ne ete bere es ie ora Ont nese Bo Reyes el Je aboot roe ats Rw aS J che tetery enh ry. 7 ve he — — t ss % : zi 5 iene ai ark Saar ce eal taeieats - ane Bern i : ni Les Paes Pelee aati paar: Resear eat Peet ea aA TRGNDIUNT AS Stila PINE IOS Seas Dees: ae - St Renunrstes | Bs ons Rie a ianamoroateren ge Saat DSS eT : bath c > Sy ) Piss AY EE ONC pene) | pe et Ti i: \ , : 4 PA +o eee Mi a oe) Ls AGS: eZ eS Tos ; Ra, Sip, aR oO aa a = M 9. Beate fone cc a Soe Laboratory of Ornithology DATE DUE GAYLORD PRINTED INU.S.A Photo by Henry King, Sydney. Photo by Ottomar Anschutz, Berlin. AUSTRALIAN COCKATOO. MACAW : / The sulphur-coloured crest of this bird is arranged in the form of a Next tothe brilliancy of its colouration, the most striking feature about horse-shoe. q this bird is its huge beak Photo by W" Saville Kent, F.ZS. vihoto by Henry Ning, Sydney. MALE RUFF IN FULL BREEDING PLUMAGE. LAUGHING JACKASS. This wonderful plumage is worn only for a few weeks in the year This bird is a species of Kingfisher, and has acquired its name on account of its most extraordinary cry. AA be he be Ope ds bute ge Qi de ge DUnmeadpadphapdpebbphne dupe bh hag hip we deb bum: spe de pebhtne ¢iadbt ar des we ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee oe ee ee eee =e ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee oe ee | c Sisesseees eae Sprit suger oe cues Siees aoe ts es Peet ee ee papas < Soe ou j 4 =~ a =~ a | ie BOAT SFU SPS ayes neo = oe sa ci | I es ink er er ent oS ROT RAIS Se Ree | oe rece ene toe tee a rou Ga . ov re A ee ee eee ee ee ee ee ee | AAI Bel YC ype OA he IE ORS G MOE SE SE OES alia aetna tet retreat etre leo oy eee Te ey eee Te Poe as ie ae ei oe me sh inet eh ied an, bes nw ues ees) siete een lurid Dube Ourben ct ne ee iY keer ee errr ere ee ‘ eeverree CRE CLECRE EEE rere baer ay Dt Desh Dahon bean ey ny br b ar At FT = ini Oe era odsanaaeaad ieee ans Dahon baat ay Deere Desh Dahon ee ial ieee Pah hal add biab tall oad ae iA bit hia GE oiiotat babs SS > = Birds of Other Lands Reptiles» Fishes -"fomnted Animals and Lower Forms Epirors AND SPECIAL CONTRIBUTORS Charles J. Cornish Sir Herbert Maxwell Ernest Ingersoll Sir Harry Johnston F. C. Selous H.N. Hutchinson R. Lydekker J. W. Gregory and many others Tue University Society Ine. New York Copyright, 1917, by The University Society Inc. CONTENTS BIRDS OF OTHER LANDS THE OstricH AND Its KinpRED THe Game-Birps anp Rais PIGEONS AND SAND-GROUSE AvuKSs, GULLS, AND PLoveErRsS BusTarDsS AND CRANES GreBES AND Divers, PENcuINS, Etc. StorKs, HERONS, AND PELICAN TRIBE ScrREAMERS, Ducks, GEESE, AND SWANS . Birps oF PREY AND OWLS NicHt-Jars, Swirts, AND HumMm™iInc-Birps Parrots, CUcKoos, AND PLANTAIN-EATERS Ro.uers, KINGFISHERS, HORNBILLS, AND Hoopogs BeEeE-Eaters, Trocons, Etc. Toucans, WoopPEcKers, Etc. THe PERCHING Birps . Larks, Tirmice, Honey-Eaters, Etc. SHRIKES, THRUSHES, AND THEIR ALLIES REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS TorToIseS AND TURTLES LIZARDS CHAM-4ELEONS AND THE TUATERA SNAKES Frocs anp Toaps NeEwTs AND SALAMANDERS . PAGES 102 110 112 117 vi CONTENTS FISHES LUNG-FISHES AND CHIM-ERAS THe Percw Famity . ScaLy-Fins, Sworp-FisHes, Etc. Harr-Taits, Gurnarps, Etc. Lump-Suckers, FLyinc-FisHes, Etc. THe Wrasse-Like FISHES Pire-Fisues, SUN-FisHes, aND THEIR ALLIES ‘THE Cop FAMILy CaveE-FisHes, SAND-EELS, AND FLaAt-FISHES EELs AND CaT-FIsSHEs . THe Carp FaMiLy Pikes, ARAPAIMAS, BEAKED SALMON, AND SCOPELIDS THe SALMoNn FAMILY THe Herrinc ann Its KINDRED Bony-Pike, STURGEON, Etc. SHARKS AND Rays JOINTED THE Crap AND SCORPION Groups . INSECTS . LOWER SHELL-FISH, ork MoLLuscs Lamp-SHELLS STAR-FisHeEs, SEA-URCHINS, Etc. Moss-ANIMALS Worms Coras, SEA-ANEMONES, AND JELLY-FIsHes SPONGES AND ANIMALCULES ANIMALS FORMS 260 264 266 212 283 hirds of Other Lands BY W. P. PYCRAFT, A.L.S., F.Z.S. CHAPTER 1 THE OSTRICH AND ITS KINDRED HE Ostriches are a very an- cient group of birds, and, judg- ing from what we know of their anatomy, they must be regarded as representing the most primitive of liv- ing birds. With the exception of a single group, to be discussed presently, all have lost the power of flight. In some, in consequence, the wing has be- come reduced to a mere vestige. Photo ty WP. Dando, F.Z.S. RUFOUS TINAMOU, BRAZIL The tail-feathers of these birds are so small as to appear to be wanting It is a rule in Nature, we may remark, that whenever an organ, such as a wing or a leg or a tail, ceases to be useful, it undergoes forthwith a slow process Photo by H. Noble, Big RHEA AND YOUNG Although the wings of the rhea are large, they fit so closely to the body as to be invisible when closed of reduction or degeneration, growing smaller and smaller in each successive generation, till at last it may even disappear altogether. The loss of flight has been accompanied by a degeneration in the quality of the feathers — that is to say, their service- ability as aids to flight has been entirely lost. The size of the members of this group varies much. The largest of all is the African Ostrich; the smallest, of the flightless forms, the New Zealand Apteryx. The ostrich-like birds which have retained the power of flight are known as Tinamous, and are natives of South America. All these are smaller than the flightless Apteryx. TINAMOUS The TINAMOUS should perhaps be regarded as standing at the head of the Ostrich Tribe, since they have reached a higher degree of development than any other of its members. They have also preserved the power of flight. In their general appearance they bear a singular resemblance to partridges, though a little careful observation will reveal many points wherein they differ therefrom. They are very confiding and unsuspicious birds — some persons call I 2 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF “PAE WORLD them stupid on this account — and in the early morn- ing the species inhabiting the Argentine pampas will, observers tell us, come right up to the isolated houses of the settlers, so that the boys knock them down with stones. The delicate quality of the flesh has caused these birds to be highly esteemed as food, and their trustful nature renders them an easy prey, so much so that in some districts they have been almost exter- minated. Large numbers are caught by riding round them in a circle and securing them with a noose. Mr. Hudson, who lived many years in the pampas, assures us that the GREAT TINAMOU is one of the sweetest-voiced of the native birds. The song is composed of ‘five modulated notes, flute-like in character, and very expressive, and is uttered by many individuals answering each other as they sit far apart, concealed in the grass.” The eggs of the tinamous are to be reckoned among the wonders of bird life, being so highly bur- nished as to look like beautifully glazed porcelain. The colour varies according to the species, ranging from wine-red, blue-green, and brown to black. The Phbetoiby ih Naples Egy, young are almost as remarkable as the eggs, being RHEA AND YOUNG ONES clothed with a peculiar down, of great complexity Although frequently bred in captivity, the young do of SESH sy and resembling a some respects the not seem to be easily reared nestling down of the true ostrich. THE RHEA The RHEA is a native of South America. It is frequently referred to as the SOUTH AMERICAN OSTRICH, and also as the NANDU. The resemblance which it bears to the true ostrich is striking, but it may at once be distinguished therefrom by the fact that it has three toes and a feathered head and neck; furthermore, it is smaller in size, and lacks the conspicuous white wing- and tail-plumes. The tail, indeed, as may be seen from the photographs reproduced is wanting. The rhea must be re- garded as standing at the head of the flightless members of the Ostrich Tribe. Its wings, though not large enough to raise its heavy body from the ground, are yet of considerable size. In Buenos Ayres rheas are hunted with dogs. If a breeze is blowing, the birds raise one wing, which acts as a sail. This done, they can acquire a speed which makes it absolutely im- possible for either dog or horse to come up with them. The Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.] : RHEA LYING DOWN only chance of ultimately captur- The b 7 he ! : ¢ breast of the larger members of the Ostrich Tribe is provided with a large horn ing them is by wearing them out plate, on which they support the body when resting - THE OSTRICH AND ITS KINDRED 2 by ceaseless pursuit. A chase of this kind may last an hour anda half. Needless to say, for sport of this kind both horses and dogs must be the best of their kind and in “ good form.” The natives and Indians hunt them on horseback with the “bolas.” The bolas, or balls, used for this purpose consist of two round stones covered with leather, and united by a thong of about 8 feet long. One of these is held in the hand and the other whirled round the head and suddenly released, when both go whirling madly round till they strike the rhea’s legs, around which they instantly twist, and the victim is a fast prisoner. The rhea is in danger of disappearing altogether as a wild bird, owing to the ruthless slaughter which is made upon it for the sake of its feathers. For some years back, Mr. Harting tells us, ‘the number of birds killed has averaged 400,000 per annum, and, as a consequence, the species has already disappeared from nearly half the territory of the River Plate.” On some estates in Argentina the wild birds are driven in and plucked. Like most of the Ostrich Tribe, the male alone performs the duties of incubation, hatching Photo by F. T. Newman] (Berkhamsted RHEAS IN A PUBLIC PARK In spite of its large size, the rhea is not a conspicuous bird in a wild state, the grey plumage harmonising perfectly with the surrounding pampas some twenty eggs at a time, the produce of several different females. There are three different kinds of rhea, but they do not differ much one from another. The young are curiously striped. The egg is very large, of a cream colour, and deeply pitted. Darwin, in his ‘ Voyage of the Beagle,” tells us that when he was “at Bahia Blanca, in the months of September and October, the eggs, in extraordinary numbers, were found all over the country. They lie either scattered and single, in which case they are never hatched, and are called by the Spaniards huachos; or they are collected together into a shallow excavation which forms the nest. Out of the four nests which I saw, three contained twenty-two eggs each, and the fourth twenty-seven. In one day’s hunting on horseback sixty-four eggs were found: forty-four of these were in two nests, and the remaining twenty scattered huachos. The Gauchos unanimously affirm —and there is no reason to doubt their statement — that the male bird alone hatches the eggs, and for some time afterwards accompanies the young. The cock, when on the nest, lies very close: I have myself almost ridden over one. It is asserted that at such times they are occasionally fierce and even dangerous, and that they have been 4 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD known to attack a man on horseback, trying to kick and leap on him. My informer pointed out to me an old man whom he had seen much terrified by one chasing him. 1 understand that the male emu in the Zoological Gardens takes charge of the nest: this habit, therefore, is common to the family. “The Gauchos unanimously affirm that several females lay in one nest. positively told that four or five hen birds have been watched to go, in the middle of the day, one after another, to the same nest... . Although this habit at first appears very strange, I think the cause may be explained in a simple manner. The number of eggs in the nest varies from twenty to forty, and even fifty; and according to Azara even seventy or eighty. Now, although it is most probable, from the number of the eggs found in one district being so extraordinarily great in proportion to the parent birds, and likewise from the state of the ovarium of the hen, that she may, in the course of the season, lay a large number, yet the time required must be very long. . . . If the hen was obliged to hatch her own eggs before the last was laid, the first probably would be addled; but if each laid a few eggs at successive periods in different nests, and several hens . . . combined together, then the eggs in one collection would be nearly of the same age. If the number of eggs in one of these nests is, as I believe, not greater on an average than the number laid by one female in the season, then there must be as many nests as females, and each cock bird will have its fair share of the labour of incubation: and that during a period when the females probably could not sit, from not having finished laying. I have before mentioned the great number of huachos, or deserted eggs; and that in one day’s hunting twenty were found in this state. It appears odd that so many should be wasted. Does it not arise from the difficulty of several females I have been Photo by the Duchess of Bedford WHITE RHEAS These are only varieties of the common form, not a distinct breed THE OSTRICH AND ITS KINDRED 3 associating together, and find- ing a male ready to under- take the office of incubation ? It is obvious that there must at first be some degree of association between at least two females, otherwise the eggs would remain scattered over the wide plains, at dis- tances far too great to allow of the male collecting them into one nest: some... have believed that the scattered eggs were deposited for the young birds to feed on. This can hardly be the case . because huachos, although often found addled and putrid, are generally whole.” THE OSTRICH The OSTRICH is the giant amongst living birds, the full-grown male standing some 8 feet high, and weighing about 300 lbs. It is flight- less, the wings being smaller, in proportion to the size of the body, than in the rhea. But the energy which in other birds is employed in sustaining flight in the ostrich is expended in running, so that it has reached a high degree of speed —no less, in fact, than twenty-six miles an hour. When at full speed, it is generally believed the ostrich derives no small help from the wings, which are used _ail-wse. Nor is this belief by any means a modern one, for all of us must be familiar with Job's observations on this subject: ‘‘ What time she lifteth up her wings on high, she scorneth the horse and his rider.” The wings are never used in running at full speed, but re of much service in turning, ‘enabling the bird to double abruptly, even when going at top speed.” In justice to the older observers, however, it must be remarked that ostriche do run with raised wings, but only at the commencement of the run, or in covering a short distance, when the pace may be considerable; but if circumstances demand “ full speed ahead,” they are held close to the body, where they offer the least resistance to speed. With the gradual perfection of its running powers, there has followed a gradual change in the form of the leg. This change has taken place by reduction in the number of the toes. Of the original five with which its ancestors began life only two now remain —the third and fourth. The third is of great size, having apparently waxed great at the expense of the other toes, a growth which seems to be still in progress, inasmuch as the fourth toe is undoubtedly dwindling. It is very small, and gives unmistakable signs of growing smaller, since it has now become nailless. When it has quite disappeared, the ostrich, like the horse, will have but a single toe on each foot — the third. The dainty, mincing step of the ostrich is a delight to watch, and, thanks to the Zoological Gardens, this can be done. Th- ostrich, like its cousin of South America, the rhea, commonly associates with herds of the larger mammalia. On the South African veldt the companions of the ostrich are the zebra, wildebeest, and hartebeest, just as on the pampas of South America the rheas are found associated with herds of deer and guanaco. ia alii : fe Wee g Photo by HW’. Reid) (Wishaw, N. B. OSTRICH STANDING BESIDE HER EGGS In a wild state both cock and hen take part in the preparation of the nest 6 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WoRweD The egg of the ostrich weighs about 3 Ibs., and is of delicious flavour. The empty shell, it has been found by experiment, is large enough to hold the contents of cighteen eggs of the common domesticated fowl. It takes about forty minutes to boil an ostrich egg hara. About fifteen eggs represent the clutch. The nest is a mere depression in the sanc. The hen sits by day, and her mate by night; but the eggs are zever left, as is sometimes stated, to the heat of the sun, so as to lessen the duties of the parent. Such a course would infallibly destroy the eggs, for the sun's rays, especially at noon, are very powerful. The male and female ostrich differ much in coloration. In the former the trunk is clothed in a vestment of richest black, whilst the quills of the wings and tail-feathers are of pure white: they form the much-prized ostrich plumes. The female is much less splendid, being clothed in sober grey. But these colours are not merely ornamental; they render the male by night and the female by day invisible, owing to the perfect harmony they make with their surroundings, thus affording an interesting illustration of protective coloration. “ All ostriches,” says Mr. Cronwright Schreiner, “adults as well as chicks, have a strange habit known as ‘waltzing.’ When chicks are let out from a kraal in the early morning, they will often start away at a great pace. After running for a few hundred yards they will all stop, and, with wings raised, spin round rapidly for some time, often till quite giddy, when a broken leg occasionally occurs. Adult birds, when running in large camps, will often, if the veldt is good, do the same, especially if startled in the fresh of the early morning. A troop of biras waltzing, in full plumage, is a remarkably pretty sight. Vicious cocks ‘roll’ when challenging to fight, also when wooing the hen. The cock will suddenly bump down on to his ‘knees’ j it ... open his wings, making a straight a is rn Reid] = =: fh, man line across his breast, and then swing OSTRICHES TEN DAYS OLD them alternately backwards and diiesteehancban ae ass ae ees forwards . . . as if on a pivot, each ¢ down-feathers of young ostriches are quite different from those of other birds, : ‘ A 7 the tips of each being produced into a horny ribbon wing, as it comes forward, being raised, while that going backward is depressed. The neck is lowered until the head is on a level with the back, and the head and neck swing from side to side with the wings, the back of the head striking with a loud click against the ribs, first on the one side and then on the other. The click is produced by the skin of the neck, which then bulges loosely just under the beak and for some distance downwards. While ‘rolling,’ every feather over the whole body is on end, and the plumes are open, like a large white fan. At such a time the bird sees very imperfectly, if at all; in fact, he seems so preoccupied that, if pursued, one may often approach unnoticed. I have walked up to a ‘rolling’ cock and seized him by the neck, much to his surprise. Just before rolling, a cock, especially if courting the hen, will often run slowly and daintily on the points of his toes, with neck slightly inflated, upright and rigid, the tail half drooped, and all his body- feathers fluffed up; the wings raised and expanded, the inside edges touching the sides of the neck for nearly the whole of its length, and the plumes showing separately, like an open fan . on each side of his head. In no other attitude is the splendid beauty of his plumage displayed to such advantage.” The males are very fierce while guarding their eggs or fighting for mates, and kick with extraordinary violence with their powerful legs. Asan example of their fierceness when aroused, Mr. Cronwright Schreiner, who knows much of these birds, relates a story, told him by a (Cape Town Glenday} Photo by Mr. AN OSTRICH FAMILY , measuring exactly 8 feet from head to foot unusually fine specimen The cock bird is an 8 LHE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD railway-guard, of an old male who charged a goods-train coming at full speed down a steep gradient. The bird, as soon as he caught sight of the train, at once got on the line, ‘‘and advanced fearlessly to fight the monster. As the screeching engine approached, he rushed at it from straight in front, hissing angrily, and kicked. He was cut to pieces the next moment.” The Bedouin tribes hunt the ostrich on dromedaries, so also do the natives of Somaliland, and when near enough shoot it with poisoned arrows. In the Sahara, Canon Tristram tells us it is ridden down on horseback, a method of capture which the Sahara sportsman regards as the greatest feat of hunting. “The Bushmen,” says Mr. Harting, “like the Somalis, kill the ostrich with poisoned arrows, or catch it very cleverly in pit-falls or with the lasso, and the Sukurieh and Hadendawah tribes likewise use the lasso, with which the bird, when once fairly caught, is strangled. . . . A favourite plan is to wait for the birds in a place of concealment, as near as re - = = | t [Zurich “Pheto by Schroeder] A GROUP OF COCK OSTRICHES Note the conspicuous tail in these birds 5 it is wanting in other members of the Ostrich Tribe possible to the pools to which they come for water, and then, with a gun loaded with swan- shot, to fire at their necks as they stoop to drink, when perhaps half a dozen are laid low at once. ... Another plan to which the Bushman often resorts is simpler still. Having found an ostrich’s nest, he removes all the eggs, and, ensconcing himself in the nest, quietly awaits the return of the bird, which he shoots with a poisoned arrow before it has time to recover from its surprise at finding him there instead of the eggs. . . . In Senaar the Abti-Rdof bring it down by throwing a curved flat stick from 2} to 3 feet long, not unlike the Australian boomerang, and made of tough acacia-wood or hard zizyphus.” Mr. Arthur Glynn, of Leydenburg, gives a graphic description of an ostrich hunt, his quarry being a troop of twenty birds —“ on sighting which,” he tells us, “we immediately gave chase, discovering directly afterwards that a single bull wildebeeste was among them. After a stiff gallop,” he says, “ of half a mile, we got within seventy yards of the troop; so reining in, we both dismounted and fired, bringing down one ostrich and the wildebeeste bull. . We quickly mounted and continued the pursuit, the ostriches never running for any distance in a direct THE OSTRICH AND ITS KINDRED 9 course, but always turning and 777 twisting, which made it difficult for us to keep them in sight... . We went sailing on, neck and neck, regardless of holes or anything else, only thinking of the grandly plumaged birds in front of us, our horses straining every nerve to over- take them, as only old stagers know how to run when in pursuit of game. We had now approached within fifty yards, and, jumping down, we fired at two cock birds running separately from the troop, bringing them both down. Hastily mounting, we con- tinued on after the retreating troop; but at this juncture my friend’s horse trod ina hole, sending his rider over his head, thereby completely putting him out of the run. I now continued the chase by myself. For a mile the ostriches gained on me, as they continued to run in a straight line, thereby not enabling me to cut off any point, but obliging me to keep in their rear all the time....I got off twice, and fired several fruitless BT, shots, and then continued the chase for certainly two miles without dis- a Lod SCLATER’S CASSOWARY This bird is not yet full grown, the horny casque on the top of the head mounting once. . . . I now got being much larger in the adult within a hundred yards, and jumped down. ... The first shot I fired brought down a fine cock bird, but the second struck the ground over the others, turning them to the right along a low ridge. They appeared very much exhausted, and ran with their wings spread out. . . . I saw that they were coming direct for me, and waited until they were close... . When the ostriches approached within fifteen yards, I selected the best-looking bird, and put a bullet through him. He ran on for about twenty yards and fell dead.” CASSOWARIES AND EMEUS With the Cassowaries and Emeus we have come as near as we can get at the present day to the representatives of the ancient type from which the Ostrich Tribe have sprung. But both these forms are to be regarded as having passed the prime of their development, for, like their allies which we have already considered, they have lost the power of flight. Both emeu and cassowary possess, when adult, one character shared by no other living adult bird; they have what may be called double feathers, each feather possessing two shafts of equal length. They appear to follow a custom of their own in the matter of the coloration of their eggs, since these are never white, like those of the rhea or ostrich, but green, with a very rough surface. The young, like those of the rhea, are striped with alternate black and white stripes. The emeu is found only on the continent of Australia; the cassowary occurs both in Australia and on the neighbouring islands of New Guinea, Ceram, and Aru. The lot of the Cassowary appears to have been cast in pleasant places, making it possible ANIMALS OF THE WORDD 10 Toe LI¥ING to indulge in the luxury of personal decoration — a decoration, moreover, shared cqually by the males and females, both sexes having the head and neck most brilliantly coloured. In some species all the hues of the rainbow are vividly reflected. To show these colours, the feathery covering, still worn by their relatives on the distant continents of Africa and America, has been cast off and the skinleft bare. To these gorgeous hues they have added yet other features, for the head is surmounted in many species by a huge casque, or helmet; whilst from the neck depend curious fleshy lobes, or wattles, coloured in accord- ance with the rest of the bare, coloured skin of this region. Then, too, they have effected quite a novel transformation in the quills of the wing, for these project on either side of the body in a. series of shining black spines. Nor is this all, for over and above the energy which they have to spare for personal decoration is a very large reserve to be expended in fighting. The males are very pugnacious, and to give point to this pugnacity they wear a very formidable weapon on the inner toe in the shape of a huge nail, which can inflict a really dangerous wound. It is used in kicking, the foot being brought forwards and downwards with incredible speed and great force. When wounded, these powerful birds are very dangerous. to approach. ‘On more than one occasion a wounded bird has caused a naturalist to take to a tree. The sharp nail of the inner toe is a most dangerous weapon, quite equal to the claw of a large kangaroo, and capable of doing quite as much execution.” Although forest-haunting birds — wherein they differ from their allies, which are plain- dwellers — the cassowaries are adepts at swimming. There is a danger that these beautiful and. interesting birds will slowly be exterminated by greedy and thoughtless settlers. The Australian cassowary is already decreasing sadly, being persecuted for the sake of its skin, which is used for rugs and doormats. The EMEu, though a sort of cousin of the cassowary, boasts none of its splendour; on. the contrary, it is a dull, dowdy-looking bird. In size, however, it is much larger than the cassowary. The wings, which are exceedingly small, have numerous tiny quill-feathers — not long, hard spines, as in the cassowary. When in captivity, it exhibits great curiosity; furthermore,. it is swift to realise symptoms of fear in the faces of any visitor whom it may have under inspection. Occasion- ally fear turns into flight, and then, thoroughly entering into the joke, the emeu pursues at top speed. Needless to say, hunting of this kind can only be done in fairly large paddocks or parks ; but emcus are frequently so kept. A very remarkable and quite unique structure in the emeu is a curious bag or pouch, formed by a sort of out-pocketing of the inner lining of the windpipe. Emerging SS SS Se AN Nea ee Ne o Photo by D. Le Souef] NEST AND EGGS OF EMEU The feet of the old bird, which was standing near, can be seen behind the eggs [Melbourne NSA a Gee cs Photo by D. Le Souef] [Melbourne through a long slit caused by the incompleteness of some of the rings near the middle of the windpipe, the YOUNG EMEUS FIVE DAYS OLD Young emeus just out of the shell have the legs beautifully spotted, but these spots are rapidly lost CASSOWARY. The female Cassowary is larger than her mate, and her colouring is of equal brilliancy THE OSTRICH AND ITS KINDRED pouch comes te lie between this tube and the skin. Strangely enough, it is found only in the female, and is used by her chiefly during the breeding-season, when she utters a peculiarly loud booming note, which, it is supposed, is caused by the manipulation of the air in the pouch. When moved by any gentle excite- ment or pleasure, especially on damp evenings or in the dead of night, she also becomes musical, giving forth a note which has been likened to a gong or muffled drum. The male, which is smaller, fleeter of foot, and more docile and inquisitive, is mute, or at most gives forth a suppressed YOUNG EMEUS hiss when angry, or a kind of grunt when distressed. At one time the emeu roamed over the whole of the mainland of Australia; but now, alas! it is almost exterminated, being found only far inland and in steadily diminishing numbers. Swift of foot and of great powers of endurance, the emeu has afforded in the past much “ sport” to the hunting-man, who followed the dogs, doubtless making comparisons the while between 7 = ee _ his two-legged prey and his four-footed - | friend Reynard. The hunt does not end | till the bird is thoroughly exhausted, when it must be seized at once by the neck, in order to prevent it kicking, for the legs are so powerful that a blow from the foot is dangerous. Incubation is apparently performed by the male, which sits from fifty-four to sixty-four days. Practically no nest is made, only a shallow hollow being scraped in the sand. The eggs, from seven to thirteen in number, are of a dark bottle-green colour, sometimes lighter, and have the surfaces curiously roughened. The male is smaller than the female, a fact which has led to some confusion, the larger female having at one time been regarded as the male. It will be noted that the emeus not only lack the brilliant colour of the casso- waries, but also the helmet, or casque. The late Mr. Gould’s remarks on the edibility of the emeu are inter- esting. He says: ‘‘Its flesh has been _. Sea compared to coarse beef, which it resem- CR cea tees ee [Berthamied = les, according to Mr. Cunningham, The feathers of the neck of the emeu are much longer than in the rhea; hence the both in a RPE ahanee and hatey. and is neck seems shorter goodandsweeteating; nothing,indeed, a Pas. “0 ‘a Sac get Photo by Scholastic Photo, Co.] [Parson's Green After a few weeks the black and white stripes become much less conspicuous Ie THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD ar my can be more delicate than the flesh of the young ones. There is little fit for culinary use upon any part of the emu, except the hind- quarters, which are of such dimen- sions that the shouldering of the two hind legs homeward for a mile distance once proved to me as tire- some a task as [ ever recollect to have encountered in the colony. I may remark that its flesh proved of the greatest service to Dr. Leich- ardt and his intrepid companions during their overland route from Moreton Bay to Port Essington, in the course of which, but more par- ticularly between the head of the Gulf of Carpentaria and Port Essing- ton, the sight and capture of the emu was almost a daily occurrence; so abundant, in fact, was it, that he states that he saw in the short space of eight miles at least a hundred, in flocks of three, five, ten, and even more at a time. On the continent of Australia the emu was formerly abundant about Botany Bay and Port Jackson Harbour, but is now only to be seen in the plains of the interior, over whose solitudes it roams in great numbers, and where it breeds, depending on the strength and swiftness of its legs to avoid the pursuit of the stockmen and their dogs. Farther and farther back, however, will it be driven, until it be extirpated, unless some law be instituted to check its wanton destruction.” In a wild state emeus take readily to the water, and have on more than one occasion been seen swimming across a wide river. The South American rhea is also known to be a good swimmer. : The CoMMON EMEUu is restricted to Eastern Australia. The opposite side of this great continent is inhabited by another and very distinct species, known as the SPOTTED EMEU. LF ET Pe bt mee Photo by Robert D. Carson, Esq.) MANTELL’S KIWI, NEW ZEALAND, NORTH ISLAND When feeding, the kiwi makes a sniffing sound, distinctly audible at some distance THE APTERYX To see the APTERYX at home, we should have to travel to far New Zealand, and to hunt with infinite patience when we got there. Apteryx-hunting, it has been found, to be successful, must be done by the help of dogs. Sir Walter Buller has written some very spirited accounts of such hunts. Europeans, indeed, have been singularly successful in this hunting, whereby they have done much to enhance the value of this bird by hastening its fast ap- proaching and inevitable extermination. The natives call this bird the Krw1, from its call-note, ‘‘ki-i-wi.” These cries are uttered ae eat eae a al during the early hours of the night, ceasing OWEN’S KIWI, NEW See eee after midnight. They appear to have great ISLAND : penetrating power. This is the smallest of the kiwis X, — SHAP TEE Ib THE GAME-BIRDS AND RAILS T is not easy in a few words exactly to define a “ game-bird.” Anatomical details aside, the most characteristic features are the small head and moderately long neck, and a compact body, in which the wings, when folded, are almost entirely concealed. The hind toe is always present, and the claws are adapted for scratching purposes—that is to say, for scratching up the surface of the ground in the search for seeds as food. The wings are hollowed so as to fit close to the body, and the flight, which is noisy and never long- sustained, is nevertheless often exceedingly rapid. The young are hatched covered with down, and able to run in a few hours after birth. Photo by C, Reid] (Wishaw, N.B. RED GROUSE This is one of the species in which the toes are feathered GROUSE AND PTARMIGAN The birds of this group are distinguished by the feathery covering which clothes the feet. In some grouse, however, the toes are bare. This causes them to resemble the Pheasant group, from which they may be distinguished by the fact that the toes are fringed with horny processes forming a sort of comb. 2 13 14 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD [ The RED GROUSE is the only game-bird which is not found outside the British Islands. It is the bird which perhaps heads the list in the estimation of British sportsmen, who travel north in hundreds every year for the pleasure of the sport it affords. {t is furthermore remarkable for the wonderful variety of the seasonal plumages. Both sexes change their dress twice during the year — the female in spring and summer, and the male in autumn and winter. Its Continental relative, the RYPER, has no less than three changes — spring, summer, and winter. For the last season a white dress is adopted, to correspond with its snowy surroundings. The winters in the British Islands are neither IaeCovaaier alex ee enough nor severe ral : , enough LLeighton Buxxora to render PTARMIGAN Ss an ce ch Photo by HW’, F. Piggott] In winter these birds don a snow-white livery change necessary with the red grouse, which is sufficiently protected by its ordinary dress. The largest and perhaps the most interesting of all the European game-birds are the CAPERCALLIES, 7 or CAPER- [ CAILZIES. | ; fy bhe we | NDP British S$: piecres 1S also irate li che ee known as Photo by HW. F. Piggort) [ Leighicn Buxscard the Cock— CAPERCALLIE O.F=— H E= This was once a common British bird. The present breed woop. He was introduced some years ago, the native birds having been exterminated is a hand- some black bird, nearly as big as a turkey, weighing from 9 to 17 lbs. In the spring the capercallie, like the blackcock, indulges in a remarkable “ love-song,” or “play,” as it is called. With outstretched neck, tail expanded like a fan, drooping wings, and ruffled feathers, he commences his call, “ peller, peller, peller,” increasing in rapidity every moment, till he works himself up into a perfect frenzy. At this time he is perfectly unconscious of all around him, and poachers, knowing SoReal this, sometimes take advantage to creep up and Photo by W. F. Piggott i : a pa Hee PARTRIDGE shoot him. On hearing the cock, the hens assemble * ~ This ts the commoner and more esteemed of the two species from all pat ts of the forest. The male then descends of British partridges from the tree to the ground, when “he and_ his THE GAME-BIRDS AND RAILS 15 female friends join company” and march away. The caper- callie is jealous of trespassers on his domain, and instances are on record where people have been attacked when so infringing. Like the capercallie, the BLackcock must be sought in the woods, whence he sallies forth to the moors and stubble- fields to feed. The Grey-HeEn, as the female of this species is called, lays from six to ten eggs, of a buff colour, spotted with rich brown: both in number and colour they resemble those of the capercallie. PAaRTRIDGES, QuUAILS, AND PHEASANTS. The birds which come under this head are so many in number they may be reckoned by the hundred, and include several forms of exquisite beauty. The legs of many are armed with formidable spurs, with which the males, who are exceedingly pugnacious, fight furiously with their rivals for the possession of some coveted female. Of the more conspicuous forms we may mention the RED-LEGGED and Common Parrripces. In England the former is known more generally as the FRENcH PARTRIDGE —why, it is hard to say. It is a native of South-eastern Europe, whence it was introduced towards the end of the GOLDEN PHEASANT eighteenth century. It is a handsome bird, but not in high favour with sportsmen, since it prefers to escape by run- ning rather than by flight. This bird is moulting. In full dress the cape seen in the upper figure is golden with blue-black bars tain Wreck Photo by C. Reid] [ Wishaw, N.B. GOLDEN PHEASANT This bird is often kept in aviaries, on account of its magnificent livery Photo by C. Reid] (Wishaw, N.B. SILVER PHEASANT ENGLISH PHEASANTS Al silver pheasant is embroidered as a badge on mandarins’ dresses These birds are of the ring-necked variety s R : : Liu anaes Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.] [Parson's Green Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.] [Parson's Green REEVES’S PHEASANT GOLDEN PHEASANT This is a native of North and West China, and has been intro- The female is soberly clad, and has no crest or cape duced into Britain Sate, a < > 5 2 5 down for exercise, when the long feathers are ees carefully rolled up and securely fastened out of harm’s way. BLACK-CHESTED CRESTED GUINEA-FOWL THE ARGUS-PHEASANT AND PEACOCK AND THEIR ALLIES The ARGUS-PHEASANT most certainly demands notice, on account of the extra- ordinary development of the wing-quills, which are nearly a yard long, and the wondrous beanty of the pattern thereon. This pattern takes the form of a number of eyes, so shaded as to give the appearance, when fully displayed, of a number of balls lying in a socket. These enormous quills are borne only by the male, and used, like the ornamental feathers of its allies, in cap- tivating the female. When fully displayed, the two wings are spread out to form one huge fan, producing an effect which words cannot adequately describe. The argus- pheasants are found in the forests of Siam, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra, and are Lap excessively wary birds. "Phebe by SMtatastle Phata, Cy The PEACOCK is too well known to need BLACK-CHESTED CRESTED GUINEA_FOWL a very long description. But a word as to : y § eh _ z i At Durban these birds are often hawked by Kaffir hunters, the flesh the so-called “ tail.” This magnificent wealth being very delicate and much esteemed [Parson's Green THE GAME-BIRDS AND RAILS 23 of plumes docs not represent the tail, as is popularly supposed, but is made up of the feathers of the lower part of the back and the upper tail-coverts. These gradually increase in length from before-back- wards, culminating in the long and exquisite feathers which form the circumference of the huge, outspread shield. This shield is properly called the “train”; the true tail lies behind it and acts as a support. When the bird is about to display, the “ train” feathers are slowly and gently raised till the well- known fan-shaped glory of green and gold and blue is exposed to the fullest possible extent. “Watch the bird trying to do his best to persuade his chosen what a handsome fellow he is. He first places himself more or less in front of her, but at some little distance off; and then, watching his opportunity, walks rapidly backwards, going faster and faster and faster, till, arrived within a foot, he suddenly, like a flash, turns round and displays to the full his truly gorgeous vestments. This turning movement is accompanied by a violent shaking of the train, the quills of which rattle like the pattering of rain upon leaves. Often this movement is followed by a loud scream. NEST OF BRUSH-TURKEY This is made by several birds, of decaying vegetable matter, in which the eggs are laid and left to hatch “When the train is fully erect, it will be noticed that it lies so far forward that the bird’s head and neck appear as if rising from its base. In a side view the whole body, from the front of the wings backwards, appears to lie behind the train.” This bird is a native of India, where it is held in great reverence by the Hindus, and ee Photo by C. Reid} TURKEY COCK AND HEN The curious * tassel’? depending from the breast ts found in no other bird 24 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Base re in the Hindu States it is not allowed | to be killed under any circumstances. There are two, some say three, distinct species of peacock, but they all closely resemble one another. Brief mention will serve for the GUINEA-FOWLS and TURKEYS, since they are well known to us all. GUINEA- FOWLS are African birds. The farm- yard form, popularly known as ‘‘ Come- backs,” from their peculiar cry ‘“ come-back, come-back, come-back,” is a descendant of the common helmeted form, of which type there are eight distinct species. Besides. SN al) oe ae PX ecies, Photo by Kerry & Co] (Sidney these are four crested species; one very beautiful species known as the VULTURE LIKE GUINEA-FOWL; and one, the rarest of all, known as the BLACK GUINEA-FOWL. Even in the British Museum, writes Mr. Ogilvie Grant, “there are only two examples of it, and neither of these are perfect specimens.” It was discovered by M. Du Chaillu. ‘One day,” he says, ‘I went out hunting by myself, and, to my great joy, shot another new bird, a black wild-fowl, one of the most singular birds I have seen in Africa. . . . The head, where it is bare, is in the female of a pink hue, and in the male of a bright scarlet... . Wild they are, and most difficult to approach, and rare, even in the forests where they are at home.” They do not travel in huge flocks, like other guinea-fowls, but a male and two females at most. The familiar form of the TURKEY scarcely needs description; but most people are probably puzzled by its name. Why Turkey? The bird is a native of America, so it certainly cannot have anything to do with its place of origin. Professor Newton has it that it is on account of its call-note, “to be syllabled ‘turk, turk, turk,’ whereby it may almost be said to have named itself.” The domesticated turkey is descended from the MEXICAN TURKEY, and was probably introduced into Europe during the sixteenth century. This, according to Captain Bendire, is a mountain-living species, and still abundant in the wilder portions of Western Texas and New Mexico. It appears to attain greater bull than its domesticated descendant, Captain Bendire having recorded a specimen shot by himself which weighed 28 Ibs. after having been drawn, and heavier birds are said to occur occasionally. The Mexicans say that the coyotes catch turkeys by running in circles under the tree in which they are roosting, till the birds get dizzy with watching them, and fall down into the open mouths below! There are three distinct kinds of turkey —the MENICAN, AMERICAN, and Honpuras TURKEY. The last is a very fine bird, with a bright blue head and neck, instead of red. The top of the head is adorned with numerous scarlet, berry-like warts, looking like holly-berries. WALLACE’S PAINTED MEGAPODE This bird buries its eggs in the sand, burrowing for each a slanting hole from 3 to f feet deep THE GAME-BIRDS AND RAILS 25 The MEGAPODES and BRUSH-TURKEYS, though dull and uninteresting-looking birds, are, on account of the facts connected with the propagation of their species, quite remarkable. They do not brood over their eggs, as do other birds, but instead bury them, either in sand in the neighbourhood of warm springs or in heaps of decaying vegetable matter. In the latter case the material is often collected by several birds working together. Mounds of 8 feet high and 60 feet in circumference have been found, the work of the NICOBAR MEGAPODE. Such have been many years in use, material being added each season. Into this mass the female digs down and deposits an egg every second day, covering it up as soon as laid. There it remains till hatched, when the young, probably aided by its mother, forces its way up to the surface, and emerges, o¢ a downy nestling as one would expect, but clothed with feathers differing but slightly in texture from those worn in the adult state. Owing to the precocious development, young megapodes are able to fly within an hour after birth. There are many different kinds of megapodes occurring in Australia, Samoa, and the Nicobar and Philippine Islands. ae | enh fe ED a Dai hier Ci te NY Ree 2 Lem ant Cie Gs Sie ie mata lis Ah Ts ies) (Saat a Eye UN SSRN OEY Ses Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.] Photo by Scholastic Photo, Co.] RAZOR-BILLED CURASSOW CRESTED CURASSOW So called from the sharp ridge along the top of the beak So called from its crest of curled feathers The CuRAsSSOWS and GUANS are very handsome birds, but probably quite unknown to most of our readers, yet they may always be seen in Zoological Gardens. They are closely re- lated to the megapodes, which we have just been discussing; but their nesting habits are quite different. They lay their eggs in nests, either on the ground or in trees, and brood over them like other birds. Many have brilliantly coloured bare skin on the head and handsome crests. They are natives of Central and South America, where they are often kept by the settlers, as they tame easily. It is said that one of the guans, when crossed with the domesticated fowl, becomes intensely pugnacious, and superior to the game-cock for fighting purposes BUSTARD-QUAIL AND PLAIN-WANDERERS These are small and quail-like in appearance, though they are probably only distant relatives of the Game-birds. But they are, nevertheless, remarkable birds. A great authority, Mr. A. O. Hume, writing of the INDIAN BUSTARD-QUAIL, says of them: ‘‘ The most remarkable point in the life-history of these bustard-quails is the extraordinary fashion in which, amongst them, the position of the sexes is reversed. The females are the larger and handsomer birds. The females only call, the females only fight — natives say that they fight for the males, and probably this is true. The males... only ... sit upon the eggs, the females meanwhile larking about, calling, and fighting, without any care for their obedient mates; and, lastly, the males tend . . . the young brood.” 26 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD The group has a wide geographical range, occurring in Europe, Africa, Madagascar, South Asia, the Indian Archipelago, and Australia. THE HOATZIN This bird is one of the puzzles of the ornithologist. Its pedigree is still a mystery, but it is generally believed to have some relation to the Game-birds. Its whole life is passed in trees overhanging water, and its flight restricted to short journeys from tree to tree. In South America, its home, it is known by a variety of names, one of which means STINKING-PHEASANT. This is in allusion to the peculiar odour of its flesh, which smells, according to some, like musk, and to others like raw hides. Another remarkable feature of this bird is the fact that it has turned its crop into a sort of gizzard, whilst the true gizzard, having been relieved of its functions, has diminished to the size of a hazel-nut. The unusuai purpose to which the crop has been put has brought about considerable modification in the form of the breast-bone, which is quite different to that of any other bird. The young of these birds are quite as remarkable as the parents, for almost as soon as they are hatched they crawl out of the nest, along the boughs of the tree in which it rests, to meet the parents coming with food. In these crawling excursions they are aided by the wings, which for a time serve as fore feet. The thumb and first finger are armed with strong claws, with which a firm hold is gained on the bark of the tree. To render these claws effective so long as they are necessary, the quill-feathers of the tip of the wing have their development checked till the others have grown long enough to serve the purposes of flight. THE RAILS The RAILs are all water-loving birds, dwelling in swamps or on the borders of lakes and streams. Although all swim easily, none have webbed feet. The flight is weak; several species, indeed, have lost This is a native of the Amazons Valley, and lives entirely in the trees this power altogether. The body is much compressed, enabling them to pass readily through the narrow interspaces of dense aquatic foliage. The Rails appear to be related on the one hand to the Game-birds, and on the other to the Cranes. In size they vary from a bird as large as a fowl to one as small as a lark. ye) a tin ce Photo by F. W. McLellan} [Highbury HOATZIN One of the commonest of the Rails is the CORN-CRAKE, more commonly, perhaps, known as the LAND-RAIL. Its curious grating cry is one of the commonest sounds which the summer brings with it, and one possessing a charm of its own. But rarely seen, it builds its nest in hay-fields, and, when the grass is being cut, sits so closely on its treasures that it is sometimes beheaded by the swinging scythe. In the autumn it falls not infrequently to the sportsmen when partridge-shooting. The corn-crake leaves in the winter for the more congenial climate of Africa, a feat that seems wonderful when its feeble powers of flight are considered. Its near relative the WATER-RAIL is rather a handsome bird, but of shy and retiring habits. The WEKA-RAIL, a native of New Zealand, is one of the flightless forms to which we THE GAME-BIRDS AND RAILS 27 have referred. It is about as large as a pheasant, but lacks its splendour, being soberly clad in brown and black. Un- like its relative, it breeds in a burrow, which it digs for itself by the aid of its bill. The name ‘ weka”’ was given it by the Maoris. The CoMMON WATER- HEN, or MOOR-HEN, is one of the most familiar birds of the London parks. Although fre- quent enough to be seen upon streams and_ broads, it is, nevertheless, shy and wary; but in the sanctuary of the public parks all reserve is thrown off. The water-hen, like its allies, is an expert : Photo by Scholastic Photo, Co.} swimmer, in spite of the fact WEKA-RAIL that the toes are not webbed; on the contrary, they are very long and slender. When alarmed, these birds will often submerge the body till only the beak projects above water. All the members of this group are easily recognised by the bare patch of skin extending from the beak on to the top of the head. In the Coors this is white; in the WATER-HENS and GALLINULES it is red. The coots and water-hens are clad in sober colours, grey or black; but the gallinules are gorgeously clad in purple, shaded with dark green, olive-brown, and black. MANTELL’S GALLINULE of Aye New Zealand is probably now et extinct, the last bird having u been killed in 1898. 2S [Parson’s Green The wings, though fairly large, are useless for flight ef 4 THE FIN-FEET These are little-known birds, found in Africa, South America, South-east Asia, and Sumatra. They are closely related to the coots, but differ therefrom in many important particulars. Like the coots, they are river-haunting birds, and have broad flaps” of skin fringing the toes, which serve the purpose of a web; but they have much longer necks and tails than the coots and water-hens. WATER-RAIL Not much is known about This is a common British bird, seldom seen, on account of its retiring habits them. CHAPTER I11 PIGEONS AND SAND-GROUSE IGEONS, as a tule, are birds of wonderful powers of flight. The young, which never exceed two in number, are hatched perfectly blind and helpless, and but sparsely clothed. They are nourished by a peculiar milky secretion of the parents’ crop known as “‘ pigeons’ milk.” The operation of feeding is performed by the parent thrusting its beak into the mouth of its offspring and ejecting therein the secretion just referred to. The nest is a very simple structure, being composed of twigs, generally placed in a tree, but sometimes ina cave or hole ina bank. The eggs, which never exceed two in number, are pure white. Perhaps the most beautiful species occur among the large group known as FRUIT-PIGEONS. Many of these are invested in raiment of vivid green and yellow, forming a little coterie by themselves —the GREEN PIGEONS. Others, on account of their brilliancy, have been designated PAINTED PIGEONS, of which, perhaps, the most beautiful of all is EUGENE’S PIGEON. Try to imagine it! The head is pure white, the upper part of the breast a purple-red surrounded by a dull purple band: the under parts are greyish green, shading into white ; the flanks green; whilst the upper parts are also green, but of a rich bronze tint. Another group The hair-like down of the young pigeon is quite different to any other nestling down from the Fiji Islands includes a magnificent species, the male of which is clothed in a glorious orange, save the head and throat, which are olive- yellow. His mate is scarcely less beautiful, her plumage being rich green. Another member of the group — the WHITE NUTMEG-PIGEON — is clad in creamy white, with black quills, and a black tip to the tail. Itis a native of Borneo. The fruit-pigeons, it should be mentioned, include some of the largest of living pigeons. [Berkhamsted Photo by ¥. T. Newman] A PAIR OF YOUNG PIGEONS IN NEST Whilst many of the Pigeon Tribe seem to have succeeded in dyeing their feathers with all the hues of the rainbow, others have secured equal glory by a covering which at first sight would rather appear to be of burnished metal than of feathers. The most striking instance cf this is found in the magnificent NICOBAR PIGEONS. There are two species of these birds, which occur not only in the Nicobar Islands, from which they take their name, but also in the Malay Archipelago and the Solomon and Pelew Islands. The general tone of the one species is black, but the upper parts are superbly glossed with bronze and copper reflections. The other, from the Pelew Islands, is indigo-blue in general tone. In one of the Nicobar Islands these birds occur in thousands. Furthermore, these two pigeons stand alone, in that the neck-feathers are greatly elongated, forming ‘ hackles” like those of the common fowl. The largest of living pigeons are the GOURAS, or CROWNED PIGEONS. There are six species, 28 Photo by L. Medland, F.Z.S] [North Finchley Photo by L. Medland, F.Z.S.] [North Finchley SOUTHERN FRUIT-PIGEON NICOBAR IMPERIAL FRUIT-PIGEONS The flesh of the fruit-pigeon surpasses that of all other birds in These birds lay but a single egg, which is large delicacy Photo by HW’, P. Dando, F.Z.S. Photo by HW’, P, Dando, F.Z.S. NEW GUINEA CROWNED PIGEON WONGA-WONGA PIGEON This is the largest of living pigeons This bird is found in the brush country of Eastern Australia 3 29) 30 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD all of which are confined to Australasia. They are characterised by a huge and very beautiful fan-shaped crest of feathers which springs from the crown of the head. At the other extreme stand the NAMAQUA and SCALY Doves. The former is regarded by Professor Newton as one of the most graceful in form of all the Pigeon Tribe: the latter are scarcely, if at all, larger than the sparrows. The power of flight of some forms is, however, extremely limited; they bid fair in course of time to become flightless, like the dodo and the solitaire. The most interesting of these is the GREY-NAPED GROUND-PIGEON. Pigeons for the most part display a marked preference for a life among the trees rather than on the ground; but there are some which are essentially ground-dwellers. The species in which this changed habit is most deeply rooted, and probably of longest standing, exhibit one very interesting point of difference from their neighbours of the woods. This difference consists in the very considerably longer legs which mark the ground-haunting bird. The GREY-NAPED GROUND-PIGEON of South-east New Guinea forms an excellent example, inasmuch as the legs are much longer than in any other pigeon. These birds (for there are three species in all) resemble the Megapodes in habit, and frequent hills or dense thickets. They lay one egg, which is deposited at the foot of a tree. Among domesticated breeds is the ENGLISH POUTER, a bird characterised by its enormous gullet, which can be distended with air whenever the owner wills. The carriage of the body is vertical, not, as in pigeons generally, horizontal. The CARRIER is a breed illustrating the result of long-sustained selec- tion to increase, amongst other characters, the development of the bare skin surrounding the eye and beak of all pigeons, wild or tame. Inthe SHORT-FACED TUMBLER we have abreed wherein those birds with the shortest beaks have been steadily bred from. To-day so little beak is left that some individuals are hatched which, when grown up, are unable to feed themselves. An example of a radical change in the feathers is the INDIAN FRILL- BACK. In this case the feathers all over the body are reversed, or turned forwards, giving the bird a quite extraordinary appearance. In the JACOBIN we have a breed —and we could cite others —wherein the feathers of the neck are much elongated, and turn upwards and forwards over the head to form a hood. In general appearance SAND-GROUSE are small, very short-legged birds, with small heads and pointed wings and tail. Their general tone of coloration may be described as sand- coloured, and this has been adopted to render them in harmony with the barren sand-wastes in which they dwell. But some may be described as quite highly coloured, being banded and splashed with chestnut, black, pearly grey, white, and yellow, according to the species. PALLAS'S SAND-GROUSE is a native of the Kirghiz Steppes, extending through Central Asia to Mongolia and Northern China, and northwards to Lake Baikal, and southwards to Turkestan. Here they may be met with in enormous numbers. In North China large numbers are often caught after a snow-storm. The snow is cleared away, and a small green bean is scattered about. Young sand-grouse differ remarkably in one particular from young pigeons, inasmuch as the former are hatched covered with a thick down, and are able to run about soon after leaving the egg, whilst the pigeon comes into the world very helpless and much in need of clothing. Three eggs are laid by the sand-grouse, and these are double-spotted; whilst the pigeon lays but two, which are white. The eggs of the sand-grouse are laid ina depression in the ground, without any nest. "Photo by L. Medland, F.Z.S.] ” [North Finchley MALE BLACK.