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THIS BOOK IS ONE OF A
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Sania
SONG OF SONGS:

Translated from the Briginal Webreto,

WITH «4

COMMENTARY, HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL,

CHRISTIAN D. GINSBURG.

BD Sa TT Rw
DSEAD NT TART TWR—Prov. xxxt 30.

LONDON:
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, AND ROBERTS.

1857.
LONDON:
REED AND PARDON, PRINTERS,
PATERNOSTER ROW.
CONTENTS.

PREFACE

INTRODUCTION :
SEcTiIon I.—Title of the Book, and its Signification
Section II.—Canonicity of the Book
Section III.—Design and Method of the Book
Section IV.—Importance of the Book .
Section V.—Historical Sketch of the Exegesis of the Book .
Section VI.—The different Views classified and examined .
Section VII.—Author, Date, and Form of the Book
SEction VIII.—Exegetical Helps

COMMENTARY

a2

PAGE
vii.

12

20
102
124
126
127
PREFACE.

Tux following is an exposition of the first of the five books
called Megiloth, all of which, having engaged the attention of
the Author for several years, will now, God willing, be brought
before the Public in regular succession. The Author's aim has
been to investigate and elucidate the true meaning of the
original, in accordance with the established laws of historico-
grammatical exegesis, and to show that, in its literal sense,
the Song of Songs teaches a great moral lesson, worthy of
Divine inspiration.

The resemblance, however, between the narrative here re-
corded and the experience of the people of God is striking and
apposite. The Shulamite, espoused to her shepherd, is tempted
by a mighty potentate with riches and pleasures to transfer her
affections; but, strengthened by the power of divine love, she
resists all temptation, remains faithful to her beloved, and is
ultimately rewarded. The people of God, espoused to “the
Shepherd and Bishop of their souls,” are tempted by the prince
of this world to forsake their Lord, but, strengthened by grace
divine, they resist all allurements, and eventually receive the
crown of glory.

The references to Genesius’ and Ewald’s Grammars are
to the last editions, which differ in the numbering of the
sections from the earlier ones; Fiirst’s valuable Lexicon, to
which frequent reference is made, is not yet completed.
vill PREFACE.

The author tenders his hearty thanks to his esteemed friend,
the Rev. Isaac Salkinson of Hamburg; to the Rev. J. M.
Charlton, A.M.; the Rev. R. Robinson, of York-road; the
Rev. G. Rogers, of Albany-road; and to Nathaniel Bridges,
Esq., A.M., for perusing the MS. and proofs, and for kind
suggestions. Thanks are also due to those gentlemen in
London and Oxford, who have facilitated the author’s access

to MSS. and other rare works in the British Museum and the
Bodleian Library.

May the Divine Spirit, whose words the Author has attempted
to elucidate, render the attempt profitable to the readers!

Lonpon: 16, Barxuam Terrace, St, Gronror’s,
May, 1857.
INTRODUCTION.

+

SECTION I.—TITLE OF THE, BOOK, AND ITS SIGNIFIGATION.

Tuts book is called D°YW WW, which is literally translated
by the Septuagint, dopa dopdrwy, by the Vulgate, Canticum
Canticorum, and by the English Version, Song of Songs; and,
according to a Hebrew mode for expressing the superlative
degree by repeating the same noun in the genitive, denotes the
Jinest, the most beautiful, or the most excellent Song. Compare.
DTV TIY, servant of servants, i.e. most abject servant (Gen.
ix. 25); D'WIP wp, holy of holies, i.e. most holy (Exod. xxix.
87; Numb. iii. 32; Deut.x.14; Eccl.i.2; Hos.x. 15; Jer.vi. 28;
Gesenius, Grammar, § 119, 2; Ewald, Lehrbuch, § 3818, c).
Medrash Yalkut renders it O° 7Wa2 may MA WITT WW, a song
more celebrated and sublime than all songs; as Rashi, Ibn Ezra
Rashbam, Luther, and many others. The opinion of Kleuker,
&c., that this interpretation of the Rabbins is more owing
to their preconceived notion of the sublime contents of the
book than to the real meaning of these words, is refuted by
Rashbam himself, who, having explained this phrase by
“most excellent song,” refers not to the contents of the book
for its corroboration, but adduces similar constructions of
the superlative from other passages of the Bible, viz., wid
ovrioNT, and D'TNT (278 (Deut. x. 17). Other explana-
tions, such as a song of songs, i.e. a song from the songs of
Solomon (Kimchi), or a collection of songs (Kleuker), or a
chain of songs, or string of strings, comparing VW with the
Chaldee Ww, 7IW, Greek cepa, chain (Velthusen, Paulus,
Good, &c.), are contrary to the Hebrew usage of the word 1,

and the construction of DWWI WW. More recent comment-
2 INTRODUCTION.

ators, and even those who regard this book as a collection of
separate songs (as, for instance, Dépke, Magnus, Noyes, &c.)
admit that the Rabbinical interpretation of this title is the only
admissible one. The? prefixed to minbdw, is the so-called Lamed
auctoris, used in the inscriptions of Psalms and other Hebrew
poems to designate the author. Comp. Ps. ii. 1; iv. 1, &e.
The addition of WWN here, which is not found in the other
inscriptions, is owing to the article in D'VWOTW, which
generally, though not always, is followed by this pronoun;
comp. Gen. xxix. 9; xl. 5; xlvii. 4; 1 Kingsiv.2; Gesen. §
115, 1; Ewald, 292 a. The rendering therefore of rnb TR
by respecting Solomon, is contrary to usage, and is rightly
rejected by modern grammarians and lexicographers.

This Song is the first of the (M772 WM) five Megiloth, or
books which are annually read in the Synagogues ; viz. The Song
of Songs on the Feast of the Passover; Ruth on Pentecost;
Lamentations on the Ninth of Ab ; Ecclesiastes on Tabernacles ;
and Esther on Purim. The present arrangement of these five
books in the Hebrew canon is according to the order of the
festivals on which they are read.

SECTION II.—CANONICITY OF THE BOOK.

Turs book possesses all the external marks which entitle
other writings to a place in the list of the sacred books. The
evidence for its canonicity is as conclusive as that which is
commonly adduced to prove the canonicity of any other portion
of the Old Testament. In the Mishna Yadim (sect. ili. 5), we
find the following testimony respecting it from R. Akiba, one
of the most celebrated Rabbins, who lived at the end of the
first century, and was president of the academy of Bani-Brac:
No Israelite has ever disputed the canonicity of the Song of Songs.
No day in the whole history of the world is of so much worth as
the one in which the Song of Songs was given to Israel ; for ail
the Scriptures are holy, but the Song of Songs is most holy.
Another Rabbi (Simeon b. Azzai), in the same place, says, J
INTRODUCTION. 3

received it from the mouth of the seventy-two elders, at the time
when R. Eliezer b. Azzaria was appointed Elder, that the Song of
Songs and Ecclesiastes are canonical.1 We have here positive
evidence that this book existed in the canon in the Apostolic
age; and that it was comprised in the sacred books, which our
Lord calls tas ypapas, the Scriptures, Matt. xxii. 29. It has,
therefore, been transmitted to us both by the Jewish and
Christian churches as canonical. It was translated into Greek,
between the years 90 and 130, by Aquila, who was anxious to
furnish his Jewish brethren with a faithful version of the
sacred books; and also by Symmachus and Theodotion, before
the end of the second century. It is contained in the catalogue
given in the Talmud;? and in the catalogue of Melito, Bishop
of Sardis (fl. 170, a.p.), which he brought from Palestine,
whither this learned and pious prelate expressly travelled to

Perpw maw Toy po Ny NWT OYA OPT Ow DYIw "bd IK SPD oN y2w7 Wor
oven yo by bowen oe pom 8) Down apy qx -OTT ne ONDE nap) oor
OL wap ONT ow ow) O MwA Ww 1D PNW DVI wD Dow pw DTT nx NON Now
owt wip oven As the phrase pv nx noun, polluting the hands, has recently
been quoted by Dr. Davidson (The Text of the Old Testament, &c. p. 796),
in direct contrariety to its meaning, we shall here give an explanation of it.
Let it be observed, that in the Mishna, whence the above passage is quoted,
the phrase is applied to @l/ the Holy Scriptures (orv7 nx proto wip van 59).
‘The reason of this is given in the Talmud, (Sabbath, 14 a,) where the ques-
tion is asked, why Holy Writ is reckoned among the eighteen subjects
which are decreed as polluting the hands? 'The answer there given is,
because the Theruma-food and the Thorah, both being regarded as holy,
used to be placed near each other. When it was afterwards discovered
that the sacred books were thereby exposed to danger (damage by mice),
the Rabbins decreed that they should henceforth be regarded as unelean, in
order to prohibit them from coming in contact with those sacred eatables.
Hence the decree orm nx prown wiptvano)s, all Holy Scripture pollutes the
hands, which exclusively applies to holy, i.e. inspired books. Wherever,
therefore, it is said that a book is m1 nx xown, polluting the hands, it
affirms that it is canonical; and when it is said oyomexven pr, tt does not
pollute the hands, it means that the book is not canonical. Thus we are
told wipa mma woxw OFT nx NOW Dw Pw, “the Song of Songs pollutes the
hands because it is inspired.” And of the non-canonical o»goa bn “yo y2 10
TTT nx pawn PX ts) JNDO VaNIWw; ‘The book of the Son of Sirach, and all
the books written from that time and afterwards, do not pollute the hands.”

’ Baba Bathra, 14.
4 INTRODUCTION.

obtain information respecting the number of the sacred books.’
Those who in modern days have questioned the canonicity of
this book have done so, not from external evidence, but from
misapprehension of its design.

SECTION III.—DESIGN AND METHOD OF THE BOOK.

We have no sympathy with those who affirm that the Old
Testament Scriptures contain all the national writings which
were esteemed valuable in Hebrew literature, that this Song
was placed among those writings simply because it possessed
much poetic beauty, and was supposed to be the composition
of a person so celebrated throughout the East as Solomon, and
that it is destitute of any moral or practical instructions. We
believe that every book of the Old Testament is inspired; and
has, on that account, obtained a place in the Hebrew Canon.
This is the unanimous testimony, not of the Jewish church
only, but is corroborated by Christ and his apostles. Paul,
referring to the Old Testament, most distinctly affirms, that
“all Scripture is given by inspiration of God; and is profitable
for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in
righteousness.” 2 Tim. ii. 16.1. As this Song undoubtedly
formed a part of the Scriptures to which the apostle alluded, it
must, therefore, be inspired, and must serve some of those
purposes of inspiration.

The particular design of this book has been much disputed.
It is here maintained, that, upon careful examination, it will be
found to record an example of virtue in a young woman who
encountered and conquered the greatest temptations, and was,
eventually, rewarded ; the simple narrative of which, divested
of its poetic form, is as follows. There was a family living at
Shulem, consisting of a widowed mother, several sons, and
one daughter, who maintained themselves by farming and

1 Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. iv. 26.

+ For a full elucidation of this verse, see Henderson, ‘ Divine Inspiration,”
pp. 219—224.
INTRODUCTION. 5

pasturage. The brothers were particularly partial to their
sister, and took her under their special care, promising that
her prudence and virtue should be greatly rewarded by them.
In the course of time, while tending the flock, and, according
to the custom of the shepherds, resorting at noon beneath a
tree for shelter against the meridian sun, she met with a
graceful shepherd youth, to whom she afterwards became
espoused. One morning, in the spring, this youth invited her
to accompany him into the field; but the brothers, overhearing
the invitation, and anxious for the reputation of their sister, in
order, to prevent their meeting, sent her to take care of the
vineyards. The damsel, however, consoled her beloved and
herself with the assurance that, though separated bodily, indis-
soluble ties subsisted between them, over which her brothers
had no control. She requested him to meet her in the even-
ing, and as he did not come, she feared that some accident had
befallen him on the way, and went in search of him, and found
him. The evening now was the only time in which they could
enjoy each other’s company, as, during the day, the damsel was
occupied in the vineyards. On one occasion, when entering
a garden, she accidentally came in the presence of King Solo-
mon, who happened to be on a summer visit to that neighbour-
hood. Struck with the beauty of the damsel, the King con-
ducted her into his royal tent, and there, assisted by his court-
ladies, endeavoured with alluring flatteries and promises, to
gain her affections; but without effect. Released from the
King’s presence, the damsel soon sought an interview with her
beloved shepherd.

The King, however, took her with him to his capital in
great pomp, in the hope of dazzling her with his splendour;
but neither did this prevail: for while even there, she told
her beloved shepherd, who had followed her into the capital,
and obtained an interview with her, that she was anxious to
quit the gaudy scene for her own home. The shepherd, on
hearing this, praised her constancy, and such a manifestation
6 INTRODUCTION.

of their mutual attachment took place, that several of the
court-ladies were greatly affected by it.

The King, still determined, if possible, to win her affections,
watched for another favourable opportunity, and with flatteries
and allurements, surpassing all that he had used before, tried
to obtain his purpose. He promised to elevate her to the
highest rank, and to raise her above all his concubines and
queens, if she would comply with his wishes; but, faithful to
her espousals, she refused all his overtures, on the plea that
her affections were pledged to another. The King, convinced
at last that he could not possibly prevail, was obliged to
dismiss her; and the shepherdess, in company with her be-
loved shepherd, returned to her native place. On their way
home, they visited the tree under which they had first met, and
there renewed their vows of fidelity to each other. On her
arrival in safety at her home, her brothers, according to their
promise, rewarded her greatly for her virtuous conduct.

The plot, if such it may be called, gradually develops itself,
like most poetic narratives of a similar kind. Various speakers
are introduced in the poem, as the Shulamite shepherdess, the
shepherd, the King, the court-ladies, the inhabitants of Jeru-
salem, the brothers of the Shulamite, and the companions of
the shepherd, all of whom are represented as speaking more or
less, but without any such distinctions as we find in Job, as
« After this Job opened his mouth and cursed his day—Then
Eliphaz the Temanite answered and said—Then answered
Bildad the Shuhite and said—é&c.,” and without separate
names, or initial letters of names to indicate the speakers,
which renders it difficult to gather the history it contains; and
especially as some of the statements appear at first sight to
have little or no logical sequence. The Song of Songs differs
materially in this respect from all the other books of Scrip-
ture; but not, as is well known, from the poems of profane
writers.

Notwithstanding the aforementioned difficulty, an attentive
INTRODUCTION. a

reader of the original will find nearly as much help from the
masterly structure of this Song, as can be obtained from the
divisions and initial letters in modern dramas, by which the
different speakers are distinguished, and the various statements
are connected in a regular narrative.

The recurrence, for instance, of the same formula of adjura-
tion three times (il. 7; li. 5; vii. 4), and the use of another
closing sentence (v. 1), divide the Song into five sections. The
heroine of the book, when speaking with her beloved or with
the king, is easily distinguished by the feminine gender of the
verb, or of the adjective or the noun; as, i. 5, “I am swarthy
but comely,’ where both adjectives, swarthy (MINW) and
comely (82), are feminine in the original, and plainly indi-
cate the speaker. The beloved shepherd, when he speaks,
or is spoken to, or is spoken of, is recognised by the pastoral
language (i. 3,4, 7; 11.12; ii.4, &c.) ; the King is distinguished
by express allusions to his position (i. 9—11; vi. 4—vii. 10);
the court-ladies, when speaking to the Shulamite, are recognised
by the phrase, “fairest of women” (i. 8; v. 9; vi. 1), and when
spoken to by “daughters of Jerusalem” (i. 5; ii. 7; iii. 5, 10;
v. 8; viii. 4); the brothers of the Shulamite are introduced as
speaking in ii. 15, compared with i. 6 and viii. 8, 9; the inha-
bitants of Jerusalem, in iii. 6—11, and the companions of the
shepherd, in viii. 5, are sufficiently indicated by the context.

On a careful examination of the statements of the various
speakers in these five sections, it will be found that the narra-
tive, though not recorded in the order we have stated, may be
easily deduced from it.

In the rirst section—ch. i. 2, 7—the heroine of the Song,
who, as is evident from verse 8 and vil. 1, is a Shtlamite
shepherdess, ardently wishes for the presence and love-tokens
of her beloved, who, as she herself most distinctly tells us
(ver. 7, and ii. 16; vi.8), is a shepherd; she wishes him to take
her away from the royal apartments into which the King had
brought her, for she loves him above all things (verses 2, 3, 4);
8 INTRODUCTION.

these apartments (or royal tent), as we learn from iii. 6-—11, were
out of Jerusalem, and in the neighbourhood of the Shulamite’s
home, where the King temporarily resided, and where he met
with the damsel (vi. 11, 12). In reply to the disdainful looks
of the daughters of Jerusalem, in whose presence she had
expressed her desire for the shepherd, and who had contrasted
their fair and delicate countenances with her own, she insists
that her swarthy complexion need not render her contemptible,
for it was not natural, but had arisen from the duties which her
brothers had unjustly required of her (v. 6); she then resumes
the address to her beloved, asking him, as if he were present,
to tell her where he tends his flock (7). The daughters of
Jerusalem, who, as we see from vi. 9, are the court-ladies, com-
prising the maidens, concubines, and queens, ironically answer
this question (8). The watchful King, having heard that she
wished for her beloved, immediately comes forward, and, with
flatteries and promises, tries to win her affections (9, 10, 11);
but without effect; for as soon as the King retires she shows her
unabated attachment to her shepherd (12; ii. 6), and concludes
by adjuring the court-ladies not to persuade her to transfer her
affections to another (7).

The sEconp section—ch. ii. 8; iii. 5—though apparently dis-
connected from the first, is found, upon investigation, to be a
proper and natural sequence. The Shulamite, in rebutting the
contempt of the court-ladies, had reflected with some severity
upon her brothers for sending her to keep the vineyards; but
this had been done merely to account for the darkness of her
complexion ; and having been interrupted in her warm address
to her beloved, which she hastened to resume, she was obliged
to be satisfied with this passing allusion to that event. It was
natural, therefore, to expect that, at the first opportunity, she
would state more circumstantially how her brothers came to be
severe with her, and why they had made her a keeper of the
vineyards, which she proceeds to do in this section. She tells
the court-ladies that her brothers were displeased with her
INTRODUCTION. 9

because they had overheard the shepherd inviting her to
accompany him into the fields to enjoy together the charms
of nature (8—14), on account of which, in their anxiety for
her reputation, they changed her employment, told her to be
a “keeper of the vineyards,” in order to separate her from
her beloved (15). She, moreover, relates that they consoled
themselves with the assurance that, though separated bodily,
indissoluble ties subsisted between them, over which her
brothers had no control (16); that she invited him to come
again in the evening, when unobserved (17); and that, seeing
he did not come, she went in search of him, &c. (ch. ili. 1—4).
Having thus evinced her deep attachment for the shepherd, she
again concludes by adjuring the court-ladies not to persuade
her to transfer her affections to another (5).

This section, therefore, follows the preceding one, to set
forth the cause of the brother’s severity in having made her a
“keeper of the vineyards,” and thus gives a further insight into
her previous history.

The rurrp section (ch. iii. 6, v. i.) relates the second unsuc-
cessful effort of Solomon to gain the Shulamite’s affections.
The King, determined to gain his purpose, takes the damsel,
with great pomp, into the capital (ch. iii. 6—11), in the hope of
dazzling her with, his great splendour ; but he is again disap-
pointed. In the midst of the imposing magnificence, the damsel
tells her beloved shepherd, who has followed her thither, and
obtained an interview with her, and expressed his delight at
seeing her again (ch. iv. 1—5), that she is anxious to quit the
palace for her rural home (6). Her beloved, on hearing this,
offers his assistance to effect an escape (7, 8), and praises her
constancy and charms (9—16); whereupon they both manifest
their mutual attachment in so affecting a manner that even
some of the court-ladies are moved (ch. iv. 16, v. 1), with
whose expression of sympathy the section concludes.

The bearing which this section has upon the whole plan is,
in the first place, to develop the progress of the history itself,

c
10 INTRODUCTION.

inasmuch as it records the conveyance of the Shulamite from
her rural home into the royal capital ; and, in the second place, to
relate her faithfulness in resisting another temptation, in which
the grandeur of the procession which elicited so much admira-
tion from the inhabitants of Jerusalem, and the splendour of
the court, which dazzled the eyes and fed the vanity of so
many of its inmates, had far less charms for her than the pre-
sence of her shepherd in a humble home. :

The rourtu section (ch. v. 2—viii. 4) records the last and
greatest trial which the Shulamite had to encounter, and which
she also overcame. It commences with a dream which she had
recently had, and which she relates (ch. v. 2—8) to the court-
ladies whose sympathy with her has been shown at the close
of the preceding section. The narration of this dream gives
the damsel an opportunity of describing the personal appear-
ance of her beloved (10—16), and thus we are gradually
led on to her chief trial and success. The court-ladies, having
listened to this charming description, inquire whither her
beloved is gone, and offer their assistance to seek him (ch. vi.
1); but she, suspecting the motive, gives them an evasive
answer (2, 3). The King, ever watchful for a favourable oppor-
tunity to show his attachment to her, as soon as he hears of
the inquiry after the damsel’s beloved, comes forward with most
alluring flatteries and promises. He begins with praising her
beauty (4—7), and then promises to raise her to the highest
rank of all his numerous retinue of women (8, 9), who them-
selves are constrained to extol her beauty (10). But the damsel,
having explained how she came to be seen by those court-ladies,
spurns all those praises and promises, and goes away (11, 12);
the King calls her back (ch. vii. 1), and, having again described
her beauty and attractions (2—8), wishes that he might enjoy
the favours of so charming a person (9, 10); but she refuses the
King’s overtures, on the plea that her affections are engaged,
and that it is her duty to be faithful to her beloved (11); then,
addressing herself to her beloved, she asks him to go with her
INTRODUCTION. 11

from the palace to their rural home (12, ch. viii. 3); and con-
cludes with again adjuring the court-ladies not to persuade her
to transfer her affections to another (4).

This section, as we have seen, is intimately connected with
the preceding one. The damsel, having obtained the sympa-
thies of some of the court-ladies, according to the close of the
last section, relates to them, at the opening of this (ch. v. 2—8),
a dream which she had recently had; which gives the damsel an
opportunity of describing the appearance of her beloved, and
this description gradually introduces the last and the greatest
trial which she has to encounter.

The rirrH section—ch. viii. 5—14—states the result of the
damsel’s victory over all her temptations. The King, con-
vinced that nothing could induce her to transfer her affections,
dismisses her; and accompanied by her beloved shepherd,
she quits the court for her humble country residence. On
their way, they visit the tree under which they were first
espoused (viii. 5), and there implore that the flame which had
been kindled in their hearts might be lasting. A most graphic
and powerful description of the nature of true love follows, in
which all her trials are recounted (6, 7). The damsel then
reminds her brothers of the promise they had made her, and
obtains the reward of virtue.

Thus this Song records the real history of a humble but
virtuous woman, who, after having been espoused to a man of
like humble circumstances, had been tempted in a most allur-
ing manner to abandon him, and to transfer her affections to
one of the wisest, and richest of men, but who successfully
resisted all temptations, remained faithful to her espousals, and
was ultimately rewarded for her virtue.
12 INTRODUCTION.

SECTION IV.—IMPORTANCE OF THE BOOK.

Few, it is presumed, will question the importance of a Book,
in the sacred canon, which records an example of virtue in a
humble individual, who had passed successfully through un-
paralleled temptations.

The avowed object of Holy Writ is to teach all that is good
and conducive to human happiness. Lessons of wisdom and
virtue are interspersed throughout the Old and New Testa-
ments. The Apostle Paul urges the Philippians to think of
whatsoever is true, noble, just, pure, lovely, and of good report :
of everything, in short, that is in any way profitable or praise-
worthy. These lessons are not communicated to us in abstract
forms, or enforced by powerful argument merely, but they are
presented in the most attractive examples drawn from the lives
of illustrious men and women, who, amidst the greatest trials
and temptations, have pre-eminently maintained their integrity.
The Patriarch Job is set forth as an example of patience, and the
Prophets as patterns of suffering affliction (James v. 10,11). An
example of virtue, very similar to the one in the Song before
us, is recorded in Gen. xxxix. 7, &c., where a Hebrew slave
is tempted by a woman of rank, but resists the temptations;
and though left to suffer for a season, is ultimately rewarded
for his virtue. Such instances, therefore, are in harmony with
the design of Scripture, and its method of teaching.

The individual who passes through the extraordinary tempta-
tions recorded in this Song, and remains faithful, is a woman.
Who can find a virtuous woman? This was the question of
the Ancients, was reiterated in the middle ages, and is still
asked by many. Here is a reply to Solomon’s own enquiry.
He has found one at least of spotless integrity, and her virtue
is recorded in Scripture, for the defence of women against a
prevalent, but unjust suspicion.

The second chapter of Genesis clearly states, that the man
and the woman were created with the same intellectual and
INTRODUCTION. 13

moral powers. The words used by God respecting the crea-
tion of the woman are, “the being of man in his solitary state
is not good. I will make him a help-mate corresponding to
him ;” that is, one that shall be exactly like him in affections,
.in sympathies, in mind, in fact his counterpart; she shall
be the reflection of his own person. That this is the meaning
of $72)D is evident from the Septuagint, which renders it in
verse ‘18, kar’ aitév, and verse 20, duotos aire; and from the
Syriac and the Vulgate; as well as from the Rabbinical usage
of 7))3, to express things exactly like one another The
word of God affirms here, that the woman was created exactly
with the same capacities as the man, and contains no intima-
tion of subserviency to him, or of being in the slightest degree
weaker or less virtuous than he. The fact that the Tempter
assailed the woman, and not the man, so far from showing that
the woman was weaker, would rather prove that she was
stronger; that the ‘cunning serpent knew this, and was per-
suaded, if he could only prevail over the woman,. she, with
her superior influence, would be sure to succeed with the
man, as the sad result showed.

The curse which God pronounced upon the guilty pair,
proves that the woman was created with the same intellectual
and moral capacities as the man. Had the woman been weaker
in these respects than the man, she would not have been
accountable in an equal degree for her sin, and would not have
been punished with the same severity.

No alteration has taken place in their relative position, in
this respect, since the fall. The curse upon the woman in
relation to the man does not refer to any intellectual or moral,
but to a physical, inferiority. Hitherto the Protoplasts
resided in Paradise, and subsisted upon its delightful fruit;
and the employment of the man was mere recreation.
Henceforth they were to be driven from that happy abode;
the woman was to experience all the sorrow and pain of

1 See Gesenius, Lexicon in voce.
14 INTRODUCTION.

pregnancy and parturition, and must look to her husband for
support from his hard-earned labour. ‘The man, consigned
to rough labour in the field, exposed to the assault of brutes,
was henceforth to have more physical strength and daring;
while the woman, destined to manage the affairs at home, and
to rear up a family, was to exercise the power of patient
endurance. The man, with his superior strength and boldness,
was henceforth to be the protector; the woman, suffering and
mild, the protected. He was to be the tiller of the ground,
and she, in addition to the sorrow peculiar to her condition,
must depend on what he might provide for her; and hence
her desire was to be unto him ; that is, she should be looking
up to him for protection and maintenance, aud thus he would
rule over her. That this is the whole meaning of the phrase
JA Dwi? NIT) TNPWA JW ON, Gen. iii. 16, is evident from
the clause immediately preceding, which describes the woman’s
constant suffering, and precludes the possibility of securing
maintenance for herself; and also from the following verse,
where the man is destined to labour hard for bread.

The notion, therefore, that the woman is intellectually or
morally weaker than man, is not the teaching of the word of
God. While man, through his superior out-of-door qualities,
or physical strength and courage, is the supporter, protector,
and ruler of the woman; she, through her superior in-door
qualities, her endurance and her charms, ameliorates his
government, and sways his inmost heart. Their different
characteristics, arising from their different destinations, were
designed to blend together so as to produce a happy harmony,
and to make both one.

But how vilely and treacherously has man employed his
superior strength and audacity! Instead of maintaining, protect-
ing, and defending the woman, he has used his strength to
oppress, to crush, and to degrade her. As the human race
became more and more alienated from their Creator, intrin-
sic merit and moral character were despised, and physical
INTRODUCTION. 15

force became rampant; the stronger, as among animals, op-
pressed and preyed upon the weaker, and thus woman became
the slave of man, and was absolutely sold in the capacity of
daughter or wife, as cattle and other property. Thus Eliezer,
the servant of Abraham, purchased Rebekah as a wife for
Isaac, his master’s son, (Gen. xxiv. 53). Jacob, having nothing
to give as a compensation for his wives, was obliged to serve
fourteen years for them (Gen. xxix. 18—28). Shechem, wish-
ing to obtain Dinah for a wife, and ascribing the unwillingness
of Jacob to part with her to the insufficiency of the compensa-
tion he had offered, says—‘“ Ask me never so much dowry and
gift,and I will give according asye shall say unto me: but give me
the damsel to wife (Gen. xxxiv. 12).” Compare, also, Exod. xxii.
15, &e.; 1Sam. xvili.25; Hos. iii. 2. This custom of purchasing
wives was general among the Orientals. ‘In Babylon,! the fol-
lowing course was pursued in every village once a-year. All the
maidens of a marriageable age were collected together, and
brought in a body to one place; around them stood a crowd of
men. Then a crier, having made these maidens stand up one
by one, offered them for sale, beginning with the most beautiful ;
and when she had been sold for a large sum, he put up another
who was next in beauty. They were sold on condition that they
should be married. Such men among the Babylonians as were
rich and desirous of marrying used to bid against one another,
and purchase the most beautiful. But such of the lower classes
as were desirous of marrying, did not regard beauty, and were
willing to take the plainer damsels with a sum of money given
with them. For when the crier had finished selling the most
beautiful of the maidens, he made the plainest stand up, or
one that was a cripple, and put her up for auction, for the
person who would marry her for the least sum. This money
was obtained from the sale of the most beautiful; and thus the
beautiful portioned out the plain and the crippled.” Wives were
purchased among the Assyrians and Arabians also;* among

' Herodotus, i. 196. ° Elian, V. H. iv. 1. Strabo, xvi. 745.
16 INTRODUCTION.

the ancient Greeks’ and Germans? and are still bought among
the Orientals of the present day.’

Fearful consequences, arising from such a mode of obtaining
wives, were inevitable, and soon became apparent. As the
procuring of wives depended upon the offer which any one
was able to make, those that could afford it purchased as many
as they pleased. Hence the practice of polygamy, than which
nothing produces more contempt for the proper character of
women, or tends more to their degradation. As these contracts
were formed without the parties being previously known to
each other, and without any affection subsisting between them,
the woman, instead of being the help-mate or companion of man
became his slave, and was kept for the gratification of his
carnal appetites, or at best was regarded as a plaything for a
leisure hour. Her rights were denied, her education was
neglected, her intellect was degraded, her moral character was
questioned. Man, seeking to possess as many wives as
he could afford, gave the woman no credit for virtue. Acting
upon this suspicion and false accusation, he placed her in the
most inaccessible part of the house; dogs or eunuchs guarded
the doors of her chambers ;* the harem was made as impene-
trable as a prison; none but the nearest relatives were allowed
to see her, and when permitted to pass through the streets her
countenance was thickly veiled, and eunuchs watched her
every step. Plutarch relates that when women travelled they
were placed in a conveyance closely covered on all sides, and
that it was in such a covering that Themistocles fled from
Persia, his attendants being instructed to tell every inquirer
that they were conveying a Grecian lady from Ionia to a
nobleman at Court.? The sacred books of heathen nations

’ Homer, Odyss. viii. 318, &c.; Pausanias, iii. 12, 2,

2 Tacitus, Germ. xviii.

5 Michaelis, the Laws of Moses, § 85; Rosenmiiller, Orient. i. p. 132, &e. ;
Grant's Nestorians, p. 214; Perkins, Eight Years in Persia, p. 236,

4 Est, ii. 3, 14, 15; iv. 4; Joseph. Ant, lib. xv. u. 7, 4.
5 Plutarch’s Lives, Themistocles.
INTRODUCTION. 17

teem with loud execrations against the natural unfaithfulness
and immorality of women. “The lust of a woman,” says
the pundits, “is never satisfied, no more than fire is
satisfied with fuel, or the main ocean with receiving the
rivers, or the empire of death with the dying of men and
animals.” And again: ‘“ Women have six qualities: the
first is an immoderate desire for jewels and fine furniture,
handsome clothes and nice victuals; the second, immoderate
lust; the third, violent anger; the fourth, deep resentment,
no person knowing the sentiments concealed in their hearts;
the fifth, another person’s good appears evil in their eyes; the
sixth, they commit bad actions.” ! The wickedness of women is
a subject upon which the stronger sex among the Arabs, with
an affectation of superior virtue, often dwell in common con-
versation. That women are deficient in judgment or good sense,
is held as an undisputed fact, as it rests on an assertion of the
Prophet; but that they possess a superior degree of cunning,
rests upon the same authority. Their general depravity is
affirmed to be much greater than that of men. “I stood,”
said the Prophet, “at the gate of Paradise, and lo, most of its
inmates were the poor; and I stood at the gate of hell, and lo,
most of its inmates were women.” In allusion to women, the
caliph Omar said, “ Consult them, and do the contrary of what
they advise,” which Moore has thus paraphrased :—

‘« Whene’er you’re in doubt, said a sage I once knew,
’Twixt two lines of conduct which course to pursue,
Ask a woman’s advice, and whate’er she advise,

Do the very reverse, and you’re sure to be wise.”

When woman was created, “the devil,’ we are told, “ was de-
lighted, and said, ‘Thou art half of my host, and thou art the
depository of my secret, and thou art my arrow, with which I
shoot and miss not.’”"? They were made so much to feel their

1 Alexander, History of Women, Introd. p. vii.
2? Lane, Arabian Nights, Vol. I. pp. 38, 39,
18 INTRODUCTION.

inferiority, that Iphigenia is made to say, “ One man, forsooth,
is better than ten thousand women.”!

Though the Jewish women were treated more leniently, and
enjoyed greater privileges than their sex in other nations, yet
it is evident, from a variety of circumstances in Old Testament
history, that they were not wholly emancipated from a state of
unnatural inferiority. Polygamy was practised amongst the
Jews, and its debasing effects were obvious. The harems, the
veils, and eunuchs were not uncommon to their women. Weak-
ness of moral character was imputed to them; unfaithfulness
and incontinency were dilated upon (Num. vy. 12; Prov. xxxi.
10; Eccl. vii.28). Josephus tells us* that women, in consequence
of their natural levity, were not admitted as legal witnesses in
courts of justice. Maimonides teaches the same; “ There are,”
says this great luminary, ‘ten sorts of disqualifications, and
every individual in whom one of them is found, is disqualified
from giving evidence; and these are women, slaves, children,
idiots, the deaf, the blind, the wicked, the despised, relations,
and those interested in their testimony; these are the ten.’
The Rabbins endeavour to justify this inhuman treatment of
women from the law of Moses. “Women,” say they, “are
disqualified by the law from giving testimony: for it is said,
“At the mouth of two witnesses, where the word ‘ witnesses’
is of the masculine, and not feminine gender.” It is not to be
wondered at, therefore, that the Jew, among his thanksgivings,
should say to the Almighty every morning, “Blessed be thou,
O Lord our God, King of the universe, that thou hast not
created me a woman.”

Now, if one sex of the human family has been so degraded
by the other ; if she whom God created to be a help-mate and
counterpart has been reduced by man to the slave of his carnal
lusts ; if such slavish and inhuman treatment has been justified
on the false plea of the natural unfaithfulness and incontinency

' Euripides, Iphi. in Aulis. ? Ant. lib. iv, ¢. 8, 16.
5 Hilochoth Eduth, c. ix. 1.
INTRODUCTION. 19

of the sex; if exclusion from society and imprisonment have
been deemed necessary for the preservation of her morals, how
greatly has woman been alienated from the original design of
her creation! how unjustly has her character been aspersed !
how inhumanly has she been treated! and how great is the
importance of a book which celebrates the virtuous example
of a woman, and thus strikes at the root of all her reproaches
and her wrongs !

The importance of this view of the book may be further
seen from the fact, that, in proportion to the degradation of
women, men themselves have become degraded ; for, deprived
of the meliorating influences which the delicacy and tenderness
of women were designed to have over them, and never more
needed than in their fallen state, they have abandoned them-
selves to their worst passions and desires, and thus their whole
civil and social condition has been proportionally undignified
and unblest. Look, on the other hand, at the state of society
where woman is restored to her rightful position, there we shall
find refinement of manners, purity of conversation, mutual
confidence and affection, domestic happiness, intellectual enjoy-
ment, freedom of thought and action, sympathetic repose, and
whatever, in fact, tends to mitigate the unavoidable evils of the
present life; all referable, in a greater or less degree, to the
unrestricted influence of woman upon the child and upon the
man. In religion, her influence is still more potent. If
first in the transgression, she is first in the restoration; and
were man as ready to follow her in doing good as he has been
in doing evil, the world would Jong ago have been in a holier
and happier state than it is at present. Who constitute the
principal part of our worshipping assemblies? Women. Who
form the chief portion of the members of our churches?
Women. Who are the chief agents in the religious education
of our children? Women. Who are the main support of our
various benevolent and evangelical institutions ? Women. Let
it not be said, then, that a Book which celebrates the ascend-
20 INTRODUCTION.

ency of a virtuous woman in humble life over all the blandish-
ments of wealth and royalty, is unworthy of a place in Holy
Writ.

The importance of this book is, moreover, enhanced by the
circumstances more immediately connected with the time in
which it was written.

The conduct of Bath-sheba with David was calculated to
confirm man in his opinion that woman was naturally unfaithful
and incontinent, and that it was requisite to exclude her from
society, in order to preserve her morals. But the narrative
here recorded forms a contrast to the conduct of Bath-sheba.
It shows the power of virtue in a woman, even of humble life.
As the wife of an officer of rank, accustomed to luxury and
wealth, the temptations of Bath-sheba were not so great, and yet
she surrendered to them. Whereas the Shulamite, a humble
shepherdess, to whom the promise of costly apparel and of ele-
vation from a low and toilsome occupation to the highest rank,
must have been an extraordinary allurement, triumphed over
them all. If one woman yielded to small incitements, this book
shows that another overcame unparalleled temptations, and thus
checked the clamour against woman which might have arisen
from the conduct of Bath-sheba with David.

SECTION V.—HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE EXEGESIS OF
THE BOOK.

No book has furnished a wider field for the speculation and
visionary projects of those who substitute their own imagin-
ation and enthusiastic feelings for the teaching of Scripture,
than the Song of Solomon; the varieties and absurdities of
which are a solemn warning against departing from the rules
of sound philology and critical interpretation.

An enumeration of all the different interpretations of this
Song would be too lengthy, and is not required. It will be
sufficient to glance at the leading expositions. We begin with
the Jewish.
INTRODUCTION. 21

823—246, B.c.1 It has been supposed that the Septuagint,
which may be regarded as the oldest Jewish exegetical tradi-
tion, contains some intimation that the translators of the Old
Testament into Greek and their Jewish brethren of those days
must have interpreted the Song of Solomon in an allegorical
manner. The only passage adduced in corroboration of this
opinion is, Ch. iv. 8, where the Septuagint renders TION WNW
from the top of Amana, by am6 dpxh alotews, from the top of
» faith. That this appeal is nugatory is obvious from the render-
ing of AYN Tirzah by evdoxla, delight, vi. 4, and of AJIN2
noble daughter by Otyarep NabddéB, daughter of Nadab, vii. 1;
whence it is evident that the Septuagint frequently mistook
proper names for appellatives and adjectives, and vice versd. It
appears inconceivable that a profound scholar like Keil, who is
well acquainted with the frequent errors of the Septuagint,
should quote this as a special and sufficient proof that “the
Alexandrian version took this Song in an allegorical sense,””
especially as he knew that some have drawn from it the very
opposite conclusion, who have argued that if the authors of
the Septuagint had understood this book in any other than its
obvious sense, they would have betrayed it in the translation.’

180, p.c. Jesus Sirach, xlvii. 14—17, is next adduced as
furnishing some clue to the Jewish interpretation of this book.
Ecclesiasticus, according to some, is a name given to it kar’
éfoxiv, because of its being the most remarkable and useful of
the ecclesiastical or apocryphal books; others say it was so
called from its resemblance to Solomon’s Ecclesiastes, and
others, again, with more probability, that this name was given
to it by the Latins, to denote its use in the church. Its
Greek name, however, Lopia Inco viod Teupdx, wisdom of Jesus

1 This is the date according to Aristobulus, which has, however, been ques-
tioned. See Frankel, Vorstudien zu der Septuaginta; De Wette, Einleitung,
§§ 40, 41; Herzog, Real-Encyklopadie fiir protestantische Theologie, art,
Alexandrinische Bibeliibersetzung ; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit., under Septuagint.

2 Havernik’s Einleitung Dritter Theil., p. 475,

* Ewald, p. 34. Dépke, philologisch-critischer Commentar zum Hohenliede,
Pe 34s
22 INTRODUCTION.

son of Sirach, is more appropriate. It specifies at once the
author, who mentions his own name in Ch. 1. 27. The age
given to the book here, is that which is thought most probable.
This apocryphal writer says in his apostrophe to Solomon,—
“ How wise wast thou in thy youth, and, as a flood, filled with
understanding! Thy mind covered the earth, and thou filledst it
with enigmatic sayings. Thy name went forth to the distant
isles, and thou wast beloved for thy peace. Countries admired
thee for songs, and proverbs, and enigmas, and solutions.” The
17th verse is supposed to include the whole writings of Solo-
mon contained in the Old Testament; and it is affirmed that
TmapaBoral alvvyydrwv in verse 15, cannot be understood to
mean the Proverbs (zapouufa) since these are separately men-
tioned in verse 17, hence it follows that they refer to the alle-
gorical interpretation of this Song.’

Even Hengstenberg, who, though a defender of the allegorical
interpretation, remarks,* “Sirach xlvil. 17, has wrongly been
referred to in support of the allegorical interpretation. For
the words év @éais kal mapolpiats Kal wapaBodais Kal év Epunvelas
aneOatpacay oe xdpa depend upon the historical narration in the
Books of the Kings, and do not refer to the writings comprised
in the Canon. This is evident from the mention of the
épunverat, whereby the solutions of the enigmas in contradis-
tinction to the enigmas themselves, can alone be meant. Comp.
1 Kings x. 1—8. Whereas in the Canon no such épynveiar are
to be found. Verse 15, in which Keil finds a special reference
to the allegorical interpretation, likewise alludes to 1 Kings x.,
especially to verse 24.”

120, B.c. The Book of Wisdom has also been supposed
to contain a clue to the interpretation of this Song. The
author and the age of the Book are points of great contest.

‘ Vide Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit., art. Wisdom of Jesus; De Wette,
Einleitung, § 316.

2 Keil, in Havernick’s Hinleitung Dritter Theil, p. 476,

® Das Hohelied Salomonis, p. 254.
INTRODUCTION. 23

All that can be concluded with any degree of probability is,
that the author was an Alexandrian Jew, who lived after the
transplanting of the Greek philosophy into Egypt, and that
he seems to refer to the.oppression of the later Ptolemies.1 In
ch. vii. 2, Solomon is represented as speaking to Wisdom;
“ Her I loved and sought from my youth, I sought to bring her
home for my bride, and I became a lover of her beauty.” Be-
cause Solomon is here made to speak of Wisdom as his bride,
it has been maintained to be an explanation of the Song of
Songs, as though the brides were necessarily the same? Let
any impartial reader peruse the description of Wisdom in the
chapter quoted, and that of the bride in the Song of Songs,
and he will be convinced that there is no intentional resem-
blance whatever.

87—95. a.pv. Josephus is also said to have understood
this Song in an allegorical sense, although it is not in a single
instance quoted by him. His arrangement of the Books of
the Old Testament is the only ground of this argument. It
is said, as he* mentions twenty-two books which are justly
accredited as Divine, (ra dixaiws Ocia wemiorevjéva) and describes
five as belonging to Moses, thirteen to the Prophets, and the
remaining four as containing hymns to God, and rules of
life for men (ai 5 Aoiwal récoapes tyvous eis roy Ocdv Kal rots
avOpdroig sroOjxas rod Biov Teptéxovow) viz., the Psalms, Job,
Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes, no place is left for this Song ex-
cept among the Prophets; and if Josephus placed it there,
it follows that he must have understood it allegorically.4 But
were we to admit that Josephus placed this Song among the
prophetical writings, we should deny the conclusion attempted
to be drawn from it. For according to the same mode of
argumentation, we might infer that Josephus understood

1 Vide Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit., under, Wisdom of Solomon; De Wette Einlei-
tung, § 314.

? Rosenmiiller, Scholia, p. 270, sqq. Delitzsch, Das Hohelied, p. 66.

3 Cont. Apion. 1. § 8.
‘4 Kleuker, Samlung der Gedichte Salomon’s, p. 54, Hengstenberg, p. 255.
Q4 INTRODUCTION.

Ruth and Esther allegorically, for he also places these books
among the prophetical writings. The fact is, that this his-
torian, as he tells us himself, reckons the historical books
among the prophetical ones. But we demur to the assertion
that Josephus put this Song among the prophetical writings ;
it is far more likely that he placed it among the four books
which he describes as consisting of hymns to God and pre-
cepts for the life of men.'

We come now to the Talmud, in which passages from this
Song are quoted and interpreted. This elaborate work, con-
sists of what is called the Jlishna, constituting the text, and
the Gemara, which is a commentary upon it, derived from two
sources, viz.—Jerusalem and Babylon. The Jews, from time
immemorial, had an unwritten law 9 byav TM ddypara
dypapa, in addition to the written one, INDI WN, éyypa-
gos, contained in the Pentateuch. Hillel of Babylon (born
75 B.c.), who, next to Ezra, was celebrated by posterity as the
restorer of the law,” first arranged and divided this oral law
into six parts :—1, concerning sowing; 2, women; 3, festivals;
4, the rights of property; 5, holy things; 6, pure and impure
things. This, which comprises everything that appertains to
the Jewish law, was called 72W Mishna, devrépwors, or the
second recension of the law. In order to reconcile the
Sadducees, who denied every law not founded on Holy Writ,
Hillel laid down seven hermeneutic rules, whereby the Scrip-
tures might be interpreted in such a manner that the oral law
could be deduced from it.* When fears were afterwards enter-
tained lest the oral tradition should be lost, Rabbi Judah
Hakkadosh (i. ¢. holy), in the year 220 a.p., collected every-
thing that had been said upon the subject, preserving the
division of Hillel, and probably making some additions of his

1 Vide Stuart on the Old Testament Canon, sect. 12, p. 245. Davidson’s
Edit. Henderson, Divine Inspiration, p. 349.

2 Succa ad fin.

3 Torath Cohanim. Tosiftha Synhedrin, c. 7. Aboth di R. Nathan, c. 27,
Greetz, Geschichte der Iuden, Dritter Band, p. 211.
INTRODUCTION. 25

own. This he did in a manner so masterly and satisfactory, that
it superseded every other previous attempt, and constitutes the
present Mishna.

-The Mishna became the chief object of study. The rules
of Hillel were increased and much acted on; expositions were
given upon the reasons that led to the decisions in the Mishna ;
the expounders were called O'R TON Amoraim, public lecturers,
and the exposition N72) Gemara.

After the death of Judah, many of his learned disciples,
objecting to the appointment of his second son Gamaliel, to
his father’s office, emigrated to Babylon, and having erected
schools there, pursued the study of the Mishna. The academy
they established in Sura rivalled the one in Tiberias. The
Gemara of Tiberias, collated about 358 (a.p.) by an unknown
individual, is called Talmud Jerushalmi; and the Gemara of
Sura, the compilation of which was begun by R. Ashe (352-427),
continued by his disciple and friend, Rabina, and finished about
525, is called Talmud Babli. The latter surpasses the former
in comprehensiveness, perspicuity, and depth, is about four
times as large, and fills 2947 folio pages. Both united are
called The Talmud TWP book of instruction; and also N23
Gemara. It contains the civil and ceremonial law, debates on
various branches of art and science, moral sayings, anecdotes,
expositions on different passages of Scripture, &c.!

100-500, a.p.—In Yadaim, (Sect. 111. 5.) we find that R. Akiba,
one of the greatest Rabbins who lived in the first century,
and president of the Academy of Bai-Barc, said, “The whole
world was not worthy of the day in which this sublime Song was
given to Israel; for all the Scriptures are holy, but this sublime Song
is most holy.” There can, therefore, be no doubt that the mys-
teries which this distinguished Rabbi found in the Song of
Songs, he regarded as greater than those he discovered in any
other portion of the Sacred Scriptures. ‘

1'Vide Jost, Allgemeine Geschichte des Israelitischen Volkes (1850), Zweiter
Band, pp. 68, 130,sqq. 158, Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, Dritter Band, p.210.
Vierter Band, pp. 243-246, 441-443, 446, 473. Zunz, Vortriage, p. 52.
i
26 INTRODUCTION.

Subsequent .Rabbins quote and explain different passages.
Thus, Ch. i. 2 is discussed in Abodah Sarah (Sect. 2, p. 35).
It is asked, “‘ How are the words, ‘Thy love is better than wine’
understood?” Answer: When Rabbi Dimi came to Babylon, he
said, “This verse is thus understood: the Congregation of Israel
said to God, ‘Lord of the Universe, the words of thy friends
(namely, the sages) are more excellent than even the wine of the
Law.’”

Here we see that the beloved is taken to be God, and the
loved one the Congregation of Israel.

Ch. i. 3, is quoted and expounded, a little further on, in the

same tract of the Talmud, in the following manner. “R. Nach-
sman ben R. Chasdah once said, in his discourse, the words
‘Delicious is the odour of thy perfumes, denote a learned man ;
for such an one is like a box of perfumes ; if it is covered up,
no one can smell the perfumes, but when it is opened the odour
becomes widely diffused. It is so with a learned man without
disciples, no one knows of his learning; but if he gets a circle of
disciples his name and his learning become widely diffused. And
not only this, but he himself will increase learning by teaching, so
that things which he formerly did not understand will now become
plain to him; for it ts written wn the same verse WANN moby
DAMSELS LOVE THEE ; read NYDIY HIDDEN THINGS will love thee,
i.e., will become plain to thee; and not only this, but even the
angel of death will love him; read then myo7by HE WHO IS
OVER DEATH will love thee; and still more, he will inherit both
worlds, this world and the world to come; read also nyo
WORLDS love thee.”

Ch. i. 18, 14, and v. 13, are quoted and explained in Sabbath,
p. 88, b., “Rabbi Joshuah ben Levi saith, What is meant
by Powpad mt qT Ay is the congregation of Israel,
who is saying before the Holy One thus: O Lord, though my
beloved (i. e. God) oppresses me, and is embittered against me,
yet he still lodges with me. By I) py D2 > ITAA SUN
is meant, He who is the owner of all things, will forgive me the
INTRODUCTION. 27

sin of the calf, with which I covered myself. A question is
raised, How does ‘3722 signify my covering? Then Rabbi
Mar-Sutra ben Rabbi Nachman quotes *»1Dv DID Sw NDD
m2 nN yby from another part of the Talmud (Kelim 35),
where D723 means to cover. R.Joshuah ben Levi proceeds,
What is meant by Denanm many wd is, At every command-
ment which proceedeth from the mouth of the Holy One on
Mount Sinai, the world was filled with aromatics. A question
is asked, If the world was filled at the first commandment,
where was the odour diffused at the second commandment ?
Answer, The Holy One sent his wind from his stores, and
carried them away successively, as it is written, DIww PNINSw
do not read Dww but ONWYW repeating in succession. Rabbi
Joshuah ben Levi concludes, At every commandment uttered by
the mouth of the Holy One, the soul of Israel was drawn out
of them, as it is written, ‘My sowl went out when he spake.” A
question is again asked, If their soul was drawn out at the first
commandment, how could they receive the second? Answer. He
(i. €. God) caused the dew to come down, by which he will raise
the dead, and revived them, as it is written, ‘Thou, O God, didst
send a plentiful rain, whereby thou didst confirm thine inherit-
ance, when it was weary.’ Ps. Ixviii. 9.4

Here, again, we see that the bridegroom is taken to be the
Holy One, the Owner of all things, and the bride the con-
gregation of Israel. The reader, looking into the text of the
Talmud quoted in the note, will observe that most of this
interpretation has been obtained, either by the separation of
words, the transposition and change of letters, or by substi-

 

ww "1 a’ apr eb be now “ox por on pod MT A ns en Ab pa yore ys!
$y % yea vow dorm oa py ona *) TT Abort owe pe tw prom ron wow o”y AR
NDI PANT JOA INT NI AD WON TNT wT kw? ND INITT Yow wo} now a NY
MT WIT $9 DWT MaMwI Md PnIT wo a YerT Ve HoT ne yoy “Sow DID de
seeiTT ToT pan ww NIT NON] PN WPTOw pI Byows Yd hw 9 Noo nappa renw
“pn be TY WO MEW OAwW PMINDW NUN wan pan Yavo wm pnw mn spn
wow bev bw prow) tn nape ew NIT PTD A nT oe :ouww Noe De
ny pry do TNT bap PAT w TIT Nw) TAN eR Wow MNO) 272 TAZ we?
TE Iw M209 AMD ANS Nba Som OTS FPN MI Ow “wow OME TM DN 13
28 INTRODUCTION.

tuting in the commentary words, similar in sound to those in
the Scriptures. Thus, 17% a bundle, a bag, is explained by
7ED oppress; WO myrrh by WD embitter; NIWN a cluster
by > Sonw wn He whose are all things; DD cypress flowers
by 1D pardon; 14) py En-gedi by bay py the sin of the calf.

This mode of interpretation is not confined to the Song of
Songs, but is applied to all parts of the Bible, and is an
illustration of the way in which the hermeneutic rules laid
down by Rabbi Hillel, and augmented by R. Ishmael, and
others, were carried out.

550, aD.—The Targum or Chaldee paraphrase is the first
entire commentary upon the Song of Songs which has been
handed down to us. The author is unknown. Kitto erro-
neously affirms, that it was “‘ made several centuries before the
time of Christ, and probably before the traditionary interpreta-
tion of the author himself (7. e. the author of this Song) would
entirely be lost.”! The inferior style in which it is written,
the copious use it makes of legends of a very late date, and
especially the mention it makes of the Gemara (Ch.1i.2), which
was not completed till nearly the middle of the sixth century,
prove most distinctly that this paraphrase was made in the
sixth century. Hiivernick,* however, is equally wrong in
affirming that the Mahomedans are mentioned in Ch. i. 7.
That the sons of Ishmael here alluded to are not the Ma-
homedans, is evident from Ch. vi. 7. of the same paraphrase,
where we are told that these ONYDUNT ‘12 headed by Alexander
the Great, came to wage war against Jerusalem at the time of
the Maccabees.

The Targum takes the Song of Songs as an allegory,
describing prophetically the history of the Jewish nation,
beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and detailing their
doings and sufferings, down to the coming of the Messiah, and
the building of the third Temple.

! Daily Bible Illustrations, the Song of Songs, p. 449.

2 Kinleitung in das Alte Testament, Zweite Auflage, Erster Theil, Erste
Abtheilung, § 82, p. 401.
INTRODUCTION. 29

Thus, according to this allegory, Ch. i. 3, describes Jehovah's
fame, which went abroad in consequence of the wonders he
wrought when bringing the Israelites out of Egypt; verse 12
describes the departure of Moses to receive the two tables of
stone, and how the Israelites, in the mean time, made the golden
calf; verse 14 describes the pardon of that sin, and the erection
of the Tabernacle; Ch. iii. 6-11, describes the passage of the
Israelites, under the leadership of Joshua, over the Jordan,
their &ttacking and conquering the Canaanites, and the building
of Solomon’s Temple; Ch. v. 2, describes the Babylonian cap-
tivity ; Ch. vi. 2, the deliverance of Israel through Cyrus; and
the building of the second Temple; Ch. vi. 7, &c., describes
the battles of the Maccabees; Ch. vii. 11, 12, the present dis-
persion of the Jews, and their future anxiety to learn the time
of their restoration; Ch. viii. 5, &c., describes the resurrection
of the dead, the final ingathering of Israel, the building of the
third Temple, &c., &c. :

“The beloved,” according to the Targum, is the Lord; “the
loved one” i8 the Congregation of Israel; “the companions of
the beloved” (Ch. i. 7) are the Edomites and the Ishmaelites ;
“the daughters of Jerusalem” are, in Ch.i. 5, the Gentile nations;
in ii. 7, iii. 5, viii. 4, the Congregation of Israel; and in v. 8. the
prophets ; “the brothers of the loved one” are the false prophets;
“the little sister,” in vill. 8,is the people of Israel; the speakers
in the same verse are the angels; the speaker in viii. 18, is the
Lord ; “the companions,” in the same verse are the Sanhedrim.

The following specimen of the Targum, on the first chapter
of this Song, will give the reader an idea of the way in which
the paraphrase develops the allegorical construction of this
book.

1. The Song of Songs, §e.—The songs and praises which Solomon the
prophet, King of Israel, sang, by the spirit of prophecy, before God, the
Lord of the whole world. Ten songs were sang in this world, but this
song is the most celebrated of them all. The first song Adam sang when
his sins were forgiven him, and when the sabbath-day came, and protected
him, he opened his mouth and said, “ A song for the sabbath-day, &c.
(Ps. xcii.) The second song Moses and the children of Israel sang when the
30 INTRODUCTION.

Lord of the world divided the Red Sea for them, they all opened their
mouths and sang as one man, the song, as it is written, “Then sang Moses
and the children of Israel.” (Exod. xv. 1.) The third song the children of
Israel sang when the well of water was given to them, as it is written,
“Then sang Israel.” (Numb. xxi. 17.) The fourth song Moses the prophet
sang, when his time came to depart from this world, in which he reproved
the people of the house of Israel, as it is written: “ Give ear, O heavens, and
I will speak.” (Deut. xxxii.1.) The fifth song Joshua the son of Nun sang,
when he waged war in Gibeon, and the sun and moon stood still for him
thirty-six hours, and when they left off singing their song, he himself opened
his mouth and sang this song, as it is written: ‘Then sang Joshua before
the Lord.” (Josh. x.12.) The sixth song Barak and Deborah sangs in the
day when the Lord delivered Sisera and his army into the hands of the
children of Israel, as it is written: ‘‘ Then sang Deborah, &c.” (Judg. v. 11.)
‘The seventh song Hannah sang when a son was given her by the Lord, as it
is written: ‘“ And Hannah prayed prophetically, and said.” (1 Sam. ii. 1,
and the Targum in loco.) The eighth song David the King of Israel sang
for all the wonders which the Lord did for him. He opened his mouth
and sang a hymn, as it is written: ‘And David sang in prophecy before
the Lord.” (2 Sam. xxii. 1, and the Targum iz loco.) The ninth song
Solomon the King of Israel sang by the Holy Spirit before God, the Lord
of the whole world. And the ¢enth song the children of the captivity shall
sing when they shall be delivered from their captivity, as it is written and
declared by Isaiah the prophet: “ This song shall be unto you for joy, as
in the night in which the feast of the passover is celebrated; and gladness
of heart as when the people go to appear before the Lord three times in
the year, with all kinds of music, and with the sound of the timbrel, to go
up to the mountain of the Lord, and to worship before the Lord, the Mighty
One of Israel.” (Is. xxx. 29, and the Targum zn loco.)

2. Let him kiss me, §c.—Solomon the prophet said, “ Blessed be the
name of the Lord who has given us the law through Moses the great
scribe, written upon two tables of stone; and the six parts of the Mishna
and the Talmud traditionally, and who spoke with us face to face, as a man
that kissed his friend, because of his great love wherewith he loved us
above the seventy nations.” !

3. Thy perfumes, §c.—At the report of thy wonders and mighty deeds
which thou hast done for thy people the house of Israel, all the nations
trembled who heard of thy famous strength, and thy great miracles; and
in all the earth was heard thy holy name, which is more excellent than the
anointing oil that was poured upon the heads of kings and priests; therefore
the righteous love to walk after thy good way, because they shall inherit
both this world and the world to come.

4. Draw me, §ce.—When the people of the house of Israel went out of
Egypt the shechinah of the Lord of the world went before them in a pillar
of cloud by day, and in a pillar of fire by night, and the righteous of that

1 The Hebrew word }, consisting of two » 20, and } 50, caused this explan-
ation. This mode of interpretation is called NON, Gematria, yewuerpla, cach
letter of the word being taken according to its numerical value and the text
interpreted accordingly.
INTRODUCTION. 3)

generation said, Lord of the whole world, draw us after thee, and we will
run in thy good way! Bring us to the foot of Mount Sinai, and give us
thy law out of thy treasury in heaven, and we will rejoice and be glad in
the twenty-two letters' with which it is written, and we will remember them,
and love thy divine nature, and withdraw ourselves from the idols of the
nations; and all the righteous, who do that which is right before thee, shall
fear thee and love thy commandments.

5. Iam swarthy, §c.—When the house of Israel made the calf, their faces
became black, like the sons of Cush, who dwelt in the tents of Kedar; but
when they returned by repentance, and were forgiven, the shining splen-
dour of their faces was increased to that of ahgels, because they made the
curtains for the tabernacle, and the shechinah of the Lord dwelt among
them; and Moses, their teacher, went up to heaven and made peace between
them and their King.

6. Do not look down upon me, §e.—The congregation of Israel said
before all the nations, Do not despise me because I am blacker than you,
for I have done your deeds, and worshipped the sun and moon; for false
prophets have been the cause that the fierce anger of the Lord has come
upon me, and they taught me to worship your idols, and to walk in your
laws; but the Lord of the world, who is my God, I did not serve, and did
not walk in his precepts, and did not keep his commandments and laws.

