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Mythology
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JavaneseMythology
and the
Tolerance
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Javanese
iTOKT Jl. DC. flNMWDM
MILL mOION INDONfUfl MOJUT
Southeast Asia Program
Cornell University
Ithaca, New York
1996Editorial Board
Benedict Anderson
George Kahin
Stanley O’Connor
Keith Taylor
Oliver Wolters
Cornell Modern Indonesia Project
640 Stewart Avenue, Ithaca, NY 14850-3857
Cornell Modern Indonesia Project No. 37
© 1965,1996 Cornell Modern Indonesia Project. All rights reserved. Published 1965.
Second Edition 1996. Reprinted 2004.
Except for brief quotations in a review, no part of this book may be reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the Cornell Modern Indonesia Project.
Printed in the United States of America
ISBN 0-87763-041-0
Cover: Buta arrives at the battleground to face Hanoman. From the Rama reliefs
at Panataran.Preface
All of those who are interested in contemporary Indonesian society, its
organization and social and political articulation, sooner or later come to
realize that in order to achieve any real depth of understanding for these
phenomena it is first necessary to appreciate the enduring and frequently
manifest residuum of traditional, pre-Western culture in Indonesia. Certainly this is
true with respect to Java, whose culture has of course had an impact far beyond the
shores of that island. In many cases these legacies of traditional culture help to
explain current phenomena; in addition they make much more understandable the
Javanese approach to religion—not only to Islam but also to Hinduism and
Buddhism, which were introduced to the island earlier. For they have conditioned
the way in which all outside ideas, Western and non-Western, have been received,
and they help to account for the particular patterns of synthesis which are woven
into the Javanese milieu. Most striking is the way in which persisting elements of old
Javanese culture affect contemporary values. An ability to accommodate to and
tolerate conflicting norms and ideas, the capacity to entertain in coexistence ideas
and values that would seem incompatible in many Western settings, an unusual
capacity for sympathetic toleration in social behavior—these are all attributes of
contemporary Javanese society deriving from old Javanese culture.
For the outsider, such elements are probably most easily approached and under-
stood through the traditional artistic medium of the wayang—the Javanese shadow-
plays based upon adaptations and developments of major themes and episodes in
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. These wayang plays, performed with flat leather
puppets which throw their sharply etched shadows against a screen which is viewed
from the other side, are as important a part of contemporary Javanese culture as they
were of the old.
To discern this relationship between the wayang plays and Javanese society, to
achieve an insight into the values which have been conveyed by wayang over the cen-
turies, and then to perceive these patterns of social conduct and morality in a dy-
namic phase of interaction and adjustment with the new values and social concepts
born in Indonesia of the Japanese occupation, the Revolution, and the rapid change
of a post-revolutionary society, is an accomplishment few non-Indonesians would be
capable of. Nor, indeed, would it be possible for most Indonesians, for their in-
volvement in the culture and the society is so close that they miss the perspective
necessary to appraise and describe these phenomena to an outside audience.
Mr. Benedict Anderson's study of the wayang and its sociological and psycho-
logical significance is, I believe, a real contribution to our understanding of Javanese
culture and values. A political scientist by training (he has recently returned from
Indonesia after three years of research there, primarily on the Revolutionary period),6 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
he has long been interested in Javanese art, drama, and music and has achieved un-
usually deep insights into these aspects of the Javanese civilization. Mr. Anderson
wishes to emphasize that this study is exploratory in nature and that the conclusions
he reaches are tentative. He would welcome comments and criticism on the material
he is presenting.
George McT. Kahin
Director
Ithaca, New York
August 24,1965Table of Contents
Preface	5
Contents	7
List of Illustrations	9
Introduction	11
Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese	13
Appendix I: Supplementary Characters	47
Appendix II: Mahabharata: A Javanese Version According to the Lakons 75
Appendix III: Genealogies of the Mahabharata (Javanese Version)	85
Appendix IV: Ramayana: A Javanese Version According to	the Lakons	89
Glossary	101List of Illustrations
Figure	1	Prabu Salya	19
Figure	2	Dewi Satyawati	20
Figure	3	Begawan Bagaspati	21
Figure	4	Raden Abimanju	22
Figure	5	Prabu Judistira	23
Figure	6	Raden Wrekudara (Bima)	24
Figure	7	Raden Ardjuna	25
Figure	8	Prabu Kresna	26
Figure	9	Prabu Baladewa	27
Figure	10	Adipati Kama	28
Figure	11	Raden Kumbakarna	30
Figure	12	Dahjang Durna	32
Figure	13	Raden Drestadjumena	33
Figure	14	Prabu Sujudana	34
Figure	15	Dewi Sumbadra	35
Figure	16	Dewi Srikandi	36
Figure	17	Kjai Lurah Semar	37
Figure	18	Batara Guru	38
Figure	19	Raden Samba	41
Figure	20	Raden Gatutkatja	44
Figure	21	Betari Durga	47
Figure	22	Batara Narada	48
Figure	23	Batara Surya	49
Figure	24	Sang Hyang Baju	50
Figure	25	Prabu Matswapati	51
Figure	26	Begawan Abjasa	52
Figure	27	Resi Bhisma	53
Figure	28	Prabu Drupada	54
Figure	29	Bambang Aswatama	55
Figure	30	Dewi Banowati	56
Figure	31	Raden Lesmana Mandrakumara	57
Figure	32	Patih Arja Sangkuni	58
Figure	33	Raden Dursasana	59
Figure	34	Raden Djajadrata	60
Figure	35	Raden Burisrawa	61
Figure	36	Raden Nangkula-Raden Sadewa	62
Figure	37	Raden Setyaki	63
Figure	38	Togog	6410 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Figure	39	Gareng	65
Figure	40	Petruk	66
Figure	41	Bagong	67
Figure	42	Tjangik	68
Figure	43	Limbuk	69
Figure	44	Buta Tjakil	70
Figure	45	Buta Terong	71
Figure	46	Garuda	72
Figure	47	Djurumeja	73
Figure	48	Brahala	74
Figure	49	Prabu Drestarata	76
Figure	50	Raden Widura	76
Figure	51	Dewi Kunti Nalibrata	77
Figure	52	Dewi Drupadi	77
Figure	53	Prabu Parikesit	84
Figure	54	Prabu Dasamuka	89
Figure	55	Raden Wibisana	90
Figure	56	Dewi Sinta	91
Figure	57	Raden Indradjit	91
Figure	58	Prabu Rama	92
Figure	59	Raden Lesmana	93
Figure	60	Dewi Sarpakenaka	94
Figure	61	Raden Hanoman	95
Figure	62	Prabu Sugriwa	96
Figure	63	Dewi Tridjata	97
Figure	64	Patih Prahast&	98
Figure	65	Kekajon (Gunungan)	105
These illustrations are drawn from J. Kats, Het Javaansche Tooneel, J, Wajang Purwa,
Weltevreden, 1923, and Hardjowirogo, Sedjarah Wajang Purwa, Perpustakaan
Perguruan Kementerian P. P. & K., Djakarta, 1955. For technical reasons, it has not
proved possible to reproduce them all to scale.Introduction
I would like to make it clear that the following essay is essentially exploratory,
designed to raise certain questions about Javanese culture and values. The
main idea has been to take wayang out of the framework of drama and literary
studies in which it has traditionally been confined and try to put it in a wider
sociological and psychological context, to see what clues it may provide for a deeper
understanding of Javanese society. What I have said is in no sense to be taken as
anything more than a preliminary and very incomplete attempt to explain a small
part of this vast subject. I am aware that many opinions and judgments have been
expressed with what will seem to be excessive assertiveness and perhaps
unnecessary acerbity, but this has been done at least partly on purpose, in the hope
thereby of arousing interest and discussion in an area of Indonesia studies largely
neglected in our time. I realize only too well the superficiality of my own knowledge
of the immense complexities of Javanese civilization and can therefore only hope that
the inadequacies of this essay will earn at least the tolerance of Indonesian readers.
Some of the basic ideas of this essay I owe to talks in Djakarta with Professor G. J.
Resink in 1964, though it goes without saying that anything said here is entirely my
own responsibility. I would like to acknowledge with gratitude the help of Mrs.
Claire Holt, Mrs. Arlene Lev, Mr. N. Tirtaamidjaja, and Mr. Pandam Guritno
Siswoharsojo, who read parts of the text and made many invaluable suggestions. I
would like also to thank Mrs. Susan Finch for her contribution towards whatever
order and clarity the final version of this manuscript has.
Benedict R. O'G. Anderson
Ithaca, New York
August 7,1965Mythology
AND THE
Tolerance of the Javanese
I
Most Europeans and Americans who have lived long in Java sooner or later fall
under the spell of her ancient civilization. Yet the specific quality of Javanese life and
culture which impresses the foreigner seems regularly to elude description. In earlier
decades observers were fond of referring to 'Javanese syncretism" and the "Javanese
sense of relativism." But especially since the outbreak of Indonesia's national
revolution, it has become popular to speak of the "tolerance" of the Javanese as their
quintessential characteristic. Whether or not the Javanese themselves traditionally
regarded tolerance as one of their salient ethnic traits, nowadays they too are likely
to take a quiet pride in their reputation for broadmindedness and savoir vivre.
The growing unanimity of devoted foreigners and of the educated Javanese on
the wide prevalence of tolerance in Javanese society can be accounted for by a large
number of psychological, political, and historical factors which need not concern us
here. Nonetheless this unanimity has tended to shield the idea of Javanese tolerance
from even friendly scrutiny and analysis. It is therefore the hope of shedding some
light on the concrete social and cultural aspects of this "tolerance" that guides the
highly tentative discussion that follows.
II
It should be said first of all that the "Javanese sense of relativism" should in no sense
be understood as a generalized tolerance of differences regardless of race, color, or
creed. It does not, as a rule, extend unconditionally to the other ethnic groups in
Indonesia, to whom the Javanese normally feel a little superior. Nor does it include
the Chinese and Europeans, the other significant alien groups in Java. Both these
communities wear an ambiguous prestige, inherited from the colonial age. The
Javanese advise against marriage with Chinese, observing that "their ashes are
older"—in other words, that the children are likely to prove more Chinese than
Javanese. Yet certainly the Chinese are more generally accepted in Javanese society
than, for example, among the Sundanese. But this is largely because Chinese
settlement in Central and East Java goes back for many generations, and the local
Chinese have largely assimilated to Javanese culture. In the Priangan, from which the
Chinese were barred till the early part of this century, immigration is new; and the
clash of contrasting cultures still stirs enmity and distrust. As for the Americans and
Europeans, even today they profit from the residues of colonial racism. White14 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
visitors, especially those from the intellectual and official class, are usually treated
with high deference. Eccentricities are accepted gracefully, but as part of an alien
order without direct relevance for Javanese life.
If, then, tolerance is not strikingly evident in the relationships of the Javanese
with outsiders, in what does it consist? What do the Javanese themselves have in
mind when they speak of this characteristic of their culture? There can be little doubt
that for the average Javanese the idea of toleransi, as such, is inextricably associated
with the peculiar nature of religion in Java. Somewhere at the back (or front) of his
mind will be lurking the problem of his relationship to Islam. A typical Javanese
formulation might well be: "Of course I am a Moslem, but not a fanatical Moslem
like the Atjehnese. We Javanese can get along with Christians and Buddhists. We see
truth in all religions and are not exclusive in our beliefs."
Yet behind this theological broadmindedness and rational sophistication there is
evident a certain disingenuousness. For the fact is that though the Javanese are
overwhelmingly an Islamic people on paper, the real spiritual commitment of the
great majority to this religion is little more than nominal. The voting strength of the
confessional Islamic parties on Java is to be found primarily among the alien
Sundanese of West Java and the Madurese of Madura and the Oosthoek. Islam
among the ethnic Javanese is strongest in the commercial townships of the Pasisir
(North coast), which historically have been most influenced by foreign cultures—
Chinese, Arabic, and European—and which, politically and socially, are most remote
from the geographic heartland of Javanese civilization in South Central Java. Since a
majority of Javanese do not feel themselves to be Islamic in any profound sense, their
tolerance of non-Islamic religious beliefs is scarcely a matter of high principle. In
many cases it is simply a useful defense against the political and moral claims of an
aggressive and orthodox Islamic minority. In the classical opposition within Javanese
communities between santri (committed Islamic) and abangan (nominally Islamic)
groups, "tolerance" is basically a weapon to deny ascendancy to the santri and assure
the continued legitimacy of traditional abangan domination.
This becomes all the clearer when one looks at the attitude of many abangan
Javanese towards Christianity. In various areas of East and Central Java, Protestant
and Catholic sects have played an important historical role. Like Islam, Christianity
offered a release for those who suffered too cruelly from the frustrations generated
by a static, traditional society. Becoming a Christian removed a man from the
established hierarchies of the Javanese community, in which rank and religion were
inextricably intertwined since the highest spiritual powers were attributed to the
temporal rulers of Java, such as the Susuhunan of Surakarta and the Sultan of
Jogjakarta. Of the rival Christian sects, it has been the Catholics who have made the
most spectacular progress in Java, since their clergy are mostly Javanese, and they
have generally shown a sophisticated willingness to make the necessary adjustments
to traditional Javanese ideas and prejudices.
Nevertheless, there has always been an inescapable loss of caste involved in a
Javanese becoming a Christian. In the colonial period, to be sure, Javanese Christians
won a certain position in the community through sharing a religion with their
colonial rulers. Since the revolution, this ambiguous prestige has naturally vanished.
But it is not simply the previous colonial associations which underlie the widespread
feeling that Javanese Christians, even Javanese Catholics, do not really belong to the
Javanese family in the fullest sense. Like the strongly Islamic santris, Christians are
felt to threaten the stability of the traditional order by making claims to social honorMythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese 15
which cannot be justified within that order. Such feelings tend to be especially strong
at the present time, when the grave problems of Javanese and even Indonesian
identity are intimately bound up with the disintegration of traditional society.
Even in the strictly theological sphere, Christianity usually wins approval only in
a very limited sense. The Javanese sees "truth/' but not "the truth," in all religions. In
other words, he looks for and approves those Christian ideas which are felt to be
tjotjog (in harmony) with the Javanese Weltanschauung. The rest are completely
ignored. Christianity is valid to the extent that it approximates to the Javanese
religion.
Many non-Christian Javanese send their children to the excellent Catholic
schools in the larger cities. But it is usually with the firm, if unstated, understanding
that they will not become Catholics. The schools are popular insofar as they offer
access to the secular Western education which is increasingly the sine qua non of
social mobility and an honorable career.
Christianity, then, and particularly its Catholic variant, is tolerated for quite
specific social and political reasons. In institutional form it offers a widely respected
means of access to modernity; as a religious organization it provides a highly
respectable pretext for fending off the political, social, and moral claims of orthodox
Islam. Where Christianity acquires prestige in itself, it is insofar as it conforms to a
Javanese ethos and a Javanese conception of life.