-BELLIED SAND-GROUSE Young sand-grouse run directly they are hatched, thus differing from young pigeons CHAPTER IV AUKS, GULLS, AND PLOVERS THE AUK TRIBE HE GUILLEMOT is found all around Britain, and breeds wherever the sea is fringed by cliffs affording ledges for the reception of the eggs. It breeds in colonies often num- bering many thousands, and lays but one egg, which is large and pear-shaped. Since the guillemot builds no nest, but lays its egg on the bare rock, this peculiar shape is advanta- geous, since it revolves on itself, when disturbed, instead of rolling off the ledge into the sea. At the same time thousands of eggs fall into the sea every year owing to the bird’s leaving the egg, whilst incubating, in too great a hurry. At Lundy Island one of the sources of amusement for the gap- ing tourist was that of firing a shot to frighten the birds, with the result that, at each shot, showers of eggs were knocked off the ledges on to the rocks below. The colour of the egg varies infinitely, no two being quite alike. This, it has been suggested, is useful, as the mother is thereby enabled to identify her own egg, even when surrounded by hundreds of others. The young are covered with long down, and when big enough, but still unable to fly, are taken down by the mother to the sea, being carried, some say, on her back: others say the chick is seized by the wing and carried down. The RAZOR-BILL is nearly, if not quite, as com- mon on the coasts of Britain as the guillemot, from which it may be readily distinguished by its beak, which is much compressed from side to side — hence its name of Razor-bill—and deeply grooved. habits it very closely resembles the guillemot, but in one respect at least it is a more interesting bird, inasmuch as it is related to and closely resembles the now extinct GREAT AUK, the giant of the tribe. The smallest British representative, it should be mentioned, is the LITTLE AUK, a species more nearly allied to the guillemot. It is only a winter visitant to Britain, breeding in huge colonies on the inhospitable shores of Greenland and Iceland. So quaint a bird as the PUFFIN most certainly finds a place here. One of its most characteristic features is its enormous bill, which is rendered more conspicuous on account of its bright colour. It is bluish at the base, yellow at the tip, and striped with orange. A very remarkable feature of this bill is the fact that it is larger in summer than winter, portions of the sheath being shed in autumn. Enormous numbers of puffins breed in Ireland; myriads breed on Lundy Island. The Farne Islands, the cliffs of Flamborough, and Scotland are also tenanted by thousands. Puffins breed in holes, which they dig for themselves when occasion requires, but when rabbit-burrows are to be had they prefer these, dispossessing the owners without the slightest compunction. Might, with the puffin, is right, as well as with many other animals. 31 By permission of the Hon. Walter Rothschild, Tring In WHITE TERN There are two species of white tern, almost restricted to the Southern Hemisphere 52 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Young puffins, like young auks and guillemots, are hatched covered with long down. The parents feed them on fish, which they deposit at the mouth of the burrow twenty at a time, and give them to the young bird one by one. When the female is sitting, her mate feeds her in a similar way. Puffins lay only a single egg, which differs from that of its relatives the Auks and Guille- mots in being white. The white colour enables the sitting-bird to see it in the dark burrow. THE GULL TRIBE To get at the real inwardness of the Gull Tribe, so to speak, we must examine their anatomy very closely; then we shall be convinced that they are modified Plovers, and have nothing to do with the Petrels, to “which they bear an undoubted re- ; | semblance. § TERNS : eee Terns are gulls in miniature, on . | which account it is probable that many a visitor to the seashore passes them unwittingly. But let him watch next time for what look like flocks of tiny, long-winged, and un- usually active gulls, now hovering gracefully in the air, and now sud- denly plunging headlong like an arrow to the sea, with a force and dash that will surprise him, now that attention is drawn to them. These are terns. From their vivacity and forked tails, they have been aptly named Sea- swallows. There are several species of tern. Like the Gulls, they have a dis- tinctive dress for summer and winter, but the sexes are both dressed alike. The general livery, as with the Gulls, is pearly grey above and pure white below —in summer, in some species, relieved by a black head. One species, the ROSEATE TERN, has the breast suffused with a most exquisite rose- “Photo by G. WE Sen Webster & Son] ee ar opera TERNS ON A SHINGLE BANK Terns lay their eggs among the shingle ; from their coloration, these are difficult to oe Fe aus r sao a _ ; detect among ie surrounding stones pink, which fades rapidly afte death, however. Young terns, in their first plumage, differ conspicuously from their parents, having much brown intermixed with grey. Terns Jay about three eggs, which are deposited among the shingle on the beach; and so closely do the eggs, and later on the young, resemble the surrounding stones that it is almost impossible to find them. As a rule pains breed in colonies, often numbering many thousand birds. There are exceptions to the rule just laid down as to nest- building. One species of the Noppy TERNS, for example, builds a nest of turf and dry grass, placed in bushes or in low trees. It seems to return to the same nest year after year, adding on each return new materials, till they form masses nearly 2 feet in height. Occasionally it appears to make a mud-nest, placed in the fork of a tree; whilst the superb little WHirE Noppy often deposits AUKS, GULLS, AND PLOVERS rs its egg on the leaf of a cocoanut-palm — truly a wonderful site, and still more wonderful when we reflect that it is chosen by one of the Gull Tribe. About six species of tern commonly occur in the British Islands, and some five or Six other species occasionally visit them. SKIMMERS The SKIMMERS are tern-like birds, with a very wide geographical distri- bution, occurring in India, Africa, and North and South America, and re- markable for the very extraordinary form of the beak. The upper jaw is much shorter than the lower, and both are compressed to the thinness of a knife-blade. This beak is associated with, and is probably an adaptation to, an equally remarkable method of me bs ; feeding, which has been admirably Phateby Scholateie Piste. Ce. | [Parson's Green described by Darwin, who watched HERRING-GULL them feedinginalake near Maldonado. “They kept their bills,’ he says, ‘“wide open, and the lower mandible half buried in the water. Thus skimming the surface, So called from its habit of following the shoals of herrings they ploughed it in their course; . . . and it formed a most curious spectacle to behold a flock, each bird leaving its narrow wake on the mirror-like surface. In their flight... they dexterously manage with their projecting lower mandible to plough up small fish, which are secured by the upper and shorter half of their scissor-like bills.” Tue GULLS Gulls are larger and heavier birds than terns, with- longer legs, and shorter, thicker beaks. Furthermore, with one exception, the tail is never forked. Like the terns, gulls generally breed in colonies, and these are often of large size. Young gulls, when newly hatched, are quite active. Later, when their feathers have grown, they are found to wear a dress quite different from that of the : parents. Sometimes theadult olastic Photo. Co.| [Parson's Green plumage is gained at the end YOUNG HERRING.-GULLS IN THE GREY PHASE OF PLUMAGE Of the first year of existence, sometimes not until after the third year. Gulls feed on everything that comes in their way, from fish caught swimming at the surface of the sea to worms picked up at the plough-tail. One of the commonest and best known of all the gulls is perhaps the species known as the BLACK-HEADED GULL, which has become so common in the heart of busy London, where hundreds may be seen, during the winter months, flying up and down the river, or Photo by Sc In their dull grey plumage the young of all guils are very unlike the adulis a4 PHE GIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD wheeling about over the lakes in the parks. The black- headed cullreceivesits popular name on account of the fact that, like some terns and some other gulls, in the spring, the feathers of the head sud- denly acquire a sooty-black colour: all trace of this is lost in the winter, save for two patches, one behind each ear. The eggs of this bird are collected in thousands each spring, and sold in London and other markets as plovers’ eggs. As many as 20,000 have been taken in a season from the extensive gullery at Scoulton Mere, in Norfolk. Three or four eggs are laid in a nest of rushes, which is always placed on the ground in marshy and often inaccessible spots. The largest of the Gull Tribe is the GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULL, which is, furthermore, a common British bird ; indeed, it is frequently seen flying, together with the last-mentioned species, on the Thames, doing its best to get a full share of the tit-bits thrown by interested spectators from the various London bridges. Unlike the black-headed gull, it has no seasonal change of plumage, but is clad all the year round in the purest white, set off by a mantle of bluish black. The young of this bird has a quite distinct plumage of greyish brown, and hence has been described as a distinct species —the GREY GULL. This dress is gradually changed for the adult | plumage, but the process takes about three years. The KITTIWAKE is another of the common British gulls, breeding in thousands in favourable localities on the coasts. Its eggs are deposited on the narrowest and most inaccessible ledges of precipitous cliffs. This species sometimes falls a victim to the fashion of wearing feathers. “ At Clovelly,” writes Mr. Howard Saunders, “there was a regular staff for preparing plumes; and fishing-smacks, with extra boats and crews, used to commence their work of destruction at Lundy Island by daybreak on the Ist of August. ... In many cases the wings were torn off the wounded birds before they were dead, the mangled victims being tossed back into the water.’ And he has seen, he con- tinues, “hundreds of young birds dead or dying of starvation in the nests, through the 3 ‘Photo by WwW. STONE-CURLEW, OR THICK-KNEE The plumage so closely resembles the sandy soil on which the bird lives that concealment is easily effected by crouching close to the ground want of their parents’ care... . It is well eg Le within the mark to say that at least 9,000 of — Photo by WF. Piggott] [Leighton Buzescard these inoffensive birds were destroyed during CURLEW the fortnight.” So called on account of its note AUKS, GULLS, AND PLOVERS 35 Of the SKUA GULLS there are several species. Their coloration differs from that of the gulls just described in being confined to shades of brown. One of their most remarkable traits is that of piracy. They await their cousins the Gulls coming shoreward from the sea with newly swallowed fish, and then, giving chase, compel the gull, in order to lighten itself and escape, to disgorge its hard-won meal. So swift of flight is the skua that the ejected morsel is caught before it reaches the water. THE PLOVER TRIBE BIRDS of very various size, * shape, andcolorationareincluded in this group — that is to say, birds which vary much super- ficially, but, it must be under- stood, all undoubtedly closely related. In England they are to be met with almost every- where. The seashore, the lonely moorland, the desolate marshes, the river’s brink, or the woods — all these shelter some one or other of the Plover Tribe. Like the Gulls, many adopt a dis- tinctive dress for the courting- Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni] [Smyrna season, which, however, is some- WOODCOCK times worn by the males only, The female is larger than the male and not by both sexes alike, =F as in the Gulls. One of the most striking and familiar instances of this change is seen inthe GREY PLOVER. Inwinter the plumage of the upper-parts of this bird is dusky grey, that of the under-parts pure white; but in the spring the former is ex- changed for a beautifully varie- gated mantle of black and white, and the latter becomes uniformly jet-black, save the under tail- coverts, which remain white. Ls a3 Oe eee eS 3 In the DUNLIN, again, we [Wellington have a similar change, the OYSTER-CATCHER ON ITS NEST upper-parts being in winter grey, i : Three eggs are laid in a slight hollow in the ground, The oyster-catcher is one of the most the under-parts white : im the wary of the Plover Tribe, and very difficult to approach spring the former become black, with an admixture of rust-colour, and the latter black in so far as the breast 1s concerned, but the abdomen remains white. In many of that section of the Plover Tribe distinguished as ‘‘ Wading-birds,” the changes which take place in the spring in the plumage of the upper-parts resemble those already instanced, but the under-parts turn to a rich chestnut instead of black. This occurs in the forms known as the GODWITS, KNoTs, and SANDERLINGS, for example. In all the instances so far quoted, both male and female are coloured alike, but, as already hinted, occasionally the change of plumage affects the male only. This is the case with the 36 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Rurr. The importance of this ex- ception is still further increased by the fact that the change in coloration is accompanied by the development of a large frill around the neck, surmounted by two large tufts called “ears,” and fleshy, brightly coloured warts around the beak. The coloured picture of the male in its spring dress, which will be found on another page, gives an admirable idea of the typical ruff, but it must necessarily fail to give any indication of one very remark- able fact concerning this frill and the two ‘‘ ears,” and for this reason — no two individuals ever have these peculiar feathers of the same colora- tionand pattern. The range of colour is certainly not great —the changes being rung, so to speak, on black, white, chestnut, bay, and ash-colour. Diversification is gained bycontrasting the ‘ears’ with the frill, and adding bars or streaks to the light coloration, kL rhato by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S.]_ [Regent's Park DENHAM’S BUSTARD showing off”? fills the gullet with air, having no special air- sac like the great bustard , green, and violet reflec- tions to the dark. These ornaments and purple This species, when *¢ are donned in a surprisingly short space of time, and are discarded as quickly, for they are scarcely completed by the month of May, and are thrown off again at the end of June. During the time that this resplendent livery is worn the males engage in mimic battles— which may occasionally develop into real ones — arranged apparently for the edification of the females, which, it seems, select as partners, at least for that season, those which please or excite most. This power of pleasing must certainly be considerable, for the ruff is a polygamous species. Formerly the ruff was ie a common bird in England, but the drainage of the fens and persecution have practically brought about its extermination. At least two groups of plovers have succeeded in reversing the usual order of things in the matter of sexual plumage. These are the PHALAROPES — which are British birds —and_ the PAINTED SNIPE, in both of which the female is more Photo by W. F. Piggott] brightly coloured and some- GREAT BUSTARDS what larger in size than the The cock on the right is showing off? [Leighton Bussxard Diy, CROWNED CRANE. ; The feathers of the Crest of this bird look not unlike stiff hairs. AUKRS, GULLS, AND PLOVERS at male. As is the case where this reversal occurs, the duties of incubation fall mainly or entirely upon the smaller and duller male. It is interesting to note, furthermore, that only in the phalaropes is there a seasonal change of plumage: in the painted snipe the same livery is worn all the year round. Many of the plovers have no seasonal change of plumage, but both male and female wear all the year round, some a more or less markedly bright-coloured livery, as the DOTTEREL and TURNSTONES, others a more sober vestment, as the CURLEWS and SNIPE, for example. The SNIPE and Woopcock may be cited as especially instructive forms in this connection, showing, in regard to the beak, for instance, undoubted proof of this structural modification, the result of adaptation to the peculiar method of seeking their food. This beak constitutes an organ of touch of great sensitiveness, and is used as a probe, to thrust down into the soft soil in the search for hidden worms. i ype BE [Queensland INDIAN BUSTARDS Bustards have very short toes, like many other birds which walk much on sandy soil Of the three species of snipe which occur in Britain, probably the one known as the COMMON SNIPE is most familiar; but it will, perhaps, be new to some to learn that this bird ranks as a musical performer, on account of a very extraordinary ‘“ bleating” or “drumming” noise which it gives forth, especially during the spring of the year —the season of courtship. We cannot describe this noise better, perhaps, than as an unusually high-pitched “ hum,” produced, it is generally held, by wind driven between the outer tail-feathers by the rapid vibration of the wings as the bird descends, or rather pitches, at a fearful pace, earthwards. These feathers have the shafts peculiarly thickened; and it is interesting to note that the characteristic sound may be artificially produced if they be fastened to a stick and rapidly whirled through the air. The snipe and woodcock are not the only members of the Plover Tribe whose beaks have undergone marked structural modifications; indeed, many instances could be cited, but two or three must suffice. In the AvoceT the beak turns upwards like an awl, and the bird is in consequence known in some places as the COBBLER’S-AWL Duck. | In one particular, however, the beak differs from an awl, tapering as it does to an exceedingly fine point. When the ” 38 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD bird feeds, it walks along in shallow water with the curved tip of the beak resting on the surface and the head moving swiftly from side to side, the jaws meanwhile being opened and closed with exceeding rapidity, and seizing instantly upon such small crustacea and other organisms as come in their way. Although all the Plovers might be described as long-legged birds, the STILTS are quite exceptionally so, and afford evidence of modifica- tion in another direction. Relatively to the size of the body, the stilts have the longest legs of all living birds. They seek their prey by wading in shallow water, like the Avocets, to which they are closely related. One species — the BLACK- WINGED STILT—occasionally appears in Britain. Some other members of the Plover Tribe — the JACANA of Brazil, and the WATER-PHEASANT of India, Ceylon, and China, for example — have enormously long toes, as well as claws of great length. een aaa = ; g K SET Fe BOT URegsny aR ars These birds are furthermore STANLEY CRANE remarkable for the possession of for- This is a South African species midable weapons of offence, borne on the wrist-joint of the wing, in the shape of long, sharp, and powerful spurs. Similar weapons are carried by certain plovers — the EGYPTIAN SPUR-WINGED PLOVER, for instance. fe del APR BUSTARDS AND CRANES HE Plover Tribe, Bustards, Cranes, and Rails forma large group of diverse but probably closely related forms. Of the Bustards, the most interesting and important species is the GREAT BUSTARD. About a hundred years ago this magnificent bird might have been seen any day in such favoured localities as the Yorkshire and Lincolnshire wolds, the Norfolk and Suffolk “ brecks,” the heaths of Newmarket, or the downs of Berkshire and Wiltshire. to several causes, foremost among which must be reckoned the rec] It owes its extermination aiming of waste land and improved methods of agriculture. ‘The bull of its body,” says Professor Newton, “ renders it a conspicuous and stately object; and when on the wing, to which it readily takes, its flight i 5 % s . an s a Sy ‘ 5 is not inferior in majesty to that of the eagle.” The expanse of the outstretched wings of a great bustard is 8 feet, or even more; and the weight of the male may even exceed 35 lbs. The female is smaller, COMMON CRANE 39 LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Ser isa Photo by Scholastic Photo, Co., Parson's Green MANCHURIAN CRANE The piebald plumage of this species is distinctive between the gullet and the skin with air through a small hole under the tongue. For manyyears it was believed this bag was used as a sort of water-bottle, to enable the bird to live amid the arid wastes which were its chosen haunts. RT 7S gg cole tty Y apt) ‘ Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co., Parson’s Green WATTLED CRANE So called from the pendent lappets of the throat. It is a South African species To see the great bustard in a wild state to-day, one would have to travel to Spain. And if one could make a pilgrimage for this purpose during the birds’ courting- season, some very wonderful antics on the part of the male would be witnessed. These antics make up what is really a very elaborate love-display. In this perform- ance the bird inflates his neck with wind, draws his head closely down on to the back, throws up his tail, so as to make the most of the pure white feathers underneath, and sticks up certain of the quill-feathers of the wing in a manner that only a great bustard can. Certain long feathers projecting from each side of the head now stand out like the quills of the porcupine, forming a sort of cheval-de-frise on either side of the head, and complete the picture, which, in our eyes, savours of the ludicrous. The inflation of the neck is brought about by filling a specially developed wind-bag ev 7 Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.] COMMON CRANE CRANES. Cranes vary much in general appearance Some species have much of the skin round the head bare and brilliantly coloured, such as the Sarus Crane of India and the Crownep CRANE. The Wiite and Wnoortnc Cranes are birds of wondrous beauty. The first-named species has been not inaptly called the “lily of birds.” The whole plumage, with the exception of the black quills, is white. The legs are red, as is also the face. Dr. Coues once mistook one of these birds—the Wroortnc-cranr—for an antelope. He and a companion saw what they “took to be an an- telope standing quietly feeding, with his broad white stern toward us, and only about 500 yards off. We attempted for at least fifteen minutes to ‘flag’ the crea- ture This proving unavailing, my friend proceeded to stalk the game, for about half the distance before GREBES AND DIVERS, PENGUINS, TUBE-NOSED BIRDS 41 ' the ‘antelope’ unfolded his broad black-tipped wings and flapped off, revealed at length as a whooping (white) crane.” Another very remarkable species is the CROWNED CRANE. This is an African species, and takes its name from the tuft of curiously modified feathers on the top of the head. The coloured plate gives a good idea of its general appearance. THE SERIEMA This is a very hawklike-looking bird; indeed, by some ornithologists it has been regarded as closely allied to the Hawks and Eagles, and more especially to the Secretary-bird. Really, however, it is a very ancient kind of crane. The TRUMPETERS, the COURLANS, the KAGu, and the SUN-BITTERN are other ornithological Nee © eke by WF. Piggott] GREAT CRESTED GREBE puzzles. Concerning the precise affinities of these birds much is yet to be learnt; they are, how- ever, undoubtedly related to the Cranes. The last mentioned is a small bird, with wonderfully beautiful wings, which it displays with great effect to its mate during the courting-season. Young grebes in down are beautifully striped CHOAPTER VI GREBES AND DIVERS, PENGUINS, AND TUBE-NOSED BIRDS THE GREBES AND DIVERS HEGrebesand Divers are representatives of an exceedingly ancient type, and are in many ways besides very interesting. Botharecommon British birds. The greater part of their lives is spent upon the water, and to suit this aquatic existence their bodies are specially modified. One of the principal features of this modification is seen in the position of the legs. These, by a shortening of the thigh-bones in the grebes, leave the body so far back that when the bird walks the body is held vertically. With the divers walking has become an impossibility, and they can only move on land on their bellies, pushing themselves along with the BLACK-THROATED DIVERS feet. Both grebes and divers These very handsome birds breed in Scotland Photo by W. F, Piggott] [Leighton Buzzard 42 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD are expert swimmers, and dive with the greatest ease, remaining long under water. The grebes haunt ponds, lakes, and broads; the divers prefer the open sea. Both feed on fish. GREBES Of the numerous species of grebe, the most familiar are the GREAT CRESTED GREBE and the little DABcHICK. The former has. suffered grievous persecution for the sake of its beautiful breast-feathers, which Fashiom decreed should be worn by the gentler sex in the form of muffs or hats. Thus a price was set upon the head of this beautiful and. harmless bird, and its ranks were speedily thinned. Some species wear during the nesting-season beautiful chestnut or golden “ears,” “horns,” or “ frills” on the head and. neck. The EARED GREBE is especially mag- nificent at this time. DIVERS These, as already remarked, are sea- loving birds, but they breed inland on the shores of lakes. There are not many species. of divers, but, like the grebes, they assume a special dress during the nesting-season, more beautiful than the winter dress. THE PENGUINS THE PENGUINS may justly be called won- derful birds, and they are undoubtedly of very ancient descent. For countless generations the sea has been their home and refuge, and, in consequence, flight has been abandoned in ex- change for increased swimming-powers, which have been gained by transforming the wing intoa paddle. Thistransformation hasresulted' in flattening the wing-bones — and so increas- ing the surface of the hand and arm whilst reducing its thickness — and the suppression of the quill-feathers. The result is a blade-like paddle closely resembling the paddle of the whale, the turtle, or the extinct fish-lizards. With this organ they cleave their way through the water,. often far below the surface, in pursuit of food, just as of old their ancestors did through the air. In other diving-birds the wings are kept closely pressed to the side of the body when under water, whilst the locomotion is effected by the feet. The penguin’s legs, in consequence of diminished use, have shortened considerably. But besides the wings and legs, the feathery covering has also undergone a certain amount of change. This has been effected by increasing’ the size of the shaft of the feather and diminishing the vane; as a result, on the front part of the wings these feathers look more like scales than feathers. Professor Moseley has vividly described the appearance of a flock of penguins at sea. He writes from Tristan d’Acunha: ‘As we approached the shore, I was astonished at seeing a. Photo by HW’. P. Dande, F.Z.S.] : egent’s BLACK-FOOTED PENGUIN This bird, also known as the Cape or Fackass-penguin, breeds in burrows or under ledges of rock GREBES AND DIVERS, PENGUINS, TUBE-NOSED BIRDS 43 shoal of what looked like extremely active, very small porpoises or dolphins. . . . They showed black above and white beneath, and came along in a shoal of fifty or more . . . towards the shore at a rapid pace, by a series of successive leaps out of the water and leaps into it again. . . . Splash, splash, went this marvellous shoal of animals, till they went splash through the surf on to the black, stony beach, and then struggled and jumped up amongst the boulders and revealed themselves as wet and dripping penguins.” Like their relatives in other parts of the world, penguins breed in huge communities known as ‘“‘rookeries,” a rookery being peopled by tens of thousands. Their nests, made of small stones, are placed among the tall grass and reached by beaten pathways, exceedingly difficult to walk through. Professor Moseley thus describes a “‘rookery”: ‘‘ At first you try to avoid the nests, but soon find that impossible; then, maddened almost by the pain [for they bite furiously at the legs], stench, and noise, you have recourse to brutality. Thump, thump, goes your stick, and at each blow down goes a bird. Thud, thud, you hear from the men behind you as they kick the birds right and left off the nests; and so you go for a bit—thump, smash, whack, thud, ‘caa, caa, urr, urr,) and the path behind you is strewn with the dead and dying and bleeding. Of course, it is horribly cruel thus to kill whole families of innocent birds, but it is absolutely necessary. One must cross the rookeries in order to explore the island at all, and collect the plants, or survey the coasts from the heights.” Penguins feed principally on crustacea, molluscs (‘ shell-fish”’), and small fish, varied with a little vegetable matter. Although the legs are very short, penguins yet walk with ease, and can, on occasion, run with considerable speed. It would appear, however, as if the largest of the tribe, the EMPEROR-PENGUIN, had become somewhat too bulky to run; for when speed is necessary it lies down upon the snow and propels itself with its feet, traveling, it is said, in this manner with incredible speed. Penguins, though confined to the Southern Hemisphere, enjoy a wide range and every variety of climate. They are found on the Antarctic ice, on the shores of South Africa, South America, Australia, New Zealand, and inhabit many islands of the southern seas, r ? Photo by Percy ‘Ashendon J [Cape Town BLACK-FOOTED PENGUINS BATHING The name Fackass is bestowed because the noise made by these birds closely resembles the bray of a donkey 44 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD notably the Falklands, Ker- guelen, and Tristan d’ Acunha. In size penguins vary greatly. The largest is the EMPEROR- PENGUIN of the Antarctic seas ; scarcely smaller is the KING- PENGUIN of Kerguelen Island. The emperor-penguin stands some 34 feet high, and may weigh as muchas 78 lbs, The GENTLE PENGUIN, or“ Johnny” of the sailors, is next in size, being but little smaller than the king-penguin; this species inhabits Kerguelen Island and the Falklands. The CRESTED PENGUINS, or ROCK-HOPPERS, of which there are several species, are muchsmaller ; they DRegert’s Part occur in the Falkland Islands, KING-PENGUIN New Zealand, and the Antarc- tic. The South African form is known as the BLACK-FOOTED PENGUIN. Its nearest allies are HUMBOLD?’s PENGUIN of Western South America, and the JACKASS-PENGUIN of the Falklands. The smallest of all is the little BLUE PENGUIN of South Australia and New Zealand, standing only 17 inches high. Photo by HW. P. Dando, F.Z.5.) This is one of the largest of the Penguins THE TUBE-NOSED BIRDS UNTIL recently these birds were believed to be closely related to the Gulls, but it is now generally agreed that they are really distant relatives of the Divers and Penguins. The association with the Gulls was pardonable, for they certainly bear a superficial resemblance to them. The birds now under discussion may be readily distinguished from the Gulls by the fact that the nostrils open into a tube on the top of the beak, or a pair of tubes, one on either side—hence the name of the group. Like the Gulls, they are sea-birds and web-footed. Their young are downy and for a time helpless. One egg is laid, which is white, and in some cases spotted with red at the large end. As a rule no nest is made, but the egg laid on the bare ground, in a hole or burrow or in crevices of rocks. The Albatrosses build a nest of earth, tufts of grass, and moss, the whole structure raising the sitting-bird well above the ground. The Giant and Fulmar Petrels also build nests. The albatross is said by Professor Moseley to hold the egg in a pouch while sitting, as in the case of the king-penguin. The nature of this pouch has never been described. Although occurring in the seas of all parts of the world, the Southern Hemisphere must be regarded as their headquarters, since here the greatest number of species are found. All are carnivorous, and — with the exception of one small group, the Diving-petrels of the Strait of Magellan — are birds of powerful flight. A large number of species belong to this group, but an enumeration of all would be wearisome. done native for this bird in the forest, where alone it is to be RACKET-TAILED MOTMOT met with, he writes: ‘A distant clattering note indicates nee die mmupilieedl ped feathers that the bird is on the wing. He settles —a splendid male — on a bough of a tree, not seventy yards from where we are hidden. Cipriano wants to creep up to within shot, but I keep him back, wishing to risk the chance of losing a specimen rather than miss such an Opportunity of seeing the bird in its living state, and of watching its movements. It sits almost motionless on its perch, the body remaining in the same position, the head only moving from side to side. The tail is occasionally jerked open and closed again, and now and then slightly raised, causing the long tail-coverts to vibrate gracefully. I have not seen all. A ripe fruit catches the quezal’s eye, and he darts from his perch, hovers for a moment, picks the berry, and returns to his former position. This is done with a degree of elegance that defies description.” CHAPTER X1Ly¥ TOUCANS, HONEY-GUIDES, FACAMARS, AND PUFF-BIRDS, BARBETS AND IVOODPECKERS AUDY in plumage, and somewhat ungainly in appearance, it must nevertheless be admitted that the TOuCANS form an exceedingly interesting group of birds. On account of their huge and gaily coloured beaks, they have been imagined to be related to the Hornbills; but even judging by this character, the two groups may be readily distinguished; for whereas the typical beak of the hornbill is surmounted by a large casque, the beak of the toucan is TOUCANS AND HONEY-GUIDES EIS never so ornamented. The solid appearance of the beak in the toucan, by the way, is as much a fiction as with the hornbill, since the horny sheath is supported, not on a core of solid bone, but on a frame of delicate bony filigree-work, the spaces being filled by air. The coloration of the plumage (which is somewhat loose in character ), as well as of the bare skin round the eye and the beak-sheath, is most brilliant, and displays immense variation amongst the different species. Shy and restless in their habits, toucans travel generally in small flocks amongst the forest- trees and mangrove-swamps in search of food, which consists mainly of fruits and seeds, varying this diet occasionally with ants and caterpillars. It is to this diet of fruit that the great size of the bill and its peculiar saw-like edges are to be traced—at least this is the opinion of the great traveller-naturalist Bates, who had so many opportunities of watching these birds. ‘ Flowers and fruit,” he writes, ‘* on the crowns of the large trees of South American forests grow principally towards the end of slender twigs, which will not bear any considerable weight. All animals, therefore, which feed principally upon fruit, or on insects contained in flowers, must, of course, have some means of reaching the ends of the stalks from a distance. Monkeys obtain their food by stretching forth their long arms, and in some instances their tails, to bring the fruit near to their mouths; humming-birds are endowed with highly perfected organs of flight, with corresponding muscular develop- ment, by which they are enabled to sus- tain themselves on the wing before blossoms whilst rifling them of their con- tents; [and the long bill of the toucan en- ables it] to reach and devour fruit whilst remaining seated, and thus to counter- balance the disadvantage which its heavy body and gluttonous appetite would otherwise give it in the competition with allied groups of birds.” Toucans appear to be much esteemed as articles of food — at least during the months of June and July, when these birds get very fat, the flesh being ex- sii a ead esa ceedingly sweet and tender. They nest TROGON in holes of trees at a great height from Trogons haunt the recesses of the thickest forests the ground, and lay white eggs. One of the most remarkable of the group is the CURL-CRESTED TOUCAN, from the fact that the feathers on the crown of the head are peculiarly modified to form scroll-like, glossy curls, which have been compared to shavings of steel or ebony. Mr. Bates writes: “I had an amusing adventure one day with one of these birds. I had shot one froma rather high tree in a dark glen in the forest, and entered the thicket where the bird had fallen to secure my booty. It was only wounded, and on my attempting to seize it set up a loud scream. In an instant, as if by magic, the shady nook seemed alive with these birds, although there was certainly none visible when I entered the jungle. They descended towards me, hopping from bough to bough, some of them swinging on the loops and cables of woody lianas, and all croaking and fluttering their wings like so many furies. If I had had a long stick in my hand, I could have knocked several of them over. After killing the wounded one, I began to prepare for obtaining more specimens and punishing the viragos for their boldness. But the screaming of their companion having ceased, they remounted the trees, and before I could reload every one of them had disappeared.” With neither charm of colour nor peculiar shape, the small African birds known as HONEY-GUIDES are some of the most remarkable of birds, and this on account of a quite Il14 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD unique habit of inducing other animals, not even excepting man, to hunt for them. Sir John Kirk, writing of its habits in the Zambesi district, says: ‘‘The honey-guide is found in forests and often far from water, even during the dry season. On observing a man, it comes fluttering from branch to branch in the neighbouring trees, calling attention. If this be responded to— as the natives do by whistling and starting to their feet — the bird will go in a certain direction, and remain at a little distance, hopping from one tree to another. On being followed, it goes further; and so it will guide the way to a nest of bees. When this is reached, it flies about, but no longer guides; and then some knowledge is required to discover the nest, even when pointed out to within a few trees. I have known this bird, if the man, after taking up the direction for a little, then turns away, come back and offer to point out another nest in a different part. But if it does not know of two nests, it will remain behind. The difficulty is that the bird will point to tame bees in a bark hive as readily as to those in the forest. This is natural, as the bee is the same, the bark hive . . . being simply fastened up in a tree, and left for the bees to come to. ... The object the bird has in view is clearly the young bees. It will guide to nests having no honey, and seems equally delighted if the comb containing the grubs is torn out, when it is seen pecking at it.” An old rumour had it that honey-guides occasion- ally lured men on to spots where lions or other large and dangerous beasts lay hid. No credence what- ever is now given to such tales, it being readily understood that the bird’s course may by accident pass directly above perils of this kind, without the slightest cognisance of this on the part of the bird. The honey-guide, however, presses into its service one of the lower mammals — the ratel. The fondness of this animal for bees is well known, and by none better than this little bird, which, by pointing out nests to its more powerful companion, earns as a reward the broken bits which remain after the feast. Allies of the sombre-coloured Honey-guides are Chai wcmvollann ween the JACAMARS and PUFF-BIRDS. The former are rather CURL_CRESTED TOUCAN handsome birds, though small, having the upper-parts Si AED Fe ce nus oak Pee eg A GIR of a metallic coppery golden green, and more or less resembling black and glistening shavings rufous below. Ranging from Mexico to South Brazil, they may usually be found on the outskirts of forests, near water, sitting perched on the bare boughs of lofty trees for hours at a time. They feed on moths and other insects, caught on the wing, and brought back and crushed against the bough before swallowing. They lay white eggs in the holes of trees. The PUFF-BIRDS, though closely allied to the foregoing, are more soberly clad. Black, brown, and rufous in hue, they lack the resplendent metallic markings of the Jacamars. Their geographical range extends from Guatemala and Honduras to Argentina. Though numerous species and genera are known, the nest and eggs appear to have been discovered in the case of one species only: these were found in a hole in a bank, and contained two shining white eggs. The BARBETS are possibly more closely related to the Honey-guides than the Jacamars and Puff-birds. Brilliantly coloured, and having a plumage exhibiting violent contrasts of red, blue, purple, and yellow, on a green ground, sometimes with crests, bare skin round the eye, and brightly coloured bills, the barbets are, in spite of exceedingly attractive birds. a somewhat hairy appearance, WOODPECKERS Ls Forest-dwellers, like their allies, they feed upon fruit, seeds, insects, bark, and buds; but so noiseless are they said to be when feeding that their presence is betrayed only by the falling of berries they have accidentally released. It is interesting to note that the geographical range of the barbet is much wider than that of its immediate allies, extending through tropical Asia, Africa, and America. The Woodpecker Tribe constitutes a large group, generally divided into two sections — the WOODPECKERS and the WRYNECKs. The former are characterised by their large heads and very powerful bills and long and ex- ceedingly stiff tails. The feet are also peculiar, two toes pointing directly forwards and two backwards. Beak, feet, and tail are all specially adapted to the peculiar habits of these birds, eer which pass their lives upon trees, climbing the... epee eae eae haneattselig trunks, and searching the interstices of the bark actension to Photo by 4. 8, Rudland & Sons tion to bees’ nests for ants, or drilling holes into the un- sound portions of the trunk itself for the purpose of extracting the grubs which feed upon decaying wood. That ants and other small insects form the staple diet of the woodpecker is evident from theextraordinary length of the tongue. This is a long, worm- like structure, capable of being pro- truded many inches from the beak,and covered with a sticky secretion, so that, thrust into colonies of ants, it quickly becomes covered with them,to be with- drawn immediately into the mouth and cleared again for further action. Woodpeckers are all birds of bright plumage, some particularly so, and have a wide geographical distribution, inhabiting all parts of the world save Madagascar, the Australasian region, and Egypt. Three species occur in the British Islands, though they are exceedingly rare in Scotland and Ireland. The GREEN WOODPECKER isa particularly handsome bird. Grass-green is the predominating colour of its livery, * relieved by a light scarlet cap, a dland & Sons golden patch over the lower part of A FAMILY OF GREATER SPOTTED WOODPECKERS the back, and chequered bars on the This woodpecker is a British species wings and quills. Photo by A. S. Ru 116 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Scarcely less beautiful, in their way, are the GREATER and LESSER SPOTTED Woop- PECKERS. The plumage of these birds has a very rich effect, steely blue-black and white being contrasted with scarlet. The SporTrep and BLACK WOODPECKERS are remarkable for a curious drumming sound, so powerful as to be distinctly audible even a mile off. It appears to be caused by hammering vigorously on the bark of some rotten branch, the bird’s head moving with amazing rapidity as it beats out this curious tattoo. Three North American species, known as SAP-SUCKERS, have the curious habit of piercing the boles of trees for the purpose of procuring the sap which flows copiously when the tree is so “tapped.” Another species of the same region seems to be possessed of a persistent dread of famine, storing up immense quantities of nuts, which it appears never afterwards to use. These nuts are tightly fixed into holes in the bark of trees, and in such numbers that “a large pine 40 or 50 feet high will present the appear- Fhoto by WY. F. Piggott) (Leighton Buxscard ance of being closely studded with brass nails, GREATER SPOTTED WOODPECKERS the heads only being visible.” One of the members of the group is using its stiff tail feathers as a The WrynEcKS differ from the Woodpeckers support 5 bs ‘ 2 mainly in that the tail-feathers are soft instead of spiny. Although sombre, the plumage is yet very beautiful, having a velvety appearance, variegated with pearl-grey, powdered or dusted over a general groundwork of nut-brown, buff, and grey. Bars and fine lines add still more to the general effect, and render description still more difficult. One species is common in England. It is known also as the CUCKOO’s MATE and the SNAKE-BIRD, The former name is given in allusion to the fact that it arrives with the cuckoo, the latter from its strange habit of writhing its head and neck, and also on account of its curious hissing note, made when disturbed on its nest. It has the long, worm- like tongue of the woodpecker, but without a barbed tip. The habit of writhing the head and neck often serves the wryneck in good stead. Nesting in a hole in a tree, escape is difficult so soon as the discoverer has come to close quarters. The untried egg-collector, for instance, peering down into the nest, and seeing nothing distinctly, but only a moving head, and hearing a hissing sound, imagines the hole to be tenanted bya snake, and beats a hasty retreat, only to catch a glimpse, a moment later, of the bird hurrying out of its perilous hiding-place. Should he, however, discovering the true state of affairs, put down his hand and seize the bird, it will adopt yet other resources. Clinging tightly to its captor’s finger, it will ruffle up its feathers, stretch out its neck, and at the same time move it jerkily and stiffly about, and finally, closing its eyes, hang downwards, as if dead. Then, before the puzzled captor has had time to realise what has happened, it loosens its hold and takes instant flight. The young are easily, though rarely, tamed, and form extremely interesting pets, feeding readily from the hand, and affording endless amusement by their remarkable manner of capturing flies and other insects; but they do not appear to live long in confinement. The wryneck is one of the few birds which will persistently go on laying eggs, no matter how many times they may be stolen from the nest. A case is on record where as many as forty-two were laid in a single summer by one bird—an exceedingly cruel experiment. CHAPTER AV THE PERCHING-BIRDS UCH an enormous host are included under this head — nearly 6,000 out of the total of 13,000 known birds— and so great are the difficulties connected with their systematic arrangement, that it has been considered best to begin the present chapter with the highest instead of the lowest types of the group. The extensive group of Perching-birds is defined mainly from the characters afforded by the structure of the voice-organ, and these are of much too technical a nature to be discussed Phote by C. Reid} [ Wishaw, NB. JACKDAWS I: is believed that the jackdaw is the bird referred to by Shakespeare as the Russet-pated Chough (Midsummer-Night’s Dream, iii. 2) here. Suffice it to say that, on account of these characters, the group is further divided into two sections, and each section again divided into two. THE CROWS, ORIOLES, FINCHES, AND THEIR ALLIES At the head of the tribe stands, by general though by no means universal consent, the Crow Family, of which the recognised chief is the RAVEN, a bird which has for thousands of years commanded a more than passing interest amongst mankind. Renowned as the truant from the Ark, or as the wonderful minister of the prophet Elijah, there are few even of the youngest amongst us who do not know of its striking personality. The poet and the dramatist have both made use of the raven, and it would seem that it has even found a place in the 117 118 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Y mythology of the Red Indian. / j ~ \ The smaller relatives of this celebrated bird, the Rook, the CARRION-CROW, and the JACKDAW, and more distantly the JAY and the MAGPIE, are doubtless as familiar to our readers as the raven. Although probably un- known to many, the CHOUGH, with its glossy black plumage and brilliant red bill and feet, is a British bird, and lives still in certain parts of Eng- land, though fast verging on extinction. Another very remarkable member of the family is the Huta, and this on account of the fact that the male and female differ markedly in respect of the shape of the bill, this being in the female long and sickle-shaped, and in the male short and cone- shaped. This bird frequents the wooded regions of North Island, New Zealand, living upon grubs found in decaying wood, and on berries. The female prccures the grubs by probing the holes which they have made in the sounder wood, the male by breaking [Phote by Dr. R.W. Shufeldt] [Washington away the decayed portions of BLUE JAY (NATURAL SIZE) the tree ; but occasionally it The blue jay is a most remarkable mimic happens that, having cleared away as much of the decayed material as possible, the latter is unable to reach his prey, in which case he calls up the female, and yields his find to her, to extricate with her longer bill. So great a difference in the form of the bill in the sexes of the same species is elsewhere unknown among birds. The Crows hold the important position of head of the Class birds, yet they are far outshone in splendour by many of the groups already examined, though, with the exception perhaps of the Humming-birds, these all pale before the BIRDS OF PARADISE. Varying in size from a crow to a thrush, the best known of the latter is the GREAT BrrD OF PARADISE, which was discovered towards the end of the sixteenth century, if not earlier. On their first discovery it was popularly supposed that these birds lived in the air, turning always to the sun, and never alighting on the earth till they died, for they had neither feet nor wings. Hence the Malay traders called them “ God’s Birds,” the Portuguese “ Birds of the Sun,” and the Dutch ‘“Paradise-birds.” Seventeen or eighteen inches long, these birds have the body, wings, and tail of a rich coffee-brown, which deepens on the breast to a blackish violet or purple-brown. The top of the head and neck are of a delicate straw-yellow, the feathers being short and close-set, THE PERCHING BIRDS I19 resembling velvet. The throat-feathers have a scaly appearance, and are emerald-green in colour. The flank-feathers on either side of the body form a dense mass of long, delicate, waving plumes, sometimes 2 feet in length, of an intense orange colour, and shining with a wonderful gloss. These feathers can be raised and spread out at pleasure, so as to almost conceal the wearer in a fountain-like rain of feathers. This wonderful plumage is worn by the male only, the female being quite plainly dressed. In May, when they are in full dress, the males A PAIR OF MAGPIES When taken young, the magpte ts easily tamed, and can be taught to imitate human sounds assemble early in the morning to exhibit themselves, forming what are known as “ dancing- parties,” which take place on the topmost boughs of some gianttree. “ From a dozen to twenty birds assemble together,” writes Mr. Alfred Russell Wallace, “ raise up their wings, stretch out their necks, and elevate their exquisite plumes, keeping them in continual vibration. Between- whiles they fly across from branch to branch in great excitement, so that the whole tree is filled with waving plumes in every variety of attitude and motion.” The native hunter marks these playing-places, builds a shelter of palm-leaves in a convenient situation among the branches, and ensconces himself under it before daylight, armed with a bow and a number of arrows terminating ina round knob. When the dance is in full swing, he shoots through the roof of his shelter with the blunt arrows, stunning every bird he strikes, which, falling down at once, are immediately picked up by a boy in waiting below. Often a considerable number will be thus secured before the alarm is taken. Without coloured figures, or very numerous photographs from living birds, which we can hardly hope to get, it would be impossible, except at the risk of being wearisome, to describe all the wonderful combinations of form and colour which the feathers of the birds of paradise display. Breast-shields of metallic sheen, fans and crests in wonderful variety, feathers of a texture like velvet, or gorgeous colours, confuse one in their variety and combination. 