7. Tell me, §c.—When the time came for Moses the prophet to depart
from this world, he said to the Lord, It is revealed to me that this people
will sin, and be carried into captivity ; show me now how they shall be
governed and dwell among the nations, whose decrees are oppressive as the
heat and the scorching sun in the summer solstice, and wherefore is it
that they shall wander among the flocks of the sons of Esau and Ishmael,
who make their idols equal to thee, as though they were thy companions.

8. If thou knowest not, §c.—The Holy One, blessed be his name, said
to Moses, the prophet, ‘I suffer myself to be entreated to abolish their
captivity; the congregation of Israel, which is like a fair damsel, and which
my soul loves, she shall walk in the ways of the righteous, and shall order
her prayers according to the order of her governors and leaders, and instruct
her children, who are like to the kids of the goats, to go to the synagogue
and the schools; and by the merits of this they shall be governed in the
captivity, until the time that I send King Messiah, and he shall lead them
quietly to their habitations; yea, he shall bring them to the house of the
sanctuary, which David and Solomon, the shepherds of Israel, shall build
for them.”

9. I compare thee, §c.—When Israel went out of Egypt, Pharaoh and
his hosts pursued after them with chariots and horsemen, and their way
was shut up on the four sides of them; onethe right hand and on the
left were wildernesses full of fiery serpents, and behind them was wicked
Pharaoh with his army, and before them was the Red Sea, what did the
holy blessed God do? He was manifested in the power of his might upon
the Red Sea, and dried the sea up, but the mud he did not dry up. The
wicked and the mixed multitude, and the strangers who were among them,

1 This interpretation is derived from reducing the word 7a to its numerical
value, 22. See note on verse 1,
32 INTRODUCTION.

said, The waters of the sea he was able to dry up, but the mud he was not
able to dry up. In that very hour the fierce anger of the Lord came upon
them, and he sought to drown them in the waters of the sea, as Pharaoh,
and his army, and his chariots, and his horsemen, and his horses were
drowned, had it not been for Moses the Prophet, who spread his hands in
prayer before the Lord, and turned away the anger of the Lord from them.
Then he and the righteous of that generation opened their mouths, and
sang a song, and passed through the Red Sea on dry land, through the
merits of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the beloved of the Lord.

10. Beautiful are thy cheeks, §c.—When they went out into the wilderness
the Lord said to Moses, “ How comely is this people, that the words of the
law should be given unto them, and they shall be as a bridle in their jaws, that
they may not depart out of the good way, as a horse turneth not aside that
has a bridle in his jaws ; and how fair is their neck to bear the yoke of my
commandments; and it shall be upon them asa yoke upon the neck of a
bullock which plougheth in the field, and feeds both itself and its owner.”

11. Cirelets of gold, §c.—Then was it said to Moses, “Go up into
heaven, and I will give thee the two tables of stone, hewn out of the
sapphire of the throne of my glory, shining as the best gold, disposed in
rows, written with my finger, on which are engraven the ten command-
ments, purer than silver that is purified seven times seven, which is the
number of the things explained in them in forty-nine various ways, and
I shall give them by thy hands to the people of the house of Israel.”

12. While the King, §e.—Whilst Moses, their teacher, was in heaven
to receive the two tables of stone, and the law and the commandments, the
wicked of that generation and the mixed multitude that was among them
rose up and made a golden calf, and caused their works to stink, and an
evil report of them went out in the world; for before this time a fragrant
odour of them was diffused in the world, but afterwards they stank like
nard, the smell of which is very bad, and the plague of leprosy came down
upon their flesh.

13. A bag of myrrh, §ce.—At that time the Lord said to Moses, “Go
down, for the people have corrupted themselves, desist from speaking to
me, and I will destroy them.” Then Moses returned and asked mercy of
the Lord, and the Lord remembered for them the binding of Isaac, whom
his father bound, on Mount Moriah, upon the altar; and the Lord turned
from his fierce anger, and caused his shechinah to dwell among them as
before.

14. A bunch of cypress flowers, §c.—So then went Moses down with
the two tables of stone in his hands; and, because of the sins of Israel, his
hands grew heavy, and the tables fell and were broken. Then went Moses
and ground the calf to powder, and scattered the dust of it upon the brook,
and made the children of Israel to drink it, and slew all that deserved to
die, and went up a second time into heaven, and prayed before the Lord,
and made atonement for the children of Israel; then was the command-
ment to make a tabernacle and an ark. Immediately Moses hastened
and made the tabernacle, and all its furniture, and the ark; and he put in
the ark the two other tables, and appointed the sons of Aaron, the priests,
to offer the offerings upon the altar, and to pour the wine upon the offerings ;
INTRODUCTION. 33

but from whence had they wine to pour? For in the wilderness they
had no proper place for sowing; neither had they fig-trees, nor vines, nor
pomegranates; but they went to the vineyards of En-gedi, and took
clusters of grapes from thence, and pressed wine out of them, and poured
it upon the altar, the fourth part of a hin to one lamb.

15. Behold thou art beautiful, §c—When the children of Israel per-
formed the will of their King, he himself praised them in the family of the
holy angels, and said, “ How fair are thy works, my daughter, my beloved,
O congregation of Israel, in the time that thou doest my will, and studiest
in the words of my law; and how well ordered are thy works and thy
affairs, as young doves that are fit to be offered upon the altar!”

16. Behold thou art comely, §e.—The congregation of Israel answered
before the Lord of the world, and thus sdid, “‘ How fair is the shechinah of thy
holiness, when thou dwellest among us, and receivest prayers with accept-
ance; and when thou dwellest in our beloved bed, and our children are
multiplied in the world, and we increase and multiply like a tree that is
planted by a stream of water, whose leaf is fair, and whose fruit is
plenteous !”

17. The beams of, §c.—Solomon, the prophet, said, “ How beautiful is
the house of the sanctuary of the Lord, which is built by my hands, of
wood of Gulmish ; but far more beautiful will be the house of the sanctuary
which shall be built in the days of the King Messiah, the beams of which
will be of the cedars of the garden of Eden, and whose rafters will be of
cypress, pine, and box.”

The precedent of the Talmud in taking the beloved as the
Lord, and the loved one as the Congregation of Israel, and in
explaining the text in such a manner as to make it square with
her doings, has quite prepared us for the Chaldee exposition,

~the author of which most probably was himself one of the
later Talmudists. How could the paraphrast do otherwise ?
“Are not the words of the sages more excellent than even the
wine of the Law ?”! “Is not he who transgresses the words
of the scribes more guilty than he who transgresses the words of
the Law?’? Having, therefore, been once settled by the sages
that this Song describes the doings and sufferings of Israel, it
only remained for the expositors to apply their exegetical
canons, viz.: of transposing, changing, or omitting letters;
explaining words by others of a similar sound; making each
letter of a word begin another word; reducing an expression
to its numerical value, and explaining the text accordingly,
&e. &c., in order to palm upon this book, in a consecutive

1 Vide supra, p. 26. * Hieros. Berach. p. 3. b.
Fr
34 INTRODUCTION.

order, the remarkable events in connection with the history
of the Jews.

Thus, the love of God to Israel,.which was greater than to all
the seventy other nations mentioned in Ch. i. 2, was obtained by
reducing the word y to its numerical value, seventy; the two
worlds, in verse 8, which the pious are to inherit, were obtained
by changing nyaby maidens, into nypdyy worlds, according to
the example of the Talmud ;! the twenty-two letters with which
the Law is written, in verse 4, were obtained by reducing the
word 33 to its numerical value; the Tabernacle, in verse 5,
was obtained from the word myyn, and the effected peace by
changing the proper name ;yby into pyd>y peace; the worship
of the sun and moon, in verse 6, was obtained from the word
wow sun; the ploughing bullock, in verse 10, was obtained by
changing py) ringlet, and py nN necklace, into 7M WN; the
two tables shining as the best gold, verse 11, were obtained
by rendering am} myn golden Laws, and the seven times seven,
or the forty different interpretations of the Law, by reducing the
word 377 to its numerical value, ? being seven, and 7 and 9
seven, and then multiplying seven by seven; the binding of
Isaac, in verse 18, was obtained by rendering 7yp7 AI by
MT Ay the binding of Moriah; the sin of the calf, and the
atonement of that, in verse 14, were obtained by changing yy
"1 En-gedi, into 5yy py the sin of the calf, and by substituting
752 pardon, for DD cypress-flower, according to the example
of the Talmud.? This is the development of Hagadic exegesis,
and this the paraphrase appealed to in support of the allegorical
interpretation, and in the track of which future allegorists more
or less follow.

892—942. From the Chaldee paraphrase to R. Saadias Gaon,
a period of about 350 years, thick darkness covers the annals of
Jewish literature. With him, however, a new epoch begins to
dawn. Saadias was born at Pithom, in Egypt, about the year 892,
and died in the year 942. He was “Gaon,” or spiritual head of

1 Vide supra, p. 26. 2 Tbid. p. 28.
INTRODUCTION. 35

the Jews in Babylon, and is well known by his translation of the
Bible into Arabic, the Pentateuch of which is inserted in
Walton’s Polyglott.: Among the many philosophical and
exegetical works this eminent man bequeathed to posterity,
is a commentary on the Song of Songs, which was origin-
ally written in Arabic, and was translated into Hebrew by
some unknown individual. This work is exceedingly rare,
and I have happily found a copy of the original Constantinople
edition in the British Museum, of which Dukes was not aware
when he wrote his “Literarische Mittheilungen.” The view
that Saadias takes is that “Solomon relates in it the history of
the Jews, beginning with their Exodus from Egypt, and extend-
ing it beyond the coming of the Messiah.” Thus far he agrees
with the Targum, but his commentary on the text is entirely at
variance with that paraphrase.

According to Saadias, Ch. i. 2—iii. 5, describes the bondage
of Israel in Egypt, their liberation, the giving of the Law, the
battles with Sihon, Og, and the King of Aroar, the wrath of
God at the time of the spies, &c. Ch. iii. 6—iv. 7, describes
the erection of the Tabernacle, the various journeys in the
wilderness, the high position of Moses and Aaron, &c. Hitherto
Israel has been called by the appellation my loved one, for they
had not as yet entered Canaan; henceforth they are called
bride (755), because God takes them into the promised land;
just as a bridegroom calls his loved one bride, when he takes
her home. Ch. iv. 8—v. 1, describes Israel’s entrance into
Canaan, the building of the first Temple, the separation of

1 Comp. Wolfii Bibl. Rabbin. Vol. i. pp. 932—936; Ewald und Dukes,
Beitriage zur Geschichte der Alten Auslegung und Spracherklarung des Alten
Testamerttes, Zweites Bindchen, p. 5, seqq. We must confess that Dukes’
arguments, here produced against the genuineness of this commentary, appear
inconclusive. Such an allegorical exposition is just what might have been
expected from Saadias, judging from his predilection for Rabbinisms and
allegorising, which appears in his translation of the Pentateuch. Moreover,
oyna msn does not necessarily imply commentaries written before Saadias,
but may refer to the opinions of some of his contemporaries. It is, however,

probable that the translator of it into Hebrew has omitted some verbal explan-
ations, deeming them unnecessary for his purpose.
36 INTRODUCTION. *

Judah and Israel, the Shechinah departing from Israel and
abiding with Judah, and the people coming up to Jerusalem to
the three great festivals. Ch. v.2—vi. 8, describes the rebellion
of Israel and Ahaz, God sending prophets to warn them to repent,
the destruction of the Temple, the Babylonian captivity, Israel's
liberation, the building of the second Temple, and the covenant
of God with his repenting people. Ch. vi. d—ix. describes the
twofold condition of the people that returned from Babylon, some
of whom were godly, while others took strange women, forgot the
holy language, and were therefore called qny dawn, being
neither real light nor real darkness, neither pious nor wicked.
Ch. vi. 10—vii. 9, refers to the present dispersion, in which the
Jews, though being many days without a king, without a priest,
&c., say we still live in the fear of God, and are His. Ch. vii.
12—viil. 4, refers to the sufferings of the Messiah ben Joseph,
the manifestation of the Messiah ben David, the obedience of
Israel to God in those days, and to the Lord’s rejoicing over
them as a bridegroom over his bride. Ch. viii. 5, to the end,
describes Israel restored, the third Temple built, and all the
people walking according to the will of the Lord.

The principal persons in this Song are understood in the
following manner: “the beloved” is the Lord; “the loved one,”
the Congregation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved,”
(Ch. i. 7,) are Moses, Aaron, and Miriam; “the daughters of
Jerusalem,” the Congregation of Isracl; “the little sister,” the
two tribes and a half; “the speaker,” the Lord; ‘the inhabitant
of the gardens,” is the sages; “the companions,” in the same
verse, are the Israelites wishing to listen to the teaching of
their sages.

The following is a specimen of R.Saadias’s commentary, the
Hebrew of which is given in the note.)

1—3. The Song of Songs, &c.—Know, my brother, that you will find a

great diversity of opinions as regards the interpretation of this Song of

 

 

QwoIw DIN CA aN Dwr Iw wrrD2 OPN OT NwON ODT YT De ad
DW wn dw 22 mMI50 by ION? NIAwW DDN wr FMM WNW OY Y205 OWA Iw
ETAT TNT TAD AO ATT DoT Pew DIT AYA DANDY MwA MD Ay
¥ INTRODUCTION. 37

Songs ; and it must be confessed that’ there is reason for it, since the Song
of Songs is like a lock, the key of which hath been lost. Some maintain
that it refers to the kingdom of Israel; others say that it refers to the
days of the Messiah; and others again affirm that it refers to the time of
the dispersion and the Messiah, and assert that by beloved (1) the
Messiah is meant, and by bride (nb>) is meant the law (rn). But this
is a sin, an error, and a great heresy. The truth is, that by beloved (m)
is meant the Lord, for it is written, “I will sing to my beloved a song
of love respecting his vineyard” (Isa. v. 1), which the prophet Isaiah
explains (verse 7), ‘The vineyard of the Lord of Hosts is the house of
Israel.” Solomon relates in this book the history of the Jews commencing
with their Exodus from Egypt until after the coming of the Messiah, and
compares the position of Israel to God to that of a bride toa bridegroom,
because she (Israel) is dear to him, and he to her, When he first takes
her from her father’s house he calls her my friend (sy), when he brings
her to his house he calls her my bride (nb), when she finds favour in his
eyes he calls her my sister (mm), and praises her from head to foot ; then
he is angry with her, and she returns and praises him from head to foot;
then hé praises her a second time. And, because it is unlawful for a
bridegroom and bride to come together without a marriage-contract and
witnesses, therefore Solomon begins with the words, “Let him give me
kisses of .his mouth;” that is, the commandments and the statutes,
corer ges th the written and the oral law which the Lord gave to
Israel theeh the pious Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, so that. Israel’s fame
-went forth into the world in consequence of their wisdom, as it is written,
“And thy renown went forth among the heathen for thy beauty,” &c.
(Ezek. xvi. 14), so much so that many of the nations desired to be gathered
under the wings of the shechinah and become Jews; and these are the
mixed multitudes, Jethro and others, and therefore it is said, “ Thy perfumes
are good in odour,” that is, the Lord tried them from the departure out of
Egypt till their entrance into Canaan whether they would walk in his
ways, as it is written, “Thou didst follow me in the wilderness,” &c.
Jer. ii. 2.

4. Draw me, &e.—Having related in this verse how Israel walked in
the fear of the Lord, and received the ten commandments in the 6th of

 

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38 INTRODUCTION. oe

Sivan, and then made the calf on the 17th of Tamuz, Solomon in astonish-
ment says in their name,

5. Iam swarthy, §c.—That is, I am swarthy, but comely ; I am swarthy
because of making the calf, but comely because of receiving the ten
commandments; and Israel says that his sin has been forgiven through the
three thousand men, the wicked among Israel, who served idols, who were
killed before the sun to atone for the great sin, as it is written, “ For thou
hadst done it in secret, but I will do it before all Israel, and before the
sun (2 Sam. xii. 11, 12); and the nations made me Keeper of the service of
other gods, for I served strange gods, as it is written, “ And they changed
their glory into the likeness of a calf that eateth grass” (Psal. ev. 25.)

The reader will have observed that this early commentator
does already compare the Song of Songs to a lock, the key of
which has been lost, and refers to several modes in which it has
been interpreted.

1000—1040. The allegorical interpretation was nevertheless
introduced into the Jewish liturgical services in the middle
ages, when they were seeking, from traditions, dogmas, biblical
events, &c., to construct sacred hymns and ae be said
or sung at their feasts and fasts.! Being regarded as repre-
senting the departure of Israel from Egypt (oy4¥D mx‘x?), and
their subsequent history in confirmation of Jehovah’s covenant
with them, the Song of Songs is used in a poetical paraphrase
on the first and second morning services of the Passover
feast, which was designed to celebrate the Exodus from
Egypt as the commencement of the conjugal relation between
God and his people. For the same reason, the book itself
is read in the synagogue ou the Sabbath of the middle days
of the Passover (np bw styiom Syn). The poetical paraphrase
above alluded to is in an alphabetical form, has the author’s
name in it, aud each stanza closes with a quotation from the
book in regular order, which renders the paraphrastic meaning
artificial and obscure. Some idea of it may be gathered
from the following version which we have made of R. Solomon

| Vide Sachs, Religisse Poesie der Iuden in Spanien, p. 267. Zunz, die
Synagogale Pocesie des Mittclalters, pp. 63, 64,
- INTRODUCTION. 39

ben Judah Hababli’s paraphrase, comprising the first five.
verses of the Song of Songs.

1 The Light and Saviour of the chosen people
Deserving protection,

He shall have from His beloved assembly
“ A song of Songs.”

2 The Graceful One, the object of all longing desires.
The Reviving Cordial of the faipting heart,
The Bountiful Source of abundant supply,
“ He hath kissed me with kisses,” '

3 The loved one above all nations,

The keeper of the Law Thou hast given,
Her didst Thou perfume with Thy spices,
* The odour of Thy sweet ointments.” ®

4 The chosen of Thy house and nobles,
Lo! we are surrounded with splendour,
We press to the house of Thy glory,

“ Oh draw us after thee.” 3

5 Oh Thou all majestic, yet mild,
Thou hast crown’d me with grace above many,
Though now with grief I am marred,
“ Tam swarthy, but comely.” 4

It must, however, be borne in mind that the synagogal
poetry was not authorized to express the creed of the whole
nation; which is evident from the fact that many learned and
pious Jews unscrupulously, and without censure, rejected some
of its opinions. Some of these poems were composed by
prelectors of separate congregations, and for the use of the
particular synagogues in which they officiated. The adoption or
rejection of any such poem entirely depended upon the influence
of the prelector on his congregation, and upon the theme and
merit of the composition. The poetical paraphrase of the
allegorical interpretation of the Song of Songs was sure to be
adopted because of the consolation which it imparts to the

1 This refers to the giving of the Law, and God’s speaking face to face.
Compare the Chaldee on the verse.

2 Through receiving the law Israel was anointed, 7. e., became wise, and the
fame of their wisdom was diffused abroad. Compare Saadias on the passage.

3 7, «., Let the guiding Pillar allure us in the path of obedience.

4 ¢.e., Swarthy through the sin of the calf, comely through the reception
of the Law. Compare the Chaldee.
40 INTRODUCTION.

dispersed and suffering Israelites, inasmuch as it assures them
that God has not cast them off, that He is still their beloved,
and they are still his loved ones, and that he will speedily be
reunited to them.

1040—1105. Through R. Solomon ben Isaac, the founder
of the Germano-French Rabbinical literature, this encouraging
allegorical interpretation was introduced into Germany and
France, where the suffering Jews obtained consolation. This
distinguished commentator, commonly called Rashi, and,
through the misleading of Buxtorf, erroneously named Jarchi,
was born at Troyes, in Champagne, in 1040, where he also
died, about 1105.1

“ My opinion is,” says Rashi, “that Solomon foresaw, by the
aid of the Holy Spirit, that Israel would be carried into sundry
captivities, and undergo sundry dissolutions ; that they would
lament in their captivity over their former glory, and recall the
former love, which God manifested for them above all other nations ;
that they would say, ‘I will go and return to my first husband,
for then was it better with me than now’ (Hos. ii. 9) ; that they
would acknowledge His kindness and their own rebellion, and
the good things which He promised to give them in the latter
days (i. é., at the coming of Messiah.)

“This book is written by inspiration, and represents a wife
forsaken by her husband, and shut up, longing after him, recalling
to her mind her love in youth to her beloved, and confessing her
guilt; her beloved sympathising with her affection, and remembering
the kindness of her youth, the charms of her beauty, and her good
works, which had tied him to her with an everlasting love.

“ The design of this book is to show to Israel that God has not
afflicted her (i. e., Israel) willingly ; that though He did send her
away, He has not cast her off; that she is still His wife, and He
her husband, and that He will again be united to her.’?

1 Zunz, Zeitschrift fiir die Wissenschaft des Judenthums, 1823, p. 272, seqq.
Jost, Allgemeine Geschichte des Israelitischen Volkes, Zwciter Band, p. 374.
? Introduction to the Commentary.
INTRODUCTION. 41

According to Rashi, 444 represents God as a husband, and the
“loved one” the congregation of Israel, as a wife forsaken for a
time by him; the “ companions of the beloved” are the heathen
kings and princes, under the figure of wolves ; “the daughters of
Jerusalem,” are the heathen nations ; the “brothers of the loved
one,” are the Egyptians ; the “little sister” is the forsaken wife
of the Song, &c. &e. :

The following is a specimen of Rashi's commentary :—

1. Lhe Song of Songs, &c.— Our Rabbins state, that whenever Solo-
mon is mentioned in this Song, it signifies the Holy One, the King of
Peace. This is confirmed by the fact that the name of Solomon’s father
is not here given, as in Prov. i. 1 and Eccl.i. 1. This most excellent Song
was addressed to God by his people, the congregation of Israel. Rabbi
Akiba says, that the world was not worthy of the day in which the Song
of Songs was given to Israel; for all the Scriptures are holy, but the
Song of Songs is most holy. Rabbi Eliezer ben Azariah says, it is like
to a king who took a measure of wheat, and gave it to the baker, say-
ing, Produce from it so much flour, so much bran, and so much chaff, and
make me a refined and excellent cake of the flour; so all Scriptures are
holy, but this Song is most holy; for the whole of this book teaches the
fear of God and submission to his kingdom.

2. Let him kiss me, &c.—This Song Israel utters in her captivity and
widowhood. Oh that King Solomon would give me kisses of His mouth, as
in the time of yore! Some kiss the hand, and others the shoulders; but I
desire that He should behave to meas in former days, viz., kiss my mouth
as a bridegroom kisses his bride; fér Thy caresses are better than all the
banquets of wine, andall joys and pleasures. It is a Hebrew idiom to cail
every banquet of pleasure and joy by the name of wine (Comp. Esth. vii. 2;
Isaiah xxiv.9; v.12). This is the literal sense; but, according to the alle-
gory, this refers to the giving of the Law, and God’s speaking with Isracl
face to face. These favours still continue to be more precious to them than
any delights; and as they are assured by God that He will appear again to
reveal the sccrets and mysteries of the Law, Israel prays to Him for the
fulfilment of His promises. ‘This is the meaning of “ Let him kiss me!”

3. Thy perfumes, &e.—A good name is called good oil. The fragrance
of Thy name is so excellent that the ends of the earth have smelt it when
they heard of Thy fame and of Thy great wonders in Egypt. Thy name
is called yow, @e., Thou art oil, and art constantly poured forth, so
that Thy sweet odour might be widely diffused. This is the nature of
good oil. As long as it is sealed in a bottle, it does not emit any smell; but
when the bottle is opened, and the oil poured into a vessel, the smell is
diffused. The maidens love thee. Jethro, hearing of the wonderful doings
of God in Egypt, confessed the God of Israel (Exodus xviii.) ; so Rahab,
when she heard that the Lord had dried up the waters of the Red Sea,
became a proselyte (Joshua ii. 11). By the matdens are meant the Gentiles ;
they are so called because God is represented as a youth.

G
AY INTRODUCTION.

4. Draw mo, &e.—I gathered from Thy messengers that Thou didst wish
to draw me, and | immediately replied, We will run after ‘Thee to be Thy
wife. He has brought me, &c. And up to the present time I still rejoice,
and am glad that I have been united to Thee. Ve celebrate, &c. Even
now, though a living widow, I celebrate Thy love more than a banquet of
pleasure and mirth. TZhey love thee, &c. I and my forefathers, in their
days, have loved ‘Thee with fervent and upright love, without deception.
‘Yhis is the literal meaning according to the context. But, according to the
allegory, Israel reminds God of the kindness of their youth and the love of
their espousals (Jer. ii. 2), of their following Him in the wilderness, a land
of aridity and the shadow of death, whither they took no provisions,
because they believed in Him and in His messenger, and did not say, How
shall we follow Thee in the wilderness, a place destitute of fertility and
food ? but went after Him, and “ He brought them into his apartments :”
that is, surrounded them with the protecting clouds. And even now,
though in distress and affliction, they rejoice and are glad in Him and
delight in the Law; and herein celebrate His love more than wine, and mani-
fest thetr sincere attachment to Him.

5. I am swarthy, &e.—yYou, my companions, let me not be lightly
esteemed in your eyes, although my Husband forsook me because of my
swarthiness; for I am swarthy because of the tanning sun, yet I am comely
because of the symmetry of my beautiful limbs. If I am swarthy, like the
tents of Kedar, which are discoloured by the rain, in consequence of their
being constantly spread out in the wilderness, I shall easily be washed, and
be as beautiful as the curtains of Solomon. The allegorical meaning is,
the congregation of Israel speaks this to the Gentiles,—I am swarthy in my
own works, but I am comely in the works of my fathers; and some of
my own works even are good. And though I am tainted with the sin of
the calf, I have, to counterbalance this, the merit of accepting the Law.
Israel calls the Gentiles “ daughters of Jerusalem,” because Jerusalem is to
be the metropolis of all nations, as it is predicted, “ And I will give them
to thee for daughters” (Ezek. xvi. 61); and, again, “Ekron and her
daughters” (Josh. xv. 44).

 

Rashi also says, that he had seen “a number of other com-
mentaries on this Song; some containing an exposition of the
whole Book, and others of separate passages, but they are com-
patible neither with the language of Scripture, nor with the
connexion of the verses.” }

1085—1155. The spread of this consoling allegorical
interpretation in France and Germany was promoted by the
commentary” of the distinguished R. Samuel ben Meier,

1 Introduction to the Commentary.
2? Commentar zu Kohelot und dem Hohen Liede yon R. Samuel ben Meier

herausgegeben von Adolph Jellineck. Leipz, 1855. This Commentary has
ust been published for the first time, edited by the learned Adolph Jellineck,
INTRODUCTION. 43

called Rashbam, the grandson of Rashi, who was born about
1085, and died about 1155.1

Rashbam too affirms that this book “ represents captive
Israel as a virgin sighing and mourning for her beloved, who left
her and went afar off, as describing his everlasting love to her,
declaring in a Song, ‘ Such an ardent love did my beloved mani-
fest when with me, and telling her friends and companions in a
colloquial manner, ‘So did iny beloved speak to me, and so did I
answer him.’”? In the explanations of the principal persons
Rashbam generally agrees with Rashi.

The following is a specimen of his commentary :—

1. The Song of Sonys—That is, a song celebrated above all songs,
like nox ox the great and awful God, above all gods, and ms “41 the
great Lord above all lords. Which is Solomon’s. That is, King Solomon
composed it by inspiration. Foreseeing the Israelites in their captivity
sighing after the Holy One who went away from them, as a bridegroom
separates himself from his beloved, Solomon sings this song in the name of
the congregation of Israel, who is like a bride to Him (God). mnbwb wr
describes Solomon as the author, compare mwndnben, 1) Adon.

2. Would that, &c.—Would that my Beloved came, and kissed me kisses
of His mouth on my mouth in his great love as in the days of old; for the
expressions of His love are better, pleasanter, and sweeter than any deli-
cious banquet. Thy caresses. The loved one sometimes addresses herself to
her beloved as if he were present, and at other times she speaks of him to
her companions, as if he were absent. More than wine, t. e. more than
sweet beverages called y». According to the allegorical meaning, this
refers to the law delivered to Israel mouth to mouth.

3. Thy perfumes, &c.—Because of Thy good ointment of balsam, the
odour of which extended to the end of the earth, and was poured out from
vessel to vessel, therefore is Thy name called ointment. Comp. Eccl. vii. 1.
“A good name is better than precious ointment.” By the extension of
youthful love is meant the wonders which the Holy One performed for the
congregation of Israel in Egypt, on account of which His name and power
became known among the nations, as it is written, “ The priest of Midian
heard, &c.” Exod. xviii. 1: and again, what is said by Rahab the harlot,
“ For we have heard how the Lord dried up the water, &c.” Josh. ii. 10.
And again, “ The people shall hear and be afraid,” Exod. xv. 14.

4. Draw me, & and I and my congregation will
run after Thee, as in the days of old, when the King, my beloved, brought
me into His chambers ; and, while running after Thee, we will rejoice and

                 

 

who constantly enriches the Hebrew literature by bringing before the public
some ancient writings.

1 Sce Zunz, zur Literatur und Geschichte, i. 70, 71.

? Introduction to the Commentary.
44 INTRODUCTION.

be glad in ‘Thee, and celebrate Thy love and the expressions of Thy affection
above any banquet of wine and beverages; for all the world loves Thee
with upright love. This refers to the congregation of Israel, who sighs
and makes supplication before the Holy One, to bring her out from her
captivity, as He had formerly brought her out. of Egypt, and led her into
His chambers, #.e., the tabernacle, where they served Him continually.

5. Tam swarthy, &e.—Oh, my companions, virgin daughters of Ishmael,
do not disdain and deride me on account of my blackness, saying, Because
I am black, therefore my Beloved left me; for, although I am black as
regards the appearance of my face, like the tents of Kedar, yet I am comely
and graceful in body and stature, like the curtains of King Solomon, which
are becoming and suitable to royalty. Thus the congregation of Israel,
whom the nations reproach on account of her sins and transgressions which
she committed, answers: True, I have sinned; and woe to me, for I am
wandering in captivity for it; yet I am comely, I am of royal blood, and
have the merits of my fathers; and the Holy One, in the latter days, will
restore me to my former state, and liberate me from the iron furnace of
captivity. The daughters of Jerusalem are the heathen. Compare “I will
give them to thee to be thy danqhters.” Ezek. xvi. 61. The tents of Kedar
are black, because the sons of Kedar sojourn in deserts and dwell in tents,
and not in houses.

1093—1168. While Rashi and Rashbam, by means of this
allegorical interpretation, assuaged the sufferings of their
brethren in France and Germany, the celebrated Abraham
Ibn-Ezra ben Meier, also called Ibn-Ezra and Raba, who
was born in Toledo in 1093, and died in 1168,! administered
consolation through the same medium to his suffering brethren
in Spain, shewing them that this Song recounts the past
wonderful dealings of God with his beloved people from the
very call of Abraham, and the blessings reserved for them
at the coming of the Messiah, who shall gather them from
among all nations, and bring them back to the land flowing
with milk and honey.

Thus Ibn Ezra maintains that “This book is allegorical, and
describes the history of Israel; commencing with the days of our
Father, Abraham, and coming down to the days of the Messiah ;
just as the Song of Moses (Deut. xxxii.) begins with the dispersion
of the hunan family, and finishes with the final ingathering of
Israel, after the battle of Gog and Magog. Do not wonder that

1 See Reland, Analecta Rabbinica, Vite celeberrimorum Rabbinorum p. 69—
80, Fiirst, Biblioth. Judaica, i. p, 251—267. Ierzog, Real, encyklopiidie, art.
Aben Izra,
INTRODUCTION. 45

the Congregation of Israelis here compared to a bride, and the Lord
to a bridegroom; for this is the manner of the prophets. (Comp.
Isa. v. 1, Ixii. 5, Ezek. xvi. 7, Hos. iii. 1, Psa. xlv. 10.)

The allegory, according to this distinguished Rabbi, is de-
veloped in the suppositious attachment contracted between a
damsel who kept a vineyard, and a shepherd. The repre-
sentation of the love of these parties “is suppositious, because
such an actual manifestation, in so public a manner as here
recorded, would be regarded as highly improper.”

“The beloved” represents God; with the exception of viii. 12,
where the Messiah is meant; “the loved one” is the Congre-
gation of Israel; “the companions of the beloved” are the
pious ancestors; “the daughters of Jerusalem” are the thoughts
of the loved one; “the little sister,” in viii. 8, is the two tribes
and a half; “the speaker,” in viii. 13, the shechinah; “the
companions,” in the same verse, are the angels.

The commentary consists of three different glosses: in the
first, the words are explained; in the second, the suppositious
history of the attachment of the shepherd and shepherdess is
developed; and in the third gloss, the allegory is evolved from
that history. The following is a specimen of the gloss where
the allegory is propounded.

2. Let him kiss me.— He (7.e. Solomon) begins with Abraham, for
he is the root of the Jewish nation. By “the kisses of his mouth” are
meant the law and the commandments, as it is written, “ Abraham obeyed
my voice and kept my charge, my commandments, my statutes, and my
laws.” (Gen. xxvi. 5.) Do not wonder that the future (pm) is used
instead of the past; this is the idiom of the sacred Scriptures, compare
worn, then he sang (Exod. xv. 1, and Psa. evi. 19); just as we find the
contrary, the past used for the future (Psa. Ixxix. 1).—For thy love, &c.
z.e.|to be loved by thee; as the Scriptures testify of God’s love to his
people. Compare “the seed of Abraham whom I love” (Isa. xli. 8); for
there is a difference between amy, loving, and ams, loved.

3. Thy perfumes, &c.—Abraham proclaimed the works of God, and
instructed his generation ; and wherever he went he called on the name of
the Lord; this is the meaning of “thy name is poured forth like oil.”

Therefore do the damsels love thee.—nimoy are such as have no
husbands, and denote the heathen who had no God, and were brought by

 

1 Introduction to the Second Gloss,
46 INTRODUCTION.

Abraham into union with God; as it is written, “ The souls which they had
begotten in Haran” (Gen. xii. 5).

4. Draw me—Abraham was drawn after God, and therefore left his
native place (Gen. xii. 1). The king has brought me, &ce.—God has brought
Abraham into the land of Canaan; or it may mean, God has made him wise
in his secrets, and the words, we will praise thy love, denote the altars
and groves which Abraham erected and planted wherever he came.

5. Iam swarthy.—-This refers to the Egyptian bondage. Although I
(ce. Israel) am swarthy because of some evil deeds committed there; yet I
am comely because of my adhesion to the covenant and to the belief in
the unity of God.

It has generally been overlooked that Ibn Ezra distinctly states
in the second gloss, in which he professes to give the literal
meaning of the narrative, that the lovers are a shepherd and a
shepherdess, and that the king is a separate and distinct person
from the beloved shepherd.

Thus he explains Ch. i. 4, “I rejoice in TuEE (the shepherd)
more than tf THE KING had brought me into his apartments.”
Again, verse 12, the shepherdess says to the shepherd, “ Though
my fragrance is go sweet that THE KING, whilst reclining, desires
to smell my nard, yet My BELOVED (the shepherd), who is a
bundle of myrrh, diffuses a still sweeter fragrance.” Compare
also Ch. iii. 6—11, Ch. vi. 8, Ch. viii, 11, 12. This is an
important step to the right understanding of the Book.

Ibn Ezra also mentions that “The philosophers explain this
book to refer to the mysterious harmony of the universe, and to
the wnion of the divine soul with the earthly body; and that

1 In reference to the last men-

others, again, explain it literally.”
tioned mode of interpretation, he exclaimed, “Far be it! far
be it! to think that the Song of Songs is an amatory composi-
tion.” ®

1200—1250. The frequent mention made by the preceding
commentators of the different views entertained respecting this
Song, will have prepared the reader for the philosophical
interpretation which has been advpted and defended by a large
and influential portion of the Jewish community.

Joseph Ibn Caspe, a learned author, who lived in the begin-

1 Introduction to the Virst Gloss. ? Preface to the Commentary.
INTRODUCTION. AT

ning of the thirteenth century, and who wrote expositions on
several portions of the Scriptures, maintains that “this book
represents the union between the ACTIVE INTELLECT (intellectus
agens) and the RECEPTIVE MATERIAL INTELLECT (intellectus
materialis),” typified by the beloved and loved one.

As Caspe’s commentary is short and exceedingly rare, we
give a translation of it, and subjoin the original in the foot-
note :—

THE COMMENTARY OF IBN CASPE.!

Joseph Caspe saith : Having commented on Ecclesiastes and Proverbs,
which Solomon of blessed memory has in wisdom composed, it behoves us
also to write a few words on the Song of Songs, which is likewise the com-
position of Solomon of blessed memory. I need not, however, explain the
words, since they have been explained long before me. I shall, therefore,
confine my remarks to the design of the book in general, and now and then
make some observations in particular. The general design of this book,
however, is not my discovery ; the luminary (Maimonides) that shone upon
the earth has enlightened our eyes also upon this subject when treating
upon it, especially in part iii. c. 51 (of the More Nebochim); and his hint
there is sufficient for us and for such as ourselves.

I therefore submit that this book undoubtedly belongs to the second kind
of parables which the teacher of blessed memory (Maimonides) mentions in
the beginning of his book, in which all the words used in the comparison
must not be applied to the thing compared, just as in the case there
quoted, which treats on the subject of a beloved and loved one, like the
book before us, with the only difference that the instance there adduced
refers to the union of matter and mind, and this book represents the union
between the active intellect and the receptive, material intellect, which latter
is divided into four parts, the highest of which is the ¢mparted intellect.
With all the particulars of this book, Solomon merely designed to hint at
the subject in general. It is most certain that he calls here the heghest order
of the human intellect “ the fairest of women,” and the active intellect “ the
graceful lover ;” frequently the whole intellectual mind is meant by the latter
phrase, for this is the meaning demanded in several places of this Book.

It is well known that the active intellect (intedlectus agens) stirs up or
brings the receptive intellect (intellectus materialis) from a possibility into
activity, as it is known to the philosophers; and that the receptive intel-

 

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48 INTRODUCTION.

lect requires to seek after this; as it is written, “If thou wilt seck it, it
shall be found of thee.”

Having explained the general design, we need not dwell upon the par-
ticulars; the design is indicated in a few passages only, whilst the whole
is treated in accordance with the train of a poetical composition and logical
science; and this Solomon declares in the beginning of the book by saying
“The Song of Songs.”

It is, moreover, known that Solomon composed three books which we
possess; and as the prophets of blessed memory spoke in three different
kinds of ways; the one, in a plain manner, containing nothing beyond the
obvious and literal sense, which is called all silver ; the second entirely
symbolical, having no literal meaning whatever, but consisting of mere
allegories or parables, which is called all gold ; and the third comprising both
the figurative and the literal, which is called apples of gold (under plates
of silver); so Solomon wrote the three books—Ecclesiastes, which belongs
to the first kind; the Song of Songs to the second; and Proverbs to the
third. Remember these distinctions, and observe how we are in danger at
every step to mistake in the Law, Hagiography, and Prophets, one for the
other, and thus change life into death. And this leads us to commit one
of two errors; we either put into the words a thing which is false, or, to
say the least, make the author say what he did not intend; in such a case,
our words can no more be called a commentary, but form a separate compo-
sition or a book for themselves. I only call that a commentary which
thoroughly comes up to the design of the author of the book. The appear-
ance, however, of each book of the Bible will indicate to a judicious, clear-
headed, and intellectual man, whether it belongs to the one or the other of
the above-mentioned classes. We cannot here give rules whereby to test
this; it is sufficient to say that truth is her own witness.

There is another important remark to be made, viz., that allusions are
made in this book to the writings of Moses, as, indeed, Solomon has made
in his other books. This all the prophets have done, in order to explain
expressions and synonyms which occur in the Law of Moses, especially when
referring to that part of the Law which treats on the Creation and the
Chariot, the chief objects of the Law. We must study deeply to understand
the wonderful works of the prophets, and after them, the rabbins of blessed

 

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INTRODUCTION. 49

memory, in their respective books; for when they intended to be profound,
they did not mention the same terms employed in the Law, but changed
them for other expressions which are somewhat synonymous with those in
the former, e.g., p15, ‘von y», Wine, vine, vineyard, &c. From this arose
the great hyperbole in the writings of the Rabbins of blessed memory, for
wisdom was not hid from them. But this is not necessary here. The above
remarks will suffice for this book according to our design. Praise be to
God, and blessed be his name! Amen.

Moses Ibn Tibbon, a celebrated writer of the same age,
wrote an elaborate commentary in which he maintains the same
view that “the Song of Songs represents the union of the Ru-
CEPTIVE OF MATERIAL INTELLECT with the ACTIVE INTELLECT.”

This commentary has not been printed. A defective MS, con-
taining the Preface, which is very copious, is to be found in the
British Museum, Harleian Collection, No. 5797; and a complete
MS. is in the possession of the Bodleian Library at Oxford.

1272—1350. The most powerful and ingenious defender of
this view is Immanuel ben Solomon. This most charming
Hebrew writer, who is poetically called ONT KYAT soe, the
Prince of Science in Rome, was born in Rome, in 1272, where
he was the spiritual head of the Jewish community, and where
he died, in the first half of the fourteenth century. As.
Immanuel gives an analysis of this mode of interpretation in
his exposition on the first verse, and as this commentary has
not been published, we give a translation of this verse, which
will enable the reader to see how this mode of interpretation
is applied to the whole book.. The MS. used for this purpose is
in the possession of the British Museum, Harl. Col., No. 5797.1

The Song of Songs—Immanuel ben R. Solomon of blessed memory,
saith, Acknowledging the goodness of the Lord, I agree with the opinion of
our Rabbins, that this book is the most sublime of all the Books given by
inspiration. Expositors, however, differ in its interpretation, and their
opinions are divided, according to the diversity of their knowledge. There
are some—but these are such as go no further than the material world,
and that which their eye sces, looking forward to the good of this world

 

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50 INTRODUCTION.

and its glory, to the great reward of their labours and a recompense from
God, desiring to be restored to their greatness, and to the land flowing
with milk and honey, and to have their stomachs filled with the flesh of
the Leviathan, and the best of wines preserved in its grapes—such men in-
terpret this sublime song as having reference to the history of the
Patriarchs, their going down to Egypt, their Exodus from thence with
a mighty hand and outstretched arm, the giving of the Law, the entry
into the land of Canaan, the settlement of Israel in it, their captivity,
restoration, the building of the second Temple, the present dispersion,
and their final ingathering which is to take place. Such interpreters
regard this book, which is holy of holies, as some common book, or
historical record of any of the kings, which is of very little use,
and the reading of which is only a loss of time. But there are other
sages and divines, who have attained to know the value of true wisdom;
they are separated from the material world, despise the mere temporal
things, heartily desire to know the courts of the Lord, and have a foot-
ing in the Jerusalem which is above, and with heart and flesh sing to
the living God; these have put off the garments of folly, and clothed them-
selves in the robes of wisdom, and while searching after the mysteries of
this precious book through the openings of the figures of silver, glanced
at golden apples of the allegory concealed in it. They, in the vessel of
their understanding, traversed its sea, and brought to light from the
depth, the reality of the book. Thus they have declared that the book
was composed to explain the possibility of a feunion with the incorporeal °
mind, which forms the perceptive faculty, and influences it with abundant
goodness.

The shepherds, accordingly, represent the corporeal intellect which
longs after the influence of the active intellect, and desires to be like it, as
much as possible, to cleave to it, and to come up to its standing, which is
the ultimate end of its purpose.

These learned divines above mentioned have expounded the design of
the book in general, and explained some of its verses indirectly ; but they
did not explain it in regular order from beginning to end, till the cele-

 

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INTRODUCTION. 51

brated sage, R. Moses Ibn Tibbon, came and explained the book accord-
ing to wisdom, and his exposition is, indeed, full of wisdom and excellency.
As he, however, passed by several particulars, not noticing their design,
our wise contemporaries, reading the writing of that learned author, and
wishing to enter more fully into all its parts, insisted, with a command of
love, that I should write a complete commentary on the book, keeping the
same path the learned author has pointed out, bringing out all its parti-
culars, and making discoveries not mentioned in the said book, also paying
attention to its literal meaning, as far as God may enable me.

Seeing their entreaties, and regarding it a duty to yield to their wishes, I
gathered strength, and made the commentary on the book, according to my
feeble abilities. I kept the plan.of the said author, mentioned some of his
words, and altered others, sometimes adding to, anil at other times dimi-
nishing from what he said, as I was led by the heavenly Father. Thus I
begin. It appears necessary first to mention the design of the book in
general, and its division into sections.

I submit that all truly wise men who commented upon this book philo-
sophically, saw clearly that it is divisible into three principal sections,

The first section extends from chap. i. 2, to ii. 17.

The second section extends from chap. iii. 1, to v. 1.

And the third from chap. v. 2, to the end of the book.

These three sections, moreover, refer to three different kinds of men.

The first section—Chap. i. 2,—ii. 17,—represents man, who either
ideally or actually, was in the garden of Eden before he sinned, and
brought into activity his choice for good and evil; as it is written, “ And
the Lord God planted a garden eastward in Eden; and there he put the
man whom he had formed. And out of the ground made the Lord God to
grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good for food; the tree of
life also in the midst of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good
and evil” (Gen. ii. 8,9). The Lord permitted, or commanded him to eat
of all the fruit of the garden; but He pointed out to him one tree of which
he was not to eat, lest he should die; as it is said, ‘‘ But of the tree of
the knowledge of good and evil, thou shalt not eat of it: for in the day that
thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die” (Gen. ii. 17). And if, as man, he

 

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52 INTRODUCTION.
a4

had the choice to eat of the tree of life, he might have eaten and lived for
ever, wilhout, mortification or trouble; as it is written, “ Behold, I have set
before thee life and good, and death and evil: choose, therefore, of the life,
that thou mayest live” (Deut. xxx. 15). ‘This represents one who endea-
yours to learn wisdom in its order, but is afraid lest he should be terrified
when looking up to God, seeing that his fruit is not yet ripe, This is the
meaning of what is said in the section, “ Turn, my beloved, and be thou
like a gazelle or a young hind upon the mountains of separation” (Song of
Songs ii. 17); and again, “ Catch us the foxes, the little foxes, that destroy
the vineyards; for our vineyards are in blossom” (ibid. 15). This teaches
that the fruit was not yet ripe. There is no mention in this first section
that the shepherdess did eat of the fruit. Her saying, “I desired to sit
down under its shade, and its fruit is sweet to my taste” (Song of Songs ii.

3), merely declares her desire, which is evident from the word snr.
The expression mp is here used in the sense of eords, wisdom, and tnstrue-
tion. The whole, therefore, of the first section refers to the mind of man
when still young, prior to its developing the end for which its existence was
designed, and when the powers of the body have still the dominion over it,
for he has not pursued his studies farther than mathematics and physics.
This first section is again subdivided into two parts. The first part begins
chap. i. 2, and ends ii. 7, and represents one who fears God and shuns evil ;
but his knowledge of God is derived from tradition, and has no wisdom of
his own. <And the second part (chap. ii. 8 to iii. 1) represents one who has
studied mathematics and physics.

The second section (chap, iii. 1, v. 1) represents one who has found the
virtuous woman whose desire is to her husband, and who seeks her beloved
while upon her couch, and in whom her husband may safely trust; that is,
a mind which has brought out its possibility into reality, and has, as it
were, stretched out its hand and taken of the tree of life, and eaten, and
lives for ever. This is meant by the declaration in this section, “ Scarcely
had I passed them, when I found him whom my soul loveth. ~ T seized him,
and would not let him go, till I brought him into the house of my mother,

 

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: INTRODUCTIOX. 53

into the apartment of her that gave me birth” (Song of Songs iii. 4). The
nuptials, too, are mentioned, and the day of the gladness of his heart
(iii, 11), which is the true spiritual nuptial day and union. It is also stated
that he had a couch, as it is said, “ Behold the couch of Solomon ” (iii. 7),
as well asa palanquin, and was fit for royalty. He is, moreover, called
here King Solomon, whereas, in the remainder, he is merely called Solo-
mon, or Shulamite, in the feminine, to denote the effeminate state. The
beloved also declares that he had found his loved one a closed garden, and
that her branches are an orchard of pomegranates with delicious fruit :
(iv. 12, 13), that is, though most of them are generally sour, here, however,
they are sweet, pleasant, and ripe: he affirms that she is altogether beau-
tiful, and there is no blemish in her (ver. 7), and calls her bride six times,
which he has not done before; for she is his true wife, dear to him above
all. She therefore asks her beloved to ‘‘ come to his garden, and eat of his
pleasant fruit” (iv. 16), which befits him. This is the import of the words,
“Thy shoots are an orchard of pomegranates with most delicious fruit”
(iv. 18): whereby, however, it must not be understood that she will give to
her husband, and make him eat of the fruit, which properly belongs to the
woman, who listened to the words of the serpent, and was beguiled by
him.

The beloved declares that he did come to his garden, and ate and drank,
and also caused his friends to eat and drink, and that they indulged
together in a sumptuous feast; for “ when the righteous have the rule, the
city rejoiceth ” (Prov. xi. 10). This is the meaning of the words, “I have
come into my garden, my sister, my spouse: I have gathered my myrrh
with my spice; I have eaten my honeycomb with my honey ; I have drunk
my wine with my milk: eat, O ye friends, drink, yea, drink abundantly,
O beloved!” (v. 1.) He, as it were, sent forth and took of the tree of life,
and did eat and lived for ever, without any trouble or hinderance; for he
passed through all the three (degrees) in proper order, he went in and out
in peace: that is, he passed through all the degrees, and finished their
proper course, without doing any mischief or committing any error; and
his carnal powers, which are the watchmen who walk in the city, and
especially his intellectual powers, which are those that watch the walls, are
all profitable, and point out to the mind the right way, and never mislead,

 

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54 INTRODUCTION.

nor hinder, nor delay its course. She then asks of the watchmen, “ Have
you seen him whom my soul loveth ?” (iii. 3,) for they (z.e., the watchmen,
who represent the bodily and intellectual powers) are upright, and their
knowledge is perfect, and, as it were, they see and guide; yet they did not
answer her, for it is not in their nature to teach. But no sooner had she
passed them, and was at a distance from them, than she found her beloved,
and was united to him, as it is said, “‘ Scarcely had I passed them, when I
found him whom my soul loveth. I seized him, and would not let him go
till I brought him into the house of my mother, and into the apartment
of her that gave me birth” (iii. 4); whereupon they made themselves a
couch and a palanquin, rejoicing, and feasting, and banqueting, as we have
already explained.

This second section is also subdivided into two parts; the first is from
iii. 1 to verse 6, and the second from iii. 6 to v. 2; the second part is epexe-
getical of the first.

The third section (v. 2, viii. 14 inclusive) represents a man who has a
sinful wife that has been beguiled by the carnal appetites, and has listene
to them, ard eaten of the tree of knowledge of goo api Gril and gi d evil, and given
also to her husband with her and he has eaten. Mark here the expres-
sion with her (rmy), for man cannot eat of it unless with her; for since
God has not revealed it to man, and will not; and man, indeed, has no
access to it, except through the woman; for she finds it and takes it up;
and she is the one who pursues after pleasure, and is drawn after sensual
lust. But she does not seek for her husband when retiring to bed, nor does
she wait for him; but, undressing herself, and washing her feet, and
perfuming her fingers with myrrh, which is temporal instead of eternal
ointment, falls asleep, and is even too lazy to open when her beloved
knocks at the door, saying, “Open to me, my sister, my spouse, &c.” Her
husband, however, influences her, and she repents, as she was not in a deep
sleep, her heart being awake, and she opens for her husband in spite of her
great laziness ; but her beloved withdrew, and went away. She then sought
him, and found him not; she called him, but he answered her not. The
guards of the wall and the patrol of the city found her, and smote her, and

 

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INTRODUCTION. 55

wounded her, and stripped her of her cloak; that is, they misdirected her,
had hindered her from getting to her beloved; for sin once tasted is hard
‘to forsake. As it is not mentioned in the case of Adam, after being driven
from the garden of Eden, that he ever touched with his hand, and took of
the tree of life, and was cured, though it was open for him to do so; forit is
written, “And now, lest he put forth his hand, and take also of the tree of
life, and eat, and live for ever” (Gen. iii. 22); by which is ‘meant, would
that he should do so, for the Lord loves righteousness, and he is not a God
desiring condemnation ; as it is written, “As I live, saith the Lord God, I
have no pleasure in the death of the wicked; but that the wicked turn
from his way and live.” (Ezek. xxxiii. 11.) Yet it is not stated in the
Scriptures that after the fall he ever ate of the tree of life. This is, perhaps,
a hint that it is almost impossible for one who once has eaten of the tree of
knowledge of good and evil, that he should afterwards eat of the tree of life.
“For the difficulty of uniting a couple a second time is as great as dividing
the Red Sea,” which was supernatural, although it is indeed not impossible.
Thus Solomon left the thing unexplained; and though he mentioned how
they longed for each other after their separation, and how they praised
one another in the manner of lovers, yet they are not any more found
united, or to have a nuptial couch, a palanquin, feast and joy, as a husband
and wife; nay, at the conclusion we even find the beloved reproving her,
saying, “ Neighbours hear thy voice,” it being improper for a woman to let
her voice be heard by young men, for there is dishonour in a woman’s voice.
He therefore asks her to let her voice be heard by him only, and not by
others. But she boldly replied, ‘“ Haste, my beloved, and be like the gazelle
or the young fawn upon the mountains of aromatics ;” as if the neighbours
were her husbands, and her husband a paramour who must conceal
himself, and run away, lest they meet him.

This section also is subdivided into two parts: the first is from v. 2 to
viii. 5, and the second from viii. 5, to the end of the book; the second part
being epexegetical of the first. The above is the division of the Book in
accordance with the learned, who wrote expositions on it.

 

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56 INTRODUCTION.

This union of the active with the passive intellect is repre-
sented by the sincere and ardent attachment formed between
a humble shepherd and shepherdess, the literal history of
which Immanuel beautifully explains before he attempts to
palm upon it his philosophical theory. It is of importance to
notice, that this distinguished poet also takes the hero and
heroine of the plot to be a shepherd and a shepherdess,
and regards Solomon as a separate person, whom the rustic
maiden adduces in illustration of her deep and sincere love to
her shepherd, affirming, that if this great king were to bring
her into his court, and offer her all its grandeur and luxuries,
she would still rejoice in her humble lover. The commentary
contains valuable philological remarks, and excellent explana-
tions of some of the poetical similes. Pity it has never been
published.

1288-1370. Levi ben Gershon, also called Leon de Banolas
and Ralbag, a learned and influential expositor, who was born
in 1288, and died about 13701, defends the same philosophical
theory. His commentary, which is very lengthy,is published
in the Amsterdam Rabbinical Bible 1724.

It will be remembered, that allusion has been made by pre-
ceding commentators, to some who rejected the allegorical
interpretation, and took this book in its literal sense. A manu-
script commentary, in the possession of the Bodleian Library,
Oxford, Oppenheim Collection, No. 625, interprets this Song
as celebrating the virtuous love contracted between a humble
shepherd and shepherdess ; and likewise regards Solomon as a
distinct person, whom the shepherdess adduces in illustration
of her deep and sincere attachment to her beloved, affirming,
that if this great king were to offer her all the splendour and
luxury of his court to transfer her affections, she would spurn
all, and remain faithful to her humble shepherd.

This commentary has no title-page, which renders it impos-

1 De Rossi, pp. 114—117, First, Bibl. Jud., vol. i. pp. 82-84, >
INTRODUCTION. 57

sible to ascertain the name of its author or its exact age.
From the French expressions, however, occurring in it, and
from its style and appearance, it is evident that this commen-
tary was written by a French Jew in at least the twelfth or
thirteenth century. The handwriting is peculiarly bad, and
very much effaced; but the valuable remarks it contains, both
on the verbal difficulties and poetical figures of this book,
would amply repay any Hebrew scholar for publishing it, and
would be a boon to Biblical and Hebrew literature.

1350. So numerous and diverse were the interpretations of
this Song in the middle of the fourteenth century, that R.
Isaac Sehula, having been solicited by his friends to comment
upon it, consulted the existing expositions, but finding himself
so confused by their conflicting theories, as some explained it
literally, others referred it to the union of the body with the
soul, others again expounded it according to the Medrash, and
others again affirmed, that it represents the union of the active
with the passive intellect, he felt it necessary to reject them
all, and advanced a new theory, viz., that this book represents
the love of the people of Israel to their God.

1860-1730. For a space of about four hundred years, the bat-
tle-field was simultaneously occupied by all the parties who
strenuously defended those different views. Thus, the com-
mentary Shear Jashub, which was printed together with that
of Saadias and Caspe, and Meier Arma, who was born in
Saragossa about the year 1475, and whose commentary is

 

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Ans MOND TNT VOR
From a MS. inthe possession of the Bodleian. Oppenheim Collection, No. 261.

I
58 INTRODUCTION.

published in the Amsterdam Rabbinical Bible, 1724, maintain
the philosophical interpretation of this Song. Whilst Isaac
Arma, the father of Meier Arma, Obadiah Sforno, a physician,
divine, and commentator, who died in 1550,1 and whose com-
mentary is published in the Amsterdam Rabb. Bible, Moses
Cordovero, born in 1522, and died 1570,? whose commentary
has not been published, Abraham Levi, whose commentary
has been printed, together with that of Ibn Shoeb, Sabionnetta
in Italy, 558,* Elisha Galicho, who flourished in the second
half of the sixteenth century,* and whose commentary was pub-
lished 1587, Venice, and his contemporary, Moses Alshech,'
whose commentary was published in 1591, Venice, are the
combatants for the other views.

While this severe struggle was carried on between the con-
flicting parties for the maintenance of their respective views,
another champion entered the battle-field, occupying and
defending another position. It was no less a personage than
the celebrated Don Isaac Abravanel, who affirmed that the
Bride of the Song represents Wisdom, with whom Solomon
converses.®

His son, Leon Hebreeus, defended the same view.’

1729-1786. With Moses Mendelssohn, a new era commenced
in Biblical exegesis, and in Hebrew literature generally. This
distinguished pbilosopher translated the Song of Songs, which
was first published in Berlin, 1788, with an introduction and
commentary byhis colleagues Lowe and Wolfssohn. Though they
did not deem their age prepared for the rejection of the allego-
rical interpretation, these commentators distinctly stated, that

 

1 De Rossi, pp. 294, 295. 2 First, Bib. Jud. vol. i. p. 187.

8 This commentary is erroneously called Tamach’s, the euphemic expression
Joon, 7. e, Wa) int vIn, used for the departed, being mistaken for a proper
name. Vide First, Bib. Jud. vol. ii. p. 243.

4 Ibid. vol. i. p. 314, 6 Tbid. vol. i. pp. 41, 42.

6 Vide Magnus, Das Hohe Lied Salomo’s, p. 26.

7 De Amore dial., c. iii. Delitzsch im Literaturblatt des Orients, 1840,
No. 6, &c,
INTRODUCTION. 59

as so many of the Rabbins have written upon this book, and
defended such various and conflicting views, they questioned
whether any were right, and affirmed that the literal explana-
tion is paramount, and therefore confined themselves in the
commentary to the literal and philological sense, referring
those who are fond of labyrinths to the writings of Rashi,
Rabe, Arma, &c.

Seeing that this book describes the love of a shepherd and
a shepherdess, and also speaks of a king, of humble rural life,
as well as of courtly splendour, and unable to account for it,
Lowe and Wolfssohn divided it into separate songs, some cele-
brating the love between a shepherd and shepherdess, others
describing the same between the king and his princes, and
others again not speaking of that passion at all.

1798-1821. Léwisohn, born in 1798, and died in 1821, was
the first who recognised and elucidated the true design of this
book. This sweet singer of modern Israel shows that the Song
of Songs celebrates the victory of true and virtuous love in hum-
ble life over the temptations of royalty; that this book records
the virtuous attachment of a shepherdess to a shepherd ; that
the rustic maiden having been tempted by the wisest and most
celebrated king to transfer her affections, spurned every allure-
ment, and remained faithful to her humble lover.

1832. It is surprising that the profound and learned Zunz,?
did not follow up the remarks of Léwisohn ; but regarded this
Song as an epithalamium

1848. This view, however, has not gained ground among the
Jews; and Dr. Salomon Herxheimer, chief Rabbi of Anhalt.
Bernburg, in his translation of the Old Testament with anno-

 

1 Melizat Jeshurun. Vienna, 1816.

2 Gottesdienstliche Vortrage. Berlin, 1832, p. 334.

3 1834—Dr. Zunz also wrote a valuable introduction to Rebenstein’s Com-
mentary on the Song of Songs (Berlin, 1834), in which he gives a catalogue of
Hebrew writers on this book, existing in MS.~ I am sorry that all my
exertions to obtain it have proved abortive.
60 INTRODUCTION.

tations, follows the opinion of Léwisohn.!1 His opinion is
that “the Song of Songs celebrates ardent and virtuous love
which resists all allurements. The Shulamite, a rustic maiden
warmly attached to a young shepherd, is taken against her will to
the court of King Solomon. The king offers everything to win
her affections, but she does not suffer herself to be dazzled either
by the royal court, or by the sweet flatteries of the king himself,
and remains faithful to her absent lover.”

1854. Dr. Philippson, Rabbi of Magdeburg, propounded the
same view.2 The design of the book is to show that true and
virtuous love is invincible, and is not to be bought, but is a flame
of God (Ch. viii. 6, 7), exemplified in the conduct of a humble
shepherdess, who being attached to a shepherd, was tempted by
King Solomon to transfer her affection, but who overcame all
allurements, and remained faithful to her lover.

