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THE OBJECT LESSON BOOK
 

 

By GEORGE RICKS B.Sc. (Lond.)

NATURAL HISTORY OBJECT LESSONS

A Manual for Teachers and Pupil Teachers

OBJECT LESSONS AND HOW TO GIVE THEM

First Series for Primary Schools

OBJECT LESSONS AND HOW TO GIVE THEM

Second Series for Intermediate and Grammar

Schools

 

 
OBJECT LESSONS

AND HOW TO GIVE THEM

first Series

For PRIMARY SCHOOLS

By GEORGE RICKS B.Sc. (Lonp.)

INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS TO THE SCHOOL BOARD FOR LONDON

AUTHOR OF ‘‘NATURAL HISTORY OBJECT LESSONS”? ETC,

BOSTON, U.S.A.
D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS

1893

Zz.
CONTENTS.

GESEON PAGE
INTRODUCTION 59 oo ‘ - 8 8& © »® . i

FIRST STAGE.

I.—II. COLOUR.—WHITE AND BLACK, RED, YELLOW, BLUE . 8—10
III.—VII. FORM.—LINES, A SQUARE, OBLONG, BALL-SHAPE, SURFACE 11—20
VIII. FORM AND COLOUR (A TEST LESSON) . ‘ = . j 22
IX.—X. TASTES.—SWEET, SALT, AND SOUR. . e . . 23—25
XI.—XIV. SIZE, LENGTH, BREADTH, THICKNESS . . ° . 27—31
XV. WEIGHT r ‘ a a ‘ A . e . . i
XVI.—XVII. HARD AND SOFT, ROUGH AND SMOUTH . . ° 383—35
AVIII, A SLATE-PENCIL BOX . ° . . . . e . - 386
XIX. A BASKET OF VEGETABLES . . . . . . « 88
XX. SCHOOLROOM TABLE 4aND CHAIR . . e * ° . « 39

SECOND STAGE.

I.—II. THE SECONDARY COLOURS.—ORANGE, GREEN, AND PURPLE 41—43

III, ANGLES, TRIANGLES . a . . “ - i 3 » 46
IV. CURVED LINE, CIRCLE, RING fi . ‘ . . . « 48
Vv. CUBE AND BRICK SHAPE . ‘ . 7 . ° . - 50
VI. FORM AND COLOUR COMBINED (A TEST LESSON) . . . « 52
VII. SWEET, SOUR, AND BITTER TASTES . @ . * - 58
VUI.—X. LENGTH.—A FOOT, A YARD, AN INCH . ¥ 7 ; 51—57

XI.— XIV. PROPERTIES OF BODIES.—STICKY OR ADHESIVE, POROUS,
TRANSPARENT AND OPAQUE, BRITTLE, FLEXIBLE, AND TOUGH 63—638

Xv. A BRICK . é . . . . . . . . - 64
XVI. ORANGE AND LEMON . . . . . ° . . - 66
XVII. AN EGG S . é . . e . . . « 67

XVIII. A CABBAGE . . . . ° . . . - 69

XIX. A COCOA-NUT ji * * . < " ‘ - 70

XX. GLASS. . . o . . ° . . . . - $7

YHIRD STAGE.

I. DARK AND LIGHT COLOURS . ‘ x . 7 . : - 72

1.—III. PERPENDICULAR, HORIZONTAL, OBLIQUE, AND PARALLEL
LINES . < ‘ . : ; . ‘ ; : - 74-76

IV. LINES AND ANGLES (A TEST EXERCISE) é ‘ ‘ 5 - 78

V. MEASURES OF WEIGHT.—THE LB., } LB., } LB., AND OZ . 4
v1 CONTENTS.

Lesson FAGE
VI. MEASURES OF CAPACITY.—THE HALF-PINT, PINT, ETC. . - 80
VIl._—XII. PROPERTIES OF BODIES.—LIQUID AND SOLID, FUSIBLE AND

INFUSIBLE, SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE, INFLAMMABLE, ELASTIC 81—93

XIV. INDIA-RUBBER . - z . a ‘ . - 95
EV. SPONGE . ° e . . . . . . . - 96
XVI. CORE . . x . . . * * * * te « 99
XVI. LEATHER . S . Fy re < ‘ . . - I01

XVII. INDIA-RUBBER, SPONGE, CORK, AND LEATHER (A COMPARISON) . 103
XIX, WATER, MILK, PARAFFIN OIL, ETC. (A COMPARISON) . x - 104
XX. LOAF SUGAR, ALUM, 80DA, CAMPHOR, CHALK, STARCH, ETC. . 105

FOURTH STAGE.

1.—II. COLCUR.—SHADES AND TINTS 8 ¥ . . « 106—108
TI.—IV. FORM.—CIRCLE, ETC., SPHERE, CYLINDER . 7 - 110—113
¥. MEASURES FOR DRY GOODS . ‘ : a ee - ie
VI.—VIL. PROPERTIES OF BODIES.—MALLEABLE, ETC. e « 116,117
Vi. COMMON SALT . . . . a 3 . . . - Llg
TS. sOPpA . . . . . . . . . « . «: E21
X. ALUM . . “ . e . * . e . « « 122
XI. CAMPHOR . . . . . . . . . . - 124
EU. SULPHUR . . . . . ° e . 5 « 125
NUM. SNOW AND ICE . . . . ° . . e . « 126
XIV. COTTON AND WOOL . * . a “ . . * « 127
XV. PINS AND NEEDLES . a . 4 as . ql 128

XVI.—XX. MANUFACTURES —BREAD, BUTTER, CHEESE, STARCH, ETC. 130—136

FIFTH STAGE.

\ TRREGULAR COMMON COLOURS.—BBOWN AND GREY > * - 138
U.—V. FORM.—THR RHOMB AND RHOMBOID, PENTAGON, HEXAGON,

HEPTAGON, OCTAGON, PRISMS, PYRAMID, AND GONE . . 140—144
VI.—IXx. TIME, AND HOW WE MEASURE IT . . . » 145—1d4
X. MINERALS ‘ . . . . * . . . . 156
XI.—XII. coal . . e . . . ° . « 159—164

SIV. GRAPHITE * . . . . . re . . - 166
XV. A BLACK-LEAD PENCIL . * . . e . ° » 169
XVI. CLAY . ¥ - 7 e . . . . . é . li
XVI. LIMESTONE AND LIME. A : 7 - e i ~ ‘Wis
XVII.—XX0. THE METALS.—RUST AND PLATING, HARDNESS, ALLOYS,
FUSION, CASTING, MALLEABLE, DUCTILE, TENACIOUS . - 177—188
SX01.—XNIV. TEXTILE MATERIALS ‘a < : fe * « 191, 192
APPENDIX . . . . . . . ° . . - 194

INDEX . ‘i . s * i - e é % » 201

 
INTRODUCTION.

 

Ovr knowledge of the material world is obtained through the
senses. The organs of sense are the eye, the ear, the nose.
the tongue and palate, and the nerves of touch located in the
skin. The special nerves of these organs are acted on by
things external to the body; the effect is conveyed to the
in and mental impressions or ideas are the result. Thusa
red colour acting on the retina, the sound from a whistle acting
on the auditory nerves, or the smell of an onion on the olfactory
nerves produces a definite mental impression. The five sen-
sory organs, then, are so many doors and windows by which
knowledge enters the mind.
_ There is, however, another source of knowledge of material
bodies. In this case the mental impressions are derived from
within the body, and are due to muscular exertion. It is by
muscular feeling that we estimate the amount of force required
to overcome resistance. Thus we get ideas of elasticity and
weight from the amount of active energy put forth by the
muscles to overcome inertia in the one case and gravitation
in the other. Ifa weight is placed in the hand we are con-
scious of a certain amount of force expended to keep it from
falling ; if the weight is increased we are conscious of an
increased expenditure of muscular energy.

The mental impressions, formed by and through the senses,
including muscular feeling, are called sensations.

By the organs of sense we are said to perceive, or to make
mental notes of external bodies, and these menial notes we

B
2 OBJECT LESSONS.

call perceptions. Perception is the first step in knowledge:
attentive perception leads to observation; observation is the
forerunner of comparison; while comparison is the basis of
classification ; and these together constitute the foundation of
all knowledge. :

The primary purpose of lessons on common objects and
natural phenomena is to cultivate the senses, to train to
habits of attention, intelligent observation, and accurate
comparison, and so to lead up to the higher processes of the
wind—reason and judgment. Of course the acquisition of
information is an important aim; but the object lesson is
designed to assist and guide the child to discover properties
of things, and thus acquire knowledge for himself, rather
than to pour information into his mind like wheat into a
sack.

Mental impressions are formed at a very early period of
childhood. <A bright light or a shining object attracts
attention before the child has acquired the power of
taking hold with its hands; and a certain amount of dis-
crimination, enabling it, for instance, to distinguish the face
of its mother from that of a stranger, quickly follows. Tle
power of recognising resemblances and differences rapidly
increases, new ideas are as rapidly acquired; and when the
child enters school, he enters it with his perceptive faculties,
to a certain extent, cultivated, and with his mind a treasury
- of simple ideas,

' The natural course for the teacher would seem to be to
gather up into something like order, and to perfect, that
which has been so far imperfectly accomplished; and then,
starting from this as a basis, to evolve a systematic course of
training, proceeding step by step in a natural order, each
step being a logical sequence of the preceding. Further,
the teacher who would best succeed must take childhood’s
method of imbibing knowledge and adapt it to her own use.
Restless activity, insatiable ouriosity, and love of imitation
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 3

characterize childhood. What the child sees he wants te
Know about, to handle, and examine, and, if possible, to take
to pieces, or otherwise experiment upon; what he sees done
he wants to do, and if opportunity be not found for the
indulgence of his natural activity, he will find the oppor-
tunity for himself. An object lesson, then, besides fulfilling
some defimite purpose in training the perceptive faculties,
should provide something for the children to do to satisfy
their innate activity, something to eramine and discorer to
arouse their curiosity, and something to copy to gratify their
desire for imitation. Herein lies the secret of securing
attention, of begetting a state of vigorous mental activity,
and of associating pleasure with instruction.

’ The selection of lessons, and their adaptation to the capacities
of the scholars, or to their different stages of advancement,
is another point of fundamental importance. A child of four
years of age is a different being, intellectually, from a child
of seven; and a lesson suited to the capacity of the one must
be totally unsuited to the mental condition of the other.
The mental faculties of a child are strengthened and invigo-
rated by proper exercise, but are weakened and depressed by
being exercised on subjects beyond his powers of compre-
hension. To graduate the lessons to the mental condition
and previous training of the scholars necessitates a complete
system. It is not suifiicient to select a lesson at random, no
matter how skilfully it may be handled. Each lesson, whilst
fulfilling its own special purpose, must form a link in the
chain, a unit in the whole. :

Nor is the method of giving the individual lessons of less
importance than their selection and adaptation. Occasional
information given about things of every-day lite does not
serve the distinctive aim of object lessons. To be a passive
recipient of information gives no pleasure to a child. To hold
an object before it, and enumerate its general properties—
what it is composed of, or where or how it is made—and
4 OBJECT LESSONS.

then to get the information returned by questioning, is at
best but a mere exercise of the memory ; it does nothing in
the way of exercising and developing the more important
mental powers.

“To tell a child this, and to show the other, is not to teach
it how to observe, but to make it a mere recipient of another’s
observations —a proceeding which weakens rather than
strengthens its powers of self-instruction, which deprives it
of the pleasure resulting from successful activity, which pre.
sents this all-attractive knowledge under the aspect of formal

‘tuition, and which thus generates that indifference and even
disgust with which these object lessons are sometimes re-
garded. On the other hand, to pursue the true course is
simply to guide the intellect to its appropriate food, and te
habituate the mind from the beginning to that practice of
self-help which it must ultimately follow. Children should
be led to make their own investigations and to draw their
own inferences. They should be f¢o/d as little as possible,
ind induced to discover as much as possible.” *

' Having formed new ideas of things by the method of obser-
vation and experiment under the guiding hand of the teacher,
our next step is to endeavour to fix these ideas in the minds of
the children by means of language. But in every case words
must follow ideas; in fact, terms should not be given till the
necessity for them is felt.. Thus, suppose “a liquid” to be
the subject of the lesson. The children are led by experiment -
on several liquid bodies to note that they all have certain
common properties—such as flowing in a stream, finding the
lowest level, spreading out and filling up hollows, easily
flowing in drops, having no definite shape, but taking the
shape of the vessel into which they are poured—and the
necessity is felt for one term which at once embodies all
these properties. The extension of the children’s vocabulary
in this way is one of the minor advantages of object lessons;

* Tlerbert Spencer.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 6

and farther, to secure freedom and accuracy in speech, the
children should be encouraged to answer all questions, as
far as possible, in complete sentences, or at any rate in
complete phrases.

The teacher may commence object lessons by taking some
familiar object—such, for instance, as the black-board—and
lead the children to observe its colour, shape, substance,
surface, and so on ; but then we have so many properties in
combination that the scholars are not likely to get very clear
notions of any. , It is desirable, therefore, if not actually
necessary, that lessons on objects should be preceded by a
special training in colour, form, size, weight, hardness, and
others of the more conspicuous properties of bodies. Lessons
on objects may then be introduced gradually, and, to a large
extent, they may be made to constitute simple practice in
the application of previously acquired knowledge.

In dealing with the properties or qualities of objects, those
only should be dwelt upon which render the objects valuable
for the several uses in which they are employed. Thus, all
children are alive to the fact that we cannot see through
sponge, cork, india-rubber, or leather; but to stop to describe
these objects as opague is a waste of time. ° On the other
hand, although the children know equally well that we can
see through glass, its property of transparency must be made
a cardinal point in a lesson on glass, because it is this
property which makes glass specially usefrl.
FIRST STAGE.

[ Sort, simple, pleasing, and attractive should be the charac-
‘teristic qualities of the first object lessons; so short as
never to weary, so simple as to call for scarcely an appreci-
able effort, and as pleasant and attractive as play itself.

To train the senses, to cultivate habits of observation, to
note, to compare, to contrast should be their aim.

Their method should be conversational. The conversa-
tions, however, should not takea desultory form; but should
have a definite object and serve a definite purpose.

The lessons should form the first step in a complete
system, the foundation on which future lessons are to be
constructed, the key-note for other subjects of a similar
character.

The subjects should be selected from simple “ every-day

things,” with which the children are most familiar, and

which are likely to prove the most interesting.

The little scholars should be encouraged not only to look
at, to feel, to taste, to compare; but they should be led to
talk about the things, and ask questions concerning them.

At this early stage, where the powers of concentration are
so feeble, the object’ should be placed as far us possible in
the hands of all the children. If this is impracticable, then
the specimens should be of sufficient bulk to be seen dis-
tinctly by every member of the class; but whatever may
require to be done by way of experiment, such as feeling,
tasting, &c., should be done by the pupils themselves. “It
is what the child does, that it learns to know.”

The lessons of this first stage are offered as illustrations of
OBJECT LESSONS. a

the sort of object lessons suitable to children of frum four to
five years of age. They have for their definite aim and
purpose to train the children,—

(1.) To discriminate between the following colours:
white, black, red, yellow, and blue.

(2.) To distinguish and name the following lines and
forms: straight line (perpendicular, horizontal, and oblique),
bent line, crooked line, square, oblong, and ball-shape.

(3.) To discriminate between sweet, salt, and sour tastes.

(4.) To appreciate the general differences between rough
and smooth, hard and soft, long and short, broad and
narrow, thick and thin, heavy and light.

It is important that the children should not pass to the
next stage till the subjects of this course are thoroughly
mastered, not only by a few of the more clever scholars, but
by the bulk of the class. The lessons need not be repeated
in the same form, nay, should not; for the thoughtful
teacher can exercise her class on the various ideas herein
involved in an almost infinite variety of ways. Neither
should the teacher slavishly follow the order of the different
points in the lessons here given, much less confine herself
to the identical questions in the text. Notes of object
lessons can never be anything more than general guides to
the careful teacher. They may assist her to confine herself
to the definite purpose of the lesson, and point out the way
in which she should strive to guide the thoughts of the
children ; but the actual questions to be asked and explana-
tions to be given must always depend to a very great extent
on the answers given by the children. The highest kind ot
teaching is that wherein the teacher by skilful questioning
leads her scholars to imagine that they have discovered
something new for themselves.

Norz.—It is assumed that for erery lesson the teacher will have a table

and black-board before her class; and both so placed that a// the scholare
zan see distinctly. Slates and pencils also should alwars be ready to band.
8 OBJECT LESSONS.

LESSON 1.
COLOUR —WHITE AND BLACK.

For this lesson the teacher will require, in addition to the black-board
and chalk, a sheet of drawing-paper, and a stick of charcoal or black
crayon. Each child should have a slate, a small piece of chalk, and
strips of black and white paper.

1 oe

The attention of the children may be at once secured by
drawing something attractive on the black-board—the out-
line of a tea-cup and saucer for instance.

 

Then the teacher will proceed somewhat as follows :—

“What have I been doing?” Making a tea-cup and saucer

“Could you drink from this tea-cup and saucer?” Wo.

“Why not?” Because it is not a real tea-cup and saucer.

“Tt is not real; it is a picture of a tea-cup and saucer.”

“ Now answer me again ; what have I made on the black-
board?” A picture of a tea-cup and saucer.

“What did I make the picture with?’’ With chalk.

‘“‘ What is the colour of the chalk?” White colour.

“ What is the colour of the picture? ”’? White colour.*

“What have I made the picture on?” On the black-
board.

* Of course, white is a combination of colours, and black denotes the
absence of colour; but, as in ordinary life, we always speak of white and

black as colours, there can be no need, in the Infant School at least, to
depart from the common acceptation.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 9

“Why do you say the d/ack-board ?”” Because the colour
uf the board is black.

“* Here is a piece of paper which I will pin on the black-
board. Watch me while I make another picture of a tea-
cup and saucer.”

[Make a similar outline with the black crayon.]

“ What is the colour of the picture now?” Black colour.

“What have I made the picture on?” A piece of paper.

“What is the colour of the paper?” White colour.

“You have two strips of paper; show me the one which
has the same colour as the black-board. In the right hands,
please. Now hold up your white paper. Now hold up the
black paper in the right hand, and the white paper in the
left hand.”

The teacher draws a line on the black-board. “What have
Imade now?” A dine.

« And now” [drawing a second line]? — Tico lines.

‘And now” {drawing a third lime]? Three lines.

Direct the children to take their pieces of chalk in their
right hands. ‘“ Now make one line on your slates.”

*« What colour is the line?” Fhite colour.

“Make two lines. Make three lines. Make one more.
How many have you now?” Four lines.

“Count them.” One, two, three, four.

** Now look about the room and on the table* and give me
the names of any things which you can see of a black colour.”
Coal, boy’s coat, teacher's dress, girls hair.

* Té will be an advantage for the teacher to have on the table a few speci-
mens—as a lamp of coal, a strip of black cloth or velvet, a lump of sugar or
salt, or any other object easily procurable, for further ilustration.
10 OBJECT LESSONS.

“Name some white things which you can see.” The walls,
paper, pinafore.

“What do your mothers put into your tea which has a
white colour?’”’ Milk.

«What do you sometimes see spread all over the ground
in very cold weather?” Snow. —

“What colour has snow?” White colour.

«What animals have you seen with white coats?” Cats,
dogs, horses, cows, &c.

“ And what animals have you seen with black coats?”
Cats, dogs, horses, cows, &c.

LESSON Il
COLOUR.—RED, YELLOW, BLUE.

For this lesson the teacher will require a sheet of drawing-paper,
and red and yellow paints * or crayons of the best standard colours.
The children to have strips of coloured paper to match. Balls of
cotton, silk, or worsted, or skeins of wool, or any articles having
pretty nearly the standard primary colours, should lie on the table.

The teacher, having fastened the paper to the black-
board, proceeds :—
‘What is the colour of this sheet of paper?” White colour.
“JT will make a very pretty colour on this white paper.”’
[Makes a broad band of red.]+ ‘‘ Perhaps some little child
can tell me the name of this colour. If not I will tell you.
Its name is red. Hold up your paper of this colour. What
colour is this paper?” Red colour.
* Carmine or Chinese vermilion, chrome-yellow or gamboge,.and ultra+
marine or cobalt blue may be taken as the best standard primary colours.
t+ The colours should have been prepared beforehand. ‘The coloured bands

ahould be placed about four inches apart, and the same paper will then serve
for use in the First Lesson of Stage IT.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 11

“ Now I will put another colour on the paper by the side
of the red.” [Makes a broad band of yellow.] ‘Its name is
yellow.”

“Show me your yellow papers. Hold up the yellow
paper in your right hands, and the red in the left.”

“ Here is another pretty colour.” [Makesa stripe of blue.]
“Tts name is blue. Hold up your blue papers.”

“How many colours have I now shown you on this
paper?” Three colours.

«What is the colour of the paper?” White colour.

“What is the colour of the board?” Black colour.

“How many colours then have I shown you in all?”
Five colours.

Individual children should now be called to the table to
select objects having colours similar to their papers, in other
words to ‘‘match” the colours, and then to pick out articles
having the particular colour named by the teacher.

LESSON IL

FORM.—POSITION OF LINES,* STANDING UP, LYING
DOWN, LEANING.+

For this lesson each child should be provided with a short stick and
a slate and pencil. The teacher should have a piece of string, and a
“<form” should be placed in the front of the class.

Draw two straight lines on the dlack-board, the one
vertisal, the other horizontal. :

* Children before entering school will have acquired some idea of the shape
of objects; but it is desirable so to perfect this knowledge that they may be
able readily to classify objects by the prominent resemblances and differences
in their forms.

+ The terms “ vertical” or “‘ perpendicular,” “ horizonial,” and “oblique”
are better introduced at a later siage.
12 OBJECT LESSONS.

‘What do you call these marks I have made on the black-
board?” Lines.

“Are they placed alike?” No. _

“<I want two boys to come here. I will stand John on this
chair, and Harry shall lie down on the form. I want Jane
to point on the black-board to the line that séands upright
like John. Now point to the line that is ying down like
Harry. Then I may say that this line (pointing to the
perpendicular line) like John is standing uprizht, and this
line (pointing to the horizontal) like Harry is lying down.
Take your sticks in your right hands. Show them standing
up. Now lying down.”

‘“‘ Harry shall go to his seat, and John shall lean against
the table with his arm resting on it.”

“Ts John standing straight up now?” Wo.

“Is he lying down like Harry was?” No.

“ How is he standing?” Leaning against the table.

“Here is another line.” [Teacher draws an oblique
straight line.] “It does not stand upright and it is not
lying down. It looks like John as he is deaning against
the table.”

“What name shall we give this line then?” Leaning
line. ‘Take your sticks again. Make them stand upright.
Now make them an. Place them lying down on your
desks.”

“ Here is a piece of string. I will stretch it between my
hands.”

‘What line does it make now —?” Lying down.

“And now | ?” Standing upright.

“And now /?” Leaning.

“Andnow\?P” Leaning.

The children should lastly be directed to draw these lines
on their slates, first as a copy from the black-board and then
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 18

to the order of the teacher. No matter how imperfect the
result, it will serve its purpose to fix the ideas of vertical,
oblique, and horizontal direction in their minds.

Norr.—After what has been said previously (p. 7), it should be almost
unnecessary to warn teachers that these brief notes of lessons afford no indi-
cation whatever of the rate of speed at which new ideas should be introduced.
The principal colours might give material for half-a-dozen lessons instead of
two; and so with regard to straight and curved lines. The teacher must be
guided entirely by the rate at which she finds her young pupils able to absorb
and appropriate fresh ideas.

LESSON IV.

FORM.—SHAPES OF LINES, STRAIGHT, BENT, AND
CROOKED.

For this lesson the teacher should provide herself with a long flexible
flat ruler or a piece of whalebone. and a yard of string. If possible
the children should have short rulers.

The teacher taking the flat ruler and holding it by its
ends in a horizontal position bends it thus —~ and asks—
“What have I done to the ruler?” You rave bent it.

Then allowing the ruler to straichten itself.

«Is it bent now P” No.

s What is it now P” Tt ts straight.

“Now ——?” TJ ts bent.

« Now 2” = Straight.

«What do I use the ruler for?” To draw straight lines
with.

«T will draw a line with the ruler What shape is
this line?” Jt ts a straight line. A lying down line.

«« Yes, both answers are correct. We will say a lying down
straight line.”

“ Here is another line.” [Teacher draws vertical line.]

 

 

 

 
14 OBJECT LESSONS.

“What can you say about this |?” Jt wa standing
upright straight line.
“And these \ /?” Leaning straight lines.

Draw a curved line with “chalk compasses,” or with the

aid of a piece of string.
“TI have drawn another line —~. It looks like tbe ruler

when [ had bent it. What shall we call it?” A dent line.
-“ Here isa stick. Is it straight?’’ No.
“What then? Crooked.
“And what name will you give to this Tine hs

Crooked line.
“© L will now make on the black-board a number of lines,

CANN TPA

Name them as I point to them.” *

 

The terms “ straight,” ‘‘ bent,” and ‘“‘crooked” may also be
illustrated with a piece of string. When stretched between
two boys it is straight; when hanging loosely it is bent;
when laid across objects of various heights it is crooked.

The attention of the children should now be directed to
any objects in the room which have straight or bent sides and
edges, as the doors, windows, table, black-board, chairs, &c.

As a further exercise, lines may be drawn on the slates as a
copy from the black-board, or to the order of the teacher.

* Individual scholars may be called to the front of the class to point te
lines as named by the teacher.

 
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 15

LESSON W.
THE SQUARE.

Bact child shou'd be provided with a square, cut from a skeet cf stifi
paper or cardboard, four sticks * of equal lengths sharpened at the
ends, anc a few soft + peas. The teacher should have a large sheet
of paper of square form, and strips of coloured paper (say red) to
make a frame for the square.

Pointing to the black-board the teacher may proceed :—
*‘How many sides has this black-board?” Four sides.
“Count them.” One, to, three, four.

“Tow many corners has the black-board ?” Four corners.

“Count them.” One, two, three, four.

“Take your slates. Count the corners. How many corners
have your slates?” Four corners.

‘And how many sides?” Four sides.

** You will learn about other kinds of corners by-and-by.
At present I want you to try and remember the name we
give to all corners like those of the black-board and slate.
We call them sguare corners.”

“ There are other things in the room with square corners.
Give me the names of some.” Table, door, picture, &c. §c.

“ Here is a sheet of paper which I will fix on the black-
board. How many sides hasit?” Four sides.

“ How many corners?” Four corners.

‘What kind of corners are they ?” Square corners.

* The sticks of the Kinder-garten used for peas-work will be found very

convenient.
+ The peas should be soaked about twelve hours in water, and be aliowed

to dry for an hour previous to being used.
16 OBJECT LESSONS.

“ What do you call the wood placed round the outside uf
your slatesP” Frames.
“Watch me while I make a frame to this sheet of paper.”

 

 

SQUARE
FRAME

 

 

 

 

 

 

““ What colour have these strips of paper?” Red.
“‘ How many strips must I use to make the frame?” Four
strips.

‘‘T will now take off the frame and put the strips of paper,

side by side on the black-board,—so.”

“Can you tell me which is the longest strip?” No.

“Why not?” They are of the same length.

“Yes, and this tells me that the sides of my sheet of
paper are all of the same—length.”’

“Once more. How many sides has my sheet of paper? ”
Four sides.

“And what about their lengths? Is there one longer
than the other?” No, they are all of the same length.

“How many corners has my sheet of paper?” Four corners.

“And what do we call the corners?”’ Square corners.

“T want you now to remember that this piece of paper,
because it has four square corners and four sides of the same
length, is said to be of a sguare shape.”

“You have a piece of paper of a square shape. Show it
to me.”

“Why do I say it is square?” Repeat after me— Because
tt has four square corners and four sides of the same length.”

“T will now draw a square on the black-board, using the
ruler.”

 

 
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 17
‘Here is the first line | a

“ What kind of line is it?” A straight ?ine. A standing
up line.

“ Here is the second line io

«What kind of line is this?” A straight line. A lying
down line.

“Now I will finish the square [“].”

“How many straight sides has it?” Four straight sides.
«“What name do we give to the corners?” Square corners.
“ And what is the shape called?” 4 square shape.

“Take your sticks. Put them together. Have they the
same length? Lay them down again. Take one stick and
fasten a pea at each end, thus O———0O .”

«« Now takea second stick and put two other peas on in the

Same way QO=~0O Be

“Take another stick and join these two as I have done.”

“ Then join the other ends with the remaining stick.”
“ See that you have square corners like the black-board.”

Now tell the name of the shape of the frame you have

made.” A square frame.
«
18 OBJECT LESSONS.

LESSON VI.
AN OBLONG.

Tue children should be provided with the necessary sticks and peas
to make an oblong frame.

This lesson may be introduced (as indeed nearly all lessons
should) by a few questions on the previous lesson, as a con-
necting link.

“How many corners has a square?” Four corners.

«What kind of corners are they?”’ Square corners.

“How many sides has a square?” Four sides.

‘What can you tell me about the sides?” They must be
of the same length. They must be straight sides.

“Here is another sheet of paper which I will fix on the
black-board.”

“How is it like a square?” Jt has four square corners.
It has four straight sides.

“How is it unlike a square py Its sides are not all of the
same length.

 

 

OBLONG FRAME

 

 

 

 

 

 

“TI will pin a frame to this paper as I did to the square.
dere are two long strips for the long sides.”

“What colour are they ?”’ Blue colour.

« And here are two short strips for the short sides.”

“What colour are they?” Yellow colour.

“I now take off the frame and place two long blue strips
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 19

side by side, and the two short yellow strips side by side,
thus—

*‘Which of the blue strips is the longer?’ Neither. They
are of the same length.
«« And of the yellow strips?” They are of the same length.

“Now I shall draw a figure on the black-board having four
square corners and four straight sides, the two standing up
lines shall be short, but of the same length; and the two
lying down lines shall be long, but of the same length, and
I shall ask you to remember its name. Here it is, and its
name is oblong a

“Here is another: oblong with the standing up lines longer
than the lying down lines Yl a

N

« And here is another leaning a
“il

“Take your slates. How many long sides have they?”
Tuo long sides.
«How many short sides have they?’’ Tico short sides.

“Hold your slates up by the long sides, so Now

 

by the short sides, so

 

« Of what shape are your slates?” Oblong shape.
20 OBJECT LESSONS.

The children should now be directed to make an oblong
frame with the sticks and peas, as in the case of the square.

Lastly, they should be asked to point out things in, the
room, or select objects on the table, which have oblong
shapes.

LESSON VIL
BALL-SHAPE,* SURFACE.

ARTICLES for illustration :—Balls of wood or india-rubber, marbles,
oranges, shot of different sizes, apples, the coloured Kinder-garten
balls, or any other spherical objects.

The teacher holding up, say, an india-rubber ball, asks—

“ What is this I hold in my hand?” A bali.

“ What is its shape P” Round.

“Here is a penny. What is its shape?” Round.

“ But is the penny round like the ball?” No.

“Name some things you know which are round like the
ball.” An orange, a marble, &c. &e.

“You may say that things which are of the same shape as
the ball are of ball-shape.”

“ Here is a marble. What isits shape?”  Ball-shape.

“Here is an orange. What isits shape?”  Badl-shape.

“‘ How can I see what is inside this orange?” Cut it with
aknife. Peel tt.

“You say peel it. Where is the peel, on the inside or the
outside?” On the outside.

* The preceding lessons on lines and shapes will probably be found suffi-
cient for the first stage ; but as spherical objects are more familiar to children
than any other regular solid bodies, and as in some of the first-stage lessons
reference is made to badl-shaped objects, this lesson is here introduced out af
its logical order.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 21

“ What am I holding in my hand?” An apple.

“ What part of the apple can you seo?” The outside.

