yet it follows nat-
urally from their teaching, and it is a
legitimate inference from the con-
ditional character of all prophecy,
that, if at some future time, through
its own fault, the nation should prove
itself incapable of carrying to com-
pletion its mission, some other
“servant” must take its place, if
God still desires to carry out his
original purpose. The later history
of Israel shows that through dis-
obedience it cut itself off, as a nation,
from God and from its place in his
plan of redemption. As a result its
place became vacated, and another
“servant” had to be found. This other
“servant,’”’ Christians believe, was
Jesus the Christ. With the cutting
off of Israel the promises based upon
the assumption that the nation would
prove faithful became of no effect.
Hence all elements of Messianic pre-
diction connected with the nation Is-
rael, such as the final exaltation of the
nation, the permanence and unique
place. of Zion, and others, should be
eliminated from all Christian expec-
tations concerning the nature and
character of the true kingdom of God.

The recurrence of these verses (with
the exception of verse 4, and with
verse 5 in a different form) in Isa. ii,

 

2-5, raises a literary question concern-
ing the relation of the two passages to
oneanother. Ifa dependence is recog-
nized at all one of four explanations
must be accepted: (1) Isaiah is de-
pendent upon Micah; (2) Micah is
dependent upon Isaiah; (3) both are
dependent upon an earlier prophet;
(4) it is a late passage, inserted in
both books at a time subsequent to
the eighth century B. C. “The pas-
sage was very possibly written and
inserted in Micah after the exile,
and copied from Micah by one of the
editors of Isaiah” (Cheyne). Since
only internal evidence is available, .
absolute certainty cannot be ex-
pected. Against (1) it has been urged
that Micah was a younger contempo-
rary of Isaiah, and that the former’s
ministry did not begin until some

‘time after the discourses embodied in

Isa. ii—iv had been delivered (thatis,the
reign of Jotham, see pp. 361ff.). Hence,
in order to establish the dependence of
the earlier upon the later, it must be
assumed that Isa. ii, 2-5, was bor-
rowed from Micah and inserted in its
present place some time after the
other prophecies in that section
(chapters ii-iv) had been spoken. In
opposition to (2) it has been pointed
out that in Micah the passage appears
to be imbedded more closely in its
context, while in Isaiah the connec-
tion is exceedingly loose; and this
fact has been thought by some to
prove that its original place is in
Micah. For a long time (3) was gen-
erally regarded as the most satisfac-
tory explanation. According to this
view the utterance of an older un-
known prophet was adopted by Isaiah
as well as by Micah as a “classic” de-
scription of the ideal kingdom of God
to which the prophets of Jehovah
looked forward. The fact that in
both books the passage begins with
“and” has been thought to favor the
idea that the prediction was torn
from its original context. Most recent
commentators favor (4), that in both
books the verses are a later interpola-
tion. This view is closely bound up
400

day, saith the Lorn, ¢will I assem-
ble her that halteth, -band I will
ather her that is driven out, and
er that I have afflicted; 7 And I will
make her that halted ia remnant,
and her that was cast far off a strong
nation: and the Lorp ‘shall reign

& Ezek. 34. 16; Zeph. 3, 19,——} Psa. 147.
2; Ezek. 34. 13; 37, 21.—i Chaps. 2. 12; 5.
3, 7, 8 7. 18

with the claim that all Messianic
hopes have their origin in the exilic
or postexilic period (see p. 215). The
possibility of such interpolation can-
not be denied, but certainly there is
nothing in the passage itself to com-
pel one to consider it a late product.
On the whole, (3) offers the most sat-
isfactory explanation.

Restoration and healing of the dispersed
—Revival of the kingdom of David,
6-8.

6. When the era of Messianic peace
dawns the dispersed of Israel will
share in its glory; Jehovah will bring
back all whom in his anger he cast
out. A similar promise is found in
ii, 12, 13, only in the present passage
is added a new thought, the restora-
tion of health, physical and moral, to
the dispersed. R. V. reads instead of
“her that halteth ... ,” “that which is
lame, .. . that which is driven away,
. .. that which I have afflicted,”
which is preferable in English, though
the Hebrew has the feminine form.
All three expressions are pictures of
the judgment suffered in consequence
of sin. The affliction has been severe
and the outcasts are near unto death,
but Jehovah will revive them. 7. A
remnant—The nucleus of a new king-
dom of God (see on Amos v, 15). The
Messianic hopes all center around this
remnant and the nation growing out
of it. The lame and afflicted to whom
the prophet promises restoration are
such as have remained faithful in the
face of affliction; these Jehovah will
deliver from their affliction and con-
stitute the “remnant,” and with it
he will make u new beginning in his
attempt to redeem the world. A

 

MICAH.

over them in mount Zion from
henceforth, even for ever.

8 And thou, O tower of *the flock,
the strong hold of the daughter of
Zion, unto thee shall it come, even
the first dominion; the kingdom
shall come to the daughter of Jeru-

k Isa. 9. 6; 24. 23; Dan. 7. 14, 27; Luke
1. 33; Rev. 11. 15.—, Or, Edar; Gen.
35. 21.

strong nation—In time, under the di-
vine providence, the insignificant
remnant will develop into a strong
and powerful nation. Jehovah shall
reign—In the past incompetent and
faithless rulers were responsible for
much of the corruption and distress
of the people; the new nation will
not suffer from such leaders, for
Jehovah himself will be the king, and
his dominion will continue forever.
The center of the new kingdom will
be Zion (see on verses 1-5). With the
promises made in verses 6, 7 fulfilled,
the former royal splendor and prestige
will be restored. The new promise
is expressed in verse 8, addressed di-
rectly to Jerusalem. Tower of the
flock—This does not allude to a tower
(R. V., “of Eder’) near Beth-lehem
(compare Gen. xxxv, 21), nor to a
tower of the king’s castle (Neh. iii, 25),
but denotes Jerusalem itself. Now it
is a flourishing city, but soon it will be
destroyed, and upon its ruins will be
erected a watchtower, like those
built for the better protection of
the flocks roaming around the desert
(2 Chron. xxvi, 10). Already the
prophet beholds the city in its re-
duced condition, and he selects the fig-
ure of the tower to make his address
more forceful (compare Isa. xxix, 1;
Jer. xxi, 13). Stronghold [‘hill”] of
the daughter of Zion—In apposition
to the preceding expression, also de-
noting the city of Jerusalem. Ophel
is the name of the southeast spur of
the temple mount, bounded on the
east _by the Kidron, on the west by
the Tyropceon valley, but here, as in
other places (for example, 2 Kings v,
24), the word is a common noun,
meaning “hill.” The first [“former’’]
CHAPTER IV.

401

 

salem. 9 Now why dost thou cry
out aloud? %s there no king in thee?
is thy counsellor perished? for
=pangs have taken thee as a woman
in travail. 10 Be in pain, and la-

bor to bring forth, O daughter of
Zion, like a woman in travail: for
now shalt thou go forth out of the
city, and thou shalt dwell in the
field, and thou shalt go even to Baby-

 

1 Jer. 8. 19.

m Isa. 13. 8; 21. 3; Jer. 30. 6; 50. 43.

 

dominion—The dominion enjoyed dur-
ing the most flourishing period of He-
brew history, under David and Solo-
mon, will be restored to Jerusalem
during the Messianic era. The last
clause, which is considered by some a
late marginal gloss introduced into
the text by accident, expresses the
same thought.

Distress and subsequent redemption, 9,
10.

The distant future, the prophet is
convinced, will be all brightness and
glory, but in the immediate future he
can see nothing but gloom and de-
spair. This new section opens with a
vision of the agony and despair soon
to be felt by the people. The prophet
already beholds the destruction and
hears the lamentation. Why dost
thou cry out aloud?—Addressed is the
“daughter of Zion” (verse 10), that: is,
Jerusalem and its inhabitants. The
capital is filled with lamentation over
the present or rapidly approaching
judgment. A woman in travail—This
and similar expressions are used not
infrequently in the Old Testament, as
expressive of extreme pain and an-
guish. The questions of verse 9 are
meant to be more or less ironical.
The prophet knows well enough the
reason for the lamentation and the
helplessness of king and nobles in
such a crisis. King .. . counselor—
There is a king and there are coun-
selors; but in the time of calamity,
when they are needed the most, they
can do nothing, because one greater
than they has caused the distress (see
on Hos. xiii, 10). Be in pain... —
Jerusalem may well continue the
lamentation, for there can be no
immediate relief; and the wail is
justified, becatise the city is desolate;
homeless and without protection the

 

inhabitants will camp in the fields,
until finally they are carried away
into exile. Only after these calami-
ties have been suffered will Jehovah
manifest his redemptive powers. The
tertium comparationis in the picture
is only the pain and anguish; there is
no thought of Zion actually bringing
forth « child, that is, the Messianic
king.

If verses 9, 10 were standing by
themselves their interpretation would
be a very simple matter; but when
they are studied with due regard for
their context difficulties seem to arise.
Verses 11, 12 picture the enemy gath-
ered around Jerusalem, determined to
defile and to destroy the holy city;
but the scheme will not succeed; the
enemy will be “beaten to pieces,” and
Jerusalem will triumph gloriously; and
all this will happen without a cap-
ture of the city or an exile. Such
outlook seems to be in hopeless con-
tradiction with the statements in
verse 10, which imply a conquest and
an exile, and promise deliverance only
after the people have been deported
to Babylon. To remove this diffi-
culty the words “and shall come even
unto Babylon” are commonly re-
jected as a later interpolation. But.
the omission of these words by no
means removes the whole difficulty,
for the fate foretold in verse 10 still
remains very different from that an-
nounced in verse 11; in the former
there is an expectation of great
affliction and suffering, in the latter
all is triumph and glory. A more sat-
isfactory solution of the difficulty, and
one that requires no textual] changes,
is to separate verses 9, 10 entirely
from verses 11ff., and to consider the
oracles as two distinct utterances
coming from entirely different periods
of Micah’s ministry. At one time,
402

MICAH.

 

lon; there shalt thou be delivered;
there the Lorp shall redeem thee
from the hand of thine enemies.
11 "Now also many nations are
gathered against thee, that say, Let

nam. 2. 16. © Obad. 12; chap. 7. 10.

 

her be defiled, and let our eye clook
upon Zion. 12 But they know not
rthe thoughts of the Lorp, neither
understand they his counsel: for he
shall gather them sas the sheaves

Pisa. 55. 8; Rom. 11, 33.—4 Isa, 21. 10.

 

near the fall of Samaria, he expected
that Judah, including Jerusalem,
would suffer the same fate as Israel
(i, 8ff.; iii, 12), but it is not necessary
to suppose that he adhered to this
view throughout his entire ministry.
It is at least possible that in his later
years he was influenced by the con-
viction of his greater contemporary
Isaiah that Jerusalem was inviolable
(Isa. xxxvii, 33ff.). That conviction
is reflected in 11ff., verses which fit
admirably in the period of Sen-
nacherib’s invasion in 701 B. C.
(compare Isa. xxxvi, xxxvii); verses
9, 10 would reflect the earlier con-
viction, expressed so forcibly in chap-
ter i. These words, then, may have
been spoken either before or, better,
soon after the fall of Samaria, while
that calamity was still fresh in the
memory of the prophet, or, perhaps,
as late as 711 B. C. (compare Isa. xx),
when Sargon sent an expedition
against Philistia. The mention of
Babylon does not militate against the
view that Micah is the author of the
words, for the reference does not
imply that at the time the words were
spoken Babylon had already displaced
Assyria as the great Eastern world
‘power. Babylon is mentioned simply
as a place to which the people would
be deported. According to 2 Kings
xvii, 24, Sargon settled in the territory
of Israel men from Babylon, and this
statement is corroborated by Sar-
gon’s own inscription (Records of the
Past, vii, 29). It is only natural to
suppose—and this would be in perfect
accord with Assyrian practice—that
the depleted territory in the east was
filled with exiles from the land of Is-
rael. If this was done we can readily
understand how Micah, who expected
the people of the south to suffer a fate
similar to that of the north, might

 

represent the people of Jerusalem as
following their brethren from Samaria
to the same place of exile.

Deliverance of Jerusalem, destruction
of the enemy, 11-13.

This picture, like the preceding,
starts from the present calamity and
ends with a promise of complete vic-
tory. For the differences between the
two pictures see comments on verse
10. Now—-Calls attention to the
present condition in contrast with
the future glory. Many nations—Tf,
as suggested above (on verse 10), this
oracle comes from the period of Sen-
nacherib’s invasion, this expression
must refer to the Assyrians, whose
armies might be called ‘many na-
tions,” since they were made up of
soldiers from many vassal states
(compare Isa. x, 8, “Are not my
princes all of them kings?’”’). Thee—
Jerusalem. Defiled—The hostile arm-
ies were determined to enter and de-
stroy the holy city, but their very
presence there would be, from the
standpoint of the devout Jew, a de-
filement of the city (see on Joel iii,
17). All their attempts will be futile,
for the thoughts of the enemy are not
the thoughts of Jehovah (compare
Isa. vii, 5-7). Gather them as the
sheaves—The cruel treatment of a
conquered foe is often likened to the
threshing of sheaves (Amos i, 3;
2 Sam. xii, 31). The enemies have
come for conquest, but the prophet
declares that they have been per-
mitted to gather around the holy city
only to make possible a glorious
triumph of the chosen people Floor
—See on Joel ii, 24.

Verse 13 is an exhortation to the
inhabitants of Zion to execute judg-
ment upon the arrogant enemies.
CHAPTER V.

403

 

into the floor. 13 Arise and thresh,
O daughter of Zion: for I will make
thine horn iron, and I will make thy
hoofs brass: and thou shalt ‘beat in
pieces many people: tand I will con-
secrate their gain unto the Lorn,

and their substance unto "the Lord
of the whole earth.

CHAPTER V.
N OW gather thyself in troops, O

 

 

tsa. 41. 15, 16; Jer. 51. 33. 5 Dan.
2. 44,

 

daughter of troops: he hath
t Isa. 18. 7; 23. 18; 60. 6, 9. u Zech.
4, 14; 6. 5.

 

Thresh—The picture of verse 12 is
continued; the inhabitants of Zion
are likened to the animals whose duty
it is to tread out the grain with their
hoofs (see on Amos i, 3; Hos. x, 11;
Deut xxv, 4). Hoofs brass—The
harder the hoofs the more effective
the treading. Make thine horns iron
—This introduces a new figure. With
the powerful horns it will pierce and
cast down the foe (Deut. xxxiii, 17).
Thus equipped, Jerusalem will have
no difficulty in overthrowing the
‘many nations,” before the latter can
do any harm (compare Isa. x, 33, 34).
I will consecrate—The Hebrew verb
form should be understood as an un-
usual form of the second person, and
should be rendered “‘and thou shalt
consecrate.” This reading is sup-
ported by nearly all the ancient ver-
sions. Israel is not to enrich itself
by plundering the defeated foe; all
the possessions taken from him are

to be consecrated to Jehovah’s use.

(Lev. xxvii, 28; 1 Sam. xv, 21; 1 Kings
xx, 42). Gain... substance—The two
nouns are synonyms and are equiva-
lent to ‘‘the sum and substance of
their possessions.” The Lord of the
whole earth—As such he is able to
help Judah to victory, and as such he
has a claim upon the spoil.

CHAPTER V.

Tue Messian AND THE MESSIANIC
Era, 1-15 (in Hebrew, iv, 14-v,
14).

In vy, 1, the prophet returns once
more (iv, 9, 11) to the condition now
present or imminent; but imme-
diately, he rises from the troublesome
present to the glorious future (iv, 10,

 

13), which he describes in v, 2ff.,
with a fullness and grandeur not seen
anywhere else in the book. The his-
torical background is probably the
same as that presupposed in iv, 11-
18, the invasion of Sennacherib. If
so, chapter v presents the outlook of
Micah at the time in which Isaiah
uttered the remarkable Messianic pre-
diction in xi, 1ff.

The Hebrew of verse 1 contains two
plays upon words: the first between
“gather in troops” and “daughter of
troops,” the second between “judge”
and “rod.’”’ Gather thyself in troops,
O daughter of troops—A very peculiar
expression, which has been variously
interpreted. If the text is correct,
which is not beyond doubt, the fol-
lowing seems to be the most satisfac-
tory interpretation: Jerusalem is
called “daughter of troops’ because
wherever the prophet looks he sees
people with anxious faces crowding
together in terror. The troops of war-
riors who were accustomed to boast
in their strength have turned into
troops of cowards. These cowards he
exhorts ironically to keep on crowding
together (Jer. v, 7), and well they
may, for the enemy has encircled the
city; escape is impossible, they must
prepare for the worst. They shall
smite—If this is the proper transla-
tion the verse implies that the ene-
mies’ efforts will be crowned with
success. Then the oracle cannot be
assigned to the same period as iv, 11-
13. But the tense should probably be
understood as a frequentative imper-
fect (G.-K., 107e or g), and should be
translated “they smite’ or, even bet-
ter, “they have smitten,” again and
again, and they are doing it now by
laying siege to the holy city. Smite
404

laid siege against us: they shall
ssmite the judge of Israel with a rod

MICAH.

upon the cheek. 2 But thou, »Beth-
iehen Ephratah, though thou be

 

aLam. 3. 30; Mat. 5. 39; 27. 30.
... with a rod upon the cheek—Smit-
ing upon the cheek is a gross insult,
and the expression may be used—so
here—in the general sense “‘to insult”
(Job xvi, 10; 1 Kings xxii, 24). The
complaint of the prophet is that the
enemies have been and still are in-
sulting the representative of Jehovah
ruling in Jerusalem. Judge—Equiva-
lent to king (see Amos ii, 3); “judge”
is used here because of the sim-
ilarity in sound of the original with
the word translated “rod.” “Judge
of Israel” is equivalent to “king of
Judah.” 5b may contain a direct
reference to the insults heaped upon
Hezekiah hy the representatives of
Sennacherib (Isa. xxxvi, 37; compare
x, 7ff.). The distress and suffering of
the present are indeed great, but they
will not continue forever; before the
city can be taken deliverance will
come.

The Messiah’s birth and reign, 2-4.

Closely connected with the de-
liverance will be the appearance
of the Messianic king, though it is
not stated or implied that he will
accomplish it. Chapter iv contains
four separate Messianic sections, but
in v, 2, the prophet introduces for the
first time the person of the Messianic
king; and he does so in the form of an
apostrophe to Beth-lehem. The new
king is to be of the dynasty of David
and is to be born in the ancient home
of David. With this promise should
be compared iv, 7, where Jehovah an-
nounces that he himself will rule over
the restored remnant; but in spite of
this essential difference there is a con-
nection between the promise in v,
2ff., and that of iv, 6-8. In iv, 8, it
is promised that the dominion shall
return to Zion; v, 2, introduces the
person who is to rule in Zion as Je-
hovah’s representative. Beth-lehem
Ephratah—The second more accur-
ately with R. V., “Ephrathah”;

 

b Matt. 2. 6; John 7. 42.

LXX. reads, “And thou, Beth-lehem,
house of Ephrathah,”’ which is
thought by some to be an erroneous
combination of two originally distinct
readings, the one “And thou, Beth-
lehem,” the other ‘And thou, Beth-
Ephrathah,” and the same combina-
tion is thought to be reflected in the
Hebrew phrase. Of the two names
only one is thought to be original,
but there is a difference of opinion as
to which one; some thinking that it is
“ Beth-lehem,” more that it is ‘‘Beth-
Ephrathah.” The other is thought to
be an explanatory gloss, which at
first was put in the margin, but in
time was accidentally transferred
into the text. Those who consider
“Beth-Ephrathah” original think
that ‘“‘Beth-lehem” was added to ex-
plain the less common name; those
who make “Beth-lehem” the original
think that “Beth-Ephrathah” was
added to distinguish this Beth-lehem
from a city in the territory of Zebu-
lun bearing the same name (Josh.
xix, 15). If the two words represent
an erroneous combination of two
originally distinct names, one of these
explanations may be correct; but what
is there to prove that such a combi-
nation exists? Beth-lehem is the well-
known home of David, about five
miles south of Jerusalem (1 Sam. xx,
6). The other word, ‘“Ephrathah,”
and its derivatives occur several times
in the Old Testament in connection
with Beth-lehem; but in the great
majority of the cases Beth-lehem and
Ephrathah are not, as is frequently
assumed, synonymous; for the lat-
ter denotes the district in which the
former is located (1 Sam. xvii, 12;
Ruth i, 2; iv, 11; 1 Chron. ii, 50, ete.);
only rarely do the two appear to le
identical (Gen. xxxv, 16, 19). But if
Ephrathah is the name of the district
in which Beth-lehem is located, the
combination found in the Hebrew text
becomes perfectly natural—Beth-le-
CHAPTER V.

405

 

little camong the ‘thousands of
Judah, yet out of thee shall he come

forth unto me that is to be eruler in
Israel; ‘whose goings forth have been

 

¢1 Sam. 23. oat ee 18. 25.—
eGen. 49. 10; Isa. 9.

4 ia 90. 2; Prov. 8. 22, 23; John

 

hem which is situated in the district
of Ephrathah. Why the name of the
district is added it may be impossible
to determine; it may have been to
distinguish this Beth-lehem from the
one in Zebulun, or, as has been sug-
gested, “to give greater solemnity to
the address,” or for purely rhythmical
reasons. Whatever the reason, it cer-
tainly seems unnecessary to consider
either name a later addition. Though
thou be little among the thousands of
Judah—R. V., ‘‘which art little to be
among....’’ The difference in trans-
lation does not affect the sense. The
thought is not “which art too small,”
for that would require a different con-
struction in Hebrew; besides, Beth-
lehem was one “among the thousands”
of Judah, though it was small and in-
significant when compared with some
other towns. “Thousands” is equiva-
lent to “family” (Judg. vi, 15) in the
broader, technical sense of “clan.”
Though Beth-lehem was an unim-
portant place among the clans of
Judah, out of it is to come one who is
destined to be a ruler in Israel. Unto
me—lIn accord with my will, for the
purpose of carrying it to completion.
Whose goings forth have been [“‘are’’]
from of old, from everlasting—R. V.
margin, ‘from ancient days.” The
last word does not mean eternity in
the now commonly received sense of
that word (see on Joel iii, 20). In
Isa. lxiii, 9, the identical expression,
translated “days of old,” refers to
the early history of Israel (compare
vii, 20); in vii, 14, and Amos ix, 11,
to the time of David. Hence it is
precarious to interpret this passage
as teaching the premundane existence
of the Messiah. It is much more
likely that the prophet is think-
ing here of the descent of the
Messianic king from the dynasty of
David, and that the words refer to
David’s day. Some think that the

 

expression would not be used of a
period less than three centuries in the
past; hence they understand it of the
patriarchal period, meaning that the
pedigree of the Messianic king may be
traced back to patriarchal times, even
to Abraham. If Amos ix, 11, comes
from Amos (see pp. 215ff.) the difficulty
which is responsible for the last-
mentioned view vanishes, for Amos
is even earlier than Micah (compare
also vii, 14). No difficulty is felt by
those who assign the passage to the
postexilic period, for by that time the
interval elapsed had become suffi-
ciently long to warrant the use of the
term in referring to the time of David.
All the interpretations mentioned thus
far assume that “goings forth” is
equivalent to “origin,” and that the
prophet is thinking of the genealogy
of the promised king.

There are those, however, who hold
that “goings forth” does not mean
“origin,” that the prophet is not
thinking of the genealogy of the king,
but that he has in mind the numerous
manifestations of Jehovah in the na~-
tion’s past history. If so, none of the
above interpretations can be correct.
These interpreters take as their start-
ing point Isa. lxiii, 9. Jehovah had,
in the very beginning, selected Israel
for a sublime work. But all the
prophets bewail Israel’s stubbornness,
and they represent Jehovah as inter-
fering, again and again, either in his
own person, or in the person of the
“angel of Jehovah,” or in some other
manner, in order to prepare the nation
for its lofty mission. Of such “goings
forth” the prophets knew; therefore,
these interpreters reason, it is quite
probable that Micah intended to iden-
tify the appearance of the Messianic
king with the “goings forth” of Je-
hovah in the past. “From time in-
conceivable,” says Hoffmann, “the
ruler who will finally proceed from
406

from of old, from ‘everlasting. 3
Therefore will he give them up, until
the time that «she which travaileth

lHeb. the days of eternity.

Beth-lehem has been going forth and
coming; for, since it is he to whom
tends the history of mankind, of Is-
rael, of the Davidic house, all ad-
vances in the same (that is, all sig-
nificant epochs in this history) are
beginnings of his coming, are goings
forth of the second son of Jesse.”
With a New Testament writer such an
identification would be quite natural;
not so with an eighth century prophet.
On the whole, the view that sees here
a reference to the Davidic descent of
the Messianic king is most satisfac-
tory.

The natural continuation of verse 2
is verse 4, where the activity of the
Messianic king is described. Between
the two verses stands one that seeks
to explain the connection between the
present calamity and the future exal-
tation. There may not be conclusive
evidence for denying the verse to
Micah, but there can be no doubt that
it is out of place where it now stands,
and it certainly has some marks of a
later date. It should be removed
from its present position for the fol-
lowing reasons: (1) Verse 4 is the con-
tinuation of verse 2; (2) the subject
of “he will give up” (verse 3) must be
Jehovah, but in verse 2 Jehovah
speaks of himself in the first person,
and in verse 4 the third person refers
to the Messianic king; (3) v, 3, is de-
pendent on iv, 10, but the author of
v, 3, misunderstood iv, 10, by taking
it too literally; (4) the reference to the
“return,” no matter how interpreted,
is strange in this connection. There-
fore—Because such great and blessed
events are coming, the surrender of
Israel to affliction can only be tem-
porary. Until the time that she which
travaileth hath brought forth—That
event will mark the end of the dis-
tress. Undoubtedly a reference to iv,
9, 10, where the distress of Jerusalem
is likened to the anguish of a woman

 

MICAH.

hath brought forth: then the rem-
nant of his brethren shall return
unto the children of Israel.

& Chap. 4. 10.—-» Chap. 4. 7.

in travail. But iv, 10, contains no
thought of Zion herself bringing forth
a child, or being in the anguish of
childbirth; that is a thought added by
the author of this passage. Zion will
bring forth; the child, the author says,
is to be identified with the “ruler” of
verse 2. There is no warrant for
identifying “she which travaileth”
with Mary, the mother of Jesus, as
if this were a direct prediction of the
birth of Jesus. It is not impossible
that the author was acquainted with
Isa. vii, 14.

The birth of the child will mark, on
the one hand, the end of pain and dis-
tress; on the other, the dawn of peace
and prosperity. Then—When the
ruler is born. Shall return—This
might mean that they shall return
from exile, or that they shall return
to Jehovah in obedience and love
(compare Isa. x, 20, 21). The latter
must be meant if verse 3 is in its
original place, for the context knows
nothing of an exile, but the language
is in favor of the other interpretation
(see below for a third meaning). Rem-
nant [‘‘residue’”’] of his brethren—
Those in Zion who escape judgment.
Since the ruler of Zion is the offspring
of Zion, its inhabitants (see on Hos.
ii, 2) are his brothers. Unto the chil-
dren of Israel—If this is the right
translation neither of the above inter-
pretations of ‘‘shall return’ can be
correct; instead, 3b must be under-
stood as promising a reunion of north
and south (see on Hos. i, 11; compare
Isa. xi, 13). R. V. margin suggests a
different translation (compare Jer. iii,
18)—“with the children of Israel”;
that is, the residue of Judah and the
children of Israel shall return to-
gether, either in a spiritual sense or
from the exile. Either translation
gives good sense.

Verse 4 describes the activity of the
new ruler, who is represented, in ac-
CHAPTER V.

407

 

4 And he shall stand and ? ifeed
in the strength of the Lorp, in the
majesty of the name of the Lorp
his God; and they shall abide: for
now ‘shall he be great unto the ends

of the earth. 5 And this man 'shall
be the peace, when the Assyrian
shall come into our land: and when
he shall tread in our palaces, then
shall we raise against him seven

 

2 Or,rule.——i Isa, 40, 11; 49, 10; Ezek.
34, 23; chap. 7. 14.—* Psa. 72. 8; Isa.
52. 138; Zech. 9. 10; Luke 1. 32.

1 Psa, 72. 7; Isa.

9. 6; Zech. 9. 10;
Luke 2. 14; Eph. 2. 14.

 

cord with a common Semitic custom,
as a shepherd shepherding his flock.
Stand—Like a shepherd in the midst
of his flock (Isa. lxi, 5). Feed—Not
only provide nourishment, but in gen-
eral “give a shepherd’s care.” In
the strength of Jehovah—He will be
endowed with strength from Jehovah,
that he may defend his sheep against
wolves and robbers (John x, 11, 12).
In the majesty of the name of Je-
hovah—The name of Jehovah is Je-
hovah in manifestation (see on iv, 5;
Amos ii, 7; compare A. B. Davidson,
The Theology of the Old Testament, pp.
36ff.). The majesty of the name of
Jehovah is the majesty or splendor in
which Jehovah manifests himself
upon earth. The same splendor will
show itself in the activity of the
divinely appointed ruler.

Under this shepherd’s care the peo-
ple will live in peace and felicity.
They—The subjects. Shall abide—
Equivalent to shall abide in peace and
safety; no one can harm them (com-
pare Hos. ii, 18; Isa. ix, 7; xi, 6-9).
Now—Refers not to the time of speak-
ing, but to the time when the shep-
herd will exercise his shepherding
care. Shall he be great unto the ends
of the earth—This may mean that his
power and authority will extend over
the whole earth, but in view of verse
5, which implies that some nations
will rise up against his kingdom, it
is better to understand it as meaning
that his reputation will spread far
and wide, so that other nations will
hesitate to attack his people. If they
should dare to do it he can easily
overthrow them before they can do
any harm.

The first sentence of verse 5 is a
part of this section. And this man
shall be the peace—The promised

 

ruler will be peace personified; from
him it will spread over the whole
promised land, and ultimately the
whole world will be benefited by it
(Eph. ii, 14). The expression ‘‘com-
prehends in one pregnant and blissful
word what the Messiah’s coming signi-
fies for his people and the world gen-
erally.” There may be an allusion to
“Prince of peace” (Isa. ix, 6), a part
of a prophecy delivered in connection
with the Syro-Ephraimitish crisis in
735-734.

Supremacy over Assyria, 5b, 6.

Ultimately war shall be no more
(iv, 3), but hostility on the part of the
foreign nations will not cease imme-
diately upon the appearance of the
Messianic king. However, when a
hostile demonstration is made the peo-
ple need not be afraid, for there will
be a superabundance of leaders to
ward off serious trouble. Assyrian—
A defeat of Assyria is promised in iv,
12, 18, but it will not result in the
destruction of the world power,
which in time will renew its efforts to
subdue the people of God. The out-
come will be the same. Into (or,
against) our land—Does not imply
necessarily a crossing of the borders,
simply an expedition for the purpose
of invasion. Tread in our palaces—
This does presuppose ‘‘domination
over the holy land.” It seems strange,
however, that in one and the same
breath the prophet should promise
peace and safety for the flock (4, 5a)
and, on the other hand, a victory of
the Assyrians that will result in the
occupancy of the palaces in the land
of Israel. No wonder many com-
mentators regard these verses not a
part of the original, but an “after-
thought.” The difficulty vanishes if
408

MICAH.

 

shepherds, and eight *principal men.
6 And they shall waste the land of
Assyria with the sword, and the
land of "Nimrod ‘in the entrances
thereof: thus shall he "deliver us

from the Assyrian, when he cometh | m

into our land, and when he treadeth
within our borders. 7 And cthe

3 Heb. princes of men.—4 Heb. eat up.
—2 Gen. 10. 8 10, 11.—5 Or, with her

remnant of Jacob shall be in the
midst of many people vas a dew
from the Lorp, as the showers up-
on the grass, that tarrieth not for
man, nor waiteth for the sons of

en.
8 And the remnant of Jacob shall
be among the Gentiles in the midst

own naked swords. a Luke 1. 71.—
° Verse 3.—P Deut. 32. 2; Psa. 72. 6; 110.3.

 

 

we follow LXX. and read “borders,”
which presupposes a Hebrew word
very similar to the one translated
“palaces.” Then the whole sentence
will read, ‘when he marches on our
borders” (compare last sentence of
verse 6), and, like the preceding, it
refers to an attempted invasion. The
attempt will fail, because the enemy
will be met by brave heroes, who will
drive him back. Shepherds, . . .
principal men—The last literally,
princes among men. These will be the
leaders of the forces of the Messianic
king. Their relation to the chief
shepherd (verse 4) is not indicated;
undoubtedly they are to be considered
his subordinates (compare Jsa. xxxii,
1). Seven... eight—A specimen of
ascending enumeration (see on Amos
i, 3). “Seven” signifies a perfect num-
ber, “eight” is added to indicate that
there will be even more than enough
leaders.

Under these leaders the enemy will
be driven quickly from the borders,
but they will not be satisfied to re-
main on the defensive; they will as-
sume the offensive and invade the
land of the enemy, Assyria. Waste—
Literally, feed off. It will be left com-
pletely bare. Land of Nimrod—
Though primarily a designation of the
land of Babylonia (Gen. x, 10), it
may be applied to Assyria, for ‘out
of that land he (Nimrod) went forth
into Assyria” (Gen. x, 11). Here may
be the additional thought that the
shepherds will penetrate Assyria even
to the far distant Babylonia. Cheyne
thinks that there is a “special sig-
nificance in the phrase, for a Hebrew
could hardly help connecting Nimrod
with maradh, ‘to rebel.’ In the en-

 

trances thereof—Literally, in the gates
thereof (compare Nah. iii, 13). The
parallelism requires an expression sim-
ilar to “with the sword.” Vulgate
reads “with his lances”; A. V. mar-
gin, “with her own naked swords”;
but in this rendering it is difficult to
determine the antecedent of “her,’’
and it is exceedingly doubtful that the
Hebrew warrants the translation
“naked swords.” A very slight change
would give “with drawn swords”
(compare Psa. lv, 21, where the same
word is used). For the latter part of
verse 6 see on verse 5.

The restored nation’s attitude toward
other peoples, 7-9.

Verses 7-9 give another glimpse of
the future. The prophet pictures two
phases of the remnant’s relation to
others nations. To some it will dis-
pense blessings and power, to others
terror and destruction. The nations
that are sensitive and submit to the
moral and religious influences going
forth from the remnant, will be re-
freshed and blessed; those who oppose
the benign influences will be trodden
down and torn (compare Isa. viii, 14;
Luke ii, 34).

7, 8. The remnant of Jacob—See on
verse 3. Dew . . . showers—The
tertium comparationis is not “the
mysterious origin of the dew and
rain,” or “the countless number of
the dewdrops,” but the refreshing and
vitalizing power. ‘Israel will come
upon many nations like a refreshing
dew from Jehovah, which falls plenti-
fully in drops upon the grass, and will
produce and promote new and vigor-
ous life among them” (compare iv,
1-3). Tarrieth not... nor waiteth
CHAPTER V.

409

 

of many people as a lion among the
beasts of the forest, as a young lion
among the flocks of ‘sheep: who, if
he go through, both treadeth down,
and teareth in pieces, and none can
deliver. 9 Thine hand shall be lift-
ed u ) upon thine adversaries, and
all thine enemies shall be cut off.

10 «And it shall come to pass in that
day, saith the Lorp, that I will cut
off thy horses out of the midst of
thee, and I will donee thy chariots:
11 And I will cut off the cities of
thy land, and throw down all thy
strong holds: 12 And I will cut off
witchcrafts out of thine hand; and

 

® Or, goats,

4 Zech. 9. 10.

 

—tThe falling of the rain and dew is
neither helped nor hindered by man,
for the processes of nature go on
while man slumbers; in the same way
the vitalizing influences will proceed
from the remnant no matter what the
attitude of anyone. But this does not
mean that the attitude of those in-
volved has nothing to do with the
participation or nonparticipation in
these blessings. The destiny and
mission of Israel cannot be affected
by the hostility or friendship of the
nations in whose midst it labors, but
the destiny of these nations will be
determined thereby. The friendly
will be refreshed, but, verse 8 con-
tinues, the hostile will be devoured
by the remnant, as beasts of the for-
est or sheep are devoured by a fero-
cious lion. None can deliver [there
is none to deliver” }~Nothing or no
one can resist successfully the power
of the remnant.

In verse 9 the prophet addresses a
word of encouragement or blessing to
the remnant marching forth to sub-
due its enemies. If this is the mean-
ing of the verse, R. V. is to be pre-
ferred: ‘Let thine hand be lifted up
above thine adversaries, and let all
thine enemies be cut off.” An even
better rendering would be, “May...
be lifted up, may . . be cut off,” that
is, May you be completely successful
in the task appointed to you by Je-
hovah. ‘May thy hand be lifted up
above” is equivalent to “mayest thou
triumph over.” . Others interpret
verse 9 as expressing the conviction
of the prophet that the victory prom-
ised will surely be won. Then A. V.
is to be preferred, “Thine hand shall
indeed be lifted up,”

 

Jehovah’s achievements on behalf of the
redeemed remnant, 10-15.

10, 11. The passing away of human
defenses. From the relation of the
remnant to the nations without the
prophet turns to the perfecting of the
kingdom of God within. In that day
—The day of triumph pictured in
verses 8, 9. The wonderful experi-
ences of the people will convince
them that Jehovah is their real helper,
not the chariots and horses in which
they were putting their trust in
Micah’s day (compare Isa. ii, 7;
xxx, 16; xxxi, 1); hence they will
turn to him in confidence and faith.
As a result all human defenses may
be destroyed (compare Hos. viii, 14;
Isa. ix, 4ff.; xi, 1ff.; Ezek. xxxviii, 11)
Should any foreign nations dare to
rise against the people of Jehovah,
he himself will smite them.

12. Witcherafts and soothsayers
will be removed. Witchcrafts—That
witchcrafts were practiced in Judah
in Micah’s age is stated also by Isaiah
(ii, 6; viii, 19), but what was their
precise nature cannot be determined,
though necromancy seems to have
played an important part (Isa. viii,
19). Some think that the expression
“out of thine hand” limits the proph-
et’s implied condemnation to such
“arts” as were performed with the
hand. However, this is doubtful,
since “out of thine hand” is equiva-
lent to “from you” (compare ii, 1,
‘Gn the power of their hand,” equiva-
lent to “in their power’’; compare also
Isa. i, 12). The term used here is
a general term denoting black arts
and practices of every sort. Sooth-
sayers—This also is a general term,
denoting the persons who practice
410

thou shalt have no more'soothsayers:
13 ‘Thy graven images also will I
cut off, and thy ‘standing images
out of the midst of thee; and
thou shalt tno more worship the
work of thine hands. 14 And I

rIsa, 2. 6.—=* Zech. 13. 2.—~7 Or,
statues.—t Isa. 2. 8.

the “‘witchcrafts” mentioned in 12a.
The Hebrew word seems to be a
derivative from a noun meaning
“cloud”; hence it may denote pri-
marily persons who professed to read
a hidden meaning in the movements
of the clouds.

13, 14. Idolatry also will come to
an end. Of objects connected with
the idolatrous cult three are men-
tioned: graven images, pillars, and
the Asherim. :

Graven images—Images made of
stone (i, 7) or wood (Deut. vii, 5);
sometimes the term appears to refer
to images of the deity in general (Isa.
xlii, 8). The attitude of the Old Tes-
tament toward these images is one of
intense hostility (Hos. viii, 5, 6; x,
5; Deut. vii, 5, etc.). Standing
images—Better, R. V., ‘‘pillars’’;
Heb. massébhah. The word is used
almost exclusively of a “pillar” con-
nected with the religious cult. It
denotes the upright stone or pillar
which seems to have been a regular
accompaniment of Hebrew  sanc-
tuaries during the preéxilic period
Its origin must probably be sought in
an earlier stage of Semitic religion,
when sacred stones were objects of
worship, because it was thought that
the deity inhabited the stones or was
in some way attached to them. A
crude, material symbolism of this
sort would inevitably retard the
progress toward the highest spiritual
conception of the nature of Jehovah;
hence the Book of Deuteronomy (vii,
5; xii, 3; xvi, 22) condemns these pil-
lars mercilessly. The eighth century
prophets were not quite so severe;
in fact, Isaiah (xix, 19) seems to re-
gard the pillar a legitimate element
in Jehovah worship. Groves—Bet-
ter, R. V., “Asherim.” As the “‘pil-

 

MICAH.

will pluck up thy groves out of the
midst of thee: so will I destroy
thy 8cities. 15 And I will texe-
cute vengeance in anger and fury
upon the heathen, such as they have
not heard.

8 Or, enemtes.— Verse 8; Psa. 149. 7;
2 Thess. 1. 8.

lar” points back to primitive stone
worship, so the “‘Asherim” appear to
be a relic of primitive tree worship.
The Asherah (singular) was a repre-
sentation of the sacred tree where a
living tree was not available; the
use of the plural implies the existence
of whole groves of such sacred trees
or of artificial poles. “From a survey
of all the passages in which the word
is used it appears that the Asherah
was a post or a pole, planted in the
ground, like an English Maypole, be-
side an altar, ... and venerated as a
sacred symbol” (Driver). Remnants
of ancient tree worship are still seen
in Palestine (compare Curtiss, Primi-
tive Semitic Religions Today, pp. 90ff.).
The Old Testament attitude toward
the Asherim is one of hostility; there
is no passage corresponding to Isa. xix,
19. So will I destroy thy cities—A
similar threat is made in verse 11,
where it is quite natural; not so here.
Some suggest that the word should
be rendered ‘adversaries’ (margin,
R. V. “enemies’’), giving to it a mean-
ing which it has in Aramaic, or to
change one letter, which would give
the corresponding Hebrew word. If
this is done the expression would
pave the way for verse 15. But one
would expect rather another reference
to idolatry; for this reason many
change the word so as to read “thy
idols” (compare 2 Chron. xxiv, 18,
“the Asherim and the idols”).

15. The prophecy closes with a
threat of vengeance. Vengeance—
The references to the divine vengeance
must be understood like those to the
divine jealousy (see on Joel ii, 18).
The resentment of Jehovah is aroused
by the hostile attitude of the nations
toward the “remnant”? so dear to
him. The greater the hostility, the
CHAPTER V.

411

 

intenser the resentment; the limit of
his patience has now -been reached,
and he will blot out the enemies of
his people forever. Such as they have
not heard—The blow will be more
terrible than anything they have ever
experienced or heard. R. V. follows
more closely the original in 15b and
translates “the nations which heark-
ened not,” that is, the nations which
did not respond to the beneficent
influence of the remnant (verse 8).

Chapter v does not reveal the same
abrupt transitions that are seen in
chapter iv. A break seems to occur
between verse 9 and verse 10, and
yet verses 10-15 are in a real sense a
continuation of the description of the
Messianic age; there certainly is noth-
ing in them to militate seriously
against the authorship of Micah.
Hence, in discussing the fulfillment
of the prophecy, the entire chapter
may be considered as one piece, set-
ting forth the birth and reign of the
ideal king and the conditions result-
ing from his reign both within and
without the nation. So far as the pre-
dictions concerning the conditions are
concerned, thestatements made in con-
nection with iv, 1-5 (pp. 398ff.), may
be repeated. They have not yet been
fulfilled; literally they will probably
never be fulfilled; in essence and
spirit they will be fulfilled when the
entire human race has had an op-
portunity to decide for or against
Jesus the Messiah.

A few words need to be said, how-
ever, concerning the fulfillment of the
more personal predictions, those point-
ing to the advent, place of birth, and
reign of the Messianic king. That
these predictions received their ulti-
mate and highest fulfillment in Jesus
is believed by all Christians. But
this still leaves open the question
whether the prophet, when uttering
these words, actually had in mind the
person, birth, and work of Jesus.
The answer to this question must be
determined by a careful interpreta~
tion of the utterances in the light of
their contexts. If we take into con-

 

sideration the statements concerning
some of the things to be accomplished
subsequent to the coming of the ideal
ruler, it will be seen how difficult it is
to maintain that the primary reference
is to Jesus. Verses 5, 6, for example,
make it clear that Micah expected the
king to arise before the downfall of
the Assyrian world power, and that
one of the great achievements of his
reign would be the deliverance from
this long-time enemy. Micah was
firmly convinced, as a result of his
intimate communion and fellowship
with Jehovah, that a deliverer, who
would establish the kingdom of God
upon earth, would come, and, like
other prophets, he expected him to
come from the dynasty of David; but
his thoughts as to when he would
come, who he would be, where he
would be born, how he would work
out his great purpose, were influenced
by the course of events in his own
day. All prophecy, Messianic proph-
ecy included, was intended to have a
profound significance for the prophets’
contemporaries, and it is a convincing
evidence of their close walk with God,
or, in other words, of prophetic in-
spiration, that in the midst of dark-
ness and apparent hopelessness these
ancient saints should give utterance
to such sublime expressions of faith.
Micah may not have foreseen the In-
carnation, but he did foresee the es-
tablishment of the kingdom of God
upon earth; he may not have known
the time when the salvation of the
Lord would appear, but he knew that
it would appear. Now Assyria might
seem invincible, nevertheless Assyria
must fall and Zion must triumph.
Assyria did fall, but Zion did not
triumph immediately; Chaldea took
the place of the former, and oppres-
sion and distress continued. Many
lost hope, but the prophets of God,
in sublime faith, rose above the de-
spair of the present and continued to
revel in the glories of the future.
Descendants of David sat upon the
throne, some noble and true; around
some of these centered anew the hopes
412

MICAH.

 

CHAPTER, VI.
| I EAR ye now what the Lorp
saith; Arise, contend thou 'be-
fore the mountains, and let the

hills hear thy voice. 2 +Hear ye, O
mountains, >the Lorp’s contro-
versy, and ye strong foundations of
the earth: for ‘the Logp hath a con-

 

 

3 Or, with.
4; Isa. 1. 2.

* Deut, 32. 1; Psa. 50. 1,

b Hos. 12. 2. e¢ Isa. 1. 18; 5. 3,4; 48.

26; Hos. 4. 1.

 

 

of the prophets, but not one met the
expectations of the men of God until
Jesus, the Christ, fulfilled them in a
manner more sublime and spiritual
than even the greatest of the prophets
had hoped for. Thus, while primarily
the prophecy in v, 2ff., does not refer
to Jesus the Messiah, it does refer to a
Messiah, and in the history of the past
nineteen centuries Christians find
complete justification for their belief
that this and similar predictions found
their fulfillment in the coming and
work of Jesus the Christ.

The direct mention of Beth-lehem
as the birthplace of the ideal ruler in
no way affects this interpretation.
The prophets expected the Messianic
king to spring from the dynasty of
David, and, in addition to this, they
were convinced that in influence and
power he would be a second David.
For this reason Isaiah says ‘‘of the
stock of Jesse” rather than “of the
stock of David,” and for the same
reason Micah names as his birthplace
Beth-lehem, the native town of David,
rather than Jerusalem, where the suc-
cessors of David were born. Such a
promise would awaken memories of
David, and would be suggestive of
the character and splendor of his
reign. A prediction similar in char-
acter is that in Isa. ix, 1ff, which
promises special blessings to the ter-
ritory north of the Plain of Esdraelon,
because these districts had suffered
most severely in the prophet’s day,
a prediction which received a new
significance when Jesus proclaimed
his gospel first in Galilee (Matt. iv,
13ff.).

CHAPTER VI.

JEHOVAH AND IsRArL IN CONTROVERSY
—Tue Uttimatre SETTiEeMent, vi,
1-vii, 20.

With vi, 1, begins a new series of

 

utterances. The contents and ar-
rangement are essentially the same
as in the preceding sections, denuncia-
tion of sin, announcement of judg-
ment, promise of the redemption and
glorification of a remnant.

Jehovah's complaint, 1-8.

In these verses the prophet pic-
tures, in dramatic form, a judicial
contest between Jehovah and his peo-
ple. Jehovah himself presents the ac-
cusation. He calls attention to the
countless blessings bestowed upon the
nation during its past history, and
complains that his loving care has
been met with basest ingratitude (1-
5). Against this accusation the peo-
ple seek to defend themselves by ex-
pressing their willingness to do any-
thing to win the divine favor. If they
have fallen short it is due to their
ignorance of the real requirements of
Jehovah (6,7). To this plea the reply
is made that ignorance is inexcusable,
since the demands of Jehovah have
been made known again and again (8).

1. Hear ye—The accused people.
Arise, contend—The prophet acts as
go-between. He summons the crim.
inals to appear in court, hear the in-
dictment, and plead their case. Be-
fore the mountains, .. hills—This is
undoubtedly the meaning, but the
original reads “with,” and a slight
alteration may be necessary. The
controversy is to take place in the
presence of the mountains and hills
as the “abiding witnesses of all pass-,
ing events from age to age.”

2. Hear ye, O mountains—In verse 2
the prophet turns to the mountains to
tell them what is coming, in order that
they may know what is expected of
them. Strong [“enduring’’] foundations
of the earth —Identical in meaning with
“mountains” (compare Jonah ii, 6).
They have endured for ages, and they
CHAPTER VI.

413

 

troversy with his people, and he
will plead with Israel. 3 O my
people, ‘what have I done unto
thee? and wherein have I wearied
thee? Sa against me. 4 °For
I brought thee up out of the land
of Egypt, and redeemed thee out

of the house of servants; and I sent
before thee Moses, Aaron, and Miri-
am. 6 O my _ people, remember
now what ‘Bal: king of Moab
consulted, and what Balaam the
son of Beor answered him from
eShittim unto Gilgal; that ye may

 

dJer. 2. 5, 31.—¢ Exod. 12, 51;
30; 20. 2; Deut. 4. 20; Amos 2.
f{Num. 22. 5; 23.7; 24. 10, 11;

14,
10.—
Deut.

23. 4, 5; 14.
Num.
0.

Josh. 24. 9, 10; Rev. 2.
2 19;

5. 1; 33. 49; Josh. 4.

 

have seen the manifestations of the
divine mercy and of the people’s in-
gratitude; therefore they may be sum-
moned as competent witnesses. Be-
cause the Hebrew construction is
peculiar and the word translated
“strong” is used elsewhere only of
perennial streams, some scholars sus-
pect a corruption of the text. A very
simple change would give the verb
form “give ear,”’ which would be a
suitable parallel to “hear.” In favor
of the emendation is the fact that the
two verbs are found together very fre-
quently. If the change is made the
appeal reads, ‘Hear, O ye mountains
. .. give ear, ye foundations of the
earth” (compare Isa. i, 2; Deut. xxxii,
1). His people—The pronoun is sig-
nificant in this connection, suggesting,
on the one hand, the right of Jehovah
to call to account (compare Isa. iii,
13-15) ; on the other, the special privi-
leges enjoyed by Israel (Amos iii, 12).

In verses 3-5-Jehovah presents the
indictment. Israel has proved un-
grateful, though one look into the
past should have been sufficient to
awaken an appreciative response to
the divine mercy. The fact of in-
gratitude is not definitely stated, but
is clearly implied in the complaint of
Jehovah. His plea is truly pathetic,
“full of holy earnestness and of heart-
touching tenderness.” My people—
In spite of their ingratitude he recog-
nizes them as his own. What have I
done . . . wearied—Could they point
to anything which God had done or
left undone that could excuse their
attitude toward him? He might have
made them weary of serving him
either by making excessive demands
upon them (compare verses 6-8; Isa.

 

xliii, 23) or by failing to keep the
promises made to them (compare Jer.
ii, 29). Jehovah knew that no fault
could be found with him; for, far from
making excessive demands, he had
showered upon them blessings with-
out number. Of these, verses 4, 5
enumerate three: the deliverance from
Egypt, the guidance through the des-
ert, the crossing of the Jordan in
safety. House of servants—R. V., ‘‘of
bondage,” an expression frequently
applied to Egypt (Exod. xiii, 3, 14;
Deut. v, 6; Jer. xxxiv, 13). I sent be-
fore thee—To be thy leaders (Psa.
Ixxvii, 20) Moses—The prophet with
whom Jehovah spake face to face
(Num. xii, 8). Aaron—The spokes-
man of Moses, and thus also a media-
tor between Jehovah and the people
(Exod. iv, 16). Miriam—tThe sister of
the two, and the leader of the
triumphal dance after the crossing of
the Red Sea (Exod. xv, 20). The
mere mention of the names, undoubt-
edly familiar to all, would awaken
memories of wonderful manifesta-
tions of Jehovah on behalf of his peo-
ple (compare also Amos ii, 9ff.). The
second illustration is the frustration
of Balak’s plan to cut off Israel, which
is recorded in Num. xxii-xxiv; Je-
hovah turned curses into blessings.
From Shittim unto Gilgal—The gram-
matical connection of these words is
somewhat obscure. However, R. V.
is probably correct in rendering “re-
member from Shittim to Gilgal,” and
the thought is, “remember everything
that happened from the time you
left Shittim, the last station of the
Israelites east of the Jordan, until
you reached Gilgal, the first stopping
place in Canaan.” During this period
 

414 MICAH.
know the righteousness of the| calves 2of a year old? 7 ‘Will the
Lorp. Lorp be pleased with thousands of

6 Wherewith shall I come before
the Lorp, and bow myself before
the high God? shall I come before
him with burnt offerings, with

h Judg. 5. 11.—2 Heb. sons of a year?
——' Psa. 50. 9; 51. 16; Isa. 1. 11.—* Job

the most important event was the
crossing of the Jordan, which is prob-
ably in the mind of the prophet.
There seems to be insufficient reason
for rejecting the words as a later gloss,
or for supposing that some words have
dropped out. That ye may know the
righteousness [“righteous acts’’] of Je-
hovah—They are to remember the
events in their early history, for from
them they may see that Jehovah has
not been unfair but righteous, and that
there is no cause for complaint; and
this recognition should produce a
grateful appreciation.

In verses 6, 7 the people are the
speakers. They do not deny the
truth of the accusation implied in
verses 3-5; apparently they are ready
to admit their shortcomings, but in
self-defense they plead ignorance of
the real requirements of Jehovah. If
they only knew, they would be willing
to take upon themselves the severest
tasks, in order to atone for their guilt
and to appease the divine wrath.
Wherewith shall I come... bow my-
self—After listening to the severe ar-
raignment they feel the need of pros-
trating themselves humbly before Je-
hovah, and of taking some steps to
regain the divine favor. At a time
when sacrifices played such an im-
portant part in the religious thinking
of the people, it is only natural that
they should think of these as the
proper means by which to propitiate
the offended deity. Burnt offerings,
. +. calves of a year old—The two ex-
pressions belong closely together,
burnt offerings consisting of calves a
year old. On burnt offerings see com-
ments on Hos. vi, 6. Calves a year
old were commonly used for sac-

rificial purposes (Lev. ix, 3), though]...

younger calves might be used.

 

rams, or with ten thousands of
rivers of oil? \shall I give my first-
born for my transgression, the fruit
of my *body for the sin of my soul?

29. 6.——! 2 Kings 16. 3; 21. 6;_ 23.10; Jer.
7. 81; 19. 5; Ezek. 23. 37.-—3 Heb. belly.

If the ordinary offerings are not
sufficient they are ready to present ex-
traordinary gifts. Thousands of rams,
... ten thousands of rivers of oil—The
numbers are not to be understood lit-
erally; they signify great, unlimited
numbers. ‘‘As sin assumes a thousand
forms, far exceeding the limit of ex-
piation by legal methods, the question
arises, whether Jehovah’s favor can
be gained by greatly multiplied sac-
rifices, by thousands of rams or myr-
iads of streams of oil.” The ram
was a common sacrificial animal. Oil,
so far as we can learn from the de-
scription of the ritual in the Old Tes-
tament was not offered independently ;
but in connection with other of-
ferings large quantities must have
been consumed. It is possible that at
an earlier period the use of oil played
a more important part in the re-
ligious cult.

If this is insufficient they are ready
to sacrifice their most precious posses-
sions, even their own children. First-
born . . . fruit of my. body—Human
sacrifice was practiced among Israel’s
neighbors (2 Kings iii, 27); the
sacrifice of Isaac (Gen. xxii) and that
of Jephthah’s daughter (Judg. xi,
34ff.) may indicate that in the earliest
times it was practiced even among the
Hebrews without: serious scruples, but
at a later time the custom received the
severest condemnation (2 Kings xvi,
3; xxi, 6; Jer. vii, 31; Ezek. xx, 26).
Human sacrifice was offered only as
a last resort, when everything else
seemed to fail; and this is the thought
here: if everything else fails they are
willing to offer their own children;
surely, such sacrifice should move Je-
hovah to compassion. Transgression,
sin—The two words, which are
synonyms here, are used in the sense
CHAPTER VI.

415

 

8 He hath »showed thee, O man,
what is good; and what doth the
Lorp require of thee, but "to do
justly, and to love mercy, and

to ¢walk humbly with thy God?
9 The Lorp’s voice crieth unto
the city, and %the man of wis-
dom shall see thy name: hear ye

 

m Deut. 10. 12; 1 Sam. 19. 22; Hos. 6.
6; 12. 6. 2 Gen. 18. 19; Isa. 1. 17.—

 

4Heb. humble thyself to walk.—5 Or,
thy name shall see that whtch is.

 

of “expiation of transgression, .. .
of sin’; and the two questions, which
are identical in meaning, might be
rendered, “Shall I give my firstborn
as an expiation of my transgression,
the fruit of my body as an expiation
of the sin of my soul?”

Verse 8 has been called “‘the great-
est verse in the Old Testament.” The
questions in verses 6, 7 make it clear
that the people did not understand
the true character and requirements
of Jehovah. They thought that the
painstaking observance of the cere-
monial and the perfunctory bringing
of sacrifices constituted true religion.
Their ignorance was, indeed, great,
but it was inexcusable, for Jehovah
had made known again and again what
was acceptable in his sight (Amos v,
21ff.; Isa. i, 11-17; Hos. vi, 6). He
hath showed thee—Through Moses,
the prophets, the Nazirites, and other
teachers (Amos ii, 11). What is good
—A holy and righteous God can take
pleasure only in that which is good,
and this he requires of them. The es-
sential elements of goodness are
pointed out in a few words. Do justly
—Live according to the principles of
righteousness and equity (see on Amos
v, 7). Love mercy [“kindness’’?}—
Practice diligently the principles of
kindness and brotherliness (see on
Hos. ii, 19). This is a distinct ad-
vance over the preceding. Obedience
to these two exhortations implies the
keeping of the commandments in the
second part of the Decalogue. The
former of these is emphasized re-
peatedly by Amos (for example, v,
24), the latter by Hosea (for example,
vi, 6). But Israel was doing the very
opposite; on every hand was to be
seen cruelty, injustice, oppression (ii,
1, 2, 8; iii, 2, 3, 9, etc.). Micah em-
phasizes a third requirement, which is
a correlative of the majesty and holi-

 

ness of Jehovah taught by Isaiah, and
the proper observance of which meets
the requirements in the first part of
the Decalogue: Walk humbly with thy
God—A humble walk with God is “a
life of fellowship with God implying an
identity of will and purpose, but fel-
lowship conditioned by that spirit of
humility which must ever govern the
intercourse of weak and sinful man
with a perfect and infinite God”’ (com-
pare Deut. x, 12, 13).

In these few words is expressed
more clearly than anywhere else in the
eighth century prophecies the startling
contrast between the popular re-
ligion and the religion of the prophets.

Indignant denunciation of prevalent
crimes, 9-16.

Verse 9 is the introduction, sum-
moning the listeners to pay earnest
heed to the words about to be uttered.
Jehovah’s voice—It is not a fault-
finding prophet, but Jehovah himself,
who brings the accusation. The city
—Jerusalem. The man of wisdom
shall see thy name—Literally, wisdom
will see thy name. If translated thus
the meaning is obscure. Keil and
others take ‘‘thy name” as subject and
“wisdom” as object, and render, “Thy
name sees wisdom,” that is, has the
true wisdom of life in view. On name
see on v, 4. Even if the meaning
“have in view” could be established
for the verb “see” by passages like
Gen. xx, 10, and Psa. lxvi, 18, this
translation would be improbable,
since the thought expressed is foreign
to the context. It is much better
to follow the ancient versions and
read “fear” (compare R. V. margin)
The result is “wisdom fears thy
name,’ or, better, “let wisdom fear
thy name,” or even, “it is wisdom to
fear thy name.” Since the pronoun
of the second person is peculiar in this
416
bbe rod, and who hath appointed
i

10 *Are there yet the treasures of
wickedness in the house of the wick-
ed, and the ‘scant measure that is
abominable? 11 %Shall I count them
pure with rthe wicked balances, and

6 Or, Is there yet unto every man an
house of the wtcked, etc.—7 Heb. measure
of leanness, Amos 8. 5. © Deut. 25. 13-

 

 

connection, it may be best to follow
LXX. also in reading “his name.”
“When Jehovah’s voice sounds so
threatening and his rod is already
buzzing near it is prudent to fear his
name and to hear what is said in his
name.” Another meaning of the
word translated ‘“‘wisdom”’ is “safety,”
but the thought is not affected if it is
substituted for the former. Hear ye
the rod—The prophecy concerning the
rod; the judgment about to fall. Who
hath appointed it—Hear the voice of
Him who has ordained the judgment,
Jehovah. 9b is altered by many com-
mentators on the basis of LXX. so as
to read, “Hear ye, O tribe and council
of the city.”

The words of denunciation begin
with verse 10. The causes of the judg-
ment are stated first. This is done
in the form of questions, which are to
arouse the attention and the con-
sciences of the hearers. The sins con-
demned are the same as those named
by the other eighth century prophets.
Treasures of wickedness—The exhor-
tations and denunciations of the past
have wrought no change for the bet-
ter; the oppressors still continue their
violence and robbery; they acquire
treasures by wicked means, and thus
they keep alive the wrath of Jehovah.
Scant measure—Literally, ephah of
leanness. They cheat the buyer by us-
ing small measures (see on Amos viii, 5;
Hos.iii, 2; compare Deut. xxiv, 14,15).

11. Shall I count them pure—This
is an impossible rendering of the He-
brew, but it is supported by Vulgate;
the Hebrew reads, ‘‘Shall I be pure?”
If this is original, the people must be
the speaker; but a change in speakers
is out of place here. LXX. retains

 

MICAH.

with the bag of deceitful weights?
12 For the rich men thereof are full
of violence, and the inhabitants
thereof have spoken lies, and atheir
tongue is deceitful in their mouth.
13 Therefore also will I make thee
sick in smiting thee, in making thee

16; Prov. 11. 1; 20. 10, 23.8 Or, Shall I
be pure with, etc.—-P Hos. 12. 7.4 Jer. 9.
3, 5, 6, 8. r Lev. 26. 16; Psa. 107. 17, 18.

 

Jehovah as the speaker, and reads,
“Can it (Jerusalem) be pure?” The
LXX. and Vulgate readings require
only slight alterations in the Hebrew,
and either is preferable to the present
text. Wicked balances, ... deceitful
weights—See on Amos viii, 5. No
one who practices fraud or deceit can
expect to be acquitted in the court of
Jehovah.

Verse 12 continues the description
of wrongdoing (compare Hos. iv, 1ff.).
Thereof—Of Jerusalem. Full of vio-
lence—See on ii, 1, 2, 8; iii, 2, 3, 9.
Lies—Toward God and man. De-
ceitful—Literally, deceit. The noun
is used in the place of the adjective
for the sake of emphasis (G.-K., 141¢);
the tongue does nothing but deceive.

Verses 13-15 announce the judg-
ment. Thee—The masculine pronoun
which is used in these verses cannot
refer to the city. If the alteration
suggested in connection with 9b is
accepted the masculine pronoun may
be explained as referring to “tribe,”
a masculine noun; otherwise we must
suppose that the prophet uses the
masculine form because he has in
mind the people of the city rather
than the city itself. Smiting [“have
smitten”} If the text is correct this
is the so-called prophetic perfect. The
punishment is still in the future, but
it is so certain that the prophet de-
scribes it as already present. I also—
Better, Jon my part. With a grievous
wound—An incurable wound (Nah.
iii, 19). The construction of the He-
brew is somewhat unusual. A slight
alteration, supported by LXX., would
give, “therefore I on my part have
begun to smite thee, to make thee
desolate because of thy sins.”
CHAPTER VI.

417

 

desolate because of thy sins. 14
*Thou shalt eat, but not be satisfied;
and thy casting down shall be in the
midst of thee; and thou shalt take
hold, but shalt not deliver; and that
which thou deliverest will I give up

to the sword. 15 Thou shalt ‘sow,
but thou shalt not reap; thou shalt
tread the olives, but thou shalt not
anoint thee with oil; and sweet
wine, but shalt not drink wine.

16 For °the statutes of Omri are

 

® Lev. 26. 26; Hos. 4. 10.—+ Deut. 28.
38-40; Amos 5. 11; Zeph. 1. 13; Hag. 1:

6.—¥* Or, he doth much keep the, etc.—
u1 Kings 16. 25, 26.

 

Verses 14, 15 describe the judgment
in greater detail; the prophet evi-
dently thinks of a foreign nation as
the divinely appointed executioner
(Amos v, 11; Deut. xxviii, 39, 40).
Thou shalt eat, but not be satisfied—
The enemy will overrun the land and
devastate it; as a result starvation will
threaten the people. The meaning of
the next clause is uncertain. Thy
casting down shall be in the midst of
thee—In the midst of the people. The
word translated “casting down” (R.
V., “humiliation”) occurs only here;
hence its exact meaning is more or
less uncertain. Some give to it the
meaning “emptiness,” that is, of the
stomach (so R. V. margin). With this
translation the thought becomes
clearer, for it would simply be a repe-
tition of that expressed in the pre-
ceding clause; or else the second might
be understood as a circumstantial
clause, “Thou shalt eat but not be
satisfied, while starvation shall be in
the midst of thee.’ LXX., taking the
word from a different root, renders ‘‘it
will be dark.” Shalt take hold—Bet-
ter, R. V., “shalt put away.” On the
approach of the enemy they will has-
ten to hide their families and posses-
sions, but the enemy will be too quick
for them; they will not bring them to
a place of safety; if, by chance, they
should succeed in saving anything, it
will fall into the hands of the enemy
to be devoured by the sword (com-
pare Isa. v, 29; Jer. 1, 37). Sow, .
reap—The enemy will consume or de-
stroy also the growing crops in fields
and vineyards. Tread the olives—See
on Joel i, 10; ii, 24. Thomson says
that, so far as he knows, olives are not
trodden with the feet in modern times,
“and it could only be done when the
olives have been kept until they are

 

very soft” (The Land and the Book, i,
524). Marti omits “thy casting down”
and connects “in the midst of thee”
differently; then he rearranges the
clauses, and thus he secures what is
undoubtedly a smoother reading. Fol-
lowing verse 13 he reads, “‘Whatever
is in the midst of thee thou mayest
put away, thou shalt not save it; and
that which thou savest will I give up
to the sword. Thou shalt eat but not
be satisfied; thou shalt sow... .”
Verse 16 sums up the sin and pun-
ishment of the people. The statutes
of Omri are kept—This is perhaps the
best that can be done with the present
Hebrew text, but the context and
among the ancient versions LX X. and
Peshitto suggest a slight change, so
that it will read ‘“‘thou didst keep,”
and this is probably the original. The
reign of Omri, one of the greatest
kings of the northern kingdom, is
passed over very briefly in 1 Kings
xvi, 21-28, but the statement is made
that he dealt more wickedly than any
king that went before him. The words
of Micah are not to be understood as
meaning that Omri actually made
statutes enjoining wrongdoing, or that
the people followed such statutes, but
that they followed his example which
exerted as much influence upon their
conduct as written law could have
done. ‘All the works of the house of
Ahab” is similar in meaning to “stat-
utes of Omri.” Ahab was condemned
by his great contemporary Elijah for
two reasons: (1) He tolerated and
even encouraged the worship of Baal
(1 Kings xvi, 31, 32); (2) he oppressed
the poor and robbed them of their an-
cestral holdings (1 Kings xxi). Micah
has little to say about idolatry; it is
rather oppression, violence, injustice,
that he condemns. Hence “statutes
418

xkept, and all the works of the house
of yAhab, and ye walk in their coun-
sels; that Ishould make thee ‘a !°de-
solation, and the inhabitants there-
of an hissing: therefore ye shall bear
the *reproach of my people.

 

x Hos. 5. 11.—y1 Kings 16. 30, etc.;
21. 25,26; 2 Kings 21. 3. 21 Kings 9. 8;
Jer. 19. 8.—10 Or, astonishment. Isa.

 

 

of Omri” and “ways of the house of
Ahab” are to be understood as re-
ferring not so much to religious apos-
tasy as to the conduct of these kings
illustrated in Ahab’s dealings with
Naboth. Ye walk—The change to the
plural, here and in the last clause of
the verse, is peculiar. If the plural
is original it may be used to indicate
that the individuals in the com-
munity are singled out and addressed
personally; it is not impossible, how-
ever, that the change is due to the
mistake of a copyist. In their coun-
sels—As expressed in their conduct.
From the sin the prophet turns to
the judgment. That I should make—
They might have known better, and
did know better; nevertheless they
persisted in their iniquity, challenging,
by their very conduct, Jehovah to do
his worst (see on Amos ii, 7). Of the
three pronouns, “thee,” “thereof”
(of it), “ye,” two are masculine in the
original, one is feminine; two are
singular, one is plural. It will be
necessary, therefore, to distinguish
between the persons addressed: “‘thee”’
refers to the nation (see on verse 13);
“thereof” to Jerusalem or, some think
with less probability, to “desolation”
—desolated land; “ye” to the indi-
viduals constituting the nation (see
above). This seems a satisfactory ex-
planation; others, however, alter the
text so as to bring the pronouns in
agreement with one another. Deso-
lation—While this is one meaning of
the word, in parallelism with “hissing”’
the meaning suggested in the margin,
“astonishment,” is to be preferred, or
still better, “object of astonishment”’
or “of horror” (compare Deut. xxviii,
37; Jer. xxv, 9; li, 37). Hissing—An
object of hissing or derision. The re-

 

MICAH.

CHAPTER VII.
OE is me! for I am as 'when
they have gathered the sum-
mer fruits, as *the grape gleanings
of the vintage: there is no cluster to
eat: my soul desired the firstripe

 

25, 8: Jer. 51. 51; Lam. 5. 1.—1! Heb. the
gatherings of summer.—# Isa. 17. 6; 24.
13.—>» Isa. 28. 4; Hos. 9. 10.

 

 

proach of my people—The reproach
which Israel, the chosen people of
Jehovah, must bear when the heathen
nations will triumph over it; for such
a triumph will be to the conquerors
a clear proof of Jehovah’s inability or
unwillingness to help. LXX. reads,
“the reproach of the nations,” that is,
the reproach brought upon Israel by
the surrounding nations. The latter
may be the original reading (see on
Joel ii, 17).

CHAPTER VII.

HoPELESSNESS OF THE NaTIon’s Con-
DITION, 1-6.

Scholars are not agreed on the per-
son of the speaker in these verses;
some think of the prophet, some of
Zion, some of the “true Israel,” that
is, Israel after the spirit. If there is
any connection between vii, 1-6, and
chapter vi, which is, to say the least,
quite probable, it seems best to con-
sider the prophet as the speaker. He
attempts to describe “the desperate
condition of the nation, anarchy, per-
secution, universal corruption of jus-
tice, the ties of society dissolved, even
friendship and wedded love is no
longer to be trusted.” If Zion is un-
derstood as the speaker the verses
imply a humility and penitence out of
place following immediately upon vi,
16; hence most recent commentators
who make Zion the speaker deny the
verses to Micah.

In verse 1 the prophet bewails, in
figurative language, his sad and dis-
appointing experience in preaching to
the people. Grape gleanings—He was
looking for good clusters of grapes, but
he found nothing but poor gleanings.
My soul desired the first ripe fruit—
CHAPTER VII.

419

 

fruit. 2 The ° 2good man is per-
ished out of the earth: and there is
none upright among men: they all
lie in wait for blood; “they hunt
every man his brother with a net.
3 That they may do evil with both

hands earnestly, ethe prince asketh,
fand the judge asketh for a reward;
and the great man, he uttereth *his
mischievous desire: so they wrap
it up. 4 The best of them *s as a
brier: the most upright is sharper

 

© Psa, 12. 1; 14. 1, 3; Isa, 57. 1.——2 Or,
godly, or, merciful.a4 Hab, 1. 15.—
© Hos. 4. 18.

{Isa. 1. 23; chap. 3. 11.— Heb. the
mischief of hts soul.—-e 2 Sam. 23. 6,
7; Ezek. 2. 6; see Isa. 55.13.

 

The context favors the rendering of
R. V. margin, “nor first-ripe fig which
my soul desired.” He looked for first-
ripe figs (see on Hos. ix, 10), but found
none.

The figures are explained in verses
2-6. As he gazed about him he saw
nothing but corruption and violence.
Earth . . . among men—Since the
prophet is not thinking here of the
whole earth, but of the land of Judah
and its inhabitants, we should read
“land” for “earth,” the Hebrew word
having both meanings (otherwise in
verse 13). Good [“‘godly’”’}This word
is from the same root as that trans-
lated in vi, 8, “mercy,” R. V., “kind-
ness” (see on Hos. ii, 19). Here the
adjective has an active meaning, he
who shows kindness toward his fel-
low men. Such men have disap-
peared entirely (iii, 2, 3; vi, 10-16;
compare Hos. iv, 1, 2). Upright—All
have become crooked and corrupt.
They all lie in wait for blood—
Anxiously they are looking for op-
portunities to commit robbery and
violence; and to accomplish their de-
sires they are quite ready to shed
blood (see on iii, 10). Brother—In
the wider sense of “fellow citizen” or
“neighbor.” Hunt... with a net—
They have quenched the instincts of
love and sympathy; they are schem-
ing continually to do harm to one
another.

The interpretation of verses 3, 4 is
very uncertain. To remove the ob-
scurities various emendations of the
text have been proposed. If the
present Hebrew text is correct, R. V.
presents a more satisfactory transla-
tion of verse 3: “Their hands are upon
that which is evil to do it diligently;
the prince asketh, and the judge is

 

ready for a reward; and the great
man, he uttereth the evil desire of his
soul: thus they weave it together.”
Following this translation the meaning
seems to be: Their hands—Literally,
both hands. All hands are stretched
out to do evil; selfishness rules every-
where, and all are bent upon satisfy-
ing their own selfish ambitions. The
prophet now enumerates those whose
guilt is the greatest. Prince—See on
Hos. iii, 4. Judge—The one occupy-
ing a judicial position. Great man—
The man of wealth, power, and in-
fluence. They weave it together—The
three classes enumerated conspire to-
gether to carry out their evil schemes
(compare 1 Kings xxi, 13). How they
work together is also indicated.
The prince asketh—Of the judge,
to overlook a crime committed by a
friend of the prince, or to condemn a
man who has displeased him, though
he may be innocent. The judge...
for a reward—The Hebrew has no
verb; but if the present text is cor-
rect R. V. undoubtedly reproduces
correctly the thought. The judge is
ready to accept a reward or bribe
offered by the prince, and for such
consideration he readily assents to
the latter’s demands. The great man
... uttereth—The wealthy and power-
ful man freely makes known his de-
sires, for he knows that his money and
influence “talk,” and will secure for
him the codperation of others. Thus
the nobles conspire together and rob
and murder unhindered (compare Isa.
i, 21-23; Amos v, 12). The best of
them is as a briar—Which pricks,
hurts, and injures. Corruption in
Judah is so widespread that even he
who stands out as the best and the
most upright is worse than a thorn
420

than a thorn hedge: the day of thy
watchmen and thy visitation com-
eth; now shall be their perplexity.

5 >Trust ye not in a friend, put ye
not confidence in a guide: keep the
doors of thy mouth from her that

MICAH.

lieth in thy bosom. 6 For ithe son
dishonoreth the father, the daugh-
ter riseth up against her mother,
the daughter in law against her
mother in law; a man’s enemies are
the men of his own house. 7 There-

 

h Jer. 9. 4.—i Ezek. 22. 7; Matt. 10. 21,

35, 36; Luke 12. 53; 21. 16; 2 Tim. 3. 2, 3.

 

hedge (compare 2 Sam. xxiii, 6; Prov.
xv, 19).

Thus far the prophet has described
the present hopeless condition; with
the present deal also verses 5, 6.
Hence the context would favor the
interpretation of 4b also as dealing
with the present. However, the text
itself is generally thought to point to
a future judgment. Can 4b be re-
garded as a marginal gloss based upon
Isa. iii, 1-7? The day of thy watch-
men—The day foreseen by the watch-
men of Jehovah or of Israel, the
prophets (Isa. xxi, 6); the day of Je-
hovah (see on Joel i, 15), a day to
which the prophets preceding Micah
refer quite frequently. This day is
called “thy visitation” or “judgment,”
because on it judgment will be exe-
cuted on all the enemies of Jehovah.
Cometh [is come”}—The prophetic
perfect (see on vi, 13). Now—It is
close at hand. Their perplexity—The
change from the second to the third
person is not uncommon in prophetic
discourse (G.-K., 144p.). The judg-
ment will produce the wildest con-
fusion (Isa. xxii, 5), so that they will
not know what to do.

Some interpret verses 5, 6 as ex-
planatory of “‘perplexity,” in the
sense that “at the outbreak of judg-
ment and of the visitation the faith-
lessness will reach the height of
treachery to the nearest friends, yea,
even to the dissolution of every family
tie.” This interpretation is based
upon the New Testament use of these
verses (Matt. x, 35, 36; Luke xii, 53).
However, in the light of the context
it seems better to regard the verses a
continuation of 4a, describing, in the
form of warnings, the awfulness of the
present corruption. Friendship can be
trusted no longer, truth and fidelity

 

are unknown, all alike practice deceit.
Friend ... guide . . . her that lieth in
thy bosom—A climax. The friend (R.
V., “neighbor’) is the person with
whom one has ordinary, everyday in-
tercourse; the guide (R. V., “friend’’;
margin, ‘‘confidant’’), he to whom-one
is bound by closer ties of intimacy and
friendship. Neither can be trusted
any longer; and even the wife lying
upon the bosom is not worthy of con-
fidence, for she does not hesitate to
betray her husband by revealing his
secrets. ‘The closest ties of blood-
relationship are trodden under foot,
and all the bonds of reverence, love,
and chastity are loosened.” Dis-
honoreth—Literally, treats as a fool
(Deut. xxxii, 15). Men of his own
house—These are not the persons al-
ready named, but others who formed
a part of a Hebrew household, the
servants (Gen. xxxix, 19; 2 Sam. xii,
17, 18).

CoNFIDENCE OF THE PENITENT Com-
MUNITY IN A Finan DELIVERANCE,
7-10.

As these verses stand now, one
might suppose, on first thought, that
they came from the same speaker as
verses 1-6. The prophet, having be-
wailed the present corruption of his
fellow citizens, breaks out, “Whatever
they may do, as for me, I will look
unto Jehovah.”’ But the language of
verses 8-10 clearly shows that the
speaker cannot be the prophet; he
must be the people, or at least a rem-
nant of the people. If the verses
come from Micah we must assume
that he pictures to himself the nation
in the midst of the calamity, which he
has repeatedly announced. A rem-
nant, he believes, will remain loyal,
and into the mouth of this personified
CHAPTER VII. 421

 

fore *I will look unto the Lorp; I
will wait for the God of my salva-
tion: my God will hear me.

8 'Rejoice not against me, O mine
enemy: when I fall, I shall arise;
when I sit in darkness, "the Lorp
shall be a light unto me. 9 °I will
bear the indignation of the Lorn,

until he plead my cause, and exe-
cute judgment for me: Phe will brin;

me forth to the light, and I sha

behold his righteousness. 10 ‘Then
she that is mine enemy shall see it,
and «ashame shall cover her which
said unto me, ‘Where is the Lorp
thy God? smine eyes shall behold

 

 

 

because I have sinned against him,|her: now ‘shall she be trodden

k Isa, 8. 17,.—! Prov, 24. 17; Lam. 4.] enemy, and cover her with shame.
21.——™ Psa. 37. 24; Prov. 24. 16.—». Psa. |4 Psa. 35. 26. tT Psa. 42. 3, 10; 79. 10;
27. 13 ° Lam. 3 39.——P Psa. 37. 6.— | 115. 2; Joel 2. 17.—=*Chap. 4. 11.—5 Heb.

4Or, And thou wilt see her that ts mine

she shall be for a treading down.

 

remnant, sitting in darkness, over-
powered by the enemy, he places sup-
plications for speedy deliverance, and
expressions of confidence. The con-
trast between the moral and spiritual
condition of the people described in
verses 1-6 and the humility and con-
fidence expressed in verses 7-10 is
very remarkable. Either Micah was a
man of extraordinary dramatic power
and of wonderful imagination, or the
verses cannot come from him. I will
look . . . wait—The old stubbornness
is gone; softened through suffering,
the remnant is ready to wait patiently
until Jehovah will interfere on its be-
half. The God of my salvation—He
alone can deliver (see on Hos. xiv, 3;
compare Psa. xxvii, 9). Will hear—
The suppliant is convinced that God
will hear, and that the hearing assures
a gracious answer (Isa. xxx, 19). Up-
held by this sublime confidence, the
petitioner turns to the arrogant enemy
that oppresses Israel. Rejoice not—
For your triumph will not be perma-
nent. When I falli—A picture of ca-
lamity and distress. By the help of
Jehovah the remnant expects to rise
again. Sit in darkness—Another fig-
ure of calamity and trouble. Jehovah
will keep a watchful eye on his people
and will be their “‘light’’—through the
promises which illumine the gloom and
keep alive hope and courage.

In the assurance that Jehovah is

still God, and in the consciousness of |

its sin and guilt, the remnant is willing
to bear patiently its present affliction.
I will bear the indignation—Because J
deserve it, and because in due time

‘a continuation of the boast.

 

Jehovah will again smile upon me.
Plead my cause, .. . execute judgment
—The enemy has gone beyond his
commission (Isa. x, 5ff.; Hab. i, 11),
hence Israel has cause for complaint;
but it is willing to leave its case in the
hands of Jehovah; he will punish the
proud foe and recompense the rem-
nant for its sufferings. Light—Of
prosperity and felicity. I shall behold
his righteousness—Which will mani-
fest itself in the deliverance from the
enemy. In this God acts righteously,
because the preservation and deliver-
ance of the people is in accord with
the covenant relation existing be-
tween him and Israel.

When Jehovah will thus interfere
on behalf of his people, the enemy,
arrogant on account of temporary suc-
cess, will be confounded. Where is
Jehovah thy God—See on Joel ii, 17.
Mine eyes shall behold her—R. V.,
“Mine eyes shall see my desire upon
her.” These words and the rest of the
verse might possibly be interpreted as
When
the enemy beheld the misfortune of
Zion he thought that he would speed-
ily see his desire upon her, that is,
would see her completely in his power,
for he would now have an easy time
with the unfortunate people. It
seems better, however, to understand
the words as an expression of con-
fidence on the part of the hopeful
remnant. The latter expects to see
its desire upon its enemy, who will be
trodden down as the mire of the street
(Isa. x, 6), while the remnant will be
exalted and glorified.
422

down tas the mire of the streets.
11 In tho day that thy walls are
to be built, in that day shall the
decree be far removed. 12 In that
day also xhe shall come even to thee

t2 Sam, 22. 43; Zech. 10. 5.
9. 11, ete.

 

u Amos

PRoMISE oF A GLoRIous ReEsToRA-
tion, 11-138.

In verses 11ff. the speaker is no
longer the penitent, expectant rem-
nant, but Jehovah himself, or the
prophet as the spokesman of Jehovah.
He comforts and encourages the
speaker of verses 7-10 with promises
of a glorious restoration. Marti, in
order to avoid a change in speakers,
reads throughout the pronouns of the
first person.

It is impossible to accept the text
of verses 11, 12 as correct in every de-
tail; on the other hand, the text is
probably not as corrupt as is assumed
by some scholars. Of the present
text, A. V. does not offer the best
translation. Two or three slight
changes, supported in part by LXX.,
will produce a much better text (com-
pare also R. V.): ‘‘A day for the build-
ing of thy walls shall that day be;
extended shall be thy border on that
day; and they shall come unto thee
from Assyria and the cities of Egypt,
and from Egypt even to the River,
and from sea to sea, and from moun-
tain to mountain.” In the day that
thy walls are to be built—Better, R.V.,
“A day for building thy walls!” The
breaking down of the walls is threat-
ened in ili, 12; in the day of restoration
they will be rebuilt. Decree—This
translation gives no good sense, and all
attemptsat interpretation have proved
futile. Hence it is better to follow
R. V. margin in translating “bound-
ary” or “border.” In the day of
restoration the borders of the prom-
ised land will be extended so as to
make room for the returning exiles
(Obad. 18-21). The word, which is
rare in this sense, was used because of
the similarity in sound between it and
the original of “removed” or “ex-

 

MICAH.

from Assyria, «and from the forti-
fied cities, and from the fortress
even to the river, and from sea to
sea, and from mountain to moun-
tain. 13 ’Notwithstanding the land

x Isa. 11. 16; 19. 23, ete.; 27. 13; Hos.
11. 11.—* Or, even to.—’ Or, After that
Ut hath been.

tended.” That day—The day in
which the expectations expressed in
verses 7-10 will be realized.

Verse 12 contains a promise that in
“that” day multitudes will flock to
Jerusalem from every direction. He
shall come—R.. V., “‘shall they come.”
A. V. is a literal rendering of the orig-
inal. Who shall come? Some find the
answer in iv, 3 (compare Isa. xix, 24).
From all parts of the world people
will flock to Jehovah to be instructed
by him. Others think of the return
from exile; the exiies who were scat-
tered in all directions will return to
their old home. Perhaps both ideas
are included. Assyria—The place of
exile of the northern tribes (2 Kings
xvii, 23). Egypt—So far as we know
no Hebrews had been carried into
exile to Egypt before the time of
Micah, but after the destruction of
Jerusalem in 586 B. C. some took
refuge there (2 Kings xxv, 26). Hence
many think that this promise pre-
supposes the exile (compare Jsa. xi,
11ff.). There is much to be said in
favor of this view, though the mention
of Egypt as a place of exile does not
absolutely prove a late date, in view
of Hosea’s expectation of an Egyptian
exile (viii, 13; ix, 3, 6). If Micah
shared this view—of which we have
no evidence—he would naturally men-
tion Egypt in a description of the
restoration. No difficulty exists if the
words are interpreted as pointing to a
flocking of non-Israelitish worshipers
to Jehovah (compare Isa. xix, 24). The
tiver—The Euphrates. The sevond
clause is identical in meaning with the
first. Sea... mountain—The prophet
may not have in mind any special sea
or mountain; the expression may be
used simply to indicate all parts of
the known world, If he is thinking of
CHAPTER VII.

423

 

shall be desolate because of them
that dwell therein, yfor the fruit of
their doings.

14 8Feed thy people with thy rod,

the flock of thine heritage, which
dwell solitary in :the wood, in the
midst of Carmel: let them feed in
Bashan and Gilead, as in the days

 

y Jer. 21. 14; chap. 3. 12.—8 Or, Rule,

Isa. 37. 24,

 

Psa. 28. 9; chap. 5. 4.

 

definite locations the seas would prob-
ably be the Mediterranean in the west.
and the Persian Gulf in the southeast,
the mountains perhaps Mount Leb-
anon in the north and Mount Sinai
in the south, unless we suppose that
he is thinking of the far-away moun-
tains beyond Assyria and Egypt.

The rendering of verse 13 in A.
V. and R. V. is a translation plus
an interpretation. ‘Land’ is under-
stood as referring to Palestine. Be-
fore the glory expected in verses
7-10 and promised in verses 11, 12
can be realized the land must be
destroyed (iii, 12) because of the
unrighteous doings of its inhabitants.
Another interpretation seems more in
harmony with the context. Instead
of “land” we should read “earth”
(compare verse 2), and verse 13 should
be rendered, ‘‘But the earth shall be
desolate because of them that dwell
therein, for the fruit of their doings.”
This is to be understood as a threat of
the destruction of the whole earth,
exclusive of Palestine, because of the
outrages committed by its inhabitants
against the people of Jehovah. This
judgment upon the nations will make
possible the return of the exiles (com-
pare Joel iii, 7, 8; also Jer. xxxii, 20,
where “men” is used of the nations
outside of Israel).

Tur PRAYER OF THE PEOPLE, 14-17.

In verse 14 occurs another change
in speakers. The people, through the
prophet, pray for the fulfillment of
the promise of restoration. Feed...
with thy rod—See on v, 4. Flock of
thine heritage—Since Micah uses sev-
eral times the figure of the shepherd
(Gen. xlix, 24), this expression is used
instead of the more common “people
of thine heritage.”’ Which dwell soli-
tarily in the wood, in the midst of
Carmel—The English translations are

 

correct in connecting the entire rela-
tive clause with “thine heritage.” This
relative clause is to be understood not
as expressing the desire that the faith-
ful remnant may be permitted to
dwell apart from the nations of the
world, but as describing a present
condition—“which now dwell solita-
rily.” In the wood—R. V., “forest.”
The original has no preposition; it
seems better to omit it in the trans-
lation, and to take the words in ap-
position to the preceding ‘which
dwell solitarily,” ‘‘a forest (better,
jungle) in the midst of Carmel.” The
meaning becomes still clearer if ‘‘Car-
mel” is taken as a common noun
“garden land’ (compare Isa. xxxvii,
24; where it is translated “fruitful
field”). Then the whole clause will
read, ‘which dwell solitarily, a jungle
in the midst of a garden,” which de-
scribes the condition of the petitioner.
The enemies are flourishing like a
beautiful garden; in the midst of them
lives the miserable petitioner like a
wild jungle in a garden, without
beauty or comeliness. O that the shep-
herd would lead his flock into green
pastures! Bashan . . . Gilead—lJ)is-
tricts east of the Jordan which were
renowned for their rich pastures (see
on Amos i, 3; iv, 1; compare Num.
xxxii, 1ff.); here they are mentioned
as types of rich pasture land. Days
of old—A very indefinite expression
referring to the period of prosperity
preceding the present distress (see on
y, 2, where the words are translated
“everlasting”’).

The present text would make verse
15 the reply of Jehovah to the petition
expressed in verse 14. But (1) the
change in pronouns, “thy coming
forth” and “unto him,” is peculiar;
(2) 17b places it beyond doubt that
verses 16, 17 continue the petition to
Jehovah. This makes it at least prob-
424

of old. 15 *According to the days
of thy coming out of the land of
Egypt will I show unto him mar-
velous things.

16 The nations shall see and be
confounded at all their might: they
shall lay their hand upon their
mouth, their ears shall be deaf.
17 They shall lick the ¢dust like a
serpent, ethey shall move out of
their holes like *worms of the earth:
‘they shall be afraid of the Lorp

a Psa. 68. 22: 78. 12.—b Isa, 26. 11.
© Job 21. 5; 29. 9.—4 Psa. 72. 9; Isa.
49. 23.—© Psa. 18. 45.——® Or, creeping
things.

 

MICAH.

our God, and shall fear because of
thee. 18 *Who is a God like unto
thee, that pardoneth iniquity, and
passeth by the transgression of ithe
remnant of his heritage? ‘he re-
taineth not his anger for ever, be-
cause he delighteth in mercy. 19
He will turn again, he will have
compassion upon us; he will subdue
our iniquities; and thou wilt cast
all their sins into the depths of the
sea. 20 'Thou wilt perform the

f Jer. 33. 9. Exod. 15. 11.——4 Exod.
34. 6, 7; Jer. 50. 20.—i Chaps. 4. 7: 5. 3,
7, 8— Psa. 103. 9; Isa. 57. 16; Jer.
3. 5.—1] Luke 1. 72, 73.

 

able that verse 15 is a part of the pe-
tition, and we may be justified in
altering one consonant so that the
verb will read, “do thou show unto
us.” Thy coming out—R. V., ‘“‘thy
coming forth out.’’ The coming forth
of Jehovah to lead the people from
Egypt at the time of the Exodus
(compare Judg. v, 4). Marvelous
things—The same term is applied
in Exod. iii, 20, to the plagues
which Jehovah brought upon Egypt
to compel the release of his peo-
ple. Similar superhuman manifesta-
tions they desire in their present
crisis.

Verses 16, 17 continue the petition,
pointing out the effects which the
“marvelous things’ of Jehovah will
have upon the nations. When the
latter see the mighty works of Je-
hovah they will be confounded. At
all their might—Their might will count
for nothing in the presence of an al-
mighty God (compare Hos. iv, 19).
Lay their hand upon their mouth—See
on iii, 7 (compare Judg. xviii, 19;
Job xxi, 5). Their ears shall be deaf
—‘From the thunder of his mighty
acts” (Job xxvi, 14; compare Isa.
xxxiii, 3). In terror they will prostrate
themselves before Jehovah. Lick the
dust—A figurative expression equiva~-
lent to “prostrate themselves in the
dust,” a sign of submission (Isa. xlix,
23). Like a serpent—Compare Gen.
iii, 14. They shall move out of their
holes like worms of the earth—R. V.,
“like crawling things of the earth they

 

shall come trembling out of their close
places.” A picture of abject fear
(compare Psa. xviii, 45). The terror
of the nations is emphasized also in
the rest of verse 17.

A Doxotoey, 18-20.

Reveling in the thought of a glo-
rious future, the prophet ascribes all
honor and praise to Jehovah, who
alone is God. Who is a God like unto
thee—The question may contain a
play upon the name Micah, which
means Who is like Jehovah? If vii,
7-20, does not come from the prophet
Micah (see p. 368), does this play ex-
plain why the verses were embodied
in the Book of Micah? To the author
Jehovah is supreme; and of all the
divine attributes Jehovah’s compas-
sion and loving-kindness impress him
most deeply. Pardoneth iniquity—
Compare Exod. xxxiv, 7, “forgiving *
iniquity and transgression and sin.”
The remnant of his heritage—See on
v, 3, and reference there; also on Joel
iii, 2. For the close of verse 18 com-
pare Psa. ciii, 8, 9 (see on Joel ii, 13).
He will turn again—Better, R. V.,
“He will again have compassion.” He
cannot cast off forever his children.
Subdue—R. V., “tread our iniquities
under foot.” He will trample upon
sin as upon an enemy; equivalent to
“he will destroy.”

In 19b the prophet returns to the
direct address, from which the use of
participles caused him to depart. Cast
... into... the sea—Never to be
CHAPTER VII.

truth to Jacob, and the mercy to
Abraham, "which thou hast sworn

425

ae our fathers from the days of
old.

 

m Psa. 105. 9, 10.

 

raised again. The expression may
contain an allusion to the destruction
of Pharaoh’s army (Exod. xv, 5, 10).
Verse 20 closes the doxology and the
entire book with an expression of con-
fidence that Jehovah will deal with
his people according to the promise
made to the fathers. Jacob... Abra-

ham—These two names are applied to
the nation because to these two an-
cestors were given the most precious
promises (Gen. xxii, 16-18; xxxv, 9ff.).
Days of old—Points to the patriarchal
age when the promise was first given,
but also to subsequent repetitions of
the promise.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF NAHUM.

+>.
The Prophet.

Or the life of Nahum we know practically nothing. The
name occurs nowhere else in the Old Testament; in the New
Testament it is found in Luke iii, 25; it is not uncommon
in the Mishna; and it has been discovered in Pheenician
inscriptions. It means consolation or consoler, and is there-
fore in a sense symbolical of the message of the book, which
is intended to comfort the oppressed and afflicted people of
Judah.

The prophet is called “the Elkoshite” (i, 1), which un-
doubtedly means that he came from a place Hikosh, just as
Morasthite (Mic. i, 1) means a citizen of Moresheth. It has
been interpreted also as meaning “of the family of Elkosh,”
but that is less probable. For Elkosh four locations have
been suggested :

1. It has been identified with a modern village, Hlkush or
Alkosh, not far from the left bank of the Tigris, two days’
journey north of the site of ancient Nineveh. Concerning
this place Layard (Nineveh and Its Remains, i, 197) says:
“Alkosh is a very considerable Christian village. Its inhabit-
ants, who were formerly pure Chaldeans, have been converted
to Roman Catholicism. It contains, according to a very gen-
eral tradition, the tomb of Nahum, the prophet. .“. . It is a
place held in great reverence by Mohammedans and Chris-
tians, but especially by Jews, who keep the building in repair,
and flock here in great numbers at certain seasons of the year.
The tomb is a simple plaster box, covered with green cloth,
and standing at the upper end of a large chamber. On the
walls of the room are slips of paper, upon which are written,
in distorted Hebrew characters, religious exhortations and

dates and particulars of the visits of various Jewish families.
426
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF NAHUM 427

 

The house containing the tomb is a modern building. There
are no inscriptions nor fragments of any antiquity about the
place; and I am not aware in what the tradition originated,
or how long it has attached to the village of Alkosh.” If this
village or its predecessor upon the same site is the home of
Nahum, the prophet must be regarded as a descendant of one
of the families of the northern kingdom carried into exile
by Sargon in 721. In support of this view attention has been
called to the prophet’s accurate knowledge of Nineveh and
things Assyrian. He uses Assyrian words (see on iii, 17) ;
is well acquainted with the capital city, its brick walls (iii,
15), the river gates (ii, 6), its temples and images (i, 14),
its immense wealth (ii, 9, 12), its vast population (ii, 8; iii,
15), the crowd of merchants (iii, 16), ete. From a resident
of a neighboring village, who might have visited the capital
on many occasions, all this would sound very natural. It is
not strange, therefore, to find that several scholars, especially
Assyriologists like Jeremias, Friedrich Delitzsch, and others,
believe that the Assyrian Alkosh was the home or, at least,
the temporary dwelling place of the prophet Nahum.

Others do not consider the evidence conclusive. (1) The
knowledge of Nineveh is not so minute that the writer could
not have acquired it without actually living in Assyria. His
knowledge of No Amon is no less precise, but few would insist
that Nahum ever saw the Egyptian city. Enough was known
of Assyria in Palestine during the seventh century B. C. to
make it quite possible for a man possessed of the poetic genius
of Nahum to draw the vivid pictures contained in chapters
ii, iii. (2) The tradition connecting Nahum with the As-
syrian Alkosh cannot be traced beyond the sixteenth century
A. D.; indeed, all references to the place itself are later than
the seventh century A. D. (3) There is not the slightest
indication in the book that its author was a descendant of a
northern family. His interest centers in Judah (i, 11, 15).
These considerations make it appear quite probable that a com-
paratively late age is responsible for the connection of Nahum
428 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF NAHUM.

 

with the Assyrian Alkosh. The similarity of the name to that
of the prophet’s home and the fact that he prophesied con-
cerning Nineveh might easily give rise to such tradition. In
a similar manner a late age seems to have found a resting
place for the prophet Jonah in the city of Nineveh, because
he was thought to have preached there; a part of the ruins
of the ancient city bears even to-day the name Nebi Yunus,
“Prophet Jonah.”

2. A second tradition, apparently of greater antiquity, locates
Elkosh in Galilee. Jerome, in the preface of his commentary
on Nahum, says: “EHlkesi (or Helkeset) is still at this day a
hamlet in Galilee, small indeed, and scarcely. showing traces
by ruins of ancient buildings, but for all that known to the
Jews and pointed out to me by a guide.” The fact that Jerome
saw this place does not necessarily prove that the identifica-
tion with the home of Nahum is well founded; for Jerome
may simply repeat a popular tradition, or the identification
suggested by the similarity of the two names may have its
origin with him. The place named by Jerome has been iden-
tified, though not conclusively, with the modern Hl Kauze,
near Ramieh. Other ancient writers repeat Jerome’s state-
ment, and there are some moderns who accept his identifica-
tion as correct. A few peculiarities in the diction of the book
have been adduced as favoring a Galilean origin, but these are
more or less doubtful. If Jerome’s view concerning the home
of Nahum is correct we would have to think of the prophet as a
descendant of one of the families left behind in 721, who
moved from his northern home into the territory of Judah.

The correctness of this identification cannot be proved nor
can it be disproved; but on this theory the silence of Nahum
concerning the northern kingdom and his apparent indiffer-
ence toward its restoration seems strange; hence many believe
that the contents of the book point in a different direction.

3. Others who seek the home of the prophet in the north
identify Elkosh with the city of Capernaum, whose name
means village of Nahum. The original name of the city, it
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF NAHUM. 429

 

is thought, was Elkosh, but in honor of its renowned citizen
it was changed into Capernaum. The identification finds its
only support in the present name of the city, but this can
hardly be considered conclusive; there certainly is no indica-
tion anywhere of a change in name such as is assumed by those
favoring it.

4. A fourth tradition places Elkosh in the south of Judah,
or, more correctly, in the territory of Simeon. It first appears
in a collection of traditions entitled Lives of the Prophets,
ascribed, though perhaps erroneously, to Epiphanius, bishop
of Salamis in Cyprus during the latter part of the fourth
century A. D. In it we read, “Nahum was from Elkosh,
beyond Bét Gabré, of the tribe of Simeon.” Bét Gabré is
undoubtedly the modern Beit Jibrin, the ancient Eleutheropo-
lis, northeast of Lachish (see on Mic. i, 13). Cyril of Alexan-
dria also says that Elkese was a village in the country of the
Jews. A place in Judah is undoubtedly more in harmony
with the interest the prophet takes in the southern kingdom;
and the present writer inclines to this view, though certainty
on this point is perhaps not attainable.

Date of the Prophet.

The date of Nahum’s activity must be determined from the
contents of his prophecies.

The terminus a quo is the capture and destruction of No
Amon, the Egyptian Thebes, which in ili, 8ff., is referred to
as an accomplished fact. The catastrophe alluded to can be
no other than the capture of Thebes by Ashurbanapal, king
of Assyria (668-626 B. C.). Of the capture of the city during
his second campaign the annals of the king say: “In con-
fidence upon Ashur and Ishtar my hands completely captured
the city. Silver, gold, precious stones, the possessions of his
palace, as many as were there, garments of gay-colored goods,
gorgeous garments, great horses, men, people male and female,
two high obelisks of shining zahalu, whose weight was twenty-
five hundred talents, which stood before the entrance of the
430 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF NAHUM.

 

temple, I removed from their positions and carried them to
Assyria. Heavy booty without number I carried away from
Thebes. Over Egypt and Ethiopia I caused my arms to glitter
and I established my sovereignty. With full hands and in
safety I returned to Nineveh, my capital.” In another place
he says, “This city they (the soldiers) took from all sides,
and dashed it to pieces like a hurricane.” This expedition
against Thebes occurred about 663 B. C., hence 663 is the
earliest date to which the prophecy of Nahum can be assigned.

The terminus ad quem is the destruction of Nineveh; for
the tone of the entire prophecy implies that, while the destruc-
tion of the city is imminent, it is still in the future. Nineveh
fell in 607-606 B. C. Hence between 663 and 607 the activity
of Nahum must be placed.

Can the date be fixed more definitely between the two dates?
On this point opinions differ very widely. The vividness of
the description of the fall of No Amon leads some to favor a
date soon after that catastrophe; on the other hand, the realis-
tic picture of the distress of Nineveh causes others to select
a date just before the latter’s doom. The following dates
have been suggested: Riehm, 660-607; Strack, about 660;
Rogers and Koenig, about 650; Kirkpatrick, soon after 640;
Cornill, 624; Davidson, “a date 610-608 for the prophecy is
well within the range of possibility”; Nowack and Marti favor
the same date; and G. A. Smith says, “He might as well have
written it about 608 as about 625.”

One thing is made quite clear by the prophecy itself, namely,
that at the time the words were uttered or written Nineveh
was passing through some grave danger. Now, during the
period indicated Assyria passed through two, and perhaps three,
serious crises: 1. During the revolt of Shamashshumukin, of
Babylon, against his brother Ashurbanapal, of Assyria, 650-
648 B. C. 2. Herodotus reports that about 625 Nine-
veh was seriously threatened by foreign invaders. These
invaders are undoubtedly to be identified with the Manda of
the Assyrian inscriptions, the savage hordes, commonly called
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF NAHUM. 431

 

Scythians, which threatened the integrity of the Assyrian
empire as early as the reign of Esarhaddon (681-668 B. C.).
The Manda are not identical with the Medes, though the latter
are probably related to the former. The statement of Herodo-
tus that this attack upon Nineveh was made by the Medes
rests probably upon a confusion of the two names Manda and
Medes (see introduction to Zephaniah; article “Medes,” in
Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible ; but compare article “Scythi-

ans” in Encyclopedia Biblica). 3. Nineveh, after a siege of
two years, was taken and destroyed in 607-606.

The first crisis does not offer a suitable occasion for Nahum’s
prophecy, because at that time the city of Nineveh was never
threatened. The crisis was serious enough, for Shamashshum-
ukin was supported by several states that, like himself, were
anxious to throw off the overlordship of Assyria; but the
territory of Assyria was not seriously menaced. The Assyrian
king found it an easy task to drive the rebels from his own
land; he carried the war into hostile territory, where he
inflicted a series of crushing defeats upon the rebels.

The inscriptions throw little light upon the events con-
nected with the inroads of the Scythians, and it is generally
recognized that the statements of Herodotus must be received
with considerable caution. Some question the truth of the
latter’s statement concerning an attack upon Nineveh about
625. For this there may be insufficient reason; but it is
impossible to tell how seriously Nineveh was menaced at that
time. This uncertainty makes it impossible either to prove
or disprove that the crisis of 625 offered a suitable occasion
for Nahum’s utterances.

During the last years of Ashurbanapal’s reign the Assyrian
empire was slowly going to pieces. After his death the end
approached more rapidly. In 625 Nabopolassar established
an independent kingdom in Babylon. With the Scythians
pressing from the north and the new Babylonian power from
the south, Assyria was, indeed, in serious peril. Finally, about
610, Nabopolassar entered into an alliance with the Manda
432 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF NAHUM.

 

and together they advanced against Nineveh. The struggle
continued for two years. The united forces met determined
resistance; at last a breach was made in the northeast corner
of the wall; the city was taken, plundered, and burned. The
Assyrian world power was at an end. Judah had suffered much
from the proud Assyrian, and it is not difficult to understand
how, with the doom of Nineveh so imminent, a prophet-patriot
might burst into shouts of exultation and triumph over the
distress of the cruel foe. The years immediately preceding
the final overthrow of the city offer the most suitable occasion
for Nahum’s utterances. “If,’ says A. B. Davidson, “the dis-
tress of Nineveh referred to were the final one, the descriptions
of the prophecy would acquire a reality and naturalness which
they otherwise want, and the general characteristics of Hebrew
prophecy would be more truly conserved.”

Since the prophecy deals almost exclusively with the fall
of Nineveh, it is not necessary to consider in this connection
conditions in Judah at the same time (see below, on Zephaniah).

The Integrity of the Book.

Until quite recently no doubts were expressed concerning
the integrity of the Book of Nahum; but within recent years
scholars have, with growing unanimity, denied the originality
of i, 2—ii, 2 (Hebrew ii, 3), with the exception of ii, 1, which
is considered the beginning of Nahum’s utterances. This
change of opinion is closely bound up with the alleged dis-
covery of distorted remnants of an old alphabetic poem in
chapter i. In his commentary on Psa. ix Delitzsch, following
a suggestion of “Pastor Frohnmeyer of Wiirtemberg,” makes
the remark, “Even the prophet does not disdain, as is evident
from Nah. i, 3-7, to allow the sequence of the letters of the
alphabet to have an influence upon the arrangement of his
thought.” Following this clue, Gustav Bickell, who deserves
much credit for his efforts toward a better understanding of
Hebrew poetry, has at various times between 1880 and 1894
attempted a restoration of this ancient poem. Several other
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF NAHUM. 433

 

scholars have undertaken, in their own way, the solution of
the problem, among them Gunkel, Nowack, Happel, G. B.
Gray, T. K. Cheyne, and W. R. Arnold. The last-named’
characterizes the several efforts—apart from his own—in these
words: “Starting with a bald assumption as to the main point
at issue, conjecture has been substituted for conjecture in
matters of detail, and not the slightest endeavor made to justify
the hypothesis or conjecture by reference to observed facts.”
These words apply with equal justice to the work of Arnold
himself. Of those who have studied the subject in detail
G. B. Gray appears to approach the subject with greatest cau-
tion. “We must therefore,” says he, “distinguish between the
proof that Nahum contains traces of an acrostic which, when
the evidence is duly presented, is cogent, and certain details
of reconstruction, which are requisite if an entire acrostic
is to be restored, but for which the evidence is in one or two
cases strong, in many slight, and in some nil.” A full dis-
cussion of the subject would require more space and a more
extensive use of the Hebrew than a commentary of this charac-
ter permits. Those who desire to study the subject at greater
length may see article “Nahum” in Hastings’s Dictionary of
the Bible; Expositor of 1898, pp. 207ff.; Zeitschrift fuer Alt-
testamentliche Wissenschaft, 1901, pp. 225ff.

In i, 2-7, there are unquestionable traces of alphabetic
arrangement, but even here the artistic arrangement is not
carried through consistently; in the rest of the chapter the
evidence is slight. “The first nine verses,” says Kennedy,
“have suffered little, the next four or five considerably more,
and the rest so much that their restoration can never be more
than an academic exercise.” In order to restore the acrostic
it becomes necessary, at least from verse 7 onward, to take
much liberty with the text; frequently words must be inserted
or omitted; words and even clauses must be transposed ; some-
times a passage must be almost entirely rewritten. In the
presence of such difficulties and uncertainties the differences
of opinion among those who have attempted reconstructions
434 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF NAHUM.

 

are not surprising; nor is it strange that many excellent Old
Testament scholars hesitate to accept as correct any of the
numerous reconstructions attempted, and that they doubt even
the possibility of restoring, with any degree of assurance, the
original acrostic. “Even if it should be assumed,” says A. B.
Davidson, “that an alphabetical poem lurks under chapter i,
the attempt to restore it can never be more than an academic
exercise.” Driver expresses similar doubts: “Undoubtedly
there are traces of an alphabetic arrangement in the successive
half verses; but we own to feeling great doubt whether this
was ever intended to be carried systematically through, or
whether it is due to anything more than the fact that the
author allowed himself here and there, perhaps half acci-
dentally, to follow the alphabetical order; the very extensive
alterations, especially the inversions and transpositions through
which, if the restoration be correct, the text must have passed,
seem to us to be intrinsically impossible.”

In many places the text of chapter i has undoubtedly suf-
fered in transmission (see comments), but the assumption that
it contained originally an alphabetic poem presupposes so
many corruptions where otherwise no difficulties could be seen
that one may well hesitate to accept any of the ingenious
restorations offered; and one may safely say that both the
presence of an acrostic and its recovery are still open questions.

A comparison of the translation of i, 2—ii, 2 (except ii, 1),
in R. V. with the following, which reproduces the text as
reconstructed by Nowack, may be of interest. Wherever pos-
sible the wording of R. V. has been retained:

2. & A God jealous and avenging is Jehovah,
An avenger and full of wrath is Jehovah.
8c. 2 In storm and tempest is his way,
Clouds and dust are at his feet.
4. 34 He rebuketh the sea, so that it drieth up,
And he maketh dry all the rivers;
‘| Bashan and Carmel languish,
And the flower of Lebanon withereth.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF NAHUM. 435

 

5

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8.

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9b.
9a. 1
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2c. 3
10. 3
12. 9

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ii, 2.

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Mountains quake because of him,

And the hills do melt.

The earth becometh desolate before him,

The world with all that dwell therein. ;
Who can endure his indignation?

Who can abide in the fierceness of his anger?

His wrath is poured out like fire,

And rocks are kindled by him.

Good is Jehovah toward those who trust in him,

A stronghold in the day of trouble.

‘Jehovah knoweth those who trust in him,

And in the overflowing flood he delivereth them.

An utter end he maketh of his adversaries, -

And his enemies he thrusteth out into darkness.

Not twice he taketh vengeance on his adversaries,

An utter end he maketh of them forever.

What think ye of Jehovah?

Jehovah is slow to anger and great in loving-kindness;

An avenger is Jehovah against his adversaries,

And he reserveth wrath for his enemies;

Like plucked-up thorns they are swept away,

Like dry grass they are withered.

The arrogance of tyrants is like high water,

But soon it subsides and disappears.

I humble thee, and I will humble thee not again,

Now I will break in pieces thy staff.

Jehovah hath given commandment concerning thee;

Thy name shall be remembered no more;

Thy grave I will make an object of disgust (7),

Graven and molten images I will cut off.

The feet of him that bringeth good tidings are upon the
mountains;

Behold! He publisheth peace.

Jehovah restoreth the vine branch to Jacob,

Yea, he delighteth in the excellency of Israel

To compensate, because emptiers have emptied it,

They have destroyed its vine branches.

Nowack considers ii, 1, followed by ii, 3, the opening words of
the genuine prophecy of Nahum; Marti considers i, 11, omitted
by Nowack, the beginning of Nahum’s prophecy. The result
achieved by Nowack is a much smoother and “more poetic”
436 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF NAHUM.

 

poem; but is there sufficient warrant for the liberties taken
with the present Hebrew text?

The artificial character of acrostic poetry is generally sup-
posed to point to a late date; hence those who believe that
chapter i was originally an alphabetic poem consider it an
exilic or postexilic production which was, at a still later date,
prefixed to the genuine prophecies of Nahum. In support of
this it is pointed out further that the prophecy in chapter i is
vague, its historical background is not clearly defined, while
The latter announce judgment upon an historical foe of Judah,
but the poem speaks of a universal world judgment. “We
find here an approach, on the one hand, to the manner of the
didactic alphabetic songs of a later age, and, on the other, to
that of certain eschatological and apocalyptic appendices by
the insertion of which the framers of the prophetic canon
sought to adapt other older prophetic books to the tastes of
the readers of their own day.” If sufficient evidence were
found to deny the section to Nahum, the interpretation sug-
gested by this quotation would seem quite possible; but is it
really impossible to believe that chapter i proceeded from the
prophet himself, and that he meant it to serve as a general
introduction to the more specific denunciations in chapters
li, 111? Such introduction, emphasizing, as it does, the jus-
tice, majesty, and omnipotence of the One who has decreed
the doom of Nineveh, would certainly add weight to the specific
threats. But if chapter i is interpreted thus, one may dis-
cover, even in chapter i, frequent allusions to Nineveh and to
events in the history of Judah and Assyria (for details see
comments).

Some derive support for a late date also from the language
oe style of the poem. Gunkel, for example, finds a want
sah enna in language and style, and “many touches that.

ay connection not only with the Psalms but with late
eschatological literature.” Others see little force in the lin-
guistic argument (compare Joel, p. 137), and a detailed exam-
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF NAHUM. 437

 

ination shows that in this as in other cases the linguistic and
stylistic data are indecisive.

That difficulties exist in chapter i, that in some respects it
differs from chapters ii, iii, even the student of the English
text can see, and that the Hebrew text has suffered in trans-
mission is very probable. On the other hand, it is equally
true that thus far no conclusive evidence has been discovered,
and no convincing argument has been presented against the
genuineness of i, 2—ii, 2; hence the question must still be
regarded as undecided. “Therefore,” says G. A. Smith,
“while it is possible that a later poem has been prefixed to
the genuine prophecies of Nahum, and the first chapter sup-
plies many provocations to belief in such a theory, this has
not been proved, and the able assays of proof have much against
them. The question is open.”

Contents, Outline, and Teaching.

1. Contents—In the absence of conclusive proof to the con-
trary, the entire book may be treated here as a unit. The
title (i, 1) names the author and his home, and the subject of
his utterances.

The first section (i, 2-15, to which some add ii, 2) opens
with a solemn proclamation of the twofold character of Jeho-
vah; he is a God of vengeance and a God of mercy (2, 3).
At times he may seem slack in punishing iniquity, but retribu-
tion will surely come; and when it does come, “who can stand
before his indignation? and who can abide in the fierceness
of his anger? his wrath is poured out like fire, and the rocks
are broken asunder by him” (4-6). From the general descrip-
tion of the divine character and of the terrible manifestations
of Jehovah’s anger the prophet passes to the specific case in
hand (see introductory remarks to i, 7ff.). This divine wrath
is about to manifest itself in the overthrow of the enemies of
the chosen people. The prophet affirms that Jehovah will be
the stronghold of those who put their trust in him, but his
enemies he will pursue into outer darkness (7, 8). Judah
438 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF NAHUM.

 

had suffered so much, and in times past disappointments had
been so many, that hope had given place to despair. To drive
away the gloom of despair the prophet turns to the people
(see on i, 9) with the question, Do you think that Jehovah
cannot or will not carry out this threat against your present
enemy? This is a grievous error, for he will surely bring
utter destruction upon him (9,10). In verse 11 he turns to
Nineveh to make clear to her why her doom is decreed; she
hath “devised evil against Jehovah.” Once more glorious
deliverance is promised to Judah (12, 13), followed by a
reiteration of the decree against Assyria (14). Already the
seer beholds the mighty foe fallen, and the messengers speed-
ing over the mountains to tell the glad tidings in the holy city;
he bids Judah to proclaim feasts of rejoicing and to pay the
vows made in the days of adversity (15); for Jehovah is about
to restore the excellency of Jacob (ii, 2).

The second utterance (ii, 1-12) deals almost exclusively with
the assault upon Nineveh and the sack of the city. The
avenger is approaching, and she must prepare for defense (1).
The fall of the archenemy is necessary, in order that Jehovah
may exalt his own people (2; see comment). There follows
a vivid description of the hostile army and the furious charges
of its chariots (3, 4). Desperate efforts are made to defend
the city, but they are futile, and the city falls (5, 6). The
queen and her companions are captured (7); in terror the
people seek to escape (8); the city is sacked and left a deso-
late ruin (9, 10). The prophet gazing upon the ruins cries
out exultantly, “Where is the den of the lions, and the feeding
place of the young lions, where the lion and the lioness walked,
the lion’s whelp, and none made them afraid?” Jehovah has
made an utter end thereof (11-13).

Once more (iii, 1) the prophet turns against Nineveh, and
pronounces a woe upon the corrupt and bloody city (1).
Surely she deserves judgment. Already the noise of the
onslaught may be heard, and the glitter of the arms may be seen
(2, 3). “Because of the multitude of the whoredoms of the
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF NAHUM. 439

 

well-favored harlot” the anger of Jehovah is aroused (4).
The part of a harlot she has acted, the fate of a harlot she
must endure, and no one will bemoan her (5-7).

Nineveh may boast in her power and her strong defenses,
but they will avail nothing. Was not No Amon in Egypt
equally well protected? Yet she suffered inglorious defeat,
and Nineveh can expect no better fate (8-11). Rapidly the
enemy advances; the fortresses throughout the land fall readily
before him; the soldiers have turned into weak and cowardly
women (12, 13). A siege is imminent; preparations for it
must be made, but all resistance is in vain; the city and its
inhabitants will be utterly cut off (14-18). The downfall of
Nineveh and Assyria is complete; and “all that hear the report
of thee clap their hands over thee; for upon whom hath not
thy wickedness passed continually?” (19).

2. Outline —

TITLE—THE PROPHET AND THE SUBJECT OF HIS PROPHECY. .Chap. i, 1
I. DECREE OF NINEVEH’S DOOM......... cece ccc cree ences i, 2-15
1. Jehovah a God of vengeance and of mercy...... i, 2, 3
2. Terribleness of the divine anger................. i, 4-6
3. Overthrow of Nineveh; rejoicing in Zion...... i, 7-15
(1) Jehovah a stronghold of the faithful....i, 7
(2) Jehovah the pursuer of his enemies...... i, 8
(3) Jehovah will not fail his people in the. pres-

Ont CTISIS. seas etdarwiaced alesse See Aucaas i, 9, 10
(4) Justification of the decree against Nineveh..

ssa! Std eicaa! gp ehtar an eu sisewiaje reraiye erasers ash Ea i, 11
(5) Deliverance of Judah................ i, 12, 13
(6) Destruction of Assyria..............0.. i, 14
(7) Rejoicing in Mount Zion............... i, 15

II. SIEGE AND DESTRUCTION OF NINEVEH.........- eee eeeees ii, 1-13
1. Assault upon Nineveh; sack of the city........ ii, 1-10

(1) Approach of the enemy...........-....-- ii, 1
(2) Humiliation of Nineveh a preparation for the

exaltation of Judah......-........... ii, 2
440 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF NAHUM.

 

(5) Capture of the queen and her attendants. .ii, 7

(6) Flight of the people.................4.. ii, 8
(7) Sack of the- City. 2.0... c0c ees wees ener el ii, 9, 10
2. Exultation of the prophet over the city’s destruction..
dials ce cemcas Os aaa ioe NaN RATES EOS aS ed ii, 11-13
III. NINEVEH’S VICES AND INEVITABLE DOOM.........+200005 iii, 1-19
1. Her doom the just retribution for her outrages against
other nations +. isseosss weed sped Sete ea wea iii, 1-7

(1) Woe upon the corrupt and bloody city. .iii, 1
(2) The clatter of the chariots; the glitter of the

(3) No one will pity her in her distress...iii, 4-7
2. The fate of No Amon to be the fate of Nineveh. .iii, 8-11

3. Inability of her resources to save her......... iii, 12-19
(1) Fall of the outlying strongholds....iii, 12, 13
(2) Siege and destruction of the city...iii, 14-19a
(3) Universal exultation over the fall of Nine-

3. Teaching—The utterances of Nahum center around one
single theme, the destruction of Nineveh. As a result they
contain little direct religious teaching; and what there is of
it is confined very largely to the opening verses of chapter i.
These verses emphasize the twofold manifestation of the divine
holiness, the divine vengeance and the divine mercy (i, 2, 3).
The manifestation of the one results in the destruction of the
wicked (i, 2), the other in the salvation of the oppressed (i, 15;
ii, 2). Faith in Jehovah will secure the divine favor and~
protection (i, 7).

In one respect Nahum differs widely from his predecessors,
namely, in his silence concerning the sin and guilt of Judah.
The other prophets point to the present or impending distress
and affliction of the people as brought upon them by their sin,
and they insist that salvation can he theirs only if they repent
and turn to Jehovah. “For this Nahum had no thought. His
heart, for all its bigness, holds room only for the bitter mem-
ories, the baffled hopes, the unappeased hatreds of a hundred
years.” This silence concerning the sin and guilt of his own
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF NAHUM. 441

 

nation is not due to the lack of high ethical ideals or to
ignorance of the people’s moral condition, but rather to the
narrowness of the prophet’s purpose in delivering the message.
His purpose was to point out the hand of God in the impend-
ing doom of Nineveh and the significance of the catastrophe
for the oppressed Jews. To do this it was not necessary to
dwell upon the shortcomings of his people. The fierceness
of Nahum, and his glee at the thought of Nineveh’s ruin, may
not be in accord with the injunction, “Love thine enemy,” but
it should be borne in mind that it is not personal hatred that
prompts the prophet; he is stirred by a righteous indignation
over the outrages committed by Assyria. He considers the
sin and overthrow of Nineveh not merely in their bearing
upon the fortunes of Judah, but in their relation to the divine
moral government of the whole world; hence his voice gives
utterance to the outraged conscience of humanity. Thus,
while Nahum’s message, in its direct teaching, appears to be
less spiritual and ethical than that of his predecessors, it sets in
a very clear light Jehovah’s sway over the whole universe; and
it emphasizes the duty of the nations as well as of individuals
to own his sway and obey his will. This attitude alone will
assure permanent peace and prosperity; on the other hand,
disobedience to his purpose and disregard of his rule will
surely bring calamity and distress. The emphasis upon these
ethical principles gives to the message of Nahum a unique
significance for the present day and generation. “Assyria in
his hands,” says Kennedy, “becomes an object lesson to the
empires of the modern world, teaching, as an eternal principle
of the divine government of the world, the absolute necessity,
for a nation’s continued vitality, of that righteousness, per-
sonal, civic, and national, which alone exalteth a nation.”

In a broad sense, i, 15, is of Messianic import. The down-
fall of Nineveh and Assyria prepares the way for the perma-
nent redemption and exaltation of Zion; “the wicked one
shall no more pass through thee.”

A word should be added concerning the diction and style
442 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF NAHUM.

 

of Nahum. Opinions concerning the religious significance of
the Book of Nahum may differ, but from the standpoint of
language and style all students assign to Nahum an exalted
place among the prophet-poets of the ancient Hebrews; for
all are impressed with the intense force and picturesqueness
of his language and style. “Hach prophet,” says Kirkpatrick,
“had his special gift for his particular work. Nahum bears
the palm for poetic power. His short book is a Pindaric ode
of triumph over the oppressor’s fall” So also G. A. Smith:
“His language is strong and brilliant; his rhythm rumbles
and rolls, leaps and flashes, like the horsemen and chariots he
describes.”
NAHUM.

 

CHAPTER I.
HE burden ‘of Nineveh. The

book of the vision of Nahum
the Elkoshite. 2 1God is »jealous,

 

a Zeph. 2. 13.—-1 Or, The LORD is a
jealous God, and a revenger, etc.

CHAPTER I.

1. The title. The first part names
the subject of the prophecy. Burden
of Nineveh—Better, with R. V. mar-
gin, “oracle concerning Nineveh”
(compare Isa. xiii, 1; Zech. ix, 1).
The noun is derived from a verb ‘“‘to
lift up,” that is, the voice, or ‘to take
up,” that is, a parable or speech (Num.
xxiv, 3; Jer. vii, 16), hence ‘“utter-
ance” or “oracle.” The second part
names the author and his home. Na-
hum the Elkoshite—See Introduction,
pp. 426ff. Vision—Primarily this noun
denoted only those revelations which
were received in visions or trances
(Gen. xv, 1; Ezek. xi, 24), but it under-
went a process of generalization, so
that it came to denote revelations of
every kind, whatever the method by
which they were received. Finally it
came to be used—so here—in the
headings of the prophetic books (com-
pare Isa. i, 1; ii, 1; Obad. 1) as a col-
lective noun in the sense of “prophetic
utterances.” Concerning the origin of
this twofold title A. B. Davidson says
that the first part “‘is probably due to
the editor of the book, as the phrase
is common in introducing prophecies.
... The other part ... may very well
have come from the prophet himself.”

Decree or Nineves’s Doom, 2-15
(+ ii, 27).

Chapter i, 2-15 (+ii, 2?) contains the
first section of the Book of Nahum.
On its originality and poetic form see
pp. 432ff. It opens with a sublime de-
scription of Jehovah as a God jealous
and merciful, the avenger of evil, at
whose appearance no one can stand;
even heaven and earth tremble (2-6).
In verse 7 the prophet turns to his

 

» Exod. 20, 5; 34.14; Deut. 4.24; Josh.
24. 19. 7

specific theme, and shows what bear-
ing these phases of the divine char-
acter have upon the future history of
Judah and of Nineveh. Jehovah will
be faithful toward those who rely upon
him (verse 7), but woe unto his ene-
mies (8). The destruction of the chief
of these is already decreed: Nineveh
must fall, and her downfall will bring
deliverance and rejoicing to Judah
(9-15).