The two last-mentioned Rabbins, by virtue of their high
position and great learning, may be regarded as representing
the view now generally entertained by the Jews respecting the
Song of Songs?

 

' Vierter Band., p. 367.

2 Jsraelitische Bibel, Dritter Theil. 1854, pp. 660, 661.

* The following is a list of the names of some of the commentators and
their works, selected from a large number of authors who have written
upon this book, and which we could not analyse in our historical sketch.

Abi-Simra, 17) 029 (printed, according to de Rossi, at Constantinople).
Affendopulo, nivaxo Mwy ‘Db (Dod Mordechai, v. 8, Vienna, 1830). Alle-
manno, 75>v pun. Almosneno, WoT (Venice, 1597). Arepol, diy Ww
(Ssafet, 1579). Asulai, 28x 5m, and Mam (Leghorn, 1800.) Bar. b.
Naphtali, 7372 nisnp (Amsterdam, 1725). Baruch b. Isaac, Ja yn (Amster-
dam, 1730). Birs, 7? Ty (Grodno, 1797). Chiquitilla, in MS. Cohen,
yOR pr (Venice, 1657). Eliezer b. Judah, M777 p: (Lublin, 1608). Elijah
b. Salomon-Abraham, nib20/2 Sy a, in MS. Gensburg, jizz PD “MD?
(Hamburg, 1708). Jaabez, O97 WIP (in Frankfurter's Bible, Amsterdam,
1724—27). Ibn Jaehaj (in the Amsterdam Rab. Bible, 1724). Ibn Jaish,
wtw *y Ja APP (Constantinople, 1576). Jacob b. Isaac, AYN} TYNY (Berlin,
1709). Jacob b. Joel, 3p MN (Altona, 1727). Jacob-Lissa, Ww yor
(Dyrhbenfurt, 1815—19). Joseph-Jossel, FEY N32 (Wandsbeck, 1727). Kara,
in MS. Dav. Kimchi, in MS. Landsberger, 728 iw (Offenbach, 1724),
Lando, 27 M72 (Venice, 1619). Libowitzer, O37" now 'D (Korez, 1791).
INTRODUCTION. 61

185—254. We come now to the CurisTian Exposirors of this
book, whom we shall introduce in the same chronological order,
and of whose views a concise explanation will be given. The
first of these is Origen, who has been justly celebrated for his
genius and extensive acquirements. He was born in Alexan-
dria in 185, and died in Tyros in 254. His commentaries upon
Scripture are very extensive, and though containing much
that is valuable, abound with fanciful allegories and inexplicable
mysteries. His attachment to the Platonic philosophy drew
him aside from the simplicity of inspired truth, and his in-
struction in Hebrew by R. Hillel, imbued him with Hagadic
interpretations of the sacred text.

His commentary upon the Song of Songs was very volu-
minous, of which fragments only remain, but these are
of a very elaborate kind, and sufficient to reveal his whole
design. He admits an historical sense as an epithalamium on
the marriage of Solomon with Pharaoh’s daughter,’ but in
him we meet with a full exhibition of the allegorical allusion
to the marriage union of Christ and his Church, which has
been adopted by the majority of expositors to the present
day. He says, “Blessed is he who enters the holy place, but
more blessed is he who enters the holy of holes ; blessed is he who
keeps the Sabbath, but more blessed is he who keeps the Sabbath
of Sabbaths ; so blessed is he who sings holy songs, but more
blessed is he who sings the Song of Songs.

He finds in it four distinct parties ; a bridegroom and bride
with their separate companions. By “the bridegroom,” we are
to understand Christ, by “the bride,” the Church, by ‘the
Loanz, surnamed Baal Shem, 047 nz (Basle, 1606). Léw b. Joshua,
mms 22 (Wilmersdorf, 1674). Saul Léw, oxy pai (Amsterdam, 1778). Meyer
(Frankfort on the Main, 1679). Solomon Ibn Melech, > 529 (Amsterdam,
1661). Salomon b. Jacob (Prague, 1628). ;

1 Origenes Selecta in Psalmos 1. Hieronymus Apologia adversus
Rufinum. See on this subject Frankel, Monatschrift, 1852, p. 219, and
Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, Vieter Band., p. 279.

2 Davidson, Introductiontzo the Old Testament, &c., p. 790.
62 INTRODUCTION.

companions” of the former, angels and saints in heaven, and by
“the maidens” of the latter, believers on the earth.

The following is a specimen of Origen’s method of interpre-
tation :—

2,3. Let him kiss me, &c. This is the suppliant voice of the bride, of which
the meaning is, “ How long will my bridegroom send kisses by Moses and
kisses by the Prophets? I want to touch his lips. Let him come,” she
says to the father of the bridegroom, ‘and give me kisses of his mouth.”
The father hears and sends his son; she seeing him near says, “ How good
are thy breasts above wine, and the odour of thy perfumery above all sweet
spices.” The bridegroom Christ, sent by the Father, comes anointed to the
Spouse, who says to him, “Thou lovest righteousness and hatest wicked-
ness: therefore God, thy God, hath anointed thee with the oil of gladness
above thy fellows.” If the odour of that ointment be upon us, we shall
become a sweet savour of Christ. Sin has putrid effluvia, virtue breathes
forth sweet perfume. The one is an emanation of the flesh, the other of
the Spirit.

Thy name, §c. This is prophetic. Only so far as the name of God comes
into the world is this ointment poured forth. In the Gospel, a woman
having an alabaster box of very precious ointment poured it upon the head
of Christ. One who was asinner poured it upon his feet, and one who
was not a sinner poured it upon his head. These are not narratives merely,
but mysteries. It is not wonderful that the house was filled with the odour
of the ointment, since the world will be. It is written in the same place
concerning Simon the leper. I think the leprous Simon to be the prince
of this world, whose house at the coming of Christ was filled with sweet
odour. Therefore do the virgins love thee, because, through the Holy Spirit,
the love of God is shed abroad in our hearts. The maidens at first are not
present, but, upon hearing a chorus from them in praise of the bridegroom,
she says, The virgins love thee. By their coming up it is said, ‘After
thee and the odour of thine ointments we will run.

4. Draw me, Sc. In a race all run, but one receiveth the prize. This
prize is Christ. The bride, pure and fair, having entered into the royal
apartments, returns to the maidens, and tells them what she has seen.
The king hath brought me into his chambers. He praises the bride. He
says, Justice hath loved thee. Then the bride says to the maidens,

5. Black I am, §c. Do not look upon me because I am blackened, for the
sun hath looked upon me. How black and without whiteness, is she beau-
tiful? Black with sin, and comely because converted. Because not yet
purged from all sin she is called black, but her dark colour will not
remain. She is made white as she ascends to greater things, according to
ch. viii. 5. “Who is this that cometh up from the wilderness, leaning
upon her beloved?” Tents of Kedar, say the Hebrews, are dark: skins of
Solomon, such as ornamented the temple, were comely.

296—375%. Athanasius, Archbishop of Alexandria, was born
INTRODUCTION. 63

‘in that city in 296, and died in 373. He was the principal
defender of the Nicene faith, in opposition to Arius. His zea-
lous advocacy of the Deity of Christ led him to seek, and to
find that doctrine everywhere. He looked upon the Song of
Songs as a Jubilee song of the Church, at the incarnation of the
Son of God, and thus differs from Origen, who refers it to the
experience of the believing soul. The whole book, he says, is
an allegory, and is to be understood enigmatically from the be-
ginning to the end. Its doctrines are secrets, and those only who
are well versed in allegory ought to study it, as it is sure to be
corrupted in the hands of others. It is called the Song of Songs,
because it is the chief and last song, and the coming of Christ in
the flesh, which other songs regard as future, this celebrates as
present. It is an Epithalamium in celebration of the marriage
of Him who is the loved of God and human flesh. Here are no
threatenings and sorrows as in other books, but as the Bridegroom
is present, all is turned into joy. The book is full of dialogues
between the Son of God and the human race ; sometimes between
men in general and Christ, sometimes between Him and his ancient
people ; sometimes between Him and the Gentile Church, some-
times between the Gentiles and Jerusalem ; and sometimes between
ministering angels and men.

The following is a specimen of Athanasius’ Commentary :—

2. Let him kiss me, §e. This is the entreaty of his ancient people to the
Word, that he would descend and take flesh; and also (ch. vii. 13), “ The
mandrakes give a smell, and at our gates are all manner of pleasant fruits,
new and old, which I have laid up for thee,O my beloved,” and (ch. viii. 1),
“ Oh, that thou wert as my brother that sucked the breasts of my mother,”
which refers to Christ being of the same nature as man, a brother, and yet
in reality having a mother only. In ch. v. 1, Christ speaks of his having be-
come incarnate, “I am come into my garden, my sister, my spouse; I have
gathered my myrrh with my spices.” The world is his garden, because it is his
creation; and his body breathes forth fragrance, because it is joined to the
Divine word. The Word having put on flesh, he calls his ancient people to
Him, and says (ch. ii. 10—13), “Rise up, my love, my fair one, and come, for
lo, the winter is past, &c.” His first disciples would recognise in his teach-
ing what they had long been listening for, “ the voice of the turtle in their
land.”
64 INTRODUCTION.

In this fanciful manner our author descants upon the whole
book.

331—396. Notwithstanding the authority and influence of
the foregoing fathers, the allegorical interpretation was rejected
by many ata very early age. And Gregory, bishop of Nyssa,
in Cappadocia, born about 331, and died about 396, who wrote
an extensive commentary upon this book, had strenuously to
contend for the allegorical or spiritual interpretation, and
severely condemned those who adhered to the literal meaning.
The soul, he considers, as a spouse who enters into spiritual
union with God. The most perfect and blessed way of salvation
is here shown to those who wish to come to the knowledge
of the truth.

The following is a specimen of Gregory’s Commentary :—

2. Let him kiss me, §c., is the language of the soul to God, which has
become worthy to speak to God face to face. Thy breasts are better than
wine, that is, divine breasts are better than human wine. All human
wisdom cannot equal the milk of the divine word.

3. Thy name, §c. This signifies that all the virtues are nothing to the
graces received from above.

Thus he finds some spiritual meaning in every part, for the
confirmation of which some other part of Scripture is adduced.

831—420. Jerome, however, (born at Stridon in Dalmatia
in 331, and died in the vicinity of Bethlehem in 420,) who was
exceedingly fond of the Greek philosophers, and, like Origen,
was instructed in Hebrew literature by the Jews,! as might
have been expected, was not affected by the objections against
the allegorical interpretation, but introduced it into the
Western Churches. According to him, it is a nuptial and
dramatic song on the occasion of the union of Christ with his
Church or the soul of man. The bride and her companions,
and the bridegroom and his companions are the interlocutors

 

1 Comp. Hieronymus ad Pamachaim; Prefacio in Paralipomena, in Tobiam,
in Job. To his ingratitude and bitter vituperations against the Jews, this
people may trace many of their subsequent sufferings from so-called Christians.
(Com. Hicro. advcrsus Rufinum ii., Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, Vierter
Band. p. 462.)
INTRODUCTION. 65

in the drama. He seems to have embraced almost entirely
the theory and interpretation of Origen.

354—430. Augustin, who was born at Tagesta in Numidia, in
354, and died in 480, materially aided Jerome in the spread of
the allegorical interpretation in the West. He regards the
Seng of Songs as describing “ the holy loves of Christ and
his Church.”

Of ch. i. 7, “Tell me, O thou whom my soul loveth, where thou feedest
thy flock, where,” &c., he says it is one testimony in behalf of the church in
Africa, which lies in the meridian of the world. The church-asks Christ to
tell her where the one true church is, where it feeds and reclines. The
bridegroom answers, In the meridian, I feed in the meridian, I recline in
the meridian. The church is in other parts, but in Africa is its meridian.
This is the language of believers out of Africa, who also say, “ For why
should I be as one roaming among the flocks of thy companions ?” that is,
why remain concealed and unknown? Other churches are not thy flock,
but the flocks of thy companions, Upon the adjuration, “I adjure you,” &c.
vii. 7, he observes, The church in these words addresses her own daughters.
She is a field of God, fruitful in graces, to which by loving Christ the
martyrs come, whom he wishes to lay down their lives as lovingly as he
laid down his life for them. Ch. ii. 15. “ Take us the foxes,” &c., that is,
withstand, confute, subdue, heretics that injure the ecclesiastical vines.
Bind them by Scripture testimony, as Samson bound the foxes together,
and put fire to their tails, by warning them of the condemnation they have
deserved. In ch. iv. 16, “ Awake, O north, and come, thou south wind,” &c.,
he says, the north wind is from the cold icy regions of the devil and his
angels, and the south wind is the spirit of grace blowing at noon from
warm and shining regions, that cause the spices to flow out, as the apostle
says, “ We are unto God a sweet savour of Christ in them that are saved,
and in them that perish.” :

860—429. Theodore, bishop of Mopsuestia, who- wrote a
commentary on this book, also rejected the allegorical meaning,
and adhered to its literal and obvious sense. Pity that his
commentary is lost, and that the only account of it is from his
enemies.

3886—457. So general was the dissatisfaction with the alle-
gorical interpretation of the Song of Songs, and so different
were the theories respecting it at the time of Theodoret or
Theodorit, bishop of Cyrus in Syria, who was born at Antioch
about 886, and died 457, that he was obliged to mention
and refute them.
66 INTRODUCTION.

Thereare some, says this prelate, who do not admit that the Song
of Songs has a spiritual sense, and make of it such a texture of
fables, which is unbecoming even to the insane. Some maintain
that Solomon is here celebrating himself and the daughter of
Pharaoh ; others take the Shulaimite, not as Pharaoh’s daughter,
but as Abishag ; and others, again, considering the thing with a
little more reverence, call this book a Royal address, and take “the
bride,” to be the people of Israel, and “ the bridegroom,” the king.
T have, therefore, found it necessary, before proceeding with the
interpretation, first, to refute this false and pernicious interpreta-
tion, and then to fix the obvious design of this book.

1. These people, he submits, ought to remember that those
holy fathers were much wiser, and had more spiritual minds than
they had, that this book was,incorporated in the sacred writings,
and that the Church revered it for its spiritual meaning, dc.

2. Through Manasseh and the destruction of Jerusalem, the
writings of the Old Testament were lost, but the Holy Spirit
restored them to Ezra by inspiration. Now the Holy Spirit could
not have inspired any other than a divine book.

8. Because the holy fathers saw this, they have either written
devotional commentaries on the entire book, or filled their writings
with its thoughts, as for stance, Eusebius and others, who were
near the apostolic age. Now, are we not to believe these holy
fathers ? not believe the Holy Ghost ? not obey the voice of God
rather than our own opinions? We must so deal with the sacred
Scriptures as not to regard letters merely, but draw out the hidden
spirit from obscurity.

“The bridegroom ” is Christ, “the bride” his church; “the
daughters of Jerusalem” are pious, but still unfinished souls
(young in a Christian sense), which have not as yet attained the
perfection of the bride, but imitate her example ; “the companions
of the bridegroom ” are either the angels or the prophets.

The following is a specimen of his commentary :—

1, The Song of Songs, §c. This book is called The Song of Songs,
because all other songs in the writings of Moses, the Prophets, and Psalms
INTRODUCTION. 67

are made for this song, which is not amatory, but a song about the marriage
of the Divine Bridegroom with the Church.

2. Let him kiss me, §c. This is the language of the spouse offering a
petition to the Father of the Bridegroom; for she has known both the
promises made to Abraham and the prophecies of Jacob; as well as the
prophecies of Moses, respecting her beloved, and the description of his
beauty and power as given in the Psalms; “Thou art more beautiful than
the sons of men,” &c.; she has learned that her beloved, who is adorned
with beauty and grace, is both God and the eternal Son; “ For thy throne,
Oh God, is for ever and ever,” &c. Having recognised the beauty, strength,
riches, dominion, and power of the bridegroom which he displays above all
things, world without end, she draws nigh to him to embrace him and to
kiss him in Spirit. Let none whose spirit is low, and who only tastes that
which is earthly, be misled by the expression “ kisses.” Let him remember
that we ourselves embrace and kiss the limbs of the beloved at the mys-
terious time (the Lord’s Supper), and that which we see with our eyes,
store up in our hearts, and, as it were, feel ourselves in conjugal embraces ;
so that it is with us as if we were with him, embracing and kissing him,
after, as the Scriptures say, “love has driven away fear.” Therefore it is
that the Bride wishes to be kissed by the Bridegroom himself.

890—444. Cyril of Alexandria, who was born towards the close
of the fourth century, and died in 444, went so far as to explain
“the palanquin,” to mean the cross ; its ‘ silver legs,” the thirty
pieces of silver which brought Christ to the cross; the “ purple
cushion,” the purple garment in which the Saviour was mocked ;
“the nuptial crown,” the crown of thorns put on Christ’s head,
&eo. &e.

650. The influence of the Chaldee mode of interpretation
seems now to become more apparent in the Christian Church.
Aponius, who is quoted by the venerable Bede, and must
therefore have lived in the seventh century, regards the Song
of Songs as describing what the Logos has done for the Church
from the beginning of the world, and what he will do to the
end of it; thus, like the Chaldee, he takes the book as a histo-
rico-prophetical description of the dealings of God with his
people, only that the Chaldee takes the Jews as the object of
the description, but Aponius substitutes the Gentile Church.

‘ 678—735. Bede, called the venerable, who was born at
Wearmouth, in Durham, in 6738, and died in 785, wrote seven
books on the Song of Songs, one being merely a copy from
68 INTRODUCTION.

Gregory the Great, in which he defends the doctrine of grace
against the Pelagians.

1091—1158. To the scholastics of the middle ages the Song
of Songs seemed an unfathomable abyss of mysticism, into
whose depths they could dive as deeply as their speculative
minds and fertile imaginations prompted them. St. Bernard,
who was born at Fountains, in the vicinity of Dijon, in Bur-
gundy, and died in 1153, delivered eighty-six sermons upon
this book, and this prodigious number comprises the first two
chapters only. In the first sermon he says, “ The unction and
experience can alone teach the understanding of sucha Song. It
is not to be heard outside, for its notes give no sound in the street;
but she who sings it, she hears it and he to whom it is sung, that
is the bridegroom and the bride.” He divides the Song into
three parts; in the first part the bridegroom leads the bride
into the garden, and in the second he conducts her into the
cellar, and in the third he takes her home into his apartments.
Upon the words Let him kiss me, &c. (Chap. i. 2), which he
explains as referring to the incarnation of Christ, he remarks,
“O happy kiss, marvellous because of amazing condescension ; not
that mouth is pressed upon mouth, but God is united with man.” }

Gilbert Porretanus, the disciple of St. Bernard, continued
these sermons, but only lived to deliver forty-eight, which
extend to Chap. vy. 10; so that the one hundred and thirty-four
sermons only comprise four chapters and a half.

1270—1340. In the Commentary of the celebrated Nicolas
De Lyra, a converted Jew, and a native of Lire, in Normandy,
we meet more fully the Chaldee mode of interpretation as
adopted by Aponius. Like the Chaldee, De Lyra takes the
Song of Songs to be a historico-prophetical book, with this dif-
ference, however, that he regards Chap. ii.—vii. as describing
the history of the Israelites from their Exodus from Egypt to
the birth of Christ, and from Chapter vii. to the end, the origin

' Bernardi Oper. vol. ii. (Paris, 1719), p. 276, et seqq.
INTRODUCTION. 69

of the Christian Church, her progress, and the peace which she
attained in the days of Constantine. Upon the words, “ We have
a litile sister,” he remarks, “ This is the Church humble and abject
among the worldly enemies, for so she was till the time of Con-
stantine.”

1538. The great reformer, Luther, could not reconcile his
mind to believe that the Song of Songs describes the con-
jugal union of Christ, the bridegroom, with the bride, i. e.
the Church as a whole, or with the soul of every individual
believer. He therefore rejected the allegorical interpretation
of the Fathers, and advanced a new theory, viz., “ that the bride
is the happy and peaceful State under the dominion of Solomon,
and that the Song is a hymn of praise, in which Solomon thanks
God for the obedience rendered unto him as a divine gift: for,
where the Lord does not direct and rule there is neither obedience
nor happy dominion, but where there is obedience or a happy
dominion there the Lord lives and kisses and embraces his bride
with his word, and that is the kisses of his mouth.” *

1542. John Brentius, the Suabian reformer, adopted the
same theory. He calls the Song of Songs. “ Carmen encomias-
ticum, quod de laude regni et politiae suae Solomon conscripsit.”’ 8

1544. Castellio, seeing that Luther had rejected the alle-
gorical interpretation of the Fathers, and propounded a theory
of his own equally untenable, maintained that the book has no
allegorical meaning whatever, but is merely a “ colloquium Salo-
monis cum amica quadam Sulamitha,” and as such deemed it
unworthy of a place in the sacred canon. *

1585. Thomas Wilcocks adhered to the opinion that this
book celebrates the marriage between Christ and his Church,
and especially “the great love of the bridegroom to his spouse,
which is never removed, but always abideth constant, how oft

1 « Keclesia humilis et abjecta inter hostes saeculi, et hoc fuit usque ad tem-
pas Constantine.”

2 Comment. in Cant. Canticor. 3 Homil. xxxii.

4 Bib. Sac., book vi. haer. xiii. p. 664.
70 INTRODUCTION.

soever she fall away, and seem, as a man would say, to forsake
her husband.” This commentary, which is rare, contains many
useful remarks.

1600. Thomas Brightman, howeyer, adopted the view of
Aponius and De Lyra, that this book describes historico-
prophetically, the condition of the Church, and “agrees well-
nigh in all things with the Revelation of St. John.” Solomon,
in this Song, and John, in the Apocalypse, “ foresaw the same
events in like times, and either of them directed his course to
the same mark.”? He divides the book into two parts; the
first, chap. i.—iv. 6, describes the condition of the Legal Church
from the time of David to the death of Christ; and the second,
chap. iv. 7—viii. 14, the state of the Evangelical Church, from
A.D. 84 to the second coming of Christ. We give the following
analysis of this curious commentary.

A. Tue Lega Cuurcu.

Chap. i.—ii. 2, describes the condition of the Church before
the captivity; 1, 2, under David; 8, under Solomon; 4—8,
under Rehoboam; 9—11, under Abijah and Asa; 12, under
Jehoshaphat; 18, under Jehoram, Ahaziah, Joash, Amaziah,
Uaziah, Jotham, and Ahaz ; 14, under Hezekiah ; 15, 16, under
Manasseh and Josiah; chap. ii. 1, 2, under the other Kings to
the last Zedekiah.

Chap. ii. 83—14, describes the condition of the Church during
the captivity; 8, the comforts of the few left in their own
country ; 4—7, the preservation of the whole in the captivity ;
8, 9, the foretold deliverance ; 10—138, its approach; 14, and
the deliverance from it.

' Chap. ii. 15—iv. 6, describes the condition of the Church
from the deliverance to the death of Christ; 15, 16, the
troublesome time from the restoration of the Church by Cyrus
to Alexander the Great; 17, the partial rest under Alexander ;
chap. i. 1—8, the desolation in the Church caused by

! An Exposition upon the Book of Canticles. London, 1624, p. 2.
° A Commentary on the Canticles. Amsterdam, 1644, p. 2.
INTRODUCTION. 71

Antiochus Epiphanes, and its effects in driving away the
beloved; 4, 5, the finding of the beloved; 6—11, the con-
dition of the Church during Christ’s sojourn upon this earth ;
chap. iv. 1—6; Christ’s description of her then beautiful
aspect.

B. Tue EvancevicaL Cuurcu.

Chap. iv. 7—11, describes the obedience and perfection of
the Church from a.p. 84 to 384; 7, Christ’s return to his
disciples after his resurrection, and remaining with them forty
days; 8, the preaching of the Gospel by Peter and Philip to
the Grecians, Samaritans, and in Gaza; 9, the effects upon
Antioch from the preaching of Paul and Barnabas; 10, 11, the
marvellous constancy of the martyrs who died under Nero,
Domitian, Trajan, &c.; the spread of the Gospel through
the faithfulness of these sufferers; the beautiful orations of
Dionysius the Areopagite, Quadratus, Aristides the Athenian,
Dionysius of Corinth, Melito, Apolliniosus, Polycarp, &c., and
through the setting forth of the sweetness of the garments
by Justin, Tertullian, and Cyprian.

Chap. iv. 12—v. 16, describes the decayed state of the Church
from 384—1510; 12, the declension of the Church after the
death of Dioclesian, when many embraced Arianism; 13, 14,
her rising again under Constantine; 15, the convocation of
the Council of Nice; 16, Europe and Africa defending the
truth against Arian heresy; 17, the decayed state of the
Church after the demise of Constantine. Chap. v. 1, Christ
knocking by persecution (a.p. 868), in the time of Constance,
Julian, and Valens; 2, the attempt of the Church to obtain
justification by good works ; 8, the withdrawal of Christ in con-
sequence of the Chalcedon Council refusing to root out heresy
according to the exhortation of the Emperor Marcian; 4, the
rising of the Church in the time of Leo Isaurus, Constantine
his son (755), and Charles the Great, in Frankfort (795),
who endeavoured to exterminate image-worship; 5, the failure
72 INTRODUCTION.

of this endeavour ; 6, the Church smitten and wounded through
the excommunication of Leo Isaurus, and the conduct of the
Council of Nice under Constantine (788); verse 8 describes
how, in 1100, a Florentine bishop, Arnold, a Roman,
Hildegarde the prophetess, and Bernard, began to seek
the bridegroom; 8, multitudes flocked to Peter Waldo, in
1160, to inquire after the beloved; 9, 10, Christ appearing
again in 1200, at the battle of the Albigenses with the anti-
christian bands of Innocent the Third; 11, the kingdom
almost restored to Christ after the battle; 12, the faithful
teaching of Michael Cesenas, Peter de Corboria, and John de
Poliaco, who were condemned in 1277 by Pope John; 18, the
preaching in 1290 by Robert Trench; 14, the first resurrection,
as described in Rey. i. 20, which took place in 1300, when
Dante the Florentine, Marsilius, Patavinus, William Ockman,
and John of Gaunt, boldly declared the truth, when Philip,
king of France, and Edward of England despised the authority
of the Pope, and when John Wickliff (1870) taught openly ;
15—17, the days of John Huss, Jerome of Prague (1415), and
the shaking off of the Romish yoke by the Bohemians.

Chap. vi.—vii., describes the Church restored, from 1517 to
the second coming of Christ; 1, the teaching of pure doctrine
(1517), by Luther ; 2, the Church, in the mouth of Melancthon,
claims her beloved before Prince Frederick ; 3, the unpleasant
state of the Church from 1429, when the Argentinenses joined
battle with the Helvetians, till the death of Charles the Fifth
(1548); and her beauty, when, in the following year, the
Reformation spread in Scotland, Geneva, in the Helvetian
and German churches, in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden;
4, the declaration of justification by faith by Luther; 5, the
newly-called preachers of the Gospel in 1550, such as Luther,
Melancthon, Bucer, Zwinglius, &c.; 6, the ecclesiastical and
civil government of the Church as restored again in Geneva;
7, the splitting of the Church in 1563, by John Brentius and
James Andrewes ; 8, the excellency of the faithful ; 9—12, the
INTRODUCTION, 73

conversion of the Jews, who are called princes. Chap. vii.,
their conversion a blessing to the Church. Chap. viii. 1—4,
their zeal; 5—7, the calling in of the Assyrians and Egyptians,
and all the nations bordering on the eastern regions, and their
glorious condition after their conversion; 11, 12, the care
which the bridegroom will exercise over the whole Church;
13, what he requires of her; 14, her longing desire to be
carried with him into everlasting mansions.

As Brightman’s Commentary may be regarded as the fullest
development of the Chaldee interpretation Christianized, we
shall give a few specimens of his mode of exposition.

I sleep, but my heart, &c. chap. v. 1.—The negligence of the Church
lying thus is declared first by her drowsiness, then by his enticing call, and
lastly by the slight causes of her excuse. Sleep caused her outward senses
to be benumbed, that she neither regarded nor considered how superstitions
arose, as it happened to the householder in Matt. xiii. 25. Neither could
it be otherwise (when the bridegroom left the garden and his friends or
fellows drunken with prosperity, wholly gaping after riches and honours,
all common good despised), but sleep would overcome the spouse, wherein
outwardly she should not differ from a dead woman, however the heart
should move and live, the seed of faith not altogether quenched. This
drowsiness crept in, in the time of Constantine, when a gaping heaviness,
with a continued desire of sleeping, so oppressed the spouse, that the
sharpest-sighted pastors could not use their outward senses: not perceiv-
ing how ambition crept in among the bishops, and not only that, but how
they began to consecrate temples to saints, earnestly to seek their reliques,
to worship them with prayers, and to believe that prayers made in the
honour of saints at their sepulchres did profit much. Who could now tell
whether the Church were sleeping or waking? who neither loathed nor
perceived such things. When Constantine was dead, Christ found the
Church asleep, and sought by all means to stir her up both by knocking
and calling. He knocked by persecutions in the times of Constance, Julian
and Valens, of whom though Julian were a professed enemy, (A.D. 368,)
yet the other two exceeded him in cruelty. After their tyrannous reign
God stirred up Valentinian in the west parts, by whom Christ lovingly
called his spouse, that, returning unto her former integrity, she should open
and let himin. Then taking away Valens, he called more earnestly at
both doors (as it were) as well in the west as in the east, by Gratian and
Theodosius the elder; after by Arcadius and Honorius, then by Theo-
dosius the younger, and Valentinian the third. And lastly, (that, there
might be four pair as it were answerable to the four voices, my sister, my
love, my dove, my undefiled one,) by Marcion alone in the east. These
emperors studied and laboured very religiously to defend and enlarge true
religion; but the Church was in all the fault, who having these helps

L
74 INTRODUCTION.

prepared, would not use them to recover her former brightness. To this
readiness of the emperors was added the voice of the most excellent
bishops, and best learned men of that time; as Basil, Gregory Nazianzen,
Ambrose, Hierome, Chrysostome, Augustine and others, the lights of that
time. But seeing his profession of love could nothing move her, he tried
what his shutting out of the doors at night would do.

My head is filled with dew, &e.—The locks of hair signified, before the
congregation of the faithful, among whom true religion was now so much
deranged by new and foolish ceremonies, borrowed partly of the Jews and
Gentiles, and partly invented of their own idle brains, that the grass is
scarce more covered with drops of dew in the night, than the Church was
at that time with superstitions.

14. His hands are as gold rings, &c.— Hitherto hath the bridegroom been
set forth to the world in some special members, from Frederick the second
to Robertus Gallus by almost 100 years. The hands are the instruments of
action, and in scripture they figuratively signify works. The gems included
in the rings seem to signify the ministers of the word, which elsewhere
Christ carried as stars in his right hand (Rev. i. 20). But these times
yielded not such splendour. These things show a change and alteration
of that which Christ would bring to pass by the labour of his ministers,
as it happened about the year 1300, which was called the first resurrection
of the dead. For now the thousand years were ended wherein Satan was
bound, and the dead raised from their graves. Very many began now more
boldly to set forth the truth, as Dante the Florentine, Marsilius Patavinus,
William Ockam, John of Gaunt, and many others. Philip the French
king despised Pope Boniface, Lewis of Bavaria strove long time with these
most humble servants of servants for the rights of the empire. Edward
of England made show unto many how little he esteemed the pope’s
authority.

His belly is as bright ivory, &e.—By the belly or bowels, bright as ivory
overlaid with sapphires, may be understood the two Sacraments. For the word
of God is open to the view of every one, as the mouth and countenance,
neither is it wont to be hid from strangers; but the Sacraments serve only
for the household, as the bowels, which are appointed only to that body
whose members they are, but serve to no use for strangers. These things
therefore as it were, with the finger, point to those times of John Wickliff
(1370), who taught openly, that the substance of the material bread and
wine remains in the sacrament of the altar ; the accidents of bread remain
not without the subject in the same Sacrament ; Christ is not really in the
Sacrament, in proper presence corporally. Berengarius spoke against this
wicked error 200 years before, but the time was not yet come wherein the
hands of the bridegroom should be seen full of rings, whence his empire
wanted success.

How different to this is the opinion of Henry Ainsworth, the
celebrated Nonconformist divine, who regards this “book as
treating of man’s reconciliation unto God, and peace by Jesus
INTRODUCTION. 75

Christ, with joy in the Holy Spirit!” “In Solomon’s days,” says
Ainsworth, “the Church before Christ’s coming had the greatest
glory, having the temple builded, living under that most wise,
rich, and peaceable King; the Israelites being as the sand which
is by the sea in multitude, eating, and drinking, and making
merry, and dwelling safely, every man under his vine and under
his fig-tree.” (1 Kings iv. 10, 25.) Notwithstanding Solomon,
being a prophet, foresaw the ruin of his house and kingdom,
and in his book of Ecclesiastes proclaimed all things under the
sun to be vanity, and in this Song prophesieth of the Church and
Kingdom of Christ. And as he, with many other prophets, and
kings, and righteous men, desired to see Christ, and to hear his
words, but did not (Luke x. 24; Matt. xiii. 7), so here he
manifesteth the desire of himself and of all the faithful to enjoy
the blessings and graces of Christ, saying, ‘Let him kiss me.’
Whereby the Church desireth to have Christ manifested in the
flesh, and to have the loving and comfortable doctrines of his
Gospel applied unto her conscience, that she might not be always
under the schoolmaster of the law, which worketh wrath (Rom.
iv. 15), but might be prevented with the grace of Christ, and have
the feeling of his love towards her.” +

The difference of opinion respecting the interpretation of
this. book, which obtained after the Reformation had laid open
the Scriptures to all Protestants, and had established the right
of private judgment, did not, however, as yet affect the Romish
Church. Her followers not only adhered to the allegorical
interpretation, but, unlike their predecessors of the middle
ages, took the bride of the Song to be the Virgin Mary. Thus
Michael Ghislerius and Cornelius & Lapide. The latter is
especially to be noticed, since he was the first who endeavoured
to show that this Song is a drama in five acts.

1588—1645. The fact, that the allegorical interpretation

1 Annotations upon the Five Books of Moses, the Book of the Psalms, and
the Song of Songs (London, 1639), pp. 4,-5.
76 INTRODUCTION.

could with equal facility be made to describe the history of the
Jewish nation and that of the Virgin Mary, awakened the sus-
picion of Hugo Grotius, the celebrated statesman, philosopher,
and divine. He, therefore, adhered to the literal sense of the
book, which, according to him, celebrates the marriage of
Solomon with Pharaoh's daughter, but at the same time also
admitted that the ARCANA NUPTIARUM spiritually represent, first,
the love of God to the Israelites, and then the love of Christ
to the Church.! Tt will be remembered that Origen was already
of opinion that this Song primarily celebrates the marriage of
Solomon with Pharaoh’s daughter, though with him the literal
meaning was of no importance, and that Theodoret mentions
some who viewed the Song in no other light than this.

1603—1699. It was to be expected that John Cocceius, the ©
founder of the theological school bearing his name, whose
doctrine was, that the whole history of the Old Testament is a
mirror, accurately reflecting the transactions and events that
were to happen under the New Testament dispensation to the
end of the world, would find in this Song something in accord-
ance with his views. Enlarging upon Aponius’ and De Lyra’s
mode of interpretation, and, like Brightman, still more ap-
proaching the Chaldee, in a manner peculiar to himself Cocceius
regards this book as a prophetical narrative of the transactions and
events that are to happen in the Church, and divides the whole
into seven distinct periods, similar to the seven trumpets and
seven seals in the Revelation of St. John.

1 Est coapiorbs inter Salomonem et filiam regis Aegypti, interloquentibus
etiam choris duobus tum juvenum tum yirginum, qui in proximis thalamo locis
exsubabant. Nuptiarum arcana sub honestis verborum involueris hic latent :
quae etiam causa est, cur Hebraei veteres hunc librum legi noluerint nisia jam
conjugio proximis. Creditur autem Salomon, quo magis perennaret hoc scrip-
tum, ea arte id composuisse, ut sine multa distorsione &AAnyopla: in eo inveniri
possent; quae Dei amorem adversus populum Israelitiam exprimerent; quod
et sensit et ostendit Chaldaeus hic paraphrastes, nec aliter accepit Maimonides.
Ile autem amor typus cum fuerit amoris Christi erga ecclesiam, Christiani in-
genia sua ad applicanda ad cum rem hujus carminis verba exercuerunt laudabili
studio. Nam et Apostoli Christi cum ecclesia conjunctionem matrimonio com-
paraverant. Eph. v. 32; 2 Cor. ii. 2; Apoc. vii. 8. Annot. in Vet. Test.
INTRODUCTION. 77

Chapter.

1. The period of the preaching of the Gospel

to Jews and Gentiles ; i.—ii.
2. The period of the increase of ike Ciscait,

and persecution from without F . li—iv.
8. The period of peace from without and danger

within. : . : v.—vi. 8.
4, The period of the Beiiaation : : . Vi. 9—vil. 10.
5. The period of unsettlement after the

Reformation j ‘ ‘ - vil. 11—viii. 3.
6. The period of the persecution . : . vill, 4-—6.
7. The period of rest after the sufferings and

longing for the spread of the Gospel . vill, 7—14.1

1648. Strange as this mode of interpretation may appear, yet,
as we have seen, it is not confined to a single individual or
country. John Cotton also affirms that Solomon in this book
“ describes the estate of the Church towards Christ, and his respect
towards her from his (i.e. Solomon’s) own time to the last
judgment.” ®

Chap. i. describes the estate of the Church from the days of
Solomon to the repair of the temple by Josiah.

Chap. ii. describes the estate of the Church from the repair
of the temple to the days of the Maccabees.

Chap. iii. describes the estate of the Church from the days
of the Maccabees to the time of Christ’s sojourning
here on earth.

Chap. iv. describes the estate of the Church—first, in
Christ’s time, under his ministry, ver. 1—6 ; secondly,
after his ascension, under the Apostles, ver. 7—11;
thirdly, after their departure, during the first ten
persecutions, ver. 12—16.

Chap. v. describes the estate of the Church from the time
that Constantine entered it to the time of restoring

1 Vide Opera Cocceii, Tom. viii. fol. Amstel. Tom. ii, Synopsis et Medulla
prophet. Cantici.

2 A brief Exposition of the whole book of Canticles (London, 1648), p. 4.
78 INTRODUCTION.

the Gospel and reforming of the Church by the mini-
stry of Luther and other late divines.

Chap. vi. describes the state of the Church reformed by
the ministry of Luther and other late divines, and the
calling in of the Jews.

Chap. vii.—viii. 4, describes the estate of the Jewish
Church when they shall come to be converted unto
the Lord.

Chap. vill. 5—14, describes the solicitude which the
Church of Judea and Assyria cherished for the growth
and establishment of the good people in Egypt, the
destruction of the Turks, the union of all Christians,
the coming of the Lord, &c.

1650. John Trapp, however, adhered to the more general
view, and regarded this Song as “a treasury of the most sacred
and highest mysteries of Holy Scriptures, streaming out all
along, under the parable of a marriage, that full torrent of
spiritual love that is betwixt Christ and the Church.” . . . “The
form of it is dramatical and dialogistical ; the chief speakers
are, not Solomon and the Shulamite, as Castellio makes it, but
Christ and his Church. Christ also hath associates (those
friends of the bridegroom), viz., the prophets, apostles, pastors,
and teachers, who put in a word sometimes; as likewise do the
fellow-friends of the bride, viz. whole churches or particular
Christians.” !

1688. Hennischius not only adopted the view of Brightman
and Cocceius, but even exceeded it, and called his commentary
upon this book,* “ The Apocalypse in the Canticles.” He found
in the Song of Songs seven periods of the Church described,
answerable to the states of the seven Asiatic Churches in the
Revelation of St. John.

1 A Commentary upon the Book of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of
Songs (London, 1650), pp. 174, 175.
? Comm. Apocalypticus in Canticum Canticorum, 1688,
INTRODUCTION. 79

Rey. Cant. A.D.
1. The Churchat Ephesus ii. 1—7... i1.5—17 .... 883— 370
2 “ Smyrna 8—11... ii, 1—17  ... 371— 707
3. 55 Pergamos 12—17... iii, 1—11 ... 708—1045
4, is Thyatira  18—29... iv. 1—v.1 ...1046—1383
5 os Sardis iii, 1—6 .... v. 2—vi.2 ...1884—1721
6 49 Philadelphia 7—13... vi. 9—vii.14...1722—2059
1 es Laodicea 14—22...viii. 1—14 —_,..2060 and onwards.

1693. The profound scholarship and exquisite taste of
Bossuet, though a Roman Catholic Bishop, would not allow
him to follow these extravagant theories. Presuming that the
marriage of Solomon with the daughter of Pharaoh is the pri-
mary object of this Song, and that the nuptial feast among the
Jews was hebdomadal, Bossuet divides the poem into seven
parts, corresponding to the seven days of the supposed duration
of the wedding.’ The following is his division :—

Chapter.

Ist day. : : : i.—ii. 6.
Qndday . ‘ : : ul. 7—17.

8rd day . ‘ . Hiv. 1.

4th day . : : ; v. 2—vi. 9.
5th day . 4 ‘ . vi. 10—vii. 11.
6thday . : ‘ . Vii. 12—viii. 3.
7th day . ‘ j . vill. 4—14.

1700. Bishop Patrick, however, would not admit any literal
meaning, but found, almost in every word, some delightful
mystery. Even the words, “Thy navel is like a round goblet
which wanteth not liquor; thy belly is like a heap of wheat set
about with lilies,” (chap. vii. 2,) at which so much umbrage has
been taken, this pious prelate says, may mean “ the Two Sacra-
MENTS which the Church administers to her children; tun Fonr
In Baptism being represented by the former, and THE SACRAMENT
oF THE Lorp’s Supper by the other part of the figure.’”?

1 Praef. in Cant. Paris, 1693. .
* Paraphrase and Annotations on the Song of Songs, in loco.
80 INTRODUCTION.

1710. Shortly after the publication of this commentary
appeared the Exposition of Matthew Henry. And though
Henry confessed, “on the one hand, that if he who barely reads
this book be asked, as the eunuch was, Understandest thou what
thow readest ? he will have more reason than he had to say,
How can I, except some man shall guide me? that the books of
Scripture history and prophecy are very much like one another,
but that this Song of Solomon is very much unlike the Songs
of his father David; here is not the name of God in it; it is
never quoted in the New Testament; we find not in it any
expressions of natural religion or pious devotion ; no, nor is it
introduced by vision, or any of the marks of immediate revela-
tion; thus it seems as hard as any part of Scripture to be made
a savour of life unto life.” Yet he affirms, “on the other hand,
that with the help of the many faithful guides we have for the
understanding of this book, i appears to be a very bright and
powerful ray of heavenly light, admirably fitted to excite pious
and devout affections in holy souls, to draw out their desires
towards God, to increase their delight in him, and improve
their acquaintance and communion with him.”}

1723. Durham tells us the import of the Song of Songs much
more positively and dogmatically than either Patrick or Henry.
“ The great scope of this Song is to set out that mutual love and
carriage that is between Christ and the Church in five distinct
branches. It holdeth out the Church’s case, and Christ's care of
her, in all her several conditions, and under all dispensations ;
such as, I. Her sinful infirmities, and failings in duties, chap. i.
6; v. 2, 8, and also under liveliness in duties, chap. i. 2, 8,4, and
v. 5, and almost throughout. II. Under crosses, chap. i. 6, as
being ‘a lily among thorns,” and hated of the world, ii. 2, and
also in prosperity, wherein she 1s commended as terrible, vi. 10.
III. As deserted and sick of love, chap. iii. 1, 2, and v. 4, 5, and
again as enjoying her beloved, i.4; iii. 4,5. IV. As under faith-
ful shepherds and lively ordinances, chap. i. 4; iii. 4,5, and also

1 Preface to the Exposition of the Song of Solomon.
INTRODUCTION. 81

as under carnal watchmen, v.7. And in all these, her various
conditions, in all ages, are painted forth, before Christ's incar-
nation, as well as now, without respect to any particular time or
age ; for ceremonial things are not here meddled with, but what was
spiritual ; besides the Church then and now is one, as in the next
consideration will be cleared: V. As in private dealing with
Christ, and longing after him and praying for him, chap. iv. 16 ;
vill. 1, and almost throughout, and also what she was in public
duties, going to the watchmen, chap. v. 7, and iii. 8, and what
she was in fellowship with others, v. 8,9; vi. 1,2. VI. It sets out
believers as more strong, and it furnishes a greater measure of
grace and knowledge ; and also, as more weak in gifts and grace.
VII. And lastly, it holds forth the same believers as more and less
lively in their conditions.

“ This book, in its matter, is a comprehensive sum of all those
particulars formed in a song, put together, and drawn as on a
board, for the believers’ edification, to show, 1. What should be,
and will be their carriage, when it is right with them as to thew
frame. 2. What are their infirmities, and what they use often
to fall into, even they who are believers, that they may be the more
watchful. 3. To shew what they meet with, that they may make
for sufferings, and not stumble at them when they come. 4. That
the care and love of Christ to them, in reference to all these, may
appear, that they may know upon what grounds to comfort them-
selves in every condition, and may have this Song as a little
magazine, for direction and consolation in every condition.” }

Upon the words “ Take us the foxes, the little foxes, that
spoil the vines,” &c. (Chap. ii. 15), Durham remarks:

“ This fifteenth verse contains the last part of Christ’s Sermon; wherein,
as he had formerly given directions in reference to her particular walk, so
here he evidenceth his care of her external peace. That Christ speaks these
words, the continuation and series of them with the former, the scope

(which is to make full proof of his case), and the manner how the duty
here mentioned is laid on, to wit, by way of authority, makes it clear.

 

1 Clavis Cantici, or an Exposition of the Song of Solomon (Edinburgh,
1723), pp. 11, 12.

M
82 INTRODUCTION.

There are three things in them, 1. On external evil incident to the Church,
and that is, to be spoiled by ‘fowes.’ 2. A care given in a direction, ‘ Take

them, &c. 3. He gives reasons to deter all from cruel pity in sparing of
them, ‘ For,’ &c.”

Having descanted at large upon the first and second heads,
Durham remarks on the third :

“ Thirdly. There is a motive to press, implied, while he (i. e. Christ)
saith this; ‘ Take us,’ which words insinuate that it is service both to him
and her, and that ministers are his servants, and the Church’s for Christ’s
sake. It shows also his sympathy in putting himself, as it were, in hazard
with her (at least mystically considered), and his love in comforting her,
that he thinks himself concerned in the restraint of these foxes as well as
she is.

“ Fourthly. The direction is amplified, to remove an objection (say some)
‘ All heresies, or all heretics are not equal ; some comparatively are little to
be regarded, and it is cruelty to meddle with these, that seem to profess
fair.’ ‘ No (saith he), take them all, even THE LITTLE FOXES; for though they
be but little, yet they are fores ; though they be not of the grossest kind (as
all scandals in fact are not alike, yet none is to be dispensed with), so they
are (saith he) fores, and corrupt others; for a little leaven will leaven the
whole lump (often small-like schisms, or heresies, such as the Novatians
and Donatists, &c., have been exceedingly defacing to the beauty of the
Church), therefore, saith he, hunt and take them up.’ How small a friend
is our Lord to toleration! and how displeased is he with many errors,
that the world thinks little of! Magistrates, ministers and people may
learn here, what distance ought to be kept with the spreaders of the least
errors; and how every one ought to concur, in their stations, for preventing
the hurt that comes by them.”!

1723. Whether this commentary, with its affirmation that
“this Song is a little magazine, for direction and consolation
in every condition,” and whether the doctrine of intolerance
palmed upon Chap. 11. 15 of the Song were published in time to
be seen by Whiston, who was neither convinced by Durham's
arguments nor daunted by his appeal to the magistrates, minis-
ters, and people; or whether they appeared too late to be seen
by him, I cannot tell. But, in the same year that Durham's
commentary was published Whiston’s Essay appeared, in which
he declares that he finds in the Song of Solomon, “ from the
beginning to the end marks of folly, vanity, and looseness,” and
assures us that “it was written by Solomon when he was wicked

1 Exposition, pp. 103, 106,
INTRODUCTION. 83

and foolish, and lascivious and idolatrous,”! and that the sooner
this immoral book is rejected from the sacred canon the
better.

1728. About five years afterwards appeared the bulky Exposi-
tion of Dr. Gill on Solomon’s Song, consisting of one hundred
and twenty-two sermons, which the Doctor delivered to his con-
gregation. In this confused mass of accumulated learning Gill
warmly refutes both Whiston and others who had written against
this book. He acknowledges “the profit and advantage”
which he had received from “the sweet observations of the
excellent Durham,” and affirms that this divine poem is wholly
allegorical ; “and sets forth in a most striking manner the mutual
love, union and communion, which are between Christ and his
Church ; also expresses the several different frames, cases, and
circumstances which attend believers in this life, so that they can
come into no state or condition, but there is something in this Song
suited to their experience ; which serves much to recommend it to
believers, and discovers the excellency of it.”* In vain do we
look even here for an exposition based upon the sound rules of
grammar and philology.

1753. It was reserved for Bishop Lowth to commence in this
country a new era in the interpretation of this book. Two of
his admirable “ Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews”
are devoted to the investigation of the import and interpretation
of this Song, and the conclusion he arrived at is almost the same
as that of Grotius and Bossuet. ‘The subject of the Can-
ticles,” says this learned Prelate, “ appears to be the marriage-
feast of Solomon, (who was, both in name and reality, the Prince
of Peace); his bride is called Shulamite..... Who this
wife of Solomon was, is not clearly ascertained; but some of
the learned have conjectured, with an appearance of probability,
that she was the daughter of Pharaoh, to whom Solomon was

1A Supplement to Whiston’s late Essay towards restoring the true text of
the Old Testament (London, 1723), pp. 5, 7.
? An Exposition of the book of Solomon’s Song, &c. (London, 1854), p. 10.
R4 INTRODUCTION.

known to be particularly attached. May we not, therefore,
with some shadow of reason, suspect that, under the allegory
of Solomon choosing a wife from the Egyptians, might be
darkly typified that other Prince of Peace, who was to espouse
a church chosen from among the Gentiles ?”

As to the explanation of the allegory, this learned prelate
properly advises, “that we ought to be cautious of carrying the
figurative application too far, and of entering into a precise
explication of every particular; as these minute investigations
are seldom conducted with sufficient prudence not to offend the
serious part of mankind, learned as well as unlearned.” }

Bishop Lowth also takes this poem to be of a dramatic form,
and adopts the division of Bossuet into seven parts.

1764. The excellent and judicious remarks of Lowth were
followed by an elegant version of Solomon’s Song, with a brief
Commentary and Annotations, by Thomas Percy, D.D., Bishop
of Dromore. The author vindicates the theory of Grotius,
Lowth, &c., that this poem literally describes the nuptials of
Solomon; and, like Bossuet and Lowth, divides it into seven
parts, answering to the seven days of the supposed duration of
the nuptials, which are distinguished from each other by ditfer-
ent solemnities. In terms, even more severe than those of
Bishop Lowth, Perey censures those commentators, ‘ who
have been so busily employed in opening and unfolding the
allegorical meaning of this book as wholly to neglect that literal
sense which ought to be the basis of their discoveries. Ifa
sacred allegory may be defined a figurative discourse, which,
under a lower and more obvious meaning, delivers the most
sublime and important truths; then it is the first duty of an
expositor to ascertain the lower and more obvious meaning.
For till this is done, it is impossible to discover what truths
are couched under it. Without this all is vague and idle con-
jecture. It is erecting an edifice without a foundation, which,

1 See Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews, Lect. xxx.; p. 345,
Gregory's Translation, Third Edition.
INTRODUCTION. 85

however fair and goodly to the view, will be blown down by the
slightest breath of true criticism.”

1765. Wesley, however, opposed this theory. He maintained
that “the description of this bridegroom and bride is such as
could not with decency be used or meant concerning Solomon and
Pharaoh's daughter; that many expressions and descriptions,
if applied to them, would be absurd and monstrous; and that
it therefore follows that this book is to be understood allegori-
cally, concerning that spiritual love and marriage which is
between Christ and his Church.” ?

1768. Harmer advanced a new theory. Whilst advocating
with Grotius, Bossuet, Lowth, Percy, &c., that this Song in its
literal and primary sense celebrates the nuptials of Solomon
with the daughter of Pharaoh, he maintained that the heroes of
the plot are not two, as generally believed, but three—viz.,
Solomon, the Shulanvite, who is the principal wife and a Jewish
queen, and the daughter of Pharaoh, whom Solomon after-
wards married, with which the Jewish queen was exceedingly
displeased, and looked with jealousy upon the Gentile wife as
an intruder. “This event of Solomon’s marrying a Gentile
princess, and making her equal in honour and privilege with his
former Jewish queen, and of her being frequently mentioned
afterwards in history, while the other is passed over in total
silence, resembles the conduct of the Messiah towards the Gentile
and Jewish Churches.” ... “ Nothing more, according to that,”
says Harmer, “is to be sought for of the mystic kind, than the
making out the general resemblance between Solomon’s beha-
viour with respect to his two queens, and the situation of affairs
between the Messiah and the two Churches; of those that
observed the laws of Moses and those that did not.” 3

1 Preface to the Song of Solomon, newly translated from the original Hebrew,
with a Commentary and Annotations, London, 1764.

2 Explanatory Notes upon the Old Testament, by John Wesley, (Bristol,
1765.) Vol. III. p. 1926.

3 The Outlines of a new Commentary on Solomon’s Song, London, 1763;
second edition, 1775, pp. 74, 75, 81.
86 INTRODUCTION.

The following analysis is gathered from Harmer’s singularly
confused work. Chapter I. describes Solomon and his attend-
ants meeting the Egyptian bride and her companions; il. 1—
iii. 5, describes the complaining language of the Jewish queen;
iii. 6—v. 1, resumes the account of Solomon’s journey with the
Egyptian bride up to Jerusalem, and describes the consum-
mation of the marriage; v. 2—vi. 3, relates Solomon’s conver-
sation with his Jewish wife; vi. 4—9, Solomon’s conversation
with the Egyptian wife in the garden; vi. 10—viii. 7, begins
with Solomon’s astonishment at his being surprised by his
Jewish wife whilst in the garden with the Egyptian wife, and
the ensuing conversation between them; viii. 8, describes the
imaginative hope of the Jewish wife that Solomon’s marriage
with the Egyptian would not be consummated, and that she
would, therefore, not be treated as a wife; viii. 9, gives Solo-
mon’s reply, that the Egyptian princess should be treated with
the highest honours; vill. 10—12, contains a smart reply of
the Egyptian princess to the Jewish queen, in which she at the
same time also notices the addition her marriage had made to
the King’s possessions; viii. 18, states Solomon’s appeal to
the Jewish queen in the presence of all to give her final
thoughts respecting her future conduct; viii. 14, gives her
resolution to keep her distance; but at the same time there
appears no thought of renouncing her relation to Solomon on
her part, as “there was not on his.” “Such actually,” concludes
Harmer, “is the state of things with respect to the Messiah,
and the two churches of Jews and Gentiles. The Jewish
Church persists in not receiving the Gentiles as fellow-heirs,
but they renounce not their relation to the Messiah, nor has he
utterly excluded them from hope. The state of distance has
long continued, but as they still remain a distinct body of people,
waiting for great events that are to happen, so the New Testa-
ment leads us to expect their reconciliation.”

1770. Different to these strange outlines of Harmer were the
effects which Lowth’s remarks upon this Song produced in
INTRODUCTION. 87

Germany. Michaelis, the celebrated professor at the Gottingen
University, in his edition of the Praelectiones, took a more
advanced and decided step in the interpretation of this book.
He not only rejected the allegorical interpretation, as unsup-
ported by internal evidence, but denied the theory, defended
by Lowth, &c., that this poem celebrates the nuptials of
Solomon, because there is no direct mention made in any
part of this long poem of the marriage ceremony, nor of
any circumstance attending it; no time appearing appro-
priated to the nuptial banquet itself, the bride and the
bridegroom being separated from and in quest of each other,
wishing and enjoying solitude, always showing themselves in
the street or field when conversing together, or with the virgins,
and never found with the guests or at the banquet; because it
cannot be possibly imagined that a bridegroom would be so
necessitated to labour as not to be able to devote the few days
of his nuptial week to the celebration of his marriage; that he
would be compelled immediately to quit his spouse and his
friends for whole days in order to attend his cattle in the
pastures; and especially because we could not imagine that
the bridegroom would at this time of the festival leave his bride,
to whom he professes to be so deeply attached, alone and
unhappy, and not return at night. The learned professor,
therefore, concludes that this Song describes the chaste passion
of conjugal and domestic love; the attachment of two delicate
persons who have been long united in the sacred bond; and then
asks, Can we suppose such happiness unworthy of being recom-
mended as a pattern to mankind, and of being celebrated as a
subject of gratitude to the great Author of happiness ?}

1771. The honour, however, of first elucidating the true
design of this book is due to J. T. Jacobi; notwithstanding
the imperfections of his attempt. He showed that the im-
portance of this Song is not to describe the chaste passion of
conjugal love, but to celebrate fidelity. The pattern of this

1 Notes to Bishop Lowth’s Praelectiones,
88 INTRODUCTION.

conjugal fidelity is the Shulamite, the heroine of the book.
This humble woman was married to a shepherd. Solomon,
being struck with her beauty, tempted her with the luxuries
and splendour of his court to forsake her husband and enter
the royal harem; but the Shulamite spurned all the allurements,
and remained faithful to her humble husband.! However
strange the manner in which Jacobi divides this book, and the
interpretation of separate passages, it must be acknowledged
that he was the first in Germany who showed that Solomon
was not the object of the Shulamite’s affections, and that the
beloved was a humble shepherd from whom the King endea-
voured to separate her. It will be remembered that Ibn Ezra,
Immanuel, and the Anonymous Commentary,’ have already
taken the lovers to be a shepherd and shepherdess, and regarded
Solomon as a separate person, whom the rustic maiden adduces
in illustration of her sincere attachment to her shepherd, affirm-
ing that if this great King were to bring her into his court,
and offer her all its grandeur and luxuries, she would still
rejoice in her humble lover.

1772. It seems unaccountable that though the increased
attention paid in this country to the sound exegesis of the
Scriptures compelled expositors to propound the literal mean-
ing of this book, that Durell® could still overlook the two
distinct persons referred to in this poem, viz. the King and
the Shepherd, and maintain that the Song of Songs is an
epithalamium on Solomon’s marriage with Pharaoh’s daughter.

1776. It was not to be expected that the opposition of
sound critics, and much less the newly propounded view of
Jacobi, would at once subvert the old allegorical theories, or
check fertile imaginations from inventing new speculations.
The Song of Songs was too darling an object of those whose
minds were addicted to allegories and mysticisms to be so

' Das durch eine leichte und ungekiinstelte Erklirung von seinen Vor-
wurfen gerettete Hohelied, 1771.

2 Vide supra, pp. 46, 56.

3 Critical Remarks on Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles, 1772.
INTRODUCTION. 89

easily surrendered to the simple meaning of the text. So
far from being surprised, we rather expect that every one who
rejects the obvious sense of the Song will find in it some new
view which his predecessors had overlooked. And Herr von
Puffendorff’s new theory, therefore, only realises our expecta-
tions. He explained this Song hieroglyphically, and by a
process of reasoning as sound as that of the other alle-
gorisers, found his interpretation corroborated by analogy.
The sacred picture language constituted the wisdom of Solo-
mon’s days, and was therefore used among all nations to
express everything divine. As Solomon was more versed in
the Egyptian mysteries than any of his contemporaries, he
would necessarily write the divine mysteries contained in
this book in hieroglyphics, in accordance with the custom
of those days. According to the deciphering of these hiero-
glyphics by Puffendorf, “this much disputed Song treats
almost exclusively of the sepulchre of the Saviour, and his
death, and the communion of believers, especially of Old
Testament saints; but it also describes their longing for his
Advent, whereby, however, the condition of the New Testa-
ment community, and even the resurrection from the dead,
are represented in prophetical types.”! On the clause,

“ The virgins love thee.” Puffendorf remarks, “‘ These are the pure and
chaste souls which are locked up in the dark sepulchre, and wait for the
light;” and in a note says, “ the root 52%, whence \92¥, virgins, is derived,
signifies to be concealed, as those souls were. The Egyptian Neitha, or
Minerva, was the tutelar deity of pious souls, and was covered with a
veil, which none were allowed to uncover. The virgins, concealed in the
same manner, have to expect that through marriage they will emerge
into light. Thus the souls are here represented, which in the dominion
of darkness wait for salvation and light.”

The curious reader must consult the Commentary itself to
see how this extraordinary mode of exposition is carried
through the book.

1 Umschreibung des Hohenliedes, oder die Gemeine mit Christo und den
Engeln in Grabe, nebst andern biblischen Erklirungen Herausgegeben von
D. Conard Heinrich Runge. Bremen, 1776,

N
90 INTRODUCTION.
owl

1778. About two years after the publication of the deci-
phered hieroglyphics of this Song, the allegorical interpreta-
tion sustained some most severe blows from the eminently
pious and celebrated poet Herder. He denounced the alle-
gorisers as violating common sense, and the established laws
of language, and maintained that this Song celebrated true and
chaste love in its various stages.

