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HOUSE DRAINAGE

AND

WATER SERVICE

IN CITIES, VILLAGES, AND RURAL NEIGHBORHOODS.

WITH INCIDENTAL CONSIDERATION OF CAUSES AFFECTING
THE HEALTHFIILNESS OF DWELLINGS.

BY

JAMES C. BAYLES,

EDITOR OF “THE IRON AGE” AND “THE METAL WORKER.”

NEw Yor«K:
PUBLISHED BY DAVID WILLIAMS, 88 READE STREET.

1879.
@
CopynicHt, 1877,
James C, BAYLEs.
CONTENTS. _

CHAPTER I.
HYGIENE IN ITs PrRacTICAL RELATIONS TO HEALTH

CHAPTER II.
SEWER Gas - 3 < 2 é 4 - F .

CHAPTER III.
» Waste anv Sort Prpzs

CHAPTER IV.
y TRAPS AND SEALS AND THE VENTILATION OF Son Pipzs

CHAPTER V.
x WartTeER-CLOSETS

CHAPTER VI.
x SERVICE Prres aND WATER SERVICE In Crry Houses

CHAPTER VII.
TANKS AND CISTERNS . 4 2 ‘ ‘ - :

CHAPTER VIII.
THe CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING . ; z ‘i x .

CHAPTER IX.
ELEMENTARY HyDRAULICS APPLICABLE TO PLUMBING WoRK

CHAPTER X.
SANITARY CONSTRUCTION AND DRaInaGE oF Country Hovuszs

CHAPTER XI.
Water SupPLy 1x Country Districts

CHAPTER XII.
Succrstions CoNcERNING THE SANITARY CaRE OF PREMISES

CHAPTER XIII.
Tue PLUMBER AND His WORK . : Wi to «3s

Page.

23

44

64

104

139

147

216

258

291

312

328
AUTHOR'S PREFACE.

For several years the writer has conducted an extensive cor-
'respondence with plumbers, builders, architects and others
interested in the mechanics of hygiene, growing out of the dis-
cussion in Zhe Metal Worker of practical questions pertaining
to plumbing and sanitary engineering. From this correspond-
ence, as well as from a careful study of the literature of the
subject, he learned that a need existed for a comprehensive
elementary treatise on the theory and practice of plumbing
which was not met by any work in the market. The idea of
an attempt to supply this want did not at first suggest itself,
however, as continuous and exacting professional engagements
seemed to leave no time for book-making. During the winter
of 1874-5 the writer had the honor of reading two papers be-
fore the Public Health Association of New York, both on topics
connected with house drainage, which were so favorably received
by the plumbing trade as to suggest the propriety of revising
them for republication in pamphlet form. The work thus begun
gradually expanded, until it assumed the proportions of a book,
and it was then deemed advisable to still further extend its
scope to include the whole subject of house drainage and water
service.

It is perhaps only just to the professional reader to say that
this book is not intended as a contribution to the literature
of sanitary engineering. It takes up the subjects of drainage
and water supply where the engineer commonly leaves them,
and treats almost exclusively of subjects in which householders
and those connected with the house-building trades are directly
and immediately interested. On the other hand, it does not
claim to be a workshop manual. There is little in the simple
manipulations of the plumber’s art to call for explanation.
The plumbers as a class need theoretical instruction chiefly,
4 AUTHOR'S PREFACE.

and this is equally valuable to the other classes of readers ad-
dressed in these pages, namely, architects, builders, house-
holders and physicians interested in studying the mechanics of
hygiene. The writer has learned from experience that to be
of value such a work must be at once elementary and thorough.
It should aim to supply exactly the information which the
reader is likely to find practically useful; and while the discus-
sion needs to be full and exhaustive, it is of little use to encum-
ber the pages with citations from foreign authors or with
many references to works not readily accessible to the general
reader. With this in view the writer has been somewhat more
didactic in his treatment of the subjects discussed than he would
have been if writing for experts in hygienic science; and the
book is published in the hope that it will be of value to the
readers specifically addressed and aid in creating a popular in-
terest in matters intimately affecting the public health.