Divine manifestations and their effects,

2-6.

These verses serve a twofold pur-
pose: 1. They bring the judgment upon
Nineveh, which is announced in the
rest of the book, into connection with
the universal purpose and providence
of Jehovah; 2. They remove all
doubt concerning the possibility of
the execution of the threat.

The entire book deals with the
manifestations of the divine wrath
against the enemies of Jehovah and
of the people of Jehovah. These
manifestations are not due to arbi-
trary decisions on his part; they are
the inevitable outgrowth of his char-
acter; he cannot rest until sin and
wickedness, and all who represent
these, are swept away. To emphasize
this side of the divine character is the
purpose of verses 2, 3. For the sake
of greater emphasis the divine name
is mentioned three times, as also the
fact of the divine vengeance; and the
intensity of the divine emotions is
brought out in a climax—jealous,
furious, preserveth wrath. Like other
prophets seeking to describe the di-
vine attributes, Nahum is compelled
to resort to very bold anthropomor-
phisms. Jealous—See on Joel ii, 18,

443
444

NAHUM.

 

and «the Lorp revengeth; the Lorp
revengeth, and is furious; the
Lorp will take vengeance on his
adversaries, and he reserveth wrath
for his enemies. 3 The Lorp is
4slow to anger, and egreat in power,

and will not at all acquit the wicked:
‘the Lorp hath his way in the whirl-
wind and in the storm, and the
clouds are the dust of his feet. 4
eHe rebuketh the sea, and maketh
it dry, and drieth up all the rivers:

 

¢ Deut. 32. 35; Psa. 94. 1; Isa. 59. 18.
—— Heb. that hath fury.——4 Exod. 34. 6,
7; Neh. 9.17; Psa. 103. 8; Jonah 4. 2.—

eJob 9, 4.—1! Psa. 18. 7, etc.; 97. 2.—
{Hab. 3. 5, 11, 12.— Psa. 106. 9: Isa.
50. 2; Matt. 8. 26.

 

Revengeth—Better, R. V., ‘‘aveng-
eth.” Jehovah must vindicate him-
self and his character, he must show
himself holy; hence he is bound to
avenge all wrongdoing, and to sweep
away all who seek to prevent the carry-
ing out of his holy purpose. Applied
to the case in hand, he must destroy
the Assyrians, who, through ill treat-
ment accorded to the chosen people,
have proved themselves his own ene-
mies. Furious—R. V., “full of
wrath”; literally, possessor of wrath.
The divine wrath may be defined as
“an energy of the divine nature called
forth by the presence of daring or
presumptuous transgression, and ex-
pressing the reaction of the divine
holiness against it, in the punishment
or destruction of the transgressor.”
The divine wrath, jealousy, and ven-
geance, all express essentially the same
idea (see further A. B. Davidson, The
Theology of the Old Testament, 318ff.).

3. While punishment is sure to
come, sometimes it is delayed. Slow
to anger—Or, long-suffering. He de-
lays the execution of judgment to
give the sinner an opportunity to re-
pent (Exod. xxxiv, 6). Great in
power—The relation of this clause to
its context is uncertain. Some under-
stand it of power of compassion and
magnanimity. If this is correct it
goes with the preceding, the thought
being, “Jehovah is slow to anger and
great in power of compassion; never-
theless, he will by no means acquit the
wicked.” The postponement of the
punishment must not be taken as an
indication of weak indulgence. A
comparison with Exod. xxxiv, 6, 7;
Joel ii, 13, leads Nowack to change
“power’’ into “loving-kindness.”” Oth-
ers take “power” in the sense of power

 

to accomplish a thing, or ability to
execute judgment; “Jehovah is, in-
deed, slow to anger, but he is also
great in power, and will by no means
acquit the wicked.” Either interpre-
tation gives good sense. Acquit the
wicked—R. V., “clear the guilty.”
“Wicked” or “guilty” is not in the
original. The verb is used absolutely,
since the context makes it plain who
will not be acquitted or left unpun-
ished (Exod. xxxiv, 7).

From the description of the divine
character the prophet passes to a de-
scription of the manifestations of the
divine wrath. The appearance of Je-
hovah in judgment is pictured, as fre-
quently, in the imagery of a fierce
thunderstorm. Jehovah hath his way
in the whirlwind and in the storm—A
picture of the terribleness of his com-
ing. No wonder his enemies will be
thrown into confusion (compare Mic.
i, 3, 4; Psa. xviii, 7ff.). Clouds are the
dust of his feet-—As he advances in the
storm he treads upon the clouds as if
they were nothing more than the dust
of the street. Nowack’s change,
“clouds and dust are at his feet,” is a
weak emendation in this highly poetic
passage. In the alphabetic arrange-
ment of the same author 3a is placed
after 9a, which is followed by 2c, d
(see p. 435).

4, 5. He rebuketh the sea—By the
blast of the whirlwind (verse 3) he
rebukes the sea, and in terror it dries
up (compare Psa. xviii, 15). There
may be an allusion to the dividing of
the Red Sea (Exod. xiv, 21; compare
Psa. evi, 9), and of the Jordan (Josh.
iii, 17). Drieth up all the rivers—
Either in the same manner or, as the
following clauses make probable, by
means of drought, which was always
CHAPTER I.

445

 

Bashan languisheth, and Carmel,
and the flower of Lebanon languish-
eth. 5 ‘The mountains quake at
him, and ‘the hills melt, and ‘the
earth is burned at his presence, yea,
the world, and all that dwell therein.

6 Who can stand before his indigna-
tion? and "who can ‘abide in the
fierceness of his anger? this fury is
poured out like fire, and the rocks
are thrown down by him. 7 The
Lorp zs good, a ‘strong hold in the

 

h Isa. 33, 9.—i Psa. 68. 8.—-k Judg. 5.
5; Psa. 97. 5; Mic. 1. 4.—12 Pet. 3. 10.

——™ Mal. 3. 2.

8 Heb. stand up. Rev. 16. 1.—
°1 Chron. 16. 34; Psa. 100. 5; Jer. 33. 11;
Lam. 3. 25.——* Or, strength.

 

 

considered an expression of the divine
wrath (Joel i, 20; 1 Kings xvii, 7).
For 4b compare Amos i, 2. Bashan—
See on Amos iv, 1. Carmel—See on
Amos i, 2; ix, 3. Flower of Lebanon
—See “his smell as Lebanon” (Hos.
xiv, 6). Languisheth—The same word
is used in Joel i, 10, 12 (see there).
The mountains quake at him—Liter-
ally, from him. The power that makcs
them quake proceeds from Jehovah.
The imagery of verse 3 is continued;
when the mountains hear the roar of
the thunder they tremble in terror
(Mic. i, 3, 4; Judg. v, 4; Hab. iii, 6).
The hills melt—The thunderstorm is
accompanied by heavy rainfall; the
water rushes down the hills in such
torrents that it looks as if the hills
themselves are melting (Mic. i, 4;
Judg. v, 5). The earth is burned at
his presence—R. V., “upheaved.”
The translation of A. V. follows late
Jewish authorities; it derives no sup-
port from the Old Testament usage
of the verb; that of the R. V. also is
not without difficulties. Literally, the
earth lifts up. To secure the meaning
“is upheaved” or “lifts itself up,” the
verb form needs to be changed. If
that is done the reference will be to
the terror produced by the terrible
manifestation of Jehovah. The earth
seems to start up and tremble when
it hears the thunder (Psa. xxix, 8; a
different picture is in Amos ix, 5).
Some commentators trace the verb to
a different root and give to it a dif-
ferent meaning; Nowack renders, “be-
comes waste”; Marti, “roars.” The
world—The habitable portion of the
earth. All that dwell therein—Man
and all other living creatures. <A
common Old Testament expression
(Psa. xxiv, 1; xeviii, 7).

 

6. In the face of these terrible
manifestations of Jehovah, which
may be likened to devouring fire
(Deut. iv, 24), and which break
asunder the rocks (Jer. xxiii, 29), no
human being can stand. Poured out
like fire—The divine wrath in its de-
structiveness is often likened to a
stream of fire (Jer. vii, 20; Isa. xxx,
33; 2 Chron. xxxiv, 25). Thrown
down—R. V., “broken asunder.” A
very slight alteration would give “‘are
kindled,” which, in the light of the
parallel clause, seems preferable.

Overthrow of Nineveh; deliverance of
Judah, 7-15.

In i, 7-15, the prophet applies the
general truths expressed in i, 2-6, to
the case in hand. The divine wrath
will manifest itself in the overthrow
of the enemies of God’s people, chief
among whom is Assyria, with its
capital, Nineveh. With this power
out of the way, the excellence of Judah
may be restored. Verses 7, 8 are still,
in a sense, introductory; they affirm
in general terms the fact that Jehovah
is the stronghold of those who put
their trust in him, and, on the other
hand, that he “pursues his enemies
into darkness.”

7. Jehovah is good, a stronghold in
the day of trouble—LXX., “Good is
the Lord to those who trust in him
in the day of trouble,” which gives a
sentence parallel in thought to the one
following. Nowack and others think
that neither the present Hebrew text
nor LXX. has preserved the original;
he reconstructs 7a, partly to secure
his alphabetic arrangement, “Good is
Jehovah to those who trust in him, a
stronghold in the day of trouble.”
Stronghold—A place of defense, of
446

NAHUM.

 

day of trouble; and ehe knoweth
them that trust in him. 8 «But
with an overrunning flood he will
make an utter end of the place

P Psa. 1. 6; 2 Tim, 2. 19.—4 Dan. 9. 26;
11. 10, 22, 40.

shelter. Whatever the exact wording
of the original, the sense is that Je-
hovah cares for those who put their
trust in him even in the hour of deep-
est distress (Psa. xxxvii, 39). Hence
Judah, though oppressed, need not
despair. He knoweth—See on Hos.
viii, 4. Here in a favorable sense,
“care,” “guide” (Hos. xiii, 5; Psa. i,
6). “God is said to know them who
hope in him, because he always
watches over them, and takes care of
their safety; in short, this knowledge
is nothing else but the care of God, or
his providence in preserving the faith-
ful” (Calvin).

8. Toward his enemies he manifests
a darker side. Make an utter end of
the place thereof—Literally, he will
make her place a full end. The pro-
noun can refer only to Nineveh, but
in the absence of a previous naming
of the city in the address proper—the
mention in the heading isnot sufficient
—the use of the pronoun is strange.
LXX. and other ancient versions read,
instead of “of the place thereof,” “of
those who rise up against him,” equiv-
alent to “his adversaries,” which gives
a good parallel to the succeeding clause,
and is probably to be accepted as
original. If the present text is re-
tained the destruction of Nineveh is
announced. The personified Nineveh
(compare iii, 4) is distinguished from
her city; the latter Jehovah will sweep
away. An overrunning flood—A pic-
ture of the resistless power of Jehovah
or of the unchecked advance of the
divinely appointed executioner (com-
pare Isa. viii, 8; xxviii, 15). Dark-
ness shall pursue his enemies—R. V.,
“he will pursue his enemies into dark-
ness.”” Darkness symbolizes calamity
and despair. The ancient versions
agree with A. V. in taking “darkness”
as the subject, and this is perhaps
preferable.

 

thereof, and darkness shall pursue
his enemies. 9 "What do ye imagine
against the LorpD? she will make an
utter end: affliction shall not vise up

r Psa. 2. 1.—+ 1 Sam. 3. 12.

The English translations interpret
verses 9, 10 as addressed to the ene-
mies of Jehovah (verse 8). These are,
if chapter i is a part of Nahum’s ut-
terances, the Assyrians, represented
throughout the book by their capital
city, Nineveh. However, it is possible
to understand the words as addressed
to Judah, intended to comfort the na-
tion in its present distress. If so, the
translation must be changed (see
below). What do ye imagine [‘‘de-
vise’’] against Jehovah—In anger Je-
hovah asks the Assyrians what are
their unrighteous schemes against him
(compare Hos. vii, 15), or against his
people. They will not be able to carry
them out, for he will utterly destroy
them (compare Isa. vii, 5-7). If
Judah is addressed the words must be
translated, “What think ye of Je-
hovah?”’ In verse 11, where the
translation is rightly “imagine
against,” a different construction is
used in the original. The question
addressed to the anxious and op-
pressed Jews, would mean, Do you
think that Jehovah cannot or will
not deliver you from your present
enemies, that in the present crisis he
will fail to carry out the threat of
verse 8? Reassurance is given in 9b,
10. He will indeed make a full end
of them. Affliction—If addressed to
Nineveh the noun is used in the sense
of “judgment,” a rather uncommon
usage; if addressed to Judah the usual
meaning is retained. The second time
—If addressed to Nineveh the thought
is that the blow about to be dealt will be
sufficient to annihilate; a second judg-
ment is not needed (1 Sam. xxvi, 8).
If addressed to Judah, it becomes a
promise that the present deliverance
will be permanent. Once Jehovah per-
mitted Judah to be afflicted—by
Sennacherib; he will not do_ it
again.
CHAPTER I.

447

 

the second time. 10 For while they
be folden together ‘as thorns, vand
while they are drunken as drunk-
ards, *they shall be devoured as
stubble fully dry. 11 There is one

come out of thee, ythat imagineth
evil against the Lorp, 6a wicked
counselor. 12 Thus saith the Lorp;
*Though they be quiet, and likewise
many, yet thus ‘shall they be 7cut

 

t2 Sam. 23. 6, 7. uChap. 3. 11.—-
x Mal. 4. 1.—y2 Kings 19. 22, 23.—
5 Heb. a counselor of Belial.—és Or, [,
they would have been at peace, so shoul

 

they have been many, and so should they

have been shorn, and he should have

passed away. 22 Kings 19. 35, 37,—
Heb. shorn.

 

 

Verse 10 is obscure. It seems best,
however, to consider it the continua-
tion of the threat of judgment upon
Jehovah’s enemies. With one inter-
pretation of verse 9 it becomes prin-
cipally a threat against Assyria; with
the other, a message of comfort for
Judah. The translation of R. V.,
which differs considerably from that
of A. V., is to be preferred: “For en-
tangled like thorns, and drunken as
with their drink, they are consumed
utterly as dry stubble.” A more sat-
isfactory connection with verse 9
would be established if the first con-
junction could be rendered “though.”
Entangled like thorns (R. V..—Though
the Ninevites were apparently unassail-
able, because surrounded with de-
fenses as with impenetrable thorn
hedges, and though, like these, they
could inflict injury upon anyone ap-
proaching them, they will be unable to
withstand the fierce anger of Jehovah.
Drunken as with their drink (R. V.)
—Though the thorn hedge would be so
soaked with water that ordinary fire
could not harm it, the fire of Jehovah
will be effective. If thisis the mean-
ing, instead of “drunken” we should
read “‘wet’’ or “wetted.” “As with
their drink’ may be an allusion to the
excesses and revelry of the Assyrian
court. It is not easy to get the above-
suggested meaning from the present
Hebrew text; besides, A. B. Davidson
suggests, not without reason, ‘“‘a wit-
ticism of this sort is altogether im-
probable.” It is quite possible that
the Hebrew has suffered in transmis-
sion. The ancient versions do not re-
lieve the difficulty. As dry stubble
(R. V.)—Which is readily consumed
(Isa. v, 24). For Nowack’s emenda-
tion see p. 435; similarly Marti.

In verses 9-15 the persons ad-

 

dressed seem to change very fre-
quently, without any indication of
the fact in the Hebrew. Verses 9, 10
seem to be addressed to Judah; 11, to
Nineveh; 12, 13, to Judah; 14, to As-
syria; 15, to Judah; ii, 1, to Assyria;
ii, 2, to Judah; ii, 3ff., to Nineveh.
Such frequent changes are unusual,
but only sweeping emendations,other-
wise unnecessary, can remove the pe-
culiarity (compare Nowack’s emen-
dations, p. 435). Verse 11 seems to be
addressed to Nineveh; she deserves
the destruction decreed by Jehovah,
because she has devised evil against
him. There is one come out of thee—
Perhaps an allusion to Sennacherib,
who devised evil against Jehovah,
against his sanctuary, and against his
city (Isa. x, 5-15; xxxvi, 14-20); but
the prophet may think also of other |
hostile acts of the Assyrians against
the people of Jehovah. Jehovah must
vindicate himself against any attempt
to discredit his supremacy.

If the Hebrew of verse 12, which,
like that of verse 10, is peculiar and
obscure, is correct, R. V. gives a more
satisfactory rendering than A. V.:
“Though they may be in full strength,
and likewise many, even so shall they
be cut down, and he shall pass away.
Though I have afflicted thee, I will
afflict thee no more.’ Even the an-
cient translators found this verse ob-
scure, and they greatly differ from one
another in their reproductions of the
same. The words seem to be ad-
dressed to Judah concerning the
dreaded foe, the Assyrian. In full
strength—Literally, intact. Though
they may use all their marvelous re-
sources. Likewise many—Their num-
bers are great. Isaiah likens them to
a swarm of bees (Isa. vii, 18). Even
so—In spite of their unlimited re-
448

NAHUM.

 

down, when he shall pass through.
Though I have afflicted thee, I will
afflict thee no more. 13 For now
will I *break his yoke from off thee,
and will burst thy bonds in sunder.
14 And the Lorgp hath given a com-

mandment concerning thee, that no
more of thy name be sown: out of
the house of thy gods will I cut off
the graven image and the molten
image: eI will make thy grave; for
thou art vile. 15 Behold ¢upon the

 

Isa. 8 8; Dan. 11. 10.—> Jer. 2. 20;
30. 8.

6 2 Kings 19, 37.—4 Isa. 52. 7; Rom.
. 15.

 

sources and great numbers. Cut down
—The verb is ‘‘used elsewhere only of
shearing sheep or the hair of the
head”; the noun derived from the
same root is used also of the mowing
of grass (Psa. lxxii, 6; compare Amos
vii, 1). Either the prophet changes
the figure and thinks of the armies
spread out like a meadow ready to be
mowed, or he generalizes the meaning
of the verb. If the latter, he may be
thinking of slaughter by the sword or
the cutting down of a thorn hedge
(verse 11). He shall pass away—
LXX. reads the plural “they,” and
this is preferable, unless we assume
that the author used the singular pur-
posely, to express the idea that the
mighty army will vanish like a single
individual. For Nowack’s reconstruc-
tion of 12a see p. 435.

Though I have afflicted thee—Dur-
ing the Assyrian supremacy. The end
is now in sight; Jehovah will not again
afflict his people. Another possible
rendering is suggested in margin R.
V., “So will I afflict thee, that I shall
afflict thee no more.” - This would
compel us to understand the words as
a threat addressed to Nineveh. There
will be but one blow; it will be suffi-
cient to annihilate; a second one will
not be needed. If the present text of
verse 13 is retained the first interpre-
tation is to be preferred. As verse 13
stands at present (compare Nowack,
p. 435), it states how the humiliation is
to be brought to an end. Break his
yoke . .. thy bonds—Jehovah will
break the yoke which Assyria has
laid upon Judah; he will burst asunder
the bonds which hold Judah in the
power of the enemy (compare Isa. x,
27; Jer. xxx, 8; Ezek. xxxiv, 27; Psa.
ii, 3)

Verse 14 is addressed to Assyria or

 

Nineveh in the person of their king.
Their utter annihilation has been de-
creed by Jehovah. No more of thy
name be sown—lIf understood of the
king himself it means that his family
will die out; his name will not be per-
petuated in his children. It is better,
however, to understand it of the city
or state; its name and renown will no
longer be heralded over the world, for
it will be completely destroyed. The
expression is peculiar, and Nowack
reads, ‘‘No more shall thy name be
remembered,” which, while retaining
the same idea, is smoother; the very
names of Assyria and Nineveh will be
forgotten. In the general upheaval
the idols will be cut off. Graven
image—See on Mic. v, 13. Molten
image—Images of metal, made by
running melted metal into a mold.
The two combined denote, in this
passage, all kinds of idolatrous images
(Deut. xxvii, 15). I will make thy
grave—lI will prepare a grave for thee;
a threat which implies the destruction
or death of the one against whom the
threat is uttered. Peshitto, “I will
turn it (“the house of thy gods’’) into
thy grave” (similarly Targum). For
thou art vile—Or, thou art light. He
has been weighed and found wanting
(Dan. v, 27), hence he will be cast
away. With the common rendering
the idea is that his measure of iniquity
is full, hence he must die. Bickell
unites what are the last two clauses
into one, by reading for the last two
words in Hebrew, a single word, and
translates, “I will make thy graves
into dunghills,” that is, objects of
loathing and disgust. The noun which
he translates “dunghills” occurs no-
where else in the Old Testament, but
a similar word is found in Hab. ii, 16,
and the above meaning may be estab-
CHAPTER IL

449

 

mountains the feet of him that
bringeth good tidings, that pub-
lisheth peace! O Judah, *keep thy
solemn feasts, pee thy vows:
for ° ‘the wicked shall no more pass
through thee; the is utterly cut off.

CHAPTER II.
HE 1 sthat dasheth in pieces is
come up before thy face: bkeep
the munition, watch the way, make
thy loins strong, fortify thy power
mightily. 2 *For the Lorp hath

 

8 Heb. feast.——9 Heb. Beltal.m Verses
11, 12.—4 Verse 14.

 

1 Or, The disperser, or, hammer.
= Jer. 50, 28. ——> Jer. 51. 11, 12; chap. 3.
14, © Isa. 10. 12; Jer. 25. 29.

 

lished from the Aramaic. That there
is some corruption of the text is quite
possible, but it may be questioned
whether Bickell has furnished the
right solution (for Nowack’s emenda-
tion see p. 435).

15. The destruction of the Assyrian
will mean the exaltation of Judah. The
prophet sees the messenger speeding
over the mountains to tell the glad
news to the hitherto oppressed people.
He bids Judah to behold the messen-
ger, to proclaim joyous feasts, and to
pay to Jehovah the vows made in ad-
versity. A very sublime passage.
Upon the mountains—Of Judah. Heis
hastening toward the holy city; and
from the mountain tops he proclaims
the good tidings that they may be
heard far and wide. Keep thy...
feasts—Or, pilgrimages (see on Hos. ii,
11). During the period of oppression
these could not be kept properly; now
they may be resumed with rejoicing.
Perform thy vows—Those made in the
days of adversity. Now they may be
paid, for permanent deliverance has
come. The wicked [“one”}—Literally,
wickedness, or worthlessness (verse 11).
Assyria, in the person of the king, is
wickedness personified. He can no
longer disturb the peace of Jerusalem
for he is cut off forever.

CHAPTER II.

Srece anD DestrucTION or NINEVEH;
Sack or THE Cry, 1-10.

From the declaration that the doom
of Nineveh is decreed the prophet
passes to a description of the carrying
out of the decree. The army that is
ordained to execute the judgment is
already approaching (1); in imagina-
tion the prophet beholds its terrible

 

attacks against the city, the glittering
weapons, the raging chariots (3, 4).
Desperate efforts are made to save the
city, but in vain, and it falls (5, 6);
the queen and her attendants are cap-
tured (7); the inhabitants fice (8);
the city is sacked and left a desolation
(9, 10).

Verse 1 is addressed, like i, 14, to
Assyria—Nineveh. He that dasheth
in pieces—Literally, he that scatters.
Translated in Prov. xxv, 18, ‘maul’;
a similar word, which some think
should be read here, is translated in
Jer. li, 20, “‘battle-axe.” The city is
exhorted to prepare for the struggle.
Keep the munition—R. V., “fortress” ;
better, fortification, the wall around
the city. This is to be guarded, lest
it fall into the hands of the enemy
Some render simply ‘“‘keep watch.”
Watch the way—By which the enemy
approaches, so as to guard against
disastrous surprises. Make thy loins
strong—Perhaps equivalent to gird
thy loins, that is, prepare for vigorous
action (compare Isa. v, 27). Fortify
thy power mightily—Collect all thy
power and resources; equivalent to
strain every nerve.

In verse 2 the translation of R. V.
is undoubtedly to be preferred: “For
Jehovah restoreth the excellency of
Jacob, as the excellency of Israel;
for the emptiers have emptied them
out, and destroyed their vine
branches.” The verse is taken by
some as the continuation of i, 15,
while ii, 3, is thought to be the con-
tinuation of ii, 1. This transposi-
tion would greatly improve the
development of the thought; and the
only serious objection to it is that
ii, 2, would be a weak conclusion of
the first section of the book. In
450

NAHUM.

 

turned away *the excellency of Ja-
cob, as the excellency of Israel: for
‘the emptiers have emptied them
out, and marred their vine branches.

3 The shield of his mighty men is
made ‘red, the valiant men are 4in
scarlet: the chariots shall be with
‘flaming torches in the day of his

 

2Or, the pride of Jacob as the pride of
Israel.

d Psa. 80.12; Hos. 10. 1.— Isa. 63. 2,3.
—-3 Or, dyed scarlet.——4 Or, flery torches.

 

either case the thought remains es-
sentially the same. If left in its
present position, verse 2 explains why
Nineveh must be destroyed: to clear
the way for the exaltation of Judah;
if it is placed after i, 15, it explains
why Judah is exhorted to rejoice:
because the excellency of Judah is
about to be restored. Instead of “as
the excellency of Israel’ we should
read ‘and the excellency of Israel.”
Jacob, . . . Israel—Synonyms, both
referring to the southern kingdom,
which was the only one in existence in
the days of Nahum. Excellency—The
nation, at present oppressed and af-
flicted, will be restored to the position
of glory and splendor enjoyed in the
days of David. This restoration must
be accomplished by Jehovah, for the
nation is in a hopeless condition. The
emptiers—The enemies who at various
times plundered and desolated Judah;
the chief among these were the As-
syrians. Marred [“‘destroyed’’] their
vine branches—Judah is likened here
to a vineyard, or, perhaps better, to a
vine, whose branches have been ruth-
lessly destroyed (compare Isa. v, 1-7;
Jer. xii, 10).

In verses 3ff. (continuing verse 1)
the prophet describes the attack of
the besieging army. His mighty men
—tThe soldiers of the hostile army are
preparing for attack. The shield...
is made red—Since this is still “in the
day of his preparation,” that is, be-
fore the attack and battle, the red
cannot be caused by the blood of the
slain; it must be some color other than
blood reflected by the shields. Some
connect this passage with Josephus,
Antiquities, xiti, 12, 5, which mentions
“shields of brass (copper)” and
“shields covered with brass”; these
shields are said in 1 Mace. vi, 39, to
blaze in the sunlight “like torches of

 

fire.’ On the other hand, there may
be an allusion to the custom of
“anointing” shields (Isa. xxi, 5),
which in some cases may have taken
the form of coloring them. In
scarlet-—Again, not a reference to
blood, but to the scarlet color of the
uniforms (Ezek. xxiii, 14). The char-
iots shall be with flaming torches—
R. V., “the chariots flash with steel’;
literally, with fire of steel are the char-
tots. An obscure expression. The
word pelédhoth, rendered “steel” in
R. V., is rendered “torches” in A. V.
(compare verse 4, where the Hebrew
has lappidhtm); in order to get such
meaning here, a transposition of the
consonants must be assumed. The
translation “‘steel’’ is based upon the
meaning of a similar Arabic word, but
in the latter language the noun seems
to be a loan word from the Persian;
if so, we would hardly expect to find
it in Hebrew in the time of Nahum.
A third translation, based upon the
similarity of the noun with an Arabic
verb, “‘to cut,” is “scythes.” This
translation is made improbable by the
fact that chariots furnished with
scythes appear to be a later invention.
Tradition ascribes the invention to
Cyrus, and they are referred to for
the first time in connection with the
battle of Cunaxa (Anabasis, i, 8, 10);
in Jewish literature they are first
mentioned in 2 Mace. xiii, 2. From
the same root “cut” there is derived
the meaning “divide”; here, “fire
which divides itself,” that is, flashing
fire. This meaning also is doubtful.
Jeremias has suggested that the word
may refer to the steel coverings of As-
syrian chariots or of machines used
in attacks upon the walls. Following
this suggestion, Cheyne proposes to
change the word into hallépheth, the
Assyrian halluptu, meaning “cover-
CHAPTER IL

451

 

prep and the fir trees shall
e terribly shaken. 4 The chariots
shall rage in the streets, they shall
jostle one against another in the
road ways: ‘they shall seem like

torches, they shall run like the light-
nings. 5 He shall recount his
*worthies: they shall stumble in
their walk; they shall make haste
to the wall thereof, and the 7defense

 

5 Heb. thetr show.—— Or, gallants.

7 Heb. covering, or, coverer.

 

ing.” Whether the alteration is made
or not, it is quite likely that Jeremias’s
suggestion is correct. The text be-
comes smoother if ‘with fire’ is
changed into “like fire,” so that the
entire clause reads, “‘like fire are the
steel coverings of the chariots.” Day
of his preparation—The attack is not
yet in progress. Fir trees—Better, R.
V., “cypress spears.” Terribly shaken
—The verb occurs only here in the Old
Testament, but the cognate languages
establish the meaning “to move
tremblingly,” ‘‘to reel.” Here the
reference is to the swinging of the
spears by the excited warriors. LXX.
and Peshitto read “horsemen” or
“horses,” and in view of the peculiar
expression “fir trees” in the sense of
spears made of fir or cypress wood many
consider that the original; if so, the
verb refers to the restless movements
of the cavalry.

Verse 4 describes the furious charge.
The chariots—Of the attacking army.
Shall rage—Better, R. V., “rage.” It
is a description of something present
to the mental vision of the prophet.
The verb means “‘to behave foolishly,”
“to rave’; here it is used of mad
driving (Jer. xlvi, 9; compare 2 Kings
ix, 20), parallel to and synonymous
with “rush to and fro” in the next
clause. In the streets ... broad ways
—Or, places. Not the streets and open
places within the city, but those out-
side the city walls, where the battle
rages The defenders try to prevent
the besiegers from getting inside.
Torches—As the steel-covered char-
iots race to and fro in the light of the
sun they look like flaming torches.
Like the lightnings—With lightning-
like rapidity they speed from place to
place, driving back or treading down
the defenders.

Verse 6 continues the description of

 

the attack; hence we would expect
verse 5 also to refer to actions of the
attacking army; so Nowack and
others. But, as the text reads now,
unexpected as the transition may be,
it is more natural to understand verse
5 as describing the defensive measures
taken by the king of Nineveh. As in
verse 4 the tense should be reproduced
by the present. Recount his worthies
—Better, R. V., “remembereth his
nobles.” “The Assyrian monarch,
surprised in his careless carousing,
arouses himself and calls on his nobles
(iii, 18) to rush to the walls, to drive
back the enemy already thundering
at the gates.” Stumble in their walk
—As a result of debauchery or of the
prolonged siege, which has exhausted
their strength. Though the siege of
Ninevel lasted about two years, the
prophet condenses the long struggle
in a few vivid pictures of the final
attack. Weary and worn, as they
are, they make all possible haste.
Defense shall be prepared—R. V., “‘the
mantelet is prepared.” The meaning
of the word translated “defense” or
“mantelet”’ is uncertain. Heb. sdé-
khekh; literally, coverer. It is probably
a technical military term; as such it
may be applied to a body of soldiers
ordered to cover or protect the city,
or to a roof or some other arrangement
that covers, and thus protects, sol-
diers. In this case the latter is more
probable. “City walls were usually
provided with turrets or battlements
projecting forward over the walls,
from which the besieged could ob-
serve the movements of the enemies
at the foot, and hurl destructive mis-
siles upon them.”” Such coverings are
prepared hastily by the defenders.
Those who interpret verse 5, or at
least 5b, as describing the offensive
measures must give a different mean-
452

NAHUM.

 

shall be prepared. 6 The gates of
the rivers shall be opened, and the

8 Or, molten.——® Or, that which was
established, or, there was a stand made.

palace shall be dissolved. 7 And
°Huzzab shall be led away cap-

10 Or, discovered.

 

ing to the term; they take it to denote
a cover erected for the purpose of
protecting the soldiers who attack the
walls from the outside. ‘They (the
defenders),” says Von Orelli, “reel to
the wall, where the storming cover of
the besiegers is already erected; and
so the best chance of resistance is al-
ready lost.” Jeremias, on the other
hand, has suggested that it may de-
note the “covering” attached to bat-
tering rams, which protects the sol-
diers directing the attack, and even the
battering ram itself (compare Bei-
traege zur Assyriologie, iii, i, 101, 178ff.)
If this suggestion is correct the
thought is that when the nobles reach
the walls they discover that the enemy
is already approaching with his bat-
tering machines. The interpreta-
tions of Von Orelli and of Jeremias-
Billerbeck give good sense, but, as
the text stands now, the interpreta-
tion which takes the entire verse as
a description of the defensive meas-
ures is to be preferred.

6. The defensive measures prove in-
effective; the city is taken. The gates
of the rivers shall be [‘‘are’’] opened—
The rivers are the Tigris, the Choser,
and the canals supplied with water
chiefly from these. Nineveh was lo-
cated on the east side of the Tigris.
It was surrounded by walls, and these
were protected by moats. The city
was cut into two parts by the river
Choser, which emptied into the Tigris.
The water supply for the moats as
well as for general use came from these
rivers, and from streams and canals
that came from the hills in the north-
east. The “gates of the rivers” are
the points in the city walls where the
streams or canals enter the city. With
these gates would be connected sluices
by which the flow of water might be
regulated. The indiscriminate or ma-
licious opening of the sluices would
set. the water free and cause the under-

 

mining of the walls and the inunda-
tion of the city. Some think, with less
probability, that the reference is to
the opening of the sluices of the moats,
permitting the water to run out, and
thus enabling the attacking army to
cross the moats dry shod. If the latter
were the thought the reference would
be expected to precede the description
of the attack upon the city wall itself,
since the moats were some distance
from the walls. The succeeding ex-
pression also favors the former inter-
pretation. The palace shall be [‘‘is’’]
dissolved—Might be understood lit-
erally, since the buildings in whose
erection sun-dried bricks were used
would easily be dissolved by the over-
flowing water; but amore general in-
terpretation is equally permissible:
the inhabitants of the palace are over-
whelmed by despair. The expression
is suggested by the one preceding,
“the gates of the rivers are opened.”

Verse 7 seems to picture a scene in
the palace subsequent to the fall of
the city, but certainty is impossible,
since the text is in several places very
obscure, aS a@ comparison of A. V.
with R. V. will readily show. R. V.
reads, ‘‘And it is decreed: she is un-
covered, she is carried away; and her
handmaids moan as with the voice of
doves, beating upon their breasts.”
The first difficulty is in the Hebrew
huzzabh, which A. V. takes as a proper
noun, while R. V. translates it as a
verb form, “‘it is decreed,’’ that is, by
Jehovah. According to the Revisers,
the rest of verse 7 contains the sub-
stance of the decree. “She” they
seem io interpret of Nineveh (8), per-
sonified as a queen; the “‘handmaids”
are the inhabitants mourning over the
fate of their city. It is very doubtful,
however, that huzzabh can be trans-
lated “it is decreed”; and even if it
could be thus translated, the state-
ment of the decree in the midst of the
CHAPTER II.

453

 

tive, she shall be brought up, and
her maids shall lead her as with the
voice of ‘doves, tabering upon their
breasts. 8 But Nineveh is "of old
like a pool of water: yet they shall

flee away. Stand, stand, shall they
cry; but none shall "look back,

9 Take ye the spoil of silver, take

the spoil of gold: for there is none
end of the store and glory out of

 

fIsa. 38. 14; 59. 11.— Or, from the
days that she hath been.

12 Or, cause them to turn.— 13 Or, and
their infinite store, etc.

 

description of the fall of the’ city
sounds peculiar. The tone of the en-
tire verse suggests that it is descrip-
tive of the fate of the queen and of
the mourning of her attendants.
Therefore, from the earliest times,
huzzabh has been interpreted as in
some way denoting the queen, either
as a proper name, or as an epithet
descriptive of her. As a proper name
it is not known otherwise; it might,
perhaps, be a foreign name; as an
epithet it is difficult of explanation
in its present form. Kimchi con-
nected it with the verb used in Psa.
xlv, 9, ‘at thy right hand doth stand
the queen”; hence the queen might
be called “the one standing”; but,
aside from the peculiarity of such
expression, the form of the verb used
here would remain unexplained. Hit-
zig changes the vowel points and
reads “the lizard,” and he suggests
that this name is applied to the queen
because she, like this “‘creature which
takes refuge in holes,” has taken
refuge in out-of-the-way places in the
palace. Some, following the usage of
the Arabic, suggest the meaning “‘lit-
ter” (Isa. Ixvi, 20), and then ‘the
lady carried in the litter,” that is, the
queen. All these suggestions are in-
genious but improbable. Others
think that the noun “queen” has
dropped out or that huzzabh is a cor-
ruption of that noun. The difficulty
is still unsolved, but the probability is
that the subject of the verbs in 7a
is the queen. Led away captive—Bet-
ter, R. V., “uncovered,” or discov-
ered, in the secret place where she
sought to hide. Brought up—R. V.,
“carried away,” into exile. A. V. is
to be preferred; she is dragged up
from her hiding place. Lead her—
Better, R. V., “moan.” As with the
voice of doves—The sighs and wails

 

of mourners are often compared
to the mourning of doves (Isa. lix,
11; Ezek. vii, 16). The comparison is
found also in Arabic and Assyrian;
in the latter language the dove is
called summatu, “she who mourns.”
Tabering—R. V., “beating.” Upon
their breasts—A common gesture of
grief or despair among the Jews
(Josephus, Antiquities, xvi, 7, 5; Luke
Xviii, 13; xxiii, 27).

Verse 8 describes the precipitate
flight of the inhabitants. Like a pool
of water—Nineveh, now named for
the first time in the prophecy proper,
is likened to a pool of water, because
in the city were gathered multitudes
of individuals, as there are multitudes
of drops of water in a pool. Nowack
may be right in regarding the Hebrew
translated “of old,” or “from of old,”
due to dittography. With it omitted,
the first clause reads, “Nineveh, like
a pool of water is she.” The compari-
son is carried out in the rest of the
verse. They... flee away—The arti-
ficial pool is surrounded by a dam;
when it bursts the waters rush out;
thus, with its walls battered down,
the inhabitants of Nineveh scatter in
every direction, and, though urged to
stop, they pay no attention to the
ery (Jer. xlvi, 5).

9, 10. The sack of the city. The
prophet summons the victors to
plunder. Silver, . . . gold—Immense
quantities of these were carried to
Nineveh by the Assyrian kings. None
end of the store—The truth of this
statement is established by the in-
scriptions, which enumerate again and
again the enormous treasures brought
to Nineveh by her victorious armies
(see pp. 429f.).

Glory out of all the pleasant furni-
ture—R. V., “the glory of all goodly
furniture.”’ An obscure phrase, whose
454

NAHUM.

 

all the “pleasant furniture. 10 She
is empty, and void, and waste: and
the eheart melteth, and "the knees
smite together, iand much pain is
in all loins, and ‘the faces of them
all gather blackness. 11 Where is
the dwelling of !the lions, and the
feedingplace of the young _ lions,
where the lion, even the old lion,
walked, and the lion’s whelp, and
none made them afraid? 12 The

lion did tear in pieces enough for
his whelps, and strangled for his
lionesses, and filled his holes with
prey, and his dens with ravin. 13
Behold, I am against thee, saith
the Lorp of hosts, and I will burn
her chariots in the smoke, and the
sword shall devour thy young lions:
and I will cut off thy prey from the
earth, and the voice of "thy messen-
gers shall no more be heard.

 

14 Heb. vessels of destre.—-é Isa. 13. 7,
8.— Dan. 5. 6.—i Jer. 30. 6.—- Joel
2. 6.

l1Job 4, 10,11; Ezek. 19. 2-7.—™ Ezek.
29. 3; 38. 3; 39. 1; chap. 3. 5.—® 2 Kings
18. 17, 19; 19. 9, 23.

 

grammatical connection is not quite
clear; perhaps it is to be understood
as in apposition to the preceding
“store.” If so, instead of “glory” we
would better read with R. V. margin,
“wealth.” “Furniture” also cannot
be taken in the narrow sense of that
term; it must include jewels, costly
vessels, rich apparel—in fact, every-
thing that men consider precious; all
these will be found in great abun-
dance. The peculiarity of the present
Hebrew text has led Marti to emend
it so as to read, ‘Take for yourselves
the abundance of all kinds of precious
things.” Verse 10 concludes the de-
scription. Empty, ...void,... waste
—lIn the original a forceful play upon
words, which cannot be reproduced in
English (compare Zeph. i, 15; Isa.
xxiv, 1). With these three words,
similar in meaning and sound, the
prophet depicts the utter desolation
of Nineveh. The few who have re-
mained behind are paralyzed with
terror. Heart melteth—Their courage
gives out completely. The knees smite
together—Their whole body trembles
as a result of terror. Much pain—R.V.,
“anguish.” Isin all loins—As in the
case of a woman in childbirth (see on
Mic. iv, 9; Isa. xxi, 3). The faces of
them all gather blackness—R. V.,
“are waxed pale’’ (see on Joel ii, 6).

Tue PropHet’s FxULTATION OVER
‘tHE Fatt or Nineveg, 11-13.

11. The prophet rejoices because
the wicked city, the oppressor of
Judah, is no more. Where is the

 

dwelling of the lions—He very aptly
likens Nineveh to a den of lions. The
point of comparison is the cruelty and
rapacity of her kings and warriors.
Like lions they went about, seeking
whom they might devour, and with
the plunder they filled their den; “and
there was none that moved the wing,
or that opened the mouth, or chirped”
(Isa. x, 14). The cruelty and lust of
the Assyrian conquerors is further de-
scribed in verse 12; but the end has
come. 13. Jehovah can endure the
outrages no longer. The lions, their
den, and the plunder heaped up there
will be destroyed. Burn her chariots
in the smoke—Burn the chariots so
that they will go up in smoke. LXX.
and Peshitto have the pronoun of the
second person, “thy,” and this is
preferable; they also read ‘“‘multitude”
in the place of “chariots,’”’ which in-
volves the transposition of two con-
sonants; but in this case the Hebrew
is preferable. A slight change would
give “thy den,” which would be very
appropriate in this connection. Thy
prey—The magnificence, splendor, and
glory made possible by the prey taken
in military expeditions. The voice of
thy messengers shall no more be heard
—The power of the empire having van-
ished, no more messengers will be sent
to the subdued nations to issue orders
or demand tribute (Ezek. xix, 9). For
more than two centuries had the He-
brews suffered much from the Assyr-
ian armies. No wonder that with the
doom of the world power so near the
prophet breaks into a song of triumph,
CHAPTER IL

455

 

CHAPTER III.
\ K J OF to the ! *bloody city! it is
all full of lies and robbery; the
prey departeth not; 2 The noise of
a whip, and *the noise of the rattling
of the wheels, and of the prancing

horses, and of the jumping chariots.
3 The horseman lifteth up both *the
bright sword and the glittering
spear: and there is a multitude of
slain, and a great number of car-
casses; and there 7s none end of their

 

 

1 Heb. city of bloods
aL

a Ezek. 22. 2, 3;
24. 6, 9; Hab. 2. 12. 3.

b Jer. 47.

 

2 Heb. the flame of the sword, and the
lightning of the spear.

 

CHAPTER III.

NINEvEn’s VICES AND INEVITABLE
Doom, 1-19.

A woe is pronounced upon the
bloody city (1). Her doom is in-
evitable and imminent (2, 3), but it
is well deserved and no one will be-
moan her (4-7). Natural strength
and resources will avail no more in
her case than in the case of the Egyp-
tian No Amon (8-11). In spite of
her resources she will come to a ter-
rible end, and the whole earth will
rejoice because her power is departed
from her (12-19).

Verse 1 contains a woe upon the
bloody city. Bloody city—Literally,
city of blood, that is, of bloodshed, of
violence. Nineveh represents the
whole nation, which was founded and
held together by the sword. King
after king glories in the cruelties com-
mitted against conquerednations. The
words of Ashur-nasir-pal may serve as
an illustration: “With combat and
slaughter I attacked the city, I cap-
tured it; three thousand of their
fighting men I slew with,the sword.
Their spoil, their goods, their oxen,
their sheep I carried away. Their
numerous captives I burned with fire.
I captured many of the soldiers alive
with the hand; I cut off the hands and
feet of some; I cut off the noses, the
fingers, and ears of others; the eyes
of numerous soldiers I put out. I
built up a pyramid of the living and
a pyramid of heads... Their young
men and their maidens I burned.”
A kingdom thus founded and main-
tained lacks the elements of perma-
nency and sooner or later must go to
pieces. The epithet “bloody” is ex-
plained in the rest of verse 1. Full of
lies—Since the prophet is concerned

 

primarily with external politics, the
lies and deceit condemned here are
such as were practiced against other
nations, though it is not improbable
that they flourished also in the inter-
course of Assyrians with Assyrians.
Robbery—R. V., “rapine’”; literally,
tearing in pieces. A figure taken from
the practice of the lion (ii, 11, 12),
that tears to pieces whatever falls
into his power (Psa. vii, 2). The prey
departeth not—Not the prey taken, in
the sense that it is always plentiful,
but the prey-taking, that. is, robbery
and oppression, never ceases. It is
the one policy Assyria carried out
consistently from beginning to end.
Verses 2, 3 picture the fulfillment
of the woe. The hostile army attacks
and takes Nineveh, a great slaughter
ensues, and the city is filled with
corpses. Verse 2 describes the noise
of the onslaught: the cracking of the
whips as the charioteers urge on the
horses, the rattling of the wheels as
they speed along, the prancing of the
horses as they rage to and fro, and
the bumping of the chariots as they
rush wildly over the rugged roads,
made less passable through obstacles
placed in the way by the defenders.
Instead of “‘the noise of a whip, and
the noise of the rattling of the wheels,”
we might translate, “Hark! the whip!
and hark! the rattling of wheels!’
(G.-K., 146b.) Verse 3 depicts the
sights that meet the eye. The charge
is progressing; nearer and nearer the
enemy approaches; one can see dis-
tinctly his various movements. In
3a R. V. is to be preferred; and the
whole description becomes more vivid
if “there is” is omitted whenever, as
indicated by the italics, it is not in
the original. Mounting—Better, with
R, V. margin, “charging”; literally,
456

NAHUM.

 

corpses; they stumble upon their
corpses: 4 Because of the multitude
of the whoredoms of the well-
favored harlot, «the mistress of
witchcrafts, that selleth nations
through her whoredoms, and fam-
ilies through her witchcrafts. 5

e Isa. 47. 9, 12; Rev. 18, 2, 8.——4 Chap.
2, 13.

causing to ascend, that is, the horse;
to urge it to greater speed. Seen are
also the flashing swords and the glit-
tering spears. Scenes representing
charges of this sort are depicted on
numerous reliefs in the palaces of
Nineveh. The prophet describes the
sequel with equal vividness. The
defenders are slain; corpses are piled
up in heaps; the victorious assailants
stumble over them as they rush into
the city.

The retribution is just; no one pities
her, 4-7.

Verse 4 contains a new denuncia-
tion, justifying the judgment an-
nounced in verses 5-7. Nineveh is
personified as a harlot. Multitude of
the whoredoms—The figure of faith-
lessness to the marriage relation, when
applied to Israel, is used (1) of idol-
atry, (2) of alliances with other na-
tions, both being evidences of faith-
lessness to and lack of confidence in
Jehovah. Applied to other nations
it denotes improper political or com-
mercial intercourse (Isa. xxiii, 17).
Nahum, in this passage, refers not to
idolatry or falling away from the true
God, nor to protective alliances or
commercial intercourse, but, as Hitzig
has so well said, to ‘‘the treacherous
friendship and statecraft with which
the coquette in her search for con-
quests ensnared the smaller states.”
The well-favored harlot—Not, the one
receiving special favors, but ‘‘beauti-
ful,” “good-looking.” “Beauty and
charm is a point in the harlot.” With
her splendor and brilliancy Nineveh
dazzled and ensnared the nations.
Mistress of witchcrafts—In this con-
nection the expression does not de-
note black arts, but “the secret wiles

 

4Behold, I am against thee, saith
the Lorp of hosts; and «I will dis-
cover thy skirts upon thy face, ‘and
I will show the nations thy naked-
ness, and the kingdoms thy shame.
6 And I will.cast abominable filth
upon thee, and «make thee vile, and

elIsa. 47. 2,3; Jer. 13. 22, 26; Ezek. 16.
37; Mic. 1. 11.-—-f Hab. 2. 16.—# Mal. 2. 9.

which, like magical arts, do not come
to the light in themselves, but only
in their effects’ (compare 2 Kings ix,
22). By means of these crafty and
treacherous dealings Assyria made
easy victims of the other nations.
Nations . . . families—Synonymous
expressions denoting the nations
conquered by Assyria (Amos iii,
1). Selleth—Is used here not of
selling into bondage or slavery to
other nations, but in the general sense
of robbing of liberty, making tribu-
tary, or in the sense of consigning to
ruin (Deut. xxxii, 30; Esth. vii, 4).
A similar verb in Arabic means “en-
snare,” ‘“‘beguile,” and this meaning
is given by several commentators to
the verb in this passage.

5-7. Jehovah cannot overlook this
treacherous conduct. I am against
thee—See ii, 13. The punishment will
be according to the lex talionis. The
part of a harlot she has acted, the
fate of a harlot she must endure.
Discover—R. V., “uncover.” Thy
skirts—I will remove the skirts which
form the covering of the body, and
which by their gaudiness have added
much to her attractiveness. Upon
thy face—Or, over; so that the skirts
are drawn over the face. Margin ren-
ders, “before thy face.’ She must
look on as she is exposed naked to the
curious gaze of the bystanders. The
same picture is found several times
in the Old Testament (Jer. xiii, 26;
Isa. xlvii, 3; Hos. ii, 10); it may be
borrowed from an ancient custom of
exposing a harlot or adulteress in
public (Ezek. xvi, 37-40).

As she stands exposed she will be
subjected to indignities of every sort.
Abominable filth—Literally, abhor-
rence, or objects of abhorrence, applied
CHAPTER III.

457

 

will set thee as ‘a gazingstock. 7
And it shall come to pass, that all
they that look upon thee ‘shall flee
from thee, and say, Nineveh is laid
waste: ‘who will bemoan her?
whence shall I seek comforters for

thee? 8 Art thou better than * 4pop-
ulous ™No, that was situate among
the rivers, that had the waters round
about it, whose rampart was the
sea, and her wall was from the sea?
9 Ethiopia and Egypt were her

 

h Heb. 10. 33.— i Rev. 18. 10.—X Jer.
15, 5,——! Amos 6. 2.—3 Or, nourishing.

Heb.

4 No Amon.— Jer. 46. 25, 26;
Ezek.

30. 14-16.

 

quite frequently to idols; hence
Kleinert interprets the threat as
equivalent to “I will bury thee under-
neath thy idols’ (compare i, 14);
but it should be understood here in
a more general sense of things that
one views with abhorrence and dis-
gust, dirt and filth. To throw these
upon a person is a sign of greatest
contempt. Make thee vile—The same
verb is translated in Mic. vii, 6, “dis-
honor’; it means to accord con-
temptuous treatment, to insult (Jer.
xiv, 21). Hitzig, deriving it from a
different root, translates ‘cast carcass
upon.” Set thee as a gazingstock—
Literally, a sight. The treatment ac-
corded by Jehovah will be so startling
that the eyes of all who see it will be
fixed upon her in malicious joy (Ezek.
xxviii, 17, 18; compare Matt. i, 19;
1 Cor. iv, 9). The picture will be so
awful that the -on-lookers will be
horror-struck and flee in terror. In
7b the figure of the harlot is inter-
preted as applying to Nineveh. With-
out pity and sympathy she must go
to her ruin.

The fate of No Amon is to be the fate
of Nineveh, 8-11.

Nineveh may boast in her strong
defenses, but they will not save her.
No Amon in Egypt was the equal of
Nineveh in this respect, yet she suf-
fered inglorious defeat. Nineveh can
expect no better fate.

Art thou better—Better protected
or fortified; or, “shalt thou be better?”
that is, shalt thou have a better fate?
Populous No—Better, R. V., ‘‘No-
amon,” that is, No of the god Amon.
No is the Old Testament name of
Thebes, the capital of Upper Egypt
(Jer. xlvi, 25; Ezek. xxx, 14), whose
chief deity was Amon. It was a

 

prominent city from very early times,
and for many centuries it was the
center of Egyptian civilization and
power, until, in the seventh century,
it fell before the Assyrian invaders.
Its final capture by Ashurbanapal is
in the mind of the prophet (see p. 429).
The rest of verse 8 describes the loca-
tion of the city. Among the rivers—
The city proper lay on the eastern
banks of the Nile, here about fifteen
hundred feet wide. The noun is used
ordinarily of the Nile; the plural
might be explained as a plural of
majesty, “the great river’; but it
seems better to take it as including
the canals receiving the water from
the Nile (Exod. vii, 19). Waters
round about—The Nile and the canals
surrounded the city, thus forming a
natural defense. Perhaps moats
formed a part of the fortifications, as
in the case of Nineveh. Whose ram-
part was the sea—This translation
presupposes a slight change in the
original. The “sea” isthe Nile
which, during its overflow, resembles
a sea (compare Isa. xviii, 2; xix, 5;
Jer. li, 36). Her wall was from the
sea—R. V., “‘of the sea,” that is, con-
sisted of the sea, which would have
to be understood again of the Nile
but the construction is peculiar.
LXX., with a very slight change,
reads, ‘and waters were her wall,”
which is to be preferred. Some con-
sider, though on insufficient ground,
the description unsuitable for Thebes;
hence No Amon has been identified
with Memphis and several cities in
the Delta.

Verse 8 describes the natural
strength of the city; verse 9 points
to her military resources. Ethiopia—
See on Zeph. ii, 12. Egypt—At the
time No Amon was threatened
458

NAHUM.

 

strength, and zt was infinite; Put
and Lubim were ‘thy helpers. 10
Yet was she carried away, she went
into captivity: *her young children
also were dashedin pieces -at the

top of all the streets: and they "cast
lots for her honorable men, and 1
her great men were bound in chains.
141 Thou also shalt be adrunken:
thou shalt be hid, thou also shalt

 

5 Heb. in thy help.
13. 16; Hos. 13. 16.

n Psa, 137. 9; Isa.
o©Lam. 2.19.

 

 

Ethiopia and Egypt were one under
an Ethiopian dynasty, so that the
military strength of both might be
summoned to the defense of Egypt.
Infinite—Literally, without end (ii, 9;
iii, 3; Isa. ii, 7). Put and Lubim—The
latter are the Libyans, the people
settled west of Lower Egypt, who
had succeeded in securing a strong
foothold in the Delta itself. Put is
mentioned several times in the
Old Testament (Gen. x, 6; Ezek.
xxvii, 10; xxxviii, 5), but opinions
differ as to its location. It has been
identified with the Egyptian Punt,
corresponding to the modern Abyssin-
ian and Somali coast in Eastern Africa,
a country to which Egyptian kings
undertook expeditions (see on Zeph.
iii, 10). Against this identification it
has been urged that this district never
supplied Egypt with soldiers, which as-
sertion can neither be proved nor dis-
proved. LXX. sometimes translates
“Libyans”; for this reason, and be-
cause sometimes the two are named
together, some hold that they are
closely connected. Put has been
thought to denote all the peoples
west of Lower Egypt, while the
Libyans, in the narrower sense, were
the tribes immediately west of the
Delta; others make Put a distinct
tribe west of Libya. Other identifi-
cations, which have found some
support in an inscription of Nebu-
chadnezzar, make Put an _ island
of the Mediterranean or the coast
of Asia Minor, whence later Egyp-
tian kings secured mercenaries. Thy
helpers—Whatever the exact loca-
tion of Put, it, with Libya, fur-
nished soldiers for the defense of
Thebes. LXX. and other ancient
versions read “her helpers,’’ which,
in parallelism with “her strength,”
is preferable.

 

p Joel 3. 8; Obad. 11.—‘ Jer. 25. 17,
27; chap. 1. 10.

10. In spite of her natural strength
and her limitless resources No Amon
fell (p. 429), and her treasures were
carried to Assyria. Her young chil-
dren also were dashed in pieces—A
barbarous custom, not uncommon in
ancient warfare (Hos. xiii, 16; Isa.
xiii, 16); another cruel practice was
to rip up pregnant women (Amosi, 13;
Hos. xiii, 16), in order to exterminate
all male children, and thus prevent
future revolts. The “top” or ‘‘head”
of the streets (Isa. li, 20) is probably
the place where several streets meet,
the public square, where many might
see the execution. Cast lots for her
honorable men—The captured nobles
were distributed as slaves (see on Joel
iii, 3; Obad. 11). Her great men were
bound in chains—The inscription of
Ashurbanapal states that his com-
manders in Egypt ‘captured the re-
bellious kings and laid their hands
and feet in iron chains and iron
bonds.”

11. As Thebes with all her magnifi-
cence and splendor became a heap of
ruin, so Nineveh must fall under the
angry blows of Jehovah. Be drunken
—From the deep draught she must
take from the cup of Jehovah’s wrath
(Hab. ii, 16; Obad. 16). A figure of
stupefaction caused by calamity (Isa.
li, 17ff.). Shalt be hid—So that no one
can see a trace of her. Nineveh will
be reduced to nothing, will vanish
completely @, 8; ii, 11; Obad. 16).
Some render, ‘thou shalt be shrouded
in darkness,” that is, shalt swoon or
faint, as a result of the powerful
draught (Isa. li, 20). Either inter-
pretation gives acceptable _ sense.
Shalt seek strength—R. V., “a strong-
hold.”” As the enemy presses nearer
she will seek protection and shelter,
but in vain; she, like No Amon, will
be utterly ruined.
CHAPTER IIL.

459

 

seek strength because of the enemy.
12 All thy strong holds shall be like
‘fig trees with the firstripe figs: if
they be shaken, they anal even fall
into the mouth of the eater. 13 Be-
hold, ‘thy people in the midst of

thee are women: the gates of thy
land shall be set wide open unto
thine enemies: the fire shall devour
thy ‘bars. 14 Draw thee waters for
the siege, «fortify thy strong holds:
go into clay, and tread the mortar,

 

tr Rev. 6. 13.—- Jer. 50. 37; 51. 30.

t Psa. 147. 13; Jer. 51. 30.

 

u Chap. 2. 1.

 

Vain struggles of Nineveh, 12-19.

The description of the hopeless
struggle begins with verse 11; but
it seems better to regard that verse
as the concluding portion of the pre-
ceding section, threatening Nineveh
with a fate similar to that of No Amon.
Desperate efforts are made to save the
city, but all in vain. Rapidly the
enemy advances, and the city goes
down before him; all the earth re-
joices over her downfall. 12. The
fortresses throughout the land fall al-
most without a blow. Strongholds
[‘‘fortresses”|—Not the fortifications
of Nineveh, but the strongholds scat-
tered throughout the land to protect
the capital. Like fig trees—The ter-
tium comparationis is the ease with
which they are taken. It requires only
a feeble shaking, and down come the
figs (Isa. xxviii, 4); so it requires only
a feeble assault and the fortresses
capitulate, and the cowardly de-
fenders become an easy prey. First-
ripe figs—See on Hos. ix, 10. 13. The
news of the resistless advance of the
invader causes consternation every-
where, even in the capital. In the
midst of thee—In Nineveh. Thy peo-
ple . . . are women—The people, in-
cluding the soldiers, are so terrified by
the approach of the enemy that
strength and courage fail them; they
become feeble like women. The As-
syrians were considered the most war-
like nation of the time; the trans-
formation is therefore the more start-
ling. The figure is not uncommon in
the Old Testament (compare Isa. xix,
.16; Jer. 1, 37; li, 30), and it is found
also in the inscriptions. In 13b the
prophet reiterates the cause of the
terror. The tenses of R. V. are to be
preferred. The gates of thy land shall
be set [“are’’] wide open—The entrance

 

into the land and the roads to the
capital. These were barred by strong-
holds and fortresses (12), but since
the latter have fallen the gates are
wide open and the enemy can ad-
vance unhindered. Fire shall devour
[‘‘hath devoured’’] thy bars—Bars pre-
vent the entrance into fortified towns
(see on Amos i, 5); here the term
seems to be used metaphorically of the
fortresses themselves (Jer. li, 30),
which are intended to bar the way to
the capital.

With these burned, so that the
enemy can advance unhindered, a
siege is inevitable; the prophet urges
the people in verse 14 to make prep-
arations for it. One cannot fail to
see the irony of the appeal, for the
prophet immediately proceeds to
make plain that all efforts will be
futile. Draw thee waters for the siege
—In a prolonged siege the ordinary
water supply may prove insufficient;
for this emergency they are to prepare
themselves by storing up water. Bil-
lerbeck, on the basis of Assyrian
representations (compare, for ex-
ample, Layard, Nineveh and Its Re-
mains, ii, 32), thinks that the water
was to be used in the defense, to be
poured, perhaps boiling, upon the
heads of the assaulters. That this was
one means of defense is quite prob-
able; that the illustration in Layard
or the expression in Nahum refers to
it is more than doubtful. Fortify thy
strongholds—R. V., “strengthen thy
fortresses.” Improve the fortifica-
tions, the towers, walls, etc. How
this is to be done is stated in the rest
of the verse. Clay, ...mortar—Since
it was exceedingly difficult to secure
stone for building purposes, brick,
sometimes burned, more often only
sun-dried, was used as a common
460

NAHUM.

 

make strong the brickkiln. 15
There shall the fire devour thee;
the sword shall cut thee off, it shall
eat thee up like *the cankerworm:

make thyself many as the canker-
worm, make thyself many as the
locusts. 16 Thou hast multiplied
thy merchants above the stars of

 

x Joel 1. 4.

 

building material in Assyria, even in
the construction of fortifications; and
the excavations have shown that
brick was used very extensively in the
fortifications of Nineveh. The people
are urged to make bricks, for the
strengthening of the defenses already
existing, for the erection of new ones,
and for the repairing of possible
breaches. The two exhortations are
practically identical in meaning (Isa.
xli, 25); they are to tread the clay
of which the bricks are to be made,
so as to prepare it for the brickmaker.
Make strong the brickkiln—Should be
translated with margin R. V., “lay
hold of the brick mold” (2 Sam. xii,
31); having prepared the clay, they
are to make the bricks.

15. Nothing can save the city
There—Is understood best, as com-
monly, in a local sense; in that very
place, fortified with extraordinary
care, and even while attempting to
add to its strength destruction will
come. Fire shall devour the city
(compare Rogers, History of Baby-
lonia and Assyria, ii, 292), while the
inhabitants are cut down in a terrible
slaughter. Like the cankerworm—
Utterly and completely (see on Joel
i, 4, 7, 11).

With 15b begins a new thought,
continued in verse 16; but down to
the end of verse 17 the details of in-
terpretation are more or less uncer-
tain. LXX. omits one of the impera-
tive clauses in 15b; if both are re-
tained the second must be considered
a repetition for the sake of emphasis.
Since both exhortations are addressed
to Nineveh, both imperatives should
be read as feminines, though in the
present text one is masculine. The
exact force of the verses and the exact
relation of the separate clauses to one
another are uncertain, but it seems
best, on the assumption that the pres-

 

ent Hebrew text is substantially cor-
rect, to understand 15b as a new
ironical exhortation to strengthen the
defenses, by summoning a greater
number of defenders. Make thyself
many as the cankerworm, . . . locusts
—For the names see on Joel i, 4.
The soldiers are to be increased in
number until they resemble a swarm
of locusts. According to the present
Hebrew text the prophet continues
in verse 16, again in a spirit of
sarcasm: There is no need for ad-
vice; thou hast already multiplied
thy numbers until they are more
than the stars of heaven, but—the
multitudes are not soldiers prepared
to fight and to beat back the attack.
Merchants—The very location of Nine-
veh made her a prominent commercial
center from a very early period; this
helped to increase her wealth and
splendor, but merchants, unaccus-
tomed to hardships and often reared
in luxury, do not make the best
soldiers.

A more satisfactory sense would be
had if the perfect of 16a were changed
into an imperative, and if the three
imperatives, ‘make thyself many...,
make thyself many ..., (15b) mul-
tiply” (16a), were taken in a conces-
sive sense, “though thou shouldst
make thyself many ..., though thou
shouldst make thyself many... ,
though thou shouldst multiply” (G.-
K., 110a). To these clauses, forming
the protasis, 16b, 17 would be the
apodosis; even the great numbers
shall vanish away.

Verses 16b, 17, which belong closely
together, picture the sudden disap-
pearance of the defenders of Nineveh;
they point, therefore, to the sequel of
the siege—the time when the enemy
has entered the city. Again the
prophet employs the figure of the
swiftly moving swarms of locusts,
CHAPTER III.

461

 

heaven: the cankerworm ‘spoileth,
and fleeth away. 17 yThy crowned
are as the locusts, and thy captains
as the great grasshoppers, which

camp in the hedges in the cold day,
but when the sun ariseth they flee
away, and their place is not known
where they are. 18 “Thy shepherds

 

6 Or, spreadeth himself.——y Rev. 9. 7.

2 Exod. 15. 16; Psa. 76. 6.

 

16b is the introduction to verse 17,
calling attention to the point which
the speaker desires to emphasize, the
rapidity with which the locusts move;
in verse 17 the application is made.
The cankerworm spoileth, and fleeth
away—lf this is the right translation
the cankerworm represents the enemy
who plunders the city and then with-
draws quickly. In the sense of spoil-
ing the verb is not uncommon; but
since in verses 15 and 17 the Ninevites
are likened to locusts, it seems better
to understand here also the canker-
worms as representing the Ninevites.
If so, another meaning of the verb
must be sought. It is used quite fre-
quently in the sense of stripping off a
garment; applied to the locusts it may
refer to the stripping off of the skin
that confines the wings, which enable
them to fly. Margin R. V., ‘“spread-
eth himself.” The transformation
progresses very rapidly; hardly has
the locust freed his wings when away
he flies. In this connection A. B.
Davidson calls attention to Tenny-
son’s lines:

To-day I saw the dragon-fly

Come from the wells where he did lie;
An inner impulse rent the veil

Of his old husk; from head to tail

Come out clear plates of sapphire mail.
He dried his wings; like gauze they

grew;

THrOuED crofts and pastures wet with
ew,

A living flash of light he flew.

17. With the same swiftness the Nine-
vites will disappear. This interpre-
tation of verse 17 is preferable to that
which, omitting 16b entirely, codrdi-
nates 17 with the concessive clauses
of 15b and 16a, and sees the apodosis
in verse 18. Crowned [‘‘princes’””}—A
word of uncertain meaning, which oc-
curs only here in the Old Testament;
it is thought to be an Assyrian loan
word denoting some prominent official.

 

Wellhausen compares it with one
found in Zech. ix, 6, and Deut. xviii,
2, “bastard” or “bastard race,” that
is, a man of uncertain, impure origin;
but this sense is not suitable here.
Captains (‘‘marshals’”’}—Heb. tiphsar,
found again in Jer. li, 27, where it de-
notes a high official. It also is prob-
ably an Assyrian loan word; it re-
sembles the Assyrian dupsharru, “the
tablet writer,’ who occupied a
prominent place during the reign of
the literary Ashurbanapal. Here it
cannot be used in this narrow sense,
but in the more general sense of high
official (compare Judg. v, 14). Lo-
custs—See on Joel i, 4. Great grass-
hoppers—R. V., “swarms of grass-
hoppers”; literally, grasshopper of '
grasshopper. A peculiar construction
which may be due to the accidental
repetition of the one word “grass-
hopper” or “swarm of grasshoppers”
(compare Amos vii, 1); the sense is
“Vike grasshoppers.” The point of
comparison is the suddenness with
which they disappear. In the cold
day—The cold stiffens the wings of
the locusts, therefore on a cold day
they settle down in a sheltered spot.
When the sun ariseth they flee away
—Under the warm rays of the sun
they revive, and immediately they
disappear, without leaving a trace
behind. So the inhabitants of Nine-
veh will vanish without leaving be-
hind them a trace.

18. Whither they will go is here
stated. King of Assyria—Since the
city is thought of as destroyed she
can no longer be addressed; therefore
the prophet turns to the king either
as an individual or as a personification
of the remnant of the Assyrian power.
In view of the fact that throughout
the rest of the chapter Nineveh is
addressed, some consider the transi-
tion to the king strange, and they con-
462

NAHUM.

 

slumber, O «king of Assyria: thy
™obles shall dwell in the dust: thy
people is scattered upon the moun-
tains, and no man gathereth them.
19 There is no ®healing of thy bruise;

a Jer. 50. 18; Ezek. 31. 3, etc.—~7 Or,
valiant ones.—b1 Kings 22. 17.

sider the words a later insertion, but
for the reason just stated it seems
quite natural that the king should be
addressed. Marti thinks that the
words are a corruption from the
original ‘“‘woe unto thee.’ Shepherds

. . nobles—The rulers and heads of
the people. Slumber .. . shall dwell
in the dust (“are at rest’’)}--A euphe-
mistic description of the slumber and
sleep of death. For the use of the
first verb in this sense compare Jer.
li, 57; Psa. Ixxvi, 5, etc. The second
verb means literally to dwell; a slight
change, favored by LXX., would give
‘lie down,” that is, in rest or sleep.
With the leaders dead, the people
scatter like a flock of sheep without a
shepherd (Zech. xiii, 7; 1 Kings xxii,
17), and there is no one to gather

 

ethy wound is grievous: ¢all that
hear the bruit of thee shall clap the
hands over thee: for upon whom
hath not thy wickedness passed
continually?

 

8 Heb. wrinkling. ¢ Mic. 1. 9. ——4 Lam.
2. 15; Zeph. 2. 15; see Isa. 14. 8, ete.

them. As a matter of fact, the de-
struction of Nineveh in 607-606
marked the dissolution of Assyria;
the Scythians and Chaldeans divided
the empire between them.

In 19a the prophet repeats that the
condition is hopeless; the hurt (Lam.
ii, 11; Psa. Ix, 2) is incurable; they
cannot recover from the blow by their
own efforts (Jer. xiv, 17; xxx, 12),
and no one is anxious to become their
physician; on the contrary, all rejoice
and glory in the misfortune that has
befallen them. Clap the hands—An
expression of joy (Isa. lv, 12), here of
malicious joy. The rejoicing is uni-
versal, because all have suffered from
the oppression and violence of As-
syria. With the threats of Nahum
compare Zeph. ii, 13-15.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK.

 

The Prophet.

HABAKkKUK is the eighth of the Minor Prophets. The name
means embrace or ardent embrace. Some of the ancient rabbis,
connecting the name with 2 Kings iv, 16, “thou shalt embrace
a son,” imagined that the prophet was the son of the Shunam-
mite woman. The LXX. form of the name Hambakoum,
Theod. Hambakouk, presupposes the Hebrew Habbakuk. A
similar word occurs in Assyrian as the name of a garden plant.

While the book itself throws little light on the person of
the prophet, and the rest of the Old Testament is silent con-
cerning him, numerous legends have grown up around his
name. The identification of the prophet with the son of the
Shunammite woman is one. Another, connecting Isa. xxi, 6,
with Hab. ii, 1, makes Habakkuk the watchman set by Isaiah
to watch for the fall of Babylon. One of the recensions of the
LXX. text of Bel and the Dragon declares that the story was
taken “from the prophecy of Habakkuk, the son of Jesus, of
the tribe of Levi.” This must refer to an unknown apocryphal
book ascribed to our prophet. What authority there may be
for calling his father Jesus we do not know; the claim that he
was of the tribe of Levi may be based upon the presence of
the musical note at the end of the third chapter. According
to the Lives of the Prophets (see Nahum, p. 429), he belonged
to Beth-zoher, or Beth-zaher, of the tribe of Simeon. A very
interesting story is found in Bel and the Dragon (33-39):
“Now there was in Jewry the prophet Hambakoum (= Habak-
kuk), who had made pottage, and had broken bread into a
bowl, and was going into the field, for to bring it to the reap-

ers. But the angel of the Lord said unto Habakkuk, Go,
463
464 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK.

 

 

carry the dinner that thou hast into Babylon unto Daniel,
who is in the lions’ den. And Habakkuk said, Lord, I never
saw Babylon; neither do I know where the den is. Then
the angel of the Lord took him by the crown, and lifted him
up by the hair of his head, and with the blast of his breath
set him in Babylon over the den. And Habakkuk cried, say-
ing, O Daniel, Daniel, take the dinner which God hath sent
thee. And Daniel said, Thou hast remembered me, O God:
neither hast thou forsaken them that love thee. So Daniel
arose, and did eat: and the angel of God set Habakkuk in
his own place immediately.” According to the Lives, Habak-
kuk died two years before the return of the exiles from Babylon.
All these legends have little or no historical value.

The Interpretation of Chapters I, II.

Since the date to which chapters i, ii are assigned depends
very largely upon their interpretation, the latter may be con-
‘sidered first. The different interpretations advocated may be
grouped under three heads: 1. The prophet teaches that the
sin of Judah is to be punished by the Chaldeans, who in turn
will suffer severe punishment. 2. Nothing is said of the sin
of Judah; the prophet dwells upon the wrongs done to Judah
and other nations by the Chaldeans, and announces the im-
pending doom of the oppressor. 38. Nothing is said of the
sin of Judah; the present oppressors are not the Chaldeans,
but the Assyrians (Budde, Betteridge) or the Egyptians (G. A.
Smith), whose overthrow is to be accomplished by the Chal-
deans.

These views will become clearer if a brief outline of the
two chapters according to each view is given:

I. According to the first view:

Chapter i, 2-4. The corruption of Judah; the oppression
of the righteous Jews by the wicked Jews, which calls for the
divine manifestation in judgment against the oppressors.

Chapter i, 5-11. Jehovah announces that he is about to
send the Chaldeans to execute judgment.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK. 465

 

Chapter i, 12-17. The prophet is perplexed. He cannot
understand how a righteous God can use these barbarians to
execute judgment upon a people more righteous than they.
He considers even the wicked among the Jews better than the
Chaldeans.

Chapter ii, 1-4. Jehovah solves the perplexing problem by
announcing that the exaltation of the Chaldeans will be but
temporary; in the end they will meet their doom, while the
righteous will live.

Chapter ii, 5-20. Woes against the Chaldeans.

II. The second view finds it necessary to change the present
arrangement of the verses. Chapter i, 5-11, in the present
position, will not fit into the interpretation. For this reason
Wellhausen and others omit these verses as a later addition;
on the other hand, Giesebrecht would place them before i, 2,
as the opening verses of the prophecy. The transposition
would require a few other minor changes, so as to make the
verses a suitable beginning and establish a smooth transition
from verse 11 to verse 2. Omitting the troublesome verses,
the following outline of the two chapters may be given:

Chapter i, 2-4. The oppression of the righteous Jews by
the wicked Chaldeans.

Chapter i, 12-17. Appeal to Jehovah on behalf of the Jews
against their oppressors.

* Chapter ii, 1-4. Jehovah promises deliverance (see above).

Chapter ii, 5-20. Woes against the Chaldeans.

III. The third view also finds it necessary to alter the
present order of verses. Again i, 5-11, in the present position,
interferes with the theory; therefore these verses are given
a more suitable place after ii, 4. According to this interpreta-
tion the outline is as follows:

Chapter i, 2-4. Oppression of the righteous Jews by the
wicked Assyrians (Budde) or Egyptians (G. A. Smith).

Chapter i, 12-17. Appeal to Jehovah on behalf of the op-
pressed against the oppressor.

Chapter ii, 1-4. Jehovah promises deliverance (see above).
466 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK.

 

Chapter i, 5-11. The Chaldeans will be the instruments to
execute judgment upon the oppressors and to bring deliverance
to the Jews.

Chapter ii, 5-20. Woes against the Assyrians or Egyptians.

Each of these views has its defenders among scholars. A
full discussion is not possible in a book of this character, and
all that we may do here is to set the facts in a clear light
and indicate which of the three views offers the most probable
interpretation.

III. Against the third view several objections have been
urged: 1. It would be exceedingly difficult to account for the
transposition of i, 5-11, from their original position after ii, 4,
to their present place. The explanation offered by Budde is
ingenious but not convincing. A. B. Davidson says of it, “If
it is true, criticism is not without its romance.” 2. The
absence of all mention of the Assyrians or’ Egyptians is
peculiar. There may have been “no need of naming” them
(Betteridge), but when other considerations make it doubtful
that these nations are meant the silence cannot be overlooked.
3. From i, 5-11, no matter where these verses are placed,
it would seem that the Chaldeans and their methods of warfare
were well known to the prophet; but on this view the Chal-
deans were just appearing upon the scene when the prophecy
was uttered. The powers of the Chaldeans were first shown
-in the overthrow of the Assyrians and the Egyptians. 4. Ac*
cording to this theory i, 5-11, refers to the Chaldeans, i, 12-17,
to the Assyrians or Egyptians; but a comparison of i, 11,
“whose might is his god,” with i, 16, “he sacrificeth unto his
net, and burneth incense unto his drag,” results in the impres-
sion that both passages refer to one and the same nation.

II. The same objections cannot be urged against the second
view. The arbitrary treatment of i, 5-11, constitutes the only
serious objection. It is very easy to throw out verses, but
few are ready to consider the fact that a certain passage runs
counter to an otherwise doubtful theory as sufficient reason for
omitting it. If it is regarded an earlier independent prophecy
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK. 467

 

its present position must still be accounted for. To transpose
the verses to the beginning of the chapter does not remove the
difficulty, for they are less suitable there than verses 2-4, which
permit a natural and consistent development of thought.

I. Objections have been raised also against the first view:
1. It makes the “wicked” in one place a portion of the Jews
(i, 4); im another (i, 13), the Chaldeans. 2. It is said that
in i, 5, 6, the “raising up” of the Chaldeans is still in the
future, while i, 13-16; ii, 5-20, describe their treatment of the
conquered nations in a manner which seems to indicate that
the Chaldeans and their manner of warfare were well known.
3. It seems unnatural that “in a prophecy the main theme of
which is to set forth the injustice which Israel suffers, and
to announce judgment upon its authors,” injustice prevalent
in Israel should receive the emphasis given to it by the prophet
in i, 2-4.

One can readily see, however, that these objections have less
foundation than those urged against the other interpretations.
Taking them in the order stated, the following may be said in
reply: 1. There is no plausible reason why a general term
like “righteous” or “wicked” may not refer, in one and the
same discourse, to more than one person. Why may not one
discourse deal with two classes of persons, both of which de-
serve to be called “wicked”? 2. The second objection rests
upon a misapprehension. The reference in i, 6, is not to the
first appearance of the Chaldeans in history, but to their first
and imminent advance against Judah. When they undertook
the first expedition against Judah, several important conquests
had been achieved by them, and there. had been ample oppor-
tunity to become acquainted with them and the manner of
their warfare. 3. It may be questioned whether the objector
has defined properly the “main theme” of the two chapters.
The text, as it now stands, permits a perfectly natural develop-
ment of the prophet’s thought; in reality, the development
becomes more vivid, for instead of one problem that perplexes
the prophet we have two, and instead of one divine reply we
468 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK.

 

have two. Surely there is nothing impossible or improbable
in this (see further on Contents).

On the whole, the first interpretation, which requires no
omissions or transpositions, seems to satisfy most completely
the facts in the case, and it is along this line that the prophecy
of Habakkuk is interpreted in the subsequent pages.

The Date of the Prophecy.

Here we are concerned primarily with the date of the pro-
phetic activity of Habakkuk. Whether or not all the utter-
ances in the book are rightly ascribed to him will be con-
sidered in a subsequent section.

The question of date is closely bound up with that of inter-
pretation. Budde, on the theory that the oppressors threatened
with destruction are the Assyrians (above, III), dates the
prophecy 621-615 B. C. Granting that the Assyrians are in
the mind of the prophet, which has been shown to be im-
probable, this date is open to serious objections. Betteridge,
who agrees with Budde in regarding the Assyrians as the
oppressors, says with much justice (American. Journal of The-
ology, 1903, pp. 674ff.): “On our view of the direction of
the prophecy against the Assyrians and of its attitude toward
the Chaldeans, it is impossible to suppose that it could have
originated at any time within the last quarter of the seventh
century B. C. This is the weak point in Budde’s theory.
While giving him all honor for his brilliant discovery that the
prophecy is directed against the Assyrians, yet we feel that
he was too much influenced by the traditional placing of the
book at the close of the seventh century to draw the necessary
inference from his theory and seek a satisfactory occasion for
the prophecy.” :

After 626 B. C. the hold of Assyria on the Palestinian states
relaxed; and the description of i, 2-4, if it applies to the
Assyrians, becomes unsuitable after that date. On the other
hand, so far as we know, the Chaldeans had not become suf-
ficiently prominent in 621-615 to enable the prophet and his
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK. 469

 

contemporaries to learn of their cruelties and of their manner
of treating conquered nations. But such knowledge is pre-
supposed in i, 5ff., for the rejection of which verses there is
insufficient reason, and which are retained by Budde and placed
after ii, 4. If the Assyrians are alluded to, a much more
satisfactory date is that suggested by Betteridge, namely, about
701 B. C., in connection with the siege of Jerusalem by Sen-
nacherib (2 Kings xviii, xix). “As we interpret the prophecy
and understand the history, Habakkuk was an associate of
Isaiah in this great crisis of Jewish history, and just at the
time when Isaiah was so vigorously asserting that Jerusalem
should not fall into the hands of the Assyrians, Habakkuk
comes forward with a similar assurance. . . . Our view that
Habakkuk is a pupil and associate of Isaiah furnishes the
most satisfactory explanation of the remarkable similarity in
thought and diction between his prophecy and many of the
utterances of Isaiah.” The threat that the Chaldeans will
execute judgment he connects with Chaldean uprisings, rumors
of which he thinks caused Sennacherib to raise the siege of
Jerusalem (2 Kings xix, 6, 7; Isa. xxxvii, 6, 7); earlier upris-
ings under Merodach-baladan would have enabled the prophet
to learn something of the character of the Chaldeans.

If Habakkuk prophesied against the Assyrians, this is the
most suitable date for the prophecy; if they are not the
oppressors (see above, pp. 464ff.), then with the Assyrians fall
the dates proposed by Budde and by Betteridge.

If the prophecy is directed against Egypt, we are shut up
to a very definite period, between 608 and 604 B. C. In the
former year Necho, Pharaoh of Egypt, conquered and slew
Josiah of Judah near Megiddo, and asserted his sovereignty
by deposing the successor of Josiah, Jehoahaz, whom the peo-
ple had chosen, and placing on the throne Jehoiakim. But
the rule of Egypt was short-lived. In 605 or 604 Nebuchad-
nezzar met Necho in battle near the Hittite capital, Car-
chemish, on the Euphrates. The Egyptians suffered a decisive
defeat, and their rule in Judah came to an end. Only during
470 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK.

 

the period between these two events had Egypt the opportunity
to oppress Judah as described in i, 2-4; hence between the
two dates the prophecy of Habakkuk must have been uttered.
But are the Egyptians the oppressors? The reasons advanced
against identifying the oppressor with the Assyrians are equally
applicable here. If so, the prophecy may have to be assigned
to a different date.

A different date is suggested by those who think that the
wrongdoing condemned in i, 2-4, is the oppression of Judah
by the Chaldeans, and that the entire prophecy (omitting
i, 5-11) is directed against the latter. If the Chaldeans are
the oppressors of Judah the prophecy must be assigned to a
date subsequent to the battle of Carchemish in 605-604, for
only after the defeat of the Egyptians could the Chaldeans
carry out a policy of world conquest; and it was some years
after that event that the Chaldeans first came into direct con-
tact with Judah. But on this theory i, 2-4, 12ff.; ii, 8ff., pre-
suppose the lapse of a considerable period of conquest, the
subduing of many nations, the cruel oppression of Judah for
some length of time; therefore, Nowack is undoubtedly cor-
rect, on this theory, in bringing the prophecy down to a period
subsequent to the first exile in 597, or, as he says, “in round
numbers about 590 B. C.” But does i, 2-4, refer to oppression
by the Chaldeans? (See above, pp. 4644f.)

A different date must be sought if i, 2-4, is interpreted
as referring to the oppression of Jews by Jews, and i, 5ff., as
a threat that Jehovah will raise up the Chaldeans, already
known as a nation thirsting for blood, to punish the wicked-
ness of Judah. These verses would seem to indicate (1) that
the Chaldeans had not yet come into direct contact with Judah,
and (2) that they had already given exhibitions of the cruel
character of their warfare. Nebuchadnezzar advanced against
Judah about 600 B. C.; but the years since the fall of Nineveh,
in 607-606, and the battle of Carchemish, in 605-604, had.
given abundant opportunity to the Chaldeans to reveal their
true character, and to the prophet and his contemporaries to
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK. 471

 

become acquainted with this cruel successor of Nineveh. On
this theory, therefore, the prophetic activity of Habakkuk must
be assigned to a date shortly before 600 B. C,

That the description in i, 2-4, fits this date, a comparison
of these verses with the prophecies of Jeremiah delivered at
approximately the same time will readily show; compare, for
example, chapters xxv, xxvii, xxxv. “From the thirteenth
year of Josiah the son of Amon, king of Judah, even unto
this day, these three and twenty years, the word of Jehovah
hath come unto me, and I have spoken unto you, rising up
early and speaking; but ye have not hearkened. And Jehovah
hath sent unto you all his servants the prophets, rising up
early and sending them (but ye have not hearkened, nor in-
clined your ear to hear), saying, Return ye now every one
from his evil way, and from the evil of your doings, and dwell
in the land that Jehovah hath given unto you and to your
fathers, from of old and even for evermore; and go not after
other gods to serve them, and to worship them, and provoke
me not to anger with the work of your hands; and I will
do you no hurt. Yet ye have not hearkened unto me, saith
Jehovah; that ye may provoke me to anger with the work
of your hands to your own hurt. Therefore thus saith Jeho-
vah of hosts: Because ye have not heard my words, behold,
I will send and take all the families of the north, saith Jeho-
vah, and I will send unto Nebuchadrezzar the king of Babylon,
my servant, and will bring them against this land, and against
the inhabitants thereof, and against all these nations round
about; and I will utterly destroy them, and make them an
astonishment, and a hissing, and perpetual desolations” (xxv,
3-9; compare Zephaniah, pp. 510ff).

Integrity of the Book.

More than one half of the book, including i, 5-11; ii, 9-20;
chapter iii entire, has been denied to the prophet Habakkuk.
If the prophecy is interpreted properly (see above) no valid
reason for the rejection of i, 5-11, can be found. Verses 9-20
472 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK.

 

of chapter ii are denied to Habakkuk chiefly on two grounds:
1. The “woes” are said to be, in part at least, unsuitable, if
supposed to be addressed to the Chaldean king. 2. Some
parts, especially verses 12-14, “consist largely of citations and
reminiscences of other passages, including some late ones”
(compare verse 12 with Mic. iii, 10; verse 13 with Jer. li, 58;
verse 14 with Isa. xi, 9; 16b with Jer. xxv, 15, 16; verses
18-20 with Isa. xliv, 9ff.; xlvi, 6, 7; Jer. x, 1-16). On these
grounds Stade, Kuenen, and others consider verses 9-20 an
expansion, made in postexilic times, of an original “woe” in
verses 6-8. Others, like Budde and Nowack, do not cast aside
the entire section, but only small parts. In general it may
be said—for details the comments on the separate verses should
be read—that it is difficult to see how the reasons advanced
against the authenticity of ii, 9-20, can be regarded conclusive
in any sense. The argument from literary parallels is always
precarious (see Joel, p. 136). In the present case the resem-
blances are few in number; in some instances, if any depend-
ence exists, Habakkuk may be the borrower, for both Isaiah
and Micah preceded him; other passages (for example, Jer.
li, 58) look as if they were dependent upon Habakkuk. The
remaining passages are few and the resemblances are of a
character that do not necessarily presuppose literary depend-
ence. The other objection is equally inconclusive. It may
be admitted that the woes are not all applicable to the Chal-
dean king as an individual. But why should the prophet heap
these woes upon him as an individual? The king is and
can be condemned only as representing the policy of the
nation; he may even be regarded as a personification of the
nation. If so, the woes must be intended for the whole nation,
and such interpretation removes all difficulties.

Chapter iii raises a more difficult problem, and this chapter
is denied to the prophet with greater unanimity. Budde says,
“To Stade belongs the credit of having first shown that the
authorship of Habakkuk is on internal grounds impossible.”
If impossible, nothing more need be said on the subject. But
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK. 473

 

is it impossible? In the first place, it is urged against the
originality of the chapter that it belongs to the psalm litera-
ture. The “prayer” undoubtedly has all the marks of a psalm,
and it may be readily admitted that it is a psalm. The most
important of these marks are, the use of the word seldh (three
times, in the Psalter seventy-one times), the expressions “for
the chief musician” (in the Psalter fifty-five times) and “on
my stringed instruments” (occurring, without the pronoun, in
five psalms), and “prayer” (verse 1) as the title of a poetic
piece (in five psalms, compare also Psa. Ixxii, 20). It may
even be true that at one time this chapter was a part of a
larger collection, and that it was used in public worship; but
this again does not disprove the authorship of Habakkuk,
unless we accept the extreme view of a few modern scholars
that there is no preéxilic psalm literature. If the possibility
of preéxilic psalm composition is once granted—and the pres-
ent writer thinks that this must be done, when all the facts
are carefully considered—the abstract possibility of Habakkuk
being a psalm writer cannot be denied. Certainly, the testi-
mony of the title does not settle the question finally; it occu-
pies the same position as the psalm titles in the Psalter, which,
as is generally admitted, cannot be followed implicitly; their
accuracy must be tested by any criteria that may be at hand,
such as historical allusions, style, the relation to other writers
whose dates are known, and the character of the religious ideas
expressed, but we are not warranted in casting them aside
without this careful examination. This care must be exer-
cised in the examination of the prayer of Habakkuk. Its
linguistic peculiarities do not point necessarily to a late
date. It is undoubtedly true that “to the circumstances
of Habakkuk’s age, so clearly reflected in chapters i, ii, there
are here no allusions”; on the other hand, it is equally true
that there are no allusions pointing clearly to circumstances
different from those of Habakkuk’s period, with the possible
exception of verses 16ff., which seem to allude to a calamity
other than the invasion of the Chaldeans; and Driver says,
474 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK.

 

not without reason, “Had the poet been writing under the
pressure of a hostile invasion, the invasion itself would nat-
urally have been expected to form the prominent feature in
this picture.” The difference in style as compared with that
of the first two chapters is indecisive, because the latter are
written in prose, and the poetic style of an author may differ
greatly from that employed in prose writings.

The literary productions which are related most closely to
this chapter in substance, form, and style are Exod. xv, Deut.
xxxiii, Judg. v—all coming from periods earlier than that of
Habakkuk. So far as the religious conceptions are concerned,
there is again in the chapter nothing that may be considered
an evidence of a late date.

Hence, while it may be impossible to prove that Habakkuk
is the author of the “prayer,” it is equally impossible to prove
that he is not; and while there are a few indications which
seem to point to a situation different from that of Habakkuk,
these are by no means definite enough to exclude the possi-
bility of Habakkuk’s authorship. In the absence of conclusive
evidence to the contrary, it has been thought only proper to
treat, in this commentary, the “prayer” as an original part of
Habakkuk’s prophecies.

Contents, Outline, and Teaching.

1. Contents.—Though the contents have been touched upon
in the section dealing with the interpretation of the book, it
may be useful to give in this place a connected statement of
the contents according to the interpretation adopted in this
commentary.

The prophecy opens with a complaint about the seeming
indifference of Jehovah in the presence of widespread corrup-
tion in Judah. The prophet is perplexed, for he cannot recon-
cile this indifference with his conception of the character of
Jehovah (i, 2-4). In reply Jehovah declares that judgment is
about to be executed, the executioners are to be the Chaldeans,
“that bitter and hasty nation, that march through the breadth
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK. 475

 

of the earth” (5-11). This announcement, instead of quiet-
ing the prophet’s perplexity, only intensifies it. Can a holy
God look in silence upon the cruelties perpetrated by the Chal-
deans? Judah, indeed, does deserve punishment, but how can
the pure and righteous Jehovah employ as his executioners
the godless Chaldeans? Is Judah to be utterly annihilated
by this monster? Is the triumph of the Chaldeans to con-
tinue forever? These and similar questions present a new
problem, which taxes his faith (12-17). But he will not per-
mit his faith to be wrecked; he will wait until he receives a
divine solution (ii, 1). The prophet does not wait in vain.
Jehovah grants a solution in the form of an inner vision,
which is to be made known to all: “Write the vision, and
make it plain upon tablets, that he may run that readeth
it” (2). The writing down is necessary because the fulfill-
ment will be delayed until the “appointed time.” When the
latter appears the tablet will testify to the truthfulness of
Jehovah and of his prophet (3).

-The contents of the vision are stated in brief enigmatical
form: “Behold, his soul is puffed up, it is not upright in
him; but the righteous shall. live by his faith.” The mean-
ing of this message is that there is a moral distinction between
the Chaldeans and the people of Jehovah: the. one, puffed
up, glorying in his own might as his god, insincere in his
dealings. with other nations, lacks the moral elements which
alone insure permanence, while the other possesses the fidelity
and moral integrity which insure him permanence; he cannot
perish, he will endure forever (4). Bearing in mind this
moral distinction, the prophet may rest assured that in the
end the righteous Jew will triumph, while the ungodly Chal-
dean must perish. There follows a verse which describes
more fully the character of the Chaldeans (5).

The doom of the cruel oppressor is determined in the divine
councils, therefore the wronged nations may begin to rejoice
over his downfall. These nations the prophet introduces as
taking up a taunt-song against the doomed Chaldeans, It
476 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK.

 

is in the form of five woes upon the evil traits in the enemy’s
character and upon his deeds of cruelty: (1) Upon lust of
conquest and plunder (6-8); (2) upon rapacity (9-11);
(3) upon the building of cities with the blood and property
. of strangers (12-14); (4) upon cruelty toward conquered
kings and nations (15-17); (5) upon idolatry (18-20).

The prophecy closes with a lyrical passage (iii, 1-19), called
in the title “prayer.” In a broad sense the entire chapter is
a prayer, though only verse 2 contains a petition, “O Jehovah,
revive thy work in the midst of the years; in the midst of the
years make it known; in wrath remember mercy.” The peti-
tioner speaks for himself and the community. He remembers
the mighty works of Jehovah for his people; the thought of
them causes him to tremble; yet he prays for a repetition of
these ancient works (2). In majestic pictures the poet de-
scribes the wonderful manifestations of Jehovah in the past;
he came forth in awful brightness; nature and men trembled
before him; the rivers and the sea were dried up; the sun
and the moon hid themselves in terror (3-11). All this was
done “for the salvation of thine anointed” (12-15). In the
remaining verses the psalmist describes the feelings within
himself at the remembrance of these manifestations: at first,
fear and trembling (16a), then joy and confidence in the God
of his salvation. Whatever the temporary hardships and
wants, Jehovah is his portion, and in due time he will prove
himself the God of his salvation (16b-19).

Only the Hebrew student can get an adequate idea of the
literary excellence of the Book of Habakkuk. “The literary
power of Habakkuk,” says Driver, “is considerable. Though
his book is a brief one, it is full of force; his descriptions are
graphic and powerful; thought and expression are alike poetic;
he is still a master of the old classical style, terse, parallelistic,
pregnant; there is no trace of the often prosaic diffusiveness
which manifests itself in the writings of Jeremiah and Ezekiel.
And if chapter iii be his, he is, moreover, a lyric poet of high
order; the grand imagery and the rhythmic flow of this ode
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK. 477

 

will bear comparison with some of the finest productions of
the Hebrew muse.”

2. Outline.—
TITLE—THE AUTHOR......... hin eee Ns tans take yee Chap. i, 1
I. THE PROPHET’S PERPLEXITY; THE DIVINE SOLUTION...... i, 2—ii, 5

1. The prophet’s perplexity: How can Jehovah justify his
indifference in the presence of wickedness and vio-
TONCE Piss ict on edt Hae ce 3 Satara adacnd i, 2-4

2. Jehovah’s reply: He is not indifferent; the well-merited
judgment is about to be executed by the Chaldeans. .

Se lecaiats ag Bole TOO RE ige wee SeAee BAR Oel ee a eR BSS i, 5-11
3. A new perplexity: How can a holy God employ an
impure and godless agent?...............048- i, 12-17

4, God’s final reply: The Chaldeans, though temporarily
exalted, will meet certain doom; the oe

though temporarily afflicted, will live forever. .ii, 1-5
II. TAUNT-SONG OVER THE DOWNIALL OF THE cen ...1i, 6-20
1. Woe upon lust of conquest and plunder........... ii, 6-8
2. Woe upon rapacity........... cece eee eee bya ees ii, 9-11
3. Woe upon the building of cities with the blood and prop-
ELlCY Of StPrAN SENG. oo sii seers senses eis Bisie Gee vs owe ji, 12-14
4. Woe upon cruelty toward conquered kings and nations. .
aw ane OS iaee Aw Scheacer dh ae eae ag aie areas Guaua Gece orese ii, 15-17
5. Woe upon idolatry......... ccc cece eee eee eee ii, 18-20
III. THE PRAYER OF HABAKKUE......... eee e ee eee eee enone iii, 1-19
1. The title—The author and melody................ iii, 1
2. The petition: “Revive thy work”................. iii, 2
8. The mighty works of Jehovah in the past....... iii, 3-15
(1) Jehovah’s terrible approach........... iii, 3-7

(2) Question: Why did Jehovah appear?. .iii, 8-12
(3) Answer: For the salvation of his people.....

Siacaa bie Sune ae te oa wanes ee Oe aie iii, 13-15
4. The poet’s confidence in Jehovah, the God of his salva-
tion..... nach ene ds eeaValauacs Avlalstsecisthictioee ace iii, 16-19

3. Teaching —Habakkuk has been called “the prophet of
faith.” He possessed a strong, living faith in Jehovah; but
he, like many other pious souls, was troubled and perplexed
by the apparent inequalities and inconsistencies of life. He
found it difficult to reconcile these with his lofty conception
of Jehovah. Nevertheless, he does not sulk; boldly he presents
478 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK.

 

his perplexity to Jehovah, who points the way to a solution,
and the prophet comes forth from the struggle with a faith
stronger and more intense than ever. An admirable descrip-
tion of him is given in the words of Tennyson:

Perplexed in faith, but pure in deeds,

At last he beat his music out.

There lives more faith in honest doubt,
Believe me, than in half the creeds.

He fought his doubts and gathered strength,
He would not make his judgment blind,
He faced the specters of the mind

And laid them; thus he came at length

To find a stronger faith his own,
And Power was with him in the night,
Which makes the darkness and the light,
And dwells not in the light alone,

But in the darkness and the cloud,

As over Sinai’s peaks of old,

While Israel made their gods of gold,
Although the trumpet blew so loud.

We might expect that a man with such firm hold on God,
with such living experience of God, would give expression,
even in a brief book, to some great and permanent religious
truths; and in this instance our expectations are not disap-
pointed. Habakkuk was a contemporary of Jeremiah, but
he differs from him in a marked manner. Jeremiah is for-
ever denouncing the sins of the people; of the Chaldeans he
speaks almost exclusively as instruments of Jehovah; he has
little to say about their cruelties and does not condemn them.
Habakkuk, on the other hand, devotes only three verses (i, 2-+)
to the sins of Judah; and, while recognizing the Chaldeans
as instruments of Jehovah, he condemns them persistently
for their wrongdoing, and the climax of the prophecy is the
promise of their ultimate annihilation. In this the prophet
resembles Nahum, who, like Habakkuk, was concerned pri-
marily with the cruelties and the doom of the oppressor.

It is in connection with his attempts to solve the perplexing
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HABAKKUK. 479

 

problems raised by the unpunished sins of his countrymen
and the unlimited success of the godless Chaldeans that Habak-
kuk gives utterance to two sublime truths: 1. The universality
of the moral government of Jehovah. The latter is interested
not only in Israel; though, like the other prophets, Habakkuk
believes in a special divine providence over Israel; his rule
embraces the whole earth; the destinies of all the nations are
in his hand. The Chaldeans are punished not merely for their
sins against Israel, but for the oppression of other nations
as well. Being the only God, he cannot permit the worship
of other gods. Temporarily the Chaldeans may worship idols
Gi, 18-20) or make might their god; they may “sacrifice unto
their nets” and burn incense “unto their drag,” because by
them “their portion is fat and their food plenteous”; but
Jehovah is from everlasting, the Holy One, and he will attest
his supremacy by utterly destroying the boastful conqueror
with his idols. 2. The second important truth is expressed
in ii, 4, “The righteous shall live by his faithfulness.” Faith-
fulness assures permanency. The thought expressed by the
prophet is not identical with that expressed by the apostle who
quotes the words (Gal. iii, 11); nevertheless the former ex-
presses a truth of profound significance (for details see com-
ments). “Faithfulness” is with the prophet, in a sense, an
external thing; it signifies integrity, fidelity, steadfastness in
righteousness under all provocations; but this implies, in a
real sense, the New Testament conception of “faith” as an
active principle of right conduct. A living faith determines
conduct; religion and ethics go hand in hand, and especially
in the hour of adversity a belief in Jehovah and unflinching
reliance upon him are the strongest preservers of fidelity and
integrity. Faith without works is déad; faith expresses itself
in life. Habakkuk places chief emphasis upon the expressions
of faith, and he does so rightly; but in doing so he also calls
attention, by implication at least, to the motive power behind
the external manifestations. As an expression of living faith
iii, 17-19, is without superior in the Old Testament.
HABAKKUK.

 

CHAPTER I.
HE burden which Habakkuk
the prophet did see. 2 O
Lorp, how long shall I cry, sand

a Lam. 3. 8.

CHAPTER I.

1. The title. Burden—See on Nah.
i, 1 (compare ‘‘take up,” ii, 6). Ha-
bakkuk—See Introduction, p. 463. Did
see—During the earlier period of Is-
raelitish history dreams and visions
appear to have been common vehicles
of divine revelation (Num. xii, 6);
and it was during that period that the
prophetic terminology originated. In
the early days the prophets “did see”
and “had visions,” but during the
golden age of Hebrew prophecy
dreams and visions became less com-
mon; the ancient terminology, how-
ever, was retained (compare ii, 1-4;
Nah. i, 1; Amos i, 1; Mic. i, 1, etc.).

Tu PropHer’s Prrpuexity, 2-4.

For a long time the prophet had
watched the wickedness of his peo-
ple. Surely they deserved severe pun-
ishment, but none came. . He found
it difficult to reconcile this apparent
indifference on the part of Jehovah
with his conception of the divine holi-
ness. In his perplexity he cries out to
Jehovah.

2. How long shall I cry—Literally,
have I cried. The Hebrew verb im-
plies the idea “for help,” that is, to
bring about a change in the terrible
condition in which the prophet finds
himself. Cry out unto thee of violence
—A further description of the proph-
et’s cry; literally, I ery unto thee vio-
lence. The substance of his cry is
the violence of his countrymen;
the noun denotes wrongdoing and
injury of every kind (Job xix, 7; Jer.

 

thou wilt not hear! even cry out unto
thee of violence, and thou wilt not
save! 3 Why dost thou show me
iniquity, and cause me to behold

xx, 8). Though the prophet has cried
again and again, Jehovah has paid no
attention. Hear... save—The fact
that Jehovah did not interfere in be-
half of the oppressed seemed conclu-
sive evidence that he did not hear the
prophet’s cry. It is not to be sup-
posed that the prophet was the only
one in Judah who still cried to Je-
hovah; but because of his intimate
fellowship with Jehovah he felt the
unrighteousness most keenly; besides,
like his contemporary Jeremiah, he
may have had to suffer in his own per-
son from the ungodly. The cry ut-
tered by him must have found an echo
in the hearts of all who remained loyal
to Jehovah.

The prophet’s perplexity finds
further expression in verse 3. Why
dost thou show me iniquity—The He-
brew word translated “iniquity” is
used sometimes with the meaning
“affliction,” bub more frequently,
as here, of moral evil and wickedness
(compare Num. xxiii, 21). This moral
evil the prophet is compelled to look
upon, but he is convinced that Je-
hovah has power to stop it, and since
he takes no steps toward this he is
responsible for its presence. But how
can a holy God remain silent in the
presence of evil? A serious problem
indeed (see on Amos iii, 6; iv, 6-11;
compare Job xxiii, 16, 17). Grievance
—R. V., “perverseness.” Primarily,
labor, toil; in a secondary sense,
trouble or distress experienced as a
result of oppression or injustice. Here
the distress caused by the “violent”

480
CHAPTER I.

481

 

grievance? for spoiling and violence
are before me: and there are that
raise up strife and contention. 4
Therefore the law is slacked, and
judgment doth never go forth: for
the >wicked doth compass about the

righteous; therefore ‘wrong judg-
ment proceedeth.

§ ‘Behold ye among the heathen,
and regard, and wonder marvelous-
ly: for I will work a work in your
days, which ye will not believe,

 

b Job 21. 7; Psa. 94. 3,etce.; Jer. 12. 1.

1 Or, wrested.—-¢ Isa. 29.14; Acts 13. 41.

 

and suffered by the oppressed (Isa. x,
1). Spoiling—R. V., “destruction.”
Violent treatment resulting in de-
struction. Violence—Malicious con-
duct to injure another. The two
words are frequently combined (Amos
iii, 10; Jer. vi, 7; xx, 8). Strife and
contention—Among the members of
the Jewish nation; the result of vio-
lent and wicked conduct.

The consequence of all this is a
state of anarchy, described in verse 4.
Therefore—Because Jehovah has al-
lowed wickedness to proceed unhin-
dered. The law—See on Hos. iv, 6.
Here the term includes the revealed
will of Jehovah concerning life and
conduct, whatever the method of
making it known, or the form in which
it existed. Is slacked—Literally, has
become numb; has lost its vitality and
efficiency. Judgment—The word
means sometimes a legal decision; if
so here, a legal decision to put an end
to wickedness and injustice. It might
be rendered also, with R. V., “justice,”
that is, a righteous and equitable state
of things in the civic and political life.
Doth never go forth—An obscure ex-
pression. Margin R. V. offers as an
alternative, “goeth not forth unto vic-
tory.” This rendering is based upon
the explanation of the word trans-
lated “forever” (“never minus the
negative) in the sense of truth, with
which translation may be compared
Isa. xlii, 3, “justice in truth,” repro-
duced in Matt. xii, 20, “judgment unto
victory.” It is better, however, to
retain the ordinary rendering “not
forever” or “never.” The thought of
the clause seems to be: In the present
hopeless condition there is no prospect
that order, or civic and political right-
eousness, will ever manifest itself
again.

Instead of a causal clause 4b might

 

be understood (G.-K., 148d) as an ex-
clamation, ‘Indeed, the wicked doth
compass about the righteous!” In a
hostile sense (Job iii, 23; not as in Psa.
exlii, 7). The two nouns are used in a
collective sense of two classes within
the nation (see Introduction, p. 467;
Isa. iii, 10, 11; v, 23; Zeph. i, 3). In
later times it became customary to re-
fer to heathen oppressors as the wicked
in distinction from the righteous Is-
rael. The godless in Israel encom-
passed the righteous to destroy them.
Wrong judgment proceedeth—R. V.,
‘Gustice goeth forth perverted.” It
is the constant complaint of the
prophets that under the guise of law
rankest injustice was done (Amos v,
7; Isa. i, 23; Jer. xxii, 16, 17, etc.).

JrHOVAH’s REPLY TO THE PROPHET’S
PERPLEXED Cry, 5-11.

Jehovah meets the perplexity of his
servant by declaring that he is not
indifferent, and that punishment is
about to be meted out by his agents,
the Chaldeans, a terrible and dreadful
nation, before which nothing can
stand. Behold ye among the heathen—
R. V., “nations.” If thisis the correct
reading the prophet and the people
are addressed; they are to look about
among the nations to see the wonder-
ful things Jehovah is about to ac-
complish. LXX. and Peshitto read
“ye despisers’ for “among the na-
tions.” If this is original, as is not
impossible, the “wicked” of verse 4
are addressed. Wonder marvelously—
LXX. adds “and perish.’ Why
are they to look and wonder? I will
work—R. V., “I am working”; mar-
gin, which produces the Hebrew more
accurately, ‘one worketh.”” However,
the ordinary translation is not impos-
sible, and the context (verse 6) makes
the translation “I” almost certain.
482

HABAKKUK.

 

 

though it be told you. 6 For, lo,
42J raise up the Chaldeans, that
bitter and hasty nation, which shall
march through the *breadth of the
land, to possess the dwelling places
that are not theirs. 7 They are
terrible and dreadful: ‘their judg-

4 Deut. 28. 49, 50; Jer. 5. 15.—~? Ful-

filled, 2 Chron. 36. 6.—=3 Heb. breadihs,—
4Or, from them shall proceed the judg-

The rendering “I am about to work’”’
would express more clearly the idea of
imminence. Which ye will not believe,
though it be told you—Better, which
ye would not believe though (if) it were
told you; that is, as having occurred
in another place and at some other
time. The event will be so extra-
ordinary that only eyewitnesses can
believe it (compare Acts xiii, 41).
The awful thing Jehovah is about to
do is stated in verses 6ff. I raise up
the Chaldeans—Better, I am about to
raise up (G.-K., 116p). On Chaldeans
see Introduction, pp. 468ff, and Na-
hum, p. 431. The reference is not to
the first appearance of the Chaldeans
in history or as a world power, for the
following verses indicate that they
were already well known as cruel,
bloodthirsty conquerors, but to their
first advance against Judah; they will
be summoned by Jehovah to execute
judgment upon the wicked (verse 4).
Some manuscripts of LXX. add
“against you.” Bitter—Rough, or
fierce (Judg. xviii, 25; 2 Sam. xvii, 8).
Hasty—Violent; “driven headlong
by violent impulse” (Isa. xxxii, 4).
As world conquerors they march
through the whole extent of the earth
and take possession of territories not
their own (ii, 6; Deut. vi, 10, 11).
Verse 7 depicts further the fierce
disposition of the Chaldeans. The
nation is personified as a hero, hence
the Hebrew has the singular pronoun
(see margin). Terrible—Exciting ter-
ror (Song of Songs vi, 4, 10). Dreadful
—Creating alarm. This is the word
ordinarily translated ‘“‘terrible’’ in the
Old Testament. Their judgment—
The decisions determining their con-
duct (Psa. xvii, 2). Dignity—Or,
eminence; the sovereignty which they

 

ment and their dignity shall proceed
of themselves. 8 Their horses also
are swifter than the leopards, and
are more 4fierce than the cevening
wolves: and their horsemen shall
spread themselves, and their horse-
men shall come from far; ‘they shall

ment of these, and the captivity of these.
-——5 Heb. sharp.—e Jer. 5. 6; Zeph. 3.
3.—f Jer. 4. 13.

 

assume over the nations of the world
(Gen. xlix, 3; Hos. xiii, 1). Proceed of
themselves—They acknowledge no
superior, not even Jehovah, to deter-
mine their course for them. According
to their own pleasure they map out
their plans and through the power of
their own arms they overthrow the
nations.

Verse 8 describes the irresistible ad-
vance of their armies (compare Jer.
iv, 18; v, 6). Their horses also are
swifter than the leopards—Tristram
describes the leopard as “‘agile, swift,
and when irritated the most terrible
and cruel of beasts.”’ In Jer. iv, 13,
the expression is “swifter than eagles”;
Habakkuk mentions the eagle later in
the verse. More fierce—Literally,
more sharp. The war horses share
their masters’ ferocity. Wildly they
dash against the foe. Evening wolves
—The wolves that, after fasting all
day, go out in the evening to seek
prey; prompted by intense hunger
they are especially fierce. LXX.,
with a slight change of vowels, reads
“wolves of Arabia,” which is less suit-
able (compare Zeph. iii, 3). Spread
themselves—R. V., “press proudly
on.’”’ The verb is connected with an
Arabic root meaning “to strut
proudly”; when used of horsemen
it means “‘to spring along,” ‘‘to gal-
lop.” Nothing can stop the onslaught
of their horsemen. Their horsemen
shall come from far—The horsemen of
the Chaldeans came from the far east.
Several commentators are inclined to
omit this clause as a marginal gloss to
the preceding, because (1) LX X. omits
“horsemen”; (2) the repetition of
“horsemen” in two successive clauses
seems peculiar; (3) the presence of
this clause gives an unequal number
CHAPTER I.

483

 

fly as the eagle that hasteth to eat.
9 They shall come all for violence:
® 7their faces shall sup up as the
east wind, and they shall gather the
captivity as the sand. 10 And they
shall scoff at the kings, and the

princes shall be a scorn unto them:
they shall deride every strong hold;
for they shall heap dust, and take
it. 11 Then shall his mind change,
and he shall pass over, and offend,
simputing this his power unto his god.

 

6 Or, the supping up of their faces, etc.,
or, their faces shall look toward the east.

7 Heb. the opposition of thetr faces to-
ward the east.——¢ Dan. 5. 4.

 

of clauses, and thus injures the paral-
lelism. Others consider this the orig-
inal clause and the preceding the
gloss. Nowack and others make more
thoroughgoing changes and read verse
8, “And swifter than leopards are
their (literally, his) horses, and swifter
on foot than the evening wolves their
horsemen; (and their horsemen come
from afar;) they fly as an eagle that
hasteth to devour.” As an eagle or
vulture (see on Mic. i, 16) swoops upon
a carcass, so the Chaldean horsemen
swoop upon their human prey.

9. Their purpose is to rob and to
destroy. For violence—They are with-
out humane feelings; their only object
is to do violence. Their faces shall
sup up as the east wind—R. V., ‘“‘the
set of their faces is forwards’’; margin,
“the eagerness of their faces is towards
the east.” A. V. attempts to get from
the original the thought that the Chal-
deans will devour everything like the
destructive east wind (Hos. xiii, 15);
R. V., that their faces are set forward
and cannot be turned aside; so also
margin R. V. The Hebrew is obscure
and the English translations all do
more or less violence to it. The orig-
inal has east, “but as the spectator
when reckoning the quarters of the
heavens faces the east, it is supposed
that eastwards became equivalent to
forwards or onwards.’ The intention
of the prophet is evidently to describe
the fierceness of the advance, but it is
not unlikely that the text has suffered
in transmission. Nowack considers
the corruption so hopeless that he does
not even attempt a restoration; Marti
reads, “They advance in the very face
of those who rise up against them”;
that is, they are without fear or hesi-
tation. Their captives are “as the
sand,” which means numberless. The

 

Assyrian kings frequently boast that
they took captives and booty
“without number.”’

The verbs of verses 10, 11 should be
rendered, with R. V. in verse 10, as
present tenses. Kings and princes are
objects of mockery to them, fortresses
are taken with the greatest ease. They
shall heap dust [‘‘he heapeth up dust”’]
—Refers to the casting up of em-
bankments, so that the besiegers may .
be on a level with the defenders behind
the walls (2 Sam. xx, 15; Jer. xxxii,
24). This is done quickly, and the
city falls.

In verse 11 the translation of A. V.
is not impossible, but the context
favors R. V.: ‘Then he shall sweep by
as a wind, and shall pass over, and be
guilty, even he whose might is his
god.” Then—With the fortresses lev-
eled to the ground the victorious army
rushes on like a wind to new triumphs.
He passeth over—lIrresistibly they
sweep through the lands overcoming
all obstacles. The two verbs are used
together in Isa. viii, 8, of the onward
rush of the Assyrians, likened to an
overwhelming flood. The translation
of margin R. V., “transgresseth,” is
not so suitable. Be guilty (R.V.)—
Through the acts just described,
equivalent to “‘and thus he becometh
guilty.” The cruelties and outrages
constitute a part of their guilt.
Another indictment is implied in the
last clause. Even he whose might is
his god (R. V.)—This is not a literal
translation, but it expresses the
thought of the original: “His success
intoxicates him, and in his pride of
heart he deifies his own might.” Lit-
erally it is, “this his might becometh
his god”; the construction is peculiar,
and the text may be corrupt. For
“and be guilty, even he whose might
484

HABAKKUK.

 

12 Art thou not from everlasting,
O Lorp my God, mine Holy One?

we shall not die. O LoRD, ithou
hast ordained them for judgment,

 

bh Psa. 90. 2; 93. 2; Lam. 5. 19.

i2 Kings 19 25; Psa. 17. 13; Isa. 10.
5-7; Ezek. 30. 25.

 

is his god,’’ Wellhausen, Nowack, and
others read, with some changes in the
text, “‘and he maketh his might to be
his god,” which gives good sense.

Tue GREATER PERPLEXITY, 12-17.

In the beginning the prophet was
troubled because Jehovah seemed to
look with indifference upon corrup-
tion; Jehovah replied that judgment
was about to fall, that the Chaldeans
were about to include Judah in their
conquests. This announcement was
accompanied by a recognition of the
fierce and brutal character of the Chal-
deans and their warfare; hence, far
from calming the prophet’s doubts,
it only intensified them. Can a holy
God, he asks, look in silence upon the
wrongs and cruelties perpetrated by
the Chaldeans? Judah does, indeed,
deserve judgment, but how can Je-
hovah send the godless Chaldeans to
execute it? Is Judah to be annihilated
by this monster? Is the triumph of
the cruel world conqueror to continue
forever? These and similar questions
perplex the prophet, and in 1, 12-17,
we have a description of his struggle
with the new problem, which taxes his
faith to the uttermost.

12. The prophet begins with an ex-
pression of confidence in his God. A
better arrangement of the words would
be:

Art not thou from everlasting, O

Jehovah?
My ace my Holy One, not shall we
ie

The first line is not an expression of
despondency or doubt, but a rhetori-
cal question to pave the way for the
expression of confidence in the second
line. From everlasting—Literally,
from aforetime. The Hebrew word de-
notes an ancient period rather than
eternity in the modern sense of that
term; it is used often of the Mosaic
age or ther periods in Israel’s past

 

(compare Mic. vii, 20; Psa. xliv, 1);
even of a former period in a single
lifetime (Job xxix, 2). The exact
meaning in a given passage must be
determined from the context. Allu-
sion is frequently made to the eternity
of Jehovah as a ground of confidence
in him (Deut. xxxiii, 27; Isa. xl, 28;
Psa. xc, 2). The English versions ar-
range the words differently; and some
commentators understand them as
equivalent to “Art not thou from
everlasting my Holy One, O Jehovah,
my God?” This arrangement gives to
the words a meaning different from
that which is indicated above. Ac-
cording to it the prophet is the spokes-
man of the people, expressing their
confidence based not upon Jehovah’s
eternity but upon the fact that he has
been from everlasting the Holy One of
Israel (see on Hos. xi, 9), a title of
Jehovah very common in Isaiah. As
the holy one he is bound to sweep
away the wicked Chaldeans. We
shall not die—We shall not be utterly
annihilated by the foe which is to be
raised up (verse 6). The everlasting
God will somehow preserve his people.
According to Jewish tradition “we
shall not die” is an emendation of the
scribes for “thou (Jehovah) shalt not
die.” To speak of Jehovah in connec-
tion with death, even to deny his
dying, was considered blasphemy by
the scribes, therefore they changed the
original into the present reading. If the
second person is original the second
line becomes simply a reiteration of the
thought of the first line. The eighteen
emendations of the scribes men-
tioned in Jewish tradition still present
difficulties; in the present passage the
Masoretic text is preferable. 12b
passes to the complaint. Jehovah
being the Holy One, his appointment
of the godless Chaldeans as instru-
ments of judgment creates a moral
difficulty. For judgment .. . for
CHAPTER I.

485

 

and, hty God, thou hast %es-
frieher t them for correction. 13
«Thou art of purer eyes than to be-
hold evil, and canst not look on
Miniquity: 'wherefore lookest thou
upon them that deal treacherously,
and holdest thy tongue when the
wicked devoureth the man that is
more righteous than he? 14 And
makest men as the fishes of the sea,

as the creeping things, that have
no ruler over them? 15 They take
up all of them with the angle, they
catch them in their net, and gather
them in their !drag: therefore they
rejoice and are glad. 16 Therefore
they sacrifice unto their net, and
burn incenseunto their drag: be-
cause by them their portion zs fat,
and their meat %plenteous. 17 Shall

 

8 Heb. rock, Deut. 32. 4. —® Heb. found-
ed.—k Psa. 5. 5.——10 Or, Grtevance
VJer, 12, 1,—11 van moving.—® Jer.

 

 

16; Amos 4. 2.—!2 Or, flue net. 2 Deut.
8. 17; Isa. 10. 18; 37. 24, 25.——13 Or,
dainty.

 

correction—Hither to execute judg-
ment upon him and to administer
correction to him, or, perhaps better,
that he may execute punishment upon
Judah and the other nations.

The perplexity caused by the ap-
pointment alluded to in 12b is further
described in verse 13. Can the exalta-
tion of a wicked and violent nation be
harmonized with the belief in a holy
and pure God? The present attitude
seems to contradict the prophet’s con-
ception of the divine character. He
has always thought of God as too pure
to look upon moral evil and perverse-
ness; since he now selects the most
wicked nation as his executioner, the
prophet feels justified in challenging
Jehovah to defend himself. Deal
treacherously—The Chaldeans are un-
scrupulous, treacherous, and tyranni-
cal. Is it right for Jehovah to look
upon them with favor? Is it right
that he should remain silent while

they practice wickedness? The man].

. more righteous than he—With all
their wickedness the people of Je-
hovah are better than the Chaldeans.
How, then, can Jehovah justify him-
self for making the present choice?
The same perplexed questioning is
continued in verse 14. Wherefore
does Jehovah permit the outrages of
the Chaldeans? Makest men as the
fishes of the sea—Defenseless, without
rights, readily taken by the skillful
fisherman. As the creeping things—
Despised, and without a protector to
take an interest in their well-being.
That have no ruler over them—The
relative is to be taken with “fishes”
and with “creeping things.’ They

 

scatter in every direction when danger
approaches; no ruler or commander
directs their movements. So the na-
tions are reduced to a state of con-
fusion when they learn of the approach
of the Chaldeans (compare Isa. x, 13,
14). Jehovah controls the movements
of the Chaldeans, and is in a sense re-
sponsible for their conduct; but if
they have gone beyond the divine
commission (Isa. xlvii, 6, 7; compare
x, 7) why does he not interfere?

15. So far as the prophet can see,
Jehovah looks with favor upon their
conquests, for they are successful in
all their undertakings. The Chaldean
armies are personified as a fisherman
who makes extraordinary hauls and
rejoices greatly in his success. 16.
When he sees this wonderful success
he makes the implements that have
assisted him his gods and pays homage
to them; he loses sight entirely of Him
under whose direction he acts. Net,
. drag—An expansion of the com-
parison in verses 14, 15. The net
and the drag represent the weapons
and means used by the conqueror to
subdue the nations (verse 11).
Whether the words imply that the
Chaldeans, like the Scythians (Hero-
dotus, iv, 59, 62), offered sacrifices to
their swords, or whether they are
only a vivid picture of the glorifica-
tion and deification of their might,
cannot be determined. Meat—Better,
R. V., “food.” Through the conquests
wealth and prosperity have been ac-
quired.

17. In verses 7-11 Jehovah is in-
troduced as describing the terribleness
of the Chaldean armies; in verses 12ff,
486

HABAKKUK.

 

they therefore empty their net, and
not spare continually to slay the

nations?
CHAPTER II.
WILL «stand upon my watch,
and set me upon the !tower, band
will watch to see what he will

aJsa, 21. 8, 11.——1 Heb. fenced place.
—b Psa. 85. 8——2 Or, in me.— Or,
when I am argued with.

 

the prophet questions Jehovah, how
his attitude toward them can be har-
monized with his holiness. Their suc-
cess in the past has been perplexing
enough; how can the prophet explain
the new commission intrusted to
them? Shall they therefore empty
their nets—Of the fish already caught,
so that they may prepare for a new
haul. In the last clause the prophet
discontinues the use of figurative
language, and inquires whether the
Chaldeans are to be permitted to con-
tinue forever in their career of violence.

The prophet is, indeed, perplexed.
Is there no solution? He is not yet
ready to give up, and determines to
await a divine solution.

CHAPTER II.

Tae PropHet’s Anxious WaAtcH;
THE Divine Souution, 1-5.

1. The prophet carries out his de-
termination to secure a divine solu-
tion. Watch, . . . tower—The two
clauses are not to be understood lit-
erally, as if the prophet had an ele-
vated place or tower where, away
from the noise, he might look toward
heaven for a revelation; they are
meant figuratively. As the watch-
man gazes into the distance from his
watchtower (2 Sam. xviii, 24; 2 Kings
ix, 17), so the prophet will watch in-
tently for an answer from heaven
(Isa. xxi, 8). Watch to see—R. V.,
“look forth to see.” From the root of
the verb used here is derived one of
the titles of the prophets, watchman
(Jer. vi, 17; Ezek. iii, 17). What I
shall answer—First of all, to himself;
then, to others who would be sure to
consult the prophet concerning the
significance of passing events. Peshit-
to reads, “what he (Jehovah) will

 

say 2unto me, and what I shall
answer ? when I am reproved. 2
And the Lorp answered me, and
said, *Write the vision, and make
it plain upon tables, that_he may
run that readeth it. 3 For ‘the
vision is yet for an appointed time,

4 y m my reproof, or, arguing
ere at 30. Roe nee 10. 143 i.
27, 35.

answer,” which brings the clause into
closer parallelism with the preceding,
and is therefore accepted as original
by many commentators. When I am
reproved—Better, with R. V., “con-
cerning my complaint,” as expressed
ini, 12-17. -

2. The prophet gazes not in vain.
Vision—See on Nah. i, 1. Jehovah
grants an answer in the form of an
inner vision, but since the solution is
intended for all who might be troubled
in a similar manner, the prophet is
exhorted to make it known to all by
writing it upon tablets where the peo-
ple could read it. Tables—Literally,
the tablets; either tablets such as are
commonly used for inscriptions set up
in public places, or tablets such as the
prophet was accustomed to use for
these or similar purposes. Make it
plain—Because it is an important mes-
sage (compare Isa. viii, 1). That he
may run that readeth it—It is to be
written so plainly that anyone hurry-
ing by may read it, without being
compelled to stop and study. There
is no reason for doubting that the
command was to be understood and
carried out literally. Keil’s view, that
“the words simply express the thought
that the prophecy is to be laid to heart
by all the people on account of its
great importance, and that not merely
in the present but in the future also,”
does scant justice to the statements
in verses 2, 3. ;

Verse 3 indicates the reason for the
command. The writing down of the
vision is necessary, because its fulfill-
ment will be delayed; when it is ful-
filled the tablets will serve as wit-
nesses to the truthfulness of Jehovah
and of his prophet (compare Isa. viii,
16-18). The vision is yet for an ap-
CHAPTER II.