“ Here is a painted ball. On what part of the ball is the
paint put?” On the outside.

“J will now give you another word which means the
same thing as outside, it is surface.”

« John shall come to the table and show me the surface of
the orange and the apple, and Mary shall write on the surface
of the black-board. You may all of you make a line on the
surface of your slates.”

“Now look at the surface of this ball, and the surface of
this slate. Are they alike?” No; one ts flat, the other ts
round.

“‘ This piece of wire you see is straight. I bend it over
the ball. What shape has it now —~?” It is bent.

«You may say, then, that the surface of the ball is a bent
surface.”

“ Now tell me the names of some things which you see in
the room that have flat surfaces.” Table, wall, book, window-
pane, &c. &¢.

“Tell me the names of things you can think of, which
have bent surfaces.” Bails, hats, &c. &c.

“T cut this apple in two. What kind of surface is this”
(pointing to the plane surface)? A flat surface.

“ And this” (pointing to the curved surface)? A bent
surface.

“How many flat surfaces has a penny?” Two.

“How many bent surfaces has a penny?” One.

“By which surface am I holding this penny?” By the
flat surface.

“And now?” By the bent surfuce,
23 OBJECT LESSONS,

LESSON YIII.
FORM AND COLOUR (A Test Lesson).

A BOX may be placed on the table containing any or all of the fol-
lowing articles, or any other similar ones ready to hand :—Balls of
coloured * worsted or wool, squares and oblongs of coloured * cloth
or ribbon, a square envelope, an oblong envelope, 4 flat ruler, a book,
an egg, a tea-cup, a half-crown.

“T have in this box a number of different things. Iam
going to take them out one at a time and ask you to tell me
all you can about them.”

“What is this?” An egg.

“‘ What is the outside of the egg called?” The shell.

«By what other name may we call the outside?” The
surface.

“ What kind of surface has the egg?” A bent surface.

“* What is the colour of the shell?’ White colour.

“What are eggs useful for?” - To eat.

“Here is a bunch of balls of cotton. How many are
there? Count them.” One, tico, three, four, fire.

‘«« What is the colour of this one?” White.

“And this?” Blue.

“And this?” Yellow.

“And this?” Red.

“And this?” Black.

The teacher may now hang these balls in a row over a
sheet of paper on the black-board. Then, producing five
strips of paper, or cloth, or ribbon of similar colours, require
the children to match the colours. The strips may be pinned
. on beneath the balls.

* White, black, red, yellow, and blue only.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 23

 

YELLOW BLUE BLACK

    

 

 

 

White colour.
“ How many sides has it?” Four sides.
“ How many corners?” Four corners.
“ What kind of corners ?” Square corners.
“What kind of sides has it?” Straight sides.

“Here is an envelope. What colour is it?” act

 

“ Are all the sides of the same length?” No.

“ How many are long?” To.

“ How many are shorter?” Two.

** What shape is the envelope?”’ Oblong shape.

‘Here is another envelope. What shape is pre,
this?” Sguare shape. od

Any other articles can be dealt with similarly, care being
taken to introduce only such colours and forms as have been
introduced in the previous lessons.

LESSON IX.
SWEET AND SALT TASTES.

THE children should be provided with small pieces of loaf-sugar, salt,
chalk, and liquorice, and the teacher should have larger specimens on
the table.

The black liquorice and the white chalk, sugar, and salt
will serve to form a connecting link with the preceding
lessons on colour, &c.
24 OBJECT LESSONS.

Thus, holding up a piece of liquorice? the teacher may
commence :—

“Of what colour is this liquorice?” Of a black colour.

«And of what colour is this chalk?” Of a white colour.

‘““How many white pieces have you?” Three white pieces.

“How many more white have you than black?” Two.

“What do you taste with?” The tongue.

“Your mother puts sugar in your tea—why ?” To make
st sweet. ;

“Place the chalk on one side, and put the other two white
lumps to the tip of your tongue. Can you tell me which of
the two is sugar P”

“ How do you know that?” Because it ts sweet.

“ Show me the sugar.”

“Can you tell me what the other lump is?” Yes, it
ts salt.

“ How do you know it is salt?”’ Because tt tastes salt.

« What is the colour of sugar?” White colour.

“ What is the colour of salt?” White colour.

“Then sugar and salt have the same colour. Now taste
the sugar and salt again. Have they the same taste P” No.

“Then sugar and salt have not the same taste.”

“Repeat after me:—Sugar and salt have the same colour,
but not the same taste.” *

“Taste the liquorice. Does it taste like the salt or the
sugar?” ILnke the sugar.

“What taste has the liquorice?” A sweet taste.

“ Are the liquorice and the sugar alike in colour?” Wo;
the liquorice ts black, the sugar is white.

* « All knowledge finally resolves itself into differences and agreements *
Bain,
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 25

Then sugar and liquorice are alike in taste,* but they
are unlike in colour.”

“ Repeat after me :—Sugar and liquorice are alike in taste,
but unlike in colour.”

The children may now be called on to name some of the
uses of sugar and salt, and also to name any sweet substances
such as milk, fruits, &.

Lastly, the teacher may elicit from the children that chalk
is without taste.

LESSON X.
SWEET AND SOUR TASTES.

A LEMON, some clear water, a little vinegar, and solutions of sugar
and salt, and a mixture of lemon-juice and water—the solutions and
mixture in clear glass bottles—will be wanted for this lesson.

Recapitulation of the preceding lesson should form the
introduction to this.

*«« What is the taste of sugar?” It is a sweet taste.

«What is the taste of salt?” Jt is a salt taste.

“ How are loaf sugar and salt alike?” In colour.

“In what are they unlike?” In taste.

« What taste has liquorice?” A sweet taste.

« What colour is liquorice ?”” Black colour.

“ How are sugar and liquorice alike?” Jn taste.

“In what are they unlike?” In colour.

‘«« How are salt and chalk alike?”’ In colour.

“ How are they unlike?” In taste.

«« What is the taste of chalk?” Chalk has no taste.

* Of course at this stage it is only broad similarities that can be noticed.
26 OBJECT LESSONS.

“I have here [showing a lemon] something which most
of you know. Whatisit?’’ A lemon.

«What colour has the lemon ?” A yellow colour.

«I will cut it into small pieces on this plate, and several
of you shall taste the juice.”

“ Has it a sweet taste P”’ No.

«A salt taste?” Wo.

*‘No, it is neither sweet nor salt. We call the taste of
the lemon-juice a sour taste.”

“‘ Here I have some vinegar in a bottle. I want a girl to
taste it.”

“ Does it taste like the sugar or the lemon?” Like the
lemon.

“What kind of taste did we say the lemon had?” A
sour taste.

“Then what taste has the vinegar?” A sour taste.

“Then how are lemon-juice and vinegar alike?” They
both have a sour taste.

An unripe apple, a crab-apple, an unripe orange, a Seville
orange, or any unripe fruit, will serve for further illustra-
tion of sour taste.

The following experiment will serve as a test, and will
prove interesting to the children, as it gives them something
to find out for themselves.

Provide four clear glass bottles. Fill the first with clear
water, the second with a clear solution of sugar, the third
with a clear solution of salt, and the fourth with a clear
mixture of essence of lemon or lemon-juice and water.

By merely looking at the bottles the children are unable
to distinguish the one from the other.

Pour a little of the liquid from the bottles into saucers or
plates, and the scholars may be called upon to find out which
is water, having no taste, which is the salt solution, and so
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 27

on, by dipping the tip of the finger into the saucers and
applying it to the tongue.

LESSON XL
SIZE.

PROVIDE a number of objects of various sizes, such as large and smal]
balls of india-rubber, cotton, worsted, or wool, marbles, oranges,
apples, books, stones, sheets of paper, or any other articles which
come readily to hand.

The teacher will proceed somewhat as follows :—

“You see I have a number of things on the table. Here
are oranges. What shape have the oranges?” A ball shape.

“Here are marbles. What shape have they?” A ball
shape.

“You know some things are large and some things are
small. Here is an india-rubber ball, an orange, and a
marble. Which is the largest?” The orange.

“ And which is the smallest?” The marble.

“T want James to come to the table and pick out a small
book. Grace shall find me a large book. MHarry shall
choose a small marble, and William shall look out for me
the smallest orange.”

“Here is a book. I want Tom to find me another of the
same size.”

“Name some large things in the room.” Stove, table,
black-board, cupboard, door, window, &c. &e.
“ Name some small things.” Books, pencil, ink-wells, &c. &.

«© Which is the smaller, the slate or the black-board?”

The slate.
“ What is the shape of the slate?” An oblong.
28 OBJECT LESSONS.

“T will draw an oblong on the black-board.” [Draws a
small oblong. |

“Ts it small or large?” Small.

“Then what will you call this?” [Drawing a larger
figure.] Large.

The teacher may then draw on the black-board, or ex-
hibit, various vessels of different sizes, and proceed thus :—

“What is this?” A basin.

“And this?” A tea-cup.

“Which will hold the most water?” The basin.

“Why?” Because tt is larger than the tea-cup.

« And what is this?”? A tumbler.

“And this?” A wine-glass.

“Which will hold the most water?” The tumbler.

“Why?” Because it is larger than the wine-glass,

“T will fill the wine-glass with water and pour it into the
tumbler. Is the tumbler full?” Wo.

“We will put in another wine-glassful, and another.
How many wine-glassfuls have I putin?” Three.

“Now the tumbler is full) How much larger is the
tumbler than the wine-glass?” Three times as large.

* Some animals are large, others are small. Give me the
names of some small animals you know?” Mouse, fly, beetle,
bird, Se. &e.

“Now some large animals you have seen?” Horse, sheep,
cou, &e. &e.

“Which is the larger—a cow ora sheep?” A cow.

“ Which is the smaller—a sheep or a cat?” A caé.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 29

LESSON XII.
LENGTH.

Eacu child should be provided with half-a-dozen strips of tape, or —
sticks of different length.

Place three boys of different heights in front of the class
and proceed thus :—

“Which is the tallest of these three boys, Tom, Harry,
or James?” Tom.

“Which is the shortest?” Harry.

‘We will measure their heights with this long ruler, and
draw lines on the black-board to show how tall the
boys are.”

“Which line shows how tall Tom is?” The top line.

“ Which shows how tall Harry is?” The bottom line.

*€ And which shows how tall James is?” The middle line.

* Which is the longest line?” The top one.

“ And the shortest ?”? The bottom line.

“Here are two pieces of tape. What is the colour of
this?” Red.

“ And this?” White.

“Which is the longer?” The red.

“I will pin these two pieces of tape on the black-board.”

“ Here is a ruler. I put it by the side of the white tape.
Which is the longer?” They are of the same length.

“ Now let us see how many times the red tape is longer
than the ruler. Count as I measure.” One, tio, three.

“Then the red tape is how many times longer than the
ruler?” Three times longer.

“And how many times longer than the white tape?”
Three times.
30 OBJECT LESSONS.

In same way measure black-board, table, &c., and compare
lengths.

me the shortest. Now the longest. Now
place them all in a row beginning with
the longest, then the next longest, like I
draw these lines on the black-board.”

“You have a bundle of sticks.* Show |

 

 

|

The children may now be directed to name long and short
things in the rooms, the longest maps or pictures on the
walls, the longest pointers, &c. &e.

Lastly, they may draw long and short lines on their slates
to the teacher’s order.

LESSON XIIL
BREADTH.

Tuis lesson should be given in a manner precisely similar te
the preceding. The teacher should provide strips of coloured
paper or ribbon of different widths, and the children should
first be exercised in selecting the broad and narrow pieces.
Then pieces may be selected of the same width as others
shown. Broad and narrow lines may be drawn on the
black-board. Parallel lines may be drawn at different
distances apart, and the children may be required to tell the
wide and narrow spaces. Lastly, the children may be directed
to measure certain things for themselves in order to find the
wider and the narrower; or they may be instructed to draw
lines wider apart or closer together on their slates.

* Or ribbons, or strips of paper.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 8l

LESSON XIV,
THICKNESS.

In the same way as in Lesson XIL, the lesson on thickness
will necessitate the provision of a number of objects for
comparison of different thicknesses—such as different papers,
from tissue to cardboard, pieces of glass, bits of boards, &c.
Thick and thin “ bread-and-butter”’ may be contrasted ; as
also the peel of an orange with the skin of an onion or a
poiled potato, thick and thin shoes, clothing, &. &. An
occasional question on the subjects of the foregoing lessons
must not be forgotten. A comparison of the length, breadth,
and thickness of different objects may well form the subject
of another lesson to come in here.

LESSON XV.
WEIGHT.

For this lesson provide small specimens of any or all of the following
or similar articles: cork, india-rubber, sawdust, sand, woods, stones,
metals, &c., and three tumblers each two-thirds full of water.*

“T havea little sand in this paper, and a little sawdust in
this, and here I have two glasses partly filled with water,
and you must watch me while I put the sand in one glass
and the sawdust in the other.”

“T put in the sand first. Where does it go?” To the
bottom.

«Now the sawdust in the other glass. Where do you
see it?” On the top of the water.

* If possible, each child should be provided with a bit of cork, wood, and
metal of about the same size.
32 OBJECT LESSONS.

“Why does the sand sink to the bottom of the water?”
Because tt 1s heavy.

« And why does the sawdust remain at the top?” Because
it is light.

“T now put a sione and a cork in the other glass. Where
is the stone?” At the bottom of the tater.

“And where is the cork?” At the top of the water.

“Then what shall we say about the stone because it sinks
to the bottom?” I¢ is heavy.

«And what may we say about the cork because it swims
atthe top?” It is light.

« Here is a small piece of india-rubber, and here an iron
nail. I put them in the water. Which is the heavier?”
The nail.

“* How do you know that?” Because it sinks to the bottom.

“ Here is a piece of wood; it swims near the top of the
water. What will you say about the wood?” I¢ ts lighter.

“Now tell me how cork, sawdust, and india-rubber are
alike?” They are light. They all swim on the water.

“Repeat after me :—

“ Things that are heavier than water sink to the bottom.

“ Things that are lighter than water float near the top.”

“This penny sinks to the bottom ; is it heavier or lighter
than water?” Heavier.

“This paper floats on the top; is it heavier or lighter than
water?” Lighter.

“T have here a bottle with a little water in it. What
colour have I made the water?” Red.
“Yes, I have made the water red for you to see it better.

Now I will pour in some oil. Where do you see the oil?”
At the top of the water.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 33

“Why is it at the top?” Because it is lighter than the
water.

“T shake the bottle and so mix the water and oil; but
when I put the bottle on the table you may see the oil going
to the top again because it is lighter than the water.” *

** Suppose I put a cork at the bottom of the water, will it
remain there when I remove my hand?” No, it will rise to
the top.

“Why?” Because it is lighter than the water.

“We can tell heavy and light things by holding them in
our hands. You have bits of cork, wood, and iron. Hold
them in your hands and say which you think is the heavier,
and which the lighter.”

Further illustration may be had by bringing individual
scholars to the table to test weight of lead, stune, iron, &c.,
by holding in the hand.

LESSON XVL
HARD AND SOFT.

PROVIDE objects as in the last lesson: also a piece of bread and a
boiled potato or turnip.

«What have I on this plate?” A piece of bread.
«What do you call the outside?” The crust.

* And the inside?” The crumb.

“When you bite the crust how does it feel?” Hard.

** And how does the crumb feel when you bite it ?”’ Soft.

© If a little quicksilver be at hand, the experiment may be made more
interesting by showing how it remains beneath the water because it is
heavier. Three distinct layers are thus shown.

D
34 OBJECT LESSONS.

“ What does your mother put on your bread before she
gives it to you to eat?” Butter.

“Is the butter hard or soft?” Soft.

«Tell me something you eat for dinner besides bread which
is soft?” Potatoes, cabbage, turnips, &c.

“Here is a boiled potato. I want a girl to squeeze it.
How does it feel?” It feels soft.

“Tere is a piece of wood. Squeeze it. Which is the
harder, the potato or the wood ?”’ The wood.

“You see I can cut the potato easily with my knife; I can
also cut the wood, but not so easily.”

“Can I cut this stone?” * No.

“Why not?” It is too hard.

“Which is the hardest, the stone, wood, or potato?” The
stone.

“ Tell me some other things which are so hard that I can-
not cut them with my knife?” Tron, glass, §e.

“Tfere is a piece of cork. Can Icut this?” Yes.

“Then what will you say about it?’ The cork is soft.

“You may say that things which I can cut easily with a
knife are soft, and things which I cannot cut with a knife are
hard.”

Experiments in cutting may be made on other substances,
such as an iron nail, a piece of glass, lead, india-rubber,
slate, hard and soft wood, a turnip, &c.

The children may then further test by squeezing with the
fingers.

* An old knife can be uced for trial on stone, iron, glass, &c.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 85

LESSON XVII.
ROUGH AND SMOOTH.

SMALL strips of sand-paper, brown paper, and smooth writing-paper
may be given to the children.

“ How many strips of paper have I given you?” Three.

“Pass your forefinger along each strip. Do they feel
alike?”’ No.

“This piece [holding up the sand-paper] is called sand-
paper. How does it feel when you rub it?” It feels rough.

“ Now try the white paper. How does that feel?” It feels
smooth.

“Now the brown paper?” It feels rough.

“Which feels the rougher, the sand-paper or the brown
paper?” The sand-paper.

“What do we call the outside of a thing?” The surface.

“What kind of surface has the sand-paper?” A rough
surface.

“Pass your fingers across your slates. What kind of
surface have your slates ?”? A smooth surface.

Children may now be called to the table to feel any other
substances which the teacher may have provided, such as
wood, polished and rough, marble, cloth, apple, orange,
pencil, &. &c.

The teacher will note that in the preceding lessons the leading idea
has heen not so much to impart new information as to cultivate habits
of observation, comparison, and discrimination, and to gather up the
scattered and uncertain knowledge acquired before entering school,
for the purpose of applying them in the systematic examination of the
more common objects which we see around us.
86 OBJECT LESSONS.

We are now in a position to give simple lessons on parti-
cular objects; but the teacher’s sole aim should be to lead
the children to apply the ideas brought out in the preceding
lessons to the examination of new objects. The succeeding
lessons should in fact serve to test and increase the powers
of observation, and the knowledge already acquired.

LESSON XVIII.

A SLATE-PENCIL BOX.

THF teacher may have on the table any other small boxes* fcr com-
parison and illustration.

Teacher [holding the box before the class] will proceed :—

‘What is this I hold in my hand?” A doz.

«You have seen teacher take semething from boxes like
this; what was it?” Slate pencils.

« What is the box made of ?” Wood.

“ What is this ] am drawing out?” The lid.

“We will look at the lid first. How many sides has it?”
Four sides.

“How many corners?” Four corners.

“What kind of corners are they?”  Sguare corners.

“How many long sides has the lid?” Tvvo long sides.

‘How many short sides?” Two short sides.

* If the children use the Kindergarten “ Gifts,” the box of Gift III. may

be substituted for the pencil-box, and each child can have a box placed
before it.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 37

«What name do we give to a figure which has two long
sides and two short sides and four square corners?” An
oblong.

“Then what is the shape of this box lid?” Ob/ong shape.

“Now look at the box itself. What do you call this part
of the box [pointing to the bottom] ?” The bottom.

‘‘And these two pieces [pointing to the sides]?” The
sides.

“ Of what shape is the bottom?” Oblong shape.

“And what shape have the sides?” Ob/ong shapes.

‘Now look at the ends. What is the shape of this end P”
Square shape.

“Why do you say it is ofa square shape?” Because it has
four sides of the same length and four square corners.

“ Now count all the corners of the box. How many are
there?” Hight corners.

« And of how many pieces of wood is the box made, with-
out the lid?” Of five pieces.

“What are they?” Tio sides, two ends, and the bottom.

“You said the box was made of wood. Is the wood hard
or softP” Soft.

“ How can you tell that?” Because we can cut tt with a knife.

«Ts the wood very soft?” No.

* Tell me something which is much softer?” Butter, cake,
bread, &c.

“ Now James shall pass his finger across the surface. How
does it feel, rough or smooth?” Rough.

The teacher may now lead the children to compare the
pencil-box with any other boxes she may have on the table,

 
33 OBJECT LESSONS.

LESSON XIX.
A BASKET OF VEGETABLES,

Any or all of the following vegetables should be placed in the basket:
potatoes, long and short carrots, onions, radishes (long and short,
white and red), turnips, and parsnips. A boiled potato and turnip
will also be useful,

Attention may first be directed to the basket, the bent
handle and its use, the bent sides, the uses of a basket, and
the substance of which it is made.

The vegetables should now be removed from the basket
one by one, and a little conversation carried on about each.
Thus on the turnip :—

“Here isa turnip. What isits shape?” Bail shape.

“What colour is it?” White colour.

“Squeeze it. Is it hard or soft?” Hard.

“Ts it very hard?” No.

“Why do you say so?” Because you can cut it with a knife.

“How could I make it softer?” By boiling it.

“What is the outside part of the turnip called?” The
skin or peel.

“ What are turnips used for?” For us to eat.

“What does mother do with the turnips before she boils
them?” Washes them. Peels them.

Again on the onion :—

“Smell this. What is it?’ _An onion.

“ How can you tell an onion from a turnip?” By its smell.

“Mary shall come to the table and shut her eyes. I have
the turnip in one hand and the onion in the other, and she
shall tell me which is the onion by smelling each.”

“ What is this on the outside of the onion?” The skin.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 39

** What is the colour of the onion when I have removed the
skin?” White colour.

The other vegetables* may be treated in a similar manner,
and the children may select those they eat only when boiled
or only when raw, they may tell how the boiled vegetables
differ from the raw, the colours may be contrasted, the long
and short selected, and so on.

LESSON XX.
SCHOOLROOM TABLE AND CHAIR.

Tue teacher directs the children to look at the table and tell
her anything they can about it.

First child.—J?¢ has four legs.

Second child.— Zt ts made of wood.

Third child.— The top is flat.

Fourth child.— The top has four corners.

Fifth child.— The top is oblong tn shape.

“Now look at this chair which I will place on the table.
Tell me anything in which they are both alike.”

First child.— They are both made of wood,

Second child.— Each has four legs.

“Now I want you to give the names of some of the parts of
the chair.”

Pointing to seat. “ What is this part called?” = Tie seat.

“ Why do you think it is called the seat?” Because it is
the part we sit on.

Touching the back. “What is this part called?” Zhe back

«¢ What is the use of the back?” To lean aga*nst.

* Of course, if the names are not known, they must be given, and the
children must be exercised in selecting at sight until they can readily dis
tinguish the one from the other.
40 OBJECT LESSONS.

“If the seat had no legs where should we be sitting ?”
On the floor.

“Then what is the use of the legs?” To keep the scat off
the floor.

“ These cross pieees of wood [pointing to the bars] are called
bars or rounds, and I must tell you what they are for. They

are to keep the legs firm. How many bars has this chair ?”.

~ Three bars.

‘Look at the seat ag2in. How many sides has it?’? Four
sides.

 

« What is the shape of three of the sides?’ Bent or curved.
“What is the shape of the top of the back? ” Bent or curved.

« How many pieces is the back made up of ?” Of five pieces.
“« How many are upright pieces?’ Tuco pieces.
“« And how many are lying down?” Three pieces.

The teacher should now exercise the children in comparing
this chair with another of a different kind.

Other lessons in this stage (if necessary) may be given on
a door, window, slate, book, and black-board. ,

#
SECOND STAGE.

Tue lessons of the second stage* are constructed on the lines
of the first stage. A few ideas, probably new to the majority
of the class, and a few new names are introduced; but the
object in this, as in the first stage, is rather to train to habits
of observation and comparison than to impart information.

The following are the definite subjects dealt with :—

(1.) Colour.—The secondary colours—orange, green, and
purple.

(2.) Form.—Angle, triangle, circle, cube, brick-shape.

(3.) Sweet, sour, and bitter tastes.

(4.) Measures of length—the inch, foot, and yard.

(5.) Properties of bodies—adhesive, porous, transparent,
opaque, brittle, flexible, tough.

(6.) Common objects—brick, orange and lemon, egg, cab-
bage, cocoa-nut, and glass.

LESSON I.
THE SECONDARY COLOURS.—ORANGE AND GREEN.

Tor this lesson the teacher will require red, yellow, and blue paints
or crayons as in Lesson IT., Stage I. ; also a ripe orange, « bunch of
green grass, and a few green leaves. The children should be supplied
with strips of red, orange, yellow, green, and blue papers.

Pin the sheet of paper used for Lesson II., Stage I., on the
black-board. Ask for the names of the colours there shown.

* Suitable for children of from about four-and-a-half to five-and-a-half
years of age.
42 OBJECT LESSONS.

iN

   

Direct the children to watch carefully while you make
another colour by mixing red and yellow.* [The teacher
will draw a band of orange between the red and yellow. ]

“What two colours have I mixed to make the new
colour?” Red and yellow.

“ What is this I am holdingin my hand?” An orange.

“‘ Now look at the new colour on the paper and the colour of
the orange. What do you notice ?”’ The colours are alike.

“Then you may call this new colour orange coiour.”

“Why do I call it orange colour?” Because tt is of the
same colour as an orange.

“How did I make orange colour?” By mizing red and
yellow colours.

“You may also call orange a mized colour because it is
made by mixing red and yellow.”

«Show me your orange-coloured paper.”

‘Hold up the two colours which made the orange.”

Next, take a bunch of grass and a few green leaves and ask
for the names of these objects, and perhaps some little scholar
will tell the colour; and proceed—

“Now I shall mix the yellow and blue paints, t and you may
tell the name of the new colour which I make on the paper.”
| Draw a band of green between the yellow and blue.}

* Three parts red to five parts of yellow will produce a good orange colour.

The teacher should practice the mixing before giving the lesson, so as te
ensure the proper colour.

vt Eight parts of blue to five of yellow will produce a good green,
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 43

«What is the name of this colour?” Green colour.

“How did I make it?” By mixing yellow and blue.

“ What kind of colour may I call green because I got it by
mixing?” A mired colour.

«Name two mixed colours.” Orange and green.

«What colour will red and yellow make?” Orange colour.

«And what colour will yellow and blue make?” Green
colour.

“Show me your green paper. Hold up the two colours
which make the green.”

“Now the two which mike the orange.”

“What colours is green made of ?” = Of yellow and blue.

“ What colours is orange made of P”? Of red and yellow.

“What colour must I mix with red to make orange?”
Yellow colour.

“What colour must I mix with blue to make green?”
Yellow coiour.

If the teacher has crayons the children will be interested
in making the mixed colours themselves.

The coloured Kindergarten balls and skeins of coloured
wools will serve for further illustration.

LESSON It

THE SECONDARY COLOURS.—ORANGE, GREEN, AND
PURPLE.

Parnts or crayons and coloured papers, as in the preceding lessons.
The same sheet of paper with the coloured bunds to be placed on the
black-board.

Commence by recapitulation of the last lesson. Draw
another band of red beyond the blue.
44 OBJECT LESSONS.

LT reo

 

 

“We have mixed red with yellow, and blue with yellow;
we have now to make one more mixture. Look on the paper
and say which two colours we have not yet mixed?” Red and
blue.

“Right. We will now mix them.” [Teacher draws a broad
purple * line between the red and blue. |

“The name of this new colour is purple.”

“What colour must I mix with red to make purple?” Blue
colour. -

“ How did I make the purple colour ?” By mizing blue and
red.

“What kind of a colour is purple?” A mized colour.

‘‘How many mixed colours have we made?” Three colours.

“What are their names?” Orange, green, and purple.

“How many colours does it take to make these three mixed
colours?” Three colours. :

“What are their names?” Red, yellow, and blue.

“Take your papers. Show me the purple colour. Hold up
the two colours which make purple.”

The teacher should continue these and similar exercises

* Equal parts of red and blue will produce a good purple.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 45

until all her scholars can distinguish the six different colours,
and tell how to produce the mixed colours.

An interesting experiment may be made with crayons asa
further illustration. Make crosses with parallel lines, as in
tbe sketch. The horizontal bard to be of one primary colour,

 

and the vertical band of another. If the part intersected
be rubbed the secondary colour will be produced.

As a test exercise, to occupy the time, probably, of another
lesson, take skeins of Berlin wool of the proper colours, cut
into short lengths, mix, and give to each child a small
bundle. The children to separate and arrange the colours in
the order indicated by the teacher.

LESSON III.
ANGLES, TRIANGLES.

RIGHT-ANGLED, scalene, and equilateral triangles cut from card-
board to be given to each child.

————_—

 

Teacher [holding up a slate]. ‘‘ How many corners has
this slate?’ Four corners.

«What kind of corners are they ?” Square corners.

«‘ Of what shape is the slate?” Of an oblong shape.
46 OBJECT LESSONS.

“ How many square corners has an oblong?” our square
corners.

“How many sides has a square?” Four sides.

“How many square corners has a square?” Four square
corners.

“Now I will make a square corner on the black-board by

|_

RIGHT ANGLE

drawing two straight lines. What kind of lines are they? ”
Straight lines.

«What do you call this line [pointing to the horizontal] ?”
A lying down line.

« And this [pointing to the perpendicular] ?” An upright
dine.

““What kind of corner do these lines make when they
meet?” A square corner.

“T shall now give you another name for the point or square
corner made by two lines where they meet. It is angle.”

« And I want you to remember, too, that the point or angle
made by a lying down and an upright line is called a right
angle.”

[Showing a finely-pointed pencil.] “ What kind of point
has this pencil ?”’ A sharp point.

“And this one [showing pencil with blunt point]?” 4
blunt point.

“Now some angles are sharp and some are blunt angles.”

Te.

SHARP ANGLE RIGHT ANGLE BLUNT ANGLE

“Here are three angles. What is the name of the middle
angleP” A right angle.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 47

* Which is the sharp angle?” ~The top angle.

“ And which is the blunt angle?” ~The hottom angle.

“T want you to call all angles less than the right angle
sharp angles, and all angles greater than the right angle
blunt angles. Or you may call them sma/? angles and darge
angles.”

“Here I have a piece of cardboard. How many corners
has it?” = Three corners.

“What kind of corner is this [pointing to right angle] ?”
A square corner.

“And what can you say of these [pointing to the acute
angles]? They are sharp corners.

“JT make a figure on the black-board like the cardboard.”

“What kind of angle is this [pointing to1]?” A right
angle.

‘And these [pointing to 2 and 8)?” Sharp angles.

« How many angles has this figure?” Three angles.

 

TRIANGLE 3

‘Yes, and we may call the figure a ¢hree-ang/e, but there is
a little word (77 which means three, and we call the figure a
triangle.”

“ How many sides hasa triangle?” Three sides.

« And how many angles?” Zhrce angles.

“Here is another triangle. How many sharp angles has
it?” Tico sharp angles.

 

s¢ And what kind of angle is the other?” 4 blunt angle.
48 OBJECT LESSONS.

“Here is another triangle. What kind of angles has it ?”

Sharp angles. :

“T want you now to say acute for sharp, and obtuse for
blunt.”

Exercise with the forms held by the children thus—
Point to acute angle, right angle, obtuse angle. Show
triangle with a right angle, with three acute angles, &c.

LESSON Iv.
CURVED LINE, CIRCLE, RING.

ARTICLES for illustration :—Circles and rings cut from cardboard for
the scholars, and any circular objects and rings for the teacher’s use.

“T draw a square on the black-board. How many sides
has it?” Four sides.

‘“‘ How many sides has a triangle?” Three sides.

“What kind of lines are the sides of squares, oblongs, and
triangles?” Straight lines.

“ What name did we give to a line like this —. P” A
curved line.

“JT will now, with this piece of string, show you how to
make a figure quite unlike the square or the triangle. You
see I press one end of the string on the black-board with the
forefinger of ray left hand, and with the opposite end of the
string and a piece of chalk in my right hand I make a
curved line with both ends meeting.”
HUW 'O GIVE THEM, 49

   

CIRCLE

“How many lines have I made?” Oue /ine.