Another illustration of the Javanese idea of religious tolerance is the Javanese
attitude towards Buddhism. On Java, the Buddhists are a very small group indeed;
yet they have considerable prestige for a variety of reasons. Their numbers are
drawn almost exclusively from metropolitan and provincial elite circles—high army
officers, government officials, and wealthy, established Chinese. Moreover, in the
collective Javanese memory Buddhism is associated with the Tantric religion of the
pre-Islamic epoch in which the great Javanese empire of Modjopahit reached the
apogee of its glory. The fact that Modjopahit was finally humbled by a coalition of
North coast Islamic states, led by Demak, ushering in the so-called Dark Ages of
Javanese history and eventually Dutch colonial rule, is nowhere forgotten. For the
largely abangan Javanese ruling class, which is pleased to trace its political and
familial ancestry back to Modjopahit, an ill-defined "Buddhism" has thus very
favorable connotations. Moreover, in the traditionalist abangan religious culture,
which has been engaged in an ill-concealed competition with Islam for many
centuries, there are undoubtedly still existent many Tantric Buddhist-derived
elements.
Yet on the other hand, the Balinese religion, which also contains Buddhist as well
as Hindu (Shivaitic) and animist elements and probably approximates reasonably
closely to the historical Tantric religion of Modjopahit, is regarded with scant respect.
It is clear that this is because the Javanese, as an ethnic group, look upon the Balinese
and their way of life as kasar (coarse), rame (noisy), and desa (peasant, primitive). To
this day, the agama Bali (Balinese religion) has not been accorded full recognition by
the Javanese-dominated government in Djakarta.
In brief, the crucial factors to be taken into account if one is assessing the degree
of real religious tolerance in any particular case are the ethnic and class associations
of the relevant religious group. One should not argue that the Javanese are tolerant
of Christianity and "Buddhism" as such, but insofar as these religious systems have
been assimilated to "Javanism" and to the extent that their adherents are respectable
Javanese.16 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
III
It may appear from the foregoing discussion that what has been widely regarded as
an admirable broadmindedness among the Javanese is simply a rather subtle form of
cultural chauvinism. Yet in fact nothing could be further from the truth. But only
when certain generalized misconceptions have been dispelled can one perceive
clearly the real and, it seems to me, admirably wide dimensions of the Javanese
respect for human variety. For the real character of Javanese "tolerance" should be
sought not in any abstract "humanist" acceptance of conflicting ethical or religious
systems, but rather in the Javanese people's sense of their own personality and
traditions. The immense strength of Javanese cultural self-consciousness is illustrated
by the fact that immature children are said to be durung Djawd—"not yet Javanese"—
rather than, as we might put it, "not yet adult." But it is just this proud self-
confidence which forms the emotional and psychological underpinning for the "real"
Javanese tolerance. So deeply ingrained is this pride that almost anything is
tolerated, provided that it can be adapted to or explained in terms of the Javanese
way of life.
One of the most striking contrasts between Western society and that of Java is
the general absence in the first as compared with the pervasive presence in the
second of a compelling religious mythology. This one could define as a set of
national or cultural symbols commanding allegiance reasonably uniformly over a
whole society, both horizontally through every region and vertically through every
social class. Certainly in contemporary Western society there are no religious myths
which have this kind of universal grip and relevancy. The traditional Christian
myths survive largely as imposing, melancholy ruins in the flat landscape of our
secular civilization. It is, of course, evident that much of our behavior is still
regulated by the residues of Christian norms and values. Nevertheless, these values
increasingly lack a convincing imagery of persuasive symbolism to give them
urgency. If one refrains from committing adultery it is likely to be because one feels it
"wouldn't be fair," or because one is too lazy, busy, or timid, rather than because
Paris suffered bitterly for his rape of Helen or because Moses brought down his
graven tablets from Mount Sinai, Our morality grows steadily more pragmatic—
without poetry or metaphysics.
In Java, for historical reasons which are too complicated to enter into here, there
is still an almost universally accepted religious mythology which commands deep
emotional and intellectual adherence. This is what I shall call, for convenience, the
wayang tradition, from the much loved shadow-play of that name which is the main
preserver and transmitter of that tradition. Wayang, like any other metaphysical and
ethical "system," is concerned to explain the universe. Though partially based on the
Indian epics Mahabharata and Ramayana, the Javanese wayang mythology is yet an
attempt to explore poetically the existential position of Javanese man, his
relationships to the natural and supernatural order, to his fellow-men—and to
himself. In contrast to the great religions of the Near East, however, the religion of
wayang has no prophet, no message, no Bible, and no Redeemer. It does not conceive
the world as moving in any linear trajectory, nor does it preach a universal message
of salvation. It does not offer the ecstasies of the Christian apocalypse, merely the
inexorable flux. The world-view expressed in this religious tradition has been aptly
epitomized by Mrs. Claire Holt as "a stable world based on conflict." Yet the sense of
underlying instability is no less important than the sense of permanence. If a wheel
spins eternally on a fixed axis, is it changing or unchanged?Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese 17
IV
The endless variety and sharp individuality of its dramatis personae indicates that
wayang reflects the variegation of human life as it is felt by the Javanese.
Nevertheless, this teeming multiplicity is ordered by clearly marked dichotomies.
There is, for example, the fundamental cleavage between Left and Right, Sepuh and
Nem (Old and Young), Kurawa and Pendawa, which at bottom grows out of a sense
of the obvious dualities of the Universe: male and female, sun and earth, mountain
and sea, night and day, age and youth. All are necessary and complementary to one
another. Day is not day without night, and youth is not youth without age peering
over its shoulder. The harmonious tension and energetic stability of this
Weltanschauung are in essential opposition to the cosmologies of Christianity and
Islam in which the Supreme Being is quite unambiguous, representing only one set
of "poles" (maleness, goodness, light, and reason). It must be acknowledged that
recently, under Christian, European influences, probably dating back to the end of
the last century, there has been a tendency in Java to simplify the older, complicated
interrelationships. Tolerance of ambiguity has begun to decline, and wayang has
tended to be devalued towards a commonplace morality play between Good and
Evil.1 The growing popularity of this type of interpretation reflects an attempt to
assimilate Javanese to Western civilization. But it should always be stressed that this
is not the older, subtler Javanese tradition and not the relativistic religious
conception which has suffused Javanese life, religion, and art for hundreds of years.
The division on the kelir (wayang screen) between Kurawa and Pendawa is often
today taken to represent the conflict between Evil and Good. Yet the deeper
complementarities and ambiguous interconnections of human existence are
cunningly exposed by the irony that Left and Right are not absolute. Depending
whether, at a wayang performance, one watches the puppets or their shadows, right
becomes left and left right. Both are merely in the eye of the beholder.
The other important division in the wayang world stems from the close
relationship between Javanese religious thinking and a particular historically
determined social order. "Javanism" is a world-outlook inconceivable in an
egalitarian and meritocratic society. The ancient Southeast Asian conception of the
God-King, by which the temporal ruler represented divine power incarnate and the
king's subjects partook of this power in exact proportion to their proximity to the
throne, permeates the wayang world. Both symbolically and in everyday practice, the
Javanese social hierarchy reflected a cosmological perspective in direct contrast to
that of Islam and Christianity. These religions present a stark contrast between Man
and God, engaged in direct dialogue across the infinite and silent spaces which so
terrified Pascal. For the Javanese, however, the cosmos is not only teeming with life
and living energy but is also elaborately ranked and ordered. Java has never had a
caste system. Yet something of the pure idea of caste, shorn of its rigid Indian
barbarities and with greater emphasis upon function than on birth, struck and
1 This kind of interpretation has unluckily been encouraged by transient foreign
commentators, who have too often imposed their own moral conceptions on a tradition they
failed fully to comprehend.18 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
maintained strong roots as the appropriate symbolic expression of an hierarchical
community.2
Implicit in an unequal hierarchical social order is the idea that each rank or level
has its own peculiar functions within the social structure. Each order is dependent on
all the others. If one fails to function, all the others suffer the consequences. Thus, the
King communicates with the supernatural powers and secures their benevolence; the
brahmand perform the rituals of state and transmit the culture of the community to
the next generation; the satryd have the duty of administering the government and
protecting the state from external attack; the traders maintain economic prosperity,
while the artisans construct the material apparatus of the civilization. Out of the
concept of function there now emerges the idea of morality. Precisely because all
functions are interrelated, and because each order is essential to all the others, social
approval for individuals within each order depends on how adequately they fulfill
their order's functions. Thus, a satryd who behaves perfectly in the artisan "manner"
is a bad satryd, regardless of the good work that he may in fact do. A trader who lives
as a trader is a better member of society than the trader who leads the life of an
ascetic brahmand.3 So there develops a stratification of moralities according to caste
and class, each of which may be in contrast or conflict with the others. The
harshnesses of this conception are mitigated by Buddhist influences, which prevent
any absolute value being attached to a particular class or its morality. The final goal
is not earthly morality but absorption into the Infinite. The ideal mode of behavior is
to acquit oneself appropriately according to the "rank" to which one's nasib (fate) has
assigned one, without attaching any permanent importance to it.
This moral pluralism suffuses the whole world of wayang. For example, the
criticism leveled at the Kurawa is not that they are bad men but bad satryd. The hero
Adipati Kama fights on the Kurawa side but is approved of because he lives and dies
as a real satryd should. In one early lakon, or play, when Kama's high satryd origins
are still unknown, he enters and is about to win an archery contest when he is
stopped and roundly abused by the Pendawa. They sneer at him for abandoning the
appropriate life-style he inherited from his supposed father, a charioteer. The
Javanese audience watching the lakon will undoubtedly feel disturbed at this point.
But they will be upset not on the general grounds that such arrogant abuse is,
humanly speaking, reprehensible, whoever the target, but because they know that all
the time Kama is really a satryd. Thus the Pendawa's behavior is inappropriate, or, as
the Javanese put it, ora pantes.
In this idea of "appropriateness" we discover a concept central to Javanese
ethical theory. And this ide,' is itself rooted in the inter-dependencies of a complex
and sophisticated hierarchk 1 civilization. Thus although the ethical requirements of
each life-style in the wayang may be rigid and austere, the existence of a plurality of
such life-styles, each with its own code of behavior, gives the wayang world a wide
variety of psychological contrasts, a sumptuous array of characters, and, on occasion,
an unmatched moral poignancy.
2	This hierarchical feeling is fundamental to the unique structure of the Javanese language,
which employs two radically different basic vocabularies—called kramd and ngoko—according
to whether the person addressed is higher or lower on the social ladder than the speaker.
3	Such is the general rule. Of course individuals with exceptional talents or magical powers
may transcend these social norms. But these individuals, insofar as they successfully reveal
their powers, are taken by society to be "really" members of the group to which they aspire
behind the surface appearance of, say, simple traders.Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese 19
In one well-known lakon, the young, handsome, and virtuous Salya discovers
that his bride, Dewi Satyawati, is the daughter of a raseksd^ (monstrous giant) hermit
known as Begawan Bagaspati. The young couple are deeply in love. Satyawati and
her widowed father are strongly attached to one another. Salya himself has,
personally, nothing but respect for his father-in-law. Nevertheless, it is felt to be
"inappropriate" for Salya, a prominent satrya, to have a raseksd in his family. It is
understood by all parties that Salya and Satyawati's marriage cannot be fulfilled so
long as Bagaspati remains alive. Thereupon, Bagaspati orders Salya to kill him, since
he himself wishes the marriage to endure for his child's sake. And as a marriage-gift
he bestows on the young man the celebrated and invincible magical weapon
Tjandabirawa. Salya agrees to carry out the old raseksd's wishes, though he is well
aware that this murder is in its own way a violation of the satrya code and that he
will eventually have to pay the price with his own life. The deed is done, and Salya
rides off with Satyawati to his family's palace in Mandraka.
Fig. 1 Salya
4 The raseksd are the traditional enemies of the satrya in most wayang stories. They are often
taken to represent the demonic forces, where the satrya represent the powers of reason and
order.20 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
For the Javanese
audience, the moral ambi-
guities of this simple
episode are a matter of end-
less debate. What was
Salya's real duty? Where
should Satyawati's loyalty
have lain? What were
Bagaspati's real designs?
Which of the three showed
the deepest nobility of char-
acter? Was it Salya, who
agreed to murder to keep
the honor of his satryd fam-
ily undefiled and accepted
his own violent end as a just
retribution? Was it Satya-
wati, who sacrificed her
father for her beloved
husband? Or was it Bagas-
pati, who put his daughter
and her lover before himself
yet, as he lay dying, proph-
Fig. 2 Satyawati	esied that he would return
to wreak vengeance on
both?
Or another well-known example. At the height of the Last War between the
Kurawa and the Pendawa, known as the Brat&juda Djajabinangun, Ardjuna (see Fig.
7, page 25), the best-loved of the Pendawa, is about to engage in single combat with
his elder half-brother Adipati Kama (see Fig. 10, page 28). In great anxiety of mind,
he turns to his spiritual mentor, Prabu Kresna (see Fig. 8, page 26), and confides his
deep unwillingness to fight. The Kurawa, in spite of everything, are his brothers and
cousins, and in such a fratricidal slaughter the victors will be more wretched than the
vanquished. At least the latter will attain the real goal of every satryd, an honorable
death on the field of battle. Kresna answers briefly that the true satryd is never
swayed from the path of duty by personal sentiment or family feeling. In any case, it
has long since been fated that Ardjuna shall destroy his brother Karnd. Kama himself
knows that he is destined to die at Ardjuna's hands; yet he does not flinch from the
struggle. As a real satryd, Ardjuna must pursue his destiny without complaint or
useless lamentation.
Again the morality of the traditional ruling class is displayed in its most austere
form. Feelings of family solidarity and piety, which might be indulged with
propriety by members of another social group, are forbidden to the satryd. In such a
world, one can only judge a man's moral worth when one knows who he is.
This sense of loyalty to a caste code should not, however, be seen in isolation, as
merely the selfish vanity and empty posturing of a privileged group. In the
mysterious and sacred lakon, Semar Papa, the Pendawa kingdom of NgamartS isMythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese 21
Fig. 3 Bagaspati22 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 4 Abimanju
struck by an inexplicable plague. A seer warns that the pestilence can only be
dispelled by the death of Semar (see Fig. 17, page 37), the loyal servant of the
Pendawa who has waited on them from birth and rescued them from countless
difficulties. Deeply troubled, Prabu Judistira (see Fig. 5, page 23), eldest of the
Pendawa, calls his brothers into council. After long debate, they decide that the state
and community, which they as satrya are pledged to defend, must take precedence
even over the life of their beloved retainer. Accordingly, Judistira orders his nephew,
the young prince Abimanju, Ardjuna's eldest son, to lead the old man into the
neighboring forest and there put him to death. But when Abimanju and Semar are
alone together, the tender-hearted young prince cannot bring himself to carry out his
uncle's command. He releases Semar and hurries away.
Sentiment has begun to change in Java today. But traditionally Abimanju's
behavior was regarded as a lapse from real satrya morality. The young man acts like
a woman or a child, not as a satrya.. The really moral men are Semar, who, as a
retainer, agrees to die for his master, and Judistira, who, though devoted to Semar,
sacrifices his personal feelings for the welfare of his subjects.Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese 23
V
Having now considered the deep Javanese recognition of the logical and social
necessity of a moral pluralism, along "caste" lines, some attention should perhaps be
given to structural variations within these "castes." For the characters of wayang are
not simply divided into Left and Right, Kurawa and Pendawa, gods, kings, brahmana,
satrya, princesses, giants, apes, and clowns, each with their own style and way of life.
Each of these general categories contains within itself a wide range of personalities,
which must be analyzed, however summarily, in their aspect as human types and as
bearers of contrasting values.