487

 

but at the end it shall speak, and
not lie: though it tarry, wait for it;
because it will esurely come, it will

not tarry. 4 Behold, his soul which
is lifted up is not upright in him:
but the ‘just shall live by his faith.

 

e Heb. 10, 37,—1 John 3. 36; Rom.

1. 17; Gal. 3.11; Heb. 10 38.

 

pointed time—It relates not to the
present but to the time fixed by Je-
hovah for its realization, which is yet
in the future (compare Dan. viii, 19,
26; x, 14, etc.). At the end it shall
speak—Better, R. V., “it hasteth to-
ward the end.” The end is not the
“last days,” nor the fulfillment of the
vision as such, but the time fixed for it.
The oracle is thought of as possess-
ing a vital energy of itsown. ‘True
prophecy,” says Hitzig, “is inspired,
as it were, by an impulse to fulfill
itself.” Not lie—It will not prove
false, but will surely be realized. In
the rest of the verse the prophet is
exhorted to wait patiently, for,
though delayed, the vision will surely
be realized.

Verse 4 contains the oracle that the
prophet is to write down. It is brief
and enigmatic, but not unintelligible.
4a, is translated more satisfactorily in
R. V., “Behold his soul is puffed up,
it is not upright in him.” These
words apply to the Chaldean. The
righteous, or rather the destiny of the
righteous, is described in the second
part of the verse. Though in the one
case the reference is to character, in
the other to destiny, there seems in-
sufficient reason for suspecting the
accuracy of the text; the various
emendations suggested do not im-
prove it. Lifted up (“puffed up”]...
not upright—His successes and con-
quests have made him proud, pre-
sumptuous, insincere, and treacherous
in his dealings with other nations.
This is all the oracle says, but com-
parison with the second clause enables
us to complete the thought. Because
the Chaldean is puffed up, glories in
his might alone, and is insincere and
treacherous, he lacks the principles
and elements which alone assure
permanence; he is doomed to perish.
If destruction overtakes the Chal-
deans in the end, the problem of

 

the prophet is at
solved.

The second clause continues the
solution. The just [‘“righteous”] shall
live by his faith—Margin R. V., “in
his faithfulness.” The righteous of
this verse is identical with the
“tighteous” of i, 13, whose present and
imminent lot causes the complaint of
the prophet. While it is to be under-
stood primarily of the righteous in
Israel, it includes also those among the
nations oppressed by the Chaldeans;
and the assertion is equally true of
the righteous everywhere and in all
ages. “‘We shall not die’ was Habak-
kuk’s ery of confidence (i, 12); Je-
hovah responds with a definite prom-
ise of life. Temporarily the ways of
Jehovah may seem unintelligible, but a
time of reckoning will come, when the
godless oppressor will meet his doom,
‘while the faithful oppressed, now de-
livered, will rejoice in new life. This is
the vision and with it is joined the
promise (verse 3) that it will surely be
realized. The prophet seems satisfied.

In Gal. iii, 11, Paul quotes the words
of Habakkuk, but the Hebrew word
here translated “faith” or “‘faithful-
ness” is not quite identical in meaning
with the New Testament expression,
which denotes faith as an active, inner
principle of the spiritual life. In fact,
the Hebrew has no word that exactly
expresses the New Testament idea of
faith. The Hebrew word means
steadfastness, moral trustworthiness,
fidelity, integrity of character under
all provocations; but since these vir-
tues in the case of the Israelites, es-
pecially in the time of adversity,
would spring chiefly from their loyalty
to Jehovah, their confidence in
him, and their trust in the ultimate
triumph of the good, the New Testa-
ment idea is not foreign to the Old
Testament expression. For the right-
eous his integrity and fidelity consti-

least partly
488

5 5Yea also, because he trans-
gresseth by wine, he 7s a proud man,
neither keepeth at home, who en-
largeth his desire eas hell, and is
as death, and cannot be satisfied,

HABAKKUK.

but gathereth unto him all nations,
and heapeth unto him all people:
6 Shall not all these take up a para-
ble against him, and a taunting pro-
verb against him, and say, *Woe to

 

5 Or, How much more.—s Prov. 27. 20;

30. 16.—4 Mic. 2. 4.—®Or, Ho, he.

 

tute elements of permanency; they
cannot perish; they will endure for-
ever. This, then, is the reply to the
prophet’s complaint: oppression, pride,
insincerity will lead to destruction, in-
tegrity and faithfulness to life ever-
lasting.

Verse 5 seems to be an oracle by
itself, though in thought it is an ex-
pansion of verse 4a, describing, as it
does, the character of the Chaldean.
But, while the general import of the
verse is clear, the interpretation of
details is uncertain; and it seems al-
most beyond doubt that the text has
suffered in transmission. A few simple
changes would produce the following:
“Yea, moreover, treacherous as wine
is he, a haughty man, who keepeth
not at home, who enlargeth his desire
as Sheol; he is as death, and cannot
be satisfied, but gathereth unto him
all nations, and heapeth unto him all
peoples.” These words are a descrip-
tion of the lust of conquest that im-
pels the Chaldeans to overrun the
whole earth and of the treachery they
practice when dealing with other na-
tions. Hell—Better, R. V., “Sheol.”
The abode of the departed; it is pic-
tured here, as elsewhere, as a devour-
ing, insatiable monster (see on Hos.
xiil, 14; compare Isa. v, 14). As
Sheol seeks to devour all, so the Chal-
deans are not satisfied until all nations
have become their prey.

Verse 5 marks the transition to the
five woes in 6-20. Now the Chaldean
is the triumphant conqueror, but his
doom is determined in the heavenly
councils; therefore the oppressed na-
tions may begin their song of rejoicing
over his downfall. The ancient Baby-
lonian Kings took comparatively lit-
tle interest in war; but the Chaldean
power, which was the heir of Assyria,
continued the latter’s cruel policy.

 

Taunt-Sonc OVER THE FALL OF THE
CHALDEANS, 6-20.

In ii, 6-20, the prophet introduces
the nations that are now suffering
from the oppressions of the Chaldeans
as taking up a parable or song against
the oppressor about to be crushed.
The song is in the form of five woes
upon (1) lust of conquest and plunder;
(2) rapacity; (3) self-glorification;
(4) oppression; (5) idolatry. These
woes are placed in the mouth of the
nations; in reality the prophet is the
speaker.

First woe—upon lust of conquest and
plunder, 6-8.

Verse 6a introduces the oppressed
who will pronounce the woes. The
utterances begin with “woe” in 6b.
Throughout the song the Chaldean
power is personified as an individual
(see Introduction, p. 472). The na-
tions will not submit forever. All
these—All the wronged nations.
Against him—The Chaldean oppres-
sor. Parable—The primary meaning
of the Hebrew word seems to be “like-
ness” or “identity”; hence it came to
be applied to any saying containing
a comparison or similitude. In a
more general sense it is used of any
figurative speech or song—in some
places of a taunt-song (Isa. xiv, 4);
so here. Taunting proverb—Literally,
a dark saying; margin, “riddle”; here
practically synonymous with the pre-
ceding, a taunt-song. The thought is
that the nations will make the Chal-
deans, as examples of fallen greatness
and pride, objects of taunting proverbs
and comparisons, such as are found
in verses 6-20. Woe—With this word
begins the first “parable.” Each of
the five is directed against a specific
crime, the first against lust of con-
CHAPTER II.

489

 

him that increaseth that which is
not his! how long? and to him that
ladeth himself with thick clay! 7
Shall they not rise up suddenly that.
shall bite thee, and awake that shi!)
vex thee, and thou shalt be fo

booties unto them? 8 ‘Because
thou hast spoiled many nations, all
the remnant of the people shall spoil
thee; "because of men’s 7blood, and
for the violence of the land, of the
city, and of all that dwell therein.

 

ilsa. 33. 1.—k Verse 17.

7 Heb. bloods.

 

quest and plunder. Increaseth that
which is not his—He seizes the lands
and possessions of other nations (com-
pare i, 6, 9, 15). How long?—“A
sigh appended to the woe.” How
long will he be permitted to carry out
this policy? Ladeth himself with
thick clay—This is a possible transla-
tion, but the context favors the read-
ing of R. V., “with pledges.” The
wealth accumulated by the Chaldeans
is represented as a mass of pledges
which they have taken from the na-
tions like merciless usurers. But the
time will come when the plundered
nations will rise in wrath and compel
the Chaldeans to return these pledges
to their proper owners. In this con-
nection it may be interesting to com-
pare the boast of Nebuchadnezzar: “I
have amassed silver, gold, metals,
precious stones of all kinds and of all
values, a collection of objects of great
price, immense treasures.”

7. Retribution will surely come; the
nations will not submit forever. They
... that shall bite thee—The verb has
a twofold meaning, “to bite” (Gen.
xlix, 17; Num. xxi, 8, 9), and “to
exact usury” (compare margin R. V.;
Deut. xxili, 20). Either sense fits
admirably in this place. The use
of ambiguous words is_ perfectly
legitimate in a proverb-song. Since
the verb is in the participial form it
might be translated literally, “the
biter” or “the (cruel) creditor.” The
nations are so called because, on the
one hand, the Chaldeans have taken
their possessions and thus have be-
come their debtors; on the other, the
nations will take vengeance, they will
bite and harass them. Vex thee—
Margin R. V., “toss thee to and fro.”
In Arabic the verb is used of the shak-
ing of trees by the wind; here of

 

the nations that will give the Chal-
deans no rest or peace; they will drive
them hither and thither until finally
they will expel them from their posses-
sions: Shalt be for booties—The
wealth of the oppressor will fall into
the hands of the angry nations.

Verse 8 justifies the destruction of
the Chaldeans, which is only just ret-
ribution for the cruelties perpetrated
by them. All the remnant of the peo-
ple—A threefold interpretation is pos-
sible: (1) those of the subdued nations
who have survived the oppression and
slaughter; (2) the nations with the
exception of the Chaldeans, with no
reference to any previous contact with
the latter (in this case the translation
“rest”? would be preferable to “rem-
nant’’); (3) the nations that were able
to withstand the Chaldeans, in dis-
tinction from, those that were con-
quered. The first is tobe preferred.
The oppressed nations will rise and
throw off the yoke. Men’s blood—The
blood wantonly shed in the pursuit of
a policy of conquest. Violence—See
i, 9. Land—The reference is not to
the land of Israel alone, but to the
lands of all the nations that have suf-
fered; hence, “land” must be under-
stood in a collective sense, or the
translation might be changed to
“earth”; the whole earth has ex-
perienced their violence (Jer. 1, 23;
li, 7, 25). City—This cannot be re-
stricted to Jerusalem or to any other
particular city; it also is to be under-
stood collectively. As the Chaldeans
have spoiled others, so they will be
spoiled in turn.

Woe upon rapacity, 9-11.

In this stanza the Chaldeans are
represented as a covetous man who
builds his house with blood and vio-
490

HABAKKUK.

 

9 Woe to him that ! &coveteth
an evil covetousness to his house,
that he may set his nest on high,
that he may be delivered from
the °*power of evil! 10 Thou hast
consulted shame to thy house by

cutting off many people, and hast
Suale aan thy soul. 11 For the
stone shall cry out of the wall, and
the “beam out of the timber shall
Manswer it. :

12 Woe to him that buildeth a

 

\Jer, 22. 13.—% Or, gaineth an evil
gain.—™ Jer. 49. 16; Obad. 4.

Heb. palm of the hand.—" Or, piece,
or, fastening.— 1 Or, witness against Ut.

 

lence, and seeks to store there all
kinds of treasures, that he may be
“delivered from the power of the
evil,” and be safe as a bird in his nest
on high. But he cannot escape judg-
ment; the very stones and beams
of the house cry to heaven for ven-
geance.

9. Coveteth an evil covetousness
—Better R. V., “getteth an evil
gain.” The vast spoil taken from
the nations by evil and _ illegitimate
means. To his house—Not the
palace, but the entire land and
nation (see on Hos. viii, 1). It
was for the purpose of enriching and
exalting the nation that the conquests
were undertaken. Set his nest on high
—A figure expressing the purpose of
establishing his power forever (Num.
xxiv, 21; Obad. 4). As the eagle sets
his nest on high to protect himself
and his young against attacks, so the
Chaldean seeks to fortify his position,
that he may escape harm forever.
From the power of evil—Not the “evil
one,” but any possible attack or ca-
lamity (Psa. xlix, 6; Isa. xxxi, 2).

10. “Man proposes, God disposes.”
The Chaldean disregarded the divine
purpose. He.thought only of his own
interest and exaltation, but in doing
so he prepared the way for his
fall. Consulted [‘‘devised”] shame—
He sought to bring honor to his
dynasty and nation; instead of realiz-
ing his ambition, his lust of conquest
and rapacity will result in ruin and
shame (Jer. vii, 19). LXX. reads, ‘I
will devise.” By cutting off many
people [“ peoples” |—LXX. codrdinates
this with the preceding clause and
reads, ‘‘thou hast cut off many peo-
ples.” The ordinary English transla-
tion gives good sense and is not im-

 

possible, but it would be in better
accord with Hebrew usage to take the
infinitive, literally, “to cut off,” as
object of “devised,” so as to read
“Thou hast devised shame to thy
house, to cut off many peoples.” And
hast sinned against thy soul—By cut-
ting off the many peoples he expected
to receive glory and honor; in reality
he endangered his very existence.
Soul is used, as frequently in the Old
Testament, in the sense of life. Some
prefer to render the words as a cir-
cumstantial clause, “while thou art
sinning against thy soul.” He devised
to cut off the nations, while in reality
he injured himself. The construction
is peculiar and the text may be cor-
rupt, but there can be no doubt as to
the general sense.

Verse 11 gives the reason for the
sentence announced in verse 10. Je-
hovah cannot overlook the wrong-
doing, for the very stones and beams
in the house built with blood cry out
against the violence practiced in pro-
curing them. Shall answer it—Shall
reécho the cry sent up by the stones.

Woe upon the building of cities with
the blood and property of strangers,
12-14.

The third woe is a continuation of
the second; the latter refers to the
building of the empire in general, the
former to the extensive building en-
terprises throughout the land. “The
prophet sees the city in process of ex-
tension, bands of captives, Jews and
Gentiles, bleeding and dying under
the blows of their drivers, and he
realizes the fraudful dealings by which
the treasures expended in the erection
of enormous fortifications have been
amassed.”
CHAPTER II.

491

 

town with "= !2blood, and establish-
eth a city by iniquity! 13 Behold.
is it not of the Lorp of hosts ethat
the people shall labor in the very
fire, and the people shall weary
themselves 1°for very vanity? 14

For the earth shall be filled with
the pknowledge of the glory of the
Lorp, as the waters cover the sea.

15 Woe unto him that giveth his
neighbor drink, that puttest thy
sbottle to him, and makest him

 

n Jer. 22.13; Ezek. 24.9; Mic. 3.10; Nah.
3. 1.—12 Heb. bloods. ° Jer. 51. 58.

 

13 Or, in vain?—14 Or, by knowing the glory
of the LORD.—¥ Isa. 11. 9.—4 Hos. 7. 5.

 

12. Town . . . city—Synonymous;
they cannot be restricted to the capi-
tal, but include cities scattered
throughout the empire, wherever
building enterprises were carried on.
Blood, . . . iniquity—Blood was shed
and iniquity done in subduing the
nations, in tearing them from their
homes and transporting them to
Babylonia, and in compelling them
to assist in the extensive building en-
terprises of which the inscriptions of
Nebuchadnezzar give a fair idea. The
sentiment expressed here is of uni-
versal application, but the prophet
has in mind primarily the Chaldeans
(compare Mic. iii, 10; Jer. xxii, 13).
13. Jehovah has decreed the destruc-
tion. Behold, is it not of Jehovah—
Is it not purposed by Jehovah? For
Jehovah of hosts see on Hos. xii, 5.
The people . . . the people—Better,
R. V., “the peoples .. . the nations”;
that is, the nations subdued by the
Chaldeans. Labor in the very fire—
R. V., “for the fire”; literally, for the
need oj the fire. Jehovah has purposed
to give all the works of their hands
a prey to the flames. For very vanity
—In vain. The judgment of Jehovah
will bring all they have done to
naught. Judgment upon Babylon is
announced in similar terms in Jer.
li, 58, but it is not certain that there
is a direct literary dependence of the
one passage upon the other. Nowack,
followed by Marti, thinks that the
words are a free reproduction of Jer.
li, 58, and he renders the first sentence,
“Behold, is not of Jehovah of hosts
the word”; which he understands as
an introduction to the quotation. If
this passage is dependent upon Jer. li,
58, Nowack is right in considering it a
later addition, but there is insufficient
evidence for Nowack’s contention.

 

Verse 14 gives an additional reason
for the overthrow of the Chaldeans.
Jehovah has purposed to establish his
universal kingdom upon earth; to
make room for this kingdom of peace
and righteousness the cruel and war-
like Chaldean must be retired from
the scene of action. The knowledge
of the glory of Jehovah—The glory of
Jehovah is the divine manifestation
in nature, in history, in revelation;
here in the events connected with the
overthrow of the Chaldeans. These
are intended to give the whole world
a more adequate idea of the nature
and character of Jehovah. As the
waters cover the sea—A picture of
overflowing abundance (compare Isa.
xi, 9). The overthrow of the mighty
world conqueror will be so remarkable
that the news of it will spread far and
wide (compare Psa. cxxvi, 2).

Woe upon cruelty toward other nations,
15-17.

Verse 15 presents a figurative de-
scription of the craftiness, cruelty, and
cunning by the use of which the Chal-
deans have reduced the nations to
helplessness. The picture is that of a
man giving poisonous or intoxicating
drink to another, for the express pur-
pose of taking delight in his shame
(Gen. ix, 21), or taking advantage of
him. But the oppressor will be com-
pelled to drink of the same cup and
suffer shame, only in an intensified
form (16, 17).

The thought of verse 15 is clear,
but there is some uncertainty as to
details. That giveth his neighbor
drink, that puttest thy bottle to him—
The meaning of some of the words is
uncertain; hence the difference be-
tween A. V. and R. V., “that giveth
his neighbor drink, to thee that add-
492

HABAKKUK.

 

drunken also, that thou mayest
tlook on their nakedness! 16 Thou
art filled “with shame for glory:
sdrink thou also, and let thy fore-

skin be uncovered: the cup of the
Lorp’s right hand shall be turned
unto thee, and shameful spewing
shall be on thy glory. 17 For the

 

T Gen, 9. 22.—1 Or, more withshame than

with glory. Jer. 25. 26, 27; 51. 57.

 

est thy venom.” The grammatical
construction differs from that in the
preceding woes (verses 6, 9, 12). The
meaning of the verb translated “add”
or “puttest” is uncertain; the trans-
lation “bottle” requires a change of
vowel points; on the other hand, the
expression “to add venom” is peculiar.
This accumulation of peculiarities has
led most scholars to suspect a corrup-
tion of the text, and various emenda-
tions have been attempted. That of
Wellhausen is the simplest; it requires
but slight alterations, removes the
difficulties, and gives a very satisfac-
tory sense: “Woe unto him that giveth
his neighbor drink out of the cup of
his wrath, and maketh him drunken
also” (compare Zech. xii, 2). The cup
of wrath is one offered in wrath, which,
therefore, does not contain a pleasant,
refreshing drink, but one bitter and
destructive. The cruel, heartless man
offers this cup and compels his enemy
to drink it to the dregs, until he be-
comes helpless in his intoxication. An
apt illustration of the manner in
which the Chaldeans treated other na-
tions. That thou mayest look on their
nakedness—An indication of the
shameful purpose inspiring the act.
The one who gives the drink is the
Chaldean, those who drink it are the
nations; the prostrate condition of the
drunken man represents the pitiful
condition of the conquered nations,
the uncovering of the nakedness sug-
gests the depth of ignominy the con-
quered nations were made to suffer
(Nah. iii, 5).

Verse 16 announces the divine
judgment upon the Chaldean; he
hoped to exalt himself by bringing
shame upon others, and temporarily
his hopes appear to be realized, but
in the end the ignominy will return
upon his own head. Thou art filled
with shame for glory—R. V., ‘‘with
shame, and not glory.” A somewhat

 

freer rendering expresses the thought
more clearly, “Thou art filled with
shame instead of glory.” The Chal-
dean’s object in conquest was to win
glory; instead he has brought upon
himself shame, for he must suffer the
same treatment which he has ac-
corded to others. Drink thou—The
cup of the divine wrath. Let thy fore-
skin be uncovered—R. V., ‘‘be as one
uncircumcised.” Here equivalent to
“show thy nakedness.” He com-
pelled others to do this (verse 15).
LXX. and other ancient versions read
“stagger” instead of “let thy fore-
skin be uncovered”’; the whole clause,
“drink thou also and stagger,” which
may be original (Nah. ii, 4; Zech. xii,
2). The cup of Jehovah’s right hand
—Thus far he has compelled the na-
tions to drink the cup he handed
them, now he must take from Je-
hovah’s right hand the cup contain-
ing a similar drink. Shameful spew-
ing—R. V., ‘foul shame.” The trans-
lation of A. V. is due to the erroneous
dividing of one word into two; it is one
word, an intensive form of the ordi-
nary word for shame. Shall be on thy
glory—Shall cover it so that it is seen
no more; it will entirely displace it.
R. V. expresses more clearly the
thought of 17a: “For the violence
done to Lebanon shall cover thee, and
the destruction of the beasts, which
made them afraid.’ The violence of
[done to’’] Lebanon—This might be
understood as a figurative representa-
tion of the devastation of Palestine;
it is more likely, however, that it is
meant literally. The violence is that
done to Lebanon by cutting down its
stately cedars for use in building en-
terprises. The inscriptions of both
Assyrian and Chaldean kings state
that the cedar wood was brought from
great distances—sometimes Mount
Lebanon is mentioned by name—to
be used in the erection of temples and
CHAPTER II.

493

 

violence of Lebanon shall cover
thee, and the spoil of beasts, which
made them afraid, ‘because of men’s
blood, and for the violence of the
land, of the city, and of all that
dwell therein.

18 "What profiteth the graven

image that the maker thereof hath
graven it; the molten image, and a
xteacher of lies, that 1*the maker of
his work trusteth therein, to make
ydumb idols? 19 Woe unto him
that saith to the wood, Awake; to
the dumb stone, Arise, it shall teach!

 

tVerse 8.—UIsa. 44.9, 10; 46. 2.—
x Jer. 10. 8, 14; Zech. 10. 2.

16 Heb. the fashtoner of
— Psa. 115.5; 1 Cor. 12. 2.

his fashton.

 

palaces. The more extensive the
building enterprises, the greater the
violence to Lebanon. The use of the
cedars of Lebanon in the building of
heathen temples may have been con-
sidered by the Israelites an act of
profanity (Isa. xiv, 8). Shall cover
thee—Shall return upon thine own
head (Obad. 10; Jer. iii, 25). The
spoil of beasts [‘‘the destruction of the
beasts” }—That is, of Lebanon. The
inscriptions and monuments reveal
what enthusiastic hunters were the
kings of the East. The invasion of
Lebanon for such purposes may also
have been considered desecration.
Which made them afraid—The de-
struction which made afraid the
beasts of Lebanon shall return
upon the Chaldean’s own head.
Though this thought, which can be
had from the present Hebrew text,
is not unsuitable, many commenta-
tors prefer the reading of some of the
ancient versions, ‘and the destruc-
tion of the beasts shall make thee
afraid.’”’ The refrain is repeated from
verse 11.

Woe upon idolatry, 18-20.

The last strophe is unlike the pre-
ceding in that the “woe” does not
stand at the beginning, but at the
opening of verse 19. In order to re-
store similarity many commentators
place 19a, “Woe unto him that saith
to the wood, Awake; to the dumb
stone, Arise!’? before verse 18. This
arrangement, 19a, 18, 19b, 20, would
bring this strophe into accord with
the four preceding, and would give a
more satisfactory logical arrangement;
but that it was the original order can-
not be proved; if it was, the present
order cannot be accounted for very

 

easily, unless, with Nowack, we as-
sume that verse 18 is a later marginal
note, which was inserted in the text
in the wrong place. For this assump-
tion there is insufficient evidence, and
the omission of verse 18 would make
the strophe too brief.

18. What profiteth—A rhetorical
question, equivalent to “It profiteth
nothing”; the idols can render no
help in the hour of calamity (Amos ii,
4; 1 Sam. xii, 21; Isa. xliv, 10).
Graven image—See on Mic. v, 13.
Molten image—See on Nah. i, 14.
The maker thereof hath graven it—
An expression of contempt; they are
only the work of man; how can they
be of any use? Teacher of lies—Not
the priest or prophet of the idol (Isa.
ix, 15; compare Mic. iii, 11), but the
idol itself (Amos ii, 4; Zech. x, 2), so
called in contrast with Jehovah whose
word is faithful and true. To make
dumb idols—Literally, dumb nothings
(Isa. xlvi, 5-7; compare 1 Cor. xii, 2).
It is foolish to trust in idols; it is
foolish even to make them, for the
maker cannot put life into them.
19. Woe—To him who puts his trust
into these lifeless nothings. Awake—
From slumber and inactivity (1 Kings
xviii, 27). Arise—To help and de-
liver. Appeals addressed to Jehovah
would receive an answer (Psa. xxxv,
23; xliv, 23), but the idols can neither
hear nor reply. It shall teach—Bet-
ter, R. V., “Shall this teach?’ A
question or exclamation of astonish-
ment at the delusion. Teach is here
equivalent to respond to the appeal to
show « way of escape from the ca-
lamity. The prophet immediately
makes it plain why help need not be
expected. They have no life in them-
selves, how can they preserve the life
494

HABAKKUK.

 

Behold, it is laid over with gold and
silver, sand there is no breath at all
in the midst of it. 20 But «the
Lorp is in his holy temple: 1 >let
all the earth keep silence before him.

2 Psa, 135. 17.——* Psa. 11. 4,17 Heb.
be silent all the earth before htm.—>» Zeph.
1. 7; Zech. 2. 13.

CHAPTER III.
PRAYER of Habakkuk the
rophet *1!upon_ Shigionoth.
2 0 Logp, I have heard *thy speech,
and was afraid: O LorD, * brevive

a Psa. 7, tltle-—1 Or, according to vari-
able songs, or, tunes, called in Hebrew,
Shigtonoth._— Heb. thy report, or, thy
hearing.— Or, preserve altve.—» Psa.

 

of others? Laid over—The word oc-
curs only here, hence its meaning is
not quite certain; the reference seems
to be to the overlaying of idols made
of wood or other cheap material with
gold or silver. No breath—The spirit
of life is entirely absent (Jer. x, 4ff.;
Isa. xliv, 9ff.).

20. From the idols the prophet
turns to Jehovah, to emphasize the
contrast between the two (compare
Isa. xlvi). His holy temple—The in-
terpretation of this expression sug-
gested by Nowack, “‘in the midst of
his people,” is not inappropriate, and
yet it is more natural to understand
it of the heavenly dwelling place of
Jehovah (Isa. vi, 1; Ixvi, 1), from
which he watches the affairs of men
and goes forth to manifest himself in
judgment (Mic. i, 2, 3). Let all the
earth keep silence before him—In the
presence of the almighty and infinite
God it is proper to wait in awe and
reverence, to see what he may do
(Zeph. i, 7; Zech. ii, 13).

CHAPTER III.
Tue Prayer or Habakkuk, 1-19.

The prophetic utterances in chap-
ters i, ii are followed by a lyric poem,
called in the title, iii, 1, a prayer.
Verse 2 contains the petition; it is
followed by a description of divine
interferences in the past for the salva-
tion of his people (8-15). The knowl-
edge of these past favors gives the
prophet an unflinching confidence in
Jehovah during the present and im-
pending calamity; in spite of the
severest danger, he will trust in the
God of his salvation (16-19). In
many places the text seems to have
suffered in transmission, so that the

 

details of translation and __ inter-
pretation are not always beyond
doubt.

1. Habakkuk—On the authorship of
the poem see Introduction, pp. 472ff.
Upon Shigionoth—R. V., “set to
Shigionoth.” The singular of the
noun occurs in Psa. vii, 1, “Shiggaion
of David.” The exact meaning of
this and other technical musical terms
in the psalm titles is not known. It
seems to be related to a verb “to
reel,” which is used of the giddiness
of intoxication and of love. The
primary meaning of the noun would
seem to be “reeling”; as a musical
term it probably denotes a particular
style of poetry or music, or both; a
song sung with great excitement, or
with a rapid change of emotion. Such
a poem is Psa. vii. The prayer of
Habakkuk is said to be set to Shigio-
noth, that is, it is arranged and is to
be sung after the manner of these
‘Teeling songs.” Schmieder para-
phrases it, “after the manner of a
stormy, martial, and triumphant
ode.”

Verse 2 contains the prayer proper.
Thy speech—R. V., “the report of
thee.” Some understand “the re-
port of thee” in the sense of “thy
report,” that is, thy declaration,
namely, the announcement, in chap-
ters i, li, of judgment upon Judah and
upon the Chaldeans. But the expres-
sion seems to be used always in the
sense of report concerning some one
(Gen. xxix, 13; 1 Kings x, 1). It is
the report concerning Jehovah's
mighty manifestations, described in
3-15; of these the prophet has heard.
Margin R. V., rightly, “thy fame.”
I... was afraid—The greatness and
sublimity of these interferences filled
CHAPTER III.

495

 

thy work in the midst of the years,
in the midst of the years make
known; in wrath remember mercy.

3 God came from ‘Teman, ‘and the
Holy One from mount Paran. Se-
lah. His glory covered the heav-

 

4Or, the south,

© Deut. 33. 2; Judg. 5. 4; Psa. 68. 7.

 

the prophet with fear, not fear of de-
struction, but a feeling of awe and
reverence, which accompanies the
recognition of the omnipotence of
Jehovah. Fear of destruction would
have silenced him or would have
wrung from him a cry of despair;
the feeling of awe inspired confidence.
If Jehovah could help in the past,
surely he can help in the present
crisis. Revive thy work—The work
of deliverance described in verses 3-
15. The present and the immediate
future seem to reveal Jehovah as in-
different toward the best interests of
his people. O that he would repeat
the wonderful acts of the past, when
again and again he became the
saviour of his people! In the midst
of the years—This expression has been
variously interpreted; but if taken in
connection with the’divine manifes-
tations of the past (13-15), and with
the promise that at the “appointed
tine” (ii, 3) he would manifest him-
self again in mercy, the right inter-
pretation suggests itself. The words
refer to the period between the two
manifestations, to the prophet’s own
days and the days of distress yet to
come. The petitioner prays Jehovah
to come near to his people even now,
to hasten the “appointed time.”” Make
known—Thy work, which is now hid-
den. This is essentially a repetition
of the thought of the preceding clause.
LXX. reads, “make thyself known.”
In wrath remember mercy—The an-
nouncement of judgment in i, 5ff.,
seemed to be an indication of the
divine anger. Unchecked it will ac-
complish the destruction of Judah.
Troubled by these prospects, the
prophet beseeches Jehovah to temper
his wrath with mercy, even in exe-
cuting judgment, and before the final
deliverance promised for the ‘ap-
pointed time.” The thought becomes
somewhat modified if we read, as is

 

permitted by the Hebrew, “turmoil”
for “wrath.”

The mighty works of Jehovah in the
past, 3-15.

This section describes the mighty
acts of Jehovah for a revival of which
the prophet prays. It falls naturally
into three parts: (1) a description of
Jehovah’s terrible approach (3-7);
(2) a question—Why did he mani-
fest himself? (8-11); (8) the an-
swer—For the salvation of his people
(12-15).

Jehovah's terrible approach, 3-7.

3. Teman—See on Amos i, 12.
Mount Paran—In all probability the
mountain range between Mount Seir
and Mount Sinai. This whole region
in the south was thought to be in a
special manner the dwelling place of
Jehovah, from which his manifesta-
tions proceeded (Judg. v, 4; Deut.
xxxiii, 2). This belief undoubtedly
arose from the fact that there Moses
received his revelations, and there the
covenant was established between Je-
hovah and Israel. Holy One—A de-
scriptive title of Jehovah (see on Hos.
xi, 9). Selah—Occurs three times in
this chapter (compare 9, 13), and
seventy-one times in the Psalter, in
thirty-nine psalms. There is still
some uncertainty as to the meaning
of the word. Some have thought that
it marks strophe divisions; a more
probable interpretation, however, is
that which sees in it a direction to the
musicians, either to increase the force
of the music, or to play a musical in-
terlude while the singing ceases.
Glory—See on ii, 14. Praise—The
parallelism with “glory” indicates
that the poet has in mind not so much
the expression of praise by the people
as that in Jehovah which evokes the
praise, hence the expression is prac-
tically equivalent to “praiseworthy
496

HABAKKUK.

 

ens, and the earth was full of his
praise. 4 And his brightness was
as the light; he had ‘horns coming
out of his hand: and there was the

hiding of his power. 5 ‘Before him
went the pestilence, and * ‘burning
coals went forth at his feet. 6 He
stood, and measured the earth: he

 

— Or, bright beams out of his side.—
d Nah. 1. 3.

—e

6 Or, burning diseases, Deut. 32. 24,
Psa. 18. 8.

 

manifestation.” Heavens... earth—
The whole universe. The thought of
the entire verse is that, when Jehovah
came forth, the whole universe was
dazzled by the splendor and power of
his manifestations.

In verse 4 the singer proceeds to
describe in greater detail the glory of
the divine appearance. And _ his
brightness was as the light—Literally,
And there appeared a brightness as the
light. The splendor and brightness of
Jehovah’s appearance are likened to
the dazzling rays of the sun. He had
horns—In Arabic poetry the first
rays of the rising sun are frequently
likened to the horns of a gazelle; R.
V., “rays.” Out of his hand—Since
the preceding is literally “two horns,”
some have seen here a reference to
Jehovah wielding and directing the
thunderbolts with his hand. This
would be in accord with the language
in other poems, which describe the
appearance of Jehovah in the imagery
ofathunderstorm. But, since “horn”
is not used ordinarily of lightning, it
may be better to look for a different in-
terpretation. The hands being on the
sides of a person, “from his hand”
may be equivalent to “from his side,”
or even “from both sides.” As the
disk of the sun is surrounded by
bright rays, so Jehovah is thought of
here as surrounded by radiant splen-
dor. “Such a radiant splendor sur-
rounding God is presupposed when it
is affirmed of Moses that on coming
from the presence of Jehovah his face
was radiant, or emitted rays” (Exod.
xxxiv, 29, 30). There—Within the
brightness. The hiding of his power
—All that can be seen is the radiance
and the splendor; Jehovah himself is
invisible. Ordinarily darkness is rep-
resented as covering the Godhead
(Exod. xx, 21; 1 Kings viii, 12; Psa.

 

xviii, 12, 13). Following in part
LXX. and other ancient versions,
Nowack alters 4b and reads verse 4
“His brightness was as the light; the
rays at his side he made the hiding
place of his power.”

Verse 5 points to the servants who
accompanied the heavenly King, to
carry out his bidding (2 Sam. xv, 1;
compare 1 Sam. xxv, 42). Pestilence
—There was also a dark side to the
divine manifestation; he came to exe-
cute judgment, and pestilence was
his agent (see on Amos iv, 10; com-
pare Isa. xxxvii, 36). Burning coals
—The Revisers thought this to refer
to the thunderbolts which he hurled
against his enemies (Psa. xviii, 14),
for they translated “fiery bolts.”
This is a possiblé interpretation; but
in parallelism with “pestilence” it is
better understood as the burning
fever heat of the plague. This he
employed against the enemies of his
people. As verse 7 refers to the
events on Mount Sinai, so this verse
probably refers to the plagues that
fell upon the Egyptians before they
permitted the Hebrews to depart;
there may be an allusion also to the
destruction of the army of Sen-
nacherib (Isa. xxxvii, 36).

Having described the bright and
the dark sides of Jehovah’s mani-
festation, the poet proceeds to picture
in verses 6, 7 the impression made by
the coming of Jehovah upon nature
and upon man. Both verses refer
probably to the events on Mount Sinai.
He stood—Having reached the goal,
he stopped. Measured—With the
eyes, preliminary to action. The
parallelism favors a verb correspond-
ing to “drove asunder’ in the next
line. LXX. reads “was shaken’;
Targym, “he shook’; the last reading
is preferable. This may perhaps be
CHAPTER III.

497

 

beheld, and drove asunder the na-
tions; fand the ‘everlasting moun-
tains were scattered, the perpetual
hills did bow: his ways are everlast-
ing. 7 I saw the tents of 7Cushan

Sin affliction: and the curtains of
the land of Midian did tremble. 8
Was the Lorp displeased against
the rivers? was thine anger against
the rivers? was thy wrath against

 

Nah. 1 5.—e Gen. 49. 26.—’ Or, Ethi-

opia.—4 Or, under affliction, or, vanity.

 

gotten from the present Hebrew verb,
though it is not its usual meaning.
Some commentators substitute a dif-
ferent verb. He beheld and drove
asunder—The look of his eyes was
sufficient to terrify and scatter all.
The second verb means to start up in
terror (Job xxxvii, 1). Everlasting
mountains . . . perpetual hills—These
are the firmest and most substantial
portions of the globe; they have
existed from the beginning (see on
Mic. vi, 2; compare Psa. xc, 2); one
would naturally expect them to stand
up under the blow, but before Je-
hovah they crumble. On everlasting
see note on i, 12. Were scattered—
Literally, burst. The meaning is not
that the mountains were scattered in
different directions, but that the
mountains burst open or were cleaved
asunder (Zech. xiv, 4). Did bow—In
terror. His ways are everlasting—
R. V., “His goings were as of old.”
The construction of this clause is un-
certain. If it is taken as an inde-
pendent clause either of these trans-
lations may be correct; then the words
would have to be regarded as a
parenthetica] exclamation. R. V. ex-
presses the thought that the divine
manifestations for the salvation of
Israel resembled those of more an-
cient times, namely, in creation, in
the flood, etc. A. V., following the
Hebrew text more closely, declares
that Jehovah’s manifestations con-
tinue forever. In either case the ex-
clamation interrupts the description.
Hence several commentators take the
words in apposition to “mountains”
and “hills,” which is permitted by the
Hebrew, “his pathways from of old.”
The mountains and hills which have
been pathways of Jehovah from of
old (Amos iv, 13; Mic. i, 3) were
cleaved and bowed before him. With

 

the entire description should be com-
pared Judg. v, 4, 5; Psa. xviii, 7ff.
Cushan . . . Midian—The former is a
lengthened form of Cush, meaning
perhaps “‘tribe of Cush.” This cannot
be the Cush, or Ethiopia, in Africa
(see on Zeph. ii, 12); the parallel
“Midian” suggests a territory in
Arabia, perhaps the home of one of
the wives of Moses (Num. xii, 1). A
district Cush in Arabia is mentioned
in the Assyrian inscriptions. Prob-
ably both the Cushites and the Mid-
ianites were without settled abode;
roaming up and down the desert,
they stopped for a time wherever
they could find pasture for their
flocks. In the period of the Exodus
the Midianites were near Mount Sinai‘
and this makes it probable that the
poet alludes here to the events which
took place there. Tents... curtains
—tThe second refers to the tent cur-
tains. The expressions include the
persons living in the tents. They
were terrified when they beheld the
wonderful manifestations of Jehovah.

Why did Jehovah manifest himself in
terror? 8-11.

In verse 8 the poet inquires of Je-
hovah why all this was done; in 9-11
he continues the description; but
throughout the whole section runs
the question, Why?

Was Jehovah displeased against the
riversP—A literal translation of the
first two lines is as follows, ‘“Was dis-
pleasure against rivers, O Jehovah?
was thy anger against the rivers?”
Had they done anything to arouse
the divine indignation? This is only
a rhetorical question, for the singer
knows well enough that a loftier mo-
tive impelled Jehovah (verse 13). The
sea—Undoubtedly the Red Sea; the
reference is again to events connected
498

HABAKKUK.

 

the sea, that thou didst ride upon
thine horses and *thy chariots of
salvation? 9 Thy bow was made
quite naked, according to the oaths
of the tribes, even thy word. Selah.

10 iThou didst cleave the earth with
rivers. 10 «The mountains saw
thee, and they trembled: the over-
flowing of the water passed by: the
deep uttered his voice, and ‘lifted

 

h Verse 15; Deut. 33. 26, 27: Psa. 68. 4;
104, 3.—® Or, thy chartots were salvation?
—l0 Or, Thou didst cleave the rivers of

the earth. i Psa 78. 15,16; 105. 41.—
k Exod. 19. 16, 18; Judg. 5. 4, 5; Psa. 68. 8;
77. 18; 114. 4. —! Exod. 14. 22; Josh. 3. 16.

 

 

with the Exodus. Ride upon...
horses s . . chariots—Jehovah is pic-
tured as a man of war advancing to
battle; his horses and chariots are
the storm clouds (Psa. xviii, 10; Isa.
xix, 1). Of salvation—The chariots
are so called because wherever Je-
hovah appears deliverance is sure to
be wrought. The idea is still very
general; not until verse 13 is there a
specific reference to the deliverance of
Israel. A suitable rendering would be
“victorious chariots.’”” Some take the
last words as a separate statement,
“thy chariots are salvation,” but this
involves an improbable interpreta-
tion. The text of verse 8 is not above
suspicion, but even as it stands the
thought is clear; the poet inquires
why Jehovah has smitten the rivers
and the sea with such terrible fury.
Various emendations have been at-
tempted. Marti thinks the original
to have been, “‘Was against the
rivers thine anger, or against the sea,
O Jehovah, thy wrath? thou didst
cause to walk over the sea thy horses,
thy chariots over heaps of water.”
Verse 9 pictures Jehovah standing
upon his chariot ready for battle.
Thy bow was made quite naked—R.
V., “bare.” The covering is removed
and the bow is ready for use. The
bow is not, as is thought by some,
the rainbow, but the bow of the war-
rior God with which he shoots the
thunderbolts. According to the oaths
of the tribes, even thy word—R. V.,
“The oaths to the tribes were a sure
word.” The present Hebrew text plus
a considerable amount of imagination
may give this translation, the thought
being that the promises made to the
tribes of Israel by Jehovah were sure
of fulfillment. The peculiarity of the
Hebrew and the fact that the thought

 

which can be gotten from it does not
fit in the context have led most com-
mentators to suspect a corruption of
the text. The marginal translation,
“Sworn were the chastisements of thy
word,” does not remove the difficulty.
Of the many translations offered, in
Delitzsch’s day about one hundred,
not one can be considered quite satis-
factory. An easy way out of the diffi-
culty is to say with Von Orelli that
“the words are intentionally enigmati-
cal in solemn menace.” It is more
likely, however, that the obscurity
has arisen from a corruption of the
text. Partly on the basis of LXX.
and partly by conjecture Nowack
emends, “Thou hast filled with ar-
rows thy quiver,” which is more suit-
able than the present text. Thou
didst cleave the earth with rivers—Or,
into rivers. Jehovah cleaved the earth
and rivers flowed from it. If the poet
thinks of manifestations of divine
power in general, this is the most
natural rendering; if he has in mind
the Exodus, a better translation,
equally possible so far as the Hebrew
is concerned, would be, “Thou didst
cleave the rivers into dry land.’ Je-
hovah smote the rivers, so that they
became dry land, and the people
a over them dry-shod (Isa. xi,
5).

Verse 10 presents another picture of
the convulsions in nature. The moun-
tains saw thee, and they trembled—
Even the majestic mountains were
terror-struck (compare verse 6); lit-
erally, were in agony. The verb de-
notes the agony of a woman in child-
birth. LXX. reads “nations saw,”
but the Hebrew is preferable. The
overflowing of the water passed by—
Here again the Hebrew is peculiar.
The clause is commonly interpreted
CHAPTER III.

499

 

up his hands on high. 114 ™The sun
and moon stood still in their habi-
tation: at the light of thine *ar-
rows they went, and at the shining
_of thy glittering spear. 12 Thou

m Josh. 10. 12, 13.——" Or, thine arrows
walked in the light, etc.

as meaning that when the mountains
were rent in pain water burst forth.
A very slight emendation, favored by
the similar passage in Psa. Ixxvii, 17,
would give “the clouds poured out
water,” which gives good sense and
supplies a suitable contrast to the
next clause. The deep uttered his
voice—The deep denotes ordinarily
the great subterranean waters (see on
Amos vii, 4; compare Gen. vii, 11),
but here the poet may be thinking of
the Red Sea (compare Isa. Ixiii, 13).
The voice is the roar of the troubled
waters. And lifted up his hands—A
figurative description of the heaping
up of the waves by the storm. The
throwing up of the hands is an in-
voluntary act of terror; perhaps there
is also implied the thought of raising
the hands in a frantic appeal for
mercy. Partly on the basis of LXX.
some commentators change “hands”
into “roar.”

11. To increase the terror black
darkness covered the whole earth.
Stood still in their habitation—The
habitation is the place whence the
sun and moon were thought to come
forth, and whither they were thought
to return at the close of the journey.
“The sun and the moon,” says De-
litzsch, “withdraw altogether, from
the fear and horror which pervade all
nature and which are expressed in the
mountains by trembling, in the waters
by roaring, and in the sun and moon
by obscuration.” This interpretation
is preferable to that of Ewald, that
they “‘turn pale in consequence of the
surpassing brilliancy of the light-
nings” (compare Isa. xxiv, 23). Ar-
rows ...spear—The thunderbolts and
flashes of lightning which Jehovah
sent against his enemies (Psa. xviii,
14; Ixxvii, 17, 18). From verse 8 on
the manifestation of Jehovah is de-

 

didst march through the land in
indignation, ethou didst thresh the
heathen in anger. 13 Thou wentest
forth for the salvation.of thy people,
even for salvation with thine anoint-

n Josh. 10.11; Psa. 18. 14; 77. 17,18.—
eo Jer. 51. 33; Amos 1. 3; Mic. 4.13.

scribed, as frequently in the Old Tes-
tament, in the imagery of a thunder-
storm.

The salvation of his people was the
object of Jehovahy 12-15.

Verses 12-15 supply the answer to
the question in verse 8. Jehovah
showed himself terrible not because
he was displeased with the rivers, or
the sea, or the mountains, but be-
cause his anger was kindled against
the nations that oppressed his own
people. Against the former he
marched for the salvation of the
latter.

12. Through the land—Better,
through the earth; for Jehovah fought
against more than one nation. Thresh
—Literally, tread down (see on Amos
i, 3; compare 2 Kings xiii, 7; Job xxxix
15). He spared no one. In indigna-
tion, . . . in anger—Because they had
wronged his people.

Verse 13 declares, at last, why Je-
hovah went forth. Thou wentest
forth—To war on behalf of his people
(Judg. v, 4; Isa. xlii, 13). For the
salvation—To bring deliverance from
all enemies. Of thy people, ... with
thine anointed—This is a literal re-
production of the original; but the
expression “with thine anointed”
creates difficulty. Who is this anointed
one? It cannot be the expected Mes-
siah; because the verse points to
events in the past. R. V. renders ‘“‘of
thine anointed,” which produces a
good parallelism and suggests that
“thy people” and “thine anointed”
are identical. In other passages also
the term is applied to the nation, for
anyone who has a special commission
from Jehovah may be called “the
anointed one.” In accordance with
this principle the term is applied to
Cyrus (Isa. xlv, 1), to the high priest
500

HABAKKUK.

 

ed; Ppthou woundedst the head out
of the house of the wicked, “by
discovering the foundation unto the
neck, Selah.- 14 Thou didst strike

ai Josh. 10. 24; 11. 8, 12; Psa. 68.

(Lev. iv, 3, 5, 16), to the king (1 Sam.
xxiv, 6), to the patriarchs (Psa. ev,
15), to the godly in the nation (Psa.
exxxii, 10), and to the people Israel
(Psa. Ixxxiv, 9; Ixxxix, 38, 51). It
must refer to ¢he people, even if the
translation of A. V. is retained; he
went forth with his people for their
salvation. Thou woundedst the head
out of the house of the wicked—This
might possibly mean that Jehovah
smote the head of the chief of the
evildoers, but with this translation
the last clause becomes unintelligible;
margin R. V. gives better sense,
“Thou didst smite off the head from
the house of the wicked man.” To
this may be joined the rest of the
verse as translated in R. V., “laying
bare the foundation even unto the
neck.” The last clause indicates that,
though the whole is figurative, within
the figure ‘‘house” is to be understood
literally ; the “head” is the upper part,
the roof, the “neck” is its central por-
tion, the “foundation” the lowest
part; the “wicked man”’ is the enemy
of the ‘‘anointed one.” The whole is
a picture of the utter destruction of
this enemy of the people of Jehovah.
Who this enemy is taken to be de-
pends upon the interpretation of the
poem as a whole. If the poetis de-
scribing the divine interference at the
time of the Exodus the enemy is
Pharaoh or the Egyptian nation; if
the poem contains a summary of all
the divine manifestations of the past
he represents all the hostile nations
ever encountered by Israel; if it
points to the future, which is not
likely, he is the Chaldean. The tone
of the entire context suggests that the
first view is to be preferred (compare
verse 15). Laying bare (R. V.)\—Used
here in the general sense of “destroy”
(Mic. i, 6; Psa. exxxvii, 7). It must be
admitted that the whole figure is a

 

through with his staves the head of
his villages: they “came out as a
whirlwind to scatter me: their re-
joicing was as to devour the poor

12Heb. making naked.—15 Heb. were
tempestuous.

strange one; LXX. either read a dif-
ferent text or could not make any-
thing out of the Hebrew; several re-
cent commentators consider the text
hopelessly corrupt.

14. The enemy was overwhelmed
completely when his warriors were
cut to pieces. With his staves—Or,
spears; R. V., “with his own staves”;
that is, the staves of the enemy. His
own weapons, now directed by Je-
hovah, will be used by the destroyers
(compare Ezek. xxxviii, 21; Zech. xiv,
13). It is not impossible, however,
that for ‘“‘his” we should read “thy,”
that is, the staves or spears of Je-
hovah (compare verse 11). The head
of his villages—R. V., ‘“‘the head of
his warriors.” The doubtful word is
found only here; LXX. renders
“princes.”” The use of other words
derived from the same root would
favor the meaning “inhabitants of the
plain,” in distinction from those living
in walled towns; hence the translation
of A. V., “villages.” From the mean-
ing people scattered over the plain the
more general “crowd” or “multitude”
(compare margin, ‘“‘hordes’’) is de-
rived, and since the poet deals with
war, a “horde of warriors”; and this
seems to be the meaning most suit-
able in this place, Jehovah pierced
the heads of the hostile warriors. They
came out as a whirlwind—These words
are better connected with the pre-
ceding as a relative clause, ‘who came
out as a whirlwind,” that is, with the
swiftness and violence of a storm. To
scatter me—In the vividness of the
description the poet transposes him-
self into the midst of the events and
includes himself among the people
threatened by the enemy. Their re-
joicing was as to devour the poor
secretly—A gain better taken as a rela-
tive clause, “whose rejoicing. ... ”
The thought of the line seems to be
CHAPTER III.

501

 

secretly. 15  2Thou didst walk
through the sea with thine horses,
through the heap of great waters.
1G When I heard, "my belly trem-
bled; my lips quivered at the voice:

rottenness entered into my bones,and
I trembled in myself, that I might
rest in the day of trouble: when
he cometh up unto the people, he
will invade them with his troops.

 

4 Verse 8; Psa. 77.°19.—14 Or, mud.

r Psa. 119. 120; Jer. 23. 9.—15 Or, cut
them in pteces.

 

that, while the enemies were ad-
vancing, they rejoiced at the thought
of the helplessness of Israel, and they
Jooked forward with exultation to the
moment when they would have the
poor, helpless people at their mercy,
to devour them at their leisure (com-
pare Exod. xiv, 3; xv, 9). The figure
is taken from the practice of a wild
beast to seize the prey and carry it to
its den, there to devour it (Psa. x, 9;
Isa. v, 29). While this seems to be
the general thought, it is difficult to
get it from the present Hebrew text.
Marti alters the text of verse 14 so as
to read, “thou didst pierce with thy
weapons his head; his princes scat-
tered like chaff; to scatter me came
their army, to devour the poor in
secret.”

Verse 15 closes the description of
the mighty works of Jehovah in the
past. Thine horses—See on verse 8.
Sea... the heap of great waters—
Here, as throughout the entire poem,
the reference seems to be to the events
connected’ with the Exodus from
Egypt; in this verse to the crossing
of the Red Sea. Jehovah, the mighty
conqueror, delivered his people in
that greatest crisis in their history
(Exod. xiv, 15; compare Isa. xi, 15,
16); well may the singer trust that
he will not fail them in the present
calamity.

The poet’s confidence in Jehovah, the
God of his salvation, 16-19.

In the closing verses of chapter iii
the psalmist describes the feelings
psvuuced within himself by the re-
membrance of the divine manifesta-
tions in the past; at first, fear and
trembling (16a), then joy and con-
fidence in the God of his salvation
16b-19).

16. When I heard—R. V. simply,

 

“T heard.”’ The report of thee (verse
2); that is, the report of the wonderful
manifestations of Jehovah in the hour
of Israel’s distress (compare 3-15).
My belly trembled—R.. V., “my body.”
An expansion of “was afraid’’ (verse
2). Jehovah’s approach was terrible
to behold, so that all nature trembled.
No wonder that even the report of it
should cause the prophet and the peo-
ple to quake, though they have noth-
ing to fear. My lips quivered—The
verb is used elsewhere of the ringing
of the ears (1 Sam. iii, 11; 2 Kings xxi,
12); in this place the poet may mean
more than simply the quivering of the
lips, he may have in mind also the
chattering of the teeth; so that “lips”
would stand for the lips plus the teeth
covered by the lips. At the voice—
Since nothing is said of a voice speak-
ing to the singer, the noun may be
used in the more general sense of
“Teport,”’ or of “noise” (Gen. iii, 8;
1 Kings i, 41), made by Jehovah ad-
vancing to battle. The events are so
vivid in the mind of the singer that he
seems to hear Jehovah coming. Rot-
tenness entered into my bones—Terror
robbed him of all strength; his powers
became paralyzed. I trembled in my-
self—R. V., “in my place”; literally,
under me, that is, where I stood
(Exod. xvi, 29; 2 Sam. ii, 23). His
knees shook under him.

To this point the verse is quite clear;
it describes the fear which seized the
poet when he remembered the mighty
works of Jehovah. The rest is ex-
ceedingly obscure. The translators
were perplexed, as may be seen from
the differences between the two trans-
lations: A. V., “that I might rest in
the day of trouble: when he cometh
up unto the people, he will invade
them with his troops’; R. V., “Be-
cause I must wait quietly for the day
502

17 Although the fig tree shall not
blossom, neither shall fruit be in the
vines; the labor of the olive shall

HABAKKUK.

1efail, and the fields shall yield no
meat; the flock shall be cut off from
the fold, and there shall be no herd

16 Heb. ite.

 

of trouble, for the coming up of the
people that invadeth us.” The trans-
lation of A. V. gives little sense, for
how can the trembling produce rest
in the day of trouble? R. V. is more
satisfactory. It states that the
trembling is due to the fact that the
singer must sit down quietly and wait
for the calamity that will befall his
people, unable to do anything to turn
it aside. But even this thought is
not quite suitable; besides it is not
very easy to get it from the present
Hebrew text. For the last line, which
is even more obscure, a third transla-
tion is offered in margin R. V., ‘when
there shall come up against the people
he that invadeth them.’”’ Again A. V.
gives the least sense; R. V. places the
last line in apposition to the preced-
ing, and the result is more satisfac-
tory; the marginal reading expresses
essentially the same idea. The whole
verse becomes clearer, if in one point
we follow LXX. instead of the present
Hebrew text; the former does not
seem to have read the relative, which
the English translators reproduce as a
conjunction, A. V. “that,” R. V. ‘“be-
cause.” With this omitted the second
part of verse 16 marks a new beginning
and is to be understood not as an ex-
pression of fear but of confidence, like
verses 17-19. At first the memory of
the manifestations of Jehovah in the
past terrified the psalmist: “I heard,
and my body trembled, my lips quiv-
ered at the voice; rottenness entered
into my bones, and I trembled in my
place.” But soon fear was displaced
by confidence. If Jehovah could help
then, surely he can help now; there-
fore he breaks out into asong of joyand
confidence, of which 16b is the be-
ginning: “I will wait quietly for the
day of trouble, for the coming up of
the people that invadeth us.” This
interpretation of 16b is preferable to
all others.

 

Verses 17-19 contain one of the
most sublime expressions of con-
fidence in Jehovah found anywhere
in the Old Testament. If the above
suggested interpretation of 16b is
correct, verse 17 becomes the natural
continuation. The prophet looks for-
ward to the day of trouble announced
in i, 6ff., but the help of Jehovah in
the past brings to him the assurance
that in the present also he will stand
by his people; therefore, however
severe the temporary affliction,
he will still rejoice in Jehovah
and wait for the God of his salva-
tion. Fig tree... vines...
olive—The chief products of Palestine
(see on Joel i, 7, 10). Fields—The
cornfields. Meat—Better, R. V.,
“food.” Flock ...herd—A portion of
the inhabitants of Judah remained
shepherds throughout the entire his-
tory of the Hebrews. All the natural
resources of Judah are here enumer-
ated, and the poet assumes a com-
plete failure of all these resources;
but, he continues, though all may fail,
he will rely upon Jehovah, who is his
strength and will supply all his needs.

Some have thought that the his-
torical background of verse 17 is not
that of chapters i, ii, and for this rea-
son they have denied the entire third
chapter to Habakkuk (see Introduc-
tion, p. 473). Others, for the same
reason, have raised doubts concerning
the genuineness of verse 17 or of
verses 17-19. “This verse (17) does
not suggest a condition of scarcity and
barrenness arising from a hostile in-
vasion of the land, but rather one due
to severe natural calamities.” This
consideration leads A. B. Davidson
to say, “It is possible that the poem
originally ended with verse 16, and
that verses 17-19 are an addition.”
In reply it may be pointed out (1) that
the term “God of my salvation” ig
used frequently, if not exclusively, in
CHAPTER III.

5038

 

in the stalls. 18 *Yet I will ‘rejoice
in the Lorgp, I will joy in the God
of my salvation. 19 The Lorp God
ws my strength, and he will make

my feet like *hinds’ feet, and he will
make me to »walk upon mine high
places. To the chief singer on my
“stringed instruments.

 

8 Job 13, 15,* Isa, 41. 16; 61. 10.—
u Psa. 27. 1.—* 2 Sam. 22. 34;Psa. 18. 33.

¥ Deut. 32.13; 33. 29.17 Heb. Negt-
noth, Psa. 4, title.

 

connection with deliverance from ene-
mies; (2) that expressions similar to
those in verse 19,are used in Psa. xviii,
33, of Jehovah’s help against hostile
armies. In any case, the objections
can be urged only against verse 17;
but even there it is by no means cer-
tain that the reference is to drought
and resulting barrenness and to other
natural calamities. A hostile army
overrunning the land, destroying the
crops, tramping down the fields, and
killing the cattle and sheep could eas-
ily cause the very kind of suffering

pictured in verse 17 (compare Isa. i,

7-9, or almost any historical inscrip-
tion of the Assyrian kings). Another
objection, based upon the sudden tran-
sition from gloom to confidence, is
without any force. Similar transitions
occur in all poetry, they are very
numerous in the psalms, and in the
present case it is quite natural.

18, 19. Whatever the severity of
the affliction, the prophet and those
whose mouthpiece he is will rejoice
in Jehovah (Psa. v, 11), for he can
supply all needs, and in due time he
will prepare a way of escape. God of
my salvation—A God who delivers
from suffering and distress and re-
stores to the former prosperity and
felicity (Mic. vii, 7; Psa. xviii, 46).
Verse 19 shows resemblance with Psa.
xviii, 32, 33. My strength—The
source of strength in times of calamity
(Psa. xviii, 32; compare 2 Cor. xii, 9).
Like hinds’ feet—The point of com-
parison is not named; it is undoubt-
edly swiftness, one of the most im-
portant qualifications of an ancient
hero (2 Sam. i, 23; 1 Chron. xii, 8).
And he will make me to walk upon
mine high places—A continuation of
the preceding figure; the high places
are those on which the hinds skip.
The thought is of the ease with which
the singer, with Jehovah’s help, can

 

walk firmly in difficult places and
overcome obstacles which without Je-
hovah’s aid would be insurmountable.
Ultimately the people of Jehovah will
triumph. The thought remains the
same if, following the most important
ancient versions, we omit the pronoun
“mine.”

Here ends the poem proper. What
follows, “To the chief singer on my
stringed instruments,” is the sub-
scription, which, with the exception
of the pronoun, is identical with the
headings of several psalms in the
Psalter (see Introduction, p. 478).
Chief singer—R. V., “chief musician.”
This word occurs in the headings of
fifty-five psalms; it is a participial
form of a verb used in Chronicles and
Ezra in the sense of “superintending”’;
in 1 Chron. xv, 21, in the specific sense
of “leading the music.” There can be
little doubt that the word used here
and in the psalm titles means “pre-
centor” or ‘‘conductor” of the temple
choir. Delitzsch thinks that “To the
chief musician” is the direction to this
leader to receive a hymn with that
superscription into the temple col-
lection. On my stringed instruments
—The verb from which this noun is
derived means “‘to pluck the strings,”
“to play upon stringed instruments”;
the phrase means, therefore, ‘‘with the
accompaniment of stringed instru-
ments,” and it is a direction that
stringed instruments, and no others,
are to be used to accompany the sing-
ing. The force of the pronoun “my”
is doubtful. Does it refer to the poet.
in the sense that he will accompany
the singing with his own stringed in-
struments? If so, the plural would
not be expected. A comparison with
Isa. xxxvili, 20, has led some to inter-
pret “my” in a collective sense, re-
ferring to the people, equivalent to
“our.” If the pronoun is original, the
504

second interpretation is to be pre-
ferred. LXX. reads “his,” that is, of
the chief musician. However, in view
of the fact that the pronoun is
found nowhere in the psalm titles, it
is probable that here also it should be
omitted, that we should read simply,
“on stringed instruments.”

Why this musical note stands at the
end rather than at the beginning, as
in the psalms, is still an open question.
Some think that when this psalm was
taken from the psalm collection (see
Introduction, p. 473) the words, which
were intended to be the heading of
the next psalm, were copied erro-
neously and carried over with this
psalm. As there were in the beginning
no well-marked divisions between the
separate psalms, such mistake might
easily have been made. On the other

 

HABAKKUK.

hand, it is claimed (see Thirtle, The
Titles of the Psalms) that originally
only the notices indicating the author
and the historical situation were
placed at the head, while the musical
notes were always placed at the end;
that in the present case the original
order has been preserved, while in the
Psalter the musical notes have been
taken from the end of the psalms for
which they were intended and have
been placed erroneously at the head
of the succeeding psalms, which has
resulted in much confusion. Thirtle
has made out a strong case; he has
succeeded in removing some grave
difficulties, and much may be said in
favor of his view; but it would be per-
haps too much to claim that he has
placed the subject entirely beyond
question.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH.

 

The Prophet.

CHAPTER i, 1, supplies the only direct information concern-
ing the person and life of the prophet Zephaniah. In addi-
tion, a few facts concerning his life may be gathered from his
utterances.

The name Zephaniah means Jehovah hides, or Jehovah has
hidden. Concerning it G. A. Smith says, “It suggests the
prophet’s birth in the ‘killing time’ of Manasseh,” when so
many faithful servants of Jehovah had to lay down their lives
for the faith (2 Kings xxi, 16). His ancestry is traced back
four generations (i, 1): “Zephaniah the son of Cushi, the son
of Gedaliah, the son of Amariah, the son of Hezekiah.” It
is not customary in the Old Testament to carry back a man’s
ancestry so far (compare Isa. i, 1; Jer. i, 1; Hos. i, 1); and
from the exception to this general rule in the case of Zephaniah
it has been inferred that the last mentioned, Hezekiah, must
have been a prominent man—indeed, no other than King
Hezekiah of Judah, the contemporary of Isaiah and Micah
(compare Isa. xxxvi—xxxix; Jer. xxvi, 18). Two objections
have been urged against this identification: 1. It is said that
if Hezekiah were the king bearing that name the title “king
of Judah” would not have been omitted. But the omission
can readily be explained on the ground that “king of Judah”
follows immediately afterward in connection with Josiah’s
name; a repetition would have made the sentence awkward.
2. The second objection is based upon the fact that in the
ruling line only two generations are named between Hezekiah
and Josiah, namely, Manasseh and Amon, while between

Hezekiah and Zephaniah are three names, Amariah, Gedaliah,
505
506 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH.

 

Cushi. However, Manasseh had a very long reign, and he
was forty-five years of age when Amon was born (compare
2 Kings xxi, 1, 19); consequently there is room enough for
an additional generation in another line of the same family.
If Zephaniah was of royal blood his condemnation of the royal
princes (i, 8), with whose conduct he was evidently familiar
(i, 8ff.), becomes of great interest. In a similar manner
did Isaiah, who in all probability was of royal blood, condemn
without hesitation the shortcomings and vices of the rulers
and the court.

An ancient tradition declares that he was of the tribe of
Simeon, which would make it impossible for him to be of
royal blood; but the origin and value of the tradition are
uncertain. He undoubtedly lived in the southern kingdom;
that he lived in Jerusalem is made probable by the statement
in i, 4, “I will cut off from this place,” as well as by his
intimate knowledge of the topography of the city (i, 10, 11).
For how long he continued his prophetic activity we do not
know, but it is not improbable that, as in the case of Amos, his
public activity was short, and that, after delivering his mes-
sage of judgment in connection with a great political crisis,
he retired to private life, though his interest in religious
reforms may have continued (2 Kings xxili, 2).

The Time of Zephaniah’s Prophetic Activity.

1. Date—tThe title (i, 1) places the prophetic activity of
Zephaniah somewhere in the reign of Josiah, that is, between
639 and 608. Most scholars believe that the title was added
at a later time by the collector of the Minor Prophets, but,
almost without exception, they accept the statement as his-
torically correct. The most important exception is Koenig,
who dates the prophecy in the decade following the death of
Josiah; but his arguments in favor of that date find their sole
strength in improbable interpretations; for example, he
thinks that ii, 15, presupposes the fall of Nineveh as an
accomplished fact; that the condemnation of the Ethiopians
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH. 507

 

(ii, 12)—whom he seems to identify with the Egyptians—was
called forth by the carrying away of Jehoahaz (2 Kings xxiii,
34); that ili, 8, points to the advance of Nebuchadnezzar
against Jerusalem in 597.

Neither these nor his other arguments are conclusive against
the correctness of the tradition embodied i, 1; on the con-
trary, all the internal evidence points toward the reign of
Josiah as the period of Zephaniah’s activity. The reign of
Jehoiakim seems to be made impossible by Zephaniah’s silence
concerning the king in his condemnation of the corrupt court
practices (i, 8, 9). The omission is hardly accidental; but
if it is intentional it points to a time when the throne was
occupied by a virtuous and religious monarch such as was
Josiah.

But if the prophet’s activity continued for a short time only,
the question arises whether it can be located more definitely
within the period of thirty-one years covered by Josiah’s rule.
This king’s reign naturally falls into two parts, separated by the
great reform of 621. Does the work of Zephaniah belong to
the earlier or later period? On this point scholars disagree,
the majority favoring the earlier date.

The more important arguments in favor of the late date
are: (1) Deut. xxviii, 29, 30, is quoted in Zeph. i, 13, 15, 17,
in a manner which shows that the former book was well
known; but the Law was not known until 621, because it
was lost. (2) The “remnant of Baal” points to a period
when much of the Baal worship had been removed, but that
means subsequent to the reform of 621. (3) The condemna-
tion of the “king’s sons” (i, 8) presupposes that at the time
of the utterance they had reached the age of moral responsi-
bility; this again points to the later period.

These arguments are inconclusive. (1) It is always dif-
ficult to prove which one of two similar passages is dependent
on the other (see p. 136); in this case the resemblances be-
tween Deuteronomy and Zephaniah are of such a general
character that dependence of either passage on the other

\
508 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH.

 

seems improbable. (2) The expression in i, 4, was equally
appropriate before 621. As suggested on i, 4, “the remnant”
may be equivalent to every vestige, that is, everything there
is of it; and the threat may be equivalent to “I will
cut off Baal till not a trace of it is left” (compare Hos.
ii, 17); which leaves it undecided whether or not a partial
destruction had already taken place. But even if “remnant”
is understood in the sense of “that which survived” it does not
take us necessarily to a period subsequent to 621. While the
religious reform reached its climax in that year, a beginning
was undoubtedly made before that time, and there seems no
reason for doubting the essential correctness of 2 Chron.
xxxiv, 3, 4, which states that in the twelfth year of his reign
(about 627) Josiah “broke down the altars of the Baalim’;
hence at any time subsequent to 627 one might speak of a
“remnant of Baal.” A third possible interpretation is to
regard “Baal” as a type of all false worship; then again the
expression might be used before 621. (3) The third objec-
tion is touched upon in the comments on i, 8, where it is
shown that the expression king’s sons may be equivalent to
royal princes, referring not to Josiah’s children at all. The
last two objections lose all their force if the LXX. readings
are substituted—in the first place, “the names. of Baal” (com-
pare Hos. ii, 16, 17); in the second, “the house of the king.”

On the other hand, there are several considerations point-
ing to the earlier date: (1) The youth of the king would
make it easy for the royal princes to go to the excesses con-
demned in i, 8, 9. (2%) The idolatrous practices condemned
by Zephaniah (i, 3-5) are precisely those which were abolished
in 621, and, while traces of them may have remained here and
there, the wholesale condemnation of Zephaniah is inexplicable
during Josiah’s reign after that date; only the reign of
Jehoiakim would warrant them again (but see above). (3)
The temper described in i, 12, is explicable before 621 and
after the death of Josiah in 608, but not between 621 and
608, when religious enthusiasm was widespread. (4) While
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH. 509

 

the latter part of Josiah’s reign lacks a suitable occasion for’
the prophecy, it finds a natural background during the earlier
part. The tone of the entire prophecy makes it evident that
a serious crisis was at hand at the time of its delivery, that an
enemy was threatening the borders of Judah and of the sur-
rounding nations. During the latter part of the seventh cen-
tury B. C. Judah was threatened by three different nations:
by the Scythians (about 625), by the Egyptians (about 608),
and by the Chaldeans, when Jehoiakim was on the throne,
near the close of the century. If the prophecy belongs to the
reign of Josiah the Chaldeans, who did not become a promi-
nent factor in Asiatic history until after the death of Josiah,
need not be considered. Schwally thinks that the Egyptians
fill the horizon of the prophet; but (1) the description is so
vague and yet the terror so great that it seems more likely
that the approaching foe was not as familiar to the prophet
as the Egyptians must have been. (2) Though powerful, the
Egyptians were not strong enough during the closing years
of the seventh century to inspire the expectation that they
would penetrate to distant Nineveh. Josiah thought that
even he with his small army could check the advance of
Pharaoh-necho. (3) It is not improbable that the Ethiopians
in li, 12, represent, or at least include, the Egyptians. If so,
the latter cannot be the dreaded enemy. For these reasons
A. B. Davidson is probably right when he says, “An historical
nation like Egypt, which had always lain within Israel’s hori-
zon, was not fitted to be the executor of Jehovah’s judgment
upon the known world.”

If this is true, the foe must be the Scythians, but this again
points to the early part of Josiah’s reign, for the Scythians
swept over western Asia about 625 B. C. The mystery of the
origin of these wild hordes “clothed them with just that vague
terribleness which characterizes Zephaniah’s description.” At
the time the prophecy was delivered their advance dgainst
Egypt seems to have been still in the future, but imminent
(compare i, 14); hence the prophet’s activity may be placed
519 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH.

 

between 630 and 625, perhaps in 626. If this date is correct
Zephaniah and Jeremiah began their ministries in the same
year; it is, indeed, thought by many that the earlier utterances
of the latter (for example, iv, 5—vi, 30) had their origin in
the Scythian crisis.

2. Polttical Condition.—The political situation in Judah
during the reign of Manasseh is touched upon in connection
with Micah (see p. 359). This king was succeeded by his son
Amon, who reigned two years. Since the author of Kings is
silent concerning the political events during his reign, we may
suppose that the political situation remained undisturbed.
For some reason dissatisfaction broke out among his servants,
and he was assassinated, perhaps, indirectly, at least, through
the influence of the prophetic party. Josiah, a boy eight years
old, came to the throne. Fifty verses in 2 Kings xxii, xxiii,
are devoted to his reign, but little is said concerning political
events. He seems to have remained loyal to his Assyrian lord
to the very end, even when the latter’s prestige had begun
to vanish; and this loyalty cost him his life. When it became
evident that Assyria was doomed, her old-time rival, Egypt,
was anxious to claim a part of her territory before anyone else
could do so. The energetic Necho “went up against the king
of Assyria to the river Euphrates.” Prompted by a sense of
duty, and trusting that Jehovah, for whose worship he had
done so much, would fight with him, “king Josiah went against
him,” hoping to check his advance. In the old battlefield
of Palestine, the Plain of Esdraelon, near the old town of
Megiddo, they met, and, in the simple words of the author of
Kings, “Pharaoh-necho slew him at Megiddo, when he had
seen him.” During the reign of this king Zephaniah prophe-
sied.

The most important political events outside of Judah
proper, but seriously affecting the fortunes of the latter, were
the overthrow of the Assyrian empire, beginning with the
declaration of independence by Nabopolassar of Babylon in
625 and ending with the fall of Nineveh in 607-606 (see on
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH. 511

 

Nahum, p. 432), and the appearance of the Scythians in west-
ern Asia. |

Many questions concerning these Scythians remain still un-
answered (see Encyclopedia Biblica, article “Scythians’”), but
this much is clear, that they were a non-Semitic race of bar-
barians which swept in great hordes over western Asia during
the seventh century B. C. According to Herodotus they were
masters of western Asia from the Caucasus to the borders of
Egypt for twenty-eight years (about 635-607), when they
threatened to invade Egypt; but the Pharaoh, Psammetichus,
prevailed upon them by rich gifts to desist from the undertak-
ing. Though the Greek historian may exaggerate in details,
the inscriptions leave no doubt as to the essential accuracy
of his statements. However, Breasted (A History of Egypt,
p. 580) thinks that it was not the gold of Egypt but the strong
arm of Psammetichus which drove them from his borders. A
vivid description of the ravages of these barbarians is given
by Rawlinson: “Pouring through the passes of the Caucasus
—whence coming or what intending none knew—horde after
horde of the Scythians blackened the rich plains of the south.
On they came like a flight of locusts, countless, irresistible,
. . . finding the land before them a garden, and leaving it be-
hind them a howling wilderness. Neither age nor sex would
be spared. The inhabitants . . . would be ruthlessly massa-
ered by the invaders, or, at best, forced to become their slaves.
The crops would be consumed, the herds swept off or destroyed,
the villages and homesteads burned, the whole country made a
scene of desolation. Their ravages would resemble those of
the Huns when they poured into Italy, or of the Bulgarians
when they overran the fairest provinces of the Byzantine
empire.”

Well might Zephaniah tremble when he heard of the
approach of these merciless, bloodthirsty barbarians.

3. Moral and Religious Condition —Though his utterances
are few and brief, Zephaniah does not leave us in doubt concern-
ing religious and moral conditions in Judah in his day. For
512 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH.

 

additional information we may turn to the early discourses of
Jeremiah, and to 2 Kings xxi—xxiii, where we find a picture
of conditions during the reigns of Manasseh, Amon, and
Josiah. Social injustice and moral corruption were wide-
spread: “Woe to her that is rebellious and polluted! to the
oppressing city!” (iii, 1.) “Her princes in the midst of her
are roaring lions; her judges are evening wolves; they leave
nothing till the morrow” (iii, 3). “They rose early and cor-
rupted all their doings” (iii, 7). Luxury and extravagance
might be seen on every side; fortunes were heaped up by the
unjust oppression of the poor: “The princes and the king’s
sons, and all such as are clothed with foreign apparel. ...
Those that leap over the threshold, that fill their master’s
house with violence and deceit” (i, 8, 9).

The religious situation was equally bad. The reaction
under Manasseh came near making an end of Jehovah worship
(2 Kings xxi); Amon followed in the steps of his father, so
that the outlook was exceedingly dark when Josiah came to
the throne. Fortunately the latter seems to have been under
prophetic influence from the very beginning, and, assisted by
the faithful nucleus within the nation, he undertook a sweep-
ing religious reform, which reached its culmination in the
eighteenth year of his reign. When Zephaniah preached,
this reform was still in the future (see above), and his utter-
ances give some idea of the corrupt state of religion. The
Baalim were worshiped and the high places were flourishing
(i, 4); the hosts of heaven were adored upon the housetops
(i, 5); a half-hearted Jehovah worship, which in reality was
idolatry, was very widespread (i, 5); great multitudes had
turned entirely from following Jehovah (i, 6).

When the cruel Manasseh was allowed to sit undisturbed
upon his throne for/more than fifty years, many grew skeptical
and questioned, whether Jehovah took any interest in the
affairs of the nation; they began to say in their hearts, “Jeho-
vah will not do good, neither will he do evil” (1, 12). Condi-
tions could hardly be expected to be otherwise when the reli-
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH. 513

 

gious leaders had become misleaders: “Her prophets are light
and treacherous persons; her priests have profaned the sanc-
tuary; they have done violence to the law” (iii, 4). The few
who, amid the general corruption, remained faithful would be
insufficient to avert the awful judgment upon the nation,
though they themselves might be “hid in the day of Jehovah’s
anger” (ii, 3).
The Book of Zephaniah.

1. Contents.—The Book of Zephaniah falls naturally into
two parts of unequal length: the first part (i, 2—iii, 7) con-
tains, almost exclusively, denunciations and threats; the sec-
ond (iii, 8-20), a promise of salvation and glorification.

Following the title (i, 1) the prophecy opens with a mes-
sage of judgment upon all, and upon Judah in particular.
Jehovah is about to sweep away, in a great world judgment,
both man and beast (i, 2, 3); the heaviest blow will fall upon
Judah and Jerusalem (4), because they have not sought Jeho-
vah nor walked in his way. Instead of worshiping him they
have practiced various kinds of idolatry (4-6); instead of
loving justice and mercy they have oppressed the poor and
robbed the needy (8, 9). The judgment is imminent (7).
When it comes, cries of agony and despair will be heard every-
where (10,11). No one will escape, for Jehovah will “search
the city with lamps,” to find the guilty and deliver them up
to the destroyer (12a). Even the skeptical and indifferent
will be aroused by the terrible character of the judgment (12b,
13). In the closing verses of chapter i Zephaniah returns to
the imminence and terribleness of the day of Jehovah. It “is
near and hasteth greatly” (14); it is a day of darkness with-
out a ray of light (15), a day of battle (16). The calamity
will throw the inhabitants into helpless confusion, so that they
will stagger like blind men and fall an easy prey to the enemy
(17), who will show them no mercy (18a). All this will
come to pass, because Jehovah has determined to “make an
end, yea, a terrible end, of all them that dwell in the land”

(18b).
514. INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH.

 

The message of judgment is followed by an exhortation to
repentance (ii, 1-3). Aroused by the indifference of the lis-
teners, the prophet pleads with them to give some expression
of repentance (1), else they will be swept away like chaff
before the wind (2). One way of escape is offered to the
meek, namely, to “seek Jehovah.” If they do this they may
be “hid in the day of Jehovah” (3).

The next section (ii, 4-15) contains threats of Judgment
upon five nations. Philistia will be destroyed so completely
that no inhabitant is left (4-7) ; for their pride and arrogance
Moab and Ammon will become like Sodom and Gomorrah
(8-10). The terrible manifestations of Jehovah’s power will
reveal the nothingness of the deities worshiped by other
nations, and all men will render homage to the God of Israel
(11). Ethiopia in the south will feel the divine wrath (12) ;
but the severest blow will fall upon Assyria: and its capital,
Nineveh (13-15).

In iti, 1, the prophet turns once more to Jerusalem, the
rebellious and polluted, the city of oppression. He strikes
here the same notes as in chapter i, condemning moral and
religious apostasy. Her princes are thieves, her prophets
deceivers, her priests blasphemers (1-4). Jehovah has spared
no efforts to win back the apostate city, but in spite of his
efforts her inhabitants continued to corrupt all their doings
(5-7).

Since all warnings have failed, the judgment, which will
involve Judah with the other nations, is inevitable (8). But
within the doomed nation is a faithful remnant that will
escape destruction. This remnant is exhorted to remain loyal
amid the confusion and convulsions to come, because the
future has brighter things in store for it. The judgment will
result in the conversion of a choice portion of the nations of
the earth (9, 10); this company with the redeemed and puri-
fied remnant of Judah will find refuge and peace in Jehovah
(11-13).

The closing section (14-20) pictures the joy of the redeemed
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH. 515

 

daughter of Zion. She is exhorted to rejoice and be glad,
because Jehovah has redeemed her and now rules in the midst
of her (14-17). The book closes with a promise that Jehovah
will deliver her from all her foes, remove her reproach, gather
her dispersed children, and make her “a name and a praise
among all the nations of the earth” (18-20).

2. Outline. —

TITLE—THE AUTHOR OF THE PROPHECY.......eeeeeeeeees Chap. i, 1
A. THREATS OF A UNIVERSAL JUDGMENT.........-+...6-- i, 2—iii, 7
I. The day of Jehovah a day of terror to all—Only one

WAY Of CSCOPE sc cw accainas Soe ees wd Hes i, 2—ii, 3
1. The world judgment... .6..<s00s ee ees sees i, 2, 3
2. The judgment upon Judah and Jerusalem....

(1) The causes of the judgment....i, 4-9
(a) The religious apostasy. .i, 4-6
(b) The social and moral corrup-
COD wisigcoudce a srgstcees ate i, 7-9

(2) The wail of the inhabitants. .i, 10-13

(3) The imminence and terror of the

FUCEMNGHE dc ewe no acu sasen i, 14-18

8. Exhortation to repentance.............+- ji, 1-3
Il. Judgment upon the nations.......... eee eeeee ii, 4-15

Ti PHITSH A. osaed saatat eee nae See a ores. ii, 4-7

2. Moab and AMMON.......... eee ee eee eee: ii, 8-11

3. Ethiopia (= Bgypt?)..........-e sees eens ii, 12

4. ASSVTION. sess naceeees Se eset Hie ee ii, 13-15
III. Woe upon the polluted city of Jerusalem...... iii, 1-7

1. The city’s religious and moral apostasy. . iii, 1-4
2. Jehovah’s futile attempts to win her affection. .

Lee py SORES NERA SS AEDS EAA EWA WP RSI iii, 5-7
B. THE TRANSFORMING EFFECTS OF THE JUDGMENT AND THE SUBSE-
QUENT GLORY... cece eee ence eee enter eeneees iii, 8-20
I. The world judgment and its effect......-+-.++- iii, 8-13
1. The inevitableness of the judgment........ iii, 8
2. Its effect upon the nations.........+--+ iii, 9, 10
3. Its effect upon Judah.........-.++-+-- iii, 11-13
Il. The joy of the redeemed daughter of Zion... iii, 14-20
1. Exhortation to rejoice and be glad..... iii, 14-17

9, Jehovah’s glorious promise..........-. iii, 18-20

,
516 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH.

 

3. Leaching.—Leaving aside for the present the question of
integrity, we may consider here the teaching of the entire Book
of Zephaniah. Its theology resembles closely that of the earlier
prophetic books. Jehovah is the God of the universe, a God
of righteousness and holiness, who expects of his worshipers a
life in accord with his will. Israel is his chosen people, but
on account of its rebellion against him it must suffer severe
punishment. Wholesale conversion seems out of the question,
but a remnant may be “hid in the day of Jehovah’s anger,” and
this remnant will be exalted among the nations. In his empha-
sis of these and similar truths Zephaniah follows in the foot-
steps of his predecessors, and especially, as Smend has pointed
out, in those of Isaiah; he adds little, but attempts with much
spiritual and moral fervor to impress upon his contemporaries
the fundamental truths of the religion of Jehovah.

There are, however, a few points in the teaching of the
Book of Zephaniah which deserve special mention: 1. The
emphasis upon the day of Jehovah (see on Joel i, 15, and p.
148). Earlier prophets had spoken of it; Amos (vy, 18-20)
had described it in language similar to that employed by
Zephaniah (i, 15), but the latter surpasses all his predecessors
in the emphasis he puts upon this terrible manifestation of
Jehovah. His entire teaching centers around this day, and in
the Book of Zephaniah we find the germs of the apocalyptic
visions which became so common in later prophecies of an
eschatological character. Concerning this day he says that
(1) it is a day of terror (i, 15); (2) it is imminent (i, 14);
(3) it comes as a judgment for sin (i, 17); (4) it falls upon
all creation, man and beast, Hebrew and foreigner (i, 2, 3; ii,
4-15; ili, 8); (5) it is accompanied by great convulsions in
nature (i, 15); (6) from its terrors a remnant consisting of
redeemed Hebrews and foreigners will escape (ii, 3; iii, 9-13).
2. Though the prophecy closes with a sublime picture of the
glories of the Messianic age, not one word is said concerning
the person of the Messianic king. Whatever is accomplished
is accomplished by Jehovah himself. 3. The vision of the book
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH. 517

 

is world-wide. The terrors of the day of Jehovah will fall
upon all, and in the same manner, from all the nations of the
earth converts will be won to Jehovah, who will bring offerings
to him (iii, 9,10). 4. “Men shall worship him, every one in
his place” (ii, 11). This is a step in advance of the expecta-
tion expressed in Mic. iv, 1; Isa. ii, 2, “all nations shall flow
unto it,” that is, Jerusalem. This prophet moves in the direc-
tion of the utterance of Jesus, “The hour cometh, when neither
in this mountain, nor in Jerusalem, shall ye worship the
Father” (John iv, 21).

The Integrity of the Book.

The originality of every verse in chapters ii and ili and of
several verses in chapter i has been questioned by one or
more scholars. The most recent writer, Marti, assigns to
Zephaniah the following verses, in the order here given: i, 7,
2,3 (in part), 4, 5, 8 (in part), 11 (in part), 12, 13 (in part),
14-16, 17 (in part), ii, 1, 2 (in part), 4, 5-7, 12-14. To these
verses, he thinks iii, 1-7, were added during the post-exilic
period; other additions were made in the second century B.C.
when the book passed through the hands of a redactor; ii, 11,and
ili, 9, 10, he considers the latest additions. Stade, who seems
to have been the first to express doubts concerning the integrity
of the book, questions ii, 1-38, 11; iii, 1-20. Schwally is doubt-
ful concerning ii, 1-3, and denies to Zephaniah ii, 5-12; iii,
1-20. Budde rejects ii, 4-15; iii, 9, 10, 14-20. Wellhausen is
suspicious of ii, 3, and rejects ii, 7 (in part), 8-11; iii, 1-20.
In addition to a few sentences in chapter i Nowack questions
ii, 7 (in part), 8-11, 15; iii, 9, 10, 14-20. G. A. Smith rejects
ii, 8-11; iii, 9, 10, 14-20. A. B. Davidson says concerning
chapter ii, “It is possible that verses 4-15 have in various places
been expanded,” but he believes that in substance they come
from Zephaniah. He expresses doubts concerning iii, 9, 14-20.
Driver (Encyclopedia Biblica) is inclined to reject ii, 11; iii,
9, 10, and he has doubts concerning iii, 14-20, more especially
18-20,
518 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH.

 

An examination of these and other views shows that the
passages questioned or rejected with greatest persistency are
ii, 1-3, 4-15 (especially 8-11) ; iii, 9, 10, 14-20, and these de-
mand more detailed consideration.

1. The principal objection to ii, 1-3, is the presence in ii, 3,
of the expressions “meek of the land” and “seek meekness.”
It is claimed that “meek” and “meekness” as religious terms
are postexilic. There can be no question that the words occur
more frequently in postexilic psalms and proverbs than in pre-
exilic writings, but it cannot be proved or even shown to be
probable that the words might not have been used in Zephani-
ah’s day. The word “meek” occurs in Num. xii, 3 (com-
pare Isa. xi, 4), and meekness, or a humble attitude toward
Jehovah, is unquestionably emphasized during the preéxilic
period as a divine requirement (Exod. x, 3; Isa. ii, 9ff.;
Mic. vi, 8). A second objection is found in the difference of
tone between these verses and chapter i. The latter, from
beginning to end, speaks of the terrors of judgment; ii, 1-3,
weakens this threat by offering a way of escape. This objec-
tion, raised also in connection with other passages of similar
character (see pp. 35, 215), is unwarranted. Judgment can-
not have been the last word with the prophets; with them the
purpose of judgment is always disciplinary; they are accus-
tomed to offer hope to a remnant. This being the case, ii, 1-3,
seems to form the necessary completion of chapter i. It is
not impossible that the text of these verses has suffered (see
on ii, 1, 2), but there seems no good reason for denying them
to Zephaniah.

2. The section ii, 4-15, contains several distinct oracles,
which may be considered separately. For verses 13-15 a date
preceding the fall of Nineveh seems most suitable; the threat
against Philistia (4-7) also is quite intelligible in the days of
Zephaniah, for the Scythians passed right through the Philis-
tian territory. If Ethiopia stands for Egypt verse 12 also
can easily be accounted for as coming from Zephaniah, for
the enemies, who were going along the Mediterranean coast,
INTRODUCTION TO Tiif BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH. 519

 

must inevitably reach Egypt. What could hinder them from
continuing their ravages there? But even if the country
south of Egypt is meant no difficulty exists. Zephaniah was
expecting a world judgment, and Ethiopia might properly
be named as representing the far south. Was there anything
to prevent the Scythians from advancing thither?

There remains the threat against Moab and Ammon in ii,
8-11. The following reasons are advanced against the orig-—
inality of these verses: 1. The mention of these countries is
not expected, because they were far removed from the route
taken by the Scythians. 2. The “reproaches” of ii, 8, 10, pre-
suppose the destruction of Jerusalem (compare Ezek. xxv, 3, 6,
8). “It surprises,” says Wellhausen, “that the Moabites and
Ammonites should have mocked and looked down upon the
Jews as early as the days of Josiah.” 3. The attitude of the
prophet toward Judah (9, 10) is the exact opposite of that
expressed in chapter i. 4. The Kindh verse, which predomi-
nates in the rest of the section, is absent from verses 8-11.
5. Verse 12 is the natural continuation of verse 7. In reply
it may be said: 1. It is by no means certain that the “re-
proaches” presuppose the calamity of 586 B. C.; they may
refer to expressions of hostility such as are alluded to
again and again in the Old Testament (Num. xxii ff.; Judg.
ili, 12ff.; x, 7ff.; 1 Sam. xi, 1-5; 2 Sam. viii, 2; Amos i, 13-15;
ii, 1-3; Isa. xvi, 6; xxv, 10; Jer. xlvili, 29; Deut. xxiii, 3-8).
If the prophecy came from a period subsequent to the fall of
Jerusalem silence concerning Edom would be very strange. “It
is highly improbable,” says Davidson, “that a threat of judg-
ment on the nations, uttered during the exile, would fail to
include Edom.” 2. While it is true that Moab and Ammon
were not in the direct line of advance of the Scythians toward
Egypt, it is worthy of note that Zephaniah speaks of a world
judgment. ‘'To'execute it the Scythians were forced to deviate
from the advance toward Egypt. But if he expected a world
judgment was it not quite natural that he should name, among
the nations doomed, these long-time enemies of the Hebrews?
520 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH.

3. The present Hebrew text is not in the Kinah verse, and to
those who demand in the prophets consistency in the use of
specific poetic meters this fact will be conclusive evidence
against the authenticity of these verses. But one may ask
(1) whether we have a right to demand this consistency in
oratory; (2) whether the apparent inconsistency may not be
due to a corruption of the text, or to a later expansion of
authentic utterances? 4. An interruption of the thought is
noticed only by those who assume that the prophet meant to
enumerate the nations in the order in which he expected the
Scythians to reach their territory. From Philistia they would
naturally pass on to Egypt, hence verse 12 should follow
verse 7. But is the assumption warranted? 5. The third
objection is urged also against verse 7. In chapter i the peo-
ple of Judah are condemned unconditionally; in ii, 7, 8-10,
they are pitied and are promised the territory of their oppres-
sors. It should be noted, however, that the promise is to the
“remnant of the house of Judah” (verse 7), to a “residue of
my people” and a “remnant of my nation” (verse 9); but if
the prophet expected the preservation of a remnant, is there
any reason why he might not make to it these promises?

From these remarks it can be seen that the five arguments
against the originality of verses 8-11 are by no means con-
clusive. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that verse 12 would
form a natural continuation of verse 9; and since verses 10,
11 do differ in other respects from those preceding (see com-
ments), suspicion of the originality of these two verses cannot
be suppressed.

3. Chapter ili, 1-8, resembles in spirit and substance chap-
ter i to such an extent that objections to the originality of
these verses cannot be taken seriously, but verses 1-8 carry
with them verses 9-13, which describe the purifying effects
of the judgment announced in 1-8. The present text of verse
10 may be corrupt, but if it is emended as suggested below,
there remains insufficient reason for questioning verses 10, 11.

4, Chapter iii, 14-20, is a section similar in tone to Mic.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZEPHANIAH. 521

 

vil, 7-20, and the remarks concerning the latter (p. 368) are
applicable to these verses. The buoyant tone of the passage
forms, indeed, a marked contrast to the somber, quiet strajn
of verses 11-13; the judgments upon Judah appear to be in
the past (verse 15); verses 18-20 seem to presuppose a scat-
tering of the people of Judah, while the purifying judgment
of verses 11-13 falls upon the people in their own land; hence
there is much justice in Davidson’s remark that “the histori-
cal situation presupposed is that of Isa. xl ff.’ On the other
hand, it must be borne in mind that the passage is highly
poetic, that it presents an ideal picture of the future, in the
drawing of which imagination must have played some part;
and it may be difficult to assert that the composition of
this poem was entirely beyond the power of Zephaniah’s
enlightened imagination. But, while the bare possibility of
Zephaniah’s authorship may be admitted, the two facts men-
tioned above make it not improbable that iii, 14-20, contains
a “new song from God,” added to the utterances of Zephaniah
at a period subsequent to the fall of Jerusalem.
ZHPHANIAH.,

CHAPTER I.
HE word of the Lorp which
came unto Zephaniah the son
of Cushi, the son of Gedaliah, the
son of Amariah, the son of Hizkiah,
in the days of Josiah the son of
Amon, king of Judah. 2 ‘I will ut-

terly consume all things from off 2the
land, saith the LorpD. 3 #I will con-
sume man and beast; I will consume
the fowls of the heaven, and the
fishes of the sea, and >the *stum-
bling-blocks with the wicked; and I
will cut off man from off the land,

 

1 Heb. By taking away I will make an
end.— Heb. the face of the land.—

a Hos. 4, 3.—» Ezek. 7. 19; 14. 3, 4, 7;
Matt. 18. 41.—3 Or, idols.

 

CHAPTER I.

1. The title. The word of Jehovah
which came—See on Hos.i, 1. For the
genealogy of the prophet see p. 505;
for the date of his ministry, pp. 506ff.
Tue Day or JEHOvAH A Day or TER-

ROR—ONLY ONE Way or Escaps,

i, 2-ti, 3.

The prophecy of Zephaniah opens
with the announcement of u world
judgment (i, 2, 3); the heaviest blow
will fall upon Judah and Jerusalem
for their deeds of violence and their
religious apostasy (4-9). The prophet
pictures the execution of judgment
(10, 11), and chapter i closes with a
vivid picture of the terrible day of
Jehovah, which “is near and hasteth
greatly” (14-18). Only an immediate
return to Jehovah can save from the
worst (ii, 1-3).

The world judgment, 2, 3.

In these verses Jehovah himself is
introduced as speaker. All things—
All living things, man and beast, are
to be swept from the face of the earth.
From off the land—R. V., more ac-
curately, “from off the face of the
ground.” Meant is not only the land
of Judah, but the whole earth. Micah
also introduces his message of judg-
ment upon Israel and Judah with a
description of Jehovah’s coming for
the purpose of executing a universal
judgment (Mic. i, 2-4).

 

“All” is expanded in verse 3. Man
and beast—Man alone is guilty, but
beasts, fowls, and fishes will share his
doom. ‘The sphere of man’s life, the
realm of his rule, is involved with him
in a common destruction” (compare
Hos. iv, 3; Ezek. xxxviii, 20; Rom.
viii, 20-22). The prophet may have
in mind the story of the flood (Gen.
vi, 7). The rest of verse 3 introduces
a thought which seems foreign to the
immediate context, hence most recent
commentators consider it a later ad-
dition for the purpose of limiting the
judgment to the wicked. The stum-
bling-blocks with the wicked—The
meaning of the first noun is uncertain.
It occurs again in Isa. iii, 6, in the
sense of ruin; a similar word is used
in the sense of idol in Ezek. xiv, 3, 4,
7, and from the latter passage is de-
rived the translation “stumbling-
blocks” =idols (compare oxdvdada in
the New Testament). LXX. reads,
“and the wicked shall be made to
stumble’; that is, instead of the noun
it reads a verb form. The passive con-
struction may be due to an attempt
on the part of the translator to re-
move God as the cause of the destruc-
tion, but some form of the verb is to
be preferred, perhaps, ‘I will cause to
stumble the wicked.” Cut off man—
LXX., “wicked men”; and since the
destruction of man in general is an-
nounced in the beginning of the verse

522
CHAPTER I. 523

 

saith the Lorp. 41 will also stretch
out mine hand upon Judah, and
upon all the inhabitants of Jerusa-

lem; and °I will cut off the remnant
of Baal from this place, and the name
of ¢the Chemarims with the priests;

 

¢ Fulfilled, 2 Kings 23. 4,5.

4 Hos. 10. 5.

 

and LXX. gives better parallelism,
the latter is undoubtedly to be pre-
ferred.

Judgment upon Judah and Jerusalem,

The judgment will be particularly
severe upon Judah and Jerusalem (4),
because they “have not sought Je-
hovah nor inquired after him’; in-
stead, they have practiced idolatrous
rites of various kinds (4-6). In Jeru-
salem the ungodly nobles will suffer
the most, because they are arrogant
and have practiced oppression, vio-
lence, and deceit (7-9).

4. Stretch out mine hand—To smite
(Isa. v, 25; ix, 12ff.). Equivalent to
“turn my hand against” (see on Amos
i, 8). Judah, . . . Jerusalem—Zepha-
niah prophesies concerning the south-
ern kingdom; the northern kingdom
was destroyed a century before his
day. Remnant of Baal—Literally,
remnant of the Baal. The translators
of LXX. have been influenced by Hos.
ii, 17, “‘the names of the Baalim’’; at
any rate, there seems insufficient rea-
son for doubting the originality of the
present Hebrew text. The Baal is not
the Tyrian Baal, but the Canaanitish
Baal, or rather Baals (see on Hos. ii,
5), for the noun is used here collec-
tively. Zephaniah may use the term
in an even wider sense, as including
all forms of illegitimate worship, all
of which were due very largely to
Canaanitish influence. The expres-
sion remnant does not presuppose
necessarily the reform of 621 B. C.,
as if the prophet desired to say that
all that was left from that reform
would be destroyed in a judgment to
come; it means, rather, “every vestige
of Baal worship,” that is, all there is
of it (compare Isa. xiv, 22). The ex-
pression does not presuppose even a
preliminary attempt at purifying the
worship of Jehovah (see p. 508).

 

From this place—Jerusalem. If Zeph-
aniah prophesied in the capital this
expression is perfectly intelligible even
before the concentration of worship in
Jerusalem. The name of the Chem-
arims with the priests—LXX.
simply, “the names of the priests,”
which reading implies the omission of
either “Chemarims” or “priests,” and
the omission of one of these words is
favored by most recent commenta-
tors, including the cautious Davidson.
Both nouns mean priests; the second
is the common Old Testanient term,
the other is used only three times. Its
etymology is uncertain, but the usage
in the other passages (Hos. x, 5;
2 Kings xxiii, 5) shows that it is ap-
plied to the priests at the local
sanctuaries, officiating at the counter-
feit Jehovah worship practiced there.
If both words are original, the second
refers to priests practicing out-and-
out idolatry. Against this interpreta-
tion Davidson raises the objection that
‘fn such a case the term priest would
have been more fully defined.” But
such definition is not needed, because
the context leaves no doubt as to the
persons in the prophet’s mind. At
any rate, the arguments against the
originality of the present Hebrew text
are by no means conclusive. May not
the omission of LXX. be due to the
failure of the translators to grasp fully
the thought of the prophet and the
distinction he desired to make? In
verse 5 he distinguishes between two
classes of worshipers; why might he
not also make a distinction between
two classes of priests? Counterfeit
Jehovah priests as well as out-and-out
idol priests are to be cut off, so that
even their names shall be heard no
more. If one name is omitted, the
remaining one must include both
classes.

Verses 5, 6 name different classes of
worshipers that will be swept away.
524

ZEPHANIAH.

 

5 And them cthat worship the host
of heaven upon the housetops; fand
them that worship and sthat swear
‘by the Lorp, and that swear *by

Malcham; 6 And ithem that are
turned back from the Lorp; and
those that ‘have not sought the
Lorp, nor enquired for him.

 

© 2 Kings 23. 12; Jer. 19. 18.—/_1 Kings
18. 21; 2 Kings 17. 33, 41.—# Isa. 48.
1; Hos. 4. 15.

4Or, to the LORD,—- Josh. 23. 7;
1 Kings 11, 33.— i Isa. 1. 4; Jer. 2. 18, 175
15. 6.—* Hos. 7. 7.

 

Worship the host of heaven—The sun,
moon, and stars. This form of idol-
atry, which was quite common in
Judah during the latter part of the
seventh century B. C. (Jer. viii, 2;
xix, 13), was introduced from As-
syria. The alliance consummated by
Ahaz (2 Kings xvi, 7-9) opened the
way for its introduction, and further
provision was made for it by Manas-
seh (2 Kings xxi, 3, 5; compare xxiii,
12). Josiah sought to abolish it
(2 Kings xxiii, 4, 5, 12), but he did
not succeed completely (Ezek. viii, 16;
compare Job xxxi, 26). Upon the
housetops—An indication that the
worship was rendered directly to the
heavenly bodies when they were vis-
ible, and not to representations of
them. The construction of the rest
of verse 5 offers some difficulties.
The text may havesuffered, but the
ancient versions offer no relief. If
the present text is original a better
rendering would be, “‘those who bow
themselves, who devote themselves to
Jehovah but swear by their king.”
The first “swear” of A. V. is certainly
an erroneous translation, for the con-
struction is not the same as in the
last clause; the expression means
rather “‘to devote oneself by oath to
the service of another,” and that fits
admirably. The people prostrate
themselves before Jehovah and vow
loyalty to him; then they go and
swear by some other deity, an indica-
tion that, in reality, their affection
does not belong to Jehovah. While
in this wise acceptable sense can be
gotten from the present text, the lat-
ter is undoubtedly awkward and is
greatly improved if the first ‘and
that swear by” is omitted. It might
easily have crept in from the following
clause. With this omission 5b will
read, “Those who bow themselves be-

 

fore Jehovah but swear by their
king’’; that is, nominally they worship
Jehovah, in reality they have trans-
ferred their affection to other deities.
If this is the correct interpretation,
verse 5 condemns two classes of wor-
shipers, the out-and-out idolaters and
the hypocritical Jehovah worshipers
(compare Ezek. xxiii, 39). Malcham
—Margin R. V., “their king.” The
god whom they recognize as their
chief deity, whoever he might be.
When many gods are worshiped the
individual worshipers have their fa-
vorites among them. Peshitto and
some manuscripts of LXX. read ‘Mil-
com” or “Moloch,” the name of the
chief deity of the Ammonites. This
presupposes the same consonants but
different vowel points in Hebrew; in
Jer. xlix, 1, 3, the same vowel points
are retained. That Milcom was
worshiped in Judah in Zephaniah’s
days is shown by 2 Kings xxiii, 13.

A third class of sinners is condemned
in verse 6, those who have renounced
entirely Jehovah and his religion.
Turned back from Jehovah—R. V.,
“turned back from following Je-
hovah.” They began as worshipers of
Jehovah, but have apostatized. And
those that have not sought—This
translation implies that 6b condemns
another class of sinners; it is better,
however, to consider the words a
characterization of the people con-
demned in 6a and translate, ‘And
them who have turned from following
Jehovah, and who do not seek Je-
hovah nor inquire for him.” The
word rendered here “‘inquire”’ is trans-
lated in Amos v, 4, 6, “‘seek’’ (see
there); the other word is translated
“seek” in Hos. v, 6, and has prac-
tically the same meaning. These
apostates have no longer any con-
cern for Jehovah (verse 12).
CHAPTER I.

525

 

7 'Hold thy peace at the presence of
the Lord Gop: "for the day of the
Lorp is at hand: for =the Lorp
hath prepared a sacrifice, he hath
‘bid his guests. 8 And it shall
come to pass in the day of the

Lorp’s sacrifice, that I will punish
the princes, and the king’s children,
and all such as are clothed with
strange apparel. 9 In the same day
also will I punish all those that leap
on the threshold, which fill their

 

1 Hab. 2. 20; Zech. 2. 13.—™ Isa. 13. 6.
— Isa. 34. 6; Jer. 46.10; Ezek. 39. 17;

7. The judgment is imminent, Je-
hovah has made all preparation for
its execution, and the people are sum-
moned to wait, in awful silence, the
approach of the judge. Hold thy
peace at the presence—Only one word
in Hebrew—hush/ (see on Hab. ii, 20;
Zech. ii, 13). Day of Jehovah—See on
Joel i, 15. For the crisis which
Zephaniah considered the harbinger
(see p. 161) of the day of Jehovah see
Introduction, p. 511. Hath prepared
a sacrifice—The judgment is pictured
as a greab sacrificial feast (see on
Amos v, 23) prepared by Jehovah
himself; the sacrificial animals are the
sinners condemned in verses 4-6
(compare Isa. xxv, 6; Jer. xlvi, 10).
Hath bid his guests—R. V., “hath con-
secrated,” or sanctified. Only those
who were clean could participate in a
sacrificial meal. In this case the
guests were the Scythians, who were
foreigners, and therefore unclean; but
Jehovah has purified them so that
they can participate in the feast with-
out fear that the wrath of Jehovah
will smite them. ‘There is a slight
inconsistency in the figure, for the in-
vaders are not content to eat the sac-
rifice already prepared; they them-
selves slay and thus help to prepare
the feast.

8, 9. In agreement with the other
preéxilic prophets Zephaniah names
the nobles and princes as special ob-
jects of the divine wrath, because they
have sinned most persistently against
the divine will. Princes—See on Hos.
iii, 4. The king’s children—LXX.,
“the king’s house.”’ The latter is ac-
cepted as original by some because
the other is thought to create a chrono-
logical difficulty. The condemnation
presupposes that the children had
reached the age of responsibility, but

 

Rev. 19. 17.—5 Heb. sancttfled, or, pre-
pared.—® Heb. visit upon. ° Jer. 39. 6.

 

if the prophecy is dated before 621
B. C. the children of King Josiah must
have been very young at the time of
its delivery (compare 2 Kings xxiii,
31, 36). “Children” and “house” are
sometimes interchanged in the Old
Testament, but such interchange need
not be assumed here, for why restrict
the term to the sons of Josiah? It
may be intended to include the sons
of the deceased kings, Amon and
Manasseh, and may be equivalent to
“royal princes.” What the prophet
means to say is that not even the
royal family will escape the judgment.
It is worthy of notice that there is no
condemnation of the king. At the
time of Zephaniah’s preaching Josiah
was too young to commit very serious
offenses; besides, it is not improbable
that even during the early years of his
reign he was under prophetic in-
fluence, which would prevent him
from committing the crimes of his
predecessors. Such as are clothed
with strange apparel—R. V., “foreign
apparel.” An evidence of indulgence
and of disregard of the simplicity
characteristic of the ancient Hebrews.
Only the court and the nobles could
afford these costly garments (compare
Matt. xi, 8), and they secured the
means with which to purchase them
by oppression and violence (compare
Isa. ii, 6, 7; Deut. xxii, 11; Lev. xix,
19). It has been suggested to place
9b after 8a and 8b after 9a, but this
rearrangement is no improvement
over the present text. Verse 9 con-
demns other forms of wrongdoing.
Those that leap on the threshold—
Better, R. V., “over the threshold.”
Since this expression occurs only here,
commentators differ widely in their
interpretations. Some think that it
refers to a superstitious rite of the
526

masters’ houses with violence and
deceit. 10 And it shall come to
pass in that day, saith the Lorp,
that there shall be the noise of a cry
from vthe fish gate, and an howling

ZEPHANIAH.

from the second, and a great crash-
ing from the hills. 11 *Howl, _
inhabitants of Maktesh, for all the
merchant people are cut down; all
they that bear silver are cut off.

 

p 2 Chron. 33. 14.

a James 5. 1.

 

idol worshipers (compare 1 Sam. v,
5), but the second part of the verse
does not favor this view. There is no
conjunction between the two parts,
which indicates that no new trans-
gression is condemned; the filling of
the house with violence and deceit is
closely connected with the leaping
over the threshold. Hence Ewald is
probably right when he says that even
9a refers to ‘‘dishonest servants of the
royal court who seek to serve their
lord well by exacting treasures from
his subjects by force and fraud.” It
may be a sort of proverbial phrase for
breaking into other people’s houses
for purposes of robbery. Their mas-
ters’ houses—R. V., ‘“‘their master’s
house.’”’ Not the house of Jehovah,
but the house of the chief to whom
they render unscrupulous service.
With violence and deceit—With treas-
ures and possessions secured through
violence and fraud. Similar condem-
nations may be read in all the pre-
exilic prophets (compare Amos iii, 10;
Mice. iii, 1-3; Ezek. xxii, 25-29). Je-
hovah must punish these outrages.

The terrors of the judgment, 10-13.

Zephaniah is so certain that the
impending doom cannot be averted
that he depicts in these verses the
wailing that will ascend from all
parts of the city in the day of judg-
ment. 10. Noise of a cry—A loud cry,
of anguish and despair. Fish gate—
Mentioned again in 2 Chron. xxxiii,
14; Neh. iii, 3; xii, 39. It is generally
thought that it was in the north wall
of the city, not far from the north-
west angle of the same. Through this
gate the fishmongers from Tyre are
supposed to have come (Neh. xiii, 16);
if so, the fish market may have been
located near it. Since the north was
exposed more than the other sides of

 

the city, hostile attacks might be ex-
pected to come from that direction.
For this reason the prophet names lo-
calities in the northern section of the
city as the places from which the cries
of despair will be heard. The second
—R. V., ‘‘the second quarter”; Heb.
mishneh, which might be translated
“new town.” It may be the name of
a recent addition to the city proper.
Its exact location is not known, but
it is generally thought to have been
situated on the hill Acra. According
to 2 Kings’ xxii, 14; 2 Chron. xxxiv,
22, the prophetess Huldah lived there.
Crashing—Or, noise. Since the word
stands in parallelism with “cry” and
“howling” in the preceding clauses, it
should be understood not of the crash
of falling buildings, but of the noise
made by the terror-stricken inhabi-
tants. The hills—Upon which the
city was built, but the prophet is
thinking especially of the hills in the
northern section of the city. 11. Mak-
tesh—This must be another portion of
the city. The context suggests that
it was the quarter of the merchants,
but its location is uncertain; it is not
improbable, however, that it also
should be looked for in the northern
part of Jerusalem. Targum reads ‘‘in
the ravines of the Kidron,’’ but that
is purely a guess. The noun means
“depression” (Judg. xv, 19) or “mor-
tar” (Prov. xxvii, 22); hence it is
probable that some valley or depres-
sion in the city is referred to. Most
writers think of the northern end of
the Tyropceon valley. The name may
have been selected because of its sug-
gestiveness; the inhabitants are to be
crushed asin a mortar. The merchant
people—Literally, the people of Ca-
naan; but the interpretation embodied
in the translation of A. V. is correct
(see on Hos. xii, 7). They that bear
CHAPTER I. 527

 

12 And it shall come to pass at that
time, that I will search Jerusalem
with candles, and punish the men
that are 7 ‘settled on their lees:
sthat say in their heart, The Lorp
will not do good, neither will he do
evil. 13 Therefore their goods shall

 

7 Heb. curded, or, Elche ged; t Jer. 48.
Psa. 94. 7.

11; Amos 6. 1.—=*

become a booty, and their houses a
desolation: they shall also build
houses, but ‘not inhabit them; and
they shall plant vineyards, but »not
drink the wine thereof. 14 *The
great day of the Lorp is near, it is
near, and hasteth greatly, even the

t Deut. 28. 30, 39; Amos 5. 11.— Mlc.
6. 15. x Joel 2. 1,11.

 

 

silver—R. V., “they that were laden
with silver,” that is, possessed silver
in large quantities. The reference is
to the rich merchants.

12. No one will escape, for Jehovah
will penetrate the darkest recesses and
bring out the guilty to deliver them to
the destroyer. With candles—Better,
R. V., “with lamps,” or lanterns, such
as watchmen carry when they look for
criminals. The men that are settled
on their lees—Or, as margin R. V.,
“thickened on their lees.” The figure
is taken from wine that has been left
undisturbed until it has thickened; it
describes the apathy, the spiritual in-
sensibility, of the rich (compare Jer.
xlvili, 11, 12). Say in their hearts—
Think within themselves. Will not
do good, neither . . . evil-—They refuse
to believe that Jehovah has anything
to do with the affairs of this world
(compare Isa. v, 18, 19; Mal. ii, 17).
“Those referred to are men who have
lived at ease, without trouble or vicis-
situde in life, and who have therefore
sunk down into unfeeling indifference
or even into incredulity regarding any
interference of a higher power in the
affairs of mankind.”

13. These indifferent and skeptical
persons Jehovah will startle from their
spiritual slumber when he manifests
himself as judge and ruler of the
world. Therefore—Their disregard of
Jehovah compels him to vindicate his
power and supremacy. Their goods
shall become a booty—The prophet
expects the judgment to take the
form of a hostile invasion; the enemy
will capture the city and carry off as
booty the possessions of the inhabit-
ants. Their houses a desolation—
Nothing but ruins and desolation will
be left behind. 13b seems to be a sort

 

of proverbial saying announcing that
the godless will not be permitted to
enjoy the results of their labors (see
on Amos v, 11; compare Mic. vi, 15).
The originality of 13b has been ques-
tioned, and not without reason. It
is certainly strange that the prophet
should announce the judgment as im-
minent (verse 7; compare verse 14),
and then, almost in the same breath,
should give the inhabitants enough
time to build houses and plant vine-
yards before the judgment falls.

The terrors of the day of Jehovah,
14-18.

In verse 14 Zephaniah calls atten-
tion once more to the nearness of the
day of Jehovah (compare verse 7);
in the succeeding verses he describes
in detail its terrors. In it Jehovah
will make an end, yea, a terrible end,
of all them that dwell in the land.
Earlier prophets had spoken of the
darkness and despair of that day, but
Zephaniah surpasses them all in vivid-
ness and awful grandeur.

The great day .. . is near—See on
verse 7; Joel i, 15; ii, 11, 31. The
imminence of the day of Jehovah and
its terrible character are dwelt upon
again and again in the prophetic writ-
ings. In this verse its nearness is
emphasized; therefore, “is near’ is
repeated and strengthened by “hast-
eth greatly.” Bachmann says of 14b,
“This sentence impresses one as being
in absolutely hopeless confusion.” If
one looks for smoothness of expres-
sion he will be disappointed; but if
one takes into consideration the in-
tensely emotional character of He-
brew prophecy, especially of the ut-
terances announcing the doom of the
nation, if one bears in mind that these
528

ZEPHANIAH.

 

voice of the day of the Lorp: the
mighty man shall cry there bitterly.
15 yThat day is a day of wrath, a
day of trouble and distress, a day of
wasteness and desolation, a day of
darkness and gloominess, a day of
clouds and thick darkness, 16 A

day of *the trumpet and alarm
against the fenced cities, and ei
the high towers. 17 And will
bring distress upon men, that they
shall «walk like blind men, because
they have sinned against the LORD:
and ’their blood shall be poured out

 

y Verse 18; Isa. 22. 5; Jer. 30.7; Joel 2.
2,11; Amos 5. 18.

« Jer. 4, 19.4 Deut. 28. 29; Isa. 59. 10.
b Psa. 79. 3.

 

 

words were spoken by men whose
hearts were well-nigh breaking as they
contemplated the approaching de-
struction, he will not be surprised
when he discovers evidences of emo-
tion even in the form of expression, an
abrupt nervous style. If 14b is stud-
ied from this point of view the diffi-
culties lose their terror. G. A. Smith,
with his keen insight into the spirit of
Hebrew prophecy, translates, ‘Hark!
the day of Jehovah. A strong man—
there! crying bitterly!’ The vision
of the prophet beholds the agony and
despair of the great day, he hears the
cry of pain and distress from those
who under ordinary circumstances are
men of courage and might; as soon as
he beholds the awful picture he breaks
forth in the agonizing cry of 14b.
Hark—For this meaning of the word
ordinarily translated ‘‘voice” see G.-
K., 146b. There—On the field of bat-
tle where the terrible struggle rages.
Cry ... bitterly—Because he cannot
save himself and must go down before
the terrible foe (compare Isa. xiii, 7,
8; Jer. xxx, 5, 7). In order to restore
parallelism with 14a Marti changes
the text of 14b so as to read, ‘‘Near is
the bitter day of Jehovah; even the
mighty man crieth bitterly.”

15, 16. “In order to depict more
fully the terrible character of this day
Zephaniah crowds together in verses
15, 16 all the words supplied by the
language to describe the terror of the
judgment.”’ Day of wrath—A day on
which the wrath of Jehovah will mani-
fest itself against everything that is
impure and sinful (see on Nah. i, 2).
The effects of this manifestation are
described in the rest of the verse (com-
pare Isa. xxii, 5). 1. Trouble and dis-

 

tress—Men will not know what to do
(Job xv, 24). 2. Wasteness and deso-
lation—The land will be wasted and
thus share in the judgment (Job
Xxxviii, 27). 3. Darkness ... gloomi-
ness,... clouds... thick darkness—
If meant to be understood literally,
the words express the thought that
nature also will be affected by the ter-
rible judgment (see on Joel ii, 2, 30,
31); they might, however, be used
figuratively (see on Amos v, 18).
Verse 16 shows that war will be the
means of executing the judgment.
Trumpet—Better, horn (see on Hos.
v, 8). Alarm—The same word is
translated “shouting” in Amos i, 14;
ii, 2 (see there). The shouting of the
attacking soldiers and the sound of
the signal horns will be heard every-
where. Fenced cities—Of Judah
(compare Isa. ii, 15; Mic. v, 11).
High towers—R. V., “battlements.”
The corners and battlements of the
walls surrounding the cities (2 Chron.
xxvi, 15).

17. The awfulness and suddenness
of the calamity will throw the in-
habitants into helpless confusion.
Distress—Anxiety, terror, perplexity.
Walk like blind men—They will look
for a way out of the tribulation, but
in their perplexity they grope around
like blind men, unable to find one
(compare Deut. xxviii, 29). Because
they have sinned—The judgment is
the result of the sins described in
verses 4-13. Their blood shall be
poured out as dust—The point of com-
parison is worthlessness). Human
blood will be considered of no more
value than the dust trodden under
foot; hence it will be poured out wan-
tonly. The last clause expresses a
CHAPTER IL.

529

 

as dust, and their flesh cas the dung.
18 ‘Neither their silver nor their
gold shall be able to deliver them
in the day of the Logp’s wrath; but
the whole land shall be :devoured b
the fire of his jealousy: for fhe sh:

make even a speedy riddance of all
them that dwell in the land.

CHAPTER II.
‘G ATHER yourselves together,
XN yea, gather together, O na-

 

° Psa. 83. 10; Jer. 9. 22; 16. 4.4 Prov.
11. 4; Ezek. 7. 19.— Chap. 3. 8.— Verse

9 Joel 2. 16.

 

similar thought. Their flesh as the
dung—The word translated “flesh”
occurs again only in Job xx, 23; its
meaning is not certain, but the an-
cient versions favor the English trans-
lation. Some have suggested the
translation “intestines” or “bowels,”
which would be very appropriate
here, but that translation has little
support. Others render it “sap”
(blood), in parallelism with “blood”
in the preceding clause, while some
change the Hebrew word to get this
meaning. A very ingenious emenda-
tion is that of Bachmann, who reads
the last clause, ‘and they shall lick
water like camels.” In the absence of
conclusive evidence to the contrary,
it may be best to retain the meaning
given to the word by the English
translators, which gives acceptable
sense. The bodies of the slain will be
cast forth like dung (compare Amos
viii, 3).

18. Ordinarily liberty and safety
might be purchased from an invader
by the payment of a heavy tribute,
and thus the Egyptians are said to
have purchased their freedom from
the Scythians (see p. 511), but in this
case gold and silver will not tempt the
divinely appointed executioner (Isa.
xiii, 17; Ezek. vii, 19; compare Prov.
xi, 4). The whole land—Judah; not
“the whole earth,” for in verses 4-18
the prophet confines himself to Judah
and Jerusalem (not so in iii, 8). The
fire of his jealousy—See on Joel ii, 18.
In this case, however, the divine re-
sentment is aroused not against those
who have dishonored his people, but
against his people for dishonoring Je-
hovah (compare verse 17). While the
devastation is wrought by a hostile
army, back of it is Jehovah, who has

 

made the enemy “‘the rod of his anger,
the staff of his indignation” (Isa. x,
5). He shall make even a speedy rid-
dance—Literally, for an end, even a
terrible destruction he shall make. The
destruction will be complete (compare
Nah. i, 8). Them that dwell in the
land—aAs before, the land of Judah.

CHAPTER II.
ExHORTATION TO REPENTANCE, 1-3.

As the Book of Zephaniah is ar-
ranged now, ii, 1-3, is connected
closely with ii, 4-15. The exhortation
to repentance (ii, 1-3) is thought to
be enforced by the announcement of
a terrible judgment upon all nations
of the earth, Judah and Jerusalem in-
cluded (ii, 4-iii, 8). It seems prefer-
able, however, to consider these verses
the conclusion of chapter i, since a call
to repentance addressed to Judah has
a more natural connection with a
threat upon Judah (i, 2-18) than with
a threat upon the nations (ii, 4-15).

1. Gather yourselves together, yea,
gather together—The meaning of the
Hebrew underlying this translation is
uncertain. The verb seems to be a
derivative from a noun stubble, chaff,
straw; hence its primary meaning is to
“gather straw” or “stubble” (Exod.
v, 7, 12). This is not suitable here.
In Num. xv, 32, 33, and in 1 Kings
xvii, 12, it is joined to the noun
“wood,” which indicates that ib may
be used in the more general sense,
“gather.” This is the meaning given
to the verb in this passage in the
ancient versions as well as by the
English translators. Some have sug-
gested ‘‘bow yourselves, and be
bowed,” or ‘“‘turn pale, and be pale,”
or “be ashamed, yea, be ashamed,”
530

ZEPHANIAH.

 

tion ‘not desired; 2 Before the de-
cree bring forth, before the day pass

bas the chaff, before cthe fierce anger
of the LorpD come upon you, before

 

1 Or, not destrous.

b Job 21. 18; Psa. 1. 4; Isa. 17. 18; Hos.
13. 3.—e 2 Kings 28. 26.

 

but these meanings cannot be estab-
lished for the Hebrew verb. In view
of the uncertainty it is not strange
that various emendations have been
suggested, but certainty cannot be
had. If the common English trans-
lation is retained the interpretation
also is uncertain. Some interpret the
expressions metaphorically in the
sense of “recollect yourselves,” as if
the prophet were exhorting the people
to search their hearts, to consider
their ways, not to permit any longer
their minds to be distracted by the
things contrary to the will of Jehovah.
This would be very appropriate, but
it is doubtful whether this metaphori-
cal meaning can be given to the verb.
Others understand it literally, either
in the sense of coming together for a
religious assembly, or in the sense of
crowding together in terror. An ap-
peal to attend a religious assembly is
out of place here, and the other inter-
pretation takes no notice of the close
connection that exists between verses
1,2. Much uncertainty remains. The
most suitable verb would be, “be
ashamed, yea, be ashamed.” O nation
not desired—R. V., “O nation that
hath no shame.” The common mean-
ing of the verb is ‘‘to long,” ‘‘to desire,”
“to yearn” (Gen. xxxi, 30; Job xiv,
15), but “not desired,” or margin, “not
desirous,’’ seems inappropriate here.
If the idea inherent in the verb is
retained it would be better to render,
“O people which has no longing”
(that is, for God), but if this were the
thought “for God” could not be
omitted (compare Psa. lxxxiv, 2).
The rendering ‘‘that hath no shame,”
which is very appropriate here, finds
support in Talmudic usage, and is not
altogether foreign to the root meaning
of the Hebrew verb, “‘to be pale” or
“colorless.” The Hebrew term for
silver is derived from the same root,
literally, “the pale metal.” Paleness

 

is caused by fright or terror. Now, to
the Hebrew to be ashamed was practi-
cally the same as to be confounded,
both ideas being expressed by the
same verb; one is ashamed because he
is confounded. Hence, to be pale (as
a result of fright) may be equivalent
to to be ashamed. A suitable sense
would be secured by reading the verse,
“Be ashamed, yea, be ashamed, O
people that hath no shame.” The
prophet, after announcing the terrible
judgment, looks about him and sees
that his message has produced no
effect. Aroused by the indifference of
the listeners, he appeals to them to
give some expression of contrition,
else they will be utterly annihilated.
Verse 2 presents the reason for the
earnest appeal in verse 1, but the
present Hebrew text cannot be cor-
rect. On the basis of LXX. and
Peshitto the text may be recon-
structed to read, “Before you become
as the drifting chaff, before the fierce
anger of Jehovah come upon you, be-
fore there come upon you the day of
Jehovah’s wrath.” The meaning of
this is clear. Unless the sinners re-
pent they will be swept away by the
fierce wrath of Jehovah like chaff be-
fore the wind (see on Hos. xiii, 3).
The last two clauses of this recon-
structed text, as of the present text,
look very much alike, and many con-
sider the last one an explanatory
duplicate of the preceding, added at
a later time. This suggestion is sup-
ported by the Hexaplar Syriac ver-
sion, which indicates by critical marks
that the last clause was not in the
original LXX. text; on the other hand,
there are some Hebrew manuscripts
which contain the last clause but omit
the preceding. Either might be
omitted without affecting the sense.
Verse 3 offers the one way of escape.
It is worthy of note, however, that
salvation is offered only to the meek;
CHAPTER II.