“ And what kind of line?’? A curved line.

«You may call this figure I have made a circle.”

« Now, how many lines are there round acirele?” One line
«What is the shape of the line? ” A curved line.
“How many angles has a circle?” No angles.

“Now tell me the names of some things which are of the
same shape as this circle?” Penny, button, plate, Se.

‘What is the shape of the side of this box?” Oblong shaped.

« And what is the shape of the end?” Square shaped.

* And what may I call the shape of this biscuit?’ Cirede
shaped.

« And this penny?” Crre/e shaped.

«What name do you give this thing I have on my finger?”
A ring.

“Show me the paper ring I have given you.”

“<I will show you how to make paper rings. Or, perhaps,
you can show me. Here is a circle-shaped piece of paper.
How can I make a ring?” Cué out the middle.

 

. Very well, I will cut out the middle ; here it is. Will
that do?” No.
r
50 OBJECT LESSONS.

“Why not?” It ts not round.

“You may say it is not circle-shaped instead of not round.”
«Which side is not circle-shaped?”’ The inside,

“ Very well, I will cut it circle-shaped.”

 

‘ Now tell me what toy girls and boys often play with in
the streets like this ring.” A hoop.

Exercise with the cardboard forms, and then let the
children draw circles and rings on their slates. Of course
the drawings will be very imperfect, but that is of little con-
sequence s0 long as the results show that the scholars have
grasped the ideas of the lesson.

LESSON Y.
CUBE AND BRICK-SHAPE,

THE cubes and “‘ bricks ” of the Kindergarten gifts will serve for this
lesson. If these are not at hand, a cube and brick can be cut from a
turnip, a potato, or a piece of soap or wood, or can be made with a
lump of stiff putty.

The children taking up their cubes will have their atten-
tion directed to the corners and the sides or faces.

“Count the number of corners. How many are there ?"
Hight. ‘

“Count the sides or faces. How many?” Siz.

 
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 61

Where the Kindergarten
materials are not in use, «
cubical box will be of great i
advantage because of its i
size. Itcan be made with a
piece of cardboard as repre-
sented in the figure. The
dotted lines show how the
card is to be folded.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

** Look at each face and tell its shape.” Square shape.

“Look again at the faces and show me the largest and the
smallest.” They are all of the same size.

“ We call this piece of wood, which has six square faces, a
cube.”

“Now, how many faces has a cube?” Stx faces.

« And what is the shape of each face?” Square.

« And what name do we give to an object which has six
square faces?” A cute. ,

Next, the attention of the children may be directed to the
brick-shaped solid either in their hands or in the hands of
the teacher. They should be called to note the number of
faces and their oblong shapes. The pieces may then be
compared with a building-brick, and the children told that
things having the same shape as a brick may be called brick-
shaped. Questions should then follow, such as :—

“ How many faces has a brick P” Six faces.

 

 

The brick-shaped box can
be made from cardboard as
bere shown.

 

 

 

 

 
52 OBJECT LESSONS.

“What is the shape of each face?’ Oblong.
“What is an oblong?” A figure with two longer and tro
shorter sides and four square corners.

Lastly, the children may be shown how to make a box of
cardboard of the same shape as the brick.

LESSON YI.
A TEST LESSON.—FORM AND COLOUR COMBINED.

Procure a packet of thin cards * about four inches long and three
inches wide; also sheets of coloured papers, good representatives of
the six colours-—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and purple.

Cut each of the following plane figures—square, oblong,
triangle, and circle—three times from each coloured paper,
and paste neatly on the centre of the cards. This will give
72 cards, of which one of eac form and colour (24 cards)
will be retained by the teacher, and the remainder (48) will
be distributed among the scholars.t

The lesson may be conducted in various ways.

(1.) The teacher may show a card and direct all children
to stand up that have a card containing, first, the same
shape, and, secondly, the same colour. AI! the forms and
colours may be gone through in this way.

(2.) The children may be called on to show forms and
colours to order of teacher. Children who have triangles
show them. Now blue triangles only, now red, now yel-
low, and so on for all the forms and colours.

* Say one hundred; they will be useful in the succeeding stages.

+ If there are more than forty-eight schalars in the class, of course more
cards must be prepared.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 53

(3.) The children may be called on individually to describe
the colour and form, thus, “The shape on my card is an
(oblong), and its colour is (green).”” ‘“‘ The shape on my card
is a (circle), and its colour is (yellow),”’ and so on.

This lesson should be repeated in a varied form until all
the scholars are perfectly familiar with the forms and colours
included in the First and Second Stages.

LESSON VII.
SWEET, SOUR, AND BITTER TASTES.

For this lesson the teacher should provide a leaf of rhubarb, and
some at least of the following or other bitter substances: rue, hops.
quinine, wormwood, quassia, tansy, gentian.

Introduce this lesson by questions on the “taste ”’ lessons
in the First Stage.

“ What is the taste of sugar?” A sireet taste.

“Ofaripe apple?” A sweet taste.

“Of a green apple?” A sour taste.

“When are plums sour?” When they are not ripe.

“ What is the taste of a lemon?” A sour taste.

* Tell me something else which hasa sour taste.”’ Vinegar

“ What is this I am holding in my hand?” A Jay.

“Yes, it is a rhubarb leaf. Is it a large leaf or a smal
one?” A large one.

«“ What is the colour of this leaf? ’? Green colour.

« What is this part called [pointing to the stalk]?” The
stalk.

Teacher cuts off the leaf and begins to strip the skin off
the stalk. ‘“ What is this Tam taking off P” The skin.
64 OBJECT LESSONS.

‘Js it a thick or thin skin?”’ A thin skin,

‘‘Now I shall cut the stalk into small piecesand give each
of you a piece for you to taste it.”

“« Now tell me which is it most like in taste, a lump of sugar
oralemon?” It is like the lemon.

“Then what taste has the rhubarb?” A sour taste.

“When you have rhubarb pie or pudding what does your
mother put over it?” Sugar.

“Why?” To make it taste sweet.

“T have something else I want you to taste.” [A little
quinine.] _

“Here it is, try it. Do you like the taste?” No,

“ Has it a sweet taste?” No.

*¢ Does it taste like the rhubarb?” No.

“You may call the taste difter.””

Individual children may now be called to the table to taste
other bitter substances, and exercised until they can readily
distinguish Jitter from sour taste.*

LESSON VIII.
LENGTH.—A FOOT.

For this lesson the children may be provided with strips of card-
board or paper one foot in length, and divided into inches by short:
lines. The teacher should have, in addition, pieces of string, tape,
or ribbon of different lengtis.

“You see,” Says the teacher, “I have placed a black-board
on the table. I want a boy to stand on it, but he must have
his shoes off.”’

“Now, which is the longer, the boy’s foot or the black-
board?” The black-board.

* In the country there will be no difficulty in procuring a sprig of rue, for
instance: and in towns it can be purchased in a dricd state.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 55

“We will see how many times the black-board is longer
than the boy’s foot.”

The teacher here measures the length of the black-board
by the boy’s feet, assisting the boy to put one foot in front of
the other lengthways, and marking the space of each foot
with chalk.

“*T will place the black-board on the easel. You may count
and see how many times longer the black-board is than the
boy’s foot.” One, treo, three, four, fire, six.

“The black-board, then, is how many times as long as
the boy’s foot ?”” Six times.

“Tell me which is the longer, a man’s foot or a boy’s
foot??? A man’s foot.

“You have each of youa strip of cardboard. Which is the
longer, the boy’s foot or the cardboard?” The cardboard.

«Yes, and the cardboard is about as long as the foot of a
tali man, and we always call that length a foot.”

““Why do we call this length [showing cardboard] a
foot?” Because tt is about as long as the foot of a tall
man.

“ New I want a little girl to measure the black-board with
her foot-length of cardboard.”

Teacher assists the girl to measure, and the black-board
is found to be three times the length of the cardboard.

“The black-board is how many times as long as the card-
board ? ” Three times.

« And as the cardboard measures one foot, how many feet
does the black-board measure?” Three feet.

The children will now be interested in using their foot
measures to find the length of pieces of string, tape, &c.,
but for this lesson the pieces should measure an even
number of feet.
56 OBJECT LESSONS.

LESSON IX.
LENGTH.—A YARD,

Foor measures and pieces of string or tape, &c., as in the last lessen
and a three-feet flat ruler or a yard measure, should be provided.

“James allowed us to measure the black-board with his
feet in our last lesson. We will now ask him to measure
the black-board for us with his cardboard foot-measure.”

“How many feet long is the black-board?” Three feet long.

“ Here is a long ruler. I will place it on the black-board.
Which is the longer?” They are both of the same length.

«Then how many feet does the ruler measure?” Three feet.

“You may call a length of three feet a yard. How long is
the black-board?’’ Three feet. One yard.

“ How many feet make a yard?” Three feet.

““What name do we give to a length of three feet?”
A yard.

“T will mark the foot measures on this ruler to show you
that three feet and one yard stand for the same length.”

‘We will call our ruler a yard measure, and with it we will
see how many yards wide our school-room is. Count while
I measure.” One, two, three, four, five, siz, seven.

“There is a little piece over. John, bring your foot
measure and tell us how long it is.”” One foot.

“Then our school-room is how many yards wide?”
Seven yards.

“And how much more?” One foot.

“Yes, in all, seven yards and one foot.”

-The class should now be exercised in measuring with the
yard and the foot measures in a variety of ways.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 57

LESSON X.
LENGTH.—THE INCH,

MATERIALS required as in the preceding lesson.

In this lesson the attention of the children should first be
directed to the divisions on their foot measures ; they should
then be told that each space between the lines is called an
inch. By counting, the children can discover for them-
selves how many inches there are in a foot, and also in half
a foot.

In the second place, the scholars may be set to measure
small objects, the width and length of their slates, sticks,
pencils, &c., and the practice should be continued till it
becomes pretty accurate.

After the children have become familiar with the inch,
foot, and vard, and are able to gauge them with tolerable
accuracy from memory, they may be trained to measure
lengths with the afd of the eye and the memory only.

Thus, objects may be held before the children who may
be invited to guess the length in inches, feet, or yards, the
correct length being afterwards ascertained by actual
measurement,

The time of several lessons may be occupied in thus guess-
ing at lengths, heights, depths, widths, and thicknesses,
and then measuring to see how nearly correctly the children
have guessed. The practice, amusing in itself, forms an
admirable exercise in training the eye and the judgment.
The extent to which it can be carried must, of course, depend
on the proficiency of the class.
58 OBJECT LESSONS.

LESSON XL
PROPERTIES OF BODIES.—STICKY OR ADHESIVE.

Any or all of the following substances will be useful for this lesson
gum, glue, paste, wax, a letter, and an envelope.

Teaching [showing a letter] may proceed thus :—

“What is this I holdin my hand?” A detter.

“ What is this on the corner P” A stamp.

“I want Henry to come here and take off the stamp. He
cannot do it. Why notP” I¢ ts stuck on firmly.

“ Now, Henry, try and open the letter without tearing the
paper. He cannot. Why not?” Because the envelope ts
stuck firmly.

“There is something put on the stamp to make it stick to
the envelope, and something put on the envelope to fasten
it up firmly. Here is an envelope not shut up. You can
see stuff shining on it. If I wet this and press it down
what does it do?” It sticks the paper together.

“T want you to remember that things which stick other
things together we call sticky, or adhesive.”

“What have you stuck on the walls of your rooms at
bome?” Paper.

“« Here is a piece of paper and here is the stuff we can stick
it on with: it is called paste. I will stick the paper on the
black-board to show you how men stick the paper on walls.”

“What am I putting on the paper with this brush?” Paste.

“What do I say about the paste because it sticks the paper
on the black-board?”’ It is sticky.

“Here is a piece of wax. I melt it in the flame of thie
match and let it drop on a piece of paper. Now I press
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 59

another piece of paper on it. You see the pieces of paper
are stuck together.”

“What can you say about the wax?” It is sticky.

“Here I have a little gum in a bottle. I stick two pieces
of psper together with it.”
“What do you say about the gum?” It is sticky.

“Name the three things I have shown you which are
sticky.” Puste, wax, gum.

“T have two pieces of wood. I want to stick them together.
Let us try the paste, then the was, then the gum. Neither
of these hold the wood firmly together. We must try
something else. Here it is. I will put it on the fire to
melt. It is called glue.”

“ We now stick the pieces of wood together with the glue,
and when the glue is dry you shall try and pull the pieces
apart.”

“ Tell me how glue is like paste?” I¢ sticks things together.
It is sticky.

**When do you say things are sticky?” When they stick
or hold thinus together.

“Js water sticky?” No.

“Why not?” It does not hold things together.

The children should be allowed to stick things together,
naming the substance they use.

 
60 GBJECT LESSONS.

LESSON Xi

PROPERTIES OF BODIES.—POROUS.

For this lesson distribute small pieces of cane, stick, and sponge.

The following experiment will form an excellent introduc-
tion to this lesson. Take a wide-mouthed bottle, and half
fill it with spirits of turpentine. Into this insert a short
length of cane and a stick of some ordinary Evglish wood.
In a few minutes the turpentine will have ascended through
the pores of the cane to the upper end, and on the application
of a lighted taper will burn with a smoky flame. The appli-
cation of the lighted taper to the upper end of the stick of
course produces no result.

It will interest the children to discover the cause for the
difference ; and the /ittle holes in the cane will not easily be
forgotten.

Tell the children that the turpentine has run up the cane
to the top and is burning; at the same time the turpentine
cannot get up the stick.

Direct them to examine the bits of cane and stick they
have in their hands, and the cause will strike them at once
—the cane is full of little holes.

Another experiment may follow. Pour a little coloured
water into a plate and in the centre of the plate stand a piece
of loaf-sugar. The children will see the coloured water
gradually rising.

Tell the children that the water rises in the sugar in the
same way that the turpentine rose in the cane—through
little holes.

““Wecall these little holes nores, and when anything is full
of these little pores we say it is porous.”
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 61

“What does porous mean?” Fudd of little holes.
“Why does sugar suck up water?” Because sugar ts porous,
And caneP” Because it is porous.

“Many other things are porous Here is a piece of sponge.
You see how it sucks the water up. Where does the water
go toP” Into the little holes.

“Then what can you tell me about sponge?” Jt ts porous.

“What does porous mean?” = Full of little holes.

«© What do you eat for breakfast which is porous?” Bread.

“ How do you know it is porous?” Jt sucks up milk or tea.

“You can see the pores in the bread, and the sponge, and
the cane, and other things, but sometimes the pores are so
small that you cannot see them.”

With a piece of chamois leather and a little quicksilver a
pretty experiment may be performed to show this. The
quicksilver may be squeezed through the leather in fine
drops.

LESSON XIII.

PROPERTIES OF BODIES.—TRANSPARENT AND OPAQUE.*

ARTICLES for illustration :—Glass, water, milk, marble.

The children will have no difficulty in arranging classes
of transparent and opaque objects.t

Take a piece of glass anda slate. Hold a piece of chalk
behind the glass and ask, ‘“‘ What am I holding behind the
glass?” A piece of chalk.

“* How do you know it is chalk ?”? =We can see it.

“J wiil now hold the chalk behind the slate. Can you see
the chalk now?” Wo.

* These éerms are difficult for little children to remember, and may be
postponed till a later stage.
+ “ Translucent” should come in later on.
62 OBJECT LESSONS.

“Why not?” We can’t see through the state.
“How is it you can see the chalk behind the glass?”
We can see through the glass.

Take a glass of water, a cup of water, and a glass of milk.
Place in each a glass marble or other suitable object without
the knowledge of the children, and ask, ‘What have I in
this glass of water ?” A marble.

“ How do you know it isa marble?” We can see 16.

“What do you see the marble through?”’ The glass and
the water. .

“I have placed something in the water in this cup. Can
you tell me what itisP” No.

“Why not?” We cannot see through the cup.

“ Jane shall come to the table and look through the water.
What do you see now?” <A marble.

“Then you can see through the—glass, but not through
the—cup.” /

“What have I put in this glass [pointing to the glass of
milk|]?” Dik.

“Can you see through the milk?” Wo.

“T have placed a marble in the milk. Can you see it?”
No.

“‘T will lean the glass a little and bring the marble to the
side nearest to you. Can you see the marble now?” Yes.

“Why?” Because the marble ts close to the glass, and we
can see through the glass. ,

“T will give you two hard words, one means can be seen
through, and the other cannot be seen through. They are
transparent and opaque.”

“When is a thing said to be transparent P” When it can
be seen through

“Tell me some things which are trausparent?’? Glasa
and water,
ROW TO GIVE THEM. 63

* Why do we use glass for our windows?” Because it lets
the light in. Because we can see through tt.

«When do we say a thing is opaque? ” When it cannot
be seen through.

«Ts your slate transparent or opaqueP” Opaque.

“Why do you say it is opaque?” Because we cannot see
through tt.

The teacher should continue this kind of questioning until
the term calls up the idea and the idea the term in the
minds of the children.

LESSON XIV.

PROPERTIES OF BODIES.—BRITTLE, FLEXIBLE, AND
TOUGH.*

A vVaRieTy of articles fo illustrate these qualities, such as chalk,
glass, small dry sticks, slate-pencils, paper, copper and iron wire,
leather, cloth, whalebone or cane, &c., should be provided.

To assist the children to compare the qualities of flerible
and brittle, take a cane and a stick of slate-pencil. Showing
the cane bent the teacher will ask, “* What have I done to
the cane?” You have bent it.

« Now I take a stick of pencil and try to bend it as I did
the cane; what has happened??? The pencil is broken.

“You see I have on the table a stick of chalk, a strip of
glass, a small stick of wood, some copper and some iron wire.
I want a boy and girl to come to the table and bend all these

* Tt is undesirable at this stage to attempt to develop the ideas of brittle,
flexible, and tough to their fullest extent. For our present purpose it is
sufficient for the children to learn that drit#le means “ easily broken,” that
fexible means “bends easily without breaking,” and that éoujh means * not
64 OBJECT LESSONS.

things. Those which bend without breaking we will put
on one side, and those which break we will put on the other
side. Now together name the things which have broken, as
I show them?” Chalk, glass, stick, slate-pencil.

“ Now name the things which bend without breaking ?”
Cane, whalebone, copper wire, tron wire.

“You may repeat after me, Things which break easily
are said to be brittle; things which bend without being
broken are said to be flexible.”

The teacher will now ask questions on these two qualities ;
such as: Name things which are flexible. Name things
which are brittle. When are things said to be brittle?
When are things said to be flexible? Why do you say that
chalk is brittle? Why do you say that a cane is flexible?

The teacher should next encourage the children to name
other articles which are brittle, as crust of bread, biscuits,
loaf-sugar ; and flexible, as the flat ruler, a strip of lead, a
book-cover.

The idea of toughness may be elicited by taking different
substances, such as paper, calico, leather, &c., and directing
the children to try to tear them,

LESSON Xv.
A BRICK,

Bricrs of any sort readily obtained to be placed on the table. A
bucket and basin with water should also be provided.

The teacher may first call attention to the shape of the
brick (see Lesson V. Stage II.), the number of corners, of
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 65

straight edges, the number of faces, the shape of the faces,
and so on.

One or more children may be called upon to measure the
length, breadth, and thickness of a brick, or, if several bricks
are provided, they may be handed—together with the card-
board strips used for Lesson VIiI.—to as many children, who
May measure independently and the results be compared.*

The bricks may now be passed on to other children, and
questions like the following may be asked :—

“Hold the bricks in your hands; how do they feel? ”
Heary.

«Squeeze them ; how do they feel?” Hard.

‘‘Rub your fingers over them; what can you say about
the surfaces?” They are rough.

« You say a brick is heavy ; if I place it in this bucket of
water, will it swim or sink to the bottom?” J¢ ei// sink to
the bottom.

“T want you to find out something else about bricks. Here
T place this one standing upright in a basin, und then fill
the basin with water up to the brim. We will look at it
again in a few minutes. Meanwhile you may tell me all
you can about a brick.”

The teacher may now call a child to look at the water in
the basin; she finds the basin is not now fall.

“Perhaps,” proceeds the teacher, “some little child may
guess where the water has gone P”” It has gone into the brick.

“Right; then what may I say about bricks?” They are
porous.

« When do we say a thing is porous?” Wvhen it ts full of
little holes.

® Ordinary building bricks measure 9 inches in length, 4 inches in width,

and 2} inches in thickness.
Fr
66 OBJECT LESSONS.

“‘ Here isa piece of wood cut into a cube. Look at this and
the brick.’’

“How are they alike?” Each has eight corners and six faces.

“How are the faces unlike?” The jaces of the cube are
squares. The faces of the brick are oblongs.

 

LESSON XVI.

ORANGE AND LEMON.

THREE or four ripe oranges and a lemon should be provided for this
lesson.

Holding up an orange the teacher asks, “ What is this I
hold in my hand?” dn orange.

“What is the shape of the orange?” Bail shape.

« What is its colour?” Orange colour.

“* How did we make orange colour?” By mizing yellow and
red.

«What is the name of this I am now showing you?” A
lemon. :

«What is the colour of the lemon P”’ Yellow.

The teacher now cuts the orange and the lemon into
halves.

“ What is this on the outside of the orange?” The peel.

“What is the colour of the peel inside?” White colour.

“Feel it.” It feels soft.

“What is there on the outside of the lemon?” The
peel.

« How is the peel of the lemon like that cf the orange on
the inside?” J¢ is white and soft.

«Ts the peel of the orange and lemon thick or thin?”
Thick.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 67

“Name some things which have thin skins?” Potatoes,
apples.

“T will cut an orange and the lemon into small pieces for
you to taste.”

“ First let me squeeze a piece of orange; what is it that
drops out?” The juice.

“ And now I squeeze a bit of lemon?” The juice runs out.

“Now you may taste the orange and the lemon. What
taste has the lemon?” Sour taste.

“What taste has the orange P’”? Sweet taste.

“T want you to think over all we have said about the
orange and the lemon, and first to tell me how they are
unlike.” They are unlike in colour and tn taste.

* And now how they arealike?” They are alike in having
a thick peel, white and soft inside; and they both have juice which
runs out when we cut or squeese them.

An apple may also be introduced for comparison with the
orange and lemon.

 

LESSON XVII
AN EGG.

OnE raw and one hard-boiled egg will be sufficient for this lesson. It
will interest the children if the egg can be boiled over a spirit-lamp on
the table.

This lesson forms a good example of how a teacher may
make a new subject the medium for a recapitulation of ideas
developed in previous lessons, and thus serve as a test of
success in what has so far been attempted.

“What is this [hold in my hand?” An eyg.
68 OBJECT LESSONS.

“« What is the outside of the egg called?” The shell.

“ What is the colour of the shell ?”” White colour.

“«<Tf you pass your finger over the shell how does it feel ?”
It feels smooth.

“What is the outside of the shell called?” Its surface.

“* Is the surface flat like the table?” No, tt ts bent or curved.

“When I put the egg in the water it sank to the bottom;

what does this tell me about the ego?” It ts heavy.

** Now that the egg is boiled, I tap the shell with a spoon;
what has happened to the shell?” ¢ is broken.

“What do you say about the shell because it broke easily P”
Lt is brittle.

“Look at these small pieces; what can you say about the
thickness of the shell ?’? ¢ ts thin.

“ Just inside the shell you see something else. - will take
apiece off. Whatisit?” The skin.

“‘ What do you see about the skin?” I¢ is thin. It ts white.

“Feel it.” It feels soft.

“Now I have taken off the shell and the skin. What
comes next?” The white.

“Why do we call it white?” Because it has a white colour.

“T remove the white. What comes next?” The yellow
—the yolk.

“What colour has the yolk?” Yellow colour. Orange colour.

“T now break the raw egg. You will see the white and
the yellow run out into the plate. I put a little of the
white on this sheet of paper, press another sheet on the top
and dry over the lamp. You see the papers are stuck to-
gether. Now what else can you say about the white of
egg?” It is sticky.

As a further exercise the children may be asked to tell
all they can about an egg without any assistance; in other
words, they should be encouraged to talk about it.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 69

LESSON XVIII
A CABBAGE.

A COUPLE of cabbages, one of which may be of the purple kind used
for pickling, and a few green leaves of different kinds should lie on
the table.*

The teacher may commence this lesson by comparing the
two cabbages as to their colour, and the cabbages again with
the leaves. Advantage may be taken of the introduction of
green and purple colours to test the memory of the children
on the composition of these colours.

In the next place the teacher may remove the leaves one
by one, at the stme time directing the attention of the chil-
dren to the way in which they are placed one over the other,
to the manner in which the leaves are fixed to the stalk, and
to the change in the colour of the leaves as we get nearer
the middle.

Thirdly, a comparison should be made between the cabbage-
leaves and other leaves as to sise, shape, hardness, and the
ease with which the blades are torn, as to the comparatively
thick, soft, and juicy leaf-stalk of the one, and the thin
harder stalk of the other.

Fourthly, the stalk of the cabbage may be cut across, and
the children may be led to note the circular shape of the
section, and the difference in hardness between the external
and internal portions of the stalk.

The use of the stalk to support the plant, and of the
plant itself for food when boiled, may be elicited from the
children.

* Ifa cabbage showing its flower or seed-stulk can be obtained, the lesson
caa be made more complete.
70 OBJECT LESSONS,

LESSON XIX.
A COCOA-NUT.

A cocoa-NUT in its natural state—viz. with the fibrous outer husk
adhering—a hammer, a penknife, and a cup or glass, will be all that
is necessary for this lesson.

Introduce by telling the children that this lesson is to be
about a large nut, called a cocoa-nut, and that cocoa-nuts
grow in hot countries very far away from where we live.

Show the cocoa-nut and invite the children to comment
on its different parts as it is taken to pieces.

The outside rind is thin and smooth.

Then follows a thick husk, consisting of threads matted
together.

Experiments will show that these threads are flexible and
tough.

Remove the husk. The shell is shown to be rough and
hard, and in shape somewhat like an egg.

The three black scars are now pointed out, one of which
is shown to be soft by cutting through with a penknife.

The “milk” is next poured into a glass and the chil-
dren are invited to taste it.

The shell is broken with a hammer. It is shown to be
thick and strong, and the kernel to be fixed like a thick
coating on the inside of the shell. A knife will demonstrate
that the kernel is soft, and assist in its division into small
pieces for tasting.
Now TO GIVE THEM.

LESSON XX.
GLASS.

ANY specimens of glass or of glass articles will be useful in this
lesson.

The introduction to this lesson may be a short recapitu-
lation of Lesson XIII. Experiments may then be made
with pieces of glass to show that it is not only transparent,
but smooth, hard, and britile.

The children may next be assisted in telling about some of
the uses to which glass is put. Questions like the following,
for instance, may be asked :-—

“ How do we get the light in this room?” Through the
windors,

© What part of the window does the light come through ?”
The glass.

“Tell me some other use of the glass in the window?” We
can sce through tt.

«Buta hole in the wall would let the light in, and we could
also see through it. Would a hole do as well as the glass
window?” _Vo.

“Why not?” It would let in the rain and the eold wind.

“Then, whilst the window lets in the light, what does it
keep out?” = The wind and rain.

Other uses of glass may be similarly dealt with.
THIRD STAGF.

Tae lessons* of the Third Stage follow naturaliy on
those of the First and Second Stages; but they demand
closer attention, and call for more extended powers of ob-
servation and comparison. Experiment is also more largely
employed on some of the most familiar objects to bring out
the special properties on which their uses depend. The
following are the chief subjects dealt with :—

(1.) Colour.—Light and dark colours.

(2.) Form.—Perpendicular, horizontal, oblique, and pa-
rallel lines.

(3.) Measures of weight—the pound and ounce.

es », capacity—the gallon, quart, and pint.

(4.) Properties of bodies—solid, liquid, fusible, soluble,
inflammable, elastic, &e.

(&.) Common objects—india-rubber, sponge, cork, lea.

ther, &,

LESSON I.
DARK AND LIGHT COLOURS.

SMALL squares of standard and dark and light reds, yellows, blues,
and greens, should be given to the children; and the teachers should
have on the table, in addition, triangles, circles, rings, squares, and
oblongs of the various colours.

As an introduction to this lesson, the teacher may put a
series of questions on Lessons I. and II. Stage IT., recalling

* Suitable for. children of about five to six years of age.
OBJECT LESSONS. 78

to the minds of the children the secondary colours and how
they are formed. The sheet on which the coloured bands
were drawn should be fixed on the black-board.

On a clean sheet of paper fix squares or circles of the
standard red, yellow, blue, and green, as in the sketch.
Call the attention of the children to the fact that you are

 

 

 

 

 

about to show them other colours something like those of
which they have already learnt the names, and proceed :—

‘“‘T will place another red on each side of the first. Look at
them. Can you see any difference?” One is darker and the
other is lighter.

“ Which is the darker?” That on the left side.

“And which is the lighter?” That on the right side.

«You may call the square on the left side dark red, and that
on the right side /ight red.”

“Take your papers. Show mea /ight red. Now the dark
red.”

Deal with the other colours somewhat in the same way,
and direct the children to arrange their squares on the desks
as they are placed on the black-board, but take one set of
colours only at a time.

The children may next arrange all the light colours in a
row, then all the dark colours.
74 OBJECT LESSONS.

An excellent exercise may now be introduced on form and
colours combined, of course using only the forms and colours
with which the children are now supposed to be familiar.

Teacher [holding up, say, a triangle of light green].
What colour is this? Light green.

‘‘ What shape is it?” <A triangle.

“Why is it called a triangle?” Because it has three angles.

Holding up an oblong of dark blue,—‘‘ What is the shape
of this card?” An oblong.

‘What kind of angles has an oblong?” Right angles.

“What colour is it?’ Dark blue.

Holding up a square of light yellow,—“< What colour is
this?” Light yellow.

“What shape is it?” Square shape.

“What isa square?” A figure with four equal sides and
four right angles.

Similarly deal with circles, and rings, and squares, and
oblongs, and triangles of other colours.

Let the changes be made rapidly from shape to colour and
colour to shape, so as to secure watchful attention and prompt

reply.

A second, and even a third, exercise may be given on form
and colour combined similar to the above ; and the children
may now be led to apply the appropriate names to the
colours in articles of dress, flowers, &e.

LESSON II.
PERPENDICULAR, HORIZONTAL, AND OBLIQUE LINES.

Five minutes’ rapid questioning on Lesson ITI. Stage I., and
Lesson III. Stage II., will form an appropriate introduction
to this lesson.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 75

Tell the children that we are now about to give upright,
fying down, and slanting Vines new names, viz. perpendicular,
horizontal, and oblique, and exercise somewhat as follows :-—

“1 will draw straight lines on the black-board, and you

shall tell me, as I make them, what position they are in.”
Perpendicular, oblique, horizontal, Se.

 

 

“T will now take a pointer, and as I hold it in different
positions you shall tell me what they are.”

* In what position am I holding the pointer now ——? ”
Horizontal.

“Now — P?”  Objique.

“Now |?” Perpendicular.

«Yes, or you may say certical.”

“What do you mean by perpendicular?” Standing upright.

“What do vou mean by horizontal?’ Lying doven or along.

“Now hold your arms in a horizontal position. Now in a
vertical position. Now in an oblique position.”

«In what position are you when standing up?” Vertical
or perpendicular.

“Tn what position are you when lying in bed?” Horisontad.

«In what position are the walls of this room?” Perpen-
dicular or vertical.

+» Name some things in the room which are in a horizontal
position.” Moor, ceiling, top af table, seats, Se.

The children may now be instructed to place their slates
in different positions.

As a further and interesting exercise, the teacher may
-%6 OBJECT LESSONS.

make three or four of the simpler letters of the alphabet on
the black-board and question thus :—

“What is the name of this letter (I)P” J.

“Of how many lines is the {made?” Of one line.

“Tn what position is thisline?”’ Perpendicular.

