+ ieinie 4 Teheigienn terete bit i rg err er he fs) te eos ti ibe ae ets s ey (tik ebalaes u sinteteinied " Baa Bis eget elle (sieetias ie pretty ‘I prereset pertein) i Perec rere ete} ett et elas er on oe & yl D Carnell University Library Dthaca, Nem. York BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF HENRY W. SAGE 1891 sae University Library SF 413.C89 ir histo wii il Photograph by H. Ve Furness Kuropean Wild Cat (above) Domestic Striped Tabby Cat (below) PETS THEIR HISTORY AND CARE BY LEE S. CRANDALL Assistant Curator of Birds, New York Zodlogical Park; Fellow of the New York Zoological Society; Member of the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists; Associate Member of the American Ornithologists’ Union. etc. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS FROM LIFE NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1917 COPYRIGHT, ror7, BY HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY Published April, r9r7 ‘TNE QUINN & BODEN CO. PREGO RAHWAY, Ne J. TO MY PARENTS who endured much from a pet-loving son iy PREFACE Every normal child, of whatever race or creed, is born with an innate love for wild things. If allowed to languish from lack of intelligent parental interest and supervision, this natural instinct is gradually lost or degenerates into the unintentional cruelty of ignorance. Properly fostered and developed, it is certain to exert a beneficent influence on the trend of developing character. Given scope and sym- pathetic guidance, the young mind is trained to observe and appreciate the subtle ways of nature, an accomplishment which, in later years, will prove, if nothing more, a welcome diversion. The sterling qualities of kindness, responsibility and regularity are acquired, and many of the problems which perplex the adolescent adjust themselves normally by con- stant contact with reproductive life. By necessity, the choice of creatures mentioned in this book has been arbitrary. The scope of the word “pet” may seem, in some cases, to have been stretched, and in others restricted, but no species has been included or omitted without careful consideration. To give, in a single volume, full and efficient directions for the treatment of so many diverse creatures, means that the space devoted to each must be no greater than necessary. For this reason, rare or particularly delicate members of the various groups have been excluded. Such animals as the lamb, calf, colt, etc., have not been mentioned, as their care generally is well understood by those in a position to keep them. On the other hand, many of the birds, such as the pheasants, cranes and waterfowl, cannot be considered as pets in the sense Vv vi PREFACE that they may be fondled, but they are widely kept for ornamental purposes, and their proper treatment is a matter often not well known. No attempt has been made to give detailed descriptions of wild species, except in so far as to make identification reasonably easy. Domestic breeds have received more atten- tion in this respect, as their colors and markings are more variable than those of forms unaffected by the conditions of long-continued confinement. Since captivity is here the keynote, wild habits, in most cases, have not been dwelt on. Collateral reading of books chosen from the many devoted to that phase of the subject is strongly advised. Except in a few cases, notably the birds, reference to disease has been brief. If sick animals do not respond quickly to the simple household remedies which suggest themselves, a veterinary should be summoned, or the suf- ferer destroyed. To attempt to treat a creature that is seriously ill is a task which only a trained person should assume. Bird diseases, however, have received scant atten- tion from investigators, and the little space devoted to them here will not be amiss. The question of scientific breeding may seem somewhat erudite for the field indicated by the title of this work. Its importance is so great, however, that a few words, outlining the fundamentals, have been added as an appendix. For those who desire more extensive information than is given here, a list of practical works is given. To many of them I am indebted for reference during the preparation of this volume, and hereby make full acknowledgment. To Dr. William T. Hornaday, Mr. William Beebe, Mr. Raymond L. Ditmars and Mr. Elwin R. Sanborn, I am grateful for much invaluable assistance and advice, which have greatly facilitated my work. Mr. Kenyon V. Painter, Mr. Percy Warner, Mrs. Harriet V. Furness and the New PREFACE vii York Zodlogical Society have contributed several illus- trations, for the use of which I am much indebted. Photographs not otherwise credited were taken by the author, most of the subjects being included among the exhibits at the New York Zodlogical Park. The goldfishes are the property of Mr. Joseph Taubles, while the tropical fishes are from the author’s private collection. Several chapters included have already appeared in vari- ous publications, and for their use my thanks are due to the New York Zodlogical Society, Messrs. Doubleday, Page & Co., and the Advanced Agricultural Publishing Co. LL: By Ce NEw York ZoOLocIcaL Park, January, 1917. CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE. 3 6 9: wa v Section I-MAMMALS CHAPTER I Docs o Bl Se ol Sw oo 3 WT Cats. 4 & «© - os © ww « w I III Domestic Rappits. . . . . . . IV Cavies or GUINEA-PIGS 2 oe o An 428 V Domestic Rats ann MiIcE . . . . .~ 38 VI Smaty Witp ANIMALS. . . . = . = . = 50 Section II—BIRDS VII GENERAL CARE i Moh to. ef de. fae Yel GOE VIII PHEASANTS . . » (85 IX PEaFowL, GUINEA-FOWL AND » Qua - oo. . IOI X Witp Pigeons anpD Doves . . . . . Ii2 XI Cranes . . . . . . .) hh. «OQ XII Water-FowL . . . . .) .SOeCtwSC*SRQY XIII HawxsanpOwts. . . . . . . 345 XIV Parrots. - . . . « « ©. « 152 XV Cace Birps . . . . . . . . 173 XVI CANARIES : s & © «+ « 4 206 XVII Domestic Picrons. 6 @ Oe oC a. Ge “230 XVIII BantaMs. . «© «. . 2.) 2). 275 Section III—REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS AEX REPTIGES . «© «© # «© & «© © & BOT XX BaTRACHIANS. . . ~~ . . « . 307° Section IV—THE AQUARIUM XXI GENERAL CARE go GM ah RR Se 4 GAR Te XXII Aquarium FisHes. . . . . . . 328 APPENDIX—THEORIES OF BREEDING. . . . . 353 List or REFERENCE WorKS. . . . . . . 361 INDE a wk eee OS RR ix ILLUSTRATIONS European Wild Cat \ . . . . Frontispiece Domestic Striped Tabby Cat PAGE Dingo @ 6 4 oe 8 Be & & & 4 Gray Wolf . . 2. wees 4 Boston Terrier s OS. 4 ae ah ute TH) ee 3 8 Airedale Terrier . . . «© . .« «© « 8 White PersianCat. . . . . . . . + 4 Siamese Cat . . . . . 2. eee CG English Rabbit eo ce. JG 6 Se vo ce. no & 122 Dutch Rabbit. . . . . . . . . . 22 Belgian Hare. ©. .~ . . . 2. « 2.) 22 Lop-eared Rabbit .. & us 2 sm ae 922 Cream English Cavy and Young . S abl Sop Ah cep SB2 Dutch-marked English Cavy o 6 w& a = w —32 White Abyssinian Cavy s = © . & S& 2 92 Agouti Abyssinian Cavy o> ly ame : + 2 SS S_SSEEES ee | DOMESTIC RABBITS 23 ticking of black hairs, which are desired to be of a wavy appearance, rather than evenly sprinkled. Both black and white varieties of the Belgian Hare have been bred, but neither has ever become popular. The Flemish Giant is the largest rabbit breed, and from this fact has threatened to rival the Belgian Hare as a market animal. However, it was not strong enough, nu- merically, to become widely popular during the rabbit craze, and since that time breeders have discovered that there are various small deficiencies to balance its advantage in weight. Its flesh is less delicate than that of the Belgian, it is some- what less prolific and the young require a longer period to reach maturity. Nevertheless, the Flemish Giant is second only to the Belgian Hare in the numbers of its admirers. The typical Giant is dark gray in color, wavily ticked with black. This ticking extends over the entire body with the exception of the under surface of the body, which is pure white. As in the Belgian Hare, black, white and - also light gray varieties are acquired. The former, at least, has attained some favor, and now is rather extensively bred. : In shape it is to the Belgian Hare as the draught horse is to the thoroughbred. Its body is heavy, its legs thick and strong. The head is rounded and full, and the dewlap is well developed. A well-grown Flemish Giant should weigh eleven or twelve pounds. Occasional specimens are seen which scale up to sixteen or even eighteen pounds. To the color breeder, silvers are perhaps the most at- tractive of rabbits. There are three varieties—Silver Gray, Silver Brown and Silver Fawn—each presenting a com- plicated and delicate color scheme. The Silvers are small, cobby rabbits, seldom exceeding five or six pounds in weight. The ears are small and narrow, and the coat short and crisp. 24 MAMMALS The Silver Gray is really a bluish-black rabbit, evenly ticked throughout with white hairs. The wavy ticking so much sought for by breeders of Belgian Hares and Flemish Giants is anathema in a Silver. Young Silver Grays are black in the first coat, the silvering appearing later on. The Silver Fawn has the ground color orange, with white hairs evenly dispersed throughout. This is a really beau- tiful animal and well worth cultivation. The Silver Brown, said to be the result of a Silver Fawn- Belgian Hare cross, is rather more complicated. The body shade is chestnut which, when blown up, discloses a bluish undercolor. Over this chestnut ground both black and white hairs are evenly scattered, producing both silvering and ticking. The Silver Brown is difficult to breed to per- fection, and is perhaps less handsome than its congeners. Black-and-Tan and Blue-and-Tan Rabbits are of the same ground shape as the Silvers, with cobby bodies, neat ears and short coats. In size they are even smaller, seldom exceeding three or four pounds weight. The ground color is blue or black according to the variety. In either case the tan markings are the same. It is most interesting to note that the distribution of tan is much the same in dogs, mice and rabbits. In the latter species there is a triangle at the base of the neck, and the underparts, chest and throat are solid tan. There is a ring around each eye, a line along the jaw, a touch on the nostrils and edgings on the ears. The front feet are tanned on the toes only, but the hind feet have this color on the inside as well. The Polish is the smallest of rabbit breeds. In body it is short and cobby, with small, narrow ears. The eyes are large and prominent. The coat is very short and smooth, requiring much grooming to keep it in condition. As bred in America and in England, the Polish Rabbit is DOMESTIC RABBITS 25 invariably white. A few years ago, however, near Brussels, the writer saw some excellent specimens of the breed of the deepest black. This color seems unknown among Eng- lish-speaking breeders. The Lop-eared Rabbit is one of the oldest breeds. As with many other domestic animals, the over-development of an abnormal character has caused its final downfall. Once by far the most popular of all rabbits, its devotees now are many times outnumbered by the followers of more nor- mal breeds. ; Ears are everything with the Lop-ear, other characters being of small importance. It is a large rabbit, as indeed it must be to carry the immense aural appendages. It occurs in a great variety of self and pied colors, little attention being given this point. The ears are perfectly pendent, any tendency to upright- ness being an unforgivable fault. An almost unbelievable length has been produced and rabbits with ears measuring twenty-seven inches long by seven inches broad have been bred. Lop-ears require heated quarters for the best results. This fact, combined with the constant handling and manipu- lation required to produce the finest specimens, have served to discourage the tyro. Broken-colored rabbits are found in three well-known breeds, the most popular of which is the Dutch-marked. This animal presents the usual Dutch-markings, which con- sist of colored patches including cheeks, ears and eyes and saddle of the same shade, extending backward from the shoulders. The greatest importance is attached to even- ness of marking, particularly in the face patches, and the hind feet, which are white. There is a great variety of colors, black, blue, gray and tortoise-shell or shaded fawn being the most popular. 26 MAMMALS Dutch-marked Rabbits are small and short in body, with fine, straight ears and short coats. They are prolific and easily reared, and reputed to be the gentlest of the rabbit breeds. The Himalayan Rabbit is an excellent example of the tendency of fanciers to give to breeds of doubtful origin names indicating importation from distant countries. The Himalayan Rabbit was produced in England, an interesting account of its appearance being furnished by Darwin.* This is an albinistic breed, the eyes being pink. It is mainly white, with nose, ears, feet and tail of a deep black. The nose mark should be well developed, and cover the jaw, as well as the face as far as the eyes, while the legs should be colored well past the first joint. Much difficulty is experienced in getting the black sufficiently dense, most specimens being inclined to sootiness. Himalayas are white at first, and require several months to attain the full mark- ings. The English, sometimes known as the Butterfly Rabbit, is a most bizarre creature. It seems without the bounds of possibility that any animal could be bred even to approxi- mate the markings demanded, yet well-nigh perfect speci- mens are seen. The English is a rather large rabbit, averaging up to eight pounds in weight. It is white in general, with curiously distributed colored markings. The tail, ears, a ring about each eye, a circular spot at each side of the nose, supposed to represent the wings of a butterfly, and a line down the middle of the back are colored—black, fawn, blue, etc., as the case may be. The remainder of the markings con- sist of small, circular spots, placed as follows: a row along the sides, each spot to be well separated from the others; a * Animals and Plants Under Domestication (Westminster Edition), Vol. I, p. 109. DOMESTIC RABBITS 27 spot at the first joint of each leg; three along each side, of the belly, and one in the center of each cheek. It is important that the markings be clear, distinct and pure in color. The Angora is the most difficult of rabbits to keep in good condition. Its fur, while not so long, in proportion to its size, as that of the cavy, is much finer than that of the latter animal. It is very prone to matting, and only the most constant and careful brushing will keep the animal in presentable condition. Angoras are typically white, but colored varieties have been produced and are growing in popularity. There is no reason why the breed should be limited to white alone, and no doubt colored animals will, in time, become as well known as the albinos. Because of their soft, almost woolly fur, Angoras should not be bedded with hay, straw being much more desirable. Plenty of hutch space and absolute cleanliness are essential to the welfare of these rabbits. CHAPTER IV CAVIES OR GUINEA-PIGS * THE cavy is typically a pet animal, and has no other excuse for existence than the pleasure he gives those who appreci- ate his good qualities. While not particularly intelligent, he is far from stupid, and soon learns to greet his owner’s approaching footstep with a welcoming whistle. He is clean, with practically no offensive odor and no animal is more harmless, for an individual that will bite is very unusual. Attempts have been made to popularize the cavy on the ground that it is of great economic value, as an article of food. But people who are not too keen on rabbits certainly will not eat a guinea-pig, and aside from general advertising, probably no gain ever was made from this claim. But it is to the undeniable edibility of the cavy that we owe the existence of our cheerful little squeaker of today. The Incas of Peru long ago domesticated the wild ancestor of the modern animals—a small, tailless, unicolored member of the genus Cavia, the exact identity of which is a matter of some doubt. These creatures were allowed to run freely about the homes of their owners, whose object in breeding them undoubtedly was for their food value. The time which must have elapsed since this domestication was first begun is evident from the entirely changed color of the present-day cavy. Just when the guinea-pig was taken to Europe seems to be lost in obscurity. At any rate, it is certain that they * Reprinted in part from Country Life in America, December, 1916. Courtesy Doubleday, Page & Co. 28 CAVIES OR GUINEA-PIGS 29 were variegated with red, black and white, and that there were no solid colored ones among them. For years, these nondescripts were cultivated as pets, particularly in Eng- land, and it was not until between 1880 and 1890 that solid or self-colored ones appeared, the first of which were white. About this time, a strain of gray and black ticked specimens appeared, known as agoutis. Just how these were pro- duced is not known, but the color certainly must be close to that of the ancestral form, and it is not at all unlikely that it was a case of reversion. At any rate, these agouti individuals quickly produced self black and reds when crossed with the old-fashioned pied animals, and from these the creams were later developed. The remarks above refer only to the smooth-haired or English Cavies. Besides these, there are two other distinct breeds the origin of which is obscure, although they are, of course, the result of sports from the common guinea-pig, improved by selection. Both have long been known, and like many domestic breeds of uncertain derivation, have been given foreign-sounding names, supposed to denote their original habitat, but which, of course, have no founda- tion or fact. The Abyssinian Cavy is covered with stiff, wiry hair, which should be short, and as harsh as possible. Its most curious feature is that the coat is formed into numerous rosettes or cowlicks, which cover the entire body. The Peruvian, sometimes called the Angora, is covered with very long, silky hair, which grows to a considerable length. When properly cared for, a good specimen is a very attractive creature. Food and Housing Cavies are hardy creatures and can endure a great deal of cold without suffering, if provided with plenty of warm 30 MAMMALS bedding. A hutch three feet long, two feet wide and eighteen inches high will accommodate a male, or boar and three females, or sows, as they are known among breeders. Variants of these dimensions are, of course, just as satis- factory, but the inmates should be given plenty of room. Cavies are supposed by many persons to drive away rats and mice simply by their presence, and are sometimes kept for this absurd reason. Quite the contrary is the case, for rats will make havoc in the caviary, killing the babies and sometimes attacking the adults. Mice are less aggressive, but also troublesome because they enter the hutches and contaminate the food. It is best, therefore, to cover the fronts of ae cages with half-inch mesh wire, which will exclude these undesirables. Part of the front may be boarded up solidly and a slide, perforated with suitable entrance holes, run through at right angles, thus forming an inner sleeping-box. Or the entire front may be wired, and a movable box placed inside. At any rate, this secluded portion is necessary. “ If cavies are to be kept on a large scale, these hutches may be constructed in tiers, one above the other, in some convenient barn or outhouse. So long as there is protection from wind and dampness, artificial heat is not necessary, except in the case of the Peruvian, although of course it may be used if desired. The best bedding for the hutch is clean sawdust, free from dirt and large bits of wood. This should be renewed frequently, and if this be done conscientiously, the cavies will remain clean and odorless. Sweet, clean meadow or clover hay may be used inside the sleeping-box. If it is quite full, the cavies will bur- row underneath and keep warm and comfortable. Hay is one of the chief items of the guinea-pig’s diet, and should be at hand at all times. CAVIES OR GUINEA-PIGS 31 Ordinarily, two meals per day will suffice for the cavy’s wants. Good, clean, full oats and bran, dry or slightly dampened, should be given, with some sort of fresh vege- tables or green food. In winter, carrots and cabbage or let- tuce are always obtainable, but during the summer months as great a variety as possible should be given. Almost any- thing green is appreciated, such as clover, dandelion, plan- tain and even fresh grass. When babies are expected, and for a while after their birth, bread and milk should be supplied. Fresh water should be in the hutches at all times. Cavies are not great drinkers, and when green food is abundant can get on without liquids. For this reason, many persons never give water, but this practice is reprehensible and careless. Caviés are uncommonly healthy creatures, and if reason- able care is used in keeping their quarters clean, and in providing correct food, there is little likelihood of trouble caused” by sickness. If disease or injury does occur, the individual afflicted should be isolated at once. Unless it is a particularly valu- able specimen, or the trouble is trifling, it is better to despatch it at once, rather than expose the entire stock to infection. Breeding This is the most interesting phase of pet-keeping and as little or as much may be made of it as suits the individual. There is much to be learned of the operation of natural laws if one is inclined to observe. The breeding of cavies to standard requirements is an art as complicated as that which produces a Derby winner, and based on the same principle. The old haphazard method, by which a number of ani- 32 MAMMALS mals, adults and young, were allowed to run together indis- criminately, can lead to no good result. It is comparable to the flock of poultry or pigeons roaming unrestrained and breeding in a haphazard way. Line breeding, as outlined later in this work, is the only means by which success in this field may be obtained, and careful observation of its principles will result in rapid gains by the breeder. If some particular breed or color has been selected, with the idea of producing standard speci- mens, the very best stock should be secured in the first place, and rigid selection used in future matings. Only strong, vigorous individuals should be chosen for the breed- ing-pen. In mating, two or three sows may be run with a boar at once, and after sufficient time has elapsed he should be re- moved. While some boars are quiet enough to leave with the-young, many are not to be trusted. The period of gesta- tion is ‘about sixty-three days, but may vary considerably with individuals. The advantage of this procedure is that all of the young will appear at about the same time, and as cavy mothers are not particular as to their young, all will be sure of sufficient attention. If any are particularly quarrelsome, they should be removed to separate hutches before the birth of the young. The common belief that cavies are extremely prolific is entirely without foundation. The fact is quite the oppo- site. Litters average in number from one to four, two being perhaps the most usual. Five or six sometimes occur, but this is very uncommon. Since at least two months must separate the litters, it will be seen that the caviary will not be flooded with youngsters for some time. This error in regard to prolificacy is curiously persistent, and is con- stantly appearing in the literature of the subject. The young at birth are the most precocious of mammals, Aaed uerusskqy nosy aes uerursskqy oi AA ‘09 p aBng ‘Anpaiqnog fo Asajunoo sydv..Bojout Kae ysysuyq poyrew-yond sunox pue Aaey ysysuyq weal TEN CAVIES OR GUINEA-PIGS 33 being perfectly furnished in every way, and able to run about freely almost at once. After the first few days, they will begin to nibble at the food provided, and soon are caring for themselves. At the age of four or five weeks, they should be taken from the mother, and the sexes sepa- rated. The mother may now be returned to the company of the boar. Young cavies will breed at the age of eight or ten weeks, but should be,prevented from doing so until they are at least five or six months old, when they will have reached full development. The English Cavy The English or Smooth-haired Cavy is by far the most abundant. The common pied specimens are very popular as pets, and are much in demand for experimental purposes, by colleges and other scientific institutions. Many breeders devote a great deal of time and space to the production of cavies for this purpose alone, and an industry of some importance is being developed. Common cavies are just as desirable for pets as their better-bred cousins, and many prettily marked individuals occur. But standard-bred specimens, of uniform color and markings, are to be obtained for but little more, and as the care in each case is identical, the better ones should be secured if possible. In conformation, the English Cavy should be short and blocky, with large head and broad, Roman nose. The ears should always droop somewhat, this character, with the’ down-curved face, destroying the undesirable rat-like ap- pearance of snipy specimens. The coat should be short, finé and smooth. English Cavies are bred in a number of colors, which are 34 MAMMALS included in four groups: solid, or self, agouti, broken and Dutch-marked. Selfs include black, white, red, chocolate and cream, which must be even in shade and free from the slightest spot of another color. As stated before, whites were the first self-colored cavies produced. Because of their color, they do not offer the problems of breeding met with in other varieties, but a really good specimen is much more difficult to produce than would be expected by the uninitiated. Like all albinos, the white cavy has pink eyes. Blacks followed whites in order of appearance. For years after, specimens pure in color were rarely seen, white or reddish hairs frequently being present. This trouble now has been largely eliminated, and blacks of rich, solid color are produced. It is a fact well known among breeders that crosses with red, red and white and black and white, are often resorted to, and that cavies bred from such crosses, even if slightly spotted, frequently are the most consistent producers of solid blacks. Reds are a beautiful variety, and perhaps the most popu- lar of the selfs. In color they should be an even, bright orange, with no tendency to darkness on the ears. Good reds are abundant, but crosses with broken-colored_ speci- mens and golden agoutis are frequently used to maintain brightness of color. Creams, although very attractive, do not seem to be so well liked as would be expected. The shade is very soft and rich, and sound, even-colored specimens are not easily produced. Chocolates are a deep, rich brown, but good ones are scarce. The variety is not commonly bred in this country. Agoutis occur in two shades, known as golden and silver. Both are thickly ticked with black, the silver having a CAVIES OR GUINEA-PIGS 35 light grayish background, and the golden yellowish-brown. Both are very handsome in color, and rather difficult to produce. Silvers should be entirely free from creamy shad- ing, clear-colored specimens being very uncommon. The ticking in both varieties should be carried down over the legs and on the belly. This point is not easily obtained, and is improved by resorting to the black cross. The broken-colored varieties are the tortoise-shell and the tortoise-shell-and-white. The former has two colors only, red and black, while in the latter white is added. In both varieties, the patches must be well broken, small and distinct. It is difficult, especially in the tortoise-shells, to prevent the intermingling, in small patches, of the two colors. This condition is known as brindling, and specimens free from it are uncommon. No particular markings are required, as long as the colors are distinct and evenly distributed. The Dutch-marked is one of the most attractive of cavy varieties. The markings are distinctive and clean-cut, the contrasts are strong, and taken altogether a good Dutch- marked is a very handsome little beast. The most common colors are red and black, but there are also creams and agoutis, in lesser numbers. The ani- mal is particolored, with solid saddle and a patch at each side of the head, including the eyes and ears. The white markings consist of a blaze on the forehead, white collar and shoulders, and white hind feet. The markings must be clean-cut, the most difficult to secure being the evenness of cut on the hind feet. The Abyssinian Cavy Next to the English, the Abyssinian is probably the most popular of the Cavies. Contrary to common opinion, it is not a long-haired breed, for the aim is to keep the coat short. In quality it is exactly opposite to that of the English 36 MAMMALS and Peruvian, being very harsh and wiry. Its most char- acteristic feature is the separation of the hair into circular rosettes, which should be as numerous as possible. The coat needs more attention than is the case with the smooth varieties, and in grooming the motion should be toward the head, not the reverse. As the rosettes are very definitely formed, not much can be done to improve them, and advance in this point can be secured only by careful selective breeding. A soft brush, however, may be used to straighten out the hairs and keep them properly arranged. Abyssinians are a hardy breed and will stand more ex- posure than either the English or Peruvians. Cold seems to improve the harshness of the coat, too much warmth producing the opposite effect. In breeding Abyssinians, the first considerations to be looked to are coat and rosetting. Because of the impor- tance of these points, little attention has been paid to color. English cavies are often resorted to for strengthening this point and shortening the coat. This cross also leads to softness and loss of rosettes, but a very few generations serve to make the return to true Abyssinian characters. Abyssinians exist in all of the recognized colors, and as the material is at hand, it is to be hoped that more atten- tion will come to be paid to this point at no distant date. The Peruvian Cavy This is the dandy of the cavy family, and as such re- quires a great deal of care and pampering. The hair is extremely long, soft and silky, its length in a really good specimen being so great as to entirely obscure the outlines of the body. The hair should have no tendency to rosettes or curliness, but should lie flat and straight. The Peruvian is larger than other cavies, and much CAVIES OR GUINEA-PIGS 37 broader-backed. It is rather delicate in constitution and should not be exposed to cold or dampness. The long, soft hair has a tendency to retain moisture, and if it is allowed to remain in this condition, will have a serious effect on the health of the specimen. Because of the tendency to gnaw one another’s hair, Peruvians cannot be kept together. For this reason, those which are used in the breeding-pen should be at least partly clipped. So much care and attention are required to keep a high- class exhibition specimen in show condition that few care to undertake it, or are successful in the enterprise. When born, the coat is comparatively short, and divided into rosettes after the fashion of the Abyssinian, which seems to indicate an origin from this breed. But the hair is always soft and silky, and constantly increasing in length, so that at about six months old it is fully developed. To keep this wonderful coat free from snarls and curls is the cause of much labor on the part of the owner. It should be brushed daily with a soft brush, the stroking beginning at the head. A{fter all tangles have been smoothed out, the long tresses, in the case of exhibition specimens, is folded—not rolled—in papers, in such a way that it cannot drag on the floor or be soiled in any way. Peruvians should be bedded with straw cut in short lengths, and hay furnished in a rack, as sawdust and seed- heads do not get on well with silky hair. ; As with the Abyssinians, color has been neglected, and most Peruvians are decidedly nondescript in this respect. Good self whites are occasionally seen, however, and per- haps some time we may have more Peruvians of other attractive colors. CHAPTER V DOMESTIC RATS AND MICE WHEN one considers the proverbial feeling of dislike sup- posed to be harbored, at least by persons of the gentler sex, for rats and mice, it seems strange that they should be so widely kept as pets. It is evident that this curious fear is really superficial, for it quickly disappears once a closer acquaintance with these little creatures is acquired. What domestic artimal is daintier or prettier than a white mouse? The most prejudiced person is quickly won, if only he can be brought to see these rodents as they really are, without the cloak of traditional repulsion. The only objection to rats and mice is the odor which is characteristic of these creatures. It is especially noticeable in mice, but if the cage is thoroughly cleaned and disinfected at frequent intervals, the trouble can be almost entirely overcome. It must be remembered that the animal itself is not only odorless, but most fastidious as to cleanliness. Rats are much less offensive than mice in this respect. The keeping of rats and mice has always been popular in this country, but in a rather sporadic fashion. In England, this fancy, like many others, has been taken more seriously, and an association, the National Mouse Club, has been formed by interested persons. It is to their efforts that we owe many of the varieties of both species that exist at present. In no domestic animal have so many color phases been esegregated as in the domestic mouse. For this reason, and also because of their fecundity, mice are in great demand for research in questions of heredity. 38 DOMESTIC RATS AND MICE 39 It is in this fancy, too, that breeders, perhaps unwittingly, make the greatest use of Mendelian principles. Crosses are made, and brothers and sisters mated in expectation of the appearance of desired colors, not visible in the first gen- eration. Mouse fanciers do not prate of the evils of inbreed- ing, but consistently practise this method of securing colors not otherwise easily obtained. It is of interest to note that while rats and mice, par- ticularly the latter, have been produced in many color varieties, no changes of form or coat have appeared. The Waltzing Mouse is the only breed which shows other than color variation. Rats, perhaps because less extensively bred than mice, are seen in fewer color phases. The recent de- velopment of yellow and cream rats will be mentioned later on. ‘ Fancy Mice Mice, because of their smaller size and gentler nature, are more desirable as pets than rats. If at all accustomed to handling, as they should be, they rarely attempt to bite, and quickly become tame and confiding. In housing mice, it must be remembered that they are sensitive to cold, draught and dampness, all of which must be guarded against. It certainly is safest to keep mice in heated quarters during cold weather. At any rate, some warmth must be provided when the temperature drops to the freezing-point. Draught is avoided by using cages open on one side only. The casual keeper of a pair of pet mice will find most suitable a wooden case, say 12” x 8’ x6". This should have one side covered with one-quarter or one-eighth inch square- meshed wire, which will keep the occupants in, and also protect them from unwelcome relatives who may visit them. This also permits easy inspection of the pets by their owner. 