Judistira
The eldest of the five Pendawa is Prabu Judistira. He is the pure type of the Good
King. The blood in his veins is white. He never raises his voice in anger, never fights,
and never rejects a request from anyone, however humble. His time is spent in
meditation and the accumulation of wisdom. Unlike the other heroes, whose chief
magical attributes are weapons, Judistira's sacred heirloom is the mysterious
Kalimasada, a holy text containing the secrets of religion and the universe. He is,
above all, the disinterested intellectual, ruling his kingdom with perfect justice and
aloof benevolence. In the complete lack of ostentatious ornament, the gentle,
introspective inclination of the head, and the aristocratic refinement of feature, one
recognizes the ideal portrait of the passionless Panditd Ratu (Priest-King).24 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 6 Wrekudara
Wrekudara (Bitna)
Wrekudara is the most feared of warriors, creating havoc with his terrible club and
atrocious fingernails (the Pantjanaka). He disdains to ride in a chariot and strides
through forests and deserts and over mountains and seas without any difficulty. He
scorns pomp and finery. He bows to no one. Even to the gods he speaks in ngoko, the
form of Javanese used to social inferiors. Merciless to his enemies, gigantic, ungainly,
heavily muscled, hairy, with protruding eyes and thunderous voice, he is the
complete contrast to his elder brother. Nevertheless, his unswerving honesty, loyalty,
fortitude, and military skill make him among the most admired figures in wayang.Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese 25
Fig. 7 Ardjuna
Ardjuna
What is one to say of Ard-
juna? Unequaled warrior on
the battlefield, yet physi-
cally delicate and beautiful
as a girl, tender-hearted yet
iron-willed, a hero whose
wives and mistresses are
legion yet who is capable of
the most extreme discipline
and self-denial, a satrya
with a deep feeling for fam-
ily loyalty who yet forces
himself to kill his own half-
brother, he is, to the older
generation of Javanese, the
epitome of the whole man.
In contrast to Judistira, he is
joyfully at home in the
world. His amorous adven-
tures never cease to delight
the Javanese, yet in a
strange way he is in com-
plete contrast to Don Juan.
So great is his physical
beauty and refinement, that
princesses and maid-ser-
vants alike hurry to offer
themselves to him. It is they
who are honored, not
Ardjuna. And in contrast to
Wrekudara he represents
the physical grace and
gentleness of heart which
generations of Javanese
have so highly prized.
Kresna
Kresna and his brother Baladewa are first cousins to the Pendawa. Kresna is part
God, an incarnation of the mighty Wisnu. He is the consummate politician, diplomat,
and strategist of war. By far the most intellectually brilliant of the Pendawa faction, it
is Kresna who makes their final victory possible. On the other hand, he is a
conscienceless liar and an unscrupulous schemer who never hesitates to break the
rules when he feels it necessary. Though a satrya, he repeatedly ignores the lesser
values of the satrya. class. Only the duty to carry out the will of the gods and his own
destiny claim his allegiance. He is cynical where Judistira is pious, humorous and26 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 8 Kresna
sarcastic where Wrekudara is savage, stern and inflexible where Ardjuna shows
human weakness. In the long struggle between Kurawa and Pendawa, both sides use
treachery and cunning. Only Kresnd, however, wins approval, since his ultimate
aims accord with the will of the gods to destroy the Kurawa and since he himself is
of divine origin. These factors make his actions appropriate.Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese 27
Fig. 9 Baladewa
Baladewa
Kresna's brother, Prabu Baladewa, King of Mandura, sides with the Kurawa, yet in
his own way is no less striking and admirable a figure. Given to sudden generous
enthusiasms, unstinting in his loyalties, brave, hot-tempered, direct, and
undoubtedly stupid, he is in marked contrast to Kresna, who, indeed, consistently
manipulates and outmaneuvers him. Yet at the end of the Last War, when all the
heroes, including Kresna himself, are dead and gone, it is Baladewa who is left alone
to guard and bring up Parikesit, Ardjuna's infant grandson, who will become the
ancestor of the Kings of Java.28 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 10 Kama
Kama
Though in every respect Ardjuna's equal in physical perfection, military skill, and
moral sensitivity, he dies at Ardjuna's hands because the Gods have willed it so.
When still a new-born baby he was abandoned by his mother, Dewi Kunti Nalibrata
(see Fig. 51, page 77), who was later also to give birth to the Pendawa. A simple
charioteer brought him up. Eventually, the Kurawa, looking for a champion againstMythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese 29
the Pendawa, took him into service, raised him up, and honored him, finally making
him Adipati (Viceroy) in Ngawangga. The Pendawa, on the other hand, while
respecting his prowess, sneered at his low origins and rejected his company. Later,
when it became known that he was really Judistira's elder brother, the satryd sense of
honor told him that ingratitude to the Kurawa King would be more disgraceful than
fighting against his own family. Though he clearly recognizes that King Sujudana,
his master, has repeatedly violated the satryd code, he will not abandon him.3 * 5
The Javanese attitude to Kama was brought home to me once very vividly when
I was speaking with an elderly Javanese official about a friend of his who had fought
on the side of the Dutch during the Revolution. The friend had been embittered
when some of his family were murdered by a gang of nationalist youths in the
anarchic days after the Proclamation of Independence. He had also been well treated
by the Dutch. The elderly Javanese was an ardent patriot, yet as he spoke of his
former school-friend he slipped easily and almost unconsciously into a comparison
with Adipati Kama. His friend, too, had fought on the wrong side, but for reasons
which seemed to him sufficient. And he had fought with courage and honor. One
could not call him a pengchianat (traitor) like those who had "crossed over" from
faintheartedness, lack of principle, or hope of gain. He did not know if his friend was
still alive. He had never seen him since and, in a sense, did not wish to. Yet he fully
accepted and respected what he had done.
3 Compare, for example, stanzas 5 and 6 of the beautiful poem Tripama by G. P. A. A.
Mangkunegara IV, in his Dwidja Isjwara (Albert Rusche & Co., Soerakarta, 1899), pp. 102-104:
Wonten malih kinarja palupi
Surjaputra narpati Ngawangga
Lan Pandawa tur kadange
Len jajah tunggil ibu
Suwita mring Sri Kurupati
Aneng nagri Ngastina
Kinarja gul-agul
Manggala golongan ing prang
Bratajuda ingadegken Senapati
Ngalaga ing Korawa
Den mungsuhken kadange pribadi
Aprang tanding lan Sang Danandjaja
Sri Kama suka manahe
De gonira pikantuk
Marga denja arsa males sih-
Ira Sang Durjudana
Marmanta kalangkung
Denja ngetog kasudiran
Aprang rame Kama mati djinemparing
Sumbaga wira tama
There is one other (hero) who should be held as an
example,
The son of Surya, ruler of Ngawangga,
Although the Pendawa's own brother,
(With different father, yet the same mother)
He served the Lord Kurupati
In the city of Ngastina
And became his champion.
Commander of armies,
In the Bratajuda War he was made battle-chief
Over all the Korawa.
Sent out against his own brother
He fought in single combat with Lord Danandjaja
(Ardjuna)
Yet the Lord Kama's heart was glad
Because he had found a way
To requite the love
Of King Durjudana (Sujudana).
Therefore he now exerted to the utmost
All his soldier's skill and courage.
In the heat of battle Kama died, struck by an arrow,
Renowned, a matchless warrior.30 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Kumbakarna
Similar to Kama in his outlook and morality, Raden Kumbakarna, hero of the
Ramayana, also dies to defend a king whom he realizes has dishonored his position.
He knows that he is going to die, shorn limb from limb. Yet, unlike his younger
brother, Raden Wibisana (see Fig. 55, page 90), who "crosses over" to side with Rama
and Justice, he refuses to desert his elder brother, Prabu Dasamuka (Rahwana) (see
Fig. 54, page 89), in his hour of need. The main difference between Kama and
Fig. 11 KumbakarnaMythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese 31
Kumbakarna is one of physical type. Kumbakarna is the most colossal of giants and
is represented by the largest wayang puppet of all, sometimes one and a half meters
in height. To look at, he is the monstrous giant type in extreme form, with brutal red
features, bulbous nose, hyperthyroid eyes, clumsy, hairy torso, and wolf-like fangs.
These are all physical characteristics which the Javanese find repugnant. Yet
Kumbakarna is among the best-loved of wayang figures, and the prize example of
inner nobility and purity belying external appearance.6
The Kurawa are an equally varied group, but two figures stand out for particular
attention. These are Dahjang Durna and Prabu Sujudana.
Dahjang Duma
Durna is a brahmand, magician, and teacher. When they were all still boys, both
Kurawa and Pendawa learnt the arts of war from him, and to the end he retains a
deep affection for his favorite pupil Ardjuna, though they are arrayed on opposite
sides in the Last War. The tendency in wayang today is to portray him as a half-
sinister, half-comic figure, but this is not the older, traditional perspective. He was
then Kresna's great adversary, but with the Gods against him and without Kresna's
divinity. As a sign of his extraordinary learning and magical power, he alone of
mortals wins a heavenly nymph, Dewi Wilutama, as his bride; by her he has a single,
adored son, named Bambang Aswatama (see Fig. 29, page 55).
In the long struggle between Kurawa and Pendawa, he matches Kresna trick for
trick, stratagem for stratagem. He too stands outside the satrya code, obeying the
Machiavellian morality which also guides Kresna. And in the Bratajuda
Djajabinangun, when he finally takes the field, his power is still so great that the
Pendawa and their armies turn and flee. Ardjuna himself refuses to face his now
aged and crippled teacher. As a last resort, Kresna orders Wrekudara to kill an
elephant which by chance bears the same name as Duma's son—Aswatama. In
6 Compare stanzas 3 and 4 of Tripama.
Wonten malih tuladan prajogi
Satrija gung nagri ing Ngalengka
Sang Kumbakarna arane
Tur iku warna diju
Suprandene gajuh utami
Duk wiwit prang Ngalengka
Denja darbe atur
Mring raka amrih rahardja
Dasamuka tan keguh ing atur jekti
Dene mungsuh wanara
Kumbakarna kinon mangsah djurit
Mring kang raka sira tan lenggana
Nglungguhi kasatrijane
Ing tekad tan asurud
Amung tjipta labuh nagari
Lan nolih jajah rena
Myang luluhuripun
Wus mukti aneng Ngalengka
Mangke arsa rinusak ing bala kapi
Punagi mati ngrana
There is another fitting model,
A great satrya from the city of Ngalengka.
Lord Kumbakarna was his name.
Though outwardly he was like a monstrous giant
In his heart he strove for the highest excellence.
When the war in Ngalengka began
He offered counsel
To his brother, to keep him safe.
But it seemed that Dasamuka was not moved by his
words
Saying that the enemy were merely apes.
Kumbakarna was ordered to lead the battle fray
By his brother Dasamuka, and did not refuse.
Fulfilling his duty as a satrya
Steadfast in his determination,
His only thought was to serve his country.
Recalling that his father and mother
And all his ancestors
Had won glory and honor in Ngalengka,
Which monkey armies now threatened to destroy,
He vowed to die in battle.32 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 12 DurnaMythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese 33
simulated triumph, the Pendawa cry out, "Aswatama is dead! Aswatama is dead!" In
a daze of grief, Durna turns to Judistira, whom he knows has never lied, and asks
him if it is true. Ruthlessly goaded by Kresna, Judistira unwillingly confirms the half-
truth.7 Convinced at last, the old brahmand stands silent, motionless, in the midst of
battle. No one dares approach him in his agony and despair, until the impetuous
Drestadjumena rushes up and strikes off his head. All feel that a terrible and impious
deed has been performed and that retribution will be exacted. Both Kurawa and
Pendawa unite to perform the full funerary obsequies.
Fig. 13 Drestadjumena
7 The half-truth depends on the double meaning of the Javanese word esti, which can mean
either "indeed" or "elephant." Thus, Judistira's famous reply can be interpreted as either
"Indeed Aswatama is dead" or "The elephant Aswatama is dead."34 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Sujudana
Eldest of the ninety-nine Kurawa brothers, he is King of Ngastina, most powerful
and glittering of the ancient mythological Javanese capitals. He is a great monarch,
yet fated to destroy himself and his house. Though vain and easily swayed by his
advisers, he is a worthy antagonist for the Pendaw&. Indeed, without him, the
Pendawa would not be the Pendawa. The Gods have doomed Ngastina long before
he was born. As Jehovah hardened Pharaoh's heart, so Sujudana is inevitably drawn
Fig. 14 SujudanaMythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese 35
by his destiny into the fatal course which brings the Kurawa to their ruin. On the last
night of the Bratajuda, he alone of the Kurawa chiefs is left. In his tent he meditates
in silence on all that has come to pass. What is the use of further bloodshed? Only a
handful of faithful retainers remains alive. Why not surrender? Yet, after all, he is a
great satrya and a great king. Hundreds of thousands have loyally died for him. Now
it is his turn to die for them. When dawn comes he goes forth to combat the terrible
Wrekudara. Both armies watch in silence as the two are locked in a desperate
struggle. Neither can gain the upper hand. Wrekudara is more powerful, but
Sujudana more deft and quick. For the last time, Kresna intervenes to tip the balance.
Although it is strictly against the satrya rules for single combat, he directs Wrekudara
to smash Sujudana's exposed thigh. Out of desperation, Wrekudara obeys, and
Sujudana, who has fought with high honor, sinks to the ground in agony, now to fall
unresisting prey to the ferocious talons of his adversary. The lakon describing
Sujudana's end is to this day rarely performed in Java, so great is the aura of tragedy
and disaster which surrounds it. The fall of the greatest of Javanese kingdoms and
the pitiful destruction of its mighty ruler seem to presage untimely events and
contemporary calamities.
The women in the wayang world are much less varied in their typology than the
men. Yet significant contrasts do exist. One to which the Javanese are very fond of
pointing is that between Ardjuna's main wives, Dewi Sumbadra and Dewi Srikandi.
Sumbadra
Sumbadra is very much the lady—elegant, gentle, reserved, utterly loyal and
obedient to her husband. She represents the ideal type of the aristocratic Javanese
woman.
Fig. 15 Sumbadra36 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Srikandi
Srikandi is the exact opposite of Sumbadra. Talkative, strong-willed, warm-hearted,
fond of hunting, an excellent archer, she is quite ready to debate with Ardjuna or
take on a passing satrya in battle. She enjoys traveling about Java, either in search of
her periodically missing husband or seeking adventures of her own. In the Indian
original of the Mahabharata, Srikandi is really a man who has been changed into a
woman. In Java, this is not the case; but perhaps the "masculine" side of her
character owes something to this long-forgotten source. For the Javanese, Srikandi is
the honored type of the active, energetic, disputatious, generous, go-getting woman.
Between herself and Sumbadra there is no jealousy, rather a deep, understanding
affection—though one gets the impression that Srikandi is sometimes a little
impatient with Sumbadra's excessively lady-like helplessness whenever any trouble
arises. Perhaps Sumbadra in turn feels that Srikandi does not always really act like a
dignified lady.