120 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Let it suffice to mention only the last dis- [7772 covered species-— the KING OF SAXONY’S BIRD OF PARADISE. ‘Velvety black above,” writes Dr. Sharpe, ‘“ and yellow- ish below, there is nothing very striking in the aspect of the bird itself, which is smaller than our song-thrush. But the ‘streamers’ which it carries! Poised... on either side of the head is a long, shaft-like plume, from which depends, on the lower side only, a series of little flags of blue enamel, each quite separate from the one which precedes it, and not of a feathery structure in the least.” Close allies of the Birds of Paradise are the remarkable BOWER-BIRDS of ; eS Z : : Si ge ede EB Australia. Conspicuously beautiful in Photo by Scholastic Photo, Co. coloration as are some members of this CORNISH CHOUGH tribe, they are celebrated not so much Very nearly extinct asa British bird on this account as for an extraordinary habit of constructing “ bowers” or “ playing-grounds ’ — a trait which appears absolutely unique among birds. ‘ These constructions,’ observes Mr. Gould, “consist in a collection of pieces of stick or grass, formed into a bower; or one of them (that of the SPOTTED BOWER-BIRD) might be called an avenue, being about 3 feet in length, and 7 or 8 inches broad inside; a transverse section giving the figure of a horse-shoe, the round part downwards. They are used by the birds as a playing-house, or ‘run,’ as it is termed, and are used by the males to at- tract the females. The ‘run’ of the SATIN-BIRD is much smaller, being less than 1 foot in length, and, moreover, differs from that just described in being decorated with the highly coloured feathersofthe ParrotTribe. TheSPOTTED BOWER- BIRD, on the other hand, collects around its ‘ run’ a quantity of stones, shells, bleached bones, etc. ; they are also strewed down the centre within.” More wonderful still are the structures reared by the GARDENER-BIRD of New Guinea, presenting, as Professor Newton remarks, “not only a modification of bower-building, but an appreciation of beauty perhaps unparralleled in the animal world. . . . This species . . . builds at the foot of a small tree a kind of hut or cabin . . . some 2 feet in height, roofed with orchid-stems that slope to the ground, regularly radiating from the central support, which is covered with a conical mass of moss, and sheltering a gallery around it. One side of this hut is left open, and in front of it is arranged a bed of verdant moss, bedecked with blossoms KING BIRD OF PARADISE and berries of the brightest colours. As these A sihen-if Migs Giiay eemansule Re aecaied ornaments wither they are removed to a heap tail-feathers behind the hut, and replaced by others that are THE PERCHING BIRDS I2I e Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. QUEENSLAND RIFLE-BIRD This unique Australian representative of the Birds of Paradise is about the size of a pigeon. Its plumage ts black with a purple sheen 3 the throat is brilliant metallic emerald-green, like that of oa humming-bird brown. Later black feathers, with large white spots at the tips, make their appearance among the brown. These spotted feathers eventually replace the brown, and the bird enters upon a second quite distinct phase — a black, spotted with white. Gradually this gives place to a plumage entirely unspotted, the feathers on the breast being spear-shaped. In the adult dress a wondrous variety of metallic reflections is acquired — green, purple, and violet. Associating in the autumn and winter in iarge flocks, starlings move from place to place in search of food. Sometimes the number of birds in these combined flocks rises to an enormous figure. One of the largest of these gatherings recorded in England existed on the property of the late Mr. Miles near Bristol. “This locality is an evergreen plantation covering some acres, to which these birds repair fresh. The hut is circular and some 3 feet in diameter, and the mossy lawn in front of it nearly twice that expanse. Each hut and garden are, it is believed, though not known, the work of a single pair of birds, or perhaps of the male only; and it may be observed that this species, as its trivial name implies, is wholly inornate in plumage. Not less remarkable is the more recently described ‘bower’ of the GOLDEN BOWER-BIRD. . .. This structure is said . to be piled up almost horizontally around the base of a tree to the height of from 4 to 6 feet, and around it are a number of hut-like fabrics, having the look of a dwarfed native camp.” Allied species, though building no bowers, yet clear a space of ground some 8 or 9 feet in diameter, on which to display themselves, and ornament this with little heaps of gaily tinted leaves, replacing them as they fade with fresh specimens. We pass next to the birds of the Starling Family, of which the BRITISH STARLING is the type. A bird so familiar needs no description here; but we may draw attention to the many interesting phases of plumage this species undergoes. The first plumage is a uniform greyish | ee: y : ans Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. RED BIRD OF PARADISE Found only on the small island of Waigiou, off the north-west coast of New Guinea 122 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD of an evening . . . by millions, from the low grounds about the Severn, where their noise and stench are something altogether unusual. By packing in such myriads upon evergreens, they have stripped them of their leaves, except just at the tops, and have driven the pheasants, for whom the plantation was intended, quite away from the ground. In the daytime, when the birds are not there, the stench is still excessive. Mr. Miles was about to cut the whole plantation down, to get rid of them, two years ago, but I begged him not to do so, on account of the curiosity of the scene, and he has since been well pleased that he abstained.” A similar but still larger congregation has been described; in this, about the year 184s, from: 150,000 to 200,000 starlings were computed to rest every night, between the end of October and the end of March, in certain trees in the gardens of the Zoological Society in Dublin. The roof of St. Patrick’s Cathedral, in the heart of Dublin, has from time to time been resorted to, as many as 2,000 seeking shelter there. ‘Possessing very considerable powers of wing,” observes Yarrell, “these are turned to account in an extraordinary manner bythe birdscomposing the flock. They wheel, close, open out, rise and descend, as if each were obeying a com- mander, and all this is done with the utmost marvellous precision while the flock is proceeding at a rapid pace through the air. At times it may extend in a long and nearly straight thread; suddenly an undulation is visi- ble along the line, and in a moment it takes the form of a thin and smoke-like cloud; another moment, and it is a dense and almost perfect globe; then possibly, having preserved this appearance for a perceptibly longer time, it ana Ral becomes pear-shaped, and in YOUNG STARLINGS another instant has assumed a spiral figure; an instant after it has spread out like a sheet, and its members are streaming softly along the ground, perhaps to alight, or perhaps once more to mount aloft and circle as before.” There are few more magnificent sights in the world than a flock of starlings when performing evolutions of this kind. Differing much, not only in general appearance, but also in coloration, from the common starling is the ROSE-COLOURED STARLING, so called from the beautiful rose-pink colour of the back and breast, set off by the rest of the plumage, which is black, glossed with violet, blue, and green reflections. This handsome bird occasionally visits Britain. Feeding largely upon locusts, these birds are much affected in their movements by the peregrinations of these pests; and this accounts for the sporadic appearance of the rose-coloured starling in huge flocks in places where it is generally seldom seen. Dull in appearance, ungraceful in flight, and with a harsh, unmusical note, the starling a , [Wishaw, N, B. Starlings, if taken when young, are easily tamed and make excellent pets THE PERCHING BIRDS [23 known as the OX-PECKER would seem at first sight to have little to recommend it; yet it is one of the benefactors of the larger African mammals, clearing them of flies and other insect-pests. Buffaloes, rhinoceroses, elephants, are alike grateful for its services, as it climbs about their huge bodies, picking off the liliputian enemies by which they are beset. But little appears to be known of the breeding-habits of these birds. In strong contrast to the dull-looking Ox-birds arethebeautifulGLossy STARLINGS and GRACKLES. The AFRICAN GLOsSsY STARLINGS, indeed, repre- sent the most beautiful of all the members of the Starling Tribe. In one of the handsomest and best-known species—-the LONG-TAILED GLossy STARLING — metallic green and purple-violet are the predominating tones in the plumage, glossed with copper reflections, and relieved by black or darker bars of green and purple. In another species— the GREEN GLOSSY STARLING of East- ern Africa—the shimmer of the plumage is so wonderful that the exact shades of colour are diffi- lpia HT Nunes ean is ee cult to describe, in that they change completely, COMMON STARLING according to the light in which the bird is held. Starlings appear to be on the increase in Scotland, whilst larks The GRACKLES, or HILL-MYNAS, are Indian are said to be on the decrease, owing to the destruction of their ows By tee forme birds, with glossy black plumage, relieved by bare flaps of yellow skin projecting backwards from the head immediately behind the eye. These birds make excellent pets, learning both to whistle and talk. We come now to the beautiful ORIOLES — birds belonging to the temperate and tropical parts of the Old World. The males, as a rule, are clad in a vestment of brilliant yellow and black, but in some species the under-parts are relieved by rich crimson. One species — the GOLDEN ORIOLE — has on several occasions visited the British Islands, and even in one or two instances has nested there. But, as with all brightly plumaged birds in England, no sooner is their presence discovered than they are doomed to fall to the gun of some local collector. We pass now to a group of exceedingly interesting birds, some of which are remarkable on account of the beauty of their plumage, others from their wonderful nesting-habits. The group includes many familiar as cage-birds, such as the Lonc-TarLeD Wupow-srrps, the Rep- BEAKED WAxXBILLS, AMADAVATS, JAVA SPARROW, GRASS-FINCHES, Munias, and so on, all of which are embraced under the general title of WEAvER-BIRDS, a name bestowed on account of their peculiar nests. Abundant in Africa, and well represented in South-eastern Asia and Australia, these birds bear a strong family resemblance to the Finches, from which they differ in having ten primary quills in the wings. One of the most peculiar is the South African Lonc-TaIteD WHyYDAH- or WIDoW-BIRD. Strikingly coloured, this bird is rendered still more attractive by the extremely elongated tail- feathers, which are many times longer than the body, so long, indeed, as to impede its flight, which is so laboured that children commonly amuse themselves by running the bird down. Kaffir children stretch lines coated with bird-lime near the ground across fields of millet and Kaffir corn, and thereby capture many whose tails have become entangled among the threads. In brilliancy of coloration the Whydah-birds—for there are several species—are pressed hard 124 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD by the BisHop-BiRbs, the handsomest of which is the red species. Sociable in habits, this bird throughout the year consorts in immense flocks, which in the summer consist chiefly of males. Of the more remarkable nest-builders, the most conspicuous are the BAYA SPARROWS, or Toppy-BiRDS, of India and Ceylon, and the SOCIABLE WEAVERS. The former suspend their nests by a solidly wrought rope of fibre from the under side of a branch, the rope expanding into a globular chamber, and then again contracting into a long, narrow, vertical tube, through which the birds make their exit and entrance. The latter—the SOCIABLE WEAVER-BIRD of Africa— builds a still more wonderful structure. As a thing apart it has no existence, a number of birds, varying from 100 to 300, joining their nests together, so as to form a closely interwoven structure, resembling, when finished, a gigantic mushroom, The structure is built among the branches of large trees, so that the tree looks as though it had grown up through a native hut, carrying the roof with it. Cartloads of grass are required to rear this structure, which is nearly solid. Seen from below, it presents a flat surface riddled with holes; these are the entrances to the nests. Closely resembling the typical Finches in general appearance, and often gorgeous in coloration, is the group known asthe TANAGERS, of which more than 400 distinct species are known to science. Ex- clusively American, the majority of the species are found in Central and South America, though a few move northwards into the United Statesin summer. The most beautiful are the SCARLET, CRIMSON-HEADED, and WHITE- CAPPED TANAGERS. The last- named is generally allowed to be the loveliest of the group. The entire plumage of both sexes is a ikea eee beautiful cornflower-blue, © sur- HAWFINCH mounted by a cap of silvery-white A resident in the eastern and midland counties of England feathers, a crimson spot on the forehead looking like a drop of blood. The identical coloration of the sexes is worth noting, as among the tanagers generally the female is dull-coloured. Among the Finches there is a considerable variety of coloration, though but little in bodily form; they are all attractive birds, and have the additional advantage that many are British. Distributed over both the northern and temperate regions of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, they are unknown in Australia. The group, which comprises a very large number of species, may be divided into three sections—GROSBEAKS, TRUE FINCHES, and BUNTINGS. The GROSBEAKS, as their name implies, are characterised by the great stoutness of the beak, and some, as the EVENING-GROSBEAKS of America, are remarkable for their beauty. Among the well-known British members are the HAWFINCHES and GREENFINCHES. Common in many parts of England, though rare in Scotland and Ireland, the HAWFINCH contrives to make itself much disliked by the gardener, owing to its fondness for peas, though it fully compensates for the damage done in this direction by the numbers of noxious insects it destroys. The nest is a very beautiful structure; outside it is composed of twigs inter- mixed with lichens, inside of dry grasses lined with fine roots and hair. The site chosen Photo by C. Reid YOUNG CHAFFINCHES The chaffinch is one of the commonest of the Britt Photo by C. Reid oned among the few really harmful birds 125 126 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD varies, a favourite place being an old apple- or pear- tree in an orchard; but the woods and fir plantations are not seldom resorted to. The GREENFINCH is an equally common British bird. Of a more confiding disposition than the hawfinch, it makes an excellent cage-bird, becoming with judicious treatment exceed- ingly tame. It is a useful bird, travelling during the autumn and winter in large flocks, and feeding on the seeds of wild mustard and other weeds. Its nest differs conspicuously from that of the hawfinch, being a somewhat untidy structure, composed of fibrous roots, moss, and wool, lined with finer roots, horse- hair, and feathers. Among the TRUE FINCHES, distinguished from the Grosbeaks by their less powerful bills, are several other well-known British birds. Of these, none are better known than the CHAFFINCH. Gay in appear- ance and sprightly in habit, this is a general favourite everywhere, and much in demand as a cage-bird. Bins siataharm nteniionallp iateata ce ile dads Bape His short though delightful song possesses a peculiar specimens fed on hemp-seed frequently turn black charm, coming as it does with the earliest signs of returning spring. The fascination of this song has never been better expressed than in Browning’s lines :— BULLFINCH O to be in England Now that April’s there ; And whoever wakes in England Sees, some morning, unaware, That the lowest boughs of the brushwood sheaf Round the elm-tree bole are in tiny leaf, While the Chaffinch sings on the orchard bough In England now! The nest, which is an exceptionally beautiful structure, takes about a fortnight to build. Closely woven, it appears to consist mainly of wool, into which moss and lichens of various colours are deftly woven. The outside is cunningly decorated with bits of lichen and the inner bark of trees, such as the birch, the whole being secured by a thin veil of spiders’ webs, The lichen and bark serve to render the nest inconspicuous by blending it with the general appearance of the bush or small tree in a forked bough of which it is placed. Inside the wool is more closely felted even than on the outside, and this iscovered with fine hairs, amongst which a few feathers are intermixed. The work of building seems to be done by the female only, though the male helps by bringing the materials. Of the GOLDFINCH, LINNETS, and BULLFINCH, by far the most popular and beautiful is the GOLDFINCH, which is, and probably will long remain, one of the most prized of cage-birds. Gifted “with the fatal gift of beauty,” this bird is much persecuted by bird-catchers; and indeed, partly owing to the depredations of these men, and partly to improved methods of agriculture, which have diminished its feeding-area, this handsome bird is growing more and more rare every year. Next to the goldfinch perhaps the LINNET is most sought after as a cage-bird. Large numbers are taken during the autumn, when the birds congregate in large flocks before departure on migration. Those captured in the spring are said to be very impatient of confinement, and only a small percentage seem to survive. The linnet is one of the most variable of birds in the matter of plumage, and for a long while the opinion was generally held, especially by bird-catchers, that several distinct species— THE PERCHING-BIRDS 127 the REp, BRown, and Grey LINNETS—existed. It is now known that these are all phases of plumage common to one species. In the male in full summer dress the forehead and centre of the crown are blood-red, whilst the breast is of a glossy rose-red; but these bright colours do not seem to be acquired so universally as is the case with other birds which don a special breeding-dress, nor are they ever developed in captivity. Occasionally what are called LEMON- BREASTED varicties of the linnet occur in which the rose-colour of the breast is replaced by yellow. The BULLFINCH, though one of the common British birds, is by no means so abundant as the two foregoing species; for whilst the other two travel in small flocks, the bullfinch is a solitary bird. Few birds perhaps have earned a more evil name than the bullfnch, which is accused by the gardener of inflicting enormous damage on the flower-buds of fruit-trees in winter and spring. ‘On the other hand,” writes Mr. Hudson, ‘‘he is greatly esteemed as a cage-bird, and the bird-catchers are ever on the watch for it. But the effect in both cases is pretty much the same, since the hatred that slays and the love that makes captive are equally disastrous to the species.” That it , : is diminishing in many districts there can be no doubt, and perhaps its final extermination is only a matter of time. Though by no means a remarkable songster in a wild state, in captivity itis capable of learning to whistle strains and airs of human composition with some skill, good performers fetching high prices. The SPARROW and the wild CANARY of Madeira — from the latter of which our cage- pets have been derived — are also members of the Finch Tribe, but are too well known to need fuller mention. Closely allied to the finches are the BUNTINGS, which are really only slightly modified finches. Several species are British birds, one of the commonest being the CORN- BUNTING, a bird which bears a wonderful resemblance to a skylark, from which, how- ever, it may be distinguished by its large beak and small claw on the hind toe. The YELLOWAMMER, or YELLOWHAM- Siac Oe Pecans MER, is another familiar roadside form in GREENFINCH England, which scarcely needs description. Commonly known as the Green Linnet The most celebrated of all the buntings is the ORTOLAN, or GREEN-HEADED BUNTING, a bird resembling its congener the yellowhammer, but lacking its bright coloration. It has acquired fame from the delicate flavour of its flesh, and to supply the demand for this delicacy immense numbers are netted annually by the bird-catchers of the Continent. Wintering in North Africa, these birds leave Europe in September in large flocks, and it is during this migration and the return journey in the spring that their ranks are so mercilessly thinned. Common over the greater part of Europe, it is somewhat surprising that the ortolan does not occur more frequently in the British Islands, where it is only an occasional spring and autumn visitor. The SNOW-BUNTING, or SNOWFLAKE, is a regular winter visitant to the British Islands, some pairs indeed remaining to breed in the Highlands of Scotland every year, whilst its presence serves to enliven some of the dreariest spots of high northern latitudes. The male in breeding-dress is a handsome bird, having the upper-parts black and the under white; its mate is somewhat duller, the black parts being obscured by greyish white, fulvous, and blackish 128 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Photo by HW’. F. Piggott LINNET The so-called Red-brown and Grey Linnets are but phases of plumage of the same species. The bird in the right-hand corner is a greenfinch One of the most popular cage-birds. brown, whilst the white parts are less pure in tone. The full dress of the male is rarely seen in the British Islands, save in specimens procured from Scotland; for in winter, when the snow-bunting is chiefly captured, the plumage is altogether more rufous. Unlike the buntings so far described, the REED-BUNTING is to be found only in marshy places, but in suitable localities it may be found in the British Islands all the year round, being as common a species as the corn-bunting, and therefore not calling for special description here. The eggs of the buntings are remarkable for the curious scribble-like markings which cover them, and serve readily to distinguish them from those of any other British bird. CHAPTER XVI LARKS, TITMICE, HONEY-EATERS, AND THEIR KINDRED ONFINED almost entirely to the Old World, where they are represented by more than one hundred species, many of which have undergone considerable specialisation in the matter of plumage, so as to enable them to live in desert regions, the LARKS constitute a well-marked group, into the characters of which we need not enter here. The best-known member of the group is the SKYLARK. Common throughout the British Islands, and of sober coloration, no bird is more universally beloved, and_ this largely on account of the sweetness of its song, which is second only to that of the nightingale. Poets and prose-writers alike have sounded its praises, many in passages that will be remembered as long as our language lasts. The skylark is one of the few birds which sing while on the wing; the peculiar nature of the flight at this time all must have watched, entranced the while by the beauty of the song. Photo by C. Reid, Wishaw. WAXBILLS. Waxbills are relatives of the Weaver birds, and take ther name trom the waxen appearance of the beak which is coral red Photo by C. Reid, Wishaw. INDIGO FINCHES The Indigo Finch or Indigo Bird is a well known member of a group of American Finches of which the Nonpareil Finch is another representative. LARKS, TITMICE, HONEY-EATERS, THEIR KINDRED 129 Grahame, in his “ Birds of Scotland,” happily describes the nest as follows: — The daisied lea he loves, where tufts of grass Luxuriant crown the ridge ; there, with his mate, He founds their lowly house, of withered bents, And coarsest speargrass ; next, the inner work With finer and still finer fibres lays, Rounding it curious with its speckled breast. This bird displays great affection for its young, removing them under the fear of impending danger, or if the nest is meddled with. Occasionally, however, the bird sits close, instead of seeking safety by flight. Brighton enjoys the credit of consuming more larks than any other place in England, except London. It has been estimated that the number of larks annually entering the metropolitan markets alone reaches a total of 400,000 — 20,000 or 30,000 being often sent together; and the aumbers eaten elsewhere in the country must be enormous, quite as large, indeed, as abroad. Most are captured from the hosts which arrive on the east coast of Scotland and England from the Continent on approach of severe weather, the birds making their appearance in thousands, forming a constant and unbroken stream for two or three days in succession. Close allies of the Larks, the WAGTAILS and Piprrs come next under consideration. The former range over the Old World, but are unknown in Australia and Polynesia. The pipits have a similar range, but one species is found in, and is peculiar to, Australia. Like wagtails, pipits are unknown in Polynesia; only two species occur in America. The WAGTAILS are generally black and white, grey and white, grey with yellow breasts, or yellowish green with yellow breasts. In the last-mentioned case, as in some specimens of the YELLOW WAGTAIL, the yellow predominates. These birds frequent streams and stagnant waters, like the RED and GREY WAGTAILS; or corn-fields and meadows, as in the case of the YELLOW WacTAIL. All these are commonly met with in the British Islands. tes SKYLARKS The numbers of skylarks seem to increase with the spread of agricultural improvement 130 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD The Pipirs are duller-coloured than the Wagtails, have shorter tails, and evince less fondness for the water. The MEADOW-, ROCK-, and TREE-PIPITS are the commonest British species. Neither Wagtails nor Pipits are much given to perching, but the TREE-CREEPERS spend their lives upon trees, some being specially modified for this mode of life, their tail-feathers being stiff and terminating in sharp points. By pressing its tail closely against the tree-trunk up which it is climbing, the bird obtains a wonderfully reliable support. Beginning at the bottom of a trunk, creepers quickly work their way up in a spiral direction, or sometimes in jerky zigzags, searching every crevice for tiny insects, their eggs and larve, and flitting from the higher branches, when these are reached, to the base of another tree. Creepers are mostly dull-coloured, but the WALL-CREEPER has crimson patches on the wings. This bird, which has occurred in Britain, haunts mountain-cliffs. The TREE-CREEPER, a resident in Britain, builds its nest behind pieces of loose bark, or under tiles, or in crevices ef trees, walls, or hollow branches. In this nest are laid from six to nine eggs, pure white, spotted with red, or with a creamy ground-colour, with the spots thicker round the large end. Intermediate in position between the Creepers and the Titmice are the NutT- HATCHES. Chiefly inhabitants of the northern parts of both hemispheres, they extend as far south as Mexico, whilst in the Old World they occur plentifully in the Himalaya. The largest species is found in the moun- tains of Burma. One species is frequently met with in England, and occasionally in Scotland, but is unknown in Ireland. The ENGLISH NUTHATCH may serve us as a type of the group. “Its habits,” writes Dr. Sharpe, “ are a combination of those of the tit and woodpecker. Like the former bird, the nuthatch seeks diligently for its insect-food on the trunks and branches of trees, over which it runs like a woodpecker, with this difference, that its tail is not pressed into the service of climbing a tree, nor does Photo by A. S, Rudland & Sons it generally ascend from the bottom to the YOUNG SKYLARKS top, as a woodpecker so often does. On the Several broods are reared by each pair of birds in a season contrary, a nuthatch will generally be found in the higher branches, and will work its way down from one of the branches towards the trunk, and is just as much at home on the under side of a limb as the upper. Its movements are like those of a mouse rather than of a bird, and it often runs head-downward, or hangs on the under side of a branch and hammers away at the bark with its powerful little bill. The noise produced by one of these birds, when tapping at a tree, is really astonishing for a bird of its size, and, if undisturbed it can be approached pretty closely. Its general food consists of insects, and in the winter the nuthatches join the wandering parties of tits and creepers which traverse the woods in search of food. ... In the autumn it feeds on hazel-nuts and beech-mast, breaking them open by constant hammering; and, like the tits, the nuthatcles can be tempted to the vicinity of houses in winter, and become quite interesting by their tameness.” The nuthatch nests in hollow trees, plastering up the entrance with mud, and leaving an aperture only just sufficient to enable it to wriggle in and out. A remarkable nest may be seen at the British Natural History Museum. It was built in the side of a haystack, to which the industrious birds had carried as much as It Ibs. of clay, and had thus made for themselves a solid nest in an apparently unfavourable position, LARKS, TITMICE, HONEY-EATERS, THEIR KINDRED 131 The TITMICE occur in one form or another all over Europe, Asia, and Africa, and in the New World as far south as Southern Mexico. The family may be divided into TRUE, CRESTED, LONG-TAILED, and PENDULINE TITS and REED- LINGs, all but the penduline tits being repre- sented in England. Of the true tits, the best known is the BLUE TIT, which is no stranger even in London parks. Traveling in small bands throughout the autumn and winter, they may frequently be met with during a country walk, their presence being made known by a pretty tink- ling little note. This method of traveling is obviously advantageous, for the discovery of food at this time is an arduous task, and, if undertaken individually, many would surely starve, as Professor Newton points out: “A single titmouse searching alone might hunt for a whole day without meeting with a sufficiency, whilst, if a dozen are united by the same motive, it is hardly possible for the place in which the food is lodged to escape their detection, and, when discovered, a few call-notes from the lucky finder are enough to assemble the whole company to share the feast... . One tree after another NUTHATCH is visited by the active little rovers, and its branches examined: if nothing be forthcoming, away goes the explorer to the next that presents itself, merely giving utterance to the usual twitter that serves to keep the whole body together. But if the object of search be found, another chirp is emitted, and the next moment several members of the band are flitting in succession to the tree, and eagerly engaged with the spoil.” These little birds display great affection for their old nesting-places. An instance is on record where, so far back as 1785, a pair built their nest in a large earthenware bottle placed in the branches of a tree in a garden at Oxbridge, near Stockton-on-Tees. With two exceptions only, this bottle was tenanted by a pair of these birds every year till 1873. In 1892 Professor Newton, who had this account from Canon Tristram, was informed that the occupancy had ceased for four years. The LONG-TAILED or BOTTLE-TIT is a British species, deriving its name from the long tail. It is a pretty little bird, black and rose-colour above, with a rose-coloured abdomen, and the head, throat, and breast white. It enjoys the distinction of being one of the smallest British birds, and is found in woods and plantations all over England, though less common in Scotland. These tits have a curious habit of roosting during the winter, six or seven huddling together in a row, with three or four others perched on their backs, and two or three on the top. The nest, which is placed in a tree or bush, is a model of industry. Oval in shape, and roofed, with a small aperture near the top, it is composed of moss, lichen, and hair, closely felted and lined with an enormous collection of feathers, Macgillivray having counted 2,779 in a single nest. Other species of titmice occurring in Britain are the GREAT, MARSH-, COAL-, and CRESTED TITS. Photo by 132 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Whether the REEDLINGS, or BEARDED TIrs, as they are generally called, are really true titmice or peculiarly modified buntings is a moot-point. There is but one species, which is British, though found also on the Continent; but it is un- fortunately becoming more and more rare every year. The general colour of the upper-parts is cinnamon- rufous, except the head, which is pearly grey: between the bill and the eyes hangs a tuft of long black feathers; hence the name Bearded Tit. The under-parts are white, tinged with yellow and pink, whilst the wings are variegated with white, black, and red. This tit lives in beds of reeds fringing the ‘ broads” of the eastern counties of England, though even there it is now exceedingly rare. The same uncertainty that obtains MARSH-TIT SEARCHING FOR INSECTS with regard to the position of the Keedlings confronts the ornithologist with regard to the affinities of the liliputian GOLD-cRESTS. About six species are known, from the northern and temperate parts of the Old and New Worlds, extending as far south in the latter as Mexico. Two occur in Britain: one, known simply as the GOLD- CREST, or GOLDEN-CRESTED WREN, is fairly common; the other, the FIRE-CREST, or FIRE-CRESTED WREN, is much rarer, but differs very little from its relative in general appearance. The GOLD-CREST is olive-green above, yellowish grey below, with a conspicuous crest of bright yellow and orange, banded on each side by two black lines. It has the distinction of being the smallest British bird; and it is partly on account of its smallness, and partly owing to its shy, retiring habits, seeking concealment among the foliage, that it is so seldom seen, save by those who know where to look for it; and these may find it all the year round in suitable places. In the spring this bird may be observed suspended in the air for a considerable time over a bush or flower, singing very melodiously, though few naturalists have ever witnessed this display. Mr. W. H. Hudson, one of these few, writes: ‘I have observed the male, in the love- season, hovering just above the bush, in the topmost foliage of which its mate was perched and partly hidden from view. It is when engaged in this pretty aerial performance, or love- dance, that the golden-crested wren is seen at his best. The restless, minute, sober-coloured creature, so difficult to see properly at other times, then becomes a conspicuous and exceedingly beautiful object; it hovers on rapidly vibrating wings, the body in an almost vertical position, but the head bent sharply down, the eyes being fixed on the bird beneath, while the wide open crest shines in the sun like a crown or shield of fiery yellow. When thus hovering, it does Phoio by F. T. Newman The marsh-tit may be distinguished from its ally, the coal-tit, by the absence of white on the nape of the neck not sing, but emits a series of sharp, excited chirping sounds.” The nest is a singularly beautiful structure, made of fine, dry grass, leaves, moss, and spiders’ webs, woven closely together, lined with feathers, and suspended like a hammock beneath a branch of yew or fir. In this are laid from six to ten eggs of a pale yellowish white, spotted and blotched with reddish brown. The numbers of British gold-crests are vastly increased by the arrival on the eastern Photo by C. Reia} Wishaw, N. B, GREAT TIT Known also as the Ox-eye; it is very pugnacious in captivity, killing birds even as large as itself 133 [34 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD coast of gold-crests from the Continent. “In autumn,” writes Mr. Howard Saunders, ‘‘ immense flocks sometimes arrive on our east coast, extending quite across England and the Irish Channel, and into Ireland. In 1882 the migration wave of this description, commencing on August 6 and lasting for ninety-two days, reached from the Channel to the Faroes; in 1883 the migration lasted eighty-two days; and again in 1884 for a period of eighty-seven days. . . . On such occasions bushes in gardens on the coast are covered with birds as with a swarm of bees; crowds flutter round the lanterns of lighthouses, and the rigging of fishing-smacks in the North Sea is thronged with weary travellers. In April a return migration occurs.” We pass now to the consideration of a few families of birds unknown in Britain, but interesting on account of the fact that they afford us another set of instances of adaptation to attain particular ends, so frequently to be met with in Nature. All the birds in question, though probably not related, have peculiarly modified tongues, apparently specially designed to aid in sucking up honey from flowers. The first group for consideration are the HONEY-EATERS of New Zealand and Australia. So great is the transformation which the tongue in these birds has undergone, that it forms one of the most elaborate organs of its kind, sur- passing even that of the Humming-birds. A description of this organ without the aid of anatomical terms and diagrams would be useless. Suffice it to say it is long, capable of being thrust out of the mouth, and brush-like. It is used to thrust up the tubes of honey- bearing flowers, as well for the sake of the juice as for the insects gathered in such situations to feed on it. The best known of the Honey-eaters is the POE, or PARSON- BIRD, of New Zealand. Glossy black in colour, with vivid green and blue reflec- [Wishaw, N. B. tions, it is rendered still more attractive by a pair of white tufts of feathers hanging from the front upper part of the neck, whilst on the back of the neck in the same region the feathers are of a loose structure, long, and curled forwards. Other honey-eaters are the WHITE-EYES, SUN-BIRDS, and FLOWER-PECKERS. The WHITE-EYES, so called from a ring of white feathers around the eye, have a wide distribution, being found in Australia, India, Africa, Madagascar, and Japan. Besides honey they are very partial to fruit, particularly figs and grapes, and also capture insects on the wing, after the fashion of fly-catchers. The SUN-BIRDS correspond in the Old World to the Humming-birds in the New, having, like the latter, a metallic plumage, varied in its hues and wondrous in its beauty; but they are not entirely dependent upon this lustre for their charm, for much of their splendour is gained from the non-metallic portion of the plumage, which is often vividly A Z Photo by C, Reid] COAL-TITS These birds show the white patch on the nape very distinctly, It ts a common British bird, staying the whole year round LARKS, TITMICE, HONEY-EATERS, THEIR KINDRED L35 coloured. The females are dull- coloured, whilst the males lose their beauty in the winter season. These birds are inhabitants of the tropical regions of Africa, India, and Australia, and seem to revel in the burning rays of the noonday sun. Nearly allied to the Sun- birds are the FLOWER-PECKERS of the Indian and Australian regions. These are all small birds, remark- able as much for the beauty of their nests as for the splendour of their plumage. The nests are purse-like structures, made of white cotton-like material, and suspended from a branch instead of, as usual, resting on it. One of the most beautiful birds of the whole group, which includes numerous species, 1s the Australian DIAMOND-BIRD. Ofa general ashy-grey colour, this species is splashed all over with spots of “ mr red, yellow, orange, and black, whilst the tail-coverts are rich dark red. RED-BACKED SHRIKES Also called Butcher-birds, from their habit of killing small birds and mammals and hanging them up on thorns CHAPTER XVII SHRIKES, THRUSHES AND THEIR ALLIES, SWALLOWS, LYRE-BIRDS, CHATTERERS, BROAD-BILLS, ETC. HE Shrike Family are an exceedingly interesting group of birds, of world-wide distribution and of great diversity of appearance, varying in size from ‘a bird as small as a titmouse to ome as large as a thrush, and presenting a considerable range of coloration, some being very brightly, others dull coloured. From ' the hooked beak, and the presence of a notch in the / tip of the upper jaw, they were considered by the older » naturalists to be allies of the Birds of Prey, a decision ’ still further supported by their hawk-like habit of capturing living prey in the shape of small birds and mice; whilst the remarkable custom of impaling their victims, still living, on thorns has earned for them the popular name of BUTCHER-BIRDS. The limits of the family, owing to AUSTRALIAN MAGPIE the diversity of the forms involved, have not as yet been ie ein ea ai edie die finally determined by naturalists, some having included Piping -crow species which others hold have no place there. Photo by W’, Reid] (Wishaw, N.B. 136 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Five species are commonly included in the list of British birds, although only two occur with any frequency: of these, the GREAT GREY SHRIKE visits Great Britain every winter ; whilst the smaller RED-BACKED SHRIKE is an annual summer visitor to those islands, breeding, however, only in England, occurring but occasionally in Scotland, and being almost unknown in Ireland, where only one specimen has ever been recorded. The RED-BACKED SHRIKE, writes Dr. Sharpe, “ reminds us of a fly-catcher in the way in which [it] captures its food, for it has undoubtedly favourite perches, on which it sits, and to which it returns after the capture of an insect. It is frequently to be seen on telegraph-wires, where it keeps a sharp look-out in every direction, and a favourite resort is a field of freshly cut grass. It also captures a good many mice and small birds, not pursuing them in the open like birds of prey, but dropping down on them suddenly. In the British Museum is a very good specimen of the larder of a red-backed shrike, taken with the nest of the bird by Lord Walsingham in Norfolk, and showing the way in which the shrike spits insects and birds aa a on thorns; and the species has been known | to hang up birds even bigger than itself, such | as blackbirds and thrushes, as well as tits of Ui several kinds, robins, and hedge-sparrows, while it will also occasionally seize young partridges and y pheasants.” /\ Though undeniably unmusical,the red-backed | shrike is nevertheless able to imitate with considerable success the notes of other small birds, decoying them by this means. within striking distance—an accomplishment shared also j / . . fete) by other members of the Shrike Family. The | | i/ present species is attractively clothed in a || i 4 plumage varied with black, grey, rufous, and chestnut-brown, the last being the predomi- | nating hue of the upper-parts; hence the name ' i Red-backed Shrike. The habits of its congener, the GREAT GREY SHRIKE, are precisely similar. A caged specimen which had become very tame would take food from its captor’s hands. When a bird was | given it, the skull was invariably broken at once, after which, holding the body in its claws, the REED-WARBLER shrike would proceed to tear it in pieces after the SN tg, Se ee and leaving again in fashion of a hawk. Sometimes, instead, the carcase y would be forced through the bars of the cage— | Photo by W’, F. Piggott] [Leighton Buxxard in lieu of thorns—-and then pulled in pieces. Very different in appearance from the members of the Shrike Family are a group of possibly allied forms known as WAX-WINGs. Of pleasing but sober coloration, they are remarkable for certain curious appendages to the inner quill-feathers, of a bright sealing-wax red colour, from which they derive their name: similar wax-like appendages occur also, some- times, on the tail-feathers. Breeding in the Arctic Circle, Wwax-wings occur in both the Old and New Worlds, though some species peculiar to the latter region lack the wax-like appendages characteristic of the majority of the species. These birds are erratic in their movements, and large bands occasionally visit the British Islands during the autumn and winter, the eastern counties being usually the most favoured spots; but on the occasion of one of these immigrations, in the winter of 1872, many were seen in the neighbourhood of the North of London. During the summer they feed on insects, but in autumn and winter on berries and fruit. At this time they become very fat Photo by ¥. T. Newman SONG~THRUSH A resident species, sometimes called tae Mavis 137 138 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Photo by Schalaisié Phite, ‘Cos YOUNG THRUSH This photograph shows the mud-lined nest PAckeg rap the spring migrants, remaining to nest, and leaving again in the autumn. Some, as the BLACK-CAP, WHITE-THROAT, CHIFF- CHAFF, GARDEN-, WILLOW-, and Woop- WARBLERS, frequent woods, hedgerows, and gardens; whilst others, as the SEDGE- and REED-WARBLERS, are found only near water affording sufficient shelter in the shape of reed-banks or osier-planta- tions. The BLAcK-cAP and GARDEN-WARB- LER rank as songsters of no mean talent, being held second only to the nightingale. As if by common consent, the two former never clash, so that where black-caps are common there are few garden-warblers, and vice versa. Most of these birds build a typical cup-shaped nest of dried grasses, lined ' with finer materials, and placed near the ground; but that of the REED-WARBLER is a most beautiful structure, the dried grass of which it is made being woven around some three or four reed-stems, making it seem as if the latter had, in growing up, pierced the sides of th> nest and are then captured and sold in Jarge numbers for food in the Russian markets, and occasionally are sent over to London. Passing over a small group of comparatively uninteresting American birds known as “ Green- lets,” we come to the WARBLERS, a group which constitutes one of the largest families of birds of the Old World. The species included in this family vary greatly in their characters, so that itis by no means easy to give diagnostic char- acters, whereby they may be readily distinguished from the Fly-catchers on the one hand or the Thrushes on the other. The Thrushes, however, as a group, may be distinguished from the Warblers by the circumstance that in the former the young have a distinctive spotted plumage, that of the adults, while the young of the Warblers are not so marked, their plumage differing but little from that of their parents. More than twenty species of warblers are included amongst British birds. Although some of them are but rare and accidental visitors to Britain, others are amongst the commonest of differing from Photo by 7. T. Newman BLACKBIRD The male and female are quite different one from another, and in this respect differ from the Thrushes, in which the sexes are alike THRUSHES AND THEIR ALLIES I wW ‘oO in their course. The cup-shaped hollow is very deep, so that when the supporting reeds are bowed low in the breeze the eggs rest perfectly safe. We must pass now to a consideration of the Thrush Tribe, which, as we have already hinted, are very closely allied to the Warblers. Birds like the COMMON THRUSH and the BLACKBIRD are so common and so well known that they scarcely need comment here. The same perhaps is true of many other members of this group not popularly associated with the Thrush Tribe; such are the RED-BREAST, or ROBIN RED-BREAST, as it is More generally called, and the NIGHTINGALE. Few birds have inspired so many writers as the nightingale; it even holds a place in classical mythology. Professor Newton gives us one variant of a very common but pretty story: ‘ Procne and Philomela were the daughters of Pandion, King of Attica, who in return for warlike aid rendered him by Tereus, King of Daulis in Thrace, gave him the first-named in marriage. Tereus, however, being enamoured of her sister, feigned that his wife was dead, and induced Philomela to take her place. On her discovering the truth, he cut out her tongue to hinder her from revealing his deceit; but she depicted her sad story on a robe which she sent to Procne, and the two sisters then contrived a horrible revenge for the infidelity of Tereus by killing and serving to him at table his son Itys. Thereupon the gods interposed, changing Tereus into a hoopoe, Procne into a_ swallow, and Philomela into a nightingale, while Itys was restored to life as a pheasant, her mate. tribe. ROBIN The young robin wears a distinct livery, quite different from that of its parents and Pandion (who had died of grief at his daughters’ dishonour) as a bird of prey [the osprey ].” A not infrequent error with regard to the red-breast may be pointed out here. Many people seem to suppose that the female is less brilliantly coloured than Asa matter of fact this is not so; what are generally regarded as females of this species are the dull, spotted young, which, as we have already pointed out, assume this peculiar livery throughout the No less common in Britain, during the summer months at least, are the WHEAT- EARS, STONE-CHATS, WHIN-CHATS, and RED-STARTS. Small and prettily coloured species, these are all insect-eaters, and, with the exception of the wheat-ears, lay blue Photo by A. 8, Rudland & Sons eggs, deposited in somewhat coarsely con- NIGHTINGALE structed nests, placed on or near the ground; or in holes in ruins, trees, or walls, The sqveerest and most renowned of all the songsters in the case of the red-starts > or in bur- I40 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD a ee ee ee ee rows or under ledges of rock, as among the wheat-ears, which lay white eggs. The bird commonly known as_ the HEDGE-SPARROW isa close ally of the Thrush Family, having nothing to do with the sparrows proper — which are finches — as its name would imply. Another nearly related form is the DIPPER, or WATER-OUZEL. By no means brilliantly coloured, it is nevertheless an exceedingly interesting bird, and one never met with away from mountain streams. The group has a wide distribution, occurring in suitable localities in Europe, Asia, and the Rocky Mountains of America, and extending from Colombia to Peru and Tucuman. Squat in form, with rounded wings and short tail, the ouzel seeks the greater part of its food on the bottom of swiftly running streams. It is every- where, writes Dr. Sharpe of the commoner of ys. the two British species, a shy and watchful sae oj : mie i bird, and, except in the breeding-season, Watnongh Webster Bk Sua [Chester appears to be solitary. By patient watching STONE_-CHAT near the dipper’s haunts, however, it is -A resident and generally distributed bird possible to observe the bird scudding over the surface of the water with a rapid flight and a vigorous beating of the wings, something like that of a kingfisher, untii it alights on a rock or large stone in the middle of the stream. Its white breast then stands out in bold relief, and, after pausing for a moment, the bird commences to edge to the side of the rock, and either walks deliberately into the water, or disappears suddenly beneath the surface, seeking its food at the bottom of the stream, in the shape of larve, caddis-worms, water-beetles, and small snails. The WRENS are probably near allies of the Dippers. The family includes a number of species of small birds, most largely represented in the New World, but distributed widely over the Old World also. Two occur in the British Islands: of these, one, the COMMON WREN, is found throughout Europe, and occurs also in Northern Africa, Asia Minor, and North Palestine; whilst the other, the St. KILDA WREN, is only found on the island from which it takes its name. Considerations of space compel us to pass over three or four families, of comparatively little interest to any save the scientific ornithologist, in favour of the FLY-CATCHERS and SWALLOWS. The former, in that the young are spotted, appear to evince some affinity to the Thrush Tribe, but they have broad and flatter bills than the latter, whilst the mouth is surrounded by more or less conspicuous bristles. They are entirely Old World forms, having their stronghold in Africa. Three species of fly-catcher occur in England, though only one, the COMMON or SPOTTED FLY-CATCHER, usually breeds in Great Britain, coming late in the spring from Africa. As its name implies, it feeds upon small insects, capturing them on the wing by sudden sallies, and returning immediatcly after to some perch, generally a garden-fence, or the bare bough of a tree. Asarule the prey is caught with a sudden dart, but sometimes only after a prolonged flight, when the bird will double and turn, as the necessity arises, with great skill. Its nest, Photo by G, SWALLOWS made of dry grass and moss, lined with horse-hair and covered externally with spider-webs and * lichens, is usually placed in some sheltered position, such as a crevice in the bark of a tree or in the creepers covering the trellis-work of a house; and owing to the skilful way in which it is covered externally, so as to resemble its surroundings, is difficult to find. The SWALLOWS and MARTINS constitute an exceed- ingly well-defined group of birds, and one which holds a con- spicuously high place in the regard of mankind, finding a AND Photo by JF. T. Newman MARTINS A PAIR OF WRENS Known nearly everywhere as the ‘¢ Kitty? or ‘* Fenny”? Wren welcome everywhere on account of the great benefits they confer by the removal of insect- pests in the shape of the smaller gnats and flies. by the Swallow Tribe, would render most parts of the world uninhabitable. These, were they not kept in check Rarely seen upon the ground, save when procuring mud for the construction of their nests, the birds of esti Fs Photo by Scholastic COMMON WRENS, PHEASANT’S SKELETON In winter wrens have a custom of secking some hole or other convenient shelter and huddling together in small parties for the sake of warmth Io WITH NEST BUILT IN this group are all peculiarly strong fliers, turning and twisting with the greatest speed and precision. All have very short beaks and wide mouths, long wings and tails, and small and weak feet. A large number build their nests of mud, collected in small pellets and held together by the secretion of the salivary glands. These nests are commonly more or less cup-shaped, and fastened under the eaves of dwelling-houses or other buildings, or placed on a convenient beam or other ledge. The RED-RUMPED SWALLOWS and Farry MARTINS—species enjoying an distribution, being found in India, Africa, America, and Australia — build very large flask- shaped nests, having the entrance pro- duced into a funnel nine inches in length. enormous often eight or Others, like the SAND-MARTIN, excavate long tunnels, ter- minating in larger chambers, in the faces ofsand-banks— a performance which must certainly be regarded as wonderful, when one realises the feeble tools with which the task of excavating has to be per- formed. Some species utilise the holes made by other birds, in one species this hole being itself bored within the burrow of the viscacha. I42 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD All are more or less migratory in their habits, some covering enormous distances in journeying to and fro between their winter retreats and their summer breeding-places. The COMMON SWALLOW and HOUSE-MARTIN, for example, leave the shores of Africa early in the spring, and distribute themselves over Europe, thousands visiting the British Islands. After rearing in their respective breeding-places from two to three broods, they return with their offspring before the rigours of winter set in to the African Continent. The routes and destinations of the swallow are now well known; but as much cannot be said for the house-martin, whose winter quartersare as yet enshrouded in mystery. That they must be somewhere in Africa is all that can at present be said. Three species of the Swallow Tribe visit England regularly every year, and re- main to breed. These are the YOUNG SWALLOWS COMMON or CHIMNEY-SWAL- For hundreds of years it has been regarded as most unlucky to kill a swallow LOW, and the HOUSE-MARTIN just referred to, and the little SAND-MARTIN. In the two first mentioned the upper-parts are of a dark steel-blue colour with a metallic gloss, but they are, nevertheless, easily distinguished one from another, — since the swallow has a deeply forked tail, and a bright chestnut patch on the throat, with a similarly coloured band across the forehead; whilst the martin lacks the chestnut markings, and is pure white beneath, with a large white patch on the lower part of the back, and a less markedly forked tail. Furthermore, the legs of the martin are feathered down to the claws, whilst the feet of the swallow are bare. The sand-martin is a little greyish-brown bird, with white under-parts. It is the earliest of the Swallow Tribe to arrive in Britain, and the first to depart. Photo by ¥. T. Newman LYRE-BIRDS AND SCRUB-BIRDS At the beginning of the account of the Perching-birds it was stated that the group was divided into two sections, and that each of these was further sub-divided into two. With the Swallows the first sub-division of the first section ended; the second we are to consider now in the very singular LYRE-BIRDS and SCRUB-BIRDS of Australia. Rendered conspicuous on account of the remarkable lyrate tail, from which the name is derived, the LYRE-BIRDS, on closer acquaintance, prove to be exceedingly interesting forms, though materials for a really complete biography of the three known species are not yet available. The males, it seems, are skilled mimics, reproducing the songs of other birds with great fidelity, this being especially true of the species known as PRINCE ALBERYT’S LYRE-BIRD. During the courting-season the males construct hillocks, to which they resort to display their very beautiful and graceful tails, elevating them over the head, and drooping the wings after the fashion of a peacock, accompanying this display with certain spasmodic pecking and scratching actions. They are solitary birds, more than a pair never being seen together, and even these are exccedingly difficult to approach, stratagem always being necessary. Buta single egg is laid, which has the appearance of being smeared with ink; whilst the young bird differs from that of all other perching-birds in the thickness of its downy covering and the great length of time in which it remains in the nest. The nest, made of sticks, moss, and fibres skilfully interwoven, and lined inside with the leaf of a tree-fern which resembles horse-hair, is a large domed structure, with a single aperture serving as an entrance. Lyre-birds are essentially ground-dwellers, feeding upon insects, especially beetles and snails, and keeping to the wilder regions of the country. CHATTERERS 143 The SCRUB-BIRD is an extremely interesting form, scientifically. Only the males are known at the present time, and these are dull-coloured birds of the size of a thrush. Of the female, eggs, and nest, we as yet know absolutely nothing. CHATTERERS, ANT-THRUSHES, BROAD-BILLS, ETC. The second major division of the Perching-birds embraces a few forms of considcrable interest. The group of CHATTERERS includes several remarkable forms of very diverse coloration, many representing the most gorgeous of all South American birds. One of the most remarkable is the UMBRELLA-BIRD. This bird is funereal in appearance, being clothed in a plumage of deep black, with the head surmounted by a large, drooping, flat-topped crest, resembling in shape the familiar crest of certain varieties of the canary, whilst from the throat hangs a long lappet of feathers reaching nearly down to the feet. The female is duller than her mate, and lacks the peculiar plumes. The umbrella-bird is a forest-dwelling Photo by UW’, F. Piggott SAND-MARTINS This photograph shows a portion of a sand bank, pierced with the tunnel-like nests made by these feeble builders species, confined to the Upper Amazons, and dwelling in the tops of the highest trees, where it finds ample sustenance in wild fruits. But few naturalists have ever seen it in a wild state. Equally wonderful are the BELL-BIRDS, so called on account of their note, which bears an extraordinary resemblance to the sound made by a blacksmith upon an anvil, though it has often been likened to the tolling of a bell. Four species are known, in three of which the males have a pure white plumage, with much naked, vividly coloured skin on the face. One species has a curious pendulous process hanging from the forehead, thinly covered with feathers. By some this is said to be capable of erection during periods of excitement. Like the umbrella- bird, these are forest-dwelling species. For brilliancy of plumage amongst the Chatterers, the palm must be given to the COcKs- OF-THE-ROCK, in the males of which orange-red predominates, whilst the general effect is heightened by crests and curiously curled and frayed feathers growing from the lower part of the back. The males indulge in remarkable love-displays, the performances being held in some open space, and in the presence of the females. One at a time each male appears to go through a kind of dance, accompanying his peculiar steps and hops with much swaying of the head and extending of the wings. When tired, the performer gives a signal which is under- stood by his fellows, and retires from the ring, his place being immediately taken by another. 