40 MAMMALS A glass aquarium makes an excellent mouse cage. A wire top can be provided, which will serve as a door and also permit ventilation. It also has the added advantage of pro- viding an unbounded view of the inmates. Where mouse breeding is done on a large scale, cages of a somewhat different type are used. These usually are wired at the top, and are placed side by side on tiers of shelves. In the cages used in the New York Zoological Park, where great numbers of mice are produced yearly, the entire top is removable. This simplifies construction and makes care and cleaning an easy matter. These cages are about 15” x 10” x 4", and accommodate from one to a dozen mice each. In any event, at the back of the cage should be a small box, three or four inches in each dimension, with a small aper- ture, large enough for the passage of a mouse. This box should be removable to facilitate cleaning. Soft hay or straw, with small bits of paper, make the best bedding ma- terial for this secluded nest. Sawdust makes the best cov- ering for the floor of the cage, as the absorbent qualities of this material facilitate cleaning. If a medicated brand, such as Sanitas Sawdust, is used, any odor of the mice is overcome by the scent of pine. The average householder knows too well that almost anything in the way of food is acceptable to the common house mouse. While this might be equally true of his domesticated relatives, it will soon be found that an unre- stricted diet does not agree with the captives. Like all caged animals, mice must be fed with a cer- tain amount of discretion. Seed forms the principal food. Canary seed is the staple, but for a large number of pets is rather expensive, and may be supplemented with oats and millet. Sunflower, hemp and linseed are useful for nursing DOMESTIC RATS AND MICE 4I mothers, or mice which are out of condition, but are too fattening for general use. Bread and milk is an excellent food for mice, particularly mothers and newly weaned youngsters. Boiled rice and cereals are a welcome change, but must not be given too freely because of their fattening qualities. Such foods are best fed at night, when the mice are most active. All that remains should be removed in the morning, as it quickly sours. Small pieces of raw or boiled potatoes, carrots and simi- lar vegetables are relished by mice. Green food should be supplied in the form of lettuce, chickweed, dandelion, etc. Such food is of the greatest importance in keeping mice in health. Clean water should be in the cages at all times, even when soft and green foods are being fed abundantly. A pair of mice will do very well together, but many breeders make a point of running two does with each buck. When babies are expected, the does should be removed to separate cages. Here they should be furnished a secluded retreat, well provided with soft nesting material. A little extra food at this time is very beneficial. The period of gestation in mice is about twenty-one days. When the young finally appear, they should not be dis- turbed for a few days. Then they may be examined quietly. If a few mice are being kept merely as pets, or if certain lines of investigation are heing followed, the entire litter may be left. But if it is desired to improve the size and stamina of the strain, not more than four or five babies should be left with the mother. If the mice are of a marked variety, the poorer specimens can be detected at an early age and destroyed. Among selfs, the choice may be more difficult, but there are always some faults, however small, for which their possessor may be discarded. The little 42 MAMMALS mother cannot do justice to a too numerous offspring, and through her efforts may herself come to grief. Young mice are born blind and naked, but are not long before they are able to be out of the nest. They will soon begin feeding, and when four or five weeks old, the young bucks and does must be separated. The mother may now be returned to the buck, if she is in good condition. Mice are mature when about three months old, and should not be used for breeding until they have reached that age. They are short-lived creatures, and when they have passed two years are of little use. The caging of extra bucks is something of a problem. A litter of youngsters reared together will generally agree, although there is usually some quarreling. But adult bucks, if placed together, will fight fiercely, often resulting in the injury or even death of one of the combatants. The safest method is to introduce several to a cage at one time, when they will generally settle down, although the peace may often be broken. Adult does may be a bit quarrelsome on first acquaintance, but generally become good friends in a short time. Breeding mice is a diverting pursuit, and one who is in- terested in heredity can gain much by this means. More than thirty well-established varieties are known, and as the various characters which determine them seem easily segre- gated, there is no doubt that from time to time others will appear. All of these varieties are, of course, the descendants of the common house mouse (Mus musculus). This creature is very subject to variation, wild mice with spots on the forehead or belly being of frequent occurrence. The writer well remembers several handsome wild gray agouti mice caught by him when a small boy. These mice were silvery ao Poy pue q9ayig erg “UTM yeX] popooy-asuriO DI BUIZIE MA SJeX_ Pepooy-yoejg pue oy AA DOMESTIC RATS AND MICE 43 white, strongly ticked with black, a color which breeders seem to find very difficult to secure. These specimens were taken in an isolated locality, where domesticated mice had hardly been heard of, to say nothing of being kept, so there can be no question of their wild ancestry. It does not seem strange, therefore, that so many colors should have appeared under domestication. The many shades are inherent in the coats of wild mice, and only the skill of the breeder is required to separate them from ob- scuring influences. White mice are the most abundant and commonly kept variety, and probably represent the first important change from the parent form. The white race must have been established without much difficulty, and undoubtedly has been in existence for a great many years. The crossing of whites with wild grays has a tendency to separate the colors, and the varieties which appeared have been fixed by selec- tion. Like all fancy mice, whites should be large, with short, velvety coats. The color should be of the purest, with no tendency toward yellowness. The usual white mice have pink eyes, which should be very large. Within recent years a black-eyed variety has been intro- duced. These mice are not, of course, true albinos, but are simply the extreme of spotted mice, bred lighter and lighter until the pigment has been entirely eliminated, ex- cept from the eyes. They do not breed perfectly true, a large percentage of the young being more or less spotted. Black-eyed whites are not as yet well known in this country, but are becoming more popular. If the stamina of a strain of whites becomes effected, it is easily rebuilt by a cross with a colored mouse, preferably a black. The first young will no doubt be blacks, but if these brothers and sisters are bred together, one white in 44 MAMMALS every four youngsters may be expected. These are known as extracted whites, and if mated with whites, will never produce any other color. Of the colored mice, blacks are probably the best known. The color should be sound and dense throughout, and free from rustiness. Light feet and tails are the most common faults. Blues are merely diluted blacks, of a dark slate color. They should be free from brown shades, and in feet and tails are subject to the same weakness as the blacks. These two colors are commonly bred together, but once the strains ~ are firmly established, much better results, particularly with blues, can be obtained by keeping the colors pure. Yellow mice have been known variously as fawn, cinna- mon and orange, and of late have come to be described as red. This seems decidedly misleading, as the color of these mice is not at all the shade known as red in other animals, markedly in cavies. No matter what the name, the color certainly is one of the most attractive found in mice. When seen at its best, the red mouse is of a bright, rich orange-yellow, a shade not easy to secure. Chocolates are most frequently used in crossing with reds, the interchange of blood seeming to bene- fit both varieties. It is a curious fact that while all mice of advanced age tend to become fat, reds seem more inclined than other colors to take on flesh. The writer recently saw two red does of such an unbelievable size that he could hardly be- lieve they were mice at all. Careful dieting is necessary to keep good specimens of this color in presentable con- dition. Chocolates should be of the dark color the name implies. Much crossing with reds leads to the production of a lighter shade, and recourse to black blood is necessary. Once the ‘ DOMESTIC RATS AND MICE 45 dark color has been secured, it can be retained by close breeding from mice of the desired shade. Silvers are of a soft and pleasing shade, which at first glance might almost pass for white. There are both pink- eyed and black-eyed varieties. The latter seems to have been the first to appear, and it was not until after the pink- eyed form was produced that the color was obtained as wanted. : Silver-gray, silver-brown and silver-fawn mice have been produced, but do not appear to have been introduced into America. The silver-gray is really a blue-black mouse, heavily ticked with white hairs. Similarly, the two other varieties are brown and fawn, respectively, ticked as in rabbits of the same colors. If these mice could be pro- duced with any degree of certainty, they would be most attractive. Agoutis are bred in both golden and silver, or gray. The former is a reddish-brown color, ticked with black, while the gray should have a silvery ground. Agoutis have not yet reached a state of perfection which would commend them to the amateur. Sables vary from light to dark brown or nearly black above, shading off into light brown or tan on the sides and belly. The darker ones resemble black-and-tans, but do not have the same density of color. Although an ‘old variety, they are not extensively bred and are not well known here. Black-and-tan, blue-and-tan and chocolate-and-tan all are prettily colored mice. The first is the most generally bred, but all of the varieties are uncommon. These mice are either black, blue or chocolate, with rich tan markings, as seen in the Black-and-tan Rabbit. Sables are useful in producing and strengthening the tan varieties. Of colored-and-white mice there are several breeds. The 46 MAMMALS Dutch-marked is the most sought for, and well-marked specimens are not uncommon. As in other animals similarly marked, there is a circular patch at each side of the head, including the eye, ear and cheek. A larger mark begins behind the shoulders and covers the rear portion of the body, with the exception of the hind feet. The patches must be very clear and distinct, evenly placed, and with no intermixture of white or colored hairs. Most of the colors are seen, including sable, but black, chocolate and blue are more usual than the others. For some reason, the saddle patch of these mice is in- variably so narrow that it seems almost in danger of slipping off. Repeated attempts to increase the width of this mark- ing have not been very successful, but perhaps some day we shall see Dutch mice as well marked as Dutch rabbits. Haphazard breeding from patched mice will never accom- plish it. Even-marked mice, at least in part, are usually based on Dutch-marked. Their value consists in the even placing of small, well-balanced patches on a white ground. Most of those seen are simply Dutch, with one or more additional spots, although there are other variations. The broken-colored or patched mouse is white, with small, round colored markings. There should be no approach to the cheek patches and saddle of the Dutch. The spots must be well separated and distinct, and as numerous as possible, but there must be no brindling. In this country, this mouse is sometimes known as a variegated, but this is a totally distinct variety. In the true variegated mouse, the patches consist of white and colored hairs thoroughly intermixed, the very antithesis of what is wanted in the broken. The waltzing mouse represents the only variation which does not depend on color for its distinction. It is said to have been brought from Japan, but its real origin is lost in DOMESTIC RATS AND MICE 47 obscurity. The balancing apparatus of the inner ear of this mouse is imperfect, causing the animal to turn constantly in short circles. This defect is strongly fixed, and trans- mitted with regularity to the young. Waltzing mice generally are white with black spots, but chocolate- and red-spotted ones are occasionally seen. There is no doubt that other colors could be bred with little diffi- culty. The writer has seen second generation young bred from a cross with white mice that possessed the turning character.very strongly. Waltzing mice, perhaps from long and indiscriminate inbreeding, generally are weak and lacking in stamina. They are not so easily bred as other varieties, but their care in general is essentially the same. Fancy Rats For some obscure reason, domesticated rats appear to be more widely:distributed, as pets, than mice. During the writer’s boyhood, white rats were common enough, but white mice were unheard of: Although bred in great num- bers, for experimental and other purposes, there is little variety of color among rats. Until very recently, white, black and gray were the only ones known. But within the last two or three: years two very attractive colors— yellow or orange, and cream—have been perfected. The origin of these colors is of great interest, and will be con- sidered later on. The domestic varieties of rats are daseendsnes of the common brown or Norway rat (Mus norvegus). No doubt the older colors developed in the same manner as in mice, albinism being the first variation. Rats do not have the strong odor of mice, and for this reason, at least, are less objectionable. Also, they are less 48 MAMMALS quarrelsome in general, and bucks of about the same age may be run together in safety. The housing may be the same in principle as for mice. The cage should be larger, of course, say 12” x 12” x 18", as a minimum for a pair of rats. The mesh of the wire may be larger, either one-quarter or one-half inch. Sawdust is the best floor covering, and hay or straw, with a few bits of cloth or paper, the best bedding for the nest box. Unless regularly handled and kept very tame, rats are rather more inclined than mice to bite. For this reason, unless known to be perfectly gentle, rats should be handled by the tail only. Rats are somewhat coarser feeders than mice, but equal care is required as to their diet. Table scraps or greasy food should never, under any circumstances, be given. Oats should be the standard grain, with occasionally a little wheat and canary. Flax and hemp are useful during cold weather, or as an aid to animals low in condition. Green food and vegetables are a necessity. Mothers and youngsters should have bread and milk, at least during the critical periods. An occasional small, soft bone, free from grease, will fur- nish young rats amusement and much-needed bone-building material. Fresh water should always be at hand. Whites, of course, far outnumber all other varieties. They undoubtedly are the oldest form, and are well known where others are unheard of. Young specimens usually are pure white, but as they grow older the coat is likely to take on a yellowish tinge, particularly in bucks. Some- what darkened cages might be of service in avoiding this condition. Black rats are not so well known as whites. Just how they originated is not known, but they are now well estab- lished. The color is not dense, as in mice, but usually is of a brownish cast. Also, the feet are almost invariably DOMESTIC RATS AND MICE 49 white. Selective breeding, if persistently applied, un- doubtedly could remedy these faults. Only one type of broken-colored rat has been produced as yet. In this variety the head, neck and a stripe down the back are colored, the remainder of the body being white. Rats so marked are known as hooded, or Japanese. The hooded character is curiously persistent, and so far all attempts to use it in producing spotted rats have failed. No amount of crossing with white or self colors has resulted in any important change. For years the varieties mentioned were the only variants known among rats. In spite of the close resemblance in shade of the wild forms of rat and mouse, the color char- acters of the former do not separate so readily as do those of its smaller relative. But about 1912 the rat fancy of England was electrified by the appearance of two new colors—yellow or orange, and cream, of both self and hooded types. These appear to have arisen from two distinct sources, the basis of the new strain being, in each case, a wild-caught rat of yellowish tinge. These wild specimens seem not to have been of the pure color of their descendants, but after a few generations the shades were much improved. Self yellows and creams both are handsome varieties, but the hooded forms are really most attractive. A rich- colored, well-marked yellow hooded rat will prove a revela- tion to any, one who doubts that beauty can exist in the genus Mus. , CHAPTER VI SMALL WILD ANIMALS Except for the domesticated forms, mammals are not espe- cially popular as pets in this country. In England, on the other hand, interest in these creatures has spread to such an extent that the Amateur Menagerie Club, devoted to fur- thering the interests of this particular branch of pet-keeping, has recently been organized. The reasons for this difference in the public attitude are not easily set forth; but the fact remains that, with the exception of the commoner monkeys and a few others, small exotic mammals suitable for the amateur are not at all freely imported here. Such as do come are in demand among zoological gardens, and seldom are obtainable by private persons. Many of our own native animals, however, make engag- ing pets, and there is no great difficulty in securing speci- mens. It is generally best to obtain young creatures, which, if reared by hand, soon forget their native timidity and become perfectly tame. Even if very young, most mammals are easily reared on the bottle, if reasonable attention be given them. Mammals are more easily fed than birds, and since they are less active, generally are happy in comparatively small quarters. On the other hand, their cages must be strongly built, and are not so readily kept clean as are those of birds. No creature should be confined in a cage too small to allow it sufficient exercise. Most of our native species are quite hardy, and out-of-door cages, with suitable shelters, should be provided for them. 50 SMALL WILD ANIMALS 51 Monkeys Monkeys are practically the only small foreign animals which reach our market in any numbers. Specimens of the commoner sorts are always obtainable, but tame individuals, suitable for pets, are not abundant. Young, hand-reared monkeys are interesting and diverting creatures, but as they grow older are very likely to become bad-tempered. Adult males often are vicious, and are then very dangerous. The writer well remembers a large male Geoffrey Spider Monkey which was given him when collecting in Costa Rica. This animal had been a family pet for several years, but re- cently had become so ill-tempered that only the cook dared go near him. A suitable box having been prepared for his reception, his keeper was directed to lead him to our head- quarters. A series of shrieks heralded the coming of the “pet,” dragging on his chain, at the head of a procession of curious natives. Getting him into the box was a problem, for no one dared handle him and he threw off our light net with the greatest ease. He was finally drawn into the cage by running the free end of his chain through a hole drilled in the back. Once inside, he became perfectly quiet, and is still living in perfect contentment in the New York Zoological Park. Most species of monkeys are natives of warm climates, and cannot endure low temperatures. It is therefore neces- sary to provide heated quarters, at least during cold weather. If the animal is to be confined continually, the cage should be not less than four feet in each dimension, and, if pos- sible, should connect with an outside run for summer use. If plenty of light can be obtained, it is best to make the walls of the cage entirely tight, with only the front wired, thus preventing draughts, which are fatal to monkeys. The wire and cage structure must be strong, for even small ani- 52 MAMMALS mals will test it severely at times. If the monkey is par- ticularly tame, so that it may frequently be allowed its liberty, either under the supervision of its owner or con- trolled by a light collar and chain, its cage need not be so large. Some individuals like a sleeping-box, placed near the top of the cage. Strong branches and swings may be adjusted according to conditions. The floor should be covered with sawdust and a bunch of hay or straw placed in one corner for a bed. When first received, monkeys are not infrequently trou- bled with various external parasites. They may be freed from these by a bath in water containing creolin or some similar substance, after which they must be thoroughly dried. Insect powder sprinkled in the hair is also a good remedy. While the diet of monkeys in the wild state varies some- what, according to species, most are omnivorous in cap- tivity. Vegetables, raw or cooked, boiled rice, ripe fruit— such as bananas, oranges, sweet apples, etc.—stale bread and an occasional bit of well-cooked chicken will meet the needs of all. The food should be as varied as possible, and given two or three times daily. Over-feeding is to be avoided here, as in other groups. Most monkeys will drink fresh milk, to which a raw egg may be added now and then. Clean water should be provided at all times. The monkey which is most abundant in the American market is the Ruesus (Pithecus rhesus). This species belongs to the family Lastopycin#, which, according to Elliot,* includes all of the Old World monkeys, with the exception of the great man-like forms. It is the commonest monkey of India, ranging from the hot plains to a com- paratively high elevation in the Himalayan foothills. It is * Elliot, D. G.: A Review of the Primates, 1912, Vol. Il, p. 213. Opossam SMALL WILD ANIMALS 53 a rather large animal, light brown in color and with a com- paratively short tail. The males, which are very likely to to become fierce as they mature, are larger than the females. This is a hardy species, easily kept. Of the New World monkeys, most of which are char- acterized by the long, prehensile tail, the Capuchins or Sapajous are the most common in captivity. They belong to the family CeBip#, which includes all of the larger mon- keys of the Western Hemisphere. The Capuchins are active and easily kept, tame individuals being affectionate and amusing. Monkeys of this genus are seen more frequently than any others, in the possession of organ-grinders. One of the best known species is the WHITE-THROATED CAPU- CHIN, or “ RinctaiL” (Cebus hypoleucus). It is some- what larger than a cat, its head and throat being nearly white, the remainder grayish brown. The Marmosets, which form the family CaLLITRICHIDA, are found only in tropical America. There are a large num- ber of species, all characterized by their diminutive size and squirrel-like habits. Marmosets make attractive pets, but generally do not live long in captivity. It is essential that they be kept warm and dry, as such conditions are necessary if they are to remain in health. Ripe fruit, bread and milk, biscuits, vegetables, insects and an occasional young sparrow are the usual items of diet. The most freely imported species is the Common Marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), of Brazil. It is a tiny creature, light brown above and blackish below. The head is black, with long, white ear-tufts, while the tail is banded with black and white. The Opossum The Vireinta Opossum (Didelphis virginiana) belongs to the order MarsuPtIa.ia, the members of which are char- 54 MAMMALS acterized by the fact that the young are born at an incom- pletely developed stage and finish their early growth in a sac on the abdomen of the mother. When they finally emerge, the young opossums clamber to their mother’s back, holding themselves in position by wrapping their prehensile tails firmly around that of the parent. Opossums are typically tropical animals, South and Central America being the home of a large number of species of very diverse size. There is but one species in the United States, generally con- fined to the south, but not uncommon in the vicinity of New York. The opossum is a hardy creature and lives well in cap- tivity. It cannot be considered as a particularly desirable pet, since it is nocturnal in habits and lacks intelligence and friendliness of many other mammals. Its cage should in- clude a sleeping-box and suitable branches for climbing, at which it is very expert. The opossum’s jaws are power- ful and it can administer a severe bite. It is an omnivorous feeder, and will eat meat (which should be partly cooked), chicken heads, sparrows, pigeons, bread and bananas and berries. The diet which seems to suit it best is milk and raw eggs, with a little chopped meat added. Foxes The recent craze for breeding foxes for their fur has brought great popularity to the keeping of these animals in captivity. The fox breeders of Prince Edward Island have learned much concerning the needs of these animals, and have developed a great deal of skill in handling them. As a pet the fox does not shine. He is both smelly and tricky, really tame individuals being most uncommon. On the other hand, in a suitable enclosure, he lives well, and under proper conditions will breed. SMALL WILD ANIMALS 55 A fox run should be of size sufficient to give the animal plenty of space, and not merely a box with a wire front. The wire must be strong and small in mesh. It must be sunk in the ground to prevent digging under, and have an overhang so that the occupant cannot climb over. A shelter of some sort should be included. If it is found necessary to confine the fox in small quarters, the cage must be cleaned frequently or it will become unbearable. Foxes are chiefly carnivorous, of course, and meat, pref- erably partly cooked, should form the chief article of diet. Small animals and birds, vegetables and bread, complete the menu. The foxes belong to the family Canip#, of the order CARNIVORES, or meat-eaters. A great many species are found in various parts of the world, but only two are known in eastern North America. . The most common species of the East is the Rep Fox (Vulpes fulvus). The typical specimen is reddish-yellow, the tip of the tail and the underparts being white and the ears and feet marked with black. The Cross, Black and Silver Foxes are simply melanistic phases of the common form, and not, as commonly supposed, distinct species. The Raccoon Of North American mammals the raccoon is one of the most suitable for a pet. Wild-caught specimens are diffi- cult to tame, and are hardly worth while. But if taken while very young and carefully reared, the raccoon remains as gentle as a kitten. It is best confined by means of a collar and light chain, and should be kept well away from poultry, for which it has an insatiable appetite. If it is found necessary to confine the creature, the cage should be as large as possible and strongly constructed. If an out- 56 MAMMALS door run is planned, the wire should be sunk in the ground, either carried entirely over the top or an overhang ar- ranged. If a dead tree or branch can be included, the cap- tive will spend much of the daylight hours curled up in sleep among the limbs. The raccoon in captivity eats meat, fish, bread and vari- ous vegetables, which should not be excessive in quantity. Plenty of clean water should always be available, for the creature has a curious habit of washing all of its food be- fore eating. The Raccoon (Procyon lotor) belongs to the family PRocyonip&, and is closely allied to the bears. The hind feet are of the type known as plantigrade, since the entire foot, and not merely the toes, is used in walking, as in the bears. The typical species ranges over the eastern United States, as far west as Arizona and Montana. The Skunk Like the fox, the skunk is now being bred in some num- bers for its fur. The experimental stage, however, has still to be passed, and skunk farmers do not appear to have ob- tained the success of fox breeders. Although generally held in bad repute because of the undoubted efficiency of the liquid musk secreted by glands near the tail, the skunk nevertheless makes an interesting pet. Young individuals become very tame and docile, and seldom make use of their natural defense. It is always safest, however, to render the apparatus innocuous by cutting the ducts of the glands, thus making their discharge impossible. Skunks are not great climbers, but are powerful diggers; so if they are kept in an open enclosure, the fence must be run well into the ground, with an inward turn at the bot- tom. The wire must be strong and the mesh small. The Photograph by E. R, Sanborn Courtesy New York Zoological Society Albino Gray Squirrel SMALL WILD ANIMALS 57 skunk naturally sleeps in an underground burrow, and if a barrel, with a wooden shute attached, be sunk in the ground, it will take advantage of the retreat. Skunks are chiefly in- sectivorous, but in captivity will eat meat of all sorts, birds and small animals, frogs, fish, cereals, dog biscuit and vari- ous fruits and vegetables. The skunks belong to the family MusTELip&, which in- cludes the weasels, mink, wolverine, etc. Numerous species and subspecies are distributed throughout North and Central America. The form found in the northeastern United States is the Common SKUNK (Mephitis mephitis putida). There is much variability in the relation between black and white in the fur, those with full white dorsal stripes being of much less commercial value than those which are almost entirely black. There is no doubt of the possibility of establishing, by selection and careful breeding, a strain of skunks with the markings much reduced. The Woodchuck Although the woodchuck is one of our commonest mam- mals, it is seldom kept asa pet. The reason for this neglect is obscure, for, if caught when young, it has many endear- ing qualities. Adults when first captured are wild and vicious, and since they can bite severely, are not suited for pets. If the woodchuck is tame enough to be allowed its freedom at least part of the time, its cage need not be of large size. It is generally best, however, to arrange an outdoor run, in which the animal can live in comfort. It will be necessary either to cover the top or arrange an overhang and to run the wire well into the ground, with an inward twist at the bottom. A barrel should be sunk, with a drain pipe or wooden runway, to serve asa nest. Hay or other material 58 MAMMALS should be furnished for lining. During the winter months, the woodchuck will hibernate in its underground chamber, emerging quite unconcernedly in the spring. Woodchucks are vegetable feeders, and will thrive on a diet of fresh grass, clover, cabbage, lettuce, vegetables of all sorts and dry bread. Very young specimens may be fed at first on milk and boiled cereal. The Woopcuuck (Marmota monax) belongs to the Marmot family (Scrurip#), of the order of Rodents or Gnawers. It is found throughout the eastern United States as far west as Kansas, and is represented in other portions of the continent by various allied forms. Cases of melanism are not rare, and pure albinos are occasionally seen. Squirrels Squirrels are kept as pets more frequently than any other of our mammals, the combination of attractiveness and propinquity no doubt accounting for their popularity. Gray Squirrels, even when caught adult, sometimes become tame, but Red Squirrels and Chipmunks practically never do. With all species, it is much better to secure them when very young. Baby squirrels are not at all difficult to rear, and will take milk from a bottle with little urging. The usual wire cages, with wheels attached, are quite unsuited for such active creatures, giving them insufficient room for exercise. A much better plan is to build a large outdoor cage, similar to an aviary, of wire not more than half-inch mesh. This can be fitted up with branches and nesting logs, and will make an ideal home for a pair of squirrels. Gray and Flying Squirrels frequently breed in captivity, but Red Squirrels do so less often. Squirrels are chiefly vegetarian, but often stray from the narrow path, and indulge in eggs and young birds. In SMALL WILD ANIMALS 59 captivity the diet should consist of grain, nuts, vegetables, dry bread and an occasional bone with a little meat at- tached, or a raw egg. Before attempting to keep squirrels, one should become thoroughly familiar with the local game laws, since certain species are protected in many states. , The squirrels belong to the same family (ScrurmD#) as the woodchuck. A great many species are known, but only three are common in captivity. The one most frequently kept as a pet is the Gray SguirreL (Sciurus carolinensis), which ranges throughout eastern North America, from southern Canada to Florida. The typical form is gray above and white or brownish below. Black specimens are common in many parts of the country, and pure white ones are sometimes seen. These are simply melanistic and albinistic phases, of course, and not distinct species. The RED SgurrREL (Sciurus hudsonicus), divided into numerous subspecies, inhabits most of the northern part of North America. It is the smallest of the true squirrels and always recognizable by its reddish upper parts and white breast. Young Red Squirrels make excellent pets and will retain their attractive ways when they become adult. Older specimens, however, seldom if ever lose their wildness, and are better let alone. The diet of the Red Squirrel should contain more animal food than that of most other species. The NorTHERN FLYING SQUIRREL (Sciurus subrinus) is found, in some of its races, through northern North America. In the southern states two other distinct species occur, but all are essentially Flying Squirrels. Of all the squirrels, these are by far the most attractive, their soft fur, large, dark eyes and gentle manner setting them apart from the others. Their only drawback, however, is the fact that they are nocturnal in habit,:spending most of the 60 MAMMALS daylight hours curled up asleep in their nests. At night they are very active, scrambling about the cage like mice. Perhaps, more than with other squirrels, it is very necessary to provide a hollow log or other cavity for its nest. It is not unusual for the Flying Squirrel to breed in captivity and to rear its young successfully. This animal does not really fly, of course, but makes prodigious leaps, volplaning to safety by spreading the large flaps of skin which join the limbs on each side of the body. The Eastern CHIPMUNK (Tamias striatus), divided into several subspecies, is found in the eastern United States and southern Canada. It is essentially a ground-dweller and generally ascends trees only when hard pressed by an enemy. If exposed to cold during the winter, this species immediately begins hibernation, from which it does not emerge until the approach of spring. If kept in a heated room, however, it remains active throughout the year. Baby chipmunks make engaging pets, but if caught adult they seldom overcome their natural timidity. Throughout the western states there are a great number of species of chipmunks, many more beautiful than our eastern species, and just as desirable as pets. Wild Rabbits and Hares For some reason, most wild rabbits do not thrive in close confinement. Whether this is due to improper feeding or to some other cause is unknown. On the other hand, occa- sional individuals thrive exceedingly, so there is reason to believe that further investigation will bring better results. The wild rabbit or hare should be given as much space as possible, preferably out of doors. They do not climb, but dogs and cats are likely to enter, so it is safer to cover the entire top with wire netting. Hares do not burrow, so ‘ SMALL WILD ANIMALS 61 are not likely to escape in that manner, but for rabbits it is necessary to run the wire into the