The author desires to acknowledge his obligations to those
who have assisted him in various ways, especially to Mr. William
E. Partridge for valuable aid in nearly every line of investiga-
tion and experiment; to Messrs. J. W. Hallock and B. C.
Gregory for assistance in chemical research and laboratory
work; to Mr. John Birkinbine, C. E., for aid in investigations
pertaining to the science of hydraulics; to Prof. Charles F.
Chandler for documents and information; to Drs. George
Bayles and Elisha Harris for valuable data; to Mr. William
Emerson for exceptionally careful and intelligent proof read-
ing, and to many kind friends in nearly all parts of the United
States who have aided his work and encouraged him in com-
pleting it for publication.

83 Reape Street, New Yorx, April, 1878.
CHAPTER IL
Hyerene i irs Practica, Retarions to Harta.

It is a gratifying indication of the progress of civilization sanitary set-
that sanitary science, as it is called, is becoming, even to a lim- jaya popular
ited extent, a popular study. sae

For many centuries physicians had a practical monopoly of
what little was known of the conditions affecting the public
health, and there seemed to be no incentive to original investi-
gation and experiment, even if the means of prosecuting an
inquiry so important to all classes of the people had been at the
command of those who, under more favorable circumstances,
would, doubtless, have made important contributions to the liter-
ature of hygiene. Fortunately, the science of medicine—if
that could be called a science which was then empirical, and
still is to a great extent—gradually freed itself from the hideous
superstitions which so long trammeled it, and physicians began The besin-

nings of sani-
to open their eyes to the real teachings of experience, and to tary investi-

treat disease rationally. This was a great step forward. The eee
next step was to push the inquiry into the causes of disease,

and the means by which those causes could be reached and
extirpated—or, at least, so far controlled as to essentially mod-

ify their power for mischief. To the medical profession we services of
owe the greater part of what has already been learned and fetesa,
placed upon record, of the truths which form the basis of san-

itary science; but though long left to pursue their studies
without encouragement, and with little or no hope that even

their most startling discoveries would be appreciated by the
general public, they have at last drawn to their assistance in the

great work a large and influential class. Those to whom the
sanitarian must look for the practical application of his carefully

elaborated theories of sanitary reform, are the very ones who
6 HYGIENE IN ITS PRACTICAL RELATIONS TO HEALTH.

are now beginning to appreciate most fully the importance of
Populsrinter- sanitary.science. In all classes of society, except those which
taryreform. include the very degraded and ignorant, we find a growing
interest in the means of guarding against all unhealthful condi-
tions in person, house and environments. With a larger wis-
dom and clearer insight into the causes of things, which have
come of progress in scientific thought, intelligent people do not
cue tue now attribute the consequences of their own neglect and care-
disease. lessness to the “afflictive dispensations of Providence,” which
are “mysterious and past finding out.” We are beginning to
understand how large a proportion of the diseases which afflict
humanity results from preventable causes, and that it is possible,
by judicious measures of sanitary reform, to so reduce the death
rate as to materially increase the average duration of human
a aenorelence life. Nor is this interest in sanitary reform bounded and lim-
of anit’ ited by a narrow selfishness. There is something broadly
humanitarian in it. The rich and middle classes no longer
feel that they have no interest in the welfare and comfort of
those who endure the misery and utter wretchedness of squalid
poverty. Disease is no respecter of persons, and a “fever
nest” in some remote and neglected quarter of a populous city
may dispatch invisible messengers of death to poison the air of
broad avenues and clean-swept streets miles distant. The
enlightened self-interest which is leading so many intelligent
men and women to study the laws of health is exactly the
reverse of selfishness, since every movement for general sani-
tary reform begins with the improvement of the houses of the
poor and ignorant, who can only be redeemed from untimely
death, and saved from being the instruments of spreading the
seeds of disease and contagion, when those who occupy the
social planes above them stretch forth a helping hand to lift

them out of the mire into which they have fallen.
Thetask of When we look about us and see how much remuins to be done
a before the masses of the people shall be emancipated from the

dire necessity of living under conditions prejudicial to health
HYGIENE IN ITS PRACTICAL RELATIONS TO HEALTH. qT

and, consequently, to happiness, it would almost seem as if the
task of the sanitarian is a hopeless one. Such is not the case,
however. We turn with a shudder of horror from the records
of the past to contemplate with satisfaction the progress we have
already made. People often wonder why we do not have such
fearful visitations of epidemic at the present day as the plague
of London, the ancient spotted fevers, sweating sickness, &e.
They forget that we are not yet free from the cholera, the yel- Ee!demics.
low fever, typhoid fever, and other preventable diseases, and
that the next generation may see that our disregard of nature’s
laws affected our death rate as surely as the dirt and filth of
London caused the great plague.