531

 

the day of the Lorp’s anger come
‘upon you. 3 ‘Seek ye the Lorp,
eall ye meek of the earth, which have
wrought his judgment; seek right-
eousness, seek meekness: fit may
be ye shall be hid in the day of the
Lorp’s anger.

4 For ¢Gaza shall be forsaken, and

Ashkelon a desolation: they shall
drive out Ashdod tat the noon day,
and Ekron shall be rooted up. 5
Woe unto the inhabitants of ithe
sea coast, the nation of the Chereth-
ites! the word of the Lorp is against
you; O *Canaan, the land of the
Philistines, I will even destroy thee,

 

d Psa. 105. 4; Amos 5. 6.—* Psa. 76. 9.
rar Joel 2. 14; Amos 5. 15; Jonah

eJer. 47. 4, 5; Ezek. 25. 15; Amos
1. 6,.7, 8; Zech. 9. 5, 6.—-hJer. 6. 4;
15. 8. i Ezek. 25. 16- k Josh. 13. 3.

 

 

 

the “shameless” nation is doomed.
Seek ye Jehovah—See on i, 6, and
reference there. Meek of the earth—
Since the inhabitants of Judah are
addressed, it seems better to translate
“of the land” (as in i, 18). The meek
are those who walk humbly before
-Jehovah (see on Mic. vi, 8). Which
have wrought his judgment—Bet-
ter, R. V., “that have kept his
ordinances”; such as are found, for
example, in Isa. i, 16, 17; Mic. vi, 8.
By doing these they have secured the
favor of Jehovah; now they are ex-
horted to be even more zealous in
doing the things acceptable to Je-
hovah. In the day of Jehovah’s anger
—See on i, 15, 18. It may be ye shall
be hid—As one may find a place of
shelter in the tempest, so the meek
may be sheltered in the day of Je-
hovah (Isa. xxvi, 20). Even in the
darkest hour the prophets maintain
their confidence in the salvation of a
remnant (see on Amos v, 15).

Tur JUDGMENT UPON THE NATIONS,
4-15.

It is high time to look for shelter,
for already the judgment is falling
upon the surrounding nations, and
soon it will reach Judah and Jerusa-
lem (see introductory remarks on i, 2—
18, and on ii, 1-3). The nations
whose destruction is announced are
(1) Philistia (4-7), (2) Moab, (8) Am-
mon(8-10), (4) Ethiopia (12), (5) Assyr-
ja (18-15). On the originality of these
verses see Introduction, pp. 518ff.

4-7. The doom of Philistia. Gaza
... Ashkelon ... Ashdod .. . Ekron—
See on Amos i, 6-8. Gath is again
absent. Shall be forsaken—Depopu-
lated. The original contains a word

 

play which it is difficult to reproduce
in English; some attempt it by read-
ing, “Gaza shall be forgotten.” Drive
out Ashdod—That is, the inhabitants
of Ashdod. At the noonday—Of un-
certain meaning. Perhaps the thought
is that it will be taken after a brief
assault, lasting only from morning till
noon, that is, with ease (compare Jer.
xv, 8). A similar expression is found
in an inscription of Esarhaddon,
“Memphis, his capital, I took in the
half of the day’—at noonday; here
also the emphasis seems to be on the
brevity of time in which the city was
taken. Shall be rooted up—Another
word play in the original. The ex- ,
pression implies complete destruction. |
Verse 5 continues the threat upon
the Philistines in the form of a woe.
Inhabitants of the seacoast—Literally,
the line of the sea; that is, the narrow
strip stretching along the sea. The
territory of the Philistines was lo-
cated along the Mediterranean coast.
Nation of the Cherethites—In apposi-
tion to the preceding (see on Amos i,
6-8; ix, 7; compare 1 Sam. xxx, 14).
O Canaan—Since the prophet is con-
cerned only with the Philistines, Ca-
naan must denote Philistia, as is made
clear also by the phrase which im-
mediately follows, “the land of the
Philistines.” According to Josh. xiii,
1-8, the territory of the Philistines
was thought a part of Canaan, but it
is doubtful whether Canaan could be
used as a synonym of Philistia. The
text is improved if the word is omitted
—‘The word of Jehovah is against
you (or, better, against thee), O land
of the Philistines.” The destruction
is to be so complete that not a single
inhabitant will be left. If these
532

ZEPHANTAH.

 

that there shall be no inhabitant.
6 And the sea coast shall be
dwellings and cottages for shep-
herds, ‘and folds for flocks. 7
And the coast shall be for =the

remnant of the house of Ju-
dah; they shall feed thereupon:
in the houses of Ashkelon shall
they lie down in the evening: *for
the Lorp their God shall =-Vvisit

 

1See Isa. 17. 2; verse 14.——™ Verse 9;
Isa. 11. 11; Mic. 4. 7; 5. 7, 8; Hag. 1. 12;

threats were written originally in the
Kinah meter (see on Amos v, 1-3),
the rhythm becomes greatly improved
by an additional alteration of the
text, so that verse 5 will read, ‘“Woe,
inhabitants of the seacoast, nation of
the Cherethites! I will destroy thee,
that there shall be no inhabitant,
land of the Philistines.”

The general thought of verse 6 is
clear, but in details there is much un-
certainty. The text may have suf-
fered in transmission; LXX., which
differs considerably from the Hebrew,
reads, ‘And Crete shall become dwell-
ing places for shepherds, and folds for
flocks.” This involves the omission of
one expression from the Hebrew, “the
seacoast,” which might have been re-
peated accidentally from verse 5, the
transposition of two words, and a
change in the vocalization of another.
Crete—Not the island of Crete, but
Philistia; the former is supposed to
have been the original home of the
Philistines (see on Amos ix, 7). The
term ‘‘Cherethites’” (verse 5) is de-
rived from the same word. To im-
prove the rhythm some omit even the
word translated “Crete,” which might
be “‘a mere transcriptional duplicate
of the preceding word, as the letters
forming the two words are frequently
confused.” With this omission verse
6 would read, “And it (the land of the
Philistines) shall become dwellings
(or, pastures, Amos i, 2) for shepherds,
and folds for flocks.” Marti goes still
further and, continuing 5b, reads,
“And thou shalt become. . . ”
Whether any of these emendations are
accepted or not, the meaning remains
the same; the land of the Philistines
is to be so completely deserted that
shepherds will be able to pasture and
fold their flocks wherever they like.

Verse 7 adds to the threat of the

 

2, 2.—2 Or, when, etc.— Exod. 4. 31;
Luke 1. 68.

destruction of the Philistines the
promise that the “remnant of Judah”
shall possess the territory deserted by
its present inhabitants. A similar
promise is found in Amos ix, 12. The
English translation of the first clause,
‘And the coast shall be for the rem-
nant of the house of Judah,” disre-
gards the grammatical construction of
the original, which can be rendered
only, “And it (the land of the Philis-
tines, verse 5) shall be a portion for
the remnant of the house of Judah.”
The ordinary English translation fol-
lows substantially LXX., which reads,
however, “the seacoast.’? Remnant of
the house of Judah—Must be identical
with the “meek” of verse 3, who es-
cape the judgment by heeding the
prophet’s exhortation. Shall feed—
R. V. adds rightly, ‘their flocks.”
They—The remnant. The grammati-
cal construction is according to sense.
Thereupon—Upon what? If the text
is correct the reference must be to
the “pastures” of verse 6 (for the
grammatical inaccuracy involved in
the use of a masculine pronoun re-
ferring to a feminine noun compare
G.-K., 1350). Wellhausen divides the
word and transposes one letter, so that
it reads “‘by the sea” instead of ‘upon
them.” This would remove the gram-_
matical peculiarity. In the houses of
Ashkelon shall they lie down in the
evening—During the day they will
feed their flocks in the fields of the
Philistines; when darkness sets in they
seek shelter in their towns. Ashkelon
represents the Philistine towns in
general; it seems to be selected rather
than any other for rhythmical rea-
sons. The closing sentence gives the
cause of the transformation in the
fortunes of Judah, or at least of the
remnant. God shall visit them—In
mercy. The same word is used fre-
CHAPTER II.

533

 

them, and eturn away their cap-
tivity.

8 PI have heard the reproach of
Moab, and athe revilings of the chil-
dren of Ammon, whereby they have
reproached my people, and ™magni-

fied themselves against their border.
9 Therefore as I live, saith the LorpD
of hosts, the God of Israel, Surely
sMoab shall be as Sodom, and ‘the
children of Ammon as Gomorrah,
seven the breeding of nettles, and

 

© Psa. 126.1; Jer. 29. 14; chap. 3. 20.—
pJer. 48. 27; Ezek. 25. 8.—4 Ezek. 25.
3, 6. t Jer. 49. 1.—* Isa. 15; Jer. 48;

 

Ezek. 25. 9; Amos 2. 1.—+*t Amos 1. 13.
uGen. 19. 25; Deut. 29. 23; Isa, 13.
19; 34. 13; Jer. 49. 18; 50. 40.

 

 

quently in the sense of “punish,”
that is, visit in judgment (compare i,
8, 9). Turn away their captivity—
R. V., “bring back their captivity,”
or, restore their fortune. The expres-
sion does not presuppose the exile as
accomplished, nor even the expecta-
tion of an exile (see on Hos. vi, 11;
Amos ix, 15; and p. 133).

Marti and others reject verse 7 in
its present form as a later addition
(see p. 518), but the former thinks
that the verse contains some original
elements. These he finds, in a cor-
rupt form, in the second and third
clauses of the verse; as restored by
him' they read, continuing verse 6,
“In thy ruins they lie down, they
shall feed by the sea.” The subject
of the verbs he takes to be Arab
nomads.

8-11. The doom of Moab and Am-
mon. On the location of these nations
see comments on Amos i, 13-15; ii,
1-3. I have heard—The evil deeds
and words of the Moabites and Am-
monites have reached the ear of Je-
hovah (compare Gen. iv, 10; xviii,
20). Reproach . . . revilings—Ex-
pressed not only in words, but also in
hostile attacks upon the territory of
the Hebrews. These were not con-
fined to any one period, but continued
throughout the entire history (com-
pare Num. xxiiff.; Judg. in, 12ff.;
x, 7ff.; 1 Sam. xi, 1-5; 2 Sam. viii, 2
and passages mentioned below).
Other prophets condemn these two
nations for their hostile attitude to-
ward the people of Jehovah (Moab,
Num. xxiv, 17; Isa. xv, xvi; Jer.
xlviii; Ezek. xxv, $ff.; Ammon, Amos
i, 13-15; Jer. xlix; Ezek. xxv, 1-7).
Reproached my people—Every attack
and every act of hostility constituted
an insult to the people that was under

 

the special protection of Jehovah.
Magnified themselves against their
border—That is, the border of my
people; LXX. reads “my borders,”
that is, the borders of Jehovah’s land
(compare Jer. xlviii, 26, 42). ‘“Mag-
nified themselves” is literally ‘they
made great” or “did great things,”
which means not only “they uttered
great things’ but “they did great
things” as well. The great and arro-
gant deeds consisted chiefly in violat-
ing the boundaries of Israel and en-
deavoring to annex Israelitish terri-
tory (Amos i, 18; Jer. xlix, 1).
Verses 9, 10 announce the judg-
ment. As I live—A formula of as-
severation, which is very common in
Ezekiel (see on Amos iv, 2; viii, 14).
The accumulation of the divine titles
serves to add solemnity to the utter-
ance (compare Isa. i, 24). Jehovah of
hosts—See on Hos. xii, 5. God of Is-
rael—Emphasizes the peculiar rela-
tion of Jehovah to Israel, and his
special interest in its welfare. Sodom,
. . . Gomorrah—The overthrow of the
cities of the Plain (Gen. xix, 25) is
frequently used as a type of utter
destruction (Isa. i, 9; Deut. xxix, 23).
The next three expressions describe
the completeness of the destruction.
Breeding of nettles—R. V., “posses-
sion of nettles’; margin, “of wild
vetches.” The territories shall re-
main uncultivated and desolate, so
that nothing but nettles will grow
there. The meaning of the first word
is not quite certain; “possession” ex-
presses the right idea. The precise
plant meant is uncertain. Post thinks
that the word is a, generic term which
may be applied to any wild thorn or
shrub. Tristram identifies it with the
“prickly acanthus, a very common
and troublesome weed .. . abundant
534

ZEPHANIAH.

 

salt pits, and a perpetual desola-
tion: *the residue of my people
shall spoil them, and the remnant
of my people shall possess them.
10 This shall they have »for their
pride, because they have reproach-

ed and magnified themselves against
the people of the Lorp of hosts.
11 The Lorp will be terrible unto
them: for he will *famish all the
gods of the earth; zand men shall
worship him, every one from his

 

x Verse 7.—Y Isa. 16. 6; Jer. 48. 29.

 

3 Heb. make lean. Mal. 1.11; John 4. 21.

 

among ruins” (compare Isa. xiv, 23).
Salt pits—Where salt pits exist vege-
tation is dead; hence the presence of
salt pits symbolizes desolation and
barrenness (compare Deut. xxix, 23;
Isa. xiii, 19; Jer. xlix, 18; also, ‘“‘he
sowed it with salt,” Judg. ix, 45).
Perpetual desolation—There is to be
no restoration. Residue ... remnant
—See on verse 7; compare verse 3,
and reference there. Shall spoil them
—Better, shall take them as spoil; the
expression is identical in meaning with
“shall possess [R. V., ‘‘inherit’’]
them,”’ in the last clause. “Them”
some commentators refer to the peo-
ple of Moab and Ammon in distinction
from the land, which is threatened
with utter destruction and desolation.
This distinction is made “because a
land turned into an eternal desert and
salt steppe would not be adapted for
a possession for the people of Je-
hovah.” It is very doubtful, how-
ever, that the author meant to make
this distinction. The description
must not be pressed too literally, and
there can be no serious objection to
the supposition that the prophet
means to threaten two distinct ca-
lamities, complete destruction and
annexation to Judah.

Verse 10 repeats the statement of
the guilt which is responsible for the
judgment (see on verse 8). In the
last clause LXX. omits ‘‘the people
of,” and reads, ‘“‘against Jehovah of
hosts” (see on their border, verse 8).

In verses 8, 9 Jehovah is the speaker,
so also in verse 12; therefore verse 12
forms a natural continuation of verse
9. In verses 10, 11 Jehovah is spoken
of in the third person, which makes it
quite probable that these verses con-
tain the words of another speaker.
If verse 10 is original (see pp. 519f.) it
must be explained as a repetition by

 

the prophet, in his own words, of the
condemnation which in verse 8 he
places in the mouth of Jehovah. In
a similar manner would have to be
explained verse 11. The prophet has
announced, in the words of Jehovah,
the complete destruction of Moab and
Ammon; before turning to another
nation he makes a comment out of
his own heart: ‘Jehovah will be ter-
rible unto them....” Terrible—In
causing utter destruction. When they
see his terrible power they will recog-
nize him as the God (Mal. i, 14). Unto
them—The people of Moab and Am-
mon. For—Better, yea; introducing
a new act of Jehovah (G.-K., 148d).
He will not be satisfied with over-
awing the two nations; before the
whole world he will show himself su-
preme. He will famish all the gods of
the earth—A peculiar expression; lit-
erally, he will make lean. If the verb
is original the thought of the prophet
seems to be that by his terrible mani-
festations Jehovah will prove himself
the true God with such effectiveness
that he will take away from the deities
now worshiped by the other nations
their devotees with their gifts. By
the withdrawal of these gifts the
deities are made lean, and finally they
will starve to death. In other words,
the prophet looks forward to the time
when the nothingness of all the other
deities will be recognized, and when
all men will worship Jehovah. Every
one from his place—The most natural
interpretation of these words is that
every one will worship Jehovah
wherever he lives, that is, without
going to a central sanctuary. This
marks a distinct advance over pas-
sages like Isa. ii, 2-4; Mic. iv, 1-4,
and moves in the direction of the ut-
terances of Jesus in John iv, 20ff.
The interpretation of Kleinert and
CHAPTER II.

535

 

pae. even all *the isles of the
eathen.

12 ’Ye Ethiopians also, ye shall
be slain by ‘my sword. 13 And he
will stretch out his hand against

the north, and ‘destroy Assyria;
and will make Nineveh a desola-
tion, and dry like a_ wilderness.
14 And ¢flocks shall lie down in the
midst of her, all ‘the beasts of the

 

® Gen. 10. 5,—» Isa. 18.1; 20. 4; Jer. 46.
9; Ezek. 30. 9. o Psa, 17. 18.—4 Isa. 10.

 

others, which makes the prophet say
that everyone will go from his home
to Jerusalem to worship there, is less
natural. All the isles of the heathen
—R. V., “of the nations’; margin,
“coast lands.” The term seems to
have been applied in the beginning
to the coast lands and islands of the
Mediterranean, but in time it became
equivalent to “distant regions” (Isa.
xli, 1; lix, 18).

12. The doom of Ethiopia. Ethio-
pians—Or, Cushites. The inhabitants
of the vast and undefined territory
immediately south of Egypt. The
country—Heb. Kish—is mentioned
frequently in connection with Egypt
(Nah. iii, 9; Isa. xx, 3-5). During the
flourishing period of Egyptian history
Ethiopia was subject to the kings of
Egypt, but toward the close of the
eighth century B. C. an Ethiopian
dynasty usurped the throne of the
latter, which it was able to hold for
only a brief period. At the time of
Zephaniah the Ethiopian rulers had
been expelled again; nevertheless,
some have supposed that in this pas-
sage Ethiopia stands for Egypt. It
is undoubtedly true that a threat
against the near and powerful Egypt
would make a deeper impression upon
the people of Judah than a threat
against the distant Ethiopia, and, as
a matter of fact, the Scythians never
went farther than the northern bor-
ders of Egypt; yet there seems in-
sufficient warrant for ‘dentifving the
two. It is preferable to retain Ethio-
pia and take it as a representative of
the remote south, just as the islands
of the nations represent the west and
Assyria the east or northeast; the
dreaded enemy comes from the north.
Ye shall be slain—Hebrew, “they
shall be slain”; the ancient versions
read the second person, which is to be

 

12; Ezek. 31. 8; Nah. 1.1; 2. 10; 3. 15, 18.
—— Verse 6. f Isa. 13. 21, 22.

 

preferred. The terrible invader will
make a terrible end of the Ethiopians.

13-15. The doom of Nineveh. Stretch
out his hand—See oni, 4. Against the
north—From Ethiopia in the far south
Jehovah will turn northward to strike
Assyria. Assyria—The beginnings of
the Assyrian empire are shrouded in
obscurity, but from about the middle
of the twelfth century until near the
close of the seventh century. B. C. it
was the great Asiatic world power.
Nearly all the prophets, beginning
with Amos, look upon it as the di-
vinely appointed agent to execute
judgment upon the rebellious Israel;
but several of them are convinced
that it has gone beyond its commis-
sion and that its cruel policy of con-
quest is contrary to Jehovah’s will;
therefore they heap upon Assyria the
severest denunciations (for example,
Isa. x, 5ff.; Mic. v, 6; the entire Book
of Nahum). Nineveh—The capital of
Assyria in the days of Zephaniah (see
on Jonah iii, 2, 3). Desolation, ...
dry like a wilderness—To make Nine-
veh dry like a wilderness would re-
quire a manifestation of extraordinary
power, for the city was situated on the
banks of one river, the Tigris, while
another, the Choser, flowed right
through it.

14. In the ruins desert animals will
take up their abode. Flocks—R. V.,
“herds.’”’? A word used elsewhere only
of animals tended by herdsmen, but
since the rest of verse 14 seems to be
an expansion of the term, it must be
used here of wild beasts and creatures
of the desert. Wellhausen changes
one letter and transposes two, which
gives the name “‘Arabians.’”’ All the
beasts of the nations—Margin R. V.,
‘all beasts of every kind’’; LXX., “all
the beasts of the field.””. The common
English translation is the most literal
536

ZEPHANIAH.

 

nations: both the 4 cormorant and
the bittern shall lodge in the ‘up-
per lintels of it; their voice shall

sing in the windows; desolation
shall be in the thresholds: ‘for he
shall uncover the heedar work.

 

4Or, pelican.—+ Isa. 34. 11, 14.— Or,
knops, or, chapiters.

6 Or, when he hath uncovered.—+ Jer.
22. 14.

 

reproduction of the Hebrew text, but
the meaning of the phrase is not clear.
Some have understood “beasts” fig-
uratively of wild and ferocious men,
perhaps the shepherds of the flocks
(but see preceding comment), as if
the prophet wanted to say that wild
men coming from different nations
would lodge in the ruins of Nineveh.
This figurative use of “beasts” is not
very probable. The LXX. reading
gives better sense, and we may be
justified in altering the present He-
brew text to make it agree with it.
The marginal translation also gives
good sense, but to get it from the pres-
ent Hebrew text is a difficult task. The
present text may be retained, if we
give to the word translated “nations”
a meaning which it does not have
ordinarily, ‘‘mass” or “swarms” (com-
pare Joel i, 6; Prov. xxx, 25), and ren-
der the whole phrase “all kinds of
beasts in mass.” This, in apposition
to the preceding “‘flocks,” would ex-
press the idea that great masses of
desert animals of every kind will set-
tle in the ruins of the destroyed city.
Cormorant—R. V., “pelican.” There
is much uncertainty about the animals
or birds mentioned in this verse. Un-
doubtedly all are such as are accus-
tomed to inhabit ruins and desolate
places. The translation of R. V. is
generally accepted as correct (com-
pare “pelican of the wilderness,”
Psa. cii, 6). H. Duhm (Die bésen
Geister im Alten Testament) sees
here a reference to demons that
were thought to dwell in ruins.
Bittern—R. V., “porcupine.” The
latter is the meaning which LXX.
gives to the word and is accepted by
most commentators. The two words
occur together in a similar description
in Isa. xxxiv, 11 (compare xiv, 28).
The upper lintels—R. V., “capitals.”
See on Amos ix, 1. These capitals are
thought of as lying on the ground, so

 

that even porcupines can make their
homes in them. ‘The seer has such
a mass of ruins in view as Baalbek
presents to-day; the giant capitals
which encircled the buildings lie like
broken cornstalks; on the other hand,
the walls still stand in ruin, with deso-
late threshold and window, through
which the wind whistles.” Their
voice will sing in the windows—Lit-
erally, a voice shall sing; or, better,
since it is an exclamation, Hark! they
sing! (See on i, 14.) The prophet
imagines himself standing in the
midst of the ruins, and, hearing a
voice, he exclaims, ‘Hark! they
sing!” The subject of “sing” must
be the creatures inhabiting the ruins;
hence “sing” must be understood in
the general sense of making a noise or
uttering a sound, a meaning which
the verb does not have ordinarily.
Instead of “voice” (=hark) many read
“owls”; the whole clause, “owls shall
sing in the windows.” If the emenda-
tion suggested for the next clause is
correct, a comparison with Isa. xxxiv,
11, suggests that “owl” was read
here originally. It is even possible
that the two words translated “a
voice shall sing” should be read as
one, and that this one word is the
corrupt form of a noun meaning
“owls,” so that the whole clause
would read, “owls shall be in the win-
dows.” Desolation shall be in the
thresholds—LXX. reads, with a
change of one letter, “ravens” for
“desolation,” and this fits admirably
in the context, “‘ravens shall be in the
thresholds.”’ For he shall uncover the
cedar work—A much-discussed clause
whose meaning is uncertain. It seems
to state the reason why the city will
become the habitation of desert birds
and animals. ‘‘He shall uncover”
might be understood in the indefinite
sense ‘one shall uncover”—they shall
uncover, that is, the enemies who will
CHAPTER III.

537

 

15 This is the rejoicing city ithat
dwelt carelessly, «that said in her
heart, I am, and there is none be-
side me: how is she become a deso-
lation, a place for beasts to lie
down in! every one that passeth b.

her ‘shall hiss, and wag his hand.

CHAPTER ITI.

OE to !*her that is filthy and

; polluted, to the eppreseiig
city! 2 She sobeyed not the voice;
she received not ‘correction; she
trusted not in the Lorp; she drew

 

ilsa, 47. 8.—k Rev. 18. 7.—! Job 27.
23; Lam. 2, 15; Ezek. 27. 36.—™ Nah.3.19.

10r, gluttonous.— Heb. craw.— Jer.
22, 21.—» Jer. 5. 3.—% Or, instruction.

 

execute the divine judgment. The
same verb is translated in Psa.
cxxxvii, 7, “‘rase’ (to the founda-
tion), and implies destruction. The
word translated “cedar work” occurs
in this form only here; if original it
must refer to the costly woodwork in
the palaces and temples of Nineveh.
In order to remove the peculiar form
some change the vocalization so as to
read “her cedar’ =her cedar work,
that is, the cedar work of the city.
Others see in the word a corrupt form
of a verb similar in meaning to the
other verb, so that the whole clause
would read, “they shall destroy, they
shall rase.”’ All these suggestions are
more or less unsatisfactory, and much
uncertainty remains; perhaps the text
is in disorder.

Verse 15 contains a taunt-song over
the fallen city. This—The ruin in-
habited by desert animals and birds.
The rejoicing city—R. V., “joyous.”
Good fortune seemed to smile on Nine-
veh, hence all was joy and exultation.
Dwelt carelessly—Added to the nat-
ural strength of its site were extensive
fortifications, so that the city seemed
impregnable; in consequence her in-
habitants were careless and boastful.
I am, and there is none beside me—
Literally, I am, and none else (com-
pare Isa. xlvii, 8). Her armies had
conquered almost the whole known
world, from all directions tribute and
countless treasures were being brought
to the city, hence there was some
ground for the boast. But pride al-
ways comes before the fall. The
glory of Nineveh will be turned into
shame. Desolation—See on verse 13.
A place for beasts—See on verse 14.
Shall hiss—An expression of derision
and scorn (Mic. vi, 16; Jer. xviii, 16).

 

Wag his hand—Also a gesture of
scorn, equivalent to wag his head (Jer.
xviii, 16; compare Nah. iii, 19).

CHAPTER III.

Woes vuron THE PoLLuTEeD City oF
JERUSALEM, 1-7.

In iii, 1, the prophet turns once
more to Jerusalem, “‘the rebellious and
unclean, the city of oppression.” He
strikes the same notes as in chapter i,
only here he emphasizes almost ex-
clusively moral and social vices. Her
princes are thieves, her prophets
“bold jugglers instead of God’s wit-
nesses,” her priests profane the sanc-
tuary (1-4). Jehovah has done all he
could to win the city back to purity,
but in vain; her inhabitants “cor-
rupted all their doings’ (5-7).

Woe—Introduces not only a threat,
but also a lament, prompted by sor-
row and compassion. Filthy—Bet-
ter, R. V., “rebellious,” that is,
against Jehovah. Polluted—By the
heathenish religious practices con-
demned in i, 4-6, as well as by the
acts of violence and bloodshed de-
scribed in i, 8, 9, and iii, 3-7. Op-
pressing—Not other cities. Within
the city itself the poor and weak were
being oppressed by the strong and
powerful. A more forceful rendering
would be, ‘Woe, rebellious and pol-
luted! city of oppression!”

Verses 2-4 explain the epithets in
verse 1; verse 2 explains “rebellious.”
Jerusalem’s rebellion against Jehovah
manifested itself under four aspects:
(1) She obeyed not the voice—The
voice of Jehovah as it spoke through
the prophets (see on Amos ii, 11, 12).
(2) She received not correction—Mar-
gin, “instruction,” If the marginal
538

ZEPHANIAH.

 

not near to her God. 38 °Her prin-
ces within her are roaring lions; her

judges are ‘evening wolves; they
gnaw not the bones till the morrow.

 

© Ezek, 22. 27; Mic. 3. 9-11.

a Hab. 1. 8.

 

translation is correct this clause is
practically equivalent to the preced-
ing. It is more likely, however, that
the prophet is thinking of instruction
given by means of chastisements,
such as are described, for example, in
Amos iv, 6-11, or Isa. ix, 8-21. The
two clauses are found together again
in Jer. vii, 28. (3) She trusted not in
Jehovab—The original is more force-
ful, Jehovah standing at the head: “In
Jehovah she did not trust.” Instead,
she trusted in Assyria (2 Kings xvi,
7-9) or in Egypt (Isa. xxx, 31). Com-
pare also the constant complaint of
Hosea (see p. 19f.). (4) She drew not
near to her God—In spirit and truth,
as she should have done in view of the
covenant relation existing between
Jehovah and Israel (compare the re-
frain in Amos iv, 6-11, “but ye did
not return unto me”). Their worship
was mere form, and not a true ap-
proach to Jehovah. |

Verses 3, 4 explain “polluted”? and
“oppressing” (verse 1). The corrup-
tion is widespread. Political and ec-
clesiastical leaders are equally guilty
(compare Mic. iii, 9-11). Princes—
See on Hos. iii, 4. Roaring lions—
Seeking whom they might devour
(compare Ezek. xix, 1-3; 1 Pet. v, 8).
Judges—The men in judicial positions,
whose duty it was to guard the rights
of others; instead, they devour all like
wild beasts. Evening wolves—See on
Hab. i, 8. In both passages LXX.
reads erroneously “wolves of Arabia.’
Wolves may be less powerful than
lions, but they are equally greedy and
bloodthirsty. They gnaw not the
bones till the morrow—R. V., “they
leave nothing till the morrow.” The
meaning of the verb is uncertain.
Another translation has been sug-
gested, ‘that have not gnawed a bone
in (=since) morning”; as a result they
are hungry and ferocious in the even-
ing. The form of the verb is in favor
of the last translation, but the

preposition before “morning” can-
not mean “since.” The translation
‘Jeave” is supported by some of the
ancient versions, but it can be had
from the Hebrew only in a round-
about way. The translation “gnaw
the bones” assumes, not without rea-
son, that the verb is a denominative
form of a nioun “bone.” The verb
occurs only three times in the Old
Testament—in Num. xxiv, 8; Ezek.
xxiii, 34, and here. The passage in
Ezekiel is thought to be corrupt,
therefore it is of little value in de-
termining the meaning of the verb.
In Numbers it means “to gnaw” (a
bone, but the noun is added); it is
quite natural, therefore, to give the
verb the same meaning in this pas-
sage, and this A. V. does. Schwally,
unable to see any sense in the clause
as it stands at present, omits the
negative and reads, “they do gnaw
bones till morning”; that is, all night
long they go about devouring every-
thing that comes in their way. The
negative might easily have slipped in
from verse 2, but if Schwally is right
the imperfect would be expected in
Hebrew instead of the perfect. It
seems better to retain the negative.
The prophet refers to the judges as
evening wolves; they are ravenous,
tearing everything that comes in their
way. In the light of this statement
“to gnaw bones until morning” would
be practically equivalent to “to spend
all night in devouring the prey.”
What the prophet means to say is
that they are too greedy to do this;
they do not leave anything until
morning, but devour all at one time.
The translations of the ancients may
be explained as attempts to present
smoother readings. The expression is
undoubtedly awkward, but the inter-
pretation given is that favored by the
present Hebrew text, which may, how-
ever, be in disorder.

 

* The religious leaders are no better,
CHAPTER III.

539

 

4 Her -prophets are light and trea-
cherous persons: her priests have
polluted the sanctuary, they have
done fviolence to the law. 5 #The

e Jer. 23. 11, 32; Lam. 2. 14; Hos. 9. 7.
—t Ezek. 22. 26.—# Deut. 32. 4.

just Lorp ‘is in the midst thereof;
he will not do iniquity: severy
morning doth he bring his judg-
ment to light, he faileth not; but

h Verse 15, 17; see Mic. 3. 11.—+4 Heb.
morning by morning.

 

Her prophets—The false prophets (see
on Mice. iii, 7), not men like Zephaniah.
Light—Vainglorious and_ boastful;
LXX., “carried by the wind”—bags
of wind. “The figure is that of the
boiling over of water, andthe word
characterizes the prophets as vapor-
ers, extravagant and arrogant in their
own imaginations and conceits, their
minds lacking the restraint of the
word of God under which the true
prophets spoke” (Jer. xxiii, 22; Ezek.
xxii, 28). Treacherous persons—Lit-
erally, men of treacheries. The verb
underlying the noun “treachery’’ is
used frequently of faithlessness to the
marriage vow, in a literal or figurative
sense (Jer. iii, 20; Hos. vi, 7); hence
the expression may mean “men who
are faithless to Jehovah;” but an ad-
ditional thought is implied: because
they are faithless to Jehovah they
betray and lead astray the people.
Priests—Condemned severely by Mi-
cah (iii, 11) and especially by Hosea
(iv, 4ff.). Polluted the sanctuary—
Better, that which is holy, which in-
cludes everything that belongs to Je-
hovah or is connected with him.
These things they have profaned or
polluted by disregarding their sanctity
and treating them to suit their own
fancies and interests (compare Ezek.
xxii, 26). They have done violence to
the law—Not law in the narrow sense
of that term, nor the laws concerning
clean and unclean things, but every
expression of the will of Jehovah (see
on Hos. iv, 6). In trying to serve
their own interests they have disre-
garded the teaching of Jehovah, and
in order to justify their own conduct
they have perverted it (Isa. v, 20).
5, 6. In striking contrast to the
people’s unrighteousness is Jehovah’s
righteousness. He manifests himself
continually as a God of mercy and a
God of power. Verse 5 emphasizes

 

the former, verse 6 the latter; both
have failed to accomplish the conver-
sion of the people. The just Lord is
in the midst thereof—Better, R. V.,
“Jehovah in the midst of her is right-
eous.” Jerusalem was in a special sense
the dwelling place of Jehovah (com-
pare Isa. ii, 3). Righteous (R. V.)—He
always did that which was right and
proper in view of the covenant rela-
tion existing between him and Israel
(compare Deut. xxxii, 4). He will
not do—Better, he doeth not, for verse
5 describes the conduct of Jehovah in
the past, present, and future. Iniquity
—That which is contrary to the
spirit of the covenant. 5b enumerates
some of the things that Jehovah does
for his people from day to day. Every
morning—Literally, morning by morn-
ing. Bring his judgment to light—
R. V., “justice.” Judgment is used
here not in the sense of punitive judg-
ment, which Jehovah executes daily,
nor of his righteous will which he
makes known through his prophets
and other teachers, but of his righteous
acts, which he executes from day to
day in carrying on the government of
the world. He faileth not—Literally,
not is omitted =without fail. But the
unjust knoweth no shame—The right-
eous acts of Jehovah awaken no re-
sponse in those who are unrighteous,
that is, those who live without regard
for the covenant that exists between
Jehovah and them. Without shame
or contrition they persist in their evil
conduct.

Verse 5 contains several linguistic
peculiarities; as a result textual cor-
ruptions have been suspected, and
various emendations have been pro-
posed. Marti reads, “Jehovah in the
midst of her is righteous, he does no
iniquity; morning by morning he
shows forth his righteous acts (er
setzt in Kraft seine Ordnung);
540

ZEPHANIAH.

 

ithe unjust knoweth no shame. 6
I have cut off the nations: their
‘towers are desolate; I made their
streets waste, that none passeth by:
their cities are destroyed, so that

there is no man, that there is none | in

inhabitant.

iJer. 3. 3; 6. 15; 8. 12.—-5 Or, corners.
— So Jer. 8. 6.

7 *I said, Surely thou

wilt fear me, thou wilt receive in-
struction; so their dwelling should
not be cut off, howsoever I pun-
ished them: but they rose early,
and ‘corrupted all their do-

gs. :
8 Therefore =wait ye upon me,

1 Gen. 6. 12.—™ Psa. 27. 14; 37, 34;

Prov. 20. 22.

 

light is never misled, error is un-
known.”

Verse 6 points to divine manifesta-
tions in history, which should have
had a salutary effect upon the people.
I have cut off—The change to the
first person is unexpected, but there
is no reason for doubting its original-
ity. To make the address more force-
ful Jehovah is introduced as the
speaker. The nations—Literally, na-
tions, without the article. The refer-
ence is not to the nations threatened
with destruction in ii, 4-15, but to
nations cut off in the past. Towers—
See on i, 16. Here the term seems to
include palaces or citadels. Fortifica-
tions, streets (open country), and
cities were wasted so completely that
no one passed along the streets and
no inhabitant remained in the city
(compare Jer. xxxiii, 10).

7. The deeds enumerated in verses
5, 6 Jehovah did in the expectation
that his righteous acts would bring
Jerusalem to her senses; this verse de-
clares that the expectation was not
realized. Isaid—To myself; I thought
(Jer. iii, 19), when planning the acts.
Surely thou wilt fear me—Perhaps the
third person should be read—‘Surely
she will fear me, she will receive in-
struction.” Jehovah expected that as
a result of his manifestations the in-
habitants of Jerusalem would main-
tain a reverential attitude toward
him (see on Hos. x, 3). So their
dwelling should not be cut off, howso-
ever I punished them—The pronouns
“their” and “them” are in the original
“her,” that is, Jerusalem. The
thought expressed in this translation
seems to be that Jehovah hoped that
the acts of his providence would lead
the people to repentance, so that he

 

would not be compelled to cut them
off from their dwelling place. R. V.
gives a different meaning to the sec-
ond clause, ‘according to all that I
have appointed concerning her.” This
might be understood as supplying the
reason for the cutting off—Jehovah
had appointed it; or it might give the
reason for Jehovah’s hope for repent-
ance; he desired the city to remain,
for he had ordained it so. Both A. V.
and R. V. do more or less violence to
the Hebrew text. The difficulties van-
ish if the reading of LXX. and Peshit-
to, which presupposes a slight change
in a single word, is substituted for the
present Hebrew text, “and not will
vanish from her eyes all that I have
commanded her.” Jehovah expected
his providence to lead his people to
loyal obedience. They rose early, and
corrupted all their doings—They were
so anxious to do wrong that they rose
early in the morning; equivalent to
“they zealously corrupted all their
doings” (compare Jer. vii, 13; xi, 8).
The expectation of Jehovah was not
realized; on the contrary, the corrup-
tion increased.

Tux Worip JuDGMENT AND ITS Er-
FEcTs, 8-13.

Since all warnings have failed, the
judgment is inevitable. But in the
midst of the rebellious nation there
is a faithful remnant (ii, 3); to it are
addressed verses 8ff. It is exhorted
to remain loyal in the midst of the
calamity, for the future has brighter
things in store.

8. Therefore wait ye—The faithful
remnant is exhorted not to despair,
but to wait patiently for the manifes-
tation of Jehovah that will result in
its exaltation. Upon me—Better, R.
CHAPTER III. : 541

 

saith the Lorp, until the day that
I rise up to the prey: for my deter-
mination zs to »gather the nations,
that I may assemble the kingdoms,
to pour upon them mine indigna-

tion, even all my fierce anger: for
all the earth eshall be devoured
with the fire of my jealousy. 9
For then will I turn to the people
Pa pure ‘language, that they may

 

 

n Joel 3. 2. ° Chap. 1. 18.

V., “for me,” that is, for my manifes-
tation, as described in the succeeding
clauses. Until the day—The preposi-
tion is the same as the one translated
“for” in the preceding clause, and
should be rendered so here. Rise up
to the prey—The meaning of “to the
prey” is obscure. Davidson says, “If
this meaning be accepted, the impend-
ing judgment of God is expressed
figuratively as a hostile attack upon
him, and the question what is meant
by the ‘prey’ must not be asked: the
prey is merely part of the metaphor.”
A more satisfactory reading, requiring
the change of only one vowel point, is
offered by LXX. and Peshitto, “for a
witness” instead of “to the prey.”
Jehovah will rise up as accusing wit-
ness (Mic. i, 2) and judge. Determi-
nation—Literally, judgment, which
may be used in the sense of judicial
decision or sentence; if so, the thought
is that Jehovah has determined to
execute judgment. Or it may mean
judicial right or prerogative; as the
judge of all the earth Jehovah has
the right to summon the nations be-
fore the judgment bar. The former is
preferable. The contents of the
determination are brought out in the
rest of verse 8 and in the following
verses. That I may assemble the
kingdoms—Following LXX. the pro-
nominal suffix should be omitted
from the second verb and the two
clauses should be codrdinated: “to
gather the nations, to assemble the
kingdoms,” that is, to judgment. The
thought is not implied that they will
be summoned to one locality, that is,
to Jerusalem, where the judgment is
to be executed (compare Joel iii, 2;
Zech. xiv, 2). Pour .. . indignation,
... fierce anger—Aroused by the sin
and rebellion of the nations (see on
i, 15, and references there; also on
Hos. v, 10). All the earth—Including

 

P Isa. 19. 18.—®6 Heb. lip.

Judah and Jerusalem. The fire of my
jealousy—See on i, 18, and reference
there.

Most recent commentators doubt
the originality of verses 9, 10, chiefly
because these verses are thought to
interrupt the connection between 8
and 11. Even Davidson thinks that
the omission of at least verse 10 would
add force and dignity to the utterance.
That there is much uncertainty about
the meaning of these verses must be
admitted, and yet it is not quite clear
that verse 11 is the natural continua-
tion of verse 8, or that the thought of
verses 9, 10 is foreign to the context.
Verse 8 contains, along with an an-
nouncement of an impending world
judgment, an‘ exhortation to a rem-
nant, to remain faithful in the midst
of the impending calamity. The suc-
ceeding verses, beginning with verse
9, may be understood as supplying
the reason why the remnant may
safely trust in Jehovah. The judg-
ment about to fall is not sent by a
wrathful God who delights in de-
struction, but by one who has at heart
the best interests of mankind; and
when it has served its disciplinary
purpose its beneficent effects will be
seen in the conversion of many.
Verses 9, 10 speak of the effects upon
the nations, verses 11-13 of those
upon Judah. When interpreted in
this manner, verses 9-13, just as they
stand, seem to make a good continua-
tion of verse 8, which announces the
coming of the judgment.

If the verses are retained they ex-
press the thought that by means of
the judgment many will be converted
to Jehovah; even far-distant nations
will bring their offerings to him. To
the people—Literally, to peoples; that
is, people among all nations of the
earth (verse 8). Will I turn...a
pure language—Literally, u pure lip
542

ZEPUANIATL

 

all call upon the name of the Lorp,
to serve him with one ’consent.
10 «From beyond the rivers of
Ethiopia my suppliants, even the

daughter of my dispersed, shall
bring mine or ermaas 11 In that
day shalt thou not be ashamed for
all thy doings, wherein thou hast

 

7 Heb, shoulder——4 Psa. 68. 31; Isa. 18.

1, 7; 60. 4, etc.; Mal. 1. 11; Acts 8. 27.

 

(compare 1 Sam. x, 9). The expres-
sion is equivalent to “I will turn their
impure lip into a pure lip,” so that
they will be fit to worship Jehovah
(Isa. vi, 5). Lip does not stand for
language, as the English translators
seem to have thought. Since thoughts
proceed from the heart, the purity or
impurity of the lip depends upon the
purity or impurity of the heart; there-
fore, the purification of the lips pre-
supposes the purification of the heart
(compare Isa. vi, 7). When heart and
lip are cleansed they will “call upon
Jehovah,” that is, worship him. Serve
him with one consent—Literally, with
one shoulder, which LXX. interprets
“under one yoke.” The figure is that
of animals working together, with a
single yoke placed over their shoul-
ders. The converted people will
coéperate heartily in the service of
Jehovah (Jer. xxxii, 39).

Verse 10 is obscure. Ethiopia—See
on ii, 12. Here it is mentioned as a
representative of far-distant coun-
tries. My suppliants, even the
daughter of my dispersed—If this is
the correct translation, the home-
coming of the dispersed Jews to bring
offerings to their God is predicted
here. Another possible translation of
verse 10 is, ‘From beyond the rivers
of Ethiopia shall they (the converted
people of verse 9) bring my suppliants,
the daughter of my dispersed, as mine
offering.” With this translation the
thought is that far-distant peoples
will bring back the dispersed Jews as
an offering to Jehovah. The correct-
ness of the present Hebrew text has
been questioned, however, chiefly for
two reasons: 1. Up to this point there
has been no reference to a dispersion
(but compare verse 19). 2. The ex-
pression “daughter of my dispersed”
is peculiar. Combinations _ like
“daughter of Zion,” “daughter of

 

Babylon,” etc., are quite common,
but in all such phrases ‘‘daughter” is
connected with a place name. Three
very slight alterations would give
what many consider a very much
better text: ‘‘From beyond the rivers
of Ethiopia devotees of the daughter
of Put will bring offerings to me.”
The devotees are people of the land
of Put who have been won to the
service of Jehovah in the manner in-
dicated in verse 9. Put is to be iden-
tified with the Punt of the Egyptian
inscriptions, the name given to the
territory comprising the whole African
coast from the desert east of Upper
Egypt to the modern Somali country,
which brings it near Ethiopia. If this
emendation is accepted verse 10 must
be considered the continuation of
verse 9. From the very ends of the
earth the people will come and pay
homage to Jehovah.

In verses 11-13 the prophet ex-
plains what the effect of the judgment
will be upon Judah and Jerusalem.
In that day—The day of judgment and
purification (8-10). Shalt thou not be
ashamed for all thy doings—R. V.,
“shalt thou not be put to shame.”
With the former translation the mean-
ing is that they will no longer feel
shame, either because they will no
longer do anything for which they
need to be ashamed, or because their
former sins have so completely passed
away that sense of guilt or self-
condemnation for them is no longer
called for; with the other the thought
is that Jerusalem and Judah will not
be put to shame completely, that is,
will not be destroyed completely; only
the proud and arrogant will be cut
off, while the rest will be preserved
and exalted. The latter thought fits
better in the context. Wherein thou
hast transgressed—See on i, 4-6, 8, 9;
iii, 14, Then—In that day. I will
CHAPTER III.

543

 

transgressed against me: for then
I will take away out of the midst
of thee them that ‘rejoice in thy
ride, and thou shalt no more be
aughty sbecause of my holy moun-
tain. 12 I will also leave in the
midst of thee san afflicted and poor

people, and they shall trust in the
name of the Lorp. 13 ‘The rem-
nant of Israel «shall not do iniquity,
xnor speak lies; neither shall a deceit-
ful tongue be found in their mouth:
for ythey shall feed and lie down,
and none shall make them afraid.

 

t Jer. 7. 4; Mic. 3. 11; Matt. 3. 9.—
8 Heb. in my holy. Isa. 14. 32; Zech.
11. 11; Matt. 5. 3; 1 Cor. 1. 27, 28;

James 2. 5.—+tMle. 4. 7; chap. 2. 7.
—- Isa. 60, 21.— x Isa. 63. 8; Rev.
14, 5.—y Ezek. 34, 28; Mic. 4. 4; 7. 14.

 

take away—Exterminate. Them that
rejoice in thy pride—Better, R. V.,
“thy proudly exulting ones.” In Isa.
xiii, 8, the phrase is applied to the
divinely commissioned hosts, here to
the self-righteous in Judah who in
pride and arrogance exalt themselves
above Jehovah, and glory in their own
wisdom and power (Isa. v, 21; com-
pare Amos vi, 13). Only the humble
in spirit will be hidden in the day of
judgment (ii, 3). Thou—The purified
remnant. Shalt no more be haughty
—When the manifestation of the di-
vine power is seen the remnant will
recognize its own weakness and will
not again exalt itself in proud arro-
gance. The prophet evidently con-
siders pride the root of all sin, and
rightly so, for when a person comes to
disregard the authority and rule of
Jehovah he is apt to be reckless about
his life and conduct (compare Isa. iii,
16; ix, 8). Because of my holy moun-
tain—Better, R. V., ‘in my holy moun-
tain” (see on Joel ii, 1). The temple
mount represents here the entire city.

12. The “proudly exulting ones”
will be exterminated, but a remnant
of a different character will be left.
In the midst of thee—Jerusalem. Af-
flicted and poor—There is no special
virtue in poverty or affliction, and the
two English words fail to reproduce
the thought of the prophet. Afflicted
is the opposite of proud (verse 11);
the proud man boasts in his own
strength, the afflicted is one who is
bowed down by a recognition of his
own weakness; “lowly” would be a
more appropriate rendering (Zech. ix,
9; compare Isa. xiv, 32; Matt. xi, 29).
A better word for poor would be
“weak” or “helpless.”

 

12b is more closely connected with
13 than with 12a. The latter part of
verse 12 and verse 13 describe the piety
and peace of the remnant. The trans-
lation would be improved if “the rem-
nant of Israel’”’ were made the subject
of “‘trust,’”’ which the Hebrew permits:
“And trust in the name of Jehovah
shall the remnant; it shall not do
iniquity....” Trust in the name of
Jehovah—The recognition of their
weakness and helplessness will keep
them humble and lead them to rely
fully upon Jehovah. For the im-
portance of faith in religion see on
Hab. ii, 4; on name, Amos ii, 7; Mic.
v, 4. The remnant of Israel—Identic-
al with the ‘afflicted and poor peo-
ple’’ of verse 12 (see on Amos v, 15).
Shall not do iniquity—The converted
remnant will do nothing that is not
in accord with the spirit of the new
covenant between it and Jehovah.
In this respect the remnant will re-
semble Jehovah (see on verse 5).
Lying and deceitfulness, condemned
so frequently by the prophets, will
disappear. How different it will be
from the prophet’s present! . Deceitful
tongue—Literally, tongue of deceit; a
tongue that practices deceit. For—
Does not introduce a causal clause,
as if the peace and security were re-
sponsible for the transformation in
character; 13b rather describes a new
aspect of the life of thc remnant, and
might be introduced by “verily” or
“yea” or “but rather” (G.-K., 148d.).
Feed and lie down—The picture is that
of a flock which feeds and rests in per-
fect security under the watchful eye
of the shepherd (Mic. v, 4; vii, 14).
None shall make them afraid—Undis-
turbed they will enjoy the presence
544

ZEPHANIAH.

 

14 Sing, O daughter of Zion;
shout, O Israel; be glad and rejoice
with all the heart, O daughter of
Jerusalem. 15 The Lorp hath tak-
en away thy judgments, he hath
cast out thine enemy: «the king of
Israel, even the Lorp, is in the

midst of thee: thou shalt not see
evil any more. 16 In that day «it
shall be said to Jerusalem, Fear thou
not: and to Zion, 4Let not thine
hands be *slack. 17 The Lorp thy
God ¢in the midst of thee is mighty;
he will save, the will rejoice over

 

zTsa. 12. 6; 54, 1; Zech. 2.10; 9 9.——
aJohn 1. 49.—> Verse 5, 17; Ezek. 48.
35; Rev. 7. 15; 21. 3, 4.

¢ Isa. 35, 3, 4.4 Heb. 12, 12.—# Or,
faint._—e Verse 15.—+t Deut. 30. 9; Isa.
62. 5; 65. 19; Jer. 32. 41.

 

and blessing of Jehovah (compare Mic.
iv, 4; Isa. xvii, 2).

Tus Joy or THe ReprEmep Daucu-
TER oF ZION, 14-20.

These verses, which form the clos-
ing section of the Book of Zephaniah,
fall naturally into two parts, verses
14-17 and verses 18-20. In the
former the daughter of Zion is urged
to rejoice mightily, because Jehovah
has redeemed her and now rules in
the midst of her. In the latter Je-
hovah promises to the restored com-
munity deliverance from all foes, the
removal of all reproach, the restora~-
tion of the dispersed, and the exalta-
tion of the faithful among the nations
of the earth.

14, Sing,...shout,... be glad and
rejoice—The accumulation of these
verbs indicates that there is abundant
cause for rejoicing (Zech. ii, 10; ix, 9).
The use of four verbs necessitated the
use of several terms denoting Jerusa-
lem, “daughter of Zion,” ‘Israel,’
“daughter of Jerusalem.” The city
might be called Israel, because it was
the center of the restored and re-
deemed Israel.

15-17. The reason for the exulta-
tion is found in the fullness of the
redemption wrought. Hath taken
away thy judgments—He has made
an end of the judgments which have
come upon the nation again and
again on account of sin (compare Isa.
xl, 2). Since these have come to an
end, Zion may live in peace and con-
tentment. A change in the vocaliza-
tion would change “thy judgments”
into “thine adversaries,” which is
favored by the presence of “thine
enemy” or “enemies” (LXX.) in the
parallel clause. Those who in the

 

past have troubled the chosen people
are swept away. The king of Israel—
In the Messianic age north and south
will be reunited (Hos. i, 11), and over
the united people Jehovah will rule
as king (Obad. 21; Mic. iv, 7), with
Jerusalem as his royal residence (see
on Joel ii, 27; compare Mic. iv, 7;
Isa. ii, 2-4). Marti proposes the
omission of “of Israel” and the change
of “king” into a verb form, “has be-
come king,” so that the entire clause
would read, “Jehovah has become
king in the midst of thee.” Thou
shalt not see evil any more—R. V.,
“fear.” Evil is not moral evil, but
calamity or misfortune. Some an-
cient authorities favor A. V., others
R. V.; the difference between the two
words “fear” and “‘see’’ is so slight in
Hebrew that confusion might easily
occur. See in the sense of experience
(compare Psa. xe, 15; Prov. xxvii, 12)
is the more suitable.

So marked will be the transforma-
tion that others will observe it and
encourage Jerusalem. R. V. offers a
more accurate reproduction of the
original: “Fear thou not; O Zion, let
not thy hands be slack.” Fear thou
not—Because Jehovah is near, ready
to help. Let not thine hands be slack
—Or, hang down inactive, which is a
sign of despair and despondency (com-
pare Isa. xiii, 7; Jer. vi, 24).

Verse 17 states why there is no
ground for despondency. 17a should
be rendered with R. V., “Jehovah thy
God is in the midst of thee, a mighty
one who will save.” For the first part
compare verse 15, and see reference
there. A mighty one (R. V.)—Who has
power to render assistance in every
need and to save from all difficulties.
He will rejoice over thee with joy;...
CHAPTER III.

545

 

thee with joy; !°he will rest in his
love, he will Joy over thee with sing-
ing. 18 I will gather them that care
sorrowful for the solemn assembly,

who are of thee, to whom the re-
roach of it was a burden. 19 Be-
old, at that time I will undo all
that afflict thee: and I will save her

 

10 Heb. he will be stlent.me Lam. 2. 6.

11 Heb. the burden upon it was reproach.

 

joy over thee with singing—Because
uncleanness has been swept away and
the community consists only of those
who are obedient to his will (compare
Isa. Ixv, 19; Jer. xxxii, 41). Between
the two clauses calling attention to
the joy of Jehovah stands a rather
obscure clause. He will rest in his
love—Literally, he will be silent in his
love. If this is the original text the
meaning can only be that Jehovah’s
love will be too tender and strong for
expression. LXX. renders, “he will
renew thee,” but this does not suit
the context. One would expect a
verb expressing joyful emotion, and
one that would lend itself to the
formation of a climax. A verb con-
taining the same consonants as the
Hebrew word translated “rest,’’ but
in different order, occurs in Psa.
xlv, 2 (Eng. verse 1) in the sense of
“overflow.” This would not be in-
appropriate here, “he will overflow
(with joy) in his love”; it would also
produce a climax. Jehovah will joy
inwardly, but cannot contain the joy,
he will overflow with it, and finally
burst into a song of rejoicing.

Verses 18-20 do not contain the
song of rejoicing sung by Jehovah,
but rather a series of promises made
by him to the redeemed com-
munity. Verse 18 is very obscure.
The translation of the present Hebrew
text is uncertain. R. V. differs but
slightly from A. V.: “I will gather
them that sorrow for the solemn as-
sembly, who were of thee; to whom
the burden upon her was a reproach.”
Both translations make the verse a
promise of the restoration of the dis-
persed, who, far from the holy city,
are in deep sorrow because they can
no longer gather in the temple, and
who have suffered reproach (see on
Joel ii, 17) because of the national
calamity that has fallen upon them.

 

The thought suggested by the trans-
lation in the margin, ‘They have been
sorrowful for the solemn assembly
which I took away from thee, for the
lifting up of reproach against her,’
is less appropriate: The meaning of
the verb translated “sorrow” is un-
certain; it occurs in the same con-
struction in 2 Sam. xx, 13, in the
sense of “thrust away,” or “remove.”
The first clause might be translated,
therefore, “I will gather them that
are thrust away from the solemn as-
sembly,” which would give acceptable
sense. While the translation of the
English versions may, perhaps, be had
from the present Hebrew text, the
latter is very awkward and may have
suffered in the course of transmission.
The ancient versions differ from it
and from oneanother. LXX. presents
a reading which, in part at least, is
thought by many to be original. It
joins the first two words of verse 18
to verse 17 and reads them ‘‘as on a
feast day’’—the whole clause, “he will
joy over thee with singing as on a
feast day”; then continues, “I will
gather thy crushed ones; woe unto him
who utters mockery against her.”
Verse 17 is not improved by the ad-
dition; verse 18 gives good sense, but
it cannot be affirmed with certainty
that it is original. Instead of the
pronoun of the third person we should
probably read, with margin, “thee.”
Marti proposes to read verse 18, “Re-
moved have I (prophetic perfect) from
thee the reproach; taken away have I
from thee the shame.” With this he
compares verse lla (see further on
verse 19).

19. At that time—When the promise
made in verse 18 will be fulfilled. I
will undo all that afflict thee—The
verb is literally do, sometimes in the
sense of “to deal with,” either in a
good or in an evil sense; here the lat-
546

ZEPHANIAH.

 

that thalteth, and gather her that
was driven out; and I will get
them praise and fame in every land
where they have been put to
shame. 20 At that time iwill I
bring you again, even in the time

that I gather you: for I will
make you a name and a praise
among all people of the earth,
when I turn back your captiv-
ity before your eyes, saith the
LorRpD.

 

h Ezek. 34, 16; Mic. 4. 6, 7.—12 Heb. I
will set them for a praise.—13 Heb. of their

shame.— i Isa. 11. 12; 27.12; 56. 8; Ezek.
28. 25; 34. 13; 37. 21; Amos 9. 14.

 

ter, so that A. V. is right in rendering
“ando.” If the LXX. rendering of verse
18 is correct the first clause of verse
19 is an expansion of 18b; but since
“at that time” seems to mark a new
beginning, and since the rest of verse
19 and verse 20 speak only of the
blessings to be showered upon the
remnant, it is not impossible that the
first clause of verse 19 also speaks of a
blessing intended for the afflicted chil-
dren of Jehovah. An alteration in the
vocalization would change “‘they that
afflict thee” into “thy afflicted ones.”
If this change is made, ‘‘to deal with”
is used in a favorable sense: “At the
time when I will deal with all thy
afflicted ones.” How he will deal with
them is stated in the rest of verse 19
and in verse 20. Save—From oppres-
sion, suffering, and disease. Halteth,
- . . driven out—See on Mic. iv, 6
(compare Ezek. xxxiv, 16). I will
get them praise and fame—Better, R.
V., “I will make them a praise and a
name.” The wonderful things Je-
hovah will do for his people will so
impress the nations by whom they
have been oppressed that even they
will recognize that “Jehovah hath
done great things for them’ (Psa.
exxvi, 2); then they will reproach
them no more (see on Joel ii, 17), but
will praise and glorify them (compare
Deut. xxvi, 19, margin; Isa. lxii, 7;
Jer. xxxiii, 9). In every land where
they have been put to shame—R. V.,
“whose shame hath been in all the
earth”; literally, in the whole earth
their shame, It is difficult to get from
this the translation of A. V. or even
of R. V. LXX. differs from the He-

 

brew but does not relieve the diffi-
culty. The omission of ‘their shame”
would simplify matters—“I will make
them a praise and a fame in the whole
earth” (compare verse 20). Some
omit the pronoun after “make” (in
Hebrew one letter) and take “their
shame” as the object of the verb, “I
will make (or, turn) into praise
and fame in all the earth their
shame.”

Verse 20 expresses essentially the
same thought as verse 19. Will I
bring you again—R. V., more literally,
“bring you in,” for which LXX. reads
“will do good,” which may be original.
Even in the time that I gather you—
R. V. codrdinates this clause with the
preceding, “and at that time will I
gather you.” Both translations are
based on an emended text. The
present Hebrew text cannot be cor-
rect; the only question is whether
A. V. or R. V. has made the proper
correction—probably A. V. Com-
bining the emendation of A. V. with
the reading of LXX., 20a may be read,
“At that time I will do good to you,
even at the time when I shall gather
you together.” I will do good is ex-
plained by, ‘For I will make you a
name and a praise among all people
(R. V., “all the peoples’’) of the earth”
(see on verse 19), and when J shall
gather you together by “when I turn
back (R. V., “bring back”) your cap-
tivity” (see on ii, 7, and references
there). Before your eyes—Within
your own lifetime. Saith Jehovah—A
seal upon the promises. Since they
are uttered by Jehovah, they will
surely be fulfilled.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HAGGAI.

—___+4 >

The Prophet.

Or the personal life of the prophet Haggai scarcely any-
thing is known. He is mentioned again only in Ezra v, 1;
vi, 14, as encouraging, in conjunction with Zechariah, the
rebuilding of the temple. In some of the ancient versions he
is named as the author of a number of psalms (LXX., exxxvii,
exlv—cxlviii; Vulgate, cxi, cxlv; Peshitto, exxv, exxvi, cxlv—
exlviii), but little confidence can be placed in these traditions.

The meaning and etymology of the name is uncertain.
Some render it festival or festive, and they infer from this
that the prophet was born on a feast day, while others think
it to be indicative “of the joyous character of the predictions
which he delivered.” Others consider the name in its present
form an abbreviation, and they give its original meaning as
feast of Jehovah, or Jehovah hath girded; however, the deri-
vation and significance of the name are still doubtful. It is
worthy of note that it has been found on a tablet from the
fifth century B. C. unearthed at Nippur.

Haggai appears upon the scene suddenly about 520 B. C.
and disappears just as suddenly. Nothing is known of his
life before or after his preaching. Chiefly on the basis of
ii, 8, it has been suggested that he was born in Judah before
the catastrophe of 586, and that he was one of a small com-
pany that had seen the former temple in its glory. If so,
he must have been an old man when he prophesied, and this
supposition agrees with the brevity of his public activity; a
short time after 520 Zechariah appears as the leading prophet
in Jerusalem (Zech. vii, 1ff.).

Later tradition has it that he came from Babylon when a
young man, that he prophesied concerning the return, saw

‘ 547
548 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HAGGAI.

 

the temple built, died in Jerusalem, and was buried near the
priests. Hesychius of Jerusalem expands this tradition and
says that he was born in Babylon of the tribe of Levi, and
that the latter fact accounts for his being buried with the
priests.

Little value can be ascribed to these extra-biblical tradi-
tions; hence we must be content with the few hints given
by the Book of Haggai itself, and the only information that
we get there is that he delivered four prophecies in the sec-
ond year of Darius, king of Persia, and that his supreme
interest lay in the rebuilding of the temple of Jehovah.

The Time of the Prophet.

1. Date——The four prophecies of Haggai were uttered in
the second year of Darius Hystaspis, king of Persia, that is,
in 520 B. C. During that year he spoke on four occasions,
on the first day of the sixth month (i, 1), on the twenty-first
day of the seventh month (ii, 1), and on the twenty-fourth
day of the ninth month (ii, 10, 20).

2. Historical Situation.—In considering the historical situ-
ation out of which grew the utterances of Haggai and Zecha-
Tiah it may be well to begin with the first return from exile.
Babylon fell into the hands of Cyrus in 538; soon after he
gave permission to the Jews to return to their former homes,
and in the spring of 537 a large company, between forty and
fifty thousand, started on the homeward journey. On reach-
ing Jerusalem they immediately set up the altar of burnt
offerings (Ezra iii, 2ff.; compare Hag. ii, 14), and according
to Ezra iii, 8-13, they laid, in the second year, the founda-
tion of the temple.

Ezra iii, 8-13, is not a contemporaneous document; on the
other hand, the utterances of Haggai and Zechariah and Ezra v
are thought to come from a period near the occurrence of the
events recorded there. These last-mentioned writings seem
to place the laying of the foundation of the temple in the
year 520; they say nothing, directly or indirectly, about an
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HAGGAI. 549

 

earlier undertaking of the same sort. As a result many
scholars hold that the statements in Ezra iii, 8-13, concern-
ing the laying of the temple foundations are not historical
(see further below). But this is not a necessary conclusion;
the silence of the two prophets may be purely accidental.
During the sixteen years of inactivity the foundation must
have gone to ruin, so that in 520 there was nothing left to
build upon. Why should the prophets refer to the former
undertaking, which ended in failure, and thus remind the
people of the obstacles which compelled them to desist from
the work? ‘There certainly is nothing either in Haggai or
Zechariah to disprove the laying of the foundation at the
earlier date.

But if the foundation was laid in 536 the cessation of the
work may easily be accounted for: (1) During their stay in
Babylon the exiles had learned to do without the temple; only
the religious zealots, always in the minority, would miss it.
(2) The opposition of the Samaritans and other surrounding
tribes would furnish a ready excuse to the indifferent Jews.
(3) The nonfulfillment of the earlier prophecies concerning
the glories of the restored community would develop religious
indifference and skepticism. (4) Limited resources and pov-
erty resulting from the failure of the crops (i, 6) and from
the devastation wrought by the Persian armies on their way
to Egypt could and would be urged. It is not difficult, then,
to see how building operations begun in 536 might come to
a complete standstill.

While the postexilic community was struggling against
great odds to establish itself in and near Jerusalem, important
events were taking place in the outside world. Cyrus died in
529, leaving to his son Cambyses an empire extending from
Lydia in the west to India in the east. Cambyses, who reigned
from 529 to 521, added Egypt to his possessions. He was
followed by a usurper, Gaumata, who pretended to be Smer-
dis, the son of Cyrus, but after a reign of seven months he
was assassinated, and Darius Hystaspis was raised to the
550 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HAGGAI.

 

throne. He found the empire in a state of extreme restless-
ness; rebellions broke out everywhere; province after prov-
ince revolted; in Babylon two pretenders attempted, in
rapid succession, to throw off the Persian rule. The whole
empire was shaken from one end to the other.

Haggai and Zechariah, like their predecessors in the pro-
phetic office, read the signs of the times. To them the wide-
spread rebellions were an indication that the doom of the
Persian empire was at hand (Hag. ii, 6, 7, 22), and that the
seventy years (Jer. xxv, 11) were drawing to a close; they
were also convinced that, with the hostile world power removed,
the way was clear for the establishment of the kingdom of
God. But in the thought of the two prophets the establish-
ment of the Messianic kingdom was closely connected with
the rebuilding of the temple and the exaltation of a descendant
of David. Hence the earnest exhortations to resume build-
ing operations and the promises to Zerubbabel, the chosen
servant of Jehovah.

At least a brief reference must be made to an entirely dif-
ferent view of the progress of events during the latter part
of the sixth century B. C.—a view first presented with great
skill by Koster, and accepted by Cheyne, at least.in part, by
H. P. Smith, and others. These scholars believe that the
compiler of Ezra—Nchemiah misunderstood the course of
history in two important points: 1. The return from exile
and the building of the temple; 2. The date of Ezra’s mission.
The latter is thought to have taken place—if ever—either in
connection with the second visit of Nehemiah, about 432,
or subsequent to it, perhaps as late as the beginning of the
fourth century; and it is denied that in 537 a general return
from Babylon occurred, or that the temple was rebuilt by
returned exiles. Persons left behind in 586, or their descend-
ants, are thought to be the temple builders exhorted by Haggai
and Zechariah. Cheyne would admit that a few exiles did
return in 537, but he denies that they had any appreciable
influence in the days of the two prophets,
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HAGGAI. 551

 

The chief argument in favor of this view is the silence of
Haggai and Zechariah concerning a return. This leaves as
the only source of information the Books of Ezra and Nehe-
miah, compiled about 350 B. C. by the compiler of the Books
of Chronicles. But, the argument continues, a comparison
of Chronicles with Kings reveals the unreliability of the
former, and this involves the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah,
which come from the same author. Koster then subjects
Ezra—Nehemiah to a minute critical analysis and reaches
the conclusion that the sections which contain the references
to the return of 537 are so late that their testimony cannot
stand against the silence of the two prophets who prophesied
so soon after the alleged date of the return.

Limited space does not permit a lengthy discussion of the
subject; it may be sufficient to say here that the arguments
are by no means conclusive, and that they have failed to con-
vince the great majority of Old Testament scholars. In
the words of G. A. Smith, “We must hold that the attempt
to discredit the tradition of an important return of exiles
under Cyrus has not been successful; that such a return
remains the more probable solution of an obscure and difficult
problem; and that therefore the Jews who with Zerubbabel
and Joshua are represented in Haggai and Zechariah as build-
ing the temple in the second year of Darius, 520, had come
up from Babylon about 537.”

Little can be gathered either from Haggai or from Zechariah
concerning religious and moral conditions in Jerusalem in
520 B. C. The one outstanding feature seems to be religious
indifference, due to the causes already mentioned, especially to
disappointment. The great prophet of the exile had pictured
the future in the brightest colors, and thus had raised the
hopes and expectations of the exiles to the highest pitch; but
when the years passed without bringing a realization of these
hopes, indifference and skepticism settled upon them. Why
serve Jehovah, who failed to fulfill the promises made by
his prophets? For this reason the people looked after their
552 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HAGGAI.

 

‘own comforts, while they neglected the interests of the sanc-
tuary (i, 9), excusing themselves by saying that the time for
the building of the temple had not yet arrived (i, 2). On the
other hand, they did bring sacrifices and offerings (ii, 14),
and the ritual law was observed in other respects (ii, 11-13).
Zech. vii, viii show also that feasts and fasts were kept (com-
pare Hag. i, 1). Otherwise we are left in the dark concern-
ing conditions in Judah at this time, for the abuses condemned
so severely by Ezra, Nehemiah, and Malachi seem to have
developed subsequently to Haggai and Zechariah (see intro-
duction to Malachi).

The Book of the Prophet.

1. Contents——The attempts of a few recent writers, such
as Boehme and André, to prove that ii, 10-19, or ii, 20-23,
come from a writer other than the author of the rest of the
book, cannot be considered successful; indeed, there seems no
reason for questioning the integrity of the book. On the
other hand, it is quite probable that we have in the two chap-
ters only summaries of Haggai’s utterances, put in their present
form either by Haggai himself or by a contemporary who
desired to give an account of the prophet’s efforts toward
bringing about the rebuilding of the temple. The latter alter-
native accounts more naturally for the presence of the his-
torical section, as well as for the arrangement of the entire
book.

The book contains four separate utterances, i, 1-11; ii, 1-9;
li, 10-19; ii, 20-23, each one dealing more or less directly
with the rebuilding of the temple, and an historical section
(i, 12-15), which describes the effects of the first discourse.

The first address (i, 1-11) was delivered on the first day
of the sixth month of the second year of Darius, king of
Persia, and was intended primarily for Zerubbabel and Joshua,
the civil and ecclesiastical heads of the community (i, 1).
The prophet rebukes the religious indifference of the people,
which has caused them to erect comfortable houses for them-
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HAGGAI. 553

 

selves, while they have neglected the house of their God (2-4).
He urges them to stop and consider the disappointments and
calamities of the past, which have been divine visitations for
their religious apathy. If they would find relief they must
restore speedily the dwelling place of Jehovah (5-11).

The preaching of Haggai stirred the consciences of lead-
ers and people, so that “they feared before Jehovah” (12).
When the prophet saw the revival of interest he changed his
message of rebuke to one of encouragement, promising that
Jehovah would be with them (13). Whereupon, on the twen-
ty-fourth day of the sixth month, the people began to make
preparation for the rebuilding of the house of Jehovah (14,15).

The second address (ii, 1-9), a message of encouragement
for the builders, was delivered on the twenty-first day of the
seventh month. When the first enthusiasm had died down
the people became aware of the difficulties confronting them.
Their numbers were small, the building material was costly
and had to be brought from a distance, their resources were
meager, and, to make matters worse, the surrounding com-
munities did all in their power to prevent the completion of
the work. Under these circumstances the religious fervor of
some grew cold, and all were in danger of losing heart. To
the discouraged builders Haggai addresses himself, “Be strong,
... for I am with you, saith Jehovah of hosts” (ii, 1-4).
The present outlook may be dark, but there is no ground for
discouragement, for the covenant made at the time of the
Exodus is still in force, and Jehovah will be with his people.
In the end the new temple, enriched by the wealth of the
nations, that are about to be shaken violently, shall be more
glorious than that of Solomon (5-9).

The third utterance (ii, 10-19) also is a message of hope,
spoken on the day on which the foundation of the temple was
laid, three months after the first steps toward the rebuilding
had been taken. New questions had arisen among the people.
Were they really as bad as Haggai had tried to make out in
his first discourse? And if not, how much truth was there in
554 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HAGGAI.

 

his statements that their calamities were due to neglect of
the temple, and in his promise that, if they would build the
temple, the divine blessings would be restored? These doubts
and questionings the prophet seeks to silence by propounding
to the priests certain questions concerning the relative power of
infection possessed by clean and unclean things. The priests
reply that the unclean is more contagious than the clean
(10-13). This answer the prophet applies to the case in hand.
True, they offer gifts, but they are insufficient to overcome
the unclean in their lives, especially the indifference toward
the temple; on the contrary, their uncleanness makes even
their sacrifices an abomination in the sight of Jehovah (1+).
Once more he discusses the relation between their calamities
and their neglectfulness, and shows that the former are the
direct result of the latter; then he closes with the promise
that henceforth the divine favor will rest upon them (15-19).

The fourth utterance (ii, 20-23) is Messianic in character.
It was delivered on the same day as the preceding, and prom-
ises the exaltation of Zerubbabel, the prince of David’s house.
In the second discourse the prophet announced the shaking
of the nations of the earth (i, 6, 7); this announcement he
repeats, and he promises that the shaking will pave the way
for the establishment of the kingdom of God under the rule
of the Messianic king, Zerubbabel, the servant and chosen one
of Jehovah (20-23). -

2. Outline. —
I. MESSAGE OF REBUKE FOR RELIGIOUS INDIFFERENCE..... Chap. i, 1-11
1. The people’s selfishness........... 0.0.0... c eee eeee i, 1-4
2. The divine judgment for religious apathy—BExhortation
to resume building operations............... i, 5-11

II. THE RESULT OF THE REBUKE—THE BUILDING OF THE TEMPLE

iy hie aliterauarenn eden aiden done Weare aconannt um enter e a Rees ame i, 12-15
1, The People’s LEAT ious tackave ae necanetia dda aves i, 12
2. Promise of divine codperation..................... i, 13

8. Beginning of the work................ cc cee eee i, 14, 15
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HAGGAI. 555

 

III. THE GLORY OF THE NEW TEMPLE.............0.ce0eeeeee ii, 1-9
1. Jehovah’s presence with the builders............. ii, 1-4
2. The temple’s future glory............... cece ee aee ii, 5-9
IV. THE COMPLETION OF THE TEMPLE A GUARANTEE OF NEW BLESSINGS
BJS SealehigcnsSicau Sah d Sasgeud tig nbs oar ca Nae ee th Dal eas Sra ae at ii, 10-19
1. The unclean more contagious than the clean..... ii, 10-13
2. The people’s offerings cannot atone for their neglectful-
NESS) ienstieg hs eoee ss Howe Mises hawals ae aes ii, 14
3. Indifference—calamity; Zeal—prosperity....... ii, 15-19
V. THE EXALTATION OF ZERUBBABEL.......0.0.c0eceeeeeees ii, 20-23
1. The overthrow of the nations.................. ii, 20-22
2. The establishment of the kingdom of God and the exalta-
tion of Zerubbabel........ 0... cece eee e eee ii, 23

3. Teaching.—Haggai was, in a very real sense, a man of
one idea. From beginning to end he urged, with simple words
of warning, promise, and exhortation, without conventional
eloquence or poetic flights of the imagination, the speedy
restoration of the dwelling place of Jehovah; and the success
which attended his exhortations sufficiently justifies the use
of what has been called a “meager and starved” style. “One
does not expect it otherwise, when hungry men speak to each
other of their duty.”

Of the truths emphasized by the prophet the following de-
serve special notice: (1) The unique place assigned to the tem-
ple in the religious life of the Jews. The preéxilic prophets
also considered the temple the dwelling place of Jehovah, but
their teaching dwelt almost exclusively upon weightier spir-
itual and ethical matters. With Haggai the rebuilding of
the temple is of primary importance; it does not follow, how-
ever, that his religious capacity was inferior to theirs. The
change in emphasis was due rather to a change in conditions.
The Hebrew prophets were raised up primarily to meet the
problems of their own day and generation. Now conditions
in Jerusalem after the exile were far different from those in
the eighth century B. C.; as a prophet of Jehovah Haggai
must adapt himself and his message to the changed condi-
tions; he must interpret religion “in accordance with the
556 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HAGGAI.

 

needs of a new age.” The supreme need of the hour was a
visible, earthly temple. True, some prophets speak of a time
when a house made with hands will be needed no longer (Isa.
Ixvi, 1, 2), but the Jews of the latter part of the sixth century
were not yet prepared to grasp this lofty conception of the pres-
ence of Jehovah. As the ark in the ages gone by, so now the
temple was the outward symbol of the presence of Jehovah,
and if the Jews were to continue the worship of Jehovah
they still needed a material temple. Besides, with the central
national government gone, a new bond was needed to draw
together the different elements in the community itself as
well as the exiles scattered among the nations. In a religious
community what could serve this purpose better than a com-
mon center of worship, a place to which might turn the
hearts of the faithful Jews, even from the uttermost parts
of the earth, assured that there they could meet their God?
Is it, then, too much to say that, humanly speaking, the very
existence of the Jewish religion was dependent upon the re-
building of the temple? But if this is true, Haggai, by plead-
ing so persistently for the restoration of the temple, did a
service of incalculable moment. Surely he cannot be held
responsible for the illegitimate exaggeration of his teaching by
subsequent generations. (2) Haggai calls attention to the
covenant relation between Jehovah and Israel, and to the
former’s continued care for the latter (ii, 5); this covenant
he declares will continue forever (i, 13; ii, 4). (3) He agrees
with the preéxilic prophets in declaring that sacrifice is not
the essential thing in the sight of God (ii, 14). (4) He
shares the older prophets’ ideas concerning calamity and pros-
perity. The former he considers an expression of the divine
wrath, a punishment for sin; the latter an expression of the
divine favor, a reward for piety (i, 6-11; ii, 15-19). (5) He
expects a great world judgment which will result in the over-
throw of the nations; this overthrow to clear the way for the
establishment of the kingdom of God upon the earth (ii, 6, 7;
ii, 21, 22). (6) His Messianic hope centers around an off-
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF HAGGAI. 557

 

spring of the dynasty of David, Zerubbabel, who is the servant
of Jehovah, his chosen one, the object of his affection (ii, 23) ;
he also thinks of Jehovah as ruling forever in the temple (ii,9).
(7) Of great significance is the universalism of Haggai. In
ii, 7, he expresses the hope that the nations of the earth,
overawed by Jehovah’s majesty and power, will recognize his
supremacy and will bring their precious things as offerings
to him.

The presentation of these truths is highly colored by the
prophet’s one idea. He alludes to the covenant only to encour-
age the people to greater zeal in their building operations;
sacrifice he mentions to show that it cannot atone for their
neglect of the temple. Their calamity or prosperity is deter-
mined by their attitude toward the restoration of the house
of God; the overthrow and conversion of the nations will
result in the enriching of the temple; the establishment of
the kingdom of God and the exaltation of Zerubbabel will be
the supreme manifestations of the divine favor, but they will
be theirs only on the condition that they build speedily a
dwelling place for Jehovah.
HAGGALTI.

 

CHAPTER I.
N *the second year of Darius the
king, in the sixth month, in the

first day of the month, came the
word of the LorpD 'by eo the
prophet unto >Zerubbabel the son

 

a Ezra 4. 24; 5.1; Zech, 1. 1.——! Heb.
by the hand of Haggat.

b1 Chron. 3. 17,19; Ezra 3. 2; Matt. 1.

12; Luke 3. 27.

 

CHAPTER I.

MessaGE oF REBUKE FoR RELIGIOUS
INDIFFERENCE, 1-11.

The Book of Haggai contains four
separate prophetic utterances (i, 1-11;
ii, 1-9; ii, 10-19; ii, 20-23) ; to the first
is added an historical section (i, 12-
15), setting forth the effect of this
utterance upon the hearers.

The first discourse contains a re-
buke of religious indifference and an
exhortation to rebuild the temple.
Verse 1 gives the time when the dis-
course was delivered and the names
of the persons to whom it was ad-
dressed; verses 2-11 reproduce the
discourse. The prophet rebukes the
religious indifference that has per-
mitted the people to erect comfortable
houses for themselves, while the tem-
ple remained in ruins (2-4); he calls
attention to the disappointments, dis-
tress, and suffering which they were
experiencing as a result of drought,
and tells them that these afflictions
have come to them as divine judg-
ments for their religious apathy. If
they would find relief they must speed-
ily restore the dwelling place of Jeho-
vah (5-11).

Verse 1 is an integral part of the
report of Haggai’s first address (com-
pare Zech. i, 1). The second year of
Darius—Darius Hystaspis reigned
from 521 to 486 B. C.; his second year,
therefore, is 520. The king—It was
not necessary to add “‘of Persia,’ for
the king of Persia was the only promi-
nent ruler with whom the Jews were

 

acquainted during the early part of
the postexilic period, and until the
fall of the Persian empire he was the
king, because he was their king (com-
pare Ezra v, 4, 24). The sixth month
—Called Elul; it corresponds to the
latter part of August and the first
part of September (compare Neh. vi,
15). The first day—Which was the
new moon festival, when the people
gathered for worship—a splendid op-
portunity for reaching a large num-
ber; besides, on such a day the lack of
a house of worship would be felt most
keenly. Chronological notes of this
character are found only in postexilic
writings; the greater exactness is un-
doubtedly due to Babylonian influ-
ence. By Haggai—Literally, by the
hand of Haggai (compare verse 13; see
on Mic. v, 12). Haggai was the instru-
ment used by Jehovah to make known
his will. On the person of the prophet
see Introduction, p. 547. The message
was addressed especially, though not
exclusively (compare verses 4ff.), to
the civil and ecclesiastical heads of
the community. Zerubbabel ... ,
governor of Judah—Mentioned also
by Zechariah as the civil ruler. How
he came to be governor we do not
know. He is named among the first
exiles who returned (Ezra ii, 2), but
the governor appointed by Cyrus is
called Sheshbazzar (Ezra i, 8; v, 14).
Some have thought that the two
names belong to one and the same
person, but this is exceedingly doubt-
ful. It is more probable that Zerub-
babel was the successor of Sheshbaz-

558
CHAPTER I.

559

 

of Shealtiel, 2governor of Judah,
and to ‘Joshua the son of 4Josedech,
the high priest, saying, 2~ Thus
speaketh the Logp of hosts, saying,

his people say, The time is not
come, the time that the Lorp’s

house should be built. 3 Then came
the word of the Lorp eby Haggai
the prophet, saying, 4 ‘Is it time for
ou, O ye, to dwell in your cieled
ouses, and this house lie waste? 5
Now therefore thus saith the Lorp

 

2Or, captain. ¢ Ezra 3. 2; 5. 2.—

41 Chron. 6. 15.

 

e Ezra 5. 1—!S2 Sam. 7. 2; Psa. 132.
3, etc.

 

zar as governor of Judah. Son of
Shealtiel—See Ezra iii, 2; v, 2; com-
pare 1 Chron. iii, 19. Joshua...,
the high priest—Zechariah also names
Joshua as the head of the priest-
hood (see especially iii, 1ff.). The
son of Josedech—R. V., ‘‘Jehoza-
dak,” which is a fuller form of the
same name; it means Jehovah is
riyhteous (compare Zech. vi, 11; Ezra
iii, 2).

Verses 2ff. contain the words of the
prophet. Thus speaketh Jehovah of
hosts—The verb is the same as that
rendered “saith” in the rest of the
book. In Haggai as in Zechariah the
affirmation that the prophet is the
spokesman of Jehovah occurs very fre-
quently (see on Zech. i, 3). For Jehovah
of hosts see on Hos. xii, 5. This people
—The people gathered at the new
moon celebration. The phrase may
be used in a contemptuous sense (ii,
14), though it does not necessarily
imply reproach (compare Isa. viii, 11,
12). The time is not come, the time
that the Lord’s house should be built
—R. V., “It is not the time for us to
come, the time for Jehovah’s house to
be built.” The ancient versions omit
the first “time,” and, since the con-
struction of the present Hebrew text
is very awkward, we may be justified
in doing the same, so that the clause
will read, “The time is not (yet) come
for the building of Jehovah’s house”
(see margin R. V.). The people may
have misunderstood the seventy years
of Jeremiah (xxv, 11, 12; xxix, 10).
If they reckoned from the destruction
of Jerusalem in 586 the time would not
be accomplished until four years after
the delivery of this prophecy. For
other causes that may have been re-
sponsible for the delay see Introduc-

 

tion, p. 549. However, Haggai con-
siders the delay inexcusable. On the
view that previous to the preaching
of Haggai no steps had been taken to-
ward the rebuilding of the temple see
Introduction, pp. 550f,; compare H.
P. Smith, Old Testament History, pp.
344 ff.

In verses 4ff. the prophet, after
affirming once more that he is the
spokesman of Jehovah, points out
the unfairness of the people’s neglect.
They have left Jehovah without a
dwelling place, while they themselves
live in costly and magnificently deco-
rated homes. Surely they cannot urge
poverty or lack of resources as an ex-
cuse. Is it time—R. V., “Is it a time”;
a prover or fit time. For you, O ye—
R. V., “for you yourselves.” Their
own interests should be of less conse-
quence than the interests of their
God.’ Cieled houses—Houses whose
walls and ceilings were covered or in-
laid with costly woodwork. Such
decorations were exceedingly expen-
sive (compare 1 Kings vi, 9; Jer. xxii,
14), and yet these people, who, judg-
ing from the words of the prophet,
urged poverty as an excuse for the
neglect of the temple, used them ex-
tensively. And this house lie waste—
A circumstantial clause, which should
be rendered with R. V., “while this
house lieth waste.”

5, 6. If at present they are ex-
periencing misfortune, if the results
of their labors are disappointing, if
their crops do not prosper, all these
calamities are a judgment from Je-
hovah for their indifference and neg-
lectfulness (compare verse 9). For
the philosophy underlying this argu-
ment see on Amos iii, 6, and at the
close of comments on Amos iv, 11,
560

HAGGAI

 

of hosts; * «Consider your ways. 6 Ye
have sown much, and bring in little;
ye eat, but ye have not enough; ye
drink, but ye are not filled with
drink; ye clothe you, but there is
none warm; and ihe that earneth
wages earneth wages to put it into
a bag ‘with holes.

7 Thus saith the Lorp of hosts;
Consider your ways. 8 Go up to
the mountain, and bring wood, and

3 Heb. Set your heart on your ways.
——« Verse 7; am. 3. 40.—h Deut.
oe. 28s Hos. 4. 10; Mic. 6. 14, 15; chap.

build the house; and I will take
pleasure in it, and I will be glorified,
saith the Lorp. 9 «Ye looked for
much, and, lo, if came to little;
and when ye brought it home, !I
did ‘blow upon it. Why? saith the
Lorp of hosts. Because of mine
house that is waste, and ye run
every man unto his own house. 10
Therefore the heaven over you is
stayed from dew, and the earth is

i Zech. 8. 10.—4 Heb. pterced through.
——k Chap. 2. 16.—! Chap. 2. 17.—-5 Or,
blow tt away.—™ Lev. 26. 19; Deut. 28.
23; 1 Kings 8. 35.

 

Consider your ways—Literally, set
your hearts on your ways. <A favorite
phrase with Haggai (compare verse 7;
ii, 15, 18). Their ways are their con-
duct, but, as verse 6 indicates, the
consequences of the conduct are to be
included in their considerations. Je-
rome explains your ways as equivalent
to ‘what you have done and what you
have suffered.” Their experiences
have been startling enough to cause
them to stop and think. A curse
seemed to rest upon all their posses-
sions and undertakings. Bring in—
Harvest. Harvests had turned out
badly; abundant sowing had produced
sparingly (compare Isa. v, 8-10). For
how many years this continued we
do not know. The same curse was
seen everywhere. What they ate and
drank did not satisfy their hunger and
thirst, their clothes failed to warm
them, and the wages of the day la-
borer were used up as rapidly as if
they had been placed in a bag full of
holes.

Verse 7 urges the people again to
stop and consider. It is possible, how-
ever, that “consider your ways’ is an
erroneous repetition from verse 5, and
that verse 6 should be followed imme-
diately by the direct appeal to build
the temple (verse 8), introduced by
the common formula, ‘Thus saith Je-
hovah of hosts.” Go up to the moun-
tain—To gather wood for building
material. The article is used generic-
ally: any mountain upon which build-
ing material could be found, not neces-
sarily Mount Lebanon. At the time of

 

Haggai the hills around Jerusalem
may have been covered with woods.
Bring wood—The term may include
building material of every sort. Wood
would be the most important, since
stones from the ruins of the first tem-
ple might be used in the foundation of
the new. After gathering the material
they were to proceed with the
building operations. I will take
pleasure in it—Which he will prove
by taking his abode there (compare
Psa. exxxii, 13, 14). I will be glori-
fied—Better, I will glorify myself. The
completion of the temple will mark
the dawn of the Messianic age, when
Jehovah will glorify himself by pour-
ing his blessing upon his people in
abundant measure.

Verses 9, 10 enforce the appeal of
verse 8 by calling attention once more
to the present calamity and by em-
phasizing the thought that it is the
direct result of their neglectfulness.
They were disappointed in their ex-
pectations of a rich harvest, and the
little they did reap vanished with-
out doing any good. I did blow upon
it—So that it vanished. Misfortune
came not by chance; Jehovah sent it
because they neglected his house while
living in luxury in their own (compare
verse 4). The description of the judg-
ment is continued in verses 10, 11.
Over you—Better, R. V., “for your
sake.” On account of your transgres-
sions. Dew—Jehovah withheld the
dew, which is of great importance in
Palestine (see on Hos. xiv, 5), and as
a result of this and of the drought
CHAPTER I.

561

 

stayed from her fruit. 11 And I
scealled for a drought upon the land,
and upon the mountains, and upon
the corn, and upon the new wine,
and upon the oil, and upon that
which the ground bringeth forth,
and upon men, and upon cattle,
and euponall the labor of the hands.

12 eThen Zerubbabel the son of

Shealtiel, and Joshua the son of
Josedech, the high priest, with all
the remnant of the people, obeyed
the voice of the Lorp their God,
and the words of Haggai the proph-
et, as the LorpD their God had sent
him, and the people did fear before
the Lorp. 13 Then spake Haggai
the Lorp’s messenger in the LorpD’s

 

a1 Kings 17.1; 2 Kings 8. 1.

© Chap. 2. 17.—p Ezra 5. 2.

 

mentioned in verse 11, the land re-
mained barren. The tenses should be
changed in English so as to agree
with those of 9a and 11. Some of the
expressions in the original are pe-
culiar, and several minor emenda-
tions have been proposed, but even
with these the thought remains the
same. I called for a drought—As a
means of judgment (see on Amos iv,
7). “Drought,” Heb. hérebh, c@rre-
sponds to “lieth waste,” Heb. harébh
(verses 4, 9). Because they left his
house harébh he punished them with
horebh, the judgment being according
to the lex talionis. Upon the moun-
tains—So that the forests suffered.
Corn,...new wine, ... oil—The chief
products of Palestine (see on Joel i,
10). That which the ground bringeth
forth—All products of the soil not
previously mentioned. The terrible
drought brought intense suffering to
man and beast (see on Joel i, 18). All
the labor of the hands—The drought
made of no effect all the labor ex-
pended in the cultivation of the soil
(compare Psa. cxxviii, 2).

Tue ReEsuLT oF THE REBUKE—THE
Buiupine or THE TEMPLE, 12-15.

The preaching of Haggai aroused
the consciences of leaders and people,
so that they ‘feared Jehovah” (12).
When he saw indications of a revival
of interest he changed his message of
rebuke into one of encouragement and
promise (13); whereupon, on the
twenty-fourth day of the sixth month,
they began building operations (14,
15).

12. Then—As a result of the mes-
sage contained in i, 2-11. How soon
the effect manifested itself is not

 

stated—perhaps immediately, per-
haps not until after the people had
meditated upon it. At any rate,
within little more than three weeks
actual operations commenced. The
names mentioned are those found in
verse 1 (see there). The remnant of
the people—Around a remnant of the
people, saved from the national ca-
lamity, centered the hopes of the pre-
exilic prophets (see on Amos v, 15).
The postexilic community was, in a
sense, this remnant, and to it the
term is applied here. But this rem-
nant proved faithless, and it was soon
found that the hope of the future lay
with a remnant within the remnant.
Obeyed—They did not set to work im-
mediately, but they laid to heart the
message, and the prophet saw indi-
cations of their readiness to obey.
As—Equivalent to in keeping with the
fact that. Several of the ancient ver-
sions add in this clause “to them.”
The people obeyed the words of
Haggai, as was in keeping with the
fact that Jehovah their God had
sent him unto them. Did fear—Not
in the sense in which the verb is
used so frequently in the Old Testa-
ment (see on Zeph. iii, 7), but ‘‘they
were afraid.” The prophet had
pointed out to them the great power
of Jehovah, and they wondered what
other terrible calamities he might
send.

18. The “fear’’ can hardly be con-
sidered an evidence of a “‘penitential
state of mind’; nevertheless the
prophet saw that the indifference had
been shaken and that a message of
encouragement might prove effective.
Messenger—The prophet is called a
messenger of Jehovah, because he is
562

message unto the people, saying, «I
am with you, saith the Lorp. 14
And ‘the Lorp stirred up the spirit
of Zerubbabel the son of Shealtiel,
*governor of Judah, and the spirit
of Joshua the son of Josedech, the
high priest, and the spirit of all the
remnant of the people; tand they
came and did work in the house of
the Lorp of hosts, their God, 15
In the four and twentieth day of

HAGGAT

the sixth month, in the second year
of Darius the king.

CHAPTER II.
N the seventh month, in the one
and twentieth day of the month,
came the word of the LorD ae ae
rophet Haggai, saying, 2 Speal

a to Zerubbabel the son of Sheal-
tiel, governor of Judah, and _to
Joshua the son of Josedech, the high

 

4 Matt. 28. 20; Rom. 8, 31.— 2 Chron.
36. 22; Ezra 1. 1.

s Chap. 2. 21.—+t Ezra 5. 2, 8.——1 Heb.
by the hand of.

 

sent by him (12) to deliver his mes-
sage. In Jehovah’s message—The
root of this noun is the same as that
of ‘‘messenger,” and the phrase seems
to mean “in the capacity of a mes-
senger of Jehovah,” that is, not of his
own accord. I am with you—The
task may seem difficult, but with Je-
hovah’s coéperation assured they need
not fear (compare ii, 4; see on Zech.
iv, 6, 7). Some commentators ques-
tion the originality of verse 13, be-
cause (1) it interrupts the thought,
verse 14 being the natural continua-
tion of verse 12; (2) Haggai is not
called a prophet, as elsewhere, but a
messenger, which is thought to point
to diversity of authorship.

14, 15. The promise that Jehovah
would codperate filled the people with
enthusiasm. Stirred up the spirit—He
imparted a spirit of willingness and
determination (see on Joel ii, 28), and
enthusiastically they set to work on
the twenty-fourth day of the sixth
month, just twenty-three days after
Haggai had first rebuked their indif-
ference (compare Ezra v, 1, 2). There
is insufficient reason for doubting the
originality of verse 15.

CHAPTER II.
Tux Gory or THE New TEMPLE, 1-9.

These verses contain the second ad-
dress of Haggai, a message of encour-
agement to the builders. The prophet
promises, in the name of Jehovah,
that the new temple, enriched by the
wealth of the Gentiles and blessed with
peace, shall be more glorious than that
of Solomon.

 

Verse 1 gives the date of the utter-
ance. Seventh month—Named Tishri,
covering the latter part of September
and first part of October. The one and
twentieth day—Less than a month
after the beginning of the work. We
must assume, and the assumption
finds support in the contents of the
message, that during the interval,
when the first enthusiasm had died
down, people began to think more
soberly about the obstacles to be en-
countered. Their numbers were small,
the building material was costly, some
of it had to be brought from a dis-~
tance, there were no resources such as
Solomon could draw upon, and no
allies to assist in the work; instead,
they had to suffer much from their
neighbors. Under these discouraging
conditions the fervor of some grew
cold, and some malcontents, who per-
haps had held aloof from the begin-
ning, found ready listeners. What
was the use of it all? They could
never expect to equal the temple of
Solomon. Why not quit work? Hag-
gai saw that the enterprise was threat-
ened with complete failure unless he
could revive the former courage and
enthusiasm. This he sought to do by
bringing to the discouraged builders
a new message of hope and inspira-
tion. Verse 2 is similar to i, 1, 12 (see
there).

3. The prophet does not deny that
there is a marked contrast between
the former temple and the one on
which they are now laboring. This
house—The temple of Jehovah. The
Jews did not think of the first, second,
and third temples as separate build-
CHAPTER II.

563

 

priest, and to the residue of the peo-
ple, saying, 3 »Who is left among
you that saw this house in her first
glory? and how do ye see it now?
b¢s it not in your eyes in comparison
of it as nothing? 4 Yet now cbe
strong, O Zerubbabel, saith the
Lorp; and be strong, O Joshua,

son of Josedech, the high priest;
and be strong, all ye people of the
land, saith the Lorp, and work: for
I am with you, saith the Lorp of
hosts: 5 4According to the word
that I covenanted with you when
ye came out of Egypt, so ‘my spirit
remaineth among you: fear ye not.

 

 

‘i = Bera 3. 12.—>» Zech. 4. 10.—e Zech.

4 Exod, 29. 45, 46.—* Neh. 9. 20; Isa.
63.11.

 

ings; they were all one and the same
temple of Jehovah, only in different
forms. Here the prophet has in mind
Solomon’s temple. Who is left...
that saw—Probably only very few,
for about sixty-six years had elapsed
since the destruction of Solomon’s
temple in 586. First glory—R. V.,
“former glory”? (compare 1 Kings v,
7). How do ye see it now ?—In what
condition? Certainly it was not yet
completed, but they knew the re-
sources at their command, and were
fully aware that in style of building
and magnificence of equipment they
could not possibly equal the former
splendor (compare Zech. iv, 10). Is
it not... as nothing ?—For the gram-
matical construction of the Hebrew
see G.-K., 161ce. R. V. reproduces it
in smoother English: ‘‘is it not in your
eyes as nothing?”

4. The prophet does not deny the
justice of the estimate, but he does
deny that the prospective inferiority
of the temple is a valid ground for dis-
couragement, or a sufficient reason for
discontinuing the building operations.
Yet now—Nevertheless; in spite of the
great difference. Be strong—Do not
permit appearances to discourage you,
but remain confident as to the ulti-
mate success. These words are ad-
dressed to all the people (compare
Zech. iv, 6-10). Work—Only if they
do their share can God render assist-
ance (compare 1 Chron. xxviii, 20).
There is no need for discouragement,
because Jehovah, the God of hosts (see
on Hos. xii, 5), is with them (i, 13).
“Tf God be for us, who can be against
us?” (Rom. viii, 31.)

The translation of 5a is uncertain.
Both English translations supply “ac-

 

cording to,” but A. V. connects 5a
with 5b, “According to the word...,
so my spirit remaineth,” while R. V.
connects it with 4b, “I am with you,
... according to the word.” The chief
difficulty lies in ‘‘the word,” which in
Hebrew stands in the accusative, but
whose syntactical relation cannot be
determined very easily. Some supply
the verb remember, hence margin R.
V., “Remember the word,” but this is
arbitrary. The grammatical diffi-
culty cannot be solved, and we must
be satisfied with saying that, if the
text is correct, the promise of Jehovah
to codperate with the people is some-
how brought in connection with a
covenant promise made at the time
of the Exodus (compare, for example,
Exod. vi, 7; xix, 4-6). The difficulty
vanishes if, following LXX., we omit
5a; LXX. reads 5b, ‘And my spirit
shall remain in the midst of you, fear
not.” This makes a natural continua-
tion of verse 4. For the promise see
on Zech. iv, 6; for my spirit, on Joel ii,
28, and A. B. Davidson, The Theology
of the Old Testament, pp. 115-129,
from which may be quoted a few sen-
tences: “The Spirit of Jehovah is Je-
hovah himself—the source of life of
all kinds, of the quickening of the
mind in thought, in morals, in religion,
particularly the last. .. The Spirit
of God ab intra is God active, showing
life and power, of all kinds similar to
those exhibited by the spirit of man
in man; the Spirit of God ab extra is
God in efficient operation, whether in
the cosmos or as giving life, reinforcing
life, exerting efficiency in any sphere,
whether physical, intellectual, or
spiritual; the tendency toward limit-
ing the Spirit of God to the ethical
564

6 For thus saith the Lorp of hosts;
fYet once, it is a little while, and «I
will shake the heavens, and the
earth, and the sea, and the dry
land; 7 And I will shake all nations,

{ Verse 21; Heb. 12. 26.—« Joel 3. 16.

and spiritual spheres is due to the
tendency to regard God mainly on
those sides of his being.” The trans-
lation of R. V. “abode” is wrong, for
the words contain a promise for the
future. Fear ye not—Though the
present seems dark and unpromising.

Verses 6-9 expand the promise of
verses 4, 5. Jehovah will manifest his
presence and power by a great shaking
of nature and of the nations of the
earth (6, 7a); as a result the nations
will recognize his supremacy and bring
costly presents to his temple (7b, 8).
Then the magnificence of the new
temple will surpass that of the old,
and Jehovah will add to its splendor
by making it his dwelling place, from
which he will dispense permanent
peace and prosperity to the com-
munity (9). Similar thoughts are ex-
pressed in the first three visions of
Zechariah (i, 7-ii, 13).

6-8. Yet once, it is a little while—
The Hebrew is peculiar, and various
interpretations have been suggested.
If the text is correct, which is doubted
by some, the meaning seems to be
that once more Jehovah will shake
heaven and earth (for former shakings
compare Exod. xix, 16-18; Judg. v,
4, 5; Mic. i, 3, 4; Nah. i, 2-6); and
that this new (and final) shaking will
take place in a short time. Shake—
The convulsions spoken of here are
those connected by other prophets
with the day of Jehovah, which is un:
doubtedly the crisis in the mind of
Haggai. All nature is to be con-
vulsed by the terrible manifestation
of Jehovah (see on Joel ii, 10, 11, 30,
31). All nations—The prophet ex-
pects political upheavals in which the
nations hostile to the remnant will be
overthrown, and this overthrow will
pave the way for the establishment of
the kingdom of God in all its glory.
Political disturbances had begun

 

HAGGAI

hand the desire of all nations shall
come: and I will fill this house with
glory, saith the Lorp of hosts. 8
The silver is mine, and the gold its
mine, saith the Lorp of hosts. 9

hGen. 49. 10; Mal. 3. 1.

throughout the Persian empire be-
fore 520, and both Haggai and Zech-
ariah expected that these troubles
would spread until the empire would
go to pieces. With the oppressor
gone, they expected the glories of the
Messianic age to be ushered in (see
on Zech. i, 11, and Introduction, p.
550). In this respect the utterances
of these postexilic prophets resemble
those of the prophets before the exile,
who expected the Messianic era to
begin immediately after the over-
throw of Assyria (for example, Isa.
x, 32-xi, 5; Mic. iv, 1l-v, 4; Nah. i,
15-ii, 2). The desire of all naticns
shall come—R. V., “the precious
things of all nations shall come.”
The latter is a correct reproduction of
the sense. Desire is equivalent to
object of desire or that which is desired,
which is not the Messiah, nor the
choice and noble spirits among the
nations, but their valuable posses-
sions (LXX. has plural), including
among other things the silver and
gold mentioned in verse 8. These
precious things will be brought into
the temple (compare Isa. Ix, 5) by
those among the nations who survive
the shaking and who become con-
vineed through the terrible manifes-
tation of Jehovah that he alone is God
(compare Zech. xiv, 16). With glory
—Not the glory of the divine presence
or glory due to heavenly gifts, but
glory or splendor due to the bringing
of rich presents by the heathen, to
supplement the limited resources of
the builders. Silver . . . gold is mine
—Therefore it is only proper that they
should bring treasures to him.

9. At present the outlook may be
discouraging, the new temple may
seem “as nothing” when compared
with the former (verse 3), but in the
end it will be glorious, even more so
than the temple of Solomon. This
CHAPTER IIT.

565

 

iThe glory of this latter house shall
be greater than of the former, saith
the Lorp of hosts: and in this place
will I give *peace, saith the Lorp
of hosts.

10 In the four and twentieth day

of the ninth month, in the second
eed of Darius, came the word of the
Lorp by Haggai the prophet, say-
ing, 11 Thus saith the Lorp of
hosts; !Ask now the priests concern-
ing the law, saying, 12 If one bear

 

i John 1. 14. Psa, 85. 8, 9; Luke 2.
14; Eph. 2.14,

Bre 10. 10, 11; Deut, 33, 10; Mal.

 

latter house—The temple now in
process of building. The former—The
temple of Solomon. Thus translated
9a means that the glory of the present
temple will in the end surpass that of
Solomon’s temple. The thought re-
mains the same if the translation of
R. V. (compare LXX.) is accepted,
“The latter glory of this house shall be
greater than the former.” Latter
glory—The glory promised in verse 7.
This house—See on verse 3. The
former—The glory present in the
temple of Solomon. In this place
—In Jerusalem as well as in the
temple. Will I give peace—To this
LXX. adds, “and peace of soul to re-
new the entire foundation, to rebuild
this temple.” If this addition is a
part of the original prophecy, which
is not probable, the peace must be
that which will be enjoyed in Jerusa-
lem while the nations are being
shaken; otherwise, the peace promised
is that to be enjoyed subsequent to the
shaking of the nations and the glori-
fication of the temple, the peace of the
Messianic age, which Jehovah will dis-
pense from his new dwelling place
(compare Isa. ii, 2-4; ix, 1-7).

Tur Burupine or THE TEMPLE WILL
AssurE Nuw Buessines From Gop,
10-19.

This also is a message of encourage-
ment and promise, which reaches its
culmination in the last sentence,
“From this day will I bless you.”
Again nothing is said concerning the
occasion of the prophecy, but its con-
tents enable us to determine it. The
words were apparently called forth by
new questionings of the people. It
would seem that they came to resent
the severe accusations made in the
first address. Were they not bringing

 

offerings to Jehovah? Asa result they
came to question the truth of the state-
ments that the calamities which they
suffered were the consequence of their
neglectfulness, and that the rebuild-
ing of the temple would assure them
the restoration of the divine favor.
To silence the questionings the
prophet propounds to the priests two
questions concerning the power of
infection possessed by clean and un-
clean things. The priests reply that
the unclean is more contagious than
the clean (11-13). This reply the
prophet applies to the case in hand.
True, the people were offering sacri-
fices, but, says he, they are insufficient
to overcome the unclean in their life
and conduct; on the contrary, the un-
clean conduct makes even their offer-
ings an abomination in the sight of
Jehovah (14). He discusses once more
the relation of the calamities to
their neglectfulness and asserts
that they are a direct result of the
latter. The address closes with a
promise that from now on the di-
vine favor will again rest upon them
(15-19).

Verse 10 is similar to i, 1; ii, 1.
Four and twentieth day of the ninth
month—Just three months after the
building operations commenced (see
on verse 18). The ninth month is
called Chisleu (Zech. vii, 1) and covers
the latter part of November and first
part of December.

11. Ask now the priests concerning
the law—The consulting of the priests
was only preparatory to the prophet’s
real message; their reply was to serve
him as a starting point. Literally,
ask a law—ask for instruction. For
law see on Hos. iv, 6. Here it is used
in the general sense of instruction or
legal advice. To give this was the
566

holy flesh in the skirt of his gar-
ment, and with his skirt do touch
bread, or pottage, or wine, or oil,
or any meat, shall it be holy? And
the priests answered and said, No.
13 Then said Haggai, If one that is
™unclean by a dead body touch any
of these, shall it be unclean? And

m Num. 19. 11.

HAGGAL

the priests answered and said, It
shall be_unclean. 14 Then an-
swered Haggai, and said, "So is
this people, and so is this nation
before me, saith the Lorp; and so
is every work of their hands; and
that which they offer there 7s un-
clean. 15 And now, I pray you,

n Tit. 1. 15.

 

duty of the priests (Deut. xvii, 8-11;
xxxili, 10; Mal. ii, 7).

12, 13. Two questions are pro-
pounded to the priests: (1) Whether
or not a garment made holy through
contact with holy flesh (compare Lev.
vi, 27) transmits this holiness to other
articles which might come in contact
with it. Holy flesh—Flesh of an ani-
mal slain for sacrificial purposes (Jer.
xi, 15). Skirt—Literally, wing. A
corner of the large outer garment (see
on Amos ii, 8) could be turned in so as
to form a convenient place in which to
carry articles of various kinds. The
articles named are common articles of
food. The specific case laid before the
priests is not provided for in the cere-
monial law. To this question the
priests give a negative answer. (2)
When one who is made unclean by
contact with something that is un-
clean touches the same articles of food,
do they become unclean? In this case
the answer is in the affirmative, in
accordance with Num. xix, 22. Un-
clean by a dead body—By coming in
contact with a dead body (compare
Num. ix, 10; Lev. xxi, 11). This was
the most dreaded kind of unclean-
ness.

In verse 14 the prophet applies the
priestly decisions to the case of the
people. So—Refers to the substance
of the priestly decisions, more espe-
cially to the second. This people—
The people gathered about him (see
oni, 2). Before me—In my estimate.
Every work of their hands—Their life
and conduct permeated with selfish-
ness (i, 4). That which they offer—
All their offerings and _ sacrifices.
There—Upon the altar mentioned in
Ezra iii, 3; near it the prophet prob-

 

ably stood when he delivered the ad-
dress. All the offerings offered there
are an abomination to Jehovah. Why?
The answer must be supplied from the
context. The people offering sacrifice
are like the man carrying the holy
flesh; but in neglecting Jehovah and
looking only after their own interests
they are like the man made unclean
through contact with an unclean body.
Since the powers of infection of an un-
clean thing are greater than those of a
clean thing, their unclean conduct
exerts greater influence than their
clean sacrifices and makes unclean
their otherwise clean offerings. Hag-
gai does not carry the application
further; by implication, however, his
words contain an exhortation to
change their conduct; in this case, to
carry on more earnestly the building
operations. After verse 14 LXX. has
a lengthy addition which is, however,
in all probability, not an original part
of the prophecy.

In verses 15-19 the prophet refers
once more to the calamities present
and past and urges the people to bear
in mind that they are the direct result
of their indifference, and that any
change in their condition depends en-
tirely upon their zeal in building the
temple. And now—Perhaps better,
but now. These words are really the
introduction to verse 18. A change
in their conduct has already begun,
hence he may place by the side of the
warning in verse 14 a message of com-
mendation and promise. Before he
utters the latter he refers once more
to the past calamity, so as to bring
out more strongly the contrast be-
tween the calamity of the past and the
prosperity of the future. Consider—
CHAPTER II.

567

 

*consider from this day and upward,
from before a stone was laid upon
a stone in the temple of the Lorp:
16 Since those days were, rwhen one
came to an heap of twenty meas-
ures, there were but ten: when one

came to the pressfat for to draw out
fifty vessels out of the press, there
were but twenty. 17 aU sake you
with blasting and with mildew and
with hail tin all the labors of your
hands; yet ye turned not to me,

 

oChap. 1. 5. P Chap. 1. 6, 9; Zech.
8. 10.— 9 Deut. 28. 22; 1 Kings 8. 37;

 

Amos 4, 9; chap. 1. 9.
8 Jer. 5. 3; Amos 4. 6, 8-1

 

7 chap. 1.31 =

 

As in i, 5-7. From this day and up-
ward—R. V., “backward.” The R.
V. translation has no support (com-
pare 1 Sam. xvi, 13); the word points
to the future. The mistranslation is
due to a misinterpretation of the en-
tire verse. The meaning becomes
clear if a stop is made after upward;
“Consider from this day and upward!”’
—that is, consider or bear in mind con-
tinually, from this moment on, what
I am about to say: on the one hand,
that your past neglectfulness brought
disaster (15-17); on the other, that
zeal and faithfulness will bring pros-
perity (18, 19).

After this summons to consider, a
new beginning should be made: ‘“‘Be-
fore a stone was laid upon a stone in
the temple of Jehovah; since those
days were, (it happened that) when
one came....’’ Before a stone was
laid—Before building operations were
commenced. Since those days were—
R. V., “Through all that time.” An
obscure expression. The reading of
R. V. gives good enough sense, though
the words seem superfluous after 15a,
but the Hebrew hardly warrants the
translation. LXX. reads, “who were
ye,” which may represent an original
“how were ye.” These might be the
closing words of a question which has
its beginning in verse 15, “Before a
stone was laid upon a stone in the
temple of Jehovah, how did ye fare?”
The temporal clause is placed first,
because the emphasis rests upon it.

How they did fare is stated in the
rest of verse 16 and in verse 17. The
thought is similar to that expressed in
i, 6, 9-11; disappointment and disaster
on every hand. Heap of twenty—
That is, a heap of sheaves estimated
to give twenty measures; but when it
was threshed it yielded ten, only one

 

half of what was expected. Pressfat
—R. V., ‘‘winevat.” The receptacle
in which wine juice is kept after the
grapes are pressed out. The grapes,
instead of yielding fifty measures of
wine, yielded only twenty. Out of
the press—Omitted in R. V. The
noun occurs elsewhere in the sense
of winepress (so A. V.; compare Isa.
lxiii, 3). Some think that it is used in
the more general sense of measure (so
R. V.), or that it is the name of a
measure, equivalent to bath (Isa. v,
10), which is of the same size as the
ephah (see on Amos viii, 5). This is
not likely. If the text is correct the
translation of A. V. is to be preferred;
otherwise the word must be omitted
as an explanatory gloss to the pre-
ceding “‘winevat.”

Verse 17 explains why the threshing
floor and the winepress proved sore
disappointments. Jehovah smote the
fields with “blasting and mildew” (see
on Amos iv, 9). Hail—Concerning
the frequency with which hail falls in
Palestine G. A. Smith says (Historical
Geography, p. 64), “During most win-
ters both hail and snow fall on the
hills; hail is common.” It is fre-
quently mentioned in the Old Testa-
ment; always as an instrument of di-
vine judgment. The labors of your
hands—Everything they had culti-
vated with great effort and toil. The
purpose of the judgment was to bring
the people to their senses, but it failed
(see on i, 5, and references there). Yet
ye turned not to me—This is undoubt-
edly the thought, but it is difficult to
get it from the present Hebrew text,
which Keil calls “a perfectly unusual
construction.” Originally the words
here may have been identical with the
refrain in Amos iv, 6-11. It is worthy
of note that the causes of calamity
568

HAGGAI.

 

saith the Lorp. 18 Consider now
from this day and upward, from the
four and twentieth day of the ninth
month, even from tthe day that the

foundation of the Lorp’s temple
was laid, consider it. 19 vIs the
seed yet in the barn? yea, as yet
the vine, and the fig tree, and the

 

t Zech. 8. 9.

u Zech. 8. 12.

 

mentioned here are not the same as
those named earlier in the book,
though the calamity itself is the same.
Here they are blasting, mildew, hail;
in i, 10, 11, drought. This with some
linguistic peculiarities has led André
to conclude that this discourse does
not come from Haggai; but the
linguistic peculiarities are by no
means conclusive, and surely there
may have been several different causes
that brought about barrenness or the
failure of the crops. Others consider
only verse 17 a later addition, orig-
inally a marginal note, based upon
Amos iv, 9. In support of this claim
it is pointed out that LXX. contains
an addition to verse 14, which, in
part at least, is based upon Amos
v, 10.

With the calamities of the past
fresh in their minds, they are to ob-
serve the change in fortune which is
about to occur. If they bring this
change into connection with their
former indifference and their present
zeal, they can no longer doubt that
there exists a relation of cause and
effect between indifference and ca-
lamity and between zeal and prosper-
ity; and this recognition should greatly
increase their interest in the cause of
Jehovah. 18a is to be interpreted as
in verse 15 (see there); upward again
points to the future. This day is de-
fined in the succeeding clause, “from
the twenty-fourth day of the ninth
month,” and this in turn is called “the
day that the foundation of the Lord’s
temple was laid.” Both explanatory
clauses are considered Jater additions
by some, because (1) they are super-
fluous; (2) i, 15, states that the work
was begun three months earlier;
(3) Ezra iii, 10, says that the founda-
tion was laid about fifteen years be-
fore. To these arguments reply may
be made: (1) Even granting the his-

 

toricity of Ezra iii, 10 (see pp. 548ff.),
the two passages are not necessarily
contradictory, for it is not impossible
that after an interval of fifteen years
the foundations were found to be in
a sufficiently unsatisfactory condition
to demand a relaying. (2) Three
months may have been spent in doing
the preliminary work; rubbish had to
be cleared away, building material had
to be hauled, etc. (3) That the words
might have been omitted is true, but,
since the change in fortune was closely
connected with the rebuilding of the
temple, is it not perfectly natural that
the pivotal point of time should re-
ceive special emphasis? From this
very moment the prophet desires
them to have their eyes open to see
what the future will have in store.
At the time of the laying of the foun-
dation a religious gathering may have
been held, and that would be a suit-
able occasion on which to utter these
words of encouragement. It cannot
be objected that the manifestations
of enthusiasm three months earlier
should have been the turning point
in their fortune. How could they tell
what would become of the next
spring’s crops? The critical time of
the year comes after the date men-
tioned here (compare Amos iv, 7).
Besides, verse 19 makes it clear that
a partial change could be seen, the
drought had ceased. The careful defi-
nition of the date is in perfect accord
with the repetition of the exhortation
“consider it.”

Verse 19 states what they are to con-
sider, but it is not parallel with verses
16, 17, as if it called attention once
more to the calamity of the past; it
points rather to the restoration of the
divine favor present and future. Seed
—The seed corn. Haggai inquires
whether it is still in the barn; he evi-
dently expects a negative answer. But
CHAPTER IL.

569

 

Pomegranais: and the olive tree,
ath not brought forth: from this
day will I bless you.

20 And again the word of the
Lorp came unto Haggai in the four
and twentieth day of the month,
saying, 21 Speak to Zerubbabel,
xgovernor of Judah, saying, I will

shake the heavens and the earth;
22 And *I will overthrow the throne
of kingdoms, and I will destroy the
strength of the kingdoms of the hea-
then; and «I will overthrow the cha-
riots, and those that ride in them;
and the horses and their riders shall
come down, every one by the sword

 

xChap. 1. 14.——y Verses 6, 7; Heb.
12. 26.

 

z Dan. 2. 44; Matt. 24. 7. * Mic. 5.

10; Zech. 4. 6; 9. 10

 

if the seed is sown, this in itself is an
evidence that the divine favor is re-
turning. In former years it had to be
left in the barns because the absence
of rain made plowing and sowing im-
possible. Now the prophet points to
the fact that rain has come and that
the seed has been sown. The suc-
ceeding clauses also should be trans-
lated as a question, “Hath not as yet
the vine, the fig tree, and the pome-
granate, and the olive borne fruit?”
-This question presupposes an affirma-
tive answer, as the presence of not
clearly shows. These trees have given
evidence of a change, for they have
borne fruit. The ingathering of these
fruits begins at the time of the year
when the first steps were taken (i, 15),
and continues several months. If for
a year or two the crops were poor the
people could be persuaded very read-
ily that the better results were due
to their renewed activity. But the
blessings already experienced are only
the beginning; in the closing words the
prophet promises a continuation of the
divine favor.

Tur EXALTATION oF ZERUBBABEL,
20-23.

The fourth utterance of Haggai is
Messianic in character; it promises
the exaltation of Zerubbabel, the
prince of David’s house. In the sec-
ond discourse the prophet announced
the shaking of the nations, which
would pave the way for the estab-
lishment of the kingdom of God (see
on ii, 7). Since Haggai, like the
earlier prophets (Isa. ix, 1ff.; xi, 1ff.;
Mic. v, 1ff.), expected the Messianic
king to ‘be of the dynasty of David,
and since he believed that the shak-

 

ing would occur in the near future,
it was quite natural that his Messianic
hopes should center in the descendant
of the house of David who was stand-
ing out most prominently in his day
(compare also Zech. vi, 9ff.).

20. The message was delivered on
the same day as the preceding and
forms the climax of the promises
made there. The people will, indeed,
be blessed abundantly in their tem-
poral affairs, but there is more to
come; the long-anticipated Messianic
king is soon to set up his kingdom of
peace and righteousness. 21. Zerub-
babel (see on i, 1) is the central figure
of the promise, therefore this oracle
is addressed to him exclusively. For
21b see on ii, 6.

Verse 22 is an expansion of ii, 7;
it also speaks of the upheaval ex-
pected by Haggai to take place in the
near future (see on ii, 7). Throne—
Used collectively—thrones, govern-
ments. Nations and governments will
be overthrown. Strength—Which en-
ables them to exist and gives them
authority over others. Chariots, ...
horses—These and the soldiers using
them, that is, the well-equipped ar-
mies, are the source of their power
and strength. With them gone, their
power vanishes and the nations them-
selves will perish. By the sword of
his brother—The prophet is thinking
of the civil war, which threatened the
Persian empire in the beginning of
the reign of Darius. Haggai evi-
dently expected these struggles to
bring about the downfall of the great
empire, which consisted of many
nations.

23. The dissolution of the hostile
world power will clear the way for
570

HAGGAL

 

of hisbrother. 23 In that day, saith
the Lorp of hosts, will I take thee, O
Zerubbabel, my servant, the son of

b Cant. 8 6; Jer. 22, 24.

Shealtiel, saith the Lorp, band will
make thee as a signet: for <I have
chosen thee, saith the LoRp of hosts.

eIsa. 42. 1; 43. 10.

 

the setting up of the kingdom of God
under the rule of the Messianic king.
In that day—When the power of the
nations will collapse. Zerubbabel—
See on i, 1. My servant—An epithet
applied to Zerubbabel because he was
ordained to carry out the divine pur-
pose (see on Zech. iii, 8). Will make
thee as a signet—The signet ring is
one of the most precious possessions
of the Oriental; he guards it carefully
and carries it about with him con-
stantly (Jer. xxii, 24; Song of Songs
viii, 6). Hence the promise means
that Zerubbabel shall be exceedingly
precious to Jehovah, who will keep
him constantly under his protecting
care. I have chosen thee—Jehovah
has selected Zerubbabel to be Branch
(see on Zech. iii, 8; vi, 12, 13), who

 

will be the ruler of the kingdom of
God (compare Isa. xlii, 1; xliii, 10,
etc.). The thrice-repeated “saith Je-
hovah” adds solemnity and weight to
the promise. On the fulfillment of
this and similar prophecies see closing
remarks on Micah, chapter v.

From this passage and similar ut-
terances in the Book of Zechariah,
Sellin has attempted to prove that,
at the instigation of the two prophets,
Zerubbabel was crowned king, but
that he was soon dethroned and put
to death by the Persians. At one
time he went so far as to identify
Zerubbabel with the “suffering Serv-
ant”’ of Isa. liii; but subsequently he
modified his view and has now given
up entirely the identification of Ze-
rubbabel with the “Servant.”
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

The Prophet.

THE prophet Zechariah—the name means Jehovah remem-
bers—is called “the son of Berechiah, the son of Iddo” (i, 1),
in Ezra v, 1; vi, 14, “the son of Iddo.” The last named was
the chief of one of the priestly families that returned from
exile with Zerubbabel and Joshua (Neh. xii, 4). Berechiah
may have died young or at least may never have come to
prominence, and so the name of the better-known grandfather
came to be attached to that of the prophet. That the latter
should be called the son of the former is easily explained by
the loose use of that term among Semitic peoples. The only
passages outside of the Book of Zechariah in which the prophet
is mentioned are Ezra v, 1; vi, 14, where it is recorded that
he, in company with Haggai, was instrumental in reviving
interest in the rebuilding of the temple. In Nehemiah xii, 16,
a priest Zechariah is mentioned, who may be identical with our
prophet; if so, Zechariah, like Ezekiel, combined the priestly
and the prophetic offices.

For other information concerning the prophet’s life we are
dependent upon the book bearing his name. According to i, 1,
his activity began “in the eighth month, in the second year
of Darius” (520 B. C.), that is, about two months after Haggai
began preaching. The last date mentioned (vii, 1) is the
fourth day of the ninth month of the fourth year of King
Darius. From these chronological notes it would seem that
the public activity of Zechariah covered only about two years.
If he was the grandson of Iddo, who returned from exile in
537, Zechariah was probably a young man when the prophetic
call came to him, and we may assume, perhaps, that his influ-
ence continued to be felt for many years subsequent to 518

571
572 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

B. C. The time demanded a prophet with a living faith and
moral earnestness. The lofty anticipations of the preéxilic
prophets and the prophets of the exilic period had not been
realized; the foreign oppressor was still strong and powerful,
while the Jews were poor and feeble; as a result the first
hopeful enthusiasm of the returned exiles had been displaced
by despondency and gloom. To remove these and to revive
faith in God and in the ultimate triumph of his kingdom was
the task of Zechariah.

Of the later years of the prophet we know nothing. Numer-
ous traditions and legends have grown up around the name
of Zechariah, but they are of little or no historical value.
One of these asserts that, at an advanced age, he died in Jeru-
salem and was buried by the side of Haggai.

Unity and Date of the Book.

Since between chapters viii and ix a distinct break may be
noticed, it has become customary to divide the Book of Zecha-
riah into two parts, chapters i—viii and chapters ix—xiv.
The utterances contained in the first eight chapters are ascribed
to Zechariah by their headings (i, 1, 7; vii, 1), but no state-
ments of this character are found in chapters ix—xiv. This
in itself does not point to diversity of authorship, for it is
not necessary to place at the head of each separate oracle the
name of the author; the name found in the earlier chapters
might be thought to cover all the utterances of the entire book.
And yet, for other reasons, many Old Testament scholars be-
lieve that chapters ix—xiv do not come from Zechariah, the
author of chapters i—vili. This makes it necessary to con-
sider, first of all, the unity of the book, to see whether it is
the work of one prophet or of more. Only when this question
is settled is it possible to consider intelligently the question
of date or dates.