Fig. 16 SrikandiMythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese 37
Kjai Lurah Semar
One last figure remains to be considered. He comes from the clown (pundkawan)
class. There is no room here to go into the important and difficult problem of the
general significance of these pundkawan in Javanese folk-lore. Suffice it to say that
Semar, most venerable of these pundkawan, is probably the best loved figure in all
wayang, a favorite of young and old alike. Partly this is because Semar, though a
humble and comical retainer, is yet the most powerful of Gods, so that the Lord
Shiwa himself, Batara Guru, must on occasion submit to him. Partly it is just because
he is a clown, a man of the people, to whom the rules of satryd behavior do not apply,
and who by his presence alone offers an implied criticism of the whole range of
satryd values. Partly it is because Semar is the physical denial of the satryd type. He is
immensely fat, with heavy breasts and a vast behind. He is ornamented like a
woman, his clothes are those of a man, yet his face is that of neither man nor woman.
He is the repository of the highest wisdom, yet this flashes from in between his
gentle jokes, his clowning, and even his persistent, uncontrollable farting. Anyone
who has witnessed a Javanese shadow-play will recall the wave of deep affection and
respect which flows out of the audience towards Semar when he appears. It is said
that one of the most distinguished professors at the University of Indonesia in
Djakarta owed his unique following among the Javanese students less to his high
academic attainments than to his physical resemblance to Semar and his reputation
for a special combination of wisdom and comicality.38 Mythology and the Tolerance tfthe Javanese
Fig. 18 GuruMythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese 39
VI
The universal affection and knowledge of this wayang mythology at all levels and in
all areas of Java means that little village children from their earliest years are
acquainted with the characters discussed above, not merely their names but their
physical, psychological, and ethical traits. And their acquaintance is not abstract but
strongly visual, since wayang performances are frequent and most villages have sets
of rough wooden or cardboard wayangs with which the children can play and
practice by themselves.
More important still, in the traditional view, all the main characters, except
perhaps Durna, are held in high honor. No hierarchy is imposed. Kresna is not
"better" than Ardjuna, nor Wrekudara than Judistira. Each is a totally accepted part
of the wayang world, which in turn is regarded as a model for Javanese life, lived on a
high plane of moral intensity. To a limited degree, of course, popularity does vary by
area and class. The proverbially hot-headed, impetuous Madurese are known to have
a special fondness for Baladewa, whose kingdom, Mandura, is generally supposed to
be the same as Madura. The subtle Solonese may find Kresna more appealing than
his brother. In the same way, the villager may identify more closely with Semar and
his sons than with Judistira and Kama, while the children of a prince may be
educated to look at Ardjuna as their prime model. But even here the differences are
not great. The idea of the satrya is only to a limited degree associated with a closed
class. Its class content has progressively given way to a more general ethical content
to which even villagers may aspire. All these variations according to region and
social class are minor. Madurese and Solonese, high officials and peasants alike share
a deep love and respect for the whole gamut of wayang and its chief protagonists.
The importance of this is that it was traditionally from the ethical and religious
aspects of wayang that the education of Javanese children drew its inspiration. The
heroes of wayang were the consciously approved models by which a child grew up.
Whereas Christian religious education arises from general abstract precepts of
universal application, a wayang education develops out of a set of concrete
mythological models and examples. The Javanese child learns from the models and
examples of behavior the philosophical teachings which will later orient him to the
outside world. And it is not merely the moral sense of the Javanese child which is
molded by wayang but also his aesthetic awareness. This is partly because in
traditional Javanese, as in ancient Greek, civilization there is no clear line separating
the idea of the good and the beautiful. The same word (sae) is used for both. Both, in
a sense, are merely aspects of the appropriate or harmonious, which, as I have
suggested before, lies at the deepest roots of Javanese culture. Accordingly, what is
good is beautiful, and what is beautiful is good. The cultivation of the aesthetic
aspect of a child's sensibility is a key aspect of Javanese education. This is not, as in
Western society, to provide a chance for gifted children to develop their talents but in
order that every child should learn to order all aspects of his life in a harmonious
way. Even in modern Javanese schools, this older idea is still maintained. In the
Taman Siswa school system, founded in 1922 and guided until his death by Ki Hadjar
Dewantoro, every effort is made to avoid a division and separation between the
technical-scientific, moral, and aesthetic aspects of education. Dancing, particularly,
is taught, not for social reasons, or to provide opportunities for young people to meet40 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
one another, but to develop physical grace, a sense of rhythm, and a harmonious
personality.
VII
It is not, however, simply that the abstract principles of the Near Eastern religions,
and the rationalism which has succeeded them in Western society, are applicable, by
implication, to all men regardless of social position and social function. We do of
course, in theory, expect the same morality from the business executive and his
janitor. But they are also universal regardless of personality structure, psychological
bent, and physical type. We are not in the least inclined to adapt our standards of
moral excellence according to the personality and station of the individual to be
judged. This is, of course, not simply a question of the Christian tradition. It is also a
consequence of the destruction of feudal society and the rise of modern capitalism
and secular individualism. The assumptions of a competitive and egalitarian society
are basically that a gigantic race is being run, in which all should have an equal
opportunity to take part, and with unified, well-understood criteria for success.
Whatever its advantages, this conception of society inevitably narrows the range of
personality types which will win unqualified general acceptance and approval. After
all, a race in which camels, tortoises, apes, and iguanas compete with one another is
likely to be confused and confusing. The trend is naturally to fit course and prize to
the camels and let the devil take the hindmost.
The characteristic patterns of traditional Javanese society present a striking
contrast. Precisely because the moral and physical models are enshrined in a
universally accepted mythology, that of wayang, the young Javanese is presented
with a wide choice of models for his own personality, which he can be sure will win
approval anywhere in Javanese society. Where there is no race, the animals can live
together in harmony. Since Ardjuna, Wrekudara, and Judistira are all held in honor,
both the heavily built, active, but inarticulate boy and the delicately boned,
introspective child have acceptable ways in which their personalities and physical
traits can evolve without unnecessary spiritual violence being done to them.
Ardjuna's great sexual magnetism provides assurance to the small and frail child
that he will not suffer in everyday socio-sexual competition. The child with a talent
for oratory and politics has his Kresna, the boy with a taste for intellectual activities
and meditation his JudistirS, the hot-tempered, courageous youngster his Baladewa.
Triumph over low social origin and snobbery is typified by Kama. Between Wibisana
and Kumbakarna a young man has models both for unquestioning loyalty to the
political community (in our era, /zmy country, right or wrong") or for abstract love of
principle (a supranational attachment, perhaps, to humanism, Islam, or
Communism). For women the same applies. The young Javanese girl can aspire to
Sumbadra's gentle, languishing charm, or, should she look for a more active and
vigorous role, the energetic warmth of Srikandi. One might note in passing that not
only have the women's units in the Indonesian National Army taken Srikandi as
their model, but also the first woman guerrilla who landed in West Irian during the
1962 liberation campaign was widely referred to as "our Srikandi," both by President
Sukarno and by the general public.Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese 41
The models, of course, are not all admirable. Wayang is too rich in types and too
close to Javanese life for that. The reprehensible models, however, by their very
concrete visibility, provide an effective foil for the admirable examples. People in
Java will often refer to a good-looking, but weak and idle, young man as a "Samba,"
since Samba, Kresna's son, is just such a person. There are other figures, such as
Sangkuni (see Fig. 32, page 58) or Durasasana (see Fig. 33, page 59) in the satryd class,
Petruk (see Fig. 40, page 66) and Togog (see Fig. 38, page 64) in the clown class, who42 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
may be referred to in the same way as specific, typical personifications of certain
types of inappropriate or strongly disapproved behavior.
In brief, then, it seems reasonable to suggest that the universal hold which
wayang has over the Javanese population at all levels, and the rich variety of concrete
models it offers, afford a real legitimation for widely contrasting social and
psychological types. In other words, tolerance is taught, and later maintained, by a
mythology which informs and suffuses the whole Javanese tradition. It is not by any
means necessarily an innate characteristic of the Javanese people as such. Rather, it is
structurally related to both a static and traditional social order and the pervasiveness
of wayang as a source of religion, morality, and philosophy.
VIII
For those who find much that is admirable, gentle, and humane in this tolerance, the
recognition of its historical and sociological basis necessarily arouses anxieties for its
survival in the present age. The rapid decline of the traditional order since
Independence has clearly threatened the older moral pluralism. The rise of a new
pseudo-traditional elite in Djakarta, the spread of commercial urbanism, and the
emergence of nationalism as the single dominant standard by which ever more
aspects of a person's life are being assessed and judged, all are undoubtedly, if
slowly, undermining the older, structurally conditioned tolerance.
Wayang itself seems, in the more metropolitan centers, to be changing rapidly
from an education to a mere entertainment. In many different ways, the influence of
nationalism and Western civilization are becoming more and more obtrusive.
Among the symptoms which point in this direction are:
i)	A growing trend to perceive in wayang a simple conflict between Good and
Evil, with a resulting impoverishment of its aesthetic and moral complexity. The
political parties have accelerated this trend by their attempts to exploit wayang for
propaganda purposes. "We" become the Pendawa, "they" the Kurawa—with
obvious consequences in terms of crudeness and simplification.
ii)	The reduction of wayang's elaborate formal structure into a series of battle-
scenes linked by banal jokes and sentimental boudoir interludes. Here the influence
of the cinema is unmistakable, since fighting, comedy, and sentiment are the
essentials of most films that Indonesians see. The current pressure to shorten a
wayang performance from a whole night to two or three hours reflects again the
assimilation of wayang to modern commercial entertainment.
iii)	Increasing criticism of the traditional "philosophizing" of the puppeteer
(dalang) as "feudal" and "out of date." There is a growing demand for the dalang to
be "modern." This modernity, however, turns out to be simply the more superficial
idees regues of Westernized bourgeois culture. There are three areas where this
embourgeoisement of wayang is clearest, a) The reinterpretation of most sexual
relationships (e.g., Ardjuna's with Sumbadra) in terms of bourgeois "romance," often
with remarkably Victorian overtones, b) The "rationalizing" of marvelous or
supernatural elements in the wayang stories along scientific or pseudo-scientific lines,
in much the same spirit as nineteenth century Western "criticism" of Biblical
miracles, c) A pious moralizing of unacceptable non-bourgeois characteristics in
wayang. This is most frequently expressed in the search for symbolic interpretations
of wayang. (For example, the Pendawa are taken to be symbols of parts of the human
body.) This allows inconvenient aspects of the Pendawa's several characters to be
explained away as "metaphors." The same tendency is at work in elaborateMythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese 43
justifications of apparently "bad" actions on the part of the "good" faction, which
have no real basis in the wayang stories themselves.
iv)	Ironically, the one element of traditional wayang which was always explicitly
contemporary has been progressively abstracted from everyday life. By age-old
custom, the humor of the punakawan was deliberately anachronistic, often taking the
form of sharp ridicule of contemporary abuses and shrewd criticism of contemporary
political and economic conditions. Recently, however, this form of contemporaneity
has been increasingly inhibited and even harassed by provincial officialdom, which
is finding criticism, especially from below, increasingly hard to put up with.8 This
has forced the punakawan to turn to a generalized, farcical, or fantastic form of
humor.
v)	The ascendancy within the wayang constellations of certain "models" over
others. Here the figures of Ardjuna and Judistira are significant omens. It is already
apparent, for example, that the younger generation of Javanese are tending to
concentrate their main affection less on these two heroes than on Kresna, Wrekudara,
and Wrekudara's son, Gatutkatja (see Fig. 20, p. 44)—a smaller and more physically
attractive version of his father, notable for his unhesitating, uncritical loyalty and
patriotism—whom President Sukarno has explicitly said should be the model for the
new Indonesian Man. Judistir^'s aloof meditativeness and gentle search for justice
are less and less held in esteem. Ardjuna's sexual prowess is no longer seen simply as
a necessary attribute of the complete satrya but is either frowned on by Islamic and
Western-influenced puritanism or sniggered at by the new metropolitan
sophisticates. On the other hand, the cinema, by the "he-man" heroes that it tends to
popularize, has helped to upset the previous relationship between the figures, say, of
Ardjuna and Wrekudara. Whereas traditionally these two represented contrasting
but equally impressive types of virility, nowadays one tends to find Ardjuna
criticized by younger Javanese as effeminate—surely something inconceivable as
little as thirty years ago.
In the political sphere, two instructive trends are particularly evident. The
diplomacy and cunning of Kresna, which in traditional wayang were a function of his
celestial origins and his high overriding purpose to execute the will of the Gods, have
tended to become detached from both and to be transformed into a justification for a
rootless, ruthless Machiavellism and a delight in intrigue and political chicane for its
own sake. The older balance between Kumbakarna and Wibisana has also gradually
been upset. Whereas an older generation found both heroes admirable but Wibisana
the more noble since he chose humanity and justice over family loyalty and
gratitude, many Javanese today feel uneasy about the contrast. The spread of
nationalism has made Wibisana's abandonment of his native land for the cause of
"humanism" and a supranational standard of justice, ambiguous and even suspect.
Kumbakarna's outlook, generally rather speciously characterized as "my country
right or wrong," fits more easily with present sentiment; and, as a result, the prestige
of this amiable giant now stands higher than his younger brother's.
8 For example, late in 1963 the popular Gareng of the celebrated Sriwedari wayang wong troupe
was arrested by the police in Solo on the grounds that he had made jokes critical of the
government. The man was eventually released with a warning.44 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 20 GatutkatjaMythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese 45
These are, as it were, signs of the times, largely visible in the big cities of Java,
where the traditional hierarchical order has disintegrated fastest. In the villages
change takes place far more slowly, and it is there that the old Javanese culture
undoubtedly maintains its most stubborn hold. Nevertheless, autumn is in the air.
On the tree of Javanese culture the leaves are dropping one by one. The question
now is whether the roots will nourish fresh leaves and flowers for a new spring-time.
Will the tradition survive the extinction of its social basis? Can wayang be sustained
and renewed from within? Can new institutional and structural supports be
developed for Javanese tolerance as the older generations knew it?
It is not simply out of nostalgia that an attempt has been made here to discuss
the problem of Javanese tolerance. It is out of an instinctive conviction that tolerance
in all human communities is a highly fragile thing, especially a tolerance which is not
simply an ignoring of nonconformities that do not threaten us or impinge directly on
our lives, but which springs from a genuine respect for human variety and human
personality as such. Doubtless there was much to dislike and condemn in the old
Javanese cultural tradition. Yet, partly by historical accident but partly also, I believe,
out of a deep awareness of the complex inter-relatedness of human existence,
traditional Javanese civilization developed a style of ethics, morality, and
philosophy, best expressed in wayang, which helped to give each man a sense of his
own dignity and honor and sustained and legitimized a tolerance which one cannot
but profoundly respect.Appendix I
Supplementary Characters
Fig. 21 Durga
Betari Durga is the
goddess of violence, dark-
ness, and death. Her abode
is in Setragandamaju,
where she holds sway over
ghosts, vampires, and
other malevolent spirits. In
the lakons she is always
associated with the Left
(Kurawa) faction and
unceasingly schemes to de-
stroy the Pendawa. Most
dreaded of the Gods, even
her husband, Batara Guru,
cannot prevail against her
will. It is only Semar be-
fore whom she flees in
helpless terror.48 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 22 Narada
Batara Narada is an elder brother of Batara Guru and his chief adviser and
emissary. As in the case of Semar, a grotesque shape is associated with great
supernatural power. Like Semar, too, he conceals his great wisdom and subtlety
behind a squeaky voice and a wry, comic manner. Narada carries out Batara Guru's
orders but generally contrives to interpret them in favor of the Pendawa.