From the fall of the Roman Empire to the end of the Middle tite in gu.
Ages, the people of Europe were unwashed. Of Paris, it is mutase
recorded by Rigord, physician to Philip Augustus, that one
day when the king, walking to and fro in his audience cham-
ber, went to look out upon the view for recreation, some car-
riages belonging to citizens happened to pass in the street
beneath the window, “when the substance forming the street, The streets of
being stirred up by the revolution of the wheels, emitted a, :th century.
stench so powerful as to overpower Philip. This so disgusted
the king that he urged the citizens to pave the streets, and, to
assist in effecting the purification of the city, he built a wall
around the cathedral to prevent it from remaining longer a
common corner of convenience.” These measures occasioned
great popular dissatisfaction, and we really have no reason to
wonder that plagues and pestilences were so common in a city
with such streets, and in which the angles of the cathedral
walls were used as privies. One writer, in speaking of the
condition of London about this time, says that in the streets
around St. Paul’s Churchyard the “horse manure was a yard ae
deep,” and also speaks of the streets as never having been
cleaned. Public muck heaps were found at every corner.
“Floors were of clay covered with rushes which grew in the
fens, which were so slightly removed now and then that the
Dncleaniiness
of person

Mortality in
Chester, 16th
century.

Gaol fever.

8 HYGIENE IN ITS PRACTICAL RELATIONS TO HEALTH.

lower part remained sometimes for twenty years together,” and
in it such a collection of foulness as we should expect to find
only in a city scavenger’s cart. The chronicle goes on to
specify of what the filth consisted, but I omit the items for the
sake of decency. The odors were horrible, and to disguise
them perfumes were largely used and fragrant gums were
burned to sweeten the air. Cleanliness of person was a thing
almost unknown. One old chronicler says of the ladies: “They
wore clean garments on the outside, but the dirty ones were
often worn until they fell away piecemeal from their unwashed
bodies.” The history of Chester shows the fearful effects
resulting from the utter neglect of sanitary precautions which
seemed to be characteristic of our English ancestors. I quote
as follows: “In 1507 sweating sickness was very severe in
Chester for three days; 91 died. In 1517, great plague; grass
a foot high in the streets. 1550, sweating sickness. 1603, great
plague began in one Glover’s house, in which 7 persons died ;
60 died weekly, in all 650 persons, and 61 of other diseases.
1604, plague; very hot; 812 deaths. 1605, plague still increas-
ing; 1818 died of it, beside those of different diseases.” In
1649, 2099 persons died of the plague. And so the record
goes. The people prayed for deliverance from sickness and
death, but forgot their garbage heaps, their foul streets, dirty
houses and personal uncleanliness.

The gaol fever was another disease which was much dreaded
by all classes of the people, and its ravages show how utterly
sanitary precautions were neglected in prisons. Unfortunates
and criminals were confined in damp, cold, unventilated cells,
and kept in a state of inactivity, without a chance for fresh air
or exercise. The stench from their own bodies and the absence
of any means of purifying their persons, bedding and clothes
during confinement, filled the air with exhalations so poisonous
that sickness was inevitable. The prison house became a pro-
lific source of contagion, and though the prisoner might escape
death, he carried in his clothes, when liberated, the seeds of
JIYGIENE IN ITS PRACTICAL RELATIONS TO HEALTH. 9

sickness and death to others. The Black Assize at Oxford, in gne piack
1577, isa memorable event which serves to show us, by con- “*"*
trast with criminal court terms of the present day, what pro-
gress has been made since that time. Baker tells us, in his
Chronicle, that all who were present in the court died of gaol
fever within forty-eight hours—judge, lawyers, constables, wit-
nesses, prisoners and spectators—in all some three hundred per-
sons. In London the great plague would have been a matter tondon
of annual recurrence, and the hundred thousand who died of size
it would have been only the advance guard of the army of vic-
tims, had not the great conflagration, which soon followed it,
purified the city with fire. When it was rebuilt more attention
was given to sanitary laws, which were just beginning to be
understood, and the new city, being comparatively clean,
escaped the contagion which loaded the air of the old.