Upon the question, whether there may not be another sense
concealed under the obvious and literal meaning, Herder
remarks—“ When I read the book itself I do not find the
slightest intimation, or even the faintest trace that such a
sense was the design of the author. Were I to admit it, I
should also expect to find it in the Song of Ibrahim, in the
odes of Hafiz, and in all the oriental erotic poems which in
form entirely resemble this Song. In the life of Solomon I
discover still less reason for this concealed sense, be it histo-
rical, mystical, metaphysical, or political. For Solomon’s
wisdom did not consist in mysticism, much less in meta-
physics, or scholastic church history. His wisdom was dis-
played in his common sense, as seen in his view of the things
of this life, in his acute penetration and extensive knowledge of
nature. Subsequent Arabian tradition has indeed attributed
to him also the art of sorcery, and of driving out evil spirits,
but never did even this tradition ascribe to him the downcast
look of a mystic, or represent him as indulging in airy specu-
lations, or as writing a compendium of Christian Church
History.” }

Herder admits that this book describes the love of a shepherd
and shepherdess, as well as that of a king ; but finding great
difficulty to account for this, he divides the book into separate
songs, or amorets, while at the same time he acknowledges
that there is a marked unity throughout, and that love is

1 Salomon’s Lieder der Liebe, &. Herder’s Simmbliche Werke in vierzig
Banden, Dritter Band, pp. 82, 83. Stuttgart und Tiibingen, 1852.
INTRODUCTION. 91

described from its first germs to its full maturity, its ripened
fruit, and its first regermination.

1780. This beautiful commentary was followed by an
elaborate work of Kleuker on this Song. He too, with an
overwhelming force of argument, opposes the allegorical inter-
pretation, and maintains that the book consists of detached
songs.

1781. Ann Francis, a lady of much poetical taste, who,
assisted by the learned Parkhurst, published a poetical version
of the Song,” was the first who adopted and defended the theory
of Harmer, that this book speaks of two wives, one a Jewish
lady, who had been married to Solomon long before, and the
daughter of Pharaoh, whom the king had recently espoused.

1786. Hodgson, however, was not influenced by the theory
of Harmer, but, with Bossuet, Lowth, Percy, &c., regarded this
poem as “an epithalamium written by Solomon, on his mar-
riage, as some have supposed, with the daughter of Pharaoh.”

1789. The theory maintained by Abrabanel and Leon
Hebracus,* seems at this time to have found its way into the
Christian Church. An unknown author, mentioned by Mag-
nus,®> defended the view that the bride of the Song represents
wisdom, with whom Solomon converses.

1790. It is indeed cheering to meet again with some glimpes
of light amidst the dense darkness which gathered around this
book. Ammon not only vindicated its unity against some of his
contemporaries, but showed that it celebrates the victory of true
and chaste love in humble life over the allurements of courtly
grandeur §

1 Sammlung der Gedichte Salomons, &c. Hamm. 1780.

2 A poetical Translation of the Song of Solomon, London, 1781.

3 Solomon’s Song, translated from the Hebrew, by Bernard Hodgson, LL.D.
Principal of Hertford College, Oxford, 1786.

4 Vide supra, p. 58.

5 Neueste Ueberstzung des Hohen Liedes, Basel, 1789 ; see Magnus, Com-

ment, p. 26.
6 Salomon’s verschmahte Liebe, oder die belohnte Treue. Leipzig, 1790.
92 INTRODUCTION.

1801. In this country those who paid more regard to the
established laws of language, and were therefore constrained to
admit a literal sense, mostly adhered to the opinion that this
poem is a nuptial song. Thus Williams maintained that it
celebrates the marriage of Solomon with Pharaoh’s daughter.

1803. Mason Good could not acquiesce in this opinion,
because the matrimonial connexion of the Hebrew monarch
with the Egyptian princess was of an exclusively political
character, without any preceding personal intimacy or inter-
change of affection; whereas, the connexion celebrated in this
Song, “ proceeded from reciprocal affection, from the gentleness,
modesty, and delicacy of mind, which are uniformly and perpe-
tually attributed to this beautiful and accomplished fair one.” ?
He, therefore, regards this book as celebrating in distinct
amorets, the reciprocal attachment of Solomon and a female,
who was a native of Sharon, which was a canton of Palestine ;
conveying also a spiritual allegory.

1813. Hug,’ rejecting the literal interpretation, exercised, like
the rest of the allegorisers, the right of introducing a new
theory. According to him, “the bride” means the ten tribes,
and “the bridegroom” is King Hezekiah, and the book de-
scribes allegorico-politically the longing of Israel after the de-
struction of Samaria to be re-united with Judah, and the oppo-
sition of the citizens of Judah, represented under the image of
the brothers (chap. viii. 8, 9) to this re-union.

1820. The feeble arm raised by Jacobi, Ammon, &c. in the
defence of the true design of this book against the mighty host
of allegorisers, was greatly supported by the learned Umbreit.
In the introduction to his exposition of this Song, Umbreit
maintains that the design of the poem is to celebrate the con-
quest of virtue in humble life over the allurements of royalty. A

1 The Song of Songs, a new translation, with a Commentary and Notes.
London, 1801, pp. 54, 55.

2 Song of Songs, &c., translated from the original Hebrew, with Notes,

critical and explanatory. London, 1803, Preface pp. xii. xiii. xiv.
3 Das Hohelied, in einer noch unvyersuchten Deutung, Freyburg, 1803.
INTRODUCTION. 93

virtuous country-maiden, who was attached to a shepherd, was
brought into Solomon’s harem, and there tempted by the king
with flatteries and promises to transfer her affections; but she,
armed by the power of virtue, resisted all his allurements, and
remained faithful to her shepherd, to whom she was afterwards
re-united.

Though it cannot be said that either Clarke or Boothroyd in
any way elucidated the design of this book, yet they have done
great service by their rejection of the allegorical interpretation.

1825. We must, however, not suppose that the allegorisers,
though considerably diminished in number, had exhausted
their inventive faculties. Kaiser maintains that “the bride”
is @ new colony near the Jordan, and the bridegroom repre-
sents Zerubbabel, Ezra, and Nehemiah; and that the Song cele-
brates their restoration of the Jewish constitution in the province
of Judah.?

1826. The little band, who struggled hard for the defence
of the true design of this book, could now rejoice at the acces-
sion of a mighty leader to their ranks. The celebrated Ewald
showed in a masterly manner that this poem celebrates chaste,
virtuous, and sincere love, which no splendour is able to dazzle,
nor flattery to seduce.”*

1829. Dépke, in his elaborate philologico-critical commen-
tary, though not espousing this view, materially aided the
combatants for the literal interpretation.*

1830. It is surprising that the sharp-sighted Rosenmiiller,
who could not follow the allegorical interpretation of the
church, instead of adhering to the obvious sense of the poem,

1 Lied der Liebe, das Alteste und shénste aus dem Morgenlande. Giéttingen,
1820, second edition, 1828, pp. 20, 21.

2 Das Hohelied, ein Collectiv-Gesang auf Serubabel, Ezra und Nehemia,
als die Wiederhersteller einer Jiidischen Verfassung in die Provinz Juda.
Erlangen, 1825.

3 Das Hohelied Salomo’s iibersetzt mit Einleitung, Anmerkungen, &c.
Gottingen, 1826.

4 Philologisch-Critische Commentor zum Hohen Liede Salomo’s. Leipzig,
1829,
94 INTRODUCTION.

adopted the view of Abrabanel, Leon Hebraeus, &c., that “ the
bride” represents wisdom, with whom Solomon is described as
conversing. '

Whilst the battle between the allegorisers and literalists was
being waged on the continent, the few champions who came
forward in England to defend the literal interpretation re-
ceived an important addition to their number in the person of
Dr. Pye Smith, who denounced this method of treating Serip-
ture as contrary to all laws of language, and dangerous to real
religion. He regards this Song as “a pastoral eclogue, or a
succession of eclogues, representing, in the vivid colour of
Asiatic rural scenery, with a splendour of artificial decoration,
the honourable loves of a newly married bride and bridegroom,
with some other interlocutors.”?

1839. The controversy between Drs. Pye Smith and Bennett?
about the Song of Songs produced a salutary effect, inasmuch
as it added considerably to the number of those who in this
country defended the literal interpretation. A version of
Chap. ii. 8—17 appeared in the Congregational Magazine,* in
which the translator boldly affirms that “it celebrates the
beautiful scenery of the spring, the attachment of two indi-
viduals to each other, and their meeting in that season of
nature’s gaiety and loveliness.” He, moreover, declares that
he can “see no more reason for the spiritual interpretation
which Mr. Williams, Mr. Fry, and others give it, than for its
application to the revival of letters, the termination of feudal-
ism, or any other gratifying circumstance in civil or political
life.”

1840. Whilst the ranks of the literalists grew stronger in
England, the band that defended the true design of this poem
in Germany, also under the able leadership of Ewald, became

1 Rosenmiiller, Scholia, ix. 2, p. 270.

2 Script. Test. to the Messiah, vol. i. book i. chap. ii. note A; and Congre-
gational Magazine for 1837, p. 415.

3 Congregational Magazine for 1837 and 1838.

4 For 1838, p. 471, et seq.
INTRODUCTION. 95

stronger, and Hirzel now contended for the view that the
Song of Songs celebrates the victory of virtuous love in humble
life over the allurements of royalty.

1842. The learned but “lynx-eyed” Magnus, however,
could see in this book nothing else than a collection of various
erotic pieces, some perfect, others imperfect, some amended,
others interpolated, all the work of different authors, and
written in various ages.” Yet his commentary is full of learn-
ing, and well deserves to be mentioned in this historical
sketch.

1845. Entirely different is the opinion of Professor Stuart,
the great Biblical scholar of America, who says, “It seems
better and firmer ground, to regard the Canticles as expressing
the warm and earnest desire of the soul after God, in language
borrowed from that which characterises chaste affection be-
tween the Jews.”

1846. It must not be supposed that all the American
Professors were of the same opinion. Dr. Noyes, Professor
of Hebrew, &c. in Harvard University, published a transla-
tion of the Canticles with notes, shortly after the appear-
ance of Stuart’s work, in which he maintains that it is a
collection of erotic songs, without any moral or religious
design,* and most powerfully opposes the allegorical inter-
pretation.

1847. Another Professor, Dr. Stowe, affirmed that “the
general idea of the book, which has just been pronounced ‘as
injurious to morals and religion,’ if interpreted allegorically,®
is descriptive of the mutual love of God and his people; the
Vicissitudes, the trials, the backslidings, the repentings, and

1 Das Lied der Lieder oder Sieg der Treue. Ziirch, 1840.

? Kritische Bearbeitung und Erklaérung des Hohen Liedes Salomo’s. Halle,
fe ikea History and Defence of the Old Testament Canon, p. 360, ed.
Davidson.

4 A New Translation of the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Canticles. Bos-

ton, 1846, p. 119.
5 Tbid. p. 132.
96 INTRODUCTION.

finally the perfect and eternal union of the church with its
Lord and Sayiour.”?!

1849. Though not entirely defeated, yet the ranks of the
allegorisers were materially thinned, and they were driven to
adopt a different course. They no longer sought for some
Christian mysteries and doctrine in every chapter, verse, and
word of the Song, but satisfied themselves with a general
allegorical idea, which may be seen both from the above
article of Dr. Stowe, and Keil’s “Introduction to the Song
of Songs.” Dr. Keil submits that it allegorically describes
the mutual love subsisting between God and his chosen
people, and how this communion was in various ways inter-
rupted through the unfaithfulness of Israel, and how, through
their return to the true covenant-God, and through his un-
changing love, it was again restored. ?

1851. Not even this mild view of the allegory, however, could
conciliate Delitzsch. This learned author, after having inter-
preted the book as representing “the mutual love subsisting
between Solomon and Wisdom,” was at last constrained to
reject every allegorical interpretation as untenable. Though
adopting the view that the book poetically describes a love-rela-
tionship formed by Solomon, and that “ the idea of marriage is
the idea of the Song,” and may figuratively represent the union
of God with his people, he frankly confesses, that amongst other
views, that which regards the poem as celebrating the victory
of virtuous love in humble life over the allurements of royalty,
is to be preferred.’.

1852. Immediately after the publication of this commentary,
containing some of the most cogent arguments against the
allegorical interpretation, a new translation appeared with an
allegorical exposition by Hahn. Denying that Solomon repre-

1 Article in the Biblical Repository for April, 1847, reprinted in the Journal
of Sacred Literature for 1852, p, 338.

? Havernick’s Einleitung in das Alte Testament. Dritter Theil, p. 504.

3 Das Hohelied untersucht und ausgelegt von Franz Delitzsch. Leipzig,
1851, pp. 31, 175.
INTRODUCTION. 97

sents the Messiah, because at that early period the notionof a
personal Messiah was not yet developed in the minds of the
people, this commentator advances a new theory, that “the
bridegroom” represents the kingdom of Israel, and “ the bride”
Japhetic heathenism, and that the poem describes, allegorically,
“the kingdom of Israel as destined, in God's service, eventually
to overcome heathenism with the weapons of justice and love, and
to bring the Heathen into a state of fellowship and love with itself,
and consequently, with God.”! He takes the Song to be a dra-
matico-didactic poem, divisible into six sections.

The first section, Chap. i. 2—ii. 7, describes the longing of
the maiden, who represents Japhetic heathenism, for the plea-
surable love of the king of Israel; her humble supplication to
be received into his fellowship, and the ultimate realization of
her desire in that union.

The second section, Chap. ii. 8—iii. 5, supplementing the
first, describes the friendly invitation which the king of Israel
gives to this maiden (the Japhetic heathen) to catch with him
the foxes, which represent the kingdom of Satan upon earth,
the Hametic heathen, and to unite herself with him in the land
of Canaan, which is the kingdom of God, and her acceptance
of this invitation.

The third section, Chap. iii. 6—v. 1, supplementing the first
and second, represents this maiden, after being conquered by
the power of the king’s love, and from sincere reciprocal
attachment, devoting herself as an acceptable offering to the
service of God, as introduced into the land of Canaan, which is
the type of the kingdom of God, and describes the completion
of her never-ending union with the king of Israel.

The fourth section, Chap, v. 2—vi. 9, a supplementary
explanation of the first, describes the early love of the king of
Israel when he visited the maiden in the dark night as she lay
in a deep sleep, void of all love to him, entreating to be admitted;

' Das Hohe Lied von Salomo, iibersetzt und erklirt von Heinrich Augus-
tus Hahn. Breslau, 1852, p. 7.

oO
98 INTRODUCTION.

her refusal; her repentance after having become acquainted
with his glory; her long search after him; his accepting her
after her repentance had been tried, &c. &c.

The fifth section, Chap. vi. 10—viii. 4, which explains the
second, and supplements the fourth, describes how the king of
Israel revealed himself ultimately to the maiden; the king,
after being long and painfully sought by the maiden, who,
despairing of success, and in a dejected state, had returned
home, was again incited, by some new charms of hers, followed
her, attended by his martial hosts, once more offered her his
love, met with a hearty response, and then she offered herself
to him with all she had, as his property.

The sixth section, Chap. viii. 5—14, which is a supplementary
exposition of the third, and a completion of the fifth, describes
how the maiden, after long and painfully searching, and longing
for the king of Israel, yielded herself up to him in her homé,
whither he had followed her, and how she entreated for the
favourable reception of her younger sister, that is, the Hametic
heathen, and how the king promised the maiden that her sister
shall eventually be received.

1853. Though this allegorist has repudiated the idea that
Solomon represents the Messiah, at the same time, another alle-
gorist, and that a no less writer than Hengstenberg, assures us
that Solomon can be regarded only as the Messiah, and that the
bride is not Japhetic heathenism, but the people of God. Ac-
cording to him, the poem celebrates the Prince of Peace and all
the mercies which through him flow to the people of God, and is
divisible into two parts.

The first part, Chap. iv. 1, describes the advent of Mes-
siah, the heavenly Solomon, to save his people ; the tribulations
and sorrows which will precede his coming, and especially the
bondage of the people of God to worldly power, as the merited
punishment of their unfaithfulness. These sufferings are
represented under the figure of swarthiness, i.6; winter and
rain, ii. 11; dark nights and a wilderness, ili.6. Connected
INTRODUCTION. 99

with the coming of Messiah is the admission of the heathen
into the kingdom of Christ, iii. 9—11, effected through the
mediation of the Old Testament people, as indicated by the
name “ daughters of Jerusalem.”

The second part, Chap. v. 2—viii. 14, describes the sinning
of the daughter of Zion against the heavenly Solomon, her
punishment, repentance, and the re-union effected through the
mediation of the daughters of Jerusalem (the heathen), whose
salvation she had first assisted to accomplish; the complete
restoration of the former mutual love, in consequence of which.
the daughter of Zion becomes again the centre of the kingdom
of God; and the immutability of the new covenant of love in
contrast with the mutability of the old.t

1853. Simultaneous with this commentary of Hengstenberg,
an allegorical exposition appeared in America, by Professor

‘Burrowes. He differs again from the preceding in regarding
this Song as illustrating by imagery drawn from the court of
Solomon, the mutual love of Christ and the Church, as exercised
in the case of individual believers. He divides it into three parts.

The first part, Chap. i—ii. 7, describes the way in which
the soul, longing after the manifestation of the love of Christ,
is conducted in the gratification of that desire, from one degree
of pious enjoyment to another, till, by the vicissitudes of for-
tune, and by the diversities in its progress towards heaven, and
the enjoyment of Christ’s love as manifested in private com-
munion in “ his chamber ;” 7—11, in the way of duty and self-
denial; 12—14, in social communion with him; 15—17, in
delightful repose with him, amid enlarged prospects of spiritual
beauty; chap. ii. 1—8, in. the protection and delight here set
forth; 4—7, it possesses the greatest possible pleasure on the
earth.

The second part, Chap. 11. 8—vii. 9, describes the motives
by which the Lord Jesus would allure such souls away from

1 Das Hohe Lied Salomonis ausgelegt von W. Hengstenberg. Berlin, 1853,
p. 239,
100 INTRODUCTION.

the present world to be with him in glory; chap. ii. 8—17, as
by the beauty of heaven; chap. iii. 1—11, by the splendour of
the reception awaiting them there, as well as by the grandeur
of the conveyance thither; chap. v. 1—vii. 9, and by his love
for them, which remains constant even amidst their greatest
neglect.

The third section, Chap. vii. 10—viii. 14, describes the effects
which these manifestations of love produce on the heart of
saints; chap. vii. 10, assurance of hope; 11, desire to be much
alone in communion with Christ; 12, their engagement in
labours of love ; 18, consecration to him of all their gifts; chap.
vill. 1, 2, a desire that everything interposing between Christ
and them may be removed; 3, 4, their avoidance of everything
that would cause the withdrawal of Christ’s love; 5, the pleasing
consciousness of leaning on Jesus, and of being upheld by his
everlasting arm; 6, their desire to be constantly near him, and
sustained by his power, and willingness to make every sacrifice
for him; 7, their conviction of the insufficiency of everything
the world could offer to tempt them from Christ; 8—10, their
interest for the salvation of the impenitent; 12, the sense of
their accountability as stewards of God; 18, the privilege of
continual access to the throne of grace; 14, desire for the
completion of their redemption, and for the perfecting of their
love to Christ, and of his to them, by the prospect of his second
coming.!

From the analysis of the three latest commentaries upon this
book, it will be perceived that allegorical interpreters, even to
this day, differ in their views of its application and design.

1854. After quitting the bewildering maze of allegorism, it
is cheering to come to the commentary of Meier, in which the
view that this poem celebrates the victory of virtuous love in
humble life over the allurements of royalty is defended.

1 A Commentary on the Song of Solomon, by the Rev. George Burrowes,
Professor in Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. Philadelphia, 1853, pp. 87—90.

2 Das Hohe Lied in deutscher Uebersetzung, Erklirung, und kritischer Text-
ausgabe, von Ernst Meier, Professor der Morgenlindischen Sprachen. Tiibin-
gen, 1854.
INTRODUCTION. 101

1855. This is also the view propounded by Friederich! and
Hitzig,? though the latter embraces a similar theory to Harmer,
that there are two women as chief speakers in the poem.

1856. In this opinion of the superiority of virtuous love to
all the temptations of royalty, the Jew and the Christian, the
Englishman and the German, are beginning to unite. The
reviewer in the Jewish Monthly Journal of History and Science,
declares himself in favour of regarding the Shulamite as resisting
all the offers of Solomon and remaining faithful to her shepherd?
Meier, the author of a commentary mentioned above, in his
History of the poetical National Literature of the Hebrews,
recently published, maintains the same opinion. This poem,
says Dr. Davidson, “warns against impure love, encourages
chastity, fidelity, and virtue, by depicting the successful issue of
sincere affection amid powerful temptations. The innocent and
virtuous maiden, true to her shepherd lover, resists the flatteries
of a monarch, and is allowed to return to her home.’”® Umbreit,
in an article upon this book, just published, states that he still
adheres to the view propounded in his commentary of 1828,°
noticed above, that it is a celebration of virtuous love over the
allurements of royalty.

How mournful is the thought which irresistibly forces itself
upon the mind, in reviewing this imperfect sketch of what has
befallen this poem! This book, we have seen, is made to
describe the most contradictory things. It contains the wan-
derings of the Jews, how they will ultimately “ fill their stomachs
with the flesh of the Leviathan and the best of wines preserved

1 Cantici Canticorum poetica forma; disertatio Ernesti Fred. Friedrich.
Konigsberg, 1855.

2 Das Hohe Lied erklart von Ferd. Hitzig 16te Lieferung des Kurzgef. exege-
tischen Handbuch’s zum Alten Testament. Leipzig, 1855.

® Monatschrift fiir Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums, heraus-
gegeben vom Oberrabbiner Dr. Frankel. Leipzig, 1856, p. 215, et seq.

4 Geschichte der poetischen National-Literatur der Hebraer von Dr. Ernst
Meier. Leipzig, 1856, p. 215, et seq.

> The Text of the Old Testament considered, &c., by Samuel Davidson, D.D.
London, 1856, p. 806.

5 Herzog’s Real-Encyklopadie fiir protestantische Theologie und Kirche.
Stuttgart, 1856, vol. vi. p. 220.
102 INTRODUCTION.

in grapes,” and is the sanctum sanctorum of all Christian mys-
teries. It is denounced as a love song, and extolled as declar-
ing the incarnation of Christ; it speaks of the meridian church
in Africa, and of the betrayal of the Saviour; it contains a
treatise upon the doctrine of free grace against Pelagianism,
and an Aristotelian disquisition upon the functions of the
active and passive mind; it is an apocalyptic vision, a dupli-
cate of the Revelations of St. John, and records the scholastic
mysticisms of the middle ages; it denounces Arianism, and
describes the glories of the Virgin Mary; it “treats of man’s
reconciliation unto God and peace by Jesus Christ, with joy
in the Holy Ghost,” and teaches lewdness, and corrupts the
morals; it records the conversation of Solomon and Wisdom,
and describes the tomb of Christ in Egyptian hieroglyphics; it
celebrates the nuptials of Solomon, and gives us a compendium
of ecclesiastical history to the second advent of Christ; it
records the restoration of a Jewish constitution by Zerubbabel,
Ezra, and Nehemiah, and the mysteries of marriage; it advo-
cates monogamy and encourages polygamy ; it assists devotion
and excites carnal passions. What a solemn lesson we have
here never to depart from the simple meaning of the word of
God!

SECTION VI.—THE DIFFERENT VIEWS CLASSIFIED AND EXAMINED.

The various opinions, enumerated in the preceding section,
respecting the design of this book, may be divided into three
classes, the literal, the allegorical, and the typical. The first
considers the description as real, that the words should be
taken as representing an historical fact; the second considers
that the description has no historical truth for its basis, but
contains some latent meaning; whilst the third admits the
literal meaning, but regards it as typical of spiritual truth.
The literal view adopted by us having been given in sections
ill. and iv., we have to examine here only the claims of the
allegorical and typical.
INTRODUCTION. 103

THE ALLEGORICAL VIEW.

The allegorical view principally maintained is, that this poem,
in language borrowed from that which characterises chaste
affections between the sexes, expresses the mutual love subsisting
between the Lord and his Church.

REASONS FOR THE ALLEGORICAL VIEW EXAMINED.

I. The existence of this book in the sacred canon has been
adduced as an argument for its allegorical interpretation.

“In what part of the Hebrew Bible can we find any com-
position of an analogous nature? All—every Psalm; every
piece, of history, every part of prophecy—has a religious aspect,

‘and (the book of Esther perhaps excepted) is filled with theo-
cratic views of things. How came there here to be sucha
solitary exception, so contrary to the genius and nature of the
whole Bible? It is passing strange, if real amatory Idyls are
mingled with so much, all of which is of a serious and religious
nature. If the author viewed his composition as being of an
amatory nature, would he have sought a place for it among the
sacred books? And subsequent redactors or editors—would
they have ranked it here, in case they had regarded it in the
same light? .I can scarcely deem it credible. So different
was the reverence of the Jews for their Scriptures from any
mere approbation of an amatory poem as such, that I must
believe that the insertion of Canticles among the canonical
books, was the result of a full persuasion of its spiritual import.
Had the case stood otherwise, why did they not introduce other
secular books, as well as this, into the canon ?”!

Granting that the design of the book was simply to describe
love, we deny that it would have been deemed unworthy of a
place in the sacred canon. Why should the pleasures of chaste
love be considered less worthy of record in the sacred books,

1 Stuart, Critical History and Defence of the Old Testament Canon, pp. 342,
343, ed, Davidson.
104 INTRODUCTION.

than the sorrow for bereaved friendship, in 2 Sam. i. 17, &e.?
“To those,” says Dr. Mason Good, a defender of the allegorical
interpretation, “who disbelieve the existence of such an alle-
gory they (the amorets) still afford a happy example of the
pleasures of holy and virtuous love; they inculcate, beyond the
power of didactic poetry, the tenderness which the husband
should manifest for his wife, and the deference, modesty, and
fidelity with which his affection should be returned ; and, con-
sidered even in this sense alone, they are fully entitled to the
honour of constituting a part of the sacred Scriptures.”! ‘“ Why
should a passion,” remarks another allegorical interpreter, “ so
strong,” so universal, so essential to happiness—to the very
existence of the human race, be denied a place in a Revelation
from God to man? As a matter of fact, has it not a place in
every part of the Bible, from Genesis to Revelation? God is
the author of the human constitution as well as of the Bible;
and he has in all respects adapted his revelation to the nature
of the beings for whom it was designed. It would be strange
indeed, if one of the most important and never absent pheno-
mena in the moral and physical creation of men should never
be noticed in a revelation to him from his Creator. If the
viciousness and licentiousness of men have loaded this subject
with vile and filthy associations in vile and filthy minds, this is
not the fault of God or of his revelation. The vine will not
be destroyed, nor the grapes annihilated, because wicked men
make themselves beasts with wine.”?

The design of the book, in our view, however, is not to cele-
brate love, but to record an example of virtue, which is still
more worthy of a place in the sacred canon.

2. It has been urged, that the language put by the sacred
writer into the mouth of the bride, shows that the poem is to
be allegorically interpreted, because in its literal sense such

! Song of Songs, &c., Preface, p. 19.

? An Article on Solomon’s Song, by the Rev. C. E. Stowe, D.D., Professor
of Biblical Literature, reprinted in Kitto’s Journal of Sacred Literature, 1852,
pp. 331, 332,
INTRODUCTION. 105

language would be contrary to nature and to the modesty of
women.

“That this is not a song of human loves,” says Dr.
Bennett,! “is clear from the beginning to the end. It opens
with the language of a female: ‘Let him kiss me;’ it is full of
her solicitous seeking after him ; it abounds with praises of his
person, and her dispraises of herself, of her person and her
conduct ; it invites other females to love him, andit speaks of
him as her brother, and of her as his sister. Let any one ex-
amine the Song, and then muse over these facts, recollecting
that Solomon is, in the opening of the poem itself, said to be
the writer. Was ever such a human love-song composed by
mortal, since man either loved or wrote verses? What
writer, with the feelings, or the reason, of a man, would begin
a poem on his fair one by describing her as courting him ?
Let it not be said, ‘We must not transfer our modern and
northern ideas to the ancient Orientals, who had not our delicate
notions of the female character;’ for this would only make
my case stronger. It would be more abhorrent from the se-
cluded, submissive character of Eastern brides to ask the gentle-
men to come and kiss them, than it would be from the dignified
confidence of British women. It is not a question of climate or
age, but of nature. The bridegroom, who is supposed to love this
fairest of women, himself puts into her lips this speech: ‘ Let
him kiss me!’ Never would: human love speak thus. Though
men like to court, they do not like to be courted; and while
they think it cruel to be rejected when they court, they
without mercy reject her that courts them; as the forward
female has usually found, from the days of Sappho to this hour.
Women were endowed with the form and the qualities intended
to attract courtship, and they feel it; and when they do not feel
it, men despise them. No man, therefore, in his senses, would
think to compliment his fair one by writing of her, to her, as if
she had lost her retiring modesty, her female dignity, and de-

’ Reply to Dr. Pye Smith, Congregational ‘Magazine for 1838, pp. 148, 149.
P
106 INTRODUCTION.

graded herself by doing that for which every man would de-
spise her. The very first word of this Song, then, stands a
witness against the notion of its being a human love-song; for
it would better suit Solomon’s strange woman, that with an
impudent face caught and kissed the young simpleton, than
Solomon's princess-bride, or Dr. Smith’s supposed chaste mono-
gamist. Till fishes mount to sing with larks on the shady
boughs, and nightingales dive to ocean’s depths to court the
whales, no man, of any age, of any clime, of any rank, can be
supposed to write ordinary love-songs in such astyle. We are
told, by the first word, that a greater than Solomon is here, one
who must be courted, and that loves more than human are the
theme. This is the Bridegroom of whom the Psalmist says,
‘He is thy Lord, and worship thou him:’ ‘Kiss the Son, lest
he be angry, and ye perish from the way.’ Such a spouse may
exhibit his Bride as asking for his love; every other must pre-
sent himself as asking for hers, and begging the acceptance of
his.”

It is allowed by scholars of taste, that, regarded as a mere
human production, this poem is inimitable. “ Every part of
this Song,” says the learned Bishop Bossuet,! ‘abounds in
poetical beauties ; the objects which present themselves on every
side are the choicest plants, the most beautiful flowers, the
most delicious fruits, the bloom and vigour of spring, the sweet
verdure of the fields, flourishing and well-watered gardens,
pleasant streams, and perennial fountains. The other senses
are represented as regaled with the most precious odours,
natural and artificial; with the sweet singing of birds, and the
soft voice of the turtle ; with milk and honey, and the choicest
of wine. To these enchantments are added all that is beautiful
and graceful in the human form, the endearments, the caresses,
the delicacy of love. If any object be introduced which seems
not to harmonize with this delightful scene, such as the awful
prospect of tremendous precipices, the wildness of the moun-

1 Praef. in Canticum Canticorum, (Euvres, tom. i. p, 467, 4to. edit.
INTRODUCTION. 107

tains, or the haunts of lions, its effect is only to heighten, by
the contrast, the beauty of the other objects, and to add the
charms of variety to those of grace and elegance.’ Bishop
Lowth, after having descanted upon some passages, remarks,
“Nothing can be imagined more truly elegant and poetical
than all these, nothing more apt or expressive than these com-
parisons.” If the poetis so charming in his style, so exqui-
site and true in his picture of nature, surely itis but reasonable
to give him credit for understanding his art, that he was ac-
quainted with the manners and habits of the women of his age,
and that he would be as true to nature in the description of the
bride as he is in depicting nature herself. If it be true that
language of such exquisite taste would outrage female decency
and modesty when addressed to a human love, it will surely be
more outrageous when put into the mouth of the humble, peni-
tent, and submissive Church in addresses to the Lord of lords.
Where in the Old or New Testament do we find any address
from the saints to God or Christ resembling the opening of
this poem? The addresses of Abraham, (Gen. xvill. 23—383,)
Jacob, (Gen. xxxii. 10—18,) and of Solomon himself, (1 Kings
viii. 23—53,) and the language in which Christ has taught us
to appeal to God, are characterized by the greatest reverence
and humility. How, then, can it be affirmed, that language
which would violate female modesty and decency in the mouth
of a woman to a lover whom she prizes above all things, is
becoming in the mouth of the Church when addressing the
Holy One of Israel ?

Dr. Bennett, however, misunderstood the design of the book.
The Song, in its literal meaning, does not begin with represent-
ing a woman courting a man, but describes how a humble and
virtuous rustic maiden was taken away from her beloved into
the court of Solomon, and tempted to transfer her affections, by
the splendour and luxuries of royalty ; but even there, amidst
all the grandeur, and in spite of all alluring promises, the

1 Lecture xxxi. p. 350, third edition.
108 INTRODUCTION.

maiden was faithful to her espousals, and desired that he whom
she prized above all things would come and rescue her.

3. It is urged that the same language and imagery employed
in the Song, and the bridegroom and the bride here introduced,
are elsewhere spiritually applied to the Lord and his people.

“This sort of imagery,” says Professor Stuart, “is frequent
in the Old Testament, and in the New. Frequently are the
Jews charged with ‘going a whoring after other gods,’ Exod.
xxxiv. 15, 16; Lev. xx. 5,6; Numb. xv. 39; Deut. xxxi. 16;
2 Chron. xxi. 18; Ps. Ixxili. 27; Ezek. vi. 9. Here the idea
is, that they were affianced to the true God, and could not seek
after idols without incurring the guilt of adultery. So God calls
himself the husband of the Jews, Isa. liv. 5. The nation of
Israel is his bride, Isa. lxii. 4, 5. In Isa. 1. 1, Jehovahasks, ‘Where
is the bill of divorcement’ on his part, that Israel has de-
parted from Him? Jeremiah speaks of the espousals of Israel,
when young, in the wilderness.

“Tn Jer. iii. 1—11, the prophet speaks of Israel as playing

the harlot, and committing adultery, in forsaking Jehovah. In
Ezekiel, two long chapters (xvi., xxiii.) are occupied with carry-
ing through the imagery drawn from such a connexion. Hosea
(i.—iii.) recognises the same principle, and carries out the
imagery into much detail. These are merely specimens.
Ps. xlv. presents the Mediator, the King of Zion, in the atti-
tude of a husband to the Church, and celebrates the union
between the former and the latter. So in the New Testament
this imagery is very familiar: see Matt. ix. 25; John iii. 29;
Rev. xix. 7; xxi. 2. Especially consult 2 Cor. xi. 2, and
Eph. v. 22—82, where the Apostle has gone into much parti-
cularity as to the duties of the marriage relation, and then
avows that he ‘speaks concerning Christ and the Church.’

“Such is the custom of the Hebrew writers and of the
Apostles. If, now, this imagery is so often employed in all parts
of the Bible, what forbids the idea, that there may be one short
book in which it occupies an exclusive place, and is designed to
INTRODUCTION. 109

symbolize the love that existed between God and his ancient
people, or the Church; or rather, which ought to have existed
on their part between God and his spiritually regenerated
people, who have become one (in a spiritual sense) with him,
and are for ever united to him? It cannot be shown, 4@ priori,
that it is even improbable.”

First. What does this argument prove? Surely not what
the representation of this poem 1s; it only shows what it might
have been. It shows that if we had indubitable proof, as in the
passages cited, that a whole book in the sacred canon is entirely
devoted to symbolize, under the figure of husband and wife,
the covenant-relationship subsisting between God and his
people, we ought not to be surprised at it, since it would be
in harmony with those alleged passages. But surely it does
not follow, that, because we are distinctly told in some passages
of Scripture that the terms, husband and wife, are employed to
symbolize the relationship between God and his people, that
they should have this signification as often as they are
employed. ~

Second. We utterly deny that the covenant-relation which
subsisted between the Lord and Israel was represented by the
terms, husband and wife, before the days of Solomon. The phrase,
OvINN OTN INN Ty, to go whoring after other gods, to which
reference has been made, does not mean that Israel, by wor-
shipping idols, committed spiritual adultery against the true
God to whom they were affianced,—thus presupposing God to

- be their husband, and Israel his wife,—but describes a literal
fact, the libidinous orgies and prostitutions identified with
heathen worship which the Jews indulged in when worshipping
idols. Numb. xxv. 1; Hos. iv. 18, &e. This is evident from
Exod. xxxiv. 15, 17, where this phrase first occurs, and is applied
to heathen women worshipping their own gods. And though
these women stood in no such covenant-relation to the God of
Israel, and therefore could not incur the guilt of spiritual
adultery, yet they are described as “whoring after THEIR gods.”
110 INTRODUCTION.

From these licentious rites, therefore, originated this phrase,
afterwards used to deseribe the worship of idols. But even
admitting that it does suggest a marriage relationship between
God and his people, the distance between a suggestive phrase
of this kind and an entire book of marital descriptions is so
great, that the one cannot be reasonably supposed to have
suggested the other.

Third. We deny that even the language used by the pro-
phets after the days of Solomon, in the passages cited, is at
all analogous to that of this poem. Let us examine some of
the passages themselves. Isa. 1. 1:—

“ Where is the bill of your mother’s divorce
With which I dismissed her?’’

Isa. liv. 4—6 :—

“ Fear not, for thou shalt not be ashamed,
And be not abashed, for thou shalt not blush ;
For thou shalt forget the shame of thy youth,
And the reproach of thy widowhood thou shalt remember no more.
For he weddeth thee who made thee.
Jehovah of hosts is his name,
And the Holy One of Israel redeemeth thee.
He is called the God of the whole earth.
For Jehovah calleth thee, as a forsaken wife, when spirit-broken,
And as a wife of youth when melting in repentance, saith thy Lord.”

Isa. Ixii. 4, 5 :—

“No more shall it be said to thee, Thou forsaken !
And no more shall it be said to thy land, Thou desolate !
But thou shalt be called, The object of my delight,
And thy land, The married woman ;
For Jehovah delighteth in thee,
And thy land shall be married ;
For the young man shall marry the virgin ;
Thy children shall marry thee ;
And with the joy of a bridegroom over his bride
Shall thy God rejoice over thee.”

Jer. iii. 20 :—

* As a wife faithlessly departeth from her husband,
So have ye acted faithlessly towards me,
O house of Israel! saith Jehovah.”

These, and several more of a similar kind, are the passages
referred to, to prove that the bridegroom and bride in this
Song mean the Lord and his people! How totally different
INTRODUCTION. lll

is the strain of thought and expression in those passages to
that in the Song!

In the former, the wedded-relation forms the comparison; in the
latter, ante-nuptial love is the theme. In the former, the general
idea of the figure is briefly used, without any particulars of the

eaccompaniments; in the latter, particulars of the persons,
dresses, scenery, are largely described. In the former, God is
represented as the High and Holy One inhabiting eternity,
and, in his infinite condescension and compassion, loving, with
the tenderness of a husband, Israel, who is represented as
an unlovely, ungrateful, and unfaithful wife; in the latter, the
bridegroom and the bride are placed upon an equality, nay,
the bridegroom declares that his heart has been ravished by
the charms and faithfulness of the bride. In the former we
are distinctly told that the husband means the Lord, and the
wife the people of Israel, so that the most superficial reader
is compelled to perceive it; in the latter we have no intima-
tion whatever that the lovers are intended to represent God
and his people, and no reader would ever gather it from the
poem. This will appear all the more forcible when we remem-
ber that, supposing this poem to be a description of the cove-
nant-relation subsisting between God and his people, it con-
tains the completest representation of this kind. We should,
therefore, naturally expect that subsequent writers, employing
the same figure, would borrow something of the imagery and
colouring from it. But, so far from this being the case, there
is not the slightest analogy between the strain of thought and
expression of this poem and that of subsequent writers.

Fourth. The 45th Psalm, which is supposed to celebrate, alle-
gorically, the union of the Messiah and the Church, has been
adduced as analogous to the Song of Songs, and therefore an
evidence in behalf of the allegorical interpretation.

“Tf we admit,” says Hengstenberg, “the allegorical inter-
pretation of this Psalm, we shall also be obliged to drop the
literal meaning of the Song of Songs.”
112 INTRODUCTION.

Ts it certain, however, that this Psalm is all allegory? The
Psalm itself gives not the slightest intimation that it is to be
understood in any other than its literal sense. Let us ex-
amine it :—

‘¢ My heart boils with good matter ;
When I think my work is for the king,
My tongue becomes as a style of a quick writer.
Thou art beautiful, beautiful above the sons of men :
Charm is poured upon thy lips,
Therefore God has blessed thee for ever.
Gird thy sword on thy thigh, O hero !
Thy splendour and thy glory, yea, thy glory,
Ride on victoriously for truth and mildness and right.
Great things shall thy right hand teach thee!
Thy arrows are sharp—people fall under thee—
They dart into the heart of the king’s enemies!
Thy throne, O God, stands for ever and ever;
A sceptre of justice is the sceptre of thy kingdom ;
Thou lovest right, and hatest wrong ;
Therefore God, thy God, anointed thee
With gladdening oil above thy companions !
Myrrh, aloes, and cassia are all thy garments,
Out of ivory palaces stringed instruments joyfully greet thee ;
Kings’ daughters are among thy dear ones—
Upon thy right hand stands the queen in gold of Ophir.

Hear, O daughter, and see, and incline thine ear ;
Forget thy people and thy father’s house,
That the king may desire thy beauty,
For he is thy Lord, and honour thou him.
O daughter of Tyre, now with presents
The rich of the people salute thy face.
The king’s daughter stands in the palace in all the splendour,
Her clothing is of fabricated gold,
She is led to the king in wrought raiment ;
Behind her are the virgins, her companions, brought for thee ;
They are conducted with joy and rejoicing,
They enter the palace of the king.
Instead of thy fathers shall be thy sons;
Thou wilt set them as princes over the whole land.
I wilt celebrate thy name from generation to generation ;
Therefore shall nations praise thee for ever and ever.”

This Psalm is evidently a congratulatory nuptial-song, com-
posed for the occasion of a king’s marriage with a princess of
Tyre. The sacred writer begins by stating that such is the
greatness of the subject, that it awakens thoughts too big for
INTRODUCTION. 118

utterance; but recollecting that his work is for the king, at
once his tongue is loosed, and glides as rapidly as the stylus
of a quick writer (2). He then celebrates the king’s beauty
and eloquence, recognising in it God’s blessing (3), his valour,
symbolized by the conquering sword, the prosperous chariot,
the terrible arm, the well-directed arrow (4—6), his divine
throne, and love of justice (7), his great happiness, resulting
from his love for justice (8), which consists in the splendour
around him (9), in his magnificent harem, and especially in the
new princess-bride at his right hand (10). Having gradually
arrived at the subject which is the occasion of the poem, the
sacred writer now addresses the bride, and, in accordance with
Eastern custom, which represents brides as unwilling to leave
their parents on the day of espousals (Comp. Deut. xxi. 18),
telling her to forget her father’s house, as she will have such
glory as is just described (11, 12). The bride is then presented
with gifts, according to Oriental manners, from the first ladies
of the kingdom (18); she appears in all the splendour in the
first palace (14), and thence conducted in grand procession to
the king’s palace (15, 16). The marital procession now being
over, the inspired writer congratulates the king, wishing him a
happy issue (17), and concludes by saying that his renown will
rapidly spread (18).

What is there in this Psalm compelling us to understand it
allegorically ? The quotation of the sixth verse in Hebrews i.
8, 9, only proves that this verse refers in a higher sense to the
Messiah, but not that the whole Psalm is descriptive of him.
Who would think of allegorizing the eighth chapter of Isaiah,
because verses 17 and 18 are quoted in Hebrews ii. 13? The
throne of David is declared to be an everlasting throne,
:2 Sam. vii. 13, 16; a throne of God, i. e. a divine throne, since
the Messiah was to be the last and ever reigning king. Hence
it is said, YIN TT NOD Tp? Mim NOD Oy rindw AWN, « and
Solomon sat upon the throne of Jehovah as king instead of
his father David.”—1 Chron. xxix. 28. Every king, therefore,

Q
114 INTRODUCTION.

of that lineage, occupying the throne, was regarded as the
representative of God; as the predecessor and type of Him who
was to be born of the seed of David to occupy the throne in the
highest sense. So that, whether we translate Dy NPD thy
throne, O God, taking Dv as @ vocative, or thy God-throne,
i.e. the throne committed to thee by God, or, thou art seated
upon a throne of God, or regard the phrase as an ellipsis for
DYN ‘DD NPD, thy throne is a throne of God, comes sub-
stantially to the same thing. It is, therefore, a groundless
assertion, that the whole Psalm is an allegory, and the refer-
ence to it in proof of the allegorical interpretation of the
poem before us is nugatory.

But, even admitting that the 45th Psalm is an allegory, this
would by no means prove that the Song of Songs is also an
allegory, for the two cases differ essentially. In the former
the bridegroom is addressed in verse 8 as God, and this verse
is quoted in the New Testament, whereas in the latter there is
nothing of the kind.

4. The custom of oriental nations to express their religious
and devotional sentiments under the disguise of amatory and
drinking songs has been adduced as an argument in favour of
the allegorical interpretation of the Song of Songs.

“The durweesh,”! says Lane, ‘pointed out the following
poem as one of those most common at Zikrs, and as one
which was sung at the Zikr which I have begun to describe.
I translated it verse for verse, and imitate the measure and
system of the original, with this difference only, that the first,
third, and fifth lines of each stanza rhyme with each other in
the original, but not in my translation.

‘ With love my heart is troubled,
And mine eyelid hindereth sleep:
My vitals are dissever’d,
While with streaming tears I weep.

 

1 Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, vol. ii.
p. 215, et seqg.
INTRODUCTION. 115

My union seems far distant,

‘Will my love e’er meet mine eye?
Alas! did not estrangement

Draw my tears, I would not sigh.

‘ By dreary nights I’m wasted,
Absence makes my hopes expire ;
My tears, like pearls, are dropping,
And my heart is wrapt in fire.
‘Whose is like my condition?
Scarcely know I remedy.
Alas! did not estrangement
Draw my tears, I would not sigh.

‘O turtle dove! acquaint me
Wherefore thus dost thou lament?
Art thou so stung by absence?
Of thy wings deprived, and pent?
He saith, ‘ Our griefs are equal ;
Worn away with love, I lie.’
Alas! did not estrangement
Draw my tears, I would not sigh.

‘O First and Everlasting !
Show thy favour yet to me.
Thy slave, Ahh’mad El-Bek’ree,!
Hath no Lord excepting Thee.
By Ta-Ha,? the great prophet,
Do thou not his wish deny.
Alas! did not estrangement
Draw my tears, I would not sigh,’

“T must translate a few more lines, to show more strongly the
similarity of these songs to that of Solomon; and lest it
should be thought that I have varied the expressions, I shall
not attempt to translate into verse. In the same collection of
poems sung at Zikrs is one which begins with these lines :—

© O gazelle from among the gazelles of El-Yem’en !
1 am thy slave without cost;
O thou small of age, and fresh of skin!
O thou who art scarce past the time of drinking milk !’

“Tn the first of these verses we have a comparison exactly
agreeing with that in the concluding verse of Solomon’s Song;
for the word which, in our Bible, is translated a ‘roe,’ is
used in Arabic as synonymous with ghaza’l (or a gazelle);

1 The author of the poem, The singer sometimes puts his own name in the
place of this.
2 T4-Ha is a name of the Arabian prophet.
116 INTRODUCTION.

and the mountains of El-Yem’en are ‘ the mountains of spices.’
This poem ends with the following lines :—
‘The phantom of thy form visited me in my slumber.

I said, ‘‘ O phantom of slumber! who sent thee?’’

He said, “* He sent me whom thou knowest ;

He whose love occupies thee !’””

The beloved of my heart visited me in the darkness of night ;

I stood, to show him honour, until he sat down.

I said, ‘* O thou my petition, and all my desire,

Hast thou come at midnight, and not feared the watchmen?”

He said to me, ‘I feared, but, however, love

Had taken from me my soul and my breath,’’’

“‘ Compare the above with the second and five following verses
of the fifth chapter of Solomon’s Song. Finding that songs
of this description are extremely numerous, and almost the
only poems sung at Zikrs; that they are composed for this
purpose, and intended only to have a spiritual sense (though
certainly not understood in such a sense by the generality of
the vulgar); I cannot entertain any doubt as to the design of
Solomon’s Song.”

To this we cannot do better than quote the able reply of
Dr. Noyes :—‘ Now, as to the first of these religious love-
songs of the Mahometan dervishes, whatever slight resem-
blance it may have to any part of the Canticles, it differs
essentially from any of them in the circumstance, that the
Supreme Being is expressly introduced as the object of wor-
ship. Without this essential circumstance, no one could tell
whether it were originally composed for a love-song, or a
religious hymn expressing a longing for a union of the soul
with God, according to the Sufi philosophy and religion.

“In the second poem, quoted by Mr. Lane, it is to be re-
gretted that he did not quote the whole of it; for I can by
no means admit the circumstance, that it was sung by the
dervishes in their morning devotions, to be conclusive in regard
to the original design of the hymn. Mr. Lane expressly tells
us, in a note, that he found the last six lines inserted, with
some slight alterations, as a common love-song, in a portion
of the ‘Thousand and One Nights,’ printed at Calcutta, vol. i.
INTRODUCTION. 117

p. 225; Lane’s translation, ii. p. 8349. Whether the whole was
originally composed as a love-song or a devotional hymn,
does not appear from the parts of it which Mr. Lane gives us.
If in the parts omitted there is any clear reference to the
Deity, it is unlike any of the Canticles. If there is no such
reference, the meaning of the hymn is too doubtful to allow
any inference to be drawn from it. For we might as well
allow the singing of Dr. Watts’s version of the Canticles to be
an argument for their original design, as to admit the singing
of the mystic dervishes to be an evidence of the original
design of the hymns.

“Before making some general remarks on this whole subject
of attempting to show the character of the Canticles by re-
ference to the pantheistic poetry of the Mahometan Sufis, it
may be well to mention that reference has been made even to
the poets of Hindostan for the same purpose; especially to
the Gitagovinda, the production of a celebrated Hindoo poet,
named Jayadeva. This appears to be a mystical poem, de-
signed to celebrate the loves of Crishna and Radha, or the
reciprocal attraction between the divine goodness and the
human soul. Now, whatever may be the resemblance between
the Gitagovinda and Canticles in some of their imagery, there
is this essential difference, that, in the former, Crishna was the
chief incarnate god of the Hindoos,! and that there are
references to other gods, and to various superstitions of the
Hindoo mythology ; whilst in the Canticles there is no refer-
ence to any but human characters. Besides, the author of the
Gitagovinda clearly intimates its religious character in the
conclusion of the poem.

“We have seen, then, that there are material differences
between the Canticles and the religious love-songs to which

1 Crishna continues to this hour the darling god of the Indian women. The
sect of Hindoos, who adore him with enthusiastic and almost exclusive
devotion, have broached a doctrine which they maintain with eagerness, and
which seems general in those provinces, that he was distinct from all the
Avatars, who had only an ansa, or portion of his divinity; while Crishna was
the person of Vishnu himself in a human form.—Sir W. Jones, Asiatic Re-
searches, vol. i. p. 260.
118 INTRODUCTION.

reference has been made. But supposing the resemblance to

be much greater than it is, those mystical songs do not in any

essential respect resemble the Canticles more than they do the_
odes of Anacreon, or some of the eclogues of Virgil, and

the idyls of Theocritus. And it is not easy to see why the

resemblance does not prove the religious character of the odes

of Anacreon as much as that of the Canticles.

“ But, after all, the great objection remains to any conclusion
drawn from the pantheistic mystic poets, whether of Persia or
India, whether Mahometans or Hindoos, namely, that their
productions are founded on a religion and philosophy entirely
different from the Jewish. The Canticles are productions of a
different country, and separated from any of the songs of the
Sufi poets by an interval of nearly two thousand years. The
Jewish religion has nothing in common with the pantheistic
mysticism on which those songs are founded. There is nothing
in the Old Testament of a similar character. If any produc-
tion similar to those mystical love-songs had existed in the
religious literature of the Hebrews, undoubtedly we should
have found some in the Book of Psalms, which comprises com-
positions from the age preceding that of David to a period
long after the return of the Jews from the captivity at Babylon.
But in the most fervent Psalins, the forty-second, for instance,
nothing of the kind is found. Neither is anything similar to
those mystic songs ascribed to the Jewish sect, as described by
Josephus and Philo. Nothing of the kind is laid to the charge
of the Essenes. It is needless to say, that nothing approach-
ing to the lke character is found in the New Testament.
Nothing similar is discovered even in the allegorical para-
phrase of the Targumist on the Canticles. All those religious
love-songs are founded on the Sufi religion, or rather religious
philosophy, which, whether it was borrowed from India, as
Von Hammer supposes, or arose independently among the
Mahometans, according to the opinion of Tholuck, has no con-
nexion with, or resemblance to, the Jewish. It is as different
INTRODUCTION. 119

from the latter as darkness from light. The argument, there-
fore, which is drawn from the mystical songs of the Maho-
metan devotees for ascribing a mystical character to the
Canticles, is without foundation.”!

REASONS AGAINST THE ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION.

1. Inevery allegory, or parable, employed in the Scripture, or
in any good human composition, something i is wrought into its
texture to indicate most st unmistakably its allegorical design; that,
under the garb of an an immediate 7 representation, is conveyed one
hore rer remote. \ Thus, in 1 the 80th Psalm, 9—17, where Israel
is represented under the allegory of a vine which came out of
Egypt, the design is distinctly wrought into the texture of the
allegory. The expression, heathen (0%), at the very begin-
ning of the allegory, and especially the words, “the Son whom
thou hast chosen for thyself,” (72 MOON ja by) in the
second clause of verse 15, which, when compared with “the Son
of man, whom thou hast chosen for thyself,” (7? DON DTS 12 2Y)
in verse 17, are evidently explanatory of the words, ‘and pro-
tect what thy right hand hath planted,” (J'}¥2) Myt)3 WR 732)
in the first clause, clearly to show the more remote con-

 

 

cealed under the immediate representation. ‘Thus, also, in the
allegory of the vineyard, and by the prophet Isaiah (chap. v.),
we are distinctly told, in verse 7, that “the vineyard of
Jehovah of hosts is the house of Israel, and the men of Judah
are his pleasant plantation.” Compare also Judges ix. 7—20;
2 Kings xiv. 9, 10; Ezek. xvi., xxxvil. 1—14; the parables of
our Saviour, Acts x. 10—17; Gal. iv. 22—31. Now, if the
author of this poem had intended it to be understood alle-
gorically, he would have givén some indication to that effect ;
especially since the allegories occasionally used in some parts
of this very book, chap. iv. 12, v. 1, vii. 7, 8, are rendered
plain and obvious. As there is, however, not the slightest

1 Noyes, A New Translation of the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles,
pp. 180—182.
120 INTRODUCTION.

intimation in the whole of this lengthy poem that it is designed
to be allegorical,.we are unwarranted to assume it. To take
ane portion of the Scriptures allegorically, without even an
obscure hint of it in the writing itself, is to violate the estab-
lished laws of language, and to expose all other portions of
the sacred volume to a similar treatment. If one chooses to
allegorize one part without any sanction, another may choose to
allegorize another. But we have no right to depart from the
literal and obvious meaning, without some authority for it
_ from the inspired writer. This argument is applicable to
every allegorical interpretation, whether historical or hiero-
glyphical, whether political or metaphysical. .

2. The total silence of our Lord and his apostles respect-
ing this book is against its allegorical interpretation. If this
Song, according to the first and last allegorizers, “ celebrates
the glories of the Messiah, and all the mercies which through
him flow to the people of God,” it is more spiritual and more
evangelical than any other portion of the Old Testament;
surpassing even the writings of Isaiah, who is called the fifth
Evangelist, and is, in fact, what Origen called it, ‘‘ The Holy
of Holies.” Is it possible, then, that our Saviour, and his
apostles, who, in their disputations with the Jews, so fre-
quently quoted the prophecies of Isaiah and other passages of
the Old Testament, far less evangelical and Messianic, would
never have referred to this book? Is it possible that the
apostle Paul, who so frequently describes the relation of Christ
to the Church by the union subsisting between Husband and
wife (2 Cor. xi. 2, Rom. vii. 4, Eph. v. 23—82), would be
silent about a book which, more than any other in the Old
Testament, sets forth that union? The fact, therefore, that
our Saviour and his apostles never once refer to this book is
against the allegorical interpretation.

3. Is Solomon the man from whom a production of such pre-
eminent spirituality and evangelical truth could have been
reasonably expected ? Is there anything in his private history,
INTRODUCTION. 121

his habits of thought, his moral inclinations, or in the general
tone and tendency of his religious emotions, at any period of
his life, as far as they can be gathered from his history and
writings, that would lead us to anticipate such evangelical
piety as this interpretation presupposes? The same agree-
ment which exists between ordinary writers and their produc-
tions is perceptible in the inspired records. Inspiration, like
Providence, selected the fittest instruments for its work. Thus,
between the history of Moses and his writings, of David and
his writings, of Paul and his writings, of John and his writ-
ings, a natural uniformity exists; and so of other sacred
authors. Accordingly, we have not only to suppose Solomon
to have been more spiritually-minded than any under the
Jewish economy, but to have stood upon a level with the most
enlightened and Christ-loving under the present dispensation,
in order to write in such a strain. Where is any such qualifi-
cation in Solomon, even remotely intimated in any part of-
Scripture? The wisdom which he’ asked, which he received,
and for which he gained celebrity, was that displayed in his
civil government, in social and moral teaching, of which the
first-fruit was given in the decision upon the litigation of the
two mothers. The poetry which he wrote, consisting of one
thousand and five songs, upon natural history, not having been
deemed worthy of a place in the sacred canon, shows that his
muse did ‘not indulge in a dévotional strain. The Book of
Ecclesiastes, which is attributed to him by tradition, is
the experience of a thorough-going worldling and libertine,
and a confession to men rather than God. The extensive
harem which he had, displays his inordinate desire for revels
and foreign women, which in old age inveigled him into the
practice of idolatry. “ His wives,” as the Scriptures teach us,
“turned away his heart after other gods.” And the last we
hear of him is, that “his heart was not perfect with the Lord

" his God, as was the heart of his father David.” Is~this, then,

the man whose love-song is to be regarded as pre-eminently
bees eae ees :
So i ae

 

 
122 INTRODUCTION.

spiritual, and to be exalted as more evangelically rapturous
than any other portion of Holy Writ? To what period of his
life is this pre-eminent piety to be assigned? If to the latter,
that is the period of his greatest degeneracy; if to the former,
how are we to reconcile his apostasy with so high a degree of
spirituality ? It is difficult to conceive of such.a mind as that
of Solomon brought at any time into sympathy with the pre-
vailing allegorical exposition of this Song. Who can conceive
that he who caused an irreparable breach in his kingdom
should represent himself as the Prince of Peace, or that he who
was the embodiment of the carnal propensities should describe,
under the figure of chaste love, the union of Christ and his
Church ?— It is inconceivable. As David was not qualified to
build the temple, because he’ had been a man of war, and had
shed blood, so Solomon was not qualified to write in such a
spiritual strain concerning Christ and his Church as the pre-
vailing allegorical exposition of this Song, because he had been
a man of lust,’and had turned aside to idolatry. f

4. For the same reason we cannot conceive that any other
writer would represent the Messiah as symbolized by Solomon.
Is it conceivable that he of whom the whole congregation of
Israel complained to Rehoboam, ‘“ Thy father made our yoke
grievous—now, therefore, make thou the grievous service of
thy father, and his heavy yoke which he put upon us, light,”
would be chosen to represent the Saviour of the world, “‘ whose
yoke is easy, and his burden light?” We can understand why
the painter of the Judgment Scene, among the celebrated fres-
coes in the cloisters of the Campo Santo at Pisa, in Italy, in
which the righteous and the wicked are gathered in their
respective positions, placed Solomon midway between them,
as an intimation of his inability to determine to which he
belonged; but we cannot understand how an inspired writer
could choose Solomon, whose lusts were displayed in the revels
of an Eastern harem, and who was seduced to practise idolatry,
to represent Him who was “holy, harmless, undefiled, and
INTRODUCTION. 123

separate from sinners,” together with the pure and holy union
subsisting between him and the Church.
5. In the allegorical interpretation language is attributed
to Christ inconsistent with his dignity and purity. It is
.~ almost blasphemous to suppose Christ thus to address his
Church :—

‘“ The circuits of thy thighs are like ornaments,
The work of a master’s hand.
Thy navel is a round goblet,
Let not spiced wine be wanted in it!
Thy growth is like a palm tree,
And thy bosom like its clusters :
T long to climb this palm tree,
I long to clasp its branches.
May thy bosom be unto me
As the cluster of the vine,
And the odour of thy breath
As that of apples.’’—Chap. vii. verses 2, 3, 7, 8.

This is the language of seduction, but it is blasphemous when
put into the mouth of Him who spake as never man spake.

6. The fact that three individuals are the principal persons
represented in this Song, and not two, is subversive of the
allegorical theory. That the poem speaks of three individuals,
a shepherd, a shepherdess, and a king, and that the shepherd,
and not the king, is the object of the maiden’s affections, will
be evident to every unbiassed reader of the book, and has been
recognised by some of the Rabbins of the middle ages. For
the sake of avoiding repetition, we refer the reader to the
commentary, where the passages pointing out the distinctions
of persons are dwelt upon at large.

THE TYPICAL INTERPRETATION.

The defenders of this view maintain that this book records an
historical fact ; that it celebrates the nuptials of Solomon with the
daughter of Pharaoh, or some other heathen princess; and that
this marriage typically represents the union of Christ with the
Gentiles.

££ FE
124. INTRODUCTION.

REASONS AGAINST THIS NUPTIAL THEORY.

As we concur with those who seek “nothing more than a
general resemblance” between the history recorded in -this
poem and the experience of the people of God, we have merely
to state here our reasons for rejecting their view of the nar-
rative.