Batara Surya is the Sun-God, source and giver of life. When the Pendawa's
mother, Dewi Kunti, was still an unmarried virgin, she was seduced by Surya and
eventually gave birth to the infant Kama. The mother soon abandoned her child,
but Surya always loved and watched over his son. He shares Kama's ambiguous
position in the lakons. When Kresna, enraged by Kurawa treachery during the
final negotiations before the outbreak of the Bratajuda, assumes his World-
Destroyer manifestation and threatens to annihilate Ngastina out of hand, it is
Surya who descends, soothes him, and persuades him to resume his human shape.
Since Kama fights for the Kurawa, Surya is usually associated with the Left too.Appendix I 49
Fig. 23 Surya50 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Sang Hyang Baju is a son of Batara Guru and God of the Winds. He is the father
of two of the most powerful protagonists of the lakons, Raden Wrekudara and the
White Ape, Hanoman. As an outward sign of their family relationship these three
figures are the only ones in wayang to have the terrible razor-sharp fingernails
(Pantjanaka) and to wear the magical poleng loin-cloth, whose red, white, black,
and yellow checks symbolize the four super-deities Brama, Guru (Shiwa), Wisnu,
and Surya. As Wrekudara's father, Baju is usually reckoned on the side of the
Pendawa.Appendix I 51
Prabu Matswapati, the
aged king of Wirata, acts
as the Pendawa's mentor
and protector. Though his
sister, Dewi Durgandini,
was the common great-
grandmother of the
Kurawa and Pendawa, he
gives his daughter, Dewi
Utari, in marriage to
Raden Abimanju, Ardjuna's
son (and his own great-
great-great-nephew!).
From this union Parikesit is
born, ancestor of the histor-
ical kings of Java. It is at
the court of Wirata that
the Pendawa take refuge
when their fortunes are
lowest. Matswapati him-
self helps them build the
glittering palace of
Ngamarta. And ultimately
all three of his sons—Seta,
Utara, and Wratsangka—
fight and die for the
Pendawa in the Last War.
Fig. 25 Matswapati52 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 26 Abjasa
Begawan Abjasa is the common grandfather of the Kurawa and the Pendawa.
He was once King of Ngastina but in middle age abandoned his court to devote
himself to religious meditation and ascesis. During the Bratajuda he reappears to
advise and console the Pendawa. When the war has been brought to its bloody
close, it is Abjasa who personally performs the solemn rituals of purification.Appendix I 53
Fig. 27 Bhisma
Resi Bhisma, being
Ngastina's elder statesman, is
loved and respected by Kurawa and
Pendawa alike. Though strongly
opposed to Sujudana's policies, he
sides with the Left faction and
leads the Kurawa armies at the
opening of the Bratajuda, killing
all three of Matswapati's sons
with his own hands. As a young
man he had sworn to remain wadat
(celibate) all his life. When Dewi
Ambalika wished to marry him,
he jokingly threatened her with
his bow and arrow. Accidentally
his finger slipped and the arrow
sped to her heart. Her ghost swore
vengeance, and in the Last War
Shisma dies at the hands of
Srikandi, Ardjuna's warrior-wife,
in whom Ambalika has been
reincarnated.54 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 28 Drupada
Prabu Drupada is King of
Tjempalaredja and a close ally of
the Pendawa. His two daughters,
Drupadi and Srikandi are
respectively married to Judistira
and Ardjuna. An old enmity exists
between Drup&da and Dahjang
Durna. It is thanks to Drupada
that the old brahmand is crippled
and deformed. The vendetta works
itself out in the Bratajuda when
Drupada's son, Drestadjumena,
kills Durna, and Duma's son,
Aswatama, retaliates after the
war is over by murdering
Drestadjumena, Srikandi, and
Drupada's grandson, Pantjawala,
in their sleep.Appendix I 55
Fig. 29 Aswatama
Bambang Aswatama is the only son of Dahjang Durna by the heavenly nymph
Dewi Wilutama. He is among the most powerful and important members of the
younger generation of the Left faction, but the Gods have ordained that he will not
die on the battlefield. He is destined to carry on his father's vendetta with
Tjempalaredja and wreak vengeance on the Pendawa. Aswatama shares his
father's shrewdness and cynicism. He consistently warns Sujudana that his queen,
Dewi Banowati, is working against him, but the King always refuses to listen to
what he regards as groundless slander. On the night after the Bratajuda is over, he
creeps into the Pendawa camp and takes revenge by stabbing Banowati in her sleep,
as well as Drestadjumena, Srikandi, and Pantjawala (see above under Drupadd, p.
53). Only when he tries to murder Ardjuna's grandson, the infant Parikesit, does
fortune turn against him.56 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 30 Banowati
Dewi Banowati is
the youngest daughter of
Prabu Salya and Sujudana's
queen in Ngastina. Her
proud bearing is indicated
by her uptilted nose and
scornful smile. Before her
arranged marriage with
Sujudana, she and Ardjuna
were secretly in love.
According to many versions,
this affair persisted af-
terwards, and Banowati is
instrumental in betraying
the military secrets of
Ngastina to its enemies.
After Sujudana's death
Ardjuna takes her as his
wife. But their happiness
lasts only one night, for
Aswatama, Duma's son,
creeping into the Pendawa
camp, murders her in her
sleep. Banowati is an am-
biguous figure since, al-
though she helps the
Pendawa, she does it by
betraying her lawful
husband.Appendix I 57
Fig. 31 Lesmana Mandrakumara
Raden Lesmana Mandrakumara is the only son of Sujudana and Banowati and
heir to the throne of Ngastina. Many of the lakons concern the desperate attempts
of Prabu Sujudana to find Lesmana a wife. Invariably one of the more attractive
Pendawa clan manages to charm or carry off the intended bride, so that the
Kurawci are left empty-handed. Sujudana's difficulties are compounded by the fact
that Lesmana is cowardly, vain, weak, and a bit soft-headed. He is regarded as a
laughing-stock, even in Ngastina, a spoiled Crown Prince whose thoughts run only
to food and women. Lesmana is killed early in the Bratajuda by Ardjuna's son,
Abimanju.58 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 32 Sangkuni
Patih Arja Sangkuni is usually regarded as the evil genius of the Kurawa, with
loyalty to his King his one redeeming feature. As Drestarata's brother-in-law and
Sujudana's uncle, he has the position of Chief Minister of Ngastina, of which, in
view of his nephew's inexperience, he takes full advantage. The cunning
stratagems which cause the PendawS so much misery and misfortune are all
devised by this sly old man. He suffers a terrible end in the Bratajuda, having his
jaws torn apart by the furious talons of Wrekudara.Appendix I 59
Fig. 33 Dursasana
Raden Dursasana, the second of the ninety-nine Kurawa brothers, is regarded
as, next to Sangkuni, the most unpleasant of the Left faction. Noisy, boastful,
violent, and unscrupulous, he is nevertheless devoted to his elder brother,
Sujudana, and to the fortunes of his clan. In the field, he is a brave fighter, and
only the invincible Wrekudara can destroy him. His role is very important, since at
every juncture in the lakons it is Dursasana and Sangkuni who push the action
forward towards a new climax. Each time a settlement appears possible, it is these
two who ensure its failure.60 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Raden Djajddratd is a powerful champion of the Kurawa. There is some
mystery about his origin. The story goes that when Wrekudara was born, the caul
in which he was wrapped was thrown away. The aged ascetic, Begawan Sapwani,
came upon it by chance, prayed over it, and transformed it into a boy-child, who
grew up under the name of Djajadrata. The family resemblance to Wrekudara and
Wrekudara's son, Raden Gatutkatja, was obvious from the first. When Djajadrata
came to manhood he was persuaded to come to Ngastina by the astute Sangkuni,
who foresaw the need of such an ally against the Pendawa. There Djajadrata was
given a high position and Sujudana's sister, Dewi Dursilowati, as his bride. This
bound him firmly to the Left faction. In the Bratajuda, it is he who kills the young
Abimanju, only to be killed in turn by the bereaved Ardjuna. Djajadrata's character
is honest, loyal, and straightforward—a sort of Gatutkatja among the Kurawa.
Fig. 34 DjajadrataAppendix I 61
Fig. 35 Burisrawa
Raden Burisrawa is one of the most prominent younger leaders of the Kurawa.
He is the eldest son of Prabu Salya and much feared for his gigantic size and
violent, unbridled nature. He falls desperately in love with Sumbadra, Ardjuna's
wife, and many are the lakons which deal with his attempts to win possession of
her. He swears never to look at another woman if he cannot have her, and indeed
he dies without wife or child.62 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 36 Nangkula-Sadewa
Raden Nangkula
and Raden Sadewa are
twins, the youngest of the
Pendawa. Their mother is
not Kunti, but Prabu
Salya's sister, Madrim.
Generally speaking, they
assume a very subordinate
role as followers and emis-
saries of their older
brothers, without evincing
any particular character-
istics aside from the
normal traits of well-be-
haved young satryd. In the
Bratajuda, it is their mis-
sion to discover the secret
of their uncle Salya's in-
vincibility.
Appendix I 63
Fig. 37 Setyaki
Raden Setyaki, as first cousin of the Pendawa and Prabu Kresna, is one of the
stalwarts of the Right. He usually acts as Kresna's companion and confidant. It is
he who joins the lord of Dwarawati on his last diplomatic mission to Ngastina. He
is very powerful, in spite of his small size, and so is often referred to as the Dwarf
Wrekudara or Bima Kunting. In the Bratajuda itself, he is matched with the
gigantic Burisrawa and is only saved from death by Kresna's cunning. He is
regarded by the Javanese as the type of the straightforward, brave, diminutive
satryd.64 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Raden Abimanju (Angkawidjajd) (see Fig. 4, p. 22) is Ardjuna's son by Sumbadra
and his only legal heir, as Srikandi is childless. Abimanju himself has no children
by his marriage to Kresna's daughter, Dewi Sitisundari; but by Utari, princess of
Wirata, Parikesit is born to continue to Pendawa line into historic times. Abimanju
is the epitome of the handsome, refined, gentle, but brave young satrya, respectful
of his elders and always obedient to their wishes. He is Gatutkatja's bosom-friend,
and the two generally seek adventures together. The lakon describing his death is
regarded by the Javanese as the most poignant of the Bratajuda series. Not only
does Abimanju suffer a cruel fate on the battlefield, but his young widow,
Sitisundari, immolates herself on her dead husband's funeral pyre.
Fig· 38 TogogAppendix I 65
Fig. 39 Gareng
Raden Gatutkatjd (see Fig.
20, page 44) is Wrekudara's son by
the giantess, Dewi Arimbi. He
rules a kingdom of (good) giants in
Pringgandani but is always ready
to act as the loyal, unhesitatingly
obedient agent of his Pendawa
uncles. His special attribute is his
ability to fly. President Sukarno
has thus referred to him as the
first Indonesian astronaut. His
romantic passion for Dewi Pregiwa
is the subject of one of the most
famous lakons of all. In the
Bratajuda he is the last major
figure to die on the Pendawa side,
struck down by his uncle, Adipati
Kama, as he flies high above the
Kurawa armies.
Togog is reputedly Semar's
elder brother, and normally he acts
as pundkawan to the Left faction.
Like Semar he is immortal, and his
strange, grotesque shape betrays
his supernatural origin. In
character he has none of Semar's
gentleness and kindly wisdom. His
wit is coarser and more cynical.
Because his masters are constantly
being killed off by the Pendawa
and their children, Togog always
appears in a different King's
retinue. So he has become the
proverbial prototype of the
unfaithful, mercenary servant.
Gareng, the second of the Pendawa pundkawan, is generally thought to be
Semar's eldest son. He is a deformed dwarf, with crooked, disjointed arms, and has
yaws sores on his feet. He specializes in puns and sly insinuations rather than in
slapstick. Like Semar (see Fig. 17, p. 37) and Petruk (see Fig. 40, p. 66), he is really
immortal and accompanies each generation of the Pendawa family on their
innumerable wanderings and adventures.66 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 40 Petruk
Petruk is the third of the pundkawan in attendance on the PendSwa and often
regarded as Semar's second son. He is notable for his scrawny build, huge,
predatory mouth, and long, inquisitive nose. His special delights (and those
usually of the audience) are practical jokes and comic horseplay. But when called
upon in need he is a redoubtable (because totally unscrupulous) fighter.Appendix I 67
Bagong, fourth of the Pendawa punakawan, formerly rarely, if ever, appeared
with Gareng and Petruk. The traditional pattern was that the trio of Semar,
Gareng, and Petruk was popular in Central and East Java, while the duo of Semar
and Bagong was the special favorite of Banjumas and West Java. Today they are
frequently shown all four together. Bagong has his share of the typical punakawan
deformities, a bald head, a hernia, a bulging fat belly and behind, and virtually no
nose. His peculiar characteristics are an immensely deep slow voice and
impenetrable stupidity, usually taking the form of persistent misunderstanding of
what his master or his fellow punakawan have to say.68 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 42 Tjangik
Tjangik is a fa-
vorite comic female ser-
vant, generally in atten-
dance on Sumbadra or some
other high-ranking
princess. In spite of her
emaciated figure, shriv-
eled breasts, and grotesque
features, she is extremely
coy and vain, as the comb
she constantly carries about
with her testifies. Her
voice is high, shrill, and
whistling, as she has no
teeth.
Limbuk is Tjangik's
daughter, also a comic fe-
male attendant. Though
her appearance differs
strongly from her mother's,
she has the same deter-
mined sense of her own su-
perior attractions. She too
carries a comb with her
everywhere. Her voice is
loud, low, and oddly
touching.Appendix I 69
Fig. 43 Limbuk70 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 44 TjakilAppendix I 71
Fig. 45 Terong
Buta Tjakil is the favorite antagonist of Ardjuna and his numerous sons in the
less serious lakons. Each time he is killed, only to reappear again in another story.
He is instantly recognizable by his flat head, squinting eyes, and jutting, horn-like
tooth. Unlike the other buta, he is quite small. In fact, his body is that of a satrya
and only his extraordinary head betrays his buta origin.
Buta Terong, the Egg-plant Giant, is so named because his nose closely
resembles an aubergine. He is the normal buta antagonist for the larger heroes, such
as Wrekudara, while Tjakil is the appropriate adversary for the smaller and more
elegant satrya. Buta Terong has no defined role in the lakons but regularly appears
to test the courage and military prowess of the Pendawa.72 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Garudd is a generic name for a mythological "eagle." There are a number of
different characters in the lakons who are portrayed with this puppet, the best-
known being Djataju in the Ramayana and Wilmuka (the aerial steed of Prabu
Kresna's eldest son, Prabu Boma) in the Mahabharata. In the one case the puppet
represents a bird of great courage, faithfulness, and honor, in the other a creature
consumed with jealousy and malice.
Fig. 46 Garuda
Djurumeja is a type of setan, indestructible, malevolent spirit, who serves in
the palace of Betari Durga at Setragandamaju. The Goddess regularly sends
Djurumeja and his ie\low-setan to confuse, torment, and terrify the Pendawa,
usually with great success. It requires the special powers of Semar to put the evil
spirits to flight.Appendix ϊ 73
Fig. 47 Djurumeja74 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 48 Brahala
Brahala is the name given to Kresna when he assumes his terrible World
Destroyer manifestation, the triwikrama.Appendix II
Mahabharata:
A Javanese Version
According to the Lakons
For many years Prabu Abjasa had ruled the great kingdom of Ngastina in
justice, peace, and prosperity. Yet the king had his own private sorrow.