«“ What is the name of this letter (L)?” JZ.

“ Of what lines is it made?” Of one perpendicular and one
horizontal line.

«What angle do these two lines make?” A right angle.

“What is the name of this letter (V)?” V.

“Of what lines is it made?” Of two oblique lines.

‘“What kind of angle do these lines makeP”’ An acute angle.

The letters T, H, A, X may be similarly dealt with.

LESSON IIL
PARALLEL LINES.

Aztictss for illustration :—pieces of wood, string.

Parallel lines may be introduced by drawings on the
black-board ; but a more vivid illustration, and therefore
more likely to be impressed on the minds of the children,
may be obtained by tying two or three pieces of string (say
twelve feet long and six inches apart) to two pieces of wood,
as in the sketch.

NY

|

 

“

 

™

 

 

 

 

 

Two children should be called to the front of the class to
hold the strings tightly stretched between them in a hori-
HOW TO GIVE THEM. V7

zontal position, and another child should be directed to
measure the distance between the strings in several places
[See Lesson X. Stage I.]. The class may now be told that
the strings, which lie side by side and everywhere at the
same distance apart, are said to be para/lel.

In a similar manner perpendicular and oblique parallel
lines may be introduced to the children.

Turn now to the black-board for further illustration and
exercise.
Draw lines as in Fig. 1. Pointing to these lines the

teacher asks, ee

“Do these lines lie side by side? Are they the same
distance apart at each end? Are they parallel ? ”
“‘ Now look at these lines (Fig. 2). Are they parallel ?”

No.
Ze

Fig.2.

‘Why not?” They do not lie side by side, and they are
not the same distance apart at all points.
‘“« Here are other lines.”

— ia

FIe.3. Fis.4. Fic.5. FIG.6.

[Pointing to Fig. 3.] ‘ What can you tell me about these

lines? ” They are parallel. They are straight. They are per-
pendicular.
78 OBJECT LESSONS.

“Why are they said to be parallel?” Because they lie side
by side at the same distance apart.

Similar questions should be asked of the horizontal, oblique,
and. curved parallel lines.

Objects in the room—the walls, windows, window-panes,
door, pictures, table, black-board, &c.—will afford ample
illustration of things having parallel sides.

LESSON Iv.

LINES AND ANGLES (a Test Exercise).

For this lesson use such letters of the alphabet as are
built up of straight lines, viz. L, T, V, A, H, F, E, N,
M, W, K, Y, X, Z.

We take V and W as examples.

“ What letter is this (V)?” VD.

« How many lines are there in this VP” Two.

« Are they perpendicular?” No.

“ Well, what are they?” They are oblique.

“What kind of angles do they make between them?”
An acute angle.

“ Are the lines parallel P” No.

“Why not?” Because they are not placed side by side, and
they are not the same distance apart at all points.

“What can you say of these lines \\P” They are pa-
eallel and oblique.

“And of these /1?” They are parailel and oblique.

“Twill put them together thus—W. What letter do they
make?” W.

“ How many pairs of parallel lines form the W?” Two.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 79

“ How many angles do these Jines make, and what kind of
angles?” Three acute angles.

 

LESSON Vv.
MEASURES OF WEIGHT.—The lb., 3 lb., 3 Ib., and oz.

Ir is of great importance that children should early acquire definite
ideas of the more common measures of weight and capacity as well as
of length, and every school should be provided with some apparatus
for weighing. In this lesson we deal with the lb., }1b., }1b., and
og., leaving the cwt. and ton for a future stage,

The scales and weights being placed on the table the
teacher may introduce the lesson with a little conversation.
She may ask what children have been sent by their mother
to the shop, and what for. How the shopman found out
how much was a Ib. or 3 lb. of sugar, or butter, or
cheese. Having got from the children the names lb., } Ib.,
2 Ib., and oz., show them the weights, and let some of the
scholars handle them to discover for themselves that the lb.
is heavier than the 3 lb., the } lb. than the 4 1b., and so on

To show the children the real comparative value of each
weight it will be convenient to use sand. Weigh 1 Ib. of
sand, then tro $ lbs., and then show that two } lbs. have the
same weight as 1 lb. Ina similar way show by experiment
that two } Ibs. have the same weight as the 3 1b., and that
4 ozs. have the same weight as the } Ib.

The children may now be directed and assisted to weigh
for themselves, and the practice should be continued until
the class, as a whole, can distinguish the different weights
and appreciate their value,
80 OBJECT LESSONS.

Questions such as the following will show how far the
lesson has been a success.
“« What is the name of this weight ?’’ 3 db. weight.
“ And this?” One os. weight.
“ How many ozs. make } lb.?” Four ozs.
“How many } Ib. weights are the same as the § lb.
weight?”  TZwo l 1b. weights.
“Then how many ozs. make $ 1b.?” Hight ozs.
“ How many 3 lbs. make 1 lb.?” Two half lbs.
“ How many ozs. make 1 Ib.?” Sirteen ozs.
«The 3 lb. contains how many ozs.?” Hight ozs.
“ How many } lbs. in 1 lb.?” Four quarter ibs.
Norz.—Looking at the proficiency of her scholars, the teacher muat decide

how far her teaching on this subject may be carried; but probably the time of
another lesson may be usefully employed with the above weights.

LESSON VL

MEASURES OF CAPACITY.—THE HALF-PINT, PINT,
QUART, AND GALLON.

RANGE a half-pint, a pint, « quart, and a gallon measure on the
table.

The teacher may introduce the lesson by asking for the
names of some of the articles we buy by weight and by
measures of length (Lessons VIII., IX., and X., Stage IT.),
and then by reference to the purchase of milk or other liquid
lead the children to see the necessity for some other kind oi
measure for liquids.

Next call the attention of the children to the vessels on
the table, give their names, and then, by actual experiment
(using sand or water) * show that—

* As far as practicable let the children do the work.
HOW TO GIVE THEM, sl

2 half-pints make 1 pint,
2 pints make 1 quart,
4 quarts or 8 pints make 1 gallon.

Lastly, question thus :—

“How many half-pints in one pint ? How many pints in
one quart? How many pints in two quartsP How many
half-pints in two quarts? How many quarts in a gallon?
How many pints in a gallon? How many pints in a quart
and a gallon? How many pint measures can J fill from
two gallons? How many half-pints in a pint and a quart
together ?”’ and so on.

LESSON VII

PROPERTIES OF BODIES, LIQUID AND SOLID.—1.

Gass vessels containing liquids, such as water, milk, oil, and quick-
silver, should be placed on the table.

This is a lesson in which the attention of the children
must be purticularly directed to note the results of experi-
ment.

Pour a little water ona slate slightly tilted. “Which way
does the water run?” Doren the slate.

‘When it rains, in what direction does the water run on
the roof of a house?’ Down the roof.

“Which way does the rain water in the street run?”
Down the street.

“In what direction does water always run?” Down-
wards. .

«Now I want you to find out for me where water always
runs to. Look at this slate again. Mary shal] come to the

G
82 OBJECT LESSONS.

table and show me the lowest part of the slate.* Right
Now where does the water run toon the slate?” To the
Jowest place.

« T place the black-board on the table, but raise it a little at
one end. Now let us see to which part of the black-board
the water runs. Whatdo you say?” It runs to the lowest
part.

“T want you to remember that water alwaysruns, when it

runs at all, down, down, down to the lowest place it can
find.”

Repeat the experiment on the slate with milk, oil, and
quicksilver, and so lead the children to observe that these
bodies are all alike in running down to the lowest place.

Next place the slate in a horizontal “position and pour a
little water gently on to it near the centre, of course
taking care as usual that the children are observing. Take
another slate and on it pour gently a little sand. The
children will at once see that whilst the sand makes a heap,
the water spreads out.

In the same way show that milk, oil, and quicksilver
spread out, and in this respect are like the water.

Ascertain by questioning whether the children have
grasped the two ideas that water, milk, oil, and quicksilver
run down to the lowest place they can, and spread out when
poured on to a level surface.

* A slate on which the frame is closely fixed will hold a little water.
HOW TO GIVE THEM, &3

LESSON VIII.
PROPERTIES OF BODIES, LIQUID AND SOLID.—2

THE same liquids as in the last lesson to be placed on the table.

Fill a sponge with water, hold it up so that the children
may see how it flows out first in a stream and then in drops.
Water may be made to flow in drops from the neck of a
bottle and in various other ways.

The * pipette" is a simple little instrument for making
liquid fall in drops.

 

Tt consists of a ¢ube open at both ends, but having one end
nozzle shaped.

Place it in the liquid as shown in the figure. Press the
thumb firmly on the upper end and withdraw it. So long
as the pressure is maintained the liquid temains in the tube ;

 

but when the pressure is relaxed and a little air allowed to
enter, the liquid falls out in drops.
84 OBJECT LESSONS.

The other liquids may be shown to fall in drops from the
neck of a bottle, but the pipette as described above will be
a more convenient instrument.

“We have seen how ail these things which I have in the
glasses on the table may be made to flow in drops. But
what is the shape of these drops? You shall find out for
me. John and Jane come here. I will pour a little drop
of this shining stuff (quicksilver) into the palms of your
hands. Here itis. Take care or it will rum away. Now
look at it, what is its shape?” Ball shape.

“ Now I will sprinkle a little water on the dusty floor. Can
you see the drops? What shave are they t” itudl shape.

“ Now tell me what you learnt about these things (water,
&c.) in your last lesson?” They run éo the lowest place they
can find. They spread out when poured on a level surface.

« And what have you learnt about them in this lesson P ye
They flow in drops.

“And what shape have these drops?” Bz shape.

“I want you to remember that all those things which flow
to the lowest place they can, which spread out when poured
on to a level surface, and which can be made to flow in
drops, are called diguids.”

Question and call on the children to name other liquids,
a8 vinegar, wine, ink, &c.

“In the next lesson I shall ask. you to find out something
more about liquids.”
HOW TO GIVE THEM, 85

LESSON IX.
PROPERTIES OF BODIES, LIQUID AND SOLID —3.

SaMPLes of liquids as in the two preceding lessons, und two or three
vessels of different shapes.

“To-day I want you to learn sumcthing more about
liquids; but first you must tell me what you already know
about them.”

“Tf I pour water very slowly from a bottle how does it
flow?” Jn drops.

“ What is the shape of the drops?” Ball shape.

“When I pour water on a slate placed in a horizontal posi-
tion, where does the water flow?” I¢ spreads out on every
stde and covers the whole surface of the slate.

“We will try this over again. Here is the slate, and I
pour water on it. See, it spreads out and covers the whole
slate. What prevents the water running over?” The
frame of the slate.

“What is the shape of the slate?” Odlong shape.

“ Then what is the shape of the surface of the water on the
slate?” Oblong shape.

«Suppose the slate to be square instead of oblong, and I
pour water on it to cover it, what shape will the surface of
the water take then?” Square shape.

“ Here is a dinner-plate. What is its shape?” A circie.
“Yes; but you had better say circular, which means like a
circle.

“ Of what shape is the plate inside the rim?” Circular.

“ Then if I fill the middle part of the plate with water up
to the rim, what shape will the surface of the water take P ”

Circular.
86 OBJECT LESSONS.

«Once more, here is a box; what is its shape?” Brick
shape.

“ Now I fill the box with water; what shape does the water
take?” Brick shape.

« What is the shape of the lid?” Oblong shape.

«And what shape does the surfuce of the water take P”*
Oblong shape.

“And the bottom and the sides?” Oblong shape.

“Now I pour water into this tumbler, and you will see
that the water takes the same shape as the tumbler; and so
if I pour into a bottle or a tea-cup the water takes the same
shape as the bottle or the tea-cup. J pour in sand, but
you see the sand lies in a heap and does not of itself spread
out and take the same shape as the vessel.”

“And this is the new fact which I want you to re-
member about water and other liquids. Repeat after me,
A liquid takes the same shape as the vessel in which it is
place d.’

“Here are pieces of wood, pencil, coal, and sugar; if I put
them into a tumbler or basin will they take the shape of
the tumbler or basin?” Wo.

“Can you make them flow in drops like water?” No.

“ Are they liquids?” Wo.

“You see the wood has its own shape and so has the pencil ;
and all things which have shapes of their own we. call
solids. Name all the solid things you can see in the room.”
Book, desk, wall, door, &e.

“TI am now going to show you again, by a very pretty
experiment, that liquids take the same shape as the vessel
into which they are poured. Here I have a small piece of
lead. No doubt some of you have seen lead before. Is the
lead a solid or a liquid?” A solid.

 
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 87

“Why do you say it is a solid?” Because it has its own
shape.

‘Tam about to make it into a liquid. I put it into this
large iron spoon, and place the spoon in the fire where it is
very hot. Whilst the lead is being changed to a liquid I
will fix this thimble into a hole I have made in this piece of
wood. Now the lead has become a white liquid like the
quicksilver you have seen. I pour it gently into the
thimble. Now it is cool I take it out, and you see it has
taken the same shape as the thimble.”

When snow or ice is easily procurable, another and
perhaps more interesting experiment than the preceding
may be substituted or added. Fill a small medicine-bottle
with water, cork it and place in a large basin, cover with a
mixture of about equal quantities of snow or broken ice,
and salt. In about ten minutes the water in the bottle will
be frozen. Break the bottle and show the ice to be of the
same shape as the bottle.

LESSON X.
PROPERTIES OF BODIES.—FUSIBLE AND INFUSIBLE.

As many as possible of the following articles should be ready on the
table: ice, sugar, wax, lead or tin, india-rubber, glass, alum, salt,
camphor, chalk, marble.

A spirit-lamp, tripod-stand, evaporating-dish, and test-
tubes of different sizes will be found most useful, if not
indispensable, in this and very many of the lessons which
follow.

Three ideas need to stand out clearly and distinctly in
88 OBJECT LESSONS.

this lesson: that some solids may be changed to liquids by
the application of heat, that the change is called melting or
fusing, and that solids which can be melted are said to be
fusible.

The teacher will take any of the fusible solids she may
have at hand, and by the application of heat change them
to liquids—of course under the observation of the children.
A running commentary and fire of questions should be kept
up the whole time.

Thus suppose ice to be the first fusible solid to be submitted
to experiment.

“T want Harry to hold this piece of ice for me. How
does it feelP Look! what is that dropping on to the floor
from Harry’s hand? What has made the ice change to
water ? What do you say of water because it flows in drops?
What do you say about ice because you can see through
it P”

Or suppose butter to be the object.

“Here is butter; is it a solid ora liquid? How can I
make it into a liquid? Iwill melt it in the dish over the
spirit-lamp. Here is the liquid; what colour is it? When
it gets cold again will it be solid or liquid ? ”

Or take J/ead.

“‘ How shall I melt this lead? What colour is the lead
when liquid? If I take it away from the fire, how will it
change ?”

Or take salt.

“ James shall taste this white solid and tell me what it is.
I place it in the dish over the lamp; it does not melt.
Many other solids will not melt, as chalk, flint, marble. We
will try one or two more.”

Or take camphor.

‘Mary shall smell this and taste it; what is it? We
will try to melt it. Look, the lump is getting smaller, but
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 89

there is no liquid. Now there is nothing left, the camphor

is all gone. Camphor does not melt, it goes away into the
oe OS

air.

The attention of the children should now be directed to
the tact that butter requires more heat to melt it than ice,
and that lead requires more heat than butter; and they
should then be told that other substances, such as iron,
copper, and gold, can only be melted with a very great heat.

* We cannot melt glass in the dish over the flame; but you
see, by holding this little glass tube in the flame, the glass
gets soft and we can bend it.”

The class may now be told that solids which can be melted
or fused are said to be jAesid/e, and those which cannot be
melted are said to be mfusible;* and the children may be
exercised in classifying substances under one head or the
other.

 

LESSOW XI.
PROPERTIES OF BODIES.—SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE.

ARTICLES for iUlustration:—Soluble and insoluble substances. as
sugar, salt, soda, alum, camphor, chalk, marble, broken glass, lead,
&o., also test-tubes, evaporating-di sh, and spirit-lamp.

Place half-a-dozen test-tubes or other glass vessels on the
table. Also small quantities of, say, sugar, salt, alum,
camphor, chalk, and broken glass.¢

® These terms are to a certain extent relative. Most substances onii-

narily infusihle, as rocks, are probably fusible under a higher temperature

than we can produce.
t OF course other substances at the convenience of the teacher will answer

equally well.
90 OBJECT LESSONS.

Bring children in turn to the front of the class to name
the different substances after testing by sight, taste, and
smell. Having got the names, half fill the test-tubes with
water and place a little of each substance in each in order
as above. Warm the water in the flame of the spirit-lamp,
if necessary, to hasten solution of the soluble substances.
During the operation the attention of the children must be
kept up by commentary and questions.

The idea of solubility may now be brought out somewhat
as follows :—

“T want you to look very carefully at these glasses.”

“What did I put in-the first glass?”’ Sugar.

“ And in the second glass?” Salt.

“And in the third?” Alum.

Can you see the sugar, salt, and alum now?” Wo.

“Then can you tell me what has become of them?” They
are melted.

“No, they are not melted. It is very difficult to melt salt.
I put a little in this pan over the spirit-lamp, and you see it
does not melt as butter or lead mel

“What do you mean by melting p? ” Changing from a solid
to a hquid.

“Yes, and when we melt a solid we can see the liquid
which it makes.”

“Right, but we have not to-day changed these solids to
liquids.”

“‘ You can tell me where the sugar and salt and alum are ?”
Yes, in the water.

“Can you see the sugar in the water, or the salt or the
alum in the water?” No.

“Tf you are not quite certain, you may come to the table
some of you and taste.”

“You are quite sure they are in the water, because although
you cannot see them you cun taste them,”

 
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 9]

“T must now tell you that many solids when put in water,
and especially in hot water, break up into the tiniest little
pieces, so smal] that you cannot see them, and spread about
all through the liquid, and you must please to remember that
we say that such solids désso/re (not melt) in the water; and
because they dissolve we say they are so/ubie.”

The teacher may now show the class that the substances
held in solution may be recovered. Take, for instance, the
solution of salt; make it as strong as possible, and evaporate
a little over the spirit-lamp. The salt may be seen, handled,
and tasted over again.

Lastly, attention may be directed to the solids which have
not dissolved in the water, and the children must be told
that substances which do not dissolve are said to be m-
soluble.

Notr 1.—Some of the salts of copper—green and blue vitriol—give
beautiful coloured solutions in water.

Nots 2.—Some solids insoluble in water are soluble in other liquids:
e.g. india-rubber in coal-naphtha and camphor in spirits of wine. Advantage
may be taken of the latter fact to make a very pretty experiment, showing
how solids may exist in liquids although we cannot see them. Pour water
into a solution of camphor; the camphor at once becomes insoluble in the
mixture of spirit and water, and floats about in white flakes.

 

LESSON XI.
PROPERTIES OF BODIES.—INFLAMMABLE.

ANY or all of the substances named below may be used in illustration

Substances “ burning ”’ are so attractive and tamiliar that
one example simply to attract attention will suffice before
92 OBJECT LESSONS,

the children are told that things which burn are said to be
inflammable.

An interesting lesson may now be given in arranging the
substances used in illustration into three classes: (1) those
which burn readily ; (2) those which burn with difficulty ;
and (3) those which do not burn at all (at least in any ordi-
nary fire). The substances may be tested in the flame of
the spirit-lamp.

The result will appear thus :—

(1) (2) (3)
Cotton-wool. Wool. Glass.
Cotton goods, Woollen goo:s. Stones.
Paper. Sponge. Clay.
Cork. Leather. Chalk.
Dry wood. Whalebone. Metals.
Camphor.

India-rubber.
Coal.
Sulphur.

The children must be called on to exercise their powers
of observation during the experiment on each substance, and
to note any striking likenesses and differences exhibited.

Thus, cotton-wool and wool resemble each other in colour,
lightness, &c., but the one burns fiercely, the other with
difficulty. Paper and thin leather (say a finger of an old
kid glove), india-rubber and sponge, splinters of dry wood
and whalebone, sulphur and chalk, coal and stone, may all
be compared with advantage. The smell and smoke given
off by the different burning substances should also be noted.

When the various substances have been experimented on
and classified, attention may be called to the fact that all
the substances in the first class (except sulphur) come from
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 98

plants, all the articles in the second class come from animals,
while all those in the third class belong to inorganic
nature.

The teacher should now encourage the children to name
any uses to which burning bodies are put, and lastly, she
should impress on the children the danger of playing with
fire.

LESSON XIIt.
PROPERTIES OF BODIES.—ELASTIC.

THE teacher should be provided with india-rubber, sponge. and as
Piece of whalebone or steel spring to illustrate the three Kinds ot
elasticity.

See that the children know the names of the objects.
Then, taking up the whalebone and bending it, proceed by
questions to elicit the idea of the first kind of elasticity.

See, Iam bending this whalebone. What happens now
I let it go?” It goes back again. It flies back again, It
springs back,

“ We will say tf springs back to its oii shape again.”

« What is this I am stretching?” Lndia-rudber.

© What will happen if I let one end go?” Zé wild spring
back again.

+ Yes, tf springs back to its own shape again.”

“Here is a piece of sponge. What am I doing with it P”

Squeestng tt.
« What will happen if I let it go?” Zé til go back to ts

awn shape again,
94 OBJECT LESSONS.

“I will now give you one word which means springing
back,—it is elastic.”

“What does the word elastic mean?” Springing back.

“Why do we say whalebone is elastic?” Because tt will
spring back after being bent.

“Why do we say india-rubber is elastic?” Because tt wil!
spring back after being stretched.

“Why do we say sponge is elastic?” Because tt will spring
back after being squeezed.

““When do we say a thing iselastic?” When tt will spring
back after being bent, or stretched, or squeesed.

“John shall take this cane and bend it. Is it elastic ?”
Yes, because tt springs back again.

“ Here is a strip of lead. Jane may bend it. Is it elastic P”
No, tt does not spring back again.

“ Here is a cork. It looks too large to go into the neck of
this bottle. How shall I getitin?”  Squeesett in. Press
it in.

“T take it out again. What do you notice about it?” It
has gone back to its shape again.

“Then what can you say about cork?” Cork ts
elastic.

“ Here is a piece of cotton-wool. What shall I do to it to
find out if it is elastic?” Squeeze tt.

“ Mary shall try it. Is it larger or smaller now that Mary
is squeezing it?” I¢ is smaller.

“When Mary opens her hand what will happen to the
cotton-wool ?” Jt will get larger.

“Is cotton-wool elastic?” Yes.

““Why do you say it is elastic?” Because after being
squeezed it goes back to its own shape again.

The property of fleribility or pliability may be taught in
conjunction with elasticity, Whalebone and india-rubber
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 95

ure elustic, ‘out they are also flerible, because they can be
easily bent without breaking.

Leather, cord, paper, lead, copper are all flexible, but not
elastic,

LESSON XIV.
INDIA-RUBBER.*

ARTICLES for illustration:—A piece of bottle india-rubber, bottle con-
taining india-rubber dissolved in naphtha, and any waterproof articles.

This lesson should be partially a review of what the
children have already learnt about this useful substance.
The teacher may therefore introduce it by means of questions
such as the following :—

« What can you tell me about india-rubber ? Why do we
say it is elastic? Is india-rubber heavy or light? How
can you find that out? What else can you say about india-
rubber ? With what kind of flame does india-rubber burn ?
Can you tear it easily P What do you call it because it does
not tear easily? What do you call it because it bends
easily P”

«You have remembered about india-rubber, then, that it is
elastic, flexible, light, tough, and. inflammable.”

The teacher may then proceed. “To-day I want you to
find out for yourselves something more about india-rubber ;
but first I must tell you something about it which you could

_not find out for yourselves. India-rubber is the juice of a

tree. Cuts are made in the bark of the india-rubber tree;

* Tn this and the following three lessons the teacher should aim to show
how the particular uses of india-rubber, sponge, &c., follow from their

special properties.
96 OBJECT LESSONS.

thick creamy-looking juice flows out, and this gets solid as it
dries.’”

“ Here is a piece of this solid juice. I will put it into this
tumbler of water. Is it soluble or insoluble?” Insoluble.

“Why do you say insoluble?” Because té does not diz-
solve.

“You remember perhaps the other day I showed you that
vamphor dissolves in spirit, but not in water; and so we
can dissolve india-rubber in turpentine or naphtha. It
dissolves, however, very slowly. Here is some in this bottle
which I put in yesterday, it is only partly dissolved now.”

“One thing more about india-rubber. Here are pieces of
cloth on which india-rubber has been spread when dissolved.
Four children shall hold one piece by the corners, making
a basin. I pour in water; you see it does not pass through. .
Perhaps you can tell me about some articles of clothing on
which india-rubber has been spread to keep off the rain
Here is a hollow india-rubber ball. I fill it with water.
Does the water get through the india-rubber as it would
through cloth? No. That is another very important fact
about india-rubber, water will not pass through it—it is
waterproof.”

LESSON XV.
SPONGE.

Axtictzs for illustration :—Sponge, india-rubber,

All children are familiar with sponge and its use in
washing; the teacher may therefore commence this lesson
by asking the children to enumerate the uses, and then
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 97

elicit from them the particular properties which render it
suitable for the special purposes to which it is put.

“What do we use sponge for?” To wash our faces. To
elean our slates. Teacher washes the teriting off the black-
board with the sponge.

“ Yes, we will say it is used for washing purposes.”

«Can you wash your faces with a dry sponge?” No, we
must hare some water.

«You see, as I put this dry sponge in this basin of water,
it floats on the top like cork. What do we say of it on
that account?” TJ? ts Zight.

“I put this piece of india-rubber in the water. Can you
wash your faces with it?” No, it ts too hard. It does not
hold water.

You like the sponge rubbed over your face because it

is?” Soft.

“Here is a saucer half full of water. I put this sponge in
the saucer. Look, the water is gone from the saucer.
Where is it?’’ Zhe sponge has sucked tt up.

“ How is it that the sponge can suck up water when the
mndia-rubber cannot?” The sponge is full of little holes, and
the india-rudbber has no holes.

“Well, when anything is full of little holes like these,
what do we call it?” We cai/ it porous.

“ What does porous mean?” Full of little holes.

Can you remember anything else which is porous and
which sucks up water?” A brick.

“Then how are sponge and a brick alike?” They are both
porous, and both suck up water.

* Now can you tell me anything in which the sponge and
a brick are not alike?” The sponge ts elastic, the brick is not.

“Why do you say the sponge is elastic?” Because tt
springs back after being squeesed,

a
98 OBJECT LESSONS.

«“ Why do people very often squeeze sponge P” To get the
water out.

“When the sponge is pressed, how is its size altered P”
It ts made smaller.

“Tf you press a brick can you make it smaller?” No.

“We have seen, then, that sponge is ight, and soft, and
elastic, and porous, that it sucks up water, and that it can be
pressed into a smaller size. I want you to remember two
new words. Things that suck up water are said to be absor-
bent. Things that can be squeezed or pressed into a smaller
space are said to be compressible.”

“One more thing about sponge. William shall try and
tear it to pieces. You see it does not tear easily like paper.
What do we say about a thing when it does not tear easily P”’
It ts tough.

“You shall now tell me again all you have learnt about
sponge.”

“What do you say of it because it floats on the water P ”
Lt is light.

‘Because it does not hurt your face when rubbed over
it?” It ts soft.

“Because it is full of holes?”  I¢ ts porous.

“Because it sucks up water?” I¢t is absorbent.

“ Because it can be made smaller by pressing?” J¢ ¢
compressible.

“ Because it springs back after being squeezed?’’ It is
elastic.

“You can see now how the properties of sponge make it
useful for washing.”

“Tf it were not porous and absorbent it could not suck up
the aater.”

“Tf it were not compressible we could not squeeze out the
dirty water.”
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 99

“Tf it were not elastic it would not open out again and be
ready to take up fresh water.”

“Tf it were not soft it would Awrt the skin of the
bady.”

“Tf it were not tough it sould tear to pieces and soon he
worn arcay.”

The teacher should now lead the children to compare
sponge and india-rubber with regard to their properties.

LESSON XVI.
CORK.

A NUMBER of old bottle-corks, a piece of the bark of the cork-tree, a
piece of bark of some other tree, a small wooden doll, and a glass
vessel of water should be to hand for this lesson.

Pieces of cork should be distributed to all members of the
class, and the teacher should guide the children in exercising
their perceptive faculties to discover the more prominent
qualities of cork. It is light, soft, elastic, compressible, and
impercious to water.

Secondly,-a piece of uncut cork should be compared with
the bark of an ordinary tree and the similarity pointed out,
and the children may then be told that cork is the outer
covering or bark of a tree; but that the cork-tree does not
grow in this country.

Thirdly, the teacher will show how its special properties
adapt it for certain uses.
100 OBJECT LESSONS.

a. As stoppers for bottles.

It is compressible, and can thus, when properly cut, be
pressed or forced in. Show this by experiment.

Let the children notice that the cork is larger than the
opening of the bottle, and then press it in.

It is elastic. Show that the neck of the bottle increases
in size from the mouth downwards, and how the cork presses
out and fills the neck. This fixes the cork in tightly and
prevents the liquid inside from getting out. An old cham-
pagne cork will show this admirably.

It is impervious to water and other liquids, hence these
cannot escape from the bottle.

b. Its Lightness makes it valuable for the construction of
life belts and jackets to keep people from sinking in the
water and being drowned. Also for making lifeboats and
floats for fishing-nets.

This property and use may be prettily illustrated by taking
a wooden doll and weighting it a little in the feet just suffi-
cient to make it sink, and then supporting it by a ring of
cork used as a life-belt, or strips of cork tied round the body
Ulustrating a cork jacket.

e. Its lightness and warmth make it suitable for inner soles
of boots. uo

The children will readily appreciate light boots and warm
feet.

Advantage may be taken here to inculcate carefulness in
kecping the feet warm and dry to prevent illness.

 

Bureau Nature S tudy,
HOW TO GIVE THEM, 10)

LESSON XVIL
LEATHER.

Preces of leather of different kinds and thicknesses, an old ‘ kid”
glove, an old leather purse, and an old shoe or boot, will be useful
for this lesson.

The teacher may proceed somewhat as follows :—

“‘ Here are some pieces of leather. I will give each of you
a small piece. Take the leather in your right hands. Shut
your eyes and hold the leather near your noses.”

‘How can you tell leather with your eyes shut?” By its
smell,

“ Bend the leather. What can you say about leather
because it bends easily?” It is flexible.

“Can you tear it? Try.” No.

“Then what else can you say of leather?” J¢ ts tough.

“T put my piece in this glass of water. It does not sink.
Then what can you say of it P’’ It is light.

“ Repeat again the three things you have told me about
leather ?”? I¢ ts flerible, tough, and light.

« Why do we say itis tough?” Because it does not tea
easily.

“And why do we say it is flexible? ” Because tt is easily bent

* Here is an old shoe. What isit madeof?” It is made
of leather. ;

«Why do we wear shoes?”’ To keep the feet warm.

«‘ And for what else?” To keep the feet dry.

“What did we say of india-rubber because it does not allow
water to pass through?” J¢ is waterproof.

« And what did we say of cork because it does not allow
liquids to pass through?” Cork is impervious to water.

«You may remember that tmpervious to water and water-
proof mean the same thing.”
102 OBJECT LESSONS.

“ Boots and shoes, when not too much worn, keep out the ~
water. What more, then, can you say about leather?” Jt
ts waterproof.

“That is not true of leather when very thin; for water will
pass through akid glove and wet the hand ; but it is true of
the leather we use for making boots and shoes.”

“You have now told me that leather is flexible, tough,
light, and waterproof. Now let us see how these properties
of leather make it so useful for making boots and shoes.”

“Leather is flexible; but so is the stuff my dress is made of.
Why would not that do to make boots and shoes?” Because
tt would let in the water.

“Yes, but then I might make the shoes of iron, they would
not let in the water?” They would be too heavy.