‘When we have in mind such facts as these, gathered at ran-
dom from the annals of past centuries, we realize that all classes
of society share—though not in equal degree, perhaps—the ee ae
benefits of the steady upward progress toward higher standards
of civilization and social refinement. In Europe and America
we see the growth of societies of thoughtful, earnest men,
organized to discuss questions affecting the public health, and
to devise means of making unthinking and unthankful com-
munities healthier and happier., In many cities we see liberal
appropriations of public money expended by boards and com- Bantiaty sd
missions composed of men eminent for scientific attainments and im cities.
public spirit in sanitary work, while an army of sclf-sacrificing
physicians labor in the work of sanitary inspection with a zeal
and fidelity to duty altogether disproportionate to their scant re-
muneration—if the value of such services can be measured in
money. We see the steady and sustained progress of improve-
ment in the comfort, convenience and healthfulness of the
homes of the upper and middle classes, and we also see repre-
sentatives of these classes devoting time and means to further pupti sant-
the great work of bettering the condition of those below them “” "°""
Importance
of a popular
understand-
ing of Na-
ture’s laws.

10 HYGIENE IN ITS PRACTICAL RELATIONS TO IIEALTH.

in the social scale. Such associations as the Artisans’, Labor-
ers’ and General Dwellings Company, of London, which has
built the workingmen’s city at Shaftesbury Park, and the Dwell-
ings Reform Association, of New York, having for its object
the provision of better, more commodious and more wholesome
homes for the neglected poor now crowded into foul and dirty
tenements, are the outgrowths of an enlightened and liberal
public sentiment, and the operations undertaken and proposed
by them would be impossible of accomplishment under any
other conditions than those which exist in London and New
York. It is so in many things. Progress in civilization has
given us hospitals and dispensaries for the sick, built asylums
for the insane, and provided clothing, food and shelter for the
pauper, organized and carried out great schemes for the relief
of suffering, and in innumerable ways extended its benefits to
those who contribute least to it. Society recognizes its duty
and honestly, though not always wisely, seeks to perform it.
Public sanitary work is a part of this great scheme—one of the
fruits of practical Christianity in highly civilized communities,
and the sanitarian who seeks to extend the knowledge and pro-
mote the intelligent study of Nature’s laws, renders important
service in the cause of human progress.

But while sanitary science is beginning to attract some share
of public attention, the reforms and improvements which it
seeks to effect in the conditions of our everyday life are not
easily accomplished. Much has already been done in this coun-
try, and more in England, in devising and carrying out systems
of sanitary reform, but the truths upon which sanitary science
is founded must be deeply impressed upon the public mind
before we can look for great and important results. This pop-
ular education can only be accomplished gradually by the
patient and intelligent teachings of unselfish specialists through
the medium of the newspapers, in books, in pamphlets and
tracts, presenting elementary truths in such shape as to com-
mand attention for them, and through the work of such socie-
HYGIENE IN ITS PRACTICAL RELATIONS TO HEALTH. 11

ties as the American Public Health Association, the Public
Health Association of New York, and similar organizations.
Little of either fame or profit can be expected to result
from this preliminary work in the field of sanitary reform, but
those who engage in it with honest and unselfish purpose do
not, as the rule, desire other reward than the knowledge that
they are doing something for the good of humanity.

‘So far as regards the movement looking to the reform of the
evils to which the reader’s attention is directed in the succeed-
ing chapters, its success depends very much upon our architects.
When they call for good plumbing work in their specifications,
knowing what they want and refusing to accept anything else,
they will have no difficulty in getting it. When capitalists are
willing to pay the price of good work, the architects will learn
what good work is and how to call for it. In most other
respects our architecture is very well adapted to our climate,

Hygiene and
architecture.

our social life and our present needs. As a people, we live in American

more comfortable houses than are found in any other country
of the world. None appreciate this so fully as those who have
traveled observingly in foreign countries and studied the home
life of other peoples. Our dwellings of the better class are fin-
ished and fitted up with a completeness and a regard to comfort
and convenience which astonishes foreign architects. In the
sundry items classified under the general name of “ modern
conveniences,” our architectural practice has fairly kept pace
with the development of the various industries connected with
the building trades; and even in the dwellings of the middle
classes we find evidence of an intelligent regard for the comfort
of the occupants not seen in dwellings of the same class in any
part of Europe.