No direct mention is made in any part of this long poem of
the marriage ceremony, nor of any circumstance connected
with it. The bride is described as a shepherdess and keeper
of the vineyards (chap. i. 6; ii. 15; vill. 12, &c.); as walking
in the streets in the night to seek her beloved, and as being
beaten by the watchmen (iii. 1—4; v. 6, &c.); which are in-
compatible with the notion that she was Pharaoh’s daughter,
or any other princess. Besides, the bridegroom is not a king,
but a shepherd ; Compare chap. i. 7, ii. 8, andy. 2—4. These,
and other considerations which might have been mentioned,
are entirely subversive of this nuptial theory.

SECTION VII.—AUTHOR, DATE, AND FORM OF THE BOOK.

The title of this poem designates Solomon as the author, but
internal evidence is against it. The writer mentions David in
such a manner as if he were not his father (iv. 4). The words,
“Solomon had a vineyard,” (andy? M7 DD) in viii. 11, show
that the author was not a contemporary of Solomon. The
subject, especially of the poem, is decisive against Solomon’s
authorship. It is impossible that he should describe himself
as having attempted to gain the espoused affections of a country
maiden, and being defeated by her virtue. The title is evi-
dently the addition of some other person; for the author of the
book never uses the pronoun WR, but invariably employs the
form wv ; nor would he announce his own production as “ the
Jinest or most celebrated Song.”
INTRODUCTION. 125

The exact date of this poem has been much disputed. The
powerful and fluent style in which it is written, the origin-
ality of the figures, the freshness of the landscapes, the life-like
descriptions of local circumstances, the imagery drawn from
the royal court of Solomon, the horses of Pharaoh, the tower of
David, the tower of Solomon, the pools of Heshbon, show that
the poem must have been written in the most flourishing age of
the Hebrew language, and about the time of Solomon. The
Aramaisms, which used formerly to be adduced in order to
transfer the book to an age after the captivity, are now rightly
rejected by modern critics as inconclusive, since almost every
poetical composition of the earliest age contains such Ara-
maisms. The word DJ 5 (iv. 18), to which a Persian ety-
mology has been assigned, and which has especially been used
to show the late period of this poem, is of a Shemitic origin.
See Comment. in loco. The form, w for WR, is also used
in Judges v. 7, vi. 17, vii. 12, viii. 26, and TT with god in
Amos yi. 5, ix. 11, Hos. iii. 5.

Lhe form of the book has also been a matter of great dis-
pute. From its earliest age it has been regarded as one
continued poem in adramatic form. Since the time of Richard
Simon, however, who pronounced this book, “swmmam confu-
sionem, in quo viz ac ne vix quidem personas discernere queas,”+
it has been split by many into fragments, and in turn been
regarded as consisting of a number of eclogues, or armorets,
as an epithalamium, or nuptial song, and as a regular drama.
Having traced the unity of the poem in Section m1., we need not
again show the unsoundness of the fragmentary theory, which
originated from a misunderstanding of the design of the book.
It seems to approach nearest in form to a drama. Yet we
cannot think, with Ewald and others, that it is a regular drama.
The genius, character, and manners of the Shemitic nations,
their deficiency in plastic art, and their aversion to females
appearing on a public stage, seem to militate against it.

1 Historia Crit. Vet. Test. 1. i. c. iv. p. 28.
126

bo

INTRODUCTION.

SECTION VUI.—EXEGETICAL HELPS.

ANCIENT VERSIONS.

. The Septuagint, being the oldest version, occupies the first place ;

its deviations from the Hebrew have generally been noticed in the
Commentary.

. The Vulgate, which chiefly follows the Septuagint.

3. The Syriac, which is far superior to the Vulgate.

OWAIDaAH

JEWISH COMMENTATORS.

. Rashi, found in Buxtorf’s Rabbinical Bible.

. Rashbam, recently printed for the first time.

. Ibn Ezra; found in Rabbinical Bible.

. Immanuel, MS. in the British Museum.

. An Anonymous MS. Commentary in the Bodleian.
. Philippson, an excellent modern commentator.

CHRISTIAN COMMENTATORS.

. Wilcock, an old writer.

. Bishop Lowth, Praelect. xxx., xxxi.

. Bishop Percy, Commentary and Annotations.

. Michaelis, Notes to Bishop Lowth’s Praelect.

. Jacobi, Das Gerettete Hohelied.

. Durell, Critical Remarks on Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Can-

ticles.

. Willams, The Song of Songs.

. Good, The Song of Songs.

. Umbreit, Lied der Liebe.

. Ewald, Das Hohe Lied Salomonis, &c.

. Dépke, Philologish-Critischer Comment.

. Rosenmiiller, Scholia in Vet. Test.

. Hirzel, Das Lied der Lieder.

. Magnus, Kritische Bearbeitung und Erklarung des Hohen Liedes.

. Noyes, A New Translation of the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the

Canticles.

. Heligstedt’s Continuation of Maurer’s Commentary, which, by an

oversight, is omitted in the Historical Sketch, deserves special
mention: Leipzig, 1847.

. Delitzsch, Das Hohe Lied untersuch und ausgelegt.
. Hengstenberg, Das Hohe Lied Salomonis.

. Meier, Das Hohe Lied in deutscher Uebersetzung.

. Friedrich, Cantici Canticorum.

. Hitzig, 16th Lief. des Korzg. Exeg. Handb.

For a further description of the dates and places of these commentaries,
see the Historical Sketch.
THE SONG OF SONGS,

WHICH IS SOLOMON’S.
THE SONG OF SONGS,

WHICH IS SOLOMON’S.

 

SECTION I.

CHAPTERS I.—II. 7.

The scene of this division is in the royal tent of Solomon. The Shulamite,
separated from her beloved shepherd, longs to be reunited with him whom
she prizes above all things (2,3). She implores him to come and rescue
her ; for, though brought by the king into his royal tent, her love continues
the same (4). She repels the scornful reflection of the court ladies when
they hear her soliloquy (5, 6). She implores her lover to tell her where
she may find him (7). The court ladies ironically answer this request
(8). Meanwhile the king comes in, and tries to win her affections by
flatteries and promises (9—11). This attempt fails, and she opposes to
the king’s love her unabated attachment to her beloved shepherd
(12—ii. 6). In an ecstasy she adjures the court ladies not to attempt to
persuade her to love any one else(7).

THE SHULAMITE.

2 Oh for a kiss of the kisses of his mouth!
For sweet are thy caresses above wine.

2. Oh for a kiss, &c. That the
speaker is aShulamite shepherdess who
had been separated by king Solomon
from her beloved, and that she desires
to be reunited with him, is evident
from verses 4, 7,8; vii. 1, &c. Ex-
cited by the pain of separation, the
damsel wishes that her beloved were
alia that he could kiss her, for

is caresses would cheer her fainting
heart more than the best of wines.
Wine, either pure or mixed No infra,
vii. 3), is often spoken of by the
sacred and profane poets as delighting
the hearts of both gods and men,

and reviving their drooping spirits.
(Judges ix. 13; Ps. civ. 15; Prov.
xxxi. 6; Eccl. x. 19.) Hence Helen
gave a bowl of mixed wine to her
guests oppressed with grief, to raise
their spirits. (Hom. Odyss. iv. 220.)
Yet the Shulamite declares that she
preferred the caresses of her beloved
to this highly prized cordial.

The imperfect form ‘27% is used
optatively or voluntatively, “Oh that
he would kiss me!” (Gesen. § 127,
3b; Ewald, § 224 a); 2.e.a kiss: the
subject, either in the singular (Gen.
xxviii. 11, compare v. 18; Exod. vi.
180

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[cuapP. I.

3 Sweet is the odour of thy perfumes,
Which perfume thou art, by thy name diffused abroad,

25; Ps. exxxvii. 3), or plural (Gen.
xxx. 14; Exod. xvii. 5; 2 Sam. xi. 17),
is to be supplied from the plural noun
nip, as indicated by the partitive
yo. (Compare Gesen. § 154, 3 ¢;
Ewald, § 217, b, i. b.) The singular,
however, is preferable, for the Shula-
mite does not wish so much for a
number of kisses as for the presence of
her beloved; one would be sufficient if
he could only come. We thus obtain
a phrase mp) pw, to kiss a kiss,
ie. to give a kiss; corresponding to
may yr, to counsel a counsel, i. e. £0
give counsel, 2 Sam. xvi. 23; 2 797,
2 Kings xiii. 14. This construction
is of frequent occurrence in Hebrew,
and is also found in Greek and Latin;
(Compare voceiy vécov, pugnam pug-
nare; Gesen. § 138 i., Rem.1; Ewald,
§ 281 a.) The rendering, therefore, of
yo by with (Luther, English Version,
Good, Williams, &c.) is incorrect.
Ewald’s and Herxheimer’s translation,
Let one of the kisses kiss me, is both in-
congruous and ungrammatical ; for in
the first place, it is not the kiss that
kisses, but the individual; and se-
condly, 17) is feminine, which would
require ‘77w, the third fem. 0,
prop. Jove, the abstract, which, as
in Greek and Latin, is in Hebrew
frequently expressed by the plural,
(comp. OT, life, DPNDD, sweetness,
orem, beauty; vide infra, v. 16;
Gesen. § 108, 2 a; Ewald, § 179 a),
here metonomically for the expressions
of it—love-tokens, caresses. So Lee,
Magnus, Noyes, Fiirst, Philippson, &c.
This rendering is demanded by the
context, for this clause gives the cause
of the statement in the preceding one.
_The change from the ¢hird person
pw, to the second 1), or from the
second to the third person, is an enal-
lage of frequent occurrence in sacred
poetry. (Deut. xxxii. 15; Isa. i. 29;
Jer. xxii. 24; Gesen. § 137, 3, Rem. 3.)
The Sept. and Vulg. have pu, thy
breasts, instead of 75, thy caresses.
That this is a gross error is evident

from the fact that a man and not a
woman is here addressed. To appeal
to the catachresis in Isa, lx. 16,
would be preposterous.

8. Sweet is the odour, &c. Oint-
ments, like wines, were used by the
ancients as cordials (Prov. xxvii. 9),
and as restoratives in consequence of
their supposed sanative properties.
Hence the anointing of the sick. (Isa.
i. 6, &e.; Jer. viii. 22.) The fainting
Shulamite, therefore, mentions this
second cordial. The > in 1™) signifies
in, as regards, quoad, and is frequently
used for the sake of giving prominence
to an idea. Thus “ Solomon was
greater than all the kings of the earth
moony Wy, in or as regards riches
and wisdom.” (1 Kings x. 23.) Com-
pare also Exod. xx. 5, 6; Ewald, §
217 a. First, Lexicon, > 5, f. The
Sept. has 1 instead of 9; or it may be,
favours the view of Dépke, Heiligstedt,
Meier, &c., that the > introduces the
nominative; but this requires another
anomaly, viz., to refer m1\v, to the
nomen rectum, instead of regens, and
does not at all improve the sense.
The Syriac, Ibn Ezra, Authorized Ver-
sion, Perey, Williams, Noyes, &c., take
the > in the sense of }¥95, because, and
connect it with 72 5», therefore, of the
last clausc ; but these words are never
used together for cause and effect.
Besides, this explanation, like the
former, interrupts the sense; for the
fuinting damsel evidently refers here
to the second restorative. Luther
strangely renders this clause, dass man
deine gute Salbe riche. Kleuker, Rosen-
miller, Ewald, Delitzsch, Philippson,
&c., translate 1%) ¢o the smell; but
this is contrary to the wsws loquendt,
as yis never used for the organ which
inhales, but invariably means some-
thing exhaled or emitted. Hodgson
renders 1), like the scent; but > never
signifies ike. The instance in Deut.
xi. 18, adduced in support of his as-
sertion, is gratuitous, for the 9 in nbwins,
has not that meaning.
CHAP. I.]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

131

Therefore do the damsels love thee.
4 Oh draw me after thee! Oh let us flee together !

Which perfume thou art, by thy name,
&c. This clause is explanatory of the
preceding one, “ Sweet is the odour of
thy perfumes, because thou art that
perfume.” The comparison of an agree-
able person to perfumes arose from the
great requisition of aromatics in the
East. In warm climates perspiration
is profuse, and much care is needful to
prevent its offensiveness. Hence the
use of perfumes particularly at wed-
dings, feasts, on visits to persons of
rank (2 Sam. xii. 20; Ps. xlv. 8;
Prov. vii. 17; Amos vi. 6), and most
of the occasions which bring people
together with the intention of being
agreeable to one another. Hence the
pleasant odours diffused by perfumes
soon became a metaphor to express
the -attractions which an agreeable
person throws around him (Eecl.
vii. 1), just as an offensive smell is
used to express the contrary idea.
(Gen. xxxiv. 30; Exod. v. 21.) The
word prin, being taken as the third
person fem, has greatly perplexed
interpreters. For neither }pv, to which
the Sept., Ibn Ezra, Rashbam, Imma-
nuel, &c., refer it, nor Ov’, to which it
is referred by Ewald, Gesenius, &c.,
ever occurs as feminine. Others, to
overcome this difficulty, have either
taken pNn as a proper name (Syria. R.
Tobiah) or as an appellative (Bochart,
Hieron. ii. 4, 26.) ‘The true solution
seems to be that the word in question
is not the third person feminine but
the second person masculine. So Rashi,
Michaelis, Hengstenberg, &c. The
words literally translated would be,
ike oil art thou poured forth, with
regard to thy name. 08, is the second
accusative, comp. Ps. Ixxxiii. 19;
Ewald, § 281, 3 c. The words jo and
dW form a paranomasia. This figure,
which consists of words ranged to-
gether of similar sound, but differing
in sense, is frequently used in the
Old Testament; and also occurs in
the New. (Compare Aruol kat Aorol,
Luke xxi. 11, and Acts xvii. 25.)

Therefore do the damsels love thee.

How natural for a woman, greatly
admiring, and dotingly attached to
her beloved, to think that every dam-
sel must be enamoured of him!
The most probable derivation of the
much-disputed 19?y, is from y= ry,
to come up, to grow up; hence the
Poel iv, a growth, a child, 02%, one
growing up; with the termination
Do, (Compare Alma, in Latin, from
alo, #ASw, and Fiirst, Lexicon, > 2 ¢,)
and the feminine 729, a growing dam-
sel, without any reference to the idea
of virginity, for which 7)n23 is invari-
ably used; Joel i. 8, not excepted.
‘ya is here used, not to indicate that
the marriage was consummated, but
because the Jews regarded parties
consecrated to each other from the
very moment they were betrothed.
Hence Mary is called the wife of
Joseph, and he her husband. (Com-
pare Matt. i. 19, 20, &c.) Other de-
rivations assigned to 79%Y, such as
byy==non, to be fat, full, ripe, mar-
riageable (Gesenius, &c.), or being ex-
cited, hence youth as being peculiarly
subject to it (Lee); or DY, to hide, be
concealed, unrevealed, unknown ; hence
poy and 792, persons of a youthful age
who were destitute of the knowledge
which springs from sexual intercourse
(Henderson) are exceedingly forced.
Jerome’s assertion, as also Words-
worth’s, on Matt. i. 23, that m2), is
the designation of a virgin, because it
signifies kept secret,as a virgin is under
the care of her parents, is gratuitous,
for nv, is formed from 02Y, a young
man, of whom this cannot be said.

4. Oh draw me, &c. The Shulamite
wishes that her beloved should not
only come and cheer her fainting heart
with the tokens of his love, but take
her away altogether. 7 0" belongs
to 202. (Compare Job xxi. 33.) So
the Chaldee, Immanuel, Luther, Men-
delssohn, Kleuker, Percy, Hodgson,
Ewald, Meier, Hitzig, Philippson, &c.
The Septuagint renders 339, by
ceiAkvody oe, mistaking it for sown,
and adds 720 17) after ™ Ty, evi-
182

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[cHAP. I.

The king has brought me into his apartments,
But we exult and rejoice in thee,
We praise thy love more than wine,

The upright love thee.

5 I am swarthy, O ye daughters of Jerusalem,

dently an interpolation from the first
clause of the third verse, which the
Vulgate, Percy, &c., follow.

The king has brought me, &c. It
was the king, she tells us, who brought
her into his apartments, and thus se-
parated her from her beloved, in whom,
however, she still delights. That this
is the import of this clause is obvious
from the words and connexion. The
Shulamite began with invoking her
absent beloved in the third person;
but no sooner had she expressed her
desire to be with him, than he is, as it
were, present to her mind, and she
forthwith, dropping the third person,
addresses him in the second, and so
continues to speak to him throughout
the third verse. She begins the fourth
verse in the same way, imploring her
beloved, in the second person, to take
her away, telling him that “ the hing,
‘HE,’ has brought her into his apart-
ments” (mark the change from the
second to the third person); and then
continues and finishes her address to
her beloved in the second person.
Now we ask, do not the words 2877
YT PO, the king, “HE,” has brought
me into his apartments, placed between
spams wo, do “THOU” draw me after
thee, and 0 Ja Mw? TYR, we exult
and rejoice in “THEE,” &c., clearly
show that the king here referred to
is a separate person from the beloved
to whom the maiden is addressing
herself? We venture to affirm that
few readers of the original Hebrew,
whose minds are not biassed by a pre-
conceived theory, can carefully peruse
these three verses without observing
that Two persons are here intro-
duced—viz. the beloved to whom, and
the king of whom, the damsel speaks.
Ibn Ezra, Immanuel, the Anony-
mous MS. Commentary, &c., could
not help seeing this, and explained
the passage, ‘‘ Were even the king to

bring me into his apartments, I should
rejoice and be glad in thee” (the
shepherd). The Septuagint, which
is followed by the Vulgate, has again
7m, thy breast, instead of 7N, thy
love ; but see supra, ver. 2.

The upright love thee. The word
own, is explained by Rashi, Rashbam,
Dépke, De Wette, Rosenmiiller, Gese-
nius, &c., by sincerely, uprightly ; Ibn
Ezra, who is followed by Houbigant,
takes it as an adjective for wine, 7.e.
Dw? PT, wene that glides down
smoothly ; and Ewald, Boothroyd,
Magnus, Hitzig, &c., render it de-
servedly, justly. As for *piqx, it is
either referred to moby, the damsels
love thee more than wine (Ibn Ezra);
or is taken impersonally, i.e. thou art
sincerely or deservedly beloved. (Ewald,
Magnus, &c.) But this is against the
structure of these verses. For th
second and third verses, consisting 01
five members, form one stanza, finish-
ing with the words *pamy nin; and
it is evident that the fourth verse,
also consisting of five members, is of
the same structure, and that the con-
cluding words 37x OW, are in-
tended to correspond to those at the
end of the first stanza. O70", there-
fore, must be taken as a parallelism
with ninby, and means the upright.
So the Septuagint (ed0d7ns irydancé oe,
the abstract for concrete), Symma-
chus, (oi edeis of &yamdyres oe,) the Vul-
gate (recti diligant te), the Chaldee
QomwyI), English Version (mar-
gin), Mendelssohn, Philippson, &c.
Dw, the upright, is designedly chosen
in preference to nov, damsels,in order
to give an indirect and gentle blow
to him who had separated her from
her beloved. “THEE, the upright,
and not the seduced love.”

5. Iam swarthy, &c. The court
ladies, indignant at this statement,
looked with affected disdain upon the
CHAP. I.]

As the tents of Kedar,

THE SONG OF SONGS.

133

But comely as the pavilions of Solomon.
6 Disdain me not because I am dark,

discoloured rustic girl. The Shula-
mite repels these disdainful looks, for
she knows that, though swarthy, she
is comely, else the king would not
have noticed her. A similar idea
oceurs in Theocritus (Idyl. x. 26—29),
where Bambyce, though sun-burnt, is
called beautiful.

Bou Bika xapieooa, Lipav kadéovte 7d ravres,
"Toxvav, ddcékavatov’ byw 3é povos pedixrwpov.
Kai 76 lov wéAayv evi, kal & ypanta bdxivOos.
"ANN umras bv tots ctepavors Ta Mpata Aéyovtat.

Charming: Bambyce, though some call you
And flame the tawny colour of your skin;
Yet I the lustre of your beauty own,
And deem you like Hyblaean honey-brown.
The letter’d hyacinth’s of darksome hue,
And the sweet violet a sable blue ;
Yet these in crowns ambrosial odours shed,
And grace fair garlands that adorn the head.”
Compare also Virgil, Eclog. x. 38.
The comparison between the dark
complexion and the tentsof the Ke-
dareens, and between the comeliness
and the pavilions of Solomon, arose
from the custom of nomades and tra-
vellers in the East of carrying with
them moveable tents, which were tem-
porarily pitched for the purpose of
the pernoctation or protection against
meridian sun. The tents of the Ke-
dareens, a nomadic tribe of North
Arabia (Gen. xxv. 13; Isa. xxi. 17),
were and still are to this day made of
coarse cloth, obtained from the shaggy
hair of their black goats (Rosenmiiller,
Orient. iv. 989; Saalschiitz, Archiolo-
gie der Hebrier, Erster Theil, p. 68).
‘Whereas, the curtains of which Solo-
mon’s pavilion was constructed were,
most probably, very fine and beautiful.
From this passage, confirmed by chap.
iii. 6, and vi. 12, we see that this scene
took place in the royal tent of Solomon,
pitched in the open air of some fa-
vourite spot to which the king re-
sorted in the summer. It is still the
custom of Oriental potentates to go
once a-year to some attractive neigh-
bourhood, where they erect their mag-
nificent tents, which serve as their
temporary abodes. (Morier, Zweite

Reise in Persian, p. 223; Jaubert,
Voyage, p. 334), Minw, swarthy, refers
to 132 mM, the tents of Kedar, and
M82, comely, to THD Nivy the pavilion
of Solomon. ™~3, a contraction of
mx, from the root m2, is formed
from the Pilel. The third radical,
which this conjugation requires to
be doubled, appears in this and in
two other words, under the form ™.
Compare Ww, to bow, Pilel, m7,
hence the reflexive mnnwn, to bow, or
prostrate oneself; OTD, archers,
Gen. xxi. 16; Gesen. § 75, Rem. 18;
Ewald, § 121 c. ay, prop. @ vail, a
curtain of a tent, Exod. xxvi. 12, and
metonomically for the tent itself,
2 Sam. vii. 2; 1 Chron. xvii. 1, and
like here, in parallelism with ‘x,
Jer. iv. 20; x. 20; xi. 29. The
Septuagint, followed by the Vulgate,
erroneously renders iH>W nivy, ds
déppets Zohopav, as the skins of
Solomon, and Bishop Foliot refers it
to the beautiful skin of Solomon’s
body, with which the Church com-
pares herself to set forth her comeli-
ness. Hodgson, misunderstanding
the figure, absurdly renders "77 ‘72,
lhe the spices of Kedar, and makes the
Shulamite compare herself to the
odoriferous trees and beautiful figures
in the (niv’y), fine tapestry.

6. Disdain me nat. i repelling
these disdainful looks the Shulamite
states first that her dark complexion
is adventitious, being merely sun-
burnt, and as Rashi remarks, mm)
222 Nyw2 7onT), will be white again
under the protection of the shade:
and secondly, how she came to be so
much exposed to the sun, and this she
ascribes to the anger of her brothers.
This anger, however, as it appears
from ii. 8—17, was merely a fraternal
solicitude for her reputation, which
induced them to give her employment
in the vineyards, in order to prevent
her meeting her beloved in the field.
*ANID 28 (2.g. DN TPRIB dx, Ewald, § 248),
134

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[cHAP. I.

For the sun hath browned me.

My mother’s sons were severe with me,
They made me keeper of their vineyards,
Though my own vineyard I never kept.—

is well explained by the Chald., Rashi,
Ibn Ezra, Rashbam, Immanuel, &c.,
van 5x, do not disdain me. 7), to see,
is also used for looking down upon any
one, Job. xli. 26. Instead of 1277, four
of Kennicott’s MSS.,two of De Rossi’s,
and two more, originally read ’1"Yn,
Jear me not, which is adopted by
Déderlein; but the reading of the re-
ceived text is both more supported,
and suits the connexion better; for it
can hardly be possible that the damsel
was actually so black as to inspire
terror; or that the court ladies were
so highly nervous as to be so easily
frightened. | Hodgson’s rendering,
mind me not,is incorrect. The v in 2x,
stands for vx, the 8 being rejected by
aphaeresis, and the > assimilated ;
Gesen. § 36. 178, blackish ; adjectives
denoting colour have frequently the
last two stem letters repeated to ren-
der them diminutives; as D797, red-
dish, Lev. xiii. 19; PRY, greenish,
Lev. xiii. 49. So Rashi, Ibn Erza,
Rashbam, Immanuel, Gesen. § 84.
23; Ewald, § 157 ¢. Ar, cg. FM, to
scorch, to burn, Gen. xxiii.17; xli.6. So
the Syriac, Aquila, Theodotion, Ewald,
Gesenius, Meier, Hitzig, &c. The
sand 7 frequently interchange, com-
pare Y12 and 73, to cut down; and are
even found to do so by the same in-
spired writer; compare 1973, Job. vi.
17, with 2201), xvii. 1. "9823, not step-
brothers, (Houbigant, Ewald, Good,)
who would not have such power over
their sister, but poetically used for ‘nx,
my brothers. Comp. Gen. xxvii. 20;
Ps, 1. 20; lxix. 9. 4m is the Niphal
of 7, to burn, (comp. Ps. cii. 4;
Gesen. § 6, 7, 8, Rem. 5; Ewald,
§ 140 a. § 193 ¢.), and not from mo
(Kimchi, Ibn Ezra, Immanuel, &c.)
which would be 173, Is. xli. 11.
Though my own vineyard, &e.
The word ‘73, is either taken to
denote the Shulamite’s personal ap-

pearance, or to mean her beloved: and
the phrase is explained, “ Through
the constant watch which my bro-
thers made me keep over their vine-
yard, I could not take care of (219)
my complexion ; or could not attend
‘to (PE) my beloved.” But it is a
hazardous mode of interpretation to
take an expression in the same verse
in an ordinary and in an extraordinary
sense, which ought never to be done
unless required by absolute necessity,
which is not the case here. Dr. Good
indeed escapes this imconsistency by
assigning a spiritual meaning to 0),
(viz. personal estate, one’s own per-
son) in both clauses; and he submits
that ‘the bride asserts that she had
been compelled to neglect her own
person, through the perpetualattention
which was demanded of her by her
brothers or sisters in decorating them-
selves, or in assisting in their con-
cerns.” But apart from the unneces-
sary and unjustifiable deviation from
the literal meaning, this interpretation
is entirely at variance with the con-
text. For in the words, “They have
made me keeper of their vineyards,”
the Shulamite evidently means to ex-
plain how she came to be exposed to
the tanning sun. Whereas, the sup-
position of her perpetual attention to
the adornment of her brothers, fails
to account for the brown complexion.
If however, with Ibn Ezra, we take
these words to explain the severity of
her brothers, everything will be plain
and unforced. The damsel says, “ My
brothers were so angry—so severe
with me that, resolved to carry out
their purpose, they made me keep
their vineyards, 273 1px mM OP AYN
‘m2 8) ow, a thing which I had never
done before, even to my own vineyard.
It is utterly inconceivable how those
who maintain that this Song cele-
brates the marriage of Solomon with
CHAP. 1.]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

135

7 Tell me, O thou whom my soul loveth,
Where thou feedest thy flock,
Where thou causest it to lie down at noon,

Lest I should be roaming

Among the flocks of thy companions.

the daughter of Pharaoh can reconcile
it with the facts that the damsel’s dark
complexion is here described as adven-
titious ; whereas the Egyptians, even
of the highest and most secluded
classes, are naturally dark, and that
she has been made Keeper of the vine-
yards, which would ill agree with an
prince’s daughter. 0)? is most probably
derived from 773 = ‘3, to dig, hence a
garden cultivated by means of axes and
spades in contradistinction to fields
worked with ploughs and harrows.
(Compare Saalschiitz, Archiologie der
Hebraér, vol. i. p. 119.) For the
term. D-- vide supra, p. 131. 2¥, ig.
% wr is used emphatically after 072,
to mark the contrast, and not, as
Houbigant erroneously supposes, in
the sense of wa, tranquillé, mine own
vineyard I kept not quietly.

7. Tellme, O thou, &e. Having re-
pelled the disdainful looks of the court
ladies, the Shulamite now resumes her
address to her beloved; so that this
verse is intimately connected with the
fourth; and verses five and six are, as
it were, parenthetical. Is it not sur-
prising that some can read this verse,
and yet believe that the king was the
object of the damsel’s attachment,
when this shows so clearly that it was
a shepherd? The violent heat of noon-
day compels people in the East to
desist from labour, and recline in some
cool part of the house (2 Sam. iv. 5).
Shepherds especially, being more ex-
posed to the burning rays of the sun,
lead their flocks under some shady tree
near wells and streams. (Gen. xxix. 7;
Ps. xxiii.; Isa. xix. 10.) We have
beautiful descriptions of the same cus-
tom by Greeks and Romans. Thus
Virgil, Georg. iii. 331—

Aestibus at mediis umbrosam exquirere vallem,
Sicubi magna Jovis antiquo robore quercus

Ingentis tendat ramos, aut sicubi nigrum
llicibus crebris sacra nemus adcubet umbra,

*

“When noon-tide flames, down cool seques-
ter’d glades,

Lead where some giant oak the dell o’ershades,

Or where the gloom of many an ilex throws

The sacred darkness that invites repose.”

Compare also Theocritus, i. 14, 15: vi.
1, 16, 38, 39. 2" prop. how, but
also of place, where, 2 Kings xvi. 13.

Y Twenty-eight MSS. of Kenn. and

De Rossi, read 12's), but this weak-
ens the sentence. We must supply
"aN after Myjn, and o— after pina,
see Ezek. xxxiv. 15. Immanuel
accounts for the dual, D-7z, because
Oy Da Nox 7252 DT mer by Nd Spi DwiT Tw
amy py DY pom mynd anp ov pot
mz, it speaks of that part of the da

immediately preceding noon as wall
as of that part which immediately fol-
lows noon. TY, 7.g.729 Wx, Dan. i. 10,
ut ne, wellrendered by the Sept. pnmore,
Vulg. ne. Wy is used as a conjunction,
the 9 to express design, or purpose,
and 19 for negation, Ewald, § 337, 6.
mors has caused much perplexity to in-
terpreters. It is explained to mean like
one veiled (as mepiBdddopunrn, Sept.),
as asign of mourning (Rashi, compare
2 Sam. xv. 30; xix. 5); of harlotry
(Rosenmiiller, comp. xxviii. 5); of
shame (Umbreit, Hengstenberg, comp.
Jer. xiv. 3; Mal. iii. 7); and of
wandering or roaming (Philippson,
comp. Jer. xliii. 12). But where-
ever covering is used to signify mourn-
tng or shame, the part of the body
usually covered, in order to indicate
the existence of the emotion, is in-
variably stated. Equally untenable
is the rendering of harlot ; for Tamar
covered her face, not as a sign that
she was a prostitute, but to disguise
herself, so that she might not be re-
cognised, and Judah took her to be a
harlot because she sat by the way side,
Comp. Jer. iii. 2. Ewald renders it
like one unknown; but this, to say
the least, is remote from the context;
136

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[cHap. I.

DAUGHTERS OF JERUSALEM.
8 If thou knowest not, O fairest among women,
Go in the footsteps of the flocks,

And feed thy kids

By the tents of the shepherds.

SOLOMON.
9 To my steed in the chariot of Pharaoh
Do I compare thee, O my love.

Gesenius, like one fainting; but this
incurs the same objection. The ex-
planation of Philippson would have
been the most plausible, if Rashbam
and the anonymous MS. had not
shown that 7» itself means to roam,
to wander, by referring to Isa. xxii. 17,
where, according to its parallel, 9, to
cast down, it must signify to roll about.
This meaning bests suits the context
here, and is confirmed by Symach.,
Vulg., Syriac, Chald.

8. If thou knowest not. The court
ladies, hearing the rustic girl say
that she wished to be with her shep-
herd, tell her ironically to go, and
be employed in the low and toilsome
occupation of a shepherdess, rather
than enjoy the exalted and easy life
of a royal favourite. Some have put
this answer into the mouth of the
beloved ; but it is evident from v. 9,
and vi. 1, the only two places where the
appellation “fairest of women” occurs,
that it is the reply of the court ladies,
which even Dépke, Good and Noyes,
the defenders of the fragmentary
theory, admit. Nothing can be more
plain and incontrovertible than the
statement in this verse, that the damsel
is a shepherdess, and the beloved a
shepherd, whom, she is told, she would
find among his fellow-shepherds. It
is for those who maintain the theory
that this Song celebrates the marriage
of Solomon with the daughter of Pha-
raoh, or some other prince’s daughter,
to get over this fact. »7N) is un-
necessarily and incorrectly rendered
by Ewald, Meier, Hitzig, &c., unwise.
The Sept., which is followed by Luther,
mistaking the usage of 1), translates

this clause dav yy yy@v ceavrny, as if
the original were Wp NN (YIN XN? DR,
The prepo. 3 in D2 gives to 757 the
force of the superlative. Besides the
several modes of expressing the su-
perlative adduced by Gesenius, § 119,
2, this degree is sometimes also ex-
pressed by the positive and the prepo.
1 prefixed to the noun designating
the class to which the person or thing
compared belongs: thus 203 977 ‘Bbx,
my family is the weakest in Manasseh,
Judg. xvi. 5; Prov. xxx. 30, comp.
also etAoynpery ov ev yuvackiv, thou art
the most blessed of women, Luke i. 28,
Ewald, § 313 c.

9. To my steed, &c. The court-.
ladies having turned from her and
told her to go back to her menial em-
ployment, her severest trial begins.
The king, having watched his oppor-
tunity, enters at that moment, and
thus begins his flattering address.
He first praises her beauty and grace-
fulness by comparing her to his stately
and noble chariot steed. The anony-
mous MS. commentary rightly re-
marks, xv wx MIMD Mow dyn) aw
DMM DMw AAD 2992 NOW) PMD 7d oN
DYDID NWN NY NIT TY Vw pw), that
this simile was suggested by the re-
ference which the damsel has made in
the preceding verse to her dark com-
plexion. The king, therefore, com-
pares her to his noble steed, whose
dark colour renders it more beautiful
than the other horses. Such a com-
parison must have been very striking
and flattering in the East, where this
animal was so much celebrated for
its preeminent beauty. “A young
chestnut mare,” says Layard, Nine-
CHAP. I.]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

’

137

10 Beautiful is thy countenance in the circlet,

Thy neck in the necklace !

11 A golden circlet will we make thee,

With studs of silver.

veh, i. 91, “belonging to the sheik, was
one of the most beautiful creatures I
ever beheld. As she struggled to free
herself from the spear to which she
was tied, she showed the lightness
and elegance of the gazelle. Her
limbs were in perfect symmetry ; her
ears long, slender, and transparent;
her nostrils high, dilated and deep
red, her neck gracefully arched ; and
her mane and texture of silk. . . . No
one can look at the horses of the early
Assyrian sculptures without being
convinced that they were drawn from
the finest models.” Compare also the
exquisite and inimitable description of
this noble animal in Job xxxix. 19, &e.
and Rosenmiiller, Orient. iv. 941. The
same comparison is used by the Greek
and Roman poets. Thus Theocritus,
Idyl. xviii. 30, 31 :—

i Kamm KuTapiscos  Appatt Oercands immos,
ade Kai & poddxpas ‘EXéva Aakedatpov Kdcpos.

“ As towers the cypress mid the garden’s bloom,
‘As in the chariot proud Thessalion steed,
Thus graceful rose-complexion’d Helen moves.”

Compare also Horace, Ode iii. 11. This
shows the futility both of those who
affirm that the strangeness of the
simile is against the literal meaning of
this Song, and of those who accuse the
writer of uncouthness. Besides, is
this comparison more strange or un-
couth than that of a man with a bony
ass? (Gen. xlix. 14.) Mark also the
other comparison used in the same
chapter, such as of an ox, serpent, &c.
7D is not equitatus, (Vulg. Rashi,
Rashbam, English Version,) but as
Ibn Erza and Immanuel rightly
remark, DID nap3, mare, the regular
feminine of d1, The > in ’np10) is the
suffix of the first person, as the ancient
versions have it; and refers to a well-
known and celebrated mare which
Solomon possessed and highly prized,
and which he always put into one of
Pharaoh’s chariots. 7p 12293, one of

Pharaoh’s chariots, like 1p93 "1va, one of
the cities of Gilead. Judg. xii, 7.

10, 11. Beautiful is thy counte-
nance, &c. ‘The flattering praises are
followed by enticing promises. ‘ Thou
art indeed beautiful,” says the tempt-
ing king, “even in humble ornaments,
but thou shalt have more costly adorn-
ments, which will show off thy beauty
to greater advantage.” ‘The mention
of the noble steed which was adorned
with costly trappings, contributing so
much to its stately and elegant ap-
pearance, naturally suggested the
reference here made to the damsel’s
ornaments. The reader will not fail
to observe that it is not the shepherd,
but the king who is speaking in verses
9—11. The poor shepherd had no
prancing steed, no Egyptian chariots ;
he could not promise the shepherdess
such costly ornaments as are here de-
scribed. onin (from WM, to go round,
hence Wn, something round, a circle,
Esth. ii. 12, 15,) small rings or beads
strung upon threads, worn as a head-
dress. It is customary in the East
for women to wear strings of beads
hanging down from the temples over
the cheeks. Rosenmiiller, Orient. iv.
942. Niebuhr, Reise nach Arab. i.
163, orn), cheeks (dual of 72), by a
synecdoche for the whole face. WIT
(from 14, to pierce, to perforate), little
perforated balls, or beads strung upon
a thread and worn around the neck;
tg. @ necklace. OM and oT are
plurals, because the circlet and neck-
lace consisted of many composite
parts. Whether the circlet was of
gold or brass, or whether the necklace
consisted of real pearls, corals, or steel,
the etymology of the words does not
at all intimate. The context alone
must decide this. The fact that the
Shulamite was a humble rustic girl,
and that Solomon promises to present
to her a golden circlet with silver studs,
proves that they were of a common

T
.

138

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[cuar. 1.

THE SHULAMITE.
12 While the king is at his table

My nard shall diffuse its fragrance.

18 A bag of myrrh resting in my bosom

description. This is another proof
that the bride was not a prince’s
daughter; since her ornaments were
not even of gold or silver, notwith-
standing the impassionate desire of
Eastern ladies for costly adornments.
The Sept. and Vulg. have ws rpuyédves,
z.e. “ thy neck is as beautiful as doves,
onim?; they have also om, like a
necklace ; but they have evidently mis-
taken the 2 for 2, as well as the mean-
ing of “in.

12. While the king is at his table.
Here we see how signally the first at-
tempt of Solomon failed to win the
affections of the Shulamite. For no
sooner did he go to his repast than
the damsel indulges in sweet ex-
pressions of love with her beloved
shepherd. Two distinct persons are
here spoken cf; the king at the table,
and a beloved shepherd, called “ nard.”
That by the expression °™, my nard,
the Shulamite means her beloved is
evident from the following verse,
where, led on by the figure of this
odorous plant, she continues to call
him by the fragrant names, “ bag of
myrrh,” “bunch of cypress flowers,”
&e. ww, as long as, while, Sept. gas,
Vulg. dum. 309 (from 19 to sit round
a table, to recline. 1Sam. xvi.11,comp.
Sept., Chald., Syriac, Arabic, Vulg. in
loco,) seats set round, couches set in a
circle, for reclining at the repast,
according to the Oriental custom, (see
Rosenmiiller, Orient. iii. 631;) so the
Sept dvaxdiots. Vulg. accubitus, Rash-
bam, Tnwon MIN MYoMA, Zn the couch
at the partaking of the repast; and
comp. Ps. exxvili. 8. The reading of
y001, tn aulaco, tentorio, instead of
12093, proposed by Houbigant, is both
needless and unauthorized. 1), spike-
nard or nard, vapdos, is the Valeriana
Jatamanst, a plant peculiar to Hither
India. It was obtained from India by
way of Arabia and Southern Asia.
The perfume extracted from if was

highly prized. Thus we are told
(Mark xiv. 31), when the Saviour sat
at meat in Bethany, “there came a
woman having an alabaster box of
ointment of spikenard very precious,
and she broke the box, and poured it
upon his head,” (comp also John xii.
31,) which Judas, the betrayer, esti-
mated at three hundred pence, about
eight pounds ten shillings. The
Romans considered this perfume so
precious that Horace promises Virgil
a whole cadus, about nine gallons, of
wine for a small onyx-box full of
spikenard. See Pliny, Hist. Nat. xili.2;
Sir W. Jones, Asiatic Researches, vol. ii.
. 416; Rosenmiiller, Mineralogy
and Botany of the Bible, p.166; Kitto,
Cyclop. Bib. Lit.; Winer, Bib. Dict.s. v.
13. A bag of myrrh, &e. This
appellation is a continuation of the
figurative expression “ nard,” under
which the Shulamite described her
beloved in the preceding verse. The
Hebrew women were in the habit of
wearing little bags or bottles filled
with perfumes, especially with myrrh,
suspended from the neck, and hanging
down between their breasts, under
the dress. Comp. Mishna, Sabbath vi.
3; Schroeder de Vestit. Mulier. p. 155;
Hartmann, Hebr. ii. 235. The Shula-
mite says that her beloved is to her
what this delightful perfume is to
others; having him she did not require
any other fragrance. 3 (from V3, to
tie up, to close), is a leather smelling-
bag or bottle, i. q. 822 ma, tied up, or
closed at the top. 5, cpipva, pvppa,
Balsamodendron myrrha, (from 79, to

flow,) myrrh, so called from its flowing

down, is a perfume obtained from a
shrub growing in Arabia, and much
more profusely in ,Abyssinia. It
formed an article of earliest commerce,
was highly prized by the ancients, and
is still much esteemed both in the
Fast and in Europe. This aromatic
liquid either exudes spontaneously
CHAP. I.] THE SONG

Is my beloved unto me.

OF SONGS. 139

14 A bunch of cypress-flowers from the garden of En-gedi

Is my beloved unto me.

THE SHEPHERD.
15 Behold, thou art beautiful, my love;

from cracks in the bark, and is called
AD IW, WT NN, stilvetdious or profluent
myrrh (vide infra, v. 5; Exod. xxx. 23),
and on that account is esteemed su-
perior; or is elicited artificially by
bruises or incisions made with stones,
and is therefore regarded as inferior.
It was used for incense (Exod. xxx.
23). for perfuming dresses (Ps. xlv. 9),
and couches (Prov. vii. 17), for the
purification of women (Esth. ii. 12), for
embalming dead bodies (John xix.
39), and was worn by women in the
bosom. See Pliny, lib. xii. cap. 35;
Rosenmiiller, Altherth. iv. 1, 159;
Winer, Bib. Dict.; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib.
Lit. s. v. yo T8472, is a relative clause,
with wx implied (See Gesen. § 123,
3; Ewald, § 332), and refers to 197 YW.
This is evident from "2 py 2723, which
refers to 7697 55¥x; comp. also iv. 4.
The verb }9? is not here, “ lie all night,”
but to abide, to rest, like Job xix. 4,
onan pon mR, where even the Autho-
rized Version has “mine error remain-
eth with myself.” Ps. xlix. 13.

14. A bunch of cypress flowers,
&c. ba is unanimously regarded by
the ancient versions and the Rabbins
to denote the plant called ximpos by the
Greek, and Al-henna by the Arabs.
This plant, which grows in many
places, both in Palestine and Egypt,
(Plin. Hist. Nat. xii. 24,) is a tall
shrub, growing from the height of
eight to ten feet; it is exceedingly
beautiful and odoriferous. “ The dark
colour of its bark, the light green of
its foliage, the softened mixture of
white and yellow, with which the
flowers, collected into long clusters
like the lilac, are coloured, the red
tint of the ramifications which support
them,—form a combination the effect
of which is highly agreeable. The flow-
ers, whose shades are so delicate, diffuse
around the most grateful odours,
and embalm with their strong fra-

grance the gardens in which they grow,
and the apartments which they beau-
tify... . The women take pleasure
in adorning their persons and apart-
ments with those delightful blossoms.”
See Pliny, lib. xii.c. 14; Rosenmiiller,
Bib.Miner. and Bot.; Winer, Bib. Dict.;
Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s.v. The
flowers growin dense clusters, whence
Bait ae, cluster of cypress flowers.
En-gedi, more anciently called Haze-
zon-Tamar, which modern explorers
identify with the present Ain-Jidy,
abounded with the best of those
delightful shrubs, (Winer, Bib. Dict.;
Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s. v.; Robinson,
Palest. ii. 209—216.) Hence this
beautiful appellation, “a bunch of
eypress flowers,” than which nothing
could be more expressive of sweetness
and beauty to an Oriental. The word
2ay is most probably derived from 7x,
to bind, to twine together ; hence TY, a
bundle, a string, with the addition of
5_ like P22, 5517, Gesen. § 30, 3;
Ewald, § 163 f. This is confirmed by
the Talm. n?iD¥x, disciples, (Sota 47, a),
t. e. a combination of youths; comp.
nay, and First, Lexicon, s.v. 072 here
is a field cultivated as a garden ; comp.
mop, an olive-yard. Judg. xv. 6;
Job xxiv. 18, and supra, ver. 6.

15. Behold, thou art beautiful. That
is, “It isnot I who possess such attrac-
tion, it is thou who art beautiful, yea
superlatively beautiful!” The repe-
tition of 1 727 enhances the idea.
“Thine eyes are doves,” i.e. “Thine
eyes, in which ‘the rapt soul is sitting,’
beams forth the purity and constancy
of the dove.” As the eye is the inlet
of ideas to the mind, so it is also the
outlet of inward feelings. Thus it
expresses many of the passions, such
as pity, mildness, humility, anger,
envy, pride, &c.; hence the phrases
nw pr (which we also have), to look
with an eye of compassion, Prov. xxii.
140

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[cHaP. I.

Behold, thou art beautiful,

Thine eyes are doves.

THE SHULAMITE.
16 Behold, thou art comely, my beloved,

Yea thou art lovely;

Yea, verdant is our couch ;
17 Our bower is of cedar arches,

9; DIPY, dPOarpss wovnpds, an evil eye,
Deut. xv. 9, Mark vii. 22. The dove
is the emblem of purity and constancy.
Ps. lvi. 1; Matt. x. 16. m2 pry are
taken by the Syriac, Vulg., Ibn Ezra,
Rashbam, Immanuel, Luther, Autho-
rized Version, Kleuker, Percy, Gese-
nius, Dépke, Rosenmiiller, Meier, &c.as
an ellipsis for DW 2yP PYY, thine eyes
are doves’ eyes. Gesen. § 144, Rem.
Ewald, § 296, b. But such an ellipsis
can be tolerated only in extreme emer-
gencies, whereas here the natural
construction yields an excellent sense.
Besides, v. 2 proves that the doves
themselves, and not the eyes, are the
point of comparison, just as the hair
and the teeth are (iv. 1, 2) compared
‘to the goats and sheep themselves,
and not merely to their hair and teeth.
And mio pry (vii. 4), which does not
mean, thou hast fish-ponds eyes, but,
thine eyes are like the fish-ponds them-
selves. Hence the Sept., Chald., Rashi,
Mendelssohn, Hodgson, Ewald, Um-
breit, Magnus, Williams, Hengsten-
berg, Phillipson, Hitzig, rightly reject
this elliptical construction.

16. Behold, thou art comely. The
Shulamite, refusing to receive all the
praise, responds: ‘“ It is thow who art
lovely and attractive ;” and referring
totheir meeting-spot, she adds,“ Lovely
is our flowery couch; the arches of our
bowers are formed of the spreading
and interweaving branches of the
majestic and odoriferous cedars and
cypresses.” 092 is to be mentally
supplied before 722) 1287; comp. Prov.
iii. 11, i.e. Yea, lovely is our verdant
couch. ‘he adj. 722”) is formed from
the Pilel of the verb. jy}. This con-
jugation, which is formed by doubling
the third radical (see supra, 5), is used
to describe permanent states or con-

ditions, or some striking property ;
comp. Job xii. 5; Gesen. § 55, 2;
Ewald, §120 a. mip, beam, roof (Gen.
xix. 8), here arch, vault. ON, ig.
wn in the n> (the 7 is sometimes
pronounced harshly like the 7, comp.
wom, Exod. ii. 16, where the Samaritan
has ©'79, and Gesen. § 7, 4), is rendered
by the Sept., Vulg.,Ewald,Gesenius, &c.
Sretted ceilings ; by Kimchi galleries ;
and the anonymous manuscript ex-
plains it. bolt, and adds, sy 73m
MM AIT pworpy wn, “2 ts called bolt
because it runs backward and for-
ward.” But this is not in keeping
with the structure of the verse. 30"
stands evidently in parallelism with
vm, and accordingly is of a similar
import. Rashbam has _ therefore
rightly rendered it maT ‘p22 1MN, one
of the apartments of the house. As
however the house here described is
a bower, ©) would be an arbour. The
etymology of the word is in keeping
with this sense. 0m, zg. DIN=YN, to
run, to flow, hence 87, 1. a gutter, from
the water running down, Gen. xxx. 38;
2. a.curl, from its flowing down (vide
infra, vii. 6), and 3. om, a place
upon which one runs, a charming spot
much frequented ; just like py, a place
where people run, a street, from pw, to
run. Itisnow pretty generally agreed
that ni2, the Aram. for wina, is not the
Jir, but the cypress. It is quite natural
that this lofty tree, which grows to @
height of from fifty to sixty feet, of so
hard and durable a nature, and so
highly esteemed among the ancients,
(Virg.Georg. ii. 443,) should be placed
together with the majestic cedar.
Comp. Sirach, xxiv. 13; Virg. Georg.
ii.44; Winer, Bib. Dict. ; Rosenmiiller,
Bib. Miner. and Bot. p. 260; Kitto,
Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s. v.
CHAP. It.]

THE SONG OF SONGS,

141

Our retreat of cypress roof:

Cuap. II. 1 I ama mere flower

A lily of the valley.

of the plain,

THE SHEPHERD.
2 As a lily among the thorns,

So is my loved one

among the damsels.

THE SHULAMITE.
3 As an apple-tree among the wild trees,
So is my beloved among the youths.

1. Tama mere flower of the plain.
“ As for me,” the Shulamite modestly
insinuates, “my beauty is not peculiar,
but is of an ordinary character, like
these flowers which are found in great
profusion in the plain and in the
valley. The word nz3n, which oc-
curs only once more (Isa. xxxv. 1), is
variously explained. The ancient
versions vary in their rendering of it.
Thus the Sept. and Vulg. have here
av6os, flos, flower; the Chald., diy,
nareissus; so Saadias: whereas in
Isa. the Sept., Vulg., Chald., render it
lily. Modern critics are no less divided.
Kimchi, Ibn Ezra, &c., explain it rose ;
Michaelis, Ewald, Gesenius, Dépke,
Henderson, Meier, &c., take it to be au-
tumn crocus, colchicum autumnale ; De
Wette, Rosenmiiller,Royle, Winer, &c.,
narcissus ; Professor Lee, lily. The
etymology of the word is likewise
disputed. Some derive it from x3,
a bulb, with nm prefixed, as 1 like
x is sometimes put before triliterals,
in order to form a quadriliteral,
(Gesenius, Lehrg. p. 863, Rosen-
miller, Henderson, Hengstenberg,
&c.,) and others take it as a compound
of yaa and %y3, acrid bulb. (Ewald,
Heiligstedt, &e.) The most probable
derivation, however, seems to be
yan=ynt, to be bright, to shine ; hence
sya (with the termination >> like
"BID “Dp), a flower; as most verbs
which signify shining are used also
to denote verdure and bloom. Compare
132, « flower, from Y¥2, to shine; and
Simonis Arcanum Forarum, p. 352.
The word }\7W (for 0w, like tid for TD,

from 1, to be straight, plain, with
the termination }i-, comp. Gesen.
§ 84, 15), is here best translated a
plain, or field; so the Sept., Vulg.,
Percy, &c. render jin npyan, a flower
of the field; and this admirably suits
the opoyn niwiw, lily of the valley—a
flower common in the valley.

2. As a lily among the thorns.
Beautifully and ingeniously does the
shepherd take up this humble figure of
the Shulamite, and, by a happy turn,
make it symbolical of’ her surpassing
beauty. “It is true, that thou art
a lily, but as a lily surrounded by
a multitude of brambles; so thou
appearest among all the damsels.”
The expressions }2 and na are not
merely used for son and daughter, but
also, idiomatically, denote Jad and
lass, youth and damsel. Gen. xxx. 13;
Judg. xii. 9; Prov. vii. 7.

8. As an apple-tree, &c. The
Shulamite returns the compliment:
“ As the charming apple-tree, covered
with beaatifully tinged and sweetly
smelling fruit, appears amidst the
wild and barren trees, so doest thou,
my beloved, look among the youths.
I delight,” continues the Shulamite,
“to repose beneath the shady tree,
because of its charming fruit.” The
comparison between the delight
which she had in the company of her
beloved, and the agreeable enjoyment
which a shady tree affords, will
especially be appreciated by those
who have travelled in the East, and
had the opportunity of exchanging,
in the heat of the day, their close
112

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[cHaP. II.

I delight to sit beneath its shade,
For delicious is its fruit to my taste.
4 He led me into that bower of delight,
And overshaded me with love.
5 Oh, strengthen me with grape-cakes,

tents for an airy and fragrant bower.
Comp. Gen. xviii. 4,8; 1 Sam. xxii.
6; Rosenm. Morgenl. i. 49; iii. 528.
mpn is taken by the Chald. for
xmny, citron; by Rosenmiiller and
others, for guince. The expression
occurs only six times in the Scrip-
tures; four times in this book (be-
sides the present instance, see also
ii. 5; vii. 9; viii. 5); once in Proy.
xxv. 11; and once in Joeli. 12. It is
used in three passages out of the six
for the tree itself, and in the other
three for its fruit. But in all these
places the common  apple-tree or
apple is quite in keeping with the
context, and the etymology of the
word, viz., 73, to breathe, to breathe
sweetly; hence men, from its fra-
grant breath, is an appropriate de-
scription of the common apple in
Syria (Ovid. Met. viii. 675), and, in-
deed, in all other countrics. It is
evident from proper names (Josh. xii.
17; xvi. 8), that this tree was much
cultivated in Palestine at a very early
period. In the Talmud we frequently
meet mpm, used to denote the common
apple. It is worthy of notice that, the
shepherd calls his beloved 7218, fem.,
whilst she calls him Men, mas. The
second verb ‘N32 is subordinated to
the ‘Ayan, by means of the », and the
two words are well rendered by the
Chald. 19) non, J delight to sit; comp.
MRT OR TDS, how shall I endure
and witness, for how shall I endure
to witness, Esth. viii. 6. This sub-
ordination also occurs without the
1; comp. infra, vil. 8; viii. 2; Job x.
16; xix.3; Gesen. § 142. 3 a, b;
Ewald, § 286.

4. He led me, &e. Waving repre-
sented her beloved, in the preceding
verse, as a tree, forming with its
widely-spread branches and rich
foliage a shady bower, in which she
delighted to repose and enjoy its de-

licious fruit, the Shulamite here nar-
rates, in the same metaphorical
language, how he took her into that
bower of delight, that arbour of love.
The words py1™2 mean -bower of
delight, wine being frequently used
in this book for delight; and are but
a designation of the manifestations of
love denoted in the preceding verse
by mon, delicious apple-tree. So also
the word 52, from 523, ¢o cover,
retaining here its primary mean-
ing, cover, shade, corresponds to 3,
shade, in the last verse. The Sept.,
Sym., Syriac, Arab., which are fol-
lowed by many moderns, read
‘wig, and 7, bring me, and cover
me, imper., arising most likely from
a wish to produce uniformity in this
and the following verses.

5. Oh, strengthen me, &e. The re-
hearsal of their past union and
enjoyment kindled the Shulamite’s
affections, and made her wish again
for that delicious fruit, 7. v. the tokens
of his love. The cakes here men-
tioned were held in high estimation in
the East; here, however, both the cakes
and the apples are to be taken figura-
tively as expressions of love. This is
obvious from the preceding verse, and
from the words, “ for I am sick with
love,” for no real cake or apple could
cure a heart suffering from this com-
plaint. Tw ex (from tty, to burn, to fires
hence tx, fire, like Ox, mother, trom
DOK, to jown, to unite), something made
by fire, a sort of sweet cuke prepared
with fire, and is most probably the
same which in Hos. iii. 1 is written
more fully Darwedty, grape-cakes.
The meaning, cake, is retained in the
Sept. in all the passages (except Isa.
xvi. 7, where the Sept. reads ‘3x, in-
stead of ‘wx, see the parallel place,
Jcr. xlviii. 31), where this word occurs.
Thus Adyavoy aré tyydvou, a cake from
the frying-pan, 2 Sam. vi. 19; and in
CHAP. 11.]

Refresh me with apples,

THE SONG OF SONGS.

143

For I am sick with love!

6 Let his left hand be under my head,
And his right hand support me!

7 I adjure you, O ye daughters of Jerusalem,
By the gazelles, or the hinds of the field,

the parallel passage, 1 Chron. xvi. 3,
dyoptrns, a sweet cake; in Hos. iii. 1,
rréppa, a baked cake ; and dudpars, sweet
cakes, in the passage before us. This
meaning is supported by the Chald.
on Exod. xvi. 31, where pwwr is used
for the Hebrew mrrey, and Mishna Ne-
darim, vi. 10. Gesenius, Hitzig, Hen-
derson, First, &c., derive it from wwx,
to press, to compress, whence, they say,
mtx, a cake made of dried grapes
pressed together, and ix, a founda-
tion (Isa. xvi. 7), which is pressed
down by treading on it. But as the
transition from cake to foundation is
not so easily conceived, and especially
as the meaning fo press, attached to
wey, is nowhere to be found in He-
brew (the word in Isa. xvi. 7 is to be
translated ‘cake,. see Hengstenberg,
Christ. i. p. 315), it is far better to
derive this word as above from wwx, fo
burn. The Rabbinical explanation,
wont NTR, flagons of wine, which
the Authorized Version follows, is not
borne out by the etymology, nor does
it suit the passages in which this word
occurs, and is therefore rightly aban-
doned by modern lexicographers. The
rendering of Hodgson, ‘“ Support me
with cups, around me stréw apples ;”
and that of Michaelis, “ Support me
with verdant herbs, spread fragrant
fruits ugder me,” are contrary to the
meaning’ of the words.

6. Let his right hand, &e. The
pressure of the attempts to alienate
her affections from him whom her soul
loveth, and the burning desire to be
re-united with him, though well sus-
tained by her noble mind, yet over-
came her body; and whilst momenta-
rily sinking beneath the weight, the
Shulamite desires that no other hand
should raise her drooping head, no
other arm support her exhausted

frame than that of her beloved. This
verse is to be taken in the optative
mood. Comp. Ps. vii. 9; xlv. 2;
Ewald, § 329 a.

7. I adjure you, &e. Having
evinced her warm and undiminished
attachment to her beloved shepherd,
the Shulamite adjures the court ladies,
who, as we have seen, tried to gain her
affections for the king, by everything
dear and lovely, not to excite her love
for any one else till her own (7278) affec-
tions wish (781) for another object.
The gazelle, ‘2%, so called from the
beauty of its form, is an animal of the
antelope kind, of very graceful and
elegant figure, has very slender limbs,
large and soft eyes. The great admi-
ration in which this animal was held
in the East, made the Hebrews use it
as an emblem of everything beautiful
(Prov. v. 19); and from its being
charming and lovely, it also became
an object by which to swear. Such
adjurations are frequently used in the
East. Comp. Reland, de Religio Mah.
ii. p. 164: Rosenmiiller, Orient. i. 146;
vy. 22. Dio, in the Aineid, lib. iv.
314; Bochart, Hieroz. i. p. 899.
Dany, mas, for }2nx, fem. Both mas-
culine pronouns and verbs are some-
times used in reference to objects
which are feminine. See Gesenius,
§ 121, Rem. i. § 137, 1; Ewald, § 184-e.
bx, after formule of swearing, has the
effect of a negative particle (Isa. xxii.
14; Prov. xxvii. 14). This is owing
to a part of the oath being omitted.
Comp. 2 Sam. iii. 35; Gesen. § 155,
2f.; Ewald, § 356 a. wy, here, is not
to arouse, to wake from sleep (Gesen.),
but to rouse, to excite the passions,
affections; thusTw3 V7, he will arouse
his zeal, Isa. xlii. 13; Prov. x. 12.
The repetition of the same verb in the
Hiphil and Piel expresses intensity,
144

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[CHAP. II.

Neither to excite nor to incite my affection
Till it wishes another love.

Isa. xxix. 9; Zeph. ii. 1. 7208 is the
abstract, love, affection, iii. 10; vii. 7.
After yenmy supply wx 1. Similarly,
Rashbam. The Sept.strangely renders
yw mien ix minzea, éy duvduece kal
icxvoeor Tod dypov, by the powers and

scene, the first attempts, both on the
part of the king and the court ladies,
to win the Shulamite’s affections,
signally failed. The same formula
re-occurs iii. 6, and viii. 4, to mark, at
the end of the trials, her successful

virtues of the field.

Thus in this resistance.

SECTION II.
CHAPTER II. 8—III. 5.

Here we have a second scene, which is also in the royal tent. The speakers are

the Shulamite and the court ladics. The Shulamite, to account for the cause
of the severity of her brothers, mentioned in ii. 6, relates that her beloved
shepherd came one charming morning in the spring to invite her to the
fields (8—14) ; that her brothers, in order to prevent her from going, gave
her employment in the gardens (15); that she consoled herself with the
assurance that her beloved, though separated from her at that time, would
come again in the evening (16, 17) ; that seeing he did not come, she, under
difficult circumstances, ventured to seek him, and found him (ch. iii. 1—4),
Having narrated these events, and reiterated her ardent affection for her
beloved, she concludes as before, by adjuring the court ladies not to per-
suade her to change her love.