“Well, then, why not use wood ?”? They would not bend
and would hurt the feet.

“Paper is flexible and light. Why not use paper?”
Because it would not keep the water out. It would tear easily.

“ Now tell me the several reasons why leather is good for
making boots and shoes?” Because tt is flexible, and does not
hurt the feet. Because it is tough, and does not wear out very
quickly. Because tt ts light, and does not tire the feet. Because
it is waterproof, and keeps the feet dry and warm.

There is one other property of leather to which attention
should be drawn; thatis, that when placed on or near the fire
it frizzles up, and presently burns. The children may be
taught a lesson from this, not to put their boots or shoes too
near the fire when they wish to dry them, or tc warm their feet.

The teacher may deal with its usefulress fcr gloves, &e.,
in a similar way.

The children may also be told that leather is made from
skins of animals, but the process of manufacture should be
reserved for a later stage.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 1038

LESSON XVIII.

INDIA-RUBBER, SPONGE, CORK, AND LEATHER
(A Comparison).

THE time of one lesson may now be occupied in the com-
parison of the properties of india-rubber, sponge, cork, and
leather, not only as a special exercise in comparison and
classification, but also as a test as to how far the teaching
has been effective.

In no case should the scholars be told how these sub-
atances are alike or unlike; but, if necessary, recourse must
be again had to examination and experiment.

The following are the chief points of likeness which should
be elicited from the children :—

All the four substances are ight; but sponge and cork are
lighter than india-rubber and leather.

India-rubber, sponge, and cork are alike in being e/astic
and compressible ; but sponge is more compressible than cork,
and cork than india-rubber.

India-rubber, sponge, and leather are alike in being tough
and flexible.

India-rubber, cork, and leather are like in being water-
proof or tmpervious to water.

India-rubber and cork are vegetable substances, and are
very inflammable.

Sponge and leather are animal substances ; they frizzle up
when placed on the fire and do not burn easily.

The following among others are points of difference which
may be brought forward :—

Sponge is absorbent, the other substances are not absorbent.

Sponge is porous, but india-rubber and leather are non-
porous.*

* Cork is porous also; but, as it is non-absorbent, liquids do not pass
through.
104 OBJECT LESSONS.

Cork differs from the other substances in not being ough.
Leather is non-elastic, the other substances are elastic,

 

LESSON XIX.
WATER, MILK, PARAFFIN OIL, ETC. (A Comparison).

Tue agreements and differences to be elicited as before by
observation, examination, and experiment, as far as neces-

sary.

The three substances are alike in being Aquids.

Water. Milk.
Transparent. Opaque.
Colourlesse, White colour.
Tasteless Sweet.

Water. Paraffin Oil.

Transparent. Transparent.

Colourless. Colourless.

Without smell. Strong unpleasant smell.
Non-inflammable. Highly inflammable.

Paraffin oil may be shown to be lighter than water by
pouring a little of both into a test-tube; the oil will rest on

the top.

Milk. Paraffin Oil.
Opaque. Transparent.
Sweet. Burning, and should not be tasted.
Slight odour Strong unpleasant smell.

Non-inflammable. Highly inflammable.

Other liquids, such as spirits, vinegar, ink, &c., may also
be compared with the foregoing and with each other.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 105

LESSON XX.

LOAF SUGAR, ALUM, SODA, CAMPHOR, CHALK, STARCH
ETC. (A Comparison).

THE agreements and differences to be elicited as before, by
observation, examination, and experiment.

Loaf Sugar.
White colour.
Brittle.
Sweet taste.
Granular.
Soluble.
Fusible.
Rough.

Alum.

Colourless, but white

powder.
Transparent.
Soluble in water.
Rough taste.
Odourless.
Infusible.

Does not burn.

Soda.
Colourless.

In powder, white colour and

opaque.
Soluble.
Infusible.
Brittle.
Saline taste.

.

im

Chalk.
White colour.
Brittle.
Tasteless.
Crumbles to powder.
Insoluble.
Non-fusible.
Smooth.

Camphor.

White colour.
Opaque.

Insoluble in water.
Burning taste.
Strong odour.
Infusible.

Highly inflammable.

Alum.

Colourless.
In powder, white colour and

opaque.

Soluble.
Infusible,
Brittle.
Rough taste.

Other substances may be similarly compared.
FOURTH STAGE.*

OssERVATION and comparison are the dominant feature in
this as in the preceding stages; but more new facts are
introduced and useful information is imparted about some
of the common necessaries of life. In the “first lessons on
manufactures”? only such subjects are taken as can be
illustrated without difficulty.

It is probable that by the time this stage is reached the
children will have learned to read, and the chief points of
the lesson should be written on the black-board as they are
brought out.

The subjects dealt with are—

(1.) Colour: shades and tints of colours.

(2.) Form: the circle, sphere, and cylinder.

(3.) Measures for dry goods.

(4.) Properties of bodies: malleable, tenacious, ductile.

(5.) Common objects: common salt, soda, alum, camphor,
sulphur, snow and ice, wool and cotton, and pins and needles.

(6.) Manufactures: bread, butter, cheese, starch, paste,
&e.

LESSON LI.
COLOUR.—SHADES AND TINTS.—t.

Tae children should be provided with cards, or paper, or threads of
wool of the following colours: carmine, yellow, blue, crimson,
scarlet, pink, rose, and flesh colour.

The children at this stage are supposed to Le able to dis-
tinguish all the primary and secondary colours, and to tell

* Suitable for children of from about 5} to 63 years of age.
OLJECT LESSONS. 107

how the latter are produced from the former, They have
learned, moreover, that colours may be light or dark.

The teacher may now proceed to show the composition,
and to give the names of some of these light and dark
colours. But as the varying “shades” and “hues” and
*tints’’* are innumerable, while the names given them are
very limited in number, and not very exact, it will be best
for her to confine her attention to a few of the more common.

The general effect of mixing darker or lighter colours with
any particular colour must first be shown by experiment.
The resulting colours are seen to be darker or lighter.t

Teacher, holding up the standard red [carmine] asks :—

“What colour is this card?” Red colour.

“Here is another red. Is it darker or lighter?” Darker.

“Which is the darker colour, blue or red ?”? Blue colour.

«Tf I mix a little blue with the bright red it makes this
darker colour, which we call crimson.

“Show me your red card. Now the crimson.

“ How is crimson madeP” By miring a little blue with
bright red.

« Show me your yellow card. Which is the darker colour,
yellow or red?” Red colour.

“Tf I mix a very little yellow with bright red it makes
this new colour, which we call scarlet. :

“ How do I say scarlet is formed?” By mtring a little
yellow with bright red.

“ Now place the three red cards in a row, the darkest first,
then the bright red, then the lightest.

* A shade is sometimes understood to be a colour made darker by the ad-
dition of another and darker colour, while a tint is a colour made much
lighter by the addition of another and lighter colour. When a slight colour
is seen in addition to the principal colour it is called a tinge or a Aue. But
in practice these terms are used indiscriminately.

t The production of the particular shades and tints reqmred will be found
somewhat difficult, and paper or card patterns, or threads of wool, may be
used instead of paints.
108 OBJECT LESSONS.

‘What is the name of the lightest?” Scarlet.
« And of the darkest?” Orimson.

“Now if I take a little crimson and make it very light by
mixing white with it we get another very pretty colour.
Here it is; we call it pink.

“In the same way if I mix white with a little bright red
we get rose colour, and if I mix white with a little scarlet
we get flesh colour.

«‘ How can we make a pink colour?” By mizing white
with a little crimson.

‘How can we makearosecolour?” By mixing white with
a little bright red.

“ How can we make a flesh colour?” By mixing white
with a little scarlet.

“Show me your scarlet card. Now the colour which we
make from scarlet by mixing plenty of white with it.

“‘ Now the bright red colour and the light colour we make
from it. And now the crimson card and the light colour we
make from it.”

The teacher must continue to exercise the child-en in
“matching ” and selecting these colours until satisfactory
results are achieved.

LESSON IL
COLOUR.—SHADES AND TINTS —2.

Tue time of this, and probably one other lesson, may be
occupied with distinguishing and naming the more common
shades and tints of yellow, blue, and green. The extent,
however, to which this subject is pursued must depend very
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 109

much on the intelligence and previous training of the
scholars. The method to be followed will be similar to that
of the last lesson, and cards, paper, or threads of wool must
be provided according to the colours brought under notice.

The following are among the more common shades of
yellow, blue, orange, green, and purple :—

YELLow, a primary colour.

Chrome, a rich bright pure yellow.

Saffron, the colour of the saitron flower, a deep yellow
with a tinge of red.

Sulphur, the colour of sulphur, a yellow with a bluish
tinge.

Canary, the colour of the canary bird, a light chrome.

Lemon, the colour of the lemon, a yellow with a blue
tinge.

Straic, the colour of straw, a pure light yellow.

Primrose, the colour of the primrose flower, a very
light yellow.

Flaren, the colour of flax, a pale tint of yellow.

BLvE, a primary colour.
Ultramarine, a tine rich deep blue.
Indigo, a deep blue with a tinge of red.
Prussian bine, a deep blue with a tinge of green,
Violet, the blue of the rainbow or spectrum.
Sky-biue, a light blue, the colour of the cloudless sky.

OrancE, a secondary colour, a mixture of yellow and
red, the colour of a ripe orange.
Auburn, a dark ved orange.
Bujf, a light yellowish orange.
Saimon, the colour of the flesh of the salmon, a light
erange with a golden tinge.
110 OBJECT LESSONS.

Green, a secondary colour, a mixture of blue and vellow
the brightest grass green.
Olive-green, the colour of the olive, a dark green.
Botile-green, a dark yellowish-green.
Pea-green, the colour of the pea, a light green.

Purpiz, a secondary colour, a mixture of red and blue.
Lavender, a purple made light by mixing white with it.
Inlac, a purple made lighter by mixing white with it.

LESSON III.

FORM.—CIRCLE, CIRCUMFERENCE, CENTRE, RADIUS,
DIAMETER.

Tus lesson should be introduced by a few questions calling
to mind the lessons on form in the previous stages. Thus,
using the black-board :—

«What is the name of this figure [\ A square.

“What kind of angles are the angles of asquare?”’ Right
angles,

‘Give me the name of another figure which has four right
angles?” An oblong.

“How many sides has an oblong?” Four sides.

“What kind of lines are the sides of a square or of an
oblong?” Straight lines.

“What is the name of this figure Q?” A circle.

“How many lines has a circle round it?” One Hine.

“What kind of line is it?’ A curved line.

 

“To-day I am about to teach you something more about
the circle. We will first draw one. I place the black-
board flat on the table, drive in a small nail near the centre,
and tie a piece of string loosely on the nail. Mary shall
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 111

now take the other end of the string and a piece of chalk in
her right hand, and, walking round the table, make a large
circle.

“Twill next draw three or four straight lines from the nail
to the curved line which forms the outside of the circle.
Can you tell me anything about these lines? Let us
measure them. Now tell me?” They are all of the same
length.

“Tn what part of the circle is the nail?” Jn the middle.

«Yes, and we call the middle by another name—the centre.

**The line which goes round the circle we call by a long
name—the circumference.

«Each line which we have drawn from the centre to the
circumference is called a radius.

“<T will now take out the nail and make the certre of the
circle with the chalk, and then draw a line through the
centre from one side of the circle to the other. This line,
because it goes quite ‘hrough the circle, is called the diameter.
The word diameter means measure through.

“One more point. We sometimes say that the line which
forms the edge of a figure bounds the figure ; that is, it shows
how far the figure extends. The walls of this room show
how far the room extends, they are said to bownd the room.

* How many sides bound a square ?” Four sides.

«What name do we give to the line which bounds the
circle?” The circumference.

“Where does the line called the diameter begin P” It
begins at the circumference,

ss And where does it end?” Jé ends at the circumference.

And what point does it always pass through F” I? passer
through the centre of the circle.

“‘ Where does the line called the radius begin ?” It begins
at the centre
112 OBJECT LESSONS.

‘

“And where does it end?” It ends at the circumference.
“What part of the diameter is the radius of a circle ?”
The radius is one-half the diameter.

“Look at the clock-face. What is its shape?” The
shape of a circle.

“Yes, and when a thing is of the shape of a circle we say
it is circular.

“What shape then is the clock-face?”” The clock-face is
circular.

“ And what can you see on the clock-face which looks like
the radius of a circle?” The hands.

“Where are the hands fixed?” In the centre of the
‘elock-face.

« You see a black line drawn rcund just outside the figures.
What name do we give to that line?” The circumference.

«What is the shape of this penny ?” Circular.

“And of this biscuit?” Circudar.

« And of the top of this inkstand ?” Circular.

“Of this plate?” Circular.

The iesson may be further illustrated, if” necessary, by a
drawing of a cart-wheel, the box, spokes, and rim repre-
senting - respectively the centre, radii, and circumference of a
circle.

Lastly, the children should make circles on their slates
and draw diameters and radii.

¢@ They may be measured by a scholar.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 118

LESSON Iv.
FORM.—SPHERE, CYLINDER.

As many spherical and cylindrical bodies as can conveniently be
obtained should be placed on the table.

“Here are marbles, oranges, and balls of sewing-cotton.
How are they all alike?” They have all the same shape.

«« And what shape have they?” They are ball shaped.

«J will give you another word which means round like a
ball; it is sphere. And when we want to say sphere shape,
we use the word spherical. Therefore you may say that the
marbles and oranges are spherical in shape.

“Give me the names of other objects which are spherical
in shape.” India-rubber ball, apples, cherries, currants, §c.

“Here is an apple. I will cut it into halves. Now, if the
whole apple is a sphere, what must the half be?” A half-
sphere, or the half of a sphere.

“T will give you a new name for ha/fof a sphere ; itis hemt-
sphere. Hemi weans hali; then hemisphere means half of a
sphere, or half of a ball.

«What is the shape of the half ofan orange?” Hemisphere.

“ How many hemispheres does it take to make a sphere ? ”
Two hemispheres.

“What is this [holding up a cylindrical ruler] ?” .4 round
ruler.

«You say round ruler. Is it round like a ball?” No, it
ts round and long.

«Look at the ends and tell me their shapes.’ The ends
are flat and circular.

“Here isa sheet of paper. Can any little boy or girl make
this paper look something like the round ruler? No one!

I
114 OBJECT LESSONS,

Well, how do people manage to carry home large sheets of
paper?” They roll them up.

“Now, roll up this sheet of paper. You see it looks like
the ruler in shape, and I can use it for drawing lines.

“We use a long word to describe the shape of things
which look as if they were rolled up, like this ruler for
instance ; it is cylinder. When we wish to say things are of
the shape of a cylinder, we say they are cylindrical.

‘« These are not easy words, but you must try and remember
them, because we find so very many things of this shape.

“ Let us look about the room to find things cylindrical in
shape. The legs of the table, the legs of the chair, the gas-
pipes, the stove pipe, lead pencils, pen-holders, the poker.

“ Now think of things you have seen at home which are
cylindrical in shape.” Broom-hundie, candle, blind-roller,
some bottles, pins and needles, &e.

LESSON V.
MEASURES FOR DRY GOODS.

Pint, quart, gallon, peck, and bushel measures are necessary for
this lesson. If these cannot be procured for the occasion, it will be
better to postpone the subject till a later period.

This lesson should be introduced by a rapid recapitulation
of Lesson VJ. Stage III., and the measures then used for
liquids, viz. the pint, quart, and gallon, should again be
brought under the notice of the children.

The corresponding measures made of wood will next be
shown, and the children may be led to see why wooden
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 114

measures are most suitable for measuring solid bodies, and
earthenware, glass, or metal for liquids.

Wooden measures are less liable to be broken than earth-
enware or glass, and are much cheaper than metal, and may
be kept sufficiently clean for measuring seeds, &c., without
much washing.

On the other hand, wooden measures cannot well be kept
sufficiently clean for measuring liquids, whilst earthenware,
glass, and metal are cleansed with but very little trouble.

The next higher measure for dry goods—viz. the peck—
should now be introduced, and the children must learn from
actual experiment that two gallons make one peck.

The bushel will next be dealt with, and in a similar

manner.

Questions should follow to strengthen and test knowledge,
thus: A peck is equal to how many gallons? How many
gallons make a half-peck ? Howmany pecks make one bushel?
How many gallons make a bushel? How many quarts in a
bushel P How many pecks in a half-bushelP How many
gallons in a half-bushelP and so on. Recourse should be
had to experiment where necessary.

If the teacher can now introduce basket measures so much
the better; and the children may easily be led to see why
basket measures, which are cheaper than wooden, suffice
for measuring peas and beans in pods, apples, potatoes,
&c., whilst they are unsuitable for measuring flour, wheat,
peas, seeds for birds, and so on.

Lastly, the teacher may ask the children to enumerate
articles sold by measure and by weight. Of course the
answers will depend very much on local custom.
116 OBJECT LESSONS.

LESSON VI.
PROPERTIES OF BODIES.—MALLEABLE AND TENACIOUS.

Pieces of lead, copper, iron, gold-leaf and tin-foil, glass, marble, and
flint, or as many as possible of these substances, should be provided.
Also a large stone, or block of wood, to serve as an anvil and a ‘
hammer.

Take the piece of lead, and, after asking the children to
note its shape, give it three or four smart blows with the
hammer. The change in form will be at once evident to the
scholars ; it is spread out or flattened.

[If the necessary appliances are within reach, red-hot iron
may be treated in the same way. ]

Next try to flatten a piece of flint.* It breaks into a
. number of sharp jagged pieces; itis brittle. The lead which
does not break into pieces, but which spreads out under
beating, is said to be malleable, a word which means can
be beaten out with a mallet or hammer.

A copper vessel—a saucepan or a kettle—will serve to
show the malleability of copper ; and tin-foil, silver-foil, and
gold-leaf will illustrate the extreme malleability of tin, silver,
and gold.

Secondly, the malleability of gold, silver, tin, iron,
lead, &c., depends on another property which these objects
possess in common—they hold together firmly, and so are
said to be tenacious, a word which means to hold fast.

Thirdly, the teacher should direct the attention of the
children to the particular uses to which these objects are put
following on the property of malleability, such as-zinc and

* Care must be taken to protect the children from the flying splinters.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 117

lead for covering houses, lead for making water-pipes and
gas-pipes, copper and silver for drinking and other vessels,
iron for making kettles, saucepans, nails, &c., gold and
silver for covering other articles, such as drinking-vessels,
forks, picture-frames, and tin for making tin-foil for
wrappers.

Recapitulation, as usual, by question and answer should
follow.

LESSON VII.
PROPERTIES OF BODIES.—DUCTILE AND TENACIOUS.

As many different Kinds of wire of various sizes as can readily be
obtained will be useful in illustrating this lesson.

“ What do we say of gold, silver, lead, tin, and iron because
they can be beaten out into thin leaves?” Zhey are madlcable.
“« How is it that these bodies can be beaten out when chalk
and glass and stones cannot?” Because they hold together.
« What word means holding together?” Tenacious,

“There is another property which these bodies possess
which I want you to learn about to-day. Can you give me
the name of these pieces which lie on the table?” They are
pleces of wire.

«Here is a piece made of copper. Two little boys shall
come to the table and try and break it. You see they can-
not break it either by pulling or twisting. What can you
say of it?” 7 ts very strong.

“Yes, the copper holds together very firmly, it is—?’
Tenacious.

“Here is another piece of wire. What is its colour?”
White colour,

23
118 OBJECT LESSONS.

\

“Yes, it is made of silver.

«And here is another piece which I can cut with a pair of ©
scissors or a knife. What can you say of it because we can
easily cut it?” It ts soft.

“This soft wire is made of zinc.

“Here ‘are several more wires of different thicknesses ;
they are all made of a kind of iron called steed. They are
very strong.

“Tom shall come and find the stoutest wire, and James
the thinnest or finest.

“T must now tell you that all these wires are made by pull-
ing the copper and silver and stee] through holes. You will
learn how it is done in a future lesson. But I want you to
remember now that al] those bodice which can be drawn out
into wires are said te be ductile.”

“Looking at the steel wires, what property can you say
steel has?”’ Steel is ductile.

“What do we mean when we say steel is ductile?” It
can be drawn out into wire.

“What three properties do silver and copper and. steel
possess in common?’”’ They are malleable, tenacious, and
ductile.

“Gold is also very ductile, and lead and tin are ductile;
but lead,.zinc, and tin are not so ¢enacious, and so the wire
made of these metals is not strong.”

The teacher should now elicit from the children some of
the uses to which wire is put, and why; and then recapitu-
late as usual.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 115

LESSON VIII.
COMMON SALT.

AntIctes for illustration :—Table salt and rock-salt, with the spirit-
lamp and evaporating-dish.

A large lump of clean white salt should be placed ia full
view of the class, and the scholars should be directed in the
first place to tell all they have learned in previous lessons
about this important and necessary article of food.

“To-day our lesson is on salt. Let me hear how much
you already know about salt.

** What can you learn about salt from looking at it?” I?
ts of a white colour.

“ By tasting it?” It has a taste which we call salt.

“ By feeling it?” J¢ ts hard and rough.

“Can you tell me what makes it feel rough P

“T will hand you some small pieces. Look at them very
closely. How does the salt differ from chalk?” Sat ts made
up of tiny bits.

“Yes, and we call these tiny pieces ¢rains, and salt is said
to be granular because it is made up of tiny grains.

‘‘Give me the name of another white substance which is
granular.” Loaf sugar.

«Why do you say loaf sugar is granular?” Because it is
made up of little grains,

“Tf you look at the little grains of sugar and salt again
you may see that they “shine” or sparkle, and salt and
sugar are said to be sparkling.

“If I strike this lump of salt with a hammer what will
happen?” The salt will break in pieces.

«What property do we say salt possesses because it breaks
into pieces when struck with a hammer?” Salt is brittle,
120 OBJECT LESSONS.

“As T go on hammering the salt you see the pieces get
smaller and smaller, and now it is fine like dust. This we
call a porder.

“We use powdered salt to eat with our meat and potatoes.

“Suppose I put a piece of salt into water, what happens
to the salt?” T¢ dissclves.

“What do you mean by dissolves?” Breaks up into such
small pieces that we cannot see them.

« What do you say of salt because it dissolves in water P ”
It ts said to be soluble. ,

“ How can I tell that there is salt in this water?” By
tasting the water.

“Do you remember how in a former lesson we got the salt
back again in little grains?” Yes, by driving away the
water.

“* How did we drive away the water ?” ~ By boiling.

“T wonder if you have ever thought ‘ where does salt come
from?’ I will tell you: it comes from under the surface of
the ground. In some places there are thick beds of salt
underground as thick, or thicker, than the school-room is
high. This kind of salt is called rock-salt. Here is a piece
of rock-salt. It is not clean and white, but you can tell by
tasting it that it is salt. You know how oftenit rains. Well,
a good deal of the rain-water soaks into the ground, and where
there are beds of rock-salt the water dissolves some of the
salt. To get salt, then, people either dig out the rock-salt
or pump up the salt water.

«You can tell me how the salt is got from the water?”
The water is boiled away from the salt.

“T dare say many of you little boys and girls have heard of
the sea, perhaps some of you have seen the sea. Ifyou were
to taste sea water you would not like it, because it is very
x

HOW TO GIVE THEM. 121

salt and not nice to the taste. People get salt from sea
water by driving away the water.”

“You can tell me what salt is used for?” To eat with
our food,

“Can you eat as much salt as you eat potatoes?” No.

“ How does it make you feel when you eat much salt ?”
Thirsty.

“Salt is used to mix with our food to make it taste nice ;
but there is another reason why we eat salt, we should soon
be ill if we ate no salt.

“What are the two reasons then for our eating salt P”
To make our food taste nice, and to keep us well.

“Salt has another use; when rubbed on meat it keeps it

‘sweet and fit to eat for a long time.

“Can vou tell me the names of some things we eat which

have been salted P’? Fish, beef, bacon, §c.

“One thing more I want you to remember. Sheep, and
cows, and horses, and other animals are very fond of salt;
and it is good for animals to have their food salted, just as it
is good for us to eat salt with our food.”

LESSON IX.
SODA.

A SUFFICIENT quantity of soda, the spirit-lamp and evaporating-dish,
a little grease or oil, a basin of water and a towel should be provided.

As in the previous lesson, the children should be led to
discover the more obvious properties of soda by the exercise
of the senses, aided by simple experiment. Thus it is frans-
parent* and colourless, it is hard, brittle, and smooth and

®* The white powder on the outside must be removed by washing.
122 OBJECT LESSONS.

very unpleasant to the taste. It is very soluble in water ;
but is not fusible.

When exposed to the air a white opaque powder forms on
the outside. This is dry soda. The transparent colourless
article contains a large quantity of water.

An interesting experiment will show this. Placed in the
evaporating-dish over the spirit-lamp, the soda appears to
melt; in reality it is dissolving in its own water. If this
water be slowly evaporated off, the white dry powder is left.

It is not advisable here to enter into the question of the
manufacture of soda, or of its uses in the arts and manufac-
tures, but the teacher will be able to elicit from the children
its use for cleansing purposes. Its power of removing grease
may beillustrated. Allow a child to rub a little grease over
its hands and then try to remove it by washing in water
only. Add a little soda to the water, and the grease is easily
removed.

LESSON =X
ALUM.

SUFFICIENT alum should be provided for each scholar to have a small
lump.

The teacher may take a piece of alum and a piece of soda
from which the white opaque powder has been removed, and
lead the children to institute a comparison -between the two
substances.

“To-day our lesson is to be on a substance very much like
soda. You shall find out for me presently in what ways
they are alike: but first you must tell what you learnt about
soda.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 123

“ What did vou learn by looking at it?” Soda ts trans-
parent and colourless.

“ What by feeling it?” Soda is hard and smooth.

“What by tasting it?’? The taste of soda is not nice.

“What by hammering it?” Soda is brittle.

“What by putting it in water?” Soda ts soluble.

“ What by heating it?” The soda boiled: the water wae
driven off and a white poreder was lett behind.

“What did we call the powder?” Dry soda.

“Now taste a little of the pieces I have given you. Does
it taste like soda?” No.

“Eat a little more. How do the tongue and the roof of
the mouth feel?” Rough.

“Who can tell me the name of this stuff?’ Alum.

“Right; now I want you toremember that the particular
taste of alum is called astringent. You will find out other
things by-and-by which have an astringent taste.”

“ How are soda and alum then unlike?”? They are unlike
in taste.

“ Now you shall tell me how they are alike. First Jook at
the pieces. They are both transparent and colourless.

“Feel the alum. Like soda, alum is Aard and smooth.
I hammer a piece. Like soda, alum is brittle.

**T put alittle in water. Like soda, alum is so/ud/e in
water.

“Now we heat some over the spirit-lamp. Like soda,
it dos, the water is driven off, and dry alum is leit
behind.

‘Look at this drv alum; feel it. It is hard. This dry
alum is sold under the name of burnt alum.”

The teacher may now show by experiment two other

interesting facts about alum.
Ist. Articles of clothing, such as cloth and calico, steeped

a> *

in alum water and then dried, are very dithcult to burn.
124 OBJECT LESSONS.

2nd. That alum dissolves* much more freely in hot than
in cold water. Hence, if boiling water saturated with alum
be left to cool, alum deposits in crystals. If the cooling
be slowly conducted large crystals may be obtained.t

Reference will be made to the uses of alum in tanning,
dyeing, calico printing and paper making, in future lessons.

LESSON XI.
CAMPHOR.

Artictes for illustration: a piece or two of camphor ard a little
‘spirits of wine.”

The more obvious properties of camphor can readily be
elicited from the children. } .

By sight. It is white in colour. It is not quite opaque
and yet not transparent like soda or alum. It is half or
semi-transparent.

By feeling. It is hard.

By taste. It is bitter and unpleasant.

By smell. It has a strong peculiar odour.

By hammering. It is tough.

By placing in water. It is Aghé, and insolublet in water.

By contact with a flame. It burns readily, giving off
much smoke.

Heated in the evaporating-dish. It does not melé. It is
infusible. But it flies off into the air like steam from boiling

* A pound of boiling water will dissolve a pound of alum, while it requires

about eighteen pounds of quite cold water to dissolve the same weight of
alum. -

t+ Take some small article made of wire, such as a basket, cover the wire
with worsted, place the basket in a hot saturated solution of alum, and leave
it to cool slowly. In a day or two a pretty crystal basket will be the result.

¢ Although apparently insoluble in water, sufficient of the camphor dix
solves to give to the water its peculiar odour and bitter taste.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 125

water. It is said to be volatile, a word which means flying
off:

The experiment suggested in a former lesson [Stage ITI.
Lesson XI.] may be repeated here. It will impress on the
minds of the children the fact that substances may be held in
solution although we cannot see them.

 

LESSON XIL
SULPHUR.

A stick of sulphur, and sulphur matches are the requisite articles.

This lesson should be dealt with in a manner precisely
similar to those immediately preceding.

Sulphur is of a bright yellow colour, it is fasteless and with-
out svie// except when rubbed, it is hard and brittle, heavy
and énsoluble.

Sulphur is fusible; but there is a peculiarity in the pro-
cess of fusion which gives an interesting experiment.
Heated in a test tube, at a little above the boiling-point of
water it changes to an orange liquid ; heated a little more it
thickens to the consistency of treacle and its colour changes
toadeep red. In this state, if poured into cold water, it
forms soft and elastic but solid threads, which after a time
become brittle.

Sulphur is inflammable.* It burns with a blue flame, and
a suffocating poisonous gas is the result.
This gas possesses the power of bleaching many articles.

* Only a small particle of sulphur should be burnt to show the colour of
the flame and the peculiar smell.
126 OBJECT LESSONS.

A red rose will lose most of its colour if held in the fumes
of burning sulphur for a minute or two.*

Nors.—The time of another lesson may be well occupied in comparing salt,
soda, alum, camphor, and sulphur, as to points of agreement and difference in
their properties.

LESSON XIIL
SNOW AND ICE.

THE occasion for this lesson should be selected—a wintry day when
snow covers the ground and the ponds and lakes are frozen over.

The lesson may be introduced by a simple conversation
on what the children have seen on coming to school—the
trees, houses and fields covered with snow, boys sliding on
the ponds, others throwing “ snow-balls,” &c.

From this conversation the teacher may lead the children
to compare snow and ice with regard to their properties.
Both feel cold; both melt in the hand and become water, so
that we may call ice solid water, or water Jiguid ice. Snow
is soft and light and compressible, hence its suitability for
making snow-balls. Ice is dight and hard and brittle. Snow
is of a pure white colour. Ice is transparent and colourless,
and looks like glass. Ice is also smooth and slippery; hence
when there is ice on the roads we must be careful how we
walk. Boys should not make séides on the roads and paths
because they may cause people to fall down and hurt them-
selves.

The special uses of snow and ice may now be pointed out.
The snow, although cold in itself, keeps the cold wind from
* This experiment should oniy be attempted at the end of the lesson, when

the room may be emptied, and the wmdows and doors opened for a few
minutes,
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 127

the plants; and the ice which covers the water serves a
similar purpose for the fish and other animals which live in
the water.

The children will be interested to learn that in some very
cold countries the people live in houses made of snow, and
that lumps of ice serve for windows.

A rough sketch of a snow-house may be drawn on the
bdlack-board, and the children may be asked to describe how
these houses differ from our houses.

LESSON XIV.
COTTON AND WOOL.

ARTICLES for illustration: Raw cotton and wool, sewing-cotton and
worsted, calico, flannel, cloth, together with any other articles made
of cotton or wool ready to hand. :

The teacher may in the first place lead the children to
institute a comparison between raw cotton and raw wool.

Both are white in colour, soft, fight, elastic, and absorbent,
and both feel warm.

They differ, however, in the facility with which they can
be burned. Cotton burns readily; wool frizzles up and

burns with difficulty.