There isa reason for this. During the brief period of our
national life the. building trades have necessarily been among
the most important of our great national industries. To pro-
vide homes for our rapidly-growing population, we have been
compelled to build more houses than have probably been built

houses.

Modern con-
veniences.
12 .HYGIENE IN ITS PRACTICAL RELATIONS TO HEALTH.

‘in all Europe during the same time. We are, moreover, a
home-loving and an inventive people, and have given a gen-
erous encouragement to well-directed efforts to improve our
house fixtures. A glance over the annual reports of the Patent
Office at Washington will show that a very large percentage of

comnome the inventions patented are labor-saving appliances, designed to
find a place in the domestic economy. Generally speaking, we
have, as a people, very sensible ideas of comfort, and are not
much hampered by either custom or precedent in these matters.
We do not, like the conservative Englishman, retain the open
fireplace because of its traditions and from a mistaken notion
that comfort and health are incompatible in house-warming.
We discarded the open fire a generation ago, and adopted the

Warming more economical and efficient iron stove; now the stove is

houses. , . . e. & °

giving place to the hot-air furnace, and this, in turn, will be
pushed aside by the steam heater in first-class work. This rest-
less desire for improvement has kept the inventive talent of the
nation directed to the changing requirements of the building
trades, and has enabled us to attain, even in cheap construction,
a degree of comfort which in other countries would be deemed
extravagant luxury. On this score, at least, we have no just
quarrel with the architects.

But while convenience and comfort are certainly desirable in
an eminent degree, they are not the only qualities to be sought
in house building. These we demand, and properly ; but out

archin2 of the limitations which those who build houses and those who
practice. buy them have fixed to the intimacy of the relations of science
and art to architectural practice, have grown other and very
serious evils. We may divide these evils into two general
classes—those which are just beginning to attract the attention
of the hygienic physicist, and those which have long received

the thoughtful consideration of the economist.

In the first of these general classifications we may include the
evils inevitably attendant upon a disregard of hygienic laws in
house building; in the second are included subjects which
cannot properly claim consideration in these pages.
HYGIENE IN ITS PRACTICAL RELATIONS TO HEALTH. 13

It is a fact which unfortunately does not admit of intelligent

contradiction, that in the architectural practice of the time very
little attention is paid to the laws of health. What is known as vnheattny
sanitary science is still to some extent empirical; but from
experience we have learned something ot Nature’s laws and
Nature’s penalties, and we certainly have a right to expect that
our architects shall not, by disregarding the former, force us to
incur the latter. Let us begin with our heating apparatus,
already noticed as contrasting so favorably, on the score of com-
fort, with the primitive fireplace of Great Britain and the
clumsy, inefficient appliances employed on the Continent.
Owing to the length and severity of our winter seasons, the fur-
nace is one of the most important of the permanent fixtures of Hot-air
a well-appointed house. Now, it is by no means probable that Ce
the system of heating by the distribution of air currents moder-
ately warmed by contact with the radiating surfaces of a
furnace, is objectionable on hygienic grounds. It is the abuses
of the system which give rise to the evils commonly charged
against the system itself, and in these abuses we find a marked
difference between scientific theory and every-day practice in
architecture. It is probable that every well-informed architect
is familiar with the fact that there is a vast difference, as
regards its healthfulness, between a system of heating in which
a large volume of moderately-heated air is employed and one
in which dependence is placed upon a small volume of air
raised to a high temperature. The very common abuse of the
system consists, principally, in the use of furnaces too small for
the work they have to do. As the consequence, we must drive
them in cold weather to such an extent that the air passing
through them is vitiated and rendered unfit for breathing.
We cannot expect the average householder to understand these
matters, and we must look to the architect to lead the progress
of reform which shall give us wholesome heating without sacri-
fice of comfort.

Intimately connected with the problem of healthful warming,
Ventilation
of dwellings.

Artificial
supplies of
fresh air.

Bad air.