All scholars are agreed that chapters i—viii come from
Zechariah, the son of Berechiah, the son of Iddo (i, 1, 7; vii,1),
and that the prophecies contained in these chapters were de-
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. 573

 

livered in the second and fourth years of Darius (520 and 518
B. C.). The historical situation of Judah during these years
is described in the Introduction to Haggai (see pp. 548ff.).
but it may not be amiss to point out briefly how the internal
evidence confirms the testimony of the chronological notes.
The temple and the city walls were still in ruins (i, 7-17); the
foundation was laid, but the completion seemed far distant
(iv, 6-10); peace had been restored throughout the Persian
empire (i, 7-21); the nonfulfillment of the preéxilic prophe-
cies had caused the people to lose confidence in the civil and
religious leaders (iii, iv), and to doubt the reality of the
divine interest and power (i, 16). All this was true in 520
B. C., and the messages of Zechariah contained in chapters
i—vi were admirably adapted to the needs of that time, and
they were not without effect.

The building enterprise was resumed, and two years later
sufficient progress had been made to raise the question whether
the time had not arrived to discontinue the fasts instituted
to commemorate events centering around the destruction of
Jerusalem in 586 (vii, 1-7; viii, 18, 19); evidently the pros-
pects were becoming brighter (viii, 20-23). In view of this
internal evidence there can hardly be any doubt that the
prophecies in chapters i—viii were uttered in 520 and 518
for the comfort, encouragement, and inspiration of the post-
exilic community.

Can the same assertion be made of chapters ix—xiv? Are
they the work of the author of chapters i—viii? If not, is it
possible to determine their date?

I. Unity.—Until near the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury no doubts were expressed concerning the unity of the Book
of Zechariah. Then the Cambridge theologian Joseph Mede
suggested that chapters ix—xiv came not from Zechariah but
from Jeremiah. He was led to this conclusion partly by the
testimony of Matt. xxvii, 9, which quotes Zech. xi, 13, as
coming from Jeremiah, and partly by a study of the contents
of the chapters, which he thought pointed to a period other
574. INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

than that of Zechariah. “There is no scripture saith they
-(ix—xiv) are Zachary’s, but there is scripture saith they are
Jeremy’s as this of the evangelist.” And again, “Certainly if
a man weighs the contents of some of them, they should in
likelihood be of an elder date than the time of Zachary, namely,
before the captivity, for the subjects of some of them were
scarce in being after that time.” ‘Since the days of Mede,
and especially since the publication of Fluegge’s treatise on
Zechariah, in 1784, the unity of the Book of Zechariah has
received perhaps as much attention as any problem of Old
Testament criticism. Professor Robinson (American Journal
of Semitic Languages, xii, pp. 2ff.) enumerates one hundred
and three authors who, since the days of Mede, have treated
the subject in one or more publications. According to his
classification thirty-six of these “defend” the unity of the
book; it should he noted, however, that in some instances the
defense is by no means enthusiastic; J. J. 8. Perowne, for
example, who is classed among the defenders, is content with
saying, “Indeed, it is not easy to say which way the weight of
evidence preponderates.”

Modern scholarship tends more and more toward denying
to the prophet Zechariah the last six chapters of the book;
even cautious and otherwise exceedingly conservative scholars
like Von Orelli and Kirkpatrick have felt constrained to give
up the unity of the book. “It seems,” says the latter, “in the
highest degree improbable that these chapters can be the work
of Zechariah, the coadjutor of Zerubbabel and Joshua in their
great work of rebuilding the temple.” Within recent years
there has been made but one aitempt to defend, by the use of
strictly scientific methods, the unity of the book, namely, by
Professor Robinson in the dissertation to which reference has
been made. Other scholars hold the same view, but no one
else has treated the subject so exhaustively. C. H. H. Wright,
both in the Bampton Lectures of 1878 and in his Introduction
to the Old Testament, takes the ground that “the arguments
in favor of the genuineness and unity of the book overweigh
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. — 575

 

those adduced on the other side.” So also T. T. Perowne,
“We have not as yet sufficient ground for relinquishing the
ancient and tenable belief that the Book of Zechariah . . . is
throughout the work of the author whose name it bears.”

An exhaustive discussion of the entire question would re-
quire more space than can be given to it in a work of this
kind, and all that the present writer can expect to do is to
point out the lines on which the investigation must proceed,
and the most probable results to which this inquiry leads.
The student who desires to pursue the subject further may find
much valuable information in the dissertation of Professor
Robinson; in the Hxpositor’s Bible; in Smith’s Dictionary of
the Bible, article “Zechariah”; in Hastings’s Dictionary of
the Bible, article “Zechariah”; in Driver’s Introduction to the
Literature of the Old Testament, and in other books and arti-
cles mentianed by these authors.

The investigation must be carried on along three lines, the
linguistic, the historical, and the theological:

1. Linguistic Characteristics. It has been pointed out again
and again by writers that there exist between the two parts of
the Book of Zechariah very marked differences in diction, in
style, and in qther features of composition. (1) With reference
to the general style the justice of Hichhorn’s remark is recog-
nized by all. “The manner of writing,” says he, “in the second
portion is far loftier and more mysterious, the images employed
grander and more magnificent.” Rosenmueller calls the style
of the first eight chapters “prosaic, feeble, poor”; that of the
last six, “poetic, weighty, concise, flowing.” (2) Attention
has been called to the preference, in one or the other section,
for certain phrases and words—for example, in chapters i—viii,
“thus saith Jehovah,” “the word of Jehovah came unto,” the
parenthetic “oracle of Jehovah”; in ix—xiv, “in that day,”
etc. Long lists of individual words have been prepared. (3)
In the second part are wanting the careful headings indicating
author and date, which are found in the first part. (4) The
figures and imagery of the one differ from those of the other.
576 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

The first part abounds in visions, with imagery mysterious
enough to require an interpreter; the second part ae no
visions, but in chapter xi it introduces two allegories. It
has the images of the shepherd and the sheep, of Jehovah as
the captain of his people, of the use of the people as weapons,
and others. .

Some of these arguments possess little or no weight: (1)
The occurrence of visions and the use of certain imagery in
one part of the book (objection 4), while in the other part
visions are absent and different imagery is used, is not con-
clusive against the unity of authorship. The change may be
due to a change of subject or of purpose (compare Amos i—vi
with vii—ix). (2) The absence of careful headings in the
second part (3) proves nothing, by itself. (3) Over against
the lists of words and phrases which are thought to point
to difference in authorship (2) long lists of words and phrases
thought to favor unity of authorship have been presented. In
addition, Professor Robinson has pointed out that both parts
contain specimens of clumsy diction, of repetition of the same
words, of the use of phrases—not the same in both parts—
unused by other writers, of the frequent use of vocatives, and
of variableness of spelling. But arguments of this sort prove
either too much or nothing at all, for, as Cheyne says, “by
such a method it would be easy to prove that the whole of the
Old Testament had but one author.” Similarities and resem-
blances in language and style may easily be explained, but
when different parts of one and the same book show marked
differences the question arises inevitably whether such differ-
ences can be harmonized with unity of authorship. However
we may explain the resemblances in the language of the two
parts—and they can all be explained by the fact that both
sections belong to the same stage in the history of the Hebrew
language—the question still arises whether the differences
in style and language which remain after all due allowance
has been made for difference in subject-matter can be har-
monized with unity of authorship. The present writer has
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. 577

 

expressed in another connection (see on Joel, p. 137) his
conviction that style and diction by themselves are unsafe cri-
teria to determine the date of a writing, and yet it seems to
him that in the present case the two parts differ so widely in
the broad and general linguistic features that it becomes at
least very probable that the two parts were not written by one
and the same author.

2. Historical Statements and Allusions. The historical
situation described and presupposed in chapters ix—xiv is not
that of chapters i—viii. The prophecies in the early part of
the book have an intimate connection with the events in the
days of Darius; they meet the needs of a well-defined his-
torical situation. The Jews are encouraged to rebuild the
temple and the city; they are promised speedy deliverance
from their present distress, and success and prosperity for the
immediate future. Such message was adapted to the needs of
the Jewish community in 520; but are the pictures of the
impending destruction of Jerusalem, and of the other calami-
ties which are to befall the nation (chapters xii, xiv) before
the final triumph shall come, adapted to the needs of the same
community? What is true of these two chapters is equally
true of other portions of ix—xiv. This claim does not imply
a denial of the reality of prediction in Zech. ix—xiv ; for when-
ever the words were written, it is clear that the writer pene-
trated the future until he beheld the final consummation of
the kingdom of God; nevertheless, the prophecies whose dates
are beyond question make it certain that the prophets always
connected the future with the present, that their messages
were intended primarily for their day and generation. Now,
the message of chapters ix—xiv presupposes an historical situ-
ation in Judah other than that presupposed in chapters i—viii;
and this remains true, though it may be impossible to deter-
mine the exact period into which these chapters fit. And what
is true of conditions within the Jewish community is equally
true of conditions throughout the Eastern world. “Zech.
i—viii picture the whole earth at peace, which was true at least
578 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

of all Syria; they portend no danger to Jerusalem from the
heathen, but describe her peace and fruitful expansion in terms
most suitable to the circumstances imposed upon her by the
solid and clement policy of the earlier Persian kings. This is
all changed in ix—xiv. The nations are restless; a siege of
Jerusalem is imminent, and her salvation is to be assured only
by much war and a terrible shedding of blood. We know
exactly how Israel fared and felt in the early sections of the
Persian period; her interest in the politics of the world, her
feelings toward her governors, and her whole attitude to the
heathen were not at that time those which are reflected in
Zech. ix—aiv.’ True, Professor Robinson has attempted to
prove that these chapters had their origin between 518 and
516, but his arguments are not convincing. Most writers who

favor the unity of the book are content with proving that the - -

historical situation presupposed is that of the period after the
exile, which is far from proving that it fits the period of
Zechariah.

3. Theological Ideas Expressed and Implied. The oppo-
nents of the unity of the book call attention to the diversity
of theological ideas in the two parts. On the other hand,
Robinson devotes one section of his dissertation to a demonstra-
tion of the similarity in fundamental ideas between the two
parts.

A brief outline of his argument will reveal immediately
the weakness of his position: 1. An unusually deep spiritual
tone pervades the entire book. 2. There is a similar attitude
of hope and expectation in both parts: (1) The return of the
whole nation. (2) Jerusalem shall be inhabited. (3) The
temple shall be built and shall become the center of the nation’s
religious life. (Under this head he gives as references from
the second part ix, 8; xiv, 20, 21. Do these verses contain
anything that could possibly be construed as a promise of the
rebuilding of the temple?) (4) Messianic hope is peculiarly
strong in both. (5) Peace and prosperity are expected. (6)
The idea of God’s providence as extending to the whole earth.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. 579

 

3. The prophet’s attitude toward Judah is the same in both
parts. 4. The prophet’s attitude toward the nations, the ene-
mies of the theocracy, is the same in both parts.

That there are resemblances between the two parts is not
and need not be denied, but do the similarities enumerated
prove anything? If they prove that the two parts come from
one author, it becomes a very simple matter to prove, by the
same line of reasoning, that the same author wrote a number
of other prophetic books. Vague and general resemblances in
ideas, such as may be found between these two parts, can be
noted between other prophetic writings coming certainly from
different authors, and yet in these cases no one would think of
claiming that they prove common authorship. Again the real
question is whether the differences in ideas can be harmonized
with unity of authorship. Such differences are discovered as
soon as one goes behind the general outline of thought, and
attempts a comparison in details. In ix—xiv there is no
concern for the rebuilding of the temple, while in i—vili the
sublimest hopes center around the completion of the house
of Jehovah. True, the Messianic hope is strong in both parts,
but are there not marked differences between the Messianic
ideas and ideals of i—viii and those of ix—xiv? (Compare
iii, 8; vi, 12, 13, with ix, 9, 10; chapter viii with chapter xiv.)
Alongside of a few general similarities in the hopes for the
future of the Jewish community may be seen notable differ-
ences in detail (compare i, 21; ii, 8-11; viii, 7, 8, with xii, 2ff.).
Equally noteworthy is the silence in chapters xii—xiv con-
cerning a return (compare ii, 6ff.). See further on Teaching
of the Book, pp. 601ff.

As in all investigations of this character, a mathematical
demonstration is not possible, and yet the facts enumerated
make it, to say the least, exceedingly probable that chapters
ix-xiv do not come from Zechariah, the son of Berechiah,
the son of Iddo.

But even within chapters ix—xiv the question of unity has
been raised. Nowack, for example, finds in this part of the
680 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

book no less than four originally independent pieces: I. Chap-
ter ix; II. chapters (x, 1, 2) x, 3—xi, 3; III. chapters xi,
4-17 + xiii, 7-9; IV. chapter xiv. However, most commenta-
tors who doubt the unity of the section recognize only two
independent portions: ix—xi + xiii, 7-9, and xii, 1—xiii, 6 +
xiv, 1-21. That differences exist between these two portions
is recognized even by those who believe that the entire section
comes from one author. The most important of these differ-
ences may be enumerated: Chapters ix—xi speak of a return
from exile, chapters xii—xiv are silent concerning it; the first
part (ix, 9, 10) speaks of a Messianic king, in the second
Jehovah himself is king (xiv, 16); in the first part the pic-
ture of the future is comparatively simple, in the second part
it is “highly imaginative and obscure”; in the first part the
horse is to be cut off from Jerusalem (ix, 10), in the second
part it is retained (xiv, 20); Ephraim and Joseph are com-
mon names in chapter x, but they are not found in chapters
xli—xiv. On the other hand, it may be pointed out that the
two sections speak in the same manner of idolatry, of the
heathen, of their punishment and conversion, and that lan-
guage and style favor unity of authorship. That one author
is responsible for all these chapters is the opinion of Stade
and Cheyne, who have subjected the matter to a more thorough
investigation than anyone else within recent years. “With
perhaps one or two exceptions,” says the latter, “chapters
ix—xi and xli—xiv are so closely welded together that even
analysis is impossible.” On the other hand, cautious scholars
like Driver and Kirkpatrick are inclined to recognize two
authors. The data are much less numerous and decisive than
they are when chapters i—viii are compared with chapters
ix—xiy, and with our present knowledge or lack of knowledge
it may be best to leave the unity of chapters ix—xiv an open
question, though it may be admitted that the internal evidence
in favor of diversity of authorship appears to be stronger than
that in favor of unity.

II. Date.—If chapters ix—xiv do not come from the sixth

‘
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. 581

 

century Zechariah, is it possible to determine their date?
In the investigation of this point we are confronted, as in the
case of Joel (see pp. 129ff.), with the difficulty that the
internal evidence, upon which the conclusion must be based,
seems to point in different directions. As a result some
scholars favor a preéxilic, others a postexilic date. The de-
fenders of the preéxilic date, with very few exceptions, believe
that chapters ix—xiv contain two separate oracles, coming
from two authors living in different periods. The first oracle,
chapters ix—xi, is commonly assigned to the latter part of the
eighth century—some have ascribed it to the Zechariah men-
tioned in Isa. viii, 2; chapters xii—xiv, chiefly on account
of xii, 11, to the years between the death of Josiah (608) and
the fall of Jerusalem (586).

Since the two parts, ix—xi and xii—xiv, present marked
differences, and since many scholars are inclined to assign
them to different dates, it may be advisable to consider the
dates of the two parts separately:

1. Chapters IX—XI. The evidence thought to point to a
preéxilic date may be summarized as follows: (1) The king-
doms of Judah and Ephraim (Israel) are still standing (ix,
10, 13; x, 6). (2) A partial exile of the northern kingdom
is implied (x, 6, 8-10). If a complete exile were implied, a
date subsequent to the fall of Samaria (722-721) would have
to be assumed, but other passages imply that the northern
kingdom is still standing; besides, the mention of Gilead in
x, 10, makes it probable that the districts east of the Jordan
had just passed through severe suffering, which points to a
date subsequent to 734, when Galilee and Gilead were devas-
tated by Tiglath-pileser III (2 Kings xv, 29). (3) Both
Egypt and Assyria are still powerful empires (x, 9-11); the
arrogance of Assyria is at its height (x,11). (4) The prophet
expects the avenger to come from the northeast, destroying in
order Syria, Phoenicia, Philistia (ix, 1-7). This is the road
which Sennacherib took in 702-701 (compare Taylor Cylinder,
ii, 34ff.). (5) The prophecy implies that there is danger of
582. INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

an open rupture between Israel and Judah (xi, 14; compare
2 Kings xvi, 5, 6). (6) The threat against Damascus is
appropriate in the eighth century (compare 2 Kings xvi, 9).
(7) The expression “flock of slaughter” (xi, 4), the vivid pic-
ture of oppression (xi, 5), and of the cutting off of three
shepherds in one month (xi, 8), reflect the state of anarchy
and the foreign entanglements following the death of Jero-
boam II (see Introduction to Hosea, p. 18). Two of the
shepherds are thought to be Zechariah and Shallum (2 Kings
xy, 8-15). To account for the other it is said that during a
period of such anarchy a third rival king might easily have
arisen, whose name might have been omitted in Kings, because
he was soon put out of the way. (8) Idolatry and soothsaying
are widespread in the land (x, 2; compare Isa. ii, 6-8). (9).
With the picture of the Messianic king in ix, 9, 10, may be
compared Isa. ix, 1-7, and Mic. v, 1-4. (10) Other minor
similarities are pointed out between this section and the eighth
century prophets; ix, 10; x, 4, 5, are compared with Mic. v,
10; Isa. ix, 5, 6; ix, 1-7, with Amos i, 3ff.; x, 10, with Mic.
vii, 12, 13. The style and the vivid imagery are said to have
their counterparts in Hosea.

Over against these arguments may be placed several facts
in favor of a postexilic date: (1) A natural interpretation
of ix, 11ff., and of x, 3ff., makes it certain that not only a
partial or complete exile of the northern kingdom is pre-
supposed, but an exile of Judah as well. (2) Whenever the
older prophets announce judgment upon the nations they are
accustomed to state the causes of the judgment. In the post-
exilic writings this is not done, because the wrongs done to the
Jews throughout the centuries, culminating in the destruction
of the holy city, are well known, and all recognize that they
deserve the severest retribution (compare ix, 1-7). (3) The
hostility toward Philistia (ix, 5-7), especially the curse pro-
nounced upon Ashdod (6), becomes more intelligible in post-
exilic days (compare Neh. iv, 7; xiii, 24). It was during
the exile that the Edomites began to press westward and
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. 583

 

threaten the Philistian territory. (4) The mention of the
“sons of Greece” (ix, 13) points to a postexilic date. The
expression itself, it is true, might have been used in pre-
exilic times (see p. 132), but in this passage Greece is thought
of as a world power, which it did not become until after the
exile. (5) While the dependence of this section upon other
Old Testament writings has heen exaggerated, especially by
Stade, it is probable that in some cases dependence does
exist; compare, for example, ix, 1-8, with Ezek. xxviii, 1-5;
chapter xi with Ezek. xxxiv, Jer. xxv, 34-88; x, 3-12, ithe
Hos. ii. This list might be enlarged, but the references given
may be sufficient to show that a close connection in thought,
and sometimes in form of expression, exists between this sec-
tion and other Old Testament writings. Now, it is always
difficult in the case of two similar passages to say which is the
original (see p. 136), and yet in this instance those who
have given the subject the most thorough examination believe
that Zechariah is the borrower. To De Wette, for example,
the evidence in favor of the dependence of chapters ix—xiv
upon Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and other preéxilic prophets became
so convincing that, after defending a preéxilic date for many
years, he found himself compelled, on this ground alone, to
change his opinion and insist that these chapters come from
the postexilic period.

Is it possible to decide between this apparently conflicting
evidence? Of the arguments in favor of the preéxilic date,
(8) loses its force in view of Mal. iii, 5 (compare also Josephus,
Antiquities, viii; ii, 5); (9) also must be set aside, for the
picture of the Messianic king is not identical with those of the
eighth century. Indeed, it contains features which are foreign
to that age; besides, ix, 9, reads as if the “daughter of Zion”
had no king at the time the words were uttered. The resem-
blances enumerated under (10) may be explained satisfactorily
on the assumption that the author of chapters ix—xi was
acquainted with other prophetic books. Argument (7) also
is without much force. The first two passages (xi, 4, and
584 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

xi, 5) might equally well describe the troubled conditions in
postexilic times, as they are pictured in the books of Ezra and
Nehemiah; xi, 8, cannot be fitted into the eighth century
without importing a ruler of whom no hint is given anywhere
in the Old Testament. Argument (5) does not necessarily
point to the preéxilic period. If the staff “Bands” signifies
not a united nation, but, as is even more probable, the promise
of a reunion (see on xi, 14), the reference would fit equally
well into the postexilic period. The expectation of a reunion
of the north and south is a common feature of postexilic
prophecy (see on viii, 13); xi, 14, speaks of the destruction
of the hope pointing to a final complete reunion between north
and south, which was an essential condition of ultimate tri-
umph. Again, (2) does not prove a preéxilic date; at the
most it permits it. The statements receive a much more
natural interpretation if applied to the exiles of both north
and south. The remaining arguments also are inconclusive.
(1) Do ix, 10, 18; x, 6, really prove that the kingdoms of
Ephraim and Judah are still in existence? In ix, 10, the
prophet speaks of the Messianic age; but the restoration of
both kingdoms in connection with the dawn of the Messianic
age is expected by all the prophets. All that the prophet
assumes is the completion of the restoration, to which he
looks forward with a yearning assurance. Surely, there is no
reason for doubting that in the various returns beginning with
537 many descendants of northern families returned to Pales-
tine. This passage again does not militate against a post-
exilic date. This leaves but three closely related arguments,
(3), (4) and (6). The occurrence of the name Assyria does
not prove the existence of Assyria as a world power, for the
name is used of Babylon (Lam. v, 6) and of Persia (Ezra vi,
22), and at a later time of Syria. The power of Assyria made
such deep and permanent impression upon the Jews that the
name was retained as a designation of the powerful successors
of Assyria, long after the fall of Assyria itself. So it may be
used in this passage. With this usage may be compared the
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. 585

 

expression “land of Omri’ or “house of Omri,” found as a
designation of Israel on the Assyrian inscriptions long after
the death of Omri himself. Egypt may be mentioned as the
typical oppressor of Israel (see on Joel, p. 189), or it may
be the Egypt of the Ptolemies. Syria, Phoenicia, and Philis-
tia are, indeed, condemned by Amos for their cruelties. It
is noteworthy, however, that in ix, 1-7, these nations are not
spoken of as present enemies of Judah; but even if they were
mentioned as such, the possibility of a postexilic date would
not be excluded. The Philistines continued their hostility
down to the Maccabean period; Phoenicia is denounced by
Ezekiel, and there is good reason for supposing that our pas-
sage is dependent on Ezek. xxviii, 1-5; Hadrach, Hamath,
and Damascus might be mentioned in postexilic times as well
as in the eighth century B.C.

All the points alluded to here but briefly are discussed at
length by Robinson, and he reaches the conclusion, which
seems well founded, that every passage quoted in favor of a
preéxilic date receives an equally satisfactory, or even more
satisfactory, explanation when assigned to a postexilic date.
On the other hand, some of the evidence in favor of a postexilic
date, especially that mentioned under (1), (4), (5), receives
no natural explanation if a preéxilic date is assumed. We
may conclude, therefore, that chapters ix—xi were written in
the postexilic period by a prophet who was thoroughly familiar
with the more ancient sacred writings of his people, and who
may have availed himself to a large extent of preéxilic material.

2. Chapters XII—XIV. The defenders of the preéxilic
date of these chapters assign them almost universally to the
years between 608 and 586 B.C. In favor of this date the
following reasons are advanced: (1) The earthquake in
Uzziah’s reign appears to be quite fresh in the memories of
the people (xiv, 5). (2) The same is true of the death of
Josiah (xii, 11). (3) Chapter xiv, 18, presupposes hostility
against Judah on the part of Egypt, which was true of the
reigns of Josiah and Jehoiakim. (4) Chapter xii, 10, is best
586 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

interpreted as a reference to the persecutions under Manasseh
(2 Kings xxi). (5) Chapter xiii, 2-6, makes it clear that
idolatry and false prophecy are prevalent (compare Jer. xxiii,
9ff.). (6) The northern kingdom has disappeared from the
scene; all interest is centered in Judah and Jerusalem. Atten-
tion is called also to the mention of Geba (xiv, 10), the north-
ern boundary of Judah. (7%) The references to the “house
of David” (xii, 7, 8, 10, 12) indicate that the kingdom of
Judah is still in existence. (8) The predictions of the siege
and doom of Jerusalem (xii, 2ff.; xiv, 2ff.) are best explained
as pointing to the impending destruction of the city by the
Chaldeans.

Again the arguments fail to establish the position taken by
the defenders of a preéxilic date. Some of the passages quoted
as proving a preéxilic date receive a more natural explanation
if a postexilic date is assumed; the others can be explained
equally well as coming from that period. (1) If the prophecy
is dated after 608 the earthquake must have occurred about
one hundred and fifty years before, so that a personal reminis-
cence is excluded; but if the earthquake was terrible enough
to leave a vivid impression for one hundred and fifty years
it might certainly be remembered for many years more (see
further on xiv, 5). (2) The reference in xii, 11, is uncer-
tain; but even if the passage refers to the mourning for
Josiah it does not establish the preéxilic date. The tragic
death of the reformer king was remembered for centuries, as
is proved by the account which 2 Chron. xxxv, 25, gives of
the public mourning for the king. It is distinctly stated that
the custom was continued “unto this day,” that is, about 350
B.C. (3) Chapter xiv, 18, neither says nor implies anything
concerning the hostility of Egypt; the latter is named for
an entirely different reason (see comment). (4) Ib is mere
assumption to connect xii, 10, with the persecutions under
Manasseh or with the murder of Uriah by Jehoiakim (Jer.
xxvi, 20ff.). It is much more natural to connect it with the
events described in xi, 9ff. (5) False prophecy (xiii, 2-6)
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. 587

 

was not unknown in the postexilic period (Neh. vi, 10ff.).
Concerning the condemnation of idolatry Kirkpatrick says,
“The prediction of the final extirpation of idolatry appears
to be a repetition of Hosea’s prediction (ii, 17), and does not
necessarily imply the prevalence of idolatry” (compare Isa.
Ixv, 1ff.). (6) There is no reference to the northern king-
dom, but this silence proves only that the northern kingdom
was destroyed, which is equally true of the postexilic period;
the mention of Judah, however, does not prove the existence
of the southern kingdom, for the postexilic community is
often called Judah, as chapters i—viii clearly show. (7) The
“house of David” is mentioned, but there is no reference to a
king; and 1 Chron. iii, 17-24; Ezra viii, 2, prove that the
descendants of David were reckoned as a distinct family as
late as the time of the Chronicler. On the other hand, the
manner in which the “house of Levi’ is codrdinated with the
“house of David” in xii, 12ff., points to the postexilic period,
when for the first time the civil and ecclesiastical rulers pos-
sessed equal authority. (8) The coloring of chapters xii,
xiv is more in accord with the apocalyptic pictures of Joel and
Daniel than with any predictions of the fall of Jerusalem
found in Jeremiah or other preéxilic writings.

As in the case of chapters ix—xi, we find, then, that the
evidence for the preéxilic date of chapters xii—xiv is not con-
clusive. In addition a few facts in favor of the late date may
be pointed out: (1) The prominence given to the priestly
family (xii, 12, 18). (2) The prominent place assigned to
the feast of tabernacles (xiv, 16). (3) The dependence of the
section upon earlier prophecies (compare chapters xii, xiv with
Ezek. xxxviii, xxxix; xiv, 8-11, with Ezek. xlvii, 1-12; xii, 1,
with Isa. li, 13). (4) The apocalyptic tone of the entire sec-
tion. The evidence may not be as extensive and decisive as in
chapters ix—xi, but it is definite enough to make it more than
probable that these chapters also are of a postexilic date.

Can the exact date or dates of chapters ix—xiv be deter-
mined? Kirkpatrick is content with saying, “In so difficult a
588 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

question it is necessary to speak with hesitation; but at present
it seems to me that these chapters belong to the same class
of apocalyptic-eschatological prophecy as Isa. xxiv—xxvii, and
may with considerable probability be assigned to the same
period, the first sixty or seventy years after the. return.”
Wellhausen dates ix—xi + xiii, 7-9, in the first part of the
second century, xii—xiv in the “Maccabean period,” which
means, at about the same time. Nowack, who divides the
section into four independent parts, assigns ix, 1—xi, 3, to the
period “subsequent to Alexander the Great.” Of xi, 4-17 +
xiii, 7-9, he says, “This alone may be regarded as beyond
doubt, that we are directed to a time after the exile,” though
he refers favorably to Wellhausen’s suggestion that the passage
may reflect the incidents of the last decade preceding the
Maccabean uprising. Of xii, 1—xiii, 6, and chapter xiv he is
unwilling to say more than that they belong to the later post-
exilic times, chapter xiv after Malachi. Marti thinks that the
entire section, with the possible exception of x, 1, 2, originated
in the year 160 B.C.

The uncertainty is due, in part, to our ignorance concerning
the greater part of the postexilic period; in part, to the
indefiniteness of the data supplied by the chapters themselves.
There is, indeed, only one reference that furnishes some sort
of a foothold. Joel, about 400 B.C., mentions the Greeks as
a distant nation (iii, 6); in Zech. ix, 13—there is insufficient
reason for regarding the words “thy sons of Greece” a later
interpolation (see comments)—they appear as a foe with
whom Judah may come in conflict at any moment. This
would fit the period preceding the Syrian campaign of Alex-
ander, about 333 B.C. It has been suggested, however, that
“Greece” in this passage might mean the Syrian empire of
the Seleucide, which was formed after the death of Alexan-
der, and that the reference might be to the struggles between
Judah and the Seleucide leading to the Maccabean troubles.
“Assyria” (see p. 584) would then be another name for the
same power, while Egypt (x, 11) would be the empire of the
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. 589

 

Ptolemies. Damascus, Hadrach, and Hamath (ix, 1, 2) might
be mentioned as principal cities of the Seleucid empire; the
three shepherds (xi, 8) might be three leaders of the foreign
armies, cut off in these struggles, or, if the prophecy is brought
down late enough, they might be three high priests—Marti
suggests Lysimachus, Jason, and Menelaus—cut off in the
troublesome days connected with the Maccabean uprisings.
Everything seems to work out beautifully, and yet one must
never forget that conjecture plays a large part in these attempts
of fixing an exact date. On the basis of ix, 13, we may be
justified in assigning at least chapters ix—xi to a date not
earlier than 350 B.C., but beyond that we can hardly go with
confidence. To bring the chapters down to 160 B.C. would
make it difficult to account for their position in the prophetic
canon, which was apparently completed in the days of Jesus
ben Sirach, about 180 B.C. It would also seem strange that
one and the same power should be called both Greece and
Assyria. If chapters xii—xiv come from the same author,
they must come from the same period; if they are assigned
to a different author, their date must remain uncertain, for the
data in these three chapters are even less decisive than in
ix—xi. If xiv, 1, is dependent on Mal. iv, 6, as has been
suggested, though with little probability, the chapters would
be later than Malachi, about 450 B.C.

If chapters ix—xiv do not come from the author of chap-
ters i—viii, how is it that at present they form a part of the
Book of Zechariah? To this question no entirely satisfac-
tory answer has been found, though the following explanation,
which is accepted very widely, has much in its favor. Zech.
ix—xi; xii—xiv; Mal. i—iv, have similar titles (compare ix,
i; xii, 1; Mal. i, 1). The three sections are thought to have
come into the hand of the collector of the Minor Prophets as
three separate anonymous writings. He would naturally place
them at the end of the collection; in so doing he prefixed
to Zech. xii, 1, and Mal. i, 1, titles similar to the one prefixed
to Zech. ix, 1, or, some think, he originated all three titles.
590 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

Mal. iii, 1, contains the phrase “my messenger,” Heb. Maleakht,
equivalent to the English Malachi. This messenger the col-
lector identified with the author of the book, and understand-
ing the Hebrew form as a proper noun, the name of the
author, he made it a part of the title. As a result Malachi
came to be regarded as a separate book; the two remaining
pieces, still anonymous, in the course of time came to be
counted as a part of the preceding book, whose author was
given. This may be the correct explanation, but much uncer-
tainty remains.

It is hardly necessary to add that, whatever the date or
dates, and whoever the author or authors, the inspiration or
authority of Zech. ix—xiv is in no wise affected by the uncer-
tainty. “A moment’s reflection,” says T. T. Perowne, “will
suffice to convince us that it is quite possible to acknowledge
unreservedly as an integral part of God’s written word, and
to reverence accordingly, a book of which the authorship is
uncertain or unknown.”

Contents and Outline of the Book.

1. Contents—The Book of Zechariah opens with an appeal
in which the prophet urges the people to return to Jehovah.
He reinforces this appeal by pointing to the experiences of the
fathers, who were severely punished when they refused to
listen to prophetic exhortations. Disobedience on the part of
the present generation may bring to it a similar fate, for the
word of Jehovah abides forever (i, 1-6).

About three months after the delivery of the first message
there came to the prophet in one single night a series of eight
symbolical visions, the significance of which was explained to
him by a heavenly interpreter (i, 7—vi, 8). All these vi-
sions are linked together by a common purpose, “the encourage-
ment of the Jews to continue the work of restoring the temple,
of rebuilding the city, and of reéstablishing the theocratic
government.” The first vision—the angelic horsemen—is
intended to assure the community that, though the shaking
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. 591

 

of the nations (Hag. ii, 7, 8), which was to be preliminary
to the restoration of the divine grace and mercy to Zion, was
still delayed, it will surely come, and Jehovah will return to
his city and people with an abundance of mercies (7-17).

On the one hand, the message of the first vision is one of
encouragement to the Jews; on the other, one of judgment
to the nations. These two aspects are expanded in the second
and third visions respectively. The second—the four horns
and the four smiths—pictures the judgment upon the nations
that have ill-treated the chosen people (18-21). The third—
the man with the measuring line—describes the glorious
restoration. Jerusalem is to be rebuilt and repopulated, Jeho-
vah will return to live in Zion, and many nations will join
themselves to the redeemed community (ii, 1-13).

In the fourth vision—the trial of the high priest—Zechariah
sees the high priest Joshua standing before the angel of Jeho-
vah; at his right hand stands the adversary, ready to present
accusations against him. After a rebuke is administered to
the adversary the angel of Jehovah instructs the servants to
take from Joshua the filthy garment with which he is clothed,
and to clothe him instead with the rich garments of the high-
priestly office, including the miter. Then he instructs Joshua
in the duties and responsibilities of the office to which he is
restored, and promises him access to the Most High, if he
will discharge his duties faithfully. The angel declares also
that the high priest and his fellows are a sign of the coming
of “Branch,” who will remove iniquity from the land in one
day and will restore peace and prosperity forever (iii, 1-10).

The experience of the high priest described in these verses
was of deep significance to him, but its symbolic meaning is
more comprehensive. Since he is the representative of the
people before Jehovah, his experiences vitally affect the whole
nation; and his purification in the vision symbolizes the moral
and spiritual regeneration of the whole people, which must
take place if the new community would be in a real sense the

people of God.
592 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

The fifth vision—the golden candlestick and the two olive
trees—is a message of encouragement to Zerubbabel. The
prophet sees a golden candlestick with seven lamps; on top
it has a reservoir of oil which is connected with the lamps
through pipes. Beside it stood two olive trees; from two
overhanging branches of these trees oil flowed without inter-
ruption to supply the reservoir and the lamps (iv, 1-14). It
may be difficult to determine the meaning of every feature of
this vision, but its general purpose is clear. “It is intended
to encourage Zerubbabel in the work of rebuilding the temple
by impressing upon him the truth that, as that candlestick
gave forth its light in silent, ceaseless splendor, unfed and
untended by human agencies, so the work in which he was
engaged” should surely be accomplished through the divine
Spirit’s codperation with him. The mountains of difficulty
will be brought low, and he will carry his divinely appointed
task to completion.

The sixth and seventh visions—the flying roll, and the
woman in the ephah—serve similar ends. In the sixth vision
the prophet beholds flying through the air an immense roll
symbolizing the curse of God upon evil doers of every kind.
He is informed that the roll will enter the house of every
man and consume it utterly (v, 1-4). The removal of all
iniquity is promised in iii, 9; this vision indicates one method
by which it is accomplished, the destruction of the wicked.
In the seventh vision the prophet sees an ephah, in which sits
a woman; upon its mouth is a cover. Two women with wings
lift up the ephah and carry it through the air. Upon inquiry
he is told that the woman is to be deposited in the land of
Shinar (v, 5-11). As the vision unfolds the interpreting angel
explains its symbolical meaning. The woman represents wick-
edness, which is to be removed from the land (iii, 9). She is
fastened securely in the ephah, but to reduce the danger of
pollution to a minimum she is to be carried to the far-distant
Shinar, there to be established forever.

In the eighth and last vision—the four chariots—the prophet
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. 593

 

beholds four chariots, drawn by horses of various colors, com-
ing out from between two mountains. They are commissioned
to go in different directions throughout the whole earth; the
most important mission is intrusted to the chariot going toward
the north country (vi, 1-8). The details of the vision are
somewhat obscure, but its chief purpose is clear. It is to bring
assurance to the prophet that Jehovah is about to execute
judgment upon the nations hostile to him and to his people.
The “northerner” will suffer most.

With vi, 8, the series of visions comes to an end. In vi,
9ff., the prophet is urged to perform a symbolical act. This
act is so closely connected with the preceding visions that it
seems best to regard vi, 9-15, a kind of appendix to the visions.
Zechariah is instructed to adorn the high priest Joshua with
a crown, made of the silver and gold sent by the exiles from
Babylon, and to proclaim him as the type of “Branch,” who
is to carry to completion the building of the temple and is
to sit on the throne, and whose fame will be so glorious that
people from afar will come and assist in the enterprise (vi,
9-15).

Chapters vii and viii deal with the relative importance of
moral and ceremonial requirements. In the fourth year of
King Darius, nearly two years after the date mentioned in
i, 7, a deputation came to the prophet to inquire whether or
not it was still obligatory to observe the fasts instituted in
commemoration of events connected with the destruction of
Jerusalem (vii, 1-3). In reply the prophet points out that
fasting is not an essential element of true religion; it is of
value only as a means to an end, and as an expression of heart
piety (4-6). He turns the attention of the inquirers to the
real requirements of Jehovah, for whose disregard their fathers
had brought upon themselves awful judgments. From these
experiences of the past the present generation should learn a
lesson, lest worse things come upon it (7-14). Reaffirming
Jehovah’s jealousy for Zion, the prophet then pictures the
prosperity and glory in store for Jerusalem (viii, 1-17). When
594 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

 

that {ime arrives the question of fasts will solve itself; they
will be transformed into seasons of festivity, to which multi-
tudes will gather from all parts of the Jand; even foreign
nations will gladly and anxiously join themselves to the Jews
in their felicity (18-23),

With ix, 1, beging the second main division of the Book of
Zechariah (chapters ix—xiv), consisting of several utterances,
which are only loosely connected, chiefly apocalyptic in charac-
ter, and all dealing with the events Jeading up to the final
triumph of the kingdom of God.

The section opens with an announcement of judgment upon
the nations surrounding Judah; they will perish, while Jeru-
salem will remain unharmed (ix, 1-8). The judgment is
thought of as proceeding from the north or northeast. Syria,
represented by Hadrach, Damascus, and Hamath, will suffer
first; powerful and proud Phmnicia will come next (1-4);
from there the invader will pass down the Maritime Plain and
crush Philistia. Its pure-blooded population will be slain or
carried into exile; a “bastard” race will take its place, which
in time will join the Jews in the worship of the true God
(5-7). While these events transpire Jerusalem will rest in
safety (8).

The events pictured in verses 1-§ are preparatory to the
coming of the Messianic king to Zion, his capital, where he
will reign in righteousness and peace (9, 10). The captives
in exile at that time will be restored (11, 12); Jehovah will
use the restored exiles to confound the hostile nations (13,
14); the struggle will be bloody, but Jehovah will deliver his
people and exalt them to glory (15-17).

Chapter x is joined closely to chapter ix by x, 1, 2. Chapter
ix, 17, contains a promise of future exaltation; but the
prophet, while anticipating the glories of the future, is anxious
to transform the present, and in x, 1, 2, he exhorts his con-
temporaries to turn even now to Jchovah, the giver of every
good and perfect gift, for the idols can render no assistance.

The allusion to the “shepherd” in verse 2 prepares the way

 
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. 595

 

for the next oracle (x, 3—xi, 3), which is, however, inde-
pendent of the preceding verses. “When Israel lost its own
shepherds it came under the tyranny of bad shepherds,” that
is, of representatives of foreign powers, who oppressed the peo-
ple of Jehovah. These Jehovah will cut off, for he has deter-
mined to deliver the oppressed flock (3). Judah and Ephraim
will be transformed into mighty men, able to throw off the
yoke of the enemy (4-7). Jehovah will bring the exiles from
Egypt and Assyria, and, while the latter will be humiliated,
the restored community will live in prosperity and felicity
(8-12). Then the chosen people will rejoice in their own
glorification, while the humiliated hostile powers will wail and
lament over their utter undoing (xi, 1-3).

In xi, 4ff., the prophet takes a look into the past. In the
form of an allegory he describes Jehovah’s dealings with his
people, the ingratitude of the latter, his wrath and the result-
ing judgment. Jehovah appointed a good shepherd to give
loving care and protection to the flock of slaughter, which
Jehovah had determined to deliver from its oppressors (4-6) ;
but the flock was so unappreciative (7, 8) that finally the
shepherd decided to discontinue his shepherding care (9-14).
The result was disastrous, for Jehovah gave the flock into the
hands of a foolish shepherd, who not only neglected the sheep
but abused and destroyed them to satisfy his own lust (15, 16).
This condition, the prophet declares, will not continue forever ;
the foolish shepherd will be slain, and though a large part of
the flock will be cut off as punishment for the treatment
accorded to the good shepherd, one third will be preserved,
purified, and restored to Jehovah’s favor (xi, 17; xiii, 7-9).

A new beginning is made with xii, 1. The remaining por-
tion of the book falls naturally into two parts: xii, 1—xiii, 6,
and xiv, 1-21. The former falls naturally into three divisions :
xii, 1-9; xii, 10-14; xiii, 1-6. The first of these pictures a
marvelous deliverance of Judah and Jerusalem. The prophet
beholds the nations of the earth gathered around Jerusalem to
besiege it; Jehovah smites them with terror; when the chief-
596 INTRODUCTION TQ THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

tains of Judah see the panic and recognize that Jehovah is
fighting for the capital, they rise against the enemies and
overwhelm them completely. Jehovah saves the “tents of
Judah” first, to prevent the inhabitants of Jerusalem from
magnifying themselves over those living outside the city, but
Jerusalem also is gloriously saved (1-9).

The blessings vouchsafed in xii, 1-9, are purely temporal
and physical. From the triumph in battle the prophet turns
to the spiritual blessings that will be the possession of the
people of God; but in order to enjoy these fully they must
pass through a process of spiritual preparation. When they
become fully conscious of the depth of the divine mercy
manifesting itself in the wonderful deliverance described in
verses 1-9, they will be seized by a heartfelt sorrow for all past
sins, and in deep humility they will prostrate themselves before
Jehovah (10-14).

The penitential mourning and supplication will not be in
vain. Jehovah will remove all sin and uncleanness and will
work a complete moral and spiritual transformation in the
inhabitants of Judah and Jerusalem. A life of intimate fellow-
ship with God will follow, and everything that in any way
might hinder the most direct fellowship with him will be swept
away; even prophecy as a distinct office will be removed (xiii,
1-6).

In chapter xiv the prophet pictures a new conflict between
Jerusalem and the nations. In xii, 1-9, the nations are de-
scribed as being smitten before they can capture the city;
here “the city shall be taken, and the houses rifled, and the
women ravished; and half of the city shall go forth into cap-
tivity” (1, 2). Only when these things have happened will
Jehovah appear to save a remnant and to set up his king-
dom (3-7). From Jerusalem will go forth two streams of
living water, which will cover the whole land with blessing
and fertility (8-11). The nations that have warred against
Jerusalem will be smitten, and the treasures of their camp
will fall into the hands of the Jews (12-15). Those who
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. 597

 

escape will turn to Jehovah (16); any who fail to do him
proper homage will be smitten with drought (17-19), but
Judah and Jerusalem with their inhabitants and their posses-
sions will be “holy unto Jehovah” (20, 21).

2. Outline. —
I. MESSAGES OF EXHORTATION, OF CONSOLATION, AND OF ENCOURAGE-
MENT TO THE CONTEMPORARIES OF ZECHARIAH, Chaps. i, 1—vili, 23

1. Call to repentance....... ccc e cece eect e eee eeee i, 1-6
2. Hight night visions......... siateieee so seeeeeeed, T—Vvi, 8
(1) The angelic horsemen...............+ i, 7-17
(2) The four horns and the four smiths...i, 18-21
(3) The man with the measuring line..... ii, 1-13
(4) Trial and acquittal of the high priest Joshua,

SSbeuase eva isend ancceneuas GS araseyah ste tach ca eevee iii, 1-10
(5) The golden candlestick and the two olive trees,
CAE Ba RARE sais ekardle'S! ausieisabvate verde wel Vg UAL
(6) The flying roll... ... ccc ecw eee e eee e ee eV, 14
(7) The woman in the ephah.............. v, 5-11
(8) The four chariots with horses of different col-
OLS aisha eS taiee Seto heks Egied spare ate daech Ox Bee vi, 1-8

3. The symbolic crowning of the high priest Joshua, vi, 9-15
4. The relative importance of moral and ceremonial re-
quirements. ....... ccc cece eee eee eee vii, 1—viii, 23

(1) Occasion of the prophetic utterance....vii, 1-3

(2) Fasting not an essential element of true reli-

VOD yd iv aslatcasielahseote a alana ara ares aera vii, 4-6

(3) The true requirements of Jehovah—Disregard

of them is always followed by severe pun-

ISHMCNE e335 ecae easels ews Ge See vii, 7-14

(4) The time of redemption is at hand... .viii, 1-8

(5) Message of encouragement and admonition...

SnuA Wepbat dette aera ivan gunraoersauns annus eee viii, 9-17

(6) Fasting to be changed into rejoicing, viii, 18-23

II. THE FINAL TRIUMPH OF THE KINGDOM OF GOD...... ix, 1—xiv, 21

1. Oracles dealing with the establishment of the new the-
OCTACY i e005 sae eoeeaie sia eles eee. -ix, 1—xi, 17; xiii, 7-9

(1) Judgment upon the surrounding nations; pres-

ervation of Jerusalem............. ix, 1-8

(3) Deliverance and exaltation of the Jews......
baie aisha toa antesie We: Sysona sor el acos oiaar cute andoualve So! 9.3 ix, 11-17
(4) Exhortation to return to Jehovah......x, 1, 2
598 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

(5) Restoration of the Jews and overthrow of the

hostile nations................65 x, 3—xi, 3
(a) Rejuvenation of Ephraim and Judah,
isa ahaa at Rk py ae Baath ah ate naa ob ma x, OT
(b) Restoration of the exiles from As-
Syria and Hgypt............ x, 8-12
(c) Lamentation of the humiliated ene-
TNIOS yore epaicie dis eae yi. dlane solace xi, 1-3

(6) Allegory of the good shepherd........ xi, 4-14

(a) The shepherd’s loving care....xi, 4-6
(b) The people’s lack of appreciation...

(7) Allegory of the foolish shepherd.......... sists
Svea sw Ghabd Cea honieveneosee aioe xi, 15-17; xiii, 7-9
(a) Conduct of the foolish shepherd.....
inboy ed Bea eed awe ee AAS xi, 15, 16
(b) Overthrow of the foolish shepherd. .

(c) Fate of the shepherd’s flock. .xiii, 7-9
2. Various utterances concerning the future of Israel......
Speier ape suanras a cahanirec oes eels es xii, 1—xiv, 21 (exc. xiii, 7-9)
(1) Marvelous deliverance of Judah and Jerusa-

(3) Purification of Jerusalem; removal of all hin-
drances to direct communion with God...

GOD iccsneeicoret sete ttuched tas aradthe shows xiv, 1-21

(d) Destruction of the hostile nations....
Sraachinterap es dese eeeaeaseoaad MEV, 12°15
(e) Conversion of a remnant of the na-
HONSs 645 dese os tieek eas . .Xiv, 16-19
(f) Judah and Jerusalem holy unto Jeho-
VEL icine eave Sa pairs aeXlVs, 2031
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. 599

 

Teaching of the Book.

For the sake of convenience and clearness the two great
divisions, chapters i—viii and chapters ix—xiv, may be con-
sidered separately :

I. Chapters I—VIII,—1. Zechariah differs widely from the
great prophets who preceded him, in three points: (1) In the
emphasis which he places upon visions as a means of divine
communication; (2) in the apocalyptic symbolism which
enters into the visions; (3) in the large place occupied by
angelic mediation in his intercourse with Jehovah. The first
two concern chiefly the form of revelation, only the last may
be considered an element of his teaching. In the Book of
Zechariah we have in embryo some of the ideas which are
found in a fuller stage of development in the later Jewish
and in the New Testament angelology. Here we meet also the
beginning of the tendency so widespread in the later Juda-
ism, which considered Jehovah too sacred to come into direct
contact with human beings and removed him so far away
from man that direct communion with him came to be thought
of as almost impossible. Even prophecy seems to have lost
in a measure its sense of immediate communion with God.
The prophet receives his instruction through an angel, who
acts as intermediary, interpreter, and guide. Angels appear
in the unfolding of the visions, they carry forward the events
symbolized, and they are active participants in the working
out of human history. Here also is used for the first time
in prophecy the noun “Satan.” With Zechariah the word
is not yet a proper name; a literal reproduction of the phrase
in iii, 1, is “the adversary” (see margin), it becomes a proper
noun only in 1 Chron. xxi, 1; but “the adversary” of Zecha-
riah is closely related to “the adversary” who plays such
important part in the prologue to the Book of Job, to “Satan”
—now a proper name—in 1 Chron. xxi, 1, and to the New
Testament Satan.

2. Worthy of note is also the unique place which the tem-
ple occupies in the thought of the prophet. From beginning
600 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

to end Zechariah pleads for the rebuilding of the house of
Jehovah, and his sublimest promises center around the com-
pleted temple. With him the rebuilding of the dwelling place
of Jehovah is an indispensable condition of the arrival of the
Messianic era. “As the commencement of the judgment for-
merly showed itself when the glory of Jehovah was seen by
Ezekiel (Ezek. x) to forsake the temple, so upon the day
when Jehovah once more makes his abode with his people all
the distress of the time shall come to an end; in short, this
dwelling of Jehovah in the temple is the sine qua non of the
dawn of the Messianic age.” This high estimation of the
temple and the priesthood, and so of the externals of religion,
is not the outgrowth of lower spiritual conceptions, but rather
of a clear appreciation of the needs of the hour. The Jews
had not yet reached the stage of religious and spiritual de-
velopment when they could afford to discard forms and sym-
bols; they needed the temple as a symbol of the presence of
Jehovah. Besides, in an age when religion was the only bond
that united the heterogeneous elements in the postexilic com-
munity, it was needed as a common place of worship. Con-
tinued existence without a temple would have resulted, human-
ly speaking, in the loss of true religion to the world. The
fullness of time, when people would worship Jehovah “neither
in this mountain nor in Jerusalem,” but everywhere in spirit
and in truth, had not yet arrived.

3. Of importance are also the Messianic hopes of Zechariah.
The temple plays a prominent part, but only as an earnest of
better things to come; the high priest and his fellows receive
honor, but only as a sign of one greater than they, of “Branch.”
Around the person of this Branch center the Messianic hopes
of Zechariah. It is he who shall complete the building of the
temple, who shall have constant access to Jehovah, who shall
reign in peace forever. The prophet identifies this “Branch”
with Zerubbabel (iv, 7); in his person, therefore, a descend-
ant of David comes once more to the front, destined to occupy
a prominent place in the kingdom of God. The blessings of
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. 601

 

the Messianic age will be both temporal (for example, i, 17;
li, 4, 5) and spiritual (for example, ii, 10; iii, 9); they will
be enjoyed primarily by the Jews, but not by them exclusively.
True, some of the nations are destined to be “a spoil to those
that served them,” but the prophet anticipates also the con-
version of the nations: “And many nations shall join them-
selves. to Jehovah in that day, and shall be my people” (ii, 11).

4, Zechariah has been accused of being the teacher of a
heartless and unspiritual formalism. An unbiased study of
his prophecies proves this accusation to be false, for he teaches
plainly that forms and ceremonies are not essential elements
of true religion (compare vii, viii). His conception of
the requirements of Jehovah is indicated in these words:
“Speak ye every man the truth with his neighbor; execute
the judgment of truth and-peace in your gates; and let none
of you devise evil in your hearts against his neighbor; and
love no false oath: for all these are things that I hate,
saith Jehovah” (viii, 16, 17). He values forms and cere-
monies only as means of grace, by the use of which men
may be led into purer and nobler lives. His conception of
the Messianic age includes the removal of sin from the land
and from the people (chapters iii and v). The people, the
city, the land, all must be holy, not only in a ceremonial but
in an ethical sense as well, in order to enjoy the presence of
Jehovah and become partakers in his blessing.

5. Another truth constantly emphasized by Zechariah is
that the ultimate triumph is dependent on the divine co-
operation. “Not by might, nor by power, but by my Spirit,
saith Jehovah of hosts” (iv, 6). These words have reference
primarily to the rebuilding of the temple, but the same
thought pervades the prophecy from beginning to.end. Only
as Jehovah gives his support can the people be restored to
their own land, there to live in joy and felicity forever.

II. Chapters [IX—XIV.—tThe teaching of these chapters
differs materially from that of chapters i—viii. The angels
disappear entirely; in chapters i—viii the interest centers
602 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

around the building of the temple and the restored community
during the latter part of the sixth century, in chapters ix—xiv
the interest centers around other things. Differences may be
noted also in the Messianic ideas and ideals of the two sections
(compare iii, 8; vi, 12, 13, with ix, 9, 10; chapter viii with
chapter xiv) as well as in the picture of the nation’s future
(compare i, 21; ii, 8-11; viii, 7, 8, with xii, 2ff.; xiv, 1ff.). The
last-named differences arise largely from the fact that while
the prophecies in i—viii are closely connected with the condi-
tions of the Jewish community during the reign of Darius,
and aim to meet the needs of that day, the utterances in
ix—xiv cut themselves loose from these conditions, and to a
large extent from all present historical surroundings—though
there can be no doubt that historical events form the back-
ground of the prophet’s picture—and deal almost exclusively
with the consummation of the kingdom of God “in that day,”
and with the events leading up to the same. The entire sec-
tion is essentially apocalyptic and eschatological.

We may follow Kirkpatrick in grouping the distinctive
teaching of chapters ix—xiv around four topics, even though
we may be compelled to reject, in some cases, his interpreta-
tion. These topics are: 1. The Messianic king; 2. the rejected
shepherd; 3. the restored and penitent people; 4. the divine
sovereignty.

1. The Messianic King. The person of the Messianic king
appears only in ix, 9, 10, but there very distinctly. The low
estimate which Nowack places upon this passage is not war-
ranted. “The Messianic king,” says he, “still appears, it is
true, in ix, 9f., but he is a comparatively otiose figure which
might be left out without damaging the connection. He is
no longer the leader in the conflict against enemies, but exclu-
sively Prince of Peace, with an extremely passive character.
The conception of the final king had at this time assumed a
pale cast, that it might be able to take on other colors, namely,
those of priest and prophet.” That the verses might be
omitted without damaging the connection is no more true of
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. 603

 

this passage than of other Messianic passages scattered
throughout the Old Testament, and, in fact, of hundreds of
non-Messianic passages. True, he is the prince of peace
rather than the leader in conflict, but that is true of the great
Messianic picture in Isa. ix, 1-7, as well as of other Mes-
sianic utterances of less importance. Again, it is not quite
true that the king assumes a “pale cast”; the description is
quite vivid, and in some respects the conception of ix, 9, 10,
is in perfect accord with that found. in other prophetic books.
He is righteous and peaceful, and his sovereignty will be
recognized throughout the whole land. However, two new
features are introduced, “having salvation, lowly.” The
meaning of the former term may be somewhat uncertain (see
comment on ix, 9), not so the other; its thought is found
in an expanded form in Isa. liii, and it receives a new sig-
nificance when studied in the light of the life and sufferings
of Jesus the Christ.

2. The Rejected Shepherd. In general it may be said that
shepherd in these chapters is e equivalent to ruler, but in dif-
ferent parts of the section the term is applied to different per-
sons of different characters. The passage demanding special
consideration is xi, 4-14, and perhaps xi, 15-17-+ xili, 7-9. In
the former passage Jehovah is represented as commanding the
prophet to take charge of his oppressed flock, to guard and
protect it; but, finding himself unable to carry out his gra-
cious purpose, he finally decides to abandon the flock. A
foolish shepherd takes his place, who neglects and ill-treats
the flock; but he is to be cut off by Jehovah. Notwithstand-
ing all that has been said to the contrary, it seems best to
interpret xiii, 7-9, as describing the fate of the foolish shep-
herd and of his flock (see comments); and yet the passage
still implies that the good shepherd was cruelly rejected, and
xii, 10, which alludes to the fate of the good shepherd (see
comments), calls his rejection a “piercing” of Jehovah.

What is the teaching of this allegory? Undoubtedly the
prophet has in mind prophecies like Jer. xxiii, 1-8; Ezek,
604 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

xxxiv; xxxvii, 24ff., which connect the raising up of the good
shepherd with the Messianic era of the future; at the same
time, it is quite certain that the passage in Zechariah does
not point to the future, but describes Jehovah’s dealings with
Israel in the past; only xi, 17 + xiii, 7-9, point to the future.
Consequently, the rejection of the good shepherd cannot be
made a direct prophecy of the rejection of Jesus, though it
may be regarded as a type of his rejection, just as the good
shepherd himself is a type of the good shepherd of John x.
The allegory contains a most solemn warning how the divine
care and grace may be frustrated by human obstinacy. It
has been done again and again in the past, it has been done
in the immediate past to which the prophecy points; it may
occur again, unless the prophet’s contemporaries take heed.
The promises in chapters ix, x are glorious. Will they be
realized? All will depend upon the attitude of those for
whom the blessings are intended. The sublime and spiritual
fulfillment of the promises was ushered in by Jesus (see at
close of Mic. v), and in carrying out his plan and purpose he
suffered a rejection more bitter than that suffered by the good
shepherd of this prophecy; and even in this day the allegory
stands as a warning describing the far-reaching effects of
human obstinacy.

3. The Restored and Penitent People. As is the case with
other Old Testament prophets, the eschatological hopes of the
author of chapters ix—xiv center around the restored Jewish
community. Some prophets give a more prominent place to
the temporal aspects of the future glory, others to the spiritual
aspects; some give equal prominence to both, implying at
the same time that the temporal prosperity can be enjoyed
in the fullest measure only after a spiritual regeneration has
taken place and Jehovah has reéstablished himself in the midst
of his people. To the last class belongs the author of these
chapters. Chapters ix, x promise the restoration and reunion
of Judah and Ephraim under the rule of the Messianic king,
and the triumph of the reunited nation over all enemies.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH. — 605

 

Chapter xi, 1-3, continues this thought. The rest of the chap-
ter sounds a warning; these triumphs can be theirs only on
certain conditions; their rebellious attitude has frequently
robbed them of Jehovah’s favor; it may do so again, and instead
of immediate salvation additional judgment will be their fate
(xiii, 7-9). Chapter xii, 1-9, and chapter xiv, 1-15, announce
that these judgments will fall upon the community; at the
same time, they promise that in the end the Jews will triumph
over all their enemies and enjoy abundant temporal prosperity.
The pictures in these chapters differ from those employed in
chapters ix, x. Jerusalem is the center; against her the
nations gather for a final onslaught. According to xii, 2ff.,
the destructive blow will fall upon them before they can take
the city; according to xiv, 1ff., the city will meet temporary
defeat; then Jehovah will appear, the nations will be com-
pletely routed, and their wealth will fall into the hands of the
Jews. In both cases final triumph is assured.

However, this triumph and the resulting temporal prosperity
is only one phase of the eschatological hope of the author; xii,
10—xiii, 6, 9; xiv, 20, 21, present the other side. Rich spir-
itual blessings await the redeemed remnant. Uncleanness,
even the spirit of uncleanness (see on xiii, 2), will be taken
away; so also everything that in any way might hinder direct
personal communion with Jehovah. The transformation will
be so complete that both men and things in Judah and Jeru-
salem will be holy unto Jehovah. That ceremonial holiness
should occupy a prominent place in these pictures cannot
appear strange when we remember that all postexilic prophecy
lays great stress upon the externals of religion, but in justice
to the author we should not forget that he is not content with
external cleansing. Chapter xiii, 1ff, implies a great moral
and spiritual regeneration; and the emphasis which he places
upon heartfelt repentance (xii, 10-14) is evidence enough to
show that this author, like the préexilic prophets, has a clear
apprehension of the essentials of true Jehovah religion and of
the divine plan of redemption.
A

606 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF ZECHARIAH.

 

4. The Divine Sovereignty. The author of chapters ix—xiv
is not behind the prophet Zechariah in recognizing that during
the Messianic era Jehovah will be King of all the nations.
True, Jerusalem and Judah will enjoy in a special manner
the divine favor; true, the nations will suffer terrible disas-
ters; but when the last conflict is over, a remnant of the
nations will “worship the King, Jehovah of hosts” (xiv,
16-19). Jehovah will rule in the midst of his people, with
Jerusalem as the center of his realm, and unto this center
many nations will come, saying, “He will teach us of his ways,
and we will walk in his paths. for out of Zion shall go forth
instruction, and the word of Jehovah from Jerusalem.”
ZECHARIAH,

 

CHAPTER I.
N the eighth month, «in the second
year of Darius, came the word
of the Lorp unto Zechariah, the
son of Berechiah, the son of Iddo
the prophet, saying, 2 The Lorp

hath been ‘sore displeased with your
fathers. 3 Therefore say thou unto
them, Thus saith the Lorp of hosts;
Turn cye unto me, saith the Lorp
of hosts, and I will turn unto you,
saith the Lorp of hosts. 4 Be ye

 

a Ezra 4. 24; Hag. 1. 1.——b Ezra 5. 1;
Matt. 28. 35.—-! Heb. with displeasure.

e Jer. 25. 5; 35. 15; Mic. 7. 19; Mal. 3.
7; Luke 15. 20; James 4. 8.

 

CHAPTER I.

1. The title. Eighth month—Called
before the exile Bul (1 Kings vi, 38);
after the exile, by the Babylonian
name Marcheshvan. It corresponds to
the latter part of October and the early
part of November. Second year of
Darius—See on Hag. i, 1. Zechariah
delivered his first message about two
months after Haggai’s first appear-
ance. The day of the month is not
given; some have thought that it has
dropped out accidentally, which may
be possible; but it is by no means cer-
tain that it was there originally.
Zechariah—See Introduction, p. 571.
Son of Berechiah, the son of Iddo—
See Introduction, p. 571 (compare
Ezra v, 1; vi, 14). The prophet—Re-
fers to Zechariah, not to Iddo.

CaLu TO REPENTANCE, 2-6.

In these verses Zechariah urges his
contemporaries to return to Jehovah,
in order that they may enjoy once
more the divine favor. He reinforces
this exhortation by an appeal to the
experiences of their ancestors, who
suffered severe punishments because
they disregarded the teaching of the
prophets. The disobedience of the
present generation may be followed
by a similar catastrophe.

2. At the beginning of his mes-
sage the prophet places the statement
that Jehovah was angry with the

 

fathers. Sore displeased—Literally,
angry with anger. This should serve
as a warning to the present generation.

3. Instead of proceeding directly to
his message, he introduces Jehovah as
commissioning him to issue the call to
repentance. Therefore—Because Je-
hovah was displeased with the fathers
and had withdrawn from them (com-
pare Hos. v, 15). He has not yet re-
turned to the people, but is anxious
to do so; therefore he commissions
Zechariah to urge the people to do
their share in the matter. Unto them
—The contemporaries of the prophet.
Thus saith Jehovah—Repeated three
times in one verse; Haggai also re-
peats the phrase again and again (for
example, Hag. i, 4). Jehovah of
hosts—See on Hos. xii, 5. Turn ye
[‘Return”] unto me—See on Joel ii,
12. In this case the “return” was to
show itself in -the resumption of
building operations on the temple
(Hag. i, 3, 4,9). I will turn [‘‘return”]
—tThe sufferings of the present, such
as the famine (Hag. i, 6) and the op-
position of the surrounding tribes,
were an indication that Jehovah had
not yet returned to his people in
loving-kindness and mercy. He prom-
ises, however, that if they will do their
duty he will once more shower his
blessings upon them.

4-6. Similar appeals were made to
former generations, but they would

607
608

ZECHARIAH.

 

not as your fathers, ‘unto whom
the former prophets have cried,
saying, Thus saith the Lorp of
hosts; ‘Turn ye now from your evil
ways, and from your evil doings: but
they did not hear, nor hearken unto
me, saith the Lorp. 5 Your fath-
ers, where are they? and the proph-
ets, do they live for ever? 6 But

‘my words and my statutes, which
I commanded my servants the
prophets, did they not ?take hold of
your fathers? and they returned and
said, sLike as the Lorp of hosts
thought to do unto us, according to
our ways, and according to our do-
ings, so hath he dealt with us.

7 Upon the four and twentieth

 

4 2; Chron. 36. 15, 16.— Isa. 31. 6; Jer.
3.12; 18.11; Ezek. 18. 30; Hos. 14. 1.

 

fIsa. 55. 1.—? Or, overtake.-—e Lam.
1. 18; 2. 17,

 

not heed; therefore they were cut off.
The former prophets—All the prede-
cessors of Zechariah. They all with
one accord urged the people to hate
the evil and love the good. It is not
necessary to suppose that the prophet
has in mind any particular prophet or
any particular utterance (compare
Hos. xiv, 2; Ezek. xxxiii, 11; 2 Kings
xvii, 13; Amos v, 14). The fathers
did not hearken, and judgment over-
took them. Where are they? ... do
they live forever?—The fathers are
dead and even the prophets have
passed away, but the words which the
latter spoke and the former neglected
proved true, for the threatened de-
struction came. Words—Especially
of threatening (Jer. xxxix, 16; Ezek.
xii, 28). Statutes—Not a legal term
as in Mal. iv, 4, but practically identic-
al with the preceding ‘word’; the
judicial decrees of Jehovah proclaimed
by the prophets. My servants the
prophets—The “former prophets”
(verse 4). The prophets are fre-
quently called the servants of God
or of Jehovah, because it was their
office to execute the purpose of their
divine Master. Take hold of [‘‘over-
take’”’|—The judgments decreed by
Jehovah resemble messengers sent out
by Jehovah to pursue and destroy the
sinners” (Deut. xxviii, 15, 45). The
climax was the exile. They returned
—Though the judgments did not pro-
duce a complete change of heart, they
did open the eyes of the people so
that they recognized that they were
sent by Jehovah in punishment for
their own sins (Lam. ii, 17; Ezra ix,
5ff.). “The experience of the fathers
should teach a lesson to the children.

 

Tus Eicut Nicut Visions, i, 7-vi, 8.

About three months after Zecha-
riah’s first utterance and five months
after building operations on the tem-
ple were resumed (Hag. i, 15) there
came to Zechariah in one single night
a series of symbolical visions. Their
significance was made plain to him by
a heavenly interpreter. The visions
have one common purpose, “the en-
couragement of the Jews to continue
the work of restoring the temple and
rebuilding the city and the reéstab-
lishing of the theocratic government.”

The first vision—the angelic horsemen,
7-17.

Zechariah beholds ‘‘a man riding
upon a red horse” standing among
myrtle trees (7, 8); he is accompanied
by other horsemen who report that
they have “walked to and fro through
the earth, and, behold, all the earth
sitteth still, and is at rest’? (9-11).
Since a “shaking” of the nations must
precede the establishment of the king-
dom of God (Hag. ii, 6, 7; 21, 22),
the report meant that there was no
sign of the approach of the Messianic
era. This is a disappointment to the
angel who receives the report, and he
inquires of Jehovah, “how long wilt
thou not have mercy on Jerusalem
and on the cities of Judah?” (12).
To which Jehovah replies that, though
the shaking may be delayed, his cities
“shall yet overflow with prosperity;
and Jehovah shall yet comfort Zion,
and shall yet choose Jerusalem” (13-
17).

The vision, therefore, is a message
of encouragement to the despondent
people to retain faith in Jehovah, for
CHAPTER I.

609

 

day of the eleventh month, which
is the month Sebat, in the second
year of Darius, came the word of
the Lorp unto Zechariah, the son
of Berechiah, the son of Iddo the
prophet, saying, 8 I saw by night,

and behold 'a man riding upon a red
horse, and he stood among the myr-
tle trees that were in the bottom;
and behind him were there ired
horses, ‘speckled, and white. 9
Then said I, O my lord, what are

 

h Josh. 5. 13; Rev. 6. 4.

iChap. 6. 2-7.—3 Or, bay.

 

he will surely fulfill the Messianic
promises of the past.

Verse 7 gives the date of the vision.
Eleventh month—Called Shebat (see
R. V.); it corresponds to the latter
part of January and the first part of
February. The rest of verse 7 is iden-
tical with verse 1 (see there).

8. I saw—In a vision or trance
(compare Isa. vi), one of the means
by which God communicated his truth
to the prophets (compare Num. xii, 6;
see on Amos vii, 1; Nah. i, 1). By night
—Visions usually came during the
night (1 Sam. iii, 3; 1 Kings iii, 5; Acts
xvi, 9). Since the Hebrew day began
at sunset, this was probably during
the night preceding the twenty-fourth
day. Behold—Calls attention to the
first object that met his eye. The
following appear as dramatis persone
in the first vision: 1. The prophet;
2. The interpreting angel, who is
present in all the visions; 3. The man
riding upon the red horse; 4. The
men riding upon the red, speckled,
and white horses; 5. The angel of
Jehovah; 6. Jehovah himself. A man
riding upon a red horse—This was
the first being observed by the
prophet, but the man was not alone,
he was followed by a group of horse-
men. Among the myrtle trees—The
leader stopped in a grove of myrtle
trees, because there was the one to
whom the report had to be given.
The fact that “the angel of Jehovah”
also was among the myrtle trees is no
reason for identifying the two; the
latter was there first, the former
stopped because the report was in-
tended for the angel. LXX. reads
wrongly, “between the mountains”
(compare vi, 1). That myrtles grew
near Jerusalem is shown by Neh.
viii, 15, where it is said that myrtle
branches were gathered for the feast

 

of tabernacles. In the bottom—The
meaning of the last word is somewhat
obscure; various translations have
been suggested; margin R. V., “shady
place”; but the common rendering is
to be preferred. The reference is
probably to some valley at the foot
of the temple hill, in which was a
myrtle grove, well known to the con-
temporaries of the prophet, though
the spot cannot be identified to-day.
Attempts have been made to assign
symbolical meanings to the myrtle
trees and to the bottom. Keil, for
example, considers the former a “sym-
bol of the theocracy, or of the land of
Judah as a land that was dear and
lovely in the esteem of the Lord’’; of
the latter he says that it ‘‘can be only
a figurative representation of the deep
degradation into which the land and
the people of God had fallen at that
time.’”’ Since the heavenly interpreter
gives no symbolical meaning to these
features, his earthly counterparts may
do well to follow his example; it seems
best to consider these elements mere
incidents in the picture, without spe-
cial symbolical significance. Red...
speckled . . . white—For the second
R. V. reads “‘sorrel.”” The meaning of
the Hebrew so translated is uncertain;
the corresponding Arabic word is used
of chestnut or bay horses, and this is
the meaning which should probably
be given to the Hebrew. Chapter vi,
3, and Rev. vi, 8, to which appeal has
been made by some, are of no assist-
ance in determining the meaning,
since there is no close connection be-
tween them and this passage. What-
ever may be true of other passages,
here the colors are without symbolic
meaning; they are only incidents in-
troduced to make the picture com-
plete.

9. The prophet, who does not under-
610

these? And the angel that talked
with me said unto me, I will show
thee what these be. 10 And the
man that stood among the myrtle
trees answered and said, "These are

k Heb. 1. 14.

ZECHARIAH.

they whom the Lorp hath sent to
walk to and fro through the earth.
11 'And they answered the angel of
the Lorp that stood among the
myrtle trees, and said, We have

1 Psa. 103. 20, 21.

 

stand the vision (compare Amos vii,
1-9), seeks an explanation. O my
lord—The one here addressed must
be the person who replies, the
heavenly interpreter. The angel that
talked with me—He is the constant
companion of the prophet throughout
the entire series of visions; his office
is to interpret to Zechariah what he
sees and hears (verses 9, 13, 14, 19;
ii, 3; iv, 1, 4, 5; v, 10; vi, 4; see Intro-
duction, p. 599). I will show thee—
The angel does not promise a direct an-
swer, but assures the prophet that an
explanation will be given.

10. This explanation is supplied by
the further unfolding of the vision.
The man among the myrtles (verse 8)
is the first to speak. Answered—The
Hebrew verb does not mean neces-
sarily to reply to a question, sometimes
it is used in the sense of begin to speak;
so here. The words are not intended
as a reply to Zechariah; they are ad-
dressed to the “angel of Jehovah”
(verse 11), to whom the man presents
his followers, that they may report
the result of their investigations. The
prophet, as an interested bystander,
could learn the significance of the
vision from this report and from the
dialogue which took place subse-
quently between the angel and Je-
hovah. These—The men upon the
horses of different colors, who are in-
troduced as messengers of Jehovah,
commissioned to “walk to and fro
through the earth.” Their duty
seems to have been purely to find out
conditions and report on them; there
is no indication that they were to in-
terfere in any way with “terrestrial
matters.”

11. Having been presented, the
horsemen make their report; wheth-
er through a spokesman or in
unison is not stated. The angel of

 

Jehovah—Not to be identified with
“man” in verses 8, 10. The angel is
the one who receives the report of the
horsemen, of whom the ‘‘man’”’ is the
leader. Any angel might be called
“angel of Jehovah” (1 Kings xix, 7;
2 Sam. xxiv, 16), but there are pas-
sages in the Old Testament in which
the phrase has a peculiar meaning
(Gen. xxxi, 11-13; Exod. xxiii, 20,
21, etc.). To the latter class belongs
this verse. In these passages the
“angel of Jehovah” is “‘not a created
angel; he is Jehovah himself,” mani-
festing himself without men, that is,
in the external affairs of men, just
as in the Old Testament “spirit of
Jehovah” is Jehovah manifesting him-
self within men (compare A. B. David-
son, The Theology of the Old Testa-
ment, pp. 296ff.). Nowack, on the
basis of verse 12, thinks that this
verse marks an advance over the more
ancient passages, because here the
angel is no longer identified with Je-
hovah, but is separate from and
subordinate to him; and there is much
to be said in favor of this view, but
the testimony of verse 12 is not con-
clusive (see comment). Whether the
ancients ever considered the meta-
physical aspects of this “incarna-
tion,” and if so, what were their exact
notions, we cannot determine, nor
can we speak dogmatically about the
connection between this manifesta-
tion of Jehovah and the divine in-
carnation in the person of Jesus. The
suggestion of some commentators,
that in this passage the “angel of
Jehovah” is identical with the “man
among the myrtle trees,” that the
title “angel of Jehovah” is a later
addition due to « confusion of the
man with the interpreting angel, and
that the original was ‘the man,” is
intended to remove a difficulty, but
CHAPTER I.

611

 

walked to and fro through the earth,
and, behold, all the earth sitteth
still, and is at rest.

12 Then the angel of the Lorp
answered and said, =O Lorp of
hosts, how long wilt thou not have

mercy on Jerusalem and on the
cities of Judah, against which thou
hast had indignation "these three-
score and ten years? 13 And the
Lorp answered the angel that
talked with me with °good words and

 

m Psa. 102.138; Rev. 6. 10.—=® Jer. 25.11,

 

12; Dan. 9. 2; chap. 7. 5. o Jer. 29. 10.

 

the change is not warranted. The
earth sitteth still and is at rest—The
horsemen report that all is peaceful,
undisturbed by war or revolution.
Evidently an allusion to Hag. ii, 6,
7, 21, 22, or at least to the hope ex-
pressed there. The expectation was
that Jehovah would “shake the na-
tions” preliminary to the restoration
of his grace and mercy to Zion. The
people expected a speedy fulfillment
of the Messianic promise; the delay
produced despondency. The report
of the horsemen would intensify the
feeling of disappointment, for while
peace and quietness prevailed the
former promises would not be ful-
filled.

12. The purpose of the vision is to
remove this sense of disappointment
and despondency by a solemn re-
affirmation of the promises of the
past (12-17). It is the angel of Je-
hovah (see on verse 11) who inter-
cedes with Jehovah for Jerusalem and
Judah. The fact that the angel in-
tercedes with Jehovah might be urged
against the identification of the two
(see above); but this representation,
which is figurative, disproves the
identification no more “than the in-
tercessory prayer of Christ in John
xvii is a disproof of his divinity.”
Answered—See on verse 10. The
“angel” understands the true sig-
nificance of the report, and he in-
quires why Jehovah is withholding
his favor, when the allotted time of
his displeasure has come-to an end.
Threescore and ten years—Undoubt-
edly a reference to Jer. xxv, 12; xxix,
10. The former passage was uttered
in the fourth year of Jehoiakim, about
604 B. C.; seventy years from that
date would bring us to about 534, a
few years subsequent to the edict of
Cyrus granting permission to the Jews

 

to return from Babylon, and about
fourteen years before the date of this
vision. If this is the period meant
the disappointment can be understood
very easily. The preéxilic prophets
had connected the sublimest hopes
with the return, but the years imme-
diately following the return of 537
were years of depression and oppres-
sion. Many would ask and did ask,
What has become of the promises of
Jehovah? The angel simply voices
the sentiment of the majority in the
community. However, it is possible
that the beginning of the seventy
years should be placed at the de-
struction of the temple in 586; seventy
years from that date would bring us
to about 516. As the latter date ap-
proached the people would inquire
anxiously whether the promised exal-
tation would materialize. The former
interpretation does justice to the
primary reference, but the fact that
seventy years from the destruction of
the temple were about to expire may
have intensified the expectation as
well as the disappointment.

13. Jehovah answered—Jehovah is
to be identified with Jehovah of hosts
(12). The fact that the reply disre-
gards entirely the angel of Jehovah
favors the identification of the two
(compare Gen. xxxi, 11, 13; Josh. v,
13; vi, 2). The reply is addressed to
the interpreting angel (see on verse
9). Good . . . comfortable—Though
the contents of the divine answer had
to be explained by the angel, the
prophet seems to have understood
from the beginning that the message
was one of cheer. Good—promising
good, salutary (Jer. xxix, 10); com-
fortable, literally, consolations, so
called because they were intended to
cheer the drooping spirit of the
prophet and the community.
612

ZECHARIAH.

 

comfortable words. 14 So the angel
that communed with me said unto
me, Cry thou, saying, Thus saith
the Lorp of hosts; I am Pjealous
for Jerusalem and for Zion with a
great jealousy. 15 And I am very
sore displeased with the heathen
that are at ease: for 11 was but a

little displeased, and they helped
forward the affliction. 16 There-
fore thus saith the Lorp; "] am
returned to Jerusalem with mercies:
my house shall be built in it, saith
the Lorp of hosts, and ‘a line shall
be stretched forth upon Jerusalem.
17 Cry yet, saying, Thus saith the

 

P Joel 2. 18; chap. 8. 2.—4 Isa. 47. 6.

t Isa. 12. 1; 54. 8; chaps. 2. 10; 8. 3.—-
sChap. 2. 1, 2.

 

14-17. The interpreting angel joins
to the interpretation an exhortation
to make the message known to all the
people. Cry thou—So that all may
hear (compare verse 4). Thus saith
Jehovah—The present announcement
is the word of Jehovah as much as the
preéxilic prophecies. I am jealous
... with a great jealousy—See on Joel
ii, 18. The intensity of the divine
emotion is indicated by the addition
“with w great jealousy.” The He-
brew tense implies the continuity of
the divine jealousy. The restoration
from exile was an expression of it, and
even when there was no external
manifestation of it, it was there, and
soon it will show itself again.

15. An inevitable concomitant of
Jehovah’s jealousy for Jerusalem is
his wrath against the nations that
have ill-treated the former. Very sore
displeased—A participial construction
expressing the idea that the wrath is
permanent (compare verse 2). The
heathen that are at ease—R. V., “the
nations.” Their continued peace
(verse 11) and prosperity have made
them self-confident and careless (Isa.
Xxxvil, 29). For—This introduces the
reason for the sore displeasure of Je-
hovah. Though he commissioned
them to execute judgment upon his
people, they went beyond their com-
mission in severity and cruelty (com-
pare Isa. x, 5-7; xlvii, 6). A littleR—
When used adverbially this word is
generally an adverb of time—a little
while. The reference is evidently to
the seventy years during which the
nations were permitted to execute
judgment upon Israel (Isa. liv, 8).
This time limit the nations did not
observe; they fancied that their suc-

 

cess was due to their own wisdom and
might; therefore they were planning to
continue the oppression even after
the time of visitation had expired;
but Jehovah will not permit it.
Even during the period of judg-
ment they were more cruel than
was in accord with the will of Je-
hovah; therefore his wrath is aroused,
and their destruction is determined.
They helped forward the affliction—
Literally, they helped for evil. They
carried the affliction beyond the di-
vine purpose, so that evil was the
result. ‘They assisted not only as
the instruments of God for the chas-
tisement of Judah, but so that harm
arose from it, inasmuch as they tried
to destroy Israel altogether.”

16. Therefore—Because Jehovah is
jealous for Jerusalem and angry with
the nations. I am returned to Jeru-
salem—The tense is to be understood
as a perfect of prophetic certainty. The
return is not yet accomplished. With
mercies—Or, compassion. Not with
judgments or wrath as in the past.

16b and 17 describe the conse-
quences of the divine return. My
house shall be built—So long as the
temple remains uncompleted Jehovah
can have no permanent abiding place
in the city. It was completed and
dedicated in 516. A line shall be
stretched forth upon Jerusalem—Not
only the temple but the city also will
be rebuilt. The line is the measuring
line which is used to mark off the
space on which the city is to stand,
and the plan according to which it is
to be built (i, 2; Jer. xxxi, 39). But
the blessing will not stop with the
rebuilding of the city; the whole land
will feel the benefits of Jehovah’s re-
CHAPTER I.

613

 

Lorp of hosts; My cities through
‘prosperity shall yet be spread
abroad; tand the Lorp shall yet
comfort Zion, and shall yet choose
Jerusalem.

18 Then lifted I up mine eyes,

and saw, and behold four horns.
19 And I said unto the angel that
talked with me, What be these? And
he answered me, «These are the
horns which have scattered Judah,
Israel, and Jerusalem. 20 And the

 

4 Heb. good,—+ Isa. 51. 3.—v Isa. 14. 1;

turn to Zion. Cry yet—R. V. adds
“again.” A new phase of the divine
blessing is to be announced. My
cities—The cities scattered through-
out the land of Jehovah, that is,
through Judah. Through prosperity
shall yet be spread abroad—P. V.,
“shall yet overflow with prosperity.”
The latter is to be preferred. The
verb occurs with the same meaning in
Prov. v, 16 (not so in Zech. xiii, 7).
At present there is distress every-
where; but when Jehovah returns to
his own all will be prosperity (Jer.
xxxili, 12, 13). 17b returns to Jerusa-
lem; it will be the center of the divine
government in the period of restora-
tion. There is no ground for despair;
Jehovah will yet comfort Zion (see on
verse 13); LXX. seems to have read
a different verb, ‘‘will have mercy.”
Choose—As his royal residence (com-
pare ii, 12; iii, 2).

The second vision—the four horns and
the four smiths, i, 18-21 (in Hebrew,
ii, 1-4).

In the second vision the prophet
beholds four horns. Upon inquiry he
is told by his companion that these
horns symbolize the nations that have
scattered the Jews. He also sees four
smiths, who, he is informed, represent
the divinely appointed agents to exe-
cute judgment upon the hostile na-
tions. The first vision announces, on
the one hand, the return of Jehovah
to Zion; on the other, the divine wrath
against the nations. These two as-
pects of the first vision are ex-
panded in visions two and_ three
respectively. The second pictures
the execution of judgment upon Is-
rael’s enemies; the third, the bless-
ings to be enjoyed by Jerusalem and
Judah.

18. Then lifted I up mine eyes—In-

 

chaps. 2.12; 3. 2.——x Ezra 4. 1, 4, 73 5. 3.

troduces a new vision (ii, 1; v, 1;
vi, 1). If all the visions came in one
night they must have followed one
another in rapid succession. Four
horns—It is useless to speculate as to
whether these horns belonged to one,
two, or four animals, for that does not
affect the symbolism. Horn is a
symbol of power (Amos vi, 13; Mic.
iv, 18; Jer. xlviii, 25); four indicates
the four points of the compass; the
four horns represent powers approach-
ing from the four points of the com-
pass. This does not mean, however,
that the enemies actually approached
or were expected to approach from
four directions; the expression is used
in the more general sense of every
direction or all directions. From all
sides enemies crowded upon the Jews
during the postexilic period; all these
are to be overthrown. Some have
supposed that Zechariah has in mind
four definite powers, either the Baby-
lonians, Medes and Persians, Greeks,
Romans, or the Assyrians, Egyptians,
Babylonians, Medes and Persians. In
view of verses 19, 21, which indicate
that the enemies are enemies of the
past, the Greeks and Romans cannot
be meant. The first interpretation,
which leaves the enemies unidentified,
is to be preferred. 19. The prophet
turns for an explanation to the inter-
preting angel, who replies that the
four horns represent the powers that
have been hostile toward the Jews.
Judah—The southern kingdom. _Is-
rael—The northern kingdom. Jeru-
salem—Mentioned on account of its
special sanctity as the earthly dwelling
place of Jehovah. In the corresponding
passage in verse 21 only Judah is men-
tioned, which has led many to suppose
that in this verse the other names are
a later addition.

In verse 20 a new feature is intro-
614

ZECHARIAH.

 

Lorp showed me four carpenters.
21 Then said I, What come these to
do? And he spake, saying, These
are the horns which have scattered
Judah, so that no man did lift up
his head: but these are come to fray
them, to cast out the horns of the
Gentiles, which lifted up their horn
over the land of Judah to scat-
ter it.

CHAPTER II. ;

IL LIFTED up mine eyes again,

and looked, and behold *a man
with a measuring line in his hand.
2 Then said I, Whither goest thou?
And he said unto me, »To measure
Jerusalem, to see what is the
breadth thereof, and what is the
length thereof. 3 And, behold, the
angel that talked with me went

 

y Psa. 75. 4, 5.

6 Ezek. 40. 3.» Rey. 11. 1; 21. 15, 16.

 

duced. Carpenters—R. V., ‘“‘smiths’’;
A. V. follows LXX.; literally, work-
men, artificers. The term is used of
workers in wood as well as in iron or
stone. If the horns are thought of as
made of iron (Mic. iv, 13) smith is the
more suitable translation. The smiths
may have had their hammers in their
hands, ready to strike. 21. He—The
interpreting angel, whose duty it was
to explain the symbolism to the
prophet. According to his interpre-
tation the four smiths represent the
agents who are divinely appointed to
execute judgment upon the nations.
No man did lift up his head—The peo-
ple were completely overwhelmed.
Fray—R. V., “terrify.” Throw in a
state of alarm (2 Sam. xvii, 2). Cast
out [“‘down’’] the horns—A picture of
utter destruction (compare Amos iii,
14). Who the powers are that Je-
hovah will use to execute his judg-
ment upon the hostile nations is not
stated. It is enough to assure the
despondent community that the judg-
ment will be executed.

CHAPTER II.

The third vision—the man with the
measuring line, 1-13.

The overthrow of the hostile na-
tions (i, 18-21) will prepare the way
for the exaltation of the oppressed
people. Jerusalem will be rebuilt,
Jehovah will return to live in Zion,
and many nations will join them-
selves to the redeemed community.
To bring these truths before the
prophet and the people is the purpose
of the third vision, in which Zechariah
sees a man with a measuring line in

 

his hand, going forth to measure Jeru-
salem, for the purpose of determining
the location of the new walls (ii, 1, 2).
He is informed that walls are not
necessary because (1) the city will be
too populous to be contained within
walls, (2) Jehovah himself will be a
wall of fire around her (8-5). The
vision proper is followed by an exhor-
tation to the exiled Jews to get ready
to flee from the land of exile (6, 7),
for Jehovah is about to shake the na-
tions (8, 9) and to return to Zion, to
take his permanent abode there (10-
13).

1, 2. A man with a measuring line
—An expansion of the promise in i,
16. The man is distinct from the in-
terpreting angel; he is left undefined,
because his personality is unimpor-
tant; his act alone is of significance.
Again the prophet seeks an explana-
tion. Whither goest thou?—In the
other visions the prophet addresses
himself to the interpreting angel, here
to the man with the measuring line.
The interpreter appears after the man
has given the desired information. To
measure Jerusalem—To determine the
extent of the city. Verses 4, 5 suggest
that it was for the purpose of deter-
mining the location of the walls, which
were still in ruins in the days of
Zechariah.

3. Now the interpreting angel ap-
pears upon the scene. Went forth—
The same verb is translated in the
next clause “went out.” This raises
the question, whence did the one or
the other go forth? For the first verb
LXX. reads “stood”; that is, beside
the prophet. If the present Hebrew
text is retained we must think of the
CHAPTER II.

615

 

forth, and another angel went out
to meet him, 4 And said unto him,
Run, speak to this young man, say-
ing, -Jerusalem shall be inhabited
as towns without walls for the mul-
titude of men and cattle therein:

5 For I, saith the Lorn, will be unto
her 4a wall of fire round about, cand
mal be the glory in the midst of
er,
6 Ho, ho, come forth, and flee ‘from
the land of the north, saith the

 

¢ Jer. 31. 27; Ezek. 36, 10, 11.-—4 Isa. 26.
1; chap. 9. 8.— Isa. 60. 19; Rev. 21. 23.

f Isa. 48. 20; 52. 11; Jer. 1. 14; 50. 8;
51. 6, 45.

 

angel as stepping forward from the
place where he stood beside the
prophet, or from the background to
which he had retired after he had
interpreted the preceding vision. As
he stood forth he was met by another
angel who came upon the scene from
the opposite direction. This thought
is implied also in the reading of LXX.
To express the thought more clearly
verse 3 might be translated, ‘And,
behold, the angel that talked with
me stood forth, and another angel
came forth to meet him.” Less nat-
ural is the interpretation which makes
the interpreting angel come upon the
scene from the presence of Jehovah
with a new message for the prophet,
when he is met by the other angel.

4, 5. And said unto him—The inter-
preting angel is the speaker. The
other angel becomes his servant, so
that he himself may remain with the
prophet, whose guide and interpreter
he is to be throughout the entire series
of visions. Run, speak to this young
man—Not to the prophet, but to the
man with the measuring line, who
meanwhile had gone to his task. The
messenger is exhorted to run, so that
the man may be stopped quickly, for
his efforts are wasted. As towns with-
out walls—The new Jerusalem will
not be like the capital of the pre-
exilic kingdom; it cannot be meas-
ured, nor confined within walls; it
will resemble rather a wide-open coun-
try, covered with towns and villages.
This extension becomes necessary as
a result of the wonderful increase in
the number of inhabitants and their
possessions (Isa. xlix, 19, 20; Ezek.
Xxxviii, 11), all of which will be an
evidence of the restored favor of Je-
hovah.

The absence of walls might be dis-

 

tressing to some, for it would seem to
expose them to hostile attacks, but
there need be no fear, for the protec-
tion granted to the new city will be
superior to anything that could be
offered even by the strongest wall;
Jehovah himself will be round about
her (compare Psa. cxxy, 1, 2). A
wall of fire—A defense of fire that will
consume everyone who dares to come
near it (Isa. xxvi, 1; xxxiii, 20). The
glory in the midst of her—Jehovah will
manifest himself in all his glory, so
that the whole city will be filled with ft.

The vision is followed by an exhor-
tation addressed to the Jews who are
still in exile, to prepare for a return,
for Jehovah is about to manifest him-
self in mercy and power. Some con-
sider the verses a part of the ac-
count of the vision. The interpreting
angel is thought to have uttered the
words in the hearing of the prophet,
so that the latter might pass them on.
It seems more natural, however, to
suppose that the vision closes with
verse 5, and that verses 6-13 are an
expansion of the vision by the prophet
(compare Amos viii, 4ff.; ix, 2ff.).
He has seen the glories of the future;
now he thinks of the exiles still far
from home, and to them he addresses
this message of hope; they too will
share, and that speedily, in the prom-
ised glory.

6. Ho, ho—The Hebrew word is
translated also ‘“‘woe”’ or ‘‘alas’’; it is
more than a call to attention; it al-
ways expresses a feeling of pain on
the part of the speaker, arising from
compassion with those who are ad-
dressed. Flee—The time of restora-
tion has come, when Jehovah will send
judgment upon their present abode.
The land of the north—Babylonia,
the land of exile (verse 7; compare
616

ZECHARIAH.

 

Lorp: for I have espread you
abroad as the four winds of the
heaven, saith the Lorp. 7 'Deliver
thyself, O Zion, that dwellest with
the daughter of Babylon. 8 For

& Deut. 28. 64; Ezek. 17, 21.—4 Rev. 18. 4.

Jer. iii, 12, 18; xxiii, 8; see on Joel ii,
20). Ihave spread you abroad as the
four winds of the heaven—The more
important of the numerous interpre-
tations suggested for these words are:
(1) Spread out=scatter (in exile), as
the four winds=to the four winds, that
is, in every direction; the whole clause
referring to the past judgment upon
the Jews, by which they were scattered
in every direction; now the prophet
urges them to return from these places.
This interpretation would make the
land of the north, as the land of exile,
practically equivalent to the four winds
of heaven, an identification which may
not be altogether impossible, but
which is highly improbable. Another
objection is the presence of the prepo-
sition as, which cannot be used in the
sense of to (compare Ezek. xvii,
21; LXX. reads ‘“‘from’’; see below).
(2) On the assumption that the
present text is correct, a more satis-
factory interpretation, which retains
the natural meaning of the words, re-
gards the tense as the so-called pro-
phetic perfect, used by the prophet be-
cause he “so transposes himself in
imagination into the future that he
describes the future event as if it had
been already seen or heard by him”
(G.-K., 106n). With this interpreta-
tion the clause supplies the reason for
the appeal. The people are to flee
because Jehovah does not want them
to perish with their captors; he has
decreed to make of them a great na-
tion, whose influence will be felt
everywhere, just as the winds of
heaven blow in every direction. LXX.
offers a slightly different reading,
which suits the context very well,
“for I will gather you from the four
winds of heaven,” that is, from every
direction; a promise found frequently
in the Old Testament. The beginning
is to be made in Babylon,

 

thus saith the Lorp of hosts; After
the glory hath he sent me unto the
nations which spoiled you: for he
that itoucheth you toucheth the
apple of his eye. 9 For, behold, I

i Deut. 32. 10; Psa. 17. 8; 2 Thess. 1. 6.

The appeal is repeated in verse 7
in a slightly different form. Zion—
Understood ordinarily as a vocative,
equivalent to inhabitant of Zion; ap-
plied here to those who still dwell in
the land of exile, called in verse 10
“daughter of Zion.” LXX. takes
“Zion” as an accusative of direction—
to Zion; the whole clause, ‘‘escape to
Zion.” If “to Zion” is read with
LXX., verse 7 carries further the
thought of verse 6. The exiles are to
escape from Babylon to Zion. This
translation necessitates a change in
the verb forms of verse 7, which are
in the feminine singular; if they are
coérdinated with “flee” in verse 6
the masculine plural must be read.
Since the common translation does
not require any change, it should
probably be retained. With the
daughter of Babylon—Among the in- .
habitants of Babylon. If interpreted
like the common phrase daughter of
Zion, the phrase used here might
mean either the city of Babylon with-
out its inhabitants (compare Lam. ii,
8), or the inhabitants without the
city (compare Mic. iv, 10), or the city
including its inhabitants (so most fre-
quently); here the emphasis seems to
be on dwelling among the inhabitants.

Verses 8, 9 give one reason why they
are to flee: Jehovah is about to exe-
cute judgment upon the oppressors.
Verse 8 is one of the verses that try
the patience and skill of commenta-
tors, more especially the clause, “after
the glory hath he sent me.” With
these words omitted the meaning
becomes clear. Jehovah is sending
a message of judgment to the na-
tions, because they have “touched”
his dearest possession. Toucheth—
Roughly, for the purpose of inflicting
pain and suffering. The apple of his
eye—Literally, door of his eye; a dif-
ferent word is used in Deut. xxxii, 10,
CHAPTER II.

617

 

will ‘shake mine hand upon them,
and they shall be a spoil to their
servants: and 'ye shall know that
the Lorp of hosts hath sent me.
10 ™Sing and rejoice, O daughter
of Zion: for, lo, I come, and I =will

dwell in the midst of thee, saith the
Lorp. 11 °And many nations shall
be joined to the Lorp Pin that day,
and shall be amy people: and I will
dwell in the midst of thee, and 'thou
shalt know that the Lorp of hosts

 

k Isa. 11. 15; 19. 16.—1! Chap. 4. 9.—-
m Isa. 12. 6; 54. 1; Zeph. 3. 14.—— Lev. 26.
12; Ezek. 37 27; chap. 8. 3; John 1. 14;

2 Cor. 6. 16. ©Tsa. 2. 2, 3; 49. 22; 60.
3, etc.; chap. 8. 22, 28.—p Chap. 3. 10.—
a Exod. 12. 49. t Verse 9; Ezek. 33. 33.

 

 

 

where the same idea is expressed. The
reference is to the pupil of the eye,
which is. peculiarly sensitive to the
slightest touch; so Jehovah is very
sensitive to any wrong inflicted upon
his people. After the glory hath he
sent me—These words have proved a
puzzle to all commentators. To
enumerate the various interpretations
suggested would take up considerable
space, while nothing would be gained
by it. If the words are original it
seems best to regard not only the
words quoted but the entire sentence,
“After the glory hath he sent me unto
the nations which spoiled you,” as a
parenthetical clause, spoken by the
prophet. In verses 6, 7 he has ad-
dressed the exiles, in verses 8, 9 he
announces judgment upon the na-
tions; parenthetically he exclaims, I
have a message not only to you exiles,
but also to the nations who are op-
pressing you. The glory after which
the speaker is sent must be understood
as the fame or honor which comes to a
messenger when his words are fulfilled;
by the fulfillment the prophet will be
attested as a true and reliable mes-
senger of Jehovah. In the Messages
of the Prophets the first part is para-
phrased “the fulfillment of the pre-
diction will bring honor to me” (com-
pare Isa. viii, 18). The meaning re-
mains practically the same if the
words are interpreted as a relative
clause, ‘who sent me after glory.
.” The expression to send ajter
glory is peculiar in this connection;
the words may be out of place, or the
text may have suffered corruption.
The message of judgment is con-
tained in verse 9. For—Heb. ki;
should be left untranslated; it simply
introduces the direct address, like

 

the Greek é7s (G.-K., 157b). I will
shake—Better, I am about to shake.
The Hebrew construction calls atten-
tion to the imminence of the event
(G.-K., 116p.). Shake the hand is
equivalent to strike (Isa. xi, 15;
xix, 16). A spoil to their servants—
R. V., “to those that served them.”
The judgment will be according to the
lec talionis. The nations have en-
slaved the Jews; when Jehovah in-
terferes the Jews will enslave the na-
tions. Ye shall know—The exiles, for
whose encouragement even the words
of judgment against the nations are
uttered. When the nations are over-
thrown these exiles will be convinced
that the prophet is a messenger of
Jehovah, and they will be ready to
place confidence in his other utter-
ances.

In verses 10-13 Jehovah urges the
“daughter of Zion” to rejoice.
Daughter of Zion—Identical with
“Zion” in verse 7, the exiles to be de-
livered from Babylon; they are to
rejoice greatly in anticipation of the
glorious redemption. Come,
dwell—The construction is the same
as in verse 9, “I am about to come.”
The coming is imminent, but the di-
vine purpose can be carried out only
if the temple is completed (i, 16). In
the midst of thee—In the midst of the
exiles to help and comfort them (see
on Joel ii, 27). The sway of Jehovah
will extend also over other nations.
Many nations shall be joined to Je-
hovah—They will recognize him as
the true God and render homage to
him (see on Hag. ii, 7; Mic. iv, 1-5;
compare Isa. ii, 2-4). In that day—
When the promises made to the exiles
receive their fulfillment. These “con-
verted” nations will become the peo-
618

ZECHARIAH.

 

hath sent me unto thee. 12 And the
Lorp shall inherit Judah his portion
in the holy land, and tshall choose

Jerusalem again. 13 “Be silent,
O all flesh, before the LorD: for he is
raised *up out of this holy habitation.

 

* Deut. 32. 9.—+t Chap. 1. 17. u Hab.
2.20; Zeph. 1. 7.—* Psa. 68. 5; Isa. 57. 15.

 

—— 1 Heb. the habitation of his holiness,
Deut. 26. 15; Isa. 63. 15.

 

ple of Jehovah, and with the Jews
they will form one people, in whose
midst Jehovah will dwell as helper
and protector (see on Joel ii, 27). 11b
is a repetition of 9b and has the same
significance (see on verse 9).

Verse 12 repeats the thought of i,
17, that Jehovah’ will select Jerusalem
to be his royal dwelling place. Inherit
—KEquivalent to take possession. There
may be areference to Deut. xxxii, 9,
where Israel is called the “portion”
of Jehovah and the “lot of his in-
heritance.”” Judah—The remnant es-
caped from Babylon. ' Holy land—So
called because Jehovah will dwell
there (see on Joel ii, 1; compare Exod.
iii, 5). Choose Jerusalem—See on i,
17.

13. The crisis is at hand, the judg-
ment is about to break forth; it be-
hooves all to await in awe the terrible
manifestation of Jehovah. Be silent
—wWait in reverential silence (Hab. ii,
20; Zeph. i, 7). All flesh—Not only
the Jews, but all the nations of the
earth, for all will be affected by the
coming of Jehovah. He is raised up
—R. V., ‘waked up”; from his in-
activity. He has already started to
carry out his redemptive purpose, as
indicated in the preceding verses
(compare Hag. ii, 6). His holy habi-
tation—In the heavens (compare
Amos ix, 6). While his people suf-
fered he seemed to take no interest
in the affairs of the world; now all is
changed; he is about to execute judg-
ment, and to establish a new and more
glorious kingdom of God upon the

earth.
CHAPTER III.

The fourth vision—the trial and ac-
quittal of the high priest Joshua,
1-10.

In the fourth vision Zechariah sees
the high priest Joshua standing be-

 

fore the angel of Jehovah; at his right
hand is the adversary, ready to bring
accusations against him; but before
he can open his mouth he is severely
rebuked (1, 2). At the command of
the angel the servants take from
Joshua his filthy garments and clothe
him in the rich garments of the high-
priestly office, including the miter (3-
5). Whereupon the angel instructs
Joshua in the duties and responsibili-
ties of the office to which he is re-
stored; Joshua is promised access to
the Most High if he will properly dis-
charge his duties (6, 7); he and his
fellows are proclaimed a sign of the
coming of ‘‘Branch,” who will remove
iniquity from the land in one day, and
restore peace and prosperity forever
(8-10).

The first, second, and third visions
deal with the judgment upon the na-
tions, the restoration from exile, the
rebuilding of the city and temple, and.
the expansion of the new community
to the four corners of the earth. To
make possible permanent peace and
harmony between the people and their
God there is needed, in addition to all
these things, a moral and spiritual
regeneration. This regeneration is
symbolized by the fourth vision.
Primarily the vision concerns the re-
ligious leader, the high priest; his sin
is washed away (4), and he is restored
to intimate fellowship with Jehovah.
But these experiences come to him,
in the vision, not as an individual, but
as the representative of the people.
Whatever befalls him affects the whole
people. His cleansing symbolizes the
cleansing of the people; his restoration
to fellowship with Jehovah symbolizes
the restoration of the people to fellow-
ship with their God, which needed to
be accomplished if the new community
was to become in truth the people of
Jehovah. Because the cleansing of
CHAPTER III.

619

 

CHAPTER III.
ND he showed me ‘Joshua the
high priest standing before the
angel of the Lorp, and » !Satan

standing at his right hand “to resist
him. 2 And the Lorp said unto
Satan, ~The Lorp rebuke thee, O
Satan; even the Lorp that ‘hath

 

© Hag. 1. 1.—» Psa. 109. 6; Rev. 12. 10.
—1 That is, an adversary.—— Heb. to be

his Gavensary. —e Jude 9.—4 Chap. 1.
17; Rom. 8. 33.

 

the high priest symbolizes this regen-
eration, he can become a sign of the
coming of ‘‘Branch,”’ who will complete
the task and become the ruler of the
regenerated community.

1. He showed me—Hither Jehovah,
who is the author of all prophetic
revelation (i, 20; Amos vii, 1), or the
interpreting angel, who acts as the
divine agent both in presenting and in
interpreting the visions; probably the
latter. Joshua—Called also Jeshua
(Ezra ii, 2; iii, 2), the son of Jehozadak
(Hag. i, 1; 1 Chron. vi, 15), the grand-
son of Seraiah (2 Kings xxv, 18). He
was the ecclesiastical head, while Ze-
rubbabel was the civil ruler (Hag. i,
1). The high priest—Joshua appears
throughout the entire vision in his
official capacity, not as a private in-
dividual (see introductory remarks to
the vision). Angel of Jehovah—See
oni, 11. Standing before—For what
purpose is not stated. The phrase is
used in a judicial sense of a person
standing before a judge, either as
plaintiff or as defendant (Num. xxvii,
2; 1 Kings iii, 16; Deut. xix, 17);
more frequently of a servant standing
before his master, to minister to his
wants (Gen. xli, 46; Deut. i, 38);
here in the judicial sense. The angel
of Jehovah sits upon the judgment
seat, Joshua stands before him as the
accused, the adversary appears as the
accuser. Satan—Better, with margin
R. V., “the Adversary”; the presence
of the article indicates that the noun
is not to be understood as a proper
name; otherwise in 1 Chron. xxi, 1
(see Introduction, p. 599; compare
Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible,
article “Satan”). At his right hand
—Equivalent to by his side (compare
Psa. cix, 6). To resist him—Better,
R. V., “to be his adversary,” that is,
to present the accusation. The verb

 

is derived from the same root as the
noun adversary.

Since no opportunity was given to
present the charges, it remains a mat-
ter of conjecture what were the in-
dictments the adversary desired to
present; and it is not strange that from
the earliest rabbinical period to the
present much speculation concerning
this point has been indulged in. The
place of Joshua in the vision as the
representative of the people precludes
the idea that the reference is to the
removal of personal sins of the high
priest, whether moral or ceremonial.
The question, “Is not this a brand
plucked out of the fire?” also would
seem to indicate that it is the people
against which the adversary appears.
It seems more satisfactory, therefore,
to think that the sins against which
complaint is made are the sins of the
people, which the high priest bears as
the representative and mediator of
the people. That corruption was not
entirely wiped out by the exile is made
clear in the prophecies of Haggai and
Zechariah. The adversary was anx-
ious to make prominent the shortcom-
ings which remained, in order to bring
about the destruction of the people;
but the gracious purpose of Jehovah
provided a way of escape. Nowack’s
contention, that there was no ground
for the accusation, is contrary to the
facts, as stated by the postexilic
prophets.

2. Permission is denied to the ad-
versary to present his charges. Je-
hovah—Identical with “angel of Je-
hovah” in verse 1 (see on i, 11).
Satan—As in verse 1. Rebuke thee—
Reprove, put to silence (Jer. xxix,
27). The sentence is repeated for the
sake of emphasis, and to permit the
addition of a clause explaining why
Jehovah must rebuke the adversary,
620

ZECHARIAH.

 

chosen Jerusalem rebuke thee: eis
not this a brand plucked out of the
fire? 3 Now Joshua was clothed
with ‘filthy garments, and stood be-
fore the angel. 4 And he answered
and spake unto those that stood
before him, saying, Take away the

e Amos 4.11; Rom. 11. 5; Jude 23.—
fIsa 64. 6.

filthy garments from him. And un-
to him he said, Behold, I have
caused thine iniquity to pass from
thee, sand I will clothe thee with
change of raiment. § And I said,
Let them set a fair tmitre upon his
head. So they set a fair mitre upon

e Isa. 61. 10; Luke 15. 22; Rev. 19. 8.
——h Exod. 29. 6; chap. 6. 11.

 

Jehovah that hath chosen Jerusalem—
The adversary was seeking to persuade
Jehovah to cast off Judah and Jerusa~-
lem; it cannot be done, for Jehovah
has made his choice (compare i, 17;
ii, 12), which must stand. True, the
sins of the people prevent a close union
between them and Jehovah, but these
sins he can remove. Is not this a
brand plucked out of the fire?—Not
Joshua, but the people represented by
Joshua, their high priest. The fire is
the exile (compare Amos iv, 11); from
it Jehovah has restored his people;
surely he will not leave his work in-
complete; he cannot permit the ad-
versary to bring to naught his own
gracious purpose.

Verses 3ff. show what Jehovah is
determined to do with the sins that
form the basis of the adversary’s ac-
cusation. Filthy garments—There is no
allusion here to the custom, described
by Livy, of accused persons wearing
sordid garments during their trial.
The filthy garments are a symbol of
sin, of moral uncleanness (Isa. iv, 4;
lxiv, 6); as already said, not of the
personal sins of the high priest but
of the sins of the people. ‘A nation
so guilty . . . could no longer be the
holy and priestly nation; its priests
could no longer be priests; nor its
high priest be high priest any more.”
If the sin could be removed the com-
munity need not be cast off; once
more it might be called ‘an elect race,
a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a
people for God’s own possession.”
This Jehovah proceeds to do. He
answered—The angel. For answer
see on i, 10. Those that stood before
him—The servants; they are ordered
to remove the filthy garments. Then
the angel turns to Joshua and ex-

 

plains to him the significance of the
proceeding; it symbolizes the removal
of his sin, or, better, the people’s sin.
At the same time he issues orders to
substitute clean garments for those
that have been discarded. I will
clothe—Should be translated as an
imperative (G.-K., 1132; so LXX.),
“clothe,’”’ which is coérdinate with
“take away.” The carrying out of
the command is recorded in verse 5,
“they clothed him.’’ Change of rai-
ment—R. V., “rich apparel.” A word
found again only in Isa. iii, 22, where
R. V. translates “festival robes’; not
necessarily costly and magnificent,
but fresh and clean garments; the put-
ting on of these completes the process
of purification.

5. And I said—If the present He-
brew text is original, the prophet must
be the speaker. He has been an in-
terested bystander; now he can con-
tain himself no longer, and he prays
that the diadem be restored to the
high priest. LXX. omits these words
and continues with the imperative,
“set,’’ which is coérdinated to “take
away” and “clothe” in verse 4. LXX.
presents the smoother reading and
may be original. Set a fair [“clean’’]
miter upon his head—The miter com-
pletes the high-priestly dress; its res-
toration will prepare Joshua to act
again as the mediator between God
and the people; therefore the placing
of the miter upon the head completes
the transaction begun by the remov-
ing of the filthy garments. The peo-
ple are not only cleansed, but fellow-
ship and communion with Jehovah is
reéstablished. The word translated
“miter” is not identical with the one
used in Exod. xxviii, 4, 36-38, but it
undoubtedly refers to the same thing.
CHAPTER III.

621

 

his head, and clothed him with gar-
ments. And the angel of the LorpD
stood by. 6 And the angel of the

Lorp protested unto Joshua, say- | I

ing, 7 Thus saith the Lorp of hosts;
If thou wilt walk in my ways, and

i Lev. 8. 35; 1 Kings 2. 3; Ezek. 44. 16.
—3 Or, ordinance.

if thou wilt ikeep my %charge, then
thou shalt also ‘judge my house,
and shalt also keep my courts, and
will give thee ¢places to walk
among these that 'stand by. 8
Hear now, O Joshua the high priest,

k Deut. 17. 9; Mal. 2. 7.4 Heb. walks.
—!Chap.4. 14; 6. 5.

 

The command of the angel was exe-
euted, Joshua was clothed with clean
garments, and the miter was placed
upon his head. The angel of Jehovah
stood by—Superintending the pro-
ceedings and by his presence giving
to them his approval. Some commen-
tators combine the last clause of
verse 5 with verse 6 and read the two,
“And the angel of Jehovah rose and
protested unto Joshua,’ which is
smoother; but is there sufficient justi-
fication for the change?

In verses 6-10 is contained the ad-
dress which the angel of Jehovah
makes to Joshua—again not as a
private individual but as the repre-
sentative of the people—concerning
his duties and privileges; at the same
time he points to the coming of one
who will completely remove sin from
the land, and restore permanent peace
and prosperity. Protested—Affirmed
solemnly and earnestly (Gen. xliii, 3;
Jer. xi, 7, where the same word is
used). Walk in my ways—The ways
pointed out by Jehovah; in other
words, if the conduct is in accord with
the principles of Jehovah’s righteous-
ness. Keep my charge—The high-
priestly office. The first refers pri-
marily to uprightness in the private
life, the second to the faithful per-
formance of official duties. Thou
shalt also judge my house—With
these words begins the apodosis.
Commentators are not agreed on the
interpretation of this clause. Some
hold that house is used metaphorically
for people (compare Hos. viii, 1; ix,
15), and that the promise means that
the high priest will be the sole head of
the community; he will take upon
himself even those duties which in
preéxilic times were discharged by the
king, and at present by Zerubbabel.

 

A modified form of this interpretation
understands the promise to imply only
that the high priest is to “direct the
people in all things respecting the law
of God, and especially to judge those
who ministered in the sanctuary.”
If house is taken to mean people there
is no justification for limiting the high
priest’s authority to things religious.
Others understand my house to refer
to the temple, soon to be completed;
in it the high priest will be supreme.
In view of the fact that Zechariah
gives such prominent place to Zerub-
babel, and so to the family of David,
it is not likely that he expected the
supreme authority in secular affairs
to pass entirely into the hands of
Joshua or his descendants; therefore
the second interpretation is to be pre-
ferred (see closing remarks on verse
7). The next clause speaks of the per-
formance of the common priestly
duties. Keep my courts—Perform
properly the priestly duties, and keep
out of the temple everything that is
idolatrous and unclean. I will give
thee places to walk among these that
stand by—R. V., “‘a place of access.”
Another difficult clause. The meaning
of the expression translated ‘‘place of
access” or “places to walk” is uncer-
tain. Some consider the Hebrew word
an Aramaic form of the Hiphil parti-
ciple of the verb to walk, with the
transitive meaning leaders or the in-
transitive meaning walkers. This for-
mation of the verb is found only in
the Aramaic portions of Daniel (iii,
25; iv, 34), never in Hebrew; but if
it is assumed here the transitive mean-
ing is to be preferred. With this
translation the promise means that
Jehovah will provide for Joshua lead-
ers or guards, who will protect and
defend him from all dangers. These
622

ZECHARIAH.

 

thou, and thy fellows that sit before
thee: for they are ™ men wondered
at: for, behold, I will bring forth

™ Psa. 71. 7; Isa. 8. 18; 20. 3-5 Heb.

men of wonder, or, sign, as Ezek. 12. 11;
24, 24.1 Isa. 42. 1; 49.3, 5; 52. 13; 53.

leaders are to be among these that
stand by, that is, the angels. In this
case out of or from among instead of
among would be more suitable. This
peculiarity creates a suspicion con-
cerning the correctness of the trans-
lation and interpretation; besides, the
promise seems to be vague and in-
definite. It is preferable, therefore,
to take the word as the plural of a
noun meaning walk or place of access,
the plural being used to express the
thought that the high priest may
come again and again. Joshua is to
be permitted to walk among the
heavenly host and thus to have free
access to the throne of God, and this
privilege is to be enjoyed not only
after the resurrection (Targum), but
in this life, whenever the high priest
desires to bring his petitions and re-
quests for the community to the
throne of God.

In connection with these promises
it should never be overlooked that
they are made to the high priest as
the representative of the people.
Whatever is promised to him sym-
bolizes a similar promise to the whole
people, though it is also true that
when the people are restored to fel-
lowship with Jehovah the office of
the high priest will be clothed with
new splendor.

Verses 8, 9 contain a more remark-
able promise. Hear—Addressed to
the high priest alone. The address it-
self begins with “thou and thy fel-
lows.” Thy fellows that sit before thee
—Not now, while Joshua is. in the
presence of the angel, but in the gath-
erings of the priests (compare 2 Kings
-iv, 38; vi, 1). These words form the
subject, what follows is the predicate,
a fact which is obscured in the English
translation. For—Heb. ki does not
introduce a causal clause, but should
be rendered “indeed,” “truly” (G.-K.,

 

amy servant the °BRANCH. 9 For
behold the stone that I have laid
before Joshua; Pupon one stone shall

oIsa. 4. 2; 11. 1;
Luke 1.

 

11; Ezek, 34. 23, 24.
Jer. 23. 5; 33, 15; chap. 6. 12;
78.—» Psa. 118. 22; Isa. 28. 16

148d). They are men wondered at—
R. V., “they are men that are a sign”’;
literally men of sign are they. A bet-
ter rendering of the whole sentence
would be, ‘‘thou and thy fellows that
sit before thee are truly men of
sign,” that is, men who in their per-
sons and office foreshadow some future
event. The event foreshadowed in
this case is immediately stated. I
will bring forth—Better, J am about
to bring forth; in the near future. My
servant—Any individual or group of
individuals commissioned to carry out
the divine purpose may be called Je-
hovah’s servant. In this sense the
title is applied to the prophets (2 Kings
ix, 7; Isa. xx, 3), to the Messianic king
(Hag. ii, 23), to Israel as the Messianic
nation (Isa. xl-liii), etc. The Branch
—In Hebrew without the article,
“Branch”; margin, ‘ Shoot,” or
“Sprout,” which shows that the word
is to be understood as a proper name
(compare vi, 12). The title is derived
from such passages as Jer. xxiii, 5;
xxxili, 15. In Isa. xi, 1, a different
word is used; compare also Ezek.
xxxiv, 23, 24; xxxvii, 24. It is a
shoot that will sprout from the ruined
dynasty of David; and vi, 12, 13 (com-
pare iv, 9), shows that the prophet
has in mind Zerubbabel.

Verse 9 makes it clear that Zecha-
riah expected the kingdom of God to
be established and the Messianic king
to appear in the near future, but in
details the verse is exceedingly ob-
scure. For—Connects verse 9 with
verse 8, especially with the verb “I
am about to bring forth”; it intro-
duces a statement which indicates that
the fullness of time is at hand. The
stone that I have laid before Joshua—
The words appear to be addressed to
the high priest; therefore before Joshua
is equivalent to before thee. Joshua is
urged to look upon the stone that is
CHAPTER IV.

623

 

be aseven eyes: behold, I will en-
eave the graving thereof, saith the

ORD of hosts, and ‘I will remove
the iniquity of that land in one day.

10 ‘In that day, saith the Lorp of
hosts, shall ye call every man hi
neighbor ‘under the vine and un-
der the fig tree.

 

aChap. 4. 10; Rev. 5. 6.— Jer. 31.
34; 50. 20; Mic. 7. 18, 19; chap. 13. 1.

already prepared. What is the stone?
Many answers have been given to this
question. Some say the foundation
stone of the temple; some, the top
stone (iv, 7); some, the precious stone
adorning the high priest’s breastplate;
some, the Messiah; some, an altar or a
substitute for the ark as an instrument
of propitiation; some, the temple it-
self; some, the people of Israel asthe
foundation of the new order of things;
some, “the kingdom or people of God,
outwardly insignificant when com-
pared with the great mountain (iv, 7),
which symbolizes the power of the
world.” These are the most im-
portant interpretations suggested; all
are more or less doubtful, probably not
one offers the right interpretation.
Standing by itself or in some other
connection the word might, perhaps,
mean any one of these, but in the
present connection they are not suit-
able. The interpretation that fits
most perfectly in the context is one
first suggested by Wellhausen, who
sees in the stone the precious stone for
the diadem of ‘‘Branch,”’ who is the
Messianic king (compare vi, 9ff.). It
is already placed before the high
priest, ready for use when “Branch”
appears, which may be at any time.
Upon one stone shall be seven eyes—
A kind of parenthetical clause, de-
scribing the stone more fully. The
numeral one is used to emphasize the
peculiarity, equivalent to upon this
single stone. If the above interpreta-
tion is correct, the eyes are the facets
of the precious stone, which sparkle
like eyes; seven might be understood
literally, or, as in other passages, to
indicate a ‘moderately large num
ber” (Isa. iv, 1), so that the thought
would be simply that it was com-
pletely covered with eyes. I will—
Or, I am about to. Engrave the grav-
ing thereof—What the inscription will

 

®*Chap. 2. 11—+t*1 Kings 4, 25; Isa.
36. 16; Mic. 4. 4.

be is not stated, probably the name
of “Branch,” that is, Zerubbabel (vi,
Off.; Hag. ii, 23). With this interpre-
tation the connection between verse 8
and verse 9 becomes natural and com-
plete.

The first result of the dawn of the
Messianic age will be the complete re-
moval of iniquity, the beginning of
which is symbolized by the cleansing
of the high priest (see on verse 1).
That land—Better, this land, that is,
Judah, now not limited to the old ter-
ritory, but extending in all directions
(ii, 11). In one day—That is, speedily.
The writer of the Epistle to the He-
brews identifies this one day with the
day on which Jesus was crucified
(Heb. vii, 27; ix, 12; x, 10). 10. With
the Messianic king on the throne and
all iniquity removed, an era of peace
and prosperity will commence. For
the picture see on Joel i, 12; compare
Mic. iv, 4. Call—R. V., “invite”; to
share the comforts.

CHAPTER IV.

The fifth vision—the golden candlestick
and the two olive trees, 1-14.

The fourth and fifth visions are
closely connected; the former centers
around the person of the ecclesiastical
head, Joshua, the high priest, the lat-
ter around that of the civil head, Ze-
rubbabel, the governor. In the vision
Zechariah beholds a golden candlestick
with seven lamps; on top was a res-
ervoir of oil connected with the lamps
by pipes. Beside it stood two olive
trees; from the overhanging branches
of these oil flowed continually into the
reservoir and from it into the lamps.

It may not be possible to determine
the meaning of every feature of the
vision, but its general purpose is clear.
(See p. 592.)

1. In this vision the interpreting
624

ZECHARIAH.

 

CHAPTER IV.

ND @the angel that talked with

me came again, and waked

me, bas a man that is wakened out
of his sleep, 2 And said unto me,
What seest thou? And I said, I have
looked, and behold ca candlestick
all of gold, ‘with a bowl upon the

® Chap. 2. 3.—b> Dan. 8. 18.——e Exod.
Bo. ee Rev. 1. 12.—1 Heb. with’ her
owl.

 

top of it, dand his seven lamps there-
on, and *seven pipes to the seven
lamps, which are upon the top
thereof: 3 °And two olive trees by
it, one upon the right side of the
bowl, and the other upon the left
side thereof. 4 So I answered and
spake to the angel that talked with

adExod. 25. 87; Rev. 4. 5.— Or,
seven several pipes to the lamps, etc.—
eVerses 11, 12; Rev. 11. 4.

 

angel appears first. Came again—
The angel seems to have withdrawn
temporarily; in the fourth vision he
appears—if at all—only in iii, 1. Per-
haps “he came again and waked me”
is equivalent to ‘he waked me again,”
to see a new vision. Evidently Zecha-
riah recognizes that his condition dur-
ing the visions is not the same as dur-
ing the intervals that elapse between
the separate visions. Waked me—
What the prophet has seen and heard
has overpowered him; he has become
spiritually exhausted, and has fallen
into a state resembling sleep (Luke
ix, 32); out of this condition the angel
rouses him to show him the new vision.
What seest thou?—The angel addresses
this question to the prophet as soon
as he opens his eyes (see on Amos vii,
8; viii, 2; compare Jer. i, 11, 13).

The principal features of the new
vision are described in verses 2, 3.
I have looked—R. V., ‘“‘seen’’; per-
haps better, J see. A candlestick all
of gold—This candlestick may have
been suggested by the candlestick in
the tabernacle (Exod. xxv, 31;
1 Chron. iv, 20), which was of gold,
but in some respects the candlestick
in the vision differs from its prototype,
With a bowl upon the top of it—This
means a reservoir for the oil used in
the lamps. The oil holder was absent
from the candlestick in the tabernacle;
there the oil was supplied daily by the
priests. However, the bowl may have
been suggested by the cups (Exod.
xxv, 31, 33, 34), though the Hebrew
word used here is entirely different,
and the cups served only as orna-
ments. Seven lamps—How they were
attached is not stated. Seven pipes—
To supply oil from the reservoir. This

 

is another feature absent from the
candlestick in the tabernacle. The
Hebrew is literally “seven and seven
pipes to the lamps,” which admits of
a twofold interpretation; either, four-
teen pipes to the seven lamps, that is,
two to each, or, in a distributive sense,
seven pipes to each one of the seven
lamps (so R. V.), a total of forty-nine.
The Hebrew permits either interpreta-
tion, and either is thinkable; the latter
is more in accord with Hebrew usage.
No indication is given how or where
the pipes were connected with the
lamps. LXX. and Vulgate omit one
“seven” and read “seven pipes to the
lamps,” that is, one to each, which
simplifies the picture and may be orig-
inal. Which are upon the top thereof
—tThe meaning seems to be that the
lamps are on the top of the candle-
stick; the same statement is made con-
cerning the oil holder, which makes it
very difficult to determine the exact
relative position of the different parts
of the candlestick. Some commen-
tators favor the omission of the words
as an erroneous repetition from the
first part of the verse. Two olive trees
—Another feature absent from the
tabernacle (compare Rev. xi, 4). One
was upon the left, the other upon the
right side of the oil holder; in verse 11
it is said that they were beside the
candlestick, which is equally true.
Two branches from these trees, one
from each, supplied the oil for the
lamps.