ground, or even cover the entire bottom of the cage. Our native species are indif- ferent to cold, but cannot endure damp quarters. Hares do not nest in holes, and so should be supplied with a shelter on the surface. Rabbits dwell in burrows, and a box or barrel may be sunk for them. The food should be of a vegetable nature, such as fresh grass, clover, cabbage, vegetables and bread. Water should be provided at all times. The rabbits and hares belong to the family LEPoripa, of ‘the same order as the woodchuck and the squirrel (GLIREs). The two groups are distinguished by the fact that hares have long ears and spend their lives above ground, while rab- bits have short ears and make their homes in burrows. The Varyinc Hare or SNowsHOE Raseit (Lepus amer- ‘ icanicus), of the extreme northeastern United States and Canada, isa typical hare, well known to the sportsman for its excellent running qualities. This hare is brown during the summer months, but at the aproach of winter assumes a white coat, presumably for protective reasons. Captivity does not seem to suit it, although there appears to be no good reason why it should not live. The Jack Rassit (Lepus texianus) is, of course, really a hare, and not a rabbit. Several closely allied species are found in various parts of western North America. The Jack Rabbit is characterized by a slim body and immense ears. If given proper treatment, this species does well in captivity, but some individuals appear to be less hardy than others. ; The Corron-TaiL or Gray Rassit (Lepus sylvaticus) is a true rabbit, nesting in burrows. It ranges from the northern portion of the United States to Central America. The Cotton-tail is readily distinguished by its small size, 62 MAMMALS short ears and white fluffy tail. Under suitable conditions, it does well in confinement and can be kept with little diffi- culty. No wild rabbit, however, even approximates the hardiness of domesticated forms, and if a pet is all that is desired, the latter certainly should be chosen. SECTION II BIRDS CHAPTER VII GENERAL CARE Most mammals, with the exception of the smaller sorts, are cultivated because of their economic value. Birds, on the other hand, usually are kept for their esthetic worth alone. It is true, of course, that the various domestic fowls form an important source of our food supply, but, aside from them, there is little reason for keeping birds but for the pleasure they bring. The song of the canary insures its constant existence in thousands of homes the world over; the imitative ability and quaint habits of the parrot make certain its continued popularity. Those birds which cannot divert us with their songs invariably possess decorative value, since all birds are beautiful. Birds in general are clean, free from offensive odors, gentle and easily housed. Properly cared for, most species will live in captivity for many years. The adverse condi- tions under which canaries frequently are kept, and their usually thriving appearance, attest the hardiness of the bird when its needs are even partially understood. The canary, to be sure, has been cage-bred for generations, and its re- quirements are of the simplest, but the great majority of wild birds become equally happy in captivity when their wants are fully grasped. There is some feeling among persons of supersensitive or sentimental temperament against the caging of wild birds. That it is wrong for certain of the most delicate species to be kept by the indiscriminating there can be no doubt. Some birds require care which every one has not 65 66 BIRDS the knowledge or ability to provide, and under such cir- cumstances bird-keeping is not to be encouraged. But to maintain that every caged bird is unhappy is a contention which cannot be supported. The brain of a bird is not developed to the point which has been reached by the higher mammals. Even they become perfectly contented in captivity when properly housed, so why should not the bird? There are no grounds for believing that the avian mind is concerned with matters other than those of its daily exist- ence. No one who has had personal experience with properly fed, correctly caged wild birds can doubt their contentment. Relieved from the problems of securing daily food, freed from the ever-present dangers which throng their feral lives, their lot certainly is not that of the oppressed. Such results, however, are dependent on the bird-keeper himself. No person should take upon himself the respon- sibility of caring for any living creature, unless he is thor- oughly familiar with the conditions which are necessary for its well-being. This rule applies to the keeping of horses and dogs, as well as to that of the most delicate birds, and its infractions are even more likely to be found in the first field than in the latter. Because of the alarming decrease in numbers of native American birds, laws prohibiting their capture became neces- sary. There can be no question of the justice of these restrictions, but to their passage must be attributed the lack of interest in avicultural matters, general in this country. The English, notable for their love of pets and the thor- oughness with which they pursue their hobby, support two societies and three periodicals exclusively devoted to the study of wild birds in captivity. A great volume of facts concerning nesting and other habits of birds has become known through the efforts of these enthusiasts, not to GENERAL CARE 67 mention the wonderful advances made in the technic of bird-keeping. This sort of thing is almost unknown and but little understood in America. The great field of scientific re- search and the simpler pleasures afforded by the com- panionship of birds are rendered inaccessible and difficult by lack of knowledge. That such conditions may not always exist is the earnest hope of the writer. Through extension of knowledge of practical bird-keep- ing, many species threatened with extinction may be saved. One very notable instance is that of the Wood Duck. This bird has long been known in Europe as an ornamental addi- tion to lakes and ponds. It is now bred in large numbers in Holland and Germany, and three-quarters of the captive Wood Ducks seen in America were reared in Europe. This is now one of the rarest of our native ducks, but propaga- tion of captive birds will save it from extinction. Work of this sort is now beginning to be done extensively in America, though principally with game birds. Sys- tematic attempts are being made to save the Ruffed Grouse and the Bobwhite. In the New York Zodlogical Park, Mourning Doves are now being reared in considerable numbers, and liberation of surplus birds has already taken place. In the following pages none but the commoner of the many species of cage birds is considered. Only those sorts which are readily obtainable in America, and which are hardy and easily kept in captivity, are mentioned. Space does not permit the detail necessary to fully describe the care of more unusual forms. Moreover, the keeping of the rarer birds, most of which are uncommon in captivity simply because they are difficult to cater to, should never be undertaken except by persons made competent by experi- ence, 68 BIRDS Few North American birds, for obvious reasons, are included. Every one should thoroughly familiarize himself with the bird laws of his own state, and regard them re- ligiously. In cases where state permits have been granted for the carrying on of special work with native species their care may easily be deduced from that described for closely related foreign forms. Cages and Aviaries Two methods of housing birds, the aviary and the indi- vidual cage, are in general use. The former is usually chosen by those who go in for collections, but the smaller cage is necessary for special cases, and is of course most commonly used by persons who keep only a bird or two. In the aviary birds may be expected to live and breed as well. Conditions may be made to approximate very closely those under which the bird lives in the wild state, and a really well-planned aviary leaves little to be desired as a bird home. The aviary may be of any dimensions, from the larger buildings and flying-cages which house large collections to single enclosures of wire netting. There are in America a growing number of private collections, some of which are magnificently housed. In such cases, the bird house should be well built of wood, brick or concrete, with the light supplief from ample skylights. These should be made to rise, thus furnishing the ventilation needed in hot weather. Ample walking space should be left for the at- tendant and for visitors, and the remainder divided into as many large flight-cages as permissible. These cages should be fitted with numerous branches, to serve as perches and hiding-places, and a few nest boxes as well, although much breeding seldom is done under such conditions. If GENERAL CARE 69 delicate birds are to be kept, provision must be made for artificial heat. Each cage must, of course, have arrangements for food and water. The former may be supplied in small dishes, which are removed and thoroughly cleaned daily. Many of the larger houses have a system of running water in each cage; but if this is not convenient, any shallow receptacle, sufficiently wide and preferably of enamel or agateware, will answer. For the bottom of the cage sand is the best covering. Each indoor cage should connect with an outdoor flight, the dimensions of which may be as liberal as space will allow. If the installation is of a permanent character, con- crete bases and angle iron are the most lasting. Otherwise wooden posts, covered with one of the many preservative fluids now on the market, will last for years. For the smaller birds all wire used should be of half-inch mesh. There are many types—diamond, hexagonal and square— the first-mentioned being the most desirable so far as shape of mesh is concerned. Larger birds, of course, are easily confined with wire of larger mesh, but rats, half grown, can easily pass through a space one inch square. It is much better, therefore, to use the finer netting throughout, and exclude rats as well as sparrows. Nothing larger than three-eighths inch will keep out mice, and these pests are the ever-present bane of the bird-keeper. Wire or concrete should be run well into the ground, to prevent rats and other marauders from digging under. If concrete bases are used, they should be run up for at least a foot above the ground. Otherwise, boarding should cover the lower part of the outer walls, at least to prevent dogs and other in- truders from alarming the inmates. The flights should contain as much natural vegetation as possible, and more may be added as occasion requires. The 7O BIRDS ground should be well sodded, and it may be well to make gravel zones along the walls, to prevent the formation of unsightly bare spaces. Evergreens, mountain laurels and rhododendrons make excellent cover. Privet and similar shrubs are hardy and grow well, while the many species of Spirzea add a touch of color early in the spring. Pampas grass, if there is room for it, is wonderfully decorative, and affords the best of shelter. For aviculture on a smaller scale, aviaries of almost any sort, so long as they are properly constructed, will do. Many birds are sufficiently hardy to winter out of doors without heat. It is always best, however, to attach to each flight a shelter of some sort, into which the birds may be driven in case of cold weather. Many bird-keepers make use of such cages during the summer months only, and re- move their pets to warmer quarters during the winter. Aviaries of the sorts described are suitable for birds of many kinds, including all of the small perching birds, par- rakeets, doves, quail, etc. The selection of cage-mates is a matter for careful consideration. If the aviaries are large, many species which will not agree in small quarters will live in happiness. Most of the smaller birds may be asso- ciated with safety, but many of the weavers are quarrel- some and not to be trusted with weaker species. When it comes to the larger forms, it is always best to be certain of the characteristics of the species and the temper of the individual before introducing it to mixed groups. Birds which are so quarrelsome or delicate that they are best kept alone will be noted in the following pages. If breeding is especially desired, seclusion is the keynote. The safest way is to let each pair have a separate aviary to itself. As this is often difficult, several pairs of different species may be kept together, if the flight is large enough to GENERAL CARE 71 furnish plenty of space for each. Plenty of thick cover should afford snuggeries for timid birds, and nest boxes should be hung about in likely positions. Nesting material, such as soft hay, horse hair, moss, leaves, feathers, etc., should be available. String and cotton are dangerous for such purposes, as the feet of parents or young may become entangled. When birds are expected to breed, the aviary should be entered as little as possible, and then by one person only. Dogs and cats must be prevented from alarming the inmates of the aviary, as a fright at this time may upset breeding ‘plans for the season. Cages are the usual homes of pet birds, space and con- ditions making their use necessary in most cases. While many birds undoubtedly do better at liberty in aviaries, it is equally true that a good number are much better off in smaller quarters. There are species whose food habits make them difficult to cater to, or which are uncommonly delicate as regards draught and dampness. There are all kinds of cages, and the selection of a suit- able one is not the simple matter it is commonly supposed to be. The open brass cages commonly sold are an abomi- nation from many points of view. They offer the inmate no protection from draught and fright, the brass is likely to become coated with poisonous verdigris, and artistically they are outrageous. It is unfortunate that the brass cage has become so popular in America, for it will be displaced with difficulty. Handsome wicker cages are now being offered by some of the more advanced shops, but the prices asked generally are excessive. While these cages are dangerously open, they excel the brass contraption in at least two points. The ideal bird-cage is of the box type. Such a cage is entirely enclosed, except on one side, which is furnished with 2 BIRDS wire bars. It may be handsomely enameled and delicately ornamented, or it may be the more plainly finished but serviceable sort known as a breeding-cage. The better grades of box-cages are difficult to obtain in America, al- though in Europe they are in common use. But the breed- ing-cage is ubiquitous, and is to be recommended when a more decorative one is not available. The box-cage is almost essential for the well-being of small cage birds, few but the canary becoming so inured to cage life that they can endure the open type. Delicate specimens are protected from the dangers of draughts, and troublesome nightly covering with a cloth is avoided. Two feet long by fifteen inches deep and high are the usual dimensions of the breeding-cage. It is roomy enough for one bird of fairly large size, such as a thrush, for a pair of canaries or similar birds, or for a mixed group of a half dozen or so small finches. Overcrowding is fatal and a frequent mistake with beginners. The perches should be small enough for the bird to grasp easily, and so placed as to allow room for flight. Excellent perches may be made of natural twigs, with the bark left on. These afford a grip for the bird’s feet and may save many a case of foot trouble. Sand is the proper covering for the cage bottom. White, clean sea-sand is the best sort. Shells and gravel are likely to injure the feet, and the common brown sand contains much clay, which soon dries and becomes pulverized to dust. This sand should be changed or at least brushed over daily, as it is important that the bottom of the cage be dry and clean. Foods According to the food they eat, the smaller cage birds are divided by aviculturists into two large groups—“ soft- GENERAL CARE 73 bills” and “ hard-bills.” Soft-bills are those of insectivor- ous or frugivorous habits, while hard-bills are the seed- eaters. The latter division includes the great tribe of finches, grosbeaks and buntings, the weavers, waxbills and grass finches and a few others. The feeding of these birds is of the simplest order. Canary seed is the chief item, with white and yellow millet of nearly equal importance. The former is eaten by every seed-eating bird and is the most valuable of foods, although it has a tendency to induce fat- ness. Millet is better adapted for the small waxbills and grass finches, which may have some difficulty in cracking harder seeds. Rape seed is an excellent addition, and is greatly in favor among the Germans. All seed-eaters will be benefited by the addition of small weed and grass seeds, an excellent grade of which is now on the market. Hemp and sunflower are eaten eagerly by grosbeaks and cardinals, but are rich in oils and must be given sparingly. Flax has no superior for weak or run- down birds, and oats are useful for such birds as are able to eat them. Parrots, of course, live chiefly on seeds. Sunflower, oats and a little canary will be found a very satisfactory mixture, although a few hemp seeds may be added now and then. The feeding of parrots will be discussed at more length later on. The soft-billed birds offer far greater problems, and it is here that the skill of the aviculturist receives its severest test. A compound of various ingredients, known as in- sectile mixture, mocking-bird food or simply soft food, is the principal item. This may be mixed as needed, or pur- chased in ready-to-use packages. The former course is recommended. The base is usually unsweetened biscuit or zweiback, known to be free from baking powder and other "4 BIRDS harmful ingredients. Many bird-keepers bake their own biscuit, but where large numbers of birds are kept this involves an amount of labor which generally is prohibitive. To the base is added egg, either preserved or freshly boiled. Many authorities are opposed to the use of free egg, feeling that its tendency to rapid decomposition and production of harmful bacteria is too dangerous. A large number of boiled eggs are used daily for the bird collections in the New York Zodlogical Park, and no evil effects have ever been noted. If strict cleanliness is observed, there is little fear of trouble. However, preserved egg in tins is to be obtained, or if biscuit is baked, egg can be included in mixing. A good quality of dried ox-heart or crissel, well scalded, may be added in the proportion of one part of meat to four parts of meal. Dried ants’ “eggs” and dried “ flies,” also scalded, should be mixed in, the quantity depending on the habits of the birds to be fed. Carrot, either grated raw or boiled, and put through a food-chopper, furnishes a desirable element. Cottage or pot cheese, made from sour milk, is undoubtedly a valuable food for all birds that will eat it. It is rich in proteids, and very helpful in the feeding of deli- cate, insectivorous species. Small bits of scraped beef, free from fat, are relished by many birds. Immersion for a few seconds in boiling water will be found greatly to reduce the laxative effect. It should never be given to small species, but larger birds will not be harmed by occasional treats, and for some it is a neces- sity. Raw meat is used too freely by many bird-keepers, whose troubles may often be traced to this source. Various dried fruits, preserved almonds, etc., are sometimes included in soft foods, but, after all, the system just described will meet the needs of most birds. Living insect food in some form is relished by many Courtesy Advanced Agricultural Publishing Co. Soemmering Pheasant GENERAL CARE 75 birds of both groups, although a certain few will touch nothing of the sort. Meal worms are the most common and convenient form. They are supplied by dealers, or are easily reared, if one has space to devote to their culture. Meal worms require dark but well-ventilated quarters, and an even temperature of 65° or 70°. A metal ash-can set away in an out-of-the-way corner will produce enough for a small aviary, but larger establishments find broad, low trays or boxes more convenient. The boxes should be half filled with fine meal, such as flour, middlings and a little bran, whole wheat finely ground being perhaps the best. With this should be mixed a quantity of rags and paper, to relieve the pressure of the meal. A quantity of meal worms must be secured and placed in the boxes. If they are regularly fed on dampened bread (soaked in stale beer, by preference), green foods and fresh vegetables, in due time the larve will metamorphose to sluggish black beetles. This usually occurs early in spring, but varying conditions may have a retarding effect. Care must be taken to remove surplus food before it can decompose, and to keep the boxes free from excessive heat or dampness. A short time after the beetles appear they deposit their eggs and promptly die. If all goes well, however, a myriad of tiny wriggling meal worms soon will be found in the meal. They must be well fed and will grow rapidly. When they are required for feeding, they are easily removed by running the meal through a small sieve. Of course, a few must be allowed to mature for a renewal of the supply. Other insects are equally valuable, but more difficult to obtain. Nothing is superior to the huge Oriental roach, which has gained a foothold in many places. Flies, spiders and certain caterpillars are eaten greedily, if they can be secured. Maggots or gentles are popular with some bird- keepers. If allowed to scour in bran or sand for at least 76 BIRDS two days, and then used in moderation, there is no reason why their feeding should be other than beneficial. If al- lowed to remain another day or two, they will turn into chrysalids, when they make a very good food. Fruit is the principal article of diet of many birds, such as tanagers, orioles and certain thrushes. Banana is the best and fortunately the cheapest. It should be ripe but firm and free from over-softness. In some cases it is best to cut it into small cubes, which may be swallowed entire, the only objection being that it quickly decomposes when in this condition. Other birds prefer the entire fruit, but some will get badly smeared about the head if it is given in this form. Oranges are good, but tangarines are better, as they are less acid. Grapes, especially the white sort, are very useful, and should be cut for most birds. Pears are excellent but laxative, and dried raisins and currants are eaten freely, but are likely to contain harmful preservatives. Native berries should be given when in season, but it must be borne in mind that they are strongly laxative in action. Green food is necessary for all birds that will eat it, and most will do so freely. Chickweed, watercress, dande- lion and flowering grasses all are good. In the winter months lettuce is generally obtainable, and will serve to tide the birds over until other greens are again available. Cuttlefish bone should be furnished all seed-eaters, and a lump of rock salt will be relished by many. The foregoing directions will serve for most species of the cage-bird group. Those whose care differs, or which need special attention, will be noted in due order. Diseases When properly kept or cared for, birds in captivity suffer from few diseases. It is only when they become run down GENERAL CARE 77 from neglect, or during the molting season, that they are likely to be attacked. . Birds respond readily to treatment, and slight ailments may frequently be relieved. On the other hand, when really seriously ill, medicines are of little avail. There is much charlatanry practised in such matters, many persons secur- ing their livelihood by claiming to be able to cure dis- eased birds, or by the sale of so-called curative preparations which are not of the slightest value. In treating a sick bird, a most important ally is heat. Sustained, even warmth, with entire protection from draught, will save many an ailing specimen. For the mild colds and diarrhceas to which cage birds are prone, nothing is better than a few drops of blackberry brandy in the drinking water. In cases of known constipa- tion, a mild dose of Epsom salts in the water, or a drop or two of castor oil, carefully administered, will bring relief. These are the standard remedies of the bird room, and when their use is no longer of avail the aviculturist may be prepared for trouble. Incorrect feeding is at the bottom of many cases of ill- ness. Seed-eaters are likely to become over-fat and soft- bills frequently become run down from lack of sufficient insect food. A reduction of food and a drop of oil in the first instance, and a few good meals of living insects in the latter, will work wonders. Many birds, canaries in particular, become affected with chronic asthma. Over-fat birds sometimes exhibit symp- toms simulating those of asthma, but these quickly dis- appear when treated as described above. True asthma is incurable by any means so far devised, though no avian affliction is more profitable to hucksters of cure-alls. Two ‘or three drops of glycerine in the drinking water, for sev- eral days in succession, followed by an upbuilding of the 78 BIRDS bird’s general condition, will cause temporary relief. Four or five drops of tincture of gentidh in the drinking water make an excellent tonic for such purposes. Roup is a disease\to which almost all birds are subject. It certainly is not common in cage birds, but game birds, doves and pigeons, hawks and owls are especially subject to it. The symptoms are the running of mucus from eyes and nostrils, frequently accompanied by swollen face and offensive odor. It is highly infectious, and unless affected specimens are especially valuable it is far better to destroy them at once and disinfect thoroughly. If an attempt is made to cure the bird, it should be removed to warm quar- ters and given the best of food. Eyes, nostrils and throat should be cleared frequently with creolin, potassium per- manganate, or lysol. If the face is swollen, the tip of a soft rubber ear syringe, filled with a weak solution of zinc sulphate or potassium permanganate, may be introduced into the cleft in the roof of the mouth or palate. If the syringe is directed forward, on alternate sides, and gently squeezed, the mucus obstructing the passages of eyes and nostrils may be forced out. Pills of quinine and capsicum are of excellent service in such cases. Many proprietary products, claimed to be very efficient, are in the market. Parrots are subject to colds, which affect the voice and sometimes cause discharge from eyes and nostrils. An ex- cellent remedy is to cover the cage carefully with a cloth and then introduce at the bottom a hot iron plate or coal shovel, on which two or three drops of carbolic acid have been placed. The bird should be allowed to inhale the fumes for three minutes, when the cloth may be removed. Two or three repetitions of this treatment will be found to have a most salutary effect. Tuberculosis is the bane of the pheasants and doves, and sometimes occurs in parrots and other groups. It has yet GENERAL CARE 79 to be identified in cage birds, so-called cases of tuberculosis generally being referable to bird fever. There is no cure known for this disease, and since it is highly contagious scrupulous care should be taken to prevent the introduction of infected birds. Bird fever and septic fever are responsible for the tre- mendous number of deaths which sometimes occur among freshly imported cage birds, particularly canaries. Two or three years ago the bird importers of New York suffered severe losses from an epidemic of this disease, which was rife among canaries. Each disease is caused by a specific bacillus. The symptoms in each case are similar—dullness, roughness of plumage and refusal of food—death usually. resulting in about a week. Post-mortem examination re- veals the presence of whitish nodules in the greatly enlarged liver and spleen in the case of bird fever, but not in septic fever. Both diseases are highly infectious, almost uniformly fatal, and suspected of being communicable to man. As no efficient treatment is known, affected birds should be de- stroyed and the most rigorous disinfection of the entire premises employed. Psittacosis is a bacterial disease peculiar to parrots. It is of common occurrence among freshly imported specimens, and accounts, in many cases, for the very high mortality sometimes experienced. Its presence is indicated by dull- ness, loss of appetite and a greenish diarrhea. It is ex- tremely contagious and generally fatal. A few cases are on record of its communication to man, a well-authenticated instance having been brought to the notice of the writer within the last few months. Little is to be done for the infected birds, and the most vigilant care in isolating freshly received specimens is the only safeguard against its intro- duction. Feather-plucking is hardly to be classed as a disease, but 80 BIRDS it resembles the most serious of the list in its obstinacy. The habit may be formed in a variety of ways, faulty feed- ing and overcrowding being responsible in the majority of cases. It is most noticeable among pheasants and their allies, certain jay-thrushes and the smaller finches. These birds generally practise on the plumage of their neighbors, and the only remedy is to remove the chief offenders. Parrots, however, more frequently destroy their own feathers, some individuals carrying the practice so far as to denude themselves of almost every feather, excepting those on their heads. The habit is difficult to eradicate, and only the most painstaking care can accomplish any good. Birds which have been fed meat, tea, coffee, candy, etc., are the most frequent offenders. A correction of the diet is the first step, and a few drops of fluid mag- nesia may be added to the water as an alterative. Spraying of the feathers with quassia has a deterrent effect in some cases. The bird should be given as much attention as pos- sible, and a companion secured for it, if possible. A piece of soft wood to play with may serve to divert its mind. If a cure is finally effected, the owner may consider himself fortunate, indeed, as such cases are few. Baldness is very prevalent among small birds, more par- ticularly canaries and waxbills. Many causes may con- tribute to this condition, generally faulty molting in the case of canaries and frequently persistent plucking among the waxbills. The following treatment has been found very efficacious by the writer: Supply the invalid with plenty of green food, and see that its seed is of a nourishing char- acter; linseed is excellent in such cases. Cover a five-cent piece with Epsom salts, dissolve it in a cup of water, and fill the drinker with this solution daily for a week. Then discontinue and add, instead, ten or twelve drops of lemon GENERAL CARE 81 juice for a few days in succession. This course will very often induce a healthy renewal of the plumage. Egg-binding is a very frequent source of trouble. It may be caused by an over-fat condition of the bird, absence of shell-forming grit or, in the case of birds in unheated quar- ters, by a sudden cold snap. Removal to a warm cage and the anointing of the vent with warm olive oil will generally cause oviposition. If it does not, careful exposure of the vent to steam will almost certainly bring about relief, but the bird must be protected from scalding. Sore feet are a common complaint. Dirty or unsuitable perches will often bring about such a condition, but many birds, no matter how well cared for, are troubled as old age comes on. The feet should be washed carefully in warm water, well dried and anointed with vaseline or some simi- lar dressing. Scaly leg, which is prevalent among game birds, is much more difficult to treat. Many prefer heroic measures, such as dipping the feet in kerosene, and good results are not uncommon. Five parts of white vaseline to one part of caraway oil, as recommended by the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station, is the best remedy known to the writer. Its persistent application with a stiff toothbrush will eventu- ally reach and destroy the parasites which cause the incrus- tation. Lice are seldom present in a well-ordered collection, and if new birds are isolated for a time there will be little trouble. The habit of covering cages with cloths at night is an excellent means for breeding lice, which find a lodging in the folds of the cloth. When their presence is suspected the occupants of the cage should be removed and thoroughly dusted with Persian insect powder. The cage should be washed with hot water containing some disinfectant, such as creolin; or if this is not practicable, it should be sprayed 82 BIRDS with one of the commercial insecticides. The perches should be wiped off with a rag dampened with kerosene oil. If this treatment is repeated once or twice, at intervals of a week, the pests will cease to trouble. Selecting Specimens In choosing birds many points are to be considered. A person of small experience who desires a bird simply for its song cannot do better than to decide on a Canary. Its needs are simple and little knowledge is required to meet them. If he is slightly more ambitious, one of the com- moner European finches—a Goldfinch, Linnet or Siskin— might be tried. They are the first step beyond the Canary. The Bullfinch is a delightful pet and easily kept if properly cared for. The small waxbills and grass finches have little song, and some are inclined to be delicate, but their beauty will compensate for the little trouble they make. The soft-billed birds entail somewhat more effort, but many are almost as hardy as the finches. The Red-billed Hill-tit (or ‘“ Japanese Robin”), the Shama Thrush, the Song Thrush and the European Blackbird all are easily kept, although the two latter are inclined to wildness unless thoroughly tamed. More ambitious collections should not be attempted until one has had some experience with a bird or two. If birds are to be grouped, the greatest care must be exercised in selecting the specimens to be kept together. The larger weavers, troupials, certain thrushes and all parrots and parrakeets are not to be trusted with smaller birds. Some birds are notorious murderers and these will be mentioned farther on. Ordinarily, experience must be the guide, for individuals of ordinarily quiet species are sometimes the worst offenders. It goes without saying that many birds - GENERAL CARE 83 that will get on perfectly in a large aviary will fight to the death in close quarters. Some aviculturists have had a prejudice against associat- ing seed-eaters and soft-bills in a single aviary. It is true that in a small cage this may be dangerous, as finches will often eat soft food and become unbelievably fat. But in ample quarters this trouble is not so prevalent, and the mem- bers of a mixed collection may generally be relied upon to choose their own food. Most of the bird and animal importing trade of this coun- try, exclusive of game birds, is in the hands of two or three New York firms with German connections. It is a much more serious undertaking than might be supposed, a well- organized force of travelers, collectors and caretakers being necessary, and prohibiting the participation of smaller con- cerns. During good weather and under favorable condi- tions large shipments are received weekly. These arrivals, chief of which, of course, are canaries, are displayed at the establishments of the importers and then selected by the smaller retail dealers. The prices at which these birds are sold are fairly uniform and well established, but those asked by the retailers who distribute them to the public are extremely variable. For instance, piping Bullfinches are wholesaled uniformly at $15 each and usually are bought by dealers simply on the word of the wholesaler, as these birds generally will not perform until they feel at home. After each has displayed his own particular degree of proficiency, the price is set at from $25 for the bird that knows but a single tune to as much as $200 for one which can deliver three or more. The higher prices, of course, are what might be termed “ fancy” and few care to pay them. The tyro should be on his guard, and should never pay what seems an exorbitant price until he has assured himself that he is not being fleeced. 