144 Souef "Tehelbouirae VICTORIAN LYRE-BIRD Lyre-birds, which are also known to the colonists as ** Pheasants,’” are great mimics all of which are confined to South America. They must be sought for, as a rule, in the forests or thick undergrowth of marshy places. The Manakin Family contains several species of considerable interest, on account of the peculiar modifications which certain of the quill-feathers of the males have undergone. In some species what are known as the secondary quill-feathers are peculiarly twisted, and have the shafts much thickened. With these modified feathers the birds are enabled, probably by clapping the wings and bringing the thickened feathers violently together, to make a sharp sound, which has been likened to the crack of a whip. Other species have the quill-feathers of the hand — the primaries, as they are called —similarly thickened, and they probably are also used to produce sounds. One species is known as the BAILADOR, or DANCER, on account of a very remarkable habit which the males have of dancing. Two males, choosing some secluded spot, select a bare twig, THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD The nesting habits of the Chatterers vary greatly, —some building nests of mud and twigs, which they fasten on projections of rock in damp caves; others simply lining holes in trees with dry grass. Some build a cup-shaped nest of lichens, others a simple platform of sticks, whilst some of the THICK- BILLED CHATTERERS hang large nests of leaves, plant-stalks, and wool from low branches, the entrance to the nest being from a hole in the side. The eggs vary in number among the different species from two to four, and in colour may be white, chocolate, pale salmon-coloured, or greenish blue, and are for the most part spotted. Closely allied to the Cocks-of-the-rock are the MANAKINS, for the most part small and thick-set birds, and in many instances brilliantly coloured — at least in the case of the males. Some seventy species are known, Phote by BW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. TAIL OF AUSTRALIAN LYRE-BIRD This ornamental tail 1s worn only by the male ANT-THRUSHES, PLANT-CUTTERS, WOOD-HEWERS 145 and, taking up a position about a foot and a half apart, alternately jump about two feet in the air, and alight again on exactly the same spot from which they sprang. With the regularity of clockwork one bird jumps up the instant the other alights, each bird performing a musical accompaniment to the tune of * to-le-do — to-le-do — to-le-do,” uttering the syllable “to” as he crouches to spring, “le” while in the air, and “do” as he alights; and this performance appears to be kept up till tne birds are exhausted. Some of the manakins are very beautifully coloured. One species, for example, is black, with a blue mantle and a crimson crest; another, black, with orange-coloured cheeks and breast and similarly coloured band round the neck, green rump, and yellow abdomen. The females are generally duller in coloration. The ANT-THRUSHES, or PITTAS, are long-legged, short-tailed birds, of brilliant coloration, having their headquarters in the Malay Archipelago; but the family is represented in India, Australia, and West Africa. These birds are very shy and ex- ceedingly difficult to approach. One species, the large GROUND-THRUSIH, is de- scribed by Wallace as one of the most / beautiful birds of the East. Velvety black above, relieved by pure white, the shoulders are azure-blue and the belly a vivid crimson. The nest recalls, in the plan of its architecture, that of the Oven-birds, being more or less globular in form, and having a lateral entrance; it is composed of twigs, roots, bark, moss, leaves, and grass, and is frequently cemented with earth. The eggs are usually spotted, and have a creamy-white ground-colour: the spots may be brown, reddish grey, or purplish black. The curious PLANT-CUTTERS of the temperate regions of South America are nearly related to the Chatterers, though at one time it was believed they were allied to the True Finches. Constituting but a small family, the plant-cutters are . Photo by A, S. Rudland & Sons remarkable for their strangely serrated BELL-_BIRD beaks, the cutting-edges of which are So called from its wonderfully clear, bell-like note armed with a series of fine saw-like teeth. This beak is used in cutting down plants; and as these birds appear to cut down a great number in sheer wantonness, they are much disliked in the neighbourhood of gardens and plantations. Plant-cutters are not conspicuous for the beauty of their plumage, and have a harsh and grating voice. The WoopD-HEWERS constitute a group of over 200 species, all of which are South American. They are for the most part small and dull-coloured birds, but nevertheless of consia¢erable interest on account of their nest-building habits. The most remarkable members of the family in this respect are three species of OVEN-BIRDS. These construct a massive nest of mud, bearing a more or less fanciful resemblance to a baker’s oven; hence the name Oven-bird. Roughly globular in shape, its walls are of great thickness, and to prevent cracking hair and grass-fibres are intermixed with the mud; the interior is gained through a small hole on one side of the nest, which leads into a passage terminating in a chamber containing the eggs, which are laid upon a bed of grass. Strangely enough, the bird seeks the most exposed [46 THE LIVING ANIMALS.OF THE WORLD situations, placing its nest on branches, in the forks of trees, on posts, rocks, or house-tops. Another species, known to the Spaniards as the CASARITA, or LITTLE HoUSE-BUILDER, builds its nest at the bottom of a narrow cylindrical hole, which is said to extend horizontally under- ground for nearly six feet. Other species build nests of sticks and twigs or of grass, which are divided into chambers after the fashion of the mud nest of the oven-bird, the inner chamber being lined with wool and feathers. The variation in the form, habits, and coloration of these birds is very great, some recalling the Woodpeckers and Tree-creepers, others the Titmice. The family of the TyRANT FLY-CATCHERS, though numbering some 400 species, is less interesting, or rather contains fewer peculiar forms, than the Manakin Family. The tyrant fly-catchers are American birds, and represent the fly-catchers of the Old World. One of the best known is the KING-BIRD, which is renowned rather for its pugnacious disposition than for beauty of plumage. The CRESTED TYRANT-BIRD has a curious habit of lining its nest with the cast-off skins of snakes, a habit which has caused a great deal of discomfort both to juvenile as well as adult egg-collectors, who, recognising the skin by the touch, have hurriedly with- drawn the hand, lest the owner of the cast-otf coat should be in the vicinity. All the tyrant-birds are active and restless in their habits, and frequent marshy districts, sitting alone, perched on the dead branches of trees or bushes, whence they dart forth like the Old World fly-catchers on their prey. Some species, however, frequent bare plains; others, also ground- dwellers, associate occasionally in flocks. Though the prey, which consists chiefly of insects, is, as a rule. captured on the wing, it is not invariably so. One species, for example, pounces down on Phité-by As 8. Rudland- 6S Sins crawling beetles, grasps them in its claws, COCK-OF-THE-ROCK and eats them on the ground. Some other The cockeof-the-rock is a South American bird, of gorgeous coloration species eat mice, young birds, snakes, frogs, fishes, spiders, and worms, the larger victims being beaten on a branch to kill them. One or two species will eat seeds and berries. The nest is often domed, and skilfully felted with moss, lichens, and spider-webs. The BROAD-BILLS are the sole representatives of the final sub-division of the Perching- birds. After the brilliant coloration, the next most striking feature is the great breadth of the bill. Their range is very limited, extending from the lower spurs of the Himalaya, through Burma and Siam, to Sumatra, Borneo, and Java. They seek the seclusion of forests in the neighbourhood of water, exhibiting great partiality for the banks of rivers and lakes, and feeding on worms and insects, many of the latter being captured on the wing. The nest of the broad-bill is a large and not very neat structure, oval in shape, with an entrance near the top, which is often protected with an overhanging roof. It is generally suspended from a low branch or plants near the water, and made of twigs, roots, and leaves, and lined with finer materials. [rom three to five eggs are laid. With these birds, probably the most primitive of the Perching-birds, this section ends. Many forms have inevitably been crowded out, whilst others have been but briefly noticed ; nevertheless, all the really important groups have been more or less completely described, and in the majority of cases well illustrated. BOOK 1/1. REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS BY W. SAVILLE-KENT, F.L.S., F.Z.S. , REPTILES CHAPTER I CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS HE Reptile Class. as defined by modern scientific limitations, includes among the living animals of the world the several groups of the Crocodiles, the Tortoises and Turtles, the Tuatera. the Lizards, and the Snakes. In the popular mind the Frogs and Toads, and the Newts and Salamanders, are often held to belong to the same main section; but these, as hereafter shown, claim, as Amphibians, an independent position of equivalent rank and value. In bygone geological ages the Reptile Class embraced a considerably larger number of groups; some of the members, such as the extinct Dinosaurs, comprised titanic monsters from 60 to 80 feet in length. The Crocodiles and Alligators of the present day are the only living reptiles which in any way approach the extinct Saurians in their dimensions, or assist us in some small measure to realise their unwieldy forms and bulk. The members of the Crocodile Order, which, in addition to the Alligators, includes also the Caimans and so-called Gavials or Garials, agree with one another in the more or less ponderous _ lizard-like shape of their body, supported on well- developed but short and comparatively weak legs, in their special adaptation to an amphibious exist- ence, carnivorous habits, and restriction to tropical and sub- tropical climates. Among the salient characters of the CROCODILE, as the representative of its tribe, which specially adapt it for its aquatic habits, the long, power- ful tail is strongly compressed and thus fitted for use as an organ of propulsion, se, ae my Ap 7 TRE RR ig met Oe “- Ye « tom, % Bayar % sn bil Be Bes v on “% a a , ‘ g tg o ** ig y tan ye ¥ . a % y * e * * x ) . 4 y * % ~@ Ct 4% ‘ , “4s 4% ps p POLS, tei i «my y et 5 < | nF A ~ % 4 “ sil , o wh s ae & i og v ‘is L p » y - + $ Photo by Ww. Py Dando, PZ Ss. YOUNG NILE CROCODILE This species was worshipped with divine honours and mummified after death by the anctent Egyptians 147 148 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD and the feet are more or less webbed. The most strik- ing of its structural adapta- tions is, however, associated with the formation of the creature’s skull. The manner in which a crocodile or alli- gator contrives to breathe orto save itself from asphyxiation, when opening and_ shutting its mouth under water, as it may often be observed to do in the Regent's Park Menagerie, is a common source of wonderment to the onlooker. This seemingly difficult feat is compassed by virtue of the posterior nos- trils, or breathing-passages, YOUNG BROAD-SNOUTED CROCODILE being set so far back in the A native of West Africa, remarkable for the extreme shortness and great breadth of its nozzle Skull, and being so completely cut off from the mouth-cavity by specially developed bones of the palate, that they have no intercommunication with the mouth. It is this mechanism which enables a crocodile to seize and hold an animal underneath the water between its open jaws until it is drowned. Special valves at the back of the mouth prevent any water running down the creature’s throat, while it is able itself to breathe unrestrainedly by allowing just the tip of its elongated snout, with the anterior nostril-apertures, to remain above the water's surface. In many species a conspicuous knob- like bony excrescence is developed at the extremity of the snout, by which the nostril-openings are raised turret-wise above the surface of the water. The eyes also being usually elevated above the level of the creature’s head, the crocodile is able to approach its floating or bank-side prey practically unperceived, its huge body, limbs, and even the _ head, with the exception of the nose and eyes, being totally submerged. Although capable of moving with great activity in the water, crocodiles and their allies are usually ac- counted sluggish and slow movers on the land. Seen basking in the sun, as is their wont, by the hour together on some sand-bank, or creeping lazily thereon ee Photo by HW’. P, Dando, F.Z.S. h . f 1 Photo 5 Nirman Bi Smith, Ey) ; among their fellows, such a A DEAD CROCODILE conclusion is natural. The eee ae : A man-eating individual. This particular animal has just been shot. The natives in the celerity, however, with which background give a good idea of its size — little less than 20 feet long VWilford-on-Sca AND OCELLATED LIZARDS GREEN al ALY North and Im Si wi L t nd, as well as on the continent : sis fe CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS 149 even a huge 25-footer, as witnessed by the writer in the Norman River, North Queensland, will make tracks for and hurl itself into the water, if disturbed during its midday siesta by the near impact of a rifle-bullet, is a revelation. Crocodiles, moreover, as might be inferred from the slit-like contour of the eye-pupil, as shown by daylight, are to a large extent nocturnal, displaying their greatest activity, and being in the habit of traveling long distances along and away from the river-banks in search of food, or in connection with their migratory or mating instincts, under the cover of darkness. Of all living animals the crocodile and its allies are probably equipped most efficiently for both defence and aggression. The thick, horny shields, quadrangular on the back, tail, and under-surface, and adapted in shape and size to cover the head, limbs, and sides, constitute an almost impenetrable cuirass. As weapons of offence the formidable array of trenchant teeth, with which the powerful jaws are armed, have not alone to be reckoned with by the victim | assailed. The crocodile’s limbs and claws are relatively weak, and incapable of aggressive igh is wy A, gsi My Phote ty Mrs U7. Raul A CROCODILE Note the massive character of the tail, a weapon wherewith the creature can disable a horse or an ox, or sweep smaller prey into the water mischief; but in the long, compressed, muscular tail the reptile possesses a terribly effective weapon, wherewith, with one swift, unexpected side-stroke, it will sweep a smaller animal into the water, or deal a blow of sufficient power to fell or disable a man or bullock. Thus well-nigh invulnerable, and cognisant of its marvellous power of jaw and tail, a full-grown crocodile will not hesitate to try conclusions with even such puissant adversaries as the bear, the tiger, and other large carnivora, when they appreach the river’s brink to drink. Not infrequently, too, the crocodile comes off the victor in these contests; while, as sometimes happens, both of the well-matched foes are found dead side by side at the water’s edge. The dread in which crocodiles are held by the natives of tropical countries, and the heavy toll they levy upon the riverside population, and more especially the women-folk in their accustomed avocations of water-carrying or laundry work, are too familiar to need dissertation. Hence it is that in every country, excepting those particular locations where the creature is a subject of misguided veneration or fetish worship, it may be said that every man’s hand is against them, and the enmity most cordially reciprocated. All the members of the Crocodile Family propagate by egg-production. The eggs are 150 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF "THB woRLD relatively small in size, those of the largest species not exceeding that of a goose in dimensions. In shape they are more or less symmetrically ovate, and encased with a hard, white shell. In the case of the crocodile, the female selects a suitable dry sand-bank near the river’s edge, in which it excavates a hole of about 2 feet deep, and, having deposited from twenty to sixty eggs therein, mounts guard over them, sleeping on top of the nest by day, until the young are hatched. With the alligator, the site chosen for the nest is more usually among bushes or reeds at some distance from the water, and the eggs, which may be laid to the number of over 100, are covered over with leaves and vegetable débris, whose decomposition engenders the heat required for their successful incubation. In both instances the parent jealously guards the nest and repels all intruders until the eggs are hatched, and ultimately conducts the young ones to the water, where they soon learn to shift for themselves. Numbers of them, nevertheless, in their young and weak state, fall victims to vultures, hawks, ichneumons, and all manner of birds and beasts of prey. From their birth the little saurians are most vicious and irascible in disposition, hissing and snapping at or laying hold with bull-dog tenacity of a finger or other seizable object that may be held towards them. From their earliest days also they are eminently aggressive and carnivorous. Contenting themselves at first with flies and other insects, they speedily extend their attentions to frogs, lizards, fish, or any small animals which frequent the marshes and river-banks; and finally, with their concurrently in- creased appetites and dimensions, requisition such larger prey as sheep, goats, deer, horses, and, as before mentioned, even the human species, if they can steal a march on them unawares. Crocodiles are provided with relatively small gullets, and are necessarily in- capable of swallowing any prey whole which is of large dimensions. Pen ed : ‘ : Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] [ Milford-on-Sea Accordingly any big quarry which A QUEENSLAND CROCODILE is seized and dragged into the river is disposed of piecemeal, the reptile rending the carcase in fragments with the aid of its terrible teeth and side-wrenches of its ponderous body. The specimen referred to in the anecdote on page 550 Of crocodiles proper, as distinguished from alligators, there are some dozen known species. From their last-named near allies they are distinguished by the entire absence of the supplementary bony armature which in most alligators underlies the outer horny cuirass on the under surface of the body. A more essential distinction is associated with the character of the teeth. The upper and lower teeth of the crocodile interlock, and the fourth lower canine-like tooth is received into a notch in the side of the upper jaw, and is consequently more or less visible when the mouth is closed. In the alligators, on the other hand, this bigger tusk-like tooth fits into a pit-like excavation in the upper jaw, and is invisible when the mouth is shut. The TRUE CROCODILES are found in the tropical regions of Africa, Asia, Australasia, and Central America. The largest is undoubtedly the estuarine species, ranging from the eastern shores of India, through the Malay region, to North and East Australia, New Guinea, and the Fiji Islands. This wide range is a natural concomitant of their brackish- and _ salt-water proclivities. Individuals of the species are, in fact, not infrequently met with floating on the sea at some considerable distance from the land. An example of this estuarine species has been recorded which measured no less than 33 feet, while a length of 20 feet and over is by no means of uncommon occurrence. Photo by 7. WW’, McLellan CROCODILE, WELL ILLUSTRATING THE CHARACTER OF THE DENTITION The lower tusk-like teeth fit into notches in the upper jaw, and are visible when the mouth is closed. In the alligator these teeth fit into pits in the upper jaw, and are hidden from view under the like conditions 151 152 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD The method adopted in Queensland and North Australia for capturing these destructive monsters is. that of a running noose, so at- tached to a suitably flexible mangrove tree growing in the vicinity of its nocturnal runs as to constitute a gigantic spring-trap. A dead carcase or other suitable bait is added to lure the animal to its doom. The crocodiles thus caught arealiveand uninjured, and can be dispatched or reserved for menagerie exhi- bition. A somewhat amusing incident attended the trans- CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS, WITH YOUNG port of a“ reprieved” captive Notwithstanding their proverbially irascible dispositions, these reptiles, of all ages and dimen- by steamship from Cairns to sions, herd together on the most amiable terms Brisbane, Queensland, a few years since. In the dead of night, when all but the watch and engineer had retired to rest (they have to anchor and lay-to at night in the Great Barrier Reef channels), the saurian managed to free himself from his bonds, and started on a voyage of discovery around the decks. Arriving at the stoke-hold, he either incontinently stumbled into it, or descended of matice prepense, sniffing the chance of a supper or a good joke at the engineer's expense. Anyway, the engineer was aroused from his peaceful dozings with the impression that the last day of reckoning had arrived, and, rushing up the hatchway, awakened the whole ship’s strength with his frantic outcries. The NILE CROCODILE, the most familiar form in European menageries, and once abundant throughout Egypt to the Nile’s delta, has now retired to the upper reaches of that great river. It never attains to the dimensions of the estuarine form. By the ancient Egyptians, as is well known, this species Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co. was pampered andworshipped with divine honours’ while living, and after death em- balmed and preserved in the catacombs. Other noteworthy croco- diles, of which space will allow only of the mention of their names, are the AMERICAN or ORINOCO CROCODILE, and the LONG-SNOUTED CROCODILE of West Africa, which distantly approach to the LONG- SNOUTED GAVIAL or GARIAL of India, in which the snout is elongated in a_beak-like manner, and armed with close A CROCODILE FROM SOUTHERN UNITED STATES ive OF lone eeeweuee tently © a TOW > of long, recu ved c , The teeth of crocodiles, as compared with those of alligators, are much less uniform in size specially adapted for its ex- eco Photo by Robert D, Carson, Esq.) [ Philadelphia CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS Lo clusively fish-eating propensities. Full-grown examples of the gavial may attain to a length of 20 feet. The TyPpicaL or MISSISSIPPI ALLIGATOR is,as its name denotes, a North American form, having | the modified dental and other structural details previously re- ferred to, but otherwise in size and its aggressively destructive habits nearly corresponding with the Oriental crocodile. A second species of alligator is found in China. InthetropicalSouth American rivers the place of the alligator is occupied by the CAIMANS, some of which attain to huge pro- portions, and are distinguished from the former by the greater development of the bony armature of both their back and under- surface, and by certain essential, but to the lay reader obscure, modifications of the skull. An ex- ample of the GREAT CAIMAN once did duty as a riding-horse to the naturalist Waterton, as all those Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co, familiar with his book of travels MISSISSIPPI AND CHINESE ALLIGATORS will remember. The habits of the caiman differ somewhat locally. From the main stream of the Lower Amazon they are in the habit of migrating in the dry season to the inland pools and flooded forests. In the middle districts of the same river, where the drought is excessive and protracted, the caimans are addicted to burying themselves in the mud till the rains return; while in the upper reaches of the Amazon, where the droughts are not prolonged, the caimans are perennially present. The eggs of these reptiles are much esteemed for food by the natives of Dutch Guiana. The Chinese species, which is the smaller of the two, feeds mainly upon fish CHAP TER I TORTOISES AND TURTLES HE order of the Chelonians, including the Tortoises, Turtles, and Terrapins, with their allies, constitutes one of the most distinct and readily defined groups of the Reptile Class. The more or lesscomplete bony shell, or carapace, which encases the body, and into which both head and limbs can in many cases be completely retracted, separates these reptiles very widely from the other orders. In some respects certain details of the skull- structure assimilate them to the Crocodiles; but here again there is an entire absence of the rows of formidable teeth, the upper and lower jaws being sharply pointed, covered with horn, and thus converted into a trenchant beak. The two leading groups of the Tortoises and the Turtles are distinctly separated, by the respective conformation of their limbs, for a terrestrial or aquatic existence. The Tortoises have normal walking-legs, with toes and, in most instances, claws, fitting them for walking on the land or burrowing into the earth. In the True Turtles is4 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD these limbs take the form of flattened paddles, and in no instance are more than two of the toes provided with claws. The TORTOISES are sub-divided by zoologists into some six or cight subordinate groups or families, for the most part distinguished by the respective modifi- cations of their protective shells. This shell in all tortoises and turtles consists of two essential elements — the upper or back casing, known as the “carapace,” and the under one, or so-called ‘“ plastron,” which covers the ventral surface. In some forms these two elements are completely welded into one another, forming a continuous box-like shell; in others they are more or “| less separate; while in yet ancther series the lower shell is rudimentary. These distinctions have been _ found to constitute a convenient basis for classification. worries In the TRUE LAND-TORTOISES, which invite first EE, attention, the upper and lower shells are completely , united in a box-like form, and the neck, bent in the form of the letter §, can be completely retracted within it. The limbs are club-shaped, covered with horny scales or tubercles, and adapted for walking, the toes being unwebbed, and provided with strong claw-like nails. Pre-eminent among this typical terrestrial series come the huge GIANT or ELEPHANT-TORTOISES, formerly Photo by C, N: Mavroyeni Snir ; ; ear Mg pee eS pee Lemans abundant, as their fossil remains indicate, in Southern ASIATIC TORTOISES Europe, India, and North and South America, and now ed ; represented only in the isolated oceanic islands of Aldabra, A tortoise, like a turtle, turned over on its back, i 7 ‘ represents one of the most helpless of living animals off Madagasear, the Seychelles, and the Galapagos groups. Even within historic times they were very abundant in the islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues; but their huge size and lethargic habits, combined with their esculent qualities, have brought about their extermination. Those remaining in the islands mentioned are now so reduced in numbers that there is a possibility of their becoming extinct at an early date, and this notwithstanding the strenuous endeavours that are being made to save them. A large percentage of the small residue of these giant Chelonians have been transported from their island homes and presented to the London Zoological Gardens, where they are now comfortably housed. An instructive idea of the aspect and relative dimen~- sions of these giant tortoises may be obtained by a refer- ence to page vii of the First Volume, in which one of these Chelonians is shown to be equal in size and strength to carrying a human rider. It is recorded that these reptiles were so abundant in the island of Rodrigues in 1691 that one might count as many as 3,000 of them in a single flock, and walk for over 100 paces upon their backs. All of these giant tortoises, as obtained from , ee separate island groups, or islets of the groups, exhibit Pine ON. dcnamadl Convers characteristic differences, indicating the length of time EUROPEAN TORTOISE they have been separated from one another. The A tortoise’s shell, or carapace, constitutes a porte able house, wherein the animal can entirely with ‘ A se draw for shelter in inclement weather, or when phenomenal. One example at Port Louis, Mauritius, attacked by enemies age to which these giant tortoises attain is altogether TORTOISES AND TURTLES ise originally brought from the Seychelles, is definitely known to have lived for over 130 years from the date of its transportation. It is stated to have been of large size when imported; and as these animals are notoriously slow growers, another couple of centuries may be safely added to its life-span. The Galapagos Islands down to recent times have produced the greater number of species of these tortoises, the carapace of the largest of these not infrequently measuring as much as 4 feet in direct length, and the weight of such an animal being over 400 Ibs. Highly interesting details concerning the Galapagos giant tortoises and their habits are contained in Darwin's ‘‘ Voyage of the Beagle.” At the time of that illustrious naturalist’s visit they were still very abundant in the islands. He remarked that they abounded in both the higher and damper and the lower and arid districts, but gave preference to the former. . ti h py, a, Na ae ‘ Photo by S. G. Payne & Son, Aylesbury, by permission of the Hon, Walter Rothschild ELEPHANT-TORTOISES FROM THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS Several species are shown in this photograph The old males were invariably the largest, growing to such a size that they required six or eight men to lift them, and yielded as much as 200 Ibs. of good, highly nutritious meat. On some of the islands there was no water; and in these cases, as also when they occurred in the dry and arid lowlands, they were observed to feed chiefly on the succulent cactuses. When water was plentiful, the tortoises exhibited a great fondness for it, drinking large quantities and wallowing in the mud. In the larger islands, where wells and springs existed in the higher and damper portions, regular well-beaten paths radiated in every direction, indicating the routes, like sheep-tracks, regularly followed by the tortoises to and from the water-holes. It was these tracks which betrayed their presence and led to their first discovery by the older Spanish navigators. When travelling long distances to the watering-places, it is recorded that they march night and day, pursuing the ‘even tenor of their way” at the rate of sixty yards an hour —one yard per minute, or four miles per day! During the breeding-season the larger males indulge in hoarse roarings or bellowings that can be heard for a considerable distance. .The female deposits her eggs either in the sand, where this is plentiful, covering them up 156 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD again, or, where the ground is rocky, drops them indiscriminately in any crevice or depression encountered. The eggs are white, spherical, and hard-shelled, as in all tortoises, and somewhat exceed those of a hen in bulk. The very antithesis of the giant land-tortoises of the Galapagos Islands is the small and familiar GRECIAN TORTOISE, frequently exposed for sale on hand-barrows in the London streets, and acquired by the unsophisticated suburban resident as a quaint but not altogether estimable garden pet. Like the majority of tortoises, this is a vegetarian, and with epicurean tastes that will guide it instinctively to select your choicest lettuces and the gems of your horticultural triumphs for the delectation of its fastidious appetite. The Grecian tortoise rarely exceeds 53 inches in length, and is abundant throughout South-eastern Europe, Sicily, Italy, and the Grecian Archipelago, extending thence to Syria. In Algeria an almost identical tortoise occurs which grows to the greater length of 9 inches; while Greece produces yet a third form, the so-called MARGINED TORTOISE, which attains the greater length of I1 inches, and is distinguished by the colour of the carapace usually being black, with a small spot of yellow on each shield-like plate. All three of the foregoing species are collectively imported by shiploads for sale in England, and it would be interesting to know what fate befalls them. In Greece and Sicily they are regularly placed on the market as an article of food. When acclimatised in England, and even in their warmer native country, these Grecian tortoises bury themselves in the earth and_ hibernate during the cold winter months. Next to the typical Land-tortoises the so-called HINGED TORTOISES demand brief notice. The several members of this little group are denizens of tropical Africa, and notable for the circumstance that the hinder portion of their carapace is united with the anterior one by a s movable ligamentous hinge. Asa result GW AE EERE Ge, SOUT Geena ARI eae RE OTIS peculiarity the animal, when ELEPHANT_TORTOISE retracted within its shell, can entirely close up the hinder aperture. None of these forms exceed a length of 9 inches. In another group, distinguished by the title of BOX-TORTOISES, a ligamentous hinge is developed across the centre of the lower shell, or plastron, which, being freely movable with relation to the upper shell, enables the animal, when retracted, to completely close up both the anterior and posterior carapace apertures. The box-tortoises are natives of the South- eastern United States and Mexico, and, in addition to the foregoing structural peculiarity, are distinguished by the high or vaulted contour of their carapace. In some the toes are slightly webbed, and their habits are mainly carnivorous, indicating affinity with the flesh- eating and essentially aquatic Terrapins. Between the two, however, have been intercalated a little group, known as the POND- TORTOISES, one species of which is found in Southern Europe, and a nearly allied one in Note the small size of the head with relation to the huge carapace North America. These pond-tortoises are distinguished by the smooth and depressed form of the carapace; the toes are fully webbed, fitting them for an aquatic life; while a ligamentous hinge, separating the anterior and posterior moieties of the plastron, enables them to cover in and protect their retracted head and limbs, after the manner of the Box- tortoises. The carapace of the European pond-tortoise does not exceed 7} inches in length, and is usually dark brown or black, ornamented with yellow dots or radiating streaks. This species inhabits both ponds and running water, and during the daytime creeps out on the banks, 3 ‘ Magi a Deh L Cicnitl rh. Photos by §. GQ Payne & Son, “Aylesbury, by peritision of the Ho Walter Rothschild GIANT OR ELEPHANT-TORTOISES FROM THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS The elephant-like character of their limbs, whence they derive their name, 1s well exemplified in these examples 11 157 158 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD like the Crocodiles, to bask in the sun. As with the Crocodiles, however, the daytime does not represent the period of its greatest activity, this being during the night. The pond- tortoises are highly esteemed for the table in the countries where they are indigenous. The TRUE TERRAPINS are all tortoises of essentially aquatic habits, differing, however, from the water-frequenting Pond-tortoises, last referred to, in that they have no ligamentous hinge providing for the hermetical closure of the carapace apertures. The carapace and plastron, moreover, are firmly united by bone, so that the two form conjointly a rigid, continuous shell, as in that of the typical Land- tortoises. The terrapins are widely distributed, being found in North America, Japan, China, the Persian Gulf, Spain, and North-west Africa. Terrapin ranks highly as a_ table delicacy in the United States. The real DIAMOND-BACKED species, how- ever, is now becoming very scarce, the supply not being equal to the demand, and many inferior varieties being substituted in its place. The “fishing” for these terrapins is mainly prosecuted during the autumn months, when the reptiles become dormant, and are easily discovered and secured by probing the mud with sticks. The female terrapin, or “cow” as it is designated, is considered the GIANT TORTOISE greater delicacy, the egss, to the The grant tortoises, like the relatively diminutive European varieties, are essen- Sanaa af ieaty oF ee: usually tially herbivorous found inside its body, being the de rigueur garnishing of the dainty dish. The diamond-terrapin rarely exceeds a length of 7 inches; but some of the inferior varieties, or “ Sliders,” as they are termed, are of much larger dimensions, and may weigh we Photo by S. G. Payne & Son, Aylesbury, by permission of the Hon, Walter Rothschild as much as 4 lbs. From an esthetic standpoint the PAINTED TERRAPIN undoubtedly bears the palm. Its smooth, depressed carapace is not more than 6 inches long, and its ground-colour is usually a dark olive-green, yellow lines bordering its component central shields; the small marginal shields are sometimes almost crimson with black markings, and the “bridge” uniting the carapace and plastron exhibits the same brilliant coloration. The soft skin of the head, neck, and other exposed parts have yellow and red bands on a brown or blackish ground-colour. This beautiful little terrapin, which is a special favourite for aquariums, is a native of Eastern North America. Passing the small and not peculiarly conspicuous group of the AMERICAN MUD-TERRAPINS, we arrive at the very distinctly differentiated family of the SNAPPERS, SNAPPING-TURTLES, or ALLIGATOR-TERRAPINS, as they are variously called. These likewise are exclusively confined in their present-day distribution to the New World, though in former ages allied species inhabited Europe. The alligator-terrapins are characterised by the relatively small size of the carapace, within which the animal is unable to completely retract its head and limbs, as in the preceding types. The head is relatively large, and armed with a formidable hooked beak; while the tail greatly exceeds in relative length that of any of the ordinary tortoises or terrapins, and is scaly and crested somewhat like that of a crocodile along its upper ridge, and has horny plates on the under-surface. Their popular name, has, in fact, been conferred upon these Chelonians on the strength of their presenting the aspect to no inconsiderable TORTOISES AND TURTLES 159 extent of an alligator’s body, to which the carapace of an ordinary terrapin has been united. The common alligator-terrapin, or snapping-turtle, is among aquatic Chelonians an animal of considerable size. The carapace alone may be as much or more than 20 inches long, and to this have to be added the thick head and neck and clongated tail, which, taken together, are of almost similar dimensions. A second closely related member of this family, known by the name of TEMMINCK’S SNAPPER, attains to yet longer proportions, and is the largest known river-tortoise. The carapace in this species may measure over 2 feet in length, and has three strongly marked longitudinal ridges. The head is relatively larger and the tail somewhat shorter than in the preceding species. It is a denizen of the southern districts of the United States, being met with in Texas, Florida, and as far north as the Missouri. The habits of the two species are stated to be identical. Both of them frequent the rivers and swamps of the areas indicated, preferring the waters that have a muddy bottom, and in some localities occurring in vast numbers. As a rule they prefer lying in deep water near the centre of the river or swamp they inhabit, but they also occasionally ascend to the surface and float in midstream with outstretched necks. Like other water-tortoises, they come on land to find suitable locations for depositing their eggs. The name of Snappers, commonly applied to these tortoises, bears reference to their inveterate habit of snapping and biting viciously at everything placed within their reach. Even from the egg the young of Temminck’s species is wont to display this trait. The animals are somewhat esteemed for food, and are consequently caught for the market. They will take almost any bait, but manifest a predilection for fish. Considerable caution has necessarily to be exercised in dealing with them in the boats, and it isa common custom to decapitate them immediately they are hauled on board, otherwise they are capable of inflicting the most terrible wounds with their powerful cutting beaks on the persons of all or any who may remain within their reach. Bathing in waters tenanted by the pugnacious and distinctly aggressive snappers is a risky proceeding, and many cases of serious injuries that have happened to incautious adventurers in this direction have been recorded. The food of both the alligator and Temminck’s snapper consists mainly of fish, and where common these tortoises must be ranked among the most potent agencies in denuding the rivers and lakes of their finny denizens. Not content with fish, the larger examples have been known to drag under water and devour such large water- fowl as ducks, and even geese. It is stated that the snappers exhibit a surprising amount of agility in the water, and swim after and capture the fish on which they feed. Sucha feat seems scarcely credible of a bulky adult individual, while, moreover, it is provided with a remark- able and effective adapta- tion for taking its prey by stratagem. A very fine example of Tem- minck’s snapper was for many years confined in A GIANT TORTOISE WITH A COMMON TORTOISE ON ITS BACK a tank in the Reptile- Illustrating their comparative dimensions Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co, 160 °~THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD house in the Regent’s Park Zoological Gardens. It usually lay prone at the bottom of its tank, giving little or no signs of life throughout the day, but was wont to display more activity and to move about its tank at night. At times, when ready for a fresh food-supply, it was observed that it would lie motionless as a stone, as usual, but with its mouth open to its widest gape. This attitude it would maintain for several hours together. The singularity of this action was that the gaping jaws displayed to view two elongate worm-like structures, which sprang close to one another from the floor of the mouth just within its entrance. These worm-like appendages were continually writhing to and fro, and presented in both aspect and movements a most remarkable resemblance to actual living worms. With this naturally provided decoy for fish there can be no need for the snapper to exhaust its energies in the strenuous pursuit of its quarry. To make the delusion complete, the head, neck, and chin of Temminck’s snapper are decorated with small lobular or leaf- like membranous appendages resem- bling sponges or aquatic vegetation. The solid grey-brown triangular head of the animal itself might easily be mistaken for a piece of rock, and thus decorated with seemingly natural growths the unwary fish come browsing along it, rush upon the wriggling worms at the entrance of the cavernous chamber, and are lost. A photograph of this interesting Chelonian is reproduced on page 560, which depicts it with its mouth open, and indicates both the position and the presence of the worm-like decoy- appendages. There are several water-tortoises presenting a considerable external resemblance to the forms already is noticed which belong to distinct We; es ie] family groups. Thus the MATAMATA Photo by S. G. Payne & Son, Aylesbury, by permission of the Hon, Walter Rothschild TORTOISE of Northern Brazil has at first sight, except for its short tail and nose-like proboscis, much in com- mon with Temminck’s snapper. Fim- briated and foliaceous membranous outgrowths are developed on the head and neck to a much more luxuriant degree, and it would be interesting to ascertain if it possesses similar decoy-appendages inside the mouth. The so-called SNAKE-NECKED WATER-fORTOISES of South America, and the LONG-NECKED aquatic ones of Australasia, possess modifications of skull-structure and other details that indicate family distinctness. A broad external character that serves to separate this group from the Terrapins and all preceding forms is that the neck, when drawn within the cavity of the carapace, is not flexed in the form of the letter S, but simply bent sideways along the anterior margin of the body. The species belonging to this group, which includes the Matamata, Snake-necked, and Soft-shelled Water-tortoises, and also a few essentially terrestrial species, are distinguished collectively by the appellation of the ‘“ SIDE-NECKED ™ TORTOISES. aN oF ‘ é ELEPHANT-TORTOISE Illustrating the ample chamber-like space provided within the carapace for the retraction of the head and limbs TORTOISES AND TURTLES 161 TURTLES Certain of the Terrapins, or Water-tortoises, belonging to the groups above described frequent saline river-estuaries and salt marshes, but none are strictly marine. With the Turtle Family, however, we arrive at an exclusively pelagic section, in which the animals are specially adapted for life in the high seas, the walking-limbs of the terrestrial and fresh-water species being replaced by long and powerful swimming-flippers. The shell in these marine Chelonians is more or less heart-shaped and flattened, and the carapace and plastron are always separate, and never united in a rigid box-like form, as with the Land- tortoises. In common with those fresh-water tortoises which pass the greater portion of their existence in lakes or rivers, the MARINE TURTLES resort to the land to deposit their eggs. The locations chosen are the sand-beaches or isolated sandy islets in tropical oceans, wherein, after excavating hollows to receive them, the eggs are covered up and left to ER: : re & By permission of the New York Zoological Society SNAPPING-TURTLE Also known as the Alligator-terrapin, with reference to its long, alligator-like tail hatch with the heat of the sun. The eggs of turtles differ from those of the Land-tortoises and Terrapins in that their external covering is soft or leathery. So soon as the young turtles are hatched, they emerge from the sand, and instinctively make their way to the water. Many, however, are the perils that beset their course, and few there be out of perhaps 80 or 100 turtlets which gain the shore and get through into deep water, Fish- hawks and sea-birds of every description are waiting ready to pounce down upon them immediately they make their appearance, or to thin their ranks as they run the gauntiet of perhaps 100 yards or so to reach the sea in safety. Even at the water’s edge the ordeal is by no means passed. Shoals of the smaller sharks and other predatory fish are continually cruising round in the shallow water, and have as high an appreciation of the toothsomeness of tender turtle as the proverbial London alderman. The writer was fortunate on one occasion, among the coral islands on the Australian coasts, to light upon a young turtle brood 162 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD just emerging from their sandy nest. The majority were assisted to the sea, and a few, reserved in the interests of science, were liberated in a bath of sea-water to have their first swim. Snap- shot photographs were taken, one of which, reproduced on page 561, serves toillustrate the great relative length of the paddle-like limbs at this early stage and the variety of postures assumed during natation. Of the typical Marine Turtles three distinctly characterised speciesare recognised by zoologists. Photo by York & Son] [ Notting Hill TEMMINCK’S SNAPPER These are the GREEN TURTLE, indispensable for soup at alder- manic banquets; the HAWKSBILL, or tortoiseshell-producing turtle; and the LOGGERHEAD. Of these three, the green turtle and the loggerhead more nearly resemble one another, and are apt to be confounded by the uninitiated. Such an error is very readily detected when the Chelonian comes to the table, the flesh of the loggerhead being rank and utterly unfit for food. In order, however, to be wise before the event, and to avoid a grievous misdirection of culinary energy — turtle being a standard dish in the coral seas — it is only necessary to count the number of large shield-like plates that flank each side of the central series in the creature’s carapace. In the true green or edible turtle there are only four pairs of these large lateral shields, while in the loggerhead there are never less than five, and sometimes more. The loggerhead-turtle also, as its name implies, has a conspicuously larger and coarser head than the esculent species. The fact that while the green turtle is a strict vegetarian, feeding entirely on seaweeds, the loggerhead is altogether carnivorous, readily accounts for the diametrically diverse gastronomic properties of these two Chelonians. Both species attain to a considerable size, over 3 feet in length (the loggerhead being the larger), and are found inhabiting the same waters throughout the tropics. The HAWKSBILL, or true tortoiseshell-producing turtle, never attains to quite as large dimensions as the two preceding species, though its carapace may measure as much as 2 feet 6 or 8 inches long. The structural feature that at once distinguishes the hawksbill from either the green or loggerhead species is the character of the horny shields developed on the surface of the carapace. Instead of the edges meeting in juxtaposition, as in those two forms, they overlap one another, like the scales of a fish, and are notable for their thickness and their exceedingly beautiful but variably marbled patterns. It is these marbled horny plates which constitute the tortoise-shell of commerce. In young individuals the substance is thin and very transparent, but thickens with advancing age, until in old individuals the plates may vary from ¢ to }inch in thickness. Like the two preceding species, the hawksbill, within tropical seas, enjoys a cosmopolitan distribution. Its habits, like the loggerhead’s, are essentially carnivorous; but while the flesh is coarse and rank, the eggs are valued for the table. A remaining member of the Marine Turtle series is the so-called LUTH or LEATHERY TuRTLE. This Chelonian differs so materially in structure from the foregoing species as to be referred to a distinct family. The horny plates, so conspicuous in all the other types, are entirely absent, the bony carapace, which is distinctly seven-ridged longitudinally, being covered with a homogeneous leather-like skin. Both jaws are formidably hooked and cutting throughout their edges, and the paddles are destitute of the two rudimentary claws found in the preceding species. The leathery turtle grows to an immense size; specimens The two white points visible on the lower jaw represent the patr of worm-like appen- dages which the creature uses as a bait to attract or capture fish TORTOISES AND TURTLES 163 have been recorded measuring as much as 8 feet in total length and weighing over 1,600 Ibs. Its flesh is not only unfit for food, but is reported to be of a poisonous character. The coasts of Florida and Brazil are among the areas where the leathery turtle is met with in the greatest abundance. The more ordinary method of capturing turtle for the market or to supply the deficiencies of the larder aboard ship in tropical climates is to land at night, preferably when the moon is full, on the islands to which the females are in the habit of repairing to deposit their eggs. This function is invariably discharged during the night hours, and unless the moon is up the presence of the reptiles is not easily determined. Time is generally given for the turtle to excavate its sand-burrow and lay its eggs, usually over a hundred in number, the proper Photo by HW. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Milford-on-Sea NEWLY HATCHED TURTLES ENJOYING THEIR FIRST SWIM The limbs at this early stage of their development are of an abnormal length moment for the capture being that when, the task accomplished, it sets forth to recain its more accustomed element. The creature is then seized and turned suddenly upon fe back where it is left to struggle and flounder helplessly, being perfectly incapable ‘of righting jiselt while other captures are made. On outlying coral islands, such as those of the Tbaceaeded a the Western Australian coast, several dozen of the Chelonians may represent one good nlebes haul, the choice of the fittest examples being left until the return of daylight. . . In many places turtles are pursued in the water and speared ; ‘while in some locations notably at Keeling Island, as recorded by Darwin, the animals are chased by the natives i sailing-craft. One man steers the boat, the other one standing in the bows on the look-out for turtle. A Chelonian being sighted, an exciting stern chase ensues, and on coming abreast DS with the quarry the look-out man plunges into the water straight upon the turtle’s back, and 164 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Photo by H. V. Lockmai CUBAN TERRAPINS In common with many other water-tortoises, or terrapins, this species is essentially gregarious in its habits clings pertinaciously with both hands to the shell of the neck until the creature is exhausted, when it is dragged into the boat. The most remarkable method of taking turtle, however, is that practised in Torres Straits, as also at Mozambique and formerly in the West Indies. The sucking-fish, or remora, is in this case impressed into the service of the human fishers. Taking advantage of the fish’s natural propensity to swim towards and adhere pertinaciously to any larger floating object, fishermen go out with specimens kept alive in a small well in the bottom of their boats. When in pursuit of turtle, a long light line is attached to the fish’s tail; and coming within sight of a Chelonian, the fish, with an abundance of slack or pay-out line, is thrown in the direction of the turtle. The remora immediately swims towards and adheres firmly to the under surface of the shell of the turtle, when it will suffer its body to be torn asunder rather than let go its hold of its newly gained sanctuary. Should the turtle be a small one, both fish and turtle are dragged with the line back to the boat. If, on the other hand, it is of large size, one of the natives plunges into the water, and, following the line down, secures the turtle. In the island of Ascension the cultivation and breeding of turtles for exportation in artificially constructed enclosures have for a considerable time been the subject of an important industry. There are doubtless many other locations on both the Australian coast-line and in the British West Indies where this highly profitable trade could be established. In addition to the green turtle, attention might also be profitably directed at the same locations to the culture of the tortoiseshell-bearing species. Tortoiseshell possesses the singular and useful property of being susceptible of perfect amalgamation. Consequently a number of small-sized pieces can be welded so indistinguishably with one another as to serve the same use as the larger plates for commercial purposes. This amalgamation is effected by bevelling the edges of the two pieces that it is desired to unite along the proposed line of junction, and then, while they are held in juxtaposition in a metallic press, submitting them to the action of boiling water. CHAPTER LIZARDS HE Lizard Tribe or Sub-orderis notable as containing a greater number of specific forms than any other ofthe Reptilian groups, no less than 1,700 distinct species being described in the most recently published catalogues. While formerly regarded as constituting a separate and independent order of the Reptile Class, later investigations have demonstrated that lizards are so inti- mately related through sundry intermediate types with the Snakes that they cannot be recognised as constituting other than a sub-section of the same order. The two groups of the Lizards and Snakes are consequently, and with refer- ence more particularly to their commonly shared scaly armatures, technically distin- guished by the appellation of Scaled Reptiles. While the more typical members of the Lizard Tribe are readily distinguished from the Snakes by the possession of well- developed limbs, a no inconsiderable number of species are altogether devoid of these appendages, or possess them only in a partially developed or rudimentary condition. The British BLIND-WORM, or SLOW-WORM, constitutes an example of such a legless lizard, although on account of its outward snake-like appearance it is commonly regarded as a snake by the un- educated. In the South Euro- pean so-called GLASS-SNAKE, or SCHELTOPUSIK, here figured, the snake-like aspect and creeping habits are still more conspicuous, but yet when examined more crit- ically its lizard affinities become apparent. One of the most readily apprehended external characters that serve to distinguish this and the majority of the legless lizards from snakes is the posses- sion by the former of movable eyelids and conspicuous external ear-openings. Among _ snakes eyelids are invariably absent, the Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] 165 III Photo by H7. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. GLASS-SNAKE, OR SCHELTOPUSIK The presence of movable eyelids distinguishes this legless lizard from Te by Biel, “ailiaiene BLIND-WORM Notwithstanding its name, the blind-qworm pos- sesses small, very bright ltttle eyes j [Milford-on-Sea the true snakes oe a [ Milford-on-Sea GLASS-SNAKE Snails constitute the favourite food of the glass-snake 166 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD eyes, by way of compensation, being covered by transparent horny plates, which impart to these creatures that peculiar stony stare which un- doubtedly constitutes one of the most repulsive features of their tribe. There are, however, a few exceptional lizards devoid of eyelids, though these species do not take a snake-like form. Lizards, while distributed through- out temperate and tropical regions, attain to the zenith of their repre- sentation in size, number, and variety of form and colour in tropical and sub-tropical countries. The majority of species are essentially sun-wor- shippers, and in temperate climates, such as that of England, where they are but sparsely represented, pass the cheerless winter months in a state of torpid hibernation. The first position among the Lizard Tribe is usually accorded to the GECKO FAMILY —-a group number- ing 280 species, which present several somewhat anomalous features and characteristics. In the first place, in contradistinction to the majority of lizard forms, they are for the most | part nocturnal in their habits, and Phot DIF GIS aul iies Kent E258) have their eyes specially modified to BURMESE GECKOS meet them. Geckos, as the exception One of the largest members of the tribe, measuring § or ro inches in length to the ordinary lizards previously referred to, possess no eyelids and the pupil of the eye, as seen in broad daylight, is mostly represented by a narrow vertical slit, like that of a cat, or a nocturnal dog-fish. As the night approaches, however, the membranous diaphragm is retracted, displaying to view a symmetrically orbicular pupil of abnormal size and luminosity. Another prominent characteristic of the geckos is the peculiar modification of their feet, which in most instances are furnished with adhesive disks or pads, which enable these lizards to run with ease, after the manner of flies, on the smooth surface of a wall or window-pane, or even along the ceiling. it is further noteworthy of the geckos that they are the only lizards which BURMESE GECKO possess the power of emitting Under-surface showing minute hexagonal scales and peculisi siructure of the adhesive toe-pads LIZARDS 167 Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. MADEIRAN GECKOS Madeiran geckos photographed through a glass window-pane, showing the peculiar formation of their adhesive toe-pads. — One example is regrowing its recently amputated tail. These geckos often travel from Madeira to Covent Garden Market among banana bunches distinct vocal sounds. The name Gecko is, in point of fact, derived from the fancied resemblance to the word that constitutes the shrill, somewhat bird-like note of one of the most familiar species. ‘“ Tok,” “toki,’ “chick, chick,” ‘checko,” and ‘tocktoo”’ are distinctive call-notes that are respectively associated with other members of the Gecko Family. The geckos are most numerously represented in the Indian and Australasian regions. None of them attain to large dimensions. They rarely exceed 1 foot in total length, and most frequently measure some 3 or 4 inches only. Geckos, in common with many other lizards, are notable for the facility with which their tail becomes detached and left in the hands of their would-be captor. In course of time a new tail sprouts out from the truncated stump of the original member, and within a few more months equals it in dimensions. It not infrequently happens that two or even three new tail-sprouts take the place of the original appendage, imparting to the little creature a most bizarre appearance. The above photograph includes an example of the Madeiran species in which a new tail-bud of a normal character has just commenced to grow. The nearest approach to the phenomenon of flight among lizards occurs in what are known as the FLYING-DRAGONS, belonging to the family of the Agamas, which next invites attention. These lizards are all of relatively small size, not exceeding a few inches in length, and inhabit the Indo-Malayan region. In these singularly specialised forms six or seven of the posterior ribs are abnormally produced on each side of the body, and so united together by thin, semi- transparent membrane as to form a pair of wing-like expansions. When not in use, these structures are folded, after the manner of a fan, closely against the animal's sides, while, when extended, they constitute a most effective parachute, wherewith the little creatures accomplish flying leaps from tree to tree, after the manner of the Flying-squirrels and Phalangers. The 168 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD colour of these wing-like structures varies among the many different | specific forms, being in some instances spotted or reticulated like those of a butterfly. | This same family of the Agamoid Lizards includes a number of species j of very dissimilar aspect and habits, ' which are almost exclusively confined _ to the Old World or Oriental zolodégical region. Australia in particular is remarkably rich in representatives of _ this group, many of them of con- siderable size. Certain of these have within recent years been found to be endowed with the power of bipedal locomotion. The FRILLED LIZARD of Queensland and the northern territories of Western Australia was the first species in which this bipedal habit was authentically demonstrated in connection with examples observed in Australia and also brought to England by the writer, one of the last-named examples furnishing the photographs reproduced on page 567. In other respects this lizard is one of the most remarkable of its tribe. The peculiar Elizabethan collar-like frill, capable of erection or depression at the creature’s will, imparts to it a most singular appearance. When at rest or undisturbed, this mem- branous frill-like structure is folded down in neat, symmetrical pleats around the lizard’sneck. Should the creature be approached by man or dog or other aggressive animal, the mouth springs open to its widest, and simultaneously with this action the frill is erected like the sudden opening of an umbrella, and stands out at right angles around the neck, imparting to it a most formidable and threatening aspect. Dogs, in fact, which will habitually chase and kill larger lizards, such as the Monitors, will frequently halt and retire discomfited when confronted with a frilled lizard at bay with its frill erected. The brilliant colour of this frill, more especially in the male, adds very considerably to the formidable appearance of this lizard. While the body of this lizard is usually of a light brown colour, with more or less distinct darker transverse bars and reticulations, the frill-like membrane has a ground-colour in which orange and chrome-yellow chiefly predominate, and upon which are superimposed splashings and speckles of brilliant scarlet. While the total length of this averages 2 feet, the expanded frill in adult males is not infrequently as much as 8 or g inches in diameter. The peculiar, grotesquely human aspect presented by the frilled lizard when running on its hind legs only will be appreciated on reference to the accompanying photographs. This erect attitude is only assumed when the frilled lizard is traversing more or less considerable distances and moving on level ground. Under . Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. FLYING-DRAGON OF JAVA A lizard with wing-like membranes supported by the abnormally developed ribs. It takes long flights from tree to tree ae a= 4 ES es Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. Phote by WH’, SavilleeKent, F.Z.S. FRILLED LIZARD AT BAY WITH FRILLED LIZARD WITH FRILL EXPANDED FRILL FOLDED UP | | | "Photo by W, Saville-Kent, #.Z.S. i “Photo by UW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. FRILLED LIZARD RUNNING ON ITS HIND FRILLED LIZARD RUNNING ON ITS HIND LEGS (VIEW FROM THE REAR) LEGS (BROADSIDE VIEW) 170 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD other circumstances it progresses on all-fours, after the manner of the ordinary members of its class. Several other lizards belonging to the family group of the Agamas have been demon- strated by the writer to move in the same manner as the frilled species. LESEUR’S WATER-LIZARD, also a Queensland form, which attains to a length of 3 or 4 feet, is a notable example in this connection. As implied by its name, it is semi-aquatic in its habits. It frequents scrubs in the neighbourhood of river-banks and backwaters, and passes a considerable portion of its time in shallow water with only its nostrils elevated above the surface. It is a most expert swimmer, sculling itself with grace and rapidity, aided only by its long, laterally compressed tail. Examples brought to England and kept alive for some years by the writer were observed, in hot weather more particularly, to sleep at nights in their water-tanks. The several instances of bipedal locomotion among living lizards, as here chronicled, are of especial interest in correlation with the circumstance that certain extinct Dinosaurs habitually progressed on their hind limbs only. They, in fact, have left “footprints on the sands of time” which indubitably prove this assumption. There is, however, no relationship between the two groups, and the resemblance is one of pure analogy, just as both bats and birds fly, although they have no kinship. Among other interesting lizards included in the Agama Family, mention may be made of the singular JEW or BEARDED: LizArp of Australia — a flattened, broad-set form, some 14 or 15 inches long, brown in hue, and clothed with rough imbricated scales, but whose chief peculiarity consists of the ex- pansivebeard-like development of the cuticle immediately underneath the animal's chin. As in the frilled lizard, this cuticular ex- crescence is only conspicuous when the creature is excited, at other times being AUSTRALIAN TREE-LIZARD contracted and indistinguishable from an This species also runs on its hind legs ordinary skin-fold. When retiring to rest, these lizards, in their adult state, almost invariably climb up and cling to the rough bark of a convenient tree, and when young and more. slender will also ascend saplings, on which they sleep, clinging by their inter- locked claws. Another member of the Agama Family which invites brief notice is the so-called YORK DEVIL, or MOUNTAIN-DEVIL, of Western and Central Australia. This lizard is of comparatively small size, rarely exceeding 6 or 7 inches in length. Its feeble form and stature, however, are abundantly compensated for by the complex panoply of spines and prickles by which its head and limbs and body are effectually protected. The natural food of this singular lizard consists exclusively of ants, the small black, evil-smelling species which often proves itself a pest by its invasion of the Australian colonists’ houses being its prime favourite, These are picked up one by one by the rapid flash-like protrusion and retraction of the littie creature’s adhesive tongue, and the number of ants which are thus assimilated by a Moloch lizard at a single meal is somewhat astonishing. A number of examples of this species were kept by the writer in Australia, and their gastronomic requirements fully satisfied r 4 bE LIZARDS Los every day by taking them into the garden and placing them in communication with a swarming ant track. By care- ful observation it was found that no less than from 1,000 to 1,500 ants were devoured by each lizard at a single sitting. The ant-devouring | proclivities of these prickly | little lizards can no doubt be turned to very useful and effective account in clearing ant-infested domiciles, and Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. were in fact thus utilised by AUSTRALIAN WATER-LIZARD the writer on more than one This lizard is of aquatic habits, and runs on its hind legs when traversing long distances occasion. The lizards included in the Agama Family are essentially inhabitants of the Eastern Hemisphere, none occurring in America. In the western continent, however, we find an equally extensive but structurally distinct group which presents many singularly corresponding types. This family comprises the true IGUANAS, many of them of considerable size, and a numerous assemblage of smaller forms. Among those species which present a striking parallel in size and aspect to the peculiarly characteristic Old World Agamas, mention may be made of the little so-called HORNED Toab, or SPINY LIZARD, of California. This species might readily be taken by the uninitiated for a near relation of the Australian Moloch Lizard, or Mountain-devil, last described, its flattened diminutive form and bristling spiny armature seemingly justifying such a supposition. The crucial test afforded by the character of the dentition, however, distinctly indicates its true position to be with the Iguanas. In the Agamas the teeth are invariably developed from the apex, or summit, of the jaw. These tecth, po -, moreover, are varied in character. | : ' In the Iguanas, on the other hand, the teeth are all more or less uni- | form in character, and are attached to the outer sides of the jaw. The larger iguanas are, for the most part, exclusively fruit- and vegetable-feeders, and arboreal in their habits. The thick forest scrubs in the vicinity of streams and rivers are their favourite resort. After the manner of the Australian water- lizards, these Iguanas are expert swimmers, and delight in lying along the overhanging branches, whence L Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S, _ beneath. When swimming, the oA Lae Bie ins nasa bs A as a means of propulsion. Sev- _ at the slightest alarm they can pre- | cipitate themselves into the water fore limbs are folded back against the sides, the tail only being used AUSTRALIAN WATER-LIZARD eral of the larger Iguanas, such Showing attitude when running as the common or tuberculated 172 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Photo by W’. Saville Kents FZ, S. BEARDED LIZARD With its beard-like throat-membrane fully expanded [Milford-on-Sea Photo by UW, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] AUSTRALIAN JEW OR BEARDED LIZARDS The scales of the bearded lizard are exceedingly rough and sharp, sometimes cutting the skin of those who handle them incautiously found it in considerable numbers on the shores of the islands which constitute the Galapagos group. The lizards were observed to spend much of their time swimming in the sea, but at novery great distance from the land. Experi- ments proved that they could live for a very considerable interval entirely submerged, examples sunk with weights for as much as an hour emerging entirely unaffected from the ordeal. While the Iguanas may be described as essentially American, one or two exceptional forms are found inhabiting the relatively remote regions of the Fiji Islands and Mada- gascar. The so-called F1jt BANDED IGUANA (photographs of a pair of which, once in the writer’s possession, are reproduced on page 575) is a very beautiful creature. The body is shapely and well proportioned, and terminates in a tail of abnormal length — equal to quite twice that of the body — the entire dimensions measuring some 3 feet. The male is much more bright in hue than the female; for while the latter is usually of a uniform light green throughout, the male is variegated, with broad, alternating bands of brightest species, attain to a considerable length, 5 or 6 feet; their bodies are proportionably thick, and the white flesh, this last-named variety more particularly, is highly esteemed as atable delicacy. The common TUBERCULATED IGUANA is an essentially handsome species, skin being variegated with bands and shadings of brown and green, which lightest and in its are brightest in the males and younger individuals; the neck and snout and jaws are decorated with pro- jecting, rounded tubercles; alarge, baggy, dewlap-like. membrane, capable of inflation at the animal's will, depends from the chin and throat; anda deeply serrated crest of elevated scales extends from behind the head, down the centre of the back, nearly to the extremity of the tail. The Iguana Family includes a species with essentially marine proclivities, this being the GALA- PAGOS SEA-LIZARD. This animal was first discovered to science by the late Mr. Charles Darwin, who Lhoto by HW’, SavitierNent, bin.o. A YOUNG BEARDED LIZARD Showing its habitual sleeping attitude LIZARDS 173 emerald-greenand paleFrenchgrey. Around [ the lips and eyes there are lines of brightest | yellow, and the throat is almost pure white. The small group of GIRDLE-TAILED © LIZARDS belongs exclusively to the African and Madagascan regions, its typical repre- | sentative being the Cape and Orange River Colony species, illustratedon page 575. The symmetrical whorls of long, spinous scales encircling the tail in this and the allied forms constitute a prominent feature, and have originated the popular name of Girdle- tails. The most aberrant representatives of the Lizard Tribe, with regard to one very important characteristic, are undoubtedly the two species of HELODERM, or“ SILATICA,” as they arecalled by the natives. Thesereptiles Qo 0s 7) tion on Ses Li pee ey (page 576) occupy the unenviable position of Pnsia, by. Wo. Saville Kent, PF. Z.8. being the only known lizards which possess AUSTRALIAN YORK OR MOUNTAIN-=DEVIL poisonous properties, their bite having been demonstrated to be fatal to smaller mammals, and to be attended by very serious symptoms in the case of human subjects being bitten. The more common MEXICAN HELODERM has been in residence at the Zoo for many years; it attains to a length of from 18 to 20 inches, and its stout, squat body, short limbs, warty skin, and peculiar colouring are calculated at first sight to awaken a feeling of revulsion in the beholder. Like the wasp, the salamander, and other animals whose conspicuous tints indicate their poisonous or other baneful properties, the heloderm is distinguished by a lurid ground- colour, varying in individuals from yellow-orange to flesh-pink, upon which are superimposed bold, network-like markings of blue-black or dark brown tints. Along the tail these reticu- lations usually take the form of more or less irregular rings. Although the heloderms possess such deadly properties, those at the Zoo manifest a by no means aggressive disposition, and allow their keeper or even strangers to handle them with impunity. In experiments pur- posely made to substantiate or refute the previously current rumours as to the poison- ous nature of these animals, two guinea-pigs succumbed to bites received in the course of the day. The owner of the reptiles, who was also bitten on one occasion through incautiously handling, suffered very severe, though happily not fatal, effects. In con- nection with its poison-dealing properties it is found that it possesses certain long and fang-like teeth, which are set loosely in the eS jaws, and which have grooves before and Phote by W’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. behind for the transmission of the poison, SPINOUS LIZARD, OR MOUNTAIN-DEVIL which is secreted by special glands situated This species feeds exclusively upon ants close to their base. The favourite habitat of 12 Ai spinous lizard which inhabits the arid plains of Central Australia 174 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD P a =~ the heloderm is the arid, sandy, and stony region on the western side of the Cordillera mountain- range. It is at the same time said to be rarely seen in those parts except during the rainy season, and also to be for the most part nocturnal in its habits. The family group of the MONITORS includes the largest of existing lizards, notably the semi-aquatic form common to North Australia and the Malay Peninsula and adjacent islands, which attains a length of 8 or 10 feet, and is not infrequently he - at. i can len aa a Acaeeeete sae IGE PN Hod SE MUNG KCN en 38s mistaken, as it rushes, on being A GROUP OF MOUNTAIN-DEVILS OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA disturbed, through the reeds and The spines of these lizards are so sharp that they will pierce a tender hand : other rank herbage to the water, for a young crocodile. An exceedingly fine and well set-up example of these huge water-monitors, shot by Captain Stanley Flower in the neighbourhood of Singapore, is placed in the Reptile Gallery of the Natural History Museum. Another species, indigenous to the Southern Australian States, and having essentially arboreal habits, commonly attains to a length of 5 or 6 feet. The skin of one example of this species, obtained for the writer from the eucalyptus forests in Gippsland, Victoria, measures no less than 7 feet long. With reference to the elegant lace-like pattern of its skin-markings, this species is frequently associated with the suggestive title of the LACE-LIZARD. Among the more illiterate settlers it is generally known as a Gooana, the name being obviously a corruption of Iguana, and being, as a matter of fact, applied promiscuously, and in all cases incorrectly, to a number of the larger Australian lizards. All the members of the Monitor Tribe are inveterate egg-eaters. An Egyptian species, the NILE MONITOR, renders service to humanity through the gratification of this propensity in seek- ing out and devouring the eggs of the crocodile. The larger water-monitor of the North Australian and Malay regions has been reported to = ae oe See eee the writer to be particularly partial to the eggs of the turtle, digging them out | ay, of the sand in which the parent deposits them, and destroying them wholesale. The more strictly arboreal Southern Australian species preys to a very large extent on birds’ eggs, climbing to the holes in | the trunks and branches in which so | many Australian birds build their nests, | and not infrequently capturing and devouring also the parent birds and young. In the ‘“ bush” settlements this monitor is notorious for its depre- dations among the hen-roosts, both eggs | and young chickens falling victims to Se W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. its insatiable appetite. It is conse- HORNED TOAD quently regarded with but scant favour A spiny lizard, somewhat resembling the Australian mountain-devil LIZARDS 175 by poultry-farmers, who frequently organise a “ gooana” hunt for its special destruction. If surprised out in the open, the quarry at once rushes for a tree, and manifests the most remark- able agility in “swarming” up the smooth, massive trunk, and in dodging round to the side opposite to that on which the sportsman approaches. Not infrequently, trees being remote, the monitor will make for what appears to its apprehension the best substitute for one — vis. the upright figure of the nearest sportsman. Shouid this happen to be a ‘‘new chum” enjoying his maiden essay in “ gooana” hunting, he will undoubtedly experience a new sensation as the animal, with its sharp cat-like claws, unceremoniously scrambles up to his head and shoulders. Brought to bay, a monitor pos- sesses a more formidable weapon than its teeth and claws wherewith to repulse the onslaught of the enemy. The long, tough, thong- like tail — not brittle and replace- able, as in many other lizards — is converted, for the time being, into a veritable stock-whip, where- with it will most severely punish incautious aggressors who venture too near. The potency of this offensive and defensive weapon is fully recognised by the reptile- keepers at the Zoo, who freely admit their reluctance to enter the cage of one of these large, long-tailed, but conversely very short-tempered monitors. All of the monitors, in consonance with their pre-eminently carnivorous habits, are more or less savage and intractable. The several species Photo by HW’, Saville Kent, F.Z.S. which have fallen within the writer's HORNED TOAD cognisance proved no exception to This species is highly prized for its insect-destroying proclivities the rule. An Egyptian example, injudiciously introduced to the select society of his extensive miscellaneous collection in a heated greenhouse, proved to be a veritable wolf in the fold, killing several of the choicest specimens before its vindictive propensities were detected and arrested. A com- paratively small and rare spiny-tailed monitor, brought by the writer, in company with the frilled lizards, to England from North-west Australia, would harass and bite any other lizard placed with it, and resent every friendly overture on the part of its owner, even after so much as a whole twelvemonth’s persistent attempts to tame it. Another, the South Australian monitor, or lace-lizard, was no exception to the rule, and had to be maintained in solitary confinement. This particular specimen, nevertheless, evinced, as the following anecdote will show, a very pronounced affection for its provided quarters. One day it effected its escape from the wire-enclosed cage with which it was accommodated in the writer’s Brisbane garden, and after prolonged but unsuccessful searchings it was given up for lost. Considerable astonishment was naturally experienced some ten days later, when the animal was discovered in the garden making frantic attempts to regain access to its former prison-house. During its ten days’ absence it had evidently fallen upon evil times, for not only was it in a very emaciated condition, but also bereft of its long and handsome tail. Apparently, after the manner of its tribe, it had been manifesting a too warm 176 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Weaee sin 'P, Dando, F.Z.5. TUBERCULATED IGUANA This spectes is esteemed for food by American Indians interest in some neighbour’s hen- roost, and received across its tail a stroke with a spade or other cutting instrument that was intended for a more vital region. Disgusted by such unfriendly treatment, it evidently determined that free board and lodg- ing at the hands of its former owner, albeit with the sacrifice of freedom, was a pleasanter line of life than liberty and a precarious commissariat, with added bodily risks. An almost identical episode of the voluntary return to captivity of an escaped monitor has been reported to the writer of a species from Borneo by Dr. G. D. Haviland. The monitors, as a rule, are not distinguished for brilliancy of colouring, shades and mottlings of brown or black being usually dominant. The male of the Australian lace-lizard, after newly changing its coat, is, however, an exception. In addition to the highly ornate lace-like reticulated pattern of its skin-markings, previously referred to, the throat of the animal is resplendent with mingled tints of sky-blue and lemon-yellow. It is necessary, however, to observe that its natural surroundings and the ardent rays of a sub-tropical sun are requisite to bring these brighter tints to their full development. Examples kept in close confinement in the London Zoological Gardens yield little or no indication of their colour potentialities. While the Monitor Family is not represented on the American Continent, we find there another group of lizards whose members are of considerable size, and agree in their Photo by E. C, Atkinson SMALL VIVIPAROUS LIZARD Occurs on heaths and commons in the South of England carnivorous propensities and general habits in a marked manner with the Monitors. These are the “GREAVED” LIZARDS, named with reference to the peculiar skin-folding on their legs. One of the largest and most familiarly known representatives of this group is the TEGUEXIN, or DIAMOND-LIZARD, indigenous to the greater portion of tropical South America, and also to the West Indies. This lizard attains to a total length of a yard or more, Photo by H. G. F, Spurrell, Esq. WALL-LIZARD This spectes ts particularly abundant tn Italy [ Eastbourne and is of a robust and thick-set build, with the hind limbs much longer and stouter than the front ones. The colour of the teguexin is also notable, the ground-tint being olive or tawny yellow, upon which are superimposed black bands and markings which for the most part take a transverse direction. Like the Monitors, the tuguexin in captivity exhibits a sulky and aggressive disposition, LIZARDS Ce F.Z.S. BANDED IGUANAS > A rare species from the Fiji Islands. Male to the right; female without bands to the left. The example crouching between them is a bearded lizard and cannot be safely kept in company with other less powerful species. The attribute of bipedal locomotion is possessed by the teguexin. That this singular method of progression was an accomplishment possessed by one of the larger tropical American lizards was first reported to the writer from Trinidad. Some species of iguana was, in the first instance, anticipated to be the acrobatic performer. Several ex- amples of this family group were accordingly put through their paces at the Zoo, to ascertain if they could lay claim to the distinction. None of the iguanas available, however, rose (on their hind legs) to the occasion, and it was only on experimenting, as a deruiére ressource, with the teguexin that a successful demonstration was accomplished. This lizard was found, in fact, to run bipedally more freely and persistently, when sufficient space was allotted it, than the Agamas. It seems singular that this bipedal power of locomotion should have so long remained undiscovered, and yet is possessed by lizards which have for a Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. SOUTH AFRICAN GIRDLED LIZARD Remarkable for the spiny armature, which is arranged in concentric girdles number of years been the denizens of many zoological gardens and other menageries. The fact that a comparatively large level area is a sine gua non for the exhibition of this phenomenon affords no doubt the explanation of this anomaly; but the anomaly itself at the same time serves to accentuate the desirability, in the interests of both science and the animals’ comfort, that exists for providing them in cap- tivity with a more liberal and reasonably sufficient space for their indulgence in those methods of locomotion that are natural to them in their native land. The Greaved Lizard Family includes some- what over one hundred species. While the majority agree with the teguexin in the pos- session of well-developed limbs, there are a few 178 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD retrograde forms in which the hinder limbs are entirely absent or the front ones reduced to mere stumps. These exceptional instances pave the way to the family of the Amphisbzenas, in which such or a still lower phase of limb development represents the normal condition. The Amphisbzenas are remarkable for their worm-like re- semblance, and for the circumstances that they live like earth-worms in bur- rows, that their eyes are functionless (being concealed beneath the skin), and that they are without ears. Other details of structure indicate a most rudimentary condition of develop- ment, and they consequently rank as the lowest group in the Lizard series. Another peculiarity of the Amphisbaenas is that, in place of scales, the skin of the body is divided into square segments, which form symmetrical rings like those of worms. In addition to this, these retrograde lizards possess the worm-like faculty of being able to move backwards and forwards in their burrows with equal facility. It is from this peculiar property that their title of Amphisbzna, signifying ‘‘ moving both ways,” is derived. The representatives of this family, including between sixty and seventy species, are widely distributed, being found in America, the West Indies, Africa, and also European countries that border the Mediterranean While the Teguexins present resemblances in one direction with the Amphisbenas, or Worm-like Lizards, the higher or Monitor-like forms have much in common with the Typical or True Lizards, of which two small but well-known species — the SAND- and VIVIPAROUS LIZARD — are indigenous to the British Isles. All the members of the True Lizards, num- bering some hundred species, are inhabitants of the Old World, becoming scarce, however, towards the far east of the Asiatic Continent. All possess shapely bodies and well-developed limbs with five-toed feet, and are remarkable for the extreme activity of their movements, and in many cases brilliant colouring. The varying individual shades of the GREEN LizArb’s brilliant emerald body are almost infinite, no two being quite precisely alike in this respect. In some a yellower, in others a bluer green predominates, while the females and young are more or less mottled or striped with brown. The under surface of the body is usually a more or less bright yellow, and the throat, in the males more particularly, at the breeding-season is frequently brilliant blue. The more conspicuous colour differences exhibited by this lizard are, however, intimately associated with the local habitat of the particular Figs ty Sielenee PER race. Those indigenous to Spain and Portugal, for example, are more or less ornamented with ocellated spots This and other allied species appear to be dead as they lie basking in the sun Piva by W. ‘Dandies F.Z. S. ARIZONA HELODERM (POISONOUS LIZARD) In the warted texture of its skin-surface the heloderm differs conspicuously from other lizards WHITE MONITOR LIZARDS 179 along the sides of the head and body, ] while those peculiar to Eastern Europe and Asia Minor are, in the young con- dition more particularly, marked with longitudinal streaks, but their throat is never blue. The green lizard is one of the most beautiful of its tribe, and, although not indigenous to Great Britain, iscom- | mon in the Channel Islands. In Jersey, | more especially during the summer months, it is one of the most familiar of the ‘common objects of the country,” as it darts in and out of the hedge- J rows after flies and other insects, or Hace tn the GHohe-aunshi “SBhate bp cH Ge Re Surrey BiG eartboueny® asks in the bright sunshine on some GREEN LIZARD stone wall, with its emerald-green body The tail of the green lizard is brittle, and breaks off in the hand if the flattened out in order to absorb the animal is held up by it. A new tail grows from the fractured joint in course greatest possible amount of heat. As ae the colder autumn days advance this lizard is rarely visible, and it finally retires into some rocky cleft or burrow in the hedge-bank, and is no more seen until the return of spring. Geen lizards, liberated in suitably mild spots in the South of England, have been known to thrive for brief periods, but succumb to the cold of an extra-severe winter. The largest representatives of the green lizard are those inhabiting Eastern Europe and Asia Minor, where in size and colour they almost imperceptibly merge into the PEARLY or OCELLATED LIZARD. This very handsome species, which, in company with examples of the green lizard, is frequently imported by London dealers, ranges from 16 inches to close upon 2 feet in length. In form it is stouter and more robust than atypical green lizard, the head in the old males more particularly being exceptionally massive. Whatever may be lacking in grace of form is, however, fully compensated for by brilliancy of colouring, no other lizard, in fact, out- rivalling it in this respect. To the brilliant shagreen- patterned emerald-green hues of the Jersey species it has superadded along its sides eye-like spots of brilliant tur- quoise or ultra-marine, with dark brown or black encir- cling lines. In the males the green ground-colour has a more distinctly golden hue, while in the young indi- viduals the body is more usually olive-colour, dotted throughout with whitish or wane =o pearly-blue, black-edged Sees spots. This beautiful lizard OCELLATED LIZARDS AT HOME is unfortunately somewhat The most brilliantly coloured of living lizards. The body is bright emerald-green, decorated irascible in temper, and will on the sides with azure-blue spots not as a rule allow itself to me) i Photo by W’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] 180 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD be handled as freely as the majority of the members of its tribe; when biting, moreover, it has a tendency to fasten itself upon the object seized with bulldog-like tenacity, a grip from a powerful-jawed old male being a somewhat unpleasant experience. In addition to insects the ocellated lizard will prey upon any other small animals it can overpower, including the members of its own species; it is consequently not safe to entrust it in the company of other lizards of less size and strength. - The Skink Family, which next invites attention, contains no less than 400 known species, and, climatic conditions being favourable, enjoys an almost cosmopolitan distribution. The majority of its members have stoutish cylindrical bodies, with relatively short limbs and tail; the legs are sometimes reduced to two only, or altogether aborted, giving the animal a snake- like form. The ComMMON or “ MEDICINAL” SKINK — 50 called since it was regarded in the Middle Ages as an infallible medicinal nostrum—is an inhabitant of North Africa, and notable for its adaptation to a sand-burrowing existence. The body is short, cylindrical, exceedingly smooth through the close apposition of the minute surface-scales, and sharply conical at each extremity. The well-developed toes of all four feet are flattened and serrated at their edges in such a manner that they constitute most effective burrowing-tools in the loose sand these lizards frequent. The length of this skink rarely exceeds 3 or 4 inches. Its colour is rather TRE TERRI STEN 4 exceptional for a lizard, but at the same time in keep- bh Ge ing with its predominating subterranean habits. The ground-tint in the living examples in the writer's posses- sion, one of which is photographed on page 579, was a light yellowish-white, like that of old polished ivory, with here and there a pale flesh-pink tinge. On the under-surface this light tint was persistent, while the back was traversed by some twelve broadish bands of pale slate-grey. The skink does not, like the mole and the Amphisbenas, obtain its food from subterranean ~~ sources. It comes out to bask on the surface of the sand when the sun is at its height, and keeps a brisk look-out for flies or | other insects, which, if they approach suff- | ciently near, are pounced upon with remark- able agility. Should the sky become overcast or any cause for alarm manifest itself, the skink disappears beneath the sand as though by magic, not infrequently burrowing down to a depth of several feet. Even at the present day the skink is esteemed by the Arabs both for medicine and food, and in the latter associa- tion, well broiled, has won the commendation of European palates. One of the most bizarre members of the Skink Family hails from Australia, where it is known as the STUMP-TAILED LIZARD. The most remarkable feature in this form is the shortness and roundness of the caudal appen- CE ETL dage, the contour and proportions of which, Phote by W Saville-Kent, F.2.5. in fact, so nearly correspond with those of the RONTGEN RAY PHOTOGRAPH OF head that it was originally described by its OCELLATED LIZARD a « Cantain Willi D sea The remarkable length and slenderness of the bones of the hind feet are ISCOVEREL 2c talt Ue inet A even eaeh »just OVEL well illustrated by this photograph three centuries ago,as a double-headed animal. LIZARDS 181 scription: ‘The land animalswe a sort of guanos of the same but differing from them in three had a larger and uglier head, To quote his own quaint de- saw here [Sharks’ Bay ] included shape and size withother guanos, remarkable particulars, for these and had no tail, and at the they had a stump of a tail which not really, such being without seemed by this means to have A specimen of the stump-— at the Regent’s Park Gardens, tunity for its comparison in the rump, instead of a tail there, appeared like another head, but mouth or eyes; yet this creature a head at each end.” tailed lizard is usually on view and will afford visitors an oppor- flesh with Dampier's description. tail will measure as much as Fine specimens of the stump- 10 inches in length, and are Photo by U7, Saville. Kent, F.Z.S., thick in proportion, the legs, Milford-on-Sea weak. The surface of the back is covered with large, over- lain a wicca giehy lapping scales, that, in conjunc- Lives and burrows in the sand, coming tion with its customarily dark pit auien the aunssianes brown or blackish hue, convey to it a marked resemblance to a long, imbricated fir-cone. On the under-surface the scales are in comparison very small; the colouring in this region is also usually light grey or yellow, variegated with darker reticulations. Stump-tails make most good-natured and grotesque household pets. Of two examples which were for some years in the writer's possession a characteristic photograph is reproduced below. When basking in the sun, the tail often becomes distended to enormous proportions. The internal substance of this abnormally dilated organ consists chiefly of fatty tissue, and it seems probable that it fulfils the rdéle of a reservoir for the storage of nutrient and heating materials, to be drawn upon during hibernation. The winter months in the southern districts of Western Australia are cold, and this lizard, in common with other local species, retires during that season into the sheltering recess of a hollow tree-stump or rock-crevice until the sun is again in the ascendant. The stump-tail is practically omnivorous in its habits. In captivity fruit, and more especially bananas, constitute a favourite diet, but it will also greedily devour worms, beetles, and garden-snails, and may consequently be turned to good account as a destroyer of garden-pests. Of other Australian members of the Skink Family, the GREAT CYCLObuUS, or BLUE-TONGUED LIZARD, may be mentioned. This species, which is about 18 inches long, presents no abnormal development of head or tail, asin the form last described. The body is smooth and sub-cylindrical, and with its closely set scales resembles that of a snake. The dominant colour is a soft steel or silvery grey, variegated with darker or lighter cross-bands and reticulations that are most strongly marked on the sides; the under-surface, by way of contrast, is most usually pale however, being very small and Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F Z.5.] [Milford-on-Sea AUSTRALIAN STUMP-TAILED LIZARDS Two of the author’s household pets 182 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD salmon-pink. The tongue of this lizard, which gives to it , its popular title, is somewhat remarkable. It is large and a flat, and of a bright blue tint, resembling nothing so much as a piece of blue flannel. The animal, as it moves about, is in the habit of constantly protruding and retracting its tongue, which consequently constitutes a very conspicuous , object. In common with the ' majority of its allies, the blue- _ tongued lizard is viviparous; ‘ye, 2 but while the stump-tail only [Milford-on-Sea produces one at a time, which OS oe a ah he A, a a ee NA Phote by HW. Saville-Kent, P.Z.8. BLUE_TONGUED LIZARDS is nearly half as large as the A female with her family of twelve parent, the present form gives birth to as many as ten or twelve. An example in the writer's possession on one occasion presented him with a litter embracing the larger number, and afforded the material for the photograph here reproduced. As a contrast to the two preceding forms, the SPINE-TAILED LIZARDS, with their short, flat, spiky tails, may be cited as a conclusion to this notice of the Skink Family. There are nine known members of the same genus, all inhabitants of Australia. The lower of the two forms here figured is especially abundant on one island of the Abrolhos group, off the Western Australian coast. This example is represented at about two-thirds of its natural size. It is an interesting fact that an allied but considerably larger species monopolises a neighbouring island of the same group, the two species not intermingling: probably the larger one would prey on the smaller. The largest member of the genus, known as CUNNINGHAM’S SPINE-TAIL, of a uniform black hue, peppered white, is not infrequently brought to Europe, and two examples which were for some years in the writer’s possession bred regularly, producing eight or ten young at a time for several consecutive years. The fact that these lizards , enjoyed full liberty in a heated greenhouse, with a temperature and surrounding conditions closely identical with those to which they were naturally accustomed,no doubt contributed extensively to their fertility. With this group we are | compelled by lack of space to close our account of the true lizards, but the reader must understand that only a ject : ; very few out of an enormous Phate by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] ; Baty ats : F208. tlford-on-Sea number have been mentioned SPINE-TAILED LIZARDS, WESTERN AUSTRALIA at all. These lizards are essentially vegetarian in thetr habits CHAPTER Ly CHAMELEONS TUATERA CHAM.ELEONS HE CHAM-ELEONS differ in so many important structural points from the ordinary lizards that they are usually regarded now by scientists as a distinct reptilian sub-order. The essential characters, externally recognisable, that serve to distinguish the chame- leons are: — Firstly, the extraordinary develop- ment of their worm-like extensile tongue, the tip of it club-shaped and highly viscous, and the shaft cylindrical and as elastic in texture as india- rubber. Adapted for the special object of catch- ing flies, this organ can be projected from the mouth to a distance of 6 or 8 inches or more with lightning-like rapidity, and rarely misses its quarry. Comparing small things with great, the chameleon’s tongue and its action might be ' likened to a schoolboy’s popgun, having its pellet Photo by W’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] ( Milford-on-Sea secured to the barrel by a long clastic ligament. CHAMZELEONS ASLEEP Presuming further that the pellet is covered : aaa i i F The tail of the sleeping chamaleon is frequently coiled spirally like with a viscid secretion such as bird-lime, and the proboscts of a butterfly e that the object shot at is hit and brought back to the shooter’s pocket by virtue of the liga- ment’s intrinsic elasticity, we have an almost veritable replica of the chamezleon’s fly-catching apparatus. The second remarkable structural peculiarity of the chameleon is the independent relationship of the two eyes. The eyes them- selves are unlike those of any other lizards; they are large, prominent,skin-covered cones, perforated only at their extreme apex for the minute pupil- opening: while one eye may be fixed on an object in front of it, the other may be rolling around in search of a second quarry. This independent capacity of vision, while peculiar among reptiles to the chameleon, is common to many fishes, such as blennies and flat-fishes. A third anomaly in the chameleon’s structure is the character of the feet; these resemble those of a parrot, the toes being bound together in two opposable bundles. In the fore foot the "0% > SevilleXent, 22.5.) [Milford-on-Sea inner bundle contains three and the outer one A CHAMELEON IN A RAGE two toes only, while in the hind foot the order Puffing and hissing at an approaching intruder 183 184 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD of their amalgamation is precisely reversed. In either case these feet subserve, as in parrots and other perching-birds, as most effective organs for maintaining a close grip upon the tree- branches among which they habitually live. The tail of the chameleon is, finally, highly prehensile, and, as with the New World monkeys, constitutes a veritable fifth hand, wherewith to ensure it against falling off its perch. The colour-changing properties of the chameleon have been the subject of enthusiastic but in many instances exaggerated descriptions from the earliest times. As a matter of fact there are other lizard species which share this kaleidoscopic property to an equal or even greater degree. The Indian tree-geckos, referred to on a previous page, as also the calotes from the same region, are cases in point. Chamzleons are undoubtedly possessed of marvellous colour-changing faculties, and it would appear to be scarcely in all instances, as is more usually represented, a case of adapting themselves to the tints of their environment. The assumption of leaf-green, grey, brown, reddish, or yellowish tints, in accordance with their surroundings, is the ordinary record. Some examples which formed the subjects of the writer's experiments exhibited, however, interesting deviations from the beaten track. Male individuals, in particular, were observed to assume tints and decorative patterns that rendered them remarkably conspicuous objects, in spite of their leafy environment. The normal ground- colour of these specimens in full daylight was so dark a green that it might be almost characterised as black. Upon this were superimposed lines and spottings of strongly con- trasting tints The more dominant of these was a bril- liant orange, that was distri- buted in bold lines along the head and cheeks, and formed a radiating pattern on the skin-covered eye-cones. The same colour formed some- Photo by HW’, Savi'le-Kent, F.Z.8. what broken-up bars across. COMMON CHAMELEON OF SOUTH EUROPE AND : : a aale all mbs, a ] - Sai ete four limbs, and was dis Al minute or more 1s often occupied by the chama@.eon in making a single forward step persed in bold spots over the entire remaining body-sur- face: along the tail these spots were concentrated in threes, giving it a semi-barred appearance. All among these orange limb- and body-spottings were distributed a secondary series of somewhat smaller spots, the tint of which was a pale but very brilliant emerald-green. This chameleon asleep at night was a very different animal. The ground-colour was transformed. from almost black to a bright grass-green. The orange lines became lighter in colour and broken up into patches; many of the orange spots on the body disappeared, but those remaining were of larger size and concentrated in threes in two lines along each side, these triple spots enclosing centrally a larger elongated spot or patch of bright pink or puce. The bright emerald green secondary spots, as seen in daylight, were almost white. If handled during the daytime, the chameleon was wont to assume a colour nearly identical with his night garb; the two lines of pink patches, previously invisible, would appear, and, while the orange spotting remained constant, the emerald-green changed to lemon-yellow. A chameleon in a rage is a decidedly grotesque object. The back is arched, the body and more especially the throat-pouch are inflated to their fullest extent, the mouth is opened, the eyes roll, and the creature rocks itself to and fro and hisses in a most threatening manner, When, as often happens, it also simultaneously sits up on its haunches, the effect is doubtiess. as terrifying as it is intended to be to a rival chameleon or any small anima! which may boy eS Photo by W’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] ([Milford-on-Se A CHAMELEON SHOOTING OUT ITS TONGUE TO CAPTURE A FLY The tongue is capable of extension to a length of no less than 7 or 8 inches Photo by C. M. Martin] [Beckenham A PHOTOGRAPH OF A CHAMZELEON IN THE ACT OF CATCHING A BUTTERFLY The inflated extremity of the tongue is highly glutinous 185 186 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD venture to approach it. A number of other lizards, including tree-climbing varieties, were introduced to the company of the examples under observation, and until friendly acquaintance- ship had been established their advances towards the chameleons were always repelled. The majority of the chameleons lay eggs, but asmaller number produce living young, as with skinks and other lizards. Examples of the common European and North African species kept by the writer excavated holes in the earth, in which they laid their eggs, and then carefully covered them up again. Unfortunately these eggs were not fertilised. One South African species has been reported to the writer as being in the habit of placing and separately wrapping and fastening up each egg as deposited in the leaves of the tree in which it resided. While Africa and Madagascar represent the head centres of distribution of the fifty odd known species BRC ie SeuINeE eaten 25) [Milford-on-Sea of chameleons, they enter Europe through THE TUATERA OF NEW ZEALAND the Spanish Peninsula, and extend east- ward to Arabia, India, and Ceylon. The Belongs to an ancient reptile race of which it is the only living : 3 5 ’ survivor largest known variety, which inhabits Mada- gascar, attains a length of 15 inches; the smallest pygmy chameleon of the Cape scarcely measures 2! inches. THE TUATERA That singular reptile found on certain small islands lying to the north-east of New Zealand, and known as the TUATERA, differs in so many structural characters from all other lizards that it is assigned to a separate order. Externally the tuatera does not differ materially in form from an ordinary lizard. The skin, however, is peculiar for its leathery, granulated, and wrinkled texture; there is no trace of external ears; the eyes, adapted for nocturnal vision, have in daylight vertical pupils; and the bases of the toes are united by connecting webs. The deeper internal characteristics include the possession of supplementary so-called abdominal ribs, the presence of which are readily ap- prehended on handling the living animal. These structures, while absent in ordinary lizards, find their near equivalent in the breastplate of tortoises and turtles. The teeth are not implanted in distinct sockets, but attached to the summits of the jaws, which are developed in a beak-like manner, and in older individuals fulfil, after the manner of a beak, the functions of the worn- out incisor teeth. Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [ Milford-on-Sea ras aw a aX adinc c Tuateras have been exceedingly scarce A TAME TUATERA of recent years, and in view of their scientific 5 , ; a z Is a great acquisition for a greenhouse, feeding on slugs, beetles, and interest, and the risk of their possible ex- all noxtous insects tinction, are now protected by the New Zealand Government. Among the multitudinous gifts of which their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales were recipients during their recently accomplished world-embracing tour, a pair of living tuatera lizards formed one of the most singular and highly prized contributions accepted from the loyal New Zeaiancers. Photo by H. G. F, Spurrell, Esq.] [ Eastbourne DARK GREEN SNAKE Al native of Italy and other countries bordering the Mediterranean, Accredited with a particularly fierce disposition CHAPTER ¥V SNAKES HE characteristic contour of a snake’s body is too familiar to need elaborate description ; its leading features are, in fact, so nearly approximated by certain of the legless lizards, previously described, that the distinctions between the two can with difficulty be defined. Many of the snake-like lizards, including the Common Blind-worm, are altogether devoid of external limbs. In some snakes, on the other hand, and notably the large terrestrial Pythons, a spur-like development on each side of the base of the tail represents rudimentary hind legs. The Snakes agree essentially with the Lizards in the character of their scaly covering, the scales, however, being larger on their under-surface and specially adapted, as in the legless lizards, for creeping locomotion. The essential distinctions between the two groups have to be sought in the structure of the head. The most notable of these, as it obtains in the Snakes, is the very loose manner in which all the bones connected with the jaws are held together, thus providing for the greatest possible distension in the act of their swallowing their prey whole, as is the custom of all ordinary snakes. To achieve this end, the two halves of the lower jaw are not united together at their extremity or chin, as in lizards, but are merely connected with one another by an elastic ligament. In most snakes the bones of the upper jaw and palate are also attached to one another in a similar way. The eyes of a snake differ in a very marked manner from those of ordinary lizards. No snake possesses movable eyelids. The eye, in compensation, is protected by a transparent horny disk, continuous with the general epidermis, and is shed with it when the snake casts its skin. This feature imparts to snakes that fixed, stony expression of the eyes which undoubtedly contributes very materially towards increasing the feeling of repulsion with which snakes are commonly regarded. . Co. numbers in the eastern Tasmanian coast district, ORNAMENTED HORNED TOAD emits a loud percussive note closely resembling Pd Bia of Giese Hedy shee that of a stone-breaker’s hammer. On several occasions, in fact, when driving through the areas these frogs frequented, the impression produced by their croaking was so realistic that the next turn in the road was expected to reveal the presence of a large gang of road-makers engaged in negotiating a wayside stone-heap. One of the most remarkable species is the FLYING-FROG of Java. The power of flight is simulated in this instance on a different principle to that which obtains in any other group. It is not accomplished through the medium of abnormally produced ribs with connecting membrane, as occurs in the Flying-lizards; nor by means of a flap of skin stretched between the fore and hind limbs, as in the Flying-squirrels and Phalangers. In place of these the toes of all four feet are abnormally prolonged, and their interspaces bridged over to their tips by webbing. The body of this frog is about 4 inches long, while the webs of the feet, when fully expanded, cover collectively an area of fully 12 square inches; they thus constitute aerial floats, which enable their owner to make prodigiouslv long flying leaps among the trees in which it takes up its abode. The colours of this singular species are striking; the back and limbs are a deep shining green, the under-surface and inner toes yellow, and the webs black rayed with yellow. In common with the typical Tree-frogs, the toes of this Javan flying variety all terminate in a dilated adhesive disk. Among the oddities of the Frog Tribe prominence may be given to the singular SHORT- HEADED FROGS of East Africa. In these the head is so short, and the body, when puffed out, so \ Le TT ; nearly globular, that they have been aptly I iniaciamiaitsiei en described as more nearly resembling india-rubber gas Ssonr apn ip ln balls than frogs. Another notable form, inhabiting ORNAMENTED HORNED TOAD Chili, is remarkable for the circumstance that Is accustomed to prowl round farmyards to pick up stray chicks the throat-sac of the male is so enlarged and and ducklings modified as to form a chamber on the under Pee Hee 204 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD surface of the body. In this sac the eggs laid by the female are deposited and pass through their tadpole phases. The HorNED FROGS, or HORNED TOADS, of South America constitute a distinct and interesting group. They are of large size, stout and rotund, gorgeously apparelled, and truculent in bearing. There are nearly a dozen known species, the distinctive feature from which they take their name having reference to the stiff, horn-like development of their upper eyelids. The largest species is a native of Brazil, whose body may be as much as 8 inches long. This species has the horn-like processes of the eyelids most prominently developed. A somewhat smaller but conspicuously handsome species, plentiful in the Argentine Republic, is at the present time represented by several individuals at the Regent's Park Gardens. In this animal the body is relatively more obese and toad-like than in the Brazilian form, but the horn-like angle of the upper eyelid is only slightly produced. The colours vary somewhat, the general ground-tint of the upper-surface is bronze-green or yellow, upon which are distributed large spots and blotches of dark olive or chocolate, having light yellow or golden margins. The spots on the limbs are the widest, and almost take the character of cross-bands. Bright claret-red lines are some- times developed in and among the body-spots. A very interesting account of the habits of this frog appears in Mr. W. H. Hudson's “The Naturalist in La Plata.” Mr. Hudson reports it as being common on the pampas as far south as the Rio Colorado, in Patagonia. In the breeding-season it congregates in pools, and displays extraordinary vocal powers, which are exercised at night. The notes uttered are Jong, resembling those of a wind instru- ment, and are so powerful that on still evenings they may be heard distinctly a mile off. After the pairing-season the frogs disperse, and, retiring to moist places, bury themselves just deep enough to leave their broad green backs on a level with the surface. The eyes, under these conditions, look out as from a couple of watch-towers, and are on the guz vive for EUROPEAN GREEN TREE-FROG any approaching prey. This consists of any [Parson's Green Indigenous to Southern Europe moving creature which they can capture, such as other frogs and toads, birds, and small mammals. In very wet seasons they will frequent the neighbourhood of houses, and lie in wait for chickens and ducklings, often capturing and attempting to swallow objects much too large for them. In disposition they are exceedingly pugnacious, savagely biting at anything that comes near them. When teased, the creature swells itself out to such an extent that one expects to see it burst. It follows its tormentors about with slow, awkward leaps, its vast mouth wide open, and uttering an incessant harsh croaking sound. When they bite, these frogs hold on with the tenacity of a bull-dog, poisoning the blood of the creature seized with their glandular secretion. Mr. Hudson records two instances in which to his knowledge horses were killed through being bitten by a horned frog. One of them, while lying down, had been seized by a fold in the skin near the belly; the other had been grasped by the nose while cropping grass. In both instances the vicious frog was found dead, with jaws tightly closed, still hanging to the dead horse. “It would seem,” Mr. Hudson remarks, “that they are sometimes incapable of letting go at will, and, like honey-bees, destroy themselves in these savage attacks.” FROGS AND TOADS The TREE-FROGS represent one of the most distinct groups of the tribe. All its members are more or less arboreal in their habits, repairing to the water only during the breeding-season, or leaving the trees to seek shelter in the earth or underneath stones or timber for the purposes of hibernation. As an adaptation for their special habits, the toes of the tree-frogs are provided at their tips with suctorial disks, so that they can walk on perpendicular or smoothly glazed surfaces after the manner of the Geckos among the Lizards. Another characteristic feature is the development on the under surface of their bodies of peculiar granular glands pierced by numerous pores, through the medium of which they rapidly absorb the moisture deposited by dew or rain on the surfaces of the leaves among which they live. The colours of the tree-frogs harmonise, as arule, so com- pletely with those of their leafy environments that their ‘presence very readily escapes detection. Many of the species, moreover, rival the chameleon in their capacity of quickly adapting their tints to that of a newly occu- pied surrounding. Green is naturally the dominant ground-tint of these frogs. Often, however, it is inter- mixed with stripes and bands of other colours, while sometimes the green hue is entirely replaced, as in the BLUE or BICOLOURED TREE-FROG of South America, which is brilliant azure above and pure white beneath. A very beautiful Australian species, abundant in Tasmania and Victoria, and appropriately named the GOLDEN TREE- FROG, has its grass-green overcoat thickly overlaid and embroidered with, as it were, the purest beaten gold. One small species of tree-frog is common on the European Continent, its distribution extending to North Africa and eastward throughout Asia north of the Himalaya to Japan. Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S., Milford-cn-Sea QUEENSLAND TREE-FROGS This species is in the habit of making itself ut home in chamber water-jugs The species is imported into England in considerable numbers, and readily becomes acclimatised in a conserva- hots by HG, Fe Spurrell, Eg] COMMON TOAD Toads are accredited with attaining an age of several hundred years 14 [ Eastbourne tory. Green above and whitish beneath constitute the prevailing tints of this species, such uni- formity being, however, varied by the presence of a darker, often nearly black, light-edged streak, that extends fromthe snout through the eye and ear along each side of the body, and sends a branch upwards and forwards on the loins. The male of this European species shares with many others of its tribe the possession of a large external vocal sac, which when inflated bulges out from the throat in a spherical form to dimen- sions little inferior to those of the creature’s body. It may be 206 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD observed of examples of these frogs acclimatised in a conservatory that the falling of heavy rain on the roof is an almost certain incentive to their croakings. By pouring water resonantly from a little height into another vessel, the writer also found that he could produce a frog chorus at command. The European and other tree-frogs deposit their eggs in the water, some species constructing asymmetrical crater-like nest of mud for the reception of the eggs and tadpoles. Certain kinds, however, never leave the trees, having adapted their requirements to the naturally provided environments. Thus one Brazilian species deposits its eggs in the water almost invariably contained in the central cup of a tree, while another allied frog chooses for the same purpose the moist interstices at the bases of decaying banana leaves. A step further, resulting in complete independence of external water, is arrived at by the MARSUPIAL or POUCHED TREE- FROG of Central America. In this species the female develops a capacious pouch on her back, which opens backward, and wherein both the eggs — primarily assisted to their position by the : . male — and tadpoles undergo their | characteristic transformations. | As a contrast to the foregoing exclusively tree-dwelling forms, one very fine species common in Queens- land has pronounced social proclivities. He is a fine fellow, with a bright pea-green coat and large, lustrous black eyes, and either with or without your leave invades your bedroom from the adjoining verandah, and makes the lip of your water-jug his headquarters. Here he will “lie low” the livelong day. With the approach of night, however, this lethargy is thrown aside, and he hops forth, making excursions through every room in search of black- beetles, spiders, moths, or other accept- able quarry. In this vermin-destroying ba : ; og g capacity he is a welcome guest to Photo by Scholastic Photo. Co.) [Parsen’s Green all except perhaps the ultra-squeamish COMMON TOAD housekeeper, his occasional offence of The toad is highly appreciated by the horticulturist on account of tts utility in all. MBSE glass or cup during his destroying insect~pests excited chase of the wily cockroach being readily condoned. He has a playful habit too, during his midnight wanderings, of climbing up walls and ceilings, to which he readily clings with his adhesive toes, and mayhap drops down on the recumbent form of some peaceful sleeper, who, if a stranger, possibly wakes with an alarming apprehension of snakes or other uncanny intruders. When once this QUEENSLAND GREEN FROG has determined upon his camping-ground, he clings to it with remarkable pertinacity. You may deport him time after time, and even carry him half a day’s journey into the wilderness, but he turns up again the next morning or the following one. Toads are distinguished from frogs by their sluggish creeping movements and by their non-possession of teeth. There are over eighty species, having collectively an almost cosmopolitan range, though they are not found in Australia, New Guinea, Madagascar, or the Pacific Islands. The common British species enjoys a wide distribution, being found throughout Europe, Asia excepting India, and North-west Africa. Its somewhat clumsy, brown, wrinkled, and warted body, with darker spots and markings on the upper-surface and white- speckled under-surface, will be familiar to every reader. With many it is an unwarranted PROGS AND “TOADS 207 object of aversion, and in country districts is not infrequently accredited with venomous properties. Toad-spawn is plentiful in ponds and ditches in the early spring, and may be distinguished from that of the frog by the fact of its being deposited in chain-like strings, the eggs being arranged in a double alternating row, instead of in irregular masses, as obtains with the last-named species. The individual eggs are, moreover, smaller, and deposited two or three weeks later in the season than those of the frog. A second and somewhat rarer British toad is known as the NATTERJACK. It may be distinguished from the ordinary species by the shorter hind limbs, the more prominent eyes, and the con- spicuous yellow line down the middle of its back. It is also somewhat more active than the common species. The last member of the group which demands brief notice is the singular WATER-TOAD of Surinam. This animal, also known as the Pipa, is an inhabitant of the moist forest regions of the Guianas and Central America, and remarkable on account of the singular phenomena connected with its breeding habits. The eggs, from 60 to over 100 in number, are deposited by the female in the water in the ordinary manner, but at this stage they are taken in hand by the male and literally planted in the back of the female, whose skin in this region becomes abnormally soft and thickened at this season. The young toads undergo their complete development in the parental integument, each egg and its resulting embryo occupying a separate primarily cylindrical chamber, which by lateral pressure becomes hexagonal, resembling a honeycomb-cell. Eighty-two days are occupied from the time of the deposition of the eggs until the young toads emerge into the outer world, their appearance as they make their début, with here a head and there one or it may be two limbs thrust out from the surface of the parent’s back, being highly grotesque. CHAP EI Wit NEWTS AND SALAMANDERS HE Newts and Salamanders, or Tailed Amphibians, are distinguished from the preceding group of the Frogs and Toads by the retention of a tail throughout life. In this manner they very nearly resemble the advanced larval or tadpole phases of the latter. In some instances, in fact, the earlier or externally gill-bearing tadpole phase is persistent. The geographical distribution of the Salamander Tribe is much less extensive than that of the Frogs and Toads, but few are found south ofthe Equator, and they are entirely unknown in Australia or in Africa south of the Sahara. Two members of the group are indigenous to the British Islands, where they are familiarly known as NEwtTs, ASKERS, EFFETS, orErtTs. Thelargerandhandsomer of the two, the CRESTED NEWT, occurs in ponds and_ ditches throughout the warmer months of Phatidj GamesBi ere, Bian, the year. It grows to a length of WARTED OR CRESTED NEWT nearly 6 inches, of which the tail y : y This harmless little creature is accredited by many country pecple with wenomous constitutes about one moiety. Its properties : 208 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD colour is more usually blackish or olive-brown with darker circular spots above, and yellow or orange-red with black spots or marbling beneath, while the sides are speckled white. In the breeding-season the colours are more especially brilliant, and it is at this time that the male develops the serrated crest along the middle of its back, from which it takes its title. The eggs, or spawn, of the newt are deposited in a different fashion to those of the frog and toad. In place of being aggregated together in an irregular or ribbon-like mass, each is deposited separately and attached to the leaves of water-plants. By the dexterous use of its feet, the female newt twists or folds the leaf, or a portion of it, around the egg, its viscid envelope allowing it to readily adhere, and it is thus effectually concealed or protected from injury. When about a quarter of an inch long, the tadpole escapes from the egg. At this early stage the gills are quite simple and the front limbs represented by mere knobs. Immediately in front of the gills are two fleshy lobes, by means of which the tadpole can temporarily adhere to the surfaces of water-plants. Within a fortnight the little animal has grown to double the size. The gills are now elegantly branched and the fore limbs well developed. The latter are, however, only bifurcated at their extremities, and it is some little time later that four distinct toes are possessed by each fore limb and that the hind limbs make their appearance. ‘The gills, which have at this stage reached their most complex state of development, now begin to diminish in size, and are gradually absorbed, the lungs in the meantime acquiring their full functional proportions. The newt, having now passed from the fish-like to a reptilian stage, is unable to live entirely beneath the water, and is obliged to come up to the surface at intervals to breathe, or is adapted for living entirely upon land. Newts in their fully matured state, except during the breeding-season, pass much of their time on land, and wander to con- siderable distances from the water. They at all times, however, exhibit a preference for moist situations, such as a shady wood or damp cellar. Like the toad and blind-worm, the feeble, inoffensive newt has from the earliest time to the present day been the victim of the most unmerited dread and persecution among the uneducated. In some country districts it is not only accredited with the property of biting venomously, but of spitting fire into the bitten wound. A property that is actually possessed by these creatures is that of reproducing lost parts. The Geckos and other lizards, as already recorded, are in the habit of reproducing their mutilated tails. The newt, however, beats that record to the extent of reproducing lost legs, and, it has been affirmed, eyes also. A second species of British newt, of somewhat smaller size and even more common than the crested one, is the COMMON or SMOOTH NEWT. It scarcely exceeds 3 inches in length, and is distinguished by its smooth skin and relatively less conspicuous crest. In habits it is less addicted to a prolonged aquatic residence than the crested form, and wanders to more considerable distances from water. One of the largest and handsomest representatives of the family is the MARBLED NEwT of Southern France and the Spanish Peninsula, which attains alength of 8 or 9 inches. The upper-parts of the male at the breeding-season are bright bronze-green with irregular black markings; its crest is ornamented with black and white vertical bars, and a silvery white band is developed along the sides of the tail. The crestless female has a distinctive orange streak running down the centre of the back. The TRUESALAMANDERS have no British representative, thoughthe common or spotted species "Photo iy Fames B. Corr, He SMOOTH NEWT This species often travels long distances from water, taking up its residence : , & in damp cellars and vaults NEWTS AND SALAMANDERS 209 is abundant throughout Central and Southern Europe. Its conspicuous livery —in which bold markings of black and brilliant yellow are some- what equally balanced, no two individuals, how- ever, precisely corresponding — distinguishes it broadly from all other members of the group. The surface of the skin is very smooth and shining, and thickly set on the surface with glands and pores, from which a viscid and un- doubtedly poisonous secretion is exuded. In common with that of other salamanders, the tail is cylindrical, instead of compressed and oar- shaped, as in the Newts, and there is no crest down the back. The SPOTTED SALAMANDER frequents moist situations in mountain and forest districts. It is essentially nocturnal in its habits, lying up during the day in some suitable rock Photo by HW, Saville-Kent, T.Z.S-J [Milford-on-Sea or mossy crevice, exposure of its sensitive skin SPOTTED SALAMANDERS to the direct rays of the sun speedily having Nations of Conral Barope a fatal effect. Large numbers of this salamander are sold as suitable and curious additions to the fernery and vivarium, and will survive for long periods, appropriate food and the necessary conditions of moisture being provided. Snails, worms, and beetles and other insects constituting its natural food, it fulfils as useful a réle as the toad in the extermination of insect-pests, and may be as strongly recommended for introduction to the greenhouse. Salamanders repair to the water to breed, after the manner of newts, but the young are usually brought forth alive, though occasionally eggs are deposited, from which the young tadpoles almost immediately emerge. The number usually produced at a birth ranges from sixteen to thirty, but instances are recorded where there have been as many as fifty. ee By aid Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] | .lilford-on-Sea SPOTTED SALAMANDER The shin of the salamoniler exudes a poisonous secretion, and its bright colours advertise its non-edible properties to carnivorous birds and mammals 210 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLL The colossus of the tailed Amphibian race is the GIANT SALAMANDER of China and Japan, which may attain to a length of from 3 to 3} feet. The body, like that of the ordinary salamanders, is broad and depressed; but the eyes are very small, and have no eyelids; and the tail, which is relatively short, is compressed, and has a fin both above and beneath. This salamander lives entirely in the water, and is adapted for such an aquatic life by the possession of both lungs and gills. In its native habitat it is most usually fourd in small, clear mountain-streams, at elevations of from 700 to 5,000 feet above the sea-level, such streams being often not more than a foot in width, and more or less overgrown with grasses; in these the adults are usually found curled round the larger stones, while the smaller ones occupy holes and crevices among them. A representative of the tribe now commonly kept in aquaria is the Mexican AXOLOTL. It has usually a velvety black skin, and grows to a length of g or 10 inches. As generally known it presents a very newt-like aspect, or, more correctly, that advanced tadpole state of PE ey AA RR CLR Eo EOI - F A ee ae ae Pe ae \ YELLOW PHASE OF SPOTTED SALAMANDERS The first four or five months of the young salamander’s life are passed in the water the newt in which the external gills are most highly developed. The animals breed freely in the water, eggs being laid, which pass through the earlier tadpole to the adult phase. Up to within comparatively recent times the foregoing metamorphoses were supposed to represent the Alpha and Omega of the animal’s existence. Some exceptional examples, however, bred in an aquarium in which rocks projected out of the water, surprised their owners by gradually absorbing their supposed persistent gills, also their fin-like tail-membranes, and, crawling out on the rocks, were transformed into ordinary salamanders. The OM, or BLIND PROTEUS, of the subterranean caves of Dalmatia and Carniola is a form with persistent external gills. Nearly allied is the North American form known as the FURROWED SALAMANDER. The latter, however, living under more normal conditions, has well-developed eyes. While possessing the customary number of limbs, the number of toes in the American type is four to each foot. In the European Proteus there are but three toes to the front and two toes to the hinder limb. In a yet lower form, the SIREN SALAMANDER of the South-eastern United States, a yet more primitive persistently gill-bearing condition is presented. it LG Pdi oa ae i : m , . aN Ff zZ 4 Te ae J i : CN) ee oget ~~ Fe) coe Smee ae RR ER = ee. ey 19 NW) Pond Pickerel (Lucius Reticulatus) yD R7, Lhe Miia i HN’ i, ted Snapper (Neomoenis Aya) (Lupomotis Gibbosus) Brook Trout (Salvelinus Fontinalis) Shad y (Alosa Sapidissima) Canadian Red Trout Mud-Fish (Amia Calva) Yellow Perch (Perca Flavescens) NORTH AMERICAN FOOD AND GAME FISHES. Photo by H’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.9. | { Milfora-on-Sea AUSTRALIAN LUNG-FISH This fish ts also known as the Burnett River Salmon BOOK IV. FISHES CHAPTER J LUNG-FISHES AND CHIALER AS BY W. P. PYCRAPT,, A.L,S., F.Z.S: HOUGH amongst the lowest of the backboned animals, the Fishes are nevertheless an exceedingly interesting group, distinguished from all others by the possession of fins, which are divisible into two series,—an unpaired, ranged along the middle of the back and abdomen, and including the tail-fin; and a paired series, representing the fore and hind limbs of land animals. The body is either clothed with scales or naked, and, being perfectly sustained by the water, needs no support from the fins, which serve as balancing-organs. In the brilliancy and beauty of their coloration fishes display a variety that cannot be excelled by any other animals. Furthermore, the coloration is often rendered still more beautiful from the fact that it can undergo rapid changes of hue. Frequently this coloration is of a protective character, causing the fish to harmonise with its surroundings, and so escape the observation of its enemies. The colours of living fishes can only, for the most part, be indicated in the present pages when a pattern exists by the formation of stripes or spots; but the wonderful variations in the form of the body will probably prove a revelation to many. LUNG-FISHES The LUNG-FISHES are a peculiarly important group, inasmuch as they form a connecting- link between the class Fishes and the land-dwelling Amphibians —the class containing the Frogs and Toads and their allies. They are accorded this position mainly because, like Amphibians, they possess true lungs, which almost entirely replace the gills, the breathing- organs of other fishes. One of the best known of the lung-fishes is the AUSTRALIAN BARRAMUNDI, or LUNG-FISH OF QUEENSLAND — the BURNETT or DAWSON SALMON of the settlers. It lives among the weeds at the bottom of muddy rivers, rising frequently to the surface to take in atmospheric air by the lungs, the gills alone being insufficient for breathing purposes. The flesh, which is salmon- coloured, is much esteemed as food. The adult fish is said to attain to a weight of 20 lbs. and a length of 6 feet. Other lung-fishes, eel-like in form, occur in the rivers of Africa and South America, The 2II 212 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD African species is perhaps the better known of the two. On the approach of the dry season it buries itself in the mud at the bottom of the river, and when the latter becomes dry the mud hardens, holding the fish a prisoner till the return of the wet season several months later. A considerable number of these fishes have from time to time been dug out and sent to England enclosed in the mud into which they had retreated. The writer remembers assisting in the liberation of some during the last meeting of the British Association at Oxford. So hard haa the prison-walls become that the mass had to be plunged into tepid water; this soon brought about a dissolut’on of the soil, and in a short time the fishes were swimming about as if in their native rivers. The African lung-fish is known also as the MUD-FISH; its American relative as the LEPIDOSIREN, or SOUTH AMERICAN MuD-FISH. In the American species, as in its African relative, the fins are whip-like in form; but the hinder or ventral pair, which correspond to the hind limbs of the higher vertebrated animals, are remarkable in that in the male they develop during the breeding-season numerous thread-like processes, richly supplied with blood, the function of which is as yet unknown. The young, both of the African and South American mud-fishes, bear external gills closely resembling those of the tad- poles of the frog and other Amphibia; traces of these gills remain throughout life in the African form. CHIMERAS Shark-like in their general chaiacters, the CHIM-ERAS, now briefly con- sidered, are nevertheless regarded as constituting a very distinct group of great aT antiquity. i The modern representa- Photo by A. 8. Rudland & Sons tives of the group are few in BOTTLE-NOSED CHIMARA number — five species in all. The remarkable structure in front of the mouth is probably an organ of touch Of these, the species shown in the accompanying photo- graph and the SEA-CAT are remarkable for the possession of a movable tentacle on the snout. The under surface of this tentacle is armed with small spines, and fits into a hollow in the head. The first back-fin is supported in front by a strong spine, and can be depressed into a sheath in the body-walls. The teeth take the form of large plates closely united with the jaws, and studded with hardened points, or “ tritors.” One species widely distributed in the Mediterranean and Atlantic is taken usually in deep water; it is the largest living species, often attaining a yard in length. Its occurrence is, however, very erratic, months elapsing without any being taken; at other times several will be caught in a few days. A closely allied fish is often exposed for sale in the Lisbon markets, where it ranks with the Sharks as a food-fish. The egg of the BOrrLE-NOSED CHIM4:RA is perhaps the only egg with a mimetic resemblance to a foreign object. It is elliptical in form, and bordered by a fringe, so as to present a close resemblance to a piece of seaweed. In the next chapter we begin the description of the great group of Fan- and Fringe-finned Fishes, which, briefly, embrace all fishes not grouped among the Lung-fishes, Chimeras, or Sharks. The anatomical characters used for the purpose of classifying this great group are not discussed here, save only in a few cases of prime importance, when features such as can readily be observed, without demanding an intimate knowledge of anatomy, are selected. WHITE-PERCH The so caidled white perch is a species of bass, found in the rivers of the United Stazes SEA-BASS This is another American member of the Perch Tribe 213 CHAPTER II THE PERCH FAMILY BY JOHN Photo by Dr. R. Hf’, Shufeldz] BICKERDYKE, M.A. [Washington LARGE-MOUTHED BLACK BASS An exceedingly gamy fighter HE thick-set, golden-bronze, dark-barred, hog-backed fish known as the PERCH has many striking characteristics, and is remarkable, among other things, for the vast number of its relations scat- tered alloverthe world. Sonumerous, indeed, are its cousins that ichthy- ologists have had to divide the Perch Family into a large number of groups. There are various species of perch found, as a matter of fact, in the fresh- waters and on all the coasts of the temperate and tropical regions. The COMMON PERCH, which is widely distributed over Europe, Northern Asia, and North America, is properly an inhabitant of rivers, lakez, and ponds, but sometimes descends to brackish water. It runs up to about 5 lbs. in weight, and is carnivorous, eating most kinds of fish small enough for its swallow, including the fry of its own species, which are, in some waters, an excellent. bait. In England perch spawn in the spring, the eggs being held in a band-like mass of gelatinous matter deposited on weeds or the roots of trees not far below the surface of the water. The spawn, as a matter of fact, is often collected by fish-culturists and hatched out. Swans and water-fowl gener- ally eat the eggs by the million, and wherever perch are pre- served these birds should, so far as possible, be kept from the water during the spawn- ing-season. At Henley and other places on the Thames those interested in fishery preservation place wirenetting round the boughs and weeds where perch have spawned, to prevent the eggs being eaten by swans and ducks. Perch are usually termed voracious fish, but when large are extremely shy and difficult | Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] BUTTER-FISH A native of the tropical parts of the Indo-Pacific Ocean 214 (Milford-on-Sca THE PERCH FAMILY 215 of capture. There is a story told of a hunery little lake- perch which had its eye hooked out byaccident. The angler, leaving the eye on the hook, lowered it into the water again, and a moment after hauled out a one-eved perch! Among the species of perch found in British waters are the RUFFE, or POPE, a very smail and common river- fish of no great value; the Bass, a fine sporting sea-fish, which comes up the estuaries LH desi Phote by Dre ix. W. Shufeldt] (Washington of rivers to spawn, and is much sought after by the ama- AMERICAN «SUN-FISH” teur sea-fisher; the COMBER, Not to be confounded with the true Sun-fishes described in Chapter IT or GAPER, a fairly common fish on the coasts of the West of England; a rare sea-fish known as the Dusky PERCH, caught occasionally off the South of England; the STONE-Bass, also called the WRECK-FISH, from its habit of following wreckage in the sea; and, lastly, the DENTEX, a rare species, not often caught off the British coasts, which attains the weight of about 70 lbs. On the Continent there is the PIKE-PERCH, a fish having the appearance of a cross between a pike and a perch, and growing to 25 or 30 lbs.; this voracious species is found in the lakes and rivers of the temperate northern zones, and is much esteemed for food. In the tropics there are a number of true SEA-PERCHEs, which rarely enter fresh-water; they include the ANTHIAS, most beautifully coloured with pink and yellow, of which there are between 100 and 200 species. Some of the tropical sea-perches grow to an enormous size, and there are instances recorded of bathers having been attacked by them at Aden. Several monsters are stuffed in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington. Among the coral-islands live many very beautifully coloured sea-perches of various species. Perhaps the most remarkable of all is the BOAR-FISH, or BASTARD Dory, which has a prolonged snout, no doubt used for getting out its food from the crannies among rocks and other awkward places. Cir iE. it SCALY-FINS, RED MULLETS, SEA-BREAMS, SCORPION-FISHES, SLIMEL-HEADS, TASSEL-FISH, MEACRES, AND SIVORD-FISHES BY W. P. PYCRAFT, A.L.S., F.Z.S, OR quaintness of shape, combined with beauty of coloration, the family of Scaly-fnned Fishes has no rivals. ‘The name by which they are collectively known refers to the scaly covering which invests the bases of what are called the median fins — the fins seated along the middle of the back and abdomen. A large number of distinct species have been described, the majority of which occur in tropical seas, and especially in the neighbourhood of coral-reefs; but some frequent the mouths of rivers, which they occasionally ascend for a short distance. All are of relatively small size, of carnivorous habits, and but little used for food. The pattern of coloration commonly takes the form of bands or stripes, those in which this pattern is most marked being known as ZEBRA-FISH. One of the most beautiful is the 216 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD EMPEROR-FISH, which ranges from the east coast of Africa to the Indian and Malayan seas. The ground-colour of the body is deep blue, relieved by some thirty golden-yellow stripes running from the shoulder backwards to the tail. Crossing the head is a crescent-shaped bar of black edged with yellow, whiist a CoP similarly coloured patch runs upward from the pectoral fins Photo by H’ Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] (iditerd-ons8ea ‘to within a short distance of THE MISCALLED ARCHER-FISH the top of the back. This species, which attains a length of 1s inches, is highly esteemed for food in India. The most beautiful of all, perhaps, is the zebra-fish of the Indo-Malayan seas, which has the ground-colour of yellow, striped with vertical bars of blue edged with drown, a yellow tail, and an anal fin barred with narrow blue lines. A tubed-shaped mouth is a common feature of the fishes of this group, and two Indian species in which this character is especially well developed have acquired the habit of shooting therefrom a drop of water at insects resting on overhanging foliage fringing the sea or along the banks of rivers. Having sighted its quarry, it would seem the fish moves upwards to the surface of the water, and with careful aim ejects its liquid bullet with such unerring precision that its prey is invariably knocked down and speedily seized. On this account these fishes are commonly known as ARCHER-FISHES. The archer-fishes are sometimes kept in tubs of water, for the purpose of affording amusement to their captors. Somehow the shooting prowess of these fishes has been accredited to an allied form, shown in the above photograph. The peculiar shape of these fishes is sufficiently indicated by the photograph already mentioned, but a large series would be necessary to show the numerous variations, some of which are quite remarkable. The brilliancy of the coloration is probably protective, since the most brightly coloured forms live amongst coral-reefs built by gorgeous polyps, or coral-animals, so that amidst such surround- ings the fishes are quite in- conspicuous. The RED MULLETS occur chiefly in tropical seas, but one species inhabits European waters, and occur sparsely around the British Islands. Occasionally, however, these Ashes visit the British coasts in vast shoals, more than 5,000 having been taken in a single night in August, 1819, in Weymouth Bay, whilst in May, 1851, 10,000 were taken ‘~ off Yarmouth in one week. Although about forty STRIPED RED MULLET species of red mullet are The head is ornamented with brilliant blue and violet stripes So named on account of its supposed habit of shooting water at insects Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Milford-on Sea RED MULLETS AND SEA-BREAMS 217 known, the European species is the most prized as a food- fish. Its fame, indeed, extends backwards to the time of the ancient Romans, who sought far and wide for large speci- mens, paying ruinous prices for them. ‘“ Then, as nowa- days,” writes Dr. Giinther, “it was considered essential for the enjoyment of this delicacy that the fish should exhibit the red colour of its integu- ment. The Romans brought it, for that purpose, living into the banqueting-room, and allowed it to die in the hands of the guests, the red c colour appearing in all its " Photo by W Saville-Kent, F.Z.5.] - [Milford-on-Se brilliancy during the death- BROWN SNAPPER struggle of the fish. The The snappers are esteemed for the table fishermen of our times attain the same object by scaling the fish immediately after its capture, thus causing a permanent contraction of the chromatophores containing the red pigment.” Beneath the chin of the red mullets will be noticed two long finger-like processes; these can be thrust forward and moved about, or laid back in a groove between the sides of the lower jaw, and are used to rake about in the sand and gravel at the bottom of the sea to discover burrowing shrimps or worms. Even dead food they are said to feel with these barbels, as they are called, before biting. The red colour has been observed in the Marine Aquarium at Plymouth to become darker when the fish rise from the ground, and to pale away when they descend. Two forms of red mullet occur in European waters, but it is not yet finally settled whether they represent distinct ‘ Photo by 1", Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] [Milford-m-Sea species. The one is the plain RED SEA-BREAM RED MULLET,ofarich carmine- Some species of sea-bream o:casionally enter fresh-water red above and silvery white below; the other the STRIPED MULLET, or SUR-MULLET, which has a beautiful red colour on the back and sides, and from three to five bright yellow bands passing from head to tail. Till recently the striped form was regarded as the female of the plain red mullet, but many authorities incline to the view that the two are distinct species. The SEA-BREAMS are fishes of the tropical and temperate regions, represented by a considerable number of species. Only one is at all abundant on the British coasts, and this 218 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD 1 occurs especially on the south and south-west coasts of England and Ireland. It is of an orange-scarlet colour above, and somewhat silvery on the sides, with a large black spot on the shoulder. Several species of sea- bream occur in Australia, where they are known as SNAPPERS. One of the largest of these, which attains a length of more than 3 feet and a weight of over 40 lbs., 1s not only considered Photo by H’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. Milford-on-Sea : : rite iiniwae ] ee excellent eating, but is also SNAPPER the most popular sport- An Australian species of Sea-bream yielding fish of that colony. The ancient Romans kept a species of sea-bream, the GILT-HEAD, in their vivariums, where it grew extremely fat. This species is said to stir up the sand with its tail, to discover buried shell-fish. It is particularly fond of mussels, and the noise it makes in crunching them between its jaws is loud enough to be heard by the fishermen. Nearly allied to the Sea-breams are a group known, for want of a better name, as the THICK-RAYED FISHES, some of which rank as of prime importance among the food-fishes of the British Colonies. A general idea of the shape of the members of this family may be gathered from the photograph of an Australian GROPER. The name of LONG-FIN, given to one species, is bestowed on account of the fact that one or more of the rays of the breast-fin on each side is drawn out into a filament, often of very considerable length, which is used as an organ of touch. In other species, where the elongation is less, and more rays have under- gone modification, an auxiliary organ of locomotion is the result. At the Cape of Good Hope species of long-fin are very abundant, and preserved in large quantities for export. Other members of this family lack the elongated fin-rays altogether. The fishes known as the TUMPETERS of New Zealand and Tasmania belong to this section. They are considered by the colonists the best flavoured of any native fishes, and are eaten smoked as well as fresh. But two species are known, : one ranging from 30 to 60 | lbs. in weight, and the other, a much smaller form, scarcely attaining a weight of 20 Ibs. ; the latter is the more abun- dant of the two, though con- | fined to the coast of New | Zealana. In the SCORPION-FISHES we have a small group in- cluding several forms remark- able for their ugliness, having added to an uncouth shape skinny appendages, which, Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Milford-on-Sea projecting from the body, KING-SNAPPER resemble rather leaves of A member of the group of Slime-heads SCORPION-FISHES AND SLIME-HEADS 219 seaweed than parts of the fish. These appendages, by their waving motion, serve either to attract other fishes or to afford concealment by their resemblance to the surrounding weeds. The ground-dwelling forms have some of the rays of the breast-fin modified into finger- like processes, like those of the Gurnards, by which they both crawl and feel. Some members of the family bear a rather close resemblance to the Sea-perches. In addition to their ugli- ness, some have become especially offensive by the transformation of certain of the fin-spines into poison-organs. One of the ugliest, and at the same time most dreaded, of the family is the STONE-FISIL figured on page 619. Each spine of the back fin is grooved. At the lower end of these grooves lies a pear-shaped bag containing a milky poison, which is conveyed to the point of the spine by ducts lying in the grooves. The native fishermen carefully avoid handling these fish; but persons walking with bare feet in the sea step upon the spines, and, receiving the poison into the wound, are killed. - = z Sa [Milford-on-Sea Photo by WV. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] AUSTRALIAN GROPER Highly esteemed as a_food-fish All the scorpion-fish are carnivorous, and differ from the majority of fishes in that they produce their young alive. The smallest of the Spiny-finned fishes are members of this group, some scarcely exceeding 1} inch in length. They are common amid the coral- teefs of the Pacific. Passing over some comparatively unimportant members of this family, we come to a small group of vegetable-feeders from the Indo-Pacific, of which the TEUTHIs is one of the best known representatives. They are chiefly remarkable for the fact that the abdominal cavity is surrounded by a complete ring of bones, and that the air-bladder is forked at both ends. Some are rather brilliantly coloured. The SLIME-HEADS, which constitute the next family, derive their name from the presence on the head of large mucus-bearing cavities covered with a thin skin. The eyes are always of great size, indicating a deep-sea habitat, or at least a depth only dimly lighted. All indeed, save two species, descend considerably below the surface, one species having been found in 345 fathoms. The species of one genus are believed to inhabit still greater depths, for their eyes are extremely small, indicating degeneration through disuse. The copious supply of slime is also an indication of a deep-sea habitat. The members of this family vary much in size and shape, but the most remarkable of all is a small and rare species 220 THE LIVING .ANIMALS OF THE WORED found off Japan, in which the scales have joined together to form a_ perfectly solid armour, whilst the paired fins of the abdomen have been # reduced to a single spine, with Z.. a few vestiges of other rays. The next family, a com- a paratively small one, includes the TASSEL-FISH, so called from the long and delicate feelers | springing from the base of the breast-fins, of which they phe by ALS. Rudland ‘es le INDIAN WEAVER-_FISH ; originally formed a part. Vary- ing in number from three to fourteen, these feelers can be moved independently of the fins. As these fishes all live in muddy water, and have the eyes obscured by films, such tactile organs are necessary, in order to enable them to procure their food. In some species they attain an enormous length. The flesh is highly esteemed. Some species have an air-bladder, which yields a good kind of isinglass, and forms an article of com- merce in the East Indies. The majority are small species, but some attain to a length of 4 feet. No less important than the preceding group, from an economic point of view, are the MEAGRES, a family of coast-haunting species of the tropical and sub-tropical Atlantic and Indian Oceans, exhibiting a special preference for the mouths of large rivers, into which they freely enter. Some, indeed, have become entirely fresh-water species. One of the most interesting of the family is the species to which the name of DRUM has been given, from the extraordinary noise which it produces —though some other kinds emit similar noises, ‘ These sounds,” Dr. Giinther writes, “can better be expressed by the word ‘drumming’ thay any other. They appear to be very frequently heard by persons in vessels lying at anchor off the coasts of the United States, where these fishes are very common. The precise method by which these sounds are produced is not known. Since they are accompanied by a tremulous motion of the vessel, it seems more probable that they are due to the beating of the tails of the fish against the bottom of the ship to get rid of the parasites with which that part of their body is infested.” The drum attains a length of more than 4 feet and a weight of over 100 lbs. Though forming but a single small family, the SwORD-FISHES are nevertheless to be reckoned amongst the most interesting of living fishes. Attaining a length of from 12 to 15 feet, exceeding vigilant, pugnacious, and powerful, they are amongst the most formidable of all fishes. They derive their name from the great develop- ment of the upper jaw, which forms a huge, tapering, sword- like weapon, covered along its under-surface with numer- : ous smallteeth. They attack, Phssy by A. 8, te_land & Som apparently without provoca- RAGGED SEA-SCORPION tion, whales and other large A sezond representative of the scorpion-fishes One of the group of scorpion-fishes elite nainatiactceanasneintias a alll Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.9. | [Milford-on-Sea STONE-FISH 4 species of scorpion-fish dreaded on account of its poisonous spines Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S8.] (Milford-on-Sea TASSEL-FISH Valued for the isinglass it yields Is 221 222 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD cetaceans, which they invari- ably succeed in killing by repeated thrusts of the sword. It appears that occasionally sword-fishes make a mistake, and, after the fashion of Don Quixote, tilt at windmills, in the shape of large vessels, under the impression that they are whales. But this most grave error of judgment brings with it a heavy penalty, The huge back-fin 1s said to be often used as a sail when the fish is floating near the surface of am that, having see cial ok oe the water make effective backward move- ments, the sword remains fixed, and is eventually broken off in the struggle for freedom. Frank Buckland reminds us that in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, London, is a section of the bow of a whaler impaled by one of these swords. That portion of the sword which remains is I foot L Photo by A. 8S. Rudland & Scns SWORD-FISH long and 5 inches in circumference. ‘At one single blow,” he writes, ‘ the fish had plunged his sword through, and completely transfixed 13} inches of solid timber. The sword had of course broken off and prevented a dangerous leak in the ship.” In the British Museum is a second specimen of a ship’s side in which the sword of a sword-fish is fixed. CHAPIER 1¥ HAIR-TAILS, HORSE-MACKERELS, SEA-BATS, DORIES, MACKERELS, SUCKING- FISHES, WEAVERS, FROG-FISHES, ANGLER-FISHES, BULL-HEADS, AND GURNARDS BY W. P. PYCRAFT, A.L.S., F.Z.S. F the family of HaIr-TAILS perhaps the most important members are the SCABBARD- or FROST-FISH and the SNOEK. The first is common in the Mediterranean and the warmer parts of the Atlantic, extending northwards to the south coast of England, where it occurs at rare intervals. It is also known in New Zealand, where it is called the Frost-fish, and furthermore is regarded as one of the most delicious fish of the colony, its flesh being fine, tender, and of delicate favour. On this account it is much in demand, but the supply is very uncertain. The conditions of capture, indeed, of this fish are unparalleled in the annals of fishing, for it can be taken neither with the rod nor the net. The would-be captor has to wait patiently under favourable conditions on the seashore for the fish to come | Photo by Percy Ashenden] (Cape Town SNOEK This fish is also known as the Barracuda Photographed & colored by HW’. Saville-Kent, F. Z. S. WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SCARLET ROCK-COD. A member of the Sea-Perch family having excellent edible qualities. Phetographed & colored by IV. Saville-Kent, F.oZ. 8. FREEMANTLE DEVIL-FISH or ARMED GURNARD An Australian representative of the Gurnard & Bull-head family. having spines which can inflict exceedingly painful wound: \ { C ctexce gly pa rounds and cast itself up on the beach. This happens with tolerable cer- tainty during the autumn = and winter months, when the sea is calm and the nights frosty. Then the frost-fish come ashore alive, wriggling through the surf on to the beach. Two explanations have been offered for this extra- ordinary conduct. One is that the fish commits suicide; being pursued by a shark or other en- emy, it prefers uncertain life on land to certain death at sea! The other and more probable hypothe- sis has it that the air-bladder of the fish becomes distended to enable 5 it to reach the surface for food Photo by W, Saville-Kenty F.Z.S ] [Milfordesa:See — for it is a deep-sea fish — and FRINGED HORSE-MACKEREL that the keen, frosty air prevents Noe the great length of the fin-rays it from compressing the bladder and returning to the depths; thus it gradually drifts into shallow water, is hurled shorewards by the surf, and finally wriggles itself on to the beach to die. The long stretches of sandy beach a few miles from Dunedin are a favourite resort for frost-fish catching. Two or three men camp out at the foot of the cliffs overhanging the beach, pitching a tent and lighting a huge fire, so as to render life bearable during the long vigils. The “ fishing” consists in perambulating the beach up and down shortly before dawn, and keeping a sharp look-out in the surf for the silver streak which betokens the approach of a victim. As soon as a fish is i Hs Photo by Reinhold Thiele @& Co.] (Chancery Lane, W. C. HORSE-MACKEREL The strong keel formed by ridged scales running down each side cf the tail is a characteristic feature 224 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD descried, all that remains to be done is to seize hold of it and drag it ashore, if it has not already stranded itself, and then dispatch it. The BARRACUDA, or SNOEK, is likewise a New Zealand species, attaining a length of 5 feet. It is found also at the Cape and South Australia. In New Zealand the flesh is exported to Mauritius and Batavia as a regular article of commerce, being worth £17 per ton. The HORSE-MACKERELS, or SCADS, are represented by some very bizarre-looking forms. It is a large family, belonging to tropical and temperate seas. One species, the COMMON HORSE- I usd Photos by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.) (Milfors-sn-Sea JOHN DORIES These two photographs show the difference in the jaws when protruded and when at rest MACKEREL, is common in British seas. Many members of the family have the hinder portion of the body on each side armed with large plates, well seen in the accompanying photographs; others have the median fins produced into long filamentous processes. All are eatable, and some highly esteemed as food. One of the most remarkable is the PILOT-FISH of tropical and temperate seas, occurring occasionally off the British coasts. It derives its name from its habit of accompanying ships and large sharks. From this habit of accompanying ships it was regarded by the ancients as a sacred fish, since they considered it pointed out the way to embarrassed sailors, and announced the vicinity of land by suddenly disappearing, The close companionship between the pilot-fish and the shark has excited much comment, many observers believing that the former was of great use to the latter in guiding it to its food. How this is done is graphically described by Dr. Meyer, who writes: “ The pilot swims constantly in front of the shark; we ourselves have seen three instances in which the shark was led by the pilot. When the shark neared the ship, the pilot swam close to the snout or near one of the pectoral fins of the animal. Sometimes he darted rapidly forwards or sidewards, as if looking for something, and constantly went back again to the shark. When we threw overboard a piece of bacon fastened on a great hook, the shark was about twenty paces from the ship; with the quickness of lightning the pilot came up, smelt at the dainty, and instantly swam back again to the shark, swimming many times round his snout and splashing, as if to give him exact information as to the bacon. Tne shark now began to put himself in motion, the pilot showing him the way, and in a moment he was fast upon the hook.” As Dr. Giinther remarks, commenting on this account, one may entertain reasonable doubts as to the usefulness of the pilot to the shark in this instance! It is probable that the pilots follow the sharks for the sake of feeding on fragments scattered by the latter, and also for the sake of picking off the parasites with which sharks, in common with other large fish, are infested; furthermore, the pilot, being but a small fish, obtains greater security from enemies when in the company of its giant friend. The habit of seeking the company of more powerful or otherwise offensive animals is apparent also in other members of this family, the SEA-BATS AND DORIES 225 young of the horse-mackerel seeking shelter beneath the “umbrella” of a jelly-fish till they are big enough to defend themselves. But the most remarkable members of this family are the SEA-BATS. Few in species and confined to the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Western Pacific, they are nevertheless in those regions very common. Although not used as food-fishes, they are of extreme interest on account of their shape, which is nearly oval and much compressed from side to side, and the form of their fins, which in some species are excessively developed. Young sea-bats differ markedly from the adults in the much greater length of the fin-rays, so much so that they have frequently been described as distinct species. We pass now to the DorIes, which recall the Sea-bats in the oval and compressed form ot the body. The resemblance to sea-bats is, indeed, so close that the latter are frequently described as dories. The mouth of the members of this family is so constructed that, when opened, the upper jaw is thrust forward, and the whole mouth forms a kind of long tube. Dories inhabit the seas of the temperate regions, two species being fairly common in British waters. The best known of these two is perhaps the JoHN Dory, the largest specimens of which attain to a weight of 18 lbs. Mr. Cunning- ham has described the very peculiar way in which the dory captures its prey. ‘It does not,” he writes, “ over- take it by superior speed like the mackerel, or lie in wait for it like the angler, but stalks it and approaches it by stealth. It is able to do this in consequence of the extreme thinness of its body and the peculiar movement of its hinder dorsal and ventral fins. The dory places itself end on towards the fish it desires to devour, and in this position it is evident that it excites no alarm on the part of its prey. The appearance of the dory, seen in this way, is a mere line in the water, to which no particular significance can be attached. I have not par- ticularly noticed the effect of the ribbons of membrane which project from the dorsal fin. But I have observed that the movements of the dory are very gradual, except in turning; it alters the ; position of its body by a Photo by W’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Milford-on-Sea turn of the tail or side-fins, LONG_FINNED DORY and then swims forward by This species closely resembles a fossil form. It has nothing to do with the True Dories, but is vibrating the second dorsal one of the Coral-fishes, and is placed here for the sake of contrast 226 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD and ventral, a movement which causes very slight disturbance of the water. The appearance of the dory in these actions is suggestive of suppressed excitement, his eyes being fixed on his prey. I do not recollect seeing him actually swallow another fish, but have no doubt that he gets near enough to a sprat, for example, without alarming it, to seize it by the sudden elongation of his curious jaws.” The way in which these jaws are elongated is admirably shown in the photograph on page 622. Passing now to the Mackerel Family, we arrive at a group of considerable importance from an economic point of view. Extremely active, migrating, and predaceous, mackerel swim in shoals and seize their prey with great voracity, hunting merely by sight, and snapping at anything moving through the water, especially if it is silvery, like a small surface-fish. The various species differ greatly in size, ranging from the Common Mackerel of about 18 inches long to the giant Tunny weighing nearly half a ton. COMMON MACKEREL swim in vast shoals, or “ schools,” as they are called, and one half a mile wide and at least twenty miles long is on record. Mackerel feed on the young of other fish and small fish generally, and, when these are not to be had, on minute crabs and shrimps. They are very prolific, a single mackerel laying from 430,000 to 540,000 eggs, The TUNNIESare amongst the largest of the surface-fishes of the ocean. Abundant in the Mediterranean Sea, they occur occasionally in British waters. For centuries the flesh of the tunny has been held in high regard as food, and it is frequently seen in the Lisbon markets at the present day. The 4 flesh, which is as red as ' 1 Photo ty Reinhold Thiele & Co.] [Chanery Lane, WC, beef, is cut up and sold JOHN DORY by weight. The Bonito In the centre of each stde ts a round black spot surrounded by a pale yellow ring closel y resembles the tunny, but is a much smaller fish, which preys largely upon flying-fishes, which it follows for long distances. Peculiarly interesting are the SUCKING-FISHES. The name by which they are commonly known is bestowed on account of the presence of a large oval sucker, placed on the top of the head and extending backwards over the shoulders —an organ formed by modification of the back-fin. By means of this sucking-disk these fishes are enabled to attach themselves to sharks, turtles, ships, or any large object floating in the sea. The hold which they obtain is so strong that it is almost impossible to remove them by force. Being poor swimmers, this method of transportation enables them to pass rapidly to fresh feeding-grounds. The natives of Zanzibar, Cuba, and Torres Straits are said to employ sucking-fishes in the capture of sleeping turtles, the fish being secured by a ring round the tail, and liberated as soon as a sufficiently near approach to the quarry has been made. About ten different species are known, the bulkiest of which attains a length of 2 feet and a weight of about 8 lbs., a longer but more slender species measuring 3 feet. Carnivorous, of small size, and feeble swimming-powers, the family of the WEAVERS are remarkable rather for their disagreeable qualities than anything else, though at least one tw ty ~“] WEAVERS AND FROG-FISHES ad [Milford-on-Sea - Photo by Ww. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.) SUCKING-FISH By means of the sucker on the top of its head this fish attaches itself to ships and larger fishes species is declared to be excellent eating. The STAR-GAZER is a particularly ugly-looking fish, especially noteworthy in that the eyes, which are on the top of the head, can be raised and depressed at pleasure, whilst the heavy jaw is armed with a freely moving tentacle, which, waving about in the current of water drawn in at the mouth, serves as a lure to attract small fishes, the rest of the body being concealed between stones at the bottom of the sea. The COMMON WEAVER is a well-known British fish, much dreaded on account of the poisonous wounds which it inflicts unless most carefully handled, the poison being introduced by the spines of the back-fin and gill-cover. No special poison-organs seem to be developed, but the mucous secretion around the spines has poisonous properties. As the flesh of this fish is extremely palatable, fishermen remove the spines at once directly after capture. Should a wound be inflicted, great suffering and occasionally death follows. Passing over one or two unimportant groups, we come to the family of the FROG-FISHES, which, but for the fact that many of its members are poisonous, calls for no special comment here. One species, however, from the coasts of Central America, possesses the distinction of having the most highly developed poison-organs of any fishes, being equalled only by the re = rete een een ee ee 4 | Ms — _ malin sass xa) Photo by Reinho'd Thiele & Co ] [Chancery Lane, W.C. LARGER WEAVER The spines of the first back-fin and of the gill-cover are highly potsonous 228 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Venomous Snakes. The poison-weapons are a spine on the gill-cover and two spines of the back-fin. The former is of the same shape as the hollow venom-fang of a snake, perforated at both ends. 316 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD the wings, and is common in gardens and orchards in summer and autumn. The caterpillar, which feeds on nettle, is brown or black, with yellow stripes and spines. The TAWNY ADMIRAL is a North American butterfly, remarkable for its resemblance to the larger butterfly called the Monarch, of which we have already spoken. The Danaids and Long-winged Butterflies have tough integuments and a disagreeable odour, which more or less protects them from birds. Many other butterflies belonging to other families have a superficial resemblance to these, and are believed to share in their immunity. This phenomenon is technically called “mimicry.” The caterpillar of the tawny admiral is grey and black, with curious spiny tufts. Photos by #. Edwards] [Colesborme LARGE COPPER BUTTERFLY (MALE, DUSKY COPPER BUTTERFLY (MALE, FEMALE, AND UNDERSIDE) FEMALE, AND UNDERSIDE) Taken near Ilfracombe, August, 1887. The group of the SATYRS contains a great variety of moderate-sized brown or tawny butterflies, usually with round spots centred with white towards the margins of the wings. Many species are common in meadows; others, which are dark brown or black, with red, white- centred marginal spots, are numerous inemountainous countries, and two species are found in the north of England and Scotland. The caterpillars of the Satyrs are usually smooth and green, with a forked tail, and the pupe are formed on the surface of the ground. The great BLUE BUTTERFLIES of South America form another group of Brush-footed Butterflies. The second family is almost entirely American, and is only represented in England by a brown butterfly about an inch in expanse, called the DUKE OF BURGUNDY FRITILLARY. The SCALE-WINGED INSECTS ere caterpillar is reddish, and feeds on primroses. It is not a very abundant species in England. The third family is represented in Britain by three very distinct sections of rather small butterflies, the largest of which scarcely measures more thanan inch and a half across the wings. These are the HAIR-STREAKS (brown, with light lines on the under surface of the wings, and a short tail on the hind wings, except in the GREEN HAIR-STREAK, $0 named from the green under surface of the wings); the small BLUE BUTTERFLIES, which generally have brown females; and the COpPERs, the only common species of which measures about an inch across the wings. The fore wings are bright coppery red, with dark brown spots and borders, and the hind wings are dark brown, Photo by W’. Saville-Kent, with a coppery red border, spotted F.Z.8., Milford-on-Sea outside with black. The small NEW GUINEA ; GOLDEN copper butterfly and some BUTTERFLY of the blues are A remarkableandrecently common in meadows discovered swallow~ and gardens. ce Many of the members of the fourth family are of a white or yellow colour, among which are the destructive WHITE CAB- BAGE-BUTTER- FLIES, three species of which are very common in England, where they may be seen in every garden throughout the summer. The photograph on page 716 represents one of these at rest. A prettier species is the ORANGE-TIP, which is common in spring. The underside of the hind wings is mottled with green; and there is a bright orange spot before the tip of the fore wing, both above and below. Phets by We Seville Kent F.ZS., Some of the South American butterflies of this family much KOE ERA EAN aus resemble the Long-winged Butterflies of the same country. Lone ee pan ene The family of the SWALLOW-TAILED BUTTERFLIES includes a considerable number of large and handsome species, but they are not numerous in Europe, and only one black-and-yellow species, measuring 3 inches across the wings, is found in England, where it is now almost confined to the fens of the south-eastern counties; its green caterpillar, with transverse black bands spotted with orange, feeds on carrot, fennel, and other similar plants. All the caterpillars of this family are remarkable for possessing a retractile fork on the neck; but the butterflies do not all possess the long appendage to the hind wings which has given some of them the name of Swallow-tails. Thus it is wanting in most of the great BIRD-WINGED BUTTERFLIES of the Eastern Islands, one of which, the CR@sus BUTTERFLY, is represented in the Coloured Plate. The great difference between the sexes is 21 See 318 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD well worth noting. The female is consider- ably larger than the male, but in the coloured figure the former has been reduced, owing to the exigencies of space. Mr. A.R. Wallace writes as follows of the capture of the first specimen :— ‘‘One day about the beginning of January, I found a beautiful shrub with large white leafy bracts and yellow flowers, a species of Mus- senda, and saw one of these noble insects hovering over it, but it was too quick for me, De bei and flew away. The next day I went again Rhois oy F.Bdwards) [Celesorne to the same shrub and succeeded in catching BATH WHITE BUTTERFLY Common on the Continent of Eurcpe a female, and the day after a fine male. I found it to be as I had expected, a perfectly new and most magnificent species, and one of the most gorgeously coloured butterflies in the world. Fine specimens of the male are more than seven inches across. the wings, which are velvety black and fiery orange, the latter colour replacing the green of the allied species. The beauty and brilliancy of this insect are indescrib- able, and none but a naturalist can understand the intense excitement I experienced when I at length captured it. On taking it out of my net and open- ing the glorious wings, my heart began to beat violently, the blood rushed to my head, and I felt much more like fainting than I have done when in apprehension of immediate death. I had a headache the rest of the day, so great was the excitement produced by what will appear to most people a very inadequate cause.” The SKIPPERS, the last family of butterflies, are comparatively stout-bodied insects, with the antennz ; if widely apart at the base, and sometimes forked at the — Pte by B. H. Bentley [Sheffield GREEN-VEINED WHITE BUTTERFLY The cabbage-butterfly referred to on page 715 tip. They are not numerous in Europe; the prettiest of the British species is perhaps the PEARL-SKIPPER, which measures rather more than an inch across its brown and tawny wings; the under surface of the hind wings is green, and marked with several clear white spots. Morus Moths are much more numerous than butterflies, and there are about 2,000 different Shien ke Gaerael (esasrae kinds found in the British Islands alone. Consequently we are able to notice only a few. The HAWk-MoTHs have long, pointed BLACK-VEINED WHITE BUTTERFLY wings, thick, tapering bodies, and the antennz thickest in the middle. The pink, greenish- striped ELEPHANT HAWK-MOTH (see page 718) is a comparatively small species. The speci- mens measure about 2! inches across the wings. Some species are much larger. The DEATH’s- HEAD HAWK-MOTH, whose caterpillar feeds on potato-leaves, is 5 or 6 inches in expanse; and some of the South American species measure as much as 9 inches. The caterpillars of the hawk-moths are generally green, often with oblique lines of a different colour on the sides. They are not hairy, though the skin is some- times rough, and there is a fleshy appendage, called a “horn,” on the back, just before the extremity of the body. The brown pupz are found in cells in the ground. The CHINESE MULBERRY-SILK- WORM, which pro- ORANGE-TIP GUGES THOSE OL THE _ppscoine ines detiron patons glen wombe are FHL and pail) silk of commerce, or entirely concealing upper wing Photo by E. C, Atkinson is a smooth, whitish caterpillar, about 2 inches long, with a horn. It is often reared in England on lettuce. The moth is a sluggish, stout-bodied insect. It is whitish, with two dusky stripes on the fore wings. The pupa is enclosed in an oval whitish or yellow cocoon of pure silk. The EMPEROR-MOTHS, of which there is only one species in England, likewise spin large cocoons, sometimes used for Photo by F. Edwards, Colesborne LARGE GRIZZLED r SKIPPER BUTTERFLY Upper- and under-sides commercial purposes. The caterpillars are generally more or less spiny or tufted. Some of the moths have long tails on the hind wings, like swallow- tailed butterflies, and there are several species in South Europe, South Africa, the East Indies, and North America of a beautiful sea-green colour. It will be noticed that the specimens represented on page 718 have the tails a little : | broken, which is a very com- : mon accident with swallow- | ss : tailed butterflies and moths. We may also notice the round SWALLOW-TAILED BUTTERFLY Photo by HW’. P. Dando, F.Z.S. 320 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Pho 0 by Hizhley ELEPHANT HAWK-MOTHS Showing position when at rest omni Photo by Highley LUNA MOTHS A green North American moth with tail, allied to the English Emperor- moth or crescent-shaped spots in the middle of the wings of some of the moths represented on this page and the next. These are very characteristic of the emperor-moths, and there is often a transparent spot in the centre of the concentric markings. Two other North American species of this family are shown in the photographs on page 719, rather under natural size. The second of these, the CECROPIA MOTH, is represented withitscocoon, This moth has occasionally been captured in England, having been introduced either accidentally or by design. A year or two ago a specimen was brought to the Natural History Museum at South Kensington which had been caught in the street close by. During the summer many foreign butterflies and moths may be seen alive in the Insect-house at the Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, and several of the photographs given inthese pageswere taken from specimens living there in the summer of 1901. The largest of the emperor-moths is the great ATLAS Morn of North India, the largest of all known butterflies or moths, which occasionally measures almost a foot across its reddish-tawny wings. CROESUS BIRD-WINGED BUTTERFLY, FEMALE Molucca, SCALE-WINGED INSECTS The IMPERIAL MOTH, ahandsome North American moth belonging to a family allied to the emperor-moths, is represented below. The EGGARs form another allied family, also with tufted caterpillars, but with the central eye of the wings absent, or reduced to asmall black spot. A set of remarkable photographs, representing the eggs, cater- pillars, cocoons and sections of cocoons, and the moths of a large and handsome species —the CYPRESS-MOTH of Smyrna — appears on pages 720 and 721. We have received the following account of their habits from Mr. Mavroyeni, to whom we are indebted for the photographs: ‘In the month of ke Pho.s ty Highley CECROPIA MOTH The largest of the North American Emperor-moths spring.” We believe that the cocoons of this species are prepared for use as silk in Greece. Among other kinds, we may notice the bright-coloured TIGER-MOTHS, with their black and cream-coloured fore wings and red-and- black hind wings, which frequent gardens, and are reared from reddish-brown caterpillars with long hair. These are stout-bodied moths; and there are other moths, with brown fore wings and whitish hind wings, which fly to candles, or buzz over flowers in the evening. These are called OWL-MOTHS ; but there are larger and handsomer members Photo by L. H. Foutel, New York POLYPHEMUS MOTH A kands ne North LE-mperor-moth American July they start weav- ing their cocoons, in which they remain for seventeen days. A couple of weeks after themoths haveemerged from their cocoons and laid their eggs, the eggs hatch, and the young caterpillars run up the tree, and feed from the end of August, during autumn, winter, and Photo by L. H. Foute/ | IMPERIAL MOTH [New York Yellow, with purplish-brown dots and blotches, Native of North America THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Fhoto by C. N. Mavroyeni] [Smyrna COCOONS OF CYPRESS-MOTH These yield silk Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni] [Smyrna CYPRESS-MOTHS AT REST In the month of Fuly they start weaving their cocoons, in which they remain for seventeen days. A couple of weeks after their eggs are hatched, and the young caterpillars run up the tree, and feed from the end of August, during autumn, winter, and spring of the same family, called YELLOW UNDERWINGS, measuring nearly 2 inches across the wings, and likely to be flushed in strawberry-beds or hay- fields. They have brown fore wings, and bright yellow hind wings, with a black border. The RED-UNDERWING MoTH is about 3 inches in expanse, and has greyish-brown fore wings, and red hind wings, with a black cen- tral band; it is often seen flying about willow-trees in the afternoon, or resting on tree-trunks, when the bright-coloured hind wings are quite concealed. The LOOPER-MOTHS are those produced from caterpillars which have only ten legs instead of sixteen, as already explained. Most have slender bodies of moderate length, and broad and rather brightly coloured wings, green, russet-brown, yellow, etc. Some, measuring about an inch in expanse, are called CARPET-MOTHS, from the zigzag patterns on the fore wings, which are generally black and white, or brown and white, and sometimes green. The YELLOW- SHELL, a yellow moth, with some zig- zag brown and whitish lines across the wings, which expand about an inch, is common in hedges and bushes. The white, black-and-yellow-spotted GOOSEBERRY-MOTH, or MAGPIE- MOTH, so common in gardens, is also one of the Loopers. Among the smaller moths are the PEARL-MOTHS, with long — slender bodies, wings longer than broad, and often with a pearly lustre, one or two species of which are common among nettles. We may also mention the SNOUT-MOTH, a brown slender-bodied moth, with a pointed beak projecting in front of the head, likewisea common insect among nettles. The Grass- MOTHS are small moths, with narrow whitish fore wings, and broad brownish hind wings, which they wrap round their bodies when at rest. They are common in every field and meadow. The BELL-MOTHS have broad truncated SCALE-WINGED INSECTS 223 fore wings, and rounded hind wings. A species belonging to this family, with green fore wings and brownhind wings, may beshaken fromevery oak-tree in summer, and at the same time num- bersofits little green caterpillars will drop them- selves down, and remain swinging at the end of a thread, till they think that the danger is past, when they climb up again. The CLOTHES-MOTHS, familiar to every- body, are representatives of an enormous family of small moths, comprising nearly two-thirds of the British species, but only a few live in houses. Most have narrow wings with long fringes, and many feed in tortuous galleries which they eat in the substance of leaves. The inside of the cocoons, showing the pupa Some are among the smallest moths known. The WHITE PLUME-MOTH, which may be noticed floating about in weedy places like a piece of thistle-down, is a representative of a small family in which the fore wings are divided into three separate feathers, and the hind wings into two. The other species are brown, and smaller. When at rest, they look like small daddy-long-legs. The TWENTY-PLUME MOTH is a yellowish-grey species, less than an inch in expanse, often to be seen at rest on windows or palings. Ae | It might easily be taken for a small looper- | | | Pheto by C. N. Mavroyen!] CY PRESS-MOTHS moth, but that each wing is split into six feathers. SILKWORMS We have now completed a rapid survey of the principal groups of Butterflies and Moths, and may fittingly conclude this part of our subject by giving a short account of the historyof SILKWORMS — insects which far surpass all other butterflies and moths in their importance to mankind, on account of the valuable product which is obtained from their cocoons. The industry has been carried on from time immemorial in China; and many old Chinese works contain in- teresting particulars, especially relating to the rearing of silkworms by the queens and their ladies, for silk was probably a royal monopoly in old times. These Chinese records date back to about 2200 B.c., when the silk industry was already flourishing; but, according to the usually received tradi- ; tion, silkworms were first reared during the reign of the Emperor Hwang-té (2640 B.c.) _ by his queen. The following extracts from 5 the ‘“Le-he Book of Ceremonies,” written between 204 B.C. and 135 B.c., and quoted by Horsfeld and Moore in their ‘ Catalogue When they leave thetr cocoons, the young caterpillars run up the cree to feed of the Lepidoptera of the East India Photo by C. N. Mavroyeni| (Smyrna CYPRESS-CATERPILLARS 324 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD bee é Photo by F. Peat Millar] [ Beith DEATH’S-~HEAD MOTH Remarkable for the skull-like pattern on the back upon the mulberry-trees, people were to prepare the trays and frames for the purpose of rearing the silkworms. “In the spring season, when the empress and her ladies had fasted, they proceeded to the east, and personally engaged in picking the mulberry- leaves. On this occasion the married and single ladies were forbidden to wear their ornaments, and the usual employments of females were lessened, in order to encourage attention to the silkworms. When the rearing of the silkworms was completed, the cocoons were divided (for reeling) and the silk weighed (for weaving), each person being rewarded | eae 7 Photo by J, Peat Millar] CONVOLVULUS HAWK-MOTH d grey moth, with pink bands on the body é Museum,” may not be uninteresting to our readers : — “Tn the first month of spring orders were issued to the forester not to cut down the mulberry- trees; and when the cooing doves were ob- served fluttering with their wings, and the crested jays alighting Photo by H7, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S., Milford-on-Seu DAY-FLYING MOTH OF MADAGASCAR Remarkable for the brilliancy of its colours — green and black, with the hind wings brilliant coppery red towards the extremity according to her labour, in order to provide dresses for the celestial and ancestorial sacrifices. In all this none dared indulge in indolence. “Tn the last month of summer the order was given to the female officers to dye the silk of various ma mei Photo by C. N. Mavreyeni] [Smyrna GREAT PEACOCK-MOTH Brown wth pale borders. The largest moth found in Europe Photo by Dr R UW Shufeldt] | Washington POLYPHEMUS MOTH On leaves of linden-tree, just out of cocoon. A native of North America 325 (Milford-on-Sea MOTH A very delicate insect. The wings are cleft almost to the base into separate feathers, two on the fore wings and three on the hind wings Photo by W’. Saville. Kent, PZ. 5] WHITE PLUME- THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD in order to weave chequered sarcenets, black and white, black and green, green and red, with red-and-white checks — all of which was to be done according to the ancient rule, without the least variation; the black, yellow, azure, and red tints were all to be correct and good, without the least fault, in order to provide dresses for the celestial and ancestorial sacrifices, and stand- ards for distinguishing the high and low degrees. “Tn ancient times the emperor and his princes had a public mulberry garden and a silkworm establishment erected near some river. On the morning of the first day of the third month of spring, the sovereign, wearing a leather cap and a plain garment, ascertained by lot the chief of his three queens, with the most honourable amongst his colours, comprising concubines, and caused them to attend to the rearing of the silkworms in the above-named establishment. They then brought the egg s of the worms, and washed them in the river above alluded to, after which they picked the mulberry-leaves in the pons garden, and aired and dried them, in order to feed the worms. ‘‘When the season was over, the royal concubines, having completed the business of rearing the silkworms, brought the cocoons to show them to the prince, when he pre- sented the cocoons again to his consort, whereupon his consort said, ‘This is the material of which your highness’s robes are to be formed.’ Having said which, she covered herself with her robe, and received the cocoons. On this occasion the ladies of the court were honoured with the present of a sheep. This was the mode in which the presentation of the cocoons was anciently conducted.” In the reign of Justinian eggs of the Chinese mulberry-silkworm were smuggled into Europe by two monks, and the culture of silk rapidly spread through Southern Europe, where it continued to form a staple industry ever since. In the Pelo- ponnesus especially such large plantations of mulberry-trees were grown for the purpose of rearing silkworms as to give the peninsula its modern name of More Silk is obtained in different parts of the saaeld from the cocoons of various other moths, chiefly belonging to the group of Emperor-moths; but these pro- ducts are only of local importance, and are not likely to compete with the mulberry-silkworm, has Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] INDIAN SWALLOW-TAILED Resembles the American Luna Moth figured on page 718, and of an equally delicate green [Milford-on-Sea MOTH HALF-WINGED INSECTS ZB tu “NJ HALF-WINGED INSECTS, OR BUGS AND FROG-HOPPERS BY W. F. KIRBY, F.L.S THE order including the Bugs and Frog-hoppers is divided into two sub-orders. There are also one or two small groups, sometimes treated as separate orders, and sometimes regarded as aberrant sections of the order, to which we shall allude later. The TRuE Bucs have their fore wings of a horny texture, but generally overlapping, and the extremities form a transparent membrane, resembling that of the hind wings. They have a long sucking-proboscis ! curved down beneath their bodies, and their antennz usually consist of only four or five long joints. Most are vegetable- feeders, but some species feed on the juices of other insects, while a few attack warm-blooded animals, either casually or habitually. The first family includes the SHIELD- | puGs. These derive their name from the | unusual development of a part of the | thorax called the “scutellum.” In most insects it is only a small plate of no great importance, attached to the end of the | | | | Ls | Photos by HW’, P. Dando, F.Z.S. : : i SHIELD-BUG JUNIPER-BUG thorax; but in the Shield-bugs it forms ; PS at gone de , ‘ In tropical countries these bugs are Some species of this family are car- a great solid arch, covering the whole of often as large as cockchafers nivorous as well as herbivorous the wings, and protecting them as the wing-cases protect the wings of beetles. There are only a few small species in England, but a great number of beautiful species inhabit warm countries, some of a brilliant blue or green or yellow, or spotted. Many of them are comparatively large insects, nearly an inch long, and resemble brilliantly coloured beetles, from which, however, they can easily be distinguished by the antennz, the proboscis, and the shield, the latter of which is not divided down the middle like the wing-cases of beetles. A Next to the Shield-bugs, and considered by many entomologists as belonging to the same group, are the PENTAGONAL SHIELD-BUGS, so called because the scutellum, though much smaller than in the Shield- bugs, is often half as long as the abdomen,and forms a broad triangle, sometimes broken at the sides, so as to make a five-sided plate, lying above the bases of the wings. Several green or brown species of this family, about half an inch long, are common in England among bushes. Many have a very dis- _.....d agreeable smell, and hence they are eae ed ees: [Celerborne Called STINK-BUGS in America. They LACE-WING BUG feed on vegetable juices, and also An elegant little insect, injurious to pear-trees frequently on soft-bodied insects, Ness 325 ‘THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Several species (chiefly foreign) among the Shield-bugs and the present group have a strong spine, or else a blunt protuberance, projecting from each shoulder. The remaining plant-bugs are much more numerous — at least in England — than those already mentioned, and form several families, which cannot be noticed in detail. Many species are rather small and delicate creatures, narrower and softer than the Shield-bugs and Pentagonal Shield-bugs, and are adorned with various colours, black and red predominating. Some have more transparent wings than the others, such as the beautiful little LACE-WINGED BuGs, one species of which is often very destructive to pear-trees. The BED-BUG is a reddish-brown, somewhat oval insect, common in many old houses, hiding in cracks and crevices in walls and woodwork, and coming out at night to suck the blood of sleepers with its sharp proboscis. There are allied species, sometimes found in hen-houses, pigeon-houses, and places where bats congregate. The bed-bug has only been known in England for a few centuries, and though now a great pest in all parts of the world, was probably a native of Africa originally. The bed-bug, notwithstanding its offensive odour, is preyed upon by several other insects, among which are the common cockroach and the MASKED bBuG. The latter is a black-winged bug about three-quarters of an inch long, and remarkable for the habits of its larva, which conceals itself with dust or fluff, so that it may steal upon its prey unobserved. The masked bug and its larva feed on soft-bodied insects of various kinds, and are more frequently found in outhouses than in dwelling-rooms. This bug occasionally attacks warm-blooded animals; and a short time ago a great deal of nonsense was published in the newspapers about a mysterious insect-pest in North America, called the KISSING-BUG, which seems to have been nothing more unusual thanthisinsect. Thercare, however,some much larger species belonging to the same family, which are formidable pests in the Southern States of North America, Chili, and various other countries. After these insects come the WATER-BUGS, of which there are r i Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S. several families, though the number of species is comparatively MASKED BUG small. Some are very slender insects, with long, slender legs, Ge diva: af thee tram evden and may be seen running on the surface of ponds in England; themselves with dust, in order while others, which are tropical species, are marine, and are met to creep upon their prey Panatied with running on the surface of the water in the open sea. The largest members of the group are some of the great water-bugs found in Africa, India, and America. Their fore wings are of a light brown, and measure from 3 to 5 inches in expanse. Their legs are short and strong, and the front legs are adapted for grasping their prey, which consists of insects and small fishes. There are some smaller species in which the female lays her eggs in a cluster on the back of the male, which carries them about till they are hatched. These bugs fly about in the evening, and are frequently attracted by electric light. In England there are two allied species called WATER-SCORPIONS, from their long front legs, which somewhat resemble the nippers of a scorpion. The commonest is a brown insect, with the abdomen red beneath. It is about an inch long, including the breathing-tube, which sticks out behind the body like a tail, and is formed of two separable parts. It is an oval insect, half as broad as long, and is common in stagnant water. The other species is twice as long, and is much more slender, with longer and more slender legs. It is yellowish brown, like most of the other water-bugs, and is a sluggish and rather scarce insect, creeping about in the mud at the bottom of deeper water than that preferred by the commoner species. The WATER-BOATMEN are yellowish-brown insects, measuring half an inch in length, with smooth bodies, and long, hairy hind legs, with which they row themselves about on the water, as if with oars, while floating on their backs. All the larger water-bugs are capable of inflicting a severe puncture with their sharp proboscis, if handled incautiously. Photo by HW. P. Dando, F.Z.S. GREAT WATER-BUG Very similar species are found in Africa, Asta, and America 4 en Photo by Uf". P. Dando, F.Z.S. GREAT WATER-BUG These insects live in water during the day, and fly about in the evening P{) 379 so0 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD The FROG-HOPPERS and their allies differ from the Bugs in the fore wings being uniform in texture throughout, and not membranous, with the tips transparent. Sometimes the fore wings are of a more or less horny texture, but they are frequently as transparent as the hind wings. All the species are plant-feeding insects. The first family, the CICADAS, includes a number of large or moderate-sized species, in which the males are provided with a large, drum-like apparatus on the abdomen, and some of which make the loud noise for which they have long been celebrated. There is only one comparatively small species in England, which is rare, and almost confined to the New Forest. It is black, with transparent wings, about 1} inch in expanse, and has red transverse lines on the abdomen. The largest Indian species, however, sometimes expands 8 inches. Cicadas have broad heads, broad short bodies, ending rather abruptly in a point, and their larve live in the ground, where they are sometimes injurious to the roots of trees. The wings are | | | bere : ae ree J Vrcto oy F. Edwards) [Colesborne INDIAN CANDLE-FLY Erronecusly stated to be luminous usually, but not always, transparent--a very common Indian and Chinese species, about 3 inches in expanse, being black, with large yellow spots on the fore wings. In North America and Australia cicadas are often miscalled Locusts. The LANTERN-FLIES, or CANDLE-FLIES, which form the next family, derive their name from having been stated to be luminous, a statement which is now considered very doubtful. They are insects of considerable size and bright colours, occasionally resembling butterflies and moths; the largest species, the LANTERN-FLY of South America, sometimes measures as much as § inches across the wings, which are of a pale yellowish or greenish tint, with a large round spot on the hind wings, formed of black rings or crescents, and enclosing one or two large white spots. On the head is an immense hollow, blunt protuberance, marked with one or two longitudinal red lines. In some species there is a curved horn in front of the head; in some the horn forms a short cross; in others it ends in a red knob; while others are destitute of such an appendage. The hind wings are often brightly coloured, red or yellow usually predominating. HALF-WINGED INSECTS aa The TRUE FROG-HOPPERS are small insects about a quarter of an inch long, found among grass and bushes. The fore wings are of rather a stout consistency and uniform in colour (often yellowish), and the hind wings transparent. The larva are soft grubs, and live in the masses of froth so common in grass and bushes, which are vulgarly known as ‘ cuckoo-spit.” Passing over several families of small species, we arrive at two @ 0 © © which contain many very destructive insects. The APHIDES, PLANT- Photo by HW. P. Dando, F.Z.S. LICE, or SMOTHER-FLIES are the small green or brown winged or SCALE-INSECT wingless insects which frequently cover the shoots of roses and ae Lc ed eee “Bes other trees and plants, and exude a sweet sticky substance, called Pas are “ honey-dew,” very attractive to ants. One species, known as the AMERICAN BLIGHT, is extremely destructive to apple-trees, patches of a substance resembling white cotton appearing on the bark. Under these patches the bark rots from the attacks of the insects, the pest being very difficult to eradicate. Many of the Aphides exhibit the curious phenomenon known as “alternation of generations.” The first brood consists of winged males and females ; r , but the eggs which the latter lay produce exclusively wingless females, or rather sexless | creatures capable of laying eggs, and these | multiply indefinitely for a time, till perfect males and females are againreproduced. In ‘ some cases the winged forms live on the leaves of trees, and the wingless forms at the roots of grass, etc. One of the most | destructive of all these insects is the VINE- APHIS, which was probably introduced into Europe from America, and which threatened at one time almost to destroy the vine in- L “s _ dustry in France. Wingless sexless forms Photo by H” P. Dandy F.Z.S. live and multiply at the roots of vines; and APHIS in summer winged males and females are A sexual wingless form produced, which fly up, and lay eggs on the leaves; while some of the wingless insects also quit the ground, and form small galls on the vine-leaves. Although very abundant in America, the insect is not nearly so destructive to the plants which it attacks as in Europe. Some species of SCALE-INSECTS are almost equally destructive, especially to greenhouse plants. The male is slender and two- winged, but the female is wingless and often legless, and after de- positing her eggs usually dies above them, thus forming a covering to protect them from injury. Cochineal consists of the bodies of a species of scale-insect which infests the leaves of a cactus in Mexico. The True Lice are found on various species of mammals, and imbibe their food through a proboscis. The BIRD-LICE, or BITING-LICE, form a well-defined group by themselves. They are sometimes regarded as forming distinct orders of insects; but L some authors treat the first group as a degraded family of insects —— phote ty WP. Dando, F.Z.S. allied to the Frog-hoppers, and the second group as an equally SCALE-INSECTS degraded and aberrant family allied to the Lace-winged Insects. Showing their appearance when crowded together on a branch 332 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD TWO-WINGED INSECTS, OR FLIES BY W. F. KIRBY, F.L.S. ae 1 THIS order of insects is probably one of the 1 ¥ fon! most numerous in individuals, though it may be | j that, when we know more of the insect population of the world, we shall find that it is outnumbered in species by the Beetles or the order to which the Bees and Ants belong. It differs from all other orders in possessing only two wings instead of four, which is the usual number in insects. The meta- morphoses are complete, and the mouth is furnished with a proboscis for imbibing liquid food. Hind wings are represented in many species by a pair of organs called ‘‘ poisers,” resembling a knob at the end of a stick, and other species have two small additional lobes attached to the wing, called “ winglets”; but there is no such thing as a really developed hind wing in any insect belonging to the group. They are always two-winged flies, except in the case of a few aberrant species, such as the Fleas, in which no | | | | | | | Here De Ne Mave ool) [Smprna wings, or only mere rudiments of wings, are to be CICADA AND PUPA met with. The Gnats, Daddy-long-legs, and House- Noted for the loud drumming sound produced by the males flies are among the commonest representatives of this order. The first section of the group includes the GNATS and the DADDY-LONG-LEGS, or CRANE- FLIES, the members of which may be distinguished by having moderately long antenne, composed of more than six joints, and never terminating in a bristle. They are all vegetable-feeders, with the exception of the females of gnats and sand-flies, which are furnished with a lancet- like arrangement for sucking the blood of warm-blooded animals. The GALL-FLIES, WHEAT-MIDGES, etc., have rather long, jointed antennz, which are not feathered, though sometimes tufted on the sides, and their maggots produce small galls on various trees and plants, or distort and otherwise injure them. They resemble small gnats, and there are two particularly destructive species which attack corn in England and elsewhere, — the WHEAT-MIDGE, an orange-yellow fly with black eyes, which produces little yellowish or reddish maggots which injure the growing grain in the ear; and the HESSIAN FLy, which is brown, and produces semi-transparent maggots, which afterwards grow darker, and when full grown become pupz resembling flax-seeds. The maggots attack the stalk, feeding on the sap till the stalk cracks and bends over. This is an RRINRIS AIT ay infallible sign of their presence, and of the mischief they are doing. Among the best-known insects of this group are the GNATs, or MOSQUITOES, of which there are many genera and species. There is no difference, however, to permit of their being classified in two separate NET popular categories. In England any of these troublesome insects are ~{- called Gnats; out of England they are termed Mosquitoes, if we are / x tormented by them, even though they may belong to the same species as the English ones — for “ mosquito” is merely the Spanish word for “onat” Anglicised. Gnats breed in standing water, fresh or otherwise, but seem to prefer — Photo ty W. P. Dando, F.Z.S. rain-water, for they are very numerous about small pools and water-butts. BROWN MOSQUITO Consequently they were formerly far more abundant in England than at ee present, when the fens were still undrained, and when every house had al eines i TWO-WINGED INSECTS 333 its rain-water butt. The females of some species construct small rafts of eggs, which float about on the surface of the water till hatched, and then produce small maggots with a breathing- apparatus at the end of the tail. In this condition they swim head-downwards, while the more compact pupa floats head-upwards. They may be destroyed by pouring a little kerosene into their breeding-places; and as this floats on the surface of the water, it does not interfere with the use of the water in water-butts, which is usually drawn off by a tap below. The males of gnats often have feathered antenne and long, slender legs. The females, however, are more nocturnal in their habits, and come into houses in the evening, and keep people awake by their humming and pain- ful “bites,” or rather punctures, which frequently cause a Photo by WH’, P. Dando, F.Z.S.] HORNET ROBBER-FLY Common in the south of England distressing irritation for a day or two afterwards. What is worse is that they are now known to disseminate various diseases, such as elephantiasis and also malarial fever of every kind, in this manner —from the comparatively mild ague of the English fens (now nearly extinct) to the terrible malaria of Southern Europe, India, and Africa, formerly attributed to the unhealthy atmosphere of marshy countries, or to exposure to the night air in warm countries, but now known to be caused by the bites of the gnats, or mosquitoes, which breed in swampy places, rm s Photo by W. P. Dando, F.Z.S. DADDY-LONG-LEGS Large species, with variegated wings 22 and fly about in the evening. It is believed that only certain species of gnats convey the germs of these diseases ; and it has been stated that, though ague- bearing species of gnats are still found in England, those which have been examined for the purpose have been free from these germs, and are therefore incapable of prop- agating the disease. In many parts of the world gnats are excessively numerous and troublesome at certain seasons of the year, filling the air like clouds of dust, so that it is difficult to sleep or eat from the annoyance and irritation caused by their attacks. This will be readily credible to those who have experienced the pain which they cause even when not very numerous, and have been kept awake at night by their shrill piping as they approach. They appear to be equally numerous in cold and warm countries — Lapland, France, South Russia, Italy, various parts of America, and in fact most parts of the world being liable to the inordinate multiplication of different species. In England they were formerly so abundant in the fenlands that mosquito- curtains were in use less than a century ago, and may be so still. But their numbers have so diminished of late years that, when- ever gnats are a little more troublesome than usual, it is reported that there has been an invasion of mosquitoes. ?) 