4, 5. The prophet fails to understand
the vision, and he turns to his com-
panion for an explanation. Answered
—See on i, 10. These—The contents
of the entire vision, not only the trees.
The interpreting angel expresses sur-
CHAPTER IV.

625

 

me, saying. What are these, my
lord? 5 Then the angel that talked
with me answered and said unto me,
Knowest thou not what these be?
And I said, No, my lord. 6 Then
he answered and spake unto me,
saying, This is the word of the Lorp
unto Zerubbabel, saying, ‘Not by

might, nor by power, but by my
spirit, saith the Lorp of hosts. 7
Who art thou, sO great mountain?
before Zerubbabel thou shalt become
a plain: and he shall bring forth
tthe headstone thereof ‘with shout-
ings, crying, Grace, grace unto it.
8 Moreover the word of the Lorp

 

{ Hos. 1.. 7.3% Or, army.—s Jer. 51.
25; Matt. 21. 21. :

h Psa. 118. 22.—i Ezra 3. 11, 13.

 

prise that the prophet, who should be
familiar with the symbolism of the
temple, does not understand the
vision, ““Knowest thou not what these
are?” 4
6. When the prophet confesses ig-
norance the angel proceeds to ex-
plain. This—The entire vision. All
the features were needed to complete
the picture which was to serve as the
means of instruction; but the angel
attaches here a symbolic meaning only
to one feature, the mysterious oil
supply; the other features are of sec-
ondary importance, though a sym-
bolical meaning is attached also to
the two branches (verse 12), and per-
haps to the lamps (verse 10). The
message was intended primarily for
Zerubbabel, the civil governor. The
interpretation is given in a single sen-
‘tence. Not by might, nor by power—
By human strength or military power.
By my spirit—As the oil is supplied to
the lamps without human efforts, so
Zerubbabel will be able, without the
ordinary human resources (compare
Neh. iv, 2), but assisted by the divine
Spirit, to carry to completion the task
which he has undertaken. This is not
to be understood as 4 commendation
of inactivity, but as a promise to one
whose resources are exhausted, that
Jehovah will not permit him to fail
in his noble endeavor. For spirit see
on Joel ii, 28. What was the enter-
prise that baffled Zerubbabel is not
stated, but verse 7 shows that the
prophet is thinking of the rebuilding
of the temple, for which both Haggai
and Zechariah pleaded, and to the
completion of which the two are said
to have contributed much (Ezra v, 2).
Verses 7-10 contain a message of en-

 

couragement addressed, on the basis of
the vision, by the prophet to Zerub-
babel (see on ii, 6). Most com-
mentators regard the verses out of
place, since verse 11 forms the natu-
ral continuation of verse 6. They are
suitable in the mouth of Zechariah
and they embody some ideas suggested
by the vision (verse 10), so that they
cannot be removed entirely from the
latter, but the connection would be-
come smoother if verses 7-10 were
placed after verse 14. Marti thinks
that the account of the vision is con-
tained in 1-6a, 10b—14, while the rest,
6b-10a, contains the message.

Verse 7 is in the form of an apos-
trophe to the obstacle which threat-
ens to thwart the purpose of Zerub-
babel. O great mountain—Since the
prophet is thinking of the rebuilding
of the temple, the mountain cannot
be a figure of the hostile Persian
power, or of the power of the world as
opposed to the kingdom of God; it is
rather a “figure denoting the colossal
difficulties which rose up mountain-
high at the continuation and com-
pletion of thé building of the temple.”
These difficulties will be completely
removed before Zerubbabel. The
headstone [‘‘topstone’’}—The topmost
stone completing and crowning the
building. The anointed of Jehovah
will put the final touch on the building
while the watching multitude will
break forth in songs and cries of re-
joicing and benediction. Grace, grace
unto it—Not only to the stone, but to
the completed temple. These are the
words of the cry, a petition that Je-
hovah may bestow his grace and
favor upon his newly completed
dwelling place.
626

ZECHARIAH.

 

came unto me, saying, 9 The hands
of Zerubbabel «have laid the foun-
dation of this house; his hands 'shall
also finish it; and thou shalt know
that the »Lorp of hosts hath sent
meunto you. 10 For who hath de-
spised the day of esmall things? ‘for
they shall rejoice, and shall see
the ‘plummet in the hand of Zerub-

babel with those seven; Pthey are
the eyes of the Lorn, which run to
and fro through the whole earth. |
11 Then answered I, and said
unto him, What are these stwo olive
trees upon the right side of the can-
dlestick and upon the left side there-
of? 12 And I answered again, and
said unto him, What be these two

 

 

 

k Ezra 3. 10. 1 Ezra 6. 15.—®™ Chaps.
2.9, 11; 6. 15. 1 Isa. 48. 16; chap. 2. 8.
o Hag. 2. 3.

 

—4 Or, since the seven eyes of the LORD
shall rejoice. Heb. stone of tin.
p 2 Chron. 16. 9; Prov. 15. 3; chap. 3. 9.

 

Verses 9, 10 contain a new message
of encouragement and promise to the
prince, introduced by verse 8. More-
over—lIn addition to the message con-
tained in verse 7. Shall also finish
it—He will surely carry to completion
the building enterprise (compare
Ezra vi, 15). Thou shalt know—The
completion of the temple will be an
external attestation of the prophet as
a divinely sent messenger (ii, 9, 11).
Who hath despised the day of small
thingsPp—Or, who despises (G.-K.,
106g). The question implies disap-
proval of the people’s apathy toward
the temple, and of their excuses that
their resources are insufficient to build
a temple worthy of Jehovah (Hag. ii,
3). If Jehovah is satisfied, who has
a right to think lightly of the present
house, though it be small? 10b
states why there is no ground for
despair. R. V. is preferable to A. V.:
“For these seven shall rejoice, and
shall see the plummet in the hand of
Zerubbabel; these are the eyes of
Jehovah, which run to and fro through
the whole earth.” The thought may
be brought out even more clearly by
a free rendering: ‘For these seven
eyes of Jehovah, which run to and fro
through the whole earth, shall rejoice
when they see the plummet in the
hand of Zerubbabel.’’ Those seven—
Not the seven eyes of iii, 9 (see there).
The use of the demonstrative would
seem to indicate that the eyes are re-
ferred to in the immediate context;
if so, the seven lamps (verse 2) must
symbolize the seven eyes. Seven is
used as a sacred number expressing
the idea of completeness or perfection
(see Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible,

 

article ‘“Numbers”). The eyes of
Jehovah sweep over the whole earth;
nothing can escape them. Shall re-
joice, and shall see—Better, shall re-
joice when they shall see (G.-K., 164a).
The eyes are a symbol of the divine
care and providence, which is world-
wide. The plummet in the hand of
Zerubbabel—A sign that he is engaged
in building, or at least that he is
superintending the work. If Jehovah
takes such delight in the restoration
of the temple, what folly for men to
despise the enterprise! The text of
verse 10 may be in some disorder, but
the general sense is clear.

11-14. The two olive trees are
still a mystery to the prophet; he
therefore asks his companion to ex-
plain their significance. Answered—
See on i, 10. What are these two
olive trees—Said to be standing upon
the right and upon the left of the
candlestick ; in verse 3 they are located
more precisely beside the oil holder,
because their connection is primarily
with it. On the trees the prophet
sees two branches different from the
rest, whose significance he does not
grasp, so without waiting for a reply
to his first question he addresses a
second one to his companion. R. V.
gives a more accurate translation of
12b: “What are these two olive
branches, which are beside the two
golden spouts, that empty the golden
oil out of themselves?” What be
these two olive branches—Perhaps
they were the only branches bearing
fruit; at any rate, they must have
been different from the rest, so that
they attracted the prophet’s special
attention. The word here translated
CHAPTER IV.

627

 

olive branches which “through the
two golden pipes 7empty *the golden
otl out of themselves? 13 And he
answered me and said, Knowest

thou not what these be? And I said,
No, my lord. 14 Then said he, ‘These
are the two ‘anointed ones, ‘that
stand by tthe Lord of the whole earth.

 

4 Verse 3.—* Heb. by the hand. Or,
empty out of themselves oil into the gold.
—— Heb. the gold.

rt Rev. 11. 4,—-® Heb. sons of oil.—-
s Chap. 3. 7; rune 1. 19.—-t See Josh.
3. 11, 13; chap. 6. 5.

 

“branches” is used elsewhere of ears
of corn; it is probably selected on
account of the shape of the branches.
Which are beside the two golden
spouts (R. V.)—The last word occurs
only here in the Old Testament, and
its meaning is uncertain; pipes (A. V.)
is probably incorrect, a different word
being used in verse 2. It seems to
denote the receptacle and channel
which received the oil from the
branches and transmitted it to the
reservoir; perhaps funnel-like cups,
one connected with each branch.
Margin R. V. suggests a different
translation, “which by means of the
two golden spouts empty’; but the
sense remains the same. That empty
the golden oil out of themselves—If
the marginal translation is correct
the subject of the relative clause re-
fers back to branches; if the reading
embodied in the text is accepted it
becomes uncertain whether the refer-
ence is to branches or to spouts; how-
ever, the uncertainty does not affect
the sense. The expression “out of
themselves,” which is literally “from
above themselves,’”’ would seem to
favor spouts as subject; they receive
the oil from the branches above. On
the other hand, the tae AGUA form
favors branches. Golden oil—Liter-
ally, gold. Not real gold, as some
have supposed, but golden oil, so
called because of its pure brightness;
undoubtedly an intentional play upon
words, golden spouts and golden
oul.

Verse 13 is almost identical with
verse 5. The interpreting angel ex-
presses astonishment that the proph-
et should fail to understand this
part of the vision, but, when the
prophet confesses ignorance, he sup-
plies the explanation. 14, The

 

two anointed ones—Literally, the two
sons of the oil (compare Isa. v, 1).
The last word has the article in He-
brew, the well-known oil, namely, the
oil used in official anointings (com-
pare Lev. xxi, 10; 1 Sam. x, 1).
There can hardly be any doubt that
the two branches symbolize Joshua,
the high priest, and Zerubbabel, the
prince. If a distinction is made be-
tween the symbolic meaning of the
two trees and that of the two branches,
the trees may be said to symbolize the
offices of high priest and civil ruler, the *
branches the occupants of the offices.
However, such a distinction may
not have been intended. The two
trees had to be brought in to make
possible the introduction of the two
living branches. The oil is pro-
duced by a power behind the branches;
in like manner, the two leaders are not
the originators of the spirit’s power
symbolized by the oil; it originates in
Jehovah: they are only the channels
through which the spirit manifests
itself. Some have understood the
two branches to signify the Jews and
Gentiles respectively, or the believe-s
among these two, or the prophets
Haggai and Zechariah, or two angels,
but these interpretations are unnatur-
al. That stand by the Lord of the
whole earth—Stand by goes back to
the same Hebrew expression as stand
above in Isa. vi, 2; it indicates an atti-
tude of service, and the whole is equiv-
alent to ‘who are the servants of the
Lord of the whole earth.” The idea
that in order to do this they are to be
removed from earth into heavenly
places, ‘‘near to God and beyond our
ken,” is not implied; they are his serv-
ants while faithfully discharging the
duties of their offices (compare
iii, 7).
628

ZECHARIAH.

 

CHAPTER V.
ae I turned, and lifted up
mine eyes, and looked, and be-
hold a flying roll. 2 And he said
unto me, What seest thou? And I
answered, I see a flying roll; the
length thereof is twenty cubits, and

the breadth thereof ten cubits. 3
Then said he unto me, This is the
bcurse that goeth forth over the face
of the whole earth: for ‘every one
that stealeth shall be cut off as on
this side according to it; and every
one that sweareth shall be cut off

 

a Ezek. 2, 9.» Mal. 4. 6.

1 Or, every one of thts people that stealeth
holdeth bimself guililess, as 1 doth.

 

CHAPTER V.
The sixth vision—the flying roll, 1-4.

In meaning this vision is similar to
the seventh, but there seems insuffi-
cient reason for thinking that the two
are parts of one and the same vision.
The prophet beholds flying through
the air an immense roll. He is told
by the interpreter that the roll symbol-
izes the curse of God, and that it will
enter the houses of all evil doers and
consume them utterly. In iii, 9, is
promised the removal of iniquity from
the land; this vision indicates one
means by which this is to be accom-
plished, namely, the destruction of
the wicked.

1. The introductory formula is
similar to that inii, 1. A... roll—
Among the ancients written docu-
ments were preserved in the form of
rolls. LXX., omitting the final letter
of the Hebrew word, reads “‘sickle,”’
which would give good sense, but the
dimensions given in verse 2 favor the
Hebrew text. Flying—Moving swift-
ly from the judgment throne above,
where the destruction was decreed, to
its destination upon earth.

2. The interpreting angel calls the
attention of the prophet to the new
vision by means of a question (com-
pare iv, 2, and see references there).
The roll was unfolded, so that its im-
mense size could be recognized.
Length ... twenty cubits ... the
breadth . . . ten cubits—The meas-
urements of the porch of Solomon’s
temple (1 Kings vi, 3) and of the holy
place in the tabernacle, as it may be
determined from Exod. xxvi, and as
it is given by Josephus (Antiquities,
iii, vi, 4). The exact figures may
have been suggested by one or the

 

other of these places, but it is not
probable that they possess any
special symbolic meaning; all they are
intended to do is to indicate the great
size of the roll. The Hebrews appear
to have used two cubits, one a little
longer than the other, but the data
are insufficient to determine the exact
length of either; the length of the
common cubit is estimated at approx-
imately eighteen inches (see Hast-
ings’s Dictionary of the Bible, article
“Weights and Measures’’).

The interpretation is given in
verses 3, 4. Thisis the curse—-We must
think of the roll as inscribed, perhaps
upon both sides, with a curse or
curses, similar to those in Deut. xxvii,
15-26, and xxviii, 15-68, though there
is no reason to suppose that the proph-
et has in mind these curses. The
whole earth—Better, R. V., “land.”
Verse 6 and especially verse 11 clearly
show that the reference is to Palestine
or Judah, or at the most to the ex-
tended Judah (ii, 11). Two classes
of criminals are singled out. Shall be
cut off—The Hebrew verb is used
ordinarily in the sense of acquit, free
from guilt; in this passage most com-
mentators take it in a physical sense,
clear away—cut off, or destroy (Isa. iii,
26). On this side—R. V., “on the
one side”; better, margin, “from
hence,” that is, from the land. Ac-
cording to it—According to the curscs
inscribed upon the roll. Some com-
mentators insist that the more com-
mon meaning of the verb should ke
retained; if that is done the text cf
the rest of the verse must be change’.
Wellhausen reads, ‘For everyone th«t
stealeth hath for long remained un-
punished, and everyone that sweareth
hath for long remained unpunished”;
CHAPTER V.

629

 

as on that side according to it. 4
I will bring it forth, saith the Lorp
of hosts, and it shall enter into the
house of the thief, and into the
house of ‘him that sweareth falsely
by my name: and it. shall re-
main in the midst of phis house,
and ‘shall consume it with the

timber thereof and the stones there-

of.

5 Then the angel that talked with
me went forth, and said unto me,
Lift up now thine eyes, and see
what is this that goeth forth. 6
And I said, What is it? And he said,
This is an ephah that goeth forth.

 

° Lev, 19. 12; chap. 8. 17; Mal. 3. 5.

4 See Lev. 14. 45.

 

therefore Jehovah is sending his judg-
ment. Everyone that sweareth—
Must be interpreted in the light of
verse 4 as equivalent to ‘everyone
that sweareth falsely by my name.”
The Old Testament does not condemn
swearing per se; it condemns only
false swearing (compare Hos. iv, 2);
Matt. v, 34ff., ison the New Testament
level. I will bring it forth—Better
and literally, J have caused it to go
forth: it has already started on its
mission of judgment. Its destina-
tion is the houses of the evil doers.
Shall remain—Literally, lodge over
night; but it will not sleep. Shall
consume—Not only will it announce
the judgment, it will execute it. It—
The house, including the inhabitants.
With the timber thereof and the stones
thereof—That is, utterly.

Only two forms of wickedness are
specified, stealing and false swearing.
It is hardly likely, however, that
these were the only sins recognized or
prevalent in the days of Zechariah; it
seems better to regard these as types
of two classes of wickedness, stealing
as representing all sins committed
agninst man, false swearing by the
name of Jehovah as representing all
sins committed against Jehovah.
Under these two heads all forms of
sin may be grouped, as in the Deca-
logue. If this is done the vision sym-
bolizes the destruction of sinners of
every sort.

The seventh vision—the woman in the
midst of the ephah, 5-11.

When the prophet lifts up his eyes
again he beholds an ephah, in which
is sitting a woman. Its opening is
securely fastened with a heavy cover.
As the prophet continues to gaze he

 

sees two women with wings lifting up
the vessel and carrying it through the
air. Upon inquiry he is informed
that the woman is to be established
in the far-distant Shinar. As the
vision unfolds the interpreter points
out its symbolical meaning. The
woman represents wickedness, which,
according to iii, 9, is to be removed
from the land. It is fastened securely
in the ephah, but to make practically
impossible the pollution of the land
it is to be removed to the distant
Shinar, there to be established for-
ever. This removal will forever free
the land from wickedness. It is evi-
dent, then, that the seventh vision is
a continuation and complement of the
sixth.

5, 6. The interpreting angel is the
first to appear. Went forth—As in
ii, 3. The several visions were separ-
ated from one another by intervals of
inactivity, during which the prophet
meditated upon the things seen and
heard. During these intervals the
angel was lost sight of, but when the
moment for a new vision arrived he
stood forth. The expression may
mean, therefore, simply that the
prophet again became aware of his
presence. The vision itself is pre-
sented in a manner somewhat differ-
ent from the preceding. Zechariah
is exhorted to look; when he does so
he becomes conscious of something,
but fails to understand what it is; then
his companion explains. This is an
ephah that goeth forth—A free trans-
lation would express the thought
more clearly, “that which goeth
forth (that is, appears, comes into
sight) is an ephah.” It is difficult to
determine the exact capacity of the
ephah (see on Amos viii, 5), but,
630

ZECHARIAH.

 

He said moreover, This zs their re-
semblance through all the earth.
7 And, behold, there was lifted up
a “talent of lead: and this is a wo-

20r, weighty piece.

man that sitteth inthe midst of the
Sabet 8 And he said, This ts wick-

ess.. And he cast it into the
midst of the ephab; and he cast the

 

speaking in general terms, it may be
compared to a bushel (compare
Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible, iv,
p. 912). Since a measure of the size
of a bushel cannot contain a woman,
the word must be used here of an
ephah-shaped measure, without refer-
ence to size.

Recognizing the mysteriousness of
the vision, the angel immediately
proceeds to explain it. This is their
resemblance through all the earth—
R. V., “This is their appearance in all
the land.” Of the two, R. V. is to be
preferred. Much ingenuity has been
expended in the interpretation of this
peculiar expression. Two attempts
may be mentioned. ‘The ephah is
the shape, that is, represents the
figure displayed by sinners in all the
land, after the roll of the curse has
gone forth over the land; that is, it
shows into what condition they have
come through that anathema. .
Just as in a bushel the separate grains
are all collected together, so will the
individual sinners over the whole
earth be brought into a heap, when
the ‘curse of the end goes forth over
the whole earth” (Keil). A slightly
different interpretation is suggested
by Perowne: “This, namely, the
ephah with all that you will see in the
vision regarding it, is the resemblance
or representation of the wicked
through all the land and of what shall
befall them.” These are only two out
of a great number of suggested inter-
pretations, all of which are more or
less artificial and require a stretch of
the text and of the imagination. The
difficulty is entirely removed if we
accept the LXX. reading, “their
transgression,” for “their resem-
‘blance”; the whole clause, “this is
‘their transgression in all the land.”
The pronoun js explained by “in all
the land,” equivalent to “the trans-

 

gression of the inhabitants of all the
land.” This transgression is sym-
bolized by the ephah and its contents,
though the latter have not yet been
revealed to the prophet. This trans-
lation and interpretation of verses
5, 6 seem to give a satisfactory sense,
though it may be admitted that the
reading is not as smooth as it ‘might
be. The apparent awkwardness of
the text leads Nowack and others to
alter it so as to read, following Lijt up
now thine eyes, and see—‘what is this
ephah that goeth forth? And I said,
What is it? And he said, That is
their transgression in all the land.”

7. While the interpreter was still
speaking, the cover was lifted from
the top of the ephah. A talent of
lead—Literally, a circle; margin, “a
round piece” (of lead). The ephah
is pictured asround. Now the proph-
et beholds the contents. And this is a

. | woman that sitteth in the midst of the

ephah—lIf the first part of verse 7 is
taken as a parenthetical clause
(so R. V.), these words are a con-
tinuation of verse 6, dependent on
“He said moreover.” If verse 7 is
taken by itself as describing the sight
which met the prophet’s eyes, a better
rendering would be, “And, behold!
a round piece of lead was lifted up;
and (behold) this! one (one) woman
sitting in the midst of the ephah”;
one woman is in apposition to this
(G.-K., 136d, note). It says not “a
woman,” but “one woman”; the
numeral is used to indicate that noth-
ing else was in the ephah.

8. The interpreter proceeds to ex-
plain the significance of the woman.
This is wickedness—The wickedness
of the whole land (verse 6) is personi-
fied in the one woman. As the cover
is lifted up she begins to rise, but the
angel throws her back and makes
escape impossible by replacing the lid
CHAPTER V.

631

 

weight of lead upon the mouth
thereof. 9 Then lifted I up mine
eyes, and looked, and, behold, there
came out two women, and the wind
was in their wings; for they had
wings like the wings of a stork: and
they lifted up the ephah between

the earth and the heaven. 10 Then
said I to the angel that talked with
me, Whither do these bear the
ephah? 11 And he said unto me,
To build it an house in fthe land
of Shinar: and it shall be established,
and set there upon her own base.

 

e Jer. 29. 5, 28.

f Gen. 10. 10.

 

upon the mouth, that is, the opening
of the ephah. Weight of lead—Liter-
ally, the stone of lead; synonymous
with “‘round piece of lead’’ in verse 7.

Verses 9, 10 describe the removal
of the ephah from the land. Then
lifted I up mine eyes—This phrase in-
troduces not a new vision, but a new
phase of the same vision. Looking
up from the ephah, he beholds two
new figures appearing upon the scene.
Two women—These women have no
special symbolical significance; they
appear only as the agents appointed
to remove the ephah. Women are
selected rather than men because a
woman is in the ephah, two women
because one alone could not have
carried the burden. Wings—To en-
able the women to move more quickly,
they were supplied with wings. The
air would offer fewer obstacles than
the land; besides, the wind of heaven
might assist creatures flying through
the air in theirmovements. Like
the wings of a stork—The stork is in-
troduced not because he is an unclean
bird (Lev. xi, 19), but on account of
the great size of his wings. The wind
was in their wings—That they might
proceed with greater swiftness. Be-
tween the earth and the heaven—
That is, in the air. Thus the women
began their journey.

As they move away the prophet
inquires where they are going, to
which the angel makes answer. 11.
To build it [‘‘her”] a house—The pro-
noun refers primarily to the ephah, but
includes the contents, the woman, for
houses are built ordinarily for human
beings. The building of a house im-
plies that the stay is to be permanent.
In the land of Shinar—Babylonia
(Gen. x, 10; xi, 2); the home of the
long-time enemy of the people of God,

 

the land of exile. Sin, which had
brought serious disaster upon Judah,
is to be removed to the land of the
enemy, there to cause distress and
destruction. That the stay is to be
permanent is further indicated in the
second half of the verse. R. V. is to
be preferred: “and when it is pre-
pared, she shall be set there in her own
place.” When it is prepared (R. V.)
—That is, the house. She shall be set
there (R. V.)—The woman (and the
ephah). In her own place (R. V.)—
In the house erected for her use.

CHAPTER VI.

The eighth viston—the four chariots
with horses of different colors, 1-8.

In the eighth and last vision the
prophet sees coming from between
two mountains four chariots drawn by
horses of different colors (1-4). Ac-
cording to the present Hebrew text,
two were commissioned to go toward
the north, and one toward the south;
the destination of the fourth is not
indicated (see on verse 7). This
vision is more obscure than the pre-
ceding ones. The interpreting angel
informs the prophet (verse 5) that
the four chariots are the four spirits
(R. V., ‘winds’”) of heaven (but see
on verse 5), ready to carry vut the
divine commands; but this interpreta-
tion retains a symbolical element: the
chariots symbolize divinely appointed
messengers (i, 10). The interpreta-
tion is expanded in verse 8, which
shows that the vision is intended to
reveal the fate which is to befall the
enemies of the Jews, especially those
in the north country (see on Joel ii,
20). When the judgment upon the
north country is executed the anger
of Jehovah is appeased and his spirit
632
CHAPTER VI.
ND I turned, and lifted up mine
eyes, and looked, and, behold,
there came four chariots out from
between two mountains; and the
mountains were mountains of brass.
2 In the first chariot were *red hor-

ZECHARIAH.

ses; and in thesecond chariot >black
horses; 3 And in the third chariot
ewhite horses; and in the fourth
chariot grisled and ‘bay horses. 4
Then I answered ‘and said unto the
angel that talked with me, What
are these, my lord? § And the angel

 

a Chap. 1. 8 Rev. 6. 4.—> Rev. 6. 5.

© Rev. 6. 2,1 Or, strong.—4 Chap. 5. 10.

 

is quieted. This vision, then, like
the first, is meant to assure the
prophet that Jehovah is about to exe-
cute judgment upon the nations hos-
tile to him and to his people (com-
pare Hag. ii, 7).

1. The introductory formula is
practically the same as in i, 18; ii, 1;
v, 1. Chariots—War chariots. The
occupants are sent forth to war.
Four—To be interpreted as in i, 18;
they were to be sent to the four points
of the compass, that is, in every di-
rection. Attempts to identify the
four chariots with four world powers,
be they those of Dan. ii, 31-35; vii, 3-7,
or any others, are vain. The angel
suggests no such identification. The
chariots represent the agents—what-
ever or whoever they may be—or-
dained by Jehovah to execute judg-
ment upon the nations, and to bring
about the “shaking” which was ex-
pected to usher in the Messianic era
(Hag. ii, 7). Between two moun-
tains—The Hebrew has the article,
the two (well-known) mountains.
What mountains were in the mind of
the prophet we do not know—some
think Mount Zion and Mount Moriah;
some, Mount Zion and Mount Olives.
The mountains play no further part
in the vision, therefore it is immaterial
to know what mountains they were;
one thing is certain, that they were
thought to be near the dwelling place
of Jehovah (verse 5). Of brass—A
symbol of strength and immovable-
ness.

2, 3. The chariots were drawn by
horses of different colors. Red...
black . . . white . . . grisled and
bay—For the last R. V. reads “‘griz-
zled strong.” Various symbolical
meanings have been suggested for

 

these colors; for example, red, the
color of blood, has been thought to
symbolize war and slaughter, black,
the color of mourning, the distress
following the slaughter. White has
been thought to symbolize victory,
grizzled has been taken as equivalent
to pale, the color of the horse ridden
by Death (Rev. vi, 8). Those who
take the chariots to symbolize four
nations interpret the colors as repre-
senting the chief characteristics of the
nations alluded to. But these and
similar interpretations are fanciful;
the colors have no symbolical meaning;
they serve only to distinguish the
chariots from one another. Grizzled
means literally covered with hail, that is,
spotted (Gen. xxxi, 10, 12). The word
joined with it, bay, or R. V. strong, is
of uncertain meaning. Since it oc-
curs in connection with several colors,
one would expect another color; this
is supplied by A. V., but there is little
to support the translation bay. In Isa.
lxiii, 1, a similar word is translated
“dyed,” margin “crimsoned.”’? Some
think, therefore, that the word used
here has the same meaning, or that
the other was originally in this place.
If so, the meaning might be that the
ground color was crimson and that on
it were the spots. All this is more or
less doubtful. Others, who favor the
translation strong, explain the use of
the term by the more difficult task
assigned to this chariot (but see on
verse 7). The expression remains
peculiar, and Wellhausen and others
who, on the basis of verses 6, 7, omit
strong (see on verse 7), may offer the
correct solution.

4-7. The prophet, failing to under-
stand the vision, appeals to his com-
panion, who supplies the desired in-
CHAPTER VI.

633

 

answered and said unto me, «These
are the four “spirits of the heavens,
which go forth from ‘standing be-
fore the Lord of all the earth. 6
The black horses which are therein

go forth into sthe north country;
and the white go forth after them;
and the grisled go forth toward the
south country. 7 And the bay went
forth, and sought to go that they

 

e Psa. 104. 4; Heb. 1. 7, 14.—?Or
winds.

formation. The four spirits of the
heavens—R. V., “the four winds”
(compare Jer. xlix, 36). If the R. V.
translation is correct one symbol is
explained by another which, because
of its familiarity, would suggest more
readily the significance of the first.
The four winds would symbolize the
messengers of judgment which are
sent by Jehovah in every direction.
They go forth from the presence of
Jehovah, to whom they have pre-
sented themselves to make a report,
or to receive their commission. Simi-
larly, the spirits of A. V. would be the
ministering spirits sent to execute the
judgment. It is difficult to choose
between the two translations. In
every case the context must decide
whether the Hebrew word should be
translated spirit or wind; here either
gives good sense. More satisfactory
than either A. V. or R. V. is a trans-
lation first proposed by Wellhausen,
“These are going forth to the four
winds of heaven from standing before
the Lord of all the earth.” With this
translation the subject of ‘are going
forth” is the ‘‘four chariots” of verse 1.
This translation is in perfect accord
with the rules of Hebrew grammar
(G.-K., 118d, f.); if it is adopted the
peculiarity of explaining one symbol
by another is removed, and the reply
of the angel becomes one continuous
explanation, reaching its climax in
verse 8.

The angel, after stating whence the
chariots proceed, indicates in verses
6, 7 the commission of each. Again
they are distinguished by the color of
the horses, but the red horses of verse
2 are absent; instead, the adjectives
grizzled strong or grizzled and bay of
verse 3 are separated and applied to
two different sets of horses. Since
there can be no doubt that the chari-

 

{1 Kings 22.19; Dan. 7. 10; chap. 4. 14;
Luke 1. 19.—-¢ Jer. 1. 14.

ots of verses 2, 3 are identical with
those of verses 6, 7, the colors men-
tioned here must in some way corre-
spond to those named in the other
verses. The black and the white
horses present no difficulty, but when
they are disposed of two peculiarities
remain, (1) the absence of the red
horses, (2) the separation of the griz-
zled strong horses into two classes.
Much ingenuity has been expended in
attempts to remove these difficulties,
but when all is said and done it is seen
that the attempts are not successful.
Two of the ancient versions, Peshitto
and Aquila, present a solution; they
read red instead of strong in verse 7
(so margin R. V.), which restores the
four colors, black, red, white, grizzled.
The error arose first in verse 7; from
there a later writer inserted strong
also in verse 3.

The north country—Babylonia.
North is used because the Assyrian
and Babylonian armies were accus-
tomed to invade Palestine from the
north; in reality Babylonia was east
of Judah (ii, 6; see also on Joel ii, 20;
compare Jer. i, 14;iv, 6; vi, 1). After
them—If the present Hebrew text
is correct the thought is that the
white horses go to the aid of the black
(see below). Babylon, as the strong-
est enemy and the one most guilty,
will suffer the severest judgment.
The south country—The other long-
time enemy of Judah, Egypt, was
found there; but if Egypt is in the
prophet’s mind it serves only as a
type of all enemies in the south.
The red (R. V., bay) also “went forth,”
but it is not stated whither they went.
The tense is the same as in verse 6;
therefore instead of “went forth’ we
should translate, as in verse 6, ‘“‘go
forth,” for the opening words of
verse 7 are the continuation of verse 6.
634

ZECHARIAT.

 

might ‘walk to and fro through the
earth: and he said, Get you hence,
walk to and fro through the earth.
So they walked to and fro through
the earth. 8 Then cried he upon
me, and spake unto me, saying,

Behold, these that go toward the
north country have quieted my
‘spirit in the north country.

9 And the word of the LoRD came
unto me, saying, 10 Take of them of
the captivity, even of Heldai, of To-

 

h Gen. 18. 17; chap. 1. 10.

i Judg. 8. 3; Eccl. 10. 4.

 

After go forth a break should be made,
for the succeeding words, ‘‘and sought
togo... ,” refer not only to the red
horses, but to the horses hitched to all
four chariots. They had come forth
from between the two mountains, and
the angel had pointed out their desti-
nations, but thus far Jehovah had not
given the command to go. Now they
begin to express their desire to go
about their errands, and they receive
permission to go. Get you hence—
Literally, Go ye. As soon as the com-
mand is given they proceed. The
above appears to be the best interpre-
tation of the present Hebrew text; but
in view of the reference to the “four
winds of heaven” (verse 5) we would
expect all four points of the compass
to be indicated in connection with the
chariots, instead of only two. It has
been suggested, therefore,-to change
after them to toward the west country,
a meaning which Ewald thinks may be
gotten from the present Hebrew text,
which reads literally, “toward behind
them’ (see on Joel ii, 20). The red
horses would be commissioned to go
“toward the east country.” With
these emendations 6, 7a would read,
“The black horses which are therein
(in the chariot) go forth into the north
country; and the white go forth to-
ward the west country; and the griz-
zled ¢o forth toward the south coun-
try; and the red go forth toward the
east country.”

8. The greatest enemy of the Jews
were the Babylonians, .or their suc-
cessors, the Persians; while their
power remained intact, there was little
hope for a complete restoration. In
the first and second visions the proph-
et had been informed that judgment
was about to fall upon that nation;
here he is assured once more that the

 

day of judgment is at hand. All the
chariots are messengers of judgment,
but only the one going toward the
north is singled out for further com-
ment. Have quieted my spirit—A
prophetic perfect; the act is still future,
but it is so certain that the prophet
may speak of it as already accom-
plished. The spirit is the spirit of
wrath (Eccl. x, 4), which they are
about to quiet, that is, to pacify, by
the execution of the judgment (Ezek.
v, 13; xvi, 42).

Tue SymBouicaL CrowninG or JosH-
vA, THE HicH Priest, 9-15.

The series of symbolical visions is
followed by a command to perform
a symbolical act, which is so closely
connected with the preceding visions
that it seems best to consider this
section a sort of appendix to them.
The prophet is urged to adorn the
high priest Joshua with a crown made
of the silver and gold sent by the ex-
iles from Babylon, and to proclaim
him the type of “Branch,” who is
about to appear in order to complete
the temple and to rule over the people.
His fame will spread quickly, and
those that are afar off will come and
join in the building enterprise.

9. The word of Jehovah came—
Perhaps during the same night. How
it came is not stated, perhaps through
the interpreting angel.

Verses 10-15 state the contents of
the word. That the command was
carried out is not stated, but there
is no reason why it should not have
been. Of them of the captivity—Lit-
erally, of the captivity. Of the exiles
still dwelling in Babylon, who through
the men named, Heldai, Tobijah,
Jedaiah, otherwise unknown, sent
their gifts to the temple (compare
CHAPTER VI.

635

 

bijah, and of Jedaiah, which are
come from Babylon, and come thou
the same day, and go into the house
of Josiah the son of Zephaniah;
11 Then take silver and gold, and
make ‘crowns, and set them upon
the head of Joshua the son of Jose-

dech, the high priest; 12 And speak
unto him, saying, Thus speaketh
the Lorp of hosts, saying, Behold
'the man whose name is The
™BRANCH; and he shall *grow up
out of his place, "and he shall build
the temple of the Lorp: 13 Even

 

k Bxod. 28. 36; 20. 6; Lev. 8. 9; chap.
3. 5.—! See Luke 1. 78; John 1, 45,—
™ Chap. 3, 8.

3 Or, branch up from under him.—
o Chap. 4. 9; Matt. 16, 18; Eph, 2. 20-22;
Heb. 3. 3,

 

Ezra vii, 14-16; viii, 26-30). The same
day—The day belonging to the night
in which the revelation came (see on
i, 8), equivalent to this very day. Ac-
cording to the present Hebrew text
these men were lodging in the house
of Josiah the son of Zephaniah, where
the prophet is to meet them. The
Hebrew text of 10b is very cumber-
some, hence many consider it corrupt.
Nowack suggests as an emendation,
partly on the basis of verse 14 and
partly in order to retain the common
meaning of the relative translated
whither, “Take . . . of Heldai, and of
Tobijah, and of Jedaiah, and of Josiah,
the son of Zephaniah, who are come
from Babylon.” The result is a
smoother text.

11. Then take—R. V., “‘yea, take
of them.’”’ Of the men named the
prophet is to take the gifts of silver
and gold which they have brought.
Make—Cause to be made (Exod. xxv,
11ff). Crowns—Margin R. V. reads
the singular, “a crown.” The pro-
noun them which follows is not ex-
pressed in the Hebrew; it would be
just as legitimate to supply the singu-
lar it. Since only one person is
crowned, since a crowning of one per-
son with two crowns seems unnatural,
and since the verb “shall be” in verse
14, which belongs to “the crowns,” is
in the singular, it is better to follow
the margin (compare Job xxxi, 36).
The plural may indicate that the
crown is to be composed of two or
more circlets, perhaps one of gold and
one of silver. Joshua—The same as
in iii, 1 (compare Hag. i, 1). Upon
his head the crown is to be placed.

The action is explained in verse 12.
Behold the man whose name is The
Branch—The last word is without the

 

article in the Hebrew (see on iii, 8),
hence Branch is to be regarded as a
proper name. It is impossible to
identify Branch with the high priest.
The context (compare also iii, 8; iv, 7)
makes the latter only a type of the
former, and in the succeeding clauses
attention is called to the antitype,
not to the type. And he—Branch.
Shall grow up out of his place—Liter-
ally, from under him; margin R. V.,
“and it (or, they; the indefinite sub-
ject=things, everything) shall grow
up (bud forth) under him,” that is,
under Branch. An obscure expres-
sion. The first translation presents
the greater difficulties; indeed, no sat-
isfactory explanation has been offered.
It is hardly sufficient to say, “com-
pare for the meaning Isa. xi, 1;
lili, 2,” for the expressions there are
of a different character. It is equally
difficult to get from the words the
idea that Branch will ‘grow up from
the ground out of obscure lowliness.”
The translation offered in the margin
is more satisfactory. The influence
of Branch will be beneficial, and under
his reign everything will revive and
flourish. The promise of prosperity
in the Messianic age is one found
frequently in the prophetic books
(compare Hos. ii, 21, 22; Amos ix, 13;
compare Zech. i, 17; ii, 1ff.). And
he—Branch. Shall build the temple
of Jehovah—There is no warrant any-
where for making this temple the
spiritual temple, the kingdom of God,
as distinguished from the temple in
Jerusalem, in the building of which
Haggai and Zechariah are so deeply
interested. The temple mentioned
here is no other than the temple of
iv, 7.

In verse 13 the promise is repeated
636

he shall build the temple of the
Lorp; and he vshall bear the glory,
and shall sit and rule upon his

olsa. 22, 24,

for the sake of emphasis. He shall
bear the glory—Of royalty. He will be
clothed with regal majesty and splen-
dor (compare Isa. ix, 6); he will, in-
deed, sit on the throne and rule as
king. He shall be a priest upon his
throne—Margin R. V., ‘there shall be
a priest upon his throne.” Theformer
translation implies that Branch will
combine in his person the priestly and
kingly offices; the latter simply says
that at the time when Branch will rule
as king there will also be enthroned a
priest, either upon a separate throne
or upon the same throne with the
ruler. The latter is supported by
LXX., which reads “at his right hand”
for ‘upon his throne.” The Hebrew
permits either translation. Against
the second it has been urged that if
the high priest is a type of Branch he
cannot very well typify a second per-
son, who is to fill his own office. But
this objection is by no means con-
clusive; besides, it is not necessary to
think of Joshua as the type of the new
high priest. If Zerubbabel is Branch
(see below), it is quite probable that
Joshua himself is in the mind of the
prophet as occupying the high-
priestly office in the Messianic era.
This is in perfect accord with the
teaching of Zechariah elsewhere; he
always places Joshua by the side of
Zerubbabel ; nowhere does he give any
hint that the one will supersede the
other. To bring out the thought
more clearly some insert “Joshua” as
the subject: “and Joshua shall be a
priest upon his throne,” or “by his
side’ (LXX.). On the whole, the
marginal translation seems preferable.
The last clause certainly favors the
view that two distinct persons are
meant. And the counsel of peace—
There will be peace and harmony be-
tween priest and king and they will
plan together to promote the peace
of the community. Between them

 

ZECHARIAH.

throne; and rhe shall be a priest
upon his throne: and the counsel of
peace shall be between them both.

P Psa. 110. 4; Heb. 3. 1.
both—Between priest and king.
Those who think that Branch is both
king and priest interpret both of the
two offices. In the past they have
been apart, in Branch they will be
united in one person, and between the
two offices, which apparently pursue
different ends, there will be perfect
agreement, and both will labor for the
same end. This interpretation, how-
ever, is less natural. In Psa. cx the
Messianic king is represented as com-
bining in his own person the kingly
and priestly offices, but this thought
seems foreign to Zechariah. Another
interpretation makes “between them
both” refer to the union between Je-
hovah and Branch, but this also is
unsuitable.

It is not necessary to enumerate the
many emendations that have been
suggested, for they are not needed,
nor do they improve the text. Here,
as in iii, 8, Branch must be Zerub-
babel, for the task assigned to both
is the building of the temple (com-
pare iv, 7ff.). In what sense this and
similar passages find their fulfillment
in Jesus the Christ is pointed out in the
comments on Mic. iv, 1-5, and at the
close of the comments on Mic. v, 15.
The question may be raised, however,
why the crown was not placed upon
the head of Zerubbabel, if Zechariah
saw in him the Messianic king. The
most probable explanation is that the
crowning of the civil ruler would have
aroused the suspicion of the Persian
government and would have invited
disaster. The time for such step was
not yet ripe. On the other hand, the
crowning of the high priest might be
looked upon by the authorities as a
purely religious ceremony, without
any threatening significance, while it
would prove a consolation and in-
spiration to the Jews who were ac-
quainted with the Messianic teaching
of the earlier prophets,
CHAPTER VII.

637

 

14 And the crowns shall be to Hel-
em, and to Tobijah, and to Jedaiah,
and to Hen the son of Zephaniah,
sfor a memorial in the temple of the
Lorp. 15 And ‘they that are far

off shall come and build in the tem- | God.

ple of the Lorp, and *ye shall know

that the Lorp of hosts hath sent

me unto you. And this shall come

to pass, if ye will diligently obey

the voice of the Lorp your
od.

 

qa Exod. 12.14; Mark 14. 9.

 

t Isa. 57.19;

60. 10; Eph. 2.13, 19.—* Chaps. 2.9; 4.9.

 

14. After the performance of the
symbolic act the crown is to be pre-
served in the temple, soon to be com-
pleted, as a memorial to the men who
brought the gifts out of which it was
made, but perhaps also so as to have
it in readiness for the time: when
Zerubbabel himself should be crowned
as Messianic king. Crowns—See on
verse 11. Helem—Probably a copy-
ist’s error for Heldai (verse 10), which
Peshitto has preserved here. Hen
the son of Zephaniah—Undoubtedly
the same person as Josiah, the son of
Zephaniah, in verse 10. Some com-
mentators take Hen to be a second
name of the same person; others (so
margin R. V.) translate it as a com-
mon noun “for the kindness of the
son of Zephaniah,” that is, for the
kindness shown by him in receiving
in his house the messengers from
Babylon (but see on verse 10). Still
others consider Hen a copyist’s error
for Josiah, and they think that the
latter should be read here. Whether
the emendation is accepted or not,
there can hardly be any doubt that
the same person is meant as in verse
10.
15. Branch will not have to depend
exclusively upon the few Jews now in
Jerusalem to assist him in the build-
ing enterprise. They that are far off
shall come and build—The Jews still
in exile, as well as foreigners who will
be converted to Jehovah (compare
ii, 11; viii, 20-23; Hag. ii, 7,8). And
ye shall know—As in ii, 9, 11; iv, 9
(see there). The blessings promised
in the symbolical act and in the vis-
ions will be theirs only if they dili-
gently obey the words of Jehovah as
proclaimed by Haggai and Zechariah,
which means, primarily, if they will
speedily rebuild the temple. The
translation found in the English ver-

 

sions is the only one that can be given
of 15b in its present position at the
close of the chapter. But the Hebrew
reads as if the whole were a protasis
with the apodosis dropped out:
‘And it shall come to pass if ye will
diligently obey the voice of Jehovah,
your God....” If the apodosis
has been lost it is difficult to say what
it was.

CHAPTER VII.

RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF MORAL AND
CrerREMONIAL REQUIREMENTS, vii;
1-viii, 23.

After a silence of nearly two years
the voice of Zechariah was heard
again. In the fourth year of Darius a
deputation came to the prophet in-
quiring whether the observance of
the fasts instituted to commemorate
the destruction of Jerusalem was still
obligatory (vii, 1-3). This question
would suggest itself to many as the
temple neared completion, and as the
seventy years since the destruction of
Jerusalem were drawing to a close.
In reply the prophet points out that
fasting is not an end in itself, that it
is of value only as a means of increas-
ing devotion and piety in the one who
practices it (4-6). Then he turns the
attention of the delegation to the
ethical character of the divine de-
mands, and points out that by dis-
regarding these their fathers had
brought upon themselves awful judg-
ments (7-14). Reaffirming Jehovah’s
jealousy for Zion, he pictures the glory
and prosperity in store for Judah and
Jerusalem (viii, 1-17). Wher these
glories are realized the question of
fasts will solve itself; they will be
transformed into seasons of joy and
rejoicing, to which multitudes will
flock from all parts of the land; even
638

ZECHARIAH.

 

CHAPTER VII.
ND it came to pass in the fourth
year of king Darius, that the
word of the LoRD came unto Zech-

ariah in the fourth day of the ninth
month, even in Chisleu; 2 When
they had sent unto the house of God
Sherezer and Regem-melech, and

 

the other nations will gladly join the
Jews in their festivities (18-23).

Occasion of the prophetic utterance, 1-3.

1. Fourth year—518 B. C. (compare
i, 1; see on Hag. i, 1). The ninth
month—See on Hag. ii, 10, and
Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible,
article “Time.” The last date men-
tioned (i, 7) was nearly two years
earlier. In this same month two
years before Haggai had delivered
two messages of promise (Hag. ii, 10-
19, 20-23). The order of the words
and the construction in Hebrew are
peculiar; therefore many are inclined
to omit 1b as a later addition and to
connect la with verse 2 so as to
read, ‘‘And it came to pass in the
fourth year of Darius that Beth-el
sent.”

Verses 2, 3 describe the occasion
which called forth the utterance.
The translation of verse 2 is uncertain;
R. V. reads, ‘‘Now they of Beth-el had
sent Sharezer and Regem-melech, and
their men, to entreat the favor of
Jehovah.” Beth-el (R. V.), though
meaning house of God (A. V.; compare
Gen. xxviii, 19) does not seem to be
used of the temple. The form as well
as the context require that it should
be taken as the name of the well-
known town and sanctuary of the
northern kingdom, about ten miles
north of Jerusalem (see on Amos iv,
4), to which some exiles had returned
(Ezra ii, 1,28). Butisit in the nomina-
tive or in the accusative (of direction)?
Should it be translated “‘Beth-el sent,”’
or “he sent to Beth-el’’? The latter
is improbable, for why should anyone
send to Beth-el in the postexilic
period, when Jerusalem was the only
recognized religious center? If the
text is correct Beth-el must be taken
as the subject in the sense of men of
Beth-el (so R. V.). If so, “Sharezer
and Regem-melech” would be the

 

object; the community in Beth-el sent
these two men. Then the phrase
“his men” (English versions read in-
correctly the plural their) becomes
peculiar, for the singular pronoun re-
fers ordinarily to only one individual.
This difficulty was evidently felt by
the Revisers, for they place in the
margin as an alternative, ‘Now they
of Beth-el, even Sharezer, had sent
Regem-melech and his men.’ This
may be a more accurate reproduction
of the Hebrew, but Sharezer sounds
peculiar in apposition to they of Beth-el.
Hence some have thought that in the
two words Beth-el and Sharezer (Isa.
xxxvii, 38) we have a corruption of
what was originally a single proper
name, perhaps Belsharezer, which
is identical with Belshazzar (Dan.
v, 1). Then Belsharezer would be the
sender of Regem-melech. The former
may have been some prominent citizen
or official—it has been suggested,
though with little probability, that
he is no other than Zerubbabel—who,
as the representative of the commu-
nity, sought the advice of the prophets
and priests. Others seek to remove
the difficulty by taking Beth-el as the
subject, Sharezer as the object, and
Regem-melech not as a proper name
but as an official title. ‘Now they of
Beth-el sent Sharezer, the Regem-
melech (friend of the king), and his
men.” The title is found nowhere
else. The present text, no mat-
ter how it is translated, presents
difficulties. If it is emended the
change to ‘‘Belsharezer sent Re-
gem-melech and his men’ is the
most simple. Perhaps all we can
say with certainty is that a dele-
gation was sent from somewhere to
consult the religious leaders, and
that the coming of this delegation
was the occasion of the prophet’s
utterance.

The purpose of the sending of the
emissaries was twofold: (1) To entreat
CHAPTER VIL.

639

 

their men, 'to pray before the Lorn,
3 And to *speak unto the priests
which were in the house of the Lorp
of hosts, and to the prophets, say-
ing, Should I weep in >the fifth
month, separating myself, as I have
done these so many years?

4 Then came the word of the
Lorp of hosts unto me, saying,

& Speak unto all the people of the
land, and to the priests, saying,
When ye fasted and mourned in the
fifth 4dand seventh month, eeven
those seventy years, did ye at all
fast ‘unto me, even to me? 6 And
when ye did eat, and when ye did
drink, 2did not ye eat for yourselves,
and drink for yourselves? 7 *Should

 

1 Heb. to tntreat the face of the LORD;
1 Sam. 13. 12: chap. 8. 21. ® Deut. 17.
9-11; 33. 10; Mal. 2, 7.—-b Jer. 52. 12;
chap. 8. 19.

 

°Isa, 58. 5.—4 Jer. 41. 1; chap. 8. 19.
— Chap. 1. 12.— See Rom. 14. 6.—
2 Or, be not ye they that, etc.—-3 Or, Are
not these the words.

 

the favor of Jehovah (R. V.)—Liter-
ally, to stroke the face of Jehovah, and
thus make him favorably inclined. The
metaphor seems to have originated
at a time when it was customary to
stroke or embrace the image of the
deity to secure the divine favor. In
the general sense of entreat the favor
of God or man by presents, petitions,
or other means the verb is used quite
commonly in the Old Testament.
(2) Speak unto the priests . . . to the
prophets—Speak to is used in the sense
of consult. It would seem that the two
classes of religious workers possessed
at this time equal authority, and that
there was peace and good will between
them. There is no indication of the
opposition which was so prominent in
the eighth century, and which ap-
pears again in the days of Malachi.
Should I weep in the fifth month—No
matter who was the sender, the ques-
tion was asked in the name of the
community (see verse 5). The fifth
month was called Ab; on the tenth
day of that month the city and temple
were given up to the flames (Jer.
lii, 12, 13; but compare 2 Kings xxv,
8, 9). In commemoration of this
terrible calamity a public fast and
mourning was held annually by the
later Jews on the ninth of Ab. As the
new temple approached completion,
many would ask themselves whether
this fast and mourning should be con-
tinued. Separating myself—Abstain-
ing from meat and drink (verse 5).

Fasting not an essential element of
true religion, 4-6.

The new revelation (verses 4ff.; see

 

on i, 1) has to do with this inquiry.
5. Unto all the people—All were in-
terested in the fast, hence all would
be interested in the prophet’s teach-
ing. The priests—They were always
the conservatives, the prophets the
progressives; the former were prone to
emphasize the letter of the law, the
latter the spirit, and because they were
not bound to the letter they were able
to lead the people into new and higher
truth, though in doing this they fre-
quently encountered the most bitter
opposition of the priests. The new
message had to do with the spirit of
the law; therefore it was only natural
that it should pass from the prophet
to the priests, who in turn might pass
it on to the people. We have here an
illustration of a fact noted by Beecher,
“The record represents the prophets
as the medium through which the
torah is given from the deity; the
priests as the official custodians and
administrators of the torah; and both
as the expounders and interpreters of
torah.” The... seventh month —
The third day of this month was ob-
served as a day of fasting and mourn-
ing in commemoration of the murder
of Gedaliah (2 Kings xxv, 25, 26;
Jer. xli, 1ff.). Fifth—See on verse 3.
Seventy years—In round numbers,
seventy years had elapsed since the
fall of the city. Did ye at all fast
unto me—Was the fast observed as a
means of grace by which the people
drew closer to God? Was Jehovah
benefited in any way by their fasting?
The pronoun is repeated for the sake
of emphasis (Hag. i, 4). 6. Did not
ye eat for yourselves—Eating is of val-
640

ZECHARIATI

 

ye not hear the words which the
Lorp hath cried ‘by the former
prone: when Jerusalem was in-

abited and in prosperity, and the
cities thereof round about her,
when men inhabited sthe south and
the plain?

8 And the word of the Lorp came

unto Zechariah, saying, 9 Thus

speaketh the Lorp of hosts, saying,
b sJuxecute true judgment, and show
mercy and compassions every man
to his brother: 10 and ioppress not
the widow, nor the fatherless, the
stranger, nor the poor; ‘and let none
of you imagine evil against his
brother in your heart. 11 But they
refused to hearken, and ! pulled

 

4 Heb. by the hand of, etc.—# Jer. 17.
26.— Isa. 58. 6, 7; Jer. 7. 23; Mic. 6. 8;
chap. 8. 16; Matt. 23. 23,— 5» Heb. Judge
judgment of truth.

i Exod. 22. 21, 22; Deut. 24. 17; Isa. 1.
17; Jer. 5. 28.— Psa. 36. 4; Mic. 2. 1; chap.
8. 17. 1 Neh, 9. 29; Jer. 7. 24; Hos. 4. 16.
——* Heb. they gave a backsltding shoulder,

 

 

ue only to the eater. Jehovah derives
no benefit either from their fasting
or their feasting, but they should
know whether or not the one or the
other is useful to them.

The true requirements of Jehovah,

The vague answer, in 4-6, though it
leaves, for the time being, the question
unsolved, opens the way for a dis-
course, in which the prophet goes
to the root of the matter and in
which he gives the only true and
satisfactory solution. He begins,
in verse 7, by calling attention to
the things that are of real value
in the sight of God. Should ye
not hear the words—The Hebrew has
no verb, but it has been customary to
supply it as do the English versions.
It seems better, however, to follow
LXX., Peshitto, Vulgate, the three
most important ancient versions, and
read, ‘‘Are these the words?” The
words are given in verses 9, 10, and
they form the starting point of an
appropriate solution of the problem.
The former prophets—See on i, 4.
Jerusalem was inhabited—At the time
when all was prosperity, that is, be-
fore the exile. South... plain—R.
V., “South . . lowland.” The Neged
and the Shephelah, two of the three
divisions of Judah (Josh. xv, 21, 33).
The former was in the south, the other
took in the foothills between the Cen-
tral Range and the Maritime Plain.
Disobedience to these words caused
the loss of prosperity.

Verse 8 is a repetition of verse 4
and should perhaps be omitted; it cer-

 

tainly does not add anything, and
verse 9 is the natural continuation of
verse 7, for in verse 9 are quoted the
words of the former prophets. The
introductory phrase of verse 9 also
seems superfluous, but it may be a
part of the quotation. If it was sup-
plied by Zechariah, it should be trans-
lated “thus spake,” for it introduces
words spoken to past generations.
Verses 9, 10 make it clear that the
principles of pure and undefiled re-
ligion (James i, 27) were the same in
the Old Testament period as they are
now, love to God and love to fellow
men. Zechariah, in this discourse,
emphasizes the latter. Execute true
judgment—Administer justice with-
out respect of persons, according to
the merits of the case (Amos v, 24;
Hos. xii, 6; Isa. i, 17; compare Isa.
v, 23). Show mercy and compassions
—R. V. reads for the first ‘‘kindness.”’
See on Hos. ii, 19; vi, 6; Mic. vi, 8.
Oppress not the widow, nor the father-
less, the stranger, nor the poor—All
these are persons who cannot defend
themselves, and who in many cases
have no friends to take their part;
therefore they are placed under the
special care of Jehovah (Exod. xxii,
21-24), and his followers are enjoined
constantly to care for them (Isa. i, 17;
Mice. ii, 9; for the stranger see on Mal.
iii, 5). Imagine evil—Plan to do evil
(compare viii, 17; Mic. ii, 1; Jer. iv,
14; Prov. iii, 29).

11, 12. The requirements could not
have been made plainer, but the atti-
tude of the people was disappointing.
They—The fathers (i, 4). Refused to
hearken—They would pay no heed te
CHAPTER VII.

641

 

away the shoulder, and 7 "stopped
their ears, that they should not Fear,
12 Yea, they made their *hearts as
an adamant stone, elest they should
hear the law, and the words which
the Lorp of hosts hath sent in his
spirit by the former prophets:
rtherefore came a great wrath from
the Lorp of hosts. 13 Therefore it
is come to pass, that as he cried, and

they would not hear; so sthey cried,
and I would not hear, saith the
Lorp of hosts: 14 But ‘I scattered
them with a whirlwind among all
the nations swhom they knew
not. Thus ‘the land was "deeaiat
after them, that no man passed

through nor returned: for they
ie tthe pleasant land deso-
ate.

 

7 Heb. made heavy.——™ Acts 7. 57.—
n Ezek. 11. 19; 36. 26.—° Neh. 9. 29, 30.
—— 5 Heb. by the hand of. pP 2 Chron. 36.
16; Dan. 9. 11.—~-4 Prov. 1. 24-28; Isa. 1.

 

15; Jer. 11.11; 14, 12; Mie. 3. 4. t Deut.

 

8. 9.—® Heb. land of desire,

 

the prophetic exhortations. Pulled
away the shoulder—Better, with mar-
gin R. V., “turned a stubborn shoul-
der’’ (Neh. ix, 29). The metaphor is
taken from the ox that refuses to have
the yoke put upon its neck (Hos.
iv, 16). Stopped their ears—Liter-
ally, made heavy their ears (Isa. vi, 10,
so that they would not hear. Their
hearts as an adamant stone—So that
no impressions could be made (Ezek.
xi, 19). Lest—The Hebrew construc-
tion is the same as in verse 11, ‘‘that
not.” Law ... words—These two
words are used frequently by the
prophets as synonyms; the former
would be better translated “instruc-
tion,” or “teaching,” as in Isa. i, 10;
ii, 3 (see on Hos. iv, 6; compare Amos
ii, 4). Which—Refers to both law
and words. In his spirit—Or, by; see
on Joel ii, 28. The former prophets—
As in verse 7.

As a result of this disobedience
great calamity fell upon the former
generations. Came a great wrath—
Which found expression in judgments
(see on Zeph. i, 18, and references
there). Though R. V. reproduces
more literally the Hebrew of verses
13, 14, A. V. is more successful in
expressing the thought. The verses
contain no direct threats against the
prophet’s contemporaries; they de-
scribe the fate suffered by the fathers
(for the Hebrew tenses compare G.-K.,
107b, e), and they teach by implica-
tion that a similar attitude on the
part of the present generation will
bring a similar fate. As he cried—
Jehovah, through the prophets, in the

 

manner suggested in verses 9, 10.
They—The fathers, who would not
hear. The punishment was according
to the lex talionis. When the fathers
cried for help and deliverance Jehovah
would not hearken to them. I scat-
tered them with a whirlwind—Sud-
denly and fiercely (see on Hos. viii, 7;
Amos i, 14). Nations whom they
knew not—The Assyrians and Chal-
deans, who, as strangers, had no
sympathy or compassion (Jer. xvi, 13;
xxii, 28). After them—After they
were scattered as exiles and fugitives
the land became desolate. No man
passed through nor returned—The
country became so waste that no
traveler cared to take his course
through it (compare ix, 8; Exod.
xxxii, 27; 1 Kings xv, 17). For—
Better, and so. They laid . . . deso-
late—The subject may be either the
indefinite they, the enemies, or the
inhabitants of the land who, through
their stubbornness and disobedience,
attracted the judgment. Pleasant
land—Literally, the land of desire. At
one time it was thought a very desir-
able land, “flowing with milk and
honey” (Jer. iii, 19; Deut. vili, 7ff.).
After the divine judgment had fallen
no one cared to go near it.

CHAPTER VIII.

Imminence of the day of redemption,
1-8.

The introductory formula of viii, 1
does not mark the beginning of a new
discourse; it introduces only a new
line of thought in the prophecy which
642

ZECHARIAH.

 

CHAPTER VIII.

GAIN the word of the Lorp of

hosts came _to me, saying, 2
Thus saith the Lorp of hosts; «I
was jealous for Zion with great jeal-
ousy, and I was jealous for her
with great fury. 3 Thus saith the
Lorp; *I am returned unto Zion,
and ewill dwell in the midst of Jeru-
salem: and Jerusalem 4shall be

called a city of truth; and cthe
mountain of the Lorp of hosts ‘the
holy mountain. 4 Thus saith the
Lorp of hosts; «There shall yet old
men and old women dwell in the
streets of Jerusalem, and every man
with his staff in his hand 'for very
age. 5 And the streets of the city
shall be full of boys and girls playing
in the streets thereof. 6 Thus saith

 

 

a Nah. 1. 2; chap. 1. 14.——> Chap. 1. 16.
¢ Chap. 2. 10.—4d Isa. 1. 21, 26.—

elsa. 2. 2, 3.

Isa.

{ Jer. 31. 23.—-e See 1 Sam. 2. 31;
65. 20, 22; Lam. 2. 20, ete; 5. 11-14.
1 Heb. for multitude of days.

 

begins in vii, 4. In vii, 6ff., the
prophet dwells upon the past; in viii,
1, he turns to the present and from the
present outlook he draws a new argu-
ment, to show that the observance of
the solemn fasts is not essential. In
chapter vii he sets forth that in the
past Jehovah demanded justice and
mercy, not the observance of the ex-
ternal forms; judgment came upon
the fathers, because they disregarded
the ethical demands of Jehovah; all
of which shows that even to-day fast-
ing is of secondary importance. In
chapter viii he points out, that the
time of redemption is at hand, there-
fore fasting and mourning are no
longer needed; they will be changed
into seasons of rejoicing.

Verse 2 emphasizes the motive that
prompts Jehovah to bestow the new
blessings. Thus saith Jehovah—Re-
peated ten times in this chapter,
always introducing assurances of
divine interest (see on i, 3). I was
jealous—Better, R. V., ‘‘I am jealous”
(compare i, 14; see on Joel ii, 18)
For Zion—Here the entire postexil-
ic community. With great fury—
Against the enemies of Zion (see on
Nah. i,2). 2b repeats the thought of
2a for the sake of emphasis. Verse 3
introduces the promise of speedy re-
demption. I am returned—The tense
may express the idea that Jehovah has
already returned and is about to begin
his activity on behalf of Zion, or it
may be a prophetic perfect, which
would place the action in the future
but would express absolute confidence
in the fulfillment of the promise (i, 16;
ii, 10ff.). Since the temple, which was

 

to be the dwelling place of Jehovah,
was not yet completed, the lat-
ter interpretation is to be pre-
ferred. Ezekiel had seen the glory
of Jehovah departing from Zion before
the capture of the city (Ezek. ix, 3;
x, 4, 18), but on the completion of
the temple Jehovah will return. In
the midst of Jerusalem—See on Joel
ii, 27; iii, 17. Shall be called—Among
the Hebrews the name serves fre-
quently as a symbol of character; in
such cases the calling of anyone by a
certain name suggests that he pos-
sesses u certain character, hence to
be called is practically equivalent to
to be (Isa. i, 26; iv, 3; ix, 6; Ezek.
xviii, 35). City of truth—Equivalent
to fatthful city (Isa. i, 21);a city known
for its truthfulness and fidelity to
Jehovah. Holy mountain—Holy be-
cause occupied once more by Jehovah
(see on xiv, 20; Joel ii, 1).

4, 5. During the early postexilic
period the inhabitants of Jerusalem
were few in number (Neh. xi, 1ff.);
in the new era this will change, for
Jerusalem will again swarm with in-
habitants (compare ii, 1ff.). Old men
and old women—Long life is a divine
blessing (Exod. xx, 12; Psa. xci, 16;
Isa. lxv, 20), which will be enjoyed
by many in the new age. Staff i
for very age—Extreme old age will
compel them to lean upon staves
(compare Isa. xxxvi, 6). Boys and
girls playing—The wealth of children
also is an indication of the divine
favor (Psa cxxvii, 3; exxviii, 3). Free
from care and surrounded by peace
and prosperity they will joyfully
spend their youth. Promises of this
CHAPTER VIII.

643

 

the Lorp of hosts; If it be 2marve-
lous in the eyes of the remnant of
this people in these days, should it
also be marvelous in mine eyes?
saith the Lorp of hosts. 7 Thus
saith the Lorp of hosts; Behold, iI
will save my people from the east
country, and from *the west coun-
try; 8 And I will bring them, and
they shall dwell in the midst of

Jerusalem: ‘and they shall be my
people, and I will be their God, !in
truth and in righteousness.

9 Thus saith the Lorp of hosts;
Let your hands be strong, ye that
hear in these dys these words b
the mouth of "the prophets, whic
were in °the day that the foundation
of the house of the Lorp of hosts
was laid, that the temple might be

 

2 Or, hard, or, difficult.——h Gen. 18. 14;
Luke 1. 37; 18. 27; Rom. 4, 21.——i Isa. 11.
11, 12; 43. 5, 6; Ezek. 37. 21; Amos 9. 14,
15. 3 Heb. the country of the going down

 

of the sun: see Psa. 50. 1; 113. 3; Mal. 1.
11.—* Jer. 30. 22; 31. 1, 33; chap. 13. 9.
——! Jer. 4. 2.——™ Verse 18; 2. 4.—

Hag.
n Ezra 5. 1, 2.

o Hag. 2. 18.

 

 

nature would have a peculiar sig-
nificance in those days, in view of the
fact that those who returned from
exile appear to have been chiefly per-
sons in the full strength of manhood.
6. Jehovah will surely fulfill the prom-
ise, though it may seem incredible.
A free rendering of 6a would bring out
the thought more clearly, ‘Though
‘that which shall take place in those
days may seem too wonderful to the
remnant of this people.”’” The rem-
nant of this people—Those of the
present generation who will live to see
the fulfilment of the promises. In
these days—Points to the time in the
future when the promises contained
in verses 4, 5 will be fulfilled. Should
it also be marvelous in mine eyes?—
The question presupposes a negative
answer. Though the people may
think it incredible, there is no limit to
the divine power and resources.

7, 8. There will be a restoration
more extensive than the return of
537. My people—The Jews still in
exile (compare ii, 6ff.; Isa. xliii, 5, 6;
Jer. xxx, 10). East .. . west—Lit-
erally, rising and setting of the sun.
Only two points of the compass are
mentioned, though the prophet ex-
pects a return from all quarters of the
globe (compare Psa. 1, 1; Mal. i, 11).
All the returning exiles will flock to
Jerusalem, the dwelling place of Je-
hovah, there to worship him as their
God (see on Mic. iv, 1-4; Hos. ii, 23).
The restoration to fellowship will be
sealed with a new covenant (Jer. xxx,
22). In truth and in righteousness—
See on Hos. ii, 19, 20.

 

Message of encouragement and admoni-
tion, 9-17.

After picturing the future in such
glowing colors the prophet turns with
words of encouragement to his con-
temporaries, who might be tempted
to lose heart. True, they have suffer-
ed much, but now Jehovah is thinking
“to do good unto Jerusalem and to
Judah” (9-15), if they will keep his
commandments (16, 17).

9. The promises already uttered
should be an inspiration. Let your
hands be strong—Equivalent to be of
good courage; and, being of good cour-
age, they should undertake their
tasks fearlessly (Hag. ii, 4; compare
Judg. vii, 11; Ezek. xxii, 14). Pri-
marily an exhortation to continue
energetically the building of the
temple, but also in a more general
sense an admonition to face bravely
all the difficulties of the present and
future. These words—Of promise,
found in i, 7—vi, 8; viii, 1-8; Hag.
ii, 1-23. The prophets—Haggai and
Zechariah, who are separated from
the former prophets (i, 4; vii, 7, 12)
through the relative clause which
closes verse 9. Instead of “in the
day’ LXX. and Peshitto read “from
the day,’”’ which is more suitable, for
the prophets continued their min-
istrations while the building was pro-
gressing. The foundation—The lay-

‘ing of the foundation mentioned in

Ezra v, 1, 2 (compare Hag. ii, 18).
The words “even the temple that it
might bebuilt’’ may have been addedby
the prophet toshow that he isnot think-
ing of the first laying of the foundation
644

ZECHARIAH.

 

built. 10 For before these days
4there was no vhire for man, nor
any hire for beast; “neither was there
any peace to him that went out or
came in because of the affliction:
for I set all men every one against his
neighbor. 11 But now I will not

4Or,the hire of man became nothing, etc.
—p Hag.1. 6, 9, 10; 2. 16.—4 2 Chron.
15. 5.

(Ezra iii, 10-12), which came to noth-
ing, but of that which resulted in the
erection of the temple. Some omit
the words as a later addition.

10. Another ground for being of
good courage may be found in the
improvement in conditions which has
taken place since the people began in
earnest the rebuilding of the temple.
How different is the present from the
past. Before these days—Better, R.
V., “those.” Before the resumption
of building operations. No hire for
man, . . . for beast—No returns were
had from labors expended in the culti-
vation of the soil; there was not
enough grown for fodder. To him
that went out or came in—In following
his daily occupation (Deut. xxviii, 6;
Psa. cxxi, 8). Neither . . . any peace
—From within or without. The last
clause indicates that the prophet is
thinking of troubles and dissensions
within the community as well as of
attacks from without (compare Ezra
iv, 4; Neh. vi, 1ff.). Affliction—R.
V., “adversary.” A. V. is to be pre-
ferred. The affliction is the calamity
described in Hag. i, 6, 9-11; ii, 16, 17,
and the troubles and dissensions men-
tioned in the Books of Ezra and Nehe-
miah.

11ff. A marvelous transformation is
at hand, for Jehovah is about to
change his attitude into one of mercy
and loving-kindness (compare verses
2, 3). The residue of this people—
R. V., “the remnant.’”’ As in verse 6;
or perhaps equivalent to this remnant
of the people, that is, those who have
escaped from exile. The former days
—Not the days before the exile, but
the days before the resumption of the
building enterprise (compare verse
10). 12. The seed shall be prosperous

 

be unto the residue of this peonle
as in the former days, saith the
Lorp of hosts. 12 "For the seed
shall_be ‘prosperous; the vine shall
give her fruit, and sthe ground shall
give her increase, and tthe heavens
shall give their dew; and I will

r Hos. 2. 21, 22; Joel 2. 22; Hag. 2. 19.
melt

Heb. of peace.—s Psa. 67. 6.—
t See Hag 1. 10.

—An impossible rendering of the He-
brew. R. V., “there shall be the seed
of peace.’””” Since peace implies pros-
perity, and since seed is sometimes
equivalent to seedtime or sowing
(Gen. viii, 22) or even to produce or
harvest (Job xxxix, 12), Perowne sug-
gests as a free rendering, “the proc-
esses of agriculture shall prosper.”
That this is the thought the prophet
desired to express is not improbable;
it seems doubtful, however, that he
would express it in this ambiguous
and obscure manner. This difficulty
has been felt by many, and it has been
proposed to take the words in appo-
sition to “the vine,” which immedi-
ately follows—‘“the seed of peace, the
vine, shall give its fruit,” equivalent
to “the vine, which is the seed or
plant of peace, shall give its fruit’
(Jer. ii, 21; Ezek. xvii, 5, 6). The
vine is thought to be called the seed
of peace because it can “flourish only
in peaceful times and not when the
land is laid waste by enemies” (1 Kings
iv, 25; Mic. iv, 4). This translation
also is not without its difficulties; it
would certainly be unusual to have

‘the appositional clause precede its

noun; hence many commentators
question the accuracy of the text.
Klostermann emends it by transpos-
ing one letter from the beginning of
the second word to the close of the
first, by which he secures the following
reading: “her seed shall be prosper-
ous,” that is, the seed planted by the
remnant (in Hebrew a feminine noun).
The promise, then, means that the
seed will no longer dry up in the
ground, but will spring up and bear
abundant fruit. Others, following
LXX, read, “I will sow prosperity,”
and they understand the rest of the
CHAPTER VIII.

645

 

cause the remnant of this people to
possess all these things. 13 And it
shall come to pass, that as ye were
"a curse among the heathen, O house
of Judah, and house of Israel; so
will I save you, and *ye shall be a
blessing: fear not, but ylet your
hands be strong. 14 For thus saith
the Lorp of hosts; «As I thought to

 

punish you, when your fathers pro-
voked me to wrath, saith the Lorp
of hosts, «and I repented not: 15
So again have I thought in these
days to do well unto Jerusalem and
to the house of Judah: fear ye not.

16 These are the things that ye
shall do; Speak ye every man the
truth to his neighbor; ‘execute the

 

uJer_ 42. 18.——* Gen. 12. 2; Ruth 4.
11, 12; Isa, 19. 24, 25; Zeph, 3, 20; Hag. 2.
19.—y Verse 9.—-* Jer. 31. 28.

@2Chron. 36. 16; chap. 1. 6.—b Verse
19; chap. 7.9; Eph. 4. 25..—® Heb. judge
truth, and the judgment of peace.

 

verse as explaining how the prosperity
is to be brought about. Whatever
the exact meaning of the first clause,
verse 12 contains a promise of the
restoration of the divine blessing.
For the rest of the verse see on Hos.
ii, 21, 22 (compare Hag. i, 10; ii, 19).
Future abundance will compensate for
the scarcity of the past, and all will
be for the remnant of this people. Dew
—See on Hag. i, 10. 13. As ye were
a curse—On account of their afflictions
_ they were regarded as cursed of God,
and so they became objects of re-
proach and curses among the nations
(compare Joel ii, 17; Jer. xxiv, 9;
xxv, 9). So will I save you—From
the calamity and distress which made
them a byword among the nations.
Ye shall be a blessing—The restoration
of the prosperity will be an evidence
of the divine favor, hence the people
who in the hour of calamity cursed
them will call them blessed. In both
cases the noun is used in the place of
the adjective for the sake of emphasis
(G.-K., 141¢). A somewhat different
interpretation of the promise.is sug-
gested by Jer. xxix, 22; Gen. xlviii, 20,
namely, that while at one time their
name served as a formula of cursing,
in the future it will be used as a for-
mula of benediction. Judah... Israel
—The future prosperity is not to be
confined to the southern kingdom; all
the tribes are to share it. Convinced
that these glorious prospects will soon
be realized, the prophet repeats his
exhortation to be of good courage
(verse 9).

Verses 14, 15 emphasize once more
the change in the divine purpose;

 

verses 16, 17 call attention to the con-
ditions which must be met, in order
to realize the blessings which are the
result of this change of attitude on
the part of Jehovah. Punish—R. V.,
“do evil.” Not moral evil, but ca-
lamity (see on Amos iii, 6). Jehovah
determined to send calamities as pun-
ishment for their sins (Jer. xxxi, 28).
You—The houses of Israel and Judah
(verse 13). Primarily the reference
cannot be to the contemporaries of
the prophet, since the judgment is
said to have been called forth by their
fathers’ sins. The prophet has in
mind the calamity of the exile, from
which his contemporaries had not yet
fully recovered. I repented not—I
allowed the judgment to take its
course (see on Joel ii, 13; compare
Jer. iv, 28). As Jehovah purposed
to execute judgment and firmly ad-
hered to his purpose, so he purposes
now to restore his favor, and he will
just as firmly adhere to the new pur-
pose. Do well—The very opposite
of do evil (verse 14); he will restore
blessing and prosperity. Jerusalem
. Judah—Though the blessings will
reach all (verse 13), the prophets al-
ways represent Jehovah as sustaining
a peculiarly close relation to Jerusalem
and Judah (compare i, 17; ii, 12).
Fear ye not—With the divine good
will assured, no one can harm them.
16, 17. The conditions on which
these blessings may be secured are
essentially the same as those pro-
claimed by the earlier prophets (see
on vii, 9, 10). Speak ... truth—
Without truthfulness among its mem-
bers no community can prosper per-
646

ZECHARIAH.

 

judgment of truth and peace in your
gates: 17 cAnd let none of you
imagine evil in your hearts against
his neighbor; and ‘love no false
oath: for all these are things that I
hate, saith the Lorp.

18 And the word of the Lorp of
hosts came unto me, saying, 19 Thus
saith the Lorp of hosts; «The fast
of the fourth month, fand the fast
of the fifth, sand the fast of the

seventh, and the fast of the tenth,
shall be to the house of Judah ‘joy
and gladness, and cheerful ‘feasts;
ktherefore love the truth and peace.
20 Thus saith the Lorp of hosts; It
shall yet come to pass, that there
shall come people, and the inhabit-
ants of many cities: 21 And the
inhabitants of one city shall go to
another, saying, 'Let us go ® ®*speed-
ily to pray before the Lorp, and

 

¢ Prov. 3. 29; chap. 7. 10.—4 Chap. 5. 3,
4. eJer. 52. 6, 7.—1‘ Jer. 52. 12, 13;
chap. 7. 8, 5.—£ 2 Kings 25 25; Jer. 41.
i rel Jer. 52. 4.1 Esth. 8. 17; Isa.

 

7 Or, solemn, or, set times.—k Verse
16.—! Isa. 2. 3; Mic. 4. 1, 2.—8 Or,
continually.—® Heb. going. 10 Heb.
to pireat the face of the LORD; chap.

 

 

manently. Execute the judgment of
truth and peace—Margin R. V., more
literally, “judge truth and the judg-
ment of peace.” Judge truth is equiv-
alent to give true and righteous judg-
ment (see on vii, 9); the judgment of

peace is ‘such an administration of | .

Justice as tends to promote peace and
establish concord between those who
are at strife.’ Some commentators
omit the second truth as an erroneous
repetition suggested by vii, 9. In
your gates—The place where justice
was administered (see on Amos v, 10;
compare 2 Sam. xv, 2; Deut. xxi, 19).
Let none . imagine evil—See on
vii, 10. Love no false oath—See on
v, 3. All these things Jehovah hates,
and therefore he is bound to punish
them (compare Amos vy, 21).

Fasting and mourning will be changed
into joy and glory, 18-23.

The emphasis upon the real require-
ments of Jehovah and the promise of a
speedy redemption (vii, 4; viii, 17)
would suggest a solution of the prob-
lem raised in vii, 3; in viii, 18-23, the
prophet gives a direct answer: the
fasts will give place to “joy and glad-
ness and cheerful feasts’? (19), be-
cause the blessing and favor of Je-
hovah will be restored to the people
(20-23).

Verse 18 is identical with verse 1.
19. The fast of the fourth month—The
fast kept in commemoration of the
capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchad-
nezzar on the ninth day of the fourth

 

month (Jer. xxxix, 2; lii, 7). Fifth

. seventh—See on vii, 4. Tenth—
A fast held to commemorate the be-
ginning of the siege on the tenth day
of the tenth month (Jer. xxxix, 1;
2 Kings xxv, 1). Joy ... gladness,
cheerful feasts—The seasons
commemorating the darkest events
of Jewish history will become occa-
sions of joy and festivity, because the
new blessings of the divine grace will
be so rich and so superior to those of
the past that the Jews will entirely
forget the sorrows of the past. But
these blessings can be experienced
only if the conditions laid down in
verses 16, 17 are met, some of which
the prophet reiterates. Love the
truth and peace—They must exert
their efforts on behalf of truthfulness
and concord (see on verse 16).

Verses 20-23 indicate the magnitude
of the future glory. The manifesta-
tions of Jehovah will be so marvelous
that they will impress even foreign
nations with the reality of the power
and supremacy of Jehovah, and will
attract them to Jerusalem, where they
may properly worship him (compare
Isa. ii, 2-4; Mic. iv, 1-4; Jer. xvi, 19).
People—Better, R. V., ‘peoples’;
that is, whole nations. Many cities—
Scattered throughout many lands.
For “many” margin suggests “great,”
that is, populous. Verse 21 describes
the enthusiasm with which people will
exhort one another to seek Jehovah
(compare Isa. ii, 3). Pray—R. V.,
“entreat the favor.” See on vii, 2,
CHAPTER IX.

647

 

to seek the Lorp of hosts: I will go
also. 22 Yea, many people and
strong nations shall come to seek
the Lorgp of hosts in Jerusalem, and
to pray before the Lorp. 23 Thus
saith the Lorp of hosts; In those

days it shall come to pass, that ten
men shall "take hold out of all
languages of the nations, even shall
take hold of the skirt of him that isa
Jew, saying, We will go with you: for
we have heard that God is with you.

 

m Isa. 60. 3, etc.; 66. 23.

 

n Isa. 3. 6; 4. 1. °1 Cor. 14. 25.

 

Seek Jehovah—As in Amos v, 4 (see
there). I will go also—Not an ex-
pression of determination on the part
of Zechariah to go to Zion to witness
the glorious scenes, but the reply of
the other city to the exhortation of the
first.

Verse 22 is an emphatic repetition
of the thought of verse 21, as is also
verse 23. The Jews, now despised by
the surrounding nations, will be hon-
ored in that day as mediators between
these very nations and Jehovah, and
they will be entreated by the former
to secure the favor of their God. In
great numbers the foreigners will
crowd around the Jews, anxious to
be admitted into fellowship with them,
so that through them they may be
admitted into fellowship with Je-
hovah. Ten men—An expression de-
noting an indefinite, moderately large
number, like seven in Isa. iv, 1, and
the colloquial u dozen. Shall take
hold—Repeated for the sake of em-
phasis (compare vi, 10, 11); anxiously
they will press forward to take hold.
All languages—Should perhaps be
read, “from all languages and all na-
tions” (compare Isa. Ixvi, 18); from
nations speaking many different lan-
guages. Skirt—Literally, wing (com-
pare Hag. ii, 12); equivalent to border
of the garment (Matt. ix, 20). We
will go—Better, cohortative, let us go.
We have heard—Through the mighty
works of Jehovah. God—Since the
speakers are foreigners, they do not
use the covenant name Jehovah.

CHAPTER IX.
Tar FinaL Triumpo or THE Kine-
pom oF Gop, ix, 1—xiv, 21.
With ix, 1, begins the second main
division of the Book of Zechariah,
which consists of various oracles,

 

loosely connected, dealing for the
most part with events leading up to
the final triumph of the kingdom of
God. It opens with an announce-
ment of the overthrow of the nations
surrounding Palestine (ix, 1-8), which
will prepare the way for the advent of
the Messianic king (9, 10) and the
restoration and exaltation of the ex-
iled Jews (11-17). This restoration
is described more fully in x, 1-xi, 3.
The promises are followed by an alle-
gory which is intended to warn the
people that the realization of the
glorious promises depends upon their
attitude toward Jehovah (xi, 4-17, +
xili, 7-9). The remaining portion of
the book naturally falls into two
parts. The first (xii, 1—xiii, 6) opens
with a picture of a marvelous deliver-
ance of Judah and Jerusalem (xii,
1-9); but this triumph is only the
preparation for the bestowing of rich
spiritual gifts. In order to enjoy
these fully, they must pass through a
process of spiritual preparation (10-
14). Then Jehovah will remove all.
spiritual uncleanness, and a life of
intimate fellowship with Jehovah
will ensue (xiii, 1-6). In chapter xiv
the prophet pictures a new conflict
between Jerusalem and the nations.
At first the latter will be successful,
then Jehovah will interfere, save a
remnant, and set up his kingdom
upon earth (1-7). From Jerusalem
he will dispense blessing and pros-
perity (8-11); the hostile nations will
be smitten and their treasures will
become the possession of the Jews
(12-15). Those who escape will turn
to Jehovah (16); any who fail to do
him proper homage will be smitten
with drought (17-19), but Judah and
Jerusalem will be holy unto Jehovah
(20, 21).
648

ZECHARIAH.

 

CHAPTER IX.
HE *burden of the word of the
Lorp in the land of Hadrach,

and »’Damascus shall be the rest
thereof: when cthe eyes of man, as
of all the tribes of Israel, shall be

 

a Jer. 23. 33.—> Amos 1. 3.

e2Chron. 20. 12; Psa. 145. 15.

 

Judgment upon the surrounding na-
tions; preservation of Jerusalem,
1-8.

A judgment, proceeding from the

_horth or northeast, will fall in suc-

cession upon Syria, Phoenicia, and

Philistia (ix, 1-7). While these na-

tions are wiped out, Jerusalem will

rest in safety (8).

1. Burden—For the meaning of the
word see on Nah. i, 1. Its construc-
tion in the sentence is obscure. The
English translation makes it a part
of the title (compare xii, 1), ‘The
burden of the word of Jehovah in
[better, R. V., “upon”] the land of
Hadrach”’; the rest of the verse it
takes as the beginning of the oracle
itself. But even the English reader
can see that the result is an exceed-
ingly awkward sentence. It seems
better to take “burden,” which is
without article in Hebrew, by itself as
the title, ““A burden,” or “An oracle,”
and to begin the oracle itself with
“The word of Jehovah.” In 1b the
translation of margin R. V. is to be
preferred. With these changes verse
1 will read, “‘An oracle: The word of
Jehovah shall be upon the land of
Hadrach, and Damascus shall be its
resting place; for Jehovah hath an eye
upon men and upon all the tribes of
Israel.” The title may not be in its
original form; with ‘burden’ or
“oracle’’ may have been connected
originally the name of the author and,
perhaps, of the subject of the proph-
ecy; but these names had disappeared
when the oracle fell into the hands of
the compiler (p. 589). The word
of Jehovah—See on Hos. i, 1. Had-
rach—In ancient and even morere-
cent times, previously to the dis-
coveries of archxology, Hadrach re-
ceived various interpretations; some
took it as a name of the Messiah, some
as the name of an otherwise unknown
Syrian king, or of a deity; but arche-

 

ology has placed it beyond reasonable
doubt that it is the name of a city
called Hatartka in the Assyrian in-
scriptions, mentioned in connection
with Damascus and other cities of
Syria; hence it is quite likely that it
should be located in the north. Well-
hausen suggests the region around
thelater Antioch. Damascus—See on
Amosi,3. Its resting place (R. V.)\—
Damascus is the goal of the divine
word of judgment; there it will fall
with destructive force.

The rest of the verse appears to be
a parenthetical clause, stating the
reason why the word has gone forth.
As already indicated, the marginal
translation is to be preferred. Je-
hovah hath an eye (margin R. V.)—
Nothing is hidden from the eyes of
Jehovah, hence he knows what each
individual nation deserves. Man
. . . Israel—His interest is world-
wide, it is not confined to Israel
(Amos ix, 7; Jer. xxxii, 19, 20).
In this case he has seen the wrong
done by men to Israel, therefore
he will send judgment upon the
evil doers, represented by Hadrach
and Damascus. Though this inter-
pretation is not impossible, the text
of 1b is considered corrupt by many
commentators, and various emenda-
tions have been suggested. Instead
of man, Heb. ddham, many read
Syria, Heb. araém, which involves the
interchange of two letters which are
not infrequently confused in the Old
Testament; for eyes many read cities
or people, which again involves only a
slight change. With these changes
1b would read, “For Jehovah’s are
the cities (or people) of Syria as well
as all the tribes of Israel.”” These
emendations would not alter the
thought materially. Some go further;
they omit ‘‘as well as all the tribes of

Israel,” and join the remaining words

of 1b closely with verse 2: “For
CHAPTER IX.

649

 

toward the Lorp. 2 And ‘Hamath
also shall border thereby; *Tyrus,
and ‘Zidon, though it be very ¢wise.
3 And Tyrus did_ build herself a
strong hold, and heaped up silver
as the dust, and fine gold as the

mire of the streets. 4 Behold, ithe
Lord will cast her out, and he will
smite kher power in the sea; and she
shall be devoured with fire. 5 !Ash-
kelon shall see it, and ae Gaza

‘also shall see it, and be very sorrow-

 

 

d Jer, 49. 23.—#* Isa. 23; Ezek. 26, 27,
28; Amos 1. 9.—1/ 1 Kings 17. 9; Ezek. 28.
21; Obad. 20.

g Pac: 28, 3, etc.—h Job 27. 16; Ezek.
28. 5.—_i Isa. 23. 1.—* Ezek. 26. 17.
aa Jer. 47. 1, 5; Zeph. 2. 4.

 

Jehovah’s are the cities of Syria, and
Hamath also, which bordereth there-
on”; which gives good sense. The
present Tlebrew text of verse 1
sounds rather peculiar, and it may
be corrupt, but, if so, it is not possible
to speak with certainty concerning
its original form. Marti reads verses
1, 2 as follows: ‘Burden of the word
of Jehovah: Jehovah is in Hadrach,
and Damascus is his resting place;
for Jehovah’s are the cities of Syria,
and Hamath also which bordereth
thereon; Tyre and Sidon, because
they are very wise.”

If the present text is retained verse
2 is the continuation of la. Hamath
also shall be the resting place of the
word of Jehovah. Hamath—See on
Amos vi, 2 (compare Ezek. xlvii, 16).
Tyrus [‘‘Tyre’”’] . . . Zidon—The two
chief cities of Phoenicia. (see on Joel iii,
4; compare Amosi, 9; Ezek. xxvi, 2;
xxviii, 21). Though it be very wise—
R. V., “because they are very wise.”
The latter expresses the thought that
the boast in their great wisdom
(Ezek. xxviii, 1ff.) provokes the di-
vine judgment; A. V., on the other
hand, expresses the idea that all their
wisdom will not be sufficient to save
them. R. V. is more accurate and is
favored by the context. The latter
is undoubtedly right in applying wise
to both cities (so LXX.), though the
Hebrew text applies it only to Zidon.

Tyre was the more important of the
two; during the greater part of Phoe-
nician history it was the real capital | .
and representative of Phcenicia (com-
pare Amos i, 9), therefore it alone is
spoken of in verses 3, 4. In verse 3
is given an illustration of the wisdom
of Tyre. A  stronghold—According
to ancient testimony Tyre was built

 

originally on the mainland; later it
was transferred to a neighboring rocky
island (compare Ezek. xxvi, 3, 4),
where it was strongly fortified, so that
it became almost impregnable. Sil-
ver . fine gold—Secure from hos-
tile attacks, Tyre heaped up immense
treasures (Ezek. xxviii, 4, 5). But
her power. and wealth will not con-
tinue. Cast her out—R. V., “dispos-
sess her’; which is a threat that Je-
hovah will rob her of her wealth and
make her poor (1 Sam. ii, 7). Power
—Not fortifications, but, as in Ezek.
xxviii, 4, 5, equivalent to riches, and
all the strength and influence derived
from these Devoured with fire—The
city herself, her palaces, storehouses,
and magnificent buildings, will go up
in flames (compare Amos i, 10). To
secure a climax some translate the
first verb ‘‘conquer,” as frequently
in the Old Testament. This gives the
order conquer, smite her riches, devour
the city.

The divine executioner is evidently
thought of as coming from the north
or northeast. Syria, represented by
Hadrach, Damascus, and Hamath,
will be the first to suffer, then power-
ful Phoenicia; from there he will pass
down the Maritime Plain and fall
upon Philistia. With the strong
Phoenician cities gone, nothing can
prevent the further advance of the
enemy; therefore Philistia may well
tremble.

5. Ashkelon ... Gaza... Ekron

. Ashdod—Four of the five chief
cities of Philistia. Here as in Amos
i, 6-8; Zeph. ii, 4; Jer. xxv, 20, Gath
is omitted (see further on Amos i,
6-8). The order in which the cities
are mentioned here is the same as in
Jer. xxv, 20, which passage may be
650

ZECHARIAH.

 

ful, and Ekron; for her expectation
shall be ashamed; and the king shall
perish from Gaza, and Ashkelon
shall not be inhabited. 6 And a
bastard shall dwell in Ashdod, and
I will cut off the pride of the Philis-

tines. 7 And I will take away
his blood out of his mouth, and his
abominations from between his
teeth: but he that remaineth, even
he, shall be for our God, and he shall
be as a governor in Judah, and Ek-

 

m Amos 1. 8.

1 Heb. bloods.

 

in the mind of the prophet. Shall
see. . . fear—Only with Ashkelon are
both these verbs found; shall see it
must be supplied with Gaza, and
shall see it and fear with Ekron. The
cities will see the destruction of the
northern cities and they will be afraid
that a similar fate will befall them.
Very sorrowful—R. V., “‘sore pained”’;
or, tremble greatly in terror. For her
expectation shall be ashamed—R. V.,
“shall be put to shame.”’ These
words explain the terror. What is
asserted of Ekron was equally true of
the other Philistian cities. They
expected the strong cities in the north
to hold out; as long as they did so the
Philistines had nothing to fear, but
their fall will bring to naught all hopes
and expectations. Their fear is well
founded, for the enemy will soon be
upon them. The king shall perish
from Gaza—Gaza will lose her inde-
pendence. Ashkelon shall not be in-
habited—The population will be de-
stroyed or carried into exile.

6. The full-blooded Philistines will
be displaced by a mixed race. A
bastard—Margin R. V., ‘‘a_ bastard
race.” An obscure phrase. In Deut.
xxiii, 2, the word denotes one who is
not a full-blooded citizen, one with
whose birth a blemish of some sort is
connected. Here it seems to denote
a race which, from the view point of
the. Philistines, is not full-blooded, a
foretgn or mixed race. The term
implies nothing concerning the moral
character of the new population.
Ashdod—What is true of one city is
true of the whole land. The pride
of the Philistines—The judgment im-
plied in 6a will be sufficient to bring
to an end the pride and haughtiness
of the Philistines; they will be com-
pletely humiliated

 

7. The new population will not con-
tinue the attitude of hostility main-
tained for so many centuries by the
Philistines; on the contrary, in time
it will be incorporated into the Jewish
nation. His. .he—These pronouns
in verse 7 refer to the new population.
Blood—According to the law the
blood belonged to the deity; it was not
lawful for the worshiper to eat it
(Lev. xvii, 12; xix, 26; compare Ezek.
xxxlii, 25). The eating of blood
indicates ignorance or willful trans-
gression of the law of Jehovah.
Though temporarily the new inhabit-
ants may live contrary to the divine
law, in the end Jehovah will draw
them unto himself, when they will
cease to eat the blood. Abomina-
tions—This word is used of idols
themselves, here apparently of the
flesh of sacrificial animals offered to
idols (Num. xxv, 2). The eating of
this flesh will be discontinued. The
two expressions look forward to a
time when idolatry will be completely
abolished.

R. V. presents a more satisfactory
translation of 7b: “and he also shall
be a remnant for our God; and he
shall be as a chieftain in Judah, and
Ekron as a Jebusite.” A remnant
for our God (R.V.)—The remnant con-
sists of the true worshipers of Jeho-
vah (see on Amos vy, 15); the new in-
habitants of Philistia will become such
acompany. The complete incorpora-
tion into the Jewish nation is pre-
dicted in the rest of the verse. As
a governor in Judah—R.V., “chief-
tain.” The word translated “chief-
tain” or “governor” is used of
the head of a thousand (compare
Zech. xii, 5). Here it denotes not
the leader, but the division over
which he rules (Mic. v, 2), and
CHAPTER IX.

651

 

ron as aJebusite. 8 And *I will en-
camp about mine house because of
the army, because of him that pass-
eth by, and because of him that re-
turneth: and eno oppressor shall
pass through them any more: for

now vhave I seen with mine
eyes.

9 “Rejoice greatly, O daughter of
Zion; shout, O daughter of Jerusa-
lem: behold, thy King cometh unto

thee: he is just, and *having salva-

 

n Psa. 34. 7; chap. 2. 5. oTsa. 60.
18: Ezek. 28. 24,——p Exod. 3. 7.——4 Isa.
62. 11; chap. 2. 10; Matt. 21. 5; John

 

 

12. 15.—r" Jer. 23. 5; 30. 9; Luke 19.
a John 1. 49.—? Or, saving him-
sel].

 

the thought is that Philistia will be-
come just like one of the divisions of
Judah, that is, an integral part of the
nation. A slight alteration, ’eleph for
’alluph, would bring out the thought
more clearly, since the former denotes
the division itself (Judg. vi, 15;
1 Sam. x, 19). Ekron—Represents,
like Ashdod in verse 6, all Philistia.
As a Jebusite—Not the Jewish inhab-
itants of Jerusalem, but the Canaan-
itish inhabitants of Jebus, who after
the conquest of their stronghold by
David were in time incorporated into
the Jewish nation, so that they be-
came an integral part of the same.
Some consider verse 8 the begin-

ning of the new section. It seems
preferable, however, to connect
it with verses 1-7. ‘While the

judgment falls upon the nations,
Jerusalem will enjoy the protecting
care of Jehovah. About mine house—
Literally, for my house; that is, for
the protection of ‘my house. House
denotes here not the temple, but the
whole land (see on Hos. viii, 1). Be-
cause of the army—R. V., “against
the army.” With either translation
the thought is that Jehovah will be
around his land to protect it against
foreign invasions. Another possible
translation is “without an army”;
Jehovah will not employ an army of
soldiers (compare ii, 5). The word

translated “army” is written peculiar--

ly in Hebrew; this, taken in connection
with the fact that LXX. does not
agree with the Hebrew, has led many
to substitute the LXX. reading, “as
« garrison” (so margin R. V.). Be-
cause of him that passeth by—Better,
R. V., “that none pass through or
return.” Jehovah will guard the
borders so carefully that no invader

 

can crossthem. Oppressor—In Exod.
iii, 7, und other places the same word
is translated “taskmaster.” From
such taskmasters the Jews suffered
again and again, but their staves will
be broken. Why, is indicated in the
last clause. For now have I seen
with mine eyes—The afilictions suf-
fered by the Jews and the cruelties per-
petrated by the oppressors. Of these
Jehovah will now make an end.

The appearance of the Messianic king,

?

The overthrow of the nations (verses
1-7) will prepare the way for the com-
ing of the Messianic king, who will
establish his throne in Zion and rule
in righteousness and peace over the
redeemed remnant. The king has
no part in the overthrow of the hos-
tile powers (Isa. ix, 1-7); this Jehovah
himself will accomplish; only after the
nations are overthrown will the king
make his appearance.

In verse 9 Zion is called upon to
welcome the king. Rejoice greatly

. shout—The repetition is for the
sake of emphasis; there is every reason
for the greatest enthusiasm. Daugh-
ter of Zion . . . Jerusalem—The ex-
pressions are synonymous, and refer
to the inhabitants of Jerusalem (see
on ii, 7). Thy King—The Messianic
king mentioned so frequently in the
prophetic writings (compare Isa. ix,
1-7; Mic. v, 1ff., ete.; see at the close
of the comments on Mic. v, 15). Unto
thee—To set upon his throne there.
9b describes the king’s character and
coming. Just—Or, righteous; both in
his own personal life and in his ad-
ministration (compare Isa. ix, 7; xi,
3, 4). Having salvation—Margin R.
V., “saved.” It is difficult to repro-
652

ZECHARIAH.

 

tion; lowly, and riding upon an ass,
and upon a colt the foal of an ass.
10 And I «will cut off the chariot
from Ephraim, and the horse from
Jerusalem, and the battle bow shall
be cut off: and he shall speak tpeace

7; 2. 18; Mic. 5. 10; Hag. 2.
2. 14, 17.——¥ Psa. 72. 8

8 Hos. 1.
22.—* Eph.

 

unto the heathen: and his dominion
shall be “from sea even to sea,
and from the river even to the
ends of the earth. 11 As for
thee also, by the blood of thy
covenant I have sent forth thy

3 Or, whose covenant is by blood, Exod.
24, 8; Heb. 10. 29; 13. 20.

 

duce the exact sense of the Hebrew by
one single word. The thought is that
the king will enjoy at all times the di-
vine help and favor, so that all he
undertakes will prosper. Lowly—
Literally, oppressed, or, afflicted. Be-
cause he himself will be of lowly estate
he will be able to sympathize fully
with those in similar condition. His
interest will not be confined to the
noble and wealthy. Riding upon an
ass—The animal of peace; not upon a
horse, which is the animal of war and
royalty. The use of the ass is an in-
dication of the peaceful character of
the Messianic rule, and of the unpre-
tentious character of the rider. The
rest of the verse describes the ass more
definitely as a young animal, but there
is no special significance in the addi-
tion (Matt. xxi, 2). It is interesting
to compare with this passage Jer. xvii,
25; xxii, 4).

10. During the era of peace there
will be no use for war implements,
hence Jehovah—not the Messianic
king—will destroy them (Isa. ii, 4;
ix, 5; Mic. v, 10, 11). Chariot...
horse . . . battle bow—These represent
all implements of warfare. Ephraim,

. Jerusalem—The new nation will
be composed of elements representing
both kingdoms. Ephraim=Israel; Je-
rusalem—Judah. That Jehovah him-
self will do these things is in per-
fect accord with other Messianic utter-
ances (Isa. ix, 5; Mic. v, 10); hence
there is no good reason for altering
the text so as to read, ‘‘and he will cut
off.” Speak peace—His word will be
of sufficient weight to maintain peace
among the nations. This implies that
his authority will be acknowledged
not only by the Jews, but by other
nations as well (Isa. ii, 4), a thought

 

emphasized in the next clause (com-
pare Psa. lxxii, 8; Mic. vii, 12). From
sea . . . to sea—Not as in Amos viii,
12, where the author is thinking only
of Palestine. The territory over which
the Messianic king will rule is more
extensive. One sea is probably the
Mediterranean; the other, the ocean
thought to mark the end of the earth
in the opposite direction. The river—
As often, the Euphrates. The ends
of the earth—The vaguely defined
regions in the extreme west. These
expressions are not to be interpreted
in a strictly literal sense; they are used
simply to indicate the unlimited
extent of the Messianic kingdom.

Deliverance and exaltation of the exiled
Jews, 11-17.

The advent of the Messianic king
will be followed by a restoration of the
Jews still in exile, and their exalta-
tion to highest glory.

In verses 11, 12 deliverance is prom-
ised to the captives. As for thee—
The daughter of Zion (verse 9). Also
—Is to be taken not with thee, but
with the verb: “As for thee, I have
also sent forth.” In addition to the
blessings promised in verses 9, 10
Jehovah will set free the captives
(G.-K., 153). By the blood of thy
covenant—R. V., “because of the
blood of thy covenant.” Made at the
time of the exodus (compare Exod.
xxiv, 8), and kept alive throughout
the entire history by means of sacri-
fices and offerings. To this covenant,
and even to the earlier covenant with
Abraham, Jehovah will remain true,
and because of it he will bring back
the scattered exiles. I have sent forth
—Better, R. V., “I have set free.”
The tense is the ‘perfect of prophetic
CHAPTER IX.

653

 

xprisoners out of the pit wherein
ts no water.

12 Turn you to the strong hold,
yye prisoners of hope: even to day
do I declare that I will render double

unto thee; 13 When I have bent
Judah for me, filled the bow with
Ephraim, and raised up thy sons,
O Zion, against thy sons, O Greece,
and made thee as the sword of a

 

xIsa. 42. 7; 51. 14; 61. 1.

y Isa. 49. 9.

 

zJIsa. 61. 7.

 

certainty, equivalent to “I shall surely
set free.” Thy prisoners—Prisoners
of war and exiles in foreign lands
(Joel iii, 1ff.; Obad. 20). Out of the

pit—The place of imprisonment
(Exod. xii, 29; Jer. xxxvii, 16).
Wherein is no water—This adds to the
horrors. Death stares the pris-

oners in the face. The whole is
a picture of the horrors of an enforced
exile.

In verse 12 the prophet turns direct-
ly to the prisoners, exhorting them to
return, for the time of their deliver-
ance is at hand. Turn—Better, mar-
gin R.. V., “Return.” Stronghold—
Where they may find safety from the
enemy; here, the promised land, where
they will be under the protection of
Jehovah (verse 8). Prisoners of hope
—Since they are members of the
covenant nation (verse 11), their de-
pressed condition cannot continue
forever; though in exile, they may live
in hope of a restoration. Israel is
preéminently a nation of hope. The
promise of deliverance is followed by
another. I will render double—There
will be a twofold recompense for all
loss and affliction (compare Isa. Ixi,
7; xl, 2). Unto thee—If the text is
correct Zion is addressed as in verse
11; however, the change is surprising;
one would expect “unto you.” Even
today—In the face of all the diffi-
culties which seem to make fulfillment
impossible.

13-17. When the exiles have been
restored to their homes they will enter
upon an era of conquest (Amos ix,
12); under the leadership of Jehovah
himself they will triumph over all
their enemies, and subsequently they

will be exalted to glory and honor |

(compare the more peaceful picture
in verses 9, 10).
The constructions of verse 13 are

 

peculiar; hence the translation and
interpretation of details are more or
less obscure, but the general thought
is clear, which is that Jehovah will
use the restored exiles as weapons in
the conflict with the hostile nations.
This thought is expressed in very bold
figures. When—Better, R. V., “For’’;
which connects verse 13 with verse 12.
Judah ... Ephraim ... Zion—The
last name seems to include the entire
restored community, which consists
of elements representing the northern
and southern kingdoms, called respec-
tively Ephraim and Judah. Have
bent—All the tenses in verse 13 should
be rendered as future tenses; R. V.
so renders the last two; the others are
prophetic perfects. Bent—Literally,
tread down. The large bows were bent
by putting one end upon the ground
and holding it with the foot, while the
other end was being bent with the
hand. The English translation of the
first two clauses follows the Hebrew
accentuation, but it seems preferable
to follow the construction of most of
the ancient versions and take bow
with Judah in the first clause,
“for I will bend for me Judah as
a bow,” and the second clause,
“and I will fill it with Ephraim.”
Judah is to be the bow, Ephraim the
arrow. Raised up—Better, R. V.
“T will stir up”; to battle. This
seems the only natural rendering of
the verb in this place. In 2 Sam.
xxiii, 18; 1 Chron. xi, 11, 20, where
it has the meaning to wield, to swing,
that is, a spear, the noun spear is add-
ed. By itself the verb does not have
the meaning to wield for a spear.
Against thy sons, O Greece—Heb.
Yawan. Not a district in southern
Arabia, but Greece (Joel iii, 6), which
is thought of here as a representative
world power (see Introduction, p.
654

mighty man. 14 And the Lorp
shall be seen over them, and shis
arrow shall go forth as the lightning:

a Psa. 18. 14; 77. 17; 144. 6.

ZECHARIAH.

and the Lord Gop shall blow the
trumpet, and shall go >with whirl-
winds of the south. 15 The LorpD

bIsa. 21. 1.

 

583); as such it represents all powers
hostile to Zion. The sons of Greece
are the Greeks. The direct address
to the hostile power is peculiar; no-
where else in the context is the enemy
addressed, but always the chosen
people. We may be justified, there-
fore, in reading, with several of the
ancient versions, “against the sons
of Greece.”

Kirkpatrick proposes the omission
of “against thy sons, O Greece,” be-
cause (1) the definiteness of the al-
lusion to Greece is unlike the gener-
ality which in the main characterizes
the passage; (2) the enemy is not
addressed elsewhere in the text; (3)
nothing could have been more natural
than the insertion of such a gloss in
the Maceabean times. (4) The dif-
ferences of reading between LXX. and
Targum. The former reads, “against
the sons of Greece”; the latter,
“against the sons of the peoples.”
(5) The gaintotherhythm. (6) The
rendering fo stir up interrupts the
metaphors. He reads verse 13:

For I bend Judah for a bow,

Lay Ephraim on it for an arrow,
Wield thy sons, O Zion, for a spear,
And make thee as a hero’s sword.

This is a very smooth reading, but
can it be accepted? (1) As already
stated, the translation wield for a
spear of the Hebrew verb ‘ar is not
warranted by the usage. (2) The
rhythm of the English may gain by
the omission, but the rhythm of the
Hebrew suffers. (3) The reading of
LXX. is supported by other ancient
versions, while the Targum stands
alone. No one acquainted with the
character of the two versions would
hesitate to prefer LXX.; but even
the Targum reading proves that some-
thing was there. (4) That a certain
passage might be explained as a gloss
does not prove it to be such. (5) Ob-

 

jection (2) is removed if the reading
of LXX. and other ancient versions is
accepted. (6) The allusion to Greece
may stand alone, but the one refer-
ence is all that is needed. (7) In
order to make the series entirely sym-
metrical it would be necessary to in-
troduce a name in the last line,
for the comparison of one and the
same person with a sword and a
spear is peculiar. The sword of a
mighty man—Effective and irresist-
ible.

14. Jehovah himself will take a
hand in the conflict. Shall be seen—
Better, manifests himself. Over them
—Over the sons of Zion; he comes
from heaven and fights for them (Psa.
xxiv, 8; Hab. iii, 11). The imagery
of the description is borrowed from
the thunderstorm (compare Psa. xviii,
7-15). His arrow—Compare verse 13.
As the lightning—Lightning flashes are
called the arrows of Jehovah (Psa.
xviii, 14); here his arrow Ephraim
(verse 13) is likened, in speed and
destructiveness, to lightning. Trump-
et—Better, horn (see on Hos. v, 8).
Jehovah gives the signal to advance;
then he himself rushes, at the head of
his forces, against the enemy. With
whirlwinds of the south—-Instead of
with we should perhaps read lke,
which involves the interchange of
two similar letters, that are confused
in other places in the Old Testament.
The storms coming from the south,
from across the broad desert, are
peculiarly severe (compare Isa. xxi,
1; Job xxxvii, 9). Some have thought
that there is here an allusion to the
south (Sinai) as the original dwelling
place of Jehovah, from which he was
thought to proceed to assist his people
(see on Hab. iii, 3; compare Judg. v,
4, 5).

Verse 15 contains a vivid descrip-
tion of the bloody conflict. The sons
of Zion need have no fear, for Jehovah
CHAPTER X.

655

 

of hosts shall defend them; and
they shall devour, and 4subdue with
sling stones; and they shall drink,
and make a noise as through wine;
and they ‘shall be filled like bowls,

and as ‘the corners of the altar. 16
And the Lorp their God shall save
them in that day as the flock of his
people: for ‘they shall be as the
stones of a crown, ‘lifted up as an

 

Or, subdue the stones of the sling.—
son Shall fill both the bowls, etc.

e Lev. 4. 18, 25; Deut. 12. 27,—4 Isa.
62. 3; Mal. 3. 17,—— Isa. 11, 12

 

will be their shield. Devour,...
drink—Like wild beasts they will fall
upon their enemies to consume their
flesh and drink their blood. A pic-
ture of utter destruction (compare
Num. xxiii, 24), Subdue with sling
stones—R. V., “tread down the sling
stones.” A. V. follows LXX. in
taking sling stones as an instrumental
accusative; they will subdue the ene-
mies by the use of sling stones. How-
ever, the Revisers are probably correct
in taking sling stones as the object.
They may be regarded as _ repre-
senting all the missiles and weapons
that are hurled by the enemies; these
the sons of Zion will disregard entirely
and trample under foot, and thus they
will subdue the enemy and make a
complete end of him (compare Job
xli, 28). Drink is separated from
devour, so as to bring it into close
connection with the next clause, with
which it is logically connected. Make
a noise as through wine—They roar,
as if they were intoxicated, in wild
excitement over the wonderful tri-
umph. The close connection of this
clause with the preceding would be
brought out more clearly if it were
rendered as a circumstantial clause,
“They shall drink, while making a
noise as through wine.” And they
shall be filled like bowls—The bowls
in which the blood of the sacrificial
victims was caught (Exod. xxxviii, 3;
Num. iv, 14). As these are filled
with the blood of sacrificial animals,
so the Jews will be filled with the blood
of their enemies. As the corners of
the altar—The reference is not to the
putting of blood on the horns (Exod.
xxix, 12), but to the sprinkling of
blood against the altar (Lev. i, 5. 11).
According to rabbinical tradition this
was done in such a manner that the
four sides were covered with two

 

sprinklings. In order to do this the
bowls containing the blood had to be
swung against two opposite corners
with considerable force; therefore the
corners and the space on either side
of them were covered most thickly.
To be covered with blood is a symbol
of triumph (Isa. lxiii, 1-3).

16. Save—Victory will come, be-
cause Jehovah will be the deliverer of
his people. In that day—The day of
battle described in verses 13-15. As
the flock of his people—Better, like a
flock his people. His people is the
object of the verb to be supplied from
the preceding; the thought of the
whole being, “He will deliver his
people as a shepherd delivers his flock
from the ravages of wild beasts.”
As the stones of a crown—The Israel-
ites will trample under foot the stones
hurled by the enemies (verse 15), and
the enemies themselves will suffer a
similar fate, but Israel will be guarded
and cared for tenderly, like a precious
stone in the royal diadem (compare
Hag. ii, 23). Lifted up as an ensign—
R. V., “lifted on high.” The mean-
ing of the Hebrew verb ndasas is not
quite certain; of the two meanings
suggested the context favors the one
in margin R. V., “glittering.” Israel
shall sparkle or glitter like a precious
stone. A picture of the glory to
which the Jews will be exalted. His
land—The land of Jehovah. Some
of the constructions in this verse are
very peculiar. To remove these pe-
culiarities various emendations, in-
volving alterations, omissions, and ad-
ditions, have been suggested. Now-
ack, for example, reads, ‘“‘And Jehovah
their God will save them in that day;
like a flock he will pasture his people
upon his land.”

Verse 17 describes further the glories
to be showered upon the restored na-
656

ZECHARIAH.

 

ensign upon his land. 17 For fhow
great is his goodness, and how great
is his beauty! ‘corn shall make the
young men ‘cheerful, and new wine
the maids.
CHAPTER X.
SK ye*of the Lorp rain cin the

time of the latter rain; so the
Lorp_ shali make ‘bright clouds,
and give them showers of rain, to
every one grass in the field. 2 For
the 4 2idols have spoken vanity, and
the diviners have seen a lie, and
have told false dreams; they *com-

 

f Psa, 31. 19.— Joel 3.18; Amos 9. 14.
——‘ Or, grow, or, speak. a Jer. 14. 22.—
>’ Deut. 11. 14.—-< Job 29. 23; Joel 2. 23.

 

1 Or, lightnings, Jer. 10. 13.—4 Jer. 10.
8; Hab. 2. 18.—2 Heb. teraphims, Judg.
17. 5.— Job 13. 4.

 

tion. His—Not Jehovah’s, but the
people’s. Goodness—Not moral good-
ness, but goodly appearance, equiva-
lent to prosperity (so margin R. V.).
Beauty--Expresses practically thesame
idea as the preceding. In the restor-
ation the land will be pleasant to look
upon. Corn... wine—Though the
prophet has in mind general pros-
perity, he mentions specifically two
of the chief products of Palestine (see
on Joel i, 10); and though all the in-
habitants will be benefited by the new
prosperity, he singles out two classes
who would show in the most marked
manner the renewal of energy and
vigor, the young men and the young
women. Between these two he dis-
tributes rhetorically the two blessings
specified. New wine—See on Joel i,
10. In making temporal prosperity
a part of the Messianic promise this
prophet agrees with many of his
predecessors (see on Hos. ii, 21, 22;
Amos ix, 13; Isa. iv, 2).

CHAPTER X.

JenovaH THE Source or Pros-
PERITY, 1, 2.

Chapter x is joined closely to ix,
17, by means of x, 1, 2. Chapter ix,
17, contains a promise of prosperity
in the future, but, while anticipating
the glories of the future, the prophet is
anxious to transform the present;
hence he exhorts his contemporaries
to turn even now to Jehovah, the
giver of every good and perfect gift.

R. V. gives a more satisfactory
translation of verse 1: ‘Ask ye of
Jehovah rain in the time of the latter
rain, even of Jehovah that maketh
lightnings; and he will give them show-

 

ers of rain, to every one grass in the
field.’ Time of the latter rain—See
on Joel ii, 23. These rains are speci-
fied because thcy are indispensable for
the proper ripening of the crops. That
maketh lightnings (R. V.)—Which are
the harbingers of rain. Jehovah is
described as the Lord of nature,
therefore appeal should be made to
him. Showers of rain—Literally, rain
of heavy rain; that is, abundant rain
(compare Job xxxvii, 6). As a result
there will be for everyone grass—Bet-
ter, in a more general sense, vegeta-
tion; the term includes all the pro-
ducts suitable for man’s diet (Gen. i,
29). Rain is specified as a divine
blessing, so as to connect the exhorta-
tion with ix, 17; but as there grain and
wine represent prosperity in general,
so here rain represents all blessings
needed to bring about the prosperity.

2. The exhortation to appeal to Je-
hovah is supported by a reference to
the inability of the idols to help those
who put their trust in them (com-
pare Hos. ii, 5ff.; Amos ii, 4). Idols—
Better, R. V., “teraphim.” See on
Hos. iii, 4. Have spoken vanity—In
promising rain and fertility which
they could not give. Diviners—The
men who claimed to be able, by the
use of various illegitimate means, to
determine the will of the deity. The
mass of the people seemed to be un-
able to distinguish between the true
prophet and the fraudulent diviner,
and at times the latter appears to have
been exceedingly popular (Isa. ii, 6;
iii, 2). Have seen a lie—In the vi-
sions in which they claimed to have
received the divine revelation. False
dreams—Dreams were a second means
of divine revelation (Num. xii, 6)
CHAPTER X.

657

 

fort in vain: therefore they went
their way as a flock, they ‘were
troubled, ‘because there was no
shepherd. 3 Mine anger was kin-

ala against the shepherds, "sand
unished the goats: for the Lorp

osts "hath visited his flock the
tue of Judah, and ‘hath made

 

3 Or, en sw ered. shat, etc.—f Ezek. 34.
5.—s Ezek.

4 a usted upon.—h Luke 1. 68.—
i Cant.

 

which was imitated by the diviners;
they gave instructions which they
claimed had come to them from God
in dreams. They comfort in vain—
Their words are powerless; they re-
main unfulfilled, and therefore do
not help the people in their distress.
That the prophet, when speaking of
the helplessness of the idols, is think-
ing of past experiences of the nation
is made plain by the rest of the verse,
though R. V. uses present tenses.
Therefore—Because the people ap-
pealed to teraphim and diviners rather
than to Jehovah. They—The Israel-
ites. Went their way as a flock—Lit-
erally, pulled up their stakes. The
‘metaphor is taken from the pulling up
of the stakes of a tent or sheepfold.
The reference appears to be to the
exile. The. verb form indicates that
the act itself took place in the past
but that its effects continue to the

present (G.-K., 106g.). Were troub-
led—R. V., ‘‘afflicted”; or, oppressed;
by the hostile powers. The form of

the verb is not the same as the pre-
ceding; it expresses continuity of ac-
tion; they were oppressed continually.
Because there was no shepherd—The
last word is equivalent to ruler (see
p. 603). There was no ruler strong
enough to guard and care for the peo-
ple (Num. xxvii, 17; Hos. x, 3, 15;
xiii, 10, 11; compare Jer. xxiii, 4), or
to ward off the calamity. The use
of the term shepherd prepares the way
for the next oracle.

RESTORATION OF THE JEWS AND OVER-
THROW OF THE HosTILE Nations,
x, 3-xi, 3.

When the Jews came into the power
of hostile nations (verse 2) they were
governed by bad shepherds, that is,
by cruel foreign rulers. But a change
is about to take place; Jehovah will

 

cut off the bad shepherds and deliver
the oppressed flock (8). Judah and
Ephraim will be transformed into
mighty men (4-7), and Jehovah will
bring them back from, Assyria and
Egypt to dwell in their own land
(8-12), where they may rejoice over
the wonderful deliverance, while the
hostile powers wail and lament over
their own complete undoing (xi,
1-3).

Rejuvenation of Judah and Ephraim,
3-7. :

Jehovah has resolved to deliver the
oppressed people; his anger will be
kindled against the oppressors. The
exiles will be made strong, so that
they can trample their enemies under
foot; then they will be restored to
their own land, because Jehovah will
have mercy upon them.

In verses 3, 4 the prophet looks into
the future, therefore the tenses of
R. V. are to be preferred. The shep-
herds—Now ruling over the Jews, the
representatives of the foreign nations.
Goats [‘‘he-goats’”]}—Who lead the
herds—bell-wethers; practically syn-
onymous with “shepherds.” There
is no reason for supposing that the
prophet means to make a distinction
between the monarchs (shepherds)
and the nobles or officials (he-goats).
Against the oppressors the anger of
Jehovah is kindled. Hath visited—
A perfect of prophetic certainty; Je-
hovah has already decided upon the
act, and he will surely carry out his
purpose. The verb is used here in a
favorable sense (compare Jer. xxiii,
2), visit with blessing. Flock—The
picture of the shepherd and the sheep
is continued. House of Judabh—In
apposition to his flock. Ephraim is
not to be excluded (verses 6, 7), but
Judah forms the nucleus, to which
658

ZECHARIAH.

 

them’ as his goodly horse in the
battle. 4 Out of him came forth
kthe corner, out of him 'the nail,
out of him the battle bow, out of
him every oppressor together.

6 And they shall be as mighty
men, which tread down their ene-
mies in the mire of the streets in the

battle: and they shall fight, because
the Lorp is with them, and ‘the
riders on horses shall be confounded.
6 And I will strengthen the house
of Judah, and I will save the house
of Joseph, and *I will bring them
again to place them; for I chave
mercy upon them: and they shall

 

k Num, 24. 17; 1 Sam. 14, 38; Isa. 19.
13.—! Isa.22. 23.—m™ Psa. 18. 42.

5 Or, they shall make the riders on
horses ashamed. a Jer. 3.18; Ezek. 37.
21. © Hos. 1. 7.

 

 

 

Ephraim will be joined. As his good-
ly horse—Literally, horse of splendor;
a splendid war horse. Not only will
the oppressors be cut off, but Israel
will be transformed from an oppressed
and trembling flock into a strong and
victorious host, resembling in courage
and swiftness a spirited war horse.

4. Henceforth the nation will be
governed by native rulers. Out of
him—Does the pronoun refer to Judah
or to Jehovah? On this point com-
mentators are not agreed; the former
is the more probable, the thought
being that in the future the rulers
called corner, nail, etc., will come
forth not from the foreign nations
but from Judah. Corner—R. V.,
“corner stone.” The term is applied
to the Messiah in Isa. xxviii, 16, but
here it is equivalent to leader (Isa.
xix, 13; 1 Sam. xiv, 38). The leader
stands out prominently like the cor-
ner. Nail—The origin of the meta-
phor is not quite clear. It may, per-
haps, be traced to the pin with which
the tent is fastened down (Judg. iv,
21, 22), or to the peg on which articles
and vessels are hung on the wall.
Here it represents those in the com-
munity on whose counsel and support
others depend, the leaders (Isa. xxii,
23). Battle bow—Military leaders,
or, perhaps, warriors in general.
Every oppressor—R. V., “every ruler”;
margin, “exactor.” The same word
is translated in Exod. iii, 7; v, 10, etc.,
“taskmaster”; here it appears to be
used in the general sense ruler (com-
pare Isa. iii, 12; xiv, 2; 1x, 17), though
the idea may be implied that these
rulers will oppress the enemies who
now oppress the Jews. Together—

 

The force of this word is not certain;
it cannot be taken with the verb,
“shall go forth together,” since the
two are separated in Hebrew; taken
with “every ruler’ it would seem to
indicate that the prophet expects
more than one ruler to come forth.
Some commentators take it with the
next verse (see below).

Verse 5 seems to be an expansion of
3b. Mighty men—Heroes, coura-
geous warriors. Tread down—See on
ix, 15, where, however, a different
verb is used. In the mire—Perhaps
better, with a slight alteration, as
the mire (compare Mic. vii, 10). They
will fight so bravely because Jehovah
will be with them. The riders on
horses—Of the hostile army. The
present Hebrew text of verse 5 is
awkward, and most recent commen-
tators suggest one or more alterations,
all of them very simple. Marti would
read 5a, “together shall they tread
down in battle the mighty men as
dirt in the streets.”

Verse 6 contains a promise that
Ephraim will share in the blessings.
I will strengthen—The verb is a deriva-
tive of the noun mighty men (verse 5),
equivalent to J will make heroes.
Joseph—Ephraim (verse 7; ix, 13),
Israel, the northern kingdom. I will
save—From oppression; this deliver-
ance will be the first blessing. I will
bring them again to place them—R.
V., “I will bring them back”; from
exile. The form of the verb is pecul-
iar, but the translation of R. V. fits
better into the context. The deliver-
ance is wrought, not because they
deserve it, but, because Jehovah has
decided to have mercy on them once
CHAPTER X.

659

 

be as though I had not cast them
off: for I am the Lorp their God,
and_ pwill hear them. 7 And they
of Ephraim shall be like a mighty
man, and their cheart shall rejoice
as through wine: yea, their children
shall see it, and be glad; their heart
shall rejoice in the Lorp. 8 I will
thiss for them, and gather them; for
I have redeemed them: sand they

shall increase as they have increas-
ed. 9 And ‘I will sow them among
the people; and they shall «remem-
ber me in far countries; and they
shall live with their children, and
turn again. 10 *I will bring them
again also out of the land of Egypt,
and gather them out of Assyria; and
I will bring them into the land of
Gilead and Lebanon; and yplace

 

Pp Chap. _13. 9.—4 Psa, 104. 15; chap.
pa ee Isa. 5. 26.—+* Isa. 49.19; Ezek.

t Hos. 2, 23. u Deut. 30, 1.—-x Isa.
11. 11, 16; Hos, 11. 11.—~y Isa. 49. 20.

 

 

more. As though I had not cast them
off—The exile seemed to prove that
Jehovah had cast them off, but in the
glorious future all traces of the divine
disfavor will disappear. In spite of
their sins Jehovah is still their God,
and when in distress they cry unto
him he will hear them. For “I will
hear them” G. A. Smith translates,
“T will hold converse with them.”

7. Ephraim, like Judah, is trans-
formed into a nation of heroes, and
realizing that once more the divine
favor is theirs they will rejoice greatly.
As through wine—They will be beside
themselves for joy (compare ix, 15).
The magnitude of rejoicing is indi-
cated in the rest of the verse. It will
become contagious; all will join in it,
and all will give the glory to Jehovah
who has wrought the wonderful sal-
vation. Their children—Not young
boys and girls, but the individual
Ephraimites; compare “sons (the
same word in Hebrew) of Zion”
(ix, 18).