84 BIRDS No bird should be purchased unless it seems to be in good condition. A few feathers missing or a slightly be- draggled appearance is of small moment, as if the bird is really in good health these defects are soon remedied. A thin, dull-eyed bird, no matter how fine its plumage, should never be taken. The determination of sex in some species is difficult. In many, of course, the male and female differ entirely in color, and in such cases any reliable dealer will assist the novice in making selections. In others there may be some insignificant distinguishing mark, and some are easily known by size. A few, however, are to be known only by the size and shape of the head and beak, an excellent character for making sure of the sex of difficult species. All newly purchased birds, no matter how healthy they may appear, should be isolated for a period ranging from a week to a month or more, until it is certain that they are free from disease and well accustomed to the feeding régime. Fresh birds, turned into a mixed collection without an opportunity to rest and become familiar with new foods, are very likely to perish miserably before getting properly oriented. Every aviary or bird room should have its regular quarantine room, where arrivals may be received and pre- pared for introduction to the collection. CHAPTER VIII PHEASANTS THE birds of this order (GALLIFoRMES) are of the greatest value to man, from an economic point of view. The domes- tic fowl, the guinea-fowl, the turkey, the pheasants and pea- fowl, the grouse, quail and partridges, all are included. Each holds an important place in our economy, and farmer, gourmand and sportsman are indebted to them for much. Many of the groups are pre-eminent as pets, or at least for ornamental purposes, while others, such as the grouse, do not thrive in captivity, except under special conditions. Only the hardier families will be considered here. Pheasants Pheasants * are known to every one—to milady, perhaps, by the drooping tail feathers with which she was once wont to adorn her hat; to the sportsman and farmer as the splendid game birds which are increasing so rapidly in our depleted coverts. In spite of this widespread general ac- quaintance, however, it is remarkable that comparatively few people are aware of the fact that there are nearly one -hundred species of pheasants, most of which thrive in cap- tivity with but little more attention than is required for domestic fowls. Even among many of those to whom some knowledge of these birds has brought the realization that there are other pheasants than the Ring-neck the idea is * Reprinted in part from an article by the author, published in The Field Illustrated, August 2, 1913. By permission of the Advanced Agricultural Pub. Co., Inc. 85 86 BIRDS prevalent that they are unduly delicate and difficult to keep in confinement. It is the writer’s hope that the following pages may serve in some degree to dispel this fallacy. In the care of pheasants in captivity, it is first necessary to note that there are two distinct methods of treatment. One of these, the rearing of game pheasants for stocking purposes, and also of certain of the more common of the so-called fancy species, is beginning to be pursued on a large scale in this country. This system requires almost unlimited space, which is the basis on which rests all hope of success in producing large numbers of any game bird. It is a subject of great interest and is now receiving the earnest attention of many able men. On the other hand, the very fact of its bigness excludes it from the field of this work. The bird-lover who keeps a pair of pheasants, or even a series of the more attractive species, cannot be entirely guided by the methods of game farmers ona large scale. His field forms another branch of aviculture, and to an attempt to aid him in this more in- tensive system the writer will confine himself. Housing and Feeding With a very few exceptions, the pheasants are extremely hardy and require no housing beyond shelter from the cold winds of winter and the beating sun of the summer months. For the first purpose, a low, simple shed, pref- erably of southern exposure and provided with suitable perches, is quite sufficient. So long as the biting wind and, more especially, dampness are carefully excluded, no artificial heat is required, for these birds are able to endure very low temperatures without discomfort. A large, well-drained run should be provided, well fur- nished with shrubs and bushes, a grassy portion being ed Courtesy Advanced Agricultural Publishing Co. Brown Eared Pheasant Silver Pheasant PHEASANTS 87 reserved to provide green food for the inmates. The top must be covered, of course, for pheasants are strong fliers and it is best not to clip their wings if propagation is de- sired. Care must be taken not to alarm the birds, especially at night, for they are exceedingly nervous and are apt to dart upward, only to wound themselves severely against the netting at the top of their aviary. For this reason, it is far safer to stretch a twine net about a foot below the wire, thus saving the pheasants from possibility of injury. The staple food of the adults should consist of the best of grain: wheat, buckwheat, barley, kaffir corn and a very little cracked corn. It may be noted, at this point, that Indian corn, doubtless because of its cheapness, is a staple food in this country. For generations farmers have used it for their poultry with apparent success, and the keepers of more delicate birds have very naturally adopted it. There can be no doubt that for sensitive species in confinement, unless very carefully handled, it is a pernicious article of diet. Its constant and unlimited use leads to the accumula- tion of unhealthy fat, and to enlarged livers, than which there can be no greater evil. Birds on free range, and even those more restricted, during the winter months, may endure or even benefit by a certain amount of this food, but its dangerous tendencies should be borne in mind when a feed- ing system is being devised. Breeding During the laying season, and just before it, the birds may have a mash composed of one of the numerous pheas- ant meals advertised, mixed with fine alfalfa meal and a small quantity of crissel or meat scrap. The whole mass should be dampened with scalding water sufficient to make it crumbly. Unless insects are abundant, chopped cooked 88 BIRDS meat should be given two or three times weekly throughout the year. Green food must be supplied regularly. Chick- weed, which is found universally, is the best for this pur- pose, but lettuce is an efficient substitute. If grass is given, it must be chopped into very short lengths, as long blades are likely to form an impaction after being swallowed. Of course, if the run is well grassed, this item may be omitted during the summer. Grit is essential, and the drinking water must be fresh and protected from the direct rays of the sun. Each species must be kept in a separate run, as the males are fierce fighters when confined together, at least when females are present. A number of males of the less pug- nacious species will live together in perfect harmony, but if hens are introduced during the mating season disaster is certain to follow. The birds are generally sold in pairs, but with many species it is safer to secure at least two females, as the males are very keen on persecuting their mates, often pursuing them viciously, and if more hens than one are present these attentions are likely to be divided. For the same reason, cock and hen should never be confined together in a small space. During shipment, each bird should be placed in a separate compartment, the top of which has been carefully padded. Although in the wild state, it is probable that most of the pheasants are monog- amous, in the case of the true pheasants of the Ring-neck group, and also the Golden and the Lady Amherst, the cocks will mate with from two to four hens. With most other species, including even the Silver, while several hens may be run with the cock, it will generally be found that but one will lay fertile eggs, although, of course, exceptions will occur. Most of the pheasants lay between late March and the middle of June, the exact dates varying with species, indi- PHEASANTS 89 viduals and climate. If plenty of low bushes are provided, the nest will generally be made in their shelter. Often, however, the eggs will be deposited promiscuously about the run and must be picked up at once, as many birds are confirmed egg-eaters. If the female will incubate, she can-. not be excelled for rearing the young, but im most cases she refuses to perform this function. It is customary, therefore, to remove the eggs and place them under a domestic hen. For this purpose a small bird should be chosen, preferably a Silkie, or a gentle bantam, as large hens will crush the fragile shells and trample under foot the tiny chicks. There is a very considerable difference in the incubation periods of pheasants, and this fact must be considered when mixed clutches are being set. Moreover, some variation in a single species is to be expected, broods of chicks of the same sort sometimes requiring two or three days to com- plete hatching. The following list gives the approximate time required : Goldensaisecasaswoscamewasee seaws oe de 21 to 22 days Lady Ambherst..................2005 22 to 23 days Ring-neck, Formosan, Japanese, etc. 22 to 24 days RUE oc oacte duyevunuatwas seeks Elliot ; 24 to 25 days ais BUT) oS Ate ors aietals cai e laalateaeteuierne Swinhoe 25) tO: Gays Fireback Tragopans} |... 0.0... e.eee eee apa } ddianaisteielaings 27 to 28 days Feared sie dais .cdic aidea Ha thawenranemenuwee 28 to 30 days When the chicks have hatched they may be placed with the hen in a small coop, just as domestic chicks are, with the exception that a small covered run of fine-meshed wire should be placed around it. This should be about two feet square for the first few days, for young pheasants are very wild and must become accustomed to the call notes of the 90 BIRDS foster-mother before they are to be trusted in a larger en- closure. It is an advantage, during this period, to place boards at the sides of the runs. If the chicks cannot see be- yond their little world, they have less desire to wander and soon become accustomed to confinement. If the birds are of the more valuable species, it is best to keep them always in a covered run, where their possible escape may be prevented. This is entirely against the pre- cepts of the modern game farmers, many of whom go so far as to say that pheasants cannot be reared in small quar- ters. This statement is not entirely true, for pheasants are reared yearly in the New York Zodlogical Park, under the supervision of the writer, in the most cramped runs imagin- able. The losses are almost nil, and stronger, healthier birds could not be reared in a ten-acre field. The important point with this method is that the runs must be portable, so that they may be removed frequently to fresh ground. If this rule be given faithful attention, and perfect cleanli- ness maintained, there is no reason why the backyard farmer should not be just as successful on a small scale as the game breeder who operates more extensively. Pheasant chicks have many enemies and protection from them must be carefully looked after. Cats are the worst of these, but are excluded by the wire, as are hawks and crows. ’ Rats come next, and are best guarded against by fastening the chicks in the coop at night, a practice which is perfectly feasible when only a few broods are being reared in movable runs. If the birds are kept in permanent quarters, rats may be guarded against by having the mesh of the wire so small as to prevent their passage, and sinking it in the ground for eighteen inches, with an outward twist at the bottom. The food of the young birds is more largely of an animal nature than that of young domestic chicks. The base may consist of any good pheasant meal, of which a number of PHEASANTS g! sorts are on the market. With this may be chopped boiled egg, fine crissel or meat meal and finely minced green food, such as chickweed, lettuce, watercress or chives. If none of these is available, fine alfalfa meal may be substituted. The whole mass should be dampened with scalding water until it will just hold together when squeezed in the hand. Insect food is very necessary for the more delicate species, and is supplied in the form of ants’ cocoons, commonly known as “eggs,” and maggots which have been cleaned in dry meal or sand for at least forty-eight hours. Recently there has been an outcry against the use of maggots for young pheasants, chiefly on the grounds that their production is offensive and that they are not essential to the growth of the chicks. This is no doubt true for pheasants on range, which are able to secure all the insect food they require But birds reared in confinement have no such opportunities and insect food of some sort must be provided. If maggots are reared in clean meat, carefully cleaned in bran for forty-eight hours, and scalded before being fed, there is no doubt that their moderate use is of the greatest assistance in rearing the young birds. On the other hand, maggots that have not been properly cleaned are dangerous, and may very probably prove fatal to the chicks which eat them. When the chicks are about six weeks old, a few small grains, such as millet and canary seed, may be added gradu- ally to their diet and slowly increased until the young birds, fully fledged, are fed practically as are the adults. The chicks should be fed, at first, at intervals of from two to three hours, all food uneaten being removed as soon as the birds stop feeding. The periods are lengthened slowly until grain fed twice daily is found quite sufficient. Shade is very essential to the young birds and is best pro- vided in the form of natural shrubbery. If this is not avail- able, small A-shaped shelters may be made of boards or 92 BIRDS burlap tents erected wherever convenient. The water must be fresh and always in the shade. This point is of great importance, and to its neglect may be traced many of the troubles of pheasant breeders. Many English game-keepers give their chicks no water at all, from their belief that its use would be fatal. This doubtful practice probably originated from unhappy experiences with sun-heated water, and is evidence of the necessity for avoiding such a condition. In any case, the water should be changed at frequent intervals, and if it is not certain that the receptacle will remain shaded, it is safer to remove it after the chicks have drunk. The Species of Pheasants The pheasant family (PHASIANIDZ) is a very large one, including the Old World quail and partridges, the pheasants proper, the peafowl and the jungle fowl, from which our domestic birds are derived. Although the distinction is purely arbitrary, only those birds which are commonly known as pheasants will be treated here. About ninety species of pheasants have been described, some thirty of which are more or less common in captivity ; most of these are generally to be seen in the New York Zoological Park. Many are to be obtained at comparatively ,low prices, ranging from six dollars per pair for the Eng- lish Ring-neck to fifty dollars each for the Impeyan. The best birds for the novice are those of the Ring-neck group (Phasianus), which includes about twenty forms. Most common of all pheasants in captivity is the English Ring-neck, the bird which has been used so extensively in game propagation work in the eastern United States. These pheasants are hybrids between the so-called ENGLIsH or BLACK-NECKED PHEASANT (P. colchicus), which was brought from Asia Minor at a very early date and preserved PHEASANTS 93 on European estates, and the Cuines— RING-NEcK (P. torquatus), introduced within comparatively recent times. These two have interbred so freely in game preserves as’ to eliminate completely pure-blooded birds of both forms. The pure English Pheasant, the male of which is character- ized by maroon rump and the black neck lacking a white collar, is now exceedingly rare, even in its eastern habitat. The Chinese Ring-neck, commonly confused with the very distinct Mongolian, is still abundant in China, and is fre- quently seen in captivity. In color it is lighter than the English Ring-neck and the white collar is usually much wider. This species has been introduced with great success in the Pacific states and has proven hardier than the hybrid. The male Moncotian Pueasant (P. mongolicus) is very dark in general coloration, somewhat resembling the English Pheasant, except that it has a white collar and white wing coverts. The female, on the contrary, is very pale, but is readily distinguished by her white eyes. A rather uncommon bird is the Formosan PHEASANT (P. formosanus), found only on the island from which it takes its name. This bird resembles the Chinese Ring- neck in general coloration but is still paler. The smallest species of the group is the JAPANESE or VERSICOLOR PHEASANT (P. versicolor). The general tone of the upper portion of the plumage is light slate, the entire breast being a brilliant green. The hen is much the darkest of the group. The Japanese Pheasant has been tried on English preserves, where it has crossed freely with the already mongrel stock. The only other pheasant found in Japan is the Sorm- MERING ot COPPER PHEASANT (P. semmeringii), which has been divided into three subforms, depending upon the amount of white in the lower back. This handsome bird is very uncommon in captivity, and generally commands a 94 BIRDS rather high price. Usually it is wild and intractable, but docile specimens are sometimes seen. It is of a different type of coloration from the other species of Phasianus, the feathers of the male being of a reddish cast, those of the upper parts being bordered with a brilliant band of copper and white. With the exception of the last named, the pheasants of the genus Phasianus interbreed promiscuously, and the ama- teur is not always certain as to the derivation of birds fur- nished by dealers. Most of the pheasants offered for sale in America are bred in captivity, often by men who them- selves are not entirely sure of the purity of their breeding stock. Therefore, the greatest care should be taken to in- vestigate the origin of newly purchased birds, to avoid the possibility of producing a flock of undesirable hybrids. By early systematists, the REEVES PHEASANT was in- cluded in the Ring-neck group, but later authors have given it a new name, Syrmaticus reevesi. The cock is a rather large bird, its general color being gold laced with black. Its tail, however, is its most remarkable feature. This ap- pendage grows to a great length, often reaching more than five feet. For this reason, roomy quarters are required to keep it in good condition. This species crosses readily with the Ring-neck and produces most handsome hybrids, which seem invariably sterile. The Reeves has been tried on Eng- lish shooting preserves, where it is much prized for its superb rocketing powers. Unfortunately, it is so pug- nacious in habit that it will not live amicably with the more docile Ring-necks, and this fact, with the sterility of the hybrids, has much reduced its former popularity in this respect. The GoLpEN (Chrysolophus pictus) and the Lapy Am- HERST PHEASANTS (C. amhersti@) are among the most brilliant of known pheasants, The Golden is the more PHEASANTS 95 gorgedus, the cock being characterized by bright yellow crest, flowing orange and black cape, green back and yellow rump, set off with a breast of dazzling red. He is an active bird, constantly spreading his scintillating ruff in display as he darts about. Unfortunately, it is next to impossible to secure birds without an infusion of Amherst blood, so readily do the species cross. The females are particularly confusing, even the pure ones being much alike. The legs of the Amherst, however, are dark greenish, while those of the Golden are yellow, and the eyes of the former are surrounded by a bare patch which is almost entirely absent in the Golden. The Lady Amherst cock is somewhat larger than the Golden, with a much longer tail, and his coloring, while of the same general pattern, is more subdued in tone. Most of the upper parts are metallic green edged with black. The crest is dark red, the spreading cape white tipped with black and the lower back pale yellow. The upper breast is green also, while the abdomen is white. Lady Ambherst and Golden males do not assume the full adult plumage until the second summer. The male hybrids between these two birds are most gor- geous creatures, showing every possible combination of the colors of the parent species. They are quite fertile and all degrees of blood may be obtained. Both of these species are desirable aviary birds and become very tame and confiding, and, in spite of their active habits, endure close confinement perhaps better than any other pheasants. The Goldens are particularly docile. Both are hardy and easily kept. Next to the Ring-neck, the Golden is the most common pheasant in captivity and is to be obtained at a comparatively low price. The Amherst, for some reason, is never so abundant, and its value is con- siderably greater. 06 BIRDS The Silver and Kalij Pheasants form a genus (Genneus) which includes a large number of handsome birds, many of them so closely allied as to make their identity difficult for the novice to determine. Of these birds, the most abundant in confinement is the SILVER (G. nycthemerus). After the Ring-neck and the Golden, this is the species most commonly seen in collections. The cock is a conspicuous bird, snowy white above, with black vermiculations and the crest and lower parts glossy blue-black. It breeds freely, the chicks are easily reared, and altogether it is a most satis- factory bird. Individuals often become exceedingly tame and may be allowed to run about the grounds. Unlike some smaller species, they are quite able to defend themselves against prowling cats, and no danger is to be apprehended from this source. Closely allied to the Silver is the LINEATED PHEASANT (G. lineatus). It is an uncommon bird, but occasionally to be had from dealers. It differs from the Silver in its somewhat smaller size, and in the relation of dark and light vermiculations in the upper parts, the result making it a much darker bird than its relative. The Kalij Pheasant cocks are black in general coloration, the species being differentiated by the distribution of white markings. The hens are all very much alike and only dis- tinguishable by careful comparison. The most common is the BLAcK-crEsTED Katty (G. leu- comelanus). The male is black throughout, the feathers of the lower back broadly tipped with white and those of the breast tinged with ashy. This pheasant is commonly sold as “ Melanotus.” The Metanotus or BLAcK-BACKED Kary (G. melano- tus) is a much rarer bird and lacks the white tips on the back. These two species are very commonly confused and much interbred, so that pure birds are difficult to obtain. Indian Peahen and Chick Photograph by Barbara Baron White Peacock Displaying (Property of Mr. Kenyon V. Painter) PHEASANTS 97 The handsomest of the Kalijes is the WHITE-CRESTED (G. albocristatus). The crest of the cock is very long and flowing, and pure white in color. He possesses, also, the white-tipped back and ashy breast. This is an uncommon bird, very seldom seen in collections. HorsFIELD’s or the BLACK-BREASTED Katiy (G. hors- fieldt) is the darkest in color, and probably the rarest of those which have reached civilization alive. The cock is glossy blue-black, the only white markings being those of the lower back. The SwinnHor Pueasant (G. swinhoei) seems to fall in this group, but is quite distinct from its congeners. It is not rare in confinement and is a most brilliant and pleasing bird. The general color of the cock is a metallic blackish-blue, with white crest and central tail feathers. The upper back is white also, with a bright patch of ma- roon at each side. The hen is mottled black and buff, with bare, red face, and is easily distinguished from all others. The Exttiot PHeasant (Calophasis ellioti) is a Chinese species, which is always obtainable from dealers. The cock is strikingly marked, the general coloration being rich, golden-brown, set off by white underparts and wing bars, and grayish-white neck. This bird does not seem as hardy as most others and is rather difficult to acclimatize, but once established is as long-lived as any. Curious little birds with superficial resemblances to the peacock are the Peacock Pueasants (Polyplectron). Al- though six species are known, but two have ever reached America alive, and only one of these, the Common (P. chin- quis), is usually to be had. The cock and hen are much alike, dark grayish in color, the feathers of the lower back, _ wing coverts and tail being ornamented with round ocelli or “eyes.” In the male these eyes are a brilliant green, but in 98 BIRDS the hen they are simply dark spots without iridescence. This is a rare species, but very long-lived once it is well estab- lished. It is much more difficult to breed than some others, but success has been attained by at least one American avicul- turist. The normal clutch consists of two eggs, but these are usually followed, after a short interval, by a second pair. The only pheasants in which the plumage of the male does not differ from that of the female are the Eared Pheasants (Crossoptilon). But one species of this genus, the BRowN EARED PHEASANT (C. manchuricum), has ever been alive in private hands. Both sexes are dark brown in color, with flowing white ear-tufts, the arched tail whitish tipped with black. Male and female may be distinguished by the spurs of the former. This species is generally to be obtained from dealers, but of late years it has become rather uncom- mon. Although the Manchurian is of a most quiet disposi- tion and thrives well in captivity, it is a difficult species to breed. A curious characteristic of birds of this species is a tendency to nibble at the tail feathers of their mates. A pair of birds kept in close confinement, without the variety offered by more free range, almost invariably develop this habit, which adds nothing to their good appearance. The FirE-BACK PHEASANTS are a compact group of eight species, found only in the Malay Peninsula and neighboring islands. As is indicated by their habitat, these birds require artificial heat if they are to do well during the winter. Moreover, all are high-priced and rare, so that, although of great beauty, they are not suitable birds for the novice. The most common species is the SIAMESE FIRE-BACK (Diar- digallus diardi), followed by the BoRNEAN and VIEILLOT’s Fire-pacxs (Lophura). The TRaGopaNs (Tragopan) are a group of pheasants distinguishable at a glance from the others. They have no PHEASANTS 99 ornamental plumage developments, even the tail being short and rounded. The face is bare and highly colored in the males of most of the species, and all have fleshy horns and a brilliant dewlap, which are exposed only during display before the female. The general color of the males is red or brown, interspersed with spots and mottlings of various shades, and reticulated with black. The females are all very much alike and difficult to distinguish. There are five species of Tragopans, three of which are not uncommon in captivity, although the price asked is al- ways high. These are Cabot, Temminck, and Satyr or Crimson, relatively abundant in the order named. Blyth’s and Black-headed Tragopans are seen very rarely, the latter never having been brought alive to America. All of these birds live well in confinement, requiring no artificial heat. They are largely fruit- and plant-eaters, and their diet in captivity should include soft fruits and berries, plenty of green food and occasional meals of boiled rice. They also differ from other pheasants in their selection of a site for the nest, which usually is built upon a deserted bird’s nest, at some distance from the ground. The male ImpEYAN PHEASANT (Lophophorus impe- yanus) is among the most wonderfully colored of living birds. The surface of the upper body feathers is provided with microscopical prisms, which reflect the light in a flood of iridescence that is difficult to describe. The head and spatulate crest are green, the neck bronze and the rest of the upper surface purple, with the exception of a white patch on the lower back, hidden by the folded wings. All of these colors have the brilliance of molten metal, scin- tillating with every movement of the bird. The hen is clothed modestly in mottled brown and black. Impeyans are hardy birds and easily catered for, but although generally to be obtained they are always expen- 100 BIRDS sive. They are very quiet, but, like the Manchurian, diffi- cult to breed, although young have been hatched repeatedly in this country and occasionally reared. The beak is strong and powerful and in constant use for digging in the soil of the enclosure. CHAPTER IX PEAFOWL, GUINEA-FOWL AND QUAIL Peafowl THE peafowl belong to the same family (PHASIANIDZ) as the pheasants, from which they differ in no important char- acters. Their most striking feature is the long train, which, by the way, is formed by the upper tail coverts and not by the tail proper. There are two species, the most common of which is the Inp1ian PEAFOWL (Pavo cristatus). ‘This bird is a native of India and Ceylon. Although accustomed to a tropical climate, its hardiness is truly remarkable, for no degree of cold seems to affect it. The writer has repeatedly seen birds, after a frosty night spent on a lofty bough, shake the heavy snow from their backs and scale smoothly to the ground, with as little concern as though the scene were the forests of Ceylon. Little provision, then, is necessary for the housing of pea- fowl. If they must be kept confined, the run should be as large as possible and well grassed, for these birds will not thrive in small quarters. Under such circumstances, it is better to have a shelter of some sort to cover the bird’s roosting-place. Peafowl are much better at liberty, and if possible should be allowed to enjoy it. If kept confined for a few days in a wire pen, a newly acquired pair may be let go, with rea- - sonable assurarice that they will not stray. Some individ- uals, however, are peculiarly persistent in this respect, and it may be necessary to let only the cock go at first, keep- ror 102 BIRDS ing the hen where he can see her, until he is satisfied with his surroundings. Dogs are the worst enemies of peafowl at large, and strange as it may seem they have little difficulty in approach- ing the birds. Stray dogs should be kept from grounds in which peafowl are at liberty. The loftiest bough or ridge-pole is not too high for these birds of Pan, and some such location will form the nightly perch. The peacock is very prone to the utterance of loud and unearthly shrieks, particularly at night, and for that reason should be encouraged to roost as far as possible from dwellings. The feeding described for pheasants is equally suitable for peafowl. A mixture of sound grains is the chief item, supplemented by occasional feeds of game food or mash. Chopped vegetables and abundant green food must be fur- nished when grass is not accessible to the birds. Table scraps are not suitable for any birds, with the possible ex- ception of barnyard chickens. The peafowl is polygamous and one cock may be kept with two or three hens. The birds do equally well in larger flocks, including several males, if there is room enough for the weaker birds to avoid the more pugnacious indi- viduals. The battles of peacocks are seldom sanguinary or of long duration, but the victor will cruelly persecute the vanquished if he has no means of escape. Peacocks must not be allowed access to poultry yards, for some are mur- derously inclined, and will play havoc among young chicks. Peahens usually lay in the early summer, the clutch varying from two eggs to six. Females do not breed until two years old. The period of incubation is about twenty- eight days. It is by far the best to let the mother rear her own brood. Domestic hens will not range far enough to allow the chicks to find the great number of insects they PEAFOWL, GUINEA-FOWL AND QUAIL 103 require, and will cease to hover them when they are a few weeks old. Peachicks require the mother’s warmth much longer than domestic chicks, and only the peahen is willing to provide it. If a substitute must be found, a quiet turkey is the most suitable. The hen and chicks should be allowed full liberty, con- finement being fatal. They may be tried with the foods recommended for young pheasants, but it will be found that insects they find for themselves attract them much more strongly than meal. The wings of peachicks are well developed when they leave the shell and they are very soon able to fly. They feather rapidly and the cocks may soon be distinguished from the hens by their larger size, longer crests and bluer necks. An advance toward the wonderful adornment of the adult male is made in each successive year, but it is not until the bird is three years old that the full plumage is at- tained. The young female shows little change, although the neck becomes somewhat greener. The feathers of the train are dropped late in June or early in July, and although their renewal commences at once, the growth is not complete until December or January. Several variations from the normal plumage of the Indian Peafowl have been established. The most attractive is the Wuite, and when clean and in good condition no bird is more beautiful. It requires ample space, however, to keep itself presentable, and even under the best of conditions is very likely to be more or less soiled. White Peafowl, like all albinos, breed true when mated together, but the young are not so easily reared as are those of colored birds. The Prep PEAFOWL is easily produced by crossing white and colored specimens. The most usual pattern is normal body and train, with white wings and particolored heads and neck. The females are frequently nearly white. 104 BIRDS The BLACK-wINGED or JAPAN PEAFOWL is now well known to represent a mutation from the common stock and not a distinct species. The cock differs from the typical bird in having the wing coverts iridescent black, instead of barred with white. The chicks are white when hatched. The cocks gradually become colored, but the females re- main mostly white. The JAVAN or GREEN PEAFOWL (Pavo muticus) is found in Burma, the Malay Peninsula and Java. In most re- spects it closely resembles the Indian Peafowl, but is easily distinguished by the green, scaled feathers of the neck, black wings and long, constricted crest, as contrasted with the fan-shaped ornament of its congener. The hen equals her lord in beauty, but lacks the train. Hens of this species are curiously rare, two cocks all too frequently being sold for a pair. This bird is less hardy than the Indian species, and can- not endure our winters without shelter. Otherwise its treat- ment does not differ from that of the common bird. The cocks are uniformly pugnacious, aifd may become really dangerous. Hybrids between the two species are not uncommon and usually share the characters of each parent. Guinea-fowl While the guinea-fowl are closely related to the pheasants and peafowl, and belong to the same order, they form a distinct family (Numipipz). About twenty-three species have been described, but only one, the Common or PEARL GuINnEa-FowL (Numida meleagris), has become thoroughly domesticated. All are natives of Africa, and are much pur- sued as game birds. In color and appearance the common sort are identical PEAFOWL, GUINEA-FOWL AND QUAIL _ 105 with the wild birds still to be found in Africa. No changes in form have occurred, but at least two color-varieties have appeared. The white is the best known and has long been established, although it is not abundant. The lavender is of more recent occurrence. It is a light gray in color, and as it is rather attractive, seems to be enjoying some popu- larity. Although believed to have been domesticated since very early times, the guinea-fowl still retains much of its native character and never has become so thoroughly satisfied with changed conditions as has the domestic fowl. If given its freedom, it will range far, with as little re- gard for domestic conventions as shown by the peafowl. Under such conditions, it is uncommonly hardy. In the New York Zoological Park, the guinea-fowl roost in the tallest trees the year round, and are undismayed even by the severest weather. a They seem to do best when kept in small flocks, in which the sexes are about even. There may be some quarrel- ing among the cocks, but this is of little consequence. The hens steal away in the early summer and make their nests in secluded spots, where they are found with difficulty. Frequently several females combine their interests in a single nest, which may contain a great number of eggs. Under such circumstances incubation is very much a mat- ter of chance, although the chicks which are hatched are certain of good care, for the entire flock unites in looking after their welfare. The period of incubation is twenty- eight days. As the chicks are easily reared by a domestic hen or in a brooder, it is best to collect the eggs as soon as the clutch seems completed. The young birds may be treated as pheasant chicks, and are equally or perhaps even more hardy. 