THE SHULAMITE.

8 Hark! my beloved!
Lo, he came
Leaping over the mountains,
Bounding over the hills.

8. Hark! my beloved! THaving footed gazelle, and presently he is

alluded in the preceding Section (i. 6)
to the ill-treatment which she had
received from her brothers, the Shu-
lamite now relates the cause of that
treatment. Thus whilst this narrative
forms the connecting link between
this and the preceding Section, it also
gradually acquaints us with her his-
tory. ‘The description given of the
arrival and conduct of her beloved is
very graphic and beautiful. She first
sees him at a distance, bounding over
tho hills with the speed of the swift-

found behind the wall, peepingthrough
the window, and imploring her in the
sweetest language imaginable to go
with him into the fields and enjoy the
beauties and charms of nature. 7 is
not W923 Yip, the sound of his feet (Ibn
Ezra, Hitzig), which could not be
heard at such a distance from the
mountains; nor the voice of his song
(Dopke, Philippson), for he could not
very well sing when running at such
a speed as here described; but simply
means hark! (Ewald, Magnus, Meier),
CHAP. II. ]

THE SONG OF SONGS,

145

9 My beloved was like a gazelle,
Or the young one of a hind.
Lo! there he stood behind our wall,
He looked through the window,
He glanced through the lattice.
10 My beloved spake, he spake to me,
“ Arise, my love, my fair one, and come !
11 For lo, the winter is past,
The rain is over, is gone.
12 The flowers appear upon the fields,

and is used in animated descriptions
to arrest attention, Ewald, § 286 f.

9 My beloved is like, &c. To de-
scribe the speed of his approach the
Shulamite compares him to the swift-
footed gazelle, and nimble fawn. This
comparison is also used in other parts
of Scripture. Thus Asahel is called
light-footed as a gazelle. 2 Sam. ii.
18; Prov. vi. 5; Hab. iii. 19. “The
Eastern buildings generally surround
asquare inner court; the beloved is
described as gradually making his ap-
proach, first to the wall, then looking
through the window.” Here is another
incontestable proof that the object of
the damsel’s affection, whom she de-
scribes as coming to her, is not the
king, but a shepherd, for the king
could not consistently be represented
as bounding over the hills. Though
‘=x has a feminine, 1x, which is used
in ver. 7, yet instead of its being here
ming pt, we have Dat: see also
Ps. xlii. 2. This is owing to the
neglect on the part of the writer to
avail himself of the forms established
by usage, Gesen. § 107, 1. Or it
may be that such names were still of
acommon gender, and the feminines
were only in the process of formation,
but not as yet fixedly established,
Ewald, § 175 b. 95 occurs only here,
but it is evident from Dan. v. 5, and
the Targum, Josh. ii. 15, where it
stands for the Hebrew ‘Pp, that it
means a wall forming a part of the
house. The Sept. has here 193 "17 °Y,
from ii. 17.

10,11. Artse, my love, &c. The Shu-

lamite introduces here her beloved as
speaking. He urges her to go, since
the rain is over, and everything with-
out is charming. 139 is idiomatically
used in reference even to the person
speaking first, without any antecedent
interrogation. (Deut. xxvi. 5; Isa. xiv.
10; xxi. 9.) ‘The meaning of the
word seems to be simply to ¢mpart
information, either asked for or not.
In the former case 72% obtains the
additional idea of a reply, whereas in
the latter it merely means to inform,
to tell, like dmoxpivoya in the New
Testament. Comp. dmoxpi6eis cire, Matt.
xvii. 4; Mark ix. 5. On the use of
the dative 72, see Gesen. § 164, 3 e.
Ewald, § 315 a. The dma. dey. 100
properly denotes the tointer=the rainy
season, at the end of which, viz. Feb-
ruary or March, the spring advances
with surpassing quickness; it ex-
cludes the autumn, and thus differs
from 474. The form 1nd (from 1n9, to
winter), is, according to the analogy of
wm 179. 1p, see First, Lexicon, under
wn. The Sept. has mistaken the
dative 72 for the imp, °2?, and adds
mv, my dove, after ‘nD, my beauty.
12. The flowers appear, &c. The
gradual development is exceedingly
beautiful; the description unfolds with
the season. After the graphic de-
lineation of the meadows strewed with
a profusion of variegated flowers ; of
the men in the fields, and the birds
hovering over them, joining to pour
forth a volume of various sounds; of
the delicious odour of the embalmed
fig, and fragrant vine, the beloved
U
146

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[CHAP. IL.

The time of singing is come,
The cooing of the turtle-dove is heard in our land.
18 The fig-tree sweetens her green figs,

The vines blossom,

They diffuse fragrance ;

Arise, my love, my fair one, and come !

exclaims: ‘Nature has prepared a
rich banquet; come, let us go and
enjoy it!” The Sept., Aquila,
Sym., Vulg., Chald., Rashbam, render
vast ny, by the season for the pruning
of vines : Gesenius defends this render-
ing, but against the usage of the word
war, and the connexion. Wherever
93 occurs, either in the singular (Isa.
xxv. 5), or plural (2 Sam. xxiii. 1;
Isa. xxiv. 16), it invariably means
song or stnging. Moreover, the paral-
lelism, and the whole of the descrip-
tion, demand that it should be rendered
sohere. All the pleasures and charms
here depicted are gratifications for the
senses, and are adduced by the beloved
as the invitation of nature to enjoy her
banquet ; whereas the pruning of the
vines would be a summons to engage
tn totl. Besides, the vine is mentioned
afterwards in its rotation (v. 13),
and it would mar the gradual pro-
gression of this minute description to
suppose that it has been _uselessly re-
peated. Hence it has been rightly
rendered singing by Rashi, Kimchi,
Ibn Ezra, Anonymous Oxford Manu-
script, Mendelssohn, Kleuker, Ewald,
Dépke, Rosenmiiller, De Wette, Mag-
nus, Hengstenberg, Philippson, First,
Meier, Hitzig, &c. The objection that
nt, singing, means the song of men,
is obviated by referring it here to the
season when doth man and bird begin
to sing. 9}, like other words of the
form 0}, expresses the t/me of the
action; comp. "DX, harvest ; properly
the time when the fruit is gathered.
wm, the time of ploughing. Gesen.
§ 84,5; Ewald, § 149 e.

Lhe cooing of ihe turtle, &c. The
turtle-dove is a migratory bird (Jer.
vii. 7; Arist. Ilist. Anim. viil. 3, 12, 16;
Pliny, Hist. Nat. x. 36; Winer, Bib.

Dict. ; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit.s. v.) ; it
resides in the winter farther south than
Palestine, and returns in the spring,
when its cooing voice in the woods an-
nounces the return of that season.

13. The fig-tree sweetens her green
Jigs. The word 27 is now rendered
by many commentators, according to
the example of Ibn Ezra, to sweeten, to
embalm, to spice; 7.e. the fig-tree
sweetens her fruit by filling it with
aromatic juice. This rendering is
confirmed by the use of tm, to
embalm (Gen. 1. 2, 26), which was
done with spices and aromatic plants
(2 Chron. xvi. 14; John xix. 40).
The Sept., Aquila., and Vulg. render
oi, puts forth, but this signification
cannot be deduced from the root.
Ewald, Magnus, Hitzig, have “ the
fig-tree reddens,” &c., but the verb is
not used in this sense in Hebrew.
28 (from 228 gnmature), an unripe fig,
Sept. drvvOos, Vulg. grossus ; so in the
Talmud and Ibn Erza, .w1mw mw»,
the fruit before tt ts ripe.

The vines blossom, &e. It is well
known that the blossoming vine smells
sweetly; comp. Pliny, Hist. Nat. xiv. 2.
aap DIN, lit. the eines are in blos-
som, ic. the vines blossom; so Sym.
olvdvOn, Vulg. florentes. Substantives
are frequently used in Hebrew in-
stead of adjectives to express proper-
ties; thus 12 THEM, the flax was
bolled. Exod. ix. 31; Ezra. x. 13.
This peculiarity is to be accounted for
by supposing either that the adjectives
were not as yet formed, or if formed
were still not currently used. Gesen. §
106, 1; Ewald, § 296 b. °>b stands for
723. comp. ver. 10; the’ has been oc-
casioned by the preceding form ™>%?,
and succeeding words ‘nN ‘my1, which
terminate in’. Thisis not unfrequently
CHAP. 11.]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

147

14 My dove in the clefts of the rock,
In the hiding-place of the cliff,
Let me see thy countenance,

Let me hear thy voice,
For sweet is thy voice,

And thy countenance lovely.”

THE BROTHERS OF THE SHULAMITE.
15 Catch us the foxes, the little foxes
Which destroy the vineyards,
For our vineyards are in bloom.

the case, see Job xix. 29; Eeel. viii.
17; Prov.viii. 35; Mich.i. 8. The Sept.
has here again °2) for 72, and ‘ny after
amp,

“14. My dove in the clefts, Se.
Having described the charming aspect
of nature, he repeated his invitation
to her to go with him into the fields.
Impatient at her apparent delay, the
beloved, whilst calling her by the en-
dearing epithet “dove,” delicately
ascribed to her the timorous character

_of that bird. Doves in the East make
their nests in the clefts of elevated
rocks and cliffs (Jer. xxviii. 28), which
they are exceedingly afraid to leave
when once frightened. Thus Homer,
liad, xxi. 493:

Aakpudecca 3 tabu Ved prinev, Sore TéAGLA,

“I 6d 8' bn’ ipnkos Koidny eioémraro mérpny,_
Xnpapov, ob 3’ &pa tH ye GAdpevar aioipov Hav.

‘As when the falcon wings her way above,
To the cleft cavern speeds the frighten’d dove,
Straight to her shelter thus the goddess flew.”

See also Virg. Ain. v. 213. ‘7 is the
plural construct. of 137 (from the root
mn, to make incisions in, to split or
perforate rocks); according to the
analogy of ‘1¥?, plural const. of 1? and
72, from 179, vide sup. ii. 11. 7272,
(from 393, cognate with PRE to ascend,)
a place reached by climbing or ascend-
ing, a steep, a precipice. The Mazora
marks the ’ in JxT2 as superflous,
evidently to avoid the apparent incon-
gruity between the adjective my),
which is in the singular, and the noun
Je, apparently plural. But the
here may be retained, and the word
may still be singular. For many
nouns from roots 1”) preserve in the

singular before a suffix the original °
of the root, and thus have the appear-
ance of the plural : e.g. 379, thy castle
(Isa. xxx.23), from 727: YR1D, the same
expression, Job xli.1; Gesen. § 93, 9;
Ewald, § 256 b.

15. Catch us the foxes, &c. The Shu-
lamite here quotes the words of her
brothers, who had overheard the in-
vitation. To prevent the meeting of
the lovers, the brothers gave the dam-
sel employment in the vineyard, to
catch and keep out the foxes. To this
she refers in i. 6, when, repelling the
disdainful looks of the court ladies,
and accounting for her brown com-
plexion, she mentions the severe treat-
ment of her brothers. Doyw, foxes, as
well as jackals, were very numerous
in Palestine (Judg. xv.4; Lam. v. 18;
Ps. lxiii. 11; Neh.iv. 3). There was
a district actually called °y1 yx, from
the abundance of these creatures,
1 Sam. xiii. 17. These animals are
gregarious, found in packs of two or
three hundred (Boch. Hieroz. lib. iii.
12), and are described, both by sacred
and profane writers, as destructive to
vineyards, Sam. i. 17, 18; and Theo-
critus, Idyl. v. 112:

Micéw tas dacuxépkos dAwmeKas, al Ta Mikwvos
Alei portéoat Ta ToOgoTeEpa payilovte.

“J hate those brush-tail’d foxes, that each night
Spoil Micon’s vineyards with their deadly bite :”
also Idyl. i. 47—50. The young
foxes are especially injurious to the
vineyards, because they burrow in
holes in the ground, Neh. iv. 3. The
brothers, in the last clause, assign a
reason for their proposal; the ) in
THE SONG OF SONGS.

[cuar. 1.

THE SHULAMITE.
16 My beloved is mine, and I am his,
His who feeds his flock among the lilies.

17 When the day cools,

And the shadows flee away,

Return, haste, O my beloved,

Like the gazelle or the young one of the hind,
Over the mountains of separation.

awn is therefore to be rendered for,
Gesen. § 155, 1 c. The Sept. inad-
yertently omits the word moym.

16. My beloved is mine, &c. The Shu-
lamite tells the court ladies how she
had consoled herself under these cir-
cumstances of separation: “Though
my brothers succeeded in separating
us bodily by assigning to me this post
of keeping the vineyards, yet our affec-
tions are inseparable; and though still
separated from me, my beloved is mine
and I am his; his who tends his flock
in the meadows abounding with
flowers.” It seems as if the words, “he
who feeds his flock among the lilies,”
were designedly added, whenever the
damsel speaks of her beloved, to show
unmistakably that he was a shepherd.
How such passages can be recon-
ciled with the supposition that the
king is the object of the maiden’s at-
tachment, or, according to others, that
the maiden is the daughter of Pharaoh,
is difficult to divine.

17. When the day cools, &e. She also
relates how she had comforted her be-
loved, telling him that this state of
separation would not last long ; that he
must come in the evening, when un-
observed, with the same swift-footed
speed as he came in the morning.
DPT MDD IY, 2. g. DPT IM MEY IW, when
the day breeze blows, %. e. in the even-
ing, shortly before sunset, when a
gentle and cooling breeze blows in the
East (see Pliny, Hist. Nat. ii. 47);
hence DTT, Gen. iii. 8, opposed to
Diy DIT, xviii. 1. That this is the sense
of DT mb, and not day-break (Eng-
lish Ver.), or morning-breath (eon
is evident from the immediately fol-

lowing D%x730n, which expresses the
same idea in other words, @. g. evening ;
comp. Job xiv. 2. The shadows are
said to flee away when at sunset they
become elongated and stretched out;
thus as it were run away from us,
further and further, till they event-
ually vanish in the dark of night.
Hence David, speaking of the ap-
proaching sunset of his life, says,
02 33D, My days are likeanelongated
shadow, Ps. cii. 12; cix. 23. Comp.
also Virg. Eclog. i. 84, and ii. 66. So
Herder, Kleuker, Ewald, Gesen.,
Dépke, Rosenmiiller, Magnus, Heilig-
stedt, First, Philippson, Meier, Heng-
stenberg, Hitzig. The rendering of
Hodgson, Good, &c, “till the day-
breath,” and their reference to the
passage of Milton, “ Sweet is the
breath of morn” (Par. Lost, iv. 641),
is gratuitous. The words 92°37 are ren-
dered by the Sept. dpn rav korhopdrov,
mountains of cavities, v7. e. decussated
mountains, from 13, to divide, to cut,
which Gesenius and Heiligstedt ex-
plain, @ region divided by mountains
and valleys, but very unsatisfactorily.
The Syriac and Theodo. have
Ovpiapdrov, taking 1a for dwva,
which is adopted by Meier; but this
emendation is unsupported by MSS.,
and has evidently arisen from viii. 14.
The Vulg. and Rashbam take 1a as a
proper namo, montes Bether ; but
neither place nor mountain is known
by such name. The Chald., Ibn Ezra,
Rashi explain 192°) by mountains of
separation, t. e. mountains which sepa-
rate thee from me: this is followed by
Luther, Ewald, De Wette, Hengsten-
berg, Philippson, Hitzig, and is most
CHAP. III. ]

Cuap. ITI.

THE SONG OF SONGS.

149

1 When on my nightly couch,

I still sought him whom my soul loveth ;
I sought him, but found him not.

2 I must arise now and go about the city,
In the streets and in the squares;
I must seek him whom my soul loveth:
I sought him, but found him not.

3 The watchmen who patrol the city found me:
“ Have you seen him whom my soul loveth ?”
4 Scarcely had I passed them,
When I found him whom my soul loveth;
I seized him and would not let him go
Till I brought him to the house of my mother,

consonant with the context. We have
seen (ver. 9), that there were mountains
separating the houses of the lovers,
which the shepherd had to cross to
reach the Shulamite; and as she told
him to go back and return in the even-
ing, it was evident that he had to
cross again those separating moun-
tains.

1. When on my nightly couch, &c.
Through some means or other her
beloved did not come in the evening
according to request, and, unable to
wait any longer, she retired. Her
thoughts, however, kept her awake,
and her confidence in him made her
look for him even when on her couch.
The words “12)°23% by do not mean, “I
sought him zm my bed,” at which un-
necessary umbrage has been taken,
but “ Even when I reclined upon my
nocturnal couch, I could not give him
up; I still sought to find him.”
nivba usw means my couch used at
nights, vg. MiP ABW, in contradis-
tinction to DAT 1DwWD, a couch used at
noonday, 2 Sam. iv. 5. This is evident
from the plural nia, in the nights,
and from ver. 8, where the same plural
is used to describe nocturnal marau-
ders. The affirmation of Harmer,
therefore, that no reasonable doubt can
be made that these are the words of
one to whose bed the beloved was no
stranger, falls to the ground. The

Sept. adds, ékdreoa abtéy xai ody tmn-
kovcev eve, from chap. v. 6.

2. I must arise now, &c. Seeing,
however, that her beloved did not come,
and apprehending that some disaster
might have befgllen him on his way,
the Shulamite determined to go and
find him. The 41> in Tp1px is expres-
sive of self-summons and determina-~
tion: “I said to myself, Come! I must
arise now!” Comp. Ps. ii. 3; lv. 3;
Gesen. § 128, 1; Ewald, § 228 a.

3. The watchmen, &c., found her
whilst engaged in seeking her be-
loved, and she at once inquired of
them whether they had seen him.
The interrogative particle is here
omitted. This is sometimes the case
when the whole sentence, as here, is
interrogative, in which case it is dis-
tinguished by the prominence given to
the word upon which the force or
weight of theinterrogation more espe-
cially falls; as by the tone in which it
is uttered, e.g. WVYNNPIOIM, “ This thy
kindness to thy friend!” 2 Sam. xvi.
17; xviii. 29 ; Gesen. § 153, 1; Ewald,
§ 324 a.

4. Scarcely had I passed them, &c.
The abruptness of the description here
is very characteristic. She informs us
that she had put a question to the
watchmen, but, in her hurry to find
her beloved, does not tell us the an-
swer which she received. The con-
150

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[CHAP. LI.

Into the apartment of her who gave me birth.
5 I adjure you, O ye daughters of Jerusalem,

By the gazelles or the hinds of the field,

Neither to excite nor to incite my affection

Till it wishes another love.

struction W—WY vr», scarcely when, is
nowhere else to be found in the Old
Testament; it may be resolved to
wy) DAD May Wry, the time that I
passed them amounted to a little
while.

5. Ladjure you, &c. Having expressed

her deep attachment to her beloved
shepherd, she again adjures the court
ladies not to persuade her to love any
one else. Comp. ii.7. The Sept. has
again nisi, powers, and Mr, virtues ;
vide supra, il. 7.

 

SECTION III.
CHAPTERS III. 6.—V. 1.

The royal tent in the country is broken up, and the royal train comes up to

Jerusalem. Some of the inhabitants of the capital, as they behold it at a
diatance, hold a dialogue respecting it (6—11). The shepherd, coming up
to rescue his loved one, obtains an interview with her, and expresses his
delight in her charms (ch. iv. 1—5). The Shulamite moved, modestly
interrupts his description, and tells him that she is ready to escape with
him that very evening (6). He immediately proffers his assistance, de-
claring that her charms had inspired him with courage sufficient for the
occasion (7—9); he describes her charms (10, 11) and her faithfulness
(12—16). The Shulamite declares that all she possesses shall be his (16).
Some of the court ladies sympathize with them (ch. v. 1).

ONE OF THE INHABITANTS OF JERUSALEM.

6 What is that coming up from the country,
As in columns of smoke,
Perfumed with myrrh, with frankincense,
And all sorts of aromatics from the merchants ?

6. What is that, §c. The situation
changes. The state tents have been
broken up in the neighbourhood of
the Shulamite’s home, and the royal
train travels towards Jerusalem. Some
of the inhabitants, as they see at a dis-
tance the procession almost enveloped
in the fragrant cloud of smoke arising
from the incense profusely burned,
exclaim, “ What is that coming up
from the country?” “ The burning of
perfumes in the East, in the preceding

part of processions, is both very ancient
and very general. Deities (images)
were probably the first honoured with
this ceremony, and afterwards their
supposed vicegerents, human divini-
ties. We have a relic of the same
custom still existing among ourselves,
in the flowers strewed or borne in
public processions, at coronations, &c.,
and before our great officers of state:
as the Lord Chancellor, the Speaker
of the House of Commons; and in
CHAP. III]

THE SONG OF SONGS. 151

ANOTHER.

7 Lo! it is the palanquin of Solomon,
Around it are threescore valiant men
From the valiant of Israel :

8 All skilled in the sword, expert in war,
Each with his sword girded on his thigh
Against the nightly marauders.

some corporations, the mace, as an
ensign of office, has the same origin,
though now reduced to a gilded orna-
ment only.” See Calmet, Diction-
ary, and Rosenmiiller, Orient. iv.
948. 9 is properly used of persons,
but also of things, especially when the
notion of person or persons is in them,
e.g. THT MIMI 12 AD, * What is all this
company with thee? Gen. xxxiii. 8;
Mich. 1. 5. That this is here the
meaning of ‘», is evident from the
answer, ingen, Behold, tt ts the pa-
lanquin. "210 (from 127, to range in
order, to guide, to drive flocks), here
is not desert, but, as frequently, an
uninhabited plain or country, where
flocks are tended, in contradistinction
to town, where people dwell. Comp.
Isa. xlii. 11; Jer. xxiii. 10; Joel
ii, 22. niga, the plur. of Tyan, like

nip, from AP, columns or clouds, .

only occurs once more, Joel iii. 3, and
is most probably derived from on, to
ascend, to rise up like a column or
cloud. The * has merely been inserted
to help the pronunciation (comp.
Exod. xxv. 31; Ps. xix. 4.), and,
indeed, nineteen MSS. and originally
another omit the *, which is undoubt-
edly the correct reading. The 2 in
non? signifies as in. Comp. Isa.
v.17; xxix. 7; Gesen. Gram. § 118, 3,
Rem. 5 is used for a plurality com-
prising, or consisting of, divers single
things or objects, and is to be rendered
all kinds. Comp. Lev. xix. 23; Neh.
xiii. 16; Fiirst, Lexicon, under %2 5;
Gesen. § 108, 4, § 111, 1. 7839 (AiBavos,
NBayotds, arbor thurts, thus), frank-
incense, so called from its white
colour, was early known and exten-
sively used by the Jews (Exod. xxx.
34; Lev. ii. 1, 2; Isa. Lxiii. 23) and
other nations (Tibull. Lib. Eleg. ii;

Ovid. Trist. Lib. V. Eleg. v. 11)
in sacrifices for fumigation. It is re-
presented as a shrub, growing on
mountains, and thorny, both in Arabia
(Isa. Ix. 6; Jer. vi. 20) and in Pales-
tine, according to the passage here;
reaches a height of about five feet,
and resembles in its leaves and fruit
the myrtle. The frankincense is ob-
tained by incisions which are made
twice a year; the first in the beginning
of autumn, which is white and pure
(7337329, Exod. xxx. 34), and is re-
garded as superior; and the second
incision is made in the winter, when
the resin thus obtained is reddish, and
considered much inferior. Comp.
Winer, Bibl. Dict. p. 681, et seq.;
Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxii. 14.

7,8. Lo! wt ts the palanquin, &e.
Another bystander, recognizing it at a
distance, exclaims that it is the cor-
tége of Solomon, consisting of his pa-
Janquin and guard. rd>uhu impn, 2g.
many nen; comp. Gesen. § 121, 5,
note; Ewald, § 309 c. This construc-
tion, however, has no real analogy in
the Scriptures; it frequently occurs
in latter Hebrew writings. Comp.
aim ow irennn, the bottom of the moun-
tain, in Rashbam on the Songof Songs,
iv. 1. The ovi22 here mentioned, were
a separate class of the body-guard
formed by David; and, as co-reli-
gionists ("1 322), seem to have been
chosen to protect the monarch on his
excursion against any attack of noc-
turna] marauders, so frequent and so
much dreaded in the East. Comp.
Job i. 15, with Gen. xvi. 12. The»
in "3239 is used partitively, vide supra,
i. 2. T-pNy, skilled in the sword.
wx, to take hold, also to handle art-
fully, like wen, to take hold, to handle
skilfully. The participle nm, though
THE SONG OF

SONGS. [cHAP. 111.

A THIRD.
9 A palanquin’hath king Solomon made for himself,
Of the wood of Lebanon.
10 Its pillars he hath made of silver,
Its support of gold, its seat of purple,

of a passive form, has an active signifi-
cation; this is not unfrequently the
case, especially when it belongs to an
intransitive verb. Comp. }2 103,
he trusted in Jehovah, Ps. exii. 7;
Gesen. 50, 3, Rem. 2; Ewald, § 149 d.
This removes the apparent contra-
diction caused by the Authorized Ver-
sion, ‘ They all hold swords;” when
in the next clause, as Hodgson and
Good remarked, we are told that each
had his sword on his thigh. wrx, a
man is used as a distributive for each,
every. Comp. Gen. xv. 18; xlii. 25;
Gesen. § 124, 2, Rem. 1; Ewald,
§ 278, b. We must supply 17 after
we. Comp. Exod. xxii.27; Ps. xlv. 4.
78, fear, metonymically for the object
of fear (Gen. xxxi. 42, 53), here ma-
rauders. This is evident from Ps.
xci.5; Prov. iii. 24. nia, an or
during the nights, i.c. nocturnal ma-
rauders. Vide supra, iii. 1.

9. A palanquin, &e. As the train
draws nearer, a third person recog-
nizes it as the newly-made palanquin,
of which he gives a circumstantial de-
scription. Palanquins were and are
still used in the East by great per-
sonages. They are like a couch, suf-
ficiently long for the rider to recline,
covered with a canopy resting on
pillars at the four corners, hung
round with curtains to exclude the
sun; they have u door, sometimes of
lattice-work, on each side. They are
borne by four or more men, by means
of strong poles, like those of our sedan-
chairs; and in travelling great dis-
tances, there are always several sets
of men to relieve each other. The
materials of which these palanquins
are made, and the style of their con-
struction, depend upon the rank and
wealth of the owners. The word
pyrex is most probably derived from
mp, to run, to be borne quickly. Comp.
tpdxos, from rpéxew, opetov, from

eee currus from currendo, ferculum
trom fero. The form }i 7x is, accord-
ing to the analogy of }ip1, Lheness (Ps.
xvil. 12), and p"B, ransom (Exod. xxi.
30); comp. Gesen. § 84, 15; Ewald,
§163 c. with a prosthetic » (Gesen.
§ 19,4; Ewald, § 162 c,) followed by
a Dagesh forte like yJEx, a palace, Dan.
xi. 45; see First, Lexicon. Ewald,
however, derives it from ™)5=™a, to
work out, to buil!, to form, hence
yer, ein Prachtstiick. Kimchi derives
it from 78, to be fruitful, and says it
is called }™2x, because TY pry pv,
people increase and multiply therein.
But this is contrary to the description
here given of the procession. Besides,
a bridal bed has no (73292) seat. 7vy,
to make, means also to have made, to
order to be made. A person is fre-
quently described in Scripture idiom
as doing that which he orders to be
done. 2Sam. xv. 1; Gal. ii. 5,6. The
y2 in -zP> denotes the material of which

. the frame-work was made. Ps. xlv. 4.

The wood of Lebanon, i.e. cedars and
cypresses, Zech, xi. 1, 2; 1 Chron.
ii. 8.

10. Its pillars he hath made, &c. The
description here given of the costly
construction of this magnificent palan-
quin is by no means a mere poetic em-
bellishment. A similar litter was
presented by the British government
in 1766 to the Nabob of the Carnatic,
of which the following account is given
by Williams 77 loco, from the public
prints of the time: ‘The beams are
solid gold, the inside beautifully deco-
rated with silver lining and fringe
throughout; the panels are painted in
the highest style of finishing, and re-
present various groups and heads of
animals, after the manner of Asia,
beaded with gold richly raised above
the surface, and engraved. The stays
and different other ornaments are of

embossed silver.” Curtius (viii. 9, 23)
CHAP. 111. ]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

153

Its interior tesselated most lovely
By the daughters of Jerusalem.

A FOURTH.
11 Come out, ye daughters of Zion,
And behold King Solomon ;
The crown with which his mother crowned him
On the day of his espousals,
On the day of his gladness of heart.

gives us a description of the procession
of an Indian potentate, which strik-
ingly resembles the one here depicted.
“When the king shows himself in
public, his servants go before him with
silver censers, which fill the air,
throughout the way along which he is
borne in the palanquin, with deli-
cious odour. He himself is reclining
upon a golden couch, covered with
pearls and veiled with purple cur-
tains, embroidered with gold; the
life-guard bring up the rear.” ‘Tp
(from 3, to support, ii, 5), that
which supports the back when sitting ;
so the Sept. dvdkdwrov; Vulg. re-
elinatorium ; Dépke, Rosenmiiller,
Hitzig, &c. 3372, a seat, comp. Lev.
xv. 9. The words mina? na7K ps2 1317F
Dewey, are either to be translated : zts
centre ts tesselated most lovely, by the
daughters of Jerusalem ;—the noun
mux may be used adverbially for
lovely, charmingly, comp. 727) DITR, “I
will love them freely,” Hos. xiv. 4;
Ewald, § 279 c, § 204; so Luther,
Kleuker, Herder, De Wette, Rosen-
miiller, Philippson, &c.; and the 7
in map may denote the author or
instrument, see Isa. xxii. 3; xxviii. 7;
Keel. xii. 11; Gesen. Gram. § 143, 2 ;—
or they may be rendered, the middle
thereof is wrought, as expressive of
their love, by the daughters of Jerusa-
lem; taking 727%, love, for the effect,
or proof of it; comp. O17, i. 2, and
dyamn in Greek; so Le Clerc, Bp. Percy,
Drs. Good and Clark. The interior
of these couches is generally painted
with baskets of flowers and nosegays,
intermixed with short sentences or
mottoes, expressing the power of love.

11. Come out, O ye daughters, &c.

As the royal train begiits' to. enter
the city, a fourth bystander calls the
daughters of Zion to come out and
see the monarch in his joyful attire.
Thus the inspired writer beautifully
puts into the mouth of several spec-
tators the description he desires to give.
The crown here mentioned is not the
symbol of royalty, but the emblem of
happiness (Job xix.9). Crowns or chap-
lets of flowers were worn in ancient
times on occasions of festivity and
rejoicing ; comp. Apocryp. Wisdom,
ii. 7,8. Conjugal life being regarded
as the most happy, it became a custom
among the Jews, as well as among
other nations, to put crowns on the
heads of the newly-married people.
Rosenmiiller, Orient. iv. 196. “In
the Greek Church in Egypt,” says
Maillet, “ the parties are placed before
a reading-desk on which is the book of
the Gospels, having two crowns upon it
of flowers, cloth, or tinsel. The priest,
after benedictions and prayers, places
one on the bridegroom’s, the other on
the bride’s head, covering both with a
veil.” (See also Talmud, Sotha, ix. 14;
Selden, Uxor. Hebr. II. xv. 139;
I. F, Hirt, de Coronis apud Hebraeos
nuptialibus sposi sposaeque). The
Jews still call the bridegroom 329,
and the bride 7272. The design of
Solomon in putting on this crown is
evidently to dazzle the rustic girl. The
arrival and entrance of the royal train
in the capital, recorded in verses 6-11,
evidently show that the circumstances
narrated in the preceding sections took
place out of Jerusalem, and that
the apartments into which the king
brought the damsel, as stated in
ch, i. 4, were not in the capital, but,
xX
THE SONG OF SONGS.

(CHAP. Iv.

THE SHEPHERD, ADVANCING TO THE SHULAMITE.

Cup. LY.

1 Behold, thou art beautiful, my loved one,

Behold, thou art beautiful ! a
Thine eyes are doves behind thy veil ;
Thy hair is like a flock of goats,
Springing down Mount Gilead.

as we see from ch, vi. 11, 12, in the
neighbourhood of the Shulamite’s
home. The abnormal 77x¥ is here in-
tentionallyused instead of the normal
732x¥, to correspond in form with 77:9;
just as xiin, entrance (Ezek. xliii. 11),
is employed instead of xi22, to cor-
respond with xz, see also Jer. 1. 20;
Ezek. xvi. 50; infra, viii. 5; Gesen. § 59,
Rem. 3; Ewald, § 118d. The female
inhabitants of the town are designedly
called jV2 saa, to distinguish them from
the Overy ni22, which is the appella-
tion of the court ladies.

1. Behold, thou art, &e. The shep-
herd, who had followed afar off the
royal train in which his beloved was
conveyed to the capital, obtains an
interview with her, and is nuw ad-
dressing her. Thine eyes are doves ;
see supra,i. 15. Thy hair is like a
Jlock of goats, i. e. the tresses, dangling
from the crown of her head, are as
beautiful as Mount Gilead covered with
the shaggy herd. The hair-of Oriental
goats is exceedingly delicate, soft
(Gen. xxvii. 16), long, and black
(1 Sam. xix. 13); and when the sun
shines upon it, reflects such a glare that
the eye can hardly bear the lustre
(see Boch. Hicroz.i. 2, 51. Rosen-
miiller, Orient. i. 85). Iy9277 is the
name of a chain of limestone moun-
tains beyond Jordan, intersected by
numerous valleys (Gen. xxxi. 21; Jcr.
1. 19). This ridge extends over the
regions inhabited by the tribes of
Reuben, Gad, and the northern part
of Manassch (Numb. xxxii. 40; Deut.
ili. 13; Josh. xvii. 1-6). It was famous
for its luxuriant verdure, aromatic
simplcs, and rich pastures; and hence
attracted the flocks (Numb. xxxii. 1);
and animals from this region were re-
gardcd as of a superior quality, like
gold from Ophir. Nothing, therefore,

could more beautifully express the
curly hair of a woman, dangling down
from the crown of her head, than the
sight, at a distance, of a flock of goats
running down from the summit of this
verdant hill on a beautiful day. 722
(from Dox, 7g. Chald. oxy, Dx, to bind,
to twine, to veil), is well explained by
Rashbam, x7 7229 HY pr, a hind of
cover, or veil; so Sym., Sept., Isa.
xlvii. 2, Michaelis, Dépke, Gesenius,
De Wette, Lee, Percy, Williams,
Hitzig, &c. The rendering of the
Sept. here, éxrés tis ciwmjceds cov,
behind thy silence, which is followed by
the Syriac and Arabic, is both con-
trary to the etymology of the word,
and meaningless. The other transla-
tions, viz. docks (Auth. Vers., Ewald), a
plait of hair (Hengstenberg), cannot
be substantiated. ‘The word v2, which
occurs only here and vi. 5, is of difficult
interpretation, and has produced a
variety of renderings. The Sept.
has here drexadvgpnoay, and vi. 5,

x
dvepaynoav, the Syriac aX, the
Vulg. here ascenderunt, and vi. 5, ap-
paruerunt. The Rabbins also differ
in their interpretations. Rashi ex-
plains it wp, that make bare, i.e.
quit or descend the mountain. Ibn
Ezra, pwr, which look down ; Rash-

bam, WI, which are seen, i.e. while... .

coming down from the mount. Mo-
dern commentators are not less at
variance. Luther translates it shorn ;
Houbigant, which hang down ; Kieuker,
Ewald, which shows itself; Dépke,
Gesenius, Hitzig, Philippson, which
lie down; Magnus, which climb up;
Perey, Hengstenberg, which come up,
t. e. from Jerusalem. Amidst these
conflicting opinions, it appears best to
take w3, like its kindred wp, in the
sense of rolling down, running down ;
see T‘iirst, Lexicon, s. vy. This mean-
CHAP. Iy.] THE SONG

OF SONGS. 155

2 Thy teeth are like a flock of sheep
Which come up from the washing-pool,

All of which are paired,

And not one among them is bereaved.
3 Like a braid of scarlet are thy lips,
And thy mouth is lovely:

ing accords best with the comparison
here used, and leaves to the preposi-
tion }2 its natural signification. The
omission of 17 in the a Arabic, and
a few MSS., is evidently owing to the
carelessness of a transcriber.

2. Thy teeth, &c. The compliment
passed upon the black hair is followed
by another on the white teeth: “Thy
teeth resemble in whiteness woolly
sheep just washed.” This comparison
will appear more striking when we
remember that the wool of Scripture
is proverbial for its whiteness, and
is placed in juxtaposition with the
colour of snow, Isa. i. 18; Dan. vii.
9; Rev. i. 14; Book of Enoch xlvi. 1.
The Sept., which is followed by many
modern commentators, takes the com-
parison to be between the shorn skin
of the sheep and the teeth; but this is
untenable. For, 1. The skin of shorn
sheep can never have the whiteness
which the context here demands;
2. Shorn sheep would yield a very
incongruous figure, if teeth were com-
pared with them; 3. Sheep, as now,
were generally washed before and not
after they were shorn; 4. The passage
in vi. 6, shows that ninz7 is merely a
poetical epithet for o974, not because
they were then shorn, but because they
are pervedically shorn. The explanation
of may? by well xwmnbered (Rashi), or
by 199 nme 59 Naya ND NTS 77 YD ww
nmaM, same size (Kimchi, Ibn Ezra),
are against vi. 6.

All of which are paired. That is,
each upper tooth hasits corresponding |
lower one; thus they, as it were, |
appear in pairs, like this flock of ;
white sheep, each of which keeps to/
its mate, as they come up from the
washing-pool. And no one of them ts
deprived of its fellow, i.e. no tooth is
deprived of its corresponding one,

just as none of the sheep is bereaved
of its companion. The Hiphil of oxn,
to be double, to be pairs (Exod. xxvi.
24; xxxvi. 29), is to make double, to
make pairs, to appear paired. 7230 is
deprived, bereaved, Jer. xviii. 21. On
the masculine suffixes in D> and D7a,
referring to minx, fem., see supra, ii. 7.
The words 0930 and m2¥ form a para-
nomasia; see i. 2. The rendering of
nioxyne by Dawn ny 0a, all bearing
twins (Kimchi, &c.), which some try
to justify by submitting that sheep as
well as goats in the East frequently
bear twins (Arist. Hist. Anim. i. 6,19;
Theocret. i.25; iii. 34), is incompatible
with the figure. The teeth surely,
which are here compared to the flock,
cannot be said to bear twins like the
sheep. Those who attempt to get
over this difficulty by referring it to
the rows of the teeth, are, to say the
least, guilty of introducing a new
subject.

3. Thy mouth is lovely. 7279 is
translated by the Sept., Syriac., Vulg.,
Rashi, Ibn Ezra, Rashbam, speech,
language ; but this is incompatible
with the description here given, which
depicts the members of the body, and
not their actions. It is therefore more
consonant with the context to take
721 as a poetical expression for the
instrument of speech ; not the tongue
(Schultens, Kleuker, Dépke), which
is kept within the mouth, and not
when put out (M2) beautiful; but
the mouth itself, (Ewald, Gesenius,
De Wette, Umbreit, Rosenmiiller,
Meier, Philippson, &c.) The objec-
tion of Magnus (who translates it
voice), and of Hitzig (who translates
it palate), that the rendering of mouth
would produce tautology, inasmuch as
the mouth consists of the lips, and
these have already been described, is
156

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[CHAP. IV.

Like a part of the pomegranate
Are thy cheeks behind thy veil ;
4 Thy neck is like the tower of David,
Reared for the builder’s model :
A thousand shields are hung upon it,

gratuitous: for an individual may
have lips like scarlet, and yet not
have a lovely mouth. The > in 7379,
added to the root 127, to speak, in order
to form the noun, denotes the instru-
ment with which one speaks: compare
219, an instrument with which to draw
out = a fork, from 20, to draw out ;
TnpD, an instrument for opening = a
key, from 19, to open, Gesen. § 84, 14;
Ewald, § 160, 6. This corroborates
the rendering we defended.

Like a part of, &c. That is, the rosy
cheeks visible beneath the veil resem-
ble the vermilioned part of the pome-
granate. Eastern poets frequently
eompare the colour of the cheeks with
pomegranates and apples. Thus in a
Persian ode quoted by Sir William
Jones: ‘The pomegranate brings to
my mind the blushes of my beloved,
when her cheeks are covered with a
modest resentment :” and Ibn Challe-
can, as adduced by Magnus in loco:
“ Believest thou that the apple can
divert my looks from thee, when I
behold thy cheeks?’ Ibn Ezra, who is
followed by some modern commen-
tators, explains Mp by DNNT ON yy,
the red flower of the pomegrante ; but
this is contrary to2 Kings iv. 39, where
the root Mpis used for dissecting fruit,
and 1 Sam. xxx. 12. Others again
take the simile to be between the
interior of the pomegranate, when cut
or burst open, and the cheeks ; but this
being flat would by no means represent
the round form of the coloured cheek
here referred to. The comparison ap-
pears natural, striking, and beautiful,
according to Rashi’s explanation of
mp, viz. DVR NAW yaw pox, that
external half of the pomegranate which
is red, one half of the pomegranate
being brown, and the other beautifully
vermilioned, intermixed with yellow
and white; and it is to the latter part
to which reference is here made. So

the Sept. Aédmupov, the peel, or the
external. Rashbam, Dépke, Hitzig.
4. Thy neck is like, &c. That is,
“The erect and bold carriage of thy
neck, decked with ornaments, resem-
bles that high, commanding tower,
adorned with trophies.” Though the
text supplies us with no clue for
finding” out what tower this was, yet
the comparison implies that it must
have been one well known and cele-
brated for its imposing aspect and
symmetrical proportions. Sandys (iii.
137), who is followed by others, iden-
tifies this tower with some ruins still
found in the uttermost angle of Mount
Zion, which bears that name. n+2%n is
rendered by the Sept. oadduiad, as a
proper name; but there is no place
known by suchaname. Aquila has
eis @rad€es: so Vulg. cum propugna-
culis, battlements, Sym. tn, heights ;
but it is difficult to divine how these
renderings are to be made out from
the form and meaning of the word.
The Talmud Jerushalmi, Berachoth,
section 4, and Saadias explain it on
wonp Ww, an elevation towards which
all look, i.e. by which they are guided.
Tbn Ezra seems to favour the view that
neon? is a compound of nvp nion), for
the suspension of arms. But the
Talmudic explanation rests upon the
favourite whim of making a word of
every letter. Ibn Ezra’s explanation
incurs the objection that nvs, by itself,
never means swords or arms. Besides,
it is evident that this interpretation
owes its origin to the immediately
following clause, voy “om ]IO7 APN.
Gesenius derives it from the Arabic
2h, to destroy ; hence ‘bdr, destructive,
eadly ; -poetically, for arms. But,
apart from the difficulty of making
nypotn, even according to this deriva-
tion, to mean weapons, according to
this rendering there is no connexion
between this clause and the figure.
CHAP. Iv.]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

157

All sorts of bucklers of the mighty.
5 Thy bosom like two young fawns,
Twins of a gazelle, feeding among lilies.

THE SHULAMITE.

6 When the day cools

And the shadows flee away,
I will go to the mount of myrrh,
To the hill of frankincense.

THE SHEPHERD.
7 Thou art all beautiful, my loved one,

It is therefore better, with Rashi and
Rashbam, to take nv5?m as a contrac-
tion for nieoxn from the root "lx, to
teach. The radical § in the feeble
verbs ¥"D, does not unfrequently fall
away: thus ‘mm, 2 Sam. xxi. 40,
for ‘7"NM}, and in the same verb, 72930
for 3689, Job xxxv. 11; Gesen. § 68,
2; Ewald, § 54. m'pn (plur. of mpon,
according to the analogy of nv23n, from
mun nyo, from 21m), would there-
fore signify instruction; the plural
being here used for the abstract, see
supra, i. 2. This derivation is con-
firmed by the Chald., which periphra-
ses nPoIM by NPVNT PPAR, instruction
of the low, and bears out the figure,
and yields a beautiful sense. The
Shulamite’s neck is not compared to
some common turret, but to that
splendid tower which was built for
a model, that, as Rashbam rightly
remarks, 20n DO2NA OHI PIN 79, ald
architects might learn their designs
JSrom tt.

A thousand shields, &c. It was
customary to adorn the walls of
towers and castles with all sorts of
splendid arms, Ezek. xxvii. 11. The
castles of the maritime people, whose
conquest is recorded by the Kouyun-
jik bas-reliefs, and distinguished by
the shields hung round the walls.
Layard’s Nineveh, ii. 296. "2s, thousand
stands for a round, large number, Isa.
xxx.17; lx. 22; Ps.cv.8; Eccl. vi. 6.
52, all kinds, all sorts, see supra, iii. 6.

5. Thy bosom, &e. The point of
comparison is the lovely sight which
these objects present. The gazelles, as

we have seen (ii. 7), are the symbol of
beauty. To add however to their
native charms, they are represented
here as browzing in pasture-ground
abounding with lilies. To this lovely
spectacle, than which nothing- could
be more beautiful to an Oriental, her
breasts are compared. The explana-
tion which Bochart, Patrick, Henley,
Percy, Good, give of this comparison,
viz. ‘‘The two paps rise upon the breast
like lilies from the ground; among
which, if we conceive two red kids
feeding, that were twins and perfectly
alike, they appeared like the nipples or
teats upon the paps, to those that behold
theni afar off,” is extravagant.

6. TV hen the day cools, &c. Trans-
ported with joy at the sight of her
beloved shepherd, the Shulamite inter-
rupts the praises of her personal charms,
which, on seeing her again, he began to
pour forth, by exclaiming: When the
day cools, that is, “ this very evening, as
soon as it gets dark, I will quit the
royal abode, and go to our beautiful
and open country, to the flowery
meads, where are found aromatic
plants growing in abundance.” For
an explanation of the first part of this
verse, see li. 17, also spoken by the Shu-
lamite. That such mountains of myrrh
and hills of frankincense actually ex-
isted, is evident from Florus, Epitome
Rerum Rom., lib. iii. c. 6., where Pom-
pey the Great is said to have passed
over Lebanon, and by Damascus, “ per
nemora illa odorata, per thuris et
balsami sylvas.”

7,8. Thou art all beautiful,&c. Glad-
158

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[CHAP. Iv.

And there is no blemish in thee.

8 With me, with me, my betrothed,
Thou shalt go from Lebanon ;
Thou shalt go from the heights of Amana,
From the summit of Shenir and Hermon,
From the habitations of lions,
From the mountains of panthers.

9 Thou hast emboldened me,

My sister, my betrothed,
Thou hast emboldened me,

dened with her declaration, the shep-
herd, crowning and closing his descrip-
tion in the words, “ Thou art a perfect
beauty,” responds, ‘‘Thou shalt go
with me, I will help thee to quit these
lofty heights, the abode of lions and
panthers—the royal residence; and
safely conduct thee to the place
whither thou wouldst go.” Lebanon
is the name of a long range of moun-
tains on the north of Palestine (Deut.
ii. 24; Josh. i. 4), consisting of two
parallel chains, which run from south-
west to north-east. Though the
Scriptures have only one name, viz.
Lebanon, for both these chains, yet
the present inhabitants of that coun-
try, as well as modern Travellers, have
found it convenient to call the wester-
most chain, facing the Mediterranean,
—Lebanon; and the eastern one,
facing the plain of Damascus,—Anti-
Libanus, from its being at Tyre,
parallel with and opposite to the
Syrian Lebanon. Amana, 7728, is the
name of the southern part of Anti-
Libanus, at the root of which, it is
supposed, issues the river of the same
name; sce 2 Kings v.12. Hermon,
poy, is the name «ithe highest sum-
mit of a chain at the northernmost
boundary of Palestine, and belongs
also to Anti-Libanus (Josh. xi. 17;
xiii. 5), and is now identified with
Jebel-el-Sheikh. It consists of several
mountains, viz. Sirion, yrs, Shenir,
vie, and Sto, jw; whence its plural
name m2, see ITurst, Lexicon,
s.v. Lebanon, Amana, Shenir and
Hermon are here not intended to
denote various parts of the range of

mountains, but are merely different
names of the royal residence. The
word tm is well rendered by the
Sept., Syriac, &c., thou shalt go ; comp.
Isa. lvl. 9. The Common Version
look is incompatible with the context
and parallelism. Surely no one would
invite his beloved to go with him to
dangerous mountain-tops, to take a
view of the country! Persons are
generally anxious to avoid perilous
places. The lions and panthers denote
the king and his courtiers, Ezek. xix.
7; xxii. 25; Nahum ii. 12. 72,
rendered spouse in the Authorized
Version, is taken by some to denote
a newly-married woman. The word
however only means betroflied = a
female under an engagement to marry.
This is the sense in which the Jews
still use the expression. The Sept.,
which is followed by the Vulg. and
Luther, translates ‘my, Sedpo, mistaking
it for ‘ny, the imp. of TAX, to come.
The Vulg. rendering of nwa by coro-
naberis, evidently savours of allegorism.
For the Septuagint’s rendering of 729s,
by wiorts, see lutroduction, p. 21.

9. Thou hast put heart into me, &c.
This extraordinary amount of strength
and courage which he feels, to enable
him to rescue her from the abode of
the lion, and to lead her safely home,
has been infused into his heart, he
says, by the sight of his beloved one. So
the Anonymous Oxford Manuscript,
“Sony WATT 299 NIA MAAN) JNIAK HawI7w
om mms ov om m3. As the Piel
has sometimes an /rfensire, and some-
times a privative meaning (see Gesen.
§ 62, 2; Ewald, § 120), a dif
CHAP. Iv.]

With one of thine eyes,

THE SONG OF SONGS.

159

With one of the chains of thy neck.
10 How sweet is thy love, O my sister, my betrothed!

ference of opinion exists as to the
signification of 32) here. The Sept. has
exxapdiocas nas, thou hast unhearted
us; the Vulg. Vulnerasti cor meum;
Ibn Ezra, °29 np, thou hast taken away
my heart; Gesenius, De Wette, &e.
adopt this rendering. Against this
however it is urged, that it is incom-
patible with the context. The beloved
here accounts for his extraordinary
strength and courage, which would
enable him to rescue his beloved one
from her critical position ; and to say,
“Thou hast deprived me of all heart,”
would be a positive contradiction. To
be in such an unusually courageous
frame, the individual must have been
Jull of heart, and not disheartened.
Hence Herder, Ewald, Dépke, Lee,
Meier, &e., translate 2712), thou hast
put heart into me; thou hast made me
bold. This is confirmed by Sym.,
Syriac, Arabic, and Chald. ‘ning, my
sister, does not imply that the be-
trothed was related to her beloved,
but is used as an expression of endear-
ment, Prov. vii. 14; Tobit vii. 12;
the Apoc. Esth. xv. 8, and soror in
Latin. Good’s rendering of 732°nhx
by my sister-spouse, and his remark
that the pronoun “my” between the
two substantives, being a useless inter-
pretation of the versions, are gratuit-
ous. 72 has no suffix here, not because
it is to be joined with ‘nhy, but because
this word, like 28 in Chald., never takes
the suffix 1 pers.; and versions therefore
made in languages whose idioms allow
of the suffix are right in so expressing it.

With one of thine eyes,&c. It is cus-
tomary with Eastern women to unveil
one of their eyes in conversation, in
which case a part of their neck orna-
ments becomes also visible. Niebuhr,
Travels in Arabia,i. 262; see Kitto, Cy-
clop. Bib. Lit. Art. Veil, figure 536, and
infra, viii. 9. The Anonymous MS.,how-
ever, explains JP Wy2 by nN TWwaTA
‘Pryp TANI eI NwID NNw, one look of thine
eyes. 'The rendering at once (Hodgson,
“Good) is incongruous. The attempt

of the Masorites to substitute n7x2,
Jem. for 7x2, mas, having evidently
arisen from their anxiety to avoid the
apparent incongruity of coupling a
masculine numeral with a feminine
noun, is unnecessary. The true solu-
tion lies in the fact, that members of
the human body, although usually fe-
minine, are most of them employed
occasionally as masculine. Job xxi.
20; Zech. iv. 10; and infra, vi. 5;
Gesen. § 107, 4 b; Ewald, § 174 d.
72Y, is not look (Vulg.), nor ¢urn (Percy,
Good), nor stone (Ewald, Magnus),
but chain. This is evident from
Judg. viii. 26, and Prov. i. 9, the
only two passages where this word
occurs again (except as a proper name),
and is translated by the Sept. (Judg.
and Prov.) xkdowds, necklace, Aquila,
mepirpaxndtns, mAdKapos, neckband,
neck-work ; Sym. kdovds, éppickos, neck-
lace; Vulg. (Judg. and Prov.) torques.
So Ibn Ezra, ws7 by Dw? TDN,
a kind of ornamental band, tied round
the neck, Rashi, Rashbam, Gesenius,
De Wette, Dépke, Lee, Philippson,
Meier, Hengstenberg, &c. The ob-
jection urged by Hitzig, that an inan-
imate ornament could not effect such
great things, is obviated by a reference
to the Book of Judith, xvi. 9, where
we are informed that the fair one
succeeded in captivating even the
savage Holofernes with her sandals:
76 cavddhiov adris fipracey 6pOadpov
avrov. Besides, the meaning here is,
that the slightest view of her is sufti-
cient to inspire him with vigour and
courage. ‘The termination }i— in yw,
like }}, in Syriac, forms the diminutive ;
and, like diminutives in other lan-
guages, is expressive of affection;
Gesen. § 86, 2, 4; Ewald, 5, 167 a.
The plur. termination 77 in J2Vz9,
is to be accounted for on the score
that the Hebrews sometimes use plural
forms for certain members of the body.
Comp. ™22, face, Gesen. § 108, 2 a;
Ewald, § 178 a.

10. How sweet ts thy love,&c. Here
160

THE SONG OF SONGS,

[ CHAP. Iv.

How sweet is thy love above wine !

And the fragrance of thy perfumes above all the spices !
11 Thy lips, O my betrothed, distil honey:

Honey and milk are under thy tongue,

And the odour of thy garments is as the smell of Lebanon.
12 A closed garden art thou, my sister, my betrothed,

A closed garden, a sealed fountain.

the lover tells his loved one why the
sight of her is so animating and em-
boldening, For the comparison of
love with wine, see i. 2,3. The Sept.,
which is followed by the Syriac, Vulg.,
Arabic, and Luther, has here again
711, thy breasts; but see i. 2. The
Sept. has also dcop) ipdriwy cov,
Toe my, for ype, evidently
taken from the following verse.

11. Thy lips, O my betrothed, &c.
Every word which falls from her lips is
like a drop from the honeycomb. This
comparison is used in other parts of
Scripture, and by the Greeks and
Romans. Thus Prov. v. 3:—

“The harlot’s lips distil honey,

And her palate is smoother than oil.”
Theocrit. Idyl. xx. 26 :—
16 orépa Kai TakTas yAvKepwrepov" tx gToUd=
Tw de

Eppeé por Pava yukepwrépa n HEAL Kipa.

“More sweet my lips than milk in luscious rills,
Lips, whence pure honey, as I speak, distils.”

Also Idyl. i. 146, 8,82 ; Homer, Tliad.i.
249; Hor. Epist. i. 19,44. That we
are to understand by distilling honey,
“lovely words,” and not saliva oris
osculantis, is evident from Prov. xvi.
24, where pleasant words are com-
pared to a honeycomb, and the pas-
sage already quoted, just as slanderous
words are represented as poisons,
Ps. exl. 3.

And the odour of thy garments, &c.
The Orientals were in the habit of per-
fuming their clothes with aromatics.
Thus we are told that the garments of
Jacob emitted u pleasant smell, Gen.
xxviii. 27; Ps. xlv. 9; Rosenmiiller,
Orient. i. 122. In consequence of the
odoriferous trees which abounded on
it, Lebanon became proverbial for fra-
grance. Hence the prophet Hosea
(xiv. 7), describing the prosperous state

of repenting Israel, says }12372 9 "yn,
and his odour shall be as that of Leba-
non. This passage is sufficient to show
the error of the Vulg. in rendering
yada by sicut odor thuris, as if it
were 7251) 12. The perfumed attire
which the Shulamite had on, and
which the shepherd here praises, is
evidently not the humble clothes which
she had brought with her, but some
splendid apparel recently given to her
by the king.

12. A closed garden, &c. The trees of
Lebanon, referred to at the end of the
last verse, suggested this beautiful me-
taphor of a garden, under which the
shepherd describes the unsullied pu-
rity and chastity of the Shulamite.
Gardens in the East were generally
hedged or walled in, to prevent the
intrusion of strangers(Isa.v.5; Joseph.
De Bell. Jud. vii.). From this arose
the epithet, “closed garden,” for a
virtuous woman, shut up against every
attempt to alienate her affections.
The contrary figure is used in viii. 9;
there accessibility is described as “a
door,” z.e. open to seduction.

A sealed fountain, &c. Another me-
taphor to express the same idea. The
scarcity of water in arid countries
renders fountains vc:y valuable. To
secure them against the encroachment
of strangers, the proprietors formerly
fastened their fountains with some
ligament, and the impression of a seal
upon clay, which would quickly harden
in the sun, that would soon dissolve
wax. This mode of rendering pits
safe is found in Dan. vi. 18; Matt.
xxvii. 66. A fountain sealed in this
manner indicated that it was private
property. Hence its metaphorical
use, to represent chastity as an inac-
CHAP. Iv. ]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

161

13 Thy shoots like a garden of pomegranates,

With precious fruits,
Cypresses and nards,
14 Nard and crocus,

Calamus and cinnamon,
With all sorts of frankincense trees,

cessible fountain. It is better, with
the Sept., Syriac, Arabic, Chald., Vulg.,
upwards of fifty of Kennicott’s MSS.,
and many modern commentators, to
read 73, instead of %. ‘This is con-
firmed by the intensive phraseology
of the shepherd, used in his addresses,
which is produced by a repetition of the
same words. Comp. supra, vv. 8, 9.
13. Thy shoots, &e. Having com-
pared his loved one to a garden, the
shepherd is anxious to show that the
one she resembled is not of an ordinary
character. It is an orchard full of the
most costly trees, and producing the
most delicious fruit. 7023, well ren-
dered by the Sept. dmocrodai cov:
and Kimchi, mown, thy shoots,
branches (Gen. xlix. 21; Ps. Ixxx. 12)
is figuratively used for the members
of the body, and not for “the children
who shall spring from her,” as Hodgson
supposes. 0712, found elsewhere only
Eccl. ii. 5; Neh. ii. 8, has been de-
rived by some from the Persian, and
by others from the Sanscrit. There
is no necessity, however, for seeking
its etymology in other languages.
The Hebrews, who had gardens at so
early a period, would surely not bor-
rownames for them from other nations.
byp, according to the analogy of the
quadriliteral ™)5, is a compound of 1p,
to divide, and DW, to separate, to en-
close; hence a protected, an enclosed
place, a garden. This is corroborated
by the fact that 73, @ garden, is also
derived from a root (}22), which means
to separate, to enclose. Compare also
the German and English, Gérten,
garden, and Saalschiitz, Archaelogie
der Hebraer, vol. i. p. 117. And
like many other Hebrew expressions,
this word was adopted in other
languages. 0312), pomegranate-trees :
the Hebrews frequently use the same
expression to denote tho tree and its

fruit, see supra, ii. 3. O'729 "B, 2.9.
W228, precious fruits; when a com-
pound idea is to be expressed in the
plural, the governed noun only is often
put in the plural form; e.g. niax 3,
ancestral houses, Numb. i. 2; Gesen.
§ 108, 3. The precious fruits are those
of the pomegranate-tree. The words
D-Ty DY Ow», are still genitives to DMB.
For 193, and 73, see supra, i. 12, 13.
14. Nard and crocus, &c. Both the
ancient versions and modern commen-
tators generally agree that by the
word 0392, which occurs only here,
the well-known saffron plant is meant.
Calamus (737, reed, also written Dw 13)
and 347M, sweet calamus, Exod.
xxx. 23; Jer. vi. 20, cddapos dpwparikds,
Calamus odoratus), was well known and
highly prized among the ancients, and
was imported to Palestine from India
(Jer. vi. 20; xxvii. 19); it was, how-
ever, also found in the valley of Mount
Lebanon, (Polyb. v.46; Strabo, xvi. 4).
It has a reed-like stem, of a tawny
colour, much jointed, breaking into
splinters, and its hollow reed filled with
pitch, like the web of a spider. The
best, which, according to Pliny (Hist.
Nat. xii. 12 or 48), grows in Arabia,
diffuses around a very agreeable odour,
and is soft to the touch (see Rosen-
miiller, Bib. Bot.; Winer, Bib. Dict. ;
Kitto, Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s. v.) Cinna-
mon (i227, kivayov, Laurus cinnamo-
mum), indigenous to Ceylon in the

_ East Indies, and is called by the natives

Karonda-gouhah ; itis now, however,
also cultivated on the Malabar coast,
in the islands of Sumatra and Borneo,
in China and Cochin-China. The
cinnamon-tree, which grows on the
coast, is generally about twenty or
thirty feet high, and reaches a still
greater height in groves: it is adorned
with numerous boughs, bearing oval
and laurel-like leaves, of a scarlet
Y
162

Myrrh and aloes ;

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[cHar. Iv.