Restoration of the exiles from Assyria
and Egypt, 8-12.

These verses describe more minutely
the deliverance of Ephraim. 8. I
will hiss—Give the signal to return
(compare Isa. v, 26; vii, 18). Have
redeemed—The redemption is already
decreed, though its execution is still
future. As they have increased—As
they were great in numbers before the
calamity fell upon them, so they will
be again. 9. I will sow—An obscure
and much-discussed expression. The
marginal reading, “though I sow,” is
to be preferred; but even that leaves

 

it an open question whether the sowing
is already passed or still in the future,
nor does it indicate the exact force of
sow. The meaning scatter seems most
suitable, though Hebrew usage may
not support it. The Hebrew, if in-
terpreted naturally, places the sowing
in the future; a change of one vowel
point would throw it in the past, and
to the past it seems to refer—“Though
I scattered them among the peoples,”
that is, during the exile. The suc-
ceeding clause is the apodosis. They
shall remember me—With the above
suggested translation of the first
clause, the verb here should not be
rendered as a simple future but as a
past tense expressing the idea of con-
tinuation (G.-K., 107d)—though I
scattered them, yet they continued to
remember me.” Far countries—The
lands of exile, here Egypt and Assyria
(verse 10). Shall live with their chil-
dren—With this clause begins the
promise. Those who are now in exile
shall not perish, but they and their
children shall live (Hos. vi, 2; Ezek.
xxxvii, 1ff.) and return to their old
home. LXX. reads, “bring up their
children”; which is probably meant
to express a similar idea. They will
raise families, which are considered a
gift from God (Psa. exxvii, 3-5), and
with them they will return home.
Verse 10 takes up the promise of res-
toration from verse 8. Egypt, ... As-
syria—The two long-time enemies of
the people of Israel (see on Hos. viii,
13; ix, 3; compare Isa. xi, 11, 12).
On the use of these names here and
their bearing on the date of the proph-
ecy see Introduction, p. 584. Gilead
660

ZECHARIAH.

 

shall not be found for them. 11
*And he shall pass through the sea
with affliction, and shall smite the
waves in the sea, and all the deeps
of the river shall dry up: and
«the pride of Assyria shall be

brought down, and >the scepter
of Egypt shall depart away. 12
And I will strengthen them in the
Lorp; and cthey shall walk up
and down in his name, saith the
LoRD.

 

 

z Isa. 11. 15, 16.—® Isa. 14. 25.

 

b Ezek. 30, 18.—° Mic. 4. 5.

 

. . . Lebanon—The former is the ter-
ritory east of the Jordan (see on Amos
i, 3), the latter is the mountain range
in the north of the territory west of
the Jordan (compare Hos. xiv, 4-8).
Gilead was rich in pasture land, Leb-
anon in forests; hence the two dis-
tricts might be named as types of ex-
treme fertility. If so, the thought
would be that the restored exiles will
be settled in the most fertile regions of
Palestine. Or the two districts might
represent all the territory east and
west of the Jordan respectively; then
the promise would be that the restored
exiles will occupy all the ancient terri-
tory of Israel; and even then the land
will not be able to hold them (Isa.
xlix, 19, 20).

Verse 11 elaborates upon the prom-
ise of 10a. The prophet describes the
future deliverance in language which
is strongly colored by the memory of
the exodus. The details of interpre-
tation are uncertain. He—LXX.,
“they”; the exiles. The pronoun in
Hebrew refers to Jehovah, which is,
perhaps, to be preferred (see below).
Shall pass through the sea with afflic-
tion—He will bring affliction upon the
sea (the Red Sea), so that it will dry
up and let the exiles pass through.
R. V., “he will pass through the sea
of affliction”; literally, the sea, afflic-
tion (in apposition), which expresses
a similar thought, namely, the sea
which caused affliction, that is, at the
time of the exodus—the Red Sea.
The expression is peculiar. Von
Orelli, following some of the ancient
versions, takes affliction as the subject
and renders “affliction shall pass over
the sea,’ which expresses a thought
similar to that of A. V. Some take
affliction in a physical sense—narrow-
ness—and read “‘the sea of narrow-

 

ness” —the narrow sea, the Red Sea.
If the present Hebrew text is correct,
R. V. is to be preferred. Jehovah
will pass through the sea to smite it,
so that the exiles may be able to cross
dry-shod (compare Isa. xi, 15). Vari-
ous emendations have been suggested.
Marti, for example, reads lla, ‘and
they shall pass through the Sea of
Egypt, and dry up shall all the depths
of the Nile.” The waves in the sea—
Another very peculiar construction.
The deeps of the river shall dry up—
R. V. rightly understands “river” of
the Nile (see on Amos viii, 8, where
the same word is used). The Nile
will dry up to permit the exiles to re-
turn. Passages like Isa. xi, 15, and
even the context here might lead one
to understand river of the Euphrates,
though the word river used in the
Isaiah passage and elsewhere is not the
one used here. The Red Sea will dry
up to let the exiles return from Egypt,
the Euphrates to let them return from
Assyria. Pride—The blow which will
fall upon the nation will result in its
utter humiliation. Scepter—The sym-
bol of power. The taking away of
the scepter symbolizes the withdrawal
of power and authority; Egypt also
will be humbled. 12. Strengthen
them in Jehovah—Jehovah himself
will be the strength, that. is, the
source of the strength, of the ex-
iles. With Jehovah on their side
they need not fear. Walk...
in his name—See on Mic. iv, 5.
Up and down would better be
omitted; it is a useless and confusing
addition by the English translators.
Practically all the Hebrew proph-
ets expect the restoration of the
scattered Jews; hence from this
promise the date of this utterance
cannot be determined.
CHAPTER XI.

661

 

CHAPTER XI
PEN «thy doors, O Lebanon,
that the fire may devour thy
eedars. 2 Howl, fir tree; for the
cedar is fallen; because the 'mighty
are spoiled: howl, O ye oaks of

Bashan; for 2the forest of the vint-
age is come down.

3 There is a voice of the howling
of the shepherds; for their glory is
spoiled: a voice of the roaring of
young lions; for the pride of Jordan

 

® Chap. 10. 10.—1 Or, gallants.—> Isa.

32. 19.— Or, the defensed forest.

 

CHAPTER XI.

LAMENTATION OF THE HUMILIATED
Enemies, 1-3.

These verses do not form an in-
dependent piece, nor are they to be
connected with xi, 4ff., for the open-
ing words of verse 4 show that there
a new prophecy begins. They are
rather the conclusion to the promise in
chapter x, that the exiles will be re-
established in their own land (x, 10),
for they state what will become of the
present occupants of the land: they
will be completely annihilated. What
has been said indicates that the judg-
ment announced in these verses is not,
as is commonly assumed, a judg-
ment upon Israel, but upon the for-
eigners who now occupy their terri-
tory. The language used is highly
poetic (compare Isa. ii, 12ff.).

1. The enemies are pictured as
magnificent forests (Isa. x, 33, 34), in
danger of being devoured by fire. The
prophet calls upon Lebanon to open
its doors so that the fire may come in.
Lebanon—See on x, 10, and reference
there. Cedars—These were the glory
of Lebanon. At one time they were
very abundant. Solomon used them
in the temple (1 Kings v, 6), and sev-
eral of the Assyrian kings claim to
have cut them and carried them to
Assyria (compare Hab. ii, 17; see
Hastings’s Dictionary of the Buble, ar-
ticle ‘“‘Cedar”’). 2. Howl, fir tree—
Or, cypress. Next to the cedar the
choicest tree of Lebanon (Isa. xiv, 8;
xxxvii, 24); it also was used in the
construction of the temple (1 Kings
v, 22, 24). For the cedar is fallen—
Not so much out of sympathy as be-
cause a similar fate is awaiting the
cypress. The mighty are spoiled—R.
V., “the goodly ones.” Expresses

 

the same thought as the preceding.
The mighty ones are the noble trees of
Lebanon. Oaks of Bashan—See on
Amos iv, 1. Bashan was at one time
exceedingly rich in oak forests; even
now fine specimens of oak trees may
be seen east of the Jordan, but not in
as great numbers as formerly (com-
pare Tristram, Natural History, p.
369). Forest of the vintage—Better,
R. V., “strong forest”; or, better,
with margin, ‘‘fortified’’—inaccessi-
ble. Both Bashan and Lebanon
must fall before the anger of Jehovah.
The two forests with their majestic
trees represent the heathen power
that is now occupying the former ter-
ritory of Israel west and ‘east of the
Jordan (see on x, 10). To make room
for the exiles about to return it must
be driven out. To simplify the He-
brew text, which is somewhat awk-
ward, Marti proposes to omit 2a; he
reads verses 1, 2, “Open, O Lebanon,
thy doors, that the fire may devour
thy cedars; howl, ye oaks of Bashan,
for the strong forest is come down.”

3. The prophet already hears the
lament of those who have been robbed
of their power and glory. A voice of
the howling—Equivalent to loud howl-
ing. A more forceful rendering would
be, ‘Hark! howling!” (Compare G.-
K., 146b; Zeph. i, 14.) Shepherds—
As in x, 3, the foreign rulers. The
presence of extensive herds in Bashan
may have suggested the use of the
term. Their glory—The rich pasture
of the shepherds; in the figure, the
majesty and splendor of the rulers.
Young lions—At one time lions seem
to have been abundant in Palestine
(see on Hos. v, 14); here they represent
the rulers and nobles. The pride of
Jordan—“The thickets and _ reeds
which grew so luxuriantly on the
662

ZECHARIAH.

 

is spoiled. 4 Thus saith the Lorp
my God; cFeed the flock of the
slaughter; 5 Whose possessors slay
them, and ‘hold themselves not

guilty: and they that sell them ‘say,
Blessed be the Lorp; for I am rich:
and their own shepherds pity them
not. 6 For I will no more pity the

 

¢ Verse 7.—4 Jer. 2. 3; 50. 7.

® Deut. 29. 19; Hos. 12. 8.

 

banks of the Jordan, and afforded so
safe and convenient a lair for the
lions” (Jer. xlix, 19). In the figure,
identical in meaning with glory, the
wealth and splendor of the rulers.

ALLEGORY oF THE Goop SHEPHERD,
4-14,

The interpretation of these verses
is a very difficult task, chiefly because
it is not possible to determine the his-
torical situation reflected in them (for
Marti’s view and other theories see
Introduction, p. 589). Two things
seem to be certain: 1. There is no
immediate connection between this
section and x, 3-xi, 3. 2. The verses
are descriptive rather than predictive.
The preceding section looks into the
future, this into the past, most prob-
ably the immediate past, so that the
author may have been one of the act-
ors in the events described. In the
form of an allegory he describes Je-
hovah’s loving care for the people,
their ingratitude, his resentment, and
the resulting judgment. He declares
that their experiences, pleasant and
unpleasant, were ordained by Jehovah
for a special purpose. When they
disregarded his pleasant leadings he
gave them up, temporarily at least, to
calamity and misfortune. In the
section immediately following the
prophet turns again to the future
with the promise that Jehovah will
once more have mercy upon them.
The close connection between the
human agent and the divine Master
is indicated in the use of the first per-
son by the former, even when the act
described must be regarded as having
been executed by Jehovah himself.
Whether the symbolical acts described
were, either all or in part, actually
performed by the prophet, or whether
he introduces them only for the pur-
pose of making the description more
vivid, cannot be determined and is of

 

secondary importance. The act sym-
bolized is the real thing, and it remains
the same whatever one may think of
the reality of the symbolical acts
(see p. 603f).

The shepherd’s loving care, 4-6.

4. The author represents Jehovah
as appointing him the shepherd of the
flock of slaughter, which Jehovah
has determined to deliver from its
oppressors. Feed—Give shepherding
care and protection (see on Mic. v, 4).
The flock—The community of the
Jews (see on Mic. vii, 14). Of the
slaughter—Not a flock already sleugh-
tered, nor a flock that is to be slaugh-
tered literally (compare Jer. xii, 3),
but a flock that is treated cruelly and
shamefully in the manner described
in verse 5, which undoubtedly led to
the undoing of many. Whose pos-
sessors—Margin R. V., “buyers.”
The former is the meaning of the word
in Isa. i, 3, but the parallelism favors
the marginal reading (compare Amos
viii, 6). Hold themselves not guilty—
Literally, are not guilty; meant iron-
ically, in their own opinion; hence the
English reproduces the thought cor-
rectly (compare Jer. 1, 7; Hos. v, 15).
The buyers, in spite of their cruelty,
admit no wrongdoing. They that sell
them—The Jews are represented as
cattle or sheep that may be bought
or sold at the pleasure of the owner.
The sellers succeed in filling their own
pockets. Blessed be Jehovah—Not
only do they not recognize guilt; they
even exclaim piously that they are
prospered by Jehovah; hence their
acts must be in accord with his will.
Their own shepherds—This is a trans-
lation plus an interpretation; literally,
their shepherds. The form of the pro-
noun indicates that their does not refer
to the flock, but to the buyers and
sellers. These two are under the di-
rection of the shepherds. Pity them
CHAPTER XI

663

 

inhabitants of the land, saith the
Lorp: but, lo, I will ‘deliver the
men every one into his neighbor’s
hand, and into the hand of his king:
and they shall smite the land, and

out of their hand I will not deliver
them. 7% And I will ‘feed the flock
of slaughter, ‘even you, *O poor of
the flock. And I took unto me two
staves; the one I called Beauty, and

 

3 Heb. make to be found.—t Verse 4.
——1 Or, verily the poor.

& Zeph. 8. 12; Matt. 11. 5.

 

not—The form of the pronoun is the
same as in their buyers, their sellers;
hence it must refer to the flock. Opin-
ions differ as to who are the persons
meant by buyers, sellers, shepherds.
In all probability the first two are
practically identical; they are persons
who ill-treat the flock; the distinction
is introduced only to make complete
the picture of the helplessness of the
sheep; they can be bought or sold at
the pleasure of their owners and can
do nothing to prevent it. Some think
that they represent foreign rulers, but
the exclamation ‘Blessed be Jehovah”
contradicts this view. It seems best
to understand all three terms of native
rulers, the buyers and sellers as un-
scrupulous nobles or officials who op-
press the people to serve their own
interests, the shepherds as the masters
or rulers of these nobles, who should
have compassion for their subjects,
but were indifferent and allowed their
underlings to do as they pleased.
Verse 6 is another exceedingly diffi-
cult verse. Its connection with the
preceding verse is not clear, and verse
7 would form a more suitable continu-
ation of verse 5. Most recent com-
mentators omit it as a later gloss. If
it is original, it is best interpreted as
a parenthetical sentence introduced
by the author to explain the appoint-
ment of the shepherd. Jehovah was
about to execute judgment upon the
whole earth, and during the crisis he
desired to have his people in the care
of a capable leader. Inhabitants of
the land—Better, of the earth; for the
men, which follows, is used ordinarily
of all mankind; Jehovah intended to
shake the nations (Hag. ii, 6,7). The
men—Better, mankind, or, the human
race; with special reference, perhaps,
to the surrounding nations that. have
proved hostile to the Jews. Deliver

 

... every one into his neighbor’s hand,
and into the hand of his king—The
threat is one of anarchy and civil
strife among the nations of the earth
and of oppression by tyrannical kings.
It is not improbable, however, that
we should read, with a change of a
single vowel point, “into the hand of
his shepherd” instead of “into his
neighbor’s hand”; the whole clause,
‘Gnto the hand of his shepherd and
into the hand of his king.” Then the
thought will be, while the Jews are
to have a good shepherd, the nations
of the earth are to be placed under the
rule of tyrannical shepherds (rulers)
and kings. They—The tyrannical
rulers and kings. I will not deliver—
Jehovah will allow the nations of the
earth to be destroyed. No further
reference is made to the fate of the
nations, and in the succeeding verses
the author returns to the shepherd
appointed over the Jews.

The people's lack of appreciation, 7, 8.

The newly appointed shepherd
enters upon his tasks with great ex-
pectation, but, alas! he is sorely dis-
appointed. 7. Even you, O poor of
the flock—R. V., “verily the poor of
the flock’; margin, ‘the most miser-
able of sheep.” The word translated
even you or verily means ordinarily
therefore, which gives no sense here.
LXX. combines it with the next word
into one and reads, “for the Canaan-
ites of the flock” =for the traffickers
of the flock (see on Hos. xii, 7), which
would be a reference to the buyers and
sellers of verse 5. The divinely ap-
pointed shepherd enters upon his
tasks with the determination to dis-
place these buyers and sellers who
have cruelly abused the flock. LXX.
is probably to be preferred. The
means with which the shepherd in-
664

ZECHARIAH.

 

the other I called *Bands; and I fed
the flock. 8 Three shepherds also
I cut off tin one month; and my
soul ‘loathed them, and their soul
also abhorred me. 9 Then said I,

I will not feed you: ithat that dieth,
let it die; and that that is to be cut
off, let it be cut off; and let the
rest eat every one the flesh ‘of
another.

 

5 Or, Binders.— Hos. 5. 7.——® Heb.
was straitened for them.

i Jer. 15. 2; 43. 11.—7 Heb. of his fel-
low, or, neighbor.

 

tended to accomplish his ends are
indicated by the two staves which are
selected. Beauty—Margin R. V.,
“Graciousness.”” The staff symbol-
izes the return of the divine favor to
the people. The shepherd meant to
emphasize constantly the truth that,
in spite of the present suffering, Je-
hovah is gracious to his people and is
ready to shower upon them his bless-
ing, if they will let him. Bands—Or,
union. Verse 14 places it beyond
doubt that the prophet is thinking of
the reunion between the north and
south. The promise of such reunion
would be an earnest of strength and
victory. Evidently he considers the
two staves sufficient to put new life
and courage into the ill-treated flock.
I fed—See on verse 4, and reference
there.

8. In the carrying out of his com-
mission the shepherd met opposition,
but he overcame it. Three shepherds
... I cut off—R. V., “the three shep-
herds.” Who are these shepherds?
Are they foreigners or native rulers?
If native rulers, who are they? The
shepherds of x, 3, are foreign oppress-
ors, but the shepherds of xi, 5, are
native rulers; since the latter is in the
more immediate context it seems
best to take the three shepherds of
this verse to be native rulers. The
defenders of the preéxilic date see here
a reference to the assassination of the
successors of Jeroboam II, Zechariah,
Shallum, and a “third pretender”
(2 Kings xv, 13-15). On the other
hand, those who favor a late postexilic
date think of the frequent changes in
the high-priestly office during the
years immediately preceding the Mac-
cabean uprising. Marti thinks of Ly-
simachus, who was killed by a mob
about 171 B. C. (2 Mace. iv, 22);
Jason, who was driven from the office

 

in 170 and found an ignominious end
in exile (2 Macc. v, 10); and Menelaus,
who became high priest again in 170
and lost his office in 168, when the
Jehovah cult was temporarily discon-
tinued in the temple, and who died
a violent death in Bercea in Syria in
163 (2 Macc. xiii, 3-8). Reference has
been made to the difficulty involved
in assigning the prophecy to so late
a date (p. 589); certainty seems im-
possible. In one month—Not to be
understood literally. It is equivalent
to in a short space of time. At any
rate, we know of no crisis in Jewish
history when three rulers, either for-
eign or native, either kings or high-
priests, were cut off during one month.

8b might be interpreted as supply-
ing the reason why the good shep-
herd cut off the three shepherds. If
so, the transition from verse 8 to
verse 9 would be very abrupt; hence
it seems better to make a full stop
after “in one month” and connect
8b with verse 9. With great zeal the
shepherd entered upon his task, but
the flock failed to appreciate his ef-
forts. And—R. V., “for’’; better, but.
My soul loathed them—R. V., “was
weary of them.’”’ The shepherd grew
weary of the unappreciative flock; to
it refers the pronoun them and not to
the shepherds. Their soul also ab-
horred me—R. V., “loathed.’’ The
flock came to dislike the shepherd’s
strict control.

Withdrawal of the good shepherd,
' 9-14,

9,10. As a result of the flock’s
ingratitude the shepherd decided
to discontinue the shepherding
care. It is difficult to differentiate in
these verses between the voice of the
shepherd and that of Jehovah; some-
times Jehovah, sometimes the shep-
CHAPTER XI.

665

 

10 And I took my staff, even Beau-
ty, and cut it asunder, that I might
break my covenant which I had
made with all the people. 11 And
it was broken in that day: and 8so
kthe poor of the flock that waited

upon me knew that it was the word
of the Lorp. 12 And I said unto
them, *If ye think good, give me my
price; and if not, forbear. So they
lweighed for my price thirty pieces
of silver. 13 And the Lorp said

 

8 Or, the poor of the flock, etc., certainly
knew.— Verse 7; Zeph. 3. 12.

9 Heb. If it be good in your eyes.
Matt. 26. 15; see Exod. 21. 32.

 

herd, seems to be the speaker. Only
the former could authorize the sen-
tence of doom implied in verse 9 or
break the covenant (verse 10). The
shepherd will leave the flock to its
hopeless fate, to die, or to be cut
off by the oppressors mentioned in
verse 5, or to be devoured by one an-
other. 10. As an indication of his
determination he breaks his staff.
Beauty—See on verse 7. The break-
ing of this staff symbolized the with-
drawal of the divine favor. Break
my covenant...made with all the
people—Better, R. V., “with all the
peoples’; the nations surrounding the
Jewish community. While the divine
favor endured it prevented the hostile
nations from doing injury to the flock
(Hos. ii, 18). Since Jehovah’s will
would be supreme in this matter, his
resolve amounted practically to a
covenant with these peoples, binding
them to refrain from hurting the fl«k
of Jehovah; with the covenant broken
they would be at liberty to do as they
pleased.

The staff was broken and the cove-
nant dissolved, and verse 11 implies
that the results became apparent at
once. And so the poor of the flock—
As in verse 7; better, the traffickers of
the flock (compare verse 5). That
waited upon me—R. V., “that gave
heed unto me.” Not that were obedi-
ent to me, but in a general sense that
observed me; that is, that took notice
of theactsof the shepherd. The words
do not imply that they were influenced
for the better. The events which
immediately followed the breaking
of the staff were evidence that the
shepherd was indeed the representa-
tive of Jehovah.

12. This recognition on the part of
the traffickers would seem to offer an

 

opportunity for further tests, (1)
whether they had been led to a better
appreciation.of his services, (2) whether
there was any desire on their part to
have his services continued. One
staff was still whole, an indication
that he had not finally forsaken them.
Unto them—If the emendation sug-
gested in verse 11 is correct, this can
refer only to the traffickers; it is only
natural that they should pay the
wages, since they had derived the
most benefit from the flock (verse 5).
The shepherd makes no demands; he
asks them to decide whether or not his
services merit compensation, and,, if
so, how much. They reply by offer-
ing him wages. Thirty pieces of silver
—A piece or shekel of silver is equiva-
lent to about 60 cents; thirty pieces to
about $18. This seems to have been
the price of a slave (Exod. xxi, 32),
and the offer showed how little they
appreciated the services of a divinely
appointed shepherd (compare Matt.
xxvi, 15).

’ The offer was an insult to the shep-
herd as well as to Jehovah, and verse
13 describes the displeasure of the
latter. He orders the shepherd to
throw the money away. Cast it unto
the potter—A much-discussed phrase.
Limited space makes impossible the
enumeration of all the different in-
terpretations given. On the assump-
tion that the present Hebrew text is
correct, the fewest difficulties are offer-
ed by the interpretation of Keil, who
suggests that cast it to the potter may be
a “proverbial expression for con-
temptuous treatment,” though, as he
says, “we have no means of tracing
the origin of the phrase satisfactorily.”
Exception has been taken to the
present text on the ground that there
was no potter in the temple (compare
666

ZECHARIAH.

 

 

unto me, Cast it unto the ™pot-
ter: a goodly price that I was
prized at of them. And I took
the thirty pieces of silver, and
cast them to the potter in the

house of the Lorp. 14 Then I cut
mine other staff, even
Bands, that I might break the
brotherhood between Judah and
Israel.

 

m Matt. 27. 9, 10.

10 Or, Binders.

 

last clause of verse 13), but if the
phrase is a proverbial saying it is
not necessary to assume the presence
of a potter in the temple, be it for the
purpose of repairing or selling dishes
or for the purpose of worship, for the
money might be treated contemptu-
ously without a potter being present.
The addition “in the house of Je-
hovah”’ calls attention to the serious-
ness and solemnity of the transaction.
The action was symbolical as much
as the breaking of the staff (verses
10, 14); for it signified the cessation
of the care of the shepherd and of
Jehovah. Jehovah and the people
were the persons chiefly interested in
this; the temple was the dwelling
place of Jehovah, and to it flocked the
people; hence all transactions requir-
ing the presence of both parties could
best be performed there. Such was
the act performed by the shepherd,
and it is for this reason that he se-
lected the house of Jehovah as the
place where he would give expression
to Jehovah’s displeasure. With this
interpretation the nature of the “con-
temptuous treatment” remains un-
defined; the shepherd may have cast
the money away, or may have tram-
pled upon it, or may have done any-
thing else that would indicate how
lightly he and Jehovah valued the
sum. Many recent scholars prefer
the reading of Targum and Peshitto,”’
“to the treasurer” or ‘‘treasury”’ in the
place of ‘‘to the potter.” This would
remove the obscurity of the present
expression, but the objection raised
by Keil is not without weight: “God
could not possibly say to the prophet,
The wages paid for my service are in-
deed a miserable amount, yet put it
in the temple treasury, for it is at any
rate better than nothing.” Goodly
price—Meant ironically. I was prized
at—Jehovah identifies himself here

 

with the shepherd; the insult offered
to the latter was in reality an insult to
Jehovah.

14. In consequence of the lack of
appreciation on the part of the flock
the shepherd decides to abandon it
entirely; as a sign of this he breaks the
second staff, for which he has no fur-
ther use. Bands—See on verse 7. That
I might break the brotherhood between
Judah and Israel—This does not im-
ply the existence of the two kingdoms,
nor does it point to a period before the
division; it refers rather to the future
reunion of the north and south, which
is expected by many prophets to take
place in the Messianic age. The
breaking of the staff implies the de-
struction of the prospects of such re-
union, but with these prospects gone
there will be dashed to pieces any hope
of a final triumph over the enemies,
which will lead to the exaltation and
glorification of the victors. On the
teaching of the allegory see Introduc-
tion, p. 603. If the prophecy comes
from the Maccabean period (see on
verse 8), the good shepherd represents
a high priest who occupied the office
about 170 B. C. Who he was cannot
be determined; Marti thinks of Onias
IV.

ALLEGORY OF THE FoouisH SHEP-
HERD, xi, 15-17 (+ xiii, 7-9.)

This allegory is the sequel of the
allegory of the good shepherd; xi,
15, 16, continues the record of the
people’s experiences down to the
present, verse 17 turns to the future.
The flock that rejected the good
shepherd was not left to itself—it
was given into the hands of a foolish
shepherd, who worked havoc with it;
but he is doomed, and the flock will
be delivered (xiii, 7-9). By the alle-
gory the prophet teaches that the
present miserable condition of the
CHAPTER XI.

667

 

15 And the Lorp said unto me,
»Take unto thee yet the instruments
of a foolish shepherd... 16 For, lo,
I will raise up a shepherd in the
land, which shall not visit those that

be "cut off, neither shall seek the
young one, nor heal that that is
broken, nor feed that that stand-
eth still: but he shall eat the flesh
of the fat, and tear their claws in

 

n Ezek. 34. 2-4.—11 Or, hidden.

12 Or, bear.

 

people is due to their own stubborn-
ness, and at the same time he assures
them that Jehovah will return in mercy
and compassion at some future time.

15. Jehovah said unto me—As on
the former occasion (verse 4). Yet—
R. V., “yet again.’ Connects this
command with the preceding one.
Take ...the instruments ofa... shep-
herd—The staves (verse 7). The tak-
ing up of these shows that the shep-
herd is ready to begin the shepherding
care of the flock; hence the command
is practically equivalent to that in
verse 4. Foolish—This time the
prophet is to act the part of a foolish
shepherd (verses 7, 8). Foolish is to
be understood in a moral sense, as
ordinarily in the Old Testament,
equivalent to forgetful of duty, worth-
less (verse 17). While this shepherd
also would have staves, they could not
be the same as those of the good shep-
herd (see on verse 7).

Verse 16 does not point to the future
from the standpoint of the prophet,
but from that of Jehovah’s command.
It states why the latter issued the
command, and at the same time it
supplies an interpretation of the sym-
bolic action. Jehovah, who withdrew
the good shepherd (verse 13), deter-
mined to raise up one who would not
protect and guard but hurt and de-
stroy. A shepherd in the land—Not
a successor of the ‘“‘three shepherds”
(verse 8), but of the good shepherd.
Who is meant cannot be determined
definitely. If Marti’s view concern-
ing the three shepherds (see on verse
8) and concerning the good shepherd
(see at the close of comments on verse
14) is correct it is not impossible that
the foolish shepherd is Alcimus, who
became high priest in 163 (compare
1 Mace. vii, 5-25; ix, 54-57). Visit—
In a good sense, to take an interest in.

 

Those that be cut off—As in verse 9
(compare verse 5); he will leave them
to their fate. Margin R. V., “lost’’;
but, since the lost ones are referred to
in the next clause, the ordinary ren-
dering is to be preferred. The young
one—Better, R. V., “those that are
scattered.” If the text is correct,
which may be doubted (see Ezek.
xxxiv, 4), the translation of R. V. is
to be preferred; at least it expresses
the thought which one would ex-
pect. The foolish shepherd would
not seek the lost, nor would he heal
the injured, nor feed the sound. That
that standeth still—R. V., ‘that which
is sound.” Another obscure ex-
pression, of which A. V. gives the
more literal translation. Standeth is
generally interpreted as the opposite
of broken in the preceding clause; he
does not look after the needs of the
injured nor after those of the sound
and strong. The translation feed also
is uncertain; margin R. V. suggests
“bear,” and the whole clause has been
translated, ‘‘he does not bear the halt-
ing one,” that is, he does not lift up
and carry in his arms the lamb or sheep
that halts or comes to a standstill be-
cause of weariness (compare John
x, 1-16). Though there may be un-
certainty as to details, the thought
expressed in all the clauses is that the
foolish shepherd would not have the
least. care for the welfare of the flock
(compare Ezek. xxxiv, 4).

But not only would he neglect the
flock, he would even help to destroy
it. He shall eat the flesh of the fat—
That is, of the fatlings of the flock.
Instead of looking after the welfare
of the flock he is concerned only with
his own well-being, and to satisfy his
own appetite he is ready to sacrifice
the lives of the sheep (compare Isa.
iii, 13-15), Tear their claws in pieces
668

ZECHARIAH.

 

pieces. 1'7°Woe to the idol shepherd
that leaveth the flock! the sword
shall be upon his arm, and upon his

o Jer. 23. 1; Ezek. 34. 2; John 10. 12, 13.

right eye: his arm shall be clean
dried up, and his right eye shall be
utterly darkened.

 

—R. V., “hoofs.” This obscure
phrase has received various interpre-
tations. Some have thought that the
reference is to the cruel practice of
driving the flocks over rough roads;
some have interpreted it of the in-
tense greed of the shepherd which
manifests itself in the tearing to
pieces of the hoofs, so as to secure the
last morsel of flesh or fat. Others
have thought of the tearing of the
hoofs, that the sheep might not
wander too far, and thus give the
shepherd trouble. The second in-
terpretation is improbable, because
one as greedy as this shepherd would
hardly stop to gnaw the bones clean;
he would rather kill another beast.
The other interpretations are possible;
in either case we would have a picture
of extreme cruelty. The expression
is peculiar and the text may have
suffered ; if so, we have no means of de-
termining the original.

17. The present hopeless condition
is not to continue forever; Jehovah
has sent it as a judgment for the re-
jection of the good shepherd, but he
will again have mercy; the foolish
shepherd will be removed. Woe to the
idol shepherd—Better, R. V., “worth-
less shepherd.” Heisdoomed. That
leaveth the flock—To destruction
(compare John x, 12). The succeed-
ing words should be translated as an
imprecatory clause, “A sword upon
his arm and upon his right eye!”
May the arm which should have guard-
ed and protected the flock be cut off,
and may the eyes which should have
selected good pasture and should have
watched against danger be destroyed.
That this will happen is affirmed in
the rest of the verse. The arm will
wither and the eye will lose its sight.
The forms of judgment prayed for and
threatened in the two clauses do not
seem to harmonize. If a sword were
used against the arm the result would

 

hardly be a withering of the same.
In view of this fact some commenta-
tors read, with a slight change in the
vocalization of a single consonant,
drought—drying up, withering—in-
stead of sword. This change, “drought
upon his arm and upon his right eye,”
would bring the two clauses into per-
fect accord. On the other hand, it
has been suggested that the two
different kinds of punishment are
placed together so as to emphasize
the ‘“‘greatness and terrible nature of
the judgment.” If xiii, 7-9, is the
original continuation of xi, 17 (see
introductory remarks on xiii, 7-9),
the present reading, ‘‘sword,” is to
be retained (compare xiii, 7).

CHAPTER XII.

Various UTTERANCES CONCERNING
THE Future or IsragL, xii, 1-
xiv, 21.

The heading (xii, 1) names the sub-
ject of these utterances, Israel, a term
used here not in a national but in a
religious sense of the people of Je-
hovah. The prophecies center around
Jerusalem and Judah, the home of
the postexilic Jewish community.
The section falls naturally into two
parts, xii, 1—xiii, 6, and xiv, 1-21;
xiii, 7-9, has no close connection either
with xiii, 1-6, or with chapter xiv
(see on xiii, 7-9). The first part, xii, 1-
xiii, 6, consists of three divisions; the
first (xii, 1-9) deals with some marvel-
ous deliverance of Judah and Jerusa-
lem, the second (xii, 10-14) with a
prolonged penitential mourning over
some great crime, the third (xiii, 1-6)
with the purification of the com-
munity and its restoration to intimate
fellowship with Jehovah.

Marvelous deliverance of Judah and
Jerusalem, 1-9.

The prophet beholds the nations of

the earth gathered around Jerusalem
CHAPTER XII.

669

 

CHAPTER XII.
HE burden of the word of the
Lorp for Israel, saith the
Lorp, «which stretcheth forth the
heavens, and layeth the foundation
of the earth, and *formeth the spirit

of man within him. 2 Behold, I will
make Jerusalem ca cup of !trem-
bling unto all the people round
about, 2when they shall be in the
siege both against Judah and
against Jerusalem.

 

a Isa. 42. 5; 44, 24; 45. 12, 18; 48, 18,—
b Num. 16. 22; Eccl. 12. 7; Isa. 57. 16;
Heb. 12. 9.—-¢ Isa, 51. 17, 22, 23.—-1 Or,

slumber, or, potson.—? Or, and also
against Judah shall he be which shall be in
siege against Jerusalem.

 

to besiege it; Jehovah smites them
with terror. When the chieftains of
Judah, who seem to have remained
inactive during the early part of the
struggle, see that Jehovah fights for
Jerusalem, they turn their weapons
against the nations. Jehovah saves
the tents of Judah first, to prevent the
inhabitants of Jerusalem from magni-
fying themselves above Judah, but
he delivers Jerusalem also from all
danger.

1. The burden of the word of Je-
hovah for Israel—R. V., “concerning
Israel.”” The heading of the entire
section xii, l-xiv, 21, prefixed prob-
ably by the collector of the Minor
Prophets, who, finding the prophecies
without a title, prefixed the words to
indicate their general contents (see
on ix, 1; compare Mal. i, 1). The
oracle itself begins with verse 2. It
is introduced by 1b; primarily by
“Thus saith Jehovah,” to which is
added a reference to the creative
power of Jehovah, in order to make
the utterance more impressive. No
matter how wonderful the promises
may seem, a God who can create the
heavens and the earth will surely be
able to fulfill them. The words,
therefore, serve the same purpose as
Amos iv, 13; v, 8, 9; ix, 5, 6 (see there;
compare Isa. xhi, 5). Stretcheth
forth—Compare Gen. i, 6-8. Layeth
the foundation—Compare Gen. i, 9, 10;
Psa. xxiv, 2. Formeth the spirit—
Compare Gen. ii, 7. Some recent
commentators consider 1b a later in-
sertion.

In verse 2 Jehovah himself is in-
troduced as the speaker. Behold,
I will—Better, Behold, I am about to;
the act is imminent (G.-K., 116p).
Make Jerusalem a cup of trembling—

 

R. V., “of reeling’; a cup or bowl
(Exod. xii, 22; 1 Kings vii, 4, 5) that
produces trembling or reeling. Jeru-
salem is pictured as a bowl filled with
a tempting drink; eagerly the nations
grasp it; but the draught results in
their undoing; confused and discom-
fited they reel and stagger back (com-
pare Hab. ii, 16; Obad. 16). 2b is
translated in R. V., ‘‘and upon Judah
also shall it be in the siege against
Jerusalem.” A. V. is readily under-
stood. The cup is handed to the na-
tions when they attack Judah and
Jerusalem. But what is the meaning
of R. V., which is undoubtedly a more
literal translation of the Hebrew?
The troublesome clause is, ‘‘and upon
Judah also shall it be.’ What shall
be upon, or against (margin), Judah
also? Some say that Jerusalem will
become a cup of reeling to Judah as
well as to the other nations; which
would imply that Judah was expected
to make common cause with the na-
tions against Jerusalem. One would
hardly look for such an idea, and there
is nothing in the rest of the prophecy
that would support the idea that
Judah was expected to turn against
Jerusalem. It is worthy of notice
also that the preposition before all the
peoples is not the same as before Judah.
Margin R. V. suggests a slightly differ-
ent translation, “and upon Judah also
shall it fall to be,” which has been
interpreted as meaning that it shall be
incumbent upon Judah to be in the
siege; that is, Judah will be compelled
to join in the siege. Some coérdinate
“upon Judah” with “concerning
Israel” (the same preposition in He-
brew) in the title; that is, the word
of Jehovah shall be concerning Judah
also. Still others supply the subject
670

ZECHARIAH.

 

3 4And in that day will I make
Jerusalem ca burdensome stone for
all people: all that burden them-
selves with it shall be cut in pieces,
though all the people of the earth
be gathered together against it. 4

In that day, saith the Lorp, ‘I will
smite every horse with astonish-
ment, and his rider with madness:
and I will open mine eyes upon the
house of Judah, and will smite every
horse of the people with blindness.

 

d Verses 4, 6, 8,9, 11; chaps. 13. 1; 14.
4, 6, 8,9, 13.

¢ Matt. 21. 44.—-f Psa. 76. 6; Ezek.
38. 4.

 

from the preceding, that which falls
upon Jerusalem shall fall upon Judah
also; that is, Judah also will be be-
sieged, and Judah also will be made a
cup of reeling to the nations. All
these translations and interpretations
are more or less fanciful and do more
or less violence to the text. It is
quite certain that the text has suf-
fered in transmission. Geiger, who
is followed by others, omits the prepo-
sition before Judah and reads, “Judah
also shall be in the siege of Jerusalem,”
which might mean that Judah will
join in the siege, or that Judah also
will suffer when the city is surrounded.
The latter is perhaps the thought of
the author, but the emendation of
Geiger does not remove all difficulties.
Marti follows his usual method and
omits the troublesome words, and
with another change in the last clause
he reads verse 2, ‘Behold, I am about
to make Jerusalem a cup of reeling
unto all the peoples round about, and
there will be a siege of Jerusalem.”
Verse 3 reiterates in a different fig-
ure the thought of verse 2, that Jerusa-
lem will prove the destruction of the
nations that attack it. A burdensome
stone—Some see here an allusion to a
custom spoken of by Jerome as ex-
isting in the cities of Palestine in his
days. Young men were accustomed
to test their strength by lifting and
throwing heavy round stones. If the
prophecy is as late as Marti would
make it these practices may have been
known in Jerusalem at the time (com-
pare 2 Macc. iv, 12-15), but if the
prophecy is much older a Palestinian
author could hardly have known
them. Guided partly by a belief in
an earlier date and partly by the fact
that the stone in this passage is not
a round stone, for the people will cut

 

themselves on it, others believe that
the author has in mind the use of
stones in the erection of buildings.
“Tn vain should all the nations round
about seek to fit the stone Jerusalem
into any of the political structures
which they might seek to erect.”
Whatever the basis of the figure, the
prophet means to say that any attack
upon Jerusalem will prove disastrous
to those who undertake it. Al
people—Better, R. V., “‘all the peo-
ples.” Thesurrounding nations (com-
pare last clause, verses 2, 6).

Verse 4 describes more minutely the
overthrow of the nations announced
in figurative terms in verses 2, 3. In
that day—When the nations of the
earth are gathered against the city.
Horse ... rider—The cavalry, which
here represents the entire military
force of the enemy. Astonishment,
...madness—For the former R. V.
reads ‘‘terror.’”” The soldiers will be
thrown into hopeless confusion, so
that they will rush headlong to de-
struction. Smite... with blindness—
When this happens to the enemies
they will be unable to distinguish be-
tween friend and foe, and they will
turn their swords against their own
fellows (Judg. vii, 22; 2 Kings vi, 18;
compare Deut. xxviii, 28). Of the
people—Better, R. V., “peoples.”
Meanwhile Jerusalem will be safe. I
will open mine eyes—In watchful
care, so that no harm can come near
(1 Kings vii, 29; Psa. xxxii, 8). The
house of Judah—Jerusalem and Judah.
Marti omits the last clause, as also
verse 5, and reads following ‘‘the
house of Judah” verse 6. In this way
he gets rid of several troublesome
clauses, while at the same time the
thought connection is improved; but
in the absence of all external evidence
CHAPTER XII

671

 

5 And the governors of Judah shall
say in their heart, *The inhabitants
of Jerusalem shall be my strength in
the Lorp of hosts their God.

6 In that day wili I make the
governors of Judah *like an hearth
of fire among the wood, and like a
torch of fire in a sheaf; and they

shall devour all the people round
about, on the right hand and on the
left: and Jerusalem shall be inhab-
ited again in her own place, even in
Jerusalem. 7 The Lorp also shall
save the tents of Judah first, that
the glory of the house of David and
the glory of the inhabitants of Jeru-

 

3 Or, There is strength to me and to the

inhabitants, etc., Joel 3. 16.—s£ Obad. 18.

 

many will hesitate to accept the sug-
gestion. To make the reading smooth-
er he omits also verses 7, 8.

As verse 5 stands now it seems to
describe the effect produced upon the
inhabitants of Judah by the divine
manifestation against the enemies.
They will be inspired with new
hope and courage. Governors—R. V.,
“chieftains.” See on ix, 7. Here as
there it seems to denote the divisions
rather than the leaders. The in-
habitants of Jerusalem shall be my
strength in Jehovah of hosts their God
—Jehovah has chosen Jerusalem as
his dwelling place, hence he cannot
permit the hostile nations to occupy
it; to prevent its capture he strength-
ens the inhabitants so that they may
drive off the enemy. The inhabitants
of the country regions know that
Jerusalem is closely united with the
rest of Judah, therefore any assist-
ance given to Jerusalem is assist-
ance given to all Judah. In these
thoughts the divisions of Judah
find their strength and inspiration.
The Hebrew is peculiar. A very
slight change would give, “Strength
is to the inhabitants of Jerusalem in
Jehovah of hosts, their God’; and
this is preferable.

6. Jehovah will use the forces of
Judah to complete the defeat of the
nations. Governors—As in verse 5.
Like an hearth—Better, R. V., “like a
pan.” Judah will utterly destroy the
hostile nations as fire devours wood
or dry sheaves. Jerusalem shall be
inhabited again—R. V., more literally,
“shall yet again dwell in their own
place.” If the last clause, “even in
Jerusalem,” is original, the name is
used first of the inhabitants, then of

 

the city. The inhabitants shall again
dwell in the city. Since there is no
reference to a deportation some have
taken dwell as equivalent to dwell in
peace. After the enemies are defeated
the inhabitants of Jerusalem shall
again dwell in peace. In several im-
portant manuscripts of LXX. “even
in Jerusalem” is omitted; it may be an
accidental repetition. If it is omitted
the thought is that Jerusalem will
remain unshaken by any of the events
just described.

7. Jehovah also shall save the tents
of Judah first—Though the open
country is not defended by strong
walls, though its villages may be
likened to defenseless tents, the out-
burst of courage to which attention
is called in verses 5, 6 will result in the
freeing of the country from enemies,
even before the mighty city is de-
livered. And this is in accord with
the divine purpose, for it will prevent
boasting on the part of the city over
the country. There may have been
at this time a tendency among the
inhabitants of the capital to despise
the country population; if so, this
utterance may be meant to counter-
act this tendency. Instead of first
some Hebrew manuscripts and the
most important ancient versions read
‘tas in former days,” which presuppos-
es a change of only one consonant. If
this reading is adopted the verse
affirms that the deliverance of the
future will resemble the wonderful de-
liverances of the past. The house of
David—A phrase used ordinarily to
denote the dynasty of David. If so
here, it points to a time when a descen-
dant of David occupied a position of
prominence in the government. How-
672

ZECHARIAH.

 

salem do not magnify themselves
against Judah. 8 In that day shall
the Lorp defend the inhabitants of
Jerusalem; and "he that is 4 ‘feeble
among them at that day shall be as
David; and the house of David shall

be as God, as the angel of the Lorp
before them. “

9 And it shall come to pass in that
day, that I will seek to idestroy all
the nations that come against Jeru-
salem. 10 «And I will pour upon

 

h Joel 3. 10.—+4Or, abject.— 5 Heb.

fallen.

ever, it is not impossible that the
phrase is used in the more general
sense of ruling family or government.
Glory—The martial glory bestowed
upon the victor.

8. In that day—When Jerusalem is
made a cup of reeling (verse 2). De-
fend the inhabitants of Jerusalem—
Though Judah will be saved first,
Jerusalem also will be delivered; not
through the direct interference of
Jehovah alone (4), nor through the
bravery of Judah (6), but through the
efforts of her own inhabitants, who
will be endowed with marvelous
strength which will make them irre-
sistible. He that is feeble—Literally,
he that stumbleth; one who is unable
to stand without assistance (1 Sam.
ji, 4). As David—The typical hero of
Israel (1 Sam. xvii, 34ff.; compare
Psa. xviii, 32ff.). The feeble in Jeru-
salem will become like him. House
of David—As in verse 7. Here it
may include all leaders who in strength
and courage resemble. David, the
Davids. As God—These heroes will
be endowed with supernatural
strength and power; there is -no
thought of moral excellence. As the
angel of. Jehovah before them—The
angel of Jehovah is Jehovah manifest-
ing himself in the history of Israel
(see on i, 11), especially in leading the
armies to victory, when their own
strength would fail (Exod. xxiii, 20ff.;
Judg. vi, 11ff.). This angel possessed
superhuman strength, for he could ac-
complish that which without him the
whole nation could not do. With
similar superhuman power the present
chieftains will be endowed.

9. While Jehovah thus equips the
inhabitants of Jerusalem for the con-
flict, his wrath is turned against the
nations that plan to attack the city.

 

i Verse 8; Hag. 2. 22.—-k Jer. 31. 9;
50. 4; Ezek. 39. 29; Joel 2. 28.

I will seek to destroy—In itself the
expression does not assure the ful-
fillment of the divine purpose (com-
pare Exod. iv, 24), but in this case
the context makes it plain that Je-
hovah is determined to carry out his
purpose.

Penitential mourning and supplica-
tion, 10-14.

The blessings vouchsafed in verses
1-9 are purely temporal and physical;
but with few exceptions the Messianic
anticipations of the prophets include
spiritual blessings (compare Hos. xiv,
1-3; Joel ii, 27ff.; Isa. iv, 5, 6). Zecha-
riah is no exception to this rule. He
also is convinced that the physical
victory will be followed by the out-
pouring of rich spiritual gifts. The
fullness of the latter is not touched
upon until xii, 1ff., but the “spirit of
grace and supplication” (verse 10) is
one of them. Chapter xii, 10-14,
speaks of the preparation of the people
for the divine fullness. Like Hosea,
our prophet emphasizes repentance as
a condition of complete restoration to
the favor of God, and of the enjoy-
ment of the spiritual blessings (see
p. 605). When the people become
fully conscious of the depth of the
divine mercy manifesting itself in the
wonderful deliverance described in
verses 1-9, they will be seized by a
heartfelt sorrow for past sins, and in
deep humility they will prostrate
themselves before Jehovah.

10. The spirit of grace and of sup-
plications—See on Joel ii, 28. Grace
is, as in many other passages in the
Old Testament, the favor shown by
Jehovah toward his people (compare
iv, 7). In this passage it is thought
of as active within man, making him
conscious of wrongdoing and leading
CHAPTER XII.

673

 

the house of David, and upon the
inhabitants of Jerusalem, the spirit
of grace and of supplications: and
they shall ‘look upon me whom
they have pierced, and they shall
mourn for him, ™as one mourneth

for his only son, and shall be in
bitterness for him, as one that is in
bitterness for his firstborn. 11 In
that day shall there be a great
»mourning in Jerusalem, cas . the
mourning of Hadadrimmon in the

 

1 John 19. 34, 37; Rev. 1. 7.—-™ Jer. 6.
26; Amos 8. 10.

n Acis 2. 37,—-° 2 Kings 23.

29;
2 Chron. 35, 24.

 

him to make supplication for mercy
and pardon (compare Rom. ii, 4, “the
goodness of God leadeth thee to re-
pentance’’). The house of David, ...
the inhabitants of Jerusalem—The
former as in verse 7; the latter may
represent the population of the whole
land, for the spiritual blessings are
surely not to be limited to the in-
habitants of the capital. The entire
nation, from the rulers down, shall
turn in humble penitence to Jehovah,
and then they shall become partakers
of the spiritual gifts (compare xiii, 1).
They shall look upon me whom they
have pierced—The speaker is Jehovah;
the subject of look and have pierced is
the house of David and the inhabitants
of Jerusalem; me can refer only to
Jehovah, whom they have pierced
(metaphorically) by their cruel re-
bellion. The look is one of contrition.
Mourn for him—The pronoun can re-
fer only to some representative of Je-
hovah whom they rejected. ‘The
prophet may have pictured to him-
self the man of God, whom he leaves
mysteriously indefinite, as a pro-
phetic national leader, who incurs at
the hands of princes and people the
fate prepared, according to tradition,
by Manasseh for Isaiah, by Jehoiakim
for Uriah (Jer. xxvi, 20ff.), and by
several rulers almost for Jeremiah.”
Some interpret him as réferring to
Jehovah himself—for me. If so, the
change from the first to the third per-
son must be explained by the tend-
ency, which is common in prophetic
discourse, not to distinguish clearly
between Jehovah and his represent-
ative (compare introductory remarks
to xi, 4-14). The thought might be
expressed more clearly in a paraphrase,
“They shall look unto me whom they
pierced in the person of my repre-

 

sentative, and they shall mourn for
him whom they thus cruelly rejected.”
There may be an allusion to the fate
of the good shepherd whom the people
rejected (compare xi, 4-14). On the
other hand, some see in the representa-
tive of Jehovah the good high priest
Onias III, who was deposed in 175
and slain in 170 (2 Mace. iv, 27-34).
In John xix, 37, this passage is applied
to Jesus (see Introduction p. 603f).
Some Hebrew manuscripts and some
manuscripts of LXX. read unto him
instead of upon me, R. V. unto me, and
some modern commentators consider
it the original. However, it seems
preferable to retain the present He-
brew text; the change into him is prob-
ably due to the desire of a pious Jew
to remove a reading which he con-
sidered offensive, because it made God
himself the object of a murderous
attack. The rest of the verse indi-
cates the bitterness of the grief (see
on Amos viii, 10).

Verses 11-14 continue the descrip-
tion of the intensity and universality
of the lamentation. 11, Hadadrim-
mon in the valley of Megiddon—This
expression has received many differ-
ent interpretations; even the ancient
versions differ from one another. At
present two views stand out most
prominently: (1) The Plain of Me-
giddo was the scene of one of the most
disastrous events in Hebrew history,
the fatal wounding of King Josiah
(2 Kings xxiii, 29, 30; 2 Chron. xxxv,
20ff.). For many years a public lam-
entation was held in commemora-
tion of the death of this king (2 Chron.
xxxv, 25; compare Jer. xxii, 10);
and it is with this mourning over the
death of Josiah that the mourning
mentioned here is connected by many.
Hadadrimmon is then unerstood as
674

valley of Megiddon. 12 ?And the
land shall mourn, every family
apart; the family of the house of
David apart, and their wives apart;
the family of the house of «Nathan
apart, and their wives apart; 13 The

P Matt. 24. 30; Rev. 1. 7.—-® Heb. fam-
iltes, families.

the place where Josiah fell. To this
interpretation it has been objected
that the mourning for Josiah took
place in Jerusalem, not at the place of
his death. The force of this objection
is recognized by many, hence they
understand the reference not of the
public mourning but of the lamenta~-
tion which arose as soon as the news
of Josiah’s fatal injury spread. An-
other difficulty is presented by the
name Hadadrimmon, for no place bear-
ing that name has yet been found,
though it has been identified with the
small village Rummdneh, near Megid-
do. (2) Some commentators connect
the phrase with the weeping for Tam-
muz (Ezek. viii, 14), who is identical
with the Phoenician deity Adonis.
The name Hadadrimmon consists of
two elements, both names of the
storm god, who is thought to be the
same as Tammuz-Adonis. That it was
customary to hold mournings for the
latter is proven by the passage in
Ezekiel, but the identification of
Hadadrimmon with Adonis is by no
means certain; besides, it is exceeding-
ly doubtful that a prophet or any
other devout Israelite would illus-
trate the depth of repentance and sor-
row by a reference to an abominable
heathen practice. Targum identifies
Hadadrimmon with the slayer of King
Ahab (1 Kings xxii, 34ff.), but this
identification also is improbable;
therefore the most probable view is
still that which connects the passage
with the lamentation for Josiah upon
the battlefield, immediately after his
fatal wounding.

Verses 12-14 describe the univer-
sality of the lamentation. All parts
of the community will participate, and
all will weep as over the loss of a
loved one. Their wives apart—The

 

ZECHARIAH.

family of the house of Levi apart,
and their wives pee the family 7of
Shimei apart, and their wives apart;
14 All the families that remain,
every family apart, and their wives
apart. E

a2 Sam. 5. 14; Luke 3. 31.—7 Or,
of Simeon, as LXX.

men were the moving spirits in the
rejection of the representative of Je-
hovah, but the women will feel them-
selves involved in the guilt. For the
separation of the sexes compare Exod.
xv, 20. Fammily—Is used here not
in the narrow sense in which we are
accustomed to use the term, but in
the wider sense of clan or tribe. The
community is made up of w great
number of such; of these four repre-
sentative families are named; the oth-
ers are included in “all the families
that remain” (verse 14). David...
Nathan ... Levi . . . Shimei—The last
is literally “the Shimeites.” Jerome re-
produces the rabbinical interpretation
of these names thus: ‘In David the
regal tribe is included, that is, Judah;
in Nathan the prophetic order is de-
scribed. Levi refers to the priests,
for from him sprang the priesthood.
In Simeon the teachers are included,
as the companies of masters sprang
from that tribe. He says nothing
about the other tribes, as they had
no special privilege or dignity.” So
far as Simeon is concerned, the ex-
planation breaks down, for Shimeites
has no connection with Simeon; it is
rather the patronymic of Shimei.
Only two of the groups named can be
determined with certainty. House of
David means the successors of David,
that is, the civil rulers (see on verse
7); house of Levi represents the priest-
hood, the ecclesiastical rulers. The
two are mentioned to indicate that
even the most prominent in the com-
munity will join in the mourning.
Nathan might be the well-known
prophet bearing that name (2 Sam.
vii, 2); if so, house of Nathan would
denote the prophetic order. In view
of xiii, 2ff., this interpretation is im-
probable; besides, the use of house im-
CHAPTER NII.

675

 

CHAPTER XIII.
N +that day there shall be ’a foun-
tain opened to the house of Da-
vid and to the inhabitants of Je-
rusalem for sin and for !unclean-
ness.

2 And it shall come to pass in that
day, saith the Lorp of hosts, that I
will cut off the names of the idols
out of the land, and they shall no
more be remembered: and also I will
cause ‘the prophets and the unclean

 

4 Chap. 12. 3.—» Heb. 9. 14; 1.Pet. 1.
19; Rev. 1. 5.——! Heb. separation for un-
cleanness.

ce Exod. 23. 13; Josh. 23. 7; Psa. 16. 4;
Ezek. 30. 13; Hos. 2. 17; Mic. 5. 12, 18.—
42 Pet. 2. 1.

 

plied in the interpretation would not
be in accord with its use in the other
expressions. Perhaps it is better to
see here a reference to Nathan, the
son of David (2 Sam. v, 14; Luke iii,
31); if so, house of Nathan denotes the
descendants of this son of David. If
this is the correct interpretation, then
it becomes quite probable that the
other name denotes a branch of the
family of Levi, namely, Shimei, the
grandson of Levi (Num. iii, 17ff.);
the Shimeites are the descendants of
this Shimei. Why these two unim-
portant families should be singled out
and placed alongside of the chief repre-
sentatives we do not know; it may
be simply to indicate that the families
of prominence as well as those living
in obscurity will participate in the
mourning.

CHAPTER XIII.

PURIFICATION OF JERUSALEM; RE-
MovAL oF ALL HINDRANCES TO
Direct CoMMUNION WITH JEHO-
vau, 1-6.

The penitential mourning and sup-
plication will not bein vain. Jehovah
will be merciful, remove all sin, and
bring about a complete moral trans-
formation in the inhabitants of Jerusa-
lem. Intimate fellowship with Je-
hovah will be restored, and every-
thing that in any way might hinder
direct communion will be swept away.

1. In that day—When the mourning
described in xii, 10-14, will be held.
Shall be a fountain opened—Chapter
xii, 10, ascribes the penitential mourn-
ing to the influence of a divinely sent
spirit, which creates repentance for sin
and leads the people to make peni-
tential supplication; but Jehovah will

 

provide also the means of purification.
The figure is adopted in part from the
“water of expiation’’ (Num. viii, 7),
and in part from the “water of im-
purity” (Num. xix, 9; compare Ezek.
xxxvi, 25; Psa. li, 9). The water is
only the symbol, the power that will
remove the sin is divine. To the
house of David and to the inhabitants
of Jerusalem—See on xii, 10. High
and low will be benefited by the pro-
vision. Sin . . . uncleanness—It is
doubtful that the prophet means to
distinguish here between inward sin
and outward uncleanness which re-
sults from the former. The two terms
are practically identical in meaning.
Every kind of sin and uncleanness
will be washed away. 2. The names
of the idols—See on Hos. ii, 17. Idol-
atry will be blotted out so completely
that even the names of the idols will
be forgotten. The prophets—Since
they are to be removed, the author
evidently thinks that in the new era
they will prove a hindrance. Since
the prophet played a very prominent
part throughout the entire religious
history of Israel, many hesitate to be-
lieve that this passage means to an-
nounce a complete cessation of all
prophetic activity, and they see here
only a condemnation of the so-called
false prophets (see on Mic. iii, 7);
for this view they find support in the
fact that the prophets are mentioned
here in close connection with idols
and with the unclean spirit. But this
fact by no means proves the point;
at the most it proves that all prophecy
deserves to be abolished like idols.
The entire context makes it exceed-
ingly probable that the prophet
means to announce the removal of the
entire prophetic order. This an-
676

ZECHARIAH.

 

spirit to pass out of the land. 3 And
it shall come to pass, that when any
shall yet prophesy, then his father
and his mother that begat him shall
say unto him, Thou shalt not live;
for thou speakest lies in the name
of the Lorp: and his father and his
mother that begat him shall thrust

him through when he prophesieth.
4 And it shall come to pass in that
day, that ‘the prophets shall be
ashamed every one of his vision,
when he hath prophesied; neither
shall they wear «= 2a rough garment
3to deceive: 5 But he shall say,
I am no prophet, I am an husband-

 

© Deut. 13. 6, 8; 18. 20.—* Mic. 3. 6, 7.
—-« 2 Kings 1. 8; Isa. 20. 2; Matt. 3. 4.

2 Heb. a garment of hair. Heb. to
lie-——-h Amos 7. 14.

 

nouncement might be made for one or
the other of two reasons, either the
entire prophetic order was expected to
becomeso corrupt that it would need to
be cut off, or the people as a whole were
expected toreach such a perfect knowl-
edge of Jehovah that the prophetic
order would be no longer needed. That
the author has in mind the prophetic
order, and not individuals who might
possess a prophetic experience, is clear
from verses 4, 5. There is no reason
to suppose that as long as prophecy
existed the entire prophetic order
became corrupt or was expected to
become corrupt; at any rate, the utter-
ances of the author of this section
prove that in his days there were
still men with sublime spiritual vi-
sions. On the other hand, Joel ii, 28-
30 (compare Jer. xxxi, 34), expresses
the expectation that in the Messianic
age all flesh would have prophetic ex-
periences, so that there would be no
need of a distinct prophetic order.
This hope of Joel, far from contra-
dicting the teaching of this passage,
interprets it. When all the people
are blessed with prophetic visions
there will be no need of a prophetic
order, hence it will be removed. Un-
clean spirit—Literally, the spirit of
uncleanness; that is, the spirit, or
invisible inner power, which leads to
unclean actions (see on Joel ii, 28;
compare | Kings xxii, 22).

With verse 3 may be compared
Deut. xviii, 20, where the death sen-
tence is pronounced upon the prophet
who claims to speak in the name of
Jehovah when in reality he utters his
own words. Father ... mother—In
that age the obligations to Jehovah
will be more sacred than those arising

 

from the most intimate blood relation-
ship. Speakest lies . . . prophesieth—
If in that age anyone claims special
prophetic gifts, that claim itself proves
him to be a liar and impostor, and so
worthy of death. Thrust him through
—Bring to a violent death (compare
xii, 10).

4. In that day—When all are proph-
ets. The prophets—Those who until
then were members of the prophetic
order. Shall be ashamed every one
of his vision—A twofold interpretation
is possible; either, they will be put to
shame because their visions remain
unfulfilled (compare Isa. i, 29), or they
will be so ashamed of their office that
they will withdraw from it. The
latter is to be preferred. When he
hath prophesied—Better, when he
would prophesy; when the suggestion
comes to continue his former activity.
Neither shall they wear a rough gar-
ment—R. V., “hairy mantle.” Such
mantle was worn by Elijah (2 Kings
i, 8) and by John the Baptist (Matt.
iil, 4); it may be that this was the
conventional garb of the professional
prophet; this they will discard. To
deceive—Any teaching given under
the guise of prophecy will be de-
ception, since the era of the prophet
as a special teacher has passed.

Verses 5, 6 indicate with what ve-
hemence everyone will deny that he
isa prophet He shall say—The sub-
ject is not everyone of verse 4, but the
indefinite one, “one shall say’=it
shall be said (G.-K., 144d), not neces-
sarily by one who has been a prophet,
for in sucha, case the statement would
be an untruth, but by anyone who is
suspected of claiming (compare verse
6) to be a prophet. Iam no prophet—
CHAPTER XIII.

677

 

man; for man taught me to keep
cattle from my youth. 6 And one
shall say unto him, What are these

wounds in thine hands? Then he
shall answer, Those with which I was
wounded in the house of my friends.

 

Compare Amos vii, 14; but here the
denial is made for another reason; the
speaker disclaims any and all connec-
tion with the prophetic office. Man
taught me tokeep cattle from my
youth—Better, R. V., “I have been
made a bondman from my youth.”
This answer need not be considered
an untruth; and yet it receives addi-
tional force if we suppose that the
prophet means to teach that in that
day a person would rather assume the
most despicable position, that of a
slave, than be suspected of being a
prophet. The reply proves unsatis-
factory, and in verse 6 the inquirer
is represented as continuing the ques-
tioning. What are these wounds in
thine hands?—R. V., ‘‘between thine
arms.” The suspicion seems to have
been aroused in this case by the pres-
ence of wounds on the body of the
suspect The last three words have
been variously interpreted, as refer-
ring to wounds on the palms of the
hands, or on the arms, or between the
arms, that is, on the breast. The
last seems the most probable (com-
pare 2 Kings ix, 24); but the place of
the wound is not essential. The
nature of the wounds is not certain;
they cannot be connected with verse
3; the questioner, connecting them,
apparently, with the custom described
in 1 Kings xviii, 28 (compare Deut.
xiv, 1; Jer. xvi, 6), seems to consider
them marks of devotion, self-inflicted
in the pursuit of the prophetic office,
perhaps in order to create prophetic
ecstasy; but this does not imply that
he considered the person addressed
a heathen or a false prophet, as dis-
tinguished from a true prophet. In
reply the suspect insists that the
wounds have nothing whatever to
do with the prophetic office. I
was wounded in the house of my
friends—The last word, literally, lov-
ers, or paramours, is often used of
idols (compare Hos. ii, 7, 10), and
some give to it that meaning in this

 

passage. If this is correct the reply
contains an admission that at one
time the speaker had taken part in
idolatrous practices; but even then
the form of the verb excludes the idea
of self-mutilation. The context fa-
vors another interpretation, namely,
to take lovers or friends literally, but
not of the speaker’s parents, for in
verse 5 he states that he has been a
bondman from his youth, and the
word here is used only of fresh wounds,
so that the reference cannot be to
punishment received in childhood.
He means rather that he received the
wounds in a “common brawl’ in the
house of his friends. The willingness
with which he makes the admission
indicates how anxious he is to re-
move all suspicion that he is in
any way connected with the prophetic
office.

Fate or THE Foouish SHEPHERD
* AND His Fock, 7-9.

These verses appear to stand by
themselves; it is exceedingly difficult
to establish a connection with xiii, 1-6,
or with chapter xiv. Therefore most
recent commentators believe that the
verses have been accidentally trans-
posed from their original context; they
place them after xi, 17, and interpret
them as an announcement of judg-
ment upon the foolish shepherd (xi,
15) and his flock—upon the latter be-
cause it rejected the good shepherd.
The transposition is not supported by
any external evidence, but even the
English reader can see that xiii, 7-9,
is a more suitable continuation of xi,
17, than of xiii, 6, and this conviction
grows as one studies the attempts to

justify the present position. A com-
parison of xi, 16+xiii, 7, with
Ezek. xxxiv, 4, 5, leads to the

same conclusion, which may be ac-
cepted as ccrrect.

7. Jehovah is the speaker, who
summons the sword (xi, 17) to awake
and smite the foolish shepherd (xi,
678

ZECHARIAH.

 

7 Awake, O sword, against imy
shepherd, and against the man ‘that
zis my fellow, saith the Lorp of
hosts: smite the shepherd, and the
sheep shall be scattered: and I will
turn mine hand upon “the little
ones. 8 And it shall come to pass,
that in all the land, saith the Lorp
two parts therein shall be cut off an

die; "but the third shall be left there-

in. 9 And I will bring the third -
part °through the fire,and will Prefine

them as silver is refined, and will

try them as gold is tried: athey shall

call on my name, and I will hear

them: ‘I will say, It is my people:

and they shall say, The LorD is

my God.

 

ilsa. 40. 11; Ezek. 34. 23.—k John

 

a Psa. 50. 15; 91.

 

10.—P 1 Pet. 1. 6, 7.

 

 

10. 30; 14. 10, 11; Phil. 2. 6.——! Matt. 26.| 15; chap. 10. 6. t Psa. 144. 15; Jer.
81; Mark 14. 27.—-—™ Matt. 18. 10,14; | 30. 22; Ezek. 11. 20; Hos. 2, 238; chap.
Luke 12. 32. Rom. 11. 5.—-° Isa. 48. | 8. 8.

15). My shepherd—The foolish shep- | iv, 4; compare Isa. i, 25ff.). The puri-
herd may be called the shepherd of | fication accomplished, the purified

Jehovah, because he was appointed
by him. Those who retain the verses
in their present position connect the
phrase with him of xii, 10 (see there),
but the other interpretation is pref-
erable. The man that is my fellow—
The expression of intimacy is not
strange, if the foolish shepherd was a
high priest (see on xi, 15), for as such
he would stand in a peculiarly close
relation to Jehovah (compare iii, 7);
and this would also be true if he was
not an ecclesiastical but a civil ruler.
The foolish shepherd will be punished
because he ill-treated the flock, and
the flock will suffer because it rejected
the good shepherd (xi, 4-14). Shall
be scattered—Because they will be
without a shepherd (compare Nah.
iii, 18). I will turn mine hand upon
the little ones—Better, against; for
this is not a promise of help but the
continuation of the threat. Little ones
refers not to the shepherd boys, but
to the lambs; the provocation has
been so great that he cannot spare
even the young of the flock (com-
pare Isa. ix, 17).

Verses 8, 9 expand the announce-
ment of verse 7. In the judgment to
come two parts of the flock shall be
cut off; only one part shall escape;
but even this third part is not ready
to enjoy the presence and favor of
Jehovah; it needs purification (com-
pare Jer. ix, 7; Isa. vi, 13). Fire—
Since fire is used for the purification
of metals, it becomes a symbol. of
every means of purification, in this
case of affliction and judgment (Isa,

 

remnant (see on Amos v, 15) will
enjoy closest fellowship with Jehovah.
I will hear them—When they pray
(compare Psa. 1, 15; xxxiv, 15-17).
For the rest of the verse see on Hos.

ii, 23.
CHAPTER XIV.

FinaLt Conriict AND TRIUMPH OF
JERUSALEM, 1-21.

Chapter xiv is an independent
piece. The struggle depicted in the
first few verses is not the one described
in xii, 1-9; nor can these verses be
considered “a further expansion of the
summary announcement of the judg-
ment upon Israel, and its refinement
(xiii, 7-9).” The prophet beholds a
new conflict between Jerusalem and
the nations. In xii, 1-9, the enemies
are described as smitten before they
are able to capture the city; here the
announcement is that “the city shall
be taken, and the houses rifled, and the
women ravished, and half of the city
shall go forth into captivity.” Only
then will Jehovah appear for the
salvation of a remnant and for the
setting up of his kingdom (1-7). From
Jerusalem, the dwelling place of Je-
hovah, two streams of living water
will go forth covering the whole land
with blessing and fertility (8-11). The
nations that have come to war against
Jerusalem will be destroyed, and their
wealth will be given to the Jews (12-
15). Those who escape will turn to
Jehovah in true worship; those who
refuse to do so will be smitten with
drought (16-19). Jerusalem and Ju-
CHAPTER XIV.

679

 

CHAPTER XIV.

EHOLD, «the day of the Lorp
cometh, and thy spoil shall be
divided in the midst of thee. 2 For
‘I will gather all nations against Je-
rusalem to battle; and the city shall
be taken, and cthe houses rifled, and
the women ravished; and half of the
city shall go forth into captivity,
and the residue of the people shall
not be cut off from the city. 3 Then

shall the Lorp go forth, and fight
against those nations, as when he
fought in the day of battle.

4 And his feet shall stand in that
day ‘upon the mount of Olives,
which ts before Jerusalem on the
east, and the mount of Olives shall
cleave in the midst thereof toward
the east-and toward the west, «and
there shall be avery great valley; and
half of the mountain shall remove to-

 

= Tsa. 13. 9; Joel 2. 31; Acts 2, 20.—-——
b Joel 3. 2.

¢ Isa, 13. 16.—4 See Ezek. 11.
e Joel 3. 12, 14.

23.—

 

dah and all that is in them will be holy
unto Jehovah (20, 21).

Capture and deliverance of Jerusalem,

1. Behold, . . . cometh—Better, Be-
hold, . . . is about to come. The com-
ing is imminent (G.-K., 116p). Day
of Jehovah—Literally, a day is about
to come for Jehovah. The day is the
day of Jehovah mentioned so fre-
quently by the prophets (see on Joel
i, 15). In 1b Jerusalem is addressed.
The prophet does not stop to describe
the struggle; he passes immediately
to the outcome and states that the
city will be taken and plundered. In
the midst of thee—Indicates the com-
pleteness of the defeat; the enemy will
gain complete possession of the city.

In verse 2, which is omitted by |

some as a later expansion of verse 1,
the prophet pictures the struggle in
greater detail. I will gather all na-
tions—The rest of the verse would
seem to indicate that Jehovah sends
them to execute judgment upon the
city (compare Isa. x, 5, 6; not so in
Joel iii, 2, 9-11; Ezek. xxxviii, 39).
The city will be taken, and the con-
querors will spare nothing. The
women ravished—A practice not un-
common in ancient warfare (see on
Amos vii, 17; Joel iii, 3). Half—In a
general sense—a portion. One por-
tion will be carried into exile, the
other will be allowed to remain in the
city (compare xiii, 8).

3 Then—When the conflict will
have reached this stage Jehovah will
interfere. Shall Jehovah go forth—

 

To fight and destroy the nations.
Why he will do this after commission-
ing them to execute judgment upon
the city is not stated. It may be be-
cause they will go beyond their com-
mission (compare Isa. x, 7). As when
he fought in the day of battle—Refers
to all the occasions in the past when
Jehovah fought for Israel (Josh. x, 14,
42; xxiii, 3; Judg. iv, 15, etc.). These
acts of the past will be repeated.

4. He will appear as a warrior.
The mount of Olives—Since Jerusalem
is in the hands of the hostile nations
Jehovah cannot be represented as
coming from Mount Zion (compare
Amos i, 2); he will come from his
heavenly dwelling place (Joel iii, 16),
and take his stand upon the mountain
east of the city, whence he can get a
good view of the scene of conflict.
The term mount of Olives occurs only
here in the Old Testament, though the
mountain itself is spoken of several
times (see Hastings’s Dictionary of the
Bible, article “Mount of Olives’). To
accomplish the deliverance of the rem-
nant Jehovah must employ super-
natural powers. Shall cleave—R. V.,
“shall be cleft.” As soon as Jehovah
steps upon it, for before him the whole
earth trembles (Exod. xix, 18; Judg.
v, 5; Hab. iii, 5ff.). It will cleave
from east to west; as a result the
northern and southern portions will
be separated, and when they recede,
the one to the north, the other to the
south, a great valley is formed between
which will serve as a place of refuge
for the remnant that is still in the
city. It need hardly be stated that
680

ZECHARIAH.

 

ward the north, and half of it to-
ward the south. 5 And ye shall
flee to the valley of 1the mountains;
2for the valley of the mountains
shall reach unto Azal: yea, ye shall

1Or, my mountains.—-—? Or, when he
shall touch the valley of the mountains to
the place he separated.

flee, like as ye fled from before the
‘earthquake in the days of Uzziah
king of Judah: sand the LoRD my
God shall come, and *all the saints
with thee. 6 And it shall come to

f Amos 1. 1.—~e Matt, 16, 27; 24. 30,
31; 25. 31; Jude 14.——) Joel 13. 11.

 

the whole description is figurative, and
that it was never intended to be under-
stood literally.

The translation and interpretation
of verse 5 are uncertain, and it is not
improbable that the text has suffered.
Ye shall flee—This is the reading of
the text in the common Hebrew
Bibles. The eastern Masorites and
some of the ancient versions favor the
reading of margin R. V., “the valley
of my mountains shall be stopped.”
The Greek versions read a form of
stop in all three places where the
English has a form of flee; support for
this reading is found also in Josephus
(Antiquities, ix, 10, 4). What the
meaning of this reading would be is
not quite certain; it may be that at a
given place the valley comes to an end.
The common reading is very appropri-
ate. In the day when Jehovah ap-
pears the survivors will flee to the
valley (verse 4) prepared as a place of
refuge. The valley of the mountains
—Literally. of my mountains. This
must be the valley of verse 4. The
mountains are called by Jehovah my
mountains because he made them by
stepping upon the Mount of Olives
(verse 4). In the second clause also
we should read, perhaps, ‘my moun-
tains.” Azal—An obscure word. It
is not even certain whether or not it
isa proper name. If it is it must be
a place name, which may be identical
with Beth-ezel (Mic. i, 11), whose lo-
cation is not known. According to
Cyril it is a village to the east of Mount
Olives, but his statement is based upon
mere hearsay. It would have to be
sought some distance from Jerusalem,
for the purpose of the prophet seems
to be to indicate the great extent of
the valley; it will be large enough to
accommodate all. The flight of the

 

people will be like their flight, or
rather like the flight of their ancestors,
on the occasion of a terrible earth-
quake. The point of comparison is
the swiftness and anxiety with which
they will seek a place of refuge. In
the days of Uzziah—See p. 195.
This earthquake is mentioned again in
Amos i, 1, but nothing more is known
concerning it. It must have been a
serious calamity, else the memory of
it would not have remained alive for
so many centuries.

The transition to the last part of
verse 5 is somewhat abrupt. It gives
the full reason for Jehovah’s coming.
To fight against the nations is only
one reason; his ultimate purpose is to
establish his kingdom upon earth
with Jerusalem as the center. When
he comes he will be accompanied by
his heavenly attendants. All the
saints—Literally, and R. V., “all the
holy ones”—the heavenly host, the
angels, who will assist Jehovah in the
struggle against the nations (Deut.
xxxili, 2; Job v, 1). With thee—
LXX. and Peshitto read “with him,”
which is probably original.

Verses 6, 7 are not the continuation
of verses 1-5, they are rather parallel
to them. They describe in apocalyp-
tic imagery the struggle that is pic-
tured in 1-5. R. V. reads verse 6,
“And it shall come to pass in that day,
that there shall not be light; the
bright ones shall withdraw them-
selves.” With the present Hebrew
text the translation of R. V. is to be
preferred. The day on which Je
hovah will make his appearance will
be a dismal and dreary day (see on
Joel ii, 2, 31; iii, 15; compare Isa. xiii,
10; Ezek. xxxii, 7, 8; Matt. xxiv, 29 .
Rev. vi, 12). There will be no light,
because the heavenly lights will van-
CHAPTER XIV.

681

 

pass in that day *that the light shall
not be ‘clear, nor ‘dark: 7 But ‘it
shall be ione day *which shall be
known to the Lorn, not day, nor
night: but it shall come to pass,
that at ee time it shall be tant.
8 And it shall be in that day, that
living "waters shall go out from Je-

rusalem; half of them toward the
‘former sea, and half of them to-
ward the hinder sea: in summer and
in winter shall it be. 9 And the
Lorp shall be "king over all the
earth: in that day shall there be cone

 

34. e. it shall not be clear in some
places and dark in other places of the
world.—+ Heb. prectous.——5 Heb. thtck-
ness.—-8 Or, the day shall be one.—i Rev.
22. 5.—k Matt. 24. 36.—-1 Isa. 30. 26; 60.

Lorp, and his name one. 10 All
the land shall be sturned vas a plain
28) ne eee 21, 23,» Ezek. 47. 1; Joel

Rev. 22. 1.—7 Or, eastern, Ther 2.
20. pt Dan. 2. 44; Rev. 5.—
en: 4. 5, 6.—8 Or, compassed.— Isa.

 

ish. The bright ones (R. V.)—The
lights of Gen. i, 14-18. Withdraw
themselves (R. V.)—They draw in
their brightness (Joel ii, 10; iii, 15).

7. The result is not absolute dark-
ness, but the deep gloom of a cloudy
day. One day—A unique, unparal-
leled day, well known to Jehovah.
Not day, nor night—Unbroken dismal
gloom, as if light and darkness were
struggling for supremacy with one
another; however, darkness shall
not prevail. At evening time it shall
be light—‘‘The new creation shall be
ushered in, as the first was, by a day
of lurid gloom and darkness visible,
which shall not, however, deepen into
night, but brighten at its close into
the everlasting dawn.”

This interpretation is based upon
the assumption that the present He-
brew text of verses 6, 7 is substantial-
ly correct. Some consider the two
verses a continuation of verses 1-5,
describing the conditions that will
prevail after the divine interference;
but such interpretation demands sev-
eral emendations of the text. Marti,
for example, reads verses 6, 7 partly
on the basis of LXX., “Nor will there
be any heat and cold ‘and frost. And
it will be one continuous day, without
a change of day and of night; even
at evening time it will be day.”

Fertility and prosperity of the whole
land, 8-11.

8. When the kingdom of Jehovah
is established, with Jerusalem as the
center, the whole land will be blessed
with ‘ertility and prosperity. Living
waters—See on Joel iii, 18. A picture

 

of the powers producing extreme fer-
tility. Former sea, .. . hinder sea—
R. V., “eastern sea, ... western sea”
—the Dead Sea and the Mediterranean
(see on Joel ii, 20). The picture of
the water flowing in both directions is
meant to teach that the whole land
will be benefited. In summer and in
winter—Most rivers in Palestine con-
tain water only during the rainy sea-
son, from October until April; the
promised streams will be perennial;
they will retain their water and give
out fertility all the year round.

9. The temporal blessings will be
accompanied by spiritual gifts. Je-

| hovah shall be king—He will be ruler,

counselor, protector (see on Joel ii,
27; iii, 17). Over all the earth—The
context requires the translation ‘over
all the land,” that is, of Judah (com-
pare Zeph. i, 18; ii, 3). The extension
of Jehovah’s rule over the nations is
spoken of in verses 16ff. R. V. ren-
ders 9b, “in that day shall Jehovah
be one, and his name one,” which is
more accurate. Jehovah shall be one
(R. V.)—Throughout the entire land
he will be recognized as the one and
only God; idolatry will disappear
completely (xiii, 2; see on Joel ii, 27).
His name one—See on Amos ii, 7;
Mic. v, 4; Joel ii, 27. The manifold
activities of Jehovah will no longer
be ascribed to different deities (com-
pare xiii, 2), nor will any name but
his be used in worship.

10. The presence of Jehovah will
bring about a complete transforma-
tion of the land. As a plain—R. V.,
“like the Arabah.” The word may
be rendered as a proper name (R. V.;
682

ZECHARIAH.

 

from Geba to Rimmon south of
Jerusalem: and it shall be lifted up,
and 4 %inhabited in her poe from
Benjamin’s gate unto the place of
the first gate, unto the corner gate,

rand from the tower of Hananeel unto
the king’s winepresses. 11 And men
shall dwell in it, and there shall be
‘no more utter destruction; ‘but Je-
rusalem !ghall be safely inhabited.

 

a Chap. 12. 6.—9 Or, shall_ abide.
t Neh, 38. 1; 12. 39; Jer. 31. 38.

5 Jer. 31. t Jer. 23, 6.—10 Or,

shall abide.

40.

 

 

see on Amos vi, 14), or as a common
noun (A. V.). Probably the latter is
to be preferred here. The whole
country, with the exception of Jerusa-
lem, will be made into a level plain.
The Arabah is more than a thousand
feet below the sea level immediately
east of Jerusalem. The thought of
fertility does not seem to be implied;
as a matter of fact, the Arabah, with
the exception of a few isolated tracts,
is barren and unfruitful. The extent
of the district to be thus transformed
is indicated more definitely. From
Geba—TIn the tribe of Benjamin (Josh.
xvili, 24), now Jeba, about five miles
north of Jerusalem, at the time of
Josiah and perhaps throughout a long
period the northern boundary of
Judah (2 Kings xxiii, 8). Rimmon—
Distinguished by the addition “south
of Jerusalem” from a Rimmon in the
north (Josh. xix, 13). The one men-
tioned here marks the southern border
of Palestine (Josh, xv, 32; xix, 7);
now Umm-er-Rummanin; it is located
only a short distance north of Beer-
sheba (2 Kings xxiii, 8). While this
region, which is meant to include the
whole of Judah, is leveled to a plain,
Jerusalem will be elevated. Lifted up
—tThe city, which is built upon two
mountain spurs, will retain its eleva-
tion, or will be raised even higher
(see on Mic. iv, 1; compare Isa. ii, 2).
The exalted position will proclaim it
the center of the kingdom of God.
Shall be . . . inhabited in her place—
Better, R. V., “shall dwell in her
place”; that is, it will be established
forever. As of the land, so of the
city, its full extent is indicated. The
localities mentioned cannot all be
identified. Benjamin’s gate—May be
identical with gate of Ephraim (2 Kings
xiv, 13; Neh. viii, 16; xii, 39), in the

 

north wall of the city, through which
led the road to Ephraim and Benja-
min (compare Jer. xx, 2). The place
of the first gate—This gate is other-
wise unknown; some identify it with
the corner gate mentioned immediately
afterward; the latter is thought to
stand in apposition to the former for
the purpose of explaining an uncom-
mon designation. Thisisimprobable.
Others identify it with the old gate
(Neh. xii, 39), as marking the eastern
end of the north wall. Much uncer-
tainty remains. Corner gate—Men-
tioned again in 2 Kings xiv, 13; Jer.
xxxi, 38; it was located at the west end
of the northern wall. All three points
seem to indicate the northern boun-
dary of the city and its extent from
east to west. Tower of Hananeel—
Probably in the northeast corner
(Neh. iii, 1; xii, 39). The king’s wine
presses—The exact location of these
is not known; it is probable, however,
that they were near the king’s garden
(Neh. iii, 15), which is to be sought
near the palace in the southern part of
the city. If so, this location would
mark the southern boundary of the
city. The localities named may have
been of special prominence in the days
of the author. The first three seem
to indicate the extent of the city from
east to west, the last two from north
tosouth. Marti omits all but the first
and the last, “from the Benjamin’s
gate to the king’s winepresses,”’ which
he thinks are to indicate the extent of
Jerusalem from north to south.

11. The city will be inhabited. No
more utter destruction—R. V., ‘no
more curse.” Sin has been wiped
away (xiii, 1, 9); therefore no further
judgments are needed (compare Jer.
xxv, 9; Isa. xliii, 28; Mal. iv, 6).
Shall be safely inhabited—Better, R.
CHAPTER XIV.

683

 

12 And this shall be the plague
wherewith the Lorp will smite all
the people that have fought against
Jerusalem; Their flesh shall con-
sume away while they stand upon
their feet, and their eyes shall con-
sume away in their holes, and their
tongue shall consume away in their
mouth. 13 And it shall come to
pass in that day, thal "a great tu-

mult from the Lorp shall be among
them; and they shall lay hold every
one on the hand of his neighbor,
and >his hand shall rise up against
the hand of his neighbor. 14 And
uJudah also shall fight at Jeru-
salem; vyand the wealth of all the
heathen round about shall be gath-
ered together, gold, and silver, and
apparel in great abundance. 15

 

ui Sam, 14. 15, 20.—-x Judg. 7. 22;
2 Chron. 20. 23; Ezek. 38. 21.—-11 Or,

thou also, O Judah, shalt.——!2 Or, against.
—-y Ezek. 39. 10, 17, etc.

 

V., “shall dwell safely.” The city
need not fear any hostile attacks or
calamities of any sort.

Destruction of the hostile nations, 12-15.

' While Jerusalem and the Jews will
be exalted and glorified, Jehovah will
utterly destroy all the nations that
have dared to lift their hands against
the holy city. Some will be destroyed
by pestilence (12, 15), some will be
slain in the confusion that is produced
among the hostile armies at the blows
of Jehovah (13), some will be cut off
by the inhabitants of Judah,who then
will be enriched by the spoil. Verse
15 forms the natural continuation of
verse 12; therefore several recent com-
mentators consider verses 13, 14 a
later insertion. If they are original,
a more logical order would be 12, 15,
13,14. A disastrous pestilence strikes
the camp (12, 15), which produces
panic and confusion (13); when this is
seen by the Jews they rush against the
enemies, cut them down, and take to
themselves their possessions (14).

12. Plague—Or, pestilence. A word
always used of a plague or punish-
ment sent directly by Jehovah. The
nature of the disease is described in
the rest of the verse. Fought against
Jerusalem—See on verses 1, 2. Their
flesh shall consume away—l iterally
(G.-K., 118y), he (Jehovah) will cause
their flesh to rot. While they stand
upon their feet—While they are still
alive. To show further the terrible-
ness of the plague the destruction of
the eyes and tongue, important mem-
bers of the human body, is specified.
The prophet probably did not intend

 

these expressions to be pressed too
literally. He makes the description
so vivid simply to indicate the awful-
ness of the calamity, whatever might
be its exact character.

13. Additional disaster will result
from a panic into which the ene-
mies are thrown; then the terri-
fied soldiers will turn their weapons
against one another (compare Judg.
vil, 22; 1 Sam. xiv, 20; 2 Chron. xx,
23). A great tumult from Jehovah—
Jehovah will cause the tumult or
confusion through the blow described
in verse 12. Lay hold...on the hand
—Seize, to destroy. His hand shall
rise up—The hand is said to rise up
because it holds the weapon; equiva-
lent to “he shall rise up against his
neighbor.” 14. The defeat of the na-
tions is made complete by the Jews
who, when they behold the ranks of
the enemies thinned by pestilence and
mutual slaughter, will rush upon the
helpless remnant. Shall fight at
Jerusalem—Targum and Vulgate,
“against Jerusalem”; but the context
forbids this interpretation. It means
at or near the city, where the events
described in verses 12, 13 will take
place. Judah—Not only the country
districts (xii, 5, 6, 7), but the whole
people. With the army destroyed,
the camp with all its rich treasures will
fall into the hands of the victors. The
punishment will be according to the
lex talionis (compare verse 2).

Verse 15 is the continuation of verse
12 (see introductory remarks on this
section). A plague as disastrous as
that which smites the men (verse 12)
will destroy the beasts of the hostile
684

ZECHARIAH.

 

And 7so shall be the plague of the
horse, of the mule, of the camel,
and of the ass, and of all the beasts
that shall be in these tents, as this
plague.

16 And it shall come to pass, that
every one that is left of all the na-
tions which came against Jerusalem
shall even *go up from year to year

to worship the King, the Lorp of
hosts, and to keep >the feast of
tabernacles. 17 ¢And it shall be, that
whoso will not come up of all the
families of the earth unto Jerusalem
to worship the King, the Lorp of
hosts, even upon them shall be no
rain. 18 And if the family of Egypt
go not up, and come not, 33 ‘that

 

2 Verse 12.—=# Isa. 60. 6, 7, 9; 66. 23.
b Lev. 23. 34, 48; Neh, 8.14; Hos. 12. 9;

 

John 7. 2.
whom there is not.——4 Deut. 1

 

¢ Isa. 60. 12.—l3 Heb. upon
1.10.

 

army. Horse—The beast of war.
Mule, .. . camel, . . . ass—Beasts of
burden. All the beasts—Cattle and
other animals carried along for food
(compare Josh. vii, 24). The last
words, “as this plague,” should, per-
haps, be omitted; they are super-
fluous and make the reading awkward.
Tn this wise all the wrongs done to the
people of Jehovah will be avenged.

The conversion of a remnant of the
nations, 16-19.

The survivors among the nations
will cease their rebellion and turn to
Jehovah. If any fail to do this they
will be smitten with his curse.

16. Every one that is left—Few, if
any, will escape from the catastrophe
described in verses 12-15, but since
the judgment is expected to fall before
Jerusalem the noncombatants at home
will be spared. These will see the
hand of God in the disaster that be-
falls their armies; they will recognize
his supremacy, and will render hom-
age to him as their King and God.
The conversion of the nations is pic-
tured under the figure of annual pil-
grimages to the temple. From year
to year—Three times a year all males
among the Jews were required to ap-
pear before Jehovah (Deut. xvi, 16;
compare Exod. xxiii, 17; xxxiv, 28).
For the converts from the more dis-
tant lands one such pilgrimage appears
to have been considered sufficient.
Feast of tabernacles—One of the three
occasions mentioned in Deut. xvi, 16.
Various reasons have been suggested
why this rather than one of the others
is selected here. The more important
are: (1) The feast of tabernacles

 

came in autumn, when traveling is
most pleasant and convenient. (2)
It was primarily an agricultural feast,
celebrated at the close of the harvest
season; in it all the nations of the
earth might join to give thanks for the
blessings of nature. (8) It was the
last and most joyful of all the great
festivals in the year, gathering up into
itself, as it were, the year’s worship.
(4) It more than any other would
typify the ingathering of the nations
into the kingdom of God. Which of
these explanations is correct, or
whether or not there is any special
reason for mentioning the feast of
tabernacles, it is difficult to say.

17. Those who fail to take part in
the harvest festival of thanksgiving
will be punished by the withholding
of rain during the following year,
which will result in the failure of crops
and in famine. The withholding of
rain is mentioned to carry to com-
pletion the figure in verse 16. As the
celebration of the harvest festival
symbolizes the conversion of the na-
tions, so the withholding of the rain
symbolizes the withdrawal of all God’s
blessings.

The text of verse 18, as it stands at
present, offers considerable difficulty.
R. V. differs but slightly in its trans-
lation from A. V.; for “that have no
rain” it reads ‘neither shall it be
upon them.” All becomes smooth if,
following LXX. and Peshitto, we
omit one negative and alter the ac-
centuation; then the verse will read,
“And if the family of Egypt go not up
and come not, upon them shall come
the plague wherewith Jehovah will
smite...’’ Family—Nation (compare
CHAPTER XIV.

685

 

have no rain; there shall be the
plague, wherewith the Lorp will
smite the heathen that come not up
to keep the feast of tabernacles.
19 This shall be the “punishment of
Egypt, and the punishment of all
nations that come not up to keep
the feast of tabernacles.

20 In that day shall there be upon
the bells of the horses, -HOLI-
NESS UNTO THE LORD; and the
pots in the Lorp’s house shall be
ike the bowls before the altar. 21
Yea, every pot in Jerusalem and in
Judah shall be holiness unto the
Lorp of hosts: and all they that

 

14 Or, sin.—15 Or, bridles.

eIsa. 23, 18.

 

Amos iii, 1). Egypt—Egypt is singled
out because of the peculiar condition
of its climate. It is not dependent
directly on rain for fertility, but on
the overflowing of the Nile, caused
by heavy rainfall in Ethiopia, south of
Egypt. The threat of verse 18, there-
fore, would have no special terror for
Egypt, and some might think that
Egypt could refuse to worship Je-
hovah. Not so, says the prophet;
ligypt also must go or suffer severe
punishment. Plague—The context
suggests that it also will consist in
drought and failure of the crops; there
seems to be no reference to the plague
of verse 12.

Verse 19 concludes the section with
a reiteration of the threat. Pun-
ishment—Literally, sin; here equiva-
lent to punishment for sin (Num. xxxii,
23).

Jerusalem and Judah ‘holy unto Je-
hovah, 20, 21.

From the description of the destiny
of the hostile nations the prophet
returns to complete the description of
the glory of the city and land of Je-
hovah; verses 20, 21, therefore, are
in a sense the continuation of verse
11. Jerusalem and Judah will be
freed from everything that is unclean
and, with all their contents, will be
holy unto Jehovah. Bells of the
horses—The reference may be to bells
worn by the horses or to metal plates
—which would make a tinkling sound
when the horses moved—upon which
was inscribed the name of the owner.
Horses are frequently mentioned by
the prophets as beasts of war and
splendor (compare ix, 10; x, 5); in the
new age they will no longer be used
for warlike enterprises, they will be

 

devoted exclusively to the service of
Jehovah, whose name will be inscribed
upon the bells or plates as that of the
owner. Holiness—R. V., “Holy.”
The noun is used in the Hebrew in the
place of the adjective for the sake of
emphasis (G.-K., 141c). Unto Jeho-
vah—The same inscription was found
upon a gold platein the mitre of the
high priest (Exod. xxviii, 36, 38), to
designate him as a person consecrated
to the service of Jehovah. This is the
meaning here as in verse 21. ‘When
it [the word holy] is applied to things
it expresses the idea that they belong
to Jehovah, are used in his service or
dedicated to him, or are in some spe-
cial way his property” (A. B. David-
son, The Theology of the Old Testament,
p. 253; see on Joel ii, 1). The pots in
Jehovah’s house—The earthen vessels
in which the flesh of the sacrifice was
cooked for priests and laymen (1 Sam.
ii, 14; 2 Chron. xxxv, 13), whose use
was therefore semi-secular. Shall be
like the bowls before the altar—The
vessels serving semi-secular and un-
important purposes will in the new era
be as sacred and holy as the bowls in
which is caught the blood of the sacri-
ficial animals (Num. iv, 14; compare
Zech. ix, 15). These bowls possessed
a special degree of sanctity, because
the blood was considered peculiarly
sacred by the Hebrews. Some see
the point of comparison not in thesanc-
tity but in the size; but this is less
probable.

In verse 21 the prophet goes even
further. The whole land will be Je-
hovah’s (verses 9-11); by that very
fact it will be made holy unto him
(see on verse 20; Joel ii, 1), and this
holiness will attach to everything
found in the land. Every pot—Nobt
686

ZECHARIAH.

 

sacrifice shall come and take of them
and seethe therein: and in that day

there shall be no more the ‘Canaanite
in sthe house of the Lorp of hosts.

 

f Isa. 35. 8; Joel 3. 17; Rev. 21. 27; 22. 15.

& Eph, 2, 19-22.

 

only the vessels in the temple, but also
those used in private homes for secular
purposes; they will possess in the new
age the same sanctity as the former.
They that sacrifice—Strangers from
the distance, who cannot carry with
them sacrificial implements, but have
to secure them after their arrival in
the city. Take of them—As many as
they need, without fear that they
will secure an unclean vessel. Canaan-
ite—Some take this word in a com-
mercial sense, merchant, trafficker (see
on Hos. xii, 7), and they interpret the
passage as meaning that, since any
vessel the worshiper may lay his hand
on will serve his purpose, there will be

 

no further need of merchants selling
these wares in the temple (compare
Matt.xxi, 12; John ii, 14). Others take
the word literally of the inhabitants of
Canaan, and they think that it refers
to the Canaanites employed to per-
form the lowest duties in the temple.
Still others expand the application of
the term so as to include all unclean
persons, whether Jews or foreigners.
All such will disappear, for both men
and things throughout Judah and
Jerusalem will be holy unto Jehovah.
Between these interpretations it is
difficult to choose. With the second
may be compared Ezek. xliv, 9; but
the context favors the first.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI.

++ >

The Author of the Prophecy.

In the case of all the other books in the collection of the
Minor Prophets the confession had to be made that little or
nothing was known of the authors. Here the uncertainty
extends even to the name, for it may be questioned whether
Malachi is a proper name at all. If a noun, the word means
my messenger or my angel, which is not quite suitable for a
child’s name. Some take it to be an adjective, like Haggai,
meaning angelic; others consider it an abbreviated form of
a name meaning messenger of Jehovah. This etymology is
more or less doubtful, because names formed after the same
pattern would suggest the translation my messenger is Jeho-
vah, which again is unsuitable.

Analogy with the other books would seem to favor the view
that the name prefixed to a book is the name of its author,
but over against this one argument there have been adduced
several which are thought to favor the view that the prophecy
is anonymous and that Malachi was introduced at a later time
from iii, 1, where the same Hebrew word is translated “my
messenger” or “my angel”; and from this passage it has
even been conjectured that the author of the book was an
incarnate angel. (1) The similarity of Mal. i, 1, with Zech.
ix, 1; xii, 1, the titles of two anonymous utterances, favors
the view that the former also was added not by the author
of the book but by the collector to whom all three utterances
came without headings. He, understanding “my messenger”
in iii, 1, as being in some way a designation of the author
or a term descriptive of his office and so capable of being
applied to him symbolically, embodied that expression in

687
688 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI.

 

the title of the book. (2) The name occurs nowhere else
in the Old Testament. (3) LXX. and Targum, the two
oldest translations, did not understand it as a proper name;
the former reads “by the hand of his messenger”; the latter,
“by the hand of my messenger, whose name is called Ezra the
Scribe”; and for a long time Jewish tradition identified the
author of this book with Ezra. (4) The absence of the
father’s name, which is found in the case of most other
prophets (but compare Obad. 1; Hab. i, 1).

These arguments are not absolutely conclusive, and the
question cannot be settled finally. Whatever the original sig-
nificance, by the second century A.D. Malachi had come to be
generally accepted as a proper name. The identification of
the author with Ezra is improbable; the tradition undoubtedly
arose from the fact that Ezra and the author of the prophecy
pursued similar ends. The Life of the Prophets (see p. 429)
calls him a Levite from Sopha in the tribe of Zebulun, but
this tradition is late and without value. From his familiarity
with the priests and their conduct it has been conjectured that
he himself was a priest, but this view also is without adequate
support.

But whoever he was, or ahatever his name, the author of
the Book of Malachi is worthy to be called a “messenger of
Jehovah.” He was a man of deep convictions, born of a per-
sonal religious experience and constant communion with God;
a man with deep insight into the needs and shortcomings of
his contemporaries as well as into the mysteries of the divine
love and purpose, which, he declared, would find its culmina-
tion in the establishment of the kingdom of God subsequent
to the awful catastrophe of the day of Jehovah. Following
in the footsteps of his great predecessors, this prophet declared,
with no uncertain sound, the will of Jehovah to a priesthood
and a people that had forgotten the covenant of old; he,
like the earlier prophets, announced the certain and awful doom
of the faithless and the exaltation and glorification of the
faithful.
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI. 689

 

The Time of the Prophet.

1. Date—It is universally admitted that the internal evi-
dence points to the postexilic period, when the Jews were
under a governor (i, 8), and the Edomites had been driven
from their old home (i, 2ff.; see there), as the time in which
the prophecies contained in the Book of Malachi were deliv--
ered. All are agreed also in fixing the date of Malachi later
than the days of Haggai and Zechariah. The temple was
completed, and the sacrificial service was in full force; there
had been enough time to allow the enthusiasm aroused by the
two prophets to die down and the temple worship to become
corrupted (Mal. i, 6ff.; ii, 1ff.; iii, 1,10). The moral and
religious offenses condemned. by our prophet are different from
those condemned by the two prophets who urged the rebuilding
of the temple. On the other hand, a comparison with the
books of Ezra and Nehemiah shows that the sins condemned
by Malachi and the reforms attempted by him are very largely
the sins condemned and the reforms urged by them. This
fact has led all scholars to bring the preaching of Malachi
into close connection with the efforts of these two great reform-
ers. “The last chapter of canonical Jewish history is the key
to the last chapter of its prophecy.”

At this point arises a difference of opinion. Some place the
activity of Malachi before the coming of Ezra in 458, or at
least before the first visit of Nehemiah, about 445; others
place it near the second visit of Nehemiah, about 432, either
before or soon after. However, it is chiefly around two
periods, before 458 or near 432, that the attempts to deter-
mine the date of Malachi center.

In favor of the later date the following facts are urged:
1. First and foremost, the close agreement between Malachi
and Nehemiah. The abuses which the latter sought to remove
were (1) the irreverent behavior of the high priest; (2) the
neglect of the temple service; (3) the nonpayment of tithes;
(4) the desecration of the Sabbath; (5) marriage alliances
with heathen women. A comparison of Neh. xiii, 23ff. (com-
690 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI.

 

pare also Ezra ix, 1ff.; x, 1ff.), with Mal. ii, 10-16; Neh. iii,
10-12, 31, with Mal. i, 7ff., iii, 8-10; Neh. xiii, 29, with Mal.
ii, 8, shows that Malachi aimed to abolish similar forms of
wrongdoing. Nehemiah does not mention divorce and Mala-
chi does not mention Sabbath desecration; in all other respects
the resemblance is very close. 2. The appeal for a closer
observance of the law of Moses (iv, 4) presupposes the efforts
of Ezra to restore the authority of the law (Neh. viii—x).
3. The condemnation of the sacrifices (i, 7ff.) and the unfaith-
fulness in the bringing of tithes and offerings (iii, 6ff.) pre-
supposes that the people were expected to provide for the
sanctuary and the priests, but in the days of Ezra, or at any
rate immediately after his arrival, the government met the
expense of the temple service (Ezra vii, 15-24), and similar
provision was made by Darius (Ezra vi, 9, 10). On the
other hand, Neh. x, 33ff., indicates that in Nehemiah’s day
provision was made for the support of the temple service by
the people; but the condemnation by Malachi points to a
neglect of these voluntary contributions, which makes it quite
probable that some time had elapsed since the obligations were
assumed. 4. While i, 8, does not exclude the possibility of
Nehemiah being governor, the reference becomes more natural
on the assumption that a foreign governor, who was not un-
willing to accept gifts from the people (compare Neh. v,
14ff.), was ruling over the Jews at the time. Since some
of these facts exclude a date preceding Ezra, and some a date
immediately after the coming of Ezra, a date during the
absence of Nehemiah, between his first and second visit to
Jerusalem, is most probable. 5. To the same period points
the attitude of the prophet toward heathen marriages. If
Ezra’s reform was as sweeping as is indicated in Ezra x, 16, 17,
some time must have elapsed before the same abuses broke out
afresh. No attempt was made by Nehemiah to abolish these
marriages until his second visit, which makes it probable that
the abuse arose again during his brief absence. In opposition
to this new outbreak Malachi uttered his denunciations, either
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI. 691

 

while Nehemiah was still away or after his return. 6. The
fact that’ Nehemiah found the abuses condemned by Malachi
in full swing makes it improbable that the latter had already
delivered his messages, for it is difficult to assume that his
earnest exhortations were all in vain.

These are the more important grounds on which many
scholars assign the prophetic activity of Malachi to about 432,
either during the absence of Nehemiah or after his return in
connection with the reforms mentioned in Neh. xiii, 6ff. “The
work of Malachi,” says Keil, “bore the same relation to the
work of Nehemiah as the work of Haggai and Zechariah to
that of Zerubbabel and Joshua; and the reformatory labors
of Nehemiah, which were chiefly of an outward character,
were accompanied by the more inward labors of Malachi, as
was very frequently the case in the history of Israel; for
example, in the case of Isaiah and Hezekiah, or of Jeremiah
and Josiah.”

Against this view and in favor of the earlier date the fol-
lowing facts may be pointed out: 1. Objections 4, 5, 6 hold
good only against the view that Malachi prophesied subse-
quently to the coming of Ezra; they have no force against
the claim that he prophesied before 458, for then a foreign
governor ruled over the Jews, foreign women had been mar-
ried when Ezra arrived, and his preaching at the earlier date
would allow ample time for a revival of the abuses rectified by
Nehemiah in 432. 2. The third argument is disposed of by
the fact that there is no indication that between 516 and 458
the expense of the temple service was borne by the govern-
ment. 8. The second argument also is by no means conclu-
sive. That the Jews possessed some laws even before the
public reading of it in 445 or 444 cannot be doubted. Why
might not a religious zealot like Malachi urge the observance
of the law even before Ezra and Nehemiah? The argument
falls down completely if it can be shown that the closing
verses are not original (see comments). 4. This leaves only
the first argument, the similarity between Malachi and Neh.
692 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI.

 

xiii, 6ff. That mixed marriages existed in 458 or even earlier
cannot be doubted, for Ezra found them in considerable num-
bers on his return. Divorce is not mentioned by Nehemiah,
hence it cannot have been a serious evil in his day. On the
other hand, it should be noted that Malachi connects the
divorce evil very closely with the marrying of foreign women;
now, such a connection would be quite explicable at a time
when these mixed marriages were still novel; many would be
tempted to put away their own wives in order to be in fashion.
The other abuses have to do with the temple service. That
they existed in the days of Nehemiah we know; whether or
not they existed before 458 we do not know, simply because
we are without information concerning religious conditions in
Jerusalem between 516 and 458. That Ezra discovered faith-
lessness on the part of the priests in some things is seen from
Ezra x, 18ff.; that the other abuses might have crept in is
quite possible. If in less than twenty years the returned
exiles could grow as indifferent as Haggai and Zechariah pic-
ture their contemporaries, surely it is not hard to believe that
during the fifty years or more following the building of the
temple the people should again have come to disregard their
religious obligations. May not the emphasis placed upon
tithes and offerings in Neh. x, 32ff., imply that there existed a
tendency to neglect these?

All that has been said thus far is not affected very seriously
by the questions raised by Pentateuchal criticism, or by the
question of the date of Ezra’s return. On the whole, Malachi
shows a more intimate acquaintance with the Book of Deuter-
onomy than with the so-called Priestly Code. If the tradi-
tional date of these portions of the Pentateuch is correct,
that is, if Moses was the author, Malachi might have prophe-
sied either before or after 458. If the dates claimed for these
codes by modern scholars are correct, again either date is
possible. Deuteronomy was certainly known before 458, and
the one passage which is generally considered a clear reference
to the Priestly Code (iii, 10; compare Num. xviii, 21ff.) might
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI. 693

 

be explained as marking a transition from the requirements of
Deuteronomy (xiv, 22ff.) to those of the Priestly Code, a
transition which, as Welch says, was made easier by the fact
that, when the community was in the city, all the Levites were
attached to the temple. If Malachi prophesied in 432 a refer-
ence to the Priestly Code, which was published certainly not
later than 444, becomes quite natural, while the frequent
allusions to Deuteronomy do not appear altogether strange,
for to a prophet a prophetic presentation of the law would
appeal more than the formal presentation of the Priestly
Code.

Within recent times the return of Ezra has been dated after
the first visit of Nehemiah in 445, by some very much later
(see on Haggai, p. 550), and by some Ezra is considered
not an historical person at all, but an “impersonation.” But
even if the truth of these claims could be established, which
seems impossible with any sort of fair treatment of the biblical
records, the date of Malachi would not be affected very seri-
ously. Those who favor the later date would still assign his
activity to 432; the others would say, instead of before 458,
before 445, that is, about 450. A different date would have
to be found if the contentions of Torrey and H. P. Smith could
be established, that Nehemiah became governor in the fourth
century under Artaxerxes II; but this view is improbable, as
also the view of Winckler, to which reference is made in the
introductory remarks to ii, 10-16.

The choice seems to lie between 432 and “before” 458. The
present writer believes it impossible to settle the question
finally. Malachi, like Ezra and Nehemiah, saw the need of
the hour, and he, like them, sought to do his part toward
bringing about a religious and moral reformation. Whether
he was a few years earlier than they or their contemporary,
is a question of secondary importance; that they codperated
openly may be doubted in view of the silence of the Books
of Ezra and Nehemiah concerning such codperation,

2. Conditions of the Time.—In 516 the temple was com-
694 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI.

 

pleted and dedicated, and in 458 Ezra came to Jerusalem.
Concerning events connected with the rebuilding of the tem-
ple we receive information from the Books of Ezra, Haggai,
Zechariah; concerning the return of Ezra, from the book bear-
ing his name, a book whose substantial accuracy may still be
maintained. Little is said anywhere in the Old Testament
concerning the events between the two dates. From Ezra iv,
6ff., it would seem that during the reigns of Xerxes and Artax-
erxes the Jews were accused of disloyalty, and that the second
accusation resulted in the issuing of a decree forbidding the
building of the city walls. However, a comparison between
conditions in the days of Haggai and Zechariah and those in
the days of Ezra may enable us to get a fairly clear idea of
conditions in Judah during the intervening period. In addi- °
tion, a little light is thrown upon these conditions by profane
history.

(1) Political Conditions. During the interval which
elapsed between the two events named the struggle between
Persia and Greece and two revolts against Persian supremacy
in Egypt took place. To what extent the Jews were affected
by these movements we do not know. Herodotus declares that
Syrians from Palestine, which might include Jews, served in
the army of Xerxes; and it is not improbable that, especially
in the wars with Egypt, they were called upon to furnish sup-
plies for the Persian armies. On the whole, however, the
attitude of the Persian court seems to have been friendly, and
it is not unlikely that during the greater part of the period the
Jews bore the yoke patiently. The two exceptions (Ezra iv,
6, and iv, 7ff.) may be traced, perhaps, to a revival of their
Messianic hopes. Xerxes came upon the throne in 485; only
a short time before this date Egypt had revolted; these events
the Jews may have connected with the Messianic utterances of
Haggai and Zechariah, the revolt in Egypt with the shaking
of the nations promised in Haggai ii, 7. The second mani-
festation of unrest (Ezra iv, 7ff.) may have been connected
with the second revolt in Egypt in 462, and may have been
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI. 695

 

caused by similar expectations. In 458 Ezra the scribe came
from the east with rich presents from the king and from his
fellow countrymen still in exile, and with extraordinary pow-
ers and privileges. He was accompanied by other loyal Jews,
and after four months’ journey they reached Jerusalem. After
a brief period of activity Ezra disappears from view, and he
is not heard of again until after Nehemiah had become civil
governor in 445. After rebuilding the walls of the city
Nehemiah undertook various social and religious reforms, in
which he had the hearty support of Ezra, who reappeared as
suddenly as some years previously he had disappeared. Some
time later Nehemiah was recalled to the Persian court; when
he returned to Jerusalem in 432 he found that the reforms of
the past had been undone and that new evils were threatening
the integrity of the community. Immediately he set about
to rectify all these abuses, and with an account of the new
reforms the narrative in the Book of Nehemiah closes.

2. Moral and Religious Conditions. Haggai and Zechariah
labored earnestly to counteract the religious indifference which
had grown up in the community during the years immediately
following the return from Babylon (for the causes of this
indifference see p. 549). They succeeded in arousing sufficient
enthusiasm in the people to complete the temple; but as the
causes of the indifference were not removed it is not strange
that very soon the enthusiasm died out and the former indif-
ference with its accompanying evils reappeared. The glorious
expectations of the preéxilic prophets remained unrealized,
and the new promises of Haggai and Zechariah were not ful-
filled; the nations of the earth were not shaken (Fag. ii, 6, 7),
and though the revolts in Egypt seemed to give promise of
such shaking, in the end Persia remained supreme, while
Judah remained governed by foreigners. The glory of Solo-
mon’s temple was not equaled, much less surpassed (Hag. ii,
9); taxes had to be paid and provision furnished for the Per-
sian armies, which kept the people poor. Mal. iii, 9ff., implies
that harvests had again failed as a result of drought and
696 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI.

 

plagues of locusts, which was in direct contradiction to the
promise of Haggai (ii, 19).

In consequence of these various disappointments many in
the nation began to ask, Where are the promises made to the
fathers? What has become of the divine justice (ii, 17) ?
What of the divine interest in us? But if Jehovah does not
care, why should we continue to waste our offerings and
sacrifices in his service (iii, 7-12)? The disappointments
were troublesome enough, but those in Judah who would retain
faith in Jehovah were confronted by another perplexity.
According to the popular conception piety should be rewarded
invariably with prosperity, impiety with adversity; but there
grew up in Jerusalem during the first half of the fifth century
a class of godless nobles, who, by the use of unscrupulous means,
accumulated wealth and lived in luxury and splendor (iii,
13ff.), and again the question arose, Where is the God of
justice? Thus the people might look within or without, and
on comparing present conditions with the promises of their
prophets they would meet on every hand grave perplexities
and problems. Small wonder that many, who perhaps had
never attained a strong living faith, gave way to a temper of
moroseness, skepticism, or even positive hostility to Jehovah.

The moral and religious conditions reflected in the Book
of Malachi and in the portions of Ezra and Nehemiah dealing
with the same period were the outgrowth of this religious
indifference and skepticism. 1. The first glimpse which the
book gives us (i, 6—ii, 9) is of the neglect of the temple
worship by both priest and people. The priests performed
their offices perfunctorily, and they showed by their actions
that their heart was not in the work. Anything, they thought,
was good enough for Jehovah, and so they offered the lame and
the blind upon the altar (i, 7, 8). The maintenance of the
temple service they considered too costly and irksome (i, 13).
By their example and teaching they caused the people to
stumble (ii, 8), until all alike failed to render to Jehovah
the reverence and honor due to his name (i, 6). A similar
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI. 697

 

unwillingness to pay the proper religious dues is reflected in
ili, 7-10, where the prophet condemns the people for defraud-
ing Jehovah by the withholding of tithes and offerings. 2.
A second result of the spirit of indifference and skepticism
was the dying down of the zeal for the maintenance of Israel’s
distinct and separate character as the people of Jehovah. An
evidence of this is seen in the wide prevalence of mixed mar-
riages, that is, marriage alliances of Israelites with women of
the surrounding heathen nations (ii, 11, 12; compare Hzra
ix, 1ff.; x, 1ff.; Neh. xiii, 23ff.). Such alliances would break
down the barriers between the Jewish community and the
heathen nations and would open the door for the introduction
of heathen practices and beliefs, which in the end might affect
very seriously the purity of the Jehovah religion. In some
cases these alliances seem to have been preceded by the putting
away of a Jewish wife. This would have been impossible had
the Jews been fully conscious of the unique relation of their
nation to Jehovah; but with faith in Jehovah waning they
would forget the duties they owed to one another as members
of the same covenant nation (ii, 10), and lightly divorce their
Jewish wives to make room for others. But even where divorce
was not followed by an alliance with a foreign woman, the
divorce itself implied a disregard of mutual obligations, and
this in turn implied a waning faith in Jehovah. 3. The de-
cline of religious fervor was followed by a moral decline.
Sorcery, adultery, and false swearing were common; the
laborer, the fatherless, and the widow were oppressed (ili, 5;
compare Neh. v).

It must not be thought, however, that none escaped the
skepticism and the corruption which followed. The very
appearance of Malachi shows that there were in the community
those who retained their hold on God and whose faith was
made only stronger by the trials through which they passed
(iii, 16). They had the same experiences as those who be-
came skeptics and evil doers, but “instead of laying the blame
on Jehovah . . . they recognized in Israel itself the cause of
698 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI.

—

the disappointment. It was Israel’s faithlessness and indif-
ference that now as of old hindered the accomplishment of
the prophetic visions. The one hope of their fulfillment lay
in a more strenuous and loyal observance on Israel’s part of
the moral conditions of Jehovah’s covenant.” Out of this
group of religious zealots arose Malachi, determined to arouse,
if possible, a new enthusiasm and a new faith in those who
were rapidly drifting away from Jehovah and his law.

The Book of Malachi.

1. General Remarks——The literary form of the Book of
Malachi differs from that of the other prophetic books. Mala-
chi does not attempt the rhetorical development of ideas which
is so common with the earlier prophets; he prefers a dialec-
tical and didactic style. He states briefly the truth which he
desires to enforce; over against the simple proposition he
sets an objection which he assumes might be raised. To this
he replies, and in doing so he reasserts and expands the orig-
inal statement. The reason for this change must be sought,
not in the decadence of prophecy, but in a change in the
method of prophetic teaching. Says G. A. Smith, “Just as
with Zephaniah we saw prophecy passing into apocalypse, and
with Habakkuk into the speculation of the schools of wisdom,
so now in Malachi we perceive its transformation into the
scholasticism of the rabbis.” During the interval between
Zechariah and Malachi, says the same author, “prophecy seems
to have been driven from public life, from the sudden enforce-
ment of truth in the face of the people to the more deliberate
and ordered argument which marks the teacher who works in
private.” In the Book of Malachi, therefore, we have the
beginning of the method of exposition which at a later time
became universal in the synagogues and the schools of the
Jews (compare i, 2ff., 6ff.; ii, 10, 14, 17; iii, 7, 8, 13).

Because of the peculiar style of the book it has heen ques-
tioned whether the oracles contained in it were ever delivered
orally. If they were, as seems quite probable, we have in
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI. 699

 

the book not a verbal reproduction but an epitome of the
several addresses of the author, arranged so systematically
that the book has the appearance of a single continuous dis-
course, whose tone is condemnatory almost throughout. The
peculiar method of instruction referred to makes the style
of Malachi appear more prosaic than that of the earlier
prophets; only once or twice it rises to a higher level (iii,
1ff.; iv, 1-3). His diction, though on the whole pure, betrays
some marks of his late date.

2. Contents—The Book of Malachi falls naturally into
three sections of unequal length (i, 6—ii, 9; ii, 10-16; ii,
17—iv, 3), with a prologue (i, 2-5) and an epilogue (iv, 4-6).

The prologue (i, 2-5) forms the basis of all subsequent
utterances. The contemporaries of the prophet questioned the
love of Jehovah, because the bright promises of the earlier
prophets had remained unfulfilled. Malachi meets this criticism
in his opening words, “I have loved you, saith Jehovah” (2).
All they need to do to convince themselves of the reality of
the divine love is to compare their own history with that of
Edom. Jacob and Esau were brothers, but what a contrast
between the fortunes of the descendants of the two! Israel,
reéstablished in its own home and destined for a more glorious
future; Edom, driven from its home and doomed to live in
exile forever (3-5).

The first denunciation, i, 6—ii, 9, is directed principally,
though not exclusively, against the priests. As their loving
father and kind master, Jehovah has a right to expect of them
gratitude and reverence, but they fail to give him his dues (6),
as is clearly shown by the fact that they offer to Jehovah gifts
which a human governor would reject with scorn (7, 8). Is
it any wonder that Jehovah will not listen to their peti-
tions (9)? It would be much better to close the temple and
extinguish the altar fires than to continue this sort of serv-
ice (10). The service rendered to him among the nations is
preferable to that of the Jews, for it is pure and generous (11),
while that of the latter is corrupt and heartless; the offerings
700 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI.

 

are small, the sacrificial animals diseased and worthless, and
the little they do give they give grudgingly (12, 13). Cursed
be everyone who dares thus to insult Jehovah (14).

If the priests fail to heed the warning and to render unto
Jehovah the service acceptable to him, he will send upon
them his curse, that they may understand his purpose to
maintain the ancient covenant with Levi (ii, 1-4). According
to this covenant Jehovah promised to Levi life and peace; in
return Levi promised to fear Jehovah. This covenant was
kept by both parties; Levi served God faithfully, and by his
faithfulness turned many from iniquity (5, 6). Similar con-
duct is expected of all his priests (7), but how far short do
they come of the ideal (8)! Therefore disgrace and contempt
will be their portion (9).

In ii, 10-16, the prophet condemns the people’s faithlessness
to the ancient covenant with Jehovah. Jehovah is the father
of all Israel, which implies that the individual Israelites are
brothers and sisters, but they have disregarded the obligations
placed upon them by these relations (10). In proof of
the accusation the prophet calls attention to two widespread
abuses: (1) mixed marriages, that is, marriages between Jews
and women belonging to the surrounding heathenish or half-
heathenish nations (11, 12); (2) the heartless putting away
of Jewish wives by their husbands (13-15). Jehovah abomi-
nates such conduct, therefore they would better desist from
it (16).

In ii, 17—iv, 3, the prophet denounces the spirit of indif-
ference and skepticism which is the root of all the religious
and moral corruption condemned in the rest of the book. The
evil doers prosper while the pious suffer, hence the question
is raised by many, Where is the God of justice (17)? To this
Jehovah replies that he will no longer delay judgment; pre-
ceded by a messenger he will suddenly appear for judgment
(iii, 1); his coming will prove terrible to all who have done
evil, for he will come like a refiner’s fire, to burn up all
dross (2). The priests he will purify that they may offer
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI. 701

 

again sacrifice “in righteousness” (3, 4), and from the nation
at large he will sweep away all forms of vice and wicked-
ness (5).

Since the skeptics (ii, 17) doubted the interest of Jehovah
in the affairs of the nation, they saw no reason why they
should continue to offer sacrifice to him; this neglect the
prophet condemns in iii, 6-12. First he asserts that the charge
contained in ii, 17, is groundless; Jehovah has not changed,
but he cannot manifest himself as in days gone by because
their attitude toward him has undergone a change (6). They
cry out for his return to them, but he can respond only if they
return to him (7). When they inquire wherein they are to
return, he replies, in being honest in the payment of their
tithes and offerings (8). If they do this they will soon dis-
cover that Jehovah still lives and can bless them with abundant
prosperity (9-12).

In iii, 13, the prophet returns to the apparent inequalities
of life. The complaint is made that the wicked prosper while
they that fear God are oppressed (13-15). The complaint is
unwarranted, says the prophet, for Jehovah’s watchful eye
is over all, and though at present the lot of the pious may
seem hard, Jehovah keeps a record of them all (16), and when
he appears in his temple he will make a distinction between
the righteous and the wicked (16-18). The wicked will be
destroyed root and branch (iv, 1), but the righteous will be
exalted forever (2, 3).

The book closes with an exhortation and a promise. The
hearers and readers are urged to lay to heart the law of Moses,
for only thus can they escape the terrors of the day of Jeho-
vah (4). The promise of iii, 1, is repeated, that a messenger,
here called Elijah, will come to prepare the way for the coming
of Jehovah himself (5). The last verse (6) explains wherein
the preparation consists: the messenger will attempt to con-
vert the nation, so that the terror of the day of Jehovah may
be averted. If he fails, nothing can save the sinners from
destruction.
702 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI.

 

3. Outline.—
TITLE—THE AUTHOR AND THE SUBJECT OF THE PROPHECY...Chap. i, 1

I. THE PROLOGUE—JEHOVAH’S LOVE FOR ISRAEL.........--0005% i, 2-5
1. The divine love asserted. ...... 0... cece eee ee eens i, 2
2. The divine love proved........... cece eee ee ee eneee i, 3-5
II. CoNDEMNATION OF ISRAEL’S NEGLECT OF THE SERVICE OF JEHO-
WED sso degre eigee aig wa ithe aati pin Sree es edie reer acetond i, 6—ii, 9
1. Rebuke of the faithless priests and people........ i, 6-14
(1) Worthlessness of the sacrifices offered to Jeho-
Vales ca eee ko henka dele a asmgne dieses wtens i, 6-8
(2) Jehovah’s displeasure with the present serv-
ICO ia iid ae seare te Wisse ade Oh Sot ae i, 9, 10

(8) Contrast between the service rendered to Jeho-
vah among the nations and that rendered

by the: J@ws ss: .ac06aaecawcawtee aes i, 11-13

(4) The curse of Jehovah................0-. i, 14
2. A curse pronounced upon the faithless priests..... ii, 1-9

(1) Immediate reformation the only way of escape,

sn tah tbe tcarbalt eo Baa tan eben deay enables eee ii, 1-4

(2) The covenant with Levi and the ideal priest,

MGR RRC REUER DECEASED ES RES ii, 5-7

(3) The apostate priests and their humiliation..

igh Sid ideas fants g- BABI Ov odes ass wig ie gba pee Laval ii, 8,9

III. CONDEMNATION OF MIXED MARRIAGES AND OF DIVORCE....ii, 10-16
1. Disregard of the covenant obligations............. ii, 10
2. The illegitimate marriage alliances............ ii, 11, 12
3. The heartless divorces........... 00. c cece ences ii, 18-15
4, Exhortation to desist from the evil practices....... ii, 16
IV. CoNDEMNATION OF RELIGIOUS INDIFFERENCE AND SKEPTICISM
a Plaed asealtte ch d glans oll aay cepts Sc ON Aapecr ante eo weet Aart ii, 17—iv, 3

1. Jehovah’s approach in judgment............ ii, 17—iii, 5.

(1) Where is the God of justice?............ ii, 17

(2) Jehovah’s appearance like a refining fire....

eae pelvis aang eeaandd Sh Aaa ds Seiedeta iii, 1, 2

(3) Purification of priests and people...... iii, 3-5

2. The wrongful withholding of tithes and offerings, iii, 6-12
(1) Jehovah’s immutability—The people’s fickle-

NOSS a4. Bate ee heen ii sas es iii, 6
(2) Exhortation to honesty in the payment of
tithes and offerings................ iii, 7,8
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI. 703

 

3. A new defense of Jehovah’s justice......... iii, 13—iv, 3
(1) The complaint—The wicked prosper, the pious
SUMED. senivered tires Lidaies Medes deed iii, 13-15
(2) Separation of the pious from the wicked on
the day of reckoning.............. iii, 16-18
(3) Utter destruction of the wicked.......... iv, 1
(4) HExaltation and glorification of the righteous,
ie sgeaetapeds da diet eteeiapte ak Sloane ge @iee areal iv, 2, 3
V. CLOSING ADMONITIONS.......0.. cece cece eect teen ene eee iv, 4-6
1. Exhortation to faithful observance of the law...... iv, 4

2. Elijah the messenger and his work of preparation, iv, 5, 6

4. Teaching.—The Book of Malachi has been aptly described
as “Prophecy within the Law.” On the one hand, it reaffirms
the truths taught by the great preéxilic prophets, such as the
fatherly love and care of Jehovah for Israel, the holiness and
righteousness of Jehovah, the terrible judgment upon the
wicked, and the exaltation of the righteous. On the other
hand, unlike the earlier prophetic books, it places great stress
upon the law as a disciplinary rule of life; its lax performance
receives severe condemnation, and the final exhortation of the
book is, “Remember ye the law of Moses, my servant.”