106 BIRDS Since the recent prohibitions of the sale of game have come into effect, there has been an increasing demand for young guinea-fowl. These birds are well-flavored and gamey, and there is no doubt that a profitable business can be developed to supply this demand. Of the guinea-fowls closely related to the common species, the Mirrep (N. mitrata) and the Asyssin1an (N. ptilor- hyncha) are the only ones usually seen in captivity. No serious attempt has been made to domesticate either, for although they live well, they are less hardy than their con- gener. The chief differences lie in the shape and color of the head appendages, the body color being very similar in all. The CrestED GUINEA-FOWL (Guttera) has the head orna- mented with a full crest of soft, curling feathers, instead of a horny helmet. The best known species are the Black- collared (G. cristata) and the Curly-crested (G. pucherant). These birds seldom live for more than a few years under the conditions of confinement. They require a large amount of insect food, as well as fruit, and must be provided with heat during cold weather. As aviary birds, they are orna- mental and attractive. The handsomest of all the guinea-fowls is the VULTURINE (Acryllium vulturinum). This bird is somewhat larger than the other species. It has the head and upper neck entirely free of feathers and appendages, except for a small patch on the nape. The feathers of the neck and breast are elongated and pointed, with white centers and black and cobalt edgings. Those of the lower breast and abdomen are cobalt with black centers, and the sides have a shade of purple. Otherwise the plumage is much like that of the other guinea-fowl. While the Vulturine requires warmth in win- ter, it is much easier to care for than the crested species. It seems quite satisfied with grain and an occasional Sia 1 Vulturine Guinea-fowl Montezuma Quail PEAFOWL, GUINEA-FOWL AND QUAIL 107 tidbit, and is the most satisfactory of the rarer guinea- fowl. Quail The American quail are quite distinct from those of the Old World, and from their own family (ODoNToPHORIDZ). Most of the species are easily tamed and quite suitable for pets. As game birds they are much persecuted, and such as are accessible to gunners are yearly becoming less abun- dant. Their culture is now receiving the attention of game propagators, and as the work is still in the experimental stage the experience of the casual amateur may prove to be of the greatest value. Before attempting to keep quail of any species, one should become thoroughly familiar with the laws controlling: such matters in the state in which one lives. If captive quail are not permitted, it is generally possible to secure special permission, provided the work to be undertaken is of a seri- ous nature. More than sixty species and subspecies are known, and the care of all is similar, the only difference being in hardiness. The various forms of the Bobwhite and the California, Mountain and Gambel Quails are hardier than those which range farther south, these latter being unable to endure our winters without artificial heat. All feed chiefly on grain, such as wheat, buckwheat, bar- ley, kaffir corn, millet and canary seed. Cracked corn is no more desirable for these birds than for others. This grain food must be supplemented with a mash of some sort. The soft food described for small birds is excellent, and many of the commercial pheasant meals are quite satis- factory. Insects should be given when obtainable, and green food and grit should be supplied as described for pheasants. 108 BIRDS Although apparently the quietest and most peaceful of birds, quail become murderous at times. During the breed- ing season, the little cocks will fight fiercely if closely con- fined. At any time, a new individual added to a group is very likely to be maimed or killed, especially in small quar- ters. The writer has known two hen Bobwhites, one a cripple, to kill at once a cock introduced to their company. A number of birds placed together in new quarters will sel- dom quarrel, and young birds reared together will agree perfectly until spring approaches. At this time breeding birds should be separated into pairs, each of which has a small compartment to itself. Such pens may be 3’ x 6, or any other convenient size of similar dimensions. The mesh of the wire should be three-quarters inch or less, as sparrows are able to squeeze through any- thing larger. A board around the bottom adds to the seclu- sion of the birds. The run should cover ground well grown with grass and weeds, and in one corner should be placed a pile of brush, preferably evergreens. No shelter is neces- sary, the birds preferring to sleep on the ground. The greatest care must be taken not to disturb them at this time. Captive quail lay in early summer, or often when the season is well advanced. If not disturbed the hen will form a nest in the grass under the brush pile. In other cases the eggs may be deposited promiscuously about the en- closure. At any rate, they should be collected frequently, as production is thus stimulated. The greatest care must be observed not to alarm the birds when removing eggs. As many as one hundred eggs have been laid in one season by a hen Bobwhite, but thirty to forty eggs is the normal product. These birds seldom incubate their own eggs, but other species are less remiss on this point. Plumed, Curagao, Crested and California Quail have been reared by the PEAFOWL, GUINEA-FOWL AND QUAIL tog parents, in the New York Zodlogical Park, in very small quarters, and several others are also on record. Unless extreme egg production is desired, it is better to let the mother rear her own chicks, if she will. Where breeding is being undertaken on a larger scale, the eggs should be placed under bantams, preferably silkies or cochins with light leg feathering. Others are more quarrelsome and are likely to kill stray chicks of other broods. Bobwhite eggs hatch in twenty-three or twenty-four days and other species require about the same time. The chicks are exceedingly small and wild when first hatched, and all crevices through which they might escape must be carefully closed. After a day in the nest the brood may be removed to such a coop and run as described for young pheas- ants, but the wire mesh must not be larger than one-half inch. Quail may be reared entirely in such a run, if the brood is small and the coop is moved frequently. But large game breeders prefer the field method as used for pheasants, the chicks being allowed their liberty, while the foster-mother is kept confined. The feeding of young quail does not differ from that of young pheasants. The chicks are more delicate and re- quire somewhat more of animal food. Great difficulty was experienced by early experimenters, when the chicks were about half grown. At this time great numbers died, entire flocks being wiped out in a few days. This trouble now is well known to be due to overcrowding. If there is plenty of room, quail will thrive as well as pheasants, but overcrowding is fatal. The EastERN BoswHiTe (Colinus virginianus virgin- zanus) is the species most frequently seen in captivity. It covers the eastern half of the United States and has been introduced in many of the western states, where it has done 110 BIRDS very well. In Florida it is represented by a smaller, darker subspecies (C. v. foridanus). The Texan BoswHireE (C. v. texanus) is paler than the eastern bird, and less boldly marked with black and white. It is found from western Kansas to northern Mexico. Although the Texan Bob- white was freely used in the earlier experiments, better re- sults now are being obtained with the hardier northern birds. The Mountain QuaiL (Oreortyx pictus) is easily dis- tinguished from all others by the crest of long, straight plumes. They are rather difficult to sex, but the female has a shorter crest than her mate. The Cattrornia Quaiy (Lophortyx californicus) has a short, recurved crest, which inclines forward toward the beak. It resembles the GAMBEL QuaiL (L. gambeli), but the latter may be known by the absence of the scales at the side of the breast. The California Quail is a particularly easy species to breed, the hens being the best of mothers. This species has long been kept and bred in England as an aviary bird. Of the less hardy southern species, the MontTEzUMA Qual. (Cyrtonyx montezume), of Mexico, is one of the most attractive. It is larger than the Bobwhite. The male is a dark, mottled brown above, the sides of the breast being black, with numerous round, white spots. The head is strikingly marked with bold bands of black and white, with a broad, full crest of a tawny cast at the back. The female lacks the handsome markings of the male, and is dull colored throughout. Montezuma Quail are inclined to be quarrelsome after they become accustomed to their quarters, and it is seldom that more than a single pair can be kept together. They are not hardy, and require artificial heat in winter. The ScaLep Quait (Callipepla squamata) is light slate PEAFOWL, GUINEA-FOWL AND QUAIL © 111 color above and paler beneath, and the feathers of the neck and breast are narrowly edged with black, giving a scaled appearance. Both sexes carry a short, full crest of a lighter color, this ornament being better developed in the male. This bird has been the subject of several attempts at acclimatization in the north. Naturally these have been uniform failures, as this species is not hardy. It is quiet in disposition, and breeds freely in confinement. With the great host of modified Bobwhites, Crested Quails and Tree Partridges found through Mexico, and Central and South America, the novice is likely to have little experi- ence. These birds are seldom to be had, and even public institutions find difficulty in obtaining specimens. CHAPTER X WILD PIGEONS AND DOVES Tue wild pigeons and doves (CoLUMBIFORMES), of which in the world there are more than six hundred and fifty species, take kindly to captivity. The majority are grain- eaters, and there is no difficulty in meeting their wants, the Old World Fruit Pigeons offering the only exception. The present interest in game propagation has been concerned chiefly with the gallinaceous birds, but the Columbiformes are worthy of attention. The Passenger Pigeon, now lost forever, throve in captivity, and at least one experimenter, Prof. O. C. Whitman, bred it freely. Had a more seri- ous effort been made, there is no reason to doubt that this magnificent species could have been preserved. Doves do best in aviaries of good size, properly stocked with plants and shrubs. Under such conditions they will live for many years and most species will breed freely. Con- trary to the commonly accepted belief, most doves are very quarrelsome, and a mixed collection is constantly in a state of turmoil. Individual cocks become exceedingly aggres- sive, so that it may be impossible to keep with them other birds of the same sex. This is not true of all species, of course, the Mourning Dove, for instance, being extremely friendly. Many species are very hardy, others require warmth in winter. The amateur may easily decide for himself on this point by merely determining the range of new acquisitions. The native North American species, as the Mourning Dove and Band-tailed Pigeon, are impervious to cold. Most of the Australian species are equally hardy. Those from 112 WILD PIGEONS AND DOVES 113 Mexico and South America cannot endure cold, except those from,Argentina and farther south, which are as immune as those of the north. Practically all of the African species require heat, as do most of the Asiatic ones, but those from mountainous regions are less sensitive. The best food for doves is small grains, such as wheat, barley, kaffir corn, millet and canary. Hemp and flax are eaten greedily, but because of their heating and fattening qualities should be given‘only occasionally as a treat. Small, sharp grit is essential and green food must be furnished frequently. Doves like to bathe, and it is therefore best to furnish their drinking water in a small fountain, pro- viding for frequent baths in a larger, open vessel. All are fond of salt, and a piece of rock salt should be placed in the aviary. All of the doves are strictly monogamous. The nests of most species are flimsy affairs, built of a few small twigs laid loosely together. Generally they will take advantage of small, open boxes if placed in secluded spots in the aviary. It is best, if possible, to place a shelter-board over the box, but some birds will not enter a nest with covered top. Doves and pigeons usually lay two eggs, the larger species sometimes but one. Cock and hen alternate in incubation, which lasts in most cases two weeks or a little longer. The young are fed entirely by the parents, with well-digested food at first, later with freshly eaten grain. The squabs are remarkably precocious, and are out of the nest and about before young domestic pigeons are properly feathered. Tame Barbary Turtle Doves are invaluable as foster-parents for rarer species, and even domestic pigeons may be utilized. The native species are of the greatest interest to American aviculturists. It should be borne in mind, however, that in most states the keeping of these birds in captivity is pro- hibited by law. The facts must be ascertained and abided by. 114 BIRDS The Mourninc Dove (Zenaida macroura carolinensis) is the most abundant species of the East. It is half the size of a common domestic pigeon, with long, pointed tail. It is a warm brown above and paler below, with two black spots on the cheeks, several small ones on the wings and a beautiful iridescence on the neck. Males are readily dis- tinguished by the more reddish cast of neck and chest and their considerably larger size. This dove is rapidly decreasing in numbers, only its soli- tary habits saving it from the fate of the Passenger Pigeon. It breeds freely in captivity, and efforts are being made to preserve it by this means. The New York Zodlogical So- ciety possesses a good-sized flock, a number of young being reared yearly. The Banp-TAILED PicEon (Columba fasciata) and the RED-BILLED PicEon (C. flavirostris) are the only large pigeons now found on our mainland. The former ranges through much of western North America, while the latter is found only from the Rio Grande Valley to Central America. The Band-tailed is a superb bird, one of the finest of all pigeons. It does well in confinement, and a cock bird which lived for many,years in the New York Zo- ological Park reared numerous hybrids with various domes- tic pigeons. There is no reason why it should not be bred without difficulty. The Red-billed Pigeon is a favorite with the Mexicans, and the young are frequently hand-reared for pets. Such birds are extraordinarily tame and confiding. A pair in the possession of Mr. Kenyon V. Painter successfully reared a number of young, and no doubt the species could easily be propagated. The WHITE-wINGED Dove (Melopelia asiatica) tanges from our southwestern states to Florida and West Indies, It is pale brown above, with white wing edges and pale Common and Victoria Crowned Pigeons WILD PIGEONS AND DOVES 115 blue skin about the eyes. It is sensitive to cold, but if kept warm in winter lives very well. Young were reared in the New York Zodlogical Park in 1914. The Grounp Dove (Chemepelia passerina terrestris) is the smallest of our doves. It is a familiar bird in the south- ern states, where it is abundant among the grain fields and stubble. It is long-lived but exceedingly quarrelsome in cap- tivity. There are records of its having bred in captivity in this country, and the feat has many times been accom- plished in European aviaries. Of South American species, the Quail Doves are the most interesting, although they are seldom to be obtained. The only species which is at all common is the Ruppy or Mountain (Geotrygon montana), which has a very wide distribution in Mexico, South America and the West In- dies. It is gentle and quiet by nature, and is likely to be bullied by more active birds. It is almost entirely terrestrial in habit, seldom leaving the ground. This is one of the few birds of the order in which the sexes are differently colored, the cock being a rich light chestnut, while the hen is dull brown. The most striking of the Old World species is the BLEED- ING-HEART Piceon (Phlogenas luzonica), from the island of Luzon, in the Philippines. It is a bird of medium size, with well-developed legs, suited to its ground-haunting habits. Above it is bluish, with dark wing bars. The breast is white, and bears in its center the deep crimson patch from which it takes its name. The center of this stain is of a darker shade, and the feathers here are thick and stiff, perfecting one of the most remarkable effects known among birds. The Bleeding-heart Pigeon lives well in captivity, being bright and active. It is inclined to be aggressive, two cocks seldom agreeing. It has been bred on many occasions, 116 BIRDS Australia boasts a great series of desirable aviary doves. Chief among these are the AUSTRALIAN CRESTED DOVES (Ocyphaps lophotes) and the BRoNzE-wiINGED PIGEON (Phaps chalcoptera). Both are handsome birds, with bril- liantly iridescent wing coverts. The Crested Dove is fur- ther decorated with a long, pointed tuft of feathers on the head. Both species are very easily bred, and are hardy enough to endure our winters without heat, if properly sheltered. The Diamonp Dove (Geopelia cuneata) is the smallest of the Australian species, being about the size of our own Ground Dove. It is a soft gray in general color, with tiny round, white spots on the wing coverts. It breeds freely and is a most attractive bird for the aviary. Of the African species, the SENEGAL Dove (Stigmato- pelia senegalensis) is the most common in captivity. It is a soft vinous-gray in general color, with a broken, black- ish collar about the neck. Curiously enough, while this bird is well known to be perfectly hardy in England, in this country it seems to be unable to endure the slightest cold. The only dove, with the notable exception of the Rock Dove, which has become domesticated is the BARBARY TurTLE or RinG Dove (Streptopelia risoria). This is the commonest dove in captivity, and is well known as a creamy- brown bird, with a black nuchal collar. It has been so long in captivity that its ancestry has been lost,* but it has pre- sented none of the variations peculiar to domestic creatures, with the exception of the albinistic form. It is the most suitable of all doves for the tyro and makes *Dr. Ernst Hartert (Novitates Zoologice, Vol. XXIII, No. 1, 1916, p. 78) advances evidence to prove that S. roseogrisea of north- eastern Africa and Arabia is the species from which the Barbary or Blond Turtle Dove was originated. WILD PIGEONS AND DOVES 117 a perfect pet. If gently treated, it becomes absolutely tame, allowing itself to be fondled with the utmost abandon. It breeds readily in the smallest of cages, rearing an all-too- numerous progeny. A kind-hearted woman recently un- burdened herself by presenting to the New York Zoological ‘Park seventeen young Barbary Doves, the offspring of a single pair of pet birds! This species is indifferent to cold, and will live out of doors in winter. It may be given its liberty under proper conditions and will return nightly to its home, or establish itself in the grounds. The Barbary Dove has numerous wild relatives in Africa and Asia. Many closely resemble the domestic bird, but all are considerably darker in color. The Crowned Pigeons are the giants of the family. Eight species, all from New Guinea, are known, but only two, the GREAT CROWNED PicEON (Goura coronata) and the Vic- TORIA (G. victoria), are generally seen in captivity. Both are large birds, the size of a small turkey, and bluish-drab in general color. The Great has purplish-brown across the back and wing coverts, and the Victoria has the same shade on the fore neck and throat. All of the species are orna- mented with a long, vertical crest, which is full-webbed in the Great and has spatulate tips in the Victoria. These feathers were the “ Gouras” of milliners, until a merciful law stopped the traffic. Crowned Pigeons are long-lived birds in captivity. Their food consists of the smaller grains, with an occasional meal of game food or soft food. They are fond of bananas and also meal worms. Although they are perfectly contented in small quarters, they are naturally at their best in a large aviary, but require heated quarters in winter. The Great Crowned Pigeon has been bred in England on several occasions, but not, as yet, in America. Both species, 118 BIRDS while gentle and quiet in surroundings to which they are accustomed, are likely to be nervous and panicky if moved. They are difficult birds to handle, and must be caught with the greatest care. CHAPTER XI CRANES * Amonc the many groups of birds possessing ornate quali- ties, few are so hardy in captivity, or thrive with such meager care, as that formed by the cranes. It is true that the orna- mental value of these birds is not, as yet, fully recognized in America, although they are kept extensively on European estates; still, large numbers of cranes are brought to this country annually, and there is no doubt that their popularity is steadily increasing. Captive cranes are, perhaps, of greatest interest when enjoying their liberty on an extensive range; but the avi- culturist who is truly interested in them may wish to con- fine his specimens where they can be kept under closer observation. For this purpose a plot of ground of good size should be selected, and enclosed by a fence which need not exceed five feet in height. The Crane Paddock in the New York Zoological Park is so nearly an ideal home for most of the members of the Society’s excellent collection, that a description of it may be of interest. The paddock is about 150 feet square, and is surrounded by an ornamental fence, averaging four feet in height. While most of the inmates are pinioned, they can leap this fence easily when alarmed, although they never attempt to do so under ordinary circumstances. The enclosure is well carpeted with grass, which is kept closely cropped during the summer months. A number of large shade trees are included within its limits, besides several clumps of shrubs, * Reproduced from the Zodlogical Society Bulletin, No. 43, January, 1911, By permission of the New York Zodlogical Society. 119 120 BIRDS which afford seclusion to any birds which desire it. One of the most valuable features, however, is a little stream that traverses the entire length of the paddock. The birds derive an infinite amount of pleasure from wading and probing about in the little pools, and the effect produced is certainly most pleasing to onlookers. A small shed is provided for use during severe weather, although it is seldom entered. Few birds require so little attention as the cranes. Their chief food is grain, but occasional mice, frogs, fish or chopped meat are always appreciated and become a necessity during cold weather. Most of the species are perfectly hardy, provided healthy specimens are secured. If acquired in the spring and given an opportunity for becoming ac- climated, they will live in the open through the winter, happily and well, requiring only that they receive their food and water regularly. Some protection from wind should be provided, of course; and it is well to place within the enclosure a small shed, although it is safe to say that the birds will use it rarely, unless driven in. A surprising assiduity in the search for worms and tender roots is a failing which may become serious, and result, especially after rain, in the uprooting of patches of turf. Generally this can be checked effectively either by confining the birds for a short time following showers, or by cover- ing their favorite feeding-grounds with small branches. The greatest difficulty in the maintenance of a large col- lection of cranes is found in the erratic disposition of the birds. A number may live together for months in perfect harmony; but just as the collector begins to congratulate himself on their good behavior, one may be found with an eye missing or with its skull pierced! It really is not safe to associate the larger and smaller species in a permanent group, unless the enclosure be very large or the number of birds very small. Great care must be taken in introducing CRANES 121 strange birds to a flock already well settled. The new- comers are certain to be subjected to a more or less harrow- ing inspection by the original inmates, who consider them as nothing more than intruders. The strangers will be persistently driven from pillar to post for some days, and will be fortunate indeed if they escape without some injury. The safest way to establish a crane family is to place all the intended members in the enclosure at the same time; then none can use the prestige of previous occupancy as an excuse for tyranny. Brought together in this abrupt man- ner, the birds will soon learn to tolerate each other. The order GRUIFORMES includes, besides the true cranes, six groups of remarkable birds, such as the sun-bittern, the kagu and the seriema, which have been assigned to this order in lieu of a better place. Their structures are con- fusing, and their relationships obscure. The birds with which we are to deal here are divided into nineteen species, which form the suborder Grues, and are cosmopolitan, with the exception that none is found in South America. Asia is particularly fortunate in being the home of seven species. Some of these birds are fairly easy to obtain alive; but most of them are far from common in captivity, and a few are seen rarely, if ever. The SANDHILL CRANE (G. mexicana) still is fairly com- mon on the plains of western North America, where there is little cover to shelter skulking enemies. This is the most numerous of our cranes and therefore the best known. It is rather small, as compared with most of its relatives, its length being about forty-six inches; its color is a uniform slaty gray, with the bare skin of the crown reddish. In captivity this crane becomes delightfully tame, and is very hardy and long-lived. This species nested in the New York Zoological Park in 1904 and 1905, but the eggs proved in- fertile on both occasions. 122 BIRDS The LittLeE Brown Crane (G. canadensis) is a very close relative of the Sandhill, and is distinguished by its smaller size and shorter tarsus. It breeds through Arctic America and Siberia, migrating to the western United States and Mexico for the winter. The inaccessibility of its habitat explains its long confusion with the Sandhill, and also ac- counts for its scarcity in captivity. The third and rarest of the American Grues is the beauti- ful WHooPING CRANE (G. americana). It is pure white in general color, but the primaries are black and the bare por- tions of the head are reddish, bordered posteriorly by a patch of blackish feathers. The secondaries are curved downward and arch gracefully over the tail. No doubt the great scarcity of this bird is due, in part, to reckless shooting, but it seems probable that the invasion of settlers into its breed- ing-grounds in the great middle territories of Canada, and the increasing cultivation along its migration route through the Mississippi Valley, are hastening the inevitable extermi- nation of this finest of American birds. The numerical con- dition of a species in the wild state generally bears an exact ratio to the frequency with which it is met in confinement; it is probable that the number of Whoopers in captivity could be counted on the fingers of one hand. It is unfortu- nate that this splendid crane cannot be induced to follow the example of the wood duck, which is willing to save itself from extermination by breeding freely in captivity. The MANCHURIAN CRANE (G. japonensis) is one of the most strikingly handsome of all the group. It is very un- common in captivity. Its general color is white, as in the Whooper, but in this case the arched and pointed secondaries are black and the primaries white. A slaty-black band extends down each side of the neck, the two joining on the nape. The bird measures about fifty inches from tip to tip when fully extended. It ranges from eastern Siberia to Demoiselle Cranes and Young (Property of Mr. Percy Warner) CRANES 123 Corea and Japan; in the last-named island it was formerly held sacred and was allowed to be hawked by the nobles only. The cranes depicted on Japanese screens are usually of this species. Next in systematic order comes the Asiatic White Crane (Sarcogeranus leucogeranus). It is considerably smaller than the foregoing, and is found from southeastern Europe to China and Japan. It is white, the primaries black and the head bare and reddish in color. The immature birds of this species, as well as those of the Whooper, have the white plumage infused with cinnamon-buff, giving them a remark- able appearance. This is one of those species more easily obtained alive, and is brought to this country in some numbers. It is quite hardy and easily tamable. Of the larger cranes, the Sarus (Antigone antigone), an Indian species, is most commonly seen in collections. It is the tallest of the order, sometimes attaining a length of sixty inches. Its color isa handsome French gray, the over- hanging secondaries closely approaching white; the head and the upper part of the neck are bare and reddish, the gray feathers of the lower neck being bordered above by a band of white. The Sarus is a most vigorous bird and inclined to be dangerous when associated with smaller and weaker species; its height, strength and uncertain temper make it a companion to be feared. One of the rarities of the order is the WHITE-NECKED CranE (Pseudogeranus leucauchen). This is a medium- sized bird, of a beautiful shade of gray, with the throat and the posterior portions of the head and neck white, the gray of the shoulders commencing at a sharp line. The anterior part of the crown is bare and reddish. The long and falcate secondaries, which are very light in color, are curved less abruptly and hence more gracefully than in some other species. It is found in eastern Siberia, Corea 124 BIRDS and Japan and is very seldom imported alive. In captivity it is quiet and docile, showing a most pleasing absence of the pugnacity so frequent among its congeners. A crane of unusyal and handsome appearance is the STANLEY or PaRADIsE (Tetrapteryx paradisea). It is a bird of fair size, ranging throughout the southern portions of Africa, where it is fairly common. In color it is a uni- form slate, becoming practically white on the head, the feathers of which are so lengthened as to give it a strangely swollen effect. The drooping secondaries reach the height of their development and beauty in this species. The Para- dise is a very desirable bird for the aviculturist, for both its docility and beauty; it is imported very infrequently. AI- though reputed to be hardy in England, it certainly is not so in New York. Here it requires some artificial heat during the winter. In captivity, the crane most frequently seen is the dainty DEMOISELLE (Anthropoides virgo). It is the smallest of the family, as well as the most widely distributed, since it breeds in southern Europe and central Asia and spends the winters in southern Asia and northern Africa. Its general color is gray, set off by the elongated black feathers of the breast, those over the eyes being drawn out into lateral tufts of silky white. The Demoiselle is brought to the United States each year in scores, for the demand for it is great. Its small size reduces its capacity for mischief, even if its usually even temper should allow it to fall from grace; its engaging ways excite the admiration of all who have oppor- tunity to observe them. This crane is quite willing to breed in confinement, and has done so in this country on several occasions. The CROWNED CRANE (Balearica pavonina), of western Africa, differs from all the others in the possession of an occipital patch of straw-like plumes, from which it derives CRANES 125 its name. It is a handsome bird, the blackish-slate of its body plumage being contrasted by white wing coverts and chestnut secondaries. The sides of the head are bare and colored white above and pink below; there are two small, pinkish wattles on the throat. This crane is uncommon in America, very few having been imported. It is long-lived and attractive, and not so determined a root digger as most others. This is another species which cannot pass our win- ters out of doors, but must be removed to heated quarters as the cold months approach. All of the cranes nest on the ground, usually in marshes or on open plains, forming their nests of grass and rushes. The eggs are generally whitish or buff in color, double- spotted with yellow or brown blotches, and commonly two in number. Young cranes are most precocious, being able to run about quite freely soon after hatching. For a few days before the youngsters commence to forage for themselves their food consists mainly of insects brought to them by the old birds. When three or four days old, they will eat soft materials. Spratt’s Game Food, soaked in hot water, is excellent. The parent birds are very devoted to their off- spring, caring for them with great solicitude and guarding them valiantly against intruders. If an attempt to breed cranes in captivity is to be made, a large, grassy run should be provided for the exclusive use of the family, as anxiety for the welfare and safety of the chicks is apt to make the parents over-zealous in the treatment of the others in the same corral. An adult crane is a formidable antagonist, not to be despised even by a man. An interesting characteristic of cranes is their habit of indulging at frequent intervals in grotesque dances, which may be performed by an individual, or by a group in grace- ful unison. The leader starts off leaping and bowing, with 126 BIRDS broad wings widely expanded; now seizing a leaf or bit of stick, now tossing it aside in capricious disdain. The spirit of the dance is infectious, and instantly the enclosure is a turmoil of leaping, bobbing birds, each striving to outdo the others in extravagance of gesture and motion. Most of the species are provided with lusty voices, which they delight to use with great freedom. However, the tones, which are clear and trumpet-like, are far from dis- agreeable, and detract nothing from the performer’s eligi- bility to a favored place in the list of captives. CHAPTER XII WATER-FOWL AFTER the gallinaceous birds the water-fowl are next in economic importance. Over their more prolific rivals they have the advantage of extreme hardiness and general free- dom from sickness. Both ducks and geese have long been thoroughly domesticated, as is evidenced by the many well- differentiated breeds. Swans, too, have become well ac- customed to captivity, but have shown no tendency to varia- tion. Only the wild species will be considered here. In common with other game birds, the water-fowl now are receiving a large share of the attention of the propa- gator. Much has been learned concerning their care and management, but the problem of breeding many species is still unsolved. This being the case, the amateur has an extra incentive, for he is as likely to reach the solution as is the worker on a larger scale. As in pheasant-keeping, water-fowl culture is divided into two groups. While the treatment of the birds in large preserves is essentially the same as that practised by the veriest amateur, the details necessarily vary. We shall con- fine ourselves here to the management of the smaller enter- prise. Of the water-fowl (ANSERIFORMES), there are about two hundred and seventy-five species, which may be divided roughly into the ducks, geese and swans. Practically all of the forms may be kept in captivity with a considerable degree of success. Most are perfectly hardy, but a few, such as the Tree Ducks, require warmth in winter. 