15 With all kinds of excellent aromatics,
With a garden-fountain,
A well of living waters,
And streams flowing from Lebanon.
16 Arise, O north wind! and come, thou south!
Blow upon my garden,
That its perfumes may flow out!

colour when young, but changing to
bright green, and growing to the
length of from four to six inches when
matured, and putting forth whitish
blossoms, which ripen into fruit, resem-
bling those of the juniper-tree in June:
the fruit, though possessing neither
the smell nor the taste of the cinnamon,
when boiled secretes an oil, which,
after cooling, becomes hard, white,
and fragrant. The wood itself, which
is white, inodorous, and soft as fir, is
used for a variety of purposes. It is
the rind which, when peeled off and
dried in the sun, yields the much-
valued cinnamon. (See Rosenmiiller,
Bibl. Bot.; Winer, Bib. Dict.; Kitto,
Cyclop. Bib. Lit. s. v.) Aloe (7x,
"Adon. John xix. 39.  dydddoxor,
évdadon, arbor alos), a tree which
grows in India and the Moluccas, the
wood of which is highly aromatic.
The stem of this tree is as thick as a
man’s thigh; the top is adorned with
a bunch of thick and indented leaves,
broad below, and narrowing gradually
towards the point, and are about four
feet long : its blossoms—which are red,
intermixed with yellow, and double
like a pink—yield the pod, producing
u red and white fruit, about the size
ofa pea. This tree, in consequence of
its singularly beautiful appearance and
odoriferous wood, which is used as a
perfume, is very gratifying both to
the sight and smell, and is held by the
Indians in sacred veneration. (Sce
Rosenmiiller, Bib. Bot.; Winer, Bib.
Dict. s. v.) wx, dead metaph., chief,
most excellent. Exod. xxx. 23; Ps.
exxxvii. 6; Ezck. xxvii. 22.

15. With a garden-fountain, &e. To
finish the picture of this charming

garden, the shepherd introduces into
it fountains, streams, rills, and cooling
breezes, to rouse and waft the balmy
fragrance through its delightful re-
treats. The fact that the Shulamite
has been called a sealed fountain proves
that this verse is not descriptive of her.
For it would be contradictory to call
her in one verse a sealed fountain, and
in the other a stream flowing from
Lebanon, i. e. an open stream. D2 pYD
a fountain of gardens, i. e. a fountain
belonging to gardens, usually found in
gardens to irrigate them. 0°}, a part.
noun plur., denoting flowing streams.
The } indicates the place whence
these streams issue. O”7 OD Living
water, i.e. perennial; waters, gushing
forth from fountains, or moving along,
appear as if they were living ; whilst
those in a stagnant condition seem
dead. Gen. xxvi. 19; Jer. ii, 13;
Zech, xiv. 8; sec also téwp (av, Rev. vii.
17, and flumen virum, Virg. En. ii. 719.

16. -Lrise, O north wind! These
are still the words of the shepherd,
who, to complete the picture, invokes
the gentle breezes to perflate this para-
dise. Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, Williams,
‘Good, Ewald, Delitzsch, Philippson,
&c., take this clause to begin her reply ;
but this is incompatible with the figure.
She herself, and not anything separate,
has been described as this charming
garden. She could, therefore, not say
“blow through my garden” (32), which
would imply that this garcen of hers
was something apart from her person.
Moreover, the expression 1:2, hes gar-
den, which she uses, shows that ‘2, my
garden, is spoken by him. So Rashi,
Dopke, Magnus, Hitzig, &c. That the
south and north winds are merely poeti-
CHAP. V.]

THE SONG OF

SONGS. 163

THE SHULAMITE.
Let my beloved come into his garden
And eat its delicious fruits !

THE SHEPIIERD.

Cuap. V.

1 Tam coming into my garden, my sister, my betrothed:

Iam gathering my myrrh with my spices,
I am eating my honeycomb with my honey,
I am drinking my wine with my milk.

SOME OF THE DAUGHTERS OF JERUSALEM.

Eat, O friends!

Drink, and drink abundantly, O beloved!

cal designations for a gale generally,
without any particular reference to the
peculiarities of the wind when blowing
from these respective regions is evi-
dent from a comparison of Numb.
xi. 31 with Ps. lxxviii. 26. This does
away with the conflicting conjectures
which have been hazarded, to account
for the invocation of the wind from
these opposite quarters of the earth.
jez and yon, prop. the north and
southern quarters, are poetically used,
yexmm, and pon, the north and
south wind. Ps. lxviii. 26. Dna,
spices, here thew odours.

Let my beloved come, &c. The Shu-
lamite, continuing this beautiful apos-
trophe, responds: “ If my person really
resembles such a paradise, this garden
is yours ; yours are all its productions.”
y779 p, literally the fruit of his deli-
crousness, i.e. his delicious fruit. When
a compound idea is expressed by one
noun followed by another in the geni-
tive, a suffix which refers to this whole
idea is sometimes appended to the
second of the two nouns. Comp.
jena “YN, Ads silver tdo/s, Isa. ii. 20;
Gesen. § 129, b; Ewald, § 291, b; ja
being of a common gender, the suffix
in Y729 may either refer to garden, or
to beloved ; it is more in keeping with
the construction to refer it to the be-
loved, just as the suffix in 133 refers to
him. The fruit is the beloved’s be-
cause the garden is his, and therefore
he may enjoy it.

1. Lam coming into my garden, &c.

The shepherd, as he embraces his be-
loved, expresses his unbounded delight
inher charms. The perfect forms, ‘D832
oINTY, “ADDR, MX, are used for the pre-
sent, Gesen. § 126.

Eat, O friends,&c. Some sympathiz-
ing court ladies, at a distance, seeing the
mutual happiness of the lovers, urge
them to take their fill of delight. The
explanation of Rashbam and others,
that this address is to the companions
of the beloved to partake of a friendly
meal; or, as others will have it, that it
is an invitation to the marriage feast,
is against the context. The expression
vy, eat ye, must be taken in the same
sense as ‘N728, I eat; and it would be
most incongruous to suppose that the
beloved, who enjoys the charms of his
loved one, would call on his friends to
do the same. Dr. Geddes, who is fol-
lowed by Dr. Good, alters the text into
NT Iwi Mwy bx, Lat, O my friend !
drink, yea, drink abundantly, O my
beloved ! and puts it into the mouth of
the Shulamite; thus making it an an-
swer to what the beloved said in the
preceding clause. But such conjec-
tural emendations ought to be repu-
diated. It is most in accordance with
the context to take these words as an
epiphonema of some sympathizing
court ladies. The parallelism and the
accents require us to take O77 as
a concrete, synonymous with oP),

friends; so the Sept., Vulg., Syr.,

Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, Rashi, Mendels-
sohn, &c.
164

The

THE SONG OF SONGS. [ouap. Vv.

SECTION IV.
CHAPTER V. 2—VIII. 4.

Shulamite relates to the court: ladies a dream which she has had, in which
she manifests great attachment for her beloved (2—8). The court ladies,
surprised at this extraordinary enthusiasm, ask what there is particular in
his person to cause such an attachment (9). The Shulamite then gives a
description of him (10—16). Whereupon the court ladies inquire where he
is, and offer to seek him (ch. vi. 1). The Shulamite, suspecting their inten-
tion, gives an evasive answer to their inquiry (2, 3). The king, having
heard the Shulamite’s beloved mentioned, immediately comes forward and
seeks to win her affections (4—9); in exalting her beauty, he repeats how
the court ladies had praised her when they first saw her (10). The
Shulamite, having explained how she came to be seen by the court ladies,
withdraws (11, 12.) The king calls her back (ch. vii. 1); and, as she
returns, describes her charms, and wishes to enjoy the love of one so
beautiful (2—10). The Shulamite refuses the king’s desire, stating that her
affections were espoused (11) ; then addressing herself to her beloved, she
asks him to go home with her, and descants upon their rural pleasures
(12—14). Remembering, however, that circumstances even at home pre-
vented the full manifestation of her love, she longs for those obstacles to be
removed (ch. viii. 1, 2). Overcome by her feelings, she wishes that none
but her beloved may support her (3), and with the little strength she has
left, adjures the court ladies not to persuade her to change her love (4).

THE SHULAMITE.

2 I was sleeping, but my heart kept awake,
Hark! my beloved! he is knocking !
Open to me, my sister, my love |
My dove, my perfect beauty !

2. I wassleeping,&c. The sympathies
manifested by some of the court ladies
for the Shulamite, at the close of the last
section, encourage her to relate to
them a dream which she recently had.
The purpose of this narration is the
description of the shepherd to which
it leads, and which is necessary to the
completion of the whole drama. 72%,
like the participle form generally, may
be used to express all the relations of
time. Comp. Dy D)2°2, for all were
sleeping, 1 Sam. xxvi. 12; 1 Kings
iii. 20. Gesen. § 134, 1; Ewald, § 306 d.
1), heart, here the seat of thought.
The Hebrews regarded the heart, not
only as the seat of the passions, but

also of the intellectual faculties of the
mind. The whole clause is merel
another way of saying 5573, Gen. xli.
17. The circumlocution is chosen in
prefercnce to "p°73, to indicate that the
powers under which the exhausted
frame succumbed, could not keep her
mind from dwelling upon the object of
her affections. 5p, hark; vide supra,
li. 8. ppT is best taken with the Sept.,
Syriac, Vulg., and many modern com-
mentators, as a separate clause, he is
knocking. The Sept. adds émi mjv Ovpav,
at the door, after pei, he is knocking.
Open to me, &c. She introduces him
speaking. To make his request the
more urgent, he pleads that he had
CHAP. V.]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

For my head is filled with dew,
My locks with the drops of the night.

3 I have put off my tunic,

-How shall I put it on ?
I have washed my feet,
How shall I soil them ?

4 My beloved withdrew his haud from the door hole,
And my heart was disquieted within me.

5 L immediately arose to open to my beloved,
And my hands dropped with myrrh,

been drenched with dew. The dew
falls so copiously in the East, during
certain months, that it saturates the
clothes like rain. See Judges vi. 38;
Rosenmiiller, Orient. i. 122; Winer,
Bib. Dict. s. v. A similar passage
occurs in Anacreon, iii. 10, where love
is represented as standing at night be-
hind the door, begging for admittance,
and pleading the same excuses.

"Avovye, not

Boégos elui, wy PSBnca

Bpéxouar dé, KacéAnvov

Kata vikta memAdunpar.

“ ‘Fear not,’ said he, with piteous din,
‘Pray ope the door and let mein:
A poor unshelter’d boy am I,
For help who knows not where to fly :
Lost in the dark, and with the dews,
All cold and wet, that midnight brews.”

Comp. also Propert. i. 16, 23; Ovid
Amor. ii. 19, 21. ‘nan, my perfect
one, is well explained by Rosenmiiller
by yBpRow, there is no fault in thee,
iv. 7; 2 Sam. xiv. 25.

3. Ihave put off my tunic ; was the
answer she gave in her dream. 343,
xerdv, tunic, is an inner garment, com-
monly of linen, descending to the
ankles, which is taken off when one
retires. On the costume of the He-
brews, see Rosenmiiller, Orient. ii. 19 ;
Winer, Bib. Dict.; Kitto, Cyclop. Bib.
Lit. s. v.; Saalschiitz, Archieologie
der Hebrier, vol. i. c. 2.

T have washed my feet, &c. In the
East, where people wear sandals,
which protect the soles only, or go
barefoot, as in the passage before us,
the feet soon get dirty and parched ;
it is therefore essential and refreshing
to wash the feet after much walking

(Gen. xviii. 4; xix. 2), or before re-
tiring to rest: remembering this, we
can appreciate the hospitality shown
to travellers in providing for the wash-
ing of their feet, Judges xix. 21. On
the masculine suffix in Dp20y, referring
to the feminine %225, see iv. 9.

4, My beloved withdrew his hand, &c.
Hearing her excuses fornot getting up,
he atlast grew weary and ceased knock-
ing, which immediately caused her
uneasiness. The words Ww yo 17 Mw
are better translated, he sent away his
hand from the hole=withdrew ; so the
Sept. and Rashbam, jo xy? mM
nov vim, he took his hand back from
the hole in the door. The expression
oye, like Dm, has not the modern
sense of bowels, which is restricted to
the lower viscera, but denotes, like
Ta omAdyxva in Greek, the upper vis-
cera, comprising the heart, lungs,
liver, &c. Hence it is used for the
heart alone as the seat of passion, Isa.
lxili.15; Jer.xxxi. 20; andfor w52, soud,
Job xxx. 27; Ps. xl. 9. 7, to hum,
to make a noise, which is frequently
used for the roaring produced by the
waves of the troubled sea (Isa. li. 15;
Ps. xlvi.4; Jer. v. 22), is employed
to denote the motion of an agitated
heart. With upwardsof fifty MSS. and
several editions we read ‘Y, in me,
instead of V9¥, to him ; the phrase thus
exactly corresponds to YY wp) "27N, Ps.
xlii. 6, 12.

5. My hands dropped with myrrh, &e.
Alarmed at his ceasing to knock, she
flew at once to open the door, and ‘in
trying to unfasten it, her hands came
166

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[CHAP. V.

And my fingers with liquid myrrh,
Upon the handles of the bolt.

6 I opened to my beloved,

But my beloved had withdrawn, was gone!
My soul departed when he spoke of it !
I sought him, and found him not;
I called him, and he answered me not.

7 The watchmen who patrol the city found me :
They beat me, they wounded me ;

in contact with the liquid myrrh which
her beloved had poured upon the bolts,
and which dropped from her fingers.
So Immanuel, ‘nya 17) Mp) “new. |
WT pO YP Awwd 172 YD Wwe Dy TP
ap WPA Pw IT pO Wap wwaN3
Lovers, in ancient times, whilst suing
for admission, used to ornament the
door with wreaths, and perfume it with
aromatics. Thus Lucretius, iv. 1171,
At lacrimans exclusus amator limina sepe

Floribus, et sertis operit, posteisque superbos
Unguit amaracino, et foribus miser oscula figit.

“Then, too, the wretched lover oft abroad
Bars she, who at her gate loud weeping stands,
Kissing the walls that clasp her ; with perfumes
Bathing the splendid portals, and around
Scattering rich wreaths and odoriferous flowers.”
Comp. also Tibul. i. 2, 14." So Herder,
Kleuker, Ewald, Dépke, Rosenmiiller,
Philippson, &c.; Rashbam however is
of opinion that the liquid myrrh which
distilled from the Shulamite’s hand,
was the perfume with which she had
anointed herself after washing. Whilst
Percy supposes that “she got up in
such haste, that she spilt upon her
hand the vessel of liquid myrrh, which
she had brought to anoint and refresh
his head, after having been exposed to
the inclemencies of the night. 7a 7in,
liquid myrrh, see i. 2; and not, as Le
Clere eroneously supposes, current
myrrh, that kind of myrrh which is
most passable in traffic. The Vulg.
has, Lt digiti met plent myrrha pro-
batissima, evidently mistaking the
rep. 9Y for 3x7, and takes the words
392077 NBD over to the following verse,
Pessulum ostii mei aperui dilecto meo.
6. My beloved had withdrawn, &c. To
her great grief she found, when open-

ing, that her beloved had gone. The
asyndeton 72Y pom is very expressive,
and the use of the two synonymous
terms strengthens the sense. This
figure, which is effected by the omis-
sion of the conjunctive particle, is used
in animated descriptions, both by
sacred and profane writers. Comp.
Sara, mepiuooo, Mark iv, 39. Winer,
New Testament Gram. § 66,4. The
phrase Ub)x=*, properly denoting the
departure of the soul from the body,
(Gesen. xxxv. 18; Ps. exlvi. 4,) like
2)xx, is used to express the momentary
loss of the senses, i.e. to faint. ‘1373,
tn his speaking, ie. when he had
spoken of it, (Judg. vill. 3; 1 Sam.
xvii. 28), Ze. of his going away: so
Rashi, 82 T>TND 19 VI OX NIN ND OND
™mnb) max, “ Because he said I will not
now enter thy house, for thou didst at
first refuse to open me,” and Immanuel,
NOW IMR ITT) a *27 ON ITD ANY wp?
noaennnen, “ My soul departed when
he told me, Now I am going away,
because thou wouldst not open me the
door.” We must employ a finite verb
with a conjunction to express in En-
glish the Hebrew construction of the
infinitive with a preposition, and the
relation of time must be gathered from
the connection, Gesen. § 132, 2, 3.

7. The watchmen who patrol the city,
&c. That the seeking and calling men-
tioned in the last verse were not con-
fined to the door, is evident from this
verse, FYE are again an asyn-
deton. 11, which occurs only once
more, Is. ili. 23, is a kind of verl-gar-
ment, which Oriental ladies still wear,
and denotes more properly an out-door
CHAP. V.]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

167

The keepers of the walls stripped me of my veiling garment.
8 I adjure you, O ye daughters of Jerusalem,
If ye shall find my beloved,

What will ye tell him ?

Tell him that I am sick of love.
DAUGHTERS OF JERUSALEM.
9 What is thy beloved more than another beloved,
O thou fairest among women ?
What is thy beloved, more than another beloved,
That thou thus adjurest us?
THE SHULAMITE.
10 My beloved is white and ruddy,
Distinguished above thousands ;

cloak. See Schroeder, Vestit. Mul.
p. 368 ; Gesen. on Isa. iii. 23; Winer,
Bib. Dict. s. v.; Saalschiitz, Archaé-
ologie der Hebrier, vol. i. p. 28.

8. I adjure you, &c. Having men-
tioned the indifference with which she
had treated her beloved, the Shulamite
is anxious to impress upon the court-
ladies that. this was in a dream, and
that in reality, so far from her affec-
tions being abated, she was as dotingly
attached to him as ever; and begs of
them, if they should see him, to tell
him so. For the masculine termination
in DINRANSAN and 173N, see ii. 7. We
must supply 193737, ¢edl him, after
Yavan m9, what will you tell him? The
omission is designedly made, to give
animation to the request. ‘The emen-
dation proposed by Houbigant, to read
7137, instead of yan, is gratuitous, like
all his emendations. The Sept. adds
év tais Suvdpeow Kai ev tais icxvocow
Tov aypod, “ by the powers, and by the
virtues of the field,” the false rendering
of 7}w7 nYrxa i nixawa, from the pre-
ceding formula of adjuration.

9. What is thy beloved, &c. The
reat solicitude manifested by the
hulamite for her beloved, induces

the court ladies to ask what peculiar
attractions there were in him more
than in an ordinary lover, to cause
such an unusual manifestation of feel-
ing, and thus an opportunity is afforded
her to give a description of him. Itis
evident from this question of the court

ladies that Solomon is not the beloved
of whom the Shulamite has been
speaking in the preceding verses. For
surely these court ladies knew the
aspect and character of Solomon better *
than the Shulamite. This is, moreover,
established beyond doubt from ch. vi.
2, 38, where the damsel, at the end of
the description, designedly states that
the object of her delineation and at-
tachment, is the shepherd. The par-
ticle 9, prefixed to 17, with which the
comparison is made, expresses the com-
parative, Gesen. § 191, 1. For 70
ow23, see i..8, and for the form 1hvawi,
Ewald, § 249, d. 39%
1 10. My beloved is white, &c. The
Shulamite answers this question by
giving a very graphic description of
her beloved. The colour of his coun-
tenance and body is such a beautiful
mingling of white and red asis seldom
seen, and by which he is distinguished
above thousands. A similar description
is found in Virg. Ain. xii. 65, seq.
Flagrantes pertuss genas: cui plurimus ignem
Subjecit rubor, et calefacta per ora cucurrit. -
Indum sanguineo veluti violaverit ostro,

Si quis ebur, ant mixta rubent ubi lilia multa
Alba ros4; tales virgo dabat ore colores.

“ At this a flood of tears Lavinia shed ;

A crimson blush her beauteous face o’erspread,
Varying her cheeks by turns with white and red.
The driving colours, never at a stay,

Run here and there, and flush and fade away.
Delightful change! thus Indian ivory shows,
Which, with the bordering paint of purple

glows ;
Or lilies damask by the neighbouring rose.”

Comp. also Ovid. Am. ii.; Eleg. v. 39;
168

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[ CHAP. Vv.

11 His head is as the finest gold,
His flowing locks are black as the raven.

Hor. Od. i. 13, v. 2; iv. 10; v. 4;
Tibul. Eleg. 111, 4; vv. 29, 30.
nz, bright, white ; compare Lam. iv. 7,
where it stands in parallelism with
yi, clear; from the same passage we
also see that the predicates my, white,
and 07x, red, are not restricted to the
countenance, but refer to all the parts
of the body which the Oriental costume
left exposed, to the carnation as it
were of the picture. 23 denom. from
5a, banner; prop. to be furnished with
a banner, ie. his singular beauty
renders him as distinguished above
multitudes, just as a standard-bearer
is marked above all other soldiers. }»,
more, above, vide supra, ver. 9, 722)
indefinitely for a large number, see
Gesen. xxiv. 60.

11. Hisheadisas puregold. That is of
consummate excellency. Having cha-
racterized his whole person as charm-
ing, the Shulamite describes the beauty
of the individual parts of his body, and
begins with his head. Gold is fre-
quently used, both in Scripture and in
profane writers, to denote consummate
excellency and beauty. Thus the illus-
trious personages are called gold and
fine gold in Lam. iv. 1; and Theocritus

Idyl. iii. 28.) calls the beautiful

ih golden. The words 0n2 are
variously rendered. The Sept. has
xpuatov capt, gold of Cephaz, Aquila
and Sym. Aidea rod ypuaiov, so the

Syriac S013» jalo, @ precious

stone of gold. The Chald. has 29197;
so the Vulg. aurum optimum. The
Rabbins too vary in their explanations
of these words. Ibn Ezra takes on9
to be a diadem, and ¥, precious stones.
Rashi indefinitely m5» nn, choice
things, which kings treasure up. Rash-
bam explains o0np by a heap of gold,
and 3 by tv 3, and says it is called
1, “ because its colour is like pearl.”
The majority of modern commenta-
tors, after the Sept., Vulg., Chald.,
take On? as a poetical expression for
gold, and derive it from 0n3, to hide, to

conceal; like 430, gold (Job. xxviii.
15), from 130, to shut up, to conceal,
because precious metals are generally
kept shut up or concealed. This mean-
ing and derivation of the word are
supported by the fact that treasures
and precious things are generally ex-
pressed in Hebrew by words whose
roots signify to conceal; comp. 7¥iR,
a treasure (1 Kings vii. 51; xiv. 26),
from 12k, to shut up ; }in00, a treasure,
gold (Isa. liv. 2; Prov. ii. 4), from yo,
to hide; 1%, riches (Job xx. 26), from
qe3, to conceal. As for 18, it is trans-
lated by some purified, pure, from nb,
to separate, to purify (Gesenius, &c.) ;
and by others solid, massy, from 138, to
be strong, solid (Rosenmiiller, &c.).
But 32 never occurs as an adjective to
dn2, or to 2m (12% 3M, 1 Kings x. 18,
is a contraction of 1x2 1m, comp. Jer.
x. 9); the word itself invariably means
gold (see Job xxvii. 17; Ps. xix. 11;
xxi.4; exix. 27; Prov. viii. 19; Cant.
v. 15; Isa. xiii. 12; Lam. iv. 2.); and
accordingly ought to be rendered so
here: “thy head is as gold, gold.”
As this, however, would produce tau-
tology, it is therefore best to take 1
as a contraction of 1D (a variation of
‘vein; see Gesenius, s. v.; Henderson
on Jer. x. 9, and Stuart on Dan. x. 5),
with which this word goes together,
1 Kings x. 18; Jer. x.9;Dan.x.5. As
TDN—Vpin DN, is regarded as the best
gold; hence the rendering of the Vulg.
aurum optimum, and Chald. 7937.
Black as the raven, t.e. of the
purest and most jet black, so highly
esteemed by the Orientals as well as
by the classical writers. Thus Hafiz,
as quoted by Dr. Good :—
“Thy face is brighter than the cheek of day,

Blacker thy locks than midnight’s deepest
sway.”

And Ossian, Fingal, 2: “ Her hair
was the wing of the raven.” Comp.
also Anac. xxix.; Ovid. Am. EL. xiv. 9.
orn, is rendered by the Sept. edarai,
the young leaves of the palm; so the
Vulg. stewt elate palmarum; similarly
CHAP, v.]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

169

12 His eyes, like doves in water streams,
Are bathing in milk, sitting on fulness ;
13 His cheeks are like beds of balsam,
Elevations of aromatic plants ;
His lips are like lilies distilling liquid myrrh.
14 His hands like golden cylinders, inlaid with chrysolite,

Gesenius, De Wette, &c., pendulous
branches of the palm ; but this signifi-
cation does not lie in the root 927, which
simply means waving, hanging, or
flowing down; hence 0m (according
to the analogy of O° and 0°20%D, comp.
Ewald, § 158, b) flowing curls, locks.

12. His eyes, like doves, &c. The
vivid and black pupils of his eyes,
sparkling forth from the encircling
lactean white, in which they are, as
it were, bathing and sitting on the
fountain of tears, resemble doves
bathing gaily in pellucid streams. The
doves themselves, and not their eyes,
are the point of comparison (vide
supra, i. 15, and iv. 1.) Doves are
very fond of bathing, and hence choose
for their abode regions abounding with
streams (Boch. Hieroz. ii. 1, c. 2.)
The deep blue or grey dove, reflecting
the lustrous dark hue about its neck
when bathing in the limpid brook,
suggested this beautiful simile. A
similar figure occurs in the Gitago-
vinda: “The glances of her eyes
played like a pair of water-birds of
azure plumage, that sport near a full-
blown lotos in a pool in the season of
dew.” The words 27a nixm, bathing
in milk, referring to the eyes, are de-
scriptive of the milky white in which
the black pupils of the eyes are, as it
were, bathing. nxn %y, on the fulness,
also referring to the eyes, correspond
to the 0% rex bv, by the brooks of
water, which are predicated of the
doves. Hodgson’s rendering of mia
ney vy, by “and dwell among the ripe
corn,” is absurd.

13. His cheeks are like beds of
balsam, &c. His round cheeks with the
pullulating beard,resemble beds grow-
ing aromatic plants. ‘The Sept., Ara-
bic, A&th., Chald., read nio729, the

part. Piel, instead of ni, which
many modern commentators follow,
but without MS. authority. The lily
here referred to is most probably the
crown imperial, of a deep red colour,
whose leaves contain an aqueous hu-
midity, which gathers itself in the
form of pearls, especially at noon, and
distils clear and pellucid drops; see
Rosenmiiller, Alther, iv. 188; Winer,
Bib. Dict. s. v. There is, however, no
necessity for referring the words “ dis-
tilling liquid myrrh,” to the lilies.
Indeed, if seems to be more conso-
nant with the context, to take them
as predicated of the lips, expressing
the sweetness of his conversation.
Comp. iv. 11.

14. His hands are like, &c. His
rounded arms and fingers tipped with
well-shaped nails, as if inlaid with
precious stones, resemble golden cylin-
ders: and his white and smooth body,
covered with a delicate blue vest, re-
sembles polished ivory. 2a (from %%3,
to roll), a roller, a cylinder. leuker,
Gesenius, Dépke, &c., translate
‘a am a wp, Ais hands are like
golden rings, adorned with gems of
Tarshish, comparing the hand when
closed or bent to a golden ring, and
the dyed nails to the gems in the
rings. But 2 never occurs in the
sense of a ring worn on the finger ; the
word so used is nva®, which would
have been used here had the figure
meant what Kleuker, &c. understood
by it. wn, according to the Sept.,
Aquila, Josephus, and modern writers,
is the chrysolite, and owes its Hebrew
name to the circumstance that it was
first found in Tartessus, that ancient
city in Spain, between the two mouths
of the river Bactis (Guadalquiver).
The chrysolite, as its name imports

Z
THE SONG OF SONGS.

[CHAP. V.

His body is like polished ivory, covered with sapphires.
15 His legs are like pillars of marble

Based upon pedestals of gold.

His aspect is like that of Lebanon.

(xptoos, gold, and AiGos, a stone), is of
a yellow or gold colour, and pcllucid.
Being of a glass lustre, the chrysolite
is beautifully chosen to represent the

nails. ‘The words wwna Dion refer
torr. The expression ™'Y9, prop. the

internal parts of the human frame
(v. 4), is here used for the external=
the body; so Dan. ii. 32. nwyis taken
by most modern commentators to de-
note something fabricated, or wrought ;
an artzficial work ; thus deducing this
sense from the secondary meaning of

o =

nwy, which the Syriac (|»DS, work,)
seems to favour; but this is incom-
patible with the description here
given of the beloved. ‘The Shula-
mite, throughout the whole of this
delineation, depicts the splendour
and colour of the body as_ they
dazzle the eye, but makes no reference
to the wondrous construction of the
frame, which could have been discerned
only by the exercise of the intellect.
It is therefore better, with Ibn Ezra,
Kimchi, Rashi, Rashbam, Luther,
Auth. Version, Mendelssohn, Klcuker,
Williams, Good, Hengstenberg, &c. to
take nuy, from nwy, in its primary
meaning, to shine, to be bright, in the
sense of brightness, polish ; comp. Jer.
vy. 28.

Covered with sapphires. These
words refer to his body, and describe
the purple tunic covering the snowy
white skin. Good, Meier, &e. take it
to describe the blue veins which were
seen through his clear snowy skin,
like uw sapphire stone through a thin
transparent plate of ivory. But this
is against the meaning of np2vn, which
signifies covered, and not inlaid ; the
external covering, and not the internal
seen through the outcr cover. Com-
mentators are not agreed whether that
which we call the genuine sapphire, a
transparent stone of a beautiful sky-
blue colour, in hardness and value next

to the diamond, is meant by ‘Y2D; or
the sapphire of the ancients, which,
according to Pliny, (Hist. Nat. xxxvii.
89; Theophrast. De Lapid. 231,) is a
stone of a pure blue colour, and has
frequently pebble spots of a golden
yellow hue, which were formerly
thought to be really gold, and is evi-
dently our lapis lazuli, lazure-stone.
As the latter does neither suit Job
xxviii. 6, for the lazure-stone is not
very precious; nor Exod. xxviii. 18,
since it is too soft to bear engraving, it
is more probable that the real sapphire
is meant by Yeo in the Scriptures.
This stone is often found in collections
of ancient gems; see Rosenmiiller,
Bib. Bot. and Miner. ; Kitto, Cyclop.
Bib. Lit. s. v. The Syriac, which

translates DPD neyo by Liaso\s

o
Taam, upon the sapphire breathing,

must have had another reading.

15. His legs are like pillars of marble,
&c. His white legs, standing upon beau-
tiful feet, resemble the purest marble
columns based upon golden pedestals.
pw, as Kimchi well explains it,
DA Iw yn yort ba by Nimw itn, is that
part of the limb from the knee to the
foot. That 1 ms refers to his feet
(Ibn Ezra, Rashbam, Kleuker, Meier,
Hitzig, &c.), and not to his sandals
(Good, Williams, &c.), is evident
from ver. 11 and 14, where the head
and the hands, the visible parts of the
body, are described as golden ; and it
is but natura] that the feet, the only
remaining exposed parts, should also
be described as golden.

His aspect is like that of Le-
banon. Having depicted the single
parts of his body, the Shulamite now
joins them together, and presents them
in one whole, the appearance of which
impresses the mind with a_ sense
of beauty and majesty, like that of
Lebanon. “That goodly mountain,
CHAP. VI. ]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

71

He is distinguished as the cedars.
16 His voice is exquisitely sweet ;
Yea, his whole person is exceedingly lovely.
Such is my beloved, such my friend,
O daughters of Jerusalem.

DAUGHTERS OF JERUSALEM.
Cuap. VI. 1 Whither is thy beloved gone,
O thou fairest among women ?
Whither is thy. beloved turned away ?
Say, that we may seek him with thee.

even Lebanon” (Deut. iii. 25), being
so luxuriant in its vegetation and rich
in scenery, appeared very beautiful
and majestic at a distance. “ Lebanon
is a noble range of mountains, well
worthy of the fame it has so long
maintained. It is cultivated in a
wonderful manner, by the help of ter-
races, and is still very fertile. We
saw on some of its eminences, more
than 2,000 feet high, villages and
luxuriant vegetation ; and on some of
its peaks, 6,000 feet high, we could
discern tall pines against the clear sky
beyond. At first the clouds were on
the lofty summit of the range, but they
cleared away, and we saw Tannin,
which is generally regarded as the
highest peak of Lebanon. There is a
deep ravine that seems to run up the
whole way, and Tannin rises to the
height of 10,000 feet. The rays of the
setting sun gave a splendid tint to the
lofty brow of the mountain.”—Mission
of Inquiry to the Jews, p.240, &c.; comp.
alsoIsa.xxxv.2; Rosenmiiller, Alterth.
i, 2. p. 289; Volney, Travels, i. 293.
He is distinguished us the cedars,
ae., in his stature. The lofty cedar,
towering above all other trees, is easily
distinguished from the rest (Ezek.
xxxi. 3-16; Amos ii. 9). A similar
comparison occurs in Theocritus, xviii.
30, as quoted above, i. 9. The Chald.,
Ewald, Magnus, Philippson, &c., take
via for young man, youth; comp.
Ruth iii. 10; Isa. lxii. 5, “A young
man like the cedars ;” but the point of
comparison is lost in this case. Be-
sides, we should then expect the sing.

Wy, and not the plur. mx. Moreover,
2 Kings xix. 23, and Jer. xxii. 7,
where the same phrase O18 7729 is
used, is against it.

16. His voice is exquisitely sweet, &c.
The members, after being analysed
separately, have been viewed as a
whole ; but the beautiful person thus
described is inanimate, like the splen-
did marble columns or the lofty cedars,
to which she had compared him. In
this verse the Shulamite represents -
the charms of his speech; and thus
affirms his whole person, bodily and
mentally, as most lovely. “Such,”
she triumphantly exclaims, “is my
friend; and now, ye daughters of
Jerusalem, judge for yourselves where-
in my beloved is more than another
beloved.” Jn, prop. palate, is used for
the organ of speech, and speech itself,
Job vi. 30; xxxi.10; Prov. y. 8. That
a here does not mean any part of the
body, is evident from the context; for
it would be preposterous to recur to
the palate or mouth after the whole
person had been described. oOpnn0
and oN are abstracts (see i. 2),
adjectively. used (Gesen. § 106, 1, Rem.
1), to give intensity to the idea; comp.
Gen. i. 2. 193, Ais whole person, bodily
and mentally.

1. Whither ts thy beloved gone, &c.?
The court ladies, moved by this charm-
ing description, inquire of the Shula-
mite what direction he took, and offer
to seek him. The word "29 is omitted
after 71, for the sake of brevity and
pathos. For the superlative force of
Dwia 7.7, vide supra, i. 8.
172

THE SONG OF SONGS,

[CHAP. VI.

THE SHULAMITE.

2 My beloved is gone down into his garden,
To the beds of aromatics,
To feed in the gardens, and to gather lilies.
3 Iam my beloved’s, and my beloved is mine ;
He who feeds his flock among the lilies.

SOLOMON.

4 Graceful art thou, O my love, as Tirzah,

Beautiful as Jerusalem,

Awe-inspiring as bannered hosts !
5 Turn away thine eyes from me,

2, 3. My beloved is gone down into his
garden, &c. The Shulamite, knowing
that the court ladies are anxious to in-
duice her to transfer her affections tothe
king, replies in avague mauner, that he
is gone to his garden, he is not lost, nor
has her affection to him abated, though
they are now separated, nor does she
fear that his love for her is diminished.
This incontestably proves that the ob-
ject of the damsel’s affection, of whom
she gave a description in the preceding,
is not the king, but, as she herself
tells us here most unequivocally, ashep-
herd. For ver. 3, comp. chap. ii. 16.

4. Graceful art thou, O my love, &e.
Just as before (i. 9), Solomon made his
appearance as soon as the Shulamite
inquired after her beloved, so here he
comes forward again when she speaks
of her absent lover; thus endeavouring
to show his own attachment to her.
He addresses her, as before, in the
most flattering terms: “ Thou art as
graceful as the delectable Tirzah, as
charming as the delightful Jerusalem,
as striking and conqucring as an im-
posing army in full battle array.”
Tirzah was the royal residence of the
kings of Israel after the revolt of
Rehoboam, and retained that distine-
tion till the time of Omri, who built
Samaria (1 Kings x. 15-21; xvi. 14;
2 Kings xv. 4). It was a city of fas-
cinating appearance, asits name, 7277,
delightful, indicates ; and hence yielded
a very flattering comparison. The

Sept. takes Myy as an appellative,
as eddoxia; so Aquila, kar eddSoxiav,
90 n *
Sym. evdoxyry, Syriac, Jara, y |
The Chald. paraphrases it 227 7233,
in the time of thy willingness, and
Rashi inclines to it; the Vulg. has
suavis et decora. But there can be no
doubt, as Ibn Ezra, Rashbam, and all
modern commentators take it, that it is
a proper name, Tirzah, the capital of
Jeroboam’s kingdom. It may be that
the ancient versions resorted to the
expediency of taking 737" as an ap-
pellative, because they wished to avoid
the contrast of the two capitals, since
this would speak against Solomon
being the author of this book. Jeru-
salem, “the perfection of beauty”
(Lam. ii. 15), afforded another excel-
lent figure.

Awe-inspiring as bannered hosts! The
fascinating power of a woman is fre-
quently compared to the prowess of an
armed host. Comp. Proy. vii. 26.
dYx, which occurs once more in con-
nexion with xv, Hab. i. 7, means
awful, awe-inspiring, imposing. MVV372,
Niph. part. prop. bannered, people
Surnished, or arrayed with banners,
hence armies, hosts. The feminine is
here used to express a collective idea ;
comp. nimk, caravans, Isa. xxi. 13;
Gesen. § 107, 3d; Ewald, § 179 ¢.

5. Turn away thine eyes from me, &e.
These awe-inspiring hosts are described
as concentrated in her eyes, which
CHAP. VI.]

For they inspire me with awe!
Thy hair is like a flock of goats
Springing down Mount Gilead ;

THE SONG OF SONGS.

6 Thy teeth are like a flock of sheep, \

Which come up from the washing-pool ;

All of which are paired,

And not one among them is bereaved.

7 Like a part of the pomegranate
Ave thy cheeks behind thy veil.
8 I have threescore queens,
And fourscore concubines,
And maidens without number;

She, the delight of her mother,
She, the darling of her parent!

But she is my only one, my dove, my perfect beauty,

Solomon implores the Shulamite to
remove from him. “The artillery of
the eyes,” says Dr. Good, in loco, “is
an idea common to poets of every na-
tion.’ Thus Anacreon, xvi.

Ev pdv Aéyers ta ONBns,

‘Od ai dpuyav ditas*

'Eya 3’ buds ddwoes.

Obx immos ddeoév pe,

Od refos, obxi vyes"

Etpatos dé Kacvds UdADos,

"An’ Oppatav pe Badov.

“ Sing thou of Thebes—let others tell
How Troy’s foundations rose and fell ;
My nunibers shall alone repeat
My own rencounters and defeat.

Me fleets and armies ne’er appal—
‘Tis to a different host I fall:

A host within thine eyes, my fair,
That lurk and ply their arrows there.”

Comp. also Ode ii. 1m, in Kal, to
tremble (Isa. lx. 5), and Hiphil, to
cause to tremble or fear, to frighten,
to awe. Similarly the Sept. dvemré-
pocdy pe. Vulg. me avolare fuerunt,
“they make me flee for fear ;” and the

Syriac 2033], they make me fear. The
explanation of Ibn Ezra, 29 Wn,
which is followed by the Authorized
Version, cannot be deduced from the
root; nor does it suit the context.
Equally untenable is the explanation
017, Rashi and Rashbam. For
Di, mas, with Pry, fem. see supra, iv. 9.

6,7. Thy teeth are like a flock of
sheep, &c. For the interpretation of the
second half of ver. 5 and vers. 6, 7,
see iv. 1-3, where the same description
is given, with the exception that
there minz7 is used for sheep, and
here Dm, and that the first half of
ver. 3 is here omitted in the Hebrew,
which is here given by the Sept. We
cannot refrain from quoting the beau-
tiful explanation of these figures from
the manuscript commentary of Im-
manuel : mm $y mm DYN YN) ww nbn
ont at oy moon mw one ay pn
Dem Ty yam om od on pew,
MONNd DW, TSM yo DD OM Yad DTALw
7H PRw DTI px aw, mw onw rw dx Tw
DD DSTA NIN DT. DN yaaa Pwo
OMOR NOT Rw YD APD OTD pPRr nw
The Septuagint adds after 07a py T2320,
and not one among them is bereaved,
in ver. 6; as omapriov 7d KéKkivoy
xeiAn gov, Kai Aadid Gov a@paia, like a
braid of scarlet are thy lips, and thy
mouth is lovely, from chap iv. 3.

8,9. Ihave threescore queens, &c. The
flattery and praise here exceed all that
have been previously offered. Solomon
protests that, though he is surrounded
by a numerous retinue of women of
all ranks, the Shulamite is the sole
possessor of his heart: she who is the
174

THE SONG OF

SONGS. [CHAP. VI.

The damsels saw her and praised her ;

The queens also, and the concubines, and extolled her thus :
10 “Who is she that looks forth as the morn, :

Beautiful as the moon, bright as the sun,

Awe-inspiring as bannered hosts ?”

THE SHULAMITE.
11 I went down into the nut-garden,
To look among the green plants by the river,
To see whether the vine was budding,
Whether the pomegranates were in bloom.

best beloved of her mother, and whose
consummate beauty has elicited the
highest praises from the queens, con-
cubines and maidens. The discrepancy
between the number of Solomon’s
wives and concubines here stated,
and that described in 1 Kings xi. 3,
may be reconciled by taking OWw, Dyow
and 7209 psx for indefinite and large
numbers: many, very many, without
number: so Kleuker, Rosenmiiller,
Magnus, &c. We must supply “, to
me, after 737, there. For 97, mas,
instead of 723, fem., see ii. 7. The
pronoun 7, she, is the subject in all
the three clauses, and 77x in the first
and second clause, and 773 in the third
are predicates. We must supply %
after NNT, she ts my only one ; just
as Tox} weno. The word 1x is used
for the only one of its kind (Job xxiii.
18; Ezek. ii. 64; vii. 5), favourite ;
comp. 782 Ty 3, 2 Sam. vii. 23.

10. Who is she that looks forth, &e.
That Solomon quotes here the eulogy
mentioned in the preceding verse,
which the court ladies pronounced upon
the superlative beauty of the Shula-
mite when they first beheld her, has
long been recognised by the Rabbins,
and is now admitted by most interpre-
ters. This is, moreover, confirmed by
Prov. xxxi. 28, where the same words,
7x and 557, are used, and the following
verse contains the eulogy which the
husband utters. The rising morning,
with its red light looking down from
heaven over the mountains (Jocl ii. 2) ;
the beautiful and placid complexion of
the moon, and the refulgent and re-

splendent appearance of the sun, have

often afforded, both to the Oriental and

to the Greek and Latin writers, ex-

quisite similes for beauty and gran-

deur. Thus Sirach (1. 5, 6), describing

the High Priest, says :—

“How splendid he was in his interview with
the people.

In his coming out from the house of the veil!

As the morning star amid the clouds,

As the moon when full in her days,

As the sun when beaming upon the temple of
the Most High.”

Comp. also Rev. i.16; Theocritus’ de-

scription of Helen, xviii. 26—28;

Lane’s Arabian Nights, i. 29. 790

and m2) are poetical epithcts for the

sun and moon, Isa. xxiv. 23.

11,12. I went down into the nut-
garden,&e. AsSolomon had referred, in
uttering his encomium, to her first
coming within sight of the court ladies,
the Shulamite here instantly interrupts
the king, in order to explain how that
came to pass. “J did not go to meet
the king, to exhibit myself and be ad-
mired by him or his royal retinue; I
merely went into the garden with the
intention of seeing whether there were
any herbs to take home for use, and
whether the fruit promised well; and
this (52) tntention of mine brought
me unawares near the monarch and
his cortége.” Though 1x, nwt-tree, (so
Sept., Vulg., Chald.,) 2 occurs no-
where else in the Old Testament, yet its
meaning is established from the cog-
nate languages, and its frequent usage
in the Talmud and latter Hebrew
writers, 1718), ¢o look among (Gen.
xxxiv.), with the intention of choosing
CHAP. VI. |

THE SONG OF SONGS.

175

12 Unwittingly had my longing soul brought me
To the chariots of the companions of the prince.

that which pleases, Gen. vi. 2. Sun 2x,
the green or vegetables growing by the
river side; so the Sept. yevnuare rod

eappov, and Rashbam, om npw by.

he Sept. has here 72 17 nx yny ow,
from chap. vii. 14, which the Arabic,
Ethiopic, and several modern com-
mentators wrongly follow, as it has
no MS. authority, and has evidently
arisen from a misunderstanding of this
passage.

12. Unwittingly, &c. This verse has
caused much perplexity to interpre-
ters. The ancient versions, finding
the sense obscure, have altered almost
every word, and hence increased the
difficulty. Thus the Sept. has ovk éyvw
H uxy pou! €erd we Gppara ’ApvadaB,
which Luther follows: “ Meine Seele
wusste es nicht, dass er mich zum
Wagen Aminadib gezetzt hatte :” They
take wp) as the subject, alter ‘nyT? 8%, the
first person com., into Ty? &, the third
fem., to agree with w2, a fem. noun,
‘now, the third fem.,into’2¥, the third
mase. referring it to Solomon, and re-
gard 73°2 as a proper name. The
Vulg. has Vescivi, anima mea contur-
bavit me propter quadrigas Aminadab ;
altering *2n2v, the Kal of Dw, to put, to
place, into the Hiphil of Dav, to be
astonished, ni222 into 3279, the plural
of 234, with the preposition °, and
taking 1722» as a proper name. Pas-
sing over these textual alterations,
and the emendations proposed by
modern commentators, as unautho-
rized, we shall first examine the words
as they are in the text, and then the
most plausible interpretations dedu-
cible therefrom. ‘ny? X> are rightly
taken by most, though differing in
their opinion as to the rendering of the
remainder of the verse, as adverbial, in
the sense of suddenly, unwittingly, and
as subordinate to ‘nw D1, my soul
has unwittingly put me, or placed me ;
comp. Job v. 9; Isa. xlvii. 11; Jer. 1.
24, The verb ov, to put, to place, may
be construed with two accusatives,
one of the person, and the other of the

(She goes away).

thing ; and mi2>y2 may be taken as the
second accusative (comp. Ps. xxxix. 9;
1 Sam. viii.1; Mich.i.7), or M2372 may
be taken as a designation of place after
Daw, a verb of motion ; comp. Isa. x1. 26.
m9, a chariot, used for warlike pur-
poses, or for state or pleasure, Gen.
xlvi. 29; Exod. xv.4; 2 Sam. xv. 1.
The expression 2» may either mean
populares mei—(the Hebrews having no
separate word for “countryman,” use
this expression to denote one of their
own people (Gesen. xxiii. 11; Lam. ii.
11), and 232 may be an adjective for
2m, as the article is sometimes
omitted through following a noun
with suffix)—or ‘o> may here be
used, like wx, for companions, attend-
ants, followers, (Eccl. iv. 16,) the * in
‘ey not being a suffix, but paragogic,
and a mark of the const. state (Deut.
xxxili.16; Lam.i.1), and 2}, a noun
in the genitive of the king or prince.
As to how much stress there is to be
laid on the Sept., which takes 172 "av as
a proper name, and is followed by the
Arabic, Ethiop., Vulg., and which also
produced some variations in the ortho-
graphy of these words, we need only
refer to vii. 2, where the same version
renders 2123 by 6vyaénp ’Apwwadaf.
The verse, therefore, may either be
translated: “ My soul has unwittingly
made me the chariots of my noble coun-
trymen,” or, “ My soul has unwittingly
placed at, or brought me to the charvots
of my noble people, or to the chariots of
the companions of the prince.” Now
against the first rendering we urge, in
the first place, that if the chariots be
taken in the accusative, and hence in
a figurative sens2, we are unavoidably
led into a bewildering maze of con-
jectural and fanciful opinions. The
following may serve as a specimen.
Rashi takes the chariots to be a sign
of ignominy. PIT MAI NYTY Aw "WPI
mor we mr, “ My soul has made
me to be chariots for foreign princes
to ride upon”; ie. I have willingly
brought upon mea foreign yoke. Ibn
[CHAP. VII.

176 THE SONG OF SONGS.
SOLOMON.
Cnar. VII1. 1 Return, return, O Shulamite,

Return, return, that we may look at thee.

THE SHULAMITE.
What will you behold in the Shulamite ?

SOLOMON.
Like a dance to double choirs.

Ezra takes the chariots as a figure for
swiftness, PR TSVAI NINA MTD NYT Nd
yova ww Syma oy maw ws, “ TJ did
not know that Iwas hurrying on to thee
with the rapidity of the chariots of the
great prince who is among my people ;”

which the Syriac, 2a} ASga ii

= Do vy
WAoaisao aslo, though shar-
ing somewhat in the errors of the Sept.
and Vulg., seems to favour. Herder
takes the chariots as u symbol of
martial power, guard, and protection
(Ps. xx.8; 2Kingsii.11,12). Heng-
stenberg affirms that the chariots
signify champion, guard, defence. And
secondly, this translation interrupts
the connexion of this verse with the
preceding one. Now the second ren-
dering avoids all this. Solomon has
repeated in verse 10 the praise which
the court ladies had pronounced on
the Shulamite when they first saw her ;
the Shulamite (in ver. 11, 12), in reply,
explains how she came to the carriages
of the court ladies.

1. Return, return, &c. Here we see
how little all the persuasions, promises,
and culogies of the king and courtiers
affected the sincere and deeply rooted
affections of the Shulamite for her be-
loved shepherd. No sooner had she
explained (as she incidentally in-
forms us) how she came to be no-
ticed and taken up by the king, than
she actually started off. But the king
entreated her to return, that he might
look at her once more. The Shulamite,
pausing a little, turns round and
modestly asks:

What will you behold in the Shula-
mite? That is, what can ycseeina hum-
ble rustic girl? mopwn, as is evident

from the article, is a gentile noun, ac-
cording to the analogy of mona, (1
Kingsi.3; 2 Kingsiv.12,25.) Ewald,
§156c: anda female inhabitant of Shu-
lem, 7.q. Shunem. Shulem still exists
as a village, now called Sdélam, about
three miles and a half north of Zerin,
(Jezreel), and lies on the declivity, at
the western end of the mountain of
Duhy, the so-called Little Hermon.
“There is little room for doubt that it
is the ancient Shunem of the tribe of
Issachar, where the Philistines en-
camped before Saul’s last battle, (Josh.
xix. 18; 1 Sam. xxviii. 4.) From the
same place, apparently, Abishag the
Shunammite was brought to the aged
David; and here it was probably that
Elisha often lodged in the house of the
Shunammite woman, and afterwards
raised her son from the dead (1 Kings
i. 3; 2 Kings iv. 8—37; viii. 1—6).
Eusebius and Jerome describe it in
their day as a village lying five Roman
miles from Mount Tabor, towards
the southern quarter, and they write
the name already Sulem.” Robinson,
Palestine, iii.169,&c. The transition
of > into} is of frequent occurrence ;
comp. ym) and ym, to burn. (Gesen.
Lexicon, a; Ewald, § 156, c.) meaw is
not the feminine of the name 7°,
which would be mit}; comp. Lev. xxiv.
11; 1 Chron. iii. 19; Ewald, § 274, f.
Like uw dance to double choirs,
replies the king, ze. “to see thee is
like gazing at the charming view of
a festive choir expressing their merri-
ment inasacred dance. 'The Hebrews,
in common with other nations (Strabo,
10), used sacred dancing, accompanied
by vocal and instrumental music, as
expressive of joy and rejoicing (Exod.
xv. 20; 2 Sam. vi, 15; Ps. exlix. 3).
CHAP. vu. |

THE SONG OF SONGS.

177

2 How beautiful are thy feet in sandals, O noble maiden !
The circuits of thy thighs like ornaments,
The work of a-master’s hands.

3 Thy navel is like a round goblet,
Let not spiced wine be wanted in it;

A sight of such an assemblage of vari-
ous beauties, all swelling their voices
into one song of joy, and blending their
several forms in one choral dance of
joy, must have afforded a delightful
picture. No wonder that such a scene
is described by Homer (Iliad, xviii.
590,) as portrayed on the famous shield
of Achilles, and that
‘On either side spectators numerous stood,
Delighted.”
To this charming scene, thercfore, does
the captivated monarch compare the
view of the Shulamite. 7)inn, from
tun, to turn round, a dance, the
joyous dancing on a festive occasion.
my, prop. a camp, also a multitude,
a band of people, Gen. 1. 9. OI
the regular dual, and not the plural
(Sept., Vulg., Gesenius, Dépke, &c.),
and is here used because this dance con-
sisted of a band arranged in a double
line, something like our country dance.
On the different kinds of Oriental dan-
ces, see Rosenmiiller, Orient. ii. 19—22 ;
Wilkinson, Manners, &c., ii. 328—340.
Saalschiitz, Archéeologie der Hebraer,
vol. i.302. The words '3797 nim3 have
elicited a variety of interpretations.
Some take Dm as a proper name, and
say that reference is here made to some
particular mode of worship practised
in that place in consequence of Jacob’s
sojourn there; but this is purely ima-
ginary. Others again suppose that
an allusion is made to Gen. xxxii. 2, 3,
and hence render D219 by Dix "2179 or
niwaz; but this is unfounded, since we
have not the slightest intimation in
that passage that the angels were
engaged in dancing. 5
2. How beautiful are thy feet in
sandals! The Shulamite, in obedience
to the king’s request, returns, and as
she advances, Solomon is arrested by
her beautiful feet, with which he begins
his last highly flattering delineation of
her beauty, and his last attempt to win

her affections. 0993, Chald. p9730, san-
dals, formed an important part of an
Oriental costume (Ezek. xvi. 10; Ju-
dith xvi. 9). The ladies bestowed
great pains upon, and evinced much
taste in ornamenting this article of
dress, which attracted the notice of
the opposite sex. 2723 does not mean
a descendant of a titled family, but,
according to a common Hebrew idiom,
which applies 23, and other terms of
human kindred to relations of every
kind, expresses that she herself was
of a noble character. Comp. 1 Sam.
i. 16; Gesen. § 106,2 a; Ewald, § 287 f.

The circuits of thy thighs like orna-
ments, &c. To describe the beautiful
appearance of an object, the Orientals
frequently compared it to some pre-
cious metal or gem; see supr. v. 11;
Prov. xxv. 12. The simple metal or
gem, however, seems not to suffice here
to express the exquisite symmetry of
these parts of the body; they are,
therefore, compared with some beau-
tifully-wrought and_highly-finished
ornaments, formed of such materials.
The rendering of D’yB by steps (Sept.,
Vulg., Ewald, Dépke, Hengstenberg,
&c.), and ‘p07 by Schwingungen, move-
ments (Hengstenberg), is contrary to
the scope of the description, which
obviously depicts the several members
of the body (beginning with the feet
and gradually ascending to the head),
and not their actions. Oxon is not the
dual(Luther), but the plural; according
to the analogy of °2¥, ON2¥; °NB, DxNB.
The & in the plural is preferred to the
> in consequence of the preceding A
sound. Gesen.§ 93, 66; Ewald,§186e.

3. Thy navelis like around goblet, &c.
The reference and the import of the
figure areobvious. 339, 2.9. 109, mixture,
mixed wine. The ancients were in the
habit of mixing wine with spices, to
make it more stimulating and exciting.
Winethus mixed was called n717 1", viil.

AA
178

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[CHAP. VII.

Thy body is like a heap of wheat,
Hedged round with lilies.
4 Thy bosom is like two young fawns,

Twins of a gazelle.

2, the wnwm aromatites of the Greeks
and Romans. (Comp. Ps. lxxv. 9;
Prov.ix.5; Isa.v.22; Mishna, Maaser
sheni, ii. 1; Baba Mez. v. 2; Pliny,
Hist. Nat. xiv. 15; Gesen. Thesaurus,
p- 808; Winer, Bib. Dict. s.v.) yay
is one of the few instances in which
“vd are resolved before suffixes, owing
to the broadness of the vowels when
preceding °, or 7. Comp. 3 with suffix
Wha: oe oe: woMG, Ewald, § 265;
First, Lexicon, s. v. 9x-. The par-
ticle °% expresses a subjective wish,
Gesen. Lexicon, x, ii. 6, Ewald, § 320.

Thy body is like a heap of wheat, &c.
The point of analogy seems to subsist
between the appearance of the body
and that of a quantity of corn heaped
up, 222, which Ibn Ezra well explains
mbyndn APH mondo may 3 so also Rashbam.
Remembering that corpulency was
deemed essential to an Eastern beauty,
this comparison will appear obvious.
Selden, who is followed by others,
takes this passage as a prediction
of the bride’s fertility : as:—‘ Wheat
and barley were among the an-
cient Hebrews emblems of fertility ;
and it was usual for standers-by to
scatter these grains upon the married
couple, with a wish that they might
increase and multiply.” Uxor He-
braica, lib. ii.cap.15. ‘‘A custom,” adds
Williams, “which might probably ori-
ginate from this passage, or vice versa.”

But though it is true that it was a
common practice among the Jews at
marriages to distribute among the
company dried seeds (Talm. Chethu-
both, ii. 1), probably to indicate a wish
that the newly-married couple might
be fruitful, it does not follow that it
was the practice at so early an age, or
that it is the meaning here. Were
this the sense here, we should expect
that the Jewish commentators, who
well knew and practised the manners
and customs of their own people, would
have recognised it. Whereas, Rashi,

Rashbam, Ibn Ezra, &c., explain this
figure as referring to the appearance.
Hedged round with, &c. The thresh-
ing-floors in ancient times were in the
open air; and when the wheat had
been threshed out, fanned and heaped
up, each heap was stuck round with
thorns, in order to keep off the cattle.
(Hos. ii. 5, 6.) To render the figure
more beautiful, and the compliment
more flattering, the enamoured king
changes the hedge of thorns into a fence
of lilies. Others, however, refer these
words toa robe embroidered with lilies,
covering her body ; and others, again,
to some ancient custom of surrounding
or covering the newly-threshed heap
of wheat with a sort of garland of
flowers, indicating the joy of the hus-
bandman at the return of the harvest.
4,5. Thy bosom is like, &c. These
verses, with a little variation arising
from the fact that a different person is
the speaker here, contain the same
figures as iv. 4, 5. The comparison
between the beautiful symmetry, erect
bearing, and ivory colour of the neck,
and between the elegant structure,
lofty altitude, and white colour of a
tower, appears more striking and ap-
posite from the description given by
Josephus of the towers of Jerusalem :
“ They were so very tall, they appeared
much taller by the place on which
they stood; for that very old wall,
wherein they were, was built on a
high hill, and was itself a kind of
elevation that was still thirty cubits
taller, over which were the towers
situated, and thereby were made much
higher to appearance. The largeness
also of the stones was wonderful; for
they were not made of common small
stones, nor of such large ones only as
men could carry, but they were of
white marble, cut out of the rocks:
each stone was twenty cubits in length,
and ten cubits in breadth, and five in
depth. They were so exactly united
CHAP. vi.]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

179

5 Thy neck is like an ivory tower ;
Thine eyes are as the pools in Heshbon,

By the populous gate;

Thy nose is as the tower of Lebanon,
Looking towards Damascus.
6 Thy head upon thee as purple,

to one another, that each tower looked
like one entire block of stone, so grow-
ing naturally, and afterwards cut by
the hand of the artificer into the pre-
sent shape and corners; so little, or
not at all, did their joints or connexion
appear.” (Jewish War, book v. chap.
iv. 4.—Whiston’s translation.) The
comparison of the neck with ivory is
also used by Anacreon (Ode xxix. 28,
29), in his description of Bathyllus :—
Tov *Adwridos mapedOwv
édepavtivos tTpaxnros.
“But never can thy pencil trace
His ivory neck of Paphian grace.”
Thine eyes, &c. That is, are as
bright and serene as the celebrated
translucent pools of this city. Heshbon,
a town in the southern parts of the
Hebrew territory, about twenty miles
east of the point where the Jordan
enters the Dead Sea, originally be-
longed to the Moabites (Numb. xxi.
25), and afterwards came into pos-
session of the Amorite king Sihon
(ibid.; Deut. ii. 24; Josh.iii. 10). It
was conquered by Moses shortly before
his death (Numb. xxi. 25), and was
first assigned to the tribe of Reuben
(Numb. xxxii. 37; Josh. xiii. 17), and
afterwards to the tribe of Gad, and
became a Levitical city (Josh. xxi.
89; 1 Chron. vi. 81). It was re-
taken by the Moabites when the ten
tribes were carried into exile (Isa. xv.
4; xvi.9; Jer. xlviii. 2), but the Jews
conquered it again afterwards (Jo-
seph. Antiq. lib. xiii.) The ruins
of Heshbon, the name by which the
place is still known, have been visited
and described by modern travellers.
(Burckhardt, Travels, p. 365; Biblical
Repos. for 1833, p. 650; Robinson,
Palestine, ii. 278.) Heshbon was the
pride of Moab, was famous for its fer-
tility, verdure of plantation, and beaa-
tiful reservoirs. Hence the simile

here. A similar comparison is used
by Ovid, De Arte Ama. ii. 722 :—
“« Adspicies oculos tremulo fulgare meiantes,
Ut sol a liquida saepe refulget aqua.”
oajna is well explained by Rashbam,
the populous, 11 YOUN PREY VT IN,
“because, through it a multitude of
the inhabitants of the town walk in
and out;” ow dsnom owl ot, “ be-
cause it is the chief place of concourse.”
na, daughter, like 73, son, is idioma-
tically used in Hebrew to express
quality. Compare }28—y2, @ son of
JSatness, i.e. fat; Isa. v. 1, and supra,
vii. 2. The Septuagint, which is fol-
lowed by the Vulgate, not understand-
ing this idiom, renders it literally
év rUdats Ouyarpos woAdGy, by the gates
of the daughter of many.