The sources of cotton and wool will form the second divi-
sion of the lesson.

The children will know that wool is obtained from the
sheep, and they must be told that cotton is the soft cover-
ing of the seed in the pod of the “cotton-plant.” If in
season, « pod of the “ broad bean ”’ may be taken to illustrate
the pod, the seed, and the woolly material which lines the
pod. Or an illustration of the cotton pod may be shown.

'
128 OBJECT LESSONS.

The teacher may here describe, in the form of a simple
story, “sheep-washing ” and ‘sheep-shearing,” and this
may be followed by a series of questions, such as the follow-
ing :-—

‘ Why are the sheep washed before they are sheared ? ”
To make the wool clean.

“T told you that the shearing took place at the beginning
of summer; why would it not be right to shear the sheep in
winter?” Because the sheep would feel very cold.

““When do you wear great coats and warm cloaks?” In
the winter.

“And when do you leave them off ?” In the summer.

“When you want a new coat how can you get it?” By
buying tt at the shop.

““ How does the sheep get her new coat for the winter ?”
It grows on the sheep.

“Can you tell me what would become of the sheep’s great
coat in summer if it were not shorn off?” No. :

“Then I will tell you: it would come off bit by bit, and so
be wasted.”

In the third place the teacher may show some of the
chief articles made of cotton and wool, as enumerated ut the
head of the lesson, and inquire as to their uses.

 

LESSON XV,
PINS AND NEEDLES.
Eaca child should have a pin and a needa,

Showing a large pin, the teacher may proceed.
“What is this I am holding in my hand?” 4 pin,

oH Ate
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 129

"What do we use pins for?” To pin or fasten things
together.

‘How is it that the pin goes into the cloth and calico so
easily P’? Because tt has a sharp point.

“What is there at the other end of the pin which prevents
it from hurting your finger when you stick itin?” The head.

“Took at the pin I have given you. What else can you
tell me about it?’ Jt ts shining. It ts straight. It ts smooth.
It is hard. It has a white colour,

“Why must the pin be smooth ?”” Zo make it go through
the cloth, Se., easily.

«The pin has a head and a point, and the part between
the head and the point we call the body; what is the shape
of the body of the pin?”? Round.

“T want a more correct answer than that. What is the
shape of this ruler?” Cylindrical.

“ And the pin, although smaller, is of the same shape. Now
what is the shape of the body of the pin?’ ~Cylindricad.

“Tell me how a needle differs from a pin.” Jt has an
eye; but no head.

“What is the eye?” A small hofe through the needle.

«Where is the eve?” Near the end opposite to the point.

«What is the use of the eye?” = Zo hold the thread then
it ts being pulled through the stuff in sewing.

“ What is the shape of the body of the needle?” = Cylin-
drical.

“ What sort of a point hasa needle?” 4 sha-p point.

“T can bend a pin, but if I try to bend a needle what
happens to it?” It breaks.

« Then what do you say about the needle because it breaks
when you try to bend it?” I? ts brittle.

« And what about the pin?” I¢ és tough.

“What do we use for fastening your clothes together
besides pins?” Strings and buttons.
130 OBJECT LESSONS.

“Which do you think is the better to use, pins or buttons?”
Buttons.

“Why?” Because we may prick our fingers with the pins,
or they may be bent and the clothes come unfastened.

 

LESSON XVI.
MANUFACTURES —BREAD.

Waeat, flower, salt, yeast, sugar, warm water, dough and the neces-
sary basins, spoons, &c., should be at the disposal of the teacher.

Attention should be called to the articles on the table,
and the children may be asked to name such as they know.
The teacher should then give the subject of the lesson, viz.
“ How bread is made.”

First, the preparation of flour from wheat must be illus-
trated. One child may crush a little wheat with the pestle and
mortar, and two others may sift the mixture through coarse

muslin. The flour will pass through, and the coarse bran
will be retained.

Secondly, the necessary ingredients are to be mixed in
proper order, and the process should be accompanied by con-
versation and question and answer, thus:

“T put the flour into this basin. Here is another white
powder in this saucer. Jane shall taste it and then give me
its name. Yes, it is salt. Take a little and mix it with
the flour. Stir well with the spoon.

“Here is something else. James shall taste it and then
give you its name.” It is sugar.

“And here is another substance which perhaps you have
never seen before. It is called yeast. Feel it. It is soft
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 131

It has rather a sour smell too. Mary shall mix a little
bit of this yeast with a little bit of sugar. Now we must
add the water. But the water must not be quite cold.

“ Now we have mixtures in two basins. What have we in
the first one?” Flour and a little salt.

‘And in the second one?” A little yeast and sugar in
lukewarm water.

“Sarah may now pour the mixture of yeast and sugar
and water into the basin containing the flour, and mix all
together with the large spoon. And now I want a little
girl who has very clean hands to come and mix it with them.
Look at her. She is Aneading, and the mixture is now called
dough.

“ Now the dough is well kneaded, and it should be put by
for about two hours in a warm place. If we could wait so
long for it and watch it, we should see it get larger and
larger and higher in the basin until perhaps it ran over. It
is the yeast we put in which makes the dough rise and
swell in the basin. We cannot wait to see the dough rise ;
but I have a piece in this plate, which I got from the baker’s.
The baker put it to rise this morning. Icut itacross. What
do you see?” The dough ts full of little holes. It is porous.

“T will sprinkle it with flour and knead it again. Now I
cut the dough into two pieces, roll the pieces into balls, set
the smaller ball on the larger, press the balls together and
the /oaf is made.

*‘But look at this loaf of bread: it is like the loaf of
dough?” No.

«What must be done with the loaf of dough to make into
bread?” = Jt must be baked in an oven.

“Name all the things we used for making dough.”
Flour, tater, sali, yeast, and sugar.

“Of which of these did we use a very little?” Sat, yeast,
and sugar.
132 OBJECT LESSONS.

“Which did we mix firstP”’ The flour and salt.

«« And what kind of water did we put the yeast and sugar
into?” Warm water. :

‘“« What is the mixing with the hands called ?” Kneading

If time permit, the teacher may elicit from the scholars
the properties of bread, and contrast the properties of the
crust with those of the crumb.

LESSON XVIL.
MANUFACTURES.—BUTTER.

Arttot#s for illustration: Milk with cream on its surface, cream, and
butter.

‘Before we begin our lesson to-day I want you to give
me the names of some of the things you had for breakfast
this morning.” Bread, butter, tea, coffee, eggs, milk, sugar.

“That will do; now those who had butter for breakfast
tell me where it was put?” J¢ was spread on the bread.

“And where was the milk put?” Into the tea. .

“ What is the colour of butter?” Lighr yellow.

‘Can you see any yellow butter in this milk?” No, the
milk has a white colour.

“And yet I must tell you that this milk has butter in it,
yes, and cheese too. And to-day Iam going to show you
how people get butter out of milk. Another day I will

show you how cheese is made.

“First of all look at the milk in this glass. Can you see
anything on the surface of the milk?” Yes, cream.

““Why do you think the cream rises to the top of the
milk?” Because it is lighter than the rest of the milk.

“When people want to make butter, they se¢ the milk, that
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 133

is, allow it to remain quite still in shallow* pans for some
hours, and all the nice cream rises to the top. This is
skimmed. Ihave some in this tea-cup. Here itis. You
see it is thicker than milk.

“We will try to get a little butter from this cream. First
of all I must warm it a little ; this I can do by standing the
cup in hot water. I now take this little bunch of twigs and
beat the cream for some little time. Perhaps some little
girl would like to help to. make butter. Now we have some
little lumps of butter swimming about in a thin liquid.
The thin liquid is called buttermilk. People sometimes
drink buttermilk, and sometimes it is given to pigs to drink.”

The teacher may now lead the children to see how incon-
venient and what hard work it would be to beat large quan-
tities of cream by the hand only, and so the cream is put
into a machine called a churn, where itis shaken about until
the butter comes. The buttermilk is pressed out of the
butter, the latter is washed in fresh cold water, and salted,
and is then fit for use.

Lastly, the teacher, by the help of experiment, may elicit
from the children the special properties of butter, together
with its chief uses.

LESSON XVIII.
MANUFACTURES.—CHEESE.

ARTICLES for illustration: Sour, skimmed, and unskimmed milk, and
a little rennet.

Milk, if left to itself for a short time, becomes sour, and a
part of it curd/es or becomes a kind of white jelly, which we

* Pxplain by comparing a saucer with a tea-cup.
134 OBJECT LESSONS.

call curds. The liquid in which the curds float is called
whey.

The sour milk should be exhibited to show this, and the
curds may be separated from the whey by straining through
acloth. The children may then be told that this mass df
curds, when pressed into a hard lump and all the whey
squeezed out, is called cheese.

Cheese made from the curds of sour milk is not nice to
the taste, and so we get the milk to curdle in another way.
The milk is first warmed a little, and then a liquid* is added
which causes the milk to curdle at once.

The teacher will illustrate this by experiment, and sepa-
rate the curds and whey.

On testing, the whey will be found to be sweet, showing
that it contains sugar.

A comparison of curds and cheese will show that a colour-
ing matter and salt have been added to the curds.
_ Skimmed and unskimmed milk may be experimented upon,
and the teacher will point out that the curds in the latter
case take the butter with it, and so the cheese will be rich or
fat. The cheese from skimmed milk may be called poor
cheese.

A recapitulation of the chief ingredients in milk, and a
comparison of the properties of butter and cheese, will com-
plete the lesson.

* Rennet, made frogn the inner skin of a calf’s stomach, is commonly used.

Dilute acids wi!l answer the same purpose, although of course the acids will
vender the curds and whey unfit for food.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 135

LESSON XIX.
MANUF ACTURES.—STARCH.

ArRTICLEs for illustration: Flour, a potato, starch, water, and pieces
of muslin.

Show the children a cuff or a collar which has been made
stiff and smooth by means of starch, and compare with
another which has been washed and ironed without starch.
Dust and dirt do not stick so much to the one as the other,
and so it keeps clean longer.

Ask the children what their mothers use to make the
collars, &., stiff and look so nice and smooth, and then pro-
ceed to show by experiment how starch is made.

“‘ Here is some white powder; you-saw it the other day when
I showed you how bread is made. Whatisit?” Flour.

«And here is some starch. How are starch and flour
alike?” They are both of a white colour.

«And how do they differ?” The flour is in a powder and
the starch is in small lumps.

“What is flour made from?” IJ¢ ts made from wheat.

Yes, and flour is also made from rice. People make
starch from the flour of wheat and of rice. I am going to
show you how it is done.” *

Tie a small quantity of flour in a muslin bag. Place in
a basin of water, and work it well with the fingers. The
starch passes out into the water and gradually settles on
the bottom of the vessel. A little of the starch prepared in
this way beforehand and allowed to dry will appear as a
bright white granular powder.

The chief property of starch, and that on which its use

* The teacher may also show how starch is made from potatoes. Take a
clean potato, rasp into fine shreds, mix well with water, and place on a piece
of stretched muslin. ‘The milky liquid which passes through contains the
starch.
186 OBJECT LESSONS.

in the laundry depends, viz. its solubility in hot water and
its becoming hard and dry under the hot iron, must next be
shown. It will add to the interest of the lesson if the teacher
can prepare a little starch and show its application on a
piece of linen or other suitable material.* +

LESSON XX.
MANUF ACTURES.—PASTE, GUM, GLUE.

ARTIcLEs for illustration: Flour, gum, British gum, glue, a piece of
wall paper and a few pieces of wood.

Exhibit a piece of wall paper and ask the children where
they have seen paper something like it, and thus elicit the
use of this kind of paper and how it is fastened to the wall.

Tell the children that the paper is fastened to the wall
with paste made from flour, and then proceed to show how
paste is made,t and to illustrate its use by pasting the paper
on to the black-board. As the paste dries it hardens and
fastens the paper to the wall.

When we wish to stick small pieces of paper together we
use gum. Show the specimen of dry gum and tell the
scholars whence it is obtained. It oozes out from certain
trees, and on drying becomes hard and looks like beads of
‘glass. Show how the gum is prepared, and illustrate its
use by experiment.

* The iron must be sufficiently hot to dry the starch at once or it sticks,
but not overheated so as to scorch the material.

t The flour must be mixed with cold water; the water must be added
gradually, and the flour well stirred until it assumes the consistency of thick
cream. Then slowly pour on boiling water, stirring vigorously the whole
time. On cooling, the paste thickens and looks like jelly.

 
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 137

Next show British gum. British gum (or dextrine) is
simply starch baked in an oven which is not hot enough to
scorch it. Gum prepared from dextrine has an unpleasant
smell.

Paste and gum do not hold firmly enough for sticking
together such things as wood, and we use glue. Glue is
made from hoofs and horns and skins of animals by long
boiling and then drying. Prepare glue, and illustrate its
use in making furniture, &c., by sticking pieces of wood
together. Let the children try to separate two pieces of
wood fastened together by glue which has become hard.

Lastly, call attention to the common property of paste,
gum, and glue, of being sticky, and holding things firmly
together as they get dry.
FIFTH STAGE.*

Tue Fifth Stage completes the course of “Systematic
Object Lessons ” for infant schools; but with the assistance
of similar lessons, and a recapitulation of some of the
preceding lessons (due regard being had to the different
ages and capacities of the scholars), will suffice for
Standard I, and in poor neighbourhoods and in village
schools even for Standard II. It will be seen that the
lessons on minerals, metals, and textile fabrics are sugges-
tive rather than exhaustive.

The following are the subjects of this stage :-—

(1.) Solour—irregular colours.

(2.) Form—rhombs, rhomboid, pentagon, &c., prisms,
pyramids, and cone.

(3.) Time, and how we measure it.

(4.) Minerals, coal (coal gas), graphite (lead pencils), clay
(bricks, pottery, &c.). Limestone (lime and mortar).

(5.) The common metals, their properties and uses,

(6.) Textile fabrics.

LESSON IL
IRREGULAR COMMON COLOURS.t—BROWN AND GREY.

Pizces of paper, silk, cloth, and threads-of Berlin wool and any other
articles giving the necessary shades, hues, or tints of brown and grey
may be brought into use for illustrating this lesson.

* Suitable for ch'ldren of from six to seven years of age.
t See introductory note, Lesson EH. Stage IV.
OBJECT LESSONS. 139

The teacher should introduce this lesson with a rapid
recapitulation of the lessons on colours in the previous stages,
and then call attention to the various articles on the table,
or in the hands of the children, having colours different
from any previously considered.

Brown is composed of red, yel/ow, and black, or red, yellor,
and d/ue in various proportions. In dark brown, the black
or the blue predominates; in deep brown the red; and in
light brown the yellow.

Grey is made by mixing white and black and adding a
little red, yellow or blue.

The following are the more common of these colours ;
they may be dealt with in a way similar to that indicated in
former lessons on colour.

Browns.

Chestnut, a dark shade of brown, the colour of a
chestnut.

Chocolate, a dark reddish brown, the colour of chocolate.
Snuff, a dull yellow-brown, the colour of snuff.
Claret, a purplish, light red brown, the colour of claret.
Drab, a very light dull brown with a yellow tinge..
Stone colour, a very light tint of brown.

GREYS.
Slate, a bluish-grey, sometimes reddish, the colour of the
stone.
Stee7, or iron colour, a dark bluish-grey.
Pearl, a very light silvery grey.

 
140 OBJECT LESSONS,

LESSON II.
FORM.—THE RHOMB -AND RHOMBOID.

A **Box of Forms” should form a portion of the apparatus of every
infant school; but lacking this, rhombs, pentagons, &c., may be cut
from cardboard or paper.

Taking the square and the oblong, already well known as
starting-points for other plane figures, the teacher may pro-
ceed as follows :—

“T have here two forms [showing square and rhomb] which
I wish you to look at carefully.

“ Are these forms alke?” No.

“How many sides has this form (showing square) P”
Four sides.

“How many sides has this form (showing rhomb) ?”
Four sides.

“Then how are these two forms alike?” They both have
four sides.

“What can you tell me about the sides of the square?”
They are all of the same length.

“Observe whilst I measure the sides of the other form.
Now what can you say also about these four sides?’ They
are all of the same length,

“Then you see these two forms are alike in having the
same number of’ sides, and the sides are of equal length.
Now why do you say these figures. are not alike?” The
square has four right angles, the other figure has not.

“How many angles of this figure (the rhomb) are larger
than right angles?” Tico angles.

“What do we call these angles?” Obtuse angles.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 141

“And how many angles has this figure which are less
than right angles?” Two angles.

* And what name do we give to angles which are less than
right angles?” Acute angles.

“ This form, which has four equal sides, and two obtuse and
two acute angles, is called a rhomb. You may spell the
word and write it on your slates.”

The children may now be directed to draw sguares and
oblongs and rhombs, and write their names below: or the
exercise may be varied by making the outlines of these
forms with pointed sticks and softened peas.

The rhomboid may now be compared with the oblong, as
the rhomb with the square; and the children led to see “that
a rhomboid has two equal long sides, two equal shorter sides,
two obtuse angles, and two acute angles.

LESSON III.

FORM.—PENTAGON, HEXAGON,* HEPTAGON, AND
OCTAGON.

ProvipE these forms from the ‘ Box of Forms,” or cut them from
cardboard or paper.

Taking the pentagon, the teacher may request the chil-
dren to count the corners and sides.

“‘ How many sides has this form?” Fire sides.

* How many angles has it?” Five angles.

“A flat figure which has fire sides and jire anges is called a
pentagon. Pente means five and gon means an angle ; there-
fore the word pentagon means having jive angles.

= The most important form of the polygons is the Aeragon. The cells of

the honeycomb may be shown to illustrate how beautifully hexagons fit and
join together. Or the same may be shown by a drawing on the black-board.
142 OBJECT LESSONS.

“ Here is another form having five sides and five angles
How is it unlike the other?” Its sides and angles are not
equal.

“JT want you to remember that a pentagon with equal
sides is called a regular pentagon.”

The children may now make the outlines of pentagons
with the pointed sticks and peas, or draw them roughly on
their slates, imitating the teacher on the black-board.

The other forms will now be taken in order and dealt with
as above; and exercises on form and colour combined may
be introduced as in Lesson VI. Stage II.

LESSON Iv.
- FORM.—PRISMS.

SeuaRrE, triangular, and hexagonal prisms should be shown. If not
otherwise provided, the two former can be made from cardboard.*

Hitherto only four solid forms—the sphere, cylinder, cube,
and brick shape have been brought under review. With
these as starting-points, the teacher may now proceed to

* The figures below represent the shape in which the cardboard must be
cut, and the dotted lines show where it has to be folded.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Square Prism. Triangular Prism,
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 143

develop ideas of other common solid forms, viz. prisms, pyra-
mids, and cones.

“How many faces has this cube ?”’ Siz faces.

“What is the shape of each of the faces?” Square shape.

“Here is another block of wood. How many faces has
it?” Six faces.

“How do the fuces of this form differ from the cube?”
In this form two faces only are squares, the other four are
oblongs.

«Where are the square faces?” At the ends.

“ And where are the oblong faces?” At the sides.

“Compare the square ends as to size.” They are equal.

“And the oblong sides?” They are equal.

‘“ Here is another form. How many faces has it? Count
them.” One, two, three, four, five.

«What is the shape of the ends?” They are triangles.

“And of the sidesP?’? They are oblongs.

“ How many egua/ oblong sides are there?” Three.

“How many faces has this figure [showing an hexagonal
prism]? Count them.” One, two, three, four, five, sia,
seven, eight.

‘What is the shape of each side?”’ ach side is oblong
in shape.

“‘ What is the shape of the ends of this form ?” Hewagons.

“T will now give you a name for solids which have equal
oblong sides and equal ends. They are called prisms.

“ But I have shown you three prisms, and they are not
alike ; how shall we know the one from the other?” By
their ends.

“Look again at the end of the first prism I showed you.
What is its shape?” Square.

“Then we may call this form a square prism.”
144 OBJECT LESSONS.

“And what is the shape of the end of the second prism
you have seem?” A triangle.

“Then how can you name this prism?” A triangular
prism.

“ And what name shall we give to the prism whose ends
are hexagons?” Hexagonal prisms.

Recapitulation by question and answer should follow.

LESSON vV.
FORM.—PYRAMID AND CONE,

ARTICLES for illustration: Triangular, square, and other pyramids
and the cone.

Showing a square pyramid, the teacher may ask, “ How
many faces has this figure?” Five faces.

“ How many sides has it?” Four sides. :

“ What is the shape of each side?” A triangle.

« And what is the shape of the end on which it stands ? ”
A square.

“We sometimes call the end on which a thing rests its
base.

“Here is another form. What is the shape of its base ? ”
Triangular.

“ And of its sides?” Triangular.

© Square and triangular pyramids may be formed from cardboard thus :

A
ZX»
[\/\

Square Pyramid. Triangular Pyramid.

 

 

 

 
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 145

“Now how are these forms like prisms?” They have
bases alike in shape.

“And how do they differ from the prisms?” They have
triangular instead of oblong sides, and the triangles meet in a
point at the top.

“T will now tell you that these forms which have trian-
gular sides meeting in a point at the top are called pyramids,
and the meeting-point is called the apez.

‘What is the shape of the base of the first pyramid I
showed you?” J¢ is square.

“Then what kind of pyramid may Icall it?” A square
pyramid,

‘© And what shall I call the pyramid with a triangular
baseP” A triangular pyramid.

“There are other pyramids, as there are other prisms,
having more sides ; but I want you now to look at this form.
What is the shape of its base?” = Cireular.

“And how is it like a pyramid?” J¢ comes to a point at
the top.

“ Have you seen anything of this shape?” Yes, loaf
sugar.

“But we do not call it a pyramid; we call it a cone.
Remember then that a pyramid with a circular base has a
shorter name than any other sort of pyramid. It is a cone.”

LESSON VI.

TIME, AND HOW WE MEASURE IT.—DAY, HOUR,
MINUTE, SECOND.

THE day may be taken as the starting-point in the divisions of time.

A few questions such as the following will serve to
mtroduce the day of twenty-four hours as a measure of time
L
146 OBJECT LESSONS.

“When there are no clouds what may we see shining
in the sky P” The sun, or moon and stars.

«* When does the sun shine?” In the daytime.

«And when do the moon and stars shine P”’ At night.

«When do you see the sun first?” In the morning.

“Yes, we say the sun gets up or rises in the morning.
When does it go away ?” In the evening.

“We say it sets in the evening.

“Of what use is the sun tous?” Jt gives us light and
heat.

“ What follows the day?” The night.

“What difference is there between day and night P”
It ts dark at night, and very often colder.

«When is it very dark atnight?” When tt is cloudy, and <
the moon and stars are not to be seen.

“You say the sun shines in the day-time ; does it always
shine into the school-room through the same window?’”’ Wo.

“Look where it is shining now, and then to-morrow at
this same time we will look again to see where it is shining.
We shall find that every day at the same time it shines
through the same window. Now I want you to remember
that when we talk about a day of time we mean the time
from the shining of the sun through any one window on
one day till it shines through the same window the next
day. Or, to be more exact, the time the sun takes in
making his journey from any one point in the sky back
again to the same point is one day of time.

“How many times do you come to school each day?”
Twice —in the morning and again in the afternoon.

“What does afternoon mean? You don’t know; well,
what does after-school mean ?” When school és over.

“And what does after nine o’clock mean? ” When nine
o'clock has passed.

‘**And just in the same way after-noon means when noon
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 147

is over or passed. But what does noon mean? I will tell
you; it means middle of the day.

“Now what does afternoon mean?” J¢ means after the
middle of the day.

“ At what time do you leave ‘morning school?’” Ad
twelve o'clock.

‘Yes, and that is noon; and I may tell you it is just the
moment when the sun is highest in the sky.

- “Tf we call the time after the middle of the d ay afternoon,
what may we call the time before the middle of the day ?”
Before noon.

« Yes, or shortly, it is called fore-noon. Sometimes noon
or the middle of the day is called mid-day, which means
middle of the day. What may we call the middle of the
night then?”  Atd-night.

“Can you give me the names of some of the smaller
divisions of time?” Hours, minutes, seconds.

“Which is the longer time, the hour or the minute?’
The hour.

« And which is the shorter, the minute or the second P”
The second.

“ At what time do you come to school in the morning ?”
At nine o'clock.

‘“« At what time do you leave school to go home to dinner?”
At ticelve o'clock.

“How many hours from nine till twelve .o’clock ?”
Three hours. ‘

“How many hours from twelve till two o'clock?” Tica
hours.

« And from two till four?” Two hours.

“Then how many hours do you attend school each day?”
Five hours.

‘How many hours are there between nine and four
ovclock?” Seven hours.
148 OBJECT LESSONS.

“T want yon to remember that it takes twenty-four of these
hours to make up one day ; that is, we divide the day of time
into twenty-four parts, and each part is called an hour.”

The children may be led to appreciate the shorter divi-
sions of time by counting. The teacher should first herself
ascertain the proper rate for counting sixty in a minute.
Following the lead of the teacher, the children will quickly
learn to count at the desired rate; and then individual
scholars may be encouraged to try.

When a fair idea of the duration of time which we call a
minute has been obtained, the children may be told that
sixty of these minutes make up an hour, or that the hour
is divided into sixty minutes. Next, that each count takes a
second of time, and thus sixty seconds make up a minute.

Lastly, the children may be practised in the table—
60 seconds make one minute,
60 minutes make one hour,
24 hours make one day.

Notr.—Further exercises, at the discretion of the teacher, may be devised
for training the children to observe and measure time, thus :—(a) They may
close their eyes at a given signal and try to keep them closed fora half
minute, or one, or two minutes. (5) A child may be sent to another part of
the building for a book or other object, and the class may be directed to End
out—counting for themselves—how long the messenger has been gone.

LESSON VII.
TIME, AND HOW WE MEASURE IT.—THE CLOCK FACE.—1.

BEFORE proceeding to deal with the longer divisions of time, it will
be well to face the problem over which children are always more or
less puzzled, viz. how to tell the time by the clock.

In this, as indeed in all lessons, the secret of success liea
in mastering one step at a time.
HOW TO GIVE THEN. 149

In the first place the children must grasp the idea that
we measure the duration of time by noting how long it takes
a certain thing to be done, or how long it takes a certain
object to travel over a measured distance.

‘Suppose, for instance, we make a candle sufficiently long
to burn for a day of twenty-four hours, viz. whilst the sun
appears to make one journey, and then divide it into twenty-
four parts by notches; the time taken for the candle to
burn from one notch to the next will be one hour. And our
forefathers long ago used to measure time by notching their
rush candles. But this was not a very convenient or very
correct plan; and, by-and-by, it was found out that time
can be measured by using weights, and wheels, and chains to
make a long finger of iron travel round and round a face.

“This new machine was called a clock, and now we always
measure time by means of clocks and watches.

oz et |

   

\9 5
18 6
7

“ Here is a clock face drawn ona sheet of paper. <A little
strip of black cardboard serves for the pointer or finger. I
150 OBJECT LESSONS.

fix this finger in the centre of the face by a drawing-pin, so
that I can turn it round and round.

«The weights and wheels and chains in the clock can be
so arranged as to make the pointer, called the hand, go once
round the face (travelling at the same rate) in twenty-four
hours. I have divided the circumference of the face on the
paper into twenty-four parts.

“ How long then will it take the hand to travel from one
figure to the next ?”? One hour.

«And from the figure one to three?” Tico hours.

« And from four to eight?” Four hours.

“ Clocks are sometimes made like this ; but it is found more
useful to make the hand go round twice in twenty-four hours.

“How long then will it take the hand to go round
once?” Twelve hours.

“Then into how many parts must I divide the circumference
of the face?” Into twelve parts.

l2

 

“Herc is another face so divided into twelve parts, and
numbered 1, 2, 3, &c., up to 12. .
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 151

* How long will it take the hand to go from one figure to
the next?” One hour.

“Towards which figure is the hand pointing now ? ”
Towards the figure Tielve.

‘Yes, and when the hand points to the figure Twelve, we
say it is twelve of the clock, or by the clock, or, in short,
twelve o’clock. Do you remember from your last lesson
what other numes we give to this time?” Noon, and mid-
day.

« Now the hand points to the figure One; what time is
it?’ * One o'clock.

“Now to the figure Two?” Tvco o’clock.

“ Now to the figure Six?” Sir o’elock.

‘“T must tell you that this hand, because its business is to
point out the hours, is called the hour-hand.”

Of course the children can have no difficulty in telling
the hours by this clock face and hour-hand, and the teacher
may go a little farther and explain the terms past and fo,
which are almost invariably used in naming the time by
the clock.

Roughly, they may be taught to say past the hour when
the hand is half way, or less than half way, between two
figures. When the hand is more than half way towards the
next figure they should say ¢o:ards, or to the hour indicated
by the latter, e.g. “a quarter to.”

This practice must be continued till all the children can
tell the time as thus fur indicated.

During the practice the Arabic numerals may be replaced
by the Roman.
152 OBJECT LESSONS.

LESSON VIII.
TIME, AND HOW WE MEASURE IT.

             

ps

«Loox at the school clock. How many hands do you
seeP” Two hands.

“ Are they of the same length?” No, one is ae than
the other.

“Yes, and the shorter one is the one you have been
learning about. What is it called?” The hour-hand.

“Why isit called the hour-hand?” Becasse it points

to the hours.
- “ How long does it take the hour-hand to go from one
figure to the next?” One hour.

« And how long does it take to go once round the face?”
Twelve hours.

«And how many times does it travel round in a day of
twenty-four hours?’ Twice.

“ Now look carefully at the hands for a minute or two
and tell me whether they are travelling at the same rate.”
No, the long hand goes much faster than the hour-hand.

“Quite right, and to-day I want to teach you all about
this long hand, why it goes faster than the other, and how
long it takes to go round once.

“ But we must have it by itself for a little while.

“ Here is another face which I have made for the long
hand only.

“You remember how many minutes make one hour?”
Yes, sixty.

«And I have divided the clock face into sixty parts. Now,
if we make this long hand go once round in an hour, what
time will the little spaces between the figures stand for ?”
Minutes.

 
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 153

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9
8 2
47 13
45 I5
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43 7
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“This long hand has to point to the minutes; what may
we call it?” Zhe minute-hand.

“Do you see that I have made some figures larger than
the others? Repeat these, beginning with the figure Five.”
Five, ten, fifteen, §c.

“J have made these figures larger, because they come just
where the figures which show the hours are placed. I fix
the other face on the black-board by the side of this, and you
will see that this is so.”

The children must now be practised on this clock face
in telling the number of minutes past the hour until quite
perfect ; but special stress should be laid on the larger
figures.

Next they must be shown that
154 OBJECT LESSONS.

35 minutes past is the same as 25 minutes to the hour

40 ” 9 2” 20 2 od
45 ” ” ” 15 2 ”
50 ” ” ” 10 2”? a
55 ” ” 5 ”

and that, when the hand has passed the figure Thirty, it is more
common to say so many minutes to the next hour. Practise
on this until the children can answer promptly so many
minutes past or to the hour wherever the teacher places the
hand. During this practice the children may be shown
that as the figure Fifteen stands at a quarter of the distance
round the circle, fifteen minutes past is often called quarter
past ; and so of half-past, und a quarter to the hour.

In the third place remove the figures on the face and
practise the class with the division marks only.

Lastly, substitute the numerals which mark the hours, and
practise again, of course still keeping to the minute-hand.

Not until the scholars are quite perfect with the minute-
hand on the ordinary clock face must the teacher proceed to
the next lesson.

LESSON IX.
TIME, AND HOW WE MEASURE IT.—THE CLOCK FACE.—3.

WE assume that the children are now ina position to answer all ques-
tions on the hours, using the hour-hand only, and on the minutes,
using the minute-hand only. It remains for the teacher to show the
use of the two hands on the clock face. - For this purpose the card-
board fac-simile of a clock face with two movable hands, to be found
in most infant schools, may be used.