127 128 BIRDS Wild Ducks When the hardiness, simple wants and surpassing beauty of many ducks are considered, one is not surprised at their increasing popularity, but rather that their keeping has not become more general. For most species water is a necessity. The pond need not necessarily be large, but it is of the greatest importance that the water be fresh and clean. If a running stream or natural pond is available, only some slight adapta- tion is necessary. If neither is to be had, the construc- tion of a small, concrete pool is a matter of no great difficulty. At any rate, means for securing a constant supply of water must be secured, and if it is possible to arrange for complete drainage of the pond, so much the better. It is a great advantage to be able to remove all of the water on occasion. If the sides of the pool are of soil, it will be necessary to build them up firmly with stone and gravel. Ducks have a habit of working at the banks with their beaks, and their feet also rapidly wear down the soil as they enter or leave the water. The planting of various edible aquatic plants, such as wild celery (Vallisneria), wild rice (Zizania), etc., is desirable, but not practicable in a small pond, as they will be destroyed quickly by the ducks. In large bodies of water, on which a small number of birds are quartered, such cultivation is perfectly possible. The pond and as much adjoining land as is available should be surrounded by a wire fence. A three-foot fence will restrain most pinioned water-fowl, but a greater height is recommended to exclude dogs, foxes, etc. If attacks of rats, cats and other marauders are feared, precautions in WATER-FOWL 129 fence-building should be taken, as recommended in the chap- ter on pheasants. The enclosure should support a good supply of grass and a portion, at least, must be thickly planted with hardy shrubs. Rhododendrons, mountain laurels, willows, etc., are excellent. Bottomless boxes, with holes large enough to admit a duck, may be placed here and there on the ground in the shrubbery, for it is here that the birds will choose to lay their eggs. Most ducks, however, will make their nests in the shelter of the leaves, rather than in boxes. For Wood and Mandarin Ducks, which in the wild state lay their eggs in hollow trees or in similar positions, special nests are best. In the New York Zodlogical Park, we have had excellent results with boxes placed about three feet above the water, a few feet from the shore. These boxes are about eighteen inches in each dimension, with a hole four inches in diameter, which is large enough to admit a Wood Duck, but not an intrusive Mallard. It is necessary to provide a runway for the bird and nesting material of some sort, as of course the duck will not carry any. At the latitude and altitude of New York City, the hardier ducks do not require shelter in winter. During very severe weather, it may sometimes be necessary to erect a windbreak of straw or brush, attached to a wooden frame. It is very difficult to persuade water-fowl to enter a covered building or shelter. In localities where the cold becomes extremé, protection of some sort may be needed, and is best pro- vided by means of low brush fences, floored with leaves or straw. Constant feeding will accustom the birds to the place, and soon they will learn to use it regularly. If the pond is small, or the birds can be withdrawn into a smaller portion, it is not difficult to drive them into an unheated shed, where the nights can be passed. But it should be borne in mind that any driving of diving ducks when the we 130 BIRDS pond is frozen over is fraught with danger, as the birds may dive under the ice and fail to reappear. The usual grains—wheat, barley, kaffir corn, etc.—form the staple food of adult ducks. Cracked corn is much used in America, and it must be admitted that this grain does not seem to exercise the adverse effect on ducks that it does on most other birds. Many breeders give their birds occa- sional mashes of duck meal. Spratt’s Patent Game Food, dry, thrown on the water two or three times weekly, will be found to benefit the birds. Dry bread crusts are always relished. Green food is very necessary, all of the usual kinds being eaten greedily. Ducks are especially fond of water hyacinth, duckweed and watercress. Fresh grass, cut in short lengths, and thrown in small quantities into the water, is excellent. The above items will be found sufficient for surface- feeding species. The diving ducks, such as Canvasbacks, Scaup, etc., are no more difficult to keep in health, once they have become accustomed to captivity. When first re- ceived from the trapper, it is necessary to confine such birds in small, dry quarters, well secluded, until they are feeding satisfactorily. When finally well on grain, they will thrive in common with the other birds, but will benefit by a bit of chopped fish or a few minnows, once or twice weekly. Unless a covered aviary is provided, or there are unusual facilities for catching the birds easily at intervals and clipping their wings, it is best to pinion them permanently. The operation is easily performed. A point just beyond the bastard wing or thumb should be selected. One or two of the primaries should be drawn and a tight ligature of stout, uncolored twine applied. The bone is then severed with a pair of strong pruning-shears. If the tie has been properly made, there will be no blood. If the weather is warm, an antiseptic powder may be applied, but if the birds WATER-FOWL 131 are returned at once to the water this generally is not necessary. The birds need not be caught again, as the twine will slough off as the wing heals. Most water-fowl breed early, in April or May, or even in March if the season is moderate. At this time the greatest care must be taken to avoid disturbance of the birds. Espe- cially quarrelsome sorts, such as Egyptian Geese and Shel- drakes, should be watched and prevented from persecuting or even killing their companions. Most species are monog- amous, and follow their instincts closely. The Mallard is a notable exception, one drake to two or three ducks being a suitable proportion to insure the best results. Ducks are very shy about laying, and if alarmed while nesting are very likely never to return. If the eggs are to be removed, the safest method is to watch until the full clutch has been deposited. Under exceptional conditions good results in rearing young may sometimes be attained by allowing the duck to perform her natural functions. But ordinarily it is far safer to entrust the eggs to a bantam or other small fowl. When the hen comes off to feed, the eggs should be cov- ered with a soft cloth, in emulation of the habit of ducks. It is necessary also to dampen the eggs frequently with tepid water, particularly as incubation becomes well ad- vanced. The eggs of most ducks hatch in four weeks. Young divers frequently appear several days sooner and Teal re- quire but three weeks. The ducklings will not require food for the first twenty-four hours and should remain undis- turbed in the nest with the foster-mother. At the end of this period they should be removed to a small coop and run, as described for pheasants. The treatment of ducklings is very similar to that of young game birds. They should not be allowed to enter 132 BIRDS water, and that provided for drinking must be in a shallow receptacle. Young ducks are easily soaked, often with fatal results. Their first food may be boiled egg and biscuit crumbs, dampened. It is also advisable to float ants’ cocoons and duckweed on the water. The young of many species do not readily learn to feed and it is here that the greatest difficulty lies. Slowly moving insects, such as newly hatched or drenched flies, will often attract the ducklings’ attention and form the first meal. When the young birds are feeding well, they may be given one of the standard duck meals or the mixture recom- mended for pheasants. Boiled egg may be continued for a time, and green food, preferably duckweed, furnished liberally. Earthworms are an excellent food for all duck- lings large enough to eat them. As the youngsters progress, small grain should be intro- duced gradually into their diet. When six or eight weeks old, they may be allowed to enter the water and may be considered out of danger. Dampness and hot sun are fatal to ducklings, as well as pheasants, and must be avoided. When the young birds are about one week old, the last joint of one wing, just beyond the thumb, should be re- moved with a sharp pair of scissors. As the wing is still cartilaginous, there is no resistance and no bleeding. It is therefore not necessary to make a ligature, but it is well to apply a bit of antiseptic powder, such as iodoform or xeroform. This will prevent infection and blowing by flies—a not uncommon trouble. Of the many species of wild ducks commonly kept in confinement the MALLARD (Anas platyrhynchos) is the most abundant. Its ready acceptance of captivity led to its domes- tication at a very remote period, and the many domestic Courtesy Ne y Mute and Trumpeter Swans a m0 ror es Lda, Photograph by E. R. Sanborn Courtesy New York Zoological Society Cereopsis Geese and Goslings WATER-FOWL 133 breeds we now possess have been developed. The Mal- lard is much the easiest of all wild ducks to manage and rear. Its propagation is carried on extensively on game preserves and great numbers are reared yearly. An excel- lent field awaits the producer of these birds for market, as the demand is heavy and but a small portion has so far been met. The Brack Ducxk (Anas rubripes), although closely allied to the Mallard, does not share its domestic tendencies. It is shy and secretive, and although many attempts have been made to rear it on a large scale, there has as yet been no notable success. The Pintaiy (Dafila acuia), BALDPATE (Mareca amer- icana) and SHOVELLER (Spatula clypeata) are other native American species (the first and last are found in the Old World as well) which are attractive for their ornamental value. All are hardy and easily kept, and all have been bred in captivity on occasion. Of the three North American Teal, the GreEN-wING (Nettion carolinense) is the smallest, and likewise the hardi- est. The BLUE-wine (Querquedula discors) and CINNA- MON (Q. cyanoptera) are well enough during warm weather, but in New York at least cannot endure the severe winters we sometimes experience. The GapwaLi (Chau- lelasmus strepera) is another which does not like cold weather, although thoroughly acclimatized specimens get on well enough. Of foreign species, South America offers some most attractive forms. The Cuiian PintarL (Dafila spini- cauda) and the CuiLt1an Wipceon (Mareca sibilatrix) are both hardy and handsome, requiring no artificial heat during the winter. In both species the sexes are alike in color. The many beautiful South American Teal—the BraziLian (Nettion brasiliense), the BLACK-CAPPED or 134 BIRDS VERSICOLOR (Querquedula versicolor), the CHILIAN (Net- tion flavirostre) and the lovely and most recently imported Rincep (N. torquatum)—are most engaging. Some, and perhaps all, no doubt are hardy, but their rarity impels the furnishing of heated quarters during the winter. The best known Australian species is the AUSTRALIAN Gray Duck (Anas superciliaris), a sturdy bird resembling our Black Duck. Our own Woop Duck (Aix sponsa) and the MANDARIN (A. galericulata), of eastern Asia, are easily the most beau- tiful of all ducks. Although the males are totally different in their wonderful coloring and patterns, the females are strikingly alike and not easily distinguished by the novice. But a comparison of the wide, white eye-ring of the Wood Duck with the much smaller marking of the Mandarin furnishes a ready key. Both species are among the hardiest and most easily kept of ducks. A pair will thrive in summer in the smallest of enclosures, if properly planted, and with a washtub for a pool. In winter, if open water cannot be kept, they will be perfectly happy in a shed or box stall. At liberty on a larger pond, nothing could be more attractive than a mixed flock of both species. The Wood Duck is a very free breeder, if provided with a nest as already described. The Mandarin is much shyer, but is not at all difficult to breed. Broods of both species are reared yearly in the New York Zodlogical Park. The young birds are exceedingly wild and active. They are able to squeeze through the tiniest hole and can climb like mice. It is therefore necessary to confine them tightly for the first few days, until they become thoroughly familiar with their surroundings and foster-mother. The Tree Ducks, of which there are a number of species, mainly tropical, live well in captivity, but cannot endure WATER-FOWL 135 severe winters out of doors. All are fairly large birds, with long, well-developed legs. They perch freely, and lay their eggs in hollow trees. The best known species are the Futvous (Dendrocygna fulva), the WuiteE-Facep (D. viduata) and the RED-BILLED or BLACK-BELLIED (D. au- tumnalis). In South America the writer has seen Tree Ducks perched upon a large, dead tree in such countless numbers that at a distance it appeared once more to be clothed with leaves. But a closer approach caused the birds to arise in clouds, as though a hurricane had again robbed the veteran of its foliage. Of the Diving or Sea Ducks, North America boasts some superb species. The CanvasBack (Marila valisneria), the REDHEAD (M. americana), the Scaup (M. marila) and the Lesser Scaup (WM. affinis) are the best known. All are easily kept if treated as already described. The Redhead has been bred several times; the Canvasback was success- fully reared for the first time on the estate of William Rockefeller in 1915, but neither Scaup has yet nested in captivity in this country. Of the European divers, the PocHarp (M. ferina), which is intermediate in appearance between the Canvasback and the Redhead, is the most common in captivity. The Turrep Duck (M. fuligula) is much like a Scaup, but entirely black above and white below, with a well-developed, pendent crest. The WHITE-EYE (M. nyroca) is one of the smallest of divers, rich mahogany in color, the irides of the male being pure white. This bird was bred in the New York Zoological Park in 1915 for the first time in America. The Rosy-BiLLeEp Ducx (Metopiana peposaca), of south- ern South America, is one of the handsomest of the divers. The male is blackish above and gray and white below, in strong contrast to which is the brilliant pink beak. The 136 BIRDS female is a somber brown, with dark beak. This bird is indifferent to cold and lives well in confinement. The Sheldrakes, as a group, are intermediate between ducks and geese. They are birds of comparatively large size, and spend much time in grazing, after the fashion of geese. All of the species are exceedingly quarrelsome dur- ing the breeding season, and must be watched closely to prevent their killing weaker birds. _ The Ruppy SHELDRAKE (Casarca casarca) is the best known species. Both sexes are bright rufous in general color, the male usually being distinguishable by his larger size and a black ring about the neck. It is a hardy species and not affected by cold. It has been bred frequently in America. The PaRaADISE or VARIEGATED SHELDRAKE (Casarca variegata), of New Zealand, is not common in captivity in this country. The male is handsomely colored, with black head and neck, gray back, black tail, chestnut breast and white wing coverts. The female is somewhat similar, but has the head and neck pure white. This species breeds freely in European collections, but is exceedingly pug- nacious. ; The ComMon EuROPEAN SHELDRAKE (Tadorna tadorna) is a strikingly handsome bird, the sexes being marked alike with contrasting patches of green, chestnut and white. Un- fortunately, it is an exceedingly difficult bird to establish in captivity, and cannot be induced to live for long in this country. Geese The geese in general are even easier than ducks to keep in health. Water is less essential for their needs, the chief requirement being grazing ground. Geese of most species spend more time on land than afloat, and in summer will WATER-FOWL 137 nearly support themselves by eating grass. The same grain supplied for ducks will satisfy geese, and a good supply of green food during the winter months is a necessity. Most of the species are very hardy and require no pro- tection during the winter. Although living for years in captivity, and keeping always in the best of condition, few species, with the exception of the Canada Goose, breed well. Geese are quite safe in mixed collections, unless inclined to pair in the spring, when they may become dangerous to their smaller neighbors. The Canapa Goose (Branta canadensis) is the American species most commonly seen in collections. It is one of the few geese which breed well in captivity, and there is no reason why it should not eventually become thoroughly domesticated. It is much in vogue among propagators, and large numbers are reared annually for stocking pur- poses. Like all wild geese, the Canada is strictly monogamous, pairs remaining mated for many years. Nesting takes place late in March or in April, according to weather conditions. Three to seven eggs are laid, incubation lasting twenty- eight to thirty days. The young are dirty yellowish when hatched. .If grazing is available, no food for the young birds is necessary, as grass is all that is required for their sustenance. Unlike ducks, geese are the best of parents, and care for the young with the greatest solicitude. When conditions are at all favorable, young Canada Geese, if allowed to remain full-winged, will seldom permanently leave their home. ‘Canada Geese are exceedingly quarrelsome during the mating season. Pairs not only will refuse to allow others to nest in their vicinity, but are most vindictive in the destruction of the nests and sometimes also the nests of birds of other species. This pugnacity may take curious 138 BIRDS turns, a pair of birds in the New York Zodlogical Park once having kidnapped the young of other pairs until they had accumulated no less than eighteen goslings, all of which they triumphantly reared! Hutcuins Goose (B. canadensis hutchinsi) is a small edition of the Canada Goose, and the CacKLING GoosE (B. c. minima) is similar but still more diminutive. Strangely enough, although obviously very closely allied to the Canada Goose, neither of these birds has been bred in captivity in America, although the Hutchin, at least, has reared young in Europe. The various forms of the Brant (Branta bernicla) fall in the same category. Three birds of the eastern subspecies, all full-winged, have lived in the New York Zodlogical Park for nearly fifteen years, but have never shown any inclination to breed. The European Brant does not seem difficult to breed in captivity on its native continent. The three Snow GerEsE, the GREATER (Chen hyperborea nivalis), the Lesser (C. h. hyperborea) and the Ross (C. rossii), are pure white in color, with black primaries. They differ from one another chiefly in size and other minor par- ticulars. None of the forms has ever reared young in cap- tivity in America, although there seems to be no great diffi- culty about it in Europe. In 1912 the writer saw a pair of Snow Geese, with three well-grown young, which they had reared in a tiny paddock in the Zodlogical Gardens of London. The genus Anser includes the ancestors of our domestic breeds, the Gray Lac Goose (Anser anser). This Euro- pean species, although domesticated in remote ages, is a very shy breeder in captivity. It has been bred at least once in America, the eggs being rescued from the water, where they had been dropped, and two goslings hatched and reared by a hen. - sas a7 a i Photojraph by E.R S Courtesy New York Zoological Society Mallard Ducks Photograph by E. R, Sanborn Courtesy New York Zoological Society Mandarin Duck WATER-FOWL 139 There are numerous other European species of Anser, the most common being the BEAN Goose (A. fabilis) and the PINK-FOOTED (A. brachyrhynchus). These birds are some- what alike but easily distinguished by the yellow feet and bill markings of the first-named, compared with pale pink in the latter. America has one representative of the group, the AMER- ICAN WHITE-FRONTED Goose (A. albifrons gambeli). A large flock of these birds has lived almost at liberty for a number of years in the New York Zodlogical Park, but its members have never shown any tendency to pair. The UrpLanp GrEEsE (Chloéphaga) are natives of south- ern South America. Once fully acclimatized, they are able to resist our coldest winters. All are handsome birds, the best known species being the MacELLtan (C. magel- lanica), of which the male is white, with back pearl-gray barred with black, as are the sides of the body. The female is similarly marked, but with the ground color bright chest- nut. This species is bred in some numbers in Europe. The Crreopsis GoosE (Cereopsis nove-hollandie), of southern Australia and Tasmania, is becoming so rare that collectors have to depend upon captivity-bred birds. It is dark gray in color, with a few large, brownish spots. The base of the short black beak is covered with a greenish cere. The legs are red but the feet are black, giving the bird the appearance of having recently walked in mud. This goose is distinctly a grazing species, never entering the water if it can be avoided. It is not sensitive to cold, but during the winter must be well provided with green food, which forms its chief sustenance. During the breeding season the male is exceedingly pugnacious and powerful enough to kill a Sandhill Crane. A pair in the New York Zoological Park have reared young each year since 1910. The goslings are prettily striped with black and white, and although they 140 BIRDS feed mostly on grass, they can be taught to eat the food recommended for ducklings. The CHINESE GOOSE (Cygnopsis cygnoides) has become fully domesticated, and has given rise to distinct varieties, one of which is pure white. The typical form is grayish- brown in color, with a dark stripe down the back of the neck. The beak is black, with a large, round knob at the base, which is more conspicuous in the male. It is a large bird and exceedingly noisy. The Ecyptian GoosE (Alopochen @egyptiacus) is very common in captivity, and breeds so readily that it may al- most be said to have become domesticated. It is a hardy and handsome bird, being in general reddish-chestnut above and fawn below, with a chestnut patch on the abdomen, the whole set off by the metallic black of wings and tail. Its disposition, however, is so fierce and vindictive that it is not safe in a mixed collection. The writer has known a particularly savage male to kill an incubating Canada Goose and a Black Swan, almost while the attendant’s back was turned. The Muscovy Duck (Cairina moschata) is in reality a goose, and forms, with several allied species, one of the suborders of that group. It has become perfectly domesti- cated, and several color-varieties have arisen—pied, white and lavender. The typical wild bird which is found throughout tropical America is very uncommon in captivity. It is pure black in color, with the exception of the upper and under wing coverts and axillaries, which are white. A pair of these birds, secured in Colombia, have bred in the New York Zodlogical Park, the young being colored like their parents. The Muscovy drake is much larger than his mate, often doubling her weight. He is often savagely inclined, and not always safe in mixed collections. Muscovies hybridize WATER-FOWL 141 freely with domestic ducks, the offspring being invariably sterile. Swans Because of their large size and undoubted grace, swans have long held a premier position in the estimation of keep- ers of water-fowl. All of the species are hardy, so far as temperature is concerned, and easily kept. Almost more than any other anserine bird, water is essential for the well- being of swans. Perfectly at ease in their natural element, few birds are more awkward or unlovely than a swan ashore. Swans do best in a large body of water, well supplied with aquatic plants. When these are not available, the birds may condescend to go ashore and graze a bit, but are evi- dently not happy while doing so. Adult birds may be fed on the same grain provided for ducks, and will relish bread crusts and Game Food, if thrown on the water. Green food in some form must be provided in winter. In many places where the severity of winter makes the care of the birds difficult, it is customary to make temporary enclosures of wire netting, by means of which the swans may be confined to the most sheltered position. At this season the males are less quarrelsome than during the spring, and may be gathered together with safety. Seven species of true swans are recognized, of which five are white in color. The most abundant in captivity is the Mute Swan (Olor olor). This is the common swan of Europe, where it has been kept and bred in a semidomestic condition for centuries. In England the feudal laws con- cerning the ownership and rearing of these birds are still observed to some extent. : The Mute Swan is a large bird, readily distinguished by the reddish beak and black tubercle at the base. The male 142 BIRDS is larger than the female, and generally has the tubercle better developed. The feet of the common form are black, but in a variety known as the Polish Swan, which appears to have arisen by mutation, the feet are leaden gray. The young of this bird are white when hatched, while those of the typical Mute Swan are sooty gray. These birds are bred in Europe with the greatest facility, but it is only of very recent years that much success has been attained in this country. Many have explained the failure by the belief that the males were rendered sterile before leaving Europe. Whatever the difficulty, it seems to have been overcome, and Mute Swans are now being bred here in some numbers. At Belmar, New Jersey, a flock of nine birds has been bred up to more than fifty in the last five years. The birds are kept on a large lake in the center of the town. This lake is well supplied with Anacharis, an aquatic plant of rank growth. The original intention was that the swans should prevent the overgrowth of this plant, which they appear to be doing with great success. The birds nest about the shores of the lake, not far removed from public highways and entirely without shelter. The scene during the breeding season is one calculated to stir the enthusiasm of the most phlegmatic nature-lover. Male swans are exceedingly pugnacious, particularly dur- ing nesting time, and will not tolerate the presence of a rival or another pair in the immediate vicinity. Even a man must be on his guard when near the nest, for a blow of the wing of a swan is not to be taken lightly. The nest is built of sticks and rubbish and is a structure of considerable size. The eggs number from three to seven, and are greenish-white in color. Incubation occupies six weeks, and the young of the typical form, as already men- tioned, are sooty gray. If plenty of green food is avail- WATER-FOWL 143 able, the young will be reared by the parents with little difficulty. The ration may be eked out with bread crusts and game food. The sooty cygnets are of a similar color when feathers are assumed, but the young of the Polish form are white in the first plumage, as in the down. They are ready for breeding when two years old. i America has two fine native species of swans, the WuistLtine (O. columbianus) and the TRUMPETER (B. buccinator). Both are distinguished from all other white swans by their black beaks, and from each other chiefly by the larger size of the Trumpeter and a yellow spot at the base of the beak of the Whistler. The Trumpeter, unfortu- nately, now is nearly extinct, and probably is so far reduced that it cannot be resuscitated by propagation in confinement. Both species have been bred in captivity, The Bewick Swan (O. bewicki) and the WHooPING Swan (O. cygnus) are European species. They are very similar in appearance, the latter being distinguished by its considerably larger size and the greater extent of the yellow at the base of the bill, which runs down past the nostrils in this species, but stops short of them in the Bewick. Both species are occasionally offered for sale. They are hardy and desirable, but are difficult to breed. The BLACK-NECKED SWAN (O. melanocorphus), of south- ern South America, is the only species which appears to be delicate in captivity. In Eurgpe it presents no particular difficulties and breeds readily and frequently. In America, however, it is very difficult to establish. Once acclima- tized, it is as resistant as any other, and lives well enough. An abundance of green food is absolutely essential for keeping this species in health. With its snowy body, black neck and red beak, it is the handsomest of the swans, and it is regrettable that it is not more easily kept. 144 BIRDS In color, at least, the BLack Swan (Chenopsis atrata) is contrary to all tradition, and its discovery in Australia, in 1697, must have been a sad blow to lovers of proverbs. Its somber, brownish-black plumage, set off with a coral beak, is attractive, and in grace it far excels any of the other species. The primary feathers are white and the wing coverts are curiously curled. This swan is a very free breeder, the greatest trouble lying in the fact that the birds fail to change their calendar when introduced into the Northern Hemisphere, and are as likely to nest in January as any other time. They are the best of parents, however, and frequently rear the cygnets in spite of the greatest difficulties. CHAPTER XIII HAWKS AND OWLS ALTHOUGH the two groups are in no way related, the few members of the great orders which include the Vultures, Eagles and Hawks (AccipirrirormMes) and the Owls (STRIGIFORMEs), that come within our field, are most con- veniently treated together. Their feeding habits are similar and their general treatment differs in no important points. Both hawks and owls, under suitable conditions, are inter- esting and hardy in captivity. Their food, which is entirely of an animal nature, is not complicated or difficult to pro- cure. If kept in well-ventilated cages and conscientiously cleaned, there is little or no odor, although, if neglected, this factor may become very objectionable. It may be noted here that in New York State, at least, while all hawks are without the pale of the law, Horned and Snowy Owls are the only members of their group which legally may be kept in captivity. Of the accipitrine birds, only the hawks are commonly kept by amateurs. Hawks Since the passing of the once popular sport of hawking, which was practised in the most remote antiquity and is still pursued in some localities, the attention of aviculturists has been centered on other groups. Few make a point of obtaining hawks, and such as are kept are only those which. have been secured by chance. Still, most of the species make engaging pets and are easily kept if properly cared for. Although one is likely to think of hawks as birds of the 145 146 BIRDS air, passing their time in describing lazy spirals, this im- pression does not typify the general habit of most species. Hawks, in reality, are mostly sedentary birds, passing more time at rest than on the wing. In captivity the same rule applies. A great space for flying is not required, and if it is provided, will not be used to the extent imagined by the fond owner. What is most essential to the well-being of hawks is protection from draught and dampness, even if the size of the enclosure be small. The writer has seen hawks kept for many years in superb condition in large open aviaries with no shelter whatever. This, however, was in a mountainous district, where the air, while very cold in winter, was perfectly dry. In humid localities hawks do much better if kept in cages of moderate size, tightly enclosed on all sides but the front. This in- sures perfect safety from dampness and draught, which no hawk can endure for long. It also induces steadiness, and the bird is less likely to thrash about and injure itself than when enclosed in an open cage. As to feeding, one cannot go wrong if a natural diet is followed. All hawks will eat small chickens and pigeons, sparrows, rabbits, rats and mice. It is seldom that a con- stant supply of such food can be obtained, and resort to meat must be had. In this case fresh, lean beef is prefer- able. It should never be tainted or infiltrated with fat. If it cannot be alternated with “fur and feather,” it should be rolled in feathers or chopped tow, to provide material for the pellet which is normally formed by birds of prey. Meat should not be chopped, but given in a solid lump, which the bird will tear for itself. | Chicken heads, if fresh, are an excellent food, as is heart. Liver is a natural regulator and is ‘of value in cases of constipation or over-fatness, conditions not rare in this group. The great point to be observed in feeding birds of prey HAWKS AND OWLS 147 is the avoidance of over-supply. To remain in good health and condition, hawks must be keen at meal-time. To insure this, the food should be limited to just what the bird will take readily at one feeding. At least once weekly a fast should be observed, and no food whatever given. This, of course, is in accordance with the natural habits of rap- torial birds. Hawks seldom drink, but occasionally do so. Many species, however, are fond of bathing, and fresh, clean water, in a receptacle of sufficient size for the ablutions of the birds, should always be at hand. Few hawks besides the native forms are to be had in this country. The genus Buteo, the members of which are known collectively as “ hen-hawks,” offers the greatest num- ber of species. The Rep-TaiLep (B. borealis), the REp- SHOULDERED (B. lineatus) and the Broap-wiNncep (B. platypterus) are the best known. These birds feed chiefly on small rodents, and their great economic value should save them from the persecution to which they are commonly subjected. In captivity they are uniformly quiet and docile, and are easily tamed. They live longer than most other hawks, but are especially susceptible to the effects of damp- ness. The Marso Hawk (Circus hudsonicus) belongs to the great group of Harriers, which occupies an important posi- tion in the fauna of the Old World. Wild-caught adults are timid and nervous and seldom thrive. Hand-reared young birds, however, become very tame, and if suitably housed live very well. Even more difficult are the bird-killing SHarp-sHIn (Ac- cipiter velox) and Cooper Hawk (A. cooperi). These birds are essentially wild and intractable, and the writer has never known one of these, or their, Old World allies, to live in captivity for more than a short time. They are not keen 148 BIRDS for rodents or meat, and can hardly be induced to take other food than sparrows or small chickens. Of all the hawks, the Fatcons (Falco) are the most attractive. Naturally bold and fearless, their very courage is the factor which brings