Each of his three sons was tragically afflicted. The eldest, Drestarata,
was blind, the second, Pandu, was an albino, while the third, Widura, was
incurably lame. In the course of time the aging monarch decided to abdicate and
spend his last years in religious meditation and ascesis. Since his blindness was felt
to bar Drestarata from the succession, Abjasa named Pandu ruler of Ngastina, with
the understanding that the throne would later revert to Drestarata's line.
Nevertheless there were many who felt that Pandu, once crowned sovereign King,
was entitled to designate his own successor. This was the origin of the bitter feud
between the sons of Drestarata (the Kurawa) and the sons of Pandu (the Pendawa),
which was only to be settled by the Last War, the Bratajuda Djajabinangun.
The Kurawa consisted of ninety-nine boys and one girl, Dewi Dursilowati, born
to Drestarata by his wife, Gendari. Eldest of them all was Kurupati, who was
eventually to become King of Ngastina. Next came the violent Dursasana,
Tjitraksa, Tjitraksi, and then all the others. When they came of age, the children
of Drestarata contracted two dynastic alliances of great importance. Kurupati
married Dewi Banowati, daughter of the celebrated King of Mandraka, Prabu
Salya; and Dursilowati's hand was given to the powerful and respected prince,
Raden Djajadrata.
The Pendawa, five in number, were all boys. The three eldest, Judistira,
Wrekudara, and Ardjuna, were the children of Pandu's first wife, Dewi Kunti
Nalibrata. The two youngest, Nangkula and Sadewa, were twins born to Pandu's
second wife, Dewi Madrim, sister of Prabu Salya. Although Pandu was ostensibly
their father, he had in fact been cursed with impotency, and the children were all
sired by Gods—Judistira by Batara Darma, Wrekudara by Sang Hyang Baju,
Ardjuna by Batara Endra, and the twins by the two Aswis. Like the Kurawa, the
young Pendawa won important allies by marriage. Judistira and Ardjuna
respectively married Dewi Drupadi and Dewi Srikandi, the daughters of Prabu
Drupada of Tjempalaredja, and sisters of Raden Drestadjumena. Ardjuna's other
bride, Dewi Sumbadrd, was not only his own first cousin but also the sister of Prabu
Kresna, the powerful lord of Dwarawati.76 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 50 WiduraAppendix II 77
Fig. 52 Drupadi78 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Now, before her marriage to Pandu, Dewi Kunti Nalibrata had had a child by
Batara Surya, the Sun God. Her father, ashamed of his daughter's untimely
pregnancy, put the newborn baby into a casket and set it afloat on a nearby river.
The child, a boy, was rescued by a humble charioteer and given the name Kama.
When a young man, his military skill, aristocratic bearing, and nobility of
character caught the eye of Kurupati. Hoping for support in his continuing rivalry
with Pandu's sons, the eldest of the Kurawa encouraged and befriended the young
Kama, little knowing who he really was. Thus it was that Kunti's first-born son
came to be arrayed on the side of her younger children's mortal enemies.
Pandu himself did not rule for long in Ngastina. He died while both Kurawa
and Pendawa were still small children. Drestarata, once passed over for the
succession, became regent till their maturity. Both Kurawa and Pendawa were
brought up together at Ngastina under the watchful eyes of Dahjang Duma, the
subtle brahmand, and the aged Resi Bhisma. Drestararata's infirmity prevented
him from ruling in more than name, and effective power passed increasingly to
these two and to Drestarata's brother-in-law and Chief Minister, the cunning
Sangkuni.
From the beginning, the cousins were in constant and embittered rivalry, which
came to a climax when Drestarata decided to abdicate in favor of his son,
Kurupati, who then ascended the throne as Prabu Sujudana. The Pendawa felt that
their claims had been unjustly disregarded, while the Kurawa, in spite of their
numbers, feared that their position would never be secure so long as their more
gifted, God-favored cousins remained alive to challenge them. Love, as well as
politics, became a source of strife. Sujudana suffered the humiliation of having his
wife won for him by Ardjuna, most irresistible of Javanese princes. Indeed, even
after her marriage to the new King of Ngastina, Dewi Banowati remained
enamored of Ardjuna and he of her—a fact which did not fail further to poison
relations between the cousins.
It was, however, the Chief Minister, Sangkuni, who, either out of fear for his
own position, affection for his nephews, or some innate instinct for mischief, blew
on the smoldering rivalry between the cousins until it flared into open conflict.
Working on the young Sujudana's anxieties, he persuaded him to invite the five
Pendawa and their mother, Kunti, to a formal conference, ostensibly to discuss the
division of the kingdom into two—one half for Judistira and his brothers and one
for the Kurawa. Suspecting no guile, the Pendawa appeared and were lodged in a
beautiful pavilion, specially constructed of inflammable lacquer. After a lavish
and convivial banquet, the Pendawa retired to bed, all except the watchful
Wrekudara. Now came their limping uncle, Widura, warning his nephews of
Kurawa treachery and advising them in case of need to follow a white civet. Soon
afterwards agents of Sangkuni set the lacquer pavilion afire, hoping to trap the
sleeping Pendawa in the holocaust. But Dewi Kunti and her five sons, led by
Wrekudara, discovered a mysterious white civet suddenly before them and escaped
death by following it down a subterranean passage and eventually, after various
adventures, up again into a remote, desolate forest.
In fear of their lives, the Pendawa now came to the court of Prabu Matswapati,
King of Wirata, where, in disguise, they sought employment. Judistira became a
learned brahmand, Wrekudara a butcher, Ardjuna an eunuch dancing-master, and
the twins herdsmen. Though the Kurawa searched high and low they could find noAppendix II 79
trace of them. In time, however, the danger passed and the secret of their identity
was made known to Matswapati.
With Matswapati's help and that of Ardjuna's cousin and brother-in-law
Prabu Kresna, the Pendawa cleared a wide space in the forest where they had first
taken refuge and there built a magnificent palace which they called Ngamarta.
Now Judistira was crowned King, and a period of glory and prosperity ensued. From
all sides people came to settle under the wise and humane rule of the gentle
Pendawa. But the rivalry with the Kurawa continued. The Pendawa never
abandoned their claims, nor the Kurawa their fears. To the ranks of the Kurawa
was now added Prabu Salya's gigantic son, Raden Burisrawa, who, desperate for
love of Dewi Sumbadra, swore that if he could not marry her he would never touch
another woman. Since Sumbadra was already Ardjuna's wife and had even borne
him a child, Raden Abimanju, only Ardjuna's death could accomplish Burisrawa's
purpose.
The growing glory and renown of Ngamarta was a burning thorn in the heart of
Sujudana, and once again he turned to his uncle, Sangkuni, for advice. The cunning
Chief Minister suggested that he invite the Pendawa for a feast of reconciliation
and there prevail upon Judistira to play at dice. This was the King of Ngamarta's
single weakness, and Sangkuni's special skill. Once again the Pendawa fell into
the trap that had been prepared for them. They came to the feast and Judistira
agreed to gamble with Sangkuni, though his brothers all warned him of danger. As
the hours passed, Judistira progressively lost all his material possessions then his
kingdom, later his own freedom, and finally that of his brothers and even his wife,
Dewi Drupadi. The Pendawa were struck dumb by the disaster which had
overtaken them. The Kurawa were overjoyed, and Dursasana moved to take
possession of Drupadi, tearing open her gown at the thigh and pulling loose her
bound-up hair. Trembling with rage, Drupadi reminded the Kurawa that, having
already given up his own freedom, her husband could not legally stake that of his
wife or brothers, so that neither she nor the other Pendawa were bound by the last
throws of the dice. Moreover she swore that she would leave her dress torn and her
hair unbraided until the day when she could wash her tresses in Dursasana's blood.
Wrekudara also cursed the Kurawa and promised that one day he would tear
Dursasana limb from limb with his nails and rip Sangkuni's lying jaws apart. Then
in silence the Pendawa departed, stripped of everything they possessed. Sujudana
made no move to stop them, stunned by the terrible scene that had just passed.
Once again the Pendawa were reduced to nothing. Once again they were forced
to wander in lonely poverty through the woods and mountains, attended as always
by their faithful clown-attendants (punakawan), Semar, Gareng, and Petruk.
Whenever despair settled upon them, their spirits were lightened by the antics of
Petruk and Gareng and their hopes raised by Semar's gentle, wise advice.
Many years again passed by, until the Pendawa, with the aid of Kresna and
Matswapati, were able once more to muster their strength. To seal the alliance
between the Pendawa and Wirata, Ardjuna's eldest and best-loved son, Raden
Abimanju, was summoned and married to Matswapati's daughter, Dewi Utari. At
the wedding it was foretold that their child would eventually rule a united Java in
peace and prosperity and would in turn beget a historic line of Javanese kings. And
now the Gods began to give signs that the Last War, Bratajuda Djajabinangun, was
at hand. The PendawS decided to send Kresna to Ngastina to make one final80 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
attempt to settle the long enmity by persuading Sujudana to yield half his
kingdom.
Prabu Kresna arrived at Ngastina accompanied only by his cousin and friend,
Raden Setyaki, otherwise known as the Dwarf Wrekudara (Bima Kunting).
Meanwhile, Dahjang Durna and Patih Arya Sangkuni had warned SujudSna that
he had no hope of ultimate victory in the Bratajuda unless he could destroy Kresna
before it began. With much doubt and uneasiness in his heart, Sujudana accordingly
consented to lay an ambush for Kresna and Setyaki, although they came under the
flag of truce. The conference opened peacefully enough, but neither side would yield
in its demands. Then as Kresna retired to his quarters to rest, Dursasana led the
palace guard against him. Enraged by this treacherous attack. Kresna, who was an
incarnation of the God Wisnu, suddenly assumed his most terrible, demonic form,
the mountain-high, gigantic Triwikrama, with a thousand heads and ten thousand
arms and legs. At the very echo of his thunderous voice, the foundations of the
palace of Ngastina were riven. In shrieking panic the Kurawa sought refuge where
they could. But none would have escaped speedy destruction had not the Gods, in
the person of Kama's father, Batara Surya, suddenly appeared to warn Kresna
that he was forbidden to shed Kurawa blood. The Kurawa were destined for
annihilation not at his but at the Pendawa's hands. Drupadi's curse must work
itself out. By the decree of the Gods, Kresna's role must be limited to acting as the
Pendawa's adviser. The words of the Sun God had their effect. Kresna resumed his
mortal shape. He went to take leave of the Pendawa's mother, Dewi Kunti, who
remained at Ngastina, and promised to convey her blessing to her children.
Therewith he set off with the faithful Setyaki for Wirata, intending to report on
the failure of his mission.
Meanwhile, Kama had been summoned by his mother, who pleaded with him
to abandon the KurSwa and join his brothers at Wirata. But he steadfastly refused,
reminding his mother that she had abandoned him as a newborn baby. By this act
of cruelty she had forfeited all claims to his love and obedience. He owed a deep
debt of gratitude to Sujudana, who had made him what he was, the foremost
satrya in Ngastina. Nevertheless, he acknowledged his shame at Sujudana's
treacherous attack on Kresna and his foreboding that Ngastina was doomed. He
promised his mother finally that he would fight with none of his brothers but
Ardjuna. Thus, regardless of who won that fateful duel, Kunti would still have five
sons left. Leaving his mother in tears, Kama then rode homewards to his palace at
Ngawangga. On the way he encountered Kresna, and for a time the two rode on
together side by side. Like Kunti, Kresna tried to persuade Kama to change his
mind and side with the Pendawa but with no better success. They then parted
amicably, and each went his own way.
When Kresna had related what had occurred at Ngastina, the decision was
taken to go to war. The Pendawa now gathered their allies together at Wirata.
Aside from the five brothers themselves, the assembled heroes included Prabu
Kresna from Dwarawati, his son, Raden Samba, and his Chief Minister, UdawS;
Prabu Matswapati of Wirata and his three sons, Raden Seta, Raden Utara, and
Raden Wratsangka; Prabu Drupada of Tjempalaredja and his son, Raden
Drestadjumena; Ardjuna's heir, Raden Abimanju, and Wrekudara's son, Raden
Gatutkatja, among many others. When all preparations had been made, the
Pendawa armies marched forward to the place of battle, the great plain to be
known later as Tegal Kurusetra (Burial-Field of the Kurawa).Appendix II 81
To Ngastina there came word of the preparations at Wirata. Prabu Sujudana
too now gathered together his friends and allies. Among them came his father-in-
law, Prabu Salya, with the armies of Mandraka; his brothers-in-law, Raden
Djajadrata and Raden Burisrawa; Dahjang Durna, Resi Bhisma, Adipati Kama,
and many others. An appeal was sent to Kresna's invincible brother, Prabu
BSladewa of Mandura, whose wife was also a daughter of Prabu Salya, and who
usually defended the Kurawa cause. But Kresna had already foreseen this danger.
Knowing that if Baladewa fought for the Kurawa all would be lost, he persuaded
his brother to go into a deep trance in preparation for the fighting, promising him
that he would be awakened when the Bratajuda was to begin. In fact, he intended
only to waken him when the Kurawa had finally been destroyed. Thus the Kurawa
mission to Mandura met with no success.
The two armies now faced each other across the wind-swept plain. After rites
of great solemnity and splendor, hostilities were engaged.
On the first day, Resi Bhisma led the Kurawa forces to victory. Matswapati's
three sons, Seta, Utara, and Wratsangka, all perished at his hands, and Sujudana
was overcome with joy. When darkness fell, Kresna warned the despondent
Pendawa that, when he was a young man, Resi Bhisma had accidentally killed a
certain Dewi Ambalika, who was in love with him. As she lay dying she had
sworn to return and have her revenge. Now Ambalika had reincarnated herself in
Ardjuna's warrior-wife, Srikandi, and through Srikandi alone could Bhisma be
overcome. Accordingly, it was agreed by all the Pendawa chiefs that on the next
day Srikandi should lead their forces into battle.
On the second day, as Kresna had foreseen, Bhisma encountered Srikandi and
recognized that his hour had come. Without resistance he allowed himself to be
pierced by her arrows. As he lay dying, the fighting stopped, and both sides came
to pay their respects to the fallen hero and ask for his blessing. With his last
breath he prophesied victory for the Pendawa and ruin for their rivals.