Set the hands, say, to mark twelve o’clock. Now move
the minute-hand to thirty minutes past
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 155

“Look at the minute-hand: what does it say?”  Half-
past, or thirty minutes past.

Move the hour-hand midway between twelve and one.

“Look at the hour-hand: what does it tell?” That the
time is between twelve and one.

“And the minute-hand shows you tow much past
twelve?” Half-past.

*: Now what time does the clock face show?” Ha/f-past
ticelve.

Next set the hands to show, say, ten minutes past six.

** What does the minute-hand show?” Ten minutes past.

* And what does the hour-hand point to?” Between sir
and seven.

“Then what time does the clock face show?” Ten
minutes past siz.

Set the hands to show, say, twenty minutes to two o’clock.

«What does the minute-hand show now?” Twenty
minutes to the hour.

«And where does the hour-hand point?” Between one
and tio.

“Then what time does the clock face show now?”
Twenty minutes before tio.

This kind of exercise must be continued until the chil-
dren are fairly perfect in their answers, and then the teacher
may call individual scholars to set the hands to show
particular times as specified by the teacher.

Lastly, they may be directed to draw (roughly) a clock
face on their slates, and place the hands to indicate times as
directed.

Norte.—The children should have five minutes’ practice with the clock fac.-
occasionally ; and advantage may be taken of any odd moment to repeat the
names of the days of the week and the months of the year. The number of
days in a week, and in each particular month, and the number of days and
weeks in a year, will naturally follow,
156 OBJECT LESSONS,

LESSON X.
MINERALS.

For this lesson the teacher should be provided with specimens of as
many of the common minerals as possible, such as—coal, rock-salf,
clay, chalk, limestone, granite, sand, sandstone, flint, slate, marble,
and any ores of metals.

“JT have,” says the teacher, “a number of objects lying
on the table, some of which you all know, and others which
perhaps you have not seen before. To-day I wish to teach
you something abaut all of them. In other lessons we will
take them one or more at a time, and learn something more
about them.

‘‘ Here is a lump, the name of which you all know; what
isit?” Chalk.

«Where do we find chalk?” Underground.

“ And what is this?” Rock-salt.

« And where do we get rock-salt from?” From under-
ground.

“Can you tell me why it is called rock-salt? Well,
what does it look something like?” A piece of stone.

«Yes, and another name for stone is rock, and rock-salt
is so named because it is found in great stony or rocky
masses.

“ Here is a piece of clay; where do we get clay from?”
From underground.

“Here is a black lump; what is its name?” Coal.

“Yes, and like chalk, and rock-salt, and clay, we get it
from underground.

“And I may tell you that all the things which you see on
the table were got from under the surface of the ground.

“Here are sand and flint and slate, which you all know;
HOW TO GIVE TITEM. 157

und here is a beautiful white stone called marble; and here
is another very hard stone called granite; and here is a very
heavy stone—it contains iron, although you cannot see it—
it is called fronstone ; and here is yet one more heavy still—
it contains lead.”

‘All these and many other stones we get from under-
ground, and we give them all one name—they are all
minerals,

« But potatoes grow in the soil, and the roots of plants
and trees spread about underground; yet these are not
minerals ; these live and grow, but minerals have no life.

“Just think how badly off we should be without
minerals.

«What do we use coal for?” To make fires to keep us
arm.

« And what is the use of clay?” Zo make bricks.

«And of hard stones?” To build houses and make roads.

Yes, and iron, and lead, and tin, and copper serve
hundreds and hundreds of useful purposes. We eould not
do very well without minerals.

*“We must next inquire how the minerals are arranged
underground. If we dig a deep hole in the gurden or tield
nearest the school, shall we find chalk, and rock-salt, and
coal, and ironstone, and other minerals all mixed up to-
gether? Certainly not. You may perhaps find sand, or a
mixture of sand and pebbles called grare/, for a little way
down ; and then perhaps clay. and perhaps below this a hard
stone; and these lie the one on the other like the bed lies on
the mattress; hence they are called beds. Most of the
minerals, such as clay, chalk, limestone, rock-salt, gravel,
coal, and ironstone, are placed in beds, and these sometimes
spread out so far that it would take a little boy weeks and
even months to walk across them. Other minerals. such as
158 OBJECT LESSONS.

gold, silver, lead, tin, and copper, are mixed up in hard
rocks.

“Look again at these minerals. What do your eyes
teach you about them?” They are not of the same colour.

“ Harry shall feel them. What can he tell you about
them?” Some are hard, others are soft.

“Tom shall lift them in his hand. What can he tell
you?” Some are heavier than others.

“Tf I put them on the fire, one of them will-burn; which
is it?” The coal.

“Tf I put them in water, one will dissolve ; which is it ?”
The rock-salt.

“Tf I hammer them, one will flatten out; which is it?”
The clay.

“All the rest will break, if I strike them hard enough,
into sharp pieces. What do we say of them?” They are
brittle.

“Which of them will break easily?” The chalk, rock-
salt, and coal. ,

“Some of them I can cut with my knife.” They are
soft.

“Some I cannot cut?” They are hard.

“As I told you, you will learn more about these minerals
and their uses in future lessons. I want you to remember
what minerals are, that they vary very much in their
properties—in hardness, in brittleness, in weight, in colour
—and that a few will burn, and some dissolve in water.”

 
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 159

LESSON XI
COAL.—1.

A LuMP of common household coal, @ piece of anthracite, and a bit of
jet should be provided; a few other minerals should lie on the table
for comparison.

“To-day our lesson is to be on the most valuable, because
the most useful of all minerals—coad,

“You shall first of all tell me all you know, or can find
out about it, by looking at it, handling it, and hammering it.

“ By looking at itP’’ It ts of a black colour.

“ Yes, that is quite plain ; but look again more closely as I
move it about.” Zt shines.

‘‘Many minerals shine in the same way, and we say that
they possess /ustre, a word which means brightness.

« That is an interesting fact about coal ; but this mineral
possesses one property on which all its value depends. What
isitP” Jt burns. It is inflammable.

* Can you tell me why coal is not suitable for making the
walls of our houses?” J¢ ts not strong enough. It breaks to
pteces too easily. It would make our fingers and clothes black
and dirty.

“Yes, it is too easily broken to be used for building pur-
poses ; but brittleness is just its next most useful property
after inflammability.

* You all know whence coal is obtained?” From under-
ground.

“ Supposing coal were as hard as granite or sandstone,
what then?” Jen would not cut it out so easily.

“Just so, and if it took more time and more labour to get
the coal, it would be dearer for us to buy, so that the brittle-
ness of coal makes it cheaper.
160 OBJECT LESSONS,

“There is another reason which you did not tell me why
coal would not do for the walls of our houses. You know
houses sometimes take fire. What would be the effect, in
such case, of the walls being of coal?” They would burn and
tnerease the fire.

“Now I wish you to look at two other kinds of coal which
I have here on the table.

“Tf you put the common coal of which we have been
talking on the fire, what happens?” J# burns.

‘And what do you: ss when it burns?” Flame and
smoke.

“Here is another kind of coal called by a long name,
anthracite, which simply means coal. This burns with a clear
flame and gives off very little smoke.

“Tom shall hold a piece in his hand. It does not soil the
fingers so much as common coal.

“Try to break it with the hammer. It is harder than
ordinary coal.

“« There are several other kinds of coal. One is so hard and
close that it does not soil the fingers at all, and it can be
polished and made to look something like black glass. This
is called yet. Jet is made into ornaments, such as brooches,
necklaces, &c. I will hold this piece in the flame of our
lamp. You sec it burns; but it does not burn so readily as
common coal.

“Do you remember how the coal is arranged under-
ground?” In beds or layers.

“In the next lesson I shall show you how the coal is got
out.

“But perhaps some little boy or girl may be curious to
ask, ‘ How did the coal get there?’ You are not old enough
to understand much about this yet; but I may just tell you
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 161

that wood, including trunks, roots, branches, and leaves,
when buried for a long time in the earth changes to coal.
It sounds like a fairy story; but it is true that the woods
and forests which grew thousands and thousands of years
ago, somehow got buried in the earth and changed to coal,
which we dig out now to supply us with light and heat.”

LESSON XIL
COAL—2.

ArrtIctEs for illustration: A large tumbler, different coloured sands,
and a little small coal.

 

“ Before I explain to you how coal is got out of the earth I
must show you how it lies there. I can only do it in a very
tiny way.

“ Here is alarge tumbler. I put a littlerough sand at the
bottom. That forms one bed. NowlI sprinkle a little small
coal over the rough sand. That stands for a bed of coal.
Now we will have a thin layer of brown earth, next one of
white sand, and now another of small coal a little thicker
than the last. This represents another bed of coal. And
now we will fill up to the top with layer upon layer of
brown, yellow, and white sand.

“When men dig for coal they find beds just like the beds
in the glass; but you must not think the beds there are fine
sand like that I have been using, they may be hard rocks, or
firm clays, some of them as thick or thicker than the school
is long, and there may be twenty, thirty, or forty layers before
we get down to the coal beds. There may be several coal
beds, varying in thickness; some coal beds are only a few
inches thick, others are four or five feet, and occasionally
162 OBJECT LESSONS.

they are as much as thirty or forty feet thick, and they
spread out many miles every way.

“You see how the coal is placel underground. How
is it got out? Perhaps some little boy or girl can tell me
how to get at the layers of coal in the glass?” Turn the
glass up.

“Yes, but I can’t turn the earth topsy-turvy and shake out
the coal. Try again?” Dig out the layers on the top.

“That certainly might be done; but just think of the amount
of work to dig out hard rocks and clays several hundred yards
thick, and then only to find two or three layers of coal four
or five feet thick. Why the coal when got out would be
worth more than its weight in gold.

“ Just for a moment suppose the layers of sand in the glass
to be clay. We can make a hole down to the coal with a
large needle. If we could persuade some tiny ants to work
for us they could show us how men get out the coal. You
must provide them with tiny baskets and give them spiders’
webs for rope. Then some of the ants will get into the
basket, and others will let them down the hole we have made
as far as the cecal. These ants will fill the basket and a tiny
load of coal will be drawn up to the top.

“This is just how the coal is got out. A hole is made some
ten or fifteen feet wide through the hard rocks and stones
and clays down to the coal. Through this hole, which is
called the shaft, the men are let down in cages and the coals
are brought up. The men work away in all directions with
pickaxes and shovels, and the coal is taken in little trucks
or waggons to the bottom of the shaft.

“You may perhaps wonder that when the layer of coal is
taken out the earth above does not sink down and crush the
men; but all the coal is not taken out, enough is left stand-
ing to keep the rocks from falling.

“The place whence the coal is taken is called a mine, and
the men who work in the mine are called miners. Most
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 163

mines huve more than one shaft, and some mines extend
from the shaft for a mile or more. In some of the large
mines several hundred men work at one time, and as many
as fifty or sixty ponies to draw the coal from where it is cut
out to the bottom of the shaft.

“Should you think it is light or dark in a coal mine?” Dark.

“Why do you think it is dark ?’? Because the sun cannot
shine there.

Yes, it is quite dark, darker than the darkest night you
ever saw; but the men have candles placed in lamps made
of wire woven in and out like this.

 

“« The miners who work in coal mines are always in danger ;
but I must tell you about this, and why the gauze lamp is
used, in our next lesson.

«TT will now ask you some questions about what I have
been telling you to-day.

i dear some one can tell me why we call coal a
mineral ?”? Because it is taken from a mie.

« And what are the men called who work in mines?” Afiners.

« What is the hole called up and down which the miners

go, and where the coals are brought out?” The shaft.

« How is the coal found in lis. earth P”? In beds or layers.
164 OBJECT LESSONS.

“ And about how thick are these beds?” Some only a few
inches, some five or siz feet, and some as much us forty feet.

LESSON XIIL
COAL.—3.

AxRTIcuxs for illustration: Clay pipe, small coal, coal gas, soda-water
bottle.

“To-day I have to tell you about the dangers of the coal-
mine; and to help you to understand better about them, I
am going to show you two very pretty experiments..

“ Here is a long clay tobacco-pipe, and here is a little fine
coal, and here a little soft clay. I nearly fill the bowl of the
pipe with small coal, and then stop it with clay pressed in
firmly. I now put the bowl in the fire, or hold it in the
flame of the spirit-lamp. .

“You must watch the thin end of the stem. Do you see
anything coming out?” Yes, smoke.

“ Most of that is steam from the moist clay and coal.

“Now the bowl is red-hot, and there is nothing to be
sven coming out; but there is something, as I will show
you. James shall put a light tothe end. There, it takes
fire, you see, and burns like a candle.

“Have you ever seen anything else burn like this?” ~
Yes, gas.

“And this is gas. We have, in fact, been making our
own gas on a small scale.

« And now for the second experiment.

“T have here a soda-water bottle. You cannot see any-
thing inside, but there is a mixture of coal-gas and the air
of the room. I wrap the bottle in a duster, because it may
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 165

possibly break, and were it not for the duster the glass
would most likely cut my hand, William may hold this
lighted taper, and the moment I take out the cork put the
flame to the mouth of the bottle.

“You heard the noise, it was almost like a gun going off.

“Tf this room were filled with a mixture of coal gas and
air, and we brought in a light, there would be an explosion,
the windows would be blown out, and some of you would be
very much hurt.

“You may learn a very important lesson from this.
Many of you, no doubt, have gas in your houses, and some-
times it escapes. You can tell it by its strong smell. Now
if enough gas escapes to form the proper mixture with the
air, you have only to carry in a lighted candle, or strike a
match, to have an explosion. Therefore, when you find by
its smell that there is gas in a room, throw open the doors
and windows to let it escape, and keep all lights away till
the room is clear.

«Let us see what facts we can learn from our two experi-
ments.

“How did we make gas?” By heating coal in a pipe.

«Where did the gas come from?” = The coa/.

«What does this show us?" That coa/ contains gas.

“ That is the first fact I want you to remember. Now for
the second.

“What did I tell you I had in the bottle?” Coal gas
and air.

« And what happened when William put the light to the
mouth of the bottle??? = There :cas an explosion.

“Then what fact have you learned from the second
experiment?” That a mirture of coal-gas and air till explode.

“Now we will go to the mine and see what sometimes
happens there.
166 OBJECT LESSONS.

“Firstly, the owaers of a coal-mine get all the air they can
into the mine, or the men could not breathe and would die.

“Secondly, gas often escapes in large quantities from the
coal in the mine without any heat.

“ Thirdly, it is dark, and the men must have lights to see
to work.

“Tt may happen that there is just the mixture of air and
gas to explode, and it only wants the light; but fortunately,
when the light is in the lamp made of wire gauze, it will
not set fire to the mixture. Sometimes the men are not
careful, and take out the candles, perhaps to light their
pipes, and then there may be, and sometimes there is, a
terrible explosion, and scores and even hundreds of men
may be killed.

“But this is not all; the fire-damp, as the miners call
the coal-gas, when it burns, makes another gas, called by
the miners choke-damp. When the men breathe this choke-
damp they lie down, and soon die.

“There is another danger, too, in the mine. Sometimes
the rocks from above fall on the men and crush them.”

The teacher should now question as in the last lesson, and
some of the uses of coal may be elicited. Other uses will
appear in the succeeding lessons.

LESSON XIV.

GRAPHITE.

A RovcH lump of graphite in its natural state, or, failing this, a cake
of Nixey’s black-lead, and a piece of lead, scraped clean, will be
necessary.

“When your mother ‘cleans’ the grate in the morning
what does she put on it?” Black-lead,
HOW TO GIVE YrHEM. 167

‘What does she do next P” Brushes the grate.

‘Why does she brush it?” Zo make it shine.

“« Now tell me what black-lead is used for besides ‘ clean-
ing’ grates and stoves?” For making black-lead pencils.

“And what do we use black-lead pencils for?” For
toriting on paper.

“What colour must the paper be to show the writing
best?” White paper.

\

“To day our lesson is to be on the mineral called black-
lead.

* T have called black-lead a mineral, tell me then whence
we get it? From underground.*

“T must show you first of all that this mineral is wrongly
named. It is not lead at all, neither has it a black colour.

“* Here is a lump (or a cake) of black-lead and here a piece
of lead.t I want you to look at them and tell me how they
are alike?” They both shine.

‘When speaking of coal what name did we use instead of
shining?” Lustre.

“ Again, how are black-lead and lead alike P” They both
possess lustre.

“T take this piece of white paper and draw first the black-
lead and then the lead across it.

“ How are these minerals alike in the second ‘place ?”
They both mark the paper.

** Now you can see why this mineral has been called dead.
Can you tell me?” Because it has a hustre like lead, and
because like lead we can write with tt on white paper.

“Then as to its colour. Is it black like this piece of
coal?” No.

“ How does it differ in colour from coal?” Jé is Highier
in colour than coal.

* It is undesirable to confuse young children with minerals not found

underground.
t The lead should be clean.
\

168 OBJECT LESSONS.

‘*How does it differ from lead in colour?” Jé¢ has a
darker colour than lead.

“And because of its darker colour no doubt it got its name,
black-lead ; but its colour is dark grey.

“ T must tell you that black-lead bas two other names ; they
are plumbago and graphite. Plumbago is another name for
lead, and graphite means something to write with. Graphite
is the best name for it, because it points out its very useful
property of making a mark on paper.

“We will compare these minerals still further, and you will
see how different graphite is from lead, and you will find out
at the same time other properties of this useful mineral.

‘* Mary shall try them as to weight. Well?” The lead
ts heavier.

“ Now I will cut slices off each with my knife.

“How do the pieces of lead come off?” In slices.

“And the graphite?” J¢ breaks to bits, or crumbles.*

“You can tell me something else that crumbles when
cut?” Chalk.

“It is this property which makes chalk and graphite use-
ful for writing. Tiny little bits come off and stick to the
black-board or the paper.

“ Next J-hammer the two minerals.

“What do you say about the graphite?” J¢ is brittle.

“ And the lead?” It hammers out flat. It is malleable.

“Lastly, we will try to melt each. The lead melts into a
bright shining liquid. The graphite cannot be melted.

“What do we say of things which can be melted?”
They are fusible.

“And of those that cannot be melted?” They are
infusible.

‘* Repeat for me the chief properties of graphite?” J¢ is

© The term friable may be given.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 169

of a dark-grey colour, tt shines, it is brittle, tt erumbles and tt
ts infusible.

‘Tf you feel it you can tell me one other property. What
is it?” It feels smooth and greasy.

“T must tell you that graphite does not lie in the earth like
coal and clay in beds. It is found in lumps of various size,
mixed up with hard rocks, but not in large quantities, nor
im very many places.”

LESSON XV.
A BLACK-LEAD PENCIL.

AntictEs for illustration: Black-lead pencil, uncut. Another split
to show groove and the glueing. Also strips of wood to illustrate
the manufacture.

“ What is this Iam holding in my hand?” A black-lead
penctl,

« What are the two parts of the pencil?” The «ood and
the biack-lead.

“ Give me the best name for black-lead.” Graphite.

« Why is it called graphite ?”? Beeause the word graphite
means something to write with, and graphite ts used for writing
purposes.

“Where is the graphite in the pencil?” I? ts placed
along the centre.

“What is the shape of the pencil 2?” Z¢ ts cylindrical.

«What is the shape of the ends of the pencil?” They
are flat and circular.

«Look at the end of the graphite, what is the shape ?”
It ts square shape.

“ How do you think the graphite is put down the middle
of the pencil? ” A hole ts made and the black-lead put in,

« No, that would take too long a time.

*T will show you. Here is a stick with oblong ends.
170 OBJECT LESSONS.

Observe—od/ong, not square. The breadth of the stick ia
greater than its thickness, so that its ends are oblong. To
make the ends square, you would have to increase the thick-
ness, and that we will do presently. Thestick is about long
enough to make three pencils. A little gutter or groove is
cut down the middle by a saw, and the graphite which has
been cut to fit the groove is put in.* Then another piece of
wood of the same shape as the first piece, but not so thick, is
fastened on the top.

““ What do we use when we want to stick two pieces of
wood together?” Glue.

“And the pieces are glued together. The stick now has
square ends, but it is cut by a machine into a cylindrical
«aupe. Lastly, it is cut into pencils of the proper length.

“Now I must tell you something about getting the
graphite ready to put in the wood. Sometimes little pieces
of graphite are found quite pure, that is, there is nothing
else mixed up with it. It has then only to be cut with fine
saws into strips and placed in the grooves.

“But pure graphite is very scarce, and too dear for
making cheap pencils. Hence, impure graphite, that is,
graphite mixed with other minerals, has to be used. To get
rid of some of these minerals which would prevent the
graphite from writing so well, the mineral has to be
crushed to a fine powder. Then to get it again into a hard
solid for cutting, it is mixed’ with ground clay and made
into a paste. This paste is put into a mould and baked.
The cakes are then cut with fine saws into strips ready for
the grooves.

,

«When you want to write with a black-lead pencil what
is the first thing you have to do?” Cut it to a point.
* The teacher will show the groove by splitting a pencil and taking out the

“lead.” The same pencil will serve to illustrate the fastening together of
the strips of wood,
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 171

“ What kind of wood will cut the easiest ?” Suft wood.

“A soft wood, called cedar, is mostly used ; you can tell it
by its pleasant smell and reddish colour when wetted.

“Can you tell me why the graphite is put into wood ?”
To prevent it from breaking. :

“Yes, and yet another reasonP” To prevent it marking
the fingers as well as the paper.

The recapitulation questions should embrace the preceding
as well as the present lesson.

LESSON XVI.
CLAY.

ARTICLEs for illustration: Pieces of both moist and dry clay, bits of
burnt clay (ballast) or broken bricks dried in an oven or fire, tumblers
of water and a hammer.

“Our lesson to-day is to be on a mineral very different
from either coal or graphite. Here are lumps of it. Can
you tell me its name?” Clay.

“Are these pieces of clay quite alike?” Wo, they differ
tn colour.

“Tell me some of the colours?” Blue, brown, reddish
yellow.

“T may tell you that pure clay is white in colour. The
colours are given to clay mostly by iron rust.

“Clay is very plentiful. It is found in great beds spread
ing for many miles, and many of the beds are close to the
surface of the ground, so that there is but very little trouble

to dig it.
172 OBJECT LESSONS.

“ Clay is one of the most useful of the minerals. When I
tell you that bricks, drain-pipes, tiles for roofing houses,
crockery ware, china, and a great number of other articles are
all made from clay, you will see how useful it is.

“T wish you first to find out for me what are the special
properties of clay which make it so useful, and to help you I
will pass round little pieces for you to handle.

“Squeeze it between your forefinger and thumb; what~
does this teach you?” That clay is soft.

“Ts it soft like the crumb of bread, or like cake? ” No,
it does not break into pieces.

‘Let me see what you can make of the clay. Soiiie of
you try to make bricks, some balls, some cakes, others may
make a basin. :

‘‘ Here you learn the first important property of clay. It
can be made into any shape or form. It is said to be plastic,
a word which means capable of being made or moulded into
any shape or form.

“Tell me something else that is plastic besides clay.”
Dough.

“ What does the baker mould the dough into?’’ Loaves.

“Here are small lumps of clay which have been dried in-
the sunshine. Feel them and tell me what they teach you
about clay.” Clay, when dried, is hard and rather brittle.

“If I take one of these little lumps and crush to powder,
by adding a little water I can knead it into plastic clay again.

“Here are other lumps which have been baked till they
were red-hot.* These are very hard and brittle, and you
cannot make them into plastic clay again.

“All these articles which you see on the table were made

* See lesson.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 173

from clay. Bricks and tiles and drain-pipes are made of
common clay ; but plates and jugs and cups and saucers are
made from the purer clay, and the clay used for making
these articles is mixed with flints heated red-hot and then
ground to powder. Clay is very useful then, because
it is plastic and easily made into any shape, and the
articles when baked become hard and keep or retain their
forms.

“Clay has one other property which makes it useful in
another way. I take this lump of soft clay and make it
into a very rough basin. I put water in the basin. What
does this teach youP” That clay holds water.

“Yes, in other words, clay does not allow water to pass
through it.

“Clay is useful in this way. It forms the beds of lakes
and ponds, and so the water does not soak away.

“ Do you remember a substance which is very much used
because it does not allow water to pass through?” Yes,
india-rubber.

“Anything else?” Yes, cork.

“Lastly, I will show you how this property of clay is
changed in the baking.

“ Here is a small lump of hard clay, and here is a piece
of brick which I have dried in the fire. I put them into
tumblers half-filled with water. Watch the water in the
glasses. What do you notice?” The water in one glass gets
less.

“In which glass? ” The one in which you put the piece of
brick.

«Can you tell me where the water has goneP” The brick
has sucked tt up.

“Yes, we say that bricks absorb water.

“Now we require some drain-pipes which will not absorb
water, and so when they are being baked, salt is put in the
174 OBJECT LESSONS.

oven and this melts or fuses* and forms a thin coating over
the pipes which will not allow the water to pass through.
Here is a bit of pipe. See, it looks like glass on the out-
side. This covering is called a glase.”

LESSON XVII.
LIMESTONE AND LIME.

ARTICLES for illustration: Specimen of common limestone, chalk and
marble, a few lumps of quick-lime and a little diluted sulphuric acid
[oil of vitrol] in a glass stoppered bottle.

* Our lesson to-day will be an interesting one, because
I shall show some very pretty experiments. It is on another
mineral named limestone.

“Why is it called limestone? Divide the word into two
parts and we get lime and stone. You know what stone is,
and here is some lime. I will show you more about the
lime presently. Well, limestone is so named because it is a
stone which is in great part made up of lime.

“There are many kinds of limestone; some are hard, and
make good building stones. Chalk is a kind of limestone,
and so is this pretty marble.

“What do the miners call the gas which‘ sometimes
explodes in coal mines?”  Fire-damp.
“And what do they name the gas which the fire-damp

makes when it burns, and which they cannot breathe?”
Choke-damp.

* It should be explained that in a former lesson salt was called infusible
because it does not melt except under a very great heat.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 175

‘Limestone is made up of lime and of this gas, which the
miners call choke-damp.

“You will think it strange that a stone is partly made
up of a gas which you cannot see. But I will show you
that this is so. I put some pieces of chalk into this basin,
and pour on it some liquid from this bottle* I will bring
the basin near you, and you can see the bubbles made by
the gas as it comes away from the chalk. But perhaps you
will say, ‘I cun see the bubbles, but where is the gas?’ It
is in the basin; the basin is full of it. A candle or a match
will not burn in this gas, so if I light a match and hold it
over the chalk in the basin and the flame goes out, you will
know the gus is there. Amy shall try. You see the light
is put out. John may try again.

“You have seen that the gas is in the limestone. I will
now show you how men get rid of the gas from many
waggon-loads of limestone at a time while the lime is left
behind. They do it by burning the limestone in a large
oven called a Mime-hiln.

“T will make a drawing of one on the black-board.”

[The teacher here sketches a simple outline of a lime-kiln,
showing the opening where the fire is lighted. ]

“Wood and coals for lighting the fire are placed at the
bottom. Then limestone is thrown in at the top, then coals,
then limestone again, then more coals, then limestone again,
until the kiln is full. The fire is then lighted, the stone
becomes red-hot, and the gas is driven out at the top.

“ When the fire is burnt out, the kiln is allowed to cooi,
and the lime is taken out at the bottom.

‘“‘T have read of men having gone, on a cold day, into a
lime-kiln just emptied for the sake of the warmth. ‘hey

® Use the sulphuric acid with care.
176 OBJECT LESSONS. —

have quietly gone to sleep never to wake again; the gas left
in the kiln has choked them.

“We must now look at the lime as it comes from the
kiln. You see it in rough lumps. It is not pleasant to
handle, for if you happen to have a scratch or cut on your
finger, the lime would burn, and of course cause great pain.
You must be careful when passing a place where men are
handling lime not to get any lime dust in your eyes, for it
would hurt them very much.

“TI put a lump of this lime in a basin and pour water
on it.

“What do you notice?” It cracks and swells, and gives
off steam, and falls into a powder.

“Lime in this condition is called qguick-lime. Why P
Not because it moves quickiy, nor because it changes
quickly, but because it seems alive. We sometimes speak of
‘the quick and the dead.’ ‘Here ‘quick’ means living.
Well, because lime in this state stirs so and steams, and
works at the touch of water, it is called * guick-lime.’

“‘ When we pour water on the lime and thus cause it to
swell and crack and fall to a powder, we are said to slack
the lime, that is, to loosen it.

“Lime like that which I have in the basin is used for
many purposes, but the chief one is for making mortar.
Do you know what mortar is, and what it is used for ?

“ Look at the wall of the school-room. What is it built
of?” Bricks.

‘And what is that which you see between the bricks ?”
Mortar. c

“And what is the mortar used for?” To fasten the bricks
together. ¥

“And why is mortar used? I will tell you. It is because,
as it dries, 1t gets very hard, sometimes harder than the
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 177

bricks themselves, and it also holds firmly to the bricks, ‘and
so makes the walls strong.

“Here is a piece of old dry mortar. It is as hard as a
stone.

“ But how is mortar made? YT will make some, and then
you will not forget how it is made.”

The teacher may now make a little slacked lime into a
thin paste with water, and add a little sand, working the
mixture together until the proper consistency is obtained.
Its use may further be illustrated by using two or three

brieks.

 

LESSON XVIIL

THE METALS.

SPEcIMENs of the common metals and manufactured articles, and as
many of their ores as can be obtained, should lie on the table.

The teacher will direct the attention of her class to the
various specimens of the common metals on the table, and
ask for names, thus :—

“ Here is a sovereign, what is it made of P” Gold.

“Give me the names of some other articles made of
gold.” Rings, brooches, watch-cases, chains, penctl-cases, &e.

« What is this half-crown made of???  Si/rer.

«Name other articles made of silver.” Chains, brooches,
lockets, necklaces, Sc.

«What is the name of the metal of which common nails
are madeP” Tron.

And so on of the other metals,

« Like limestone and coal, gold, silver, iron, &c., are all
N
178 OBJECT LESSONS. :

got from underground. What name, then, may we give
them?” inerals.

“Yes, they are all minerals; but because they are all
alike in some ways, and very different from other minerals,
we put them in a class of group by themselves, and give
them the special name of metals.

“In this and the following lessons I shall ask you to
help me to point out the many different uses to which these
metals are put, and the special properties which fit them for
these particular uses.

“But I must first explain to you how they are foundein
the earth. Can we dig gold and lead and tin as we dig
coal or clay? Certainly not. A few of the metals are
found pure, that is, without any other substances being
mixed up with them. Gold, silver, and copper are found
pure, but only in small quantities. Metals found in a pure
state are termed zative.* But metals are usually found
mixed up with many other things. These mixtures are
called ores. Ores are not often like metals at all. Here is
a piece of what is called ironstone. It bears no likeness to
the iron which it contains.

“How was lime got from limestone?” By heating in a
Aime-kiln or furnace.

“And metals are melted out from their ores something in
the same way, but you will better understand how this is
done when you are older.

“What are native metals?” Metals found in a pure
state.

“Of the metals on the table which are sometimes found
native?” Gold, silver, and copper.

“In a former lesson you saw a bright metal in a liquid
state; what was it?” Quicksilver.

* Gold usually contains a small proportion of silver; but not sufficient to
change its character, and the mixture is called native gold.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 179

* Quicksilver is sometimes found native.

‘“What are ores?” Alixtures of metals tith other sub
stances.

The teacher will here show any ores and direct the atten-
tion of the children to some of the differences between the
metals and their ores.

“‘T must tell you that there are other metals besides those
which I have asked you to look at; but many of them are
very scarce and dear, because it is so difficult to get them
from their ores, and others are of little value compared with
such metals as iron and copper. I will show you one or two
of them as we go on.

“Now for one particular in which all metals are alike,
and one in which they all differ.

‘“* Here are two iron nails, what difference do you observe
in them?” One is rusty, the other shines.