them to accept readily the condi- tions of captivity. The Duck Hawk (F. peregrinus anatum) is the American representative of the European Peregrine Falcon, the favorite of countless generations of Old World hawkers. Courageous and powerful, it does not. fear its captor, and quickly becomes tame and gentle. It is not to be trusted with weaker species, and should be given quarters by itself. Natural food should be given as much as possible. The beautiful Waite or GREENLAND GyRFALCON (F. candicans) is a rare visitor from the North, which we occa- sionally see during severe winters. In temperament it duplicates the Duck Hawk, but its snowy plumage and greater size set it above its smaller rival. In the ancient days of hawking, the various forms of Gyrfalcon occupied the highest rank, great prices being paid for well-trained birds. , The AmeERIcAN SPARROW Hawk (F. sparverius) is the pet of the group. Its handsome coloring and the perfect tameness which it quickly acquires endear the bird to all who have the opportunity to become its intimates. The most desirable specimens are those taken from the nest and hand-reared, but wild-caught adults are not long in assum- ing an attractive friendliness. Sparrow Hawks are easily taught to come to the hand and take meal worms from the fingers. Their food should be well varied, and small birds, mice and insects should form the greater part of it. Spar- row hawks like a small box provided with a perch and placed in a secluded corner, where they may retire when so disposed. Great Horned Owl HAWKS AND OWLS 'T49 Owls ‘ While even less active than hawks, owls are rather more satisfactory as captives, since most species are hardier and have a much higher average longevity. While apparently not so receptive of learning as the hawks, the apparent defect is probably due to difference in habit rather than to inferiority in intelligence. Although some of the larger species are almost intractable, many become exceedingly tame and make most charming pets. The once common belief that owls are unable to see by daylight has now become less general. Some species, such as the Snowy Owl, habitually hunt by day and all are able to make at least some use of their powers of vision, even in bright sunlight. Owls are at their best during evening and morning twilight, and it is then that they are most active. Owls do well in enclosed cages, as described for hawks, but as they are less inclined than hawks to dash about when the cage is entered by the attendant, more open wirework is permissible. Most owls like a retiring box provided with a perch, though some species, as the Snowy Owl, will not enter. This box should be provided with sawdust or wood-pulp, if occupied by a pair of birds, as owls not infre- quently breed in captivity. It is worth noting that a mated pair, or an uncommonly savage individual, may destroy cage-mates. Such birds should be watched for and removed. The feeding of owls is similar to that of hawks, with the exception that it is best done in the evening, so that the birds will eat before the food has been too long in the cage. Owls should be dieted and fasted as advised for hawks. | The owls most usually seen in captivity in the United States are specimens of the various forms of the ScREECH 150 BIRDS \ Owt (Otus). The eastern bird (O. asio asio) is very abundant, even within the limits of great cities. The two- color phases—red and gray—are not uncommon among owls, and have no connection with age or sex. Screech owls are vigorous little creatures, indifferent to cold if shel- tered, and under suitable conditions will live in captivity for long periods. The Barrep Ow (Strix varia) is found throughout eastern North America, with the exception of the extreme southeast portion. It is the commonest of the large owls, and is abundant even near New York City. It is docile and long-lived in confinement, and a number of specimens may be kept together with perfect safety. The Snowy Ow (Nyctea nyctea) is at home in the tree- less regions of the Arctics, where it feeds on ptarmigan, water-fowl and rodents. It descends to the United States periodically, usually during severe winters. Females and young are generally heavily marked with black, but males are lighter, some specimens being nearly pure white. This owl does not perch, preferring to sit on the ground, or on a flat stone. It is a very satisfactory species in captivity, but must be protected from severe heat during the sum- mer months. The most difficult of owls to keep in captivity are the Lonc-EARED (Asio wilsonianus) and the SHORT-EARED (A. flammeus). The former, especially, is very delicate. These owls must have an abundance of natural food if there is to be any hope of keeping them. The Hornep or EaGLe Owxs (Bubo) are represented in America by the numerous forms of B. virginianus. The Great Horned Owl of the eastern states is too well known as a raider of poultry roosts to need any description. It seldom becomes tame in captivity, but lives well, as do most of the members of its genus. It is exceedingly fierce in HAWKS AND OWLS 151 disposition, and may not safely be associated with smaller species. The Barn Ow t (Aluco pratincola) is typically a bird of warm climates, ranging from central New York southward to Mexico. It is not a common species in the northern por- tion of its range, and its discovery or capture always excites the curiosity of the neighborhood. Its curious facial ap- pearance has given rise to the name “ Monkey-faced Owl.” It does well in captivity, but must have fairly warm quar- ters in winter. CHAPTER XIV, PARROTS Arter the canary, the members of the various groups of the order of parrots (PsITTACIFORMES) are kept as pets more frequently than any other birds. The faculty of imitating the human voice, which most parrots possess in some degree, exercises a fascination which few can resist. That they are, in the main, extraordinarily hardy birds is evidenced by the frequency with which, in spite of all man- ner of dietary abuse, they are seen in captivity. There are records of parrots living in confinement for periods up to ninety-odd years. Twenty-five to thirty-five years may be considered as a fair average longevity. Three families are represented by the species which may be considered as suitable for cage birds: Lories (LorimDz), Cockatoos (CacaTuipz) and that which includes the Macaws, Parrakeets, Amazon and Gray Parrots and Love- birds (Psittacipz). As food and treatment vary con- siderably in each case, each group will be considered sepa- rately. Lories and Lorikeets These birds, while the loveliest of parrots, are, unfortu- nately, likewise the most delicate. Their tongues are finely divided and brush-like at the tip, as an adaptation to their habit of feeding on the pollen of flowers. Their beaks, while less powerful than those of other parrots, are still strong enough to crush small seeds, or, if necessary, to inflict very severe bites. Lories quickly become delightfully tame, and are ex- 152 PARROTS 153 ceedingly playful, performing antics much like those of a happy kitten. They will live in an ordinary parrot cage, but do best in a roomy aviary where their sportive instincts may be given full play. Like most parrots, they nest in hollow trees, and if suitable boxes and logs are provided, may occasionally lay eggs and rear their young, but success is not common. Although all of the species come from the East Indies, Australia or New Guinea, many are able to ~ live through the coldest winters in unheated aviaries. Lories occasionally learn to speak a few simple wards, but cannot be considered good talkers. “One of the greatest drawbacks to the keeping of lories is the fact that dealers almost invariably feed them on seed only. Many species will thrive for a time on this ill- considered diet, but death from fits is certain to follow, sooner or later. When birds thus fed are received, they must be brought gradually to eat suitable food, for after having had seed for a long period, they frequently are reluctant to change. The staple food of lories and lorikeets should be one of the various forms of “milksop.” The mixture is best made with sweetened condensed milk, diluted with boiling water, as the keeping qualities of this preparation excel those of Fe jal The milk, while hot, should be poured over biscuit or sponge-cake known to be free from harm- ful ingredients. In the New York Zodlogical Park, whole- wheat zweiback is used with very satisfactory results. Soft, ripe fruit, such as bananas, pears and grapes, as well as stewed apples and pears, should be furnished daily, as well as fresh green food when obtainable. Most species will eat a small amount of seed, preferably canary, millet or oats. Lories enjoy bathing, and water should always. be avail- able. The tails of the lories proper are comparatively broad and 184. BIRDS rounded at the ends; those of the lorikeets are long and sharp-pointed. Of the former, the Cuatrertnc Lory (Lorius garrulus) and the YELLow-BAcKED (L. flavopal- liatus) are most commonly seen. Both are, in the main, deep red with green wings. The latter has a yellow patch in the center of the back. The Purpie-caprep Lory (L. domicella) is somewhat similar, but has the head black, shading to purple on the nape, and a yellow pectoral band. The lorikeet most abundant in captivity is the BLUE Mountain or Swatnson’s (Trichoglossus nove-hol- landie), which frequently reaches this country in large lots. The birds invariably arrive in perfect condition, but drop off alarmingly if kept on the seed diet. It is a beautiful species, green above, with head and abdomen blue, a yellow band on the nape and a wide zone of reddish-orange across the breast. There are a number of similar, closely related birds, the best known of which is the RED-COLLARED LorI- KEET (T. rubritorques), easily DeHnesisied by the deep orange nuchal band. The ScaLy-BREASTED LorIKEET (Psitteuteles chlorolepi- dotus) is one of the most satisfactory species in captivity. It will live for a long time on seed and fruit alone, although, of course, a liquid diet suits it much better. It is less ornate than most, being green above, with the breast feathers yel- low edged with green; the under wing coverts are red. Cockatoos The cockatoos are a fairly homogenous group, easily dis- tinguished at a glance from other parrots. All of the species are crested, and the beak is usually thick and deep. White plumage is very prevalent among them, and solid black, an unusual color among parrots, is found as well. Their range is much the same as that of the lories. PARROTS 155 Many of the species are absolutely hardy and can with- stand the lowest temperatures with little or no shelter. This is especially true of the Sulphur-crested, Roseate, Slender- billed and Bare-eyed Cockatoos, and the Cockateel. Hand-reared cockatoos make excellent pets, but usually have a most annoying habit of screaming loudly and harshly. They often pick up a few words, and some individuals make very fair talkers. It is of interest to note that the sexes of many species of cockatoos may be distinguished by the color of the iris, which is dark in males and light reddish in females. Although, being short-tailed, cockatoos will keep in very good condition in a roomy cage, the larger species are much better off on stands. If given the privilege of space, they will derive much benefit, and occasion some amusement to the owner as well, by their clownish antics—throwing up the crest, spreading the wings and swinging inverted from the perch. Cockatoos should be given a mixture of sunflower and hemp seeds, oats, wheat, dari and a little canary, the in- gredients being varied as opportunity permits. Peanuts are welcome and beneficial, as well as ripe fruit, green food, peas in the pod, green corn and an occasional dry biscuit. Thoroughly boiled whole corn is relished by all parrots as a tidbit and is an excellent diet for a bird that is out of sorts. It must not be used too extensively for healthy adult birds, as it is very fattening in character. Pure water only should be provided for drinking and bathing. Aside from these items, nothing should be given to cockatoos or parrots. Meat, bones, tea, coffee, candy, cake, etc., should be especially avoided. Indulgence in such matters is the basis for most of the troubles to which captive parrots are subject. The SuLPHUR-CRESTED CocKaToo (Cacatua galerita), of 156 BIRDS Australia and Tasmania, is the best known species. It is white in plumage, with a long, narrow, yellow crest, and a tinge of the same shade in the tail feathers. Great quan- tities of adult birds are netted in Australia, and these form the bulk of the shipments which reach this country. Such birds are exceedingly wild and intractable, and become tame only after the most persistent efforts on the part of the owner. Young, hand-reared birds occasionally are seen, and such specimens should be sought for. The REp-cRESTED CocKAToo (C. moluccensis), of Ceram, is the finest of all. It is a large bird, rose-tinted white in color, with the longer feathers of the full crest bright vermilion. It is not common in captivity, but the few speci- mens seen are invariably hand-reared and enchantingly tame. The Great WuiTE Cockatoo (C. alba) is similar to the foregoing, but is slightly smaller and white in color, with the exception of an infusion of yellow in the wings and tail. The crest is longer than in the Red-crested. It is a native of the Molucca Islands. The LEADBEATER CocKaToo (C. leadbeateri) is an Aus- tralian bird. It is exceedingly handsome, being white above, with the head, neck and underparts strongly suffused with rosy pink. The crest is white at the tip and reddish at the base, with an intermediate band of yellow. When thrown up in display, the effect is very attractive. The Rosgate or “ Rosa” Cockatoo (C. roseicapilla) is the only common species which is not white in the main. It is a really lovely bird, pale gray above with the crown pink- ish-white, while the neck, breast and underparts are deep rose. It is very abundant in Australia, where it is known as the Galah, and is shipped in large numbers by the catch- ers. Specimens offered by dealers are invariably very wild and are difficult to tame. Although it is one of the poorest PARROTS 157 speakers among the cockatoos, it is sometimes sold by the unscrupulous as a “ gray parrot.” The CocKaTEEL (Calopsittacus nova-hollandie) is to the cockatoos as the parrakeets are to the parrots proper. Both sexes are ashy gray above, with white wing patch. The cock has the crest and face bright yellow, with an orange cheek patch; these markings are much duller in the female. It is a pretty, hardy bird, and individuals reared from the nest occasionally learn to speak a few words. It breeds freely if given its liberty in an aviary, nesting in prepared logs or other artificial receptacles. Macaws The macaws are the largest, and perhaps the gaudiest of the parrot tribe. Certainly they are the noisiest, the softest sound of which they are capable being a harsh rumble, and their loudest terrific beyond description. The writer has seen wild macaws on early tropic mornings, with their bril- liant plumage reflecting the first rays of the sun across the treetops. Under such conditions, as they flew along the silent waterways, their notes had decided charm. But within the confines of a room the shriek of a macaw is not a pleasant sound. Because of their long tails and their incurable habit of climbing wires, macaws are best kept on stands or on swing- ing perches. A light, strong steel band around one leg with a short chain, attached to a swivel and a sliding ring, are all that need confine the bird. These attachments, as well as the receptacles for food and water, must be strong and securely fastened, to withstand the persistent attacks of the powerful beak. Macaws should be fed as recommended for cockatoos. Most of the macaws which reach us have been reared 158 BIRDS from the nest by natives. These birds are reasonably tame, and often make fair talkers. Macaws are seldom to be trusted, however, and their strong, heavy beaks are dan- gerous weapons. There are about twenty species of macaws, of which only a few are generally seen in captivity. The Rep AND BLuE Macaw (Ara macao) and the BLUE AND YELLOw (A. ararauna) are the most common. The former is bright red in color, with green-tipped, yellow wing coverts and blue primaries. The latter is deep blue above, with bright yellow underparts. Both species are found from Central America to northern South America. The GREEN-WINGED Macaw (A. chloroptera) somewhat resembles the Red and Blue, but is considerably larger, with a heavier beak. It is a darker red, and has no yellow in the wing coverts, which are mostly green. Its range approximates that of the preceding. The Mizitary Macaw (A. militaris) is mostly bright green, with a red frontal patch. It is somewhat smaller than those already mentioned and is less common. It is found from Mexico to Peru. The most charming of all macaws are the blue species, of the genus Anodorhynchus. There are three forms, of which the least uncommon, as well as the finest, is the HyacinTHINE (A. hyacinthinus). This is a huge creature, nearly three feet in length, with a great hooked beak and of a deep cobalt blue, with the base of the lower mandible as well as the eye-rings yellow. This is an intelligent bird, very tame and confiding with those it knows and trusts, but decidedly averse to strangers. All of the species have rather obscure origins in central Brazil, and consequently are always rare and high in price. Green-winged Macaw (above) Lesser Sulphur-crested Cockatoo (below) PARROTS 159 Parrots Of the parrots proper, there are something over one hundred species, found in Mexico, Central and South America, the United States, Africa and Madagascar. Al- though brilliant coloration is not the rule, it is among these birds that the finest talkers occur. Parrots are usually kept caged, close confinement ap- parently not in the least affecting their health. The cage should be roomy enough to permit some exercise. The largest and strongest cages are usually those made of brass, but the danger of poisoning from corrosion is always pres- ent. For this reason, if for no other, tinned or galvanized wire is preferable. As many perches as the size of the cage will permit may be used. Many birds have a habit of chewing the perches, which may be lessened to some extent by providing bits of soft wood for the working off of energy. Food and water receptacles generally are made removable from without, a fortunate provision when the inmate must be cared for by a timid or unfamiliar person. A removable tray, which should be kept covered with clean sand or fine gravel, facilitates the removal of refuse. Par- rots swallow a considerable number of small stones, which are required for proper digestion of the food. The food of adult parrots should be much the same as that recommended for cockatoos. It is customary in this country to feed parrots very heavily on sunflower and hemp. It should be borne in mind, however, that both these seeds, particularly the latter, have a very heating and fat- tening effect. They should by all means be strongly diluted with oats, dari and canary seeds. Nuts, ripe fruits and green food may be supplied freely. As already stated, tea, coffee, meat, sweets, etc., must never be given. 160 : BIRDS Few parrots will bathe, but should be allowed to if they will. Otherwise the plumage should occasionally be sprayed with tepid water. \ There is a curious superstition existent among parrot- keepers, to the effect that these birds not only require no water, but are better off without it. The foundation for this absurd belief is not hard to find. When parrots, par- ticularly young birds, are being brought froni ‘the tropics, they are customarily fed on boiled corn or bread and milk. What moisture they require is obtained from the food. If such birds are suddenly given access to unlimited water, the effect on the digestive organs is dangerous, and may result in the death of the bird. On the other hand, if the parrot be given a drink daily, and then the water be removed for a short period, the bird will gradually become accustomed to it. Once this is accomplished, there is nothing to fear from clean water. Parrots of two types of disposition are seen in the New York bird market. There are wild, vicious individuals, caught while adult and almost untamable. Such birds should be avoided, no matter how low the price may be. The ma- jority of arrivals, however, are young, tame, hand-reared birds, very gentle and affectionate. A bird of this sort makes an interesting, clever pet, and if it is of one of the better-talking species, will learn quickly. - These young parrots, as already stated, generally are brought to New York on softened food. It is necessary, therefore, to continue this diet for a time, bringing the bird to hard seed little by little. The same course is necessary with the drinking water. Teaching a parrot to talk is not the difficult matter it com- monly is supposed to be. If the bird is young and tame, it will learn very quickly. It should be confined by itself, beyond the sight and sound of others, and its cage some- PARROTS 161 what darkened. Under such conditions, it will not be long in learning oft-repeated sounds. Short, simple words should be taken first, and the same one reiterated, until it has been thoroughly mastered by the bird, before another is taken up. The art of learning is acquired as the parrot grows older, so that accomplished birds are able to repeat fairly long sentences with very little instruction. In training a parrot one must not forget that one will have to endure the constant repetition of whatever the bird is taught. Reflec- tion on this point may have some effect on the selection of phrases, and the usual banal remarks of parrots may be avoided. While it is not at all uncommon for a cherished family pet suddenly to astound its owners by producing an egg, it is most unusual for these birds to breed in captivity. In fact, while the Gray Parrot has been bred, there seems to be no record of this event in the case of any Amazon. Parrots nest normally in hollow logs, and there is no reason to doubt that, in a large aviary suitably fitted up, the feat might be accomplished. The Gray Parrot (Psittacus erythacus), of western and central Africa, is the parrot par excellence. It is attractively colored—soft gray with red tail—and quickly becomes an accomplished talker. It is also a clever mimic, and excels other parrots as a whistler. Individuals with red feathers scattered through the plumage occasionally are seen. Such birds are known as “kings” and are credited with a superior degree of in- telligence which is, of course, purely mythical. It appears to be less hardy than Amazons when it comes to enduring dietary abuse, and wrong feeding will quickly upset it. Although it is imported in considerable numbers, the mor- tality is generally very high among freshly arrived birds, many being infected with psittacosis. Severe losses are be- 162 BIRDS ginning to discourage dealers, so that importations of these birds are yearly becoming less. . Unlike most parrots, the Gray is not difficult to sex. The female is generally smaller than the male, and the bare patch around the eye is rounded posteriorly in the former, but ends in a point in the sterner sex. Of the green Amazon Parrots, there are about forty-five known forms, but few of which are usually to be had from dealers. All of the common species are mostly green, with wings and tails variously marked with red, blue and yellow. It is the markings of the head, however, that are most characteristic, and as the following descriptions are for the purpose of identification only, we shall confine them to those parts. The YELLOW-HEADED AMAZON, or “ DouBLE YELLOw- HEAD” (Amazona oratrix), of Mexico, is the most popu- lar species. As implied by the name, the green plumage is enlivened by a head of pale yellow. The beak is white. The yellow is less extensive in young birds, covering a greater expanse as the parrot becomes adult. Parrots of this species become excellent talkers and also learn songs, their voices being particularly adapted to this form of vocal expression. The YELLOW-FRONTED AMAZON, or “ SINGLE YELLOW- HEAD” (A. ochrocephala), is somewhat smaller than the preceding, and has the yellow confined to the forehead only. The bill is blackish when adult, with base of the upper mandible fleshy-colored. It is found in northern South America. It is commonly imported, and makes a very good talker. The Panama Amazon (A. panamensis) is very similar, but has the bill white throughout. These species often are not distinguished in the trade. The GoLpEN-NAPED AMAzoN (A. auripalliata) ranges from western Mexico to Costa Rica. It is a large bird, with a yellow patch on the nape, which is wanting in im- PARROTS 163 mature specimens. The Golden-nape is a clever pupil, and pushes the Yellow-head closely in the question of superior- ity. This species is now imported more frequently than in former years. The BLUE-FRONTED AMAZON (A. @stiva) is green, like its congeners, with blue forehead and yellow face and throat, while the wings and tail are further diversified with red and blue. It is found from central Brazil to Argentina. This is a handsome, hardy species, very abundant in the New York market, but as a linguist not supposed to rank with the foregoing forms. The WHITE-FRONTED or CuBAN Amazon (A. leuco- cephala) was at one time the commonest parrot among dealers. Recently, however, its exportation from Cuba has been prohibited, so that is becoming uncommon. Some individuals make fairly good speakers, but the species can- not be considered as one of the best. Like most Amazons, it is green in general, with a white forehead, bordered on the crown with red, which extends to the cheeks and throat. The GREEN-CHEEKED AMAZON (A. viridigena), a Mexi- can species, was once so uncommon here as to be a rarity. Of late, however, it has been imported more freely, at times being the most abundant parrot in the market. Linguisti- cally, it is one of the least gifted, and has not become popu- lar. It is smaller than most Amazons and mostly green in color, with the cheeks of a brighter shade and the forepart of the head red. Parrakeets and Love-birds The parrakeets are included in a number of subfamilies, differing from each other sufficiently for a bird to be as- signed on sight, even though its species may not be recog- 164. BIRDS nized. There are three important groups: the Broad-tails and Grass Parrakeets of the Australian region, the -Ring- necks and allied species and the American forms. The characters which distinguish parrakeets from parrots are more or less arbitrary, but the possession of a long tail, whether pointed or rounded, is the most prominent char- acter. The American Conures and Parrakeets (ConuRINZ) make good cage birds, as most of the specimens which reach us are hand-reared and tame. It is not uncommon for them to learn to speak a few words. The cage should be of metal and large enough to provide room for the inmates. A number of the species have reared their young in captivity, but they must have the run of an aviary for this purpose. They nest in hollow logs, as do other birds of this order. The food should consist principally of oats, canary and millet, with the addition of a small quantity of sunflower and hemp. Green food and fruit should be furnished, as well as water for drinking and bathing, a privilege of which many parrakeets will avail themselves. The best known species are the Conures (Conurus), of which about thirty forms are known. All are characterized by the possession of long, pointed tails. Many are uncom- mon or rare, only a very few being abundant in the market here. Three closely allied species are seen in about equal por- tions, and divide the honors of popularity. These are the Aztec ConureE (C. azteca), of Central America, the Cac- Tus ConureE (C. cactorum), of southeast Brazil, and the BROWN-THROATED CoNURE (C. @ruginosus), of northern South America. All are green above, with brown faces and throats. The Aztec and Brown-throated are very simi- lar, but easily distinguished by the yellow ring around the PARROTS | 165 eye of the latter. The Cactus has the brown throat of a paler and softer shade and the underparts pale yellow. These are among the smallest of the conures, measuring about eight or nine inches. All make ideal pets, being hardy, tame, affectionate and amusing. The GoLDEN-CROWNED ConureE (C. aureus), of South America, is occasionally imported in some numbers. It isa larger bird than the foregoing, green, with forehead and eye-’ ring orange and the breast olive. It is a handsome species and lives well, but most of those seen here are. wild-caught and do not readily become tame. The BLACK-HEADED ConurRE (C. nanday), of Paraguay, has always been a rare bird in this country. During the past two or three years, however, there have been heavier im- portations of this species, so that it is now more often to be obtained. It is a large bird, reaching a length of twelve inches. It is green above, with brownish-black head. The lower throat and much of the wing is blue, while the thighs are red. Most of the birds offered here are wild-caught adults, but tame individuals are sometimes seen, which make -charming pets. , There are many other handsome members of this group, but none is obtainable with a frequency sufficient to war- rant its inclusion here. The Tovi ParraKEET or “ BEEBEE” (Brotogerys jugu- laris), of Mexico and Central America, is imported in greater numbers than is any other American parrakeet. It is a small bird, not much over six inches in length, mostly dark green, with a small orange spot on the chin. When thoroughly tame, as most specimens quickly become, it is a delightful pet. Although a pair will live together in friendly fashion, and evince every evidence of willingness to breed, there is no authentic record of this feat having been accom- plished. 166 BIRDS The BLUE-WINGED or PASSERINE PaRROTLET (Psitiacula passerina), a native of Brazil, is among the smallest of the parrot family, not exceeding five inches in length, including the stumpy tail. The male is bright green, with the rump and much of the wing bright blue, the latter color being lacking in the female. Because of ‘the affectionate nature of mated pairs, this bird has come to be known as a love- bird, although it is not closely related to those birds, which occur only in Africa, and have rounded instead of pointed tail feathers. These tiny creatures frequently become very tame, and are not at all difficult to breed, even in a small cage, if a suitable box or husk is provided. The chief food should be canary, millet and oats. The GRAY-BREASTED Or QUAKER PARRAKEET (Myopsit- tacus monachus), of southern South America, is the only bird of the parrot tribe which actually constructs its own nest. The true love-birds carry bits of bark and other soft material for lining their chosen cavity, but the Gray- breasted builds itself a huge, strongly constructed domed nest, of stout twigs, carefully interwoven. This bird is about a foot in length and light green in color, with the face and breast soft gray. It is often to be had, and has been bred in this country by at least one aviculturist. The Ring-necked Parrakeets and their allies (PALZor- NITHIDZ) are confined to the Old World. As a group they are not noted for their talking abilities, but the true Ring-necks often are talented speakers, and have a special bent for performing tricks. These birds are freer breeders than conures, and many species have been bred in captivity. Their feeding and general care do not differ from that described for the preceding group. The Ring-necked Parrakeets (Palgornis) include about twenty-five species, their center of distribution lying in southern Asia. The best known species is the INDIAN Gray Parrot PARROTS 167 RING-NECKED PARRAKEET (P. torquata). It is about six- teen inches long, including the narrow, tapering tail. The male is green in general, with a rosy collar on the hind neck, each extremity meeting a black band which passes backward from the base of the lower mandible. A second black band joins the eye and nostril. The female is somewhat smaller and lacks the head markings. This is a freely imported species, and frequently learns to speak. It is easily bred, if given an aviary of good size. The Inprian RinG or ALEXANDRINE PARRAKEET (P. nepalensis) is the giant of the genus, measuring about twenty inches. Its markings are very similar to those of the preceding species, with the addition of a large, rosy patch on the wing coverts. This, or one of three other closely allied forms, is believed to be the bird brought to Europe by Alexander the Great, in the third century, B.c. The BANDED PaRRAKEET (P. fasciata) has a wide range in southern and central Asia. It is mostly green, with gray head, vinaceous chest and yellowish-green wing patches. It has the black cheek and face stripes of the foregoing species, but the nuchal collar is green instead of rosy in the male. The upper mandible is red and the lower black, but the entire beak is black in the female. This bird is commonly confused with the very similar JAVAN PARRAKEET (P. alex- andri), which is distinguished by having both mandibles red, in both male and female. Neither of these birds is active or intelligent in captivity, and in this country both seem difficult to acclimatize. The BLossoM-HEADED PaRRAKEET (P. cyanocephala) is found in India and Ceylon. The male is of the usual green shade, with black mandibular stripes. The entire head is a rich plum red, and there is a small red mark on the wing coverts. The female is smaller and duller and lacks the red wing patch. Although not imported as frequently as 168 BIRDS some, this bird is not uncommon here. Like most of its congeners, it is hardy and long-lived. The Kinc ParRAKEET (Aprosmictus cyanopygius), of Australia, although not at all a common bird, still is to be had occasionally. For dazzling beauty, coupled with ex- treme longevity, it has hardly an equal among parrakeets. The adult male has the upper parts green, with the wings deep blue, while the entire head, neck and underparts are brilliant scarlet. The female has the red confined to the abdomen and sides. This is a quiet, phlegmatic bird, much given to sedentary habits. In spite of the lack of exercise, however, it has a never-failing appetite, the gratification of which does not seem to have the ill effect on the digestive system common to inactive birds. Of the true love-birds (Agapornis), there are ten known species, all found in Africa or the neighboring islands. Be- cause of the inaccessibility of the habitat of most of the forms, only five species have reached the hands of avicul- turists, and one, the Abyssinian (A. taranta), is so rare as to be negligible. A short, black-banded tail, consisting of feathers with rounded tips, characterizes all of the species. They are thus easily distinguished from the New World Parrotlets and the Australian Grass Parrakeets or Budgeri- gars, which are commonly miscalled love-birds. Mated birds exhibit the strongest affection for each other, which has given rise to their popular name. It is not true, of course, that in case of the death of one the mate will pine and die. But this legend is often given strength by the fact that the cause which brought about the death of one bird is very likely to have a similar effect on the survivor. Love-birds are commonly kept as cage birds, and once acclimated, most species live very well. In an aviary, how- ever, they are at their best, since most individuals are too wild for cage life. PARROTS 169 The Gray-headed and Black-cheeked, at least, are free breeders, the best receptacle being a box about 6” x 8”, with a suitable entrance hole. Besides the Gray-breasted Par- rakeet, the love-birds are the only parrots known to carry nesting material. In this case the lining only is provided. The favorite material is the bark of fresh twigs, which is shredded off and carried to the nest, tucked among the upper tail coverts. a Love-birds may be fed on the usual small seeds, with plenty of green food. The Gray-headed and Black-cheeked are perfectly hardy, and entirely unaffected by cold, if given shelter from wind and storms. The commonest species is the GRAY-HEADED or MapaGas- CAR LovE-BIRD (A. cana). This bird is a native of Mada- gascar, but has been introduced to neighboring islands. The cock is green, with gray head, the latter color being lacking in his mate. This bird is imported in considerable num- bers and is one of the commonest of cage birds. Before April, 1908, the BLACK-CHEEKED LovE-BIrRD (A. nigrigents) was unknown in captivity, and the five birds which arrived then caused a sensation. The situation, how- ever, was quickly altered, for in January, 1909, great quan- tities were received in London. Since then this bird has become very popular because of its handsome appearance and the readiness with which it breeds. It is green in the main, with brown crown, brownish-black cheeks, orange throat and red bill. There seems to be no reliable index of the sexes. The -Rep-FaAcED Love-Birp (A. pullaria), of West Africa, although once a very common cage bird, is now seen with increasing infrequency. It is less hardy than the other species, inclined to be nervous if closely caged, and is a very shy breeder. 