Thy nose, &c. This tower must
have contained a projection or an over-
hanging part, celebrated for its great
symmetry and elegance. Hence the
comparison between the beautifully
projecting tower and the well-propor-
tioned nose.

6. Thy head upon thee, &e. 973
stands here for "232, purpura; so Ibn
Gamach, Ibn Ezra, First, &c. This
shell-fish is of a spiral form, and “ the
exquisite juice which is so greatly
sought after for the purpose of dyeing
cloth is situate in the middle of the
throat. This secretion consists of a
tiny drop contained in « white vein,
from which the precious liquid used
for dyeing is distilled, being of the tint
of a rose, somewhat inclined to black.”
Pliny, Hist. Nat. ix. 60, 61; Arist.
Hist. Anim. lib. v.c. 14. The simile
here subsists between the spiral form
of this shell-fish and the pyramidal
shape in which the hair was anciently
tied up on the top of the head. The
Chinese and other Eastern women still
wear their hair rolled up into a knot
or bunch at the top of the head; and
180

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[CHAP. VII.

And the tresses of thy head as crimson.
The king is captivated by the ringlets:
How beautiful and how charming,
O love, in thy fascinations !

7 This thy growth is like a palm-tree,
And thy bosom like its clusters.

even in this country ladies used to
dress their hair in a somewhat similar
manner. The rendering of the ancient
versions of 273, by Mount Carmel,
which the majority of modern inter-
preters follow: they take the simile to
be between the beautiful appearance of
the bride’s head and the charming, lux-
uriant, and picturesque summit of this
celebratedmountain; but this is against
the parallellism and 2 Chron. ii. 16, 13;
iii. 14. S92 is derived from
bra, to be shiningly red, with >— ap-
pended, according to the analogy of
yxn8; vide Fiirst, Lexicon in voce; or
it may be that this shell-fish was so
called because it was found on the shore
near Carmel. At all events, there is no
need to look for the etymology of this
word out of the Shemitic family.
And the tresses, &c. Fine hair is

frequently compared by the Greeks
and Romans with purple. Thus Ana-
creon, xxviii. 11, 13.

page a &E BAne maperiy

ind moppipaca Xalatas

éXepavtivev pétwmov.

Then paint, from her full cheeks,

Beneath her purple hair,

Her ivory forehead.
Compare also Virgil, Georg. i. 405;
Tibul. i. 4, 63. The purple here re-
ferred to is that kind which Pliny de-
scribes as “ nigrans adspectu indemque
suspectu refulgens.” yo, the costly
colour extracted from the shell-fish,
is from 023, kind. 079, to colour, with
the prostetic 8 and termination }>;
vide supra, chap. iii. 9.

The king is captivated, &c. The
ringlets, like the lashes of the eyelids,
are frequently represented as the net
of love. Prov. vi. 25; Sirach ix. 3, 4.
Thus Jami, in his Joseph and Zuleikha,
chap. i.,as quoted by Dr. Good, says :—

«When Lovo in graceful ringlets plants his toils,
The fool he catches, and the wise man foils;

But, thence released, the sage his snare discerns,
And Reason’s lamp with wonted lustre burns.”
T22 stands for 7227; the article is not
unfrequently omitted in poetry ; comp.
Ps.ii.2; xxi. 2; Gesen. § 109; Ewald,
§ 277, b. wm, a ringlet, so called
from its flowing down over the shoul-
ders; vide supra, chap. i. 16. The
construction of 72) with yom, Le.
royal purple (one of the Greek trans-
lators in the Hexapla, Vulgate, Syriac,
Luther, Houbigant, &c.), is against
the punctuation and theevennessof the
metre, interferes with the interpret-
ation of the remaining words, and
has evidently arisen from a misun-
derstanding of the passage. Besides,
no people is known by such a name.
It was owing to a feeling of being
consistent that the editor of Calmet
felt himself constrained to take yom"
as a proper name, Argamen, to corre-
spond with the parallel 5212; and to
explain this clause as alluding to a
particular mode of plaiting the hair,
like the weaving of Arech, a city in
Babylonia, supposed to be famous for
its weaving manufactories.

How beautiful, &c. The captiva-
ted king, having described the beauty
of the several parts of the body, now
combines the separate members into
one lovely form, and endows it with
life and fascination, which none of the
inanimate beauties to which he had
compared her, however admirable,
possessed. 278, dove, abstract for
concrete, loved one, vide supra, chap.
v.1, myn, charm, attraction, such as
living beings possess. Aquila and the
Syria, separating the word oyna,
render it @vydrnp rpupar, D229 N3,

7. This thy growth, &c. ‘The beau-
tiful growth of the palm-tree, like
that of the cedar and cypress, sup-
plied a forcible image to the ancients.
CHAP, ViI.]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

181

8 I long to climb this palm-tree,
I long to clasp its branches.
May thy bosom be unto me
As the clusters of the vine,
And the odour of thy breath

As that of apples ;

9 And thy speech as delicious wine,

Thus the Son of Sirach, xxiv. 13,
14:—
“T grew up as a cedar of Lebanon,

And as a cypress upon Mount Hermon ;

I grew up as a palm-tree in En-gedi,

And as a rose-tree in Jericho.”
Comp. also Homer, Odyss. vi. 162, and
supra, chap. v.15. *>Wx, bunch, cluster,
of grapes, dates, or flowers; the con-
text must decide which. Here, from
its close proximity to 2n, palm-tree,
dates are most probably intended. For
the etymology of ‘3Ux, see supra,
chap. i. 14; and for its form, both here
and in ver. 9, Ewald, § 212 d.

8. I'long to climb, &c. After this
flattering description Solomon tells the
Shulamite how greatly he desires, and
how happy he should be to enjoy, the
affections of one so lovely and charm-
ing. We earnestly request those who
maintain the allegorical interpretation
of the Song seriously to reflect whether
this verse, and indeed the whole of
this address, can be put into the mouth
of Christ as speaking to the Church.
Would not our minds recoil with horror
were we to hear a Christian using it
publicly, or even privately, to illustrate
the love of Christ for his Church ?—
xox, to speak, also to wish, to desire,
Gen. xliv. 28; Exod. ii. 14; 1 Sam.
xx.4, -myox does not express the past,
but the present; comp. 27 in the
preceding verse; Gesen. § 126, 3;
Ewald, § 135 b. The second verb px
is subordinate to the first, vide supra,
chap. ii. 3. yp2 is added to %>Bx, to
distinguish it from the dates in ver. 7.

And the odour of thy breath, &e.
That is, be as sweet and as quickening
as that of apples. "xis used in pre-
ference to 1, because the nostril, or
the breathing (which 4x literally
means) is regarded by the Hebrews

as that which in distension betokens
pleasure, anger, &c. The appropriate-
ness of this expression will be more
manifest when we remember that
hitherto all that the Shulamite showed
towards Solomon were resistance and
independence. There is also a play
of words here, 8 being derived from
Fax, to breathe, and ™»=n, from m5, to
breathe. Hodgson strangely renders
FPR vn, “the fragrance of thy face,”
because several MSS. read [=x with a
yod.

9. And thy speech, &c. That is, Let
thy language to me be as the sweet-
ness of delicious wine. Rosenmiiller,
Dépke, De Wette, Noyes, Delitzsch,
Hengstenberg, &c., put these words
into the mouth of the maiden. But it
is incredible that this modest woman
would approve of these expressions
with regard to her own person, and
that she would continue the words
Du nip 347. 77 plate, metonymi-
cally for speech; vide supra, chap. v. 16.
i1¥ is used as a substantive, and placed
in the genitive after 2; comp. Ps.

xxi. 4; Prov. xxiv. 25; Ewald,
§ 287 b. The phrase D-w9) yin de-
scribes the smooth or mellow wine,
which is of a very superior quality,
and highly prized, Prov. xxiii. 31.
The expression "117? is added in order
to describe still more forcibly the na-
ture of the wine, and affords a more
striking illustration of the pleasantness
of the damsel’s speech. Her voice is
not merely compared to wine, valued
because it is sweet to everybody ; but
to such wine as would be sweet toa
friend, and on that account is more
valuable and pleasant. Ammon, Ewald,
Heiligstedt, Hitzig, &c. regard "17>
as having erroneously crept in here
182

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[CHAP. VII.

Which to my friend flows down with mellowed sweetness,
And causes slumbering lips to speak.
THE SHULAMITE.

10 I belong to my beloved,

And it is for me to desire him.

11 Come, my beloved, let us

from ver. 11, whilst Velthusen, Meier,
&c. point it 17) in the plural ; but this
is unsupported by MSS. Hodgson,
taking 7179 for O77, translates it ad
amores, delightfully, corresponding to
monn in the next clause. But this
rendering, to say the least, is contrary
to the general meaning of this word.
The rendcring of Williams, “ which I
sent to those whom I love for their
integrity,” is preposterous.

And causes slumbering lips, &c.
The wine is of such an animating na-
ture, that it even causes silent lips to
speak. Thus Horace, Epist. lib. i. Ep.
v. 19 :-—

Fecundi calices quem non fecere disertum?

“‘Whom have not soul-inspiring cups made

eloquent?”

Others, however, with less probability,
explain these words to mean wine of
so excellent a flavour, as to induce
those who have indulged in it to dream
of it, and converse about it; or wine
so delicious and tempting that it leads
to excess, in consequence of which the
drinkers fall asleep, and then either
disclose the subject of their dream, or
mutter unintelligible words. 3317 is
not gently flowing, suffusing (Ewald,
Dépke, Gesenius, De Wette, Lee,
Magnus, Noyes, Meier, Philippson,
Hitzig, &c.), but casing to speak
(Vulg., Rashi, Ibn Ezra, Rashbam,
Mendelssohn, Kleuker, Hengstenberg,
Furst, Delitzsch, &c.) This is cor-
roborated by the derivative 739,
which primarily means something
spoken, a report, either good or bad, as
is evident from Gen. xxvii. 2; Numb.
xiv. 37, where the adjective 72, evdl,
is yoined to it; and from Ezek. xxxvi.
3, where it stands in parallelism with
swt nb, and by the frequent usage in
the Talmud and other Hebrew writers
of the word 335, for speaking. 1357 is

go into the country,

the Poel of 123, a form frequently used
in verbs »’? (comp. %n, Eccl. vii. 7;
anv, Ps. lix. 7; Gesen. § 67, 8), and,
like the Piel, is often the causative of
Kal, Gesen. § 55,1. The Sept., Vulg.,
Sym. Syr., read Om cong, the
lips and the teeth, instead of ‘nv
or; but this is neither supported by
MSS., nor yields a better sense.

10. LI belong to my beloved, &c. The
Shulamite gently but decidedly refuses
the wishes of the king, declaring that
her affections are fixed on one whom
she ardently loves, and on whom alone
it is her sacred duty to look. Even
Ibn Ezra and Rashbam, :though ex-
plaining it differently, admit that the
maiden here refuses the petitioner of the
last verse on the plea that she belonged
to her beloved. *2y, lit. on me, i. e. tt
ts upon meas a duty. v is frequently
used to denote duty or obligation, which
rests upon one like a burden, and must
be discharged. Thus nny, “it was
my duty to give,” 2 Sam. xviii. 11;
Sy mvabw “Tm, “ peace-offerings are due
from me,” Prov. vil. 14; Gesen. Lexi-
con, vy A. 1l,ay. Ewald, § 217, 4 y.
The suffix in inzn expresses the ob-
ject, i. e. the desire for him. This is
often the case; comp. inyxy, his fear,
i.e. the fear for him, Exod. xx. 20;
Gesen. § 121, 5; Ewald, § 286 b. We
thus obtain the same sense of this
clause which Hodgson gives it, without
changing the words into ‘npwn mr,
upon the slender authority of one MS.
to support the first. and three MSS. to
support the second alteration.

11 Come, my beloved, &e. Waving
distinctly and finally refused the king,
who forthwith quitted her, the Shula-
mite now addresses her beloved shep-
herd, who approached her, urging
their departure from the royal pa-
lace for their festive bowers in Na-
CHAP. VII.]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

183

Let us abide in the villages.
12 We will go early to the vineyards,
We will see whether the vine flourishes ;
Whether the buds open ;
Whether the pomegranates blossom ;
There will I give thee my love.
13 The mandrakes diffuse fragrance,
And at our door are all sorts of delicious fruit,

ture’s hall. The want of separate
names, or initial letters of names,
generally used in profane composition
to indicate the speaker or the person
spoken to, is amply supplied here by
the skill of the inspired poet in put-
ting into the mouth of the Shulamite
such rural language as shows most
plainly that she was u rustic maiden,
and that her beloved, whom she here
addresses, is a shepherd. Comp. also
chap. i. 7; ii. 8; v. 2,4, &c. To as-
cribe these words to a princess address-
ing king Solomon is preposterous.
Déderlein, Ewald, Meier, &c., take
comp) as the plural of 153, cypress, vide
supra, i. 14; iv. 13; but 1 Chron. xxvii.
25, where 2793, like here, coupled with
ny, field, forms a contrast to VY, city,
is against it. 77w7 is the accusative of
place, 1 Sam. xx. 11; Gesen. § 118, 1.
12. We will go early, &c. Trans-
ported with the thought of her speedy
arrival at her mother’s house, the
Shulamite vividly depicts to her be-
loved the scenes of home, where they
will again together enjoy rural life.
It may be that Milton thought of this
passage when he wrote the words :—
“ To-morrow, ere fresh morning streak the east
With first approach of light, we must be risen,
And at our pleasant labour, to reforra
Yon flowery arbours, yonder alleys green,

Our walks at noon with branches overgrown.”
Paradise Lost, iv. 623, &c.

ornw) my is constructio praegnans,
and is well explained by Rashban,
tna 9) AM2w3, “ we will rise early
to stroll in the vineyards.” Comp.
Gen. xliv. 33; Numb. xiv. 24; Gesen.
141.
; There will I give, &c. The shepherd,
gleddened with the fact that his loved
one is restored to him, is desirous of

expressing his joy and affection, but
the Shulamite, anxious to get off as
quickly as possible, tells him that at
home, amidst the charms of nature,
they may indulge in sweet effusions of
love. The Sept. and Vulg. have here
again 01), breasts, instead of 0°17, love.
But in addition to what has already
been remarked, we would state that
whenever breasts are mentioned in this
Song, D'1d is invariably used.

13. The mandrakes diffuse, &c.
Another reason for hastening away
from the royal prison into the rural
home. There nothing will be wanting;
they have there the highly prized
apples, they have all sorts of precious
fruit, which she left on the trees for
him. A similar passage occurs in
Virgil, Eccl. i. 37, where the loved one
kept fruit on the tree for her lover :—~
Mirabar, quid moesta deos, Amarylli, vocares;

Cui pendcre sua patereris in arbore poma:
Tityrus hinc aberat.

“We stood amazed to see your mistress mourn :
Unknowing that she pined for your return :
‘We wonder’d why she kept her fruit so long,
For whom so late th’ ungather’d apples hung :
But no, the wonder ceases, since I see

She kept them only, Tityrus, for thee.”

Dx, which occurs only once more,
(Gen. xxx. 14), is, according to the
testimony of the ancient versions, the
mass of commentators and modern
travellers, the mandrake-plant, Atropa
mandragora, called yabrochack by the
Arabs, the fruit of which is highly
valued by the Orientals for its sup-
posed exhilarating, aphrodisiac, and
procreative properties. “It grows low,
like lettuce, to which its leaves have a
strong resemblance, except that they
have adark green colour. The flowers
are purple, and the root is for the
184 THE SONG OF SONGS. [CHAP. VIII.

Both new and old;

I have reserved them, O my beloved, for thee !
Cuap. VIII. 1 Oh that thou wert as my brother,
As one who had been nourished in the bosom

of my mother !

If I found thee in the street I would kiss thee,
And should no more be reproached.

2 I would lead thee thence,
I would bring thee into the house of my mother ;

most part forked. The fruit, when
ripe, in the beginning of May, is of
the size and colour of a small apple,
exceedingly ruddy, and of a most
agreeable flavour.” See Kitto, Cyclop.
Bib. Lit.; Wiener, Bib. Dict. s. v.
Here, however, this plant is mentioned
merely to fill out the picture of charm-
ing and highly prized plants, without
reference to any supposed internal
properties, and has evidently been
suggested by the preceding "1, beloved.
own, lit. love-apples, is the plural of
vn, from the root 4, to love, with the
termination ’—, like nixdy, the plural
of "5, from the root 5. Gesen. § 93,
6, 6; Ewald, §189 g. 321m» by) is well
explained by Rashbam,.ow D1» MD 52K,
“in our garden, close to our door,” &c.
‘y has not unfrequently the sense of
neighbourhood and contiguity. Gesen.
Lexicon, 5y 3. Others however render
by, over, i.e. “and over our doors
grow,” &c.; others again translate z,
i.e. “¢m our house are,” &c., taking mB
in the sense of howse ; comp. Prov. xiv.
19, but with less probability. Houbi-
gant’s transposition of letters, viz.
wwrpn by, 22 nostris malis aurets, instead
of np 5y, is an idle conjecture.

1. OA that thou wert as my brother,
&c. The charming description which
the Shulamite gave of their happiness
when at home, recalled to her mind
the obstacles which they met with,
even there; and hence she is led to
wish that he had sustained to her the
relation of a brother, that, whether in
the street or the house, none might
misinterpret. or interrupt the manifes-
tation of their attachment. ym is
used to express the optative. Comp.

Deut. v. 29; xxviii. 67; Ps. xiv. 7;
Job vi. 8; Gesen. § 136, 1; Ewald,
§ 329 c. M2 is the accusative. The
rendering of the Septuag., Tis don oe,
adeAPrdé pov, Onrd{ovra pacrovs pntpds
pov; and Luther, ‘O dass ich dich,
mein Bruder, der du meiner Mutter
Briiste saugest, draussen fande,” are
wrong. "2x TY p2, does not mean “an

"infant still sucking the breasts.” (Gro-

tius, Gill,Good, Williams, &c.), but “one
who had sucked and is now a youth ;”
it is the second accusative to 72m "D,
and stands in parallelism with nx,
brother ; like the participle N17" (which
does not mean one who just gave
birth), and Dx, vide supra, chap. vi. 9.
ANY is conditional, with the particle
Dx implied, Judg. xi. 36; Prov. xxiv.
10; Ewald, § 367 b. D2 is used poeti-
cally for }, and, Judg. v. 4; Joel i. 12.
uz: the third person is used to express
the indeterminate third person, the
passive in English. Gen. xli. 14;
Gesen. § 157,38. For "4, me, five MSS.
and two editions read 3}, thee, which
Ewald adopts. But this is against the
majority of MSS. and all the versions,
and does not at all improve the sense.

2. I would lead thee, &. As a
brother, she could unreservedly bring
him from the spot, where she met him
in the street, to her mother’s house.
‘We must supply own, thence, before
2028; so Rashbam, Simple as the
word °2792h seems to be, it has never-
theless produced a variety of render-
ings. The Septuagint and Syriac,
followed by Percy, entirely omit it,
and interpolate here ‘m7 Iq 1, and
into the apartment of her who gave me
birth, from chap. iii. 4; after ‘oxra,
CHAP. Vur.]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

185

Thou shouldst be my teacher,
I would cause thee to drink

Of the aromatic wine,

Of my pomegranate juice.

3 Let his left hand be under my head,
And his right hand support me !

4 I adjure you, O daughters of Jerusalem,
Neither to incite nor to excite my affection
Till it desires another love.

the house of my mother. Ibn Ezra, the
Authorized Version, Kleuker, Déder-
lein, Hitzig, &c., supply Wx, who,
before *y725m, and refer it to ‘ox, my
mother. But this interrupts the con-
struction, and, against the scope of the
description, introduces the mother as
an actress. Hodgson and the editor
of Calmet, strangely enough, render
it Talmudni, as a proper name of the
maiden’s mother. The most natural
way seems to be to take it with the
Vulgate, Chaldee, Rashbam, Luther,
Ewald, Dépke, De Wette, Delitzsch,
Hengstenberg, Philippson, &c., as the
second person masculine.

I would cause thee to drink, &c.
On the aromatic wine, see supra, chap.
vii. 3. The pomegranate-juice was
and still is a favourite beverage in the
East. “The Orientals,” says Dr. Kitto,
“indulge largely in beverages made
with fresh juice of various kinds of
fruits. Among these, sherbet made
with pomegranate-juice is particularly
esteemed, and, from its agreeable and
cooling acidity, the present writer was
himself accustomed to prefer it to any
other drink of this description.” }”, 1s
either an anomalous construct (Gese-
nius; Fiirst, Lex. s. v.), or the absolute,
and npy1, apposition in the accusative.
Compare yr? D', 1 Kings xx. 27; Gesen.
§ 116, 6, Rem. b; Ewald, § 287 h.
FPYX and 4PUN are a paranomasia, vide
supra, chap. i, 3. 39) D'DY, my pome-
granate-juice, i.e. which I myself have
prepared. The noun in the genitive,
expressing the quality of the nomina-
tive, has the suffix; compare 7? 17,

my holy mountain, Ps. ii. 6; Gesen.
§ 121 b; Ewald, § 291 b. From
an oversight of this most probably
arose the readings of D207 or D1
(several MSS.), 227 (Vulgate, Syriac),
the supposition that *}2 is an adjective
(Schultens), and the opinion that it is
an abbreviated plural from 0°30, like
39 for 039, (Ps. xlv. 9, Meier, Furst,
Lexicon, 9, 3 b.)

3. Let his left hand, &c. Exhausted
with the attempt to describe her un-
failing attachment for her beloved
shepherd, an attachment far deeper
than external circumstances permit
her to manifest, the Shulamite desires
that no other hand should raise her
drooping head, no other arm support
her enfeebled frame, than those of her
beloved; compare chap. ii. 6.

4. I adjure you, &c. This last
affecting scene, having brought the
Shulamite’s struggle to a successful
termination, is closed by her adjuring
the court ladies as before (ii. 7, and v.
3), to make no more attempt to draw
her affections away from her beloved
to any one else, since they were un-
alterably fixed. The Septuagint, which
is followed by Good, &c., supplies here
TTT nixa ie nix2¥3, from ii. 7,and v.3.
It is obvious, from the change of Dx
into the more urgent negative particle
m9, (comp. Job xxxi.; Ewald, § 325
b), that the variation is designedly
made; and indeed the haste in which
the Shulamite is to depart with her
beloved does not permit her to use the
lengthy adjuration.
186 THE

SONG OF SONGS.

[eHap. vit.

SECTION V.
CHAPTER VIII. 5—14,

The Shulamite, released from the palace, returns to her native place with her

beloved (5).

On their way home they visit the spot where they had been

first pledged to each other; and there they renew their vows (6,7). On
their arrival at the Shulamite’s home, her brothers are reminded of the pro-

mise they had made to reward their sister’s virtue (9, 10).

The Shulamite

mentions the greatness of her temptations, and her victory over them (11,12).
The shepherds visit her, to whom she declares, according to request, her
unabated attachment to her beloved shepherd (13, 14).

THE COMPANIONS OF THE SHEPHERD.
5 Who is it that comes up from the plain,
Leaning upon her beloved ?

THE SHULAMITE.
Under this apple-tree I won thy heart,

5. Who ts tt that comes up, &c. The
last successful resistance secured for
the Shulamite her liberty. Convinced
that even the blandishments of a king
cannot overcome the power of virtuous
love in the heart of a rustic damsel ;
satisfied that “all the wealth of his
house” could not buy it, Solomon dis-
misses her. Then, reunited to her
beloved shepherd, the happy pair im-
mediately depart for home. As the
approach their native place the inhabi-
tants, beholding them at a distance,
exclaim, ‘Whois it that comes up from
the plain, leaning upon her beloved ?”
rave, the plain (vide supra, iii. 6),
most probably the plain of Esdraelon,
at present known by the nameof Merij
Ibn ’Amir, lying between Jezreel and
Sulem (Robinson, Palestine, iii. 169),
which the lovers had to cross on their
way home. nye0n> (from pp}, to lean ;
hence 7212, an arm, on which one
leans, Talm. Sabbath, 92), supporting
herself, being weary with so long a
journey. So the Sept. émrrnpiCopern 5
the Vulg. zznixa, &c. As for the ad-
ditional AcAcveavOropevn in the Sept.,
and delici’s affluens in the Vulg., the
one most probably arose from the word

ma, used in chap. vi. 10, where a
similar question occurs, and the other
from a marginal gloss, np.n9 or
nywann,

Under this apple-tree, &e. As they
drew nearer home they beheld the
endeared spot—the memorable shady
tree under which the shepherd was
born, and where their mutual love was
first kindled. These sweet musings
are at length terminated by the Shu-
lamite, who joyfully recounts the
pleasing reminiscences of that place.
The frequent meetings of shepherds
and shepherdesses under shady trees,
(vide supra, chap. i. 7), often resulted
in the formation of a sacred tie. The
solemn vow of love was then engraven
on the bark of the tree, as a witness
of their union. Thus Theocritus,
Idyl. xviii. 47, 48 :—

ypadppata 8 by prop yerpdwerat, ws mapuby Tis
avveium, Awpiott, céBou w’* ‘ENévas putov eiyi.

“

 

and on the bark,
In Doric, shall be engraven for all to mark,
‘To me pay honour—I am Helen’s tree.’”

Compare also Idyl. xxiii. 46; Propert.
I. xviii. 22; Virg. Ecl. x. 53; and
Pope, Past. iii. 66, 67.
CHAP. vim]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

187

Here thy mother travailed,
Here labouring she gave thee birth.

6 Oh, place me as a seal upon thy heart,
As a seal upon thine hand!

“¢ Oft on the rind I carved her amorous vows,

While she with garlands hung the bending

boughs.”

Here thy mother, &c. Confine-
ments in the open air are of frequent
occurrence in the East (Gen. xv. 16).
“There are in Asia,” says Dr. Chardin
in his manuscript notes, “large dis-
tricts in which no midwives are to be
found, and even if some live there they
are little known, for mothers assist
their daughters, and often female rela-
tives or neighbours fill the place of the
former. In Kurman, I saw a woman
who was delivered without any assist-
ance in the open fields, three hours
from a village, and to my great sur-
prise, she arrived not much later in
town where I was. The people there
smiled at my astonishment, remarking
that similar cases were very frequent
in their country.” (See Rosenmiiller,
Orient. i. 188; Paxton, Illustrations
of Scripture, i. 462; Kalisch on Exod.
p. 18.) My, to excite, to move to love,
vide supra, ii. 7; lii.5; viii. 4. 9n2an
does not mean conceived thee (Aquila,
Schultens, Hitzig, &c.), which the Shu-
lamite could not know, nor plighted,
or engaged thee, (Houbigant, Michae-
lis, Percy, Kleuker, Good, Williams,
Boothroyd, Magnus, Meier, &c.),
which is contrary to the Piel signifi-
cation of this verb, but signifies
laboured with thee, (Sept., Syriac,
Chaldee, Rashi, Rashbam, Ibn Ezra,
Luther, Ewald, De Wette, Gesenius,
Philippson, &c.) ; compare Ps. vii. 15,
and Hupheld zn loco. To put these
words into the mouth of the bride-
groom as addressing his bride, (Percy,
Good, Williams, Boothroyd, Delitzsch,
Hitzig, &c.), is contrary to the words
in the text, which have masculine
suffixes. The form 4n237 is used instead
of ee to correspond in sound with
nz in pause, vide supra, iii. 11. 9ny2,
ig. yniwmyy. The Vulgate, which
seems here to savour of allegorism,

 

translates Jy Mpa NEW FON wer my,
ibt corrupta est mater tua, ibr violuta
est genitrix tua. ‘The tree,” the
Roman Catholics explain of the cross ;
“ the individual ” excited to love under
it, the Gentiles redeemed by Christ
at the foot of the cross; and “the
deflowered and corrupted mother”
means, the synagogue ‘of the Jews
(the mother of the Church), which was
corrupted by denying and crucifying
the Saviour.

6. Oh, place me as a seal, &c. That
is, “ Let me be near and dear to thee.”
The Shulamite, having shown her
faithfulness during a period of extra-
ordinary trials, could now look up to
the witnessing tree with an inward
satisfaction. It is therefore very
natural that she should remind her
beloved, in the presence of this witness,
of his vows. In ancient times, when
the art of writing was confined to avery
few, and writing materials were not
so easily procurable, rings or signets,
with names engraven upon them, were
generally used as manual signs. This
contrivance for a signature soon be-
came used as an ornament. People
who could afford it had these seals or
signets made of silver or gold, inlaid
with precious stones. Being indis-
pensable articles of use, and highly
prized as decorations, they were carried
in the bosom, suspended from the neck
by astring (Gen. xxxviii. 15), or were
worn on the right hand (Jer. xxii. 24;
Sirach xlix. 11), and thus became a
symbol of what is dear and indispen-
sable. Jehovah himself uses this me-
taphor, Jer. xxii. 24 :—

‘Though Coniah, the son of Jehoiakim, king of

Judah,

Were as a seal on my right hand,

Yet I would pluck thee thence.”

Comp. also Hag. ii. 23; Sirach xvii. 22;
Rosenmiiller, Orient. vi. 252; 1.183; iv.
190; Wiener, Bib. Dict.; Kitto, Cy-
clop. Bib. Lit. s. y.
188

THE SONG OF SONGS.

{[cHAP. VII.

For love is strong as death,
Affection as inexorable as Hades.
Its flames are flames of fire,
The flames of the Eternal.
7 Floods cannot quench love ;
Streams cannot sweep it away.
Tf one should offer all his wealth for love,
He would be utterly despised.

ONE OF THE BROTHERS OF THE SHULAMITE.

8 Our sister is still young,

For love is strong as death, &c.
True love seizes with a tenacious grasp.
Like death, it rules with resistless
sway; like Hades, it is never moved
to give up its object: neither power
nor prayer can overcome it. TY?, hard,
Jirm, inexorable. xR is not jealousy
(Sept., Vulg., Authorized Version,
Percy, Kleuker, Good, Williams, &c.),
but devout affection, ardent love
(Ewald, Gesenius, De Wette, Noyes,
Meier, Hitzig, Philippson &c.); it is
here used as an intensitive term for
love, as is evident from the parallelism
and the connexion.

The flames of the Eternal. ‘These
words are exegetical of “flames of
fire;” 7. ¢. the flames of love, though
having the same energy as those of
fire, are not of the same origin; they
emanate from the Eternal, the source
of all love. Whether, with Ben
Asher, we read *naipow, conjointly,
like mex, Jer. ii. 31; or with Ben
Naphtali, ™ nay>v, separately, which is
followed by most editions, Rashi, Ibn
Ezra, and the majority of modern
critics, and which is required by the
parallelism; this predicate does not
state that the flames of love are “ most
vehement,” but affirms that they ema-
nate from the Eternal. , an abbrevia-
tion of mm (see Kalish on Exod. iii.
14; xi. 2; First, Lexicon, s. v.), like
ox, Isa. xiv. 13, is the genitive of cause
or origin. Comp. 9 dydmn ék rod Ocod
gort, 1 John iv. 7. 378, flame, may
either be a quadriliteral, formed from
amo, Arabic, to burn, with the insertion
of the » after the first radical, accord-

ing to the analogy of AY, violent heat,
(Ps. ii. 6), from the root 7¥3, to be hot ;
or, which is more probable, is the
Shaphel conjugation of 279, to burn.
First, Lexicon, s. v.; Gesen. § 55,6;
Ewald, §122a. The Sept. has fddyes
airs, naw. That the original
reading of the text was wnanrd
m nate (Ewald, Dépke, Hitzig, &c.)
is purely conjectural.

7. Floods cannot quench love. Being
a flame of celestial origin no terrestrial
influence, however great, can destroy
or wash it away; it is not subjected to
means resorted to for the extinction of
ordinary fires. 022 0%, prop. much
water, 1. e. a great quantity of it
(Numb. xx. 11), floods, "2, to wash,
or sweep away, Job xiv. 19; Isa.
xxviii. 17.

If one should offer all, &c. Such
divine love spontaneously flows from
the heart, and cannot be purchased
with money; though one offered all
his riches for it, they would be ut-
terly despised. This affirmation,
whilst true in itself, is levelled against
the king, who attempted to gain love
by flatteries and praiscs (vide supra, i.
11; vi. 8), but was utterly rejected
(vii. 11). Wx any one, one, Gen, xiii.
16; Exod. xvi. 29; Gesen. § 122, Rem.
2. a, the infinitive absolute, is em-
ployed before the finite verb x, to
express intensity, Gen. xliii. 3; 1 Sam.
xx. 6; Gesen. § 131, 3 a; Ewald, § 280
b. mx, the third person plural, is
used for the passive, sce supra, chap.
viii. 1.

8. Our sister ts still young, &e. The
CHAP. vimr.]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

189

And is not yet marriageable.
What shall we do for our sister,
When she shall be demanded in marriage ?

ANOTHER BROTHER.

9 If she be like a wall,

We will build upon her a silver turret.
But if she be like a door,
We will enclose her with boards of cedar.

THE SHULAMITE.

10 I am like a wall,

And my bosom is as towers !

Then I was in his eyes

brothers are here introduced, on the
arrival of the Shulamite, as repeating
the promise which they had once
given to their sister if she kept vir-
tuous, and, when espoused, remained
true to her vows. One of the brothers
inquires of the others what they should
do for the Shulamite when she reached
womanhood, and is demanded in mar-
riage. 722 niny, 2. g. NINN, ows sister,
and is well mondered by the Sept.
dderpy jyav, the Vulg. soror nostra,
Luther, unsere Schwester. The ad-
jective pop, like 113, prop. denoting
size, is also used with reference to age.
Gen. ix. 24; xxvii. 15; Judg. xv. 2.
md pROTY, ie. she has not yet reached
puberty. OVv2, when, Gen. ii. 4. 3731,
to speak for, to demand in marriage,
1 Sam. xiii. 9; xxv. 39.

9 If she be like a wall, &c. To this
inquiry the second brother replied,
that if, having reached that age, she
should firmly resist every allurement
as a battlement resists the attack of an
enemy, they would decorate her as an
impregnable wall; ¢.c. highly reward
her. The expression “wall” is
figuratively used for impregnability,
Jer. ii. 18; so Immanuel, WN Tayw
mana. The silver turret here men-
tioned most probably refers to the
silver horn, a highly prized ornament
which women wear on their heads.
“One of the most extraordinary parts
of the attire of their females” (Druses
of Lebanon), says Dr. Macmichael,

is a silver horn, sometimes studded
with jewels, worn on the head in
various positions, distinguishing dif-
ferent conditions. A married woman
has it affixed to the right side of the
head, a widow to the left, and a virgin
is pointed out by its being placed on
the very crown. Over this silver pro-
jection the long veil is thrown, with
which they so completely conceal their
faces as to rarely have more than one
eye (vide supra, chap. iv. 9), visible.”
Comp. also Bowring, Report on Syria,
8.
B But if she be like a door, &c. That
is, accessible (vide supra, chap. iv.
12), she shall be barricaded with cedar
planks—be punished by being locked
up. The word “door” is metaphori-
cally used for open to seduction. ‘The
cedar wood is mentioned because it is
exceedingly strong, and increases the
idea of strict vigilance. Similarly
Immanuel, vy Ww) Hind) Ww nT ON
Now ya wip WEN TaN 52 NR M7
sFPP™M PUT TTD 118 mp2) AND
10. Tam a wall, &e. The Shula-
mite now triumphantly responds, that
she had proved impregnable as a wall,
and had now reached womanhood, and
therefore the promised reward was due
to her. mio1192 “Tw, 7. g. 232°, Ezek.
xvi. 7, is well explained by Rashbam,
wT OT MIT, my time for marriage
has arrived, and is an answer to
7) px O13, in the preceding verse.

Then Iwas in his eyes, &c. That
190

THE SONG OF SONGS.

[CHAP. VIII.

As one that findeth favour.
11 Solomon had a vineyard in Baal-hammon ;
He let out the vineyard to tenants;
Each of whom yielded for the fruit of it
A thousand shekels of silver.
12 I will keep my own vineyard :

is, in her brother’s eyes. He now,
being convinced of his sister’s chastity,
gave her the reward of virtue. The
sufhix in YPy3, Azs eyes, does not refer
to Solomon (Ewald, Hitzig, Philipp-
son, &c.), whose name has not been
mentioned, but to the brother (Ibn
Ezra, &c.), who last spoke. didw,
peace, has no reference to the name
in, but is used in the sense of 7,
favour, and refers to chap. i.6; comp.
Gen. xxxiv. 7 with ver. 11.

11. Solomon had a vineyard, &c.
Having been obliged, when demand-
ing her promised reward, to describe
her virtue as an impregnable wall,
the Shulamite now relates more cir-
cumstantially how she had resisted the
attempt to gain her affections. Solo-
mon had a large vineyard in Baal-
hammon, which he offered to consign
to her if she granted his request;
but the Shulamite refused his offer,
telling him he might keep his large
estate to himself, for she was quite
satisfied with her humble possession.
Many are the conjectures hazarded as
to the locality of Baal-hammon, which
occurs nowhere else, and no place is
known by this name. It is taken for
Baal-Gad, or Heliopolis (Rosenmiiller,
Bib. Geog. ii. p. 253), for 97, Hammon,
a place in the tribe of Asher, Josh.
xix. 28 (Ewald), and for BeAayey or
Badapwov, Belamon or Balamon, a place
mentioned in the book of Judith, viii. 3,
not far from the plain of Esdraelon,
Judith iii. 9 (Meier, Hitzig), It is,
however, more probable, according to
Rashi, that Baal-hammon was in or
near Jerusalem, and was called yi27 5Y3,
place of the multitude, because its beau-
ties and charms attracted a multitude
of people, thus presenting a greater
temptation for the Shulamite. The
Vulgate strangely renders 755w) W772

yo aa, vinea fuit pacifico in ea, quae
habet populos.

He let out the vineyard, &c. This
is intended to show the value of the
vineyard. It was so extensive that
it was leased out toa number of tenants,
and every one of them paid a thousand
shekels annually, and yet had two
hundred shekels left for himself. D793,
an indefinite number of keepers or
farmers. Wx each, vide supra, ver. 7.
The suffix in 83, Avs fruit, refers to
DW, vineyard, which is masculine. 73,
silver, stands for 702 92M, silver shekel ;
substantives denoting weight, measure,
or time, are frequently omitted. Gen.
xx. 16; xxxvii. 28; Acts xix. 9; Gesen.
§ 120, 4, Rem. 2; Ewald, § 287 i.
The amount of a shekel is supposed
to be about two shillings and seven-
pence. The shekel of the sanctuary,
however, like all the weights and
measures of the Temple, was computed
at double the ordinary. See Ezek. xlv.
12; 1 Kings x. 17; comp. with 2
Chron. ix. 16; Mishna, Shekalim,
Maaser Sheni; Wiener, Bib. Dict. s. v.
A thousand shekels, therefore, would
be about one hundred and thirty
pounds. Remembering that each of
these farmers had to pay this sum
annually, and that money in those days
had fifteen or twenty, nay, according
to Michaelis (Mos. Rech. § 248), fifty
times its present value, we shall be
able to judge of the allurement which
this ample estate offered.

12. Iwill keep my own vineyard, &e.
And yet, notwithstanding all this, the
Shulamite prefers to keep her little
vineyard, and be with her beloved
shepherd, rather than unfaithfully
ive him up for riches and honours.
YW 073, my own rineyard, the vineyard
which belongs to me; vide supra,
chap. i. 6. 3B? lit. és before me; it ts
CHAP. virt.]

THE SONG OF SONGS.

191

Be the thousands thine, O Solomon,
And the two hundreds to the keepers of its fruit !

THE SHEPHERD. :

13 O thou that dwellest in the gardens,
My companions are listening to thy voice,

Let me hear thy voice!

THE SHULAMITE.

14 Haste, O my beloved,

And be like the gazelle, as the young one of the hind,
Over the mountains of spices.

mine, and Iwill keep tt: this is ob-
vious from the immediately following
32, thine, keep thou it. The words
92) 7) HN are to be taken as an excla-
matory phrase, Ewald, § 329 a. rs is
here used collectively for all the thou-
sands put together, which come in
annually from the farmers; so D:DND,
the two hundreds. The Vulgate trans-
lates here again the proper 7, mulle
tui pacifict.

13. O thou that dwellest in the: gar-
dens, &c. The companions of the
shepherd, who had manifested their
i at the successful arrival of the

appy pair (vide supra, ver. 5), and
rejoice that one of their humble occu-
pation has brought such honour upon
the whole class, visit the Shulamite,
to hear from her own mouth her
avowed attachment to her beloved.

The shepherd, therefore, requests her
to gratify this desire. She is no
More PT TMA Naw, sitting in the
apartments of the king, vide supra,
chap. i. 4, but has the honourable ap-
pellation of D222 n2wrT, dwelling in the
gardens. O30, companions, i.e. wy
companions, fellow-shepherds, i. 8.

14. Haste, O my beloved, &c. The
Shulamite complies with the request.
In the presence of all, she calls the
shepherd her beloved, and tells him
always to hasten to her with the speed
of the swift-footed gazelle; vide supra
ii. 9, 17. He has no more to cross
“the mountains of separation” (see ii.
17), for they are united. These rugged
mountains haye now given place to
the much-wished-for aromatic hills,
iv. 6.

 

Reed and Pardon, Printers. Paternoster Row, London.
 

PUBLISHED BY

39, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.

 

 

CLASSIFIED INDEX.

 

   

 

 

  

Jaquemet’s Chronology
Bodenstedt and 185 Me 8 Schamyl Johns & Nicolas'sCalendar of V: ietory it

Buchingham's (J.S.) Memoirs “-

LIST of WORKS in GENERAL LITERATURE,

Messrs. LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, and ROBERTS,

 

 

  

 

Wheeler's Geography of] Herodotus aA

Nicolas’s Chronology of History- 12 | Juvenile Books,

Maunder's Treasury of History - 15 Roget's English Thesaurus - 18
Agr enlture Sate teet ost Natural History - 18 Russell's Life of Lord W. Russell. @
ATS. B' Piesse" 's Art of Perfume: - 2-7 -
Bayldon on Valuing Rents, &c. - 4 Piscator’s Cookery of Fis ish oe aT i red 7 a
Calrd’e Letters on Agriculture 6 Pocketandthe Stud - - - 9 Southey's Doctor - - 20
Cecil’s Stud Farm = 6 Pycroft'’s English Reading - - 18 Stephenie 's Ecclesiastical Bio; raphy 21
Loudon’s Agricultur -B Reece's Medical Guide - - 18 Lectures on French History 21
Low's Elements of Agriculture - 13 Rich's Comp. to Latin Dictionary 18 Sydney Smith's Works - 20
ts, Manufactures, and | HildisLatin Diuoneries SI Se oe ee
| Art S, anufactw ? Bi ss fa Dichonaries - oo: ae a ectures = = oo
esau ee a, ”: emoirs - ‘as
/ Architecture. Rowton’s Debater - + - 18 Taylor's Loyola - = - - - 21
Arnott on Ventilation - - - 3 Short Whist -  - - 20 2 Wesley - - ~ 2
Bourne on the Screw Propeller - 4 Thomson's Interest Tables - - + 2 Thirlwall'’s History of Gresce. ce - 21
Brande’ 8 Dictionary afdeience ke. 4 Webster’s Domestic Economy - 22 ornbt snakepeare's England 21
Organic shemis' try - 4 West on Children’s Diseases- - 22 Townsend's S jals 22
Ny. Gheviesl on Colour - 6 Willich’s Popular Tables - - 24 Turkey and Christendom - -
Cresy's Civil Engineering - 6 Wilmot’s Blackstone - - - 24 net's Anglo-Saxons - = 22
i Fairbairn's Informa. for Engineers 8 Bot d Garden “Middle Ages ~~ 2
Gwilt's Encyclo. of Architecture - 8 o' any an ardening, anaes Sacred Hist, of the World 2
y Harford Engravings after alichast 8 ‘Hooker's British Flora - See wel nd . 4 gland’ Conte ae = 2
Here on Paper-Making 9 a ine area cattle Whitelocke's Swedish Embassy - 24
Humphreys's Parables I! faminated 10 Lindley! s Introduction to Botany 13 t yoone “ Crimean Cempaiga— - i
Jameron’ seocred & Legendary Art i Theory of Horticulture - B ng’ ist-of History - -
om monplac! : Loudon’s Hortus Britannicus ==
Kénig’s Pictorial Life of Luther - 8 ‘Adiateur Gardener = 18 Geography and Atlases. oa
euandons Rural Architecture = - 13 “ Trees and Shrubs - - 13 Brower tistor, coer Dic et of Bible, 3
MacDo all's Theory of War - i « Gardening rts) ak dS Baten Geto niaeea ice 2 To
Malan’s pores on Drawing - 14 “ Plants - 13 Gene. Gash raphy ase! .
\ Moseley's Engineering - - - 16 “Sef Instruction for Gar- Comvall Its Ming Ga cae
Piesse’s Artof Perfumery - - 17 deners, &c. 13 Dies Morac ee es
Richardson's Artof Horsemanship 18 Pereira's Materia ‘MMedion” eo 7 Hachewe Aeotelien Galanin oc 2
Serivenor on the Iron Trade = 1g Rivetae Hoe-Amateut eGuide 18 J olinston’ ’s General Gazetteer - ll
Stark's Printi ing se cea on’ ae Wilson's British Mosses - - 24 Maunder's Treasury of Geography 15
~ Heon'bictionery of Arta, &e. 2 | Chronology. M‘Culloch’s Geographical Dictionsry 8
‘ of Mitism = 2 * ‘ussia and Turkey -
| Toungen.teeane iN Blair's Chronological Tables - 4 Milner’ 8 Balle Sea soe
| Biography. Brewer Historical Atlas - = 4 é rime ea see 18
junsen’s Ancien| yp - : -
Autobiograph: " 'e Ss. 2 Murray's t Ency velo. of Geo aphy - 16
"| Avago! : Lives of Scientific M Men - aisydnie Bealson’e Tncex, Sharp's Briti: ch Gazette ee - 7 19
|
i

Bunsen’s Hippolytu:

Clinton's (apnea) Autabiography

Cockayne's Marshal Turenn:

Dennistoun’s Strange & Lumisden
‘orster’s De Foeand Churchill -

‘ulcher’s Life of Gainsborough -

Commerce and Mercantile
Affairs.

Gilbart's Treatise on Banking 8
Lorimer’s Young Master Mariner 13
Macleod's Banking
M‘Culloch'sCommerce & Navigation 1 is
Scrivenor on fron Trade

Thomson's Interest Tables - - 2
Tooke’s History of Prices - - 22
Tuson's British Consul's Manual- 22

arford’s Life of Michael Angelo -
Hayward hoster bel ad ‘aylor
fayward's ( hesterfield an Selwyn 2.
olerott's Memoirs -
Polcrons Cabinet Cyclopedia -
Maunder’e Biogra P hical Treasury -
Memoir of the Duke of Wellington
moirsof James Montgomery -

pete 9 ed we x 3
pC asaue aye wen eaaaiee

  

Pad is Memoirs of tera ae Memoirs.

eee eee sor Mion Blair's Chron. ana cfistor.Tables- 4

Rost ve Memoirs of Moors Russell Brewer's Historical Atlas - - - 4

St. John’s Audubon 1 Bunsen’s Ancient Egypt eee 5
Southe 8 Life of Wesley - 20 ‘es =

ie Life and ey 20 Barton's History’ ofScctland - 6

is Select Correspondence- 20 apman'sGustavus Adolphus - 6

Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography 21 -Byakine's Hist Howson's a St. Paul §

» Sydney Smith's Memoirs - - 20 Giese’ ‘8 E stor one ia ati i eH

£ Tay ere = Bake 2 Gurney’ 1 istorical Bhsiches - 3

Waterton’ 1 Autobio ray shy & Essays 2 Autobiography, by Taylor

Wheeler's Life of Herodotus J Jette (Eo ’s (Lord) Contributions © -

  
 

il
Johns & icoles Calender of Vistory ll
Kemble’s Anglo-Saxons - 1
Books of General Utility. Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia 12

 

 

 

Actor 8 Bi ko- - - 8 Macaulay’s Crit. and Hist. Essa 8 13
en nee ene - 8 ce z pater s of England 2 7

Black's ‘Treatise on Brewin; - - 4 peec! -

Cabinet Garetteer - e - 6 Mackintosh’s Miscellaneous Works ag

. - - 6 tory of England -

: Cuat's Inniec own Back -~ = 7 MeCutloch'sGeene icalDictionary rr
Gilbart’s Logic for. the Million - 8 Maunder’s Treasury of History 15
Hints on Etiquette - 9 Memoir of the Duke of ‘Wellington 23

How to Nurse Sick Children- = 10 Merivale’s History of Rome - - 15
Hudson'sExecutor’sGuide - - 10 Roman Republic- + 15
“ on Making Wills - - 10 Mitner’ s Church History - = 15
Kesteven's Domestic Medicine - 11 Moore's Gt. Domes): Memoirs, &e. - 16
“Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia - 12 (ure’s Greek Liter - 16
Moron 'S s Lady's Country Compa- i Normanby s sear of Revolution - a
Raikes’: -

Mau Y Treas of Knowled e 15 Ranke’s eee dae Maximilian 23
super ‘ Biographical "Treasury 14 Riddle's Latin Dictionaries ~ —- a8

« Geographical Treasury 15 Roberts’s Southern Counties
a6 Scienti ic Treasury - 15 Rogers’s Essays from Edinb. Reviewls

Amy Herbert Soe) ass. Sy RAS
Cleve - = +
Eure D Daughter (The) - = © 19
Experience of Life - - - 19
Gertrude - - 19
Gilbart’s Logie for the Yor - 8
Howitt's Boye Country Boo! - 10

(M ary) Children’s Year - 10
Ivors - 19
Katharine Ashton — Se - 19
Laneton Parsonage - = -
Margaret Perciv: - = - 19

Criticism, History, and | wedicine and Sugary:

Brodie’s Psychological Ingniries - - 4
Bull's Hints to Mothers -
Managementof Children - 5

Coplante Dictionary of Medicine- 6
Cust's Invalid’s Own Book - - 7
Holland's Mental Physioloi - 9

9

Medical Notes and Reflect.
How to Nurse Sick Children- - 10

 

Kesteven's Domestic Medicine - 11
ereira’s Materia Medica - - 17
Reece's MedicalGuide- - - 1
West on Diseases of Infancy - - 22
‘WiJson’s Diseector's Manual - 2

Miscellaneous and General

Literature,
Carlisle's Lectures and Addressea a
Defence of Eclipse of Fatih -
Piety Lover’s Seat + -
ofFaith -
Greg's Political and Social ‘Essays
Garner's Evening Recreations
Hassall on Adulteration of Fcod
Haydn's Book of Dignities -
Holland’s Mental P| ysiology
Hooker’s Kew Guides
Homies. Bnral Life of Englani nd =
to RemarkableP laces 10
Jicneacere 8 Con nannnest jook
Jeffrey’s (Lord) Contributions = - it
Last of the Old Squires
Macaulay's Crit. and Hist, Essays 13
Speeches 13
Mackintosh's Miscellancous Works 14
Memoirs of a Maitre-d’Armes, - 23

Sovwcmoras

 

B

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

  

  
 
 

 
 
   

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

a ¥ .
es i GLASSIEIED INDEX. . eags 9 ee
< ‘ eae & peg d
Maitland’s Churchin the Cat: : : +=
plartinean ‘8 Miscelleales combed 14 Martineau's ition Tilers 7 of a Moseley’s! eEngineering@Architectare a
orke,by Pearce - = i . .
eRidad Nn OT Reeth > Pelnerecharh fant = Our Coal-Fields and, our Conl-Pits 23 | °”
Pinney on Duration of Haman tie a Moore on the Ube" rea See eee virieel Light ee ay
= @ o arise = .
Pp croft 's English Reading > be a e Munem ie Body - 16 Peschel's Elements of Physics - q
Rich's Comp. to Latin ‘Dictionary is Mor: Bee Motives! << Phillips's Fossils of Cornwall &e. li
Riddie's Tatla Dictionaries - > 18 Neale'e¢ Closing Soine. 23 (Mineralogy | - os wy)
= id Guid
Seaward's Narrative oflis Shipwreeds Nowe A a Discourses, aig Portlock’s a of Tondonde 8 !
Sir Roger de Coverley - Ranke's Perdinand 8 Medina Brag. Vi Bowel Unity of Worlds: “= " f
Smith's (Rev. Sydney) Works - Fy Rendings for Lent iane 23): Smee's Electro-Metallurgy -  - rH -
Southey’ e Common \P ace Books - 20 rd Confirmation -  - 8 Siete Ba ine (The) “6: a i
Souvestre's Nite Philesopber 23 eitnatt ee pre armas
eee Working ‘Mon 23 g Teneamt ies se, 2 oes | eretSports. —
Stephen's Essays - oe ue 3 See eee 6 : 7 ae Bsney Dctlonory of a Ceylon - 8
- 2 Smith's Sydney) rot bit ‘Philosophy 20 Cecil's Stable Practi: dee Eee a é
- 2k G.)Sacred-Annals'- —- 20 « StudFarm- - - - 6/ °
2 a « Bs armony’ of Divine ‘Dis- The Chgkal Field - - 7
ve Popular Tables : pensation’ 20 lavy's torial Catequies -~ 7
Yonge's Ea ish-Greek Lexicon Dd of ae end Shipwsesk ap fee ook ar th 24
Siac ce men Gredue: > 24 Southey's Life of 20 Hawker's Youn we Stlmon coy
P| rammar - - 24 Stephen" 8 Eeesistcal Biography 21 ane Hunting -Fiel - 3
Natural Historyingeneral. | fajlorsfoyia = a1 | Pocket and the Sted og
Catlow's Popular Conchdlogy - 6 Wealey _- [1G Practigal Horvemauchip. 0028
Ephemeraand Young onthe Salmon 7 Theologia Germanica .- - 5 Richardson's Horsemanship - = 16
Gosse's Natural History of Jamaica 8 Thomeon on the Atonement - - 21 Ronalds's Fiy-Fisher's ° Entommo-
Kemp's Natural History of Creation 23 Thumb Bible (The) - 21 logy - 18
Kirby and Spence’s Entomology - 11 Tomline’s Introduction to the Bible -22 Stable-Tilk and ‘Table Talk'-- - 9
Lee's Elements of Natural History 2 Turner's Sacred History- — - 22 Stainton's June  - = = 2
Mann on Reproduction = - Bible Se dee Pie OR: Stonehenge om the Grey! hound - 21 f
Maunder’s Natural History - % Popular ‘ible Harmony ra Thacker's Courser's Guid - = 2b :
Feeder Noeron. end Islands 2 2 Christ of History - 24 The Stud, Yor Practival-Purposer=- 9
andboo! - + + = &
asin fo yetery “4 | Veterinary. Medicine, &c.
s Sketches in the Alps 23 | Poetry and the Drama. Ceci s i
sayson Natural Hist. 23 Aikin's (Dr) British Poets - = 8 eat Se
pat eye "8 3 Hunting Field 5: taut
ak ee = - + 2 a (Joanne) Poetical Works 3 Miles" ng Fit (Tae Ex use i is
S um 7 ped! e's Ballads from Herodotus = - on the Hamels ‘oot - 2 B
Arrowsmith’s Geogr. Dict. of Bible Flowers and ‘their T Kindred Thoughts i Richardson's te Dass 18
Blaine's Rural Sports) - Goldsmith’s Poems, illustrated § - Stable Talk and Table-Talk.- - 9
Brande's Science, Literature, ‘andaet i L. E. L.'s Poetical Works Stud (The) ee ee we 9
Dictionary of Medicine - Tiaceals 's Anthologia Oxomtensis- 18 Youa’ ts mue Dog. mee
Civil En, lingering Ow . Dyack’s Rivulet  - TheHorse. - - - 24
is ronibectan ti an 8 ra, ered - - Vv av
eograph ic: ictionar: 1 facaulay’s Lays of Ancient Rome 1B oyages ani rT é
Loudon’s Agriculture - a Mac Douald's Within and Without 14 ye avers:
are arentecture. 2 1a Montgomery's Poetical Works’ - 16 Auldjois Asgant of Moat Blane: 78
‘a Gardening <= 23 Orginal Hymns - 15 jaines's Vaudoisof Piedmont - 23; °
da) PI: -# Moore's Poetical Works teat Baker's Wanderings in Ceylon - 3
a Trees aa ee a olcurean= = =~ 16 Barrow's Continental Tour - - 23
M‘Calloch’sG eographicalDictionary 4 “ LallaRookh - - - 16 Parthia African Teateles 2. 2g
Murray's Bi Die fons: ofCommerce 14 = irish Melodies‘- -- - 18 ton's ast Africa, anae = 5
ncyclo. 0 - = 3 . .
Bharee Brick Gatien Ey 3p Reads eee ete oe Solp Gaslislets Tuirkey. and Greet “29s
Ure's Dictionary of Arts, &c.- - 22 Shakspeare, by Bowdier | =~ ~ 19 Del Custine's) Rusti 6 a ce
Webster's Domestic Economy - 22 Southey's Poetical Works - - 20 Pergaaadl 2.28
Religious & Moral W erties 2 | Reeders:
or: lemizh Interiors - : * =
ier Herbert $ a pores: = MG 8 a illustrated’ = 21 Forester's Rambles i in Norway = 8
ee erreTS eet: olitical conom: inia and. Corsica
Arrowsmith's Geogr. Dict. of | of Bible “3 elt cone y and Gironidre's Philippines:~ = 3
Calvert's Wife's Manual = == 6 Caird's Letters on Agriculture - 8 Halloran’s Japan.~ = 4
G onybe ball ee naa cutee oe 8 Dodd's Food of: London anf Hill's Travels in r siberia - 9
Conybeare and Howson's St.Paul 6 Sending Social De Sovial Es ne ir Hep ee ea ty eae pe 8
Cotton’s Instructions in Chris‘ianity 7 Laing's Notes ofa Traveller-_ - 23 Howitt's Art-Student it in M nich - 10
Belen ot Bl Litugy  - = 7 M'Culioch’s Geog. Statist. &o. Dict, 141 (W) Victoria - 10
Diseloii lipse of nth: ~ e H “ Dictlone lonary of Commerce 14 Buc's Chinese Bi ire - 10
Ear Danghter (They > 2 a shot ca eae icaest We |! Eudeont Sees -
Eng! ishman" 3 Groek Concordance 7 Wilich’s,Fepeler/Tables = 9 28 Hughes's. 'g Australian Colonies. % \
Ethe, a saiede beeh ald. Concord. a \ The Sciences in general. Humboldt’s Aspects of Nature - u
Experience (The) Meme, es ee aG and Mathematics: quributs Pictures from Cuba. - 23
Gertcde. ae ira ie Meteorol zie j a utchinson’s African Exploration 2B
Harrison's Light of the Forge: - 8 Gf" Popular Astronomy. = 8 Serrmenns Sts Petersbut > Bt
Hook's Lectureson Passion eek 9 Bourne on: the Screw.Propel lag se Kennard's E ti Te 2G
Horne ‘8 totradnetion to Seriptures 40 's Catechism ofthe Steam- Laing's Norway. - eee sae 3
° *
Humpbreys's Parables Wuminated 10 eenaine Dictionary of Science; &e. “ eee ee ae
Tannese 8 - 19 “« Lectures on Organic Chemistry 4) Mason's Zulus of Natal. ee 23
ns Sacred Legends - -ll Brougham and Routh’s Princi ia 4 Mayne's Arctic Di 23
i” Monastic Legen: te Butler's Roig Sermons < eee a ES
i, | Legendsof the. Madonna 11 resy's Civil Engineer 6 Pfeiffer’ 8¥o ee ioe World 8
alae acne earen on Female Em- DutyBeche" "aGeolo yorCorawall &c. 7 cond ree ee oe Ww
Jere aay Taplera Wiles. i De ia ives Bleptilty zl 7 Scotts Danes. ne denades - -W
" = ri kk
athens Fan uty oF on Taodus- lH Grove" eCorrela. of Ph c Elemente 8 elie’ Tita Gites and Cennda. a
Konig’ Pictorial Life of Luther a) Herschel Catia Asuonomy 9 wenn 8 Afrioan Wanderings —- 8
aneton Parsonage: tf iB o Tana ehye ology = 9 heeler's Travels of Heredotus - 24
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acnayy ght on Inspiration Bc, OG Monn‘ on Reproduction. ie u ; Macdonald's Villa Yeroechio,
Maitland’s Church in Catacombs ~i Marcet’s irs. .) Conversa: 245 Bir Roper d6 Corartay =
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Morell’s ements of Peychology - 16 Trollope's Warden: eee

 

 

 

 

 
ALPHABETICAL CATALOGUE

of

NEW WORKS and NEW EDITIONS

. PUBLISHED. BY

Messrs. LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, and ROBERTS,

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‘Acton.—The . English Bread‘Book, for
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present System of Adulteration and its Con-
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« By. Enza Acton. Lia. the press.

Arago (F.)\—Meteorological. Essays. . By
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R.A., Treasurer and V.P.R.S. 8vo. 18s.

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East. By W. D...Annozp, . Lieutenant
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Arnold.—Poems. By Matthew Arnold.
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Arnott.—On the Smokeless Fire-place,
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Bloomfield. — The Greek Testament,
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Brewer.—An Atlas of History and Geo-
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Brougham and Routh.—Analytical View
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Dale.—The Domestic Liturgy and.Family
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