On the third day, Duma's cunning persuaded the Pendawa's mightiest
champions, Ardjuna and Wrekudara, to engage in single combat far from the
battlefield with two of Sujudana's lesser allies. Duma's plan was to take
advantage of their absence to deal a decisive blow. Into the breach now stepped
Ardjuna's son, Abimanju. Leading the counterattack, he succeeded in cutting down
Sujudana's only son and heir, Raden Lesmana Mandrakumara. But his inexperience
was his undoing. The Kurawa pretended to give ground and drew him into their
midst. There he was surrounded, pierced with arrows, and finally clubbed to death
by Raden Djajadrata. When the faithful Semar brought the news to Ardjuna, the
bereaved father almost took leave of his senses, wandering pathetically back
towards the battlefield calling for his son, without thought of danger. But finally
Kresna roused him from his grief to thoughts of revenge, and he swore to destroy
Djdjadrata before sundown or himself mount the ritual pyre where his son's dead
body lay. Word of this solemn oath spread rapidly to the Kurawa camp. On
Sangkuni's advice, Djajadrata was hidden where none could find him. The long day
passed while Ardjuna hunted for his chosen adversary in vain. As the sun declined,
he prepared to immolate himself in grief, shame, and despair. But now Kresna used
his magic weapon, the Tjakra, to darken the sky so completely that it seemed as if
night had already fallen. The Kurawa were deceived and the jubilant Djajadrata
now emerged from concealment to witness Ardjuna's death by fire. Immediately the82 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Tjakra was withdrawn, and in the red light of sunset Ardjuna's arrow sped
unerringly to its mark in Djajadrat&'s throat.
On the fourth day, Raden Burisrawa was challenged by Raden Setyaki. The
battle went badly for the diminutive hero, and he was about to be crushed to death
when his cousin Kresna intervened, urging Ardjuna to shoot Burisrawa down from
behind. Ardjuna, however, refused, saying that it was against the satrya code for
an onlooker to interfere in a single combat of this kind. Undismayed, Kresna
resorted to a stratagem. He held up a fine hair between Ardjuna and Burisrawa and
asked if Ardjuna could split it with an arrow. Ardjuna innocently agreed to try, and
indeed succeeded in dividing the hair. But the arrow flew on and lodged itself deep
in Burisrawa's heart. Bitterly shamed, Ardjuna retired for the day from the field
of battle. His place was taken by Wrekudara's winged son, Raden Gatutkatja, who
now led the Pendawa against the Kurawa forces under Adipati Kama. A terrible
battle developed, in which Kama was finally forced to make use of his most
magical arrow, Kjai Konta, to bring down the flying hero. The Kurawa were
overjoyed at Gatutkatja's death. But this was to be their last triumph.
The fifth day proved to be the climax of the great war, for Ardjuna and Kama
finally met face to face. Prabu Salya was Kama's charioteer, Prabu Kresna
Ardjuna's. Both heroes hesitated at first, but Kresna reminded Ardjuna of his
obligations as a satrya and of Gatutkatja's death the previous day at Kama's
hands. Then the battle was joined, and for long neither side had the advantage,
being perfectly matched. Then, seeing an opportunity, Kama launched his most
terrifying arrow. But Salya, humiliated that he had been forced to act as his son-
in-law's charioteer and in his heart siding with the Pendawa, suddenly jerked the
reins and brought his horses to their knees. Thus the blazing arrow passed through
Ardjuna's hair and not his head. Then Ardjuna unleashed his own magical arrow,
Pasopati, and Kama fell to his death in the dust.
On the sixth day, the aged Duma led the Kurawa to battle in Kama's place.
Ardjuna refused to fight his old teacher, and the other Pendawa proved no match
for the old brahmana's magical arts. Only when Kresna ordered Wrekudara to kill
an elephant bearing the same name as Duma's son, Bambang Aswatama, and
Judistira was induced to convince the old man that it was indeed his son who had
died, did it become possible to win the day. Transfixed in silent grief, the once
invincible brahmdna was an easy prey to the rash Drestadjumena, who lopped off
his head although he offered no resistance. From afar, Aswatama witnessed what
had happened and swore to have his revenge.
On the seventh day, Prabu Salya guided the Kurawa to temporary victory
with his irresistible weapon, the Tjandabirawa. The Pendawa armies scattered in
panic, suffering heavy losses. Kurawa hopes were unexpectedly raised. But when
night fell, Kresna sent the twins, Nangkula and Sadewa, sons of Salya's beloved
sister, Madrim, to seek out the secret of Salya's power. Prabu Salya, who had never
approved of Sujudana's actions but had joined him out of family loyalty, told the
young men that he could only be vanquished by a king whose blood ran white.
Accordingly, on the eighth day, Judistira, purest of mortals, led the Pendawa
to battle, though he had never in his life raised a hand in violence. He brought
with him no destructive weapon, only his sacred heirloom, the holy text
Kalimasada. Now the Tjandabirawa's power was shattered. The ghost of
Begawan Bagaspati, the raseksd hermit whom Salya had killed so as to marry his
daughter, Dewi Satyawati, appeared in the air, hovering over the battlefield.Appendix II 83
Promising revenge, the ghost vanished into the body of Judistira. Suddenly
transformed into a menacing warrior, the eldest Pendawa now advanced to the fray
and immediately brought Salya low with Ardjuna's magic arrow, the Pasopati.
On the ninth day, the curse of Drupadi worked itself out. Wrekudara
encountered Dursasana, and, after a murderous struggle, he tore his cousin limb from
limb with his terrible nails, the Pantjanaka. Drupadi appeared on the field of
battle and bathed her locks in the dying man's blood. Sangkuni then advanced but
proved no match for the enraged, gigantic Wrekudara, who snatched him up bodily
and tore his jaws apart.
On the tenth and last day, Sujudana was left alone to face Wrekudara in single
combat. So great was his valor and strength that Wrekudara could not prevail
until Kresna signaled him to strike a foul blow on Sujudana's thigh. The great King
of Ngastina then sank to the ground in agony, there to fall helpless victim to the
Pantjanaka. And now it happened that Baladewa had at last been awakened from
his trance by the thunder of battle and hurried to the Tegal Kurusetra in time to
witness Sujudana's end. He bitterly reproached Kresna for his deceit and for the
ignoble ruse which had brought the last of the Kurawa to his downfall. Unmoved,
Kresna replied that he was merely carrying out the will of the Gods.
In somber mood the Pendawa now approached the fallen city of Ngastina. At
the gates they found Gendari, mother of the Kurawa, sunk in desperate brief. Of
all her hundred children, not one was left alive. In her despair she turned on
Kresna and cursed him with a mother's curse. She foretold that he himself would
lose all his own children first and at the end die miserable, forsaken, and alone,
shot by a woodcutter's arrow in a remote and desolate forest.
The Pendawa now took their rest. But Duma's son, Bambang Aswatama, who
had fled the field of battle, stole back into Ngastina by night to seek revenge. As
they slept, he stabbed to death Raden Drestadjumena, Dewi Srikandi, Drupadi's
son, Raden Pantjawala, and Sujudana's widow, Banowati, who had happily
rejoined her first love, Ardjuna, after her husband's death. He also attempted to
kill Parikesit, Ardjuna's little grandson, but the baby had been sleeping with the
sprung Pasopati at his feet. Startled by the midnight intruder, the infant stirred.
The arrow, released, flew from the bow, and Aswatama fell mortally wounded at
the crib-side.
Dawn came, and the night's slaughter was discovered. Stricken, the Pendawa
decided to depart. Kresna returned to Dwarawati with Setyaki and Udawa.
Baladewa was left to guard and rear the young Parikesit (see Fig. 53, page 84), who
would one day rule over a new Ngastina. The five brothers, accompanied by
Drupadi and a faithful hound, set off for the Universal Mountain, the Mahameru.
But, weighed down bythe blood that had been shed, their strength faded as they
ascended the holy mountain towards heaven. One by one they fell exhausted by
the wayside, first Drupadi, then Sadewa, Nangkula, Ardjuna, and finally even
Wrekudara. Only the saintly Judistira reached the gate of Heaven. There he was
invited to enter, alone, but he refused so long as his wife, his brothers, and his
hound were compelled to remain outside. The Gods relented, and the whole
company passed up into the celestial sphere, their task on earth now at last
accomplished.84 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 53 ParikesitTable I: showing dynastic relationships between the kingdoms of Ngastina and Wirata
(KINGDOM OF
NGASTINA)
(PALASArA) = (Durgjmdini)
(KINGDOM OF
WIRATA)
MATSWAPATI
II	(TISTAWA) BHISMA = Ambaliki
: abjXsA~
(Rekitawati) -
/
/
/
/
/
jKUNI Genlari
Jdu)* widLra seC
III SANGKUNI Gendari = DRESTARATA (PANDU)* WIDURA SETA UTARA WRATSANGKA Utari
iL
Lana kurIv
IV Banowati* = SUJWANA* DURSAISANA KURAWA Dursilowati = DJAJADRATA
LESMANaImANDRAKUMARA	(Lesmanawati)
(For Legend, see Table II)
Appendix III
Genealogies of the Mahabharata
(Javanese Version)Table II: showing relationship between the kingdom of Mandraka and leading figures of the Kurawa
(KINGDOM OF
MANDRAKA)
II	(BEGAWAN BAGASPATI)	(MANDRATPATI)*
III	Satyawati = SALYA*	Madrim* = (PANDU)*
IV	BALADEWA* = Erawati	KARNA* = Surtikanti	SUJUDANA* = Banowati*	BURISRAWA
86 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Java
3
Hi
Legend
I
Ambaliki
SANGKUNI
(PALASARA)
Utari*
ABJASA
BHISMA
Numbers in the left-hand margin indicate generations, and are included to help in correlating the four
genealogical tables
Small type indicates that the person is feminine
Large type indicates that the person is masculine
Parentheses indicate that the person plays no active role in the main drama
Asterisk indicates that the person appears again in another genealogical table
Underlining indicates association with the Pendawa faction, and lack of underlining indicates
association with the KurawaTable III: showing dynastic relationships between the kingdoms of Ngamarta, Mandura, and Dwarawati
(KINGDOM OF
MANDURA)
II
(KUNTIBODJA)	(MANDRATPATI)*
V
III
IV
SAMBA	Sitisundari = ABIMANJU*
Appendix III
oc
^4III
Table IV: showing dynastic relationships between the kingdoms of Ngamarta, Tjempalaredja, and Wirata
(KINGDOM OF
TJEMPALAREDJA)
(PANPU)’
drupAda
(KINGDOM OF
NGAMARTA)
WREKUPArA* = Arimbi
IV JUPISTIRA* = Drupadr
V
pantjAwala
gatutkAtjA
VI
Sumbadra* = ARDTUNA* = Srikandi Prupadi* PRESTAPTUMENA
(KINGDOM OF
WIRATA)
ABIMANJU = Utari*
(PARIKESIT)
88 Mythology and the Tolerance of the JavaneseAppendix IV
Ram a yana: A Javanese Version
According to the Lakons
Fig. 54 Dasamuka
For years a deep enmity had festered between Prabu Dasarata, lord of Ngajodya, and
the giant Prabu Dasamuka, ruler of the island kingdom of Ngalengka. Twice the
kings had been rivals in love, once for Dewi Raguwati, once for Dewi Kekaji. Twice
Dasdrata had prevailed, though less through valor and strength than through
cunning and the favor of the Gods. In his disappointment Dasamuka swore to take
revenge.90 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
In time a new generation grew up in the two royal capitals. In NgalengkS,
Dasamuka's wife, a heavenly nymph, gave birth to a baby girl in her husband's
absence. Dasamuka's younger brother, Raden Wibisana, took the infant, put it in a
casket, and set it afloat on a great river running down to the sea. Eventually the baby
was found by the King of the neighboring state of Mantili, who reared the little girl
as his own child and gave her the name Dewi Sinta. To prevent Dasamuka
discovering what had happened, Wibisana created a boy out of a dark mass of cloud,
gave him the name Megananda (Indradjit), and presented him to Dasamuka as his
son.
Fig. 55 WibisanaAppendix IV 91
Fig. 57 Indradjit92 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Meanwhile, in Ngajody&, Dewi Raguwati gave birth to two sons, R&ma and
Lesmana. Not long afterwards Dewi Kekaji bore Dasarata a third son, who was
named Raden Barata. When the boys had grown to manhood, the news was brought
that the King of Mantili would hold a tournament for the hand of his beautiful
daughter, Dewi Sinta. Rama decided to enter the tournament and was brilliantly
successful, bringing Sinta home to Ngajodya as his wife.
Fig. 58 RamSAppendix IV 93
Fig. 59 Lesmana
Soon afterwards, Dasarata, feeling his end approaching, announced his intention
of abdicating in favor of his eldest son, Rama. But Dewi Kekaji, jealous for her own
child, Barata, began to poison the old man's mind against his designated successor.
Rama proudly refused to defend himself against Kekaji's whispered charges and was
therefore banished from the court, followed by Sinta and the faithful Lesmana.
Reminding Dasarata of an earlier promise that she could have one wish which he
would fulfill whatever the cost, Dewi Kekaji now compelled her husband to make
Barata his heir. To her dismay, however, Barata himself refused to cooperate with her
plans. When Dasarata died, not long after, Barath followed after Rama into the forest
in the hope of persuading him to return to Ngajodya and ascend the throne. But all
his entreaties were in vain. Exhausted by his efforts, Barata fell asleep in his tent; and
in the middle of the night Rama, Sinta, and Lesmana disappeared without leaving a
trace. Disconsolately Barata turned back, and eventually he agreed to act as Regent in
Ngajodya until the day of Rama's homecoming.94 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Meanwhile the exiles found shelter in a remote hermitage, deep in the forest.
Here one day Dasamuka's younger sister, Dewi Sarpakenaka, happened to pass by
and fell immediately and desperately in love with the ascetic, celibate Lesmana. He
rejected her frank advances and reproached her bitingly for her immodesty. Furious
at her persistence, he finally cut off her nose and her ears. In a fury, Sarpakenaka
returned to Ngalengka and complained to her brother that she had been wantonly
insulted by Dasarata's sons. Dasamuka now saw a chance to have his revenge on the
children of his old enemy. Acting on Sarpakenaka's report of what she had seen, he
sent her husband, his trusted servant Maritja, to tempt Dewi Sinta by assuming the
form of a golden hart. The ruse succeeded beyond expectation. On seeing the
beautiful animal, Sinta immediately asked Rama to catch it for her. Maritja then
cunningly drew Rama further and further into the woods. After a time, uneasy at her
husband's continued absence, Sinta insisted that Lesmana go to find him, although
Rama had expressly forbidden his younger brother to leave her unguarded.
Embarrassed by her urgency, Lesmana very unwillingly set off. Now Dasamuka
appeared in the guise of an aged ascetic and successfully lured Sinta out of the magic
circle in which Rama had placed her. Seizing her in his arms, the Giant-King bore her
aloft and flew back towards Ngalengka. The Garuda-eagle, Djataju, seeing what had
happened, sped to the unlucky Sinta's rescue. But he was no match for Dasamuka
and finally fell to earth, mortally wounded.Appendix IV 95
Raden Rama, meantime, irked by his inability to catch the golden hart
unharmed, shot it down with his unerring arrows. To his astonishment and dismay,
the dying beast suddenly changed into a giant. Maritja, wounded to death had
resumed his natural form. Filled with anxiety and foreboding, Rama hurried home to
the hermitage. On the way he met Lesmana, and together the brothers discovered
that Sinta had completely vanished in their absence. Drawn by distant moans, they
soon found the dying Djataju, who revealed to them the identity of Sinta's abductor.
On their journey to Ngalengka, the brothers first encountered the White Ape,
Hanoman, son of the Wind God, Batara Baju, who had been sent by the Lord of
Heaven, Batara Guru, to give them aid. He counseled them first to seek allies for the
struggle against Dasamuka. Soon they came to the Kingdom of the Apes, where a
bitter contest for the throne was raging between Sugriwa (see Fig. 62, page 96) and
Subali. On Hanoman's advice, Rama came to Sugriwa's rescue by shooting Subali
through the heart. In gratitude Sugriwa agreed to join the quest for Sinta and to bring
the monkey armies with him.