170 BIRDS The Pracu- or Rosy-Facep Love-zBirp (A. roseicollis), of South Africa, is considerably larger than the foregoing. It has never been a common bird, but quite recently there have been fairly numerous arrivals. It is a beautiful bird, soft green above, with red forehead and rosy cheeks and breast. The rump is bright blue and the tail variegated with red, green, black and blue. In the female the color on the breast is less extended. ~ The Broad-tailed Parrakeets and their allies (PLATYCER- cIN@) include many beautiful species, the majority of which, although common enough in Europe, are seldom seen here. The subfamily is confined to the Australian region. : Although most of these birds will become tame if caged, and some even make very good pets, they are much better off in a capacious aviary, where their active habits may be given full sway. Under such conditions, many of the species are free breeders, but each pair must be separately confined. Nesting logs or boxes of good size should be provided. Most Broad-tails are absolutely hardy, being able to endure the coldest weather if provided with some shelter. Their feeding does not differ from that of other parrakeets. The Broad-tails proper form the genus Platycercus, in- cluding some sixteen species, all found in Australia. They are characterized by having the feathers of the back black- centered, giving a scaly appearance, and all have a long, wide tail. The RosELLA PARRAKEET (P. exrimius) is the best known species. The head and breast are red, with white cheek patches; the black back feathers have broad, yellow-green borders, while the wing coverts are blue. The tail feathers are blue, green and white. As in its congeners, the sexes are similar, but distinguishable by the smaller head and PARROTS 171 beak of the female. This bird is imported freely, and, once established, is very long-lived. The PALE-HEADED or MEAty RoseEtia (P. pallidiceps) has much the same pattern as the preceding, but the red of the head and breast is replaced by yellow, which color also borders the feathers of the back. It is not so commonly seen as its relatives, but is often to be had. The PENNANT ParrRakEET (P. elegans) is a really lovely bird. It is bright red in general, with blue cheek patches and wing coverts; the feathers of the back are black with crimson edges and the tail is blue. The plumage of the young birds is greenish, with the blue cheeks and wing coverts, the red appearing in patches. This beautiful species is perfectly hardy, and indifferent to cold once established. Unfortunately, a great percentage of the birds received here are infected with psittacosis, or badly infested with worms in the digestive tract, which makes their acclimatization a difficult matter. The only remaining member of this subfamily which reaches us in sufficient numbers to be regularly obtainable is the UNDULATED GRASS PARRAKEET, or BUDGERIGAR (Melopsittacus undulatus), the “ Shell Parrakeet ” of deal- ers. This little bird has become thoroughly domesticated and is bred in great numbers. It is one of the most common of cage birds and frequently is miscalled love-bird. The typical form is green, the feathers of the upper parts being narrowly tipped with black. The forehead, cheeks and throat are yellow, with a short band of blue and three round, black dots on each cheek. The tail is long and nar- row and blue in color. The sexes are similar, but may be known by the blue nostril and ceres of the male, as com- pared with the brown ones of the female. Continued breed- ing in captivity has produced a yellow variety which, when properly colored, is a very handsome bird. It is now almost 172 BIRDS as common as the green form. Some twenty-five or thirty years ago a blue variety appeared, but quickly died out. In November, 1910, three birds of this color were exhibited at a bird show in London by a Belgian aviculturist, who is stated to have secured them in France. For a few years following the reappearance of the lost variety a great effort was made to perpetuate it. Despite all, however, it has gradually decreased in numbers, and seems to be about to disappear for the second time. The three color phases of the Grass Parrakeet are par- ticularly interesting because of the splitting up of the typical green into its components, blue and yellow. The Grass Parrakeet is a hardy species, being indifferent to cold if well sheltered. It breeds freely, often in the con- fines of a cage. If turned into a fair-sized aviary, young birds in considerable numbers may be expected. Several pairs will breed together in perfect equanimity, if there are a sufficient number of nesting boxes. There should be about six inches in each dimension, with an entrance hole about one and one-half inches in diameter in one side, near the top. A perch should be attached outside, and the bottom of the box must be slightly scooped out, to keep the eggs together, as these birds carry no nesting material. The food of Grass Parrakeets should be simple. Oats, canary and millet are best, and should be supplemented with plenty of green food, particularly when young are in the nests. CHAPTER XV CAGE BIRDS Most of the families of the order of perching or passerine birds (PAsSERIFORMES) include some species which are suitable for cage or aviary, and it is here that the majority of the desirable ones are found. The great majority belong to the Finches, Weavers and Waxbills, Thrushes, Tanagers, Mynas or Jays, but there are few groups which are not represented. ‘The families mentioned combine propinquity and hardiness, these two factors easily accounting for their popularity. Numerous others would rank with them if the habitats of their members were more accessible, for many birds which live well in captivity are very difficult to obtain. A notable example is that of the Larks. The Sky- lark and the Wood-lark are the only species common in captivity in this country, although there are a great many species which, if they could be obtained, no doubt would be equally long-lived. The progress of avicultural methods is rapidly developing methods of treatment which permit the keeping of many birds formerly considered impossible, and new species are being introduced yearly. In the following pages space will permit the considera- tion of the most usual cage birds only. If others should, by chance, come into the hands of the amateur, their care usually may be deduced from that recommended for similar species. Bulbuls The Bulbuls (PycnonT1p#) are active, noisy birds, with some powers of song. There are nearly three hundred 173 174 BIRDS species, widely distributed in Asia, the East Indies and Africa. In captivity they are uncommonly hardy and long- lived. If kept in individual cages these should be roomy and must be cleaned frequently. As already stated, the box- type cage is most suitable for the bulbuls, as well as for other cage birds. These birds thrive best in an aviary of good size, but are not to be trusted with smaller or weaker species. Mated pairs are especially likely to be quarrelsome. Bulbuls belong to the “ soft-bill”’ group, and should be fed on soft food and fruit, which must be supplied daily. Most species are fond of live food and should have a few ‘meal worms or other insects daily. A comparatively small number of the known species are common in captivity. The one most frequently seen is the WHITE-EARED BuLBUL (Otocompsa leucotis), of Persia and India. It is earthy-brown above, with black head and white cheeks and ears, the lower parts are whitish and the under tail coverts yellow. This is said to be the bulbul of poetry, and some individuals are excellent singers, though many confine their vocal efforts to an oft-repeated call-note. The Rep-EARED BULBUL (O. jocosa) ranges from north- eastern India to China. It is somewhat similar to the pre- ceding, but has a pronounced crest. The white ear-patches are smaller and bordered above by a narrow tuft of red. It is thus a considerably handsomer bird than the White- eared, but its powers of song are not great. The Green Bulbuls ( Chloropsis) differ greatly from the more typical species in both habits and appearance. From their feeding methods, they are frequently known as fruit- suckers. They are lovely birds, in every way suited for cage life, being brightly colored, gracefully shaped and gifted with some powers of song and vocal imitation. They live well and quickly become very tame and confiding. Their CAGE BIRDS 175 only unhappy trait is quarrelsomeness. They are usually quite safe, however, in a mixed lot of birds of their own size, toward which they seldom exhibit pugnacity. Two cocks, however, and sometimes even a pair, cannot be placed to- gether, as they will fight to the death. Green Bulbuls are chiefly frugivorous in habit and should be fed on soft food, with an abundant supply of such fruit as bananas, oranges, grapes, pears, etc. Insects should be furnished as freely as possible. The only species generally obtainable is the GoLDEN- FRONTED GREEN BuLBuL (Chloropsis aurifrons), of the sub-Himalayan region. It is bright green in color, with blue shoulders. The forehead is rich orange and the cheeks and throat are covered by a black patch centered with blue, which extends to the beak. Babblers The Babblers and Jay-thrushes (TimeLmp#) form a heterogeneous family of more than six hundred species, found chiefly in Asia and more sparsely in Africa and the Australian region. The members of this group are exceed- ingly diverse in appearance, but have at least one trait in common—great longevity in captivity. The number of species regularly kept by dealers is limited, although some are very common. The Jay-thrushes, or Laughing Jays, are large birds, and some are very handsomely marked. Many are hardy and able to endure low temperatures if well sheltered. They are too active for cage life, and should be kept in a roomy aviary. Although not inclined to pugnacity among them- selves, they may not safely be kept with smaller species. There is a curious habit of tickling among most of the birds of this group, two birds, often of the same sex, sitting side 176 BIRDS by side and preening the feathers of the head and neck, to the evident enjoyment of the recipient of the attention. This habit is very manifest among the Jay-thrushes and often takes a pernicious form, many birds becoming habitual feather-pullers, and keeping the necks of their cage-mates bare of feathers. Jay-thrushes are almost omnivorous, and thrive on soft food, fruit, insects and chopped meat. The larger species will relish a mouse or young sparrow. The WHITE-HEADED Jay-THRUSH (Garrulax leuco- cephalus), a native of the Himalayas, is the handsomest species, as well as one of the best known. It is dark brown in general, with a head, neck and full crest pure white, with the exception of a black band through the eye. It reaches a length of nine or ten inches. The WHITE-THROATED JAY-THRUSH (G. albogularis), also of the Himalayas, is more abundant in the market than the foregoing. It is somewhat smaller, has only the throat white and lacks the crest. This is one of the most persistent of feather-pullers, and it is almost impossible to keep two birds together, unless in a large, well-planted aviary, where there is much to distract the bird’s attention. The Metopious Jay-THRUSH (Trochalopterum can- orum), otherwise known as the Spectacled Thrush and Chinese Thrush or Mocking-bird, is a native of China. It is brown in general, with a white eye-ring, extended back- ward in a short streak. This bird is an uncommonly fine singer, its notes being rich and sweet. Like its relatives, it is long-lived in captivity, but differs from them in its more gentle disposition. One of the most common of “ soft-billed” cage birds is the ReEp-BILLED Hiti-tir (Liothrix luteus), variously known to dealers as Japanese Robin, Pekin Robin and Chinese Nightingale. None of these names is correct, of CAGE BIRDS 177 course, at least as to the relationships of the bird, as it is not a thrush or nightingale. It inhabits the Himalayas, ex- tending into southwest China. It is a small bird, not much larger than an English Sparrow, but gorgeously colored. It may be roughly described as olive green above, with yel- lowish forehead. ‘The secondaries are bluish-black, with a yellow patch at the base. There is a yellow circle around the eye, running into gray on the ear coverts. The throat is rich yellow, which gradually grows fainter, the abdomen being whitish. The bill is red, sometimes with a blackish base. Males generally are brighter than females, particu- larly on the crown; however, this is not a constant character. A better one is the notes. These are a mere series of monotonous calls in the female, easily distinguished from the warbling song of the male, which ranks among the very best of songsters, the voice being loud, clear and varied. This species is very hardy in captivity, thus com- bining three attributes of the ideal cage bird—beauty, hardiness and a sweet song. It should be given soft food, fruit and insects, and if it is a mixed company it will often treat itself to a few seeds. It should not be associated in an aviary with breeding birds, as it has a bad reputation for interfering. The Hill-tit frequently builds its cup- shaped nests in captivity, but it is not often that young are reared. Thrushes The Thrushes (Turpip#) include not only the typical birds of this name, but a number of other forms closely allied to them. Many of our finest songsters are found here, and as most of the species thrive in captivity, it is not surprising that they are popular as cage birds. Of the more than seven hundred and fifty species, it is not possible to mention here more than a few of the best known. 178 BIRDS The Sone Turusu (Turdus musicus), which is found throughout northern Europe, is the only spotted-breasted thrush which is common in captivity with us. It is a large bird, not much smaller than our Robin. It is olive brown above and pale buff below, the chest being heavily marked with large, triangular spots of blackish-brown. The Song Thrush is always to be obtained from dealers, but unfortu- nately these birds are almost invariably wild-caught adults, which are extremely nervous and difficult to tame. Hand- reared birds are much steadier and become quite fearless. The Song Thrush is an excellent singer, its notes being very loud and clear. The cage should be of good size and not less than two feet in length. If the bird is unsteady, a cloth top is a wise precaution. The usual soft food, fruit, insects and an occasional bit of meat will meet all its dietary needs. The European Biacksirp (Turdus merula) is dis- tinguished from other Old World thrushes by the black plumage and yellow beak of the male, although there are several American forms which resemble it very closely. The female is a warm brown, with the breast slightly mottled. The Blackbird is a famous songster, its notes closely resembling those of our Robin. In captivity it is more philosophic than the Song Thrush, and altogether is a much more satisfactory cage bird. Its feeding habits are similar to those of the preceding species. The Bue SorirairE or “Criarino” (Myadestes uni- color) reaches New York from Mexico in considerable numbers. It is a dark-gray bird of medium size, with a white eye-ring, the plumage being very soft and thick. The Solitaire is a superb singer, perhaps the finest among birds. Its notes are clear, liquid and sustained, having a marked resemblance to silver chimes. It lives well in cap- tivity, but of course must be protected from draughts and cold, It is of exceedingly greedy habits, and will become CAGE BIRDS 179 monstrously fat if its diet is not carefully regulated. Soft food forms the base, but fruit is the main item, and a liberal allowance must be furnished daily if the bird is to thrive. The SHama TuRusH (Cittocincla tricolor) is found in India and Ceylon. It is a slender, graceful bird, with a rather small body but a long tail, which makes it appear larger. The male is shiny black above and on the chest, the rump and the tips of the outer tail feathers being white. The underparts are chestnut. The female, which is uncom- mon in captivity, is similar, but has the black replaced by ashy. It is an excellent singer, its song being a series of greatly varied phrases. It has also some powers of imita- tion. Although it is an exceedingly nervous bird, and sub- ject to sudden panics if alarmed, it quickly becomes tame and confiding, once it has become accustomed to its sur- roundings. Two birds of the same sex cannot be confined together, for they are very pugnacious. Soft food, with dried flies and ants’ eggs, and a good supply of meal worms, will keep the Shama in health. Some individuals will eat fruit, while others will not touch it. The NIGHTINGALE (Luscinia megarhyncha) is found throughout Europe and in Asia Minor. As a songster it needs no eulogy, but the bird itself is unknown to many. It is a delicate, slender creature, somewhat larger than the English Sparrow, rich rufus above, and the breast grayish- white, sometimes tinged with brownish. Most of the few Nightingales which reach the New York market are wild birds, caught in the autumn. Such birds rarely sing. Very occasionally hand-reared birds are of- fered. Such specimens are generally tame and likely to live well, but they seldom attain the full song of their species, if they sing at all. The best birds are spring migrants, caught in full song, and before mating is much progressed. They will resume their song very soon after 180 BIRDS capture, and will continue to sing throughout several months of each year. It must be admitted, however, that a singing Nightingale is a rarity, and may be valued as such. The Nightingale is frequently troubled with sore feet. Much of this difficulty may be avoided by furnishing the cage, which should always be of the box type, with natural twigs cov- ered with bark, rather than the usual ones of hard wood. The food must be highly insectivorous and contain an abun- dance of dried flies, ants’ eggs, etc. Meal worms and other insects must be supplied constantly. If the bird will eat fruit, it should be furnished freely. Warblers The Old World Warblers (Sytvimp#) are a numerous tribe, but the only species which is common as a cage bird on this side is the BLacK-cAP WARBLER (Sylvia atricapilla). This is a small bird, slightly less than the English Sparrow. It is gray above and below, with the crown black in the male and rufous in the female. The male is a beautiful songster, held by many to compare favorably with the Nightingale. As a cage bird it certainly is superior to that species, for it is much easier to keep and is more likely to sing. Black-caps thrive on the usual soft food, rich in in- sects, with a daily allowance of meal worms. Fruit and berries are relished as well. Black-caps are inclined to over-eat, and their diet must be restricted. Piping Crows The Piping Crows (Gymnorhina) are commonly as- signed to the Shrike family (Lantmp#). Two species, both Australian, are known, the WHITE-BACKED (G. hypoleuca) and the BLacK-BackeD (G., tibicen), each being divided CAGE BIRDS 181 into several subspecies. The White-backed Piping Crow is about the size of the American Crow. It is chiefly black, with the nape, back, wing coverts and base of the tail white. The bill is long, pointed and bluish-gray in color. The Black-backed is somewhat smaller, and differs in having the back black instead of white. These birds are charming whistlers, their notes having a curious, instrumental quality. Besides the natural song, they easily learn to imitate other musical sounds, and may be taught to whistle tunes. Some individuals learn to repeat simple words. Both species are perfectly hardy and require no artificial heat in winter, so long as they are properly sheltered. While some speci- mens will tolerate other birds in their cage, most are less liberal, and promptly attack any bird which may be intro- duced. Soft food, chopped meat, insects, mice and spar- rows make a suitable diet for these birds.: Larks Although the Larks (ALaupmiD2) include more than two hundred species, only two may be considered common in captivity in this country. The Skyiarx (Alauda arvensis) is the best known. It is one of the commonest cage birds and needs no description, its mottled sandy-brown plumage and long-clawed hind toe making it easily recognized. The Skylark sings freely when caged, but it must be said that its notes are not particularly pleasing under such condi- tions, the more natural surroundings of distance and blue sky being accountable for much of the bird’s charm. Sky- larks do not perch, so such furnishings are not needed in the cage. This should be of the box type with a canvas top, to prevent injury to the lark’s head in case it leaps upward. Lark cages usually are made with a semicircular projection at the front, to be floored with a piece of green sod, which 182 BIRDS the bird enjoys picking at, and where he often stands while singing. Larks may be fed on soft food, insects, greens and an occasional pinch of seed. The Woop-Lark (Lullula arborea) is smaller than the Skylark, stands higher from the ground, and has distinct chestnut ear-patches which form a ready key to identifica- tion. The Wood-lark is less common in captivity than the Skylark, but still is often to be had. Unlike its terrestrial relative, the Wood-lark frequently perches, and its cage should be equipped for this purpose. This species is an excellent songster, but does not sing so freely in captivity as does the Skylark. The food of the two species is similar. Finches Of the true Finches (FRINGILLIDZ) more than one thou- sand species are known. Although a great diversity of form and plumage is seen among them, all possess a beak strong enough for cracking seeds, a characteristic of the broad group of “hard-bills.” These birds are well suited for the attention of the budding aviculturist, as their food needs are easily supplied, no messy mixtures being re- quired. Bright plumage and cheerful songs are also in- cluded among their charms. All things considered, it is not remarkable that by far the greater part of our cage birds belong either to this family or to the Weavers (PLOcCEIDz). The food of all these birds is much the same. The base should consist of canary seed, to which may be added rape, millet, wild weed seeds, and oats, sunflower, hemp, flax and poppy or maw seed, as may seem advisable. German aviculturists commonly feed seed-eaters on a large propor- tion of rape, to avoid the fattening tendency of canary. However, the policy of English bird-keepers, who offer a variety of seed to offset the canary, seems more conducive CAGE BIRDS 183 to the health and condition of the captive. A few species are better for a little soft food, and many relish insects, fruit and berries. All require green food, which should be given freely, so long as it is fresh and crisp. Occasional specimens of many species are offered by our dealers at various times, but it is impossible to include all of them here. Nor is it feasible to attempt to enumerate them in their proper systematic order. For purposes of ex- pediency, therefore, it seems best to consider them, for once, in the groups to which the “trade” assigns them. As most of our birds reach us from Europe, it is not strange that the finches of that country should be imported in large numbers. Of these, the GoLpFincH (Carduelis carduelis) certainly is the most brilliantly colored. It is brownish above, with bright red face and black nape, a white half collar dividing the two colors. The greater coverts and the bases of the black white-tipped flights are yellow. The tail is black and the underparts whitish tinged with brown. The female is usually smaller and duller, and has the red blaze much restricted. The Goldfinch has a wild, sweet song, which it gives freely once it has become accus- tomed to cage life. When first caged, it is inclined to be very wild and nervous, but quickly becomes tame. Gold- finches require a liberal supply of thistle, poppy and similar seeds, in addition to their regular diet. The Linnet (Acanthis cannabina) is probably the finest singer among the European finches, its notes being particu- larly rich and well modulated. The adult bird is a rich brown, heavily striped with a darker shade. In the male the crown and breast are tinged with crimson, which disappears at the first molt in captivity. Young birds, which are some- what more grayish and lack the crimson, are known as Gray Linnets. The Linnet is generally steadier as a cage bird than the Goldfinch, quickly becoming very tame. It is 184 BIRDS particularly fond of hemp which must be fed very spar- ingly. The ButuFincn (Pyrrhula pyrrhula) is one of the most enchanting of cage birds. It is a soft gray above, with shining black cap, wings and tail. There is a white band over the lower back. In the male the breast is a rich rose color, replaced by gray in the female. The Bullfinch is a thick-bodied, full-breasted bird, with long, soft feathers, which enhance the appearance of plumpness. Even wild- caught adults take kindly to captivity, but the most at- tractive ones are those which have been reared by hand. These birds are exceedingly tame, and have many quaint habits which endear them to their owner. The Bullfinch’s only notes in the wild state are a clear, piping call and a curious little squeaky song, which it delivers with much gusto. It is a clever imitator, however, and young birds are easily taught to whistle simple tunes. Training Bull- finches has received much attention from the Germans, who have acquired supremacy in the art. These trained birds reach New York in some numbers each autumn and are quickly snapped up by dealers, as has already been described. In Germany they are usually fed on clear rape seed, but as they derive no harm and much pleasure from a mixed diet, it seems a pity to deprive them of it. They are fond of sunflower seed and have a mania for hemp, which must be given sparingly. All sorts of fruit and berries are rel- ished and fresh green food should be supplied freely. The European SISKIN (Spinus spinus) is a perky little bird with a rather weak and not particularly pleasant song. Its body is yellowish-green streaked with black. The cap and chin are black and the breast is yellow in the male, the general color being duller and the cap missing in the female. The Siskin becomes very tame in a cage, and will learn to take dainties from its owner’s fingers. Like the Goldfinch, a4TBI JOS ysnsyy eq ysniy yt suog CAGE BIRDS 185 it is fond of weed seeds, and these should predominate in the diet. ‘ The GrREENFINCH (Chloris chloris) is known to Amer- ican dealers as the “ Green Linnet.” The origin of this title is obscure, for the Greenfinch in no way resembles the Lin- net. The male is somewhat larger than the English Spar- row, of a general, rich olive tint, with bright yellow on the forehead, wing, tail and breast. The female is smaller and more inclined to gray than olive. The song is an insignifi- cant affair of three syllables. The Greenfinch should have the usual seed diet, with the addition of occasional live food. The Cuarrincy (Fringilla celebs) is among the com- monest of winter birds about the farms of northern Europe, and is freely imported here. The male is vinous brown in ‘general, with gray head and nape and the wing coverts barred with black and white. The female is similar, but grayish instead of vinous in general tone. It is quiet and confident in captivity, to which it quickly becomes accus- tomed. The song is a cheerful but rather monotonous repetition of several notes. In addition to the usual seeds, the Chaffinch should have a pinch of soft food and occa- sional insects. The BramBiine (Fringilla montifringilla), also known . as the Mountain or Bramble Finch, is closely allied to the preceding and resembles it in shape. The male has a rich chestnut breast, and the upper parts are black, each feather slightly edged with chestnut. The female is much duller in color. The Brambling has little song, but is an attractive and handsome bird. Its feeding habits are those of the Chaffinch. The YELLOWHAMMER or YELLow Buntine (Emberiza citrinella) is the best known representative of a genus which contains a great number of species that make desirable cage bitds when they are to be obtained. The upper parts, 186 BIRDS flanks and abdomen are rich brown with dark streaks, the ’ head and upper chest being yellow. The head is somewhat variegated with dark stripes and mottlings. The female is slightly duller than the male. It thrives on a diet of seeds, but is better for a little soft food and a few insects. The Singing Finches are a compact group, mostly African in distribution. They are closely allied to the canary, and frequently bear names which suggest this relationship. The Green Sincine Fincu (Serinus icterus), known among dealers as ‘“‘ African Siskin,” is considerably smaller than the common canary, but resembles it in shape. It is yellow-green above, with darker streaks, while the forehead, superciliaries, cheeks and underparts are bright yellow. There is a black mustachial streak and another through the eye. The female is smaller and less brilliantly colored. This little bird is a free singer, its notes bearing a faint resemblance to those of the canary. It breeds well in an aviary, but the cocks are very pugnacious, and will persecute other Serins if confined with them. The Gray Sincine Fincu, or “ EpEtstncer”’ (Polio- spiza leucopygia), is ashy-brown, slightly mottled above and whitish below. It is slightly smaller than the preceding and the same sexual differences exist. It is one of the finest singers among the smaller finches and is less pugnacious than the Green Singing Finch. Both species are hardy in cap- tivity, and will live for many years under proper conditions. Their food consists of a mixture of canary, rape, millet and wild seeds, with plenty of greens. The Sarrron Fincu (Sycalis flaveola) is the only repre- sentative of its genus well known in this country. It is very canary-like, greenish-yellow above, streaked with blackish. The forehead is bright orange and the underparts are yel- low. The female is somewhat duller than the male, but otherwise is similar. The Saffron Finch is now being im- CAGE BIRDS 187 ported from northern South America in some numbers. It is very easily kept, and breeds readily in an aviary. It is not a safe companion, however, for species smaller than itself. The Grassguits (Tiaris) are tiny birds, found chiefly, though not exclusively, in the West Indies. The most fa- miliar species is the MELopious Grassguit (T. canora), of Cuba, known in England as the Cuban Finch, and among ‘ American dealers by the native name Tomogina. The male is green above, with the head, throat and chest black. A broad crescent of bright yellow passes across the throat, from eye to eye. The female has the black on the throat replaced by chestnut, and the yellow collar is less distinct and the breast is gray. The YELLOw-FACED Grassguir (T. olivacea olivacea), also of Cuba, is similar to the preceding species, but lacks the yellow crescent, this color being confined to a streak through the eye and a patch on the throat. The Mexican form (T. 0. pusilla) is distinguished by the extension of the black from the chest over the abdomen. When first imported, the Grassquits are exceedingly deli- cate, but once established are very hardy. They are harm- less but active little birds, and the pleasant song of the male is an added attraction. Grassquits breed freely in avaries, building a domed nest after the fashion of Wax- bills, or taking advantage of an artificial receptacle. The Cardinals are large, vigorous birds, many of which are brightly colored. The commonest species in captivity with us is the RED-cRESTED CARDINAL (Paroaria cucullata), of southern South America. This is dark gray above and white below. The.strongly crested head, as well as the cheeks and throat, are bright red. It makes an engaging cage bird, as it lives well and becomes fairly tame. The song is not especially pleasing, but at least is cheerful. It has rather a bad reputation for spitefulness, and should 188 BIRDS not be trusted in the company of smaller or weaker species. The usual seeds form its diet, but as it is inclined to obesity, it must not be fed too liberally. The RED-HEADED CARDINAL (Paroaria larvata) is a na- tive of Brazil. It is gray above, the feathers edged with black. The head and throat are red and the underparts white. The head is not crested, as in the preceding species. This bird is somewhat less quarrelsome than the Red- crested and a slightly better singer, otherwise there is not much choice between them. Tanagers. The Tanagers (TANAGRID2) are exclusively South Am- erican. Among their numbers they include many beautiful species which make excellent cage birds. Unfortunately, however, none of them is at all common in the market here, and it is only on very rare occasions that any species is obtainable. But since exceptions do sometimes occur, a few words concerning them may not be amiss. The Tanagers which occasionally reach us fall naturally into three groups: the Euphonias (Tanagra), the Callistes (Tan- gara) and the larger species (Thraupis and allies). The Euphonias are mostly little bluish-black fellows, with yel- low crown and underparts. The Callistes are about the size of the English Sparrow and remarkable for the great variety of their brilliant plumage. The larger Tanagers include the SILVER-BEAKS (Ramphocelus) and the BLuE (Thraupis cana) and the Patm TanaceEr (T. palmarum), the latter two being offered less infrequently than most of the others. The Tanagers are chiefly fruit-eaters, and their diet must include a generous quantity of ripe fruits, such as bananas, oranges, soft pears, grapes, etc. It is best to sprinkle the fruit with soft food, as otherwise many will never touch the CAGE BIRDS 189 latter, and an exclusive fruit diet is not sufficient to keep them in health. A few. will eat meal worms, which should be given to such as will take them. Tanagers are sensitive to cold: and draught, but if kept in tight box cages and well cared for they live for long periods. Weavers The Weavers (PLocEIDz) contain a great number of species which are freely imported, their brilliant plumage and hardiness in captivity making them popular as cage birds. For ease in presentation, they are best taken in the sub-groups into which they naturally fall, the Whydahs, the typical Weavers, the Waxbills and the Mannikins and Grassfinches. Among the Whydahs, all of which are African, the males generally are chiefly black with long, flowing tails in most species, which make them wonderfully graceful when on the wing. The females are brown and sparrow-like in appear- ance, the males assuming a similar plumage during the ‘winter months. Whydahs make good cage birds, but are at their best in an aviary, where their beautiful flight is seen to the best advantage. A few species have been bred in cap- tivity, the nest being dome-shaped and usually close to the ground. Whydahs may be fed with the usual seed, white millet being a particular favorite.