“What colour is the rusty one?” = _Reddish-brown.

“ How can I make a rusty nail to shine?” By cleaning off
the rust.

“ Here is a piece of copper and here a piece of fine sand-
paper; I want a little boy to make the copper shine more.
How will he do it?” Rud it well.

“Try the lead and the zinc with the sand-paper, what is
the result?” They shine better.

“ Now take this go/d ring, this si/rer shilling, the piece of
tin foil, and the bits of iron, copper, lead, and zine which
you have cleaned, and tell me how all these metals are
alike?” = They all shine.

“In speaking of coal shining what was the name we
used ?” Lustre.

«And the shining of metals is spoken of as the metallic
lustre. Coal is said to have a metallic lustre, because it
shines like the metals.
180 OBJECT LESSONS.

“Here are wires of iron, copper, zinc, and lead. We
will try to cut them through. I cannot cut the iron; why
not?” Because tt is too hard.

“Which cuts the easiest?” The lead.

“Why can you cut lead easier than iron?” Because the
lead is softer.

“ Now for the point in which metals vary?” In hard-
ness.

“We shall see in another lesson that the uses to which
metals are put depend very much on their hardness.

‘Here is one of the curious metals I promised to show
you. Itis got from common table-salt. You see I have to
keep it in a bottle in a liquid. The liquid is naphtha. I
dare not try to keep it in water. You will soon see why I
take out a small piece and cut it across. You see itis quite
soft, and has a beautiful metallic lustre. I put a piece in
this basin of water. You see the pretty ball how it runs
about, and gradually gets less and less.

« You can tell me something else about this metal?” Jt
floats on the water, it is light.

“ Yes, and if I left it in the air it would very soon rust
away.”

Children should not be allowed to touch sodium, and the
teacher should cut it in a saucer into which a little naphtha
has been poured. Of course it‘must not be put into the
water with the fingers. Use the point of a knife.

Placed on blotting paper on the water, it soon takes fire,
and usually explodes. Potassium, under similar circum-
stances, burns with a violet flame, but this metul is much
more expensive than sodium.

———
HOW TO GIVE THEM 181

LESSON XIX.
THE METALS.—RUST AND PLATING.

ARTICLES for illustration: Specimens of metals as in last lesson. Tin
and gino plate, and if possible some gold and silver plated articles.

“In what respect did you find, in your last lesson, that
all metals were alike?” In having the metallic lustre.

“ How did we make some of the metals shine brighter?”
By rubbing them «ith sand-paper.

“Here is an old knife, what do you see on the blade?”
Rust.

“ Then if I rub the knife with sand-paper, or better still,
with a steel fle, what do I remove?” The rusé.

“ Now let us look at the pieces of lead, copper, and zinc.
Neither of them are bright. They are each of them dull
on the outside, but the sand-paper or the file will show you
the shining metal beneath.

“Some metals rust very much more than others. Gold,
silver, and quicksilver do not rust. Hence they are always
bright. Tin, zinc, and copper, when exposed to the air,
tarnish, that is, lose their lustre, but do not rust away.
Lead forms a Ain coating of rust which protects the meta/
from further injury. Not so iron and steel. If these metals
are left in a damp place the rust soon ‘eats’ them com-
pletely away. Hence all bright iron and steel goods must
be kept dry, if we wish th ™ to remain bright.

“Have you ever seen a saucepan or a kettle made of
lead? ’? No.
“Can you give me the reason?” Lead ts foo soft. It

melts too easily.
“Yes, both answers are correct; but there is another
182 OBJECT LESSONS.

reason. Any acid, such as vinegar or the juice of a lemon,
or that of an unripe apple, makes a rust with lead which is
poisonous, hence vessels for holding food are never made of
lead.

“ Again, zinc will not answer for frying-pans and sauce-
pans, because it burns away very easily, and gold and silver
are too dear.

“What metals, then, have we left to choose from?’
Tron, copper, and tin.

. “I dare say you have seen copper kettles and saucepans
They last longer than any others, and when kept clean Icok
very nice; but they are very dear, and what is of more con-
sequence, any acid, and even cold water when allowed te
stand in them, makes a green rust which is very poisonous.
For these two reasons copper is not much used.

“What kinds of saucepans and kettles do you know
besides those made of copper?” Those made of iron and tin.

“It is not quite correct to say saucepans, kettles, &., are
made of tin, as I will show you directly; tin is too dear;
but many are made of iron. Those made.of iron are thick
and heavy, and all the best are lined with a hard white sub-
stance called enamel.

“Can you tell me why they are lined To keep the iron
from rusting away.

“But these articles are dear, and we want something
cheaper.

“Thin sheets of iron will not do alone, because rust
would soon destroy them. But a thin coating of tin pre-
vents the iron from rusting.

“ Here, then, we get just what we wanted. The iron is
cheap and strong, and the fire does not easily injure it, and
the tin on the outside prevents the water from making it
tust away.

 
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 183

“Tron plates coated with tin are called tin-nlates, and the
common kitchen vessels are made of tin-piates and not of
solid tin.*

“Tron plates are also coated with zinc to prevent the iron
rusting; would these plates do for making saucepans ?”
No, the sine would burn away.

“ But it will do for buckets and pans which are not put
near the fire, and sinc-plate is now much used for such things.

“Tron wire, which has to be exposed to damp, is often
coated with zinc. Why?” Because the sine keeps the tron
Jrom rusting.

“Tin and zinc, then, are put over iron to preserve it, and
the iron so coated is said to be plated ; but other metals are
plated for another purpose. Silver and gold are very dear,
but they look very bright and pretty, and require but very
little cleaning ; hence they are put on cheaper metals, which
are thus made to look ‘like silver and gold. Articles so
covered are said to be silver or gold-plated. Rings, chains,
watch-cases, brooches, necklaces, &c., are usually coated
with gold; and tea-pots, coffee-pots, forks, spoons, &c., with
silver. The metal coverings are put on in different ways
which I cannot explain now, but instead I will do a little
plating, so that you may see at least that it can be

done.” t

* Pins are made of brass wire coated with tin.

t Dissolve a few crystals of blue vitriol (copper sulphate) in a little water.
Immerse a bit of bright iron or steel—such as the blade of a knife—in the
solution, and the article immersed will be plated with copper in a few seconds
184 OBJECT LESSONS.

LESSON XX.
THE METALS.—HARDNESS, ALLOYS.

ARTICLES for illustration: Specimens of metals as in the last lesson,
coins and any articles made of brass or other alloys,

“Tn our first lesson on metals we noted one particular in
which all metals are alike ; what isit?’’ They all have the
metallic lustre.

«And we noted one particular in which they varied very
much. Whatis that?” They vary in hardness.

“In the last lesson we saw how some metals tarnish and
rust, and how the rusting of iron is prevented by coating it
with tin or zinc.

“To-day I want you to look again at the hardness of
metals, how the softer metals are made harder, and some of
“ the uses which follow from the hardness of metals. :

“Which is the softest of the common useful metals? ”
Lead.

“ And which is the hardest?” Tron.

“T have a piece of iron wire here, and, using the file, I
cut it through ; what does that tell us about the file?” I¢
ts harder than the iron.

“The file is made of a kind of iron called steed, which is _
very hard indeed. Knives, saws, chisels, and all cutting
tools are made of steel.

“I want to nail two pieces of wood together; what kind
of nails do I use?” Nails made of tron.

“Why wouldn’t nails made of lead do?” They would be
too soft. .

“Too soft for what?” To go into the wood.

“T can cut gold, silver, tin, zinc, and copper with a
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 185

N

knife; what does this teach me?” That these metals are
softer than steel.

“Which metals do you think wear away the quickest, the
hard or the soft?” The soft metals.

“Yes; and now I want you to remember something
about metals which will seem very curious to you. Metals,
when fused, will mix together, the mixture being called an
alloy; and the curious fact is, that the alloy may show pro-
perties quite different to the properties of the metals which
form it.

“You know that gold can be hammered into extremely
thin sheets, and that lead is also malleable; but the addition
of the least bit of lead with gold makes the gold brittle.
Again, a little copper mixed with gold and silver makes
these metals so much harder that they wear for a much
‘longer time. And, once more, tin is softer than copper,
but a mixture of tin and copper, called bronse, is much
harder even than the copper.

“T heard a boy say this morning, ‘ Please, sir, have you
got a copper?’ What did he mean?” Have you got a
penny or a halfpenny.

“Why did he call a penny acopper?” Because pennies
are made of copper.

“No; some years ago pennies and half-pennies were made
of copper, but now they are made of bronze.

“Why do you think they are now made from bronze?”
Because bronse is harder and wears longer than copper.

“ What can I put with gold and silver to make these
metals harder, and so prevent them from wearing away so
quickly P”? Copper.

“Yes, and a very little copper will do. Sovereigns and
half-sovereigns are made from gold which has had a little
copper mixed with it. Eleven parts gold and one part
186 OBJECT LESSONS.

copper is the mixture. Silver for half-crowns, shillings,
&c., requires less copper than this to make it hard.

« All the gold and silver used for making ornaments have
copper mixed with them, and many of the gold. rings,
watches, &., contain nearly one-half of copper. You may
learn from this that ‘ gold’ articles of similar size are uot
always of the same value. Those that contain more copper
are cheaper than. those that contain less.

“There are many other alloys,* but the most useful of
all is brass, a mixture of copper and zinc.”

LESSON XXL
THE METALS —FUSION, CASTING

ArticLes for illustration: Specimens as in preceeding lessons, a
lump of clay well kneaded to make a mould, and any specimens of
cast articles.

“ We have already seen that all the common metals can
be melted or fused. Some can be fused easily, some with
great difficulty.

“Ore metal which in this country is always in a liquid
state, what isits name?” Quicksilver.

‘‘T said in this country, because if you were to go to very
cold countries in winter you would find the quicksilver hard
and solid like silver. When the summer comes the quick-
silver melts, so that we may say that quicksilver fuses with
a very little heat indeed compared with the other metals,

“We will now try some of the other metals. Here is a

* The teacher may introduce any other alloys of which she has specimens,
such as dell-metal, a mixture of copper and tin; German silver, a mixture of
copper, zinc, and nickel; pewter, a mixture of copper and tin ; solder, a mix-
ture of tin and lead.
HOW TO GIVE THEM, 187

lump of lead, I put it over a bright fire in an iron shovel.
You see it melts or fuses very quickly, even before the shovel
gets red hot.

“What do we learn about the fusibility of lead compared
with iron?” That lead fuses with less heat.

“Why do you say so?” Because the lead was fused and
the tron was not fused.

“Now for tin. Here is a piece of tin foil. We will try
it as we did the lead. You see it does not melt so quickly,
nor till the iron shovel gets quite red hot. It is the same
with zinc, it melts when the iron gets red hot.

“Tf I try gold and silver and copper I cannot melt it in
the shovel, nor can I melt the shovel itself. It requires a
much stronger heat than I can get in the grate to fuse these ~
metals. ;

“Tron is the most difficult to fuse; but I can make it
softer in the fire, soft enough to be hammered into different
shapes just as I can hammer cold lead.

‘In this lesson I want you to learn some of the uses we
make of metals by fusing them.”

To illustrate the principle of “casting” metals, take the
following or some similar experiment. Pour a little molten
lead into a mould prepared by pressing a glass marble into

clay.

“Look at the glass marble and the marble made of lead,
how are they alike?” They have the same shape.

“How did I manage to make the lead marble of the same
shape as the glass marble?” You pressed the glass marble
tnto the clay.

« And when I took the marble away a hollow place w was
left having the same shape as the marble. We may call the
clay then the shape for the marble. But when we shape a

4 athing we are sometimes said to mou/d it, and so the hollow
188 OBJECT LESSONS.

place into which the metal is poured is always called the
mould.

“ How did I get the lead into the mould ?” You poured
& tn.

« Another word which means the same as pour is cast, and
you may say that I cast the lead into the mould. You must
remember that all articles made by pouring molten metal
into moulds are said to be cast.

“The metal most used for casting is iron, but many
articles are cast from the alloys—brass, bronze, and bell-
metal.

“The iron got from the ores in the furnace is allowed to
run into moulds made of sand. Hence it is called cast
iron.

“This is the iron of which very many common articles are
made such as the legs which support the desks, grates, many.
‘nails, kettles, saucepans, bolts, bars, &c. The cast iron is
brittle, and so of course are the articles made from cast
iron.

“Bells are cast from bell-metal, statues* from bronze,
and many ornamental articles from brass.”

LESSON XXII.
THE METALS.—MALLEABLE, DUCTILE, TENACIOUS.

Antictzs for illustration: Specimens of metals in sheet and wire,

east and wrought-iron nails, and a strip of ribbon-wire magnesium.

“In the last lesson you saw how articles are made from
© Tho teacher will explain and illustrate.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 189

metals by casting in moulds. To-day we have to find out
other ways in which articles are made from metals.

“Metals when cast are usually brittle. Thus cast iron
although hard is brittle; and for many purposes we want
metals to be tougli or tenacious. Cast iron when re-melted
and well stirred and then hammered becomes tough. It is
then called worked or wrought iron.

* Wrought iron does not melt easily, but it becomes soft
in the fire and can then be hammered and rolled into such
shapes as are wanted. In some towns in Englind nearly all
the men women and children are employed in making
wrought iron into nails, chains and other small articles
which require to be strong. 7

“Here are wrought and casf-iron nails. I will hammer
them. Which will break?” Zhe cast-iron nails.

«And what is the effect of hammering the wrought iron
-nailsP” They bend without breaking.

“Steel is made by heating together bars of wrought iron
and charcoal.* Steel may be made soft or very hard. All
cutting tools are made of hard steel.

*« Would a knife made of lead be of any use for cutting P ”
No, tt would not cut.

“Why not?” We could not give it an edge thin enough to
cut, and if we could the edge would tecist and bend instead of
cutting.

« For the same reason wrought iron would not do, and cast
iron would be too brittle. Wrought iron and all the other
common metals can be cut with steel tools, and many articles
are shaped in this way.

«What metal is this [showing tin foil]P” Zin.

* Show a piece of charcoal and explain that it is charred or partially burnt
weod.
190 OBJECT LESSONS.

“How was it made so thin?” By. beating with a
hammer.

“ And what is this [showing gold leaf]?” Gold leaf.

« And how was this made so thin?” By beating with a
hammer.

“What do we say of these metals because they spread out
on being hammered?” They are malleable.

« All the common metals are malleable, but some of them
can be beaten out and rolled into sheets easier when heated,
than when cold. Zine is brittle, and requires to be heated,
though only a little, to make it madleable. Gold is the most
malleable of all metals.*

“Here are wires of different metals. What do we say of
metals because they can be drawn out into wire?” They
are ductile.

“ Would lead wire be of much use?” No, it would not be
strong, and it would break if bent.

‘«‘ What other property must metals possess to make strong
wire?” They must be tough or tenacious.

“Steel makes the strongest wire; wrought iron, gold,
silver and copper wire are also strong. Zinc wire is soft and
easily bent but it is not strong. It is sometimes used instead
of string for tying shrubs and trees in the garden.

«« All the common metals have one other property which
you can tell me at once by taking them in your hands.
They are heavy. Gold is the heaviest metal. Then follow
quicksilver, lead, and silver. You saw one curious metal
which was so light that it floated on the water, so that all
metals are not heavy.

“ Which of the common metals burns away when put on
the fire for some time?” Zinc.

® ‘The uses of gold-leaf for gilding should be pointed oug.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 191

“There is one metal* which burns very brightly indeed.
So bright is its light that it dazzles the eye to look at it.”

The time of one lesson will be well occupied in a reeapitu
lation by question and answer of the lessons on metals,

 

LESSON XXIIL
TEXTILE MATERIALS.—1.

Artictrs: for illustration: Small pieces of coarse linen, pins, and
short lengths of string.

Give to each child a pin and a small piece of some woven
material the structure of which is easily demonstrated, such
as very coarse linen.

Set the class to discover how it is made up, viz. of
threads; then how the threads are arranged. Tell them
that the long threads are called the wurp and the cross
threads the eooy.

Illustrate the arrangement of the warp by tying smal]
string lengthways at equal intervals across a frame (a slate
frame will answer very well), and then threading strings
across to represent the woof. The process here represented
is called tearing.t The materials made are usually called
tertile, but textile means simply woven.

The children will next be directed to examine the threads
to see how they are made. They will soon discover that

* The teacher may burn a piece of magnesium wire. If the room can be
djarkened so much the better.

t The machinery used in weaving is 30 complicated that to attempt te
Jeseribe it to young children would be so muwh waste time.
192 OBJECT LESSONS.

each thread consists of a number of very tiny hair like
threads, twisted together; or, if the thread of the linen
selected be not large enough, use ordinary string. This
will be found to consist of smaller threads twisted, and
these, again, of hair-like threads twisted. In the manufac-
ture the twisting of the threads is called spinning, and the
threads are called yarn.

Spinning may be illustrated by twisting a thread from a
bunch of hemp.

LESSON XXIV,
TEXTILE MATERIALS.—2.

ARTICLES for illustration: Specimens of raw materials and manu-
factured articles. One or two of Judson’s dyes.

Attention should now be directed to the chief raw
materials used in making textile articles, viz., wool, cotton,
silk, and flax. Specimens of these should be shown and
compared, as also specimens of some of the principal manu-
factured articles.

Wool.—Cloth, stuff (for dresses), hosiery, flannel, blankets,
carpets, worsted* for sewing and darning, Berlin wool.

Cotton.—Calico, print, sewing cotton.

Siik.—Piece silk, ribbons, and sewing silk.

Flax.—Linen, damask, flax-thread for sewing.

Questions on the special properties common to the raw
materials used in weaving will naturally follow.

For facility in weaving the articles must be tough, fairly
strong, and flexible.

* So called because first made in a town called Worsted, in Norfolk.
HOW TO GIVE THEM. 193

For suitability for clothing they must be «arm, soft, light,
flexible, and durable.

In the third place, some information should be given on
the sources of the raw material.

Dyeing may be illustrated by using one or two Judson’s
dyes.

Lastly, the inflammability of the various articles may be
tested—all burn freely except wool; and a useful warning
against playing with the fire may be given.
APPENDIX,

—_-—_

Tue following sketches are intended to serve as frameworks
on which the teacher may construct other lessons. If the
necessity arises for the use of extra lessons they should be
introduced in their proper places in the series. Thus the
lesson on boots and shoes naturally follows the lesson on
leather—those on nails, bells, a thimble, and the smithy
should follow the lessons on metals, and so on.

SEALING WAX.

Why so called; hard and very brittle ; easily fused ; when
placed in a flame it burns easily and falls in drops ; in fused
state sticks firmly to paper, but not to polished metal or
stone. [Show its uses, viz. to stick paper together and to
make seals.] Why are seals placed on letters, &c. Seal-
ing wax is soluble in spirit [illustrate. ]

If the materials can be obtained readily the manufacture
of this useful substance may be illustrated. The best seal-
ing wax is made by gently heating together three parts of
shellac and one of resin; a little colouring matter, vermilion
APPENDIX. 195

or lamp-black, &e., is added. When the ingredients are
thoroughly mixed the mixture is poured into moulds or
‘rolled into sticks.

OLIVE OIL.

Irs Propertres.—Liquid, but thicker than water; semi-
transparent; yellowish colour; floats on the top of water,
and is therefore lighter than water [illustrate]; does not
mix with water. [Rub a little on the band and then
plunge into water, the water is only seen on the hand in
drops here and there.] It is inflammable, it could be used
to burn in a lamp through a wick [illustrate this], but is too
expensive. It is soft and greasy to the touch.

WHENCE OBTALNED.—Pressed from the green plum-like
fruit of the olive-tree.

Usrs.—Purest kinds used chiefly in the preparation of
food.

[Compare with other oils, both as to properties, sources,
and usvs. |

BOOTS AND SHOES.

A Lesson on boots and shoes will lead to the consideration
of most of the following points :—

Why do we wear boots and shoes? Of what are they
made ? What parts are sometimes made of cloth? Where
is cork sometimes put, and why? Why is thin leather
used for the uppers and thick leather for the soles? What
196 APPENDIX.

are sometimes fastened on, and what driven into, the soles,
and why ? How ought boots and shoes to be fastened firmly
to the feet? What is the use of the tongue? Why is
leather the best material for making boots and shoes? Why
should the feet be kept dry and warm’ How are boots and
shoes cleaned? In making what kinds of shoes is carpet
sometimes used ?

CHARCOAL.

Its Propertizs.— Black colour; light; porous; brittle;
easily reduced to powder; burns without flame; is infusible
and insoluble.

Its Nawe.—W ood, used as fuel, was formerly called cole,
or coal; anytbing partially burned is said to be charred,
hence partially burnt wood is charred coal, or charcoal.

How mapE.—Small logs and short branches of hard
wood are piled in,a stack and nearly covered with a layer
of earth. Small openings are leit at the sides and one on
the top. Stack is lighted below. After a time all the
openings are closed and the wood is only partly burned, or
charred.

Its Usrs.—In some countries as fuel ; for cleansing water
(filtering) ; for cleaning sugar ; for making crayons, &e.

A THIMBLE.

What MADE oF.—Brass, steel, or silver. Brass the cheapest,
steel the strongest, silver the prettiest, but dearest, Why
made of hard substances P
APPENDIX. 197

SuargE AND Pants.—Bell-shape; hollow; forms a little
cup which fits on the top of the finger. Smooth on the
inside ; rough on the outside; covered with little hollows
or e¢./s; cells stamped in rows. What is the use of the
hollows and the rin ?

Thimbles used by tailors have no tops, why? They use
only the side of the thimble.

User or THimste.—When are thimbles used ? On which
finger are they worn P Why wear a thimble at all?

BELLS.

Wurar Mane or.-—Bell-metal [an allov consisting of three
parts copper and one part tin]. The alloy is hard and brittle,
and when struck vibrates * and gives clear musical sound,

Sarge aNxD Parts.—Shaped something like tea-cup;
shape called be./-s/ape. Many flowers are bell-shaped, as
the blue-bell, canterbury-bell, hare-bell, Ke.

FA ngs to some bells; made of wood; why ?

Clapper or tongue; its use; why hung in the middle of

the cup.

Koxns or Betts.—Chureh-bells, Sarge schoo?-ells; hung
high up in the building and pulled by means of ropes.

House-helis, pulled by wires.

Haid-bells, swang by hand.

Usrs.—For what purpose is the bell rung in school ?

* Mustrate with tuning-fork, and show that the sound ceases as the vibra-
tion is stopped by contact with any substance,
198 APPENDIX.

Why are church-bells rung? Why are bells fixed in houses P
Why are bells fixed on bicycles ?

 

NAILS.

A LEsson on nails must to some extent depend on the
varieties of nails at the command of the teacher. The
principal points for consideration will be the materials of
which they are made, the special properties and uses of the
various kinds, and a comparison of shapes and sizes.

Some nails are made of cast iron ; what is cast iron? Cast
nails are made by machinery; they are brittle. Some are
unade by hand; they are of wrought iron. What is wrought
iron, and how does it differ from cast iron? Some nails
are made of copper, others of brass.

Compare the shape of the heads, the bodies, and the points
of nails; all taper more or less, some from the head to the
point, others only a little way from the point ; why so made;
the use of the head and of the pointed and chisel-like ends.
Compare nails as to sizes and their various uses. What are
tacks, and why some are called tin-tacks; (coated with tin
hike pins to keep them from rusting).

THE SMITHY.

A series of interesting lessons may be constructed from
imaginary visits to various shops. The teacher will draw
attention to the striking properties of the various articles
therein, and the special uses for the sume.
APPENDIX. 199

Thus in the Blacksmith’s shop—

Tur Fire.—Where placed; how made to burn fiercely ;
its use; why heat the iron ?

True Axvit.—A block of iron ; the uses of the anvil ; why
wood or marble would net do.

THe Haawmer.—Use; the noise made in striking; the
sparks from the het iron; how things are shaped with the
hammer on the anvil.

Tur Warrr-rrovcH.—lIts use: how the hot iron makes
the water hiss and send off steam: use of the water.

Tur Saivn.—His appearance; his dress; his apron ; why
made of leather P

LEAD.

Its Prorretirs [to be discovered by experiment]; heavy;
soft as compared with other metals: ean be easily cut o*
seratehed ; pliable; readily fusible; malleable.

Usrs—For water and gas pipes; for making shet; in
thin sheets for lining tea-chesis : in thicker sheets for making
gutters, putting on revts of houses ; for making alloys.*

Similar lessons may be given on the other common
minerals.

* Solder is un alley of tin and lead; pewter is an alloy of tin, lead, and
copper.
200 APPENDIX.

FLINT.

A Mrynerat.—Why? Found in gravel-pits; in pebbles
on the sea-shore ; in chalk beds.

Prorerties.—Hard, brittle, smooth, heavy, variously
coloured, but mostly black ; when burnt or calcined becomes
white, and is then easily crushed to white powder.

Edges of broken flint very sharp; when struck with steel
sparks of fire seen. [Show by experiment how it was
formerly used for lighting tinder, and also for igniting the
gunpowder in the old “ flint guns.’’]

Uses—For making roads; sometimes used for building
walls of houses; calcined and crushed, it is used for mixing
with clay for making pottery.

PUMICE STONE.

Grey or white stone ; harsh and rough to the touch ; porous,
and sufficiently light to float on water; brittle, but hard
enough to scratch glass or steel.

Used for polishing ; employed in smoothing wood, glass,
stone, marble, &c.; painters use it for smoothing before paint-
ing. Sometimes used for smoothing the skin of the hand.

Compare with other stones.
IN DEX,

 

ag
A B

Absorbent, 98, 17S. Ezy, lesson on, 67.

Adhesive, or sticky, 58 Flisticuty, 98.

Aficineon, 148,

Alicys of metals, 184

jum, lessan an, 122.

e, the, 46, 140

Answers should be complete alirases, 5.
Astringent, 123. %

Ball-shs nape, 20.

  
 

Breadth, 9, &

Bricks and brick-shape, 61, 64, 69, 173.
Brittle and tough, &.

Bronze, 155.

Butter, 132.

Buttons and strings, 150,

C

Cabhbages, lesson on, 69.
Camphor, experiment with, 9L

‘Lesson on, 124.
Casting. 188.
Charcoal, lesson an, 128.
Cheese, manufacture of, 158.
Chokeldamp, 166, 174.
Classifioation based on comparison, 11

(note), 24.

Clay. lesson on, 171
Clock-face, lessons on the, 148.
Goal. lesson on, 152.

 

Comparing pro perties, importance of, 89,
O21 TOR. 1.

Compressibility, on, 98

Cone, the. 144.

Cor’. lesson on, 99.

Cotton and wool, lesson on, 127.

Cube and brick, om the. 5), 66, 143,

Curve and circle. 45. 110.

Cylinder, the, 113.

Drop of water. S—4.
Duetile and tenacious, 117, 190,

Dyeing, 193.

 

Enimel, 182.
Experiments on objects to be made by the
pupils, 6, 33, 115.

F

Firedamp, 166
Flexible, or pliable, 63, 24.
Flint, lesson on, 200.
Foot, a. 55.
Forms, 7.

And colours. 52, 74, 142,
Fusible and infusible, §7.
Fusion, 153.

mixture, 87.
@
Gliss. lesson on, 71.
Glaize. 174

G. 1d and silver plate, 183
Geld-leat 190.

Granular, 119,

Graphite, lesson on, 160,
Gum and glue, 136.

H
Hard and soft, 83, 87.
Hemisphere, the, 113.
Heptagon, 141.
Herbert Spencer on “ self-instraction.” 4
Hexagon, 141.
Horizontal lines, 7.

tok on ae 100, io
J) Tea. ie lesson on, 95.
Infammabie, 91
Inorganic. 93.
Insoluble, 38
Instraction to be a pleasure,
Iren—wrought and cast, 19.

 

Chidren to acquire it for themselves,
2, 26,

L

Lead, lesson an, 199. see also -S, 167.
Teather, lesson on, 102.
Length, 16, 19, 29.
Letters, shapes of, 76 7S.
Lime and limestone, lc sson on, 174.
‘Lines, lessons in. 7, 12. 18, 17
Liquids, $4. 86.

And solid, $1. 85

Sketches of lessons on, 194—200
202

Lustre, 159, 167.
Metallic, 179.

Magnestum, 191
Malleable and tenacious, 116, 188,
Measurements, guessing, 57.
Measures of weight, 79.
Sepaciy for liquids, 80.
cy goods, 114.
Time, 145.
And weizhts, 115.
Mental impiessiuns, two kinds of, 1.
Importance of utilising earliest, 2.
Metals and their ores, lessons on, 177.
Different uses of, 182.
Minerals, lesson on, 156.
Molten lead, 88.
Mortar, 176.

N
Nails, lesson ou, 198.
Naphtha, 180.
Notes of lessons, proper use of, 7.

ra)
Obicet Lessons, primary purpose of, 2.
Importance of appropriate selection,
adaptation, &c., of, 3, 6.
Should teach child not observations
but how to observe, 4, 7, 35, 41.
Should utilise previously acquired |
Knowledge, 2.
Should be preceded by a general train-
ing in properties, 5.
Should be conversational, 63, 126, 130.
But not desultory, 6.
Some uses of, 4, 100, 102, 165, 193.
Chief points to be written on the
blickboard \ 4th stage), 106.
Objects should be simple every-day things
that ean be handled by the ‘seholars, 6.
‘Lessons on particular, 36.
Oblique lines, 75.
Oblong, the, 18, 28, 87, 52.
Octagon, the, 141.
Olive-oil. lesson on, 195,
Op :que, 5, 61.
Ores, 179.

Parallel lines, 76.

Paste, lesson on, 136.

Pentagon, the, 141.

Perpendicular lines, 75.

Pins and needles, 121, 183.

Pipette, use of the, 83.

Plating—tin, zinc, gold, silver, 181-2,
Pores and porous, 60, 97.

Potassium, 1$0-.

Powder, meaning of, 120.

P

aueenoning, pupPOlane of, 88, 115.
Quicklime,
Quicksi ag se 178, 186.

 

R
Requisites for Object Lessons, 7 (note), 9.

INDEX.

Bhomb and rhomboid, 140.

Rings, 49.
Bough and smooth, 35.
Rust, 171, 181.

Salt, lesson on common, ar
Sealing-wax, lesson on, 1

Senses, all knowledge obtained through, L
Shades and tints, 106, 108.
Sheep-shearing, 128.

hoes lesson on, 195.

Size.

Sickel lime, 176.

Smell, 38.

Smithy, lesson on, 198.

Snow and ice, lesson on, 126.

Soda. lesson on, 121.

Sodium, 19}.

Solubility, $9.

Sphere, the, 113.

Spinning, 192.

Sponge. le-sons on the, 83, 96.

Squire. the, 15. 17, 46.

Stage. first, subjects and ages for, 6
4

Second a a 1

Third a a 72.
Fourth a s 106.
Fifth 55 n 138.

Stalk and skin, 53.

Starch, manufacture of, 135.
Steel 1$9.
Sticky or adhesive, 3s.
Strings and buttons. 130.
Sulphur, lesson on, 125.
Surface, 21, 35.

T

Taste and no taste, 7, 23. 25, 26, 53.
Terms to be sparingly ae 4, ef. 11 (note)
Textile materials, lesson on, 194.
Thickness, 31.
Thimble, lesson on a, 196.
Thoroughbness, importance of, 7,
Time, measurement of, 145.
Tin-foil, 189.

Plates, 182-3.
Toughness, 64. 190.
Translucent, 61.
Transparent, 61.
Triangle, the, 47.

Vv
Vocabulary, extension of, 4.

Warp and woof, 191.
Water and sand, contrast of, S2.
Waterproof, 96, 101.
Weight, 31.
Measurement of, 79.
Wire, 190.

Yard (measure), 56.

Zine, 190.
plate, 183.