358 THE LIVING ANIMALS. OF THE WORLD fmost brilliant prismatic tints, The TUBE-DWELLING WORMS are note-worthy for the elegant and often beau- tifully coloured flower-like gill-tuft with which the head is crowned. Its separate filaments are clothed with vibrating hairs, which create currents bringing food-par- ticlestothe mouth Inthose forms which build up a hard calcareous dwelling-tube, one of the gill-filaments is usually so modified as to constitute a stopper-like organ, where- Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F Z 8.) (Milford on-Sea ‘ % i SEA-WORMS. OR NEREIDS with the animal,on retreating into its domicile, can effectu- ally bar out the ingress of in- Their innumerable “false feet” impart to them a centipede-like aspect truders. Insome members of the group the gill-tufts are elegantly branched and supplemented by long, simple, thread-like filaments, that are thrust out to long distances in every direction both for food and the materials required for the further lengthening and enlargement of the tube The LEECHES differ essentially from the Bristle-worms in the absence of bristles or supplementary appendages, in the presence of an adhesive sucking-disk at the posterior and sometimes also the anterior extremity, and on their well-known blood-sucking propensities. While the MEDICINAL and so-called HORSE-LEECHES inhabit fresh water, some, more espe- cially in tropical countries, infest the moist jungles and scrubs in vast numbers, and are among the most actively aggressive pests with which the traveler has to contend. A few leeches also inhabit the sea, preying upon the skate and other fishes. The bodies of these marine species are cylindrical, with a sucker at each extremity, and roughly corrugated or warted. The FLAT-WORMS embrace a large number of intestinal and other parasitic species, includ- ing TAPE-WORMS, THREAD- WORMS, LIVER-FLUKES, and others. Among the free-living non-parasitic members of this group, the so-called INDIA- RUBBER-WORM is remarkable forthe extraordinaryelasticity of its tissues. Black in hue, it lives among rocks and sea- weeds, and preys upon small fishes and other organisins, These being seized by the suctorial mouth are unable to effect their escape, the worm’s body being capable of stretch- ing out to a length of 20 feet or more, and ‘‘ playing” the captured victim | like a living Pile tar Whats oS TERT elastic fishing-line until its SEA-MICE . a struggles are exhausted. TO PURO RAIN a RUPLI OREO Ae eu TT tn the sand i lle-Kent, F.Z.S. PORTION OF THE GREAT BARRIER REEF OF AUSTRALIA Showing soft or leathery and other corals Photo by W, Savi ae he eh aay Fi fos Z LAE ee, Bo a oe Are di ait in ‘ rf tN “AS y Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] [Milford-on-Sea ANOTHER PORTION OF THE GREAT BARRIER REEF Composed chiefly of stag’s-horn corals, This coral varies in colour, being sometimes brown with white tips, in other instances grass-green or even brilliant violet 359 360 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD | CHAFLEER ¥1 ' CORALS, SEA-ANEMONES, AND FELLY-FISHES ITH the Sea-anemones and Jelly-fishes almostthe lowest organised group of living animals is reached. As typified by an ordinary sea-anemone, the body may be described as a simple sac, the orifice of which is inverted for some little distance, and held in position with relation to the outer wall by a series of radiating partitions. One or more rows of tentacles, varying in number and character according to the species, surround the mouth of this partially inverted sac. There is no ! B distinct intestinal track, the whole EE Te space enclosed within the outer wall A MUSHROOM-CORAL FULLY EXPANDED and ramifying among the radiating partitions containing the digestive juices. The radiating membranous In this condition the coral, or skeleton of the animal, is entirely concealed partitions develop upon their surfaces the reproductive elements, and in the case of Corals, which are merely skeleton-producing sea-anemones, partly secrete within them the symmetrical radiating cal- careous plates so characteristic of the group. Some thirty odd species of sea- ,, anemones are indigenous to British : waters, and one or more of these will be familiar to most readers. The : STRAWBERRY-ANEMONE, clinging to the rocks as a hemispherical lump of crimson, green, brown, or red and yellow speckled jelly when the tide is | down, and expanding like a beautiful flower when the waters flow back upon it, is the commonest and in many respects the most beautiful of all, the circlet of turquoise beads, regarded as rudimentary eyes, developed around the outer margin of the tentacles, add- ing a charm possessed by few other species. The DAHLIA-ANEMONE, whose expanded disk and innumerable petal- Stn I like tentacles may measure as much Phote by HW’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.S. as 6 or 8 inches in diameter, isthe )gusHROOM-CORALS, WITH THE ANEMONE- largest British species. These dimen- LIKE POLYP EXPANDED sions are, however, vastly exceeded by Taken through the water on a coral-recf be | Photo by re 4 [Milford-on-Sea PART OF THE GREAT BARRIER REEF OF AUSTRALIA Chiefly composed of star-corals, many of them resembling human skulls, The Great Barrier Reef of Australia, consisting of innumerable detached reefs and coral-islets, is over 1,200 miles in length 361 362 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Photo by W Saville-Kent, F.Z.S., [Milford-on-Sea PORTION OF A STAG’S- HORN CORAL Each minute circular cell represents the situation in life of a smail sea-anemone-like animal, or coral-pilyp stated, differs in no respect from a sea-anemone, except- ing for the possession of a calcareous skeleton secreted within its basal tissues, includ- ing portions of the mem- branous radiating partitions. Some coral-animals, like the majority of the Anemones, are solitary, and rorm single attached or loosely lying corals. The well- known MUSHROOM-CORALis one of the latter. One species observed, which was photo- graphed through the water by the writer as it lay expanded in a tide-pool on the Australian Great Barrier Reef, might easily be its tropical allies. The Australian coast produces giant species which may measure no less than from 18 inches to 2 feet across their expanded disks. These giant anemones are further interesting on account of the cir- }cumstance that they are self-constituted ‘“ harbours of |refuge” to sundry species of fishes and crabs, which nestle among their tentacles like birds in a leafy bower. The anemones are themselves bright in colour, but the | associated fishes are even more so. In an example which was photographed by the writer on the Western Australian coast, the anemone was olive-green, with the tips of the tentacles bright mauve. The fishes, of which three examples were present, were brilliant orange-scarlet with white bands. In addition to the fishes a small flat-clawed crab. shared the sheltering hospitality of the anemone. Some of the tropical coral-reef-frequenting anemones, which have their tentacles beautifully branched, must be cautiously handled, in consequence of their notable stinging proper- Ities. All sea-anemones and corals are, in fact, provided with peculiar stinging-cells, with which they benumb and thus make an easy capture of the living organisms on which they prey. While the majority of the sea-anemones live single or individually separate lives, there are some which form aggregations or colony-stocks of numerous. units. These compound growths are brought about by repeated budding, or the sub-division or fission, without complete separation, of an originally single individual. It is by a similar process of recurrent sub-division that the wonderful fabrications of the coral-polyps are built up. An ordinary coral-animal or polyp, as previously Photo by W, Savtlle-Kent, F.Z.S. A CLUMP OF STAG’S-HORN CORAL The life-colours of this coral are a delicate cream with brilliant magenta tips CORALS, SEA-ANEMONES, AND JELLY-FISHES 363 mistaken for a big sea-anemone allied to the dahlia-anemone. On being disturbed, however, it immediately shrinks back upon its base, ejecting all the water with which its expanded tissues were filled, and revealing the presence of the hard radiating coral beneath. Each of the calcareous radii, which are now clearly defined through the thin semi-transparent skin, corresponds in position with one of the internal membranous partitions, and also with the origin of one of the tentacles. New mushroom-corals are produced as buds thrown off from the parent, which attach themselves and secrete a foot-stalk, to which they remain affixed, like the young of the feather star-fish, for the earlier epoch of their existence. Ultimately, however, they become detached, and, falling from their stalks, lie loosely on the sea-bottom, after the manner of their parents. The huge Photo by W, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S8.] [ Milford-on-Sea BLEACHED CORALS FROM THE GREAT BARRIER REEF Branching stag’ s-horn corals are chiefly represented in this group. Several of the large solitary mushroom-cor als may, however, be observed in the foreground coral-masses commonly known as MADREPORES, out of which coral-islands and reefs are con- structed, all commence as a single coral-animal, with its contained skeleton analogous to the mushroom-coral, though in all instances much smaller. The buds developed by the coral- polyp in these instances remain attached to the parent. If they spread out laterally, they build up by accumulation the large flattened or sub-spherical masses known as BRAIN- CORALS and STAR-CORALS, which are most abundant on coast-line reefs, or form the bases of the outer barrier-reefs. Where, on the other hand, the budding is terminal or oblique, branching tree-like growths such as the STAG’S-HORN CORALS, with their innumerable allies and variations, are produced. The colours of the coral-polyps are as brilliant and diverse as those of ordinary sea-anemones, living reefs, whereon a number of different species are 364 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD in a condition of healthy growth, yielding a spectacular effect that vies with that of any floral parterre. Sometimes large areas, acres upon acres in extent, may be covered with one almost uniform purple, green, brown, or other coloured growth of the branching stag’s-horn species. The aspect presented is not unlike that of a heath-covered common. In addition to the solid, calcareous-skeletoned Madrepores, or “‘ Stony Corals,” as they are often termed, there are a number of species in which a skeleton composed only of loosely BF PEL a y os Gere ™ i % a ‘y oa aggregated calcareous spicules is produced. The so-called FLEXIBLE CORALS, or SEA- FANS, belong to this category, as also the precious CORAL OF COMMERCE. In the last- named species. the © solid, brilliantly coloured skeleton so much prized as an article of jewellery is deposited as a supplementary basis outside the tissues by which the star- patterned skeletons of the stony corals are secreted. A group which demands brief notice is that of the Hyproip Poryps. These include the majority of the JELLY-FISHES, a few coral- secreting species, and the or- ganisms whose seaweed-like horny skeletons, known as SEA- FIRS, are, in common with those of Sea-mats, included among ; the flotsam and jetsam on Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F Z.S.] [Milford-on-Sea every sea-beach. In the A QUEENSLAND STAR-CORAL COMMON HypbRa, or FRESH- WATER POLYP, an exceptional fresh-water representative of this group is presented. It may be likened to a tiny sea-anemone, having, when extended, a slender foot-stalk and long thread-like tentacles. Like a sea-anemone, it will shrink up when disturbed into a mere button of jelly. Its organisation is more simpie than that of the anemone, its body-cavity being a simple sac, without any intucking of the orifice, or strengthening by supplementary membranous partitions. A similar simple structural plan is characteristic of all the organisms belonging to the series. An interesting phenomenon connected with the fresh-water hydra is the circumstance, demonstrated now over a century ago, that, if one of these animals be cut up into little pieces, each separate fragment is capable of repairing itself and growing into a new polyp. The JELLY-FISHES, or MEDusAS, and their allies would appear at first sight to possess but little structurally in common with the Coral-polyps and Sea-anemones. In their most familiar form they are represented by a more or less translucent bell-shaped body, which drifts with the current or propels itself through the water by its alternate expansions and contractions. In the centre of the lower surface, occupying the position of the bell’s clapper, a polyp-like, tubular mouth is usually discernible, and this is frequently surrounded by a circle of tentacles sometimes simple and sometimes elaborately ramified. Long, thread-like tentacles are also commonly developed around the margin of the swimming-bell. This species in life is of a pale lemon-yellow tint CORALS, SEA-ANEMONES, AND JELLY-PISHES The larger number of the jelly- fishes are, as a matter of fact, transitional phases only of the fixed hydroid polyps previously referred to. In certain instances the body of the fixed polyp becomes elongated, and splits up horizontally into a series of jelly-fishes, or medusas, resembling a pile of saucers, which consecutively break away and lead a free-roving existence. In other forms a com- pound tree-like growth gives birth to medusa-like buds, like the flowers on a plant, which ultimately become detached and swim away. What are known as the COMB-BEARING JELLY-FISHES — their locomotive or- gans consisting of comb-like bands of vibratile hairs —are especially note- worthy. In some of these the body is nearly spherical or ovate, one of the species, in reference to its shape, being popularly known as the SEA- LEMON. Photo by HW, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S.] 365 Photo by W, Savills-Kent, F.Z.S.] [Milford-on-Sea A GIANT ANEMONE FROM THE GREAT From 18 inches to 2 feet in diameter when expanded. BARRIER REEF Bright apple-green in colour, and with almost spherical bead-like tentacles 1 Biss 4 [Milford-on-Sea A GIANT SEA-ANEMONE Measures, when opened, 18 inches in diameter. Is almost always associated with companion or ‘* commensal” fish and crabs of brilliant colour. The fish cruise round in search of food, but always return to shelter among the anemone’s tentacles. taken through the water 24 Photograph A notable feature of these medusas is their remarkable glass-like transparency, their presence in the water in many instances being recognisable only by the prismatic glimmerings of their rows of vibratile hairs when the light falis upon them at a favourable angle. The most remark- abie member of this particular group is undoubtedly the form known as VENUS’S GIRDLE. This species takes the form of a long, ribbon-like band of transparent jelly. The edges of the ribbon are clothed with vibratile hairs, and the mouth is situated in the centre of one of the edges. The animal progresses by the action of its hairs alone, or may be assisted by the twistings and undulations of its ribbon-like body. Many jelly-fishes possess an un- enviable reputation with reference to their stinging properties. The so- called PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR is one of the more noteworthy of these. The organism consists of an ovately pointed air-bladder, which floats on the water, and from which depend numerous nutritive polyps and a mass of capturing-filaments, or tentacles. 366 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD Photo by WH’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S., Milford-on-Sea FRILLED SPONGE A species not infrequently dredged up by the pearl-shell fishers in Sharks’ Bay, Western Australia CHAPTER Vil SPONGES AND ANIMALCULES HE SPonGES are regarded as a group standing on the border- land between the Polyps and the lowly organisms which follow. The familiar BATH- and TOILET-SPONGES of com- merce represent but an insignificant fraction in comparison with the many hundred species which find no place in the world’s market. Toilet-sponges owe their intrinsic value to the relative fineness and elasticity of their component fibrous skeletons. In these particular species the skeleton is composed of a substance akin to horn. In other sponges the skeleton may consist of horny fibres mixed with flinty spicules, or it may be of flint only, or of spicules of carbonate of lime. Finally, there are sponges which possess no internally support- ing skeleton, fibrous or spicular, and whose substance is consequently little more than gelatinous. All these numerous forms, however, agree with one another in the identity of their most essential vital elements. In the living sponge the skeleton, fibrous or otherwise, is embedded within a gelatinous matrix by whose component cells it is excreted. Externally the sponge-body is perforated over the greater portion of its extent by minute holes or pores, while one or more holes of relatively large size occupy the summit of the sponge, or are scattered here and there among the numerous smaller pores. The smaller pores represent incurrent ap- ertures, and lead to chambers within the sponge’s substance lined by cells. Each of these is provided with a long whip- like appendage, with a trans- parent wineglass-shaped cup or collar, which is a beautifully constructed food-trap. The lashings of the whips of the collar-cells cause currents of water bearing nutrient particles to flow in at all the smaller pores. Arriving at the chambers, these particles are caught by the outstretched collar-traps and absorbed into the cell’s substance. The water, together with rejected and waste materials given off by the sponge-body, is carried forward, and passes out at the larger orifices or vents. Among the more remarkable sponges may be men- tioned the NEPTUNE's-CUP SPONGE, like a huge chalice 3 or 4 feet high, indigenous to the South Seas; the wonderful cornucopia-shaped LACE-SPONGE, consisting of a lace-like reticulation of flinty fibres; and its near ally the GLASS-ROPE SPONGE, forming a cup- or bird’s- nest-shaped body, supported on a long cylindrical stalk Photo by HW’, Saville-Kent, F.Z.S., Milford-on-Sea RETICULATED SPONGE The skeleton of this sponge is composed of fine horny fibres resembling those of ordinary commercial sponges SPONGES AND ANI MALCULES 367 of flinty fibres that may be over a foot in height. One of the compound or social sea-anemones is in the habit of forming bark-like encrustations on this glassy stem, and it was for a long time doubtful whether the sea-anemone or the sponge produced the support- ing-stalk, The ANIMALCULES, which represent the simplest and lowest forms of living animals, consist chiefly of organisms which are the equivalents of one of the single cells, or, as they might be termed, the “life-bricks,” out of which all the higher animals, and also plants, are built up. They are of minute dimensions, and require the aid of the microscope for their proper investigation. Among the most highly organised members of this sub-kingdom mention must be made of the CILIATED ANIMALCULEsS, or INFU- SORTA, socalled because they were first dis- covered inhabit- ing de- caying vege- table and ani- mal in- fusions. The so- called amazing which represent its organs of locomotion. outer cell-wall has a subjacent somewhat softer Photo by W’, Savilie-Kent, F.Z.S.} [Milford-on-Sea PORTUGUESE BIRD’S-NEST SPONGE Dredged from a depth of boo fathoms off the coast of Portugal, In life the body, or **cup,’” of this sponge was deep orange colour, from which the grey beard-like mass of anchoring fibr es depended SLIPPER-ANIMALCULE is one of the commonest forms which makes its appearance amidst such environments. The length of this single-celled animal scarcely averages the one-hundredth part of an inch, but within this restricted space an degree of structural and functional differentiation is included. Its outer surface is, in the first place, densely clothed with hairs, This layer, in which are developed as crowded a series (as compared with the hairs) of minute rod-like bodies, which, under various stimuli, can be shot out like darts through the skin, and are adjudged to be offensive and defensive weapons, partaking Photo by E. Connold] (St. Leonards much of the same nature as the thread- or CHALINA SPONGE stinging-cells of sea-anemones. Among other Composed partly of horny and partly of finty elements noteworthy structures, the slipper-animalcule 368 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD has a distinct throat-opening, two rhythmically contracting cavities fulfilling a respiratory function and a complex reproductive nodule, or nucleus. Compared with a host of its kindred, this animalcule is a giant, the longest diameter of many of the smaller varieties measuring no more than the %oooth part of inch, or even less. The elegant little BELL-ANIMALCULE, with its crystal wineglass-shaped body, crown of vibrating hairs, and long spirally contractile foot-stalk, is a familiar object to the possessor of a microscope. Most commonly these single-celled organisms, like the single- celled elements of organic tissues, multiply by repeated sub-division, the number that can be reproduced in a short space of time by this simple process being almost incredible. As many as a million, it has been calculated, of some species may be thus derived from an original single individual within twenty hours. In this connection these lowly organisms can among living animals most logically lay claim to immortality. The individual, in point of fact, never dies. Finding itself growing old and obese at the ripe age of, say, sixty minutes, it has simply to split itself up into two offsets, which swim away and repeat the process. Occasionally, for the rejuvenescence of the race, two individuals coalesce completely with one another, and multiplication by splitting takes place. Some near relations of the little bell-animalcule, while sub-dividing so far as their bodies are concerned, remain united by their foot-stalks, and thus in time build up beautiful tree- like structures, laden as it were with crystal bells or fruit. In some of these the common branching foot-stalk is erect and rigid, while in others it is flexible, and contains, as in the ordinary species, a central elastic ligament. Under these circumstances the whole tree-like structure, with its crystal bells, collapses and expands again under the slightest stimulus, and constitutes one of the most beautiful objects that can be viewed through the microscope. In lower forms of the infusorial animalcules one or more long, lash-like organs take the place of locomotive hairs. In this category are included the COLLAR-BEARING ANIMAL- CULES. Some of these build up tree-like growths by re- peated subdivisions and im- perfect separation, after the manner of the bell-animalcules, while others excrete tubular dwelling-cases, inhabited by the resultants of the splitting process. Such forms can with difficulty be distinguished from skeletonless sponges. The animalcule Nocti- LUCA, which by its countless myriads is the chief constituent of ocean phosphorescence, is a member of the Lash-bearing group. This noteworthy form Photo by W. Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] [ Milford: on-Sea CUP-SPONGES, PHOTOGRAPHED AS GROWING re “ ey : IN A CORAL_POOL invites a somewhat more The Neptune’s-cup Sponge, allied to this Species, 1s sometimes 2 or 3 feet in height extended notice. It is to the and diameter presence of the Noctiluca in SPONGES AND ANIMALCULES 369 countless myriads upon the upper stratum of the water on calm summer nights that is especially due the diffused form of phosphor- escence which is more essentially characteristic of temperate latitudes. Under the most favour- able of these conditions, the waves falling upon the strand leave as they retreat a_ glittering carpet of scintillating points; the oars of the passing boat seem as it were to dip into molten silver; while on the high seas the revolving screw or paddle of the steam-vessel leaves in its wake a broad, luminous track as far as the eye can reach. A glassful of water taken from the sea at such times immediately reveals the origin of these wonderful phenomena. Here and there will be seen floating minute bladder-like trans- parent spheres, resembling as nearly as possible iB small granules of boiled sago. Investigated more = 9 Seville Kent, B28] ( Milford-on-Sea closely with the microscope, each individual cyprgs oF FORAMS HIGHLY MAGNIFIED speck will be found to exhibit a pouch-like pea oe Sti tock wa eden emi enn contour, having a central furrow, from which the composed of similar microscopically minute shells lash projects, and upon which the minute mouth- aperture opens. Irritated by agitation in any shape or form, the Noctilucas at once respond by, as it were, angry flashes of silvery-greenish light, and it is to the coruscations in their aggregate condition of many millions of these minute organisms that the several phenomena above recounted are produced. One other characteristic manifestation of ocean phosphorescence dependent upon the presence in countless numbers of these minute animalcules may be recorded. To those accustomed to a seafaring life the spectacle is a common one, on nights when the luminosity is most in evidence, of fishes following or darting away from the sides of the vessel apparently aglow themselves with phosphoric light, and leaving behind them, in accordance with their size, a more or less conspicuous luminous path in the murky waters. It is commonly supposed that such form of luminosity is emitted by the fishes themselves; but on closer investigation it will be found that this also is due to the presence of the animalcules under notice in countless numbers, which are disturbed into a sudden display of their phosphoric properties by the passage of the fishes through their midst. This light is reflected, as from a mirror, by the fishes’ glittering scales, while the Noctilucas continue scintillating for several seconds in the path or wake through which the fishes have passed. There are other animalcules nearly allied to Noctilucas which sometimes occur in such vast abundance in both salt and fresh water as to visibly affect its character. In addition to a very Photo by W’, SavilleeKent, F.Z.8.]_ [Milfrd-on-sea long lash they have a girdle of vibratile hairs. NOCTILUCAS The fresh-water representatives of this group are Ticse art whe witguitaules vac Bik scip peddone mains sometimes brilliant green, at others bright scarlet. phosphorescence — That instance among the Biblical Egyptian plagues 3/90 THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD in which the water of the Nile was as it were “ turned to blood, and all the fish died,” has been attributed to a phenomenal development of these animalcules, which, on dying, polluted and putre- fied the water. Instances of fishes being destroyed in vast quantities through a like agency through- out even extensive sea-areas have been occasionally recorded. While these pages are going to press an account has appeared in an American journal of red water caused by these flagellate animalcules, which occurred last July for an extent of at least 200 miles along the coast of California, producing with their decomposition a most sickening odour, and the death of shoals of fishes, octopods, sea- cucumbers, and other organisms. -_ Next to the Flagellates come the ROOT-FOOTED Photo by HW’. Saville-Kent, F.Z.8.] [Milford-on-Sea ANIMALCULES, which possess no mouth and no POLYCYSTS hairs or lashes, but progress by pushing out lobes Spc alate organisms of microscopic dimensions. The living of their jelly-like substance in any desired direction, Cai ale bese ag be ie see rom whic! — +yt9 which the rest of the body flows. Food is picked up at any point with which an acceptable morsel may be brought in contact. The little gelatinous animal known as an AMGEBA is one of these. Related forms of this jelly animalcule secrete shells of varying form and structure. Some of these, known as FORAMS, are of carbonate of lime, and wonderfully like nautiluses and other of the higher molluscan shells in aspect. Though so minute, scarcely visible to the unassisted eye, they occur in the sea in such numbers as to form by their aggregations the more considerable ingredients of vast areas of the earth’s strata, both past and present. The chalk cliffs of Albion and the white tenacious ooze of the broad Atlantic are thus to a large extent composed of the shells of minute organisms, which formerly flourished near the surface of the ocean, but sank on their death to its abysmal depths. The simplest of the forams fabricate shells with a single chamber, which are often elegantly vase- or flask-shaped. More usually, however, the shell represents the product of repeated buddings or outgrowths, and may attain considerable dimensions. Flattened circular forms of this type much resemble time-worn coins, and are hence called NUMMULITES. Their fossil-shells enter mainly into the composition of rocks which extend through North Africa and Asia to the Himalaya, and supplied the stone of which the Pyramids are built. Allied to the Forams, but distinguished by the radiating, needle-like contour of their false feet and the flinty texture of their shells, are an equally numerous assemblage of organisms known as RADIOLARIANS. Like the Forams, they are inhabitants of the sea, and their discarded shells enter extensively into the constitution of strata. A little globular fresh- water form, devoid of a shell, and with slender bristle-like feet radiating in every direction, is known as the SUN-ANIMALCULE, and forms a connecting-link between the last two groups. From Man to Egg-laying Mammals, Molluscs to Animalcules, the vast scheme of the Animal Creation has now been successively portrayed. With such simple gelatinous life-specks as the Ameeba and its allies THE LIVING ANIMALS OF THE WORLD make their exit: unorganised organisms, groping blindly in the darkness —‘‘ Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything.” INDEX BIRDS A Adjutant-stork, 50, 51 African Saddle-billed Stork, 52 Albatross, 44, 45; White-capped, 46 Amadavats, 123 Amazon Parrots, 94 Andalusian, 21 Angolan Vulture, 81 Ant-thrushes, 143, 145 Apteryx, 1, 12 Argus-pheasant, 22 Auk, 31; Great, 31; Little, 31 Australian Black Swan, 73 Australian Laughing-kingfisher, 103 Australian Lyre-bird, 144 Australian Magpie, 135 Australian Pelican, 61 Australian Pygmy Goose, 71 Australian White-bellied Sea- eagle, 77 Avocet, 57 Aylesbury Duck, 67 B Bailador, 144 Bantam, Japanese, 22; Sebright, 22 Barbets, 112, 114 Barnacle Goose, 71 Bartlett, Mr., 20 Baya Sparrows, 124 Bean-goose, 71 Bearded Tits, 132 Bearded Vulture, 79 Bee-eaters, 110, 111 Bell-birds, 143, 145 Bendire, Captain, 24 Bird of Paradise, 118; King, 120; King of Saxony’s, 120; Red, 121 Birds of Prey, 74 Birds of the Sun, 118 Bishop-birds, 124 Bittern, 55, 57; Sun-, 41 Black-bellied Sand-grouse, 30 Blackbird, 138, 139 Black Brent Goose, 71 Black-cap, 138 Black-chested Crested fowl, 22 Blackcock, 15 Black Cockatoo, 94 Black-footed Penguin, 42, 43, 44 Black-headed Gull, 33 Black-necked Swan, 71, 73 Black Spanish, 21 Black Stork, 50 Black Swan, 73; Australian, 73 Black-throated Diver, 41 Guinea- INDEX Black Vulture, 79 Black-winged Stilt, 38 Black Woodpecker, 116 Blue Jay, 118 Blue Mountain-lories, 93 Blue Mountain-parrot, 97 Blue Penguin, 44 Blue Tit, 131 Boatswain-bird, 66 Bottle-tit, 131 Se Spotted, 120; Golden, Brama, Dark, 19 Break-bones, 46 British Starling, 121 Broad-bills, 135, 143, 146 Bronze Cuckoos, 101 Brown Leghorn, 18 Brown Linnet, 127 Brush-tongued Parrots, 93 Brush-turkey, 23 Budgerigars, 93, 94 Buff-backed Heron, 56 Buller, Sir Walter, 12 Bullfinch, 126, 127 Bunting, Corn-, 127; Green-head- ed, 127; Reed-, 128; Snow-, 127 Bustard, 38; Denham’s, 36; Great, 36, 38; Indian, 37 Bustard-quail, 25; Indian, 25 Butcher-birds, 135 Buzzard, Honey-, 76; Rough- legged, 83. Cc Canary, 127 Cape Barren Goose, 70 Cape Penguin, 42 Cape Sparrow, 75 Capercailzie, 14 Capercallie, 14 Caracaras, 82 Carrier Pigeon, 30 Carrion-crow, 118 Carrion-hawks, 82 Casarita, 146 Cassowary, 9; Sclater’s, 9 Cattle-cleaner, 56 Cattle-egret, 56; Indian, 57 Chaffinches, 125 Chaka, 66 : Chatterer, 135, 143; Thick-billed, 144 Chiff-chaff, 138 Chimney-swallow, 142 Chinese Goose, 71 Chough, 118; Cornish, 120 Cinereous Vulture, 79 Coal-tit, 131 Cobbler’s-awl Duck, 37 373 OF OTHER LANDS Cochin, 21; Red, 18 Cockateels, 91 ae Black, 94; Leadbeater’s, Cock-of-the-rock, 143, 144, 145 Cock-of-the-wood, 14 Colies, 110, 111 “Comebacks,” 24 Comercolly feathers, 51 Common Cuckoo, 96 Common Heron, 55 Common Night-heron, 55, 56 Common Starling, 123 Common Thrush, 139 Concave-casqued Hornbill, 109 Condor, 74 Coot, 26 Cormorant, 60, 61, 62 Corn-bunting, 127 Corn-crake, 26 Cornish Chough, 120 Cotton-teal, 71 Courlan, 41 Crane, 26, 39; Crowned, 40, 41; Manchurian, 40; Sarus, 40; Stanley, 38; Wattled, 40; White, 40; Whooping, 40 Crested Hornbill, 108 Crested Pelican, 60 Crested Screamer, 66, 67 Crested Titmouse, 131 Crested Penguin, 44 Crested Tyrant-bird, 146 Crimson-headed Tanager, 124 Crowned Crane, 40, 41 Crowned Pigeons, 28 Crows, 117 Cuckoo, 96; Bronze, 101; Com- mon, 96; Emerald, 101; Gold- en, 101; Great Spotted, 100; Ground-, 101; Lark-heeled, 101; Pheasant-, 99 Cuckoo’s Mate, 116 Cunningham, Mr., 11 Curassow-hawk, 82 Curassow, Razor-billed, 25 Curl-crested Toucan, 113, 114 Curlew, 34, 37 Cygnets, 72 D Dabchick, 42 Dancer, 144 Dark Brama, 19 Darter, 60, 61 Denham’s Bustard, 36 Devil’s Bird, 49 Diamond-bird, 135 Dipper, 140 Diver, 41, 42; Black-throated, 41 Diving-ducks, 69 374 Diving-petrel, 44, 49 Dorking, 21 Dotterel, 37 Dove, Namaqua, 30; Scaly, 30 Du Chaillu, 24 Duck, 66; Aylesbury, 67; Para- dise, 69; Penguin-, 69; Rouen, 69; Wild-, 67 Dunlin, 35 E Eagle, 75, 80; Golden, 80; Harpy-, 81; Mountain-, 80; Sea-, 81; Wedge-tailed, 82; White-tailed, 81 Eagle-owl, 85, 86 Eared Grebe, 42 Eared Night-jar, 88 Edible Swift, 90 Egret, 56; Cattle-, 56 Egyptian Kite, 78 Egyptian Pelican, 59 Egyptian Spur-winged Plover, 38 Egyptian Vulture, 79, 80, 82 Eider-duck, 68, 69 Emden Goose, 71 Emerald Cuckoo, 101 Emeu, 9, 10, 12; Spotted, 12 Emperor Penguin, 43 English Nuthatch, 130 English Pouter, 30 Erne, 81 Eugene’s Pigeon, 28 European Flamingo, 53 European Hoopoe, 110 Evening-grosbeaks, 124 F Fairy Martins, 141 Falcon, 74, 75, 82; Jer-, 83; Pere- grine, 83, 84 Father John, 54 Fern-owl, 87 Finches, 117; True, 124 Fin-feet, 27 Fire-crest, 132 Fire-crested Wren, 132 Fishing-hawk, 78 Flamingo, 52, 53; European, 53 Flappers, 68 Flower-peckers, 134, 135 Fly-catchers, 140; common, 140; Spotted, 140 Fowls, Domesticated, 20 Francolin, 17 Fresh-water Ducks, 67 Frigate-bird, 60, 63, 66 Frill-back, Indian, 30 Frog-mouth, 88 Fruit-pigeon, 28; Nicobar Impe- rial, 29 Fulmar Petrel, 44, 49 G Gallinule, 26; Mantell’s, 27 Game-birds, 13 Game-breed, 21 Gander, 71 Gannet, 62, 64 Garden-warbler, 138 Gardener-bird, 120 Gentle Penguin, 44 Giant Petrel, 44, 46 Glead, 75 INDEX Glossy Ibis, 55 Glossy Starlings, 123 Glynn, Arthur, 8 Goat-sucker, 87 God’s Birds, 118 Godwit, 35 Gold-crests, 132 Golden Bower-bird, 121 Golden-crested Wren, 132 Golden Cuckoos, 101 Golden Eagle, 80 Golden-eye, 70 Golden Oriole, 123 Goldfinch, 126 Goliath Heron, 56 Goose, 66, 71; Australian Pygmy, 71; Barnacle-, 71; Bean-, 71; Black Brent, 71; Cape Barren, 70; Chinese, 71; Emden, 71; Grey, 71; Grey-lag, 71; Guinea-, 71; Half-webbed, 71; Kelp-, 71; Orinoco, 71; Pink-footed, 71; Spur-winged, 71; Toulouse, 71; Upland, 71; White-fronted, 71 Gos-hawk, 81, 82 Gosling, 71 Goura, 28 Grackles, 123 Grant, Ogilvie, 24 Grass-finches, 123 Grass-parrakeets, 94 Great Auk, 31 Great Bird of Paradise, 118 Great Black-backed Gull, 34 Great Blue Heron, 56 Great Bustard, 36 Great-crested Grebe, 41, 42 Great Grey Shrike, 136 Great Spotted Cuckoo, 100 Great Tit, 133 Great Titmouse, 131 Greater Spotted Woodpecker, 115, 116 Grebe, 41; Eared, 42; crested, 41, 42 Greenfinches, 124, 127 Green Glossy Starling, 123 Green-headed Bunting, 127 Greenlets, 138 Green Pigeon, 28 Green Woodpecker, 115 Grey African Parrot, 93 Grey Goose, 71 Grey Gull, 34 Grey-hen, 15 Grey-lag Goose, 71 Grey Linnet, 127 Grey-naped Ground-pigeon, 30 Grey Plover, 35 Grey Wagtail, 129 Griffon-vulture, 79, 80 Grosbeak, 124; Evening, 124 Ground-cuckoos, 101 Ground-hornbill, 109 Ground-parrakeet, Long-tailed, 94 Ground-pigeon, Grey-naped, 30 Ground-thrush, 145 Grouse, 13; Red, 13 Guan, 25 Guanaco, 5 Guillemot, 31 Guinea-fowl, Black, 24; Black- chested crested, 22 Guinea-goose, 71 Gull, 32; Black-headed, 33; Great black-backed, 34; Grey, 34; Herring-, 33; Skua, 35 Great- H Half-webbed Goose, 71 Hamburg, Pencilled, 22; Silver- spangled, 19 Hanging-parrots, 94 Harpy-eagle, 81 Harriers, 86 Hawfinch, 124 Hawk, Curassow-, 82; Fishing-, 78; Gos-, 81, 82; Night-, 88; Sparrow-, 81 Hawk-billed Parrot, 93, 94 Hawk-eagle, Martial, 83 Hedge-sparrow, 140 Hen, Pharaoh’s, 80 Helmet-hornbill, 107 Heron, 49; Buff-backed, 56; Com- mon, 55; Common Night-, 55, 56; Goliath, 56; Great Blue, 56 Herring-gull, 33 Hill-mynas, 123 Himalayan Monal, 17 Hoatzin, 26 Hobby, 83 Honey-buzzard, 76 Honey-eaters, 128, 134 Honey-guides, 112, 113, 115 Hoopoe, 102, 109; European, 110; Wood-, 110 Hornbill, 102, 106; Concave- casqued, 109; Crested, 108; Ground-, 109; Helmet-, 107 House-martin, 142 House-sparrows, 125 Huia, 118 Humboldt’s Penguin, 44 Hume, A. O., 25 Humming-birds, 87, 90 Hyacinthine Macaw, 93 I Ibis, 55; Glossy, 55; Sacred, 54 Indian Bustard, 37 Indian Bustard-quail, 25 Indian Cattle-egret, 57 Indian Frill-back, 30 Israelites, The, and Quails, 18 J Jabiru Stork, 51, 52 Jacamars, 112, 114 Jacana, 38 Jackass, Laughing-, 106, 107 Jackass-penguin, 42 Jackdaws, 117, 118 Jacobin, 30 Japanese Bantam, 22 Java Sparrow, 123 Jay, Blue, 118 Jer-falcon, 83 “Johnny,” 44 Jungle-fowl, 20; Red, 20 K Kagu, 41 Kaka, New Zealand, 93 Kakapo, 41, 95 Kea, 91; New Zealand, 92 Kelp-goose, 71 Kestrel, 83, 84 King-bird, 146 King Bird of Paradise, 120 INDEX 375 Kingfisher, 102, 104, 106; Aus- tralian Laughing-, 103; Laugh- ing-, 105; Racket-tailed, 105; Wood-, 105 King of Saxony’s Bird of Para- dise, 120 King-penguin, 44 Kite, 75; Egyptian, 78 Kittiwake, 34 Kiwi, 12; Mantell’s, 12; Owen’s, 12 Knot, 35 Koel, 100 L Lammergeier, 79 Land-rail, 26 Lark-heeled Cuckoos, 101 Larks, 128 Laughing-jackass, 106, 107 Laughing-kingfisher, 105; Austra- lian, 103 Leadbeater’s Cockatoo, 95 Leghorn, 21; Brown, 18 Lesser Spotted Woodpecker, 116 Linnet, 126, 128; Brown, 127; Grey, 127; Red, 127 Little Auk, 31 Little House-builder, 146 Little Owls, 86 Long-eared Owl, 86 Long-tailed Ground-parrakeet, 94 Long-tailed Macaw, 93 Long-tailed Titmouse, 131 Long-tailed Whydah-bird, 123 Long-tailed Widow-birds, 123 Lories, 91,- 92 Love-birds, 94 Lyre-bird, Australian, 144; Prince Albert’s, 142; Victorian, 144 M Macaw, 91, 93, 96; Hyacinthine, 93; Long-tailed, 93 Magpie, 118, 119; Australian, 135 Mallard, 67 Manakins, 144 Manchurian Crane, 40 Marabou feathers, 51 Marsh Tit, 131, 132 Martial Hawk-eagle, 83 Martin, 141; Fairy, 141; Sand-, 141 Meadow-pipit, 130 Megapode, 67; Nicobar, 24 Merganser, 67, 70 Merlin, 83 Minorca, 21 Monal, Himalayan, 17 Moor-hen, 26 More-pork, 88 Motmot, 110, 111; Racket-tailed, 111, 112 Mound-builder, 67 Mountain-eagle, 80 Mountain-lories, Blue, 93 Mountain-nestor, 91 Mountain-parrot, Blue, 97 Mouse-birds, 112 Munias, 123 Mute Swan, 72 N Namaqua Dove, 30 Nandu, 2 Nelly, 46 Nestors, 91; Mountain-, 91 New Guinea Crowned Pigeon, 29 New World Vultures, 74 New Zealand Kaka, 93 New Zealand Kea, 92 Nicobar Imperial Fruit-pigeorn, 29 Nicobar Megapode, 25 Nicobar Pigeon, 28 Night-hawk, 88 Night-heron, Common, 55 Night-jar, 87; Eared, 88; Pen- nant-winged, 87, 88 Nightingale, 139 Noddy Tern, 32 Noddy, White, 32 Nuthatch, 130, 131; English, 130 Nutmeg-pigeon, White, 28 Oil-bird, 88 Old World Vultures, 79 Orinoco Goose, 71 Oriole, 117, 123; Golden, 123 Ortolan, 127 Osprey, 78 Osprey feathers, 56 Ostrich, 5, 7; African, 1; Cock, 8; South American, 2 Oven-birds, 145 Owl, 74, 85; Eagle-, 85, 86; Fern-, 87; Little, 86; Long-eared, 86; Pygmy, 86; Short-eared, 86; Snowy, 86; Spectacled, 84; Tawny, 85, 86; Wood-, 86 Owl-parrot, 93, 95 Ox-eye, 133 Ox-pecker, 123 Oyster-catcher, 35 P Painted Megapode, Wallace’s, 24 Painted Pigeon, 28 Painted Snipe, 36 Pallas’s Sand-grouse, 30 Paradise-birds, 118 Paradise Duck, 69 Parrakeet, Swamp-, 94 Parrot, 91; Amazon, 94; Brush- tongued, 93; Grey African, 93; Hanging-, 94; Hawk-billed, 93, 94; Owl-, 93, 95; Pygmy, 93 Parson-bird, 134 Partridge, 14; French, 15; Grey, 17; Red-legged, 15; Tree, 17 Peacock, 21, 22 Peacock-pheasant, 16 Pelican, 49, 61; Australian, 61; Crested, 60; Egyptian, 59 Pencilled Hamburg, 22 Penduline Titmouse, 131 Penguin, 41; Black-footed, 42, 43, 44; Blue, 44; Cape, 42; Crested, 44; Emperor, 44; Gentle, 44; Humboldt’s, 44; King-, 44; Jackass-, 42; Rockhopper, 47 Penguin-duck, 69 Pennant-winged Night-jar, 87, 88 Perching-birds, 117 Peregrine Falcon, 83, 84 Petrel, Diving-, 44, 49; Fulmar. 44, 49; Giant, 44, 46; Storm-, 49 Phalarope, 36 Pharaoh’s Hen, 80 Pheasant, Amherst’s, 16; English, 16; Golden, 15; Impeyan, 20; Reeves’s, 16, 18; Silver, 16 Pheasant-cuckoo, 99 Pigeon, 28; Carrier-, 30; Crowned, 28; Eugene's, 28; New Guinea Crowned, 29; Nicobar, 28; Painted, 28; Wonga-\Wonga, 29 Pink-footed Goose, 71 Pipits, 128, 130; Meadow-, 130; Rock-, 130; Tree-, 130 Pittas, 145 Plain-wanderers, 25 Plantain-eaters, 91, 96, 101 Plant-cutters, 145 Plover, 35; Grey, 35; Egyptian Spur-winged, 38 Plymouth Rock, 21 Pochard, 67, 70 Poe, 134 Polish, 22 Pondicherry Vulture, 79, 80, 81 Pouter, English, 30 Prince Albert’s Lyre-bird, 142 Ptarmigan, 13, 14 Puff-birds, 112, 114 Puffin, 31 Pygmy Falcons, 84 Pygmy Goose, Australian, 71 Pygmy Parrots, 93 Q Quail, 15, 17; American, 18 Queensland Rifle-bird, 121 Quezal, 112 R Racket-tailed Kingfishers, 105 Racket-tailed Motmot, 111, 112 Rail, 13, 26 Raven, 117 Razor-bill, 31 Red-backed Shrike, 135, 136 Red-beaked Waxbills, 123 Red Bird of Paradise, 121 Red-breast, 139 Red Cochin, 18 Red Grouse, 13 Red-legged Falconet, 84 Red Linnet, 127 Red-rumped Swallows, 141 Red-starts, 139 Red Wagtail, 129 Reed-bunting, 128 Reed-warbler, 136 Reedlings, 131, 132 Reeves’s Pheasant, 18 Rhea, 1, 3; White, 4 Rifle-bird, Queensland, 121 Robin Red-breast, 139 Rock-hopper Penguin, 44, 47 Rock-pipit, 130 Rollers, 102 Rood-runner, 100 Rook, 118 Roseate Tern, 32 Rose-colored Starling, 122 Rouen Duck, 69 Rough-legged Buzzard, 86 Ruff, 36 Rufous Tinamou, 1 Riuppell’s Vulture, 80 Ryper, 14 S Sacred Ibis, 54 Sacred Vulture, 80 Saddle-billed Stork, African, 52 Saint Kilda Wren, 140 Salvin’s Swift, 89 376 [INDE Salt-water Ducks, 67 Sanderling, 35 Sand-grouse, 28; Black-bellied, 30; Pallas’s, 30 Sand-martin, 141, 143 Sarus Crane, 40 Satin-bird, 120 Scaly Dove, 30 Scarlet Tanager, 124 Scaup, 70 Scoter, 70 Screamer, 66; Crested, 66, 67; Horned, 66 Scrub-birds, 142 Sea-eagle, 81; Australian White- bellied, 77 Sea-swallows, 32 Sebright Bantam, 22 Secretary-bird, 41, 74, 75, 76 Sedge-warbler, 138 Serieme, 41 Settler’s Clock, 106 Sheldrake, 68, 70 Shoe-billed Stork, 52 Short-eared Owl, 86 Short-faced Tumbler, 30 Shrikes, 135 Silver-spangled Hamburg, 19 Silver Wyandotte, 20 Skimmer, 33 Skua Gull, 35 Skylark, 128, 129, 130 Smew, 70 Snake-bird, 116 Snake-neck, 61 Snipe, Common, 37; Painted, 36 Snow-bunting, 127 Snowflake, 127 Snowy Owl, 86 Sociable Weaver-bird, 124 Song-thrush, 137 Suen 127; Baya, 124; Cape, Sparrow-hawk, 81 Spectacled Owl, 84 Spiny-tailed Ducks, 67 Spoonbill, 54 Spotted Bower-bird, 120 Spotted Fly-catcher, 140 Spur-winged Goose, 71 Stanley Crane, 38 Starling, British, 121; Common, 123; Glossy, 123; Green Glossy, 123; Rose-colored, 122 Stilt, Black-winged, 38 Stinker, 46 Stinking-ph-asant, 26 Stone-chats, 139, 140 Stone-curlew, 34 Stork, 49; Adjutant-, 50, 51; Afri- can Saddle-billed, 52; Black, 50; Jabiru, 50, 51, 52; Shoe-billed, 52; Whale-headed, 50, 52; White, 48, 49 Storm-petrel, 49 Sun-birds, 134 Sun-bittern, 41 Swallow, 135, 140, 141, 142; Chim- ney, 142; Common, 142; Red- rumped, 141 Swamp-parrakeet, 94 Swan, 66; Black, 73; Black- necked, 71, 73; Coscoroba, 72; Mute, 72; Trumpeter-, 72; Whooper-, 72 Swift, 87, 88; Edible, 90; Salvin’s, 89 T Tanager, Crimson-headed, 124; Scarlet, 124; White-capped, 124 Tawny Owl, 85, 86 Teal, Cotton-, 71 Tern, 32; Noddy, 32; Roseate, 32; White, 31 Thick-billed Chatterer, 144 Thick-knee, 34 Thrush, 135, 138; Common, 139; Ground-, 145 Tiercel, 83 Tinamou, Great, 2; Rufous, 1 Titmouse, 128, 131; Bearded, 132; Bottle-, 131; Coal-, 131, 134; Great, 133; Long-tailed, 131; Marsh-, 131 Toddy-birds, 124 Todies, 110, 111 Toucan, 112; Curl-crested, 113, 114 114 Toulouse Goose, 71 Touracos, 101 Tree-creepers, 130 Tree-pipit, 130 Trogons, 110, 112, 113 Tropic-bird, 60, 64, 66 True Titmouse, 131 Trumpeter, 41 Trumpeter-swan, 72 Tube-nosed Birds, 41, 44 Tumbler, Short-faced, 30 Turkey, 24; Honduras, 24; Mexi- can, 24 Turnstone, 37 Tyrant-bird, Crested, 146 Tyrant Fly-catchers, 146 U Umbrelia-bird, 143 Upland-goose, 71 Vv Victorian Lyre-bird, 144 Vulture-like Guinea-fowl, 23 Vulture, 78; Angolan, 81; Beard- ed, 79; Black, 79; Cinereous, 79; Egyptian, 79, 80, 82; Grif- fon-, 79, 86; New World, 74; Old World, 79; Pondicherry, 79, 80, 81; Riippell’s, 80; Sacred, 80 WwW Wading-birds, 35 Wagtail, 129; Grey, 129; Red, 129; Yellow, 129 Wallace’s Painted Megapode, 24 Wall-creeper, 130 Water-hen, 27 Water-ouzel, 140 Water-pheasant, 38 Water-rail, 26 Wattled Crane, 40 Waxbills Red-beaked, 123 Wax-wings, 136 Weaver-birds, 123 Weavers, Sociable, 124 Wedge-tailed Eagle, 82 Weka-rail, 26 Whale-headed Stork, 50, 52 Wheat-ears, 139 Whin-chats, 139 White-bellied Sea-eagle, Austra- lian, 77 White-capped Albatross, 46 White-capped Tanager, 124 White Crane, 40 White-eyes, 134 White-fronted Goose, 71 White Noddy, 32 White Nutmeg-pigeon, 28 White Rheas, 4 White Stork, 48, 49 White-tailed Eagle, 81 White-throat, 138 Whooper-swan, 72 Whooping-crane, 40 Widow-bird, Long-tailed, 123 Wild-duck, 67 Willow-warbler, 138 Wind-hover, 84 Witch, 49 Wonga-Wonga Pigeon 29 Woodcock, 35, 37 Wood-hewers, 145 Wood-hoopoes, 110 Wood-kingfishers, 105 Wood-owl, 86 Woodpecker, 112, 115; Black, 116; Greater Spotted, 115, 116; Les- ser Spotted, 116 Wood-warbler, 138 Wren, 140; Common, Kilda, 140 Wrynecks, 115, 116 Wyandotte, Silver, 20 140; St. Y Yellowhammer, 127 Yellow Wagtail, 129 REPTILES AND A Adder, 190; African Puff-, 197, 198; Death-, 196, 198 Esculapian Snake, 191 Agama Family, 171 Alligator, 147, 152; Chinese, 153; Mississippi, 153; Typical, 153 Alligator-terrapins, 158 Amphibians, 200; Tailed, 201; Tailless, 201 Amphisbeenas, 178 Anaconda, 193 Askers, 207 Asp, Egyptian, 196 Australian Black Snake, 196 Australian Water-lizard, 171 Axoloth, 210 B Banded Iguana, 172, 177 Bearded Lizard, 170 Bicoloured Tree-frog, 205 Blind Proteus, 210 Blind-snakes, 190 Blind-worm, 165 Blue-tongued Lizard, 181, 182 Blue Tree-frog, 205 Boa, 190; Common, 192; -con- strictor, 189, 190, 192; True, 192; Water-, 193 Box-tortoises, 156 British Ringed Snake, 194 Broad-snouted Crocodile, 148 Bull-frog, 200, 202 Bush-master, 199, 200 Cc Caiman, 147, 153; Great, 153 Carpet-snake, 191 Cerastes, 198 Chameleons, 183, 184, 185 Chelonians, Order of, 153 Cobra-de-Capello, 196 Common Boa, 192 Common Snakes, Family of, 194 Copper-head, 199 Craits, Indian, 196 Crested Newt, 207 Crocodile, 147, 151; American, 152; Broad-snouted, 148; Nile, 147, 152; Orinoco, 152; Queens- land, 150; True, 150 Cunningham’s Spine-tail, 182 Cyclodus, Great, 181 D Death-adders, 196, 198 Diamond-back Rattle-snake, 197 Diamond-backed Terrapin, 158 Diamond-lizard, 176 E Earth-snakes, 193 Edible Frog, 201, 202 Effets, 207 Efts, 207 INDEX Egg-eating Snake, 195 Egyptian Asp, 196 Elephant-tortoises, 154, 156, 160 European Green Tree-frog, 204 F Fer-de-lance, 199, 200 Fiji Banded Iguana, 172, 177 Flying-dragons, 167 Flying-frog, 203 Frilled Lizard, 168 ‘rog, 200; Blue or Bicoloured, Tree-, 205; Common British, 202; Edible, 201, 202; European Green Tree-, 204; Flying-, 203; Guppy’s, 202; Horned, 204; Queensland Green, 206; Short- headed, 204; Tiger-like, 201; Tree-, 205 Furrowed Salamander, 210 HH G Galapagos Sea-lizard, 172 Garial, 147; Long-snouted, 152 Garter-snake, 192 Gavial, 147; Long-snouted, 152 Gecko, Burmese, 166; Madeiran, 167 Gecko Family, 166 Giant Cobra, 196 Giant Salamander, 210 Giant Tortoises, 154, 157 Girdle-tailed Lizards, 173, 177 Glass-snake, 165 Golden Tree-frog, 205 Gooana, 174 Great Cyclodus, 181 Greaved Lizards, 176 Green Turtle, 162 Guppy’s Frog, 202 H Hajé, 196 Hamadryad, 196 Hawksbill, 162 Heloderm, 173; Mexican, 173 Hinged Tortoises, 156 Hooded Snake, 196 Horned Frogs, 204 Horned Toad, 171, 174, 175, 204; Ornamented, 203 Horned Viper, 198 Arizona, 178; I Iguana, Tuberculated, 172, 176 Iguana, 171; Banded, 172, 177 Indian Craits, 196 Indian Python, 191 Indian Rat-snake, 195 Indian Whip-snakes, 196 J Jew Lizard, 170, 172 L Lace-lizard, 174 Land-tortoises, True, 154 Leathery Turtle, 162 377 AMPHIBIANS Leopard-snake, 193 Leseur’s Water-lizard, 170 Lizard, 165; Agamoid, 168; Bearded, 170, 172; Blue-tongued, 181, 182; Diamond-, 176; Frilled, 168, 169; Girdle-tailed, 173, 177; Greaved, 176; Green, 178, 179; Jew, 170; Lace-, 174; Ocellated, 179, 180; Pearly, 179; Sand-, 178; Spine-tailed, 182; Spinous, 173; Spiny, 171; Stump-tailed, 180, 181; True, 178; Viviparous, 176, 178; Wall-, 176; Water-, 170 Loggerhead, 162 Long-necked Water-tortoises, 160 Long-snouted Crocodile, 152 Long-snouted Garial, 152 Long-snouted Gavial, 152 Luth, 162 M Marbled Newt, 208 Margined Tortoise, 156 Marine Turtles, 161 Marsupial Tree-frog, 206 Matamata Tortoise, 160 Matlamitlo, 202 Medicinal Skink, 180 Mexican Heloderm, 173 Moccasin-snake, 195, 199 Monitor, 174; Nile, 174; White, 178 Mountain-devil, 170, 173 Mud-terrapins, American, 158 N Natal Rock-snake, 192 Natterjack, 207 Newt, 207; Common, or Smooth, 207, 208; Crested, 207; Marbled, 208 Nile Monitor, 174 O Ocellated Lizard, 179, 180 Olm, 210 Orinoco Crocodile, 152 P Painted Terrapin, 158 Pearly Lizard, 179, 180 Pine-snake, 194 Pipa, 207 Pit-vipers, 199 Pond-tortoises, 15€ Pouched Tree-frog, 206 Puff-adder, African, 197, 198 Pygmy Snakes, 195 Python, 190; Irdian, 191; Retic- ulated, 191 Q Queensland Green Frog, 206 R Rat-tailed Pit-viper, 200 Rattle-snakes, 199; Diamond-back, 197, 199 Reptile class, 147 378 LN Dis Reticulated Python, 191 Ringed Snakes, 190, 194 Rock-snakes, 191; Natal, 192 Ss Salamander, 207; Furrowed, 210; Giant, 210; Siren, 210; Spotted, 209, 210; True, 208 Sand-lizard, 178 Scheltopusik, 165 Sea-lizard, Galapagos, 172 Sea-snakes, 195 Shield-tails, 193 Short-headed Frogs, 204 Side-necked Tortoises, 160 Silatica, 173 Siren Salamander, 210 Skink, Common, 180, 181 Skink Family, 180 Skink, Medicinal, 180 Slow-worm, 165 Smooth Newt, 207, 208 Smooth Snake, 190, 195 Snake-necked Water - tortoises, 160 Snake, 187; Esculapian, 191; Australian Black, 196; Blind, 190; Carpet, 191; Common Ringed, 190; Copper-head, 199; Dark Green, 187, 188; Earth, 193; Egg-eating, 195; Garter, 192; Hooded, 196; Indian Rat-, 195; Indian Whip-, 196; Leo- pard, 193; Moccasin, 195; Pygmy, 195; Rattle-, 197, 199; A Allis Shad, 261 Amphiprion, 235 Anchovy, 260, 261 Angel-fish, 270 Angler-fishes, 222, 228 Anthias, 215 Arapaima, 254, 256; Barbelled, 262 Archer-fish, 216 Armed Bull-head, 230 Australian Lung-fish, 211 w Ballan Wrasse, 236 Barbels, 252 3arracuda, 224, 232 Barramundi, 211 Bar-tailed Flat-head, 230 Basking-shark, 268 Bass, 215; Large-mouthed Black, 214; Sea-, 213; Stone-, 215 Bastard Dory, 215 3eaked Salmon, 254, 256 Sellows-fish, 234 Bichir, 264, 265, 266 Blennies, 230, 232 Blue Shark, 268 Boar-fish, 215 3ombay Duck, 256 30nito, 226 Bony Pike, 264 Rock-, 191; Sea-, 195; Smooth, 190; Spectacled, 196; Spitting-, 196; Tesselated, 193, 195; Tiger-, 198; Tree-, 195; Vip- erine, 195; Water-, 194 Snakes, Family of Common, 194 Snapper, 158; Temminck’s, 159, 162. Snapping-turtles, 158, 161 Spectacled Snake, 196 Spine-tail, Cunningham’s, 182 Spine-tailed Lizard, 182 Spiny Lizard, 171 Spitting-snake, 196 Spotted Salamander, 209, 210 Stump-tailed Lizard, 180, 181 Er Tasmanian Black Snake, 198 Teguexin, 176 Temminck’s Snapper, 159, 162 Terrapin, 153; Alligator, 158; American Mud-, 158; Cuban, 164; Diamond-backed, 158; Painted, 158; True, 158. Tesselated Snake, 193, 195 Tiger-snake, 198 Toad, 200, 206; Horned, 171, 174, 175, 204; Ornamented Horned, 203; Water-, 207 Tortoise, 153; Asiatic, 154; Box-, 156; Elephant-, 154, 155, 156, 157, 160; European, 154; Giant-, 154, 158; Grecian, 156; Hinged, FISHES Bottle-nosed Chimera, 212 Bouregreg, 261 Bow-fin, 264 Box-fish, Spotted, 241 Bream, 252; Sea-, 215, 217 Brill, 247 Brook-trout, 259 Brown Snapper, 217 Bull-head, 22, 229; Armed, 230 Bull-trout, 258 Bummaloe, 256 Burbot, 243, 244 Burnett River Salmon, 211 Butter-fish, 214, 232 Butterfly-gurnard, 229 Cc Carp, 253 Carp Family, 252 Carp, King-, 253; Leather-, 253; Mirror-, 253 Carpet-shark, 267 Cat-fishes, 248, 250, 251, 252 Cave-fishes, 245 Char, 259 Chiasmodus, 243 Chimera, 211; Bottle-nosed, 212 Chromids, 237 Coal-fish, 243 Cock Paddle, 230 Cod, 243 Cod Family, 243 156; Margined, 156; Matamata, 160; Pond-, 156; Side-necked, 160; True Land-, 154 Tree-frog, 205; Golden, 205; Marsupial or Pouched, 206; Queensland, 205 Tree-lizard, Australian, 170 Tree-snakes, 195 Tuatera, 183, 186 Tuberculated Iguana, 176 Turtle, 153, 161; Green, 162; Leathery, 162; Marine, 161; Snapping-, 158 Vv Viper, Common, 198; English, 196, 198; Horned, 198; Rat- tailed Pit-, 200; Water-, 200 Ww Wall-lizard, 176 Water-boa, 193 Water-lizard, Leseur’s, 170 Water-snakes, 194 Water-toad, 207 Water-tortoise, Long-necked, 160; Snake-necked, 160 Water-viper, 200 Whip-snakes, Indian, 196 Australian, 171; Y York Devil, 170, 173 Coffer-fishes, 240, 242 Comber, 215 Comb-gilled Fishes, 238, 240 Conger-eels, 248, 249, 250 Coral-fish, 235; Gold-finned, 236 Crocodile-fishes, 229 Dab, 247 Dawson Salmon, 211, 256, 262 Deep-sea Eels, 248, 250 Dentex, 215 Devil-fish, 270 Dog-fish, 264; British, 268; Ocel- lated, 269 Dory, 222; Bastard, 2152 John: 224, 225; Long-finned, 225 Drum-fish, 220 Dusky Perch, 215 E Eagle-ray, 270 Eel-pout, 243 Eel, 248; Common Fresh-water, 248; Conger-, 248, 249, 250; Deep-sea, 248, 250; Electric, 248, 252; Painted, 248, 250, 251; Sand-, 256; Serpent-, 248, 250; Sharp-nosed, 249 Electric Eel, 248, 252 Emperor-fish, 216 INDEX 379 F Fan-finned lishes, 212 Father-lasher, 229 Fifteen-spined Stickleback, 234 File-fishes, 239, 240 Fringe-finned Fishes, 212 Flat fishes, 246 Flat-head, 229; Bar-tailed, 230; Rock, 230 Flounder, 247 Flute-mouths, 232, 234 Flying-fishes, 230, 234, 235 Flying-gurnards, 230 Flying-herrings, 234 Fox-shark, 268 Fresh-water Eels, 248 Frog-fishes, 222, 227 Frost-fish, 222 Gaper, 215 Garpike, 230, 234, 264 Gilt-head, 218 Globe-fish, 238, 242; Black-spotted, 239 Goby, 230, 231; Spotted, 231 Golden Orf, 253 Golden Tench, 253 Gold-fish, 253 Grayling, 259 Grey Mullets, 230, 232 Grilse, 258 Grindle, 264 Groper, 218, 219 Gunnel, 232 Gurnard, 222, 229; Butterfly-, 229; Flying-, 230; Red, 229 Pellucid, 231; Haddock, 243 Hair-tails, 222 Hake, 243 Half-beaks, 234 Halibut, 246, 247 Hammerhead-shark, 268 Hen Paddle, 230 Herring, 260; Flying-, 234; Ox- eyed, 261 Horned Ox-ray, 270, 271 Horse-mackerel, 222, 223, 224; Fringed, 223 I Indian Sting-ray, 269 Indian Weaver-fish, 220 : J Jack, 256 John Dory, 224 K King-carp, 253 King-crabs, 276 King-snapper, 218 L Lace-finned Leather-jacket, 241 Large-mouthed Black Bass, 214 Launces, 245 Lawyer-fish, 264 Leather-carp, 253 Ling, 243 Long-fin, 218 Long-finned Dory, 225 Lump-suckers, 230, 231 Lung-fish, 211; African, 212; Queensland, 211 M Mackerels, 222, 226 Mailed Tube-mouths, 238 Meagres, 215, 220 Miller’s-thumb, 229 Minnow, 252 Mirror-carp, 253 Monk-fish, 270 Mud-fish, 212, 264; South Am- erican, 212 Mullet, Grey, 232; Northern, 23 Red, 216, 233; Striped Red, 216 Musket-lunge, 254 Muskinonge, 254 N Nurse, 269 Oo Ox-eyed Herring, 261 Ox-ray, Horned, 270 P Painted Eels, 248, 250 Painted Skate, 271 Parrot-fish, 236; 237; Satin, 236 Pellucid Goby, 231 Perch, Common, 214; Dusky, 215; Pike, 215; Sea-, 215 Perch Family, 214 Phosphorescent Sardine, 256 Pickerel, 255, 256 Pike-perch, 215 Pikes, 254 Pilchard, 260, 261, 263; Australian, 263 Pilot-fish, 224 Pipe-fish, 234, 238 Plaice, 247 Pogge, 230 Pole-wing, 231 Pollack, 243, 244 Pollack-whiting, 244 Pope, 215 Porbeagle-shark, 268 Porcupine-fish, 242 Port Jackson Shark, 269 Powan, 259 Black-spotted, Q Queensland Smelt, 256, 257 Quinnat, 258 R Ragged Sea-scorpion, 220 Rainbow-trout, 259 Ray, 266, 270; Eagle-, 270 Red Mullets, 215 Red Sea-bream, 217 Red Wrasse, 236 Reed-fish, 264, 266 River-eels, 248 Roach, 252 Rock Flat-head, 230 Rocklings, 243 Rough Hound, 269 Rudd, 252 Ruffe, 215 S Salmon, Atlantic, 257; Beaked, 254, 256; Dawson River, 211, 256, 262; Pacific, 258 Salmon Family, 257 Salmon-trout, 258, 259 Sand-eels, 245 Sand-smelts, 232 Sardine, 261; Phosphorescent, 256 Sawyer, 264 Scabbard-fish, 222 Scads, 224 Scopelids, 254, 256 Scopelus, 243 Scorpion Fishes, 215, 218 Sea-bats, 222, 225 Sea-bream, Red, 217 Sea-cat, 212, 232 Sea-hedgehog, 242 Sea-horses, 238, 240, 242; Fucus- like, 240 Sea-scorpion, Ragged, 220 Sea-trout, 258 Sergeant Baker, 255, 257 Serpent-eels, 248, 250 Shad, 260; Allis, 261; Twaite, 261 Shark. 266; Basking-, 268, 269, Blue, 268; Carpet-, 267; Fox-, 268; Hammerhead-, 268; Por- beagle-, 268; Port Jackson, 269; Spotted, 267 Sharp-nosed Eel, 249 Sheath-fishes, 252 Shovel-nosed Skate, 271 Silver Dog, 269 Skate, Painted, 271; Shovel-nosed, Smooth Hounds, 268 Snapper, 218; Brown, 217; King-, 218 Snoek, 222 Sole, 247; Spotted, 245 Sparling, 259 Spotted Box-fish, 241 Spotted Goby, 231 Spotted Shark, 267 Spotted Trunk-fish, 241 Spotted Wrasse, 236 Sprat, 260 Spur-dog, 269 Star-gazer, 227 Steelhead, 258 Sterlet, 265, 266 Stickleback, Fifteen-spined, 234 Sticklebacks, 230, 232 Sting-ray, 271; Indian, 269; Whip- tailed, 270 Stone-bass, 215 Stone-fish, 219, 221 Striped Wrasse, 236 Sturgeon, 264, 265; Giant, 265 Sucker-fish Family, 230 Sucking-fishes, 222, 226, 227 Sun-fishes, 242 Sur-mullet, 217 Sword-fishes, 215, 220, 222 T Tarpon, 260 Tassel-fish, 215, 220, 221 Telescope-fish, 253 Tench, 252; Golden, 253 Teuthis, 219 380 INDEX Se en ae Thick-rayed Fishes, 218 Thresher, 268 Toad-fish, 242 Tortoise-fishes, 232, 234 Trigger-fish, 239, 240 Trout, Brook-, 259; Bull-, 258; Rainbow-, 259; Salmon-, 258; Sea-, 258; White, 258 Trumpeters, 218 Trumpet-fish, 234 Trunk-fish, Spotted, 241 Tunny, 226 Turbot, 247 Twaite Shad, 261 A Acorn-barnacle, 273 Alder-flies, 303 American Blight, 331 Angel-winged Butterflies, 314 Ant-lion, 300, 302 Ant, 304, 307; White, 298 Aphis, 331; Vine-, 331 Atlas Moth, 320 Solitary, 308; B Barnacle, 272; BY poner 4% Zt Gok J See wa A A call en i hy o) OM ‘i 7 “ J 4 reped tele pert A ROT Lee . ar eg See Py ty tte puns ; o. i oe a 0 i 34 i UW RRS is ue aa) i fae ; 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