Fig. 61 Hanoman96 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Fig. 62 SugriwaAppendix IV 97
Fig. 63 Tridjata
Eventually Rama
reached the shore of the
strait which separated the
island of Ngalengka from
the mainland. He then de-
cided to send Hanoman
ahead to spy out the land.
With one mighty leap the
White Ape crossed the wa-
ters, soon afterwards find-
ing himself in the pleasure-
garden where Sinta was
being held prisoner by
Dasamuka. For the Giant-
King still disdained to take
her by force, hoping against
hope that in time she would
yield to him of her own ac-
cord. Little did he realize
that she was in fact his own
daughter. Hanoman
climbed a tall tree, and soon
he observed Sinta con-
versing with her guardian
and friend, Dewi Tridjata,
Wibisana's faithful daugh-
ter. Slipping quietly into the
garden, Hanoman ap-
proached the two women
and, with Tridjata's con-
nivance, addressed himself
to Sinta. He told her that
help was at last at hand and
gave her Rama's ring as a
sign of his love and trust.
Sinta in turn gave the ape
her own ring to bring back
to her husband.98 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
On his homeward journey Hanoman's luck ran out. He was captured by the
powerful young Crown Prince of Ngalengka, Raden Indradjit and, on Dasamuka's
orders, condemned to be burned alive as a spy. At this juncture, Raden Wibisana and
Dasamuka's other brother, the gigantic Raden Kumbakarna, intervened, strongly
urging the King to return Sinta to her husband and release the White Ape before it
was too late. Dasamuka's trusted Chief Minister, Prahasta, seconded their advice.
But all to no purpose. Incensed by their opposition, Dasamuka bade them choose
once and for all between himself and Rama. So long as he lived, he would never
surrender the beautiful princess of Mantili. With a heavy heart, Wibisana then
Fig. 64 PrahastaAppendix IV 99
declared that he could neither accept Sinta's unlawful abduction nor be a party to the
cruel death planned for Hanoman. He deeply believed that justice must come before
family loyalty. Dasamuka generously granted him permission to leave, and he
immediately set off to join Rama. Kumbakarna and Prahasta made the opposite
decision. While disapproving of Dasamuka's course of action and warning that the
Gods would undoubtedly favor Rama, they felt in their hearts that they could not
abandon their King and so were prepared, if necessary, to die for him. This proof of
their disinterested devotion momentarily caused Dasamuka to hesitate, but his
earlier oath of vengeance, his desire for Sinta, and the renewed complaints of
Sarpakenaka, who reminded him of her humiliations and the death of the faithful
Maritja, strengthened his resolve to continue the struggle. Kumbakarna thereupon
immediately retired to a high mountain, where he sank into a deep religious trance,
gathering his forces for the coming battle.
Hanoman's tail was then set alight by Dasamuka's executioners. But,
summoning all his supernatural strength, the White Ape burst his bonds, leapt high
into the air, and flew across the glittering capital of Ngalengka, setting fire to the
roof-tops with his flaming tail. Another mighty leap brought him back to Rama and
Lesmana, to whom he recounted the story of his mission. Learning that Sinta was
alive and still unravished by Dasamuka, Rama decided on war. With the help of
Sugriwa's apes, who formed a living bridge across the straits, he passed over to
Ngalengka, in spite of the advance armies that Dasamuka sent against him.
Now the decisive struggle opened. For days it raged fiercely without any result.
Then the tide began to turn. First Sarpakenaka, then the loyal Prahasta, succumbed.
In desperation Dasamuka summoned Kumbakarna. But the giant hero was too
deeply sunk in meditation to be easily awakened, even though chariots were driven
furiously across his colossal frame. Finally Indradjit succeeded in rousing him.
Kumbakarna then arose, clothed himself in white in recognition of the death he felt
approaching, said farewell to his wife and child, and left for the battlefield. Then all
Rama's armies were speedily put to flight. None could withstand the onslaught of
Kumbakarna's unequaled strength. Sugriwa was hurled to the ground half-dead. His
monkey hordes were crushed in their thousands by each giant stride of
Kumbakarna's feet and each whirl of his titanic arms. Hanoman himself was barely
able to hold his own. It was only when the two were locked in a last, mortal combat
and Kumbakarna appeared on the verge of victory that Lesmana came to the aid of
the White Ape and shot an arrow into Kumbakarna's heart. He fell, mortally
wounded, to the ground; and it was as if the World-Mountain, the Mahameru itself,
had crashed down from heaven to earth.
The following day, Indradjit was sent out to avenge his uncle's death. So great
was his magical power that once again Rama's army scattered in panic. Lesmana
went to meet him and was at once struck dead in an unequal combat. Hanoman
himself proved powerless against this adversary. Then Wibisana, who had himself
created Indradjit, told Rama the secret of his origin and how his destruction could be
accomplished. Rama then shot his most magically potent arrow, and the terrible
Indradjit dissolved into a vast, dark cloud, which rapidly covered the whole sky and
blotted out the sun. The battlefield was black as night, and the opposing armies
separated in blind confusion.
Prabu Dasamuka was now alone. Nevertheless, he was determined to carry on
the long struggle. When dawn came he set forth with the remnants of his army.
Meanwhile Lesmana and Sugriwa had been restored to life when Rama touched their100 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
bleeding wounds with the Flower of Life, Widjajakusuma. At least Rama and
Dasamuka met in single combat. But neither was able to overcome the other.
Repeatedly Rama shot off Dasamuka's head from his body with his blazing arrows,
but each time Dasamuka uttered a magic spell and head and torso were at once
reunited. Then Hanoman came to the rescue. As Rama once again lopped off Prabu
Dasamuka's head, the White Ape snatched up a mountain-top and cast it down on
the headless trunk, covering it completely so that the severed head could never
return to its place. Nevertheless, so magically potent was the King of Ngalengka that
he could not wholly die. At times his angry body still stirs and to this day breathes
forth its wrath from within the mountain in clouds of smoke and burning ash.
The war was now triumphantly concluded. The empire of Ngalengka had fallen.
Sinta and Tridjata were rescued from the blazing palace. Yet the atmosphere was full
of sorrow for those who had fallen. Wibisana wept bitterly for the dead Kumbakarna
as he buried him. Then he asked to follow the others on their homeward journey; but
instead Rama appointed him the new King of Ngalengka and urged him to stay
behind and rebuild the devastated kingdom. Sugriwa then departed for his own
land, accompanied by the remnants of his army.
Rama and Sinta were at last reunited after their long separation. Together with
Lesmana and Hanoman they returned home to Ngajodya, where Barata came out to
greet them and surrendered the glittering palace to Rama, who was soon after
crowned as Dasarata's rightful heir.
But the unlucky Sinta was to undergo still one last trial. On her return to
Ngajodya she was looked on with suspicion by high and low alike. Was it possible
that after so many years in the palace of Ngalengka Dasamuka had not finally had
his will of her? To prove her purity, Sinta asked for a great pyre to be prepared and
set alight; and this she then solemnly ascended. The flames parted before her, and
she emerged radiant and unscathed. Finally vindicated, Sinta rejoined her husband
and together they ruled Ngajodya for many years in great happiness and peace.Glossary
Abangan (Jav.) Persons or groups who adhere to the traditional Javanese melange of
Hindu-Buddhism, animism, and Islamic mysticism, as opposed to the more
strait-laced, orthodox santri (q.v.).
Adipati (Jav.) A King of secondary or subordinate rank.
Agama Bali (Ind.) The syncretic religion of Bali.
Arja (Jav.) One of the highest titles of nobility.
Bambang (Jav.) A courtesy title for a young satrya, generally with the implication that
he is still unmarried.
Batara (Jav.) A special title for male deities.
Begawan (Jav.) A title given to a religious ascetic of noble origin. It is especially used
for kings who have abandoned their thrones to seek religious enlightenment.
Betari (Jav.) A special title for female deities. (See Batara)
Bima Kunting (Jav.) Literally "the dwarf Bima"; this is a favorite nickname for the
small but fierce Raden Setyaki.
Brahmana (Jav.) A member of the Brahmana or priestly caste.
Bratajuda Djajdbinangun (Jav.) Literally "the war of the children of Barata in which
victory is won"; this is the full Javanese name for the final war between the
Kurawa and the Pendawa.
Buta (Jav.) A general word denoting demon or giant.
Dahjang (Jav.) Normally this word means the guardian spirit of a Javanese village. In
wayang it is a special title conferred on Durna in recognition of his unsurpassed
learning and magical power.
Dalang (Jav.) The puppeteer of the wayang shadow-play, who sings, jokes, narrates,
philosophizes, and manipulates the puppets the whole night through. For
Javanese mystics he represents a symbol of the Supreme Being.
Desa (Jav.) Peasant, primitive.
Dewi (Jav.) The usual title for a princess or other high-born lady.
Djaman Buda (Jav.) The pre-Islamic era in Javanese history.
Durung Djawd (Jav.) "Not yet Javanese," i.e., still an irrational child.
Kalimasada (Jav.) The holy text which is Judistira's special magical attribute. The
name has been interpreted as Kalimah Sahadat, the Moslem confession of faith.
There is a tradition that before his death Judistira handed this text to Sunan
Kalidjaga, the most eminent of the Islamic proselytizing saints in Java.
Kasar (Jav.) Crude, inelegant, rough, impolite.
Kelir (Jav.) The white cotton screen, framed first in red cloth and then with wooden
beams, against which the puppets are held during a wayang performance. When
the oil-lamp, or blentjong, is lit, the flickering shadows of the puppets appear on
the far side of the kelir.102 Mythology and the Tolerance of the Javanese
Kjai (Jav.) Title of respect, meaning something like "Revered Father." It may be used
for both old and wise people and sacred, magically potent objects, such as gongs,
wayang puppets, krisses, and spears.
Kramd (Jav.) The honorific Javanese language of respect used to strangers and
persons of higher social rank.
Kuntd (Jav.) The name of Kama's most powerful magical arrow, given to him by his
father, Batara Surya.
Kurdwa (Jav.) The Left faction. Literally the brothers of Kurupati (Sujudana), but
more generally used to describe all Drestarata's sons and their allies in the
Bratajuda.
Lakon (Jav.) An episode from the Javanized Ramayana or Mahabharata, serving as
the plot for a single night's wayang performance.
Lurah (Jav.) Usually this term means "village headman," but it can also mean a
specific rank at the Javanese courts (often given to talented artists and craftsmen
of less than noble (origin) or a title indicating great respect for someone lower in
rank than oneself.
Mahameru (Jav.) The World-Mountain, which reaches from Heaven to Earth. At its
peak the Gods have their abode. The Javanese identify it with Mount Semeru in
East Java.
Nasih (Jav.) Fate, destiny.
Nem (Jav.) Young.
Ngoko (Jav.) The expressive, pungent Javanese language used towards friends,
family, and persons of lower social rank. (See krama)
Nijdga (Jav.) The performers in a Javanese gamelan orchestra.
Oosthoek (Dutch) The largely Madurese-settled area of East Java that stretches east of
Malang to Banjuwangi.
Ora pantes (Jav.) Improper, inappropriate, undignified.
Pandita Ratu (Jav.) Priest-King, the ideal Javanese rule, who combines religious
authority and wisdom with secular power and majesty.
Pantjanaka (Jav.) The name of the razor-sharp, elongated index fingernails of
Wrekudara, Hanoman, and Sang Hyang Baju.
Pasisir (Jav.) The North coast of Java, especially the area between Tjirebon and
Surabaja. Much more strongly influenced by Islam than the interior, and in far
more frequent contact with the outside world, these North coast cities developed
a distinctive culture of their own. Historically they have competed with the
interior for hegemony over Java.
Pasopati (Jav.) The name of Ardjuna's invincible magic arrow.
Patih (Jav.) Chief Minister to a King. The Patih is often a man of the lesser nobility, or
even from the common people, who has risen to power by sheer ability. His
office is purely secular and administrative.
Pendawa (Jav.) The Right faction. A generic term for Judistira, Wrekudara, Ardjuna,
Nangkula, and Sadewa, Pandu's legitimate sons by Kunti and Madrim.
Sometimes loosely used to indicate not just the brothers but all their friends and
allies as well.
Pengchianat (Ind.) A traitor.
Poleng (Jav.) A woven cloth with black, red, white, and yellow checks, believed to
have special magical properties. In wayang it is worn only by WrekudarS,
Hanoman, Sang Hyang Baju, and Dewa Rutji.
Prabu (Jav.) The usual title for a King.Glossary 103
Priangan The interior plateau of West Java, heartland of the Sundanese ethnic group.
Punakawan (Jav.) Literally "attendants," it has come to mean, in wayang, the small
group of comic, grotesque male companions of the chief heroes.
Raden (Jav.) Usual title of respect for a man of satryd rank.
Rame (Jav.) Noisy.
Raseksa (Jav.) Monstrous giant. The traditional enemies of the satryd in most zuayang
stories.
Resi (Jav.) Religious ascetic and mystical teacher. It appears to have a slightly wider
and vaguer significance than Begawan (q.v.).
Sae (Jav.) Beautiful, good.
Sang Hyang (Jav.) Alternative title to Batard (q.v.) for male deities.
Santri (Jav.) Persons or groups in Java who adhere strictly to the laws and precepts of
Islam. Usually used in contrast to abangan (q.v.).
Satryd (Jav.) A member of the military-administrative secular ruling class. More
generally, anyone who sets out to live by the satryd code.
Semar Papa (Jav.) Literally "Semar in Distress," this is the title of one of the most
magically powerful lakons.
Sepuh (Jav.) Old, aged.
Setan (Jav.) A general word for a malevolent, or at least potentially malevolent, spirit.
Setraganddmaju (Jav.) Literally "deserted place smelling of corpses," this is the usual
Javanese name for the abode of Betari Durga.
Sri (Jav.) A very exalted title, usually reserved for kings.
Taman Siswa (Jav.) Literally "Garden of Pupils," the phrase was the name given to the
"wild" schools set up by Ki Hadjar Dewantoro in the 1920's in opposition to the
colonial Dutch educational system. Ki Hadjar's central idea was to combine
Western and Javanese educational concepts in the service of a new humanism.
Tegal Kurusetra (Jav.) The battlefield where the Bratajuda Djajabinangun takes place.
The name means literally "Burial-Field of the Kurawa."
Tjdkrd (Jav.) The magical weapon of Kresna. It is usually represented iconographi-
cally as an arrow tipped with a blazing wheel of fire.
Tjdnddbirdwd (Jav.) The magical weapon of Prabu Salya, given to him by Begawan
Bagaspati. When released it takes the form of myriads of dwarfish demons. Any
attack on them merely multiplies their number.
Tjotjog (Jav.) In harmony with, appropriate.
Triwikrdma (Jav.) As a verb this means to assume a terrible, demonic form, generally
out of rage.
Wadat (Jav.) Celibate.
Wayang (Jav.) Literally "shadow," it has come to mean the Javanese shadow-play. It
can also refer to the individual puppets.
Widjajakusuma (Jav.) The magical flower of life, supposedly only to be found on the
inhospitable island of Nusa Kembangan, off the south coast of Java.105
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