In fairness to Malachi this second characteristic must not be
overemphasized to the obscuring of the former. True, he
shared with the other religious leaders of the postexilic period
a high opinion of the law, but this is due not so much to
lower religious conceptions as to the fact, which every careful
student of Hebrew history in the days of Malachi must have
noticed, that after all prophecy had failed to produce the
permanent results for which the prophets had toiled so per-
sistently. Generation after generation they had sought to
create a pure and holy nation, but after the lapse of centuries
the people appeared to be no nearer the ideal than at the
beginning. Consequently the question must have arisen in
many minds, whether the method of the prophets was the one
best adapted to the needs of the time, whether the people could
be trusted to apply the principles of the prophetic religion to
the daily life, or whether it would not be better to lay down
704 INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI.

 

definite rules and urge the people to observe these, and thus
avoid the lapses of the past? The last question was answered
in the affirmative, and the legalism of the postexilic period
was born. However, in the beginning it was permeated by a
spirit of intense moral earnestness; the exaggeration of the
letter is a later development. Malachi was a prophet just as
truly as were Isaiah and Jeremiah, but unlike these he empha-
sized the embodiment of the prophetic spirit and the prophetic
principles in external law.

Though the principal points in Malachi’s teaching have
already been alluded fo, a few of them deserve special mention:
1. The fatherhood of Jehovah. Jehovah has manifested a
fatherly interest in Israel throughout the entire history of the
nation (i, 2-5). This fact the prophet makes the basis of all
his appeals. Because he is the loving father of the Jews, he
has a right to claim their reverence and affection (i, 6); be-
cause he loves all alike, they should show brotherly love toward
one another (ii, 10). But his love can manifest itself only
toward the good and pious; the unrighteous, even of his own
children, must perish (ii, 16; li, 16—iv, 3). 2. Malachi
emphasizes the justice and righteousness of Jehovah as strongly
as did the stern Amos. And a righteous God demands a pure
and righteous service of his worshipers. External forms of
worship are an abomination to him, unless they are prompted
by true devotion and accompanied by a holy and consistent
life (i, 6—ii, 9). He would rather do without sacrifice and
offerings than be compelled to receive them from those who
neglect the weightier matters (i, 10). He desires the payment
of tithes, but only as the practical expression of a loving faith
in him (iii, 7, 8). Apparent inequalities in life do not mili-
tate against the divine righteousness, for in due time Jehovah
will prove himself a righteous judge by rewarding all according
to their deeds (iii, 16—iv, 3). 3. The brotherhood of man is
taught in the book of Malachi not in the broad New Testa-
ment sense, but only as applying to relations within the Jew-
ish community. The individual Jews are related to one
INTRODUCTION TO THE BOOK OF MALACHI. 705

 

another as brothers and sisters, and this relation should deter-
mine their treatment of one another. 4. Mixed marriages
and divorce receive the severest condemnation, because (1) they
threatened to corrupt the religion of Jehovah; (2) they were
sins against the principle of brotherhood. 5. The significance
of i, 11, has been overestimated. It would, indeed, be remark-
able to find an Old Testament prophet broad-minded enough
to teach that the worship of heathen nations offered to different
deities was in reality worship of Jehovah under various forms ;
but that is not the thought of the passage (see on i, 11).
And yet the recognition by a Jew that any worship rendered
to Jehovah among the nations was acceptable to him was a
long step forward toward the teaching of Jesus in John iv,
21ff. 6. The Messianic teaching of Malachi is very simple.
The establishment of the kingdom of God will be preceded
by the day of Jehovah, a day of sifting on which Jehovah
will appear to separate the righteous from the wicked, and
a day of terror on which he will execute judgment upon the
wicked (iii, 1-5; iii, 16—iv, 3). After the crisis the pious
will enter upon a life of permanent prosperity and felicity.
The Messianic king is not mentioned; Jehovah himself will
interfere on behalf of his people. Malachi introduces the per-
son of a messenger, Elijah the prophet, who will be sent to
prepare the way for the coming of the judge (iii, 1; iv, 5, 6).
MALACHI.

 

CHAPTER I.
HE burden of the word of the
Lorp to Israel by Malachi.

2 I have loved you, saith the Lorp.
Yet ye say, Wherein hast thou
loved us? Was not Esau Jacob’s

 

1 Heb. by the hand of Malachi.

@ Deut. 7. 8; 10. 15.

 

CHAPTER I.

Verse 1 contains the title, which is
similar to that in Zech. xii, 1 (com-
pare also the common translation of
ix, 1, but see comment there). Bur-
den—See on Nah. i, 1. Word of Je-
hovah—See on Hos. i, 1. Israel—
Not in the narrow sense, the northern
kingdom (Amos i, 1), but the entire
postexilic community, whether de-
scendants of the northern tribes or of
Judah. By Malachi—Literally, by
the hand of Malachi (compare Hag. i,
1). See Introduction, p. 687.

Jesovan’s Love or Isragu, 2-5.

The contents of these verses form
the basis of all subsequent appeals,
for they emphasize the fatherly love
of Jehovah toward the Hebrews, which
entitles him to their gratitude and
devotion. The prophet points out
that they do not have to go far to find
proofs of the divine love. Jacob and
Esau were brothers, hence one would
naturally expect their descendants to
be treated alike by God; but what
contrast between the fortunes of the
two! Israel, after many ups and]
downs, restored to its old home, there
to remain forever; the territory of
Edom doomed to be a peryetual deso-
lation. There can be but one reason
for all this—Jehovah loved Jarob, but
Esau he hated. This love of Jehovah
for Israel, the prophet thinks, should
be the motive and model for Israel’s
attitude toward him.

2, 3. I have loved you—In his
emphasis of the divine love which
manifested itself throughout the en-

 

tire history of Israel Malachi resembles
Hosea (see p. 30). Yet ye say—
These words give the first illustration
of the dialectical and didactic charac-
ter of the literary style of Malachi
(compare i, 6, 7; ii, 17; iii, 18, 14).
The author states a simple thesis, in
this case “I have loved you.” Over
against it he sets an objection which
may have been raised at some previous
time, or which he suspects may be
in the mind of some one. This gives
to him an opportunity to elaborate
and prove the truth which in the be-
ginning he simply affirmed. Wherein
hast thou loved us?—These words
express the objection. During the
postexilic period doubts of this sort
arose in the minds of many Jews, who
were disappointed because the bright
visions of the preéxilic prophets were
not realized; and this skepticism in-
creased when it was seen that the
expectations of Haggai and Zechariah
also were not being fulfilled (see pp.
553f.and pp. 695). The prophet intro-
duces his answer by another question.
Was not Esau Jacob’s brother?—The
two earliest of the Minor Prophets,
Amos (i, 11) and Hosea (xii, 3), call
attention to this relationship. As the
succeeding verses show, the prophet
is thinking primarily of the descend-
ants of the two, but he traces the his-
tory back to the ancestors, because
in their lives the difference in the at-
titude of Jehovah could already be
seen. Everything else being equal,
twin brothers might be expected to
have similar experiences in life, and
their descendants might be expected

706
CHAPTER I.

707

 

brother? saith the Lorp: yet >I
loved Jacob, 3 And I hated Esau,

bRom, 9 13,

 

o Jer. 49. 18; Ezok.

and ‘laid his mountains and his her-
itage waste for the dragons of the

35. 3, 4, 7,9, 14, 15; Obad. 10, etc.

 

to enjoy similar fortunes. In the
case of these two a vast difference
could be seen. Yet—Though they
were twin brothers. I loved Jacob,
. .. hated Esau—Keil is right in in-
sisting that the meaning of these
words “must not be weakened down
into loving more and loving less...
To hate is the opposite of love. And
this meaning must be retained here.”
At the same time the meaning must
not be pressed too literally. The ex-
pression is an anthropomorphism like
repent (see on Joel ii, 13) and swear
(Amos iv, 2), used by the prophet to
present to his listeners or readers an
idea in a form which they could
easily understand. The great mass
of Jews considered prosperity an in-
fallible proof of the divine love and
favor, adversity of the divine hatred.
But if they explained their own pres-
ent prosperity as an evidence of the
divine favor, they must explain the
affliction of Esau as an evidence of
the divine wrath. The prophet says
nothing concerning the ground of
distinction, for to judge the motive
was outside of his sphere. So far as
-his words are concerned Jehovah
might have had good grounds for his
action or he might have been arbi-
trary; but when we bear in mind the
date of Malachi we must consider it
very probable, to say the least, that
he possessed a sufficiently lofty con-
ception of the character of Jehovah to
exclude arbitrariness (compare verse
4). R. V. renders the rest of verse 3,
“and made his mountains a desola-
tion, and gave his heritage to the
jackals of the wilderness.” These
words and verse 4 supply the proof of
the divine hatred against Edom, and
by implication the divine love for the
Jews. Mountains—The territory of
Edom was rocky and mountainous
(see on Amos i, 11; Obad. 3, 4), there-
fore the whole country might be called
mountain. Heritage—Denotes the

 

territory of the Edomites as a pos-
session inherited from their ancestors
and from their god (compare Judg.
xi, 23, 24). For the dragons of the
wilderness—R. V., “to the jackals.’’
The meaning of the Hebrew word
translated dragon or jackal is not
quite certain, since it occurs nowhere
else in this form. It is related to a
word ordinarily translated sea-monster
(compare Gen. i, 21), which is used in
an oracle against Edom in Isa. xxxiv,
13, where it is translated jackals. The
idea is that Edom has been wasted so
completely that now only beasts of
the desert live there. LXX. and
Peshitto read, “into dwellings of the
wilderness.” A similar expression,
to which Stade proposes to change the
phrase in this verse, “pastures of the
wilderness,”’ occurs in Jer. ix, 10; but
here it would be no improvement, and
unless a more serious corruption is
assumed the translation of R. V. is
preferable. If an emendation is
thought necessary, that suggested by
Marti is the most satisfactory, ‘and
made his heritage to a wilderness.”
When the devastation of Edom took
place is not stated; however, verse 4
suggests that it occurred quite recently,
for at the time of the utterance the
damage had not yet been repaired, nor
had there been made any attempt in
that direction. Inall probability Mal-
achi has in mind the expulsion of the
Edomites from their territory by the
Nabatean Arabs, which began during
the period of the exile and reached
its culmination during the early part
of the fifth century B.C. (compare
Amos i, 11; Joel iii, 20; Obad. 1-15).
But, some one might say, the Israel-
ites also passed through a period of
oppression and homelessness, and yet
they were restored to their old home,
and prosperity is returning; may not
the Edomites enjoy a similar restora-
tion? This objection is met in verse
4 by the declaration that the desola-
708

MALACHI.

 

wilderness. 4 Whereas Edom saith,
We are impoverished, but we will
return and build the desolate places;
thus saith the Lorp of hosts, They
shall build, but I will throw down;
and they shall call them, The border

of wickedness, and, The_ people
against whom the Lorp hath indig-
nation for ever. 5 And your eyes
shall see, and ye shall say, “The
Lorp will be magnified 2 ‘from the
border of Israel.

 

a Psa, 35. 27.

2 Or, upon.—% Heb. from upon.

 

tion of Edom will continue forever,
that every attempt to restore its
fortunes will prove futile. We are
impoverished—R. V., ‘beaten down.”
This the Edomites admit, but they
are not disheartened, for they expect
to rebuild the waste places. We will
return and build—If the calamity al-
luded to is the expulsion of the Edom-
ites from their home land (see on
verse 3), this translation should be
retained. They expect to recover the
territory, and then to rebuild the
desolate places. The Hebrew idiom
also permits the translation “we will
build again,” which does not imply
an expulsion or a hope of return. Je-
hovah will prevent the execution of
their plans (compare Isa. ix, 8-10), for
his hatred against Edom will con-
tinue, and he will keep it in ruins
forever. I will throw down—Bring
to naught all attempts of restora-
tion. They shall call—Better, R. V.,
“men shall call.”’ The subject is in-
definite. Whoever observes the vain
struggle will pass the judgment ex-
pressed in the rest of the verse. The
border ‘of wickedness, . . . The people
against whom Jehovah hath indigna-
tion—The continued desolation and
the failure of every attempt to re-
build the waste places would consti-
tute conclusive evidence that the
wrath of Jehovah is resting upon
Edom, but that presupposed, accord-
ing to popular belief, the commission
of some great crime by the Edomites.
If they or men include people outside
of the Jewish community the expres-
sion “Jehovah hath indignation’ im-
plies that Malachi assumes the recog-
nition of Jehovah as the true God by
people other than the Jews (com-
pare i, 11). Forever—See on Joel iii,
20.

 

5. When the Jews see with their
own eyes the fulfillment of these
threats upon Edom they will be con-
vinced of the divine majesty and love.
Your eyes shall see—They need not
depend upon hearsay, for with their
own eyes will they witness the humili-
ation of Edom. Ye shall say—Con-
vinced by the fulfillment of the
threats. Jehovah will be magnified
from the border of Israel—R. V.,
“Jehovah be magnified beyond the
border of Israel”; margin R. V., “Je-
hovah is great beyond the border of
Israel.” Of these three translations
the last is the best. The treatment
accorded to the Edomites will prove
to the Jews that Jehovah is supreme
even over the nations outside of Israel.
However, the force of the preposition
is not quite clear; literally it is “from
upon,” which may be used in the
sense of above or over, “Jehovah is
great over the borders of Israel,” that
is, the contrast between the fortunes
of Edom and those of Israel is proof
that Jehovah’s great powers are exer-
cised especially on behalf of the Jews
—in other words, that he loves them.
This thought would seem to fit even
better into the context.

IsraEw’s NucLect or JEHOVAH, i, 6—
ii, 9

Throughout the entire history of
Israel Jehovah showed himself a lov-
ing father and kind master; this would
seem to entitle him to the people’s
gratitude and reverence, but they fail
to give him his dues (6), as is clearly
shown by the fact that they offer to
Jehovah gifts which a human governor
would reject with scorn (7, 8). No
wonder that Jehovah refuses to listen
to their prayers (9). It would be far
better to close the temple and ex-
CHAPTER I.

709

 

6 A son chonoreth his father, and
a servant his master: ‘if then I be a
father, where is mine honor? and
if I be a master, where is my fear?
saith the Lorp of hosts unto you,

O priests, that despise my name.
sAnd ye say, Wherein have we de-
spised thy name? 7 ‘Ye offer »pol-
luted bread upon mine altar; and ye
say, Wherein have we polluted thee?

 

e Exod. 20. 12.-—f Luke 6.
® Chaps. 2. 14, 17; 3. 7, 8,13.

46,—

- Or, Bring unto, etc.— Deut. 15.

 

tinguish the altar fires than to con-
tinue this sort of service (10). The
service rendered to Jehovah among
the nations is preferable to that of the
Jews, for it is pure and generous, while
that of the Jews is corrupt and heart-
less; the offerings are small, the sacri-
ficial animals diseased and worthless,
and the little they do give they give
grudgingly (11-13). Cursed be every-
one who dares to insult Jehovah in
this manner (14). If the priests do
not heed the warning and render unto
Jehovah the service acceptable to
him he will send his curse upon them,
that they may understand his pur-
pose to maintain the ancient covenant
with Levi (ii, 1-4). According to this
covenant Jehovah promised to Levi
life and peace, while Levi promised to
fear Jehovah. Both parties kept the
covenant faithfully; Levi served God,
and by his faithfulness turned many
to righteousness (5, 6). Similar con-
duct is expected of all his priests (7),
but how far short of the ideal do they
come (8)! Therefore disgrace and
contempt will be their portion (9).

Rebuke of the faithless priests
people, 6-14.

6. The prophet starts from a gener-
ally recognized truth. Son... servant
Every one would admit that a son
owes loving reverence to his father or
that a servant should regard his master
with respect and honor. But though
Jehovah was the father of Israel
(Exod. iv, 22; Hos. xi, 1; Jer. xxxi, 9)
and his master, Israel being his ser-
vant (Isa. xli, 8; xlii, 1; xliv, 1), the
nation has failed to render to him that
which rightfully belongs tohim. Fear
—RBetter, reverence (compare Isa. viii,
13). O priests—Though the priests
are addressed as the “soul of the na-
tional life,” the reproof applies with

and

 

equal force to the whole people. De-
spise my name—See on Amos ii, 7;
Mic. iv, 5. In the place of honor and
reverence they bestow upon Jehovah
insult and shame. Wherein have we
despised?—The prophet knows that
this question might be raised by those
who were accustomed to pass through
the forms of religion but were unable
to enter into the spirit of it (see on
verse 2); hence he immediately pro-
ceeds to answer it.

7, 8. Theinsult consists in the pres-
entation upon Jehovah’s altar of
gifts and sacrifices which they would
not dare to offer to an earthly ruler.
Ye offer—The priests. They should
have refused to accept improper
offerings from the worshipers (Lev.
xxii, 17-25), and should have in-
structed them in their duties (ii, 7),
but they did not guard the interests
of Jehovah. Bread—Or, food. Here
in the more specific sense of food of
the Deity, that is, sacrifice, which is
called bread of God (Lev. xxi, 6, 8;
Ezek. xliv, 7). Polluted—Or, unclean.
The sacrifice is so called because (1)
it was offered in a spirit of hypocrisy;
(2) the animals presented were blem-

|ished and therefore unfit for sacrifice

(verses 8, 12; compare Lev. xxii,
17-25). This accusation also is re-
sented. Wherein have we polluted
thee?—The idea underlying the ques-
tion is that to touch or eat anything
unclean makes a person unclean (com-
pare Ezek. xiii, 19; Hag. ii, 13). The
question does not follow naturally upon
the preceding accusation, which al-
ready supplies an answer to it, nor is
the succeeding clause a_ suitable
answer. LXX. gives a_ preferable
reading, ‘“Wherewith have we pol-
luted i#?” that is, the bread which the
prophet has called polluted. To
which the prophet replies, By saying
710

MALACHI.

 

In that ye say, iThe table of the
Lorp is contemptible. 8 And ‘if
ye offer the blind ‘for sacrifice, zs
at not evil? and if ye offer the lame
and sick, is zt not evil? offer it now
unto thy governor; will he be
pleased with thee, or ‘accept thy

iVerse 12; Ezek. 41. 22,——k Verse
14; Lev. 22. 22; Deut. 15. 21— Heb.
to sacrifice,

person? saith the Lorp of hosts. 9
And now, I pray you, beseech *God
that he will be gracious unto us:
this hath been 7by your means:
will he regard your persons? saith
the Lorp of hosts. 10 Who is there
even among you that would shut

1Job. 42. 8—® Heb. the face of
God.——™ Hos. 13. 9.—-? Heb. from your
hand.

 

that the table of Jehovah is con-
temptible. This they have said not
in words but by the actions described
in verse 8. Table—As sacrifice is
called food, so the altar may be called
a table. Contemptible—In the sense
that anything is good enough for it.

In 8a the prophet points out how
they show their contempt for the altar
and for Jehovah. If—Better, R. V.,
“when.” Ye offer the blind—There-
fore unfit for sacrifice (Lev. xxii, 22).
Is it not evil?—Better, R. V., “‘it is no
evil!” The words are used ironically;
according to their own notions it is
no evil. Lame and sick—Also unfit
for sacrifice (Lev. xxii, 20-25; Deut.
xv, 21). Would they dare to present
such gifts to an earthly governor?
But if not, how can they justify them-
selves for presenting them to one
greater than he? Offer—R. V., “Pre-
sent,” as a gift. The sacrifices are
gifts presented to Jehovah. Thy
governor—At this time probably a
Persian, whose favor might be bought;
but he would refuse to have anything
to do with a present of little or no
value, and with the person presenting
such gift.

9. They know well enough that the
favor of an earthly governor cannot
be secured in this way; let them now
see if Jehovah is pleased with such
things. Beseech God—Literally, the
face of God (compare Zech. vii, 2).
Not a call to repentance, but an
ironical challenge to supplicate Je-
hovah with gifts and prayers. In
other great crises he heard inter-
cessory prayer (Gen. xviii, 22ff.;
Exod. xxxii, 11). This hath been by
your means—Literally, from your
hands was this; that is, the offering of

 

unclean animals. These words inter-
rupt the thought; the question follow-
ing is the real continuation of the
ironical exhortation; therefore many
commentators omit them as a later
gloss. As they stand now, they can
serve only to emphasize the illegiti-
macy and hypocrisy of their conduct.
What can they expect under these
circumstances? Will he regard your
persons?—R. V., “accept any of your
persons?” margin, “accept any be-
cause of you?” The Hebrew is am-
biguous, but in view of the exhorta-
tion, which seems to imply interces-
sory prayer, the marginal translation
is to be preferred. The priests were
mediators between Jehovah and the
people, they offered sacrifice as serv-
ants of Jehovah and of the people,
to secure the divine favor for the
latter; but since they have proved
faithless their service is no longer ac-
ceptable, they can no longer secure
the favor of Jehovah for the people.
Jehovah of hosts—See on Hos. xii, 5.
10. The translators of A. V. mis-
understood the force of 10a. R. V.
expresses the thought much more
clearly, though in some respects it is
less literal than A. V.: “Oh that
there were one among you that would
shut the doors, that ye might not
kindle fire on mine altarin vain!” The
sense of the passage is: It were better
that the doors of the temple be closed,
and that sacrifices would cease entire-
ly, than that the present condition be
continued. Oh that there were one
(R. V.)—Literally, Who is there
even among you? This question has
the force of a wish (compare 2 Sam.
xv, 4; Psa. iv, 6): Is there not
even one among you?—Would that
CHAPTER IL

711

 

the doors for noughi? »neither do ye
kindle fire on mine altar for nought.
I have no pleasure in you, saith the
Lorp of hosts, eneither will I accept
an offering at your hand. 11 For
rfrom the rising of the sun even unto
the going down of the same my

the
sip-
my
‘for

name shall be great among
Gentiles; ‘and in every place
cense shall be offered unto
name, and a pure offering:
my name shall be great among
ny heathen, saith the Lorp of
osts.

 

n1 Cor. 9. 13. © Isa. 1. 11; Jer. 6. 20;
Amos 5. 21.——P Psa. 113. 3; Isa. 59. 19.

 

a Isa. 60, 3, 5.
2. 8.— Rev. 8. 3.

 

r John 4. 21, 23; 1 Tim.
t Isa. 66. 19, 20.

 

 

some one were among you (G.-K.,,
151la)! Shut the doors—Of the tem-
ple, so that all worshipers will be
excluded, and in consequence all sac-
rifices will cease. Kindle fire on mine
altar—literally, light my altar, with
sacrificial fires (Isa. xxvii, 11; ], 11).
In vain (R. V.)—To no purpose, for it
does not secure for them the divine
favor (verse 9). I have no pleasure in
you—Primarily the priests, but also
the worshipers in general, because they
leave undone the things pleasing to
him, and for the things which they
do he does not care (compare Isa. i,
10-17; Amos v, 21-24). An offering—
The word is-ordinarily used to denote
the meal offering (see on Joel i, 9);
here it stands for sacrifice or offering
of every sort (compare Zeph. iii, 10).
11. Jehovah cannot accept impure
sacrifices from his own people, when
less favored nations offer to him sacri-
fices that are pure. Rising of the sun
. .. going down—The farthest ends
of the earth (compare Zech. viii, 7;
Psa. ciii, 12). My mame shall be
great—LXX., “glorified,” which is
to be preferred here, since ‘great’ is
found later in the verse, where it is in
its proper place. The name of Je-
hovah is glorified and sacrifice is
offered because the name of Je-
hovah is great. To glorify the name
of Jehovah is torender proper wor-
ship and honor to him. Gentiles...
heathen—The same word in Hebrew
in both cases. It would be better to
translate “nations,” that is, the na-
tions other than the Jews. In every
place—Not only “in every sacred
place,” but “everywhere” (Zeph. ii,
11); to be understood literally, but
in the loose sense in which the English
word is sometimes used; Schultz, “in

 

every clime.” Incense—Not to be
limited to incense proper; like “‘offer-
ings” in verse 10 and again here, the
term includes sacrifices and offerings
of every sort (compare Amos iv,
5). Offering—Practically identical in
meaning with “incense,” with which
it stands in apposition: “incense is
offered, even a pure offering.” Pure
—The emphasis rests upon this word.
In contrast to the “polluted bread”
offered by the Jews (verses 7, 8) the
nations offer sacrifice that is faultless.
Some recent commentators abbreviate
the present Hebrew text, which is a
little awkward, and read simply, “in
every place a pure offering is offered
unto my name.” The last clause
explains why Jehovah is thus honored
among the nations. My name shall be
great—For the significance of name of
Jehovah see on Amos ii, 7; Mic. iv, 5.
The words used here are equivalent to
“T in my manifestations am great.”
What the prophet means to say is that
the wonderful things which Jehovah
has done (or will do) have been (or
will be) so great and powerful that he
is (or will be) recognized as the true
God even among other nations, and
as a result is receiving (or will receive)
homage from them.

Verse 11 has been and still is the
subject of much discussion. The chief
point of controversy is the question
whether the verse points to the proph-
et’s present or future. The Hebrew,
apart from the context, permits either
translation. LXX. refers it to the
present, so also a few of the early
church fathers; A. V., A. R. V., and
margin of English R. V. refer it to the
future; English R. V. and margin A.
R. V., to the present. Interpreted
of the present, the translation is, ‘For
712

MALACHI.

 

from the rising of the sun even to the
going down of the same my name is
great among the Gentiles; and in
every place incense is offered unto my
name, even a pure offering: for my
name is great among the Gentiles,
saith Jehovah of hosts.” Until quite
recently commentators were about
equally divided, but the mist recent
writers are inclined toward interpret-
ing the words of the present; and this
seems to be the most natural interpre-
tation in the light of the context, be-
cause (1) both verse 10 and verse 12
refer to the present, and in verse 12
at least the same grammatical con-
struction is used as in verse 11; (2) the
prophet’s argument requires this in-
terpretation. That it is the present
conduct of the Jews that he condemns
is quite evident (verse 12), but in
order to make the contrast effective
he must place over against the present
conduct of the Jews the present con-
duct of the nations.

But granting that verse 11 refers to
the prophet’s present, what does it
mean? Some have thought that the
prophet has in mind the worship ren-
dered by Jewish proselytes among the
nations, or by Jews scattered among
the nations. Neither interpretation
is quite satisfactory, because (1) the
number of proselytes technically so
called must have been very small dur-
ing the first half of the fifth century
B.C., and the dispersion had not pro-
ceeded very far at that time. (2)
Neither does justice to the prophet’s
language, which seems to imply that
members of foreign nations rendered
in some way acceptable service to
Jehovah. Against this interpretation
that the prophet is thinking of foreign-
ers, several objections have been
raised: (1) ‘It would be unheard of
that a prophet who holds such strict
views of the law, and abominates
foreign wives on account of their
heathen deities as a pollution of the
holy nation (ii, 11, 12), would apply
the predicate pure to heathen offer-
ings.” (2) This view ‘contradicts
the definite assertion that the knowl-

 

edge of the name of Jehovah forms the
postulate of such service.” (3) The
teaching of the New Testament is said
to be explicit: “The things which
the Gentiles sacrifice, they sacrifice to
demons and not to God’ (1 Cor. x,
20).

A New Testament statement cannot
be used to prove what an Old Testa-
ment writer may or may not have
written, for it is universally admitted
that the coming of Jesus has resulted
in religious thinking along new lines.
But even the New Testament permits
the interpretation suggested. Though
Rom. i, 19, 20, and Acts xvii, 23ff., do
not express the identical thought, they
move in the direction of the statement
in Malachi when they assert that even
nations other than Jews may do things
acceptable to God.

The force or weakness of the second
objection depends upon the interpre-
tation of the expression name of Je-
hovah. As stated in other connec-

tions, it means practically Jehovah

in manifestation (see on Amos ii, 7;
Mic. iv, 5). In the interpretation of
the clause ‘‘my name is great among
the nations” we may readily follow
Keil, who, however, interprets verse
11 of the future. ‘And the name of
God,” says he, “is only great among
the Gentiles when Jehovah has proved
himself to them a great God, so that
they have discerned the greatness of
the living God from his marvelous
works and thus have learned to fear
him.” That this will happen at some
future time, and in some cases in the
immediate future from the standpoint
of the speakers, is taught in several
passages in the Old Testament (for
example, Zeph. ii, 11; Exod. xv,
14-16; Psa. xlvi, 9-11), but the Old
Testament goes beyond this. There
are several passages in the Old Testa-
ment which assert with an emphasis
not surpassed in verse 11 that the na-
tions have already ‘discerned the great-
ness of the living God from his marvel-
ous works” and, in some cases at
least, have “learned to fear him”;
for example, Psa. exxvi, 2, which is
CHAPTER I.

713

 

dated by many in the period of Mala-
chi’s activity; the Books of Ezra and
Nehemiah, especially the decrees as-
cribed to the Persian kings, which
deal withthe period beginning with
the return in 537 and end, generally
speaking, with the second visit of
Nehemiah, about 432, in the latter
part of which period falls the activity
of our prophet; also the Book of
Daniel. The testimony of these pas-
sages is of value, whatever the date
of the composition of the books, for
there can be no doubt that from the
very beginning the pious Jews at-
tributed the permission to return from
Babylon to the direct interference
of Jehovah, a view which implies the
belief in wu recognition on the part of
the Persian rulers of the greatness and
supremacy of Jehovah (compare also
Isa. xi, 12; xlix, 22). It is seen, then,
that the second and the third objec-
tions find no support in Scripture.
There remains the first objection,
that the idea of Malachi calling the
heathen offerings pure is absurd and
“unheard of.” Is this statement
true? (1) A recognition of the pres-
ence of Jehovah worship among the
nations does not necessarily exclude
opposition to marriage alliances with
those who have not yet come to serve
Jehovah properly. In Hebrew as in
English the term everywhere does not
include every individual or commu-
nity, or even every nation. The proph-
et says “among the nations.” (2)
The opposition to mixed marriages,
like the hostility toward the Samari-
tans in the days of Jesus, was based
upon racial as well as upon religious
feelings; therefore the prophet might
recognize the presence of true worship
among the surrounding nations and
yet, because of this racial prejudice,
be opposed to alliances with these very
nations. It would not be difficult to
find analogies even in the twentieth
century A.D. (3) With few excep-
‘tions the development of the religious
thought of Israel, at least from the
eighth century onward, proceeded in
the direction of the statement of

 

Malachi. Amos recognized that the
nations possessed a certain amount
of moral and religious light, and he
condemned them for not living up
to it (i, 3-ii, 3; compare iii, 9, 10);
Isaiah condemned the Assyrians for
disregarding the commission of Je-
hovah (x, 5-7); but all this implies
the possibility of rendering acceptable
service to Jehovah. Aside from these
implications the statements in later
books (for example, Dan. iv, 34ff.;
vi, 25ff.; compare Jonah i, 14-16)
must not be overlooked. The Books
of Ezra and Nehemiah also imply
the belief in a recognition of Jehovah
as the true God by the Persian kings
and a desire to serve him in a proper
manner. These allusions, though not
expressing the thought exactly as it is
expressed in verse 11, certainly make
it possible to think of Malachi as be-
lieving that in his days an acceptable
worship was rendered to Jehovah
among the nations of the earth. (4)
Sacrificial terms came to be used in
Israel in a metaphorical sense of acts
and expressions of devotion other than
the literal offering of sacrifice (Psa.
li, 17). The terms of verse 11 might
be understood in this wider sense,
though in addressing the Jews the
prophet would use the same terms
primarily in a literal sense. If so, the
thought of verse 11 would be that
people in every clime, even without
the special revelation granted to the
Jews, had come to recognize Jehovah
as the true God as a result of his
mighty works for Israel, and that
at the time of the prophet they were
rendering to him a purer service than
the Jews, whom alone Jehovah had
known among all the families of the
earth (Amos ili, 2).

This does not mean, however, that
the prophet recognized the presence
of monotheism in the heathen re-
ligions, or that he regarded all the
sacrifices that were offered to differ-
ent deities as offered in reality, though
perhaps unconsciously, to the one
true God. The true view, it seems to
the present writer, is expressed by
714

12 But ye have profaned it, in
that ye a wThe table of the Lorp
is polluted; and the fruit thereof,

u Verse 7.

MALACHI.

even his meat, is contemptible. 13
Ye said also, Behold, what a weari-
ness ts it/ 8and ye have snuffed at it,

8 Or, whereas ye might have blown it away.

 

Schultz in these words: ‘The proph-
et is pointing out, in contrast to the
selfishness and petty avarice of the in-
habitants of the Holy Land in regard
to sacrifices, that far more valuable
sacrifices are being offered all round
about to the Great God who is proving
himself more and more the God of the
nations.” Though, as stated above,
we cannot speak here of proselytes in
the technical sense of that term, the
observation by the Jews of this turn-
ing to Jehovah among the nations
would create and encourage a spirit
of proselyting.

Verse 12 is a repetition of the rebuke
in verse 7. In sharp contrast to the
honor-which Jehovah receives among
the nations stand the contempt and
insult he suffers from his own people.
But ye—Who have enjoyed special
privileges and advantages. Have pro-
faned it—That is, the name of Jehovah
(see on Amos ii, 7; Mic. iv, 5). Bet-
ter, R. V., “ye profane it,” continually.
The same idea is expressed by despise
(verse 6) and pollute (verse 7). The
rest of verse 12 indicates how they
profane the name of Jehovah. In
that ye say—By their actions more
than by their words. The table of
Jehovah is polluted—Literally, the
table of Jehovah, polluted is it. Pol-
luted here is identical in meaning with
contemptible in verse 7. They con-
sider anything good enough for the
table, that is, for the altar of Jehovah.
The fruit thereof, even his meat, is
contemptible—Literally, the fruit there-
of, contemptible is its eating. Fruit is
that which is laid upon the altar, the
sacrifice or offering. The clause,
when interpreted naturally, expresses
the thought that the portion of the
sacrifices belonging to the priests is
not considered good enough to serve
them as food and is therefore despised.
If the sacrificial animals were as poor
and diseased as the prophet points

 

out, such thought does not appear
strange; and yet some take exception
to this interpretation on the ground
that “If the flesh . . had been too
bad for food in their estimation, they
would not have admitted such animals
or offered them in sacrifice.’ Those
who take this latter view consider
“his eating” equivalent to its meat or
food (R. V.), in apposition to ‘the
fruit thereof.” és food would then be
the sacrifices placed upon the altar,
which would be the food of Jehovah
(verse 7), therefore A. V. “his meat.”
The Hebrew does not favor this in-
terpretation, and if the present text
is correct the first view is preferable.
It is not impossible, however, that
the word translated his fruit—a pe-
culiar designation for sacrifice—has
arisen through dittography, and that
the original read simply “and con-
temptible is his food,” that is, the
food of Jehovah (see on verse 7). If
the word is omitted the thought of
the two clauses of verse 12 becomes
practically identical. Altar and sac-
rifice they esteem lightly, and they
consider anything good enough to be
offered to Jehovah.

Verse 13 continues the thought of
verse 12. Their faithlessness and
corruption is seen in their attitude
toward the entire sacrificial service.
The tenses should be translated, with
R. V., as present tenses, for the
prophet condemns present sacrifices.
What a weariness is itl—Not the
eating of their portion of the sacrificial
meat, but the priestly office and the
service at the sanctuary. It they con-
sider a trouble and a burden instead
of an honor and a privilege, as they
should. Ye have snuffed at it—At
the service or table of Jehovah. An
expression of contempt. Here is
found one of the emendations of the
scribes (see on Hab. i, 12); and follow-
ing the Masoretic suggestion that at
CITAPTER IL 715

 

saith the Lorp of hosts; and ye
brought that which was torn, and the
lame, and the sick; thus ye brought
an offering: *should I accept this
of your hand? saith the Lorp.
14 But cursed be »the deceiver,

®*which hath in his flock a male, and
voweth, and sacrificeth unto the
Lord a corrupt thing: for *I ama
great King, saith the Lorp of hosts,
and my name is dreadful among the
heathen.

 

x Lev. 22. 20, etc.—yY Verse 8.

z Psa. 47.

 

9Or, in whose flock ts.
2;1 Tim. 6. 15.

 

it is a change from an original at me,
some commentators read “ye have
snuffed at me,” but the thought re-
mains essentially the same. The con-
tempt finds expression in the offering
of unfit animals as sacrifices. Torn—
Better, R. V., “taken by violence’;
that is, something stolen. They were
too selfish to give of their own (com-
pare 2 Sam. xii, 1ff.), and when they
did give of their own they gave only
what was of no use to them. An ad-
ditional thought may be implied,
namely, that by giving stolen goods to
Jehovah they would make him a par-
ticipant in the crime, and thus make
it impossible for him to punish them.
Some scholars, following verse 8, read
“blind.” Lame, .. . sick—See on
verse 8. The rebuke closes with a
question similar to the one in verse 8.
Should I accept this of your hand?—
Simply because you are priests. He
cannot do this. Sacrifice of this sort
is an abomination to him (compare
Amos v, 21-24; Isa. i, 10-15).

14. To the specific condemnation
of the priests is added a curse upon all
Israelites whose worship is insincere.
The deceiver—One who seeks to de-
ceive Jehovah in the manner described
in the succeeding clauses. Keil sees
here two kinds of deception: (1)
when according to the law a male
animal should have been sacrificed,
and the person offering the sacrifice
substituted a female, that is, one of
less value, under the pretense that he
did not have a male; (2) when one
made a vow that demanded a perfect
sacrifice, but offered one that was
faulty and therefore unfit. To get
this distinction from the present text
requires considerable stretching of
the Hebrew as well as of the imagina-
tion. Was there any occasion on

 

which a diseased animal could be
vowed? It is better, therefore, to
understand the words of only one kind
of deception. The thought becomes
clearer if, following LXX., the pro-
nominal suffix is added to the verb
voweth, “who hath in his flock a male
and voweth zt, and sacrificeth unto
the Lord a blemished thing.” Vow-
eth—Only perfect animals could be
offered in fulfillment of a vow (Lev.
xxii, 21). A corrupt thing—R. V.,
“blemished.” Instead of the perfect
animal, which, though vowed, he re-
tains in the flock. Such hypocrisy
the great and terrible God of the uni-
verse cannot endure (compare Isa. i,
13). A great King—Over all the
earth. As such he has the right to
demand the best. My name—See on
verse 6, andreferences there. Is dread-
ful among the heathen—R. V., “‘ter-
rible among the Gentiles’ (see on
Zeph. ii, 11); but here the word seems
to be used rather in the sense of ‘‘is
feared”—held in reverence. Jehovah
who is reverenced even among the
nations (verse 11), cannot, in justice
to himself and to the nations, permit
himself to be treated with contempt
by his own people.

CHAPTER II.

A curse pronounced upon the faithless
priests, 1-9.

The condemnation of priests and
people in i, 6-14, is followed by the
announcement of a curse upon the
priests, who have ‘proved disloyal to
Jehovah and to their high calling.

Verse 1 is introductory, announcing
to the priests that the succeeding
oracle is intended in a special manner
for them. The order of the words in
the original makes the announcement
716

MALACHI.

 

CHAPTER II.
ND now, O ye priests, this com-
mandment is for you. 2 If
e will not hear, and if ye will not
ay it to heart, to give glory unto

a Lev. 26. 14, etc.; Deut. 28. 15, ete.

my name, saith the Lorp of hosts,
I will even send a curse upon you,
and I will curse your blessings: yea,
I have cursed them already, because
ye do not lay it to heart. 3 Behold,

 

more emphatic: “And now, this
commandment is for you, O priests.”
And now—Your guilt having been
established. O ye priests—The mes-
sage is addressed directly to the
priests. This commandment—In-
cludes the entire message contained
in verses 2-9. No command of any
sort is found in these verses, not even
an exhortation to repentance, though
such exhortation is implied in verse 2;
hence the word cannot be understood
in the narrow sense of commandment,
but as meaning purpose or decree.
The divine decree, shown by the suc-
ceeding verses to be one of destruc-
tion, is for the priests. _

The case is put very clearly in verse
2. Either they must give glory to
the name of Jehovah or destruction
will be their portion. If ye will not
hear—That is, pay attention to the
words of warning already spoken or
to any that may yet be spoken. Lay
to heart—The same message of warn-
ing; so as to profit by it. Give glory
unto my name—aAs the result of lay-
ing the message to heart. How they
may give glory to the name of Je-
hovah may be seen from i, 6-14, by
rendering to him the service which is
his due. If they fail to reform, and
reform quickly, disaster will overtake
them. I will even send a curse—R.
V., “then will I send the curse.” The
article is emphatic; the curse threat-
ened for such disobedience (com-
pare Deut. xxvii, 15-26; xxviii, 15ff.).
I will curse your blessings—The bless-
ings are not those ‘pronounced by the
priests upon the people by virtue of
their office,” which God will make in-
effective or turn into the very oppo-
site; nor are they the priestly income,
the sacrificial portions belonging to
the priests; but, in a more general
sense, the blessings, favors, and privi-

 

leges bestowed upon their order and
tribe by Jehovah; from their honor-
able position he will reduce them and
their posterity and make them ‘“‘con-
temptible and base before all the
people” (verse 9). LXX. reads ‘‘your
blessing” (singular), and since the
pronoun in the next clause is in the
singular in Hebrew, it (Eng. them), it
is not improbable that LXX. has pre-
served the original. I have cursed
them already—The curse has already
been decided upon in the divine mind,
because Jehovah knows their stub-
bornness. Some commentators con-
sider the latter part of verse 2, be-
ginning, “I have cursed them al-
ready,” a later addition, because (1)
LXX. does not agree with the Hebrew
text, (2) they think verse 3 would
make a better continuation of 2a.
The arguments are inconclusive.
Verse 3 continues the threat. I
will corrupt—Better, R. V., “rebuke,”
and so destroy (compare Zech. iii, 2).
Wellhausen changes the verb into “I
will cut off”? (see next comment).
Your seed—LXX. and other ancient
versions read, with a different vocali-
zation, ‘thy arm,” which many com-
mentators, even the conservative
Keil, consider original, ‘because the
priests did not practice agriculture.”
Wellhausen and those who accept his
emendation of the verb read the
clause, “I will cut off thine arm.”
Since the arm is used in the perform-
ance of priestly duties, Keil explains
the expression to rebuke the arm as
signifying “the neutralizing of the
official duties performed at the altar
and in the sanctuary’; that is, though
they will continue their ministries,
Jehovah will make them of no effect.
However, if the reading of LXX. is ac-
cepted, the threat seems to imply
more than a neutralizing of their min-
CHAPTER IL.

717

 

I will ‘corrupt your seed, and 2spread
dung upon your faces, even the dung
of a solemn feasts; and *one
shall take youaway withit. 4 And

ye shall know that I have sent this
commandment unto you, that m
covenant might be with Levi, sait
the Lorp of hosts. 5 “My covenant

 

1 Or, reprove.—2 Heb. scatter.—% Or,
it shall take you away to it.

 

b 1 Kings 14. 10.
Ezek. 34. 25; 37. 26.

© Num. 25. 12;

 

istrations; it means the rebuke (de-
struction) of the arm, so that they can
no longer perform their unacceptable
service; in other words, the with-
drawal of their authority, office, and
power. The testimony of LXX., and
especially of the literal translation of
Aquila, cannot be disregarded, and it
is not impossible that these ancient
versions have preserved the original;
nevertheless, the Hebrew text, as it
now stands, also gives a satisfactory
sense. Certainly seed cannot be un-
derstood of the seed sown by the
priests, which God will curse and thus
cause a failure of the crops; little bet-
ter is the suggestion of Pusey, that it
is the seed sown by the people.
“Since the tithes,” says he, ‘‘were as-
signed to them (the priests and
Levites), the diminution of the har-
vest affected them.” But in the Old
Testament seed is used very frequently
in the sense of posterity, and this
would give good sense here. The
covenant with Levi (verses 4, 5, 8)
was to hold good also for his posterity,
but the corruption of the present gen-
eration of priests had gone so far that
the entire tribe deserved to be cut off;
those who are priests now as well as
their descendants will be affected by
the curse.

Their own persons, which should
be considered sacred, will receive the
most shameful treatment. Spread
dung upon your faces—A figure of the
most ignominious treatment. The
dung of your solemn feasts—For

- solemn feasts see on Hos. ii, 11. The
dung is that which is left in the fore-
courts by the animals used for sacri-
fice on the feast days. This dung was
unclean, and was to be carried to an
unclean place and burned (Exod.
xxix, 14; Lev. iv, 11; xvi, 27). Marti

_ and others consider these words as
well as the last clause a later addition,

 

and the text of the latter they con-
sider hopelessly corrupt; Nowack does
not even attempt a translation. One
shall take you away with it—R. V.,
more idiomatically, “ye shall be taken
away with it.” The obscurity of the
clause can be seen best from the va-
rious interpretations given to the same
even by those who express no doubts
as to its originality. If the words
are original, the following seems the
most satisfactory interpretation: The
Hebrew reads “unto it” (so margin),
not ‘with it,” and this should be re-
tained; unto it can refer only to the
dung spoken of in the preceding clause.
Not only will dung be cast into their
faces, but they will be taken up bodily
and cast upon the dung heaps; in the
words of Hitzig, ‘“Dung shall be cast
upon them, and they on the dung.”
Such treatment would be impossible
while people looked upon the priests
as mediators between them and God;
it presupposes the dishonoring of the
priests by Jehovah himself.

4. When these*things come to pass
the priests will be convinced that Je-
hovah has sent the threats just utter-
ed. This commandment—Contained
in verses 2, 3 (seeon verse 1). That
my covenant might be with Levi—
This is undoubtedly the proper trans-
lation. All that Jehovah will do or
has threatened to do is for the purpose
of maintaining the covenant made in
ancient times with Levi, which de-
manded of the priests holiness and
assigned to them an important place in
the working out of the divine plan of
redemption. Jehovah would main-
tain that covenant, though to do this
he would be compelled to cut off the
entire present order of priests. Not all
Levites were priests, and from these
other Levites a new priesthood might
be raised up, with which the old cove-
nant might be continued. Over against
718

MALACHI,

 

was with him of life and peace; and
I gave them to him ‘for the fear
wherewith he feared me, and was

afraid before my name. 6 °The law
of truth was in his mouth, and iniq-
uity was not found in his lips: he

 

4 Deut. 33. 8,9.

e Deut. 33. 10.

 

this interpretation there is another
view, which translates, ‘that 7t may
be my covenant with Levi.” It is
made to refer back to commandment
in the preceding clause, and the mean-
ing of the clause is thought to be that
the commandment or threat contained
in verses 2, 3 will henceforth determine
the attitude of Jehovah toward Levi;
it, so to speak, will take the place of
the former covenant. The first in-
terpretation is to be preferred because
(1) it follows more closely the Hebrew;
(2) it fits better into the prophet’s
argument. Levi—Meaning the tribe
of Levi, to which the priests belonged.
Malachi evidently holds the view
concerning the origin of the priest-
hood among the Hebrews that is set
forth in the Pentateuch. For the
covenant with Levi, that is, the ap-
pointment of the priests, their privi-
leges and obligations, see passages
like Num. xviii, 1ff.; xxv, 10ff.; Deut.
x, 8, 9; xxxiii, 8-10.

The reference to the covenant with
Levi (verse 4) leads the prophet to
describe in verses 5, 6 the true nature
of this covenant; in verse 7 he points
out what in the light of this covenant
the character of the priests should be;
with these ideals he contrasts the con-
duct of the priests whom he condemns
(8), and he closes with a reiteration of
the sentence of judgment (verse 9).

5. Was... of life and peace—Liter-
ally, was the life and the peace; that is,
it aimed at life and peace. The ar-
ticle indicates that « specific kind of
life and peace is in the mind of the
author. Life—The continued exist-
ence as priests of Jehovah, equivalent
to everlasting priesthood (Num. xxv,
13). Peace—“‘The sum of all the
blessings requisite for well-being”
(compare Num. xxv, 12). This two-
fold blessing Jehovah guaranteed: to
Levi. The construction of the rest of
verse 5 is somewhat obscure. R. V.

 

renders, ‘‘and I gave them to him
that he might fear; and he feared me,
and stood in awe of my name.” This
is preferable to A. V., but it is incor-
rect in translating “that he might
fear” and in connecting these words
with the preceding clause, “I gave
them to him.” “That he might
fear” A. V. renders more accurately
“for the fear,” the italics indicating
that the preposition isnot in the orig-
inal; literally, the fear. Here again the
article is used to show that a particular
kind of fear is meant, namely, the
fear of Jehovah. What has been said
thus far may lead to a right under-
standing of the grammatical con-
struction of verse 5. Fear occupies
the same position in the sentence as
life and peace; so that verse 5 may be
translated or paraphrased, ‘‘My cove-
nant was with him; (my obligation
being to give to him) the life and the
peace, and I gave them to him; (his
obligation being to give to me) the
fear, and he feared me and stood in
aweofme.” Fear...feared...stood
in awe (R. V.)—Fear of Jehovah is the
Old Testament term for piety ; it means
a reverential attitude toward Jehovah,
resulting in obedience of life and con-
duct. This Jehovah demanded of
Levi, who promised to give it, and
kept his promise. My name—See
on i, 6, and references there.

Verse 6 states in greater detail how
Levi met his obligation. The law of
truth was in his mouth—For law see
on Hos. iv, 6. It was the duty of the
priests to instruct the people in the
law of Jehovah (see on Hos. iv, 6;
Mic. iii, 11; compare Lev. x, 11; Deut.
xxxili, 10; Hag. ii, 11; Zech. vii, 3);
this duty Levi fulfilled faithfully; he
gave instruction according to the
truth. Iniquity—R. V., “unrighteous-
ness.” He did not teach for reward
(Mic. iii, 11; compare Deut. xvi, 18, 19),
nor did he call good that which was
CHAPTER II.

719

 

walked with me in peace and equity,
and did ‘turn many away from iniq-
uity. 7 sFor the priest’s lips
shall keep knowledge, and they
should seek the law at his mouth:

f Jer. 23, 22; James 5.,20.—« Lev. 10. 11;
Deut. 17. 9, 10; 24. 8; Ezra 7. 10; Jer. 18.
18; Hag. 2.11, 12.

for he is the messenger of the LorD
of hosts. 8 But ye are departed
out of the way; ye ‘have caused
many to ‘stumble at the law; tye
have corrupted the covenant of

h Gal. 4. 14.—-! 1 Sam. 2. 17; Jer.
18. oie Or, fall in the law.—* Neh.

 

evil (compare i, 8). As a result his
relations with Jehovah were of a
friendly character. He walked with
me—He sustained “confidential inter-
course” with God, and walked, so to
speak, by his side like an intimate
companion and friend (compare Gen.
v, 22). In peace—Neither side did
anything to interrupt the happiness
and fellowship (verse 5). Equity—
R. V., “uprightness.” His life corre-
sponded to his words; he gave truth-
ful instruction and he “practiced what
he preached.” Did turn many away
from iniquity—By his teaching and
his consistent life. In those early
days the priest took an active interest
in the spiritual welfare of the people;
only too soon did he forget his duties
(i, 6-14; compare Hos. iv, 6; Mic.
ii, 11).

7. This conduct of Levi corre-
sponded to the divine purpose con-
cerning the priests, who as messengers
of Jehovah of hosts should speak and
live the truth continually. Marti,
following Boehme, considers verse 7
an interpolation, because (1) it is not
needed after verse 6; (2) it interrupts
the connection between verse 6 and
-verse 8, and thus weakens the con-
trast between the conduct of Levi
and that of the present priests; (3)
7b contains two peculiarities: (a) in
verses 5, 6 Jehovah is the speaker,
in 7b he is referred to in the third per-
son; (b) the term “messenger of Je-
hovah” denotes in Malachi a being
other than the priests (iii, 1). He
considers the. verse made up of ele-
ments taken from verse 6 and verse 8.
The reasons are not conclusive.

Should keep knowledge—The knowl-
edge of Jehovah (compare Isa. xi,
2), which is a clear insight into his
moral character and into the require-

ments which are the outgrowth of
this character (compare Hos. ii, 20;
iv, 1). This the priests should pos-
sess in order that they may instruct
others. And they should seek the
law at his mouth—They, the people.
It should be their privilege to con-
sult the priests. Law is equivalent
to instruction in the law or in the will
of Jehovah. For he is the messenger
—A causal clause belonging to the
two preceding clauses. His position
as a messenger of Jehovah makes it
imperative for him to possess the
knowledge of Jehovah, and should in-
spire the people to go to him for ad-
vice. In Hag. i, 13, the prophets are
called messengers of Jehovah, and in
\iii, 1, the term is applied to a messen-
ger par excellence, but it does not fol-
low that one and the same author
could not apply it here to the priests;
in a very real sense the priests were
the messengers of Jehovah, for their
commission was to make known his
will and law.

In verse 8 the prophet returns to
the priests of his own day; they have
completely lost sight of their high
calling. Ye are departed out of the
way—R. V., “turned aside.” From
the way in which they should have
walked as priests and successors of
Levi (compare verses 6, 7). They no
longer walk with Jehovah in peace
and righteousness (see on verse 6).
Ye have caused many to stumble at
the law—R. V., “in the law.” They
made the law a stumbling-block both
by their false exposition of it and by
destroying its authority through
their disregard of it in their own
lives. A sad contrast to fhe con-
duct of Levi, who turned “many away
from unrighteousness.” Ye have cor-

 

rupted—Or, destroyed. Levi—Here
720

MALACHI.

 

Levi, saith the Lorp of hosts. 9
Therefore 'have I also made you
contemptible and base before all

the people, according as ye have not
kept my ways, but > *have been
partial in the law. 10 =Have we

 

11 Sam. 2.
face against.

30.— Or, lifted up the

® Heb. accepted faces.——™ 1 Cor. 8. 6;
Eph. 4. 6.

 

with the article, the Levi; used perhaps
to express the idea that the covenant
was not with Levi as an individual,
but with the house of Levi, the Levite
in a collective sense—the Levites.
This covenant (see on verse 5) they
have made of no effect; they have
failed to meet their own obligations,
and thus they have made it impossible
for Jehovah to do his share.

9. He must cut them off, though the
covenant itself must continue; a
priesthood of a different character
must be substituted (see on verse 4).
Therefore have I also—The contrast
would be brought out more forcibly
by rendering, “Therefore I on my part
have” (compare Amos iv, 6). Made
you contemptible and base—In view
of verses 2, 3 the tenses should be
interpreted as prophetic perfects; Je-
hovah will surely bring them into con-
tempt by refusing to accept and bless
their ministrations (i, 9, 10). When
people find out that the priests have
lost the divine favor they will heap
upon them the ignominies described
in verse 3. The present attitude of
Jehovah is the beginning of the ful-
fillment of the curse. Before all the
people—Who now look upon them as
their spiritual guides. According as
—The judgment will be according to
the lex talionis. As they have de-
spised Jehovah (i, 6, 7, 12), so they
will be despised by the people. Ye
have not kept my ways—The ways
marked out by Jehovah, which are
uprightness in life and teaching (verse
6); from these they have swerved
(verse 8). Have been partial in the
law—This is only one of their many
crimes (compare i, 6-14). In the law
means in the administration or ex-
position of the law. How this parti-
ality showed itself is not stated, but
a passage like Mic. iii, 11 (compare
also verse 5) may suggest how it was

 

done. The same passage makes it
also probable that the statements
should not be restricted to decisions
in legal disputes. Marti, following
Torrey, thinks that this last accusa-
tion is out of place, since in the chief
condemnation (i, 6-14) nothing has
been said about partiality in the ex-
position or administration of the law.
By omitting one letter and changing
one vowel point he secures a text that
may be translated, “and have not
had regard for me in the law”; the
last two clauses, “according as ye
have not kept my ways, nor have had
regard for me in the Jaw.” A similar
expression occurs in i, 8, translated
“accept your persons’=have regard
for your persons. The emendation
improves the text, but this in itself is
not conclusive evidence that it re-
stores the original reading.

CoNDEMNATION OF MrxED MARRIAGES
AND oF Drvorcer, 10-16.

With ii, 10, begins a new section,
which, until quite recently, has been
universally interpreted as dealing
with marriage alliances between Jews
and heathen women (10-12), and the
putting away of Jewish wives by their
husbands (13-16). Torrey (Journal
of Biblical Literature, 1898, pp. Lf.)
declares this interpretation to be un-
tenable: ‘To treat these expressions
literally, as referring to an actual
marriage and divorce, involves one in
insuperable difficulties.” And again:
“There is one, and only one, admissi-
ble interpretation of the passage;
namely, that which recognizes the
fact that the prophet is using figura-
tive language. Judah, the faithless —
husband, has betrayed the wife of his
youth, the covenant religion, by
espousing the daughter of a strange
god, that is, a foreign cult. The
whole passage from beginning to end
CHAPTER II. 721

 

is a telling rebuke of unfaithfulness to
Jehovah, which would prove the sui-
cide of the nation.” Adopting this
interpretation, he gives the following
summary of contents: ‘The unfaith-
fulness of part of the people threatens
to forfeit for all the covenant of the
fathers (verse 10). Judah has dealt
falsely with the wife of his youth, the
covenant religion, and is wedding a
strange cult. The sanctuary of Je-
hovah is profaned (11, 12). The
worshipers (who, of course, insist that.
they are still worshiping Jehovah)
lament, because their offerings fail to
bring a blessing, and are strangely
unable to see why ill fortune has come
upon them (13, 14a). Such sin merits
the severest punishment, and Israel
may well be warned (12, 15, 16).”
Winckler agrees with Torrey in in-
terpreting the passage figuratively,
but he differs from him in dating it.
Arguing along different lines, he at-
tempts to show that the verses are di-
rected against the innovations intro-
duced in the temple by Antiochus
Epiphanes during the early part of
the second century B.C. This posi-
tion he can establish only by means
of unwarranted emendations of the
text, a fact which in itself makes the
view improbable. Torrey’s view is
not open to the same objection, and
the example of Hosea (see p. 21f)
shows that the marriage relation
did serve to some of the proph-
ets as a symbol of spiritual rela-
tions.

The chief argument of Torrey
against the literal translation is ex-
pressed in these words: “To assume,
in the first place [there seems to be
no second], that divorce of Israelitish
wives stood in any necessary or even
probable connection with the wedding
of women from other nations is ridicu-
lous.” The reply may be made:
(1) Is it really improbable to suppose
that in many cases there did exist a
close connection between the two
abuses? (2) There is nothing to pre-
vent us from understanding the verses
as a condemnation of two distinct

 

crimes, practiced during the same
general period, though by differ-
ent individuals. The objection
raised against the literal interpre-
tation can hardly be regarded as con-
clusive.

All scholars admit that the passage
is one of the most difficult in the en-
tire book, and it is quite certain that
the text has suffered in the course of
transmission. As a result many
emendations have been attempted
(see comments); even entire verses
have been omitted as later additions.
G. A. Smith, for example, omits 11-
13a, not because he considers the con-
demnation of heathen alliances un-
suitable in the days of Malachi, but
“because they disturb the argument,”
which, he thinks, deals exclusively
with the divorce question. ‘To him
(the prophet] the fatherhood of God
is not merely a relation of power and
authority, requiring reverence from
the nation. It constitutes the mem-
bers of the nation one close brother-
hood, and against this divorce is a
crime and unnatural cruelty.” Marti
agrees with him; on the other hand,
Nowack and Wellhausen among recent
commentators retain the whole sec-
tion, interpreting it literally of mar-
riages with heathen women and di-
vorces of Jewish wives. Whether or
not this interpretation will involve
us in “insuperable difficulties” will be
seen as we proceed.

Verse 10 stands at the head of the
entire discussion. The prophet ad-
heres to his custom (see oni, 2) of com-
mencing with a general statement,
which he applies to the individual
cases as he proceeds. In verse 10 he
emphasizes the generally accepted
truth that Jehovah is the father of all
Israelites and the related truth that
all Jews are brothers and _ sisters.
Every crime against this fraternal re-
lation, be it the marrying of foreign
women or the putting away of Jewish
wives, is an offense against Jehovah
and against the covenant which
binds Israel to Jehovah as son to
father.
722

MALACHI.

 

not all one father? "hath not one
God created us? why do we deal
treacherously every man against his
brother, by profaning the covenant
of our fathers?

11 Judah hath dealt treacherous-
ly, and an abomination is commit-
ted in Israel and in Jerusalem; for
Judah hath profaned the holiness of
the Lorp which he ‘loved, cand

 

2 Job 31. 15.—? Or, ought to love.

 

Have we not all one father?—That
is, Jehovah. He was the father of
Israel in a sense in which he was not
the father of other nations, and this
the people would readily admit (see
oni, 6, and references there, especially
Hos. xi, 1). Hath not one God cre-
ated us?—The prophet is not con-
cerned here with the creation of all
mankind—it also he would have
ascribed to Jehovah—but only with
that of the Jews. One and the same
God has created all of them. This
again no one would deny. But if the
two propositions stated are correct,
then the individual Israelites are
bound to one another in a close bond
of brotherhood. In i, 6, the prophet
inquires why they do not meet the
obligations toward Jehovah which
this peculiar relation imposes upon
them; here, why they disregard the
obligations toward one another which
grow out of this same relation. Deal
treacherously every man against his
brother—Better, one against another,
since offenses against women receive
chief condemnation. They are deal-
ing with one another in a manner con-
trary to the spirit of brotherhood.
Wherein the treacherous dealings con-
sisted is stated in the succeeding
verses (11, 14, 15, 16). By profaning
the covenant of our fathers—The
covenant meant is that made by
Jehovah with the ancestors of the
Jews, when he chose them to be his
own peculiar people (compare, for
example, Exod. xix, 5, 6; Lev. xx,
24, 26). They desecrated this cove-
nant when they entered into foreign
marriage alliances and when they
treated one another in an unfair
spirit.

Verses 11, 12 give the first specifi-
cation under the general indictment
in verse 10. They have desecrated

 

o Ezra 9. 1; 10. 2; Neh. 13. 28.

 

the covenant by marrying ‘“‘the daugh-
ter of a strange god.” Judah—The
postexilic community, which settled
chiefly in the territory formerly occu-
pied by Judah. Hath dealt treach-
erously—Repeated from verse 10, to
emphasize the accusation about to be
uttered. An abomination is com-
mitted—Everything contrary to the
spirit of his covenant with Israel is an
abomination to Jehovah. In Israel—
If original, Isracl is identical with
Judah in the preceding clause. After
the exile the distinction between north
and south disappeared, hence the two
names might be used interchangeably.
Some commentators, however, con-
sider Jsrael an interpolation; its omis-
sion would produce a more satisfac-
tory parallelism: “Judah hath dealt
treacherously, and an abomination is
committed in Jerusalem.” The latter
is named as a poetic variation; it is
practically equivalent to Judah and
denotes the entire postexilic com-
munity; perhaps it is meant to empha-
size the idea that the abomination has
been committed in the very dwelling
place of Jehovah. Profaned the holi-
ness—Better, margin R. V., “‘sanctu-
ary,’ meaning the chosen people
itself, which is holy because it is
set apart for the service of Jehovah
(see on Zech. xiv, 20). Judah has
become desecrated through the con-
duct of its own individual members,
hence it is no longer a fit dwelling
place for Jehovah. Which he loved—
The contrast between the loving atti-
tude of Jehovah toward the people
and the rebellion of the people toward
their God brings out more forcibly the
baseness of their conduct (compare
Isa. i, 2-4; Hos. xi, 1ff.; Amos ii,
6ff.). How they have profaned the
sanctuary of Jehovah is stated in the
last clause. Hath married the daugh-
CHAPTER II.

hath married the daughter of a
strange god. 12 The Lorp will cut
off the man that doeth this, 8the

8 Or, him that waketh, and htm that

723
master and the scholar, out of the
tabernacles of Jacob, pand him that
offereth an offering unto the Lorp

answereth.—v Neh. 13. 28, 29.

 

ter of a strange god—The Jews, the
sons of Jehovah, marry women who
are worshipers of other deities; in doing
this they introduce into their own
nation impure blood and impure re-
ligious ideas, the holy seed is mingled
with the seed of the land (Ezra ix, 2),
and thus they desecrate it in the sight
of their God. For the prevalence of
mixed marriages in the days of Mala-
chi see Ezra ix, 1ff.; x, 1ff.; Neh. xiii,
23ff.

12. Jehovah must punish this dese-
cration with destruction. The entire
verse is more or less obscure, but the
translation of R. V. is to be preferred:
“Jehovah will cut off, to the man that
doeth this, him that waketh and him
that answereth, out of the tents of
Jacob, and him that offereth an offer-
ing unto Jehovah of hosts.” A more
literal rendering would be in the form
of a wish, ‘“May Jehovah cut off ...”;
but, since the wish is born of the con-
viction that Jehovah will do it, the
translation of R. V. is permissible.
To the man (R. V.)—The judgment
will fall upon the criminal, but it will
not stop with his own destruction; his
offspring also will be slain. Him that
waketh and him that answereth (R. V.)
—A.V., “the master and the scholar,”
a translation that is based upon ancient
rabbinical tradition. Of these words
Torrey says, “The phrase has always
been, and is still, a riddle.” All in-
terpreters agree that an expression
including the entire family or posterity
of the condemned man is expected,
and various attempts have been made
to get this meaning from the present
Hebrew text. It is easy to call the
phrase ‘‘a proverbial expression for
every living member of the trans-
gressor’s family”; but to prove the
assertion is more difficult. That the
Hebrew does at times express ‘“to-
tality by opposites” is true (Deut.
xxxii, 36), but is wake the opposite

 

of answer? Von Orelli renders the
first verb “that calleth,”’ but this
translation is without support in
Hebrew usage. Perowne says, “It is
taken from sentries or watchmen who
as they go their rounds give their
challenge and receive the watchword
in reply.” Then, following Gesenius,
he calls attention to the Arabic ex-
pression, “‘no one crying out and no
one answering,” that is, no one alive;
but again, wake is not the same as
cry out. And yet if the text is cor-
rect, some such meaning must be
given to the words. Following LXX.,
Wellhausen, by changing a single
consonant, gets ‘witness and defen-
der’; G. A. Smith, “champion”; as if
the prophet meant to say that every-
one who might take the part of the
criminal would be cut off. It may be
questioned whether this is really an
improvement over the present text, for
the introduction of legal terms and a
judgment scene seems unexpected and
out of place in this context. Peshitto
reads, “his son and his son’s son,”
which expresses the right idea, but, as
Torrey remarks, may be only a sensi-
ble guess. On the basis of “root...
branch” in iv, 1, Torrey suggests to
read the same words here, completely
(see on Amos ii, 9). If an emenda-
tion is needed, which is by no means
certain, since the present reading may
embody an idiomatic saying whose
full force is no longer understood, that
of Torrey is the most satisfactory
offered thus far. The tents of Jacob
(R. V.)\—A poetic designation of the
entire Jewish community. Him that
offereth an offering—These words arc
not to be limited to the priests, but
include everyone “who is willing to
offer a gift upon the altar for men of
this description” (Jerome).

In verse 13 the prophet passes to
the second crime against the covenant
(verse 10), the divorcing of Jewish
724

MALACHI.

 

of hosts. 13 And this have ye done
again, covering the altar of the LorpD
with tears, with weeping, and with
crying out, insomuch that he regard-
eth not the offering any more, or re-
ceiveth it with goodwill at yourhand.

14 Yet ye say, Wherefore? Be-
cause the Lorp hath been witness

between thee and sthe wife of thy
youth, against whom thou hast
dealt treacherously: "yet is she thy
companion, and the wife of thy
covenant. 15 And ‘did not he make
one? Yet had he the *residue of the
spirit. And wherefore one? That
he might seek 1° ta godly seed.

 

a Prov. 5.18. t Prov. 2. 17, Matt.
19. 4, 5.—-® Or, excellency.

 

10 Heb. a seed of God.—t* Ezra 9. 2;
1 Cor. 7. 14.

 

wives, which in many cases—though
by no means always—may have been
closely connected with the marrying
of heathen women, a fact which may
explain the joining of the two accu-
sations. The utterance of Malachi
marks an.advance from Deut. xxiv, 1,
which permits divorce under certain
conditions, toward the words of Jesus
(Matt. xix, 3ff.), due, perhaps, to the
fact that in his day the divorce evil
had become prevalent enough to
prove a menace to the integrity of the
community, so that it was necessary
to take stringent measures against it.

And this have ye done again—R. V.,
“And this again ye do.” The words
introduce the second accusation and
might be rendered freely, ‘And,
secondly, ye do this.” The rest of
the verse is explanatory of this.
Covering—Though this is a literal
translation, R. V. expresses the
thought more idiomatically, “ye cov-
er.” Tears. ... weeping, ... crying
out—R. V., “sighing.” Not the weep-
ing and sighing of the cast-off wives,
but the weeping of the treacherous
and profane in the community (verse
10). Inasmuch—They cry out in de-
spair, because they cannot under-
stand why Jehovah refuses to look
with favor upon their religious cere-
monies (compare i, 9).

14. Wherefore—Wherefore does Je-
hovah pay no attention to them?
This cry gives the prophet an op-
portunity to present the accusation.
Because Jehovah hath been witness
between thee and the wife of thy
youth—Of the marriage as well as
of the wicked putting away, and as a
righteous God he must avenge the
wrong; he cannot look with favor upon

 

a hypocrite (Gen xxxi, 50; compare
Isa. liv, 6). Dealt treacherously—In
putting her aside when he should have
loved her faithfully. Thy companion—
In joy and sorrow. This companion-
ship should have united them more
closely. The wife of thy covenant—
Not the marriage covenant, but the
covenant with Jehovah (verse 10).
In contrast to “the daughter of the
strange god”’ (verse 11), the wife be-
longing to the religious community
of Jehovah. To cast off such a one
is a desecration of the covenant (verse
10).

The translation and interpretation
of 15a are matters of dispute; indeed,
it is very doubtful if, without deep-
going emendations, an entirely satis-
factory sense can be had; but who can
be certain that the ‘“emended” text
represents the thought of the prophet?
Two interpretations of the text as it
stands may be given. The one is that
of Pusey, who follows closely the
translation of A. V. Did not he—
God. Make one—Adam. “In order
to designate the unity of marriage, he
willed to create but one.” Yet had he
the residue of the spirit—The breath
of life by which man became a living
soul (Gen. ii, 7); this God possessed
in an abundant measure, so that,
had he desired, he might have created
any number of men or women, but
he deliberately chose the other wry.
Wherefore one?—Wherefore did Cod
create one man, and did create from
him a mate, the two to be one, ne-ver
to be put asunder? The answer is
supplied by the succeeding clause.
That he might seek a godly seed—
A seed worthy of God. Only in the
manner selected could he accomplish
 

CHAPTER II. 725
Therefore take heed to your spirit, | against the wife of his youth. 16
let none deal "treacherously | For «the Lorp, the God of Israel,

and

 

11 Or, unfatihfully.

u Deut. 24.1; Matt. 5. 32; 19. 8.

 

this purpose. 15b is an exhortation
to the prophet’s contemporaries.
These things being so, they would
better be careful about their conduct.
Embodying this interpretation, Pe-
rowne gives the following translation
of 15a: “Did not he (God) make
one (one man, and out of him one
woman, and the twain ‘one flesh’)?
And (yet) the residue of the spirit
(of life) was his (so that he could,
had it pleased him, have created, for
example, one man and many women).
And why (did he make) the one? He
sought (what only by the purity and
integrity of the marriage bond can be
secured) a godly seed.” Much, in-
deed, has to be read between the lines,
but when all that is placed in paren-
thesis is read in or gathered from the
text, the result is not inappropriate.
But is it the thought Malachi desired
to express? He certainly might have
expressed it with less obscurity.

Most scholars who retain the pres-
ent text prefer an entirely different
translation and interpretation. In part
this translation is given in margin
R. V.; for the whole of 15a that of
Von Orelli may be quoted: “And not
one has done this, while yet a remnant
of spirit was in him. And how (did)
the one so? In seeking a seed of
God.” 15b is again understood as an
appeal to the prophet’s contempo-
raries. According to this translation
the prophet means to contrast the
conduct of his contemporaries with
the actions of past generations, and
he declares that no one who had even
a remnant of reason or of sense for
right and wrong had ever put away
his wife in the manner in which they
were doing it. Spirit—A sense of
right and wrong, the faculty that de-
termines moral and religious actions.
How did the one so? (see translation
above)—These words must be under-
stood either as an objection raised by
some bystander, or by the prophet

 

himself to forestall an objection by
some one else. The one would be
Abraham, who put away Hagar. If
their conduct is so reprehensible in
the sight of God, how did this friend
of God come to put away one who
had borne children to him? To this
the prophet replies, he did so in order
to raise up a godly seed. Had he re-
tained Hagar and her child, the cov-
enant seed might have become tainted
and corrupt.

This translation reproduces the He-
brew more faithfully than the other,
but again much has to be read be-
tween the lines. The construction is
peculiar, and the one as a designa-
tion of Abraham, who has not yet
been named, appears strange. Be-
sides, the analogy breaks down, for
Abraham did not put away the wife
of his youth, Sarah, but Hagar, who
had never been his legitimate wife.
It is a very easy way out of the diffi-
culty to say, “One feels the holy in-
dignation under the power of which
the prophet speaks in the style, which
is abrupt and obscure.” The present
writer, however, is inclined to think
that the obscurity has arisen not so
much from “holy indignation” as from
a corruption of the text. Wellhausen
rewrites the text, “Hath not one God
(compare verse 10) created and sus-
tained our breath? And what does
he desire? A seed of God.’ This
gives good sense, for it furnishes two
reasons why the hearers should ab-
stain from their evil practices: (1) one
God has created both husband and
wife (see on verse 10); (2) he desires
a pure offspring, which can be had
only if they retain their Jewish wives.
But is it the original text?

15b is an exhortation to discon-~
tinue the practices condemned in
verse 14. Take heed to your spirit—
Identical in meaning with “lay to
heart’’ (verse 2) and “take heed to
yourselves” (Jer. xvii, 21; Deut. iv,
726

MALACHI.

 

saith that he hateth “putting
away: for one covereth violence
with his garment, saith the Lorp
of hosts: therefore take heed to your
spirit, that ye deal not treacherously.

17 *Ye have wearied the LoRpD

with your words. Yet ye say,
Wherein have we wearied him?
When ye say, Every onethat doeth
evil is good in the sight of the LORD,
and he delighteth in them; or,
Where is the God of judgment?

 

12 Or, if he hate her, put her away.—
13 Heb. to put away.

xIsa. 43. 24; Amos 2,
13-15,

13; chap. 3.

 

15). The Hebrew reads in the last
clause “‘the wife of thy youth,” which
should be changed—so the English
translations—into “his youth,” or,
following some of the ancient versions,
the whole sentence should read, ‘‘and
deal not treacherously with the wife
of thy youth.”

Verse 16 supports the exhortation
of 15b. That he hateth—Better, R.
V., “I hate” (see on Amos v, 21). He
hates and must hate abominations of
every sort. Putting away—A com-
mon expression for divorcing a wife.
In Deut. xxiv, 1-5, provision is made
for divorce under certain conditions;
Malachi seems nearer the spirit of
Matt. v, 32; xix, 3ff., than Deuteron-
omy. The condemnation of the cus-
tom by Malachi implies that in his
day the law was wantonly abused.
For one covereth violence with his
garment—R. V., ‘‘and him that cover-
eth his garment with violence’—do I
hate; literally, and one covers with
violence his garment. If the literal
translation is accepted verse 16 pre-
sents two reasons why the hearers
should discontinue their practices:
(1) Jehovah hates their conduct; (2)
by it they cover themselves with vio-
lence or sin. R. V. codrdinates these
words with the preceding clause and
renders, ‘and him that covereth his
garment with violence’ (by putting
away his wife); such a one also Je-
hovah hates. If his garment could
be understood as equivalent to his
wife—so after Arabic analogies, Hit-
zig, Ewald, and others, but Hebrew
usage does not favor it—this would
give good sense; but the general
thought that Cod hates the sinner
appears out of place in the midst of
the specific denunciations of this sec-
tion. One can hardly suppress a

 

suspicion that here also the text has
suffered. The section closes with a
repetition of the exhortation to desist
from the reprehensible conduct.

JEHOVAH’s APPROACH IN JUDGMENT,
ii, 17-iii, 5.

In ii, 17, the prophet introduces to
the reader a new class of thinkers in
the postexilic community, the skep-
tics, who have lost faith in Jehovah
and in his word, because the sinful
prospered while the good suffered.
From these inequalities they con-
cluded that Jehovah was taking no
interest in the affairs of the nation and
doubted that he would ever appear
in judgment to right the wrongs
(ii, 17). To this complaint Jehovah
replies that he will suddenly appear,
preceded by a messenger who will
prepare his way (iii, 1); his coming
will be terrible to all who have de-
parted from the right, for he will come
like a refiner’s fire to burn up the
dross (2). The priests he will purify,
so that they may again offer sacrifices
in “righteousness” (3, 4); and from the
nation at large he will sweep away ev-
erything that is contrary to his will (5).

17. Ye—The latter part of the
verse indicates that the prophet here
addresses the skeptics who doubt
that Jehovah takes an interest in the
affairs of the nation, or that he is a
“God of justice.’ Have wearied—
His patience is exhausted, he can
keep silent no longer. With your
words—Quoted by the prophet in the
rest of the verse. To this general
accusation some one might reply (see
on i, 2), How have we wearied him
with our words? And the prophet
promptly meets the challenge. Every
one that doeth evil is good in the sight
of Jehovah—So it would seem to those
CHAPTER III.

727

 

CHAPTER III.
EHOLD, *I will send my mes-
senger, and he shall »prepare

the way before me: and the Lord,
whom ye seek, shall suddenly come
to his temple, ‘even the messenger

 

® Matt. 11. 10; Mark 1. 2; Luke 1. 76;

7, 27,—>» Isa. 40. 3,

 

© Isa. 63. 9.

 

who shared the philosophic thought
of the day, that prosperity was an
evidence of piety and adversity a sign
of godlessness. The same complaint
finds expression in Psa. xxxvii, xlix,
lxxiii. ‘Behold, these are the wicked
and being always at ease they in-
crease in riches; surely, in vain have
I cleansed my heart, and washed my
hands in innocency; for all day long
have I been plagued, and chastened
every morning” (Psa. Ixxiii, 12-14).
But, unlike the psalmist, the con-
temporaries of Malachi did not go
‘nto the sanctuary of God” to have
their perplexity solved; on the con-
trary, they recklessly challenged
Jehovah. The evil doers who pros-
pered in the days of Malachi were the
nobles who oppressed the poor (Neh.
v), though it is not impossible that the
prosperity of the nations surrounding
the Jews, compared with the poverty
of the chosen people, was partly
responsible for this skepticism.
He delighteth in them—Only on this
assumption could they explain their
prosperity. Or—If the preceding ac-
cusation is not deserved. Where is
the God of judgment?—R. V., “of
justice.” If he has no pleasure in the
wicked why does he not interfere in
righteous judgment? (Compare Isa.
v, 18, 19.)

CHAPTER III.

Jehovah accepts the challenge im-
plied in the question and replies in
ili, 1ff., that he will appear speedily
in a terrible judgment, that will result
in the utter annihilation of the wicked,
and in the purification and exaltation
of the faithful. But before he him-
self appears he will send a messenger
to prepare his way. Behold, I will
send—Better, Behold, I am about to
send. The Hebrew construction im-
plies the imminence of the event (G.-
K., 116p). My messenger—As the com-

 

ing of an earthly king is heralded by
a forerunner, so the coming of Jehovah
will be heralded by a messenger. This
messenger is not to be identified with
“the messenger of the covenant” in
this same verse, nor is he identical
with the prophet, as if he declared
himself to be the forerunner of Jeho-
vah; on the other hand, he is identical
with Elijah mentioned in iv, 5. Pre-
pare the way—By removing every
obstacle, so that Jehovah can move
along smoothly. This forerunner is
needed the more because Jehovah
will come suddenly. The prediction
is based upon Isa. xl, 3ff. The Lord—
God himself. This title, which de-
notes the divine sovereignty, is fre-
quently used by Isaiah, as here, to
introduce threats. The change from
the first. person to the third is not
uncommon in prophetic discourse.
Whom ye seek—Points back to ii, 17,
where they are represented as in-
quiring where he is (compare
Isa. v, 18). Suddenly—Unexpectedly
(compare verse 5; Luke xxi, 34). To
his temple—From which his activities
will proceed once more (compare Amos
i, 2; Isa. ii, 2-4). The coming will be
in fulfillment of the prophecies of
Haggai (ii, 9) and Zechariah (ii, 5,
10; viii, 3; compare Ezek. xliii, 7).
Even the messenger of the covenant—
According to this translation the mes-
senger of the covenant is identical
with the Lord; if so, he would be the
same as the “angel of Jehovah,” who
sometimes is identical with Jehovah
himself (see on Zech. i, 11). This
identification is favored by the paral-
lelism and the entire context, which
knows of the coming of only one per-
son to judgment. Why the title is
applied to Jehovah is not quite clear;
some have seen here an allusion to the
new covenant of Jeremiah (xxxi, 31-
34); Smend explains it as a title de-
scribing Jehovah as the one living
728

of the covenant, whom ye delight
in: behold, “he shall come, saith the
Lorp of hosts. 2 But who may
abide ethe day of his coming? and
fwho shall stand when he appeareth?

 

d Hag. 2. 7. e Chap. 4. 1.—-! Rev.
6. 17.

in the midst of the covenant people
(compare Dan. xi, 22, 28, 30). Both
these interpretations seem far-fetched.
It seems much better to bring the
expression into connection with the
covenant mentioned in ii, 10, and
alluded to several times in chapter ii.
Jehovah, appearing for judgment, is
called the messenger of the covenant,
because by means of the judgment he
seeks to reéstablish the covenant
(compare verses 3-5), which priests
and people have so shamefully dese-
crated. Whom ye delight in—Identical
in meaning with ‘‘whom ye seek” in
the parallel clause; like it, it refers
back to ii, 17. There they express a
wish for the appearance of Jehovah;
this wish will be granted, though the
sequel may not be to their liking
(compare Amos v, 18-20). R. V.
reads, “and the messenger of the
covenant,” as if the messenger and
the Lord were two distinct persons.
Those who accept this translation,
which the Hebrew permits, identify
this messenger either with the mes-
senger who is to be the forerunner of
Jehovah, or with a being not men-
tioned otherwise. To identify the
two messengers with one another is
not possible, since the one precedes
Jehovah while the other accompanies
him. The other view sees in the
messenger of the covenant the patron
angel of the covenant nation (Dan.
x, 13, 20), who will appear with Jeho-
vah and will sit by the side of Jehovah
when he comes to dwell in the midst
of the people. This is not an impos-
sible interpretation; but on the whole
the first interpretation discussed,
which identifies the messenger of the
covenant with the Lord, is to be pre-
ferred. Behold, he shall come—The
promise that Jehovah will come is
reiterated for the sake of emphasis,

 

MALACHI.

for the is like a refiner’s fire, and
like fullers’ soap: 3 And the shall
sit as a refiner and purifier of silver:
and he shall purify the sons of Levi,
and purge them as gold and silver,

£ See Isa. 4. 4; Matt. 3. 10-12.» Isa,
1. 25; Zech. 13. 9.

and receives additional strength from
the closing formula, “saith Jehovah of
hosts.”

2. However, they will be disap-
pointed when he appears, for he
will come to execute a terrible judg-
ment (compare Amos v, 18-20).
Who may abide . . . who shall stand
—The moral and spiritual condition
of the contemporaries of Malachi was
such that it would be difficult for any
one to endure the manifestation of
Jehovah, for it meant death and de-

struction to everything impure. Day
of his coming . . . when he appeareth
—As announced in verse 1. This

is the day of Jehovah (see on Joel i, 15).
Refiner’s fire—Which burns up all the
impure ingredients that are mixed
with the precious metal (compare
Zech. xiii, 9). Fullers’ soap—The
process of fulling “seems to have con-
sisted in washing the material with
some preparation of lye, beating or
rubbing it, and exposing it to the
rays of the sun.” This preparation
of lye, which was intended to remove
all impurity, is here called soap (com-
pare Jer. ii, 22). That the day of Je-
hovah is a day of purging and purifica-
tion is an idea frequently expressed in
the Old Testament (Isa. iv, 2-4; Zech.
xili, 9; compare Matt. iii, 12).

3, 4. The first task of the Lord will
be to purge the priests, that he may
have once more (compare ii, 5, 6) a
pure priesthood. Here as everywhere
in the book the priests stand in the
foreground. He shall sit—As a judge
upon the judgment seat; and yet his
primary purpose is net to condemn
but to sift the good from the worth-
less, though in the process of sifting
the dross will be burned. Sons of
Levi—The priests, who were the de-
scendants of Levi (see on ii, 4,5, and
references there). Purge them—From
CHAPTER JIL

729

 

that they may ioffer unto the Lorp
an offering in righteousness. 4
Then ‘shall the offering of Judah
and Jerusalem be pleasant unto the
Lorp, as in the days of old, and as
in former years. 5 And I will come
near to you to judgment; and I will

be a swift witness against the sorcer-
ers, and against the adulterers, !and
against false swearers, and against
those that 2oppress the hireling in
his wages, the widow, and the fath-
erless, and that turn aside the stran-
ger from his right, and fear not me,

 

i1 Pet. 2. 5. Chap. 1. 11.—1 Or,
anctent. ee oo

! Zech. 5.4; James 5. 4, 12.— Or, de-
fraud.

 

all sins and impurities that have made
them unfit to sepresent the people
before Jehovah (compare i, 9; ii, 8, 9).
This done, they may again serve be-
fore the altar. In righteousness—
Not only in outward conformity to the
law, but in a right state of heart, mind,
and life. Offered by the regenerated
priests, sacrifice will again be accept-
able to Jehovah, and not, as now,
abominable (i, 9; ii, 8). Days of old,
. . . former years—When the faithful
Levi (ii, 4-6) ministered in the sanctu-

ary.
5. Jehovah will prove himself a
God of judgment (ii, 17) to every evil
doer, for the judgment will not be
confined to the priests; the whole na~
tion will feel it and all sinners will be
swept away. Near to you—To the
people at large. To judgment—A di-
rect reference to the closing words of
ii, 17. A swift witness—Jehovah is
swift because (1) he will no longer
delay but come speedily (iii, 1; com-
pare Zeph. i, 14); (2) he knows the
facts, and therefore needs to spend no
time in securing the evidence; (3) he
is both witness and judge (compare
Isa. iii, 13-15; Psa. 1, 6, 7), and so can
execute the judgment promptly.
Sorcerers—This is a general term
denoting all persons who claimed to
possess power over evil spirits, or
to reveal secrets, or to consult the
dead, etc. (compare Exod. xxii, 18;
in the New Testament, Acts viii, 9;
xiii, 6). Adulterers—The low esti-
mate placed upon the marriage rela-
tion (ii, 10-16) would in many cases
result in the practice of adultery.
The laws against this form of vice
were very strict (Lev. xx, 10; Exod.
xx, 14; compare Hos. iv, 2). False
swearers—See on Zech. v, 3, 4; Hos.

 

iv, 2; compare Lev. xix, 12. Oppress
the hireling in his wages—Hebrew
usage as well as the context favors the
omission of “in his wages,” though
the omission does in no wise affect
the sense (compare Lev. xix, 13;
Deut. xxiv, 14,15). Widow, ... fath-
erless—Also dependent upon the verb
“oppress.” These two classes, in
many cases without human defenders,
were under the special care of Jehovah
and of his people (Exod. xxii, 22-24;
compare Isa. i, 17), but again and
again the unscrupulous nobles forgat
their obligations (compare Isa. i, 23;
x, 2). Turn aside the stranger—See
on Amos v, 12. The Hebrew gér,
translated “stranger,” R. V. “so-
journer,”’ is a technical term, which
denotes a foreigner settled tempo-
rarily in Israel. W.R. Smith de-
scribes him as ‘‘a man of another tribe
or district who, coming to sojourn in a
place where he was not strengthened
by the presence of his own kin, put
himself under the protection of a clan
or of a powerful chief.” Like the
widows and orphans, these sojourners
were under the special protection of
Jehovah (compare Deut. xxvii, 19;
Exod. xxii, 21). Fear not me—See
on ii, 5. The lack of this fear was
responsible for all other transgressions.
Jn this manner the “God of judgment”
will vindicate himself.

Tur WroncruL WITHHOLDING OF
TirHEs AND OFFERINGS, 6-12.

Verse 6 is somewhat obscure; there-
fore it is difficult to trace the exact
relation of this section to the one pre-
ceding. Some prefer to make verse 6
the conclusion of the preceding para-
graph (see below) and to begin anew
with verse 7, but the verse is equally
730

MALACHI.

 

saith the Lorpof hosts. 6 Forl am
the Lorp, ™I change not; .*therefore
ye sons of Jacob are not consumed.

7 Even from the days of °your
fathers ye are gone away from mine
ordinances, and have not kept them.

 

m Num. 23. 19; Rom. 11. 29; James 1. 17.

n Lam, 3. 22, © Acts 7. 51.

 

 

suitable as an introduction to what
follows. Verses 6-12 as a whole are
the continuation of the thought of
ii, 17-iii, 5, since they also are directed
against the skeptics of ii, 17; and
therefore we can speak of a break be-
tween verse 5 and verse 6 only in the
sense that in iii, 6-12, the prophet
deals with a new phase of the ques-
tion under consideration; there is
continuity of thought in the entire
section ii, 17-iv, 3.

The skeptics have come to doubt
that Jehovah is doing anything for
them or the nation, and as a result
they no longer observe the require-
ments of the law concerning tithes and
offerings (6-8). They have cried out
for his manifestations (ii, 17), but,
says the prophet, he can return in
power and mercy only if the people
repent and turn to him (7). When
they inquire how they are to return
he informs them, by the bringing of
tithes and offerings which they owe
to him. If they do this they will
soon discover that Jehovah still lives
and that he can bless them with abun-
dant prosperity (9-12). In order to
rightly understand the spirit of the
prophet’s message, the connection of
this passage with the one preceding
(especially verses 3-5) must not be
overlooked. He condemns the neg-
lect of tithes and offerings, not be-
cause he considers that in itself the
greatest sin in the sight of God, but
because he understands that this neg-
lect is due ‘‘to a religious cause, un-
belief in Jehovah, and that the return
to belief in him could not therefore be
shown in a more practical way than
by the payment of tithes.”

Verse 6 declares that the charge
brought in ii, 17, is unwarranted.
I am the Lord, I change not—R. V.,
“J, Jehovah, change not.” He is
still the “God of judgment.” If
there seems to be a change in the

 

character of his manifestations, this
must be accounted for by the change
in the people’s attitude toward him
(compare Num. xxiii, 19; James i, 17).
Therefore ye sons of Jacob are not
consumed—This can only mean that
because he is an unchangeable God,
still recognizing certain covenant obli-
gations (see on ii, 5), the destruction
which they fully deserve on account
of their rebellion has been withheld
thus far. It must be admitted that
this thought is not quite suitable in the
present context; a thought like “but
ye, sons of Jacob, have changed”
would be more in accord with the
preceding statement. There is no ob-
jection against substituting but for
therefore, as the Hebrew permits
either translation; the difficulty is in
the verb. Von Orelli, with a slight
change in the vocalization, reads
“you have not completed,” that is,
your sins. This reading connects
verse 6 more closely with verse 5, and
the verse becomes the conclusion of
iil, 1-5, “I will be a swift witness, .
for I change not (I am still the God
of judgment)”; on the other hand,
“you have not stopped sinning.”
The emendation improves the present
text, but it does not give the thought
one would naturally expect. There
remains more or less obscurity and
uncertainty.

In accord with his custom to state
first a general proposition, and then
enlarge upon it, the prophet, in verse
7, points out more fully their incon-
sistency and fickleness hinted at in
verse 6. From the days of your fathers
—An indefinite expression pointing to
the distant past; from time immemo-
rial they have rebelled against Jeho-
vah. Mine ordinances—Or, statutes.
This term comprebends here all ex-
pressions of the divine will, written or
oral, set forth by priest or prophet; all
alike they have disregarded. ‘This dig-
CHAPTER ITI.

»Return unto me, and I will return
unto you, saith the Lorp of hosts.
sBut ye said, Wherein shall we
return?

8 Will a man rob God? Yet ye
have robbed me. But ye say,
Wherein have we robbed thee? ‘In
tithes and offerings. 9 Ye are cursed
with a curse: for ye have robbed me,

P Zech. 1. 3.—1« Chap. 1. 6. t Neh.
13. 10, 12..—=* Prov. 3. 9,10.—t 1 Chron.
26. 20; 2 Chron. 31. 11; Neh. 10. 38;

 

731

even this whole nation. 10 "Bring
ye all the tithes into tthe storehouse,
that there may be meat in mine
house, and prove me now herewith,
saith the Lorp of hosts, if I will not
open you the windows of heaven,
and * spour you out a blessing, that
there shall not be room enough to
receive it. 11 And I will rebuke ythe

 

13. 12. uGen. 7. 11; 2 Kings 7. 2.—-
3 Heb. empty out.——* 2 Chron. 31. 10.—
y Amos 4. 9.

 

obedience on their part is responsible
for the failure of Jehovah to manifest
himself as in the days gone by. Re-
turn unto me—In obedience and love
(see on Hos. xiv, 1; Amos iv, 6; Joel
ii, 12). I will return—In mercy and
loving-kindness. As in other cases
(i, 2, 6; ii, 17), the prophet forestalls
any excuse or attempt of self-justifi-
cation. Wherein shall we return?—
In what particular? The question is
intended to make the impression that
they have done all that may be ex-
pected of them.

8. The reply is in the form of a
question. Will a man rob God?—A
better translation of the first two
clauses would be, “Will a man rob
God, that you rob me?” (Compare
Amos vi, 12.) A question of aston-
ishment that anyone should think of
such a preposterous thing; and yet
they have done it and are still doing
it. The verb is unquestionably used
in the sense of “‘defraud”—they do not
pay their just dues; but there seems
to be insufficient reason for substi-
tuting « different verb in Hebrew.
Again an attempt is made to combat
the prophet, and again he meets the
objection. In tithes and offerings—
These they have withheld, and by
doing so they have defrauded Je-
hovah. The last word means liter-
ally peace offering (compare Ezek. xliv,
30; Neh. x, 39), which belongs to the
priests (Ezek. xliv, 30); here it in-
cludes every offering due to Jehovah.
How they are defrauding him is stated
in i, 6-14. The regulation of the
tithes is found in Deut. xiv, 22ff.;
Lev. xxvii, 30ff.; Num. xviii, 21ff.
(compare Amos iv, 4); they also went

 

to those ministering in the sanctu-
aries. Some portion they may have
given, but not the proper percentage
(compare Acts v, lff.). 9. You are
cursed with a curse—Jehovah has
already shown his displeasure, and
still they continue in the evil ways.
Wherein the curse consisted is not
stated, but verses 10-12 imply that
it came in the form of drought, poor
harvests, and perhaps a plague of
locusts. The curse has fallen upon
the whole nation, because the whole
nation has defrauded him.

In verse 10 the prophet returns to
the question asked in verse 7; he in-
forms his hearers wherein they should
return. Bring ye all the tithes—R. V.,
“the whole tithe.’ The emphasis is
upon whole; fraud is to cease, and they
are to bring to Jehovah his full share.
Storehouse—Connected with the tem-
ple and built for the purpose of re-
ceiving gifts of this sort (compare
2 Chron. xxxi, 11, 12; Neh. x, 38, 39).
Meat—R. V., ‘food’; both for Jeho-
vah (see on i, 7) and for the minister-
ing priests and Levites. Prove me—
Whether or not he is the God he was
in the days when he chose Israel (iii,
6), the God of judgment (ii, 17), who
rewards the good. That he punishes
the evil they should have discovered
long ago (verses 9, 11, 12). Herewith
—Giving to Jehovah all his dues. If
I will not—May be translated “surely
T will.’ Open .. . the windows of
heaven—A figure denoting abundance
of supply; the blessings will come like
pouring rain (Gen. vii, 11; Isa. xxiv,
18; compare 2 Kings vii, 2). There
shall not be room enough—Literally,
until there is no need, which means,
732

devourer for your sakes, and he
shall not ‘destroy the fruits of your
ground; neither shall your vine cast
her fruit before the time in the field,
saith the Lorp of hosts. 12 And
all nations shall call you blessed: for
ye shall be 7a delightsome land,
saith the Lorp of hosts.

= Dan. 8. 9.—* Chap.
Psa. 73. 13;

 

4 Heb. corrupt.
2. 17.—»> Job 21. 14, 15;

MALACHI.

13 *Your words have been stout
against me, saith the Lorp. Yet
ye say, What have we spoken so
much against thee? 14 bYe have
said, It is vain to serve God: and
what profit is it that we have
kept *his ordinance, and that we
have walked ‘mournfully before the

Zeph. 1, 12——5 Heb. his observation.———
6 Heb. in black,

 

in superabundance. While the whole
of verse 10 may be understood as a
promise of blessings of every sort,
in view of verses 11, 12 it is not im-
probable that the prophet has in
mind a specific blessing, abundant
rain, the lack of which has caused the
harvests to fail (compare Joel i, 16-
20; ii, 23; Amos iv, 7, 8). Rebuke—
The rebuke of Jehovah will cause
flight or destruction. The devourer
—tThe locust, so called because of his
destructiveness (see on Joel i, 7; com-
pare Amos iv, 9). For your sakes—
Who in those days will deserve the
favor of Jehovah. Your vine cast her
fruit before the time—Before it ripens
and brings benefit to the owner.
Field—See on Joel i, 11.

12. The prosperity of the people
will become so marked that all the
nations will call them blessed (Zech.
viii, 13, 23). A delightsome land—
A land where joy and felicity reign
(Zech. vii, 14; Isa. xii, 4). In iii, 1-5,
the prophet states how Jehovah will
manifest himself as a God of judg-
ment by destroying the evil doers; in
iii, 6-12, how he will do it by re-
warding the good.

A New Derenss or Jenovan’s Jus-
TIck, ili, 13-iv, 3.

These verses are parallel in thought
to ii, 17-iii, 12. They also are ad-
dressed to a class of doubters (ii, 17)

whose confidence in Jehovah isshaken|. . .

by the apparent inequalities of life;
the good suffer while the wicked
prosper (13-15). They are informed
that their complaint is unwarranted,
that Jehovah’s eye is over all, and,
though at present the lot of the pious
may seem hard, Jehovah keeps a

 

record of those who are faithful, and
when he appears in his temple (iii, 1)
he will make a distinction between
the righteous and the wicked (16-18).
The wicked will be destroyed root and
branch (iv, 1), while the righteous
will be exalted forever (2, 3). In
this wise, the prophet argues, Jehovah
will prove himself a God of judgment
and of justice.

13. Your words—Who are the per-
sons addressed is made clear in verses
14, 15, a class of people whose faith
was shaken. The prophet may have
in mind the same persons whose
skepticism is met in ili, 1-12. Stout
—Literally, are strong. Compare the
colloquial “to be hard on a person.”
Their words contain a serious accusa-
tion, which casts reflections on the
character of Jehovah. Again the
prophet places the general accusation
at the head, to be expanded in the
succeeding verses, and again he makes
a question raised in self-defense his
starting point (see on i, 2). What
have we spoken so much—So much
should be omitted; literally, what have
we conversed, that is, spoken to one
another, against Jehovah. It would
seem that the complaint was a sub-
ject of conversation.

In'verses 14, 15 the prophet an-
swers the question by reminding them
of the contents of their conversations.
Serve God .. . have kept his ordinance
have walked mournfully—The
first is a general statement that they
recognized Jehovah as their Lord and
Master, the second affirms ready
obedience to his will (Zech. iii, 7),
the third refers to acts of penitence
and mourning over shortcomings and
sins (Joel ii, 12). They claim that,
CHAPTER III.

1338

 

Lorp of hosts? 15 And now cwe
call the proud happy; yea, they that
work wickedness ‘are set up; yea,

they that ‘tempt God are even de-
livered.
16 Then they cthat feared the

 

e Psa. 73.
are bullt.

12; chap. 2. 17.—-7 Heb.

A . Psa. 95. 9.—° Psa. 66. 16; chap.

 

so far as they know, they have done
all that the law requires. But, they
argue, if they have done this they are
entitled to the divine blessings. This
belief found support in the law (Deut.
xxvii, 1-14), and it was the popular
idea that a righteous and just God
must reward the faithful service with
prosperity and punish faithlessness
with adversity (see on Amos iv,
6-11). When these contemporaries
of Malachi found that their expecta-
tions were not realized, they were
seriously perplexed. So far as they
could judge, no special benefits came
to those who served Jehovah; on the
contrary, pious persons were deeply
afflicted, while the wicked lived in
ease and prosperity. And now—In-
troduces the statement of a present
fact and experience. We call the
proud happy—The proud are not the
heathen, but the arrogant persons
within the Jewish community, who
have no regard for God and who think
that they can get along without him
and religion, the very opposite of the
humble, God-fearing persons mention-
ed in verse 16 (compare Psa. xix, 13,
14). These arrogant persons, who,
according to the law (Deut. xxvii,
15-26; xxviii, 15ff.), should have been
smitten with the curse of God, were
enjoying the greatest prosperity and
every one considered them perfectly
happy and contented (compare Psa.
xxxvii). Are set up—R. V., “built
up.” Instead of being destroyed
they are built up like a magnificent
structure; they flourish in all their
undertakings. All this was contrary
to the passages quoted from Deu-
teronomy, as well as to such pro-
phetic utterances as Jer. xii, 16,
17. Tempt God—The same verb is
translated in verse 10 ‘prove’; here
the thought is that they challenge
Jehovah through their wickedness
(Isa. v, 18, 19). Persons who do

 

these things surely deserve to be
destroyed, but instead, when they do
get into difficulties, Jehovah gracious-
ly interferes and delivers them. With
these experiences in everyday life
contradicting the teaching of the past,
is it any wonder that the people were
perplexed, that grave doubts came
into the minds of some? Had they
“gone to the sanctuary of God”’ (Psa.
oe 17) they might have found re-
ief.

Not the entire community was car-
ried away by these doubts; there were
those who possessed a stronger faith,
who passed through the same per-
plexities, but believed that Jehovah
was still in the heavens, and that
somehow at some time he would re-
ward the faithful and punish the faith-
less. To these patient saints the
prophet turns in verse 16. Then—
When the skeptically inclined had
given expression to their misgivings
(verses 14, 15). They that feared
Jehovah—The God-fearing persons
(see on ii, 5) are the truly pious, whose
faith in Jehovah is not easily shaken.
Spake often one to another—The evi-
dences of skepticism on every hand
caused the faithful to join forces and
come together frequently for the pur-
pose of strengthening one another’s
faith and counteracting the spread of
skepticism. What they “spake” is not
stated; it is clearly implied, however,
that they spoke words of counsel, en-
couragement, and exhortation, to
wait patiently until Jehovah in his
own good time would manifest his
righteousness. It is not possible to
identify the God-fearing persons of
verse 16 with the persons who gave
expression to their doubts in the
language of verses 14, 15; two dis-
tinct classes are meant. If so, the
LXX. reading this or thus in the place
of then cannot be considered an im-
provement over the present Hebrew
734

MALACHI.

 

Lorp ‘spake often one to another:
and the Lorp hearkened, and heard
at, and 2a book of remembrance was
written before him for them that
feared the Lorp, and that thought
upon his name. 17 And they shall
be mine, saith the Lorp of hosts,
in that day when I make up my
8 ijewels; and *I will spare them, as

a man spareth his own son that
serveth him. 18 !Then shall ye re-
turn, and discern between the
righteous and the wicked, between
him that serveth God and him
that serveth him not.

CHAPTER IV.
OR, behold, «the day cometh,

 

f Heb. 3. 13.—« Psa. 56. 8; Isa. 65. 6;
Rev. 20. 12.——) Exod. 19. 5; Deut. 7. 6;
Psa. 135. 4; Tit. 2. 14; 1 Pet. 2. 98 Or,

special treasure.—i Isa. 62. 3.—* Psa.
1038. 13. 1 Psa, 58. 11.— 4 Joel 2. 31;
chap. 3. 2; 2 Pet. 3. 7.

 

 

text; and if it were original, this could
not refer backward to verses 14, 15,
but must point forward to the conver-
sations of the pious, which are not
stated. It seems best to retain the
present Hebrew text. Hearkened,...
heard—God paid attention to these
conversations, and they were so pleas-
ing to him that he determined to make
a record of them and of the names of
those who continued to fear him.
A book of remembrance—Certainly
this is to be understood figuratively ;
the thought is that Jehovah will
remember the conduct of these pious
souls until the day of reckoning, when
their patience and fidelity will receive
suitable reward. The figure may
have been suggested by the “book of
chronicles” of the Persian court (Esth.
ii, 23; vi, 1; x, 2), in which seem to
have been recorded the names and
deeds of those who merited the royal
favor (compare Isa. iv, 3; Dan. xii, 1).
For them—For the benefit of them.
Thought upon his name—Better, high-
ly esteemed (Isa. xiii, 17) or honored.
For name see on i, 6, and references
there.

17a is rendered more literally in
R. V., “And they shall be mine, saith
Jehovah of hosts, even mine own
possession, in the day that I make”;
margin, “do this’’; literally, And they
shall be to me, saith Jehovah of hosts,
for the day on which I do, a possession.
In the day (R. V.)—Literally, “for
the day.” The names of the pious
will be preserved (verse 16) for the
day of reckoning, so that on that day
they may be singled out to receive
their reward. Make (R. V.)—Or, do;

 

better, act, that is, in judgment. His
inactivity of which the skeptics com-
plain will then cease. A possession (R.
V.)—He will acknowledge them as his
own, and this acknowledgment will as-
sure them the divine favor and protec-
tion (compare Exod. xix, 5), in the day
of reckoning, and will result in their
salvation and glorification. I will
spare them—From all suffering and
harm, just as a loving father protects
his son who has rendered loving and
obedient service to him.

18. In that day the skeptics will
see that Jehovah does distinguish
between the righteous and the wicked,
and that he does reward all according
to their deeds, whether they be good
or evil (2 Cor. v, 10). Then—In the
day mentioned in verse 17. Ye—The
skeptics addressed in verses 13ff. Re-
turn, and discern—Better, ye shall
discern again. Accounts had been
handed down from ancient times
telling how Jehovah rewarded the
good and punished the wicked; in
their own days these divine manifes-
tations seemed to have ceased, hence
the skepticism; but in the day of Je-
hovah’s coming his fairness and jus-
tice will be recognized once more.

CHAPTER IV.

Verses 1-3 are closely connected
with iii, 18. These verses describe
the judgment to be executed upon the
wicked (1), and the blessing to be
poured upon the good (2, 3). For—
Connects verse 1 with iii, 18; they
will discern, because the events de-
scribed here will take place. The
day—The day of Jehovah alluded to
CHAPTER IV.

735

 

that shall burn as an oven; and
all *the proud, yea, and all that do
wickedly, shall be «stubble: and the
day that cometh shall burn them
up, saith the Lorp of hosts, that it
shall ‘leave them neither root nor
branch.

2 But unto you that efear my

name shall the ‘Sun of righteousness
arise with healing in his wings; and
ye shall go forth, and grow up as
calves of the stall. 3 ¢And ye shall
tread down the wicked; for they
shall be ashes under the soles of
your feet in the day that I shall do
this, saith the Lorp of hosts.

 

 

bC . 8. 18.
hap. 8 18

@

© Obad. 18.—4 Amos 2.

9. ap. 3. 16.— Luke 1. 78; Eph.

 

5. 14; 2 Pet. 1. 19; Rev. 2. 28.—¢ 2 Sam.
22, 43; Mic. 7. 10; Zech. 10. 5.

 

in iii, 2, 17 (see on Joel i, 15). Burn
as an oven—R. V., “furnace.” The
terror of the day is likened to a fire
raging in an oven or furnace that
devours everything. Stubble—Dry
stubble cast into the fire is easily con-
sumed (see on Amos vii, 4-6); so evil
doers are easily consumed in the day
of judgment (compare Isa. v, 24;
Zeph. i, 18). All that do wickedly—
Now they may flourish (iii, 15), but
their doom is already decreed. Neither
root nor branch—The destruction will
be complete (see on ii, 12; Amos ii, 9).

2, 3. How different will be the fate
of the righteous! Fear my name—
See on iii, 16, and references there.
At present the God-fearing persons
may seem to be forgotten by Jehovah,
but he remembers their names, and
in due time he will send relief and
salvation. The Sun of righteousness
—‘Just as in the material world the
shadows and distortions and illusions
of night vanish before the light of the
rising sun, which shows all things as
they really are, so in the moral world
the Sun of righteousness shall put to
flight the difficulties and perplexities,
the inequalities and anomalies, which
have been the trial of the faithful and
the weapon of the scoffer’”’ (compare
Isa. 1x, 1). The promise of the rising
of the Sun of righteousness is not a
direct foreshadowing of the coming of
Jesus; it refers rather to the manifesta-
tion of the divine righteousness in the
day of reckoning (iii, 1), which will re-
sult in the justification of himself andin
the salvation of the righteous. Healing
—From all hurts and pains that now
afflict them. In his wings—That is,
the rays emanating from the sun. As
light and warmth are scattered in every

 

direction through these rays, so the
healing influences of the Sun of
righteousness will be felt everywhere.
Go forth, . . . grow up as calves—
When they are touched by the life-
giving power of the divine righteous-
ness “they shall be like calves, which
are forced to stand through the winter
in narrow stalls, but in early spring,
when the sun comes forth from the
wintry cloud veil, are again driven
into the open, and therefore leap and
skip with unrestrained joy.” For
grow up R. V. reads ‘‘gambol,’”’ which
is preferable (compare Isa. xxxv, 6;
Hab. i, 8).

Then they will be exalted, while the
wicked, now proud and prosperous
(iii, 15), will be trampled under foot.
Ye shall tread down . . . ashes—The
wicked, devoured by the fire of judg-
ment, are reduced, as it were, to
ashes, and like ashes they lie helpless
upon the ground, while the pious,
leaping for joy, pass over them. Of
course, these statements are not to be
understood literally; they present
simply a picture of the great contrast
between the destiny of the righteous
and that of the wicked.

Ciosinec ADMONITIONS, 4-6.

The last three verses of the book of
Malachi have no immediate connec-
tion with the preceding section; they
must be understood rather as closing
admonitions belonging to the entire
book, added by Malachi himself or by
a later writer (see on Hos. xiv, 9).
Recent commentators are inclined to
the latter view, though Nowack, who
accepts the originality of verse 4,
admits that the question can never
be settled with absolute certainty-
736

MALACHI.

 

4 Remember ye the law of Moses
my servant, which I commanded

unto him ‘in Horeb for all Israel,
with *the statutes and judgments.

 

bh Exod. 20. 3, ete.

i Deut. 4. 10.— Psa. 147.19.

 

In favor of diversity of authorship
Marti advances the following reasons:
(1) The change in the persons ad-
dressed; in verse 3 the pious are ad-
dressed, in verse 4 the Jews in general.
(2) The expansion of iii, 1, in verses
5, 6 is not in accord with Malachi’s
thought in the former passage. (3)
Malachi never says “day of Jehovah”
or “the great and dreadful day of
Jehovah” (verse 5; compare verse 1;
iii, 17; iv, 3). (4) Malachi speaks
only of ‘the law” (ii, 8, 9), these
verses of the “law of Moses’”’ (verse 4).
(5). Malachi frequently uses the
formula “saith Jehovah of hosts,”
which is never found in these
verses.

That there is an abrupt transition
from verse 3 to 4 must be ad-
mitted, that the linguistic peculiari-
ties mentioned exist is true; but that
iv, 5, 6, are not in accord with the
thought of iii, 1, isnot so evident. The
former is an expansion of the latter
along a line that is perfectly admis-
sible. The evidence is not definite
enough to say that the verses cannot
come from the author of the rest of
the book; but if they do come from
him it is quite likely that they were
added by him subsequently to the
writing of the rest of the book, as a
general exhortation to prepare for
the coming of Jehovah in judg-
ment.

4. Remember—In a manner that
will influence conduct. Only thus
can they escape the terrors of the day
of Jehovah. The law of Moses—If
the entire Pentateuch was in existence
in the days of Malachi this term in-
cludes the whole of it; if only a part
was known it includes all that in those
days went under the name of Moses
(see on Hos. iv, 6). In postexilic
times a greater emphasis was placed
upon the law, because it was thought
that by regulating every detail of life
by law with state authority the re-

 

ligious and moral lapses of the past
might be avoided. This legalism was
needed at the time (see p. 555 and
p. 703), and it did much toward pre-
serving intact the religion of Jehovah.
The religious leaders of the early
postexilic period met the crisis of their
age just as effectively as the eighth
century prophets met the problems of
their time; it was not their fault that
in later days the religious leaders
failed to see their opportunities, and
that the emphasis of the letter of the
law resulted in the end in entire neg-
lect of the spirit, which brought
about the decline of Judaism as a
vital force in religion and morals.
My servant—See on Hag. ii, 23; Zech.
iii, 8. Horeb—Mentioned several
times in the Old Testament, especially
in Deuteronomy, as the place where
the law was given to Moses (Deut.
i, 6; iv, 10; v, 2; xxix, 1; 1 Kings viii,
9). Statutes and judgments—R. V.,
“and ordinances.” The former means
literally that which is engraved or in-
scribed, that is, upon public tablets;
hence that which is decreed by one in
authority; in the Old Testament, the
decrees of Jehovah intended to govern
the conduct of his people. The pri-
mary idea of the second word is
‘Gudicial decision, made once authori-
tatively, and constituting « rule or
precedent, applicable to other similar
cases in the future.’ The two words
occur together quite frequently, espe-
cially in Deuteronomy. The difference
between the two Driver indicates in
these words: “Judgments being thus a
term denoting primarily the pro-
visions of civil and criminal law,
statutes may be taken to refer more
particularly to positive institutions or
enactments, whether moral, cere-
monial, or civil.”

Verses 5, 6 deal with the messenger
whose appearance is announced in
iii, 1, and with his work of preparing
the way for the coming of the Lord,
CHAPTER IV.

737

 

5 Behold, I will send you 'Elijah
the prophet "before the coming of
the great and dreadful day of the

heart of the fathers to the children,
and the heart of the children to
their fathers, lest I come and "smite

 

 

Lorp: 6 And he shall turn the | the earth with ca curse.

\Matt. 11, 14; 3 7 ; m —_— 2.—
ae in 17. 11; Mark 9. 11; Ses re 31 Zech. 14. 12.
Behold, I will send—See on iii, 1.| judgment. The great and dreadful

Elijah the prophet—There can be no
doubt that he is to be identified with
the messenger of iii, 1. Whether the
author expected a literal fulfillment,
in the sense that Elijah would come
in person, or whether the name is to
be understood, like David in Hos. iii, 5
(see there), in the sense of a second
Elijah, a prophet like Elijah, it may
be difficult to say. That there was
current even in New Testament times
a belief in the coming again of Elijah
himself as well as of other prophets is
shown by passages like Matt. xvi, 14.
Jesus and the New Testament writers
declare that the prophecy found its
fulfillment in the coming of John the
Baptist (Matt. xi, 14; Mark ix, 11, 18).
That Elijah should be singled out as
the messenger from heaven was quite
natural in view of the fact that he
alone of all the prophets did not die a
natural death, but “went up by a
whirlwind into heaven” (2 Kings ii,
11). On this promise G. A. Smith
makes the following suggestive re-
marks: ‘Malachi expects this proph-
ecy ... not in the continuance of the
prophetic succession by the appear-
ance of original personalities, develop-
ing further the great principles of their
order, but in the return of the first
prophet Elijah. This is surely the
confession of Prophecy that the num-
ber of her’ servants is exhausted and
her message to Israel fulfilled. She
can now do no more for the people
than she has done. But she will sum-
mon up her old energy and fire in the
return of her most powerful person-
ality, and make one grand effort to
convert the nation before the Lord
come and strike it with judgment.”
The promise is the same as in iii, 1,
that the messenger will come before
the appearance of Jehovah himself in

\

 

day—See on Joel ii, 11, 31.

Mal. iii, 1, and iv, 5, contain the
promise that the messenger will pre-
pare the way before the Lord; iv, 6,
explains wherein the preparation con-
sists, namely, in an attempt to con-
vert the nation, so that the terror
of the day of Jehovah may be averted.
This conversion is described as a
turning of “the heart of the fathers to
the children, and the heart of the chil-
dren to their fathers.” Two interpre-
tations of these words have been
proposed: (1) The fathers are the
patriarchs, the children their descend-
ants, the contemporaries of the au-
thor. The patriarchs are ashamed
of their descendants, and refuse
to acknowledge them, on account
of their corruption; on the other
hand, the descendants have no heart
fellowship with their ancestors,
because they fail to understand
and appreciate their lofty spiritual
and moral ideals. Elijah will at-
tempt to turn the hearts of the cor-
rupt children to the fathers, so that
they will seek to imitate the example
of the latter and walk in their ways.
When this is done the heart of the
fathers will turn again to the children
in paternal recognition and love.
(2) A second interpretation sees in the
fathers and the children two classes in
the prophet’s own time, the men
of maturity and the younger genera-
tion, and between the two a great gulf.
The younger generation, says Von
Orelli, “had broken with the law which
the fathers still heid outwardly in high
esteem; the latter, on this account,
were estranged from the young.
When that Elijah turns the nation to
God, he will do away with this gulf.
In again teaching the sons to fear
God, he will again win the hearts of
738

the fathers for them; and in again
breathing into the fathers a fatherly
spirit, he will again awaken in the
hearts of the sons confidence and good
will to the fathers.” On the whole,
the second interpretation is to be pre-
ferred, but the correctness of the ex-
planation of the nature of the gulf
may be doubted. It is better to
bring these words into connection
with Mic. vii, 5, 6, where the results
of religious apostasy are described:
even the closest and most sacred ties
come to be disregarded and broken.
A similar thought underlies the
promise of verse 6. The present is
hopelessly corrupt, but when Elijah
comes he will try to change conditions

 

MALACHI.

and restore peace and good will in
accord with the will and purpose of
God. The words are, then, a figure
of the restoration and reformation for
which Elijah will labor, in order that
this earth may become a fit dwelling
place for Jehovah. Smite the earth
with a curse—Curse is literally ban.
Whatever is placed under a ban is
given up to destruction (Deut. xiii,
16, 17; Lev. xxvii, 28, 29). Jehovah
will surely come, but unless sin is re-
moved before he comes he must wipe
it out by a terrible blast of judgment.
This statement implies that, if the
mission of Elijah is successful, Jehovah
will come as King of peace, to dwell
in peace in the midst of his people.
INDEX.

 

(Only the most mportant subjects, words and phrases discussed in the
comments are enumerated here.)

A
Almighty, 161.
Alphabetic poem, 433-435.
Ammon, 231, 533.
Angel of Jehovah, 610.
Arabah, 268, 269.
Ascending enumeration, 72, 224.
Asherim, 410.
Assyria, 70, 82, 83, 227-234, 238, 407,
455, 535, 659.

B

Baal, 45, 46, 523.
Babylonia, 631, 633.
Baldness, 384.

Bashan, 244, 423, 661.
Beth-eden, 226.

Beth-el, 63, 243.
Beth-lehem-Ephratah, 404.
Branch, 622, 635, 636.

Cc

Calamities, Jehovah’s relation to, 241,
251.

Calf-worship, 32, 33, 84, 85, 208.

Canaanite,=merchant, 110, 686.

Caphtor, 282.

Carmel, 224, 281, 423.

Chaldean, 482, 483, 485.

Chemarim, 98, 523.

Chiun, 261.

Crete, 282, 533.

Cruelties in war, 231, 245, 275, 458.

D

Damascus, 224, 225.

Day of Jehovah, 148, 161, 181, 258,
805, 527, 528, 679-681.

Desecration of tombs, 232.

Divorce, 697, 700, 720-726.

Drink offering, 155.

 

E
Earthquake, 250.
a 189, 222, 229, 302, 303, 706-
8.
Egypt, 82, 83, 189, 422, 457, 659, 685.
Elijah, the messenger, 736, 737.
El shadday, 161.
Emendations of the scribes, 484.
Ephah, 276.
Ephod, 55.
Ethiopia, 282, 535.
Ezra, date of, 550, 551.
Ezra and Nehemiah, 689, 695-697.

F
Faith, 477-479, 487, 502.
False prophets, 58, 274, 394, 395.
Fasting, 160, 639.
Fatherhood of deity, 43.
Fear of Jehovah, 718.
Fertility, 188, 210, 285.
Foolish shepherd, 666-668.
Forever, 189.

G

Gath, 263, 380.

Gibeah, 69.

Gilead, 74, 225, 423, 659, 660.
Gilgal, 246, 413.

Good shepherd, 603, 604, 662-666.
Gourd, 354.

Great fish, 346.

H
Hadadrimmon, 673, 674.
Hadrach, 648.
Hamath, 263; entrance of Hamath,
268.
Harlot, 63.
Heart, 170. ©
High places, 32, 33, 62, 377, 378.

739
740

INDEX.

 

Holiness of Jehovah, 106, 245.
Holy, 165, 685.

Homer, 54.

Horn, 68.

Horns of the altar, 244.
Human sacrifice, 414.
Huzzabh, 452, 453.

I

Idolatry, 121, 233, 234, 493, 494.
Images, graven, 378, 410; molten, 448;
standing, 410.

J

Jareb, 70, 71.

Jealousy of Jehovah, 174, 529.

Jehovah, angel of, 610; day of, 148,
161, 181, 258, 305, 527, 528, 679-
681; holiness of, 106, 245; jealousy
of, 174, 529; localization of, 90, 342;
love of, 30, 208, 706; name of, 235,
398, 407, 711; nature and character
of, 171, 174, 205-208, 239, 251, 255,
424, 444, 445; repentance of, 171;
spirit of, 148, 149, 179, 180, 182,
563, 564, 625; vengeance of, 410,
444,

Jehovah of hosts, 109, 110.

Jerusalem, 396, 526, 682.

K
Kinah verse, 252, 386.
Kir, 226, 227.
Knowledge of Jehovah, 54.

L
Landmarks, 69.
Law, 59, 88, 539.
Leaven in sacrifice, 274.
Lebanon, 122, 492, 660, 661.
Legalism, 555, 703, 736.
Locusts, 151-169.
Lot, casting of, 183, 348, 344.
Love of Jehovah, 30, 208, 706,
Lovingkindness, 52, 53.
Lubim, 458.

M
Marriage, 154, 155, 172.
Meal offering, 155.
Messenger, 561, 562, 719, 727.
Messianic king, 404, 405, 651, 652.

 

Messianic prophecy, 34, 42, 150, 398,
399, 411, 412.

Mixed marriages, 697, 700, 720-723.

Moab, 232, 533.

Mount of Olives, 679.

N

Nakad, 192.

Name of Jehovah, 235, 398, 407, 711.

Na’um, 170.

Nazirites, 237.

New moon, 48, 276.

Nineveh, 341, 350, 355, 431, 432, 447,
448, 452, 455, 459-462, 535-537.

No Amon, 457.

0
On, 226.
Ophel, 396.

P

Philistia, 184, 228, 228, 531, 532, 649,

650.
Phoenicia, 184, 228, 229, 649.
Potter, cast unto the, 665, 666.
Priests, 639, 709-720.
Profane, 173, 235.
Prophets, 237, 241, 639, 675, 676.
Prophets, false, 58, 274, 394, 395.
Prophets, sons of, 274.
Prophetic inspiration, 296.
Put, 458, 542.

R

Rabdomancy, 61.

Ramah, 69.

Remnant, 182, 209, 210, 257, 258, 400,
406, 561.

Hepa; 33, 34, 170; of Jehovah,
171.

8
Sabbath, 48, 276.
Sackcloth, 154.
paar 246, 253, 259, 260, 414, 709,
Sakkut, 261.
Samaria, 76, 242, 378.
Sanctify, 160, 172.
Satan, 599, 619.
Sela, 298.
Selah, 495.
Sepharad, 309.
Servant, of God, 622.
INDEX.

741

 

Shekel, 54, 276, 277.

Sheol, 119, 281, 347, 488. \

Shittim, 413.

Skepticism, 527, 549, 695-697, 700,
701, 726, 727.

Slave traffic, 185.

Spirit of Jehovah, 148, 149, 179, 180,
182, 563, 564, 625.

Statutes and judgments, 736.

Stranger, 729.

Sun of righteousness, 735.

Sycomore, 192.

Symbolical names, 40-42.

T
Temple, rebuilding of, 555, 556, 559.
Teraphim, 56.
Threshing instruments, 225,
Tithes, 247, 731.
Torah, 59.
Tree cult, 61, 62.

 

U
Uzziah, 195, 680.

Vv

Valley of decision, 187; of Jehosha-
phat, 183; of Shittim, 188.

Virgin, 154.

Vision, 270, 296, 443, 480.

WwW

Whoredom, 19, 45, 41, 62.
Wonders, 180, 181.

Z
Zechariah, visions of, 590-593, 608-
634.
Zerubbabel, 557, 558, 569, 570, 622,
635, 636.
Zion, 164, 165, 396; the center of the
Messianic kingdom, 397, 400.
Sass
So