14 WYGIENE IN ITS PRACTICAL RELATIONS TO HEALTH.

is that of ventilation. Here the difference between theory and
practice in house building—between what we know should be
done and what we do or attempt to do—is certainly very
marked. The subject of ventilation has a voluminous literature
of its own, with which the well-read architect cannot but be
more or less familiar. Probably he appreciates more fully than
any one but the specialist in practical hygiene, the importance
of good ventilation in dwellings ; but in not one in a hundred
of the dwellings he builds is any provision whatever made for
ventilation. What is simple and comparatively easy of accom-
plishment at the hands of an intelligent architect when he
plans a building, becomes difficult and often practically impos-
sible of accomplishment after the house is finished, without
costly and troublesome reconstruction. That the average
architect is practically ignorant of the mechanical means by
which adequate ventilation can be secured in cold climates
without unnecessary waste of fuel, is no more to be wondered
at than that he so often fails in his essays in the domain of high
art. With us it is not yet a part of the business of house
making, and we do not give him an opportunity to learn from
practical trial the fact that, to secure good ventilation, it is only
necessary to remove impure air, and that, with the whole
volume of the atmosphere exerting on all sides a pressure equal
to about 14 pounds to the square inch, it is as idle to pump
fresh air into a building as it is to pump water down hill.
Hence, when we call upon the architect of average skill to exer-
cise the functions of an engineer of ventilation, he is more
likely to fail than to succeed. We see this illustrated in the bad
ventilation of our churches and public halls—if that may be
called ventilation which does not ventilate—and if we pursue
the experiment long enough, and without regard to expense, we
are likely to reach results almost as unsatisfactory as those
secured in the effort to ventilate the House of Representatives
at Washington. We blame the architect for the impure air of
our dwellings and places of assembly, but when he undertakes
HYGIENE IN ITS PRACTICAL RELATIONS TO HEALTH. 15

to give us good ventilation and fails, all he is really to blame

for is over-confidence in essaying a task for which he has
neither the education nor the experience. In such a climate as

we have in New York, we cannot have both economical heating

and good ventilation unless we build our walls and floors with
non-conducting filling. As we do build, however, we are con-

tent to do without the ventilation ; and, to secure both comfort ae
and fuel economy, even the scanty supply of fresh air which
comes in around our doors and window sashes we cut off in the

early autumn with list and weather-strips. We are not only
content to do without ventilation, but we positively do not

want it in any form in which it has yet been given to us.

Some years ago a wealthy and philanthropic land owner in one

of our principal cities, conceived the idea of erecting a number

of healthy houses which should be built on scientific principles.
Ventilation was especially sought, and the best talent at com-

mand was engaged to provide the necessary appliances; but Popularinait
when the houses were finished the owner found himself unable ventilation.
to retain his tenants except upon the condition that he would

seal all his ventilators. Probably the tenants were not so blind

to their own interests as might appear at first glance. No doubt

it was impossible to keep these houses warm enough for com-

fort, owing to the loss of heat by absorption into the walls and

its escape through the ventilators. In ventilation, comfort and
health are almost synonymous, and when we can have the bene-

fits of pure air without a ruinous consumption of fuel or the
discomfort of low temperatures, we shall no longer object to it ;
indeed, we shall demand it.

That the educated architect should thoroughly understand the
principles and the methods of ventilation, is too obvious to need
the support of argument. It is not, however, an art which can
be acquired easily or from mere generalizations. Nor will it
help him much to master the details of a “system,” however
good that system may be, for the reason that no system can be
devised which will admit of successful application under
16 IIYGIENE IN ITS PRACTICAL RELATIONS TO IIEALTH.

various conditions. A system which would work well in one
mistakes Of house might fail in part in another house, and fail utterly in a
public hall; while a system applicable to a church or a lecture
room would probably be little better than no system at all ina
theater or hospital. There are, however, certain principles
which apply to the ventilation of all classes of buildings which
are so simple and, when learned, so obvious, that the architect
rarely attempts to apply them until he has tried all other plans
unsuccessfully. It is a curious fact that those who give atten-
tion to ventilation rarely avail themselves of the experiences of
their predecessors. Beginning where they began, they go
through pretty much the same course of trials and failures, and
it is generally an easy matter to tell how much experience a
man has had by ascertaining what “system” he tried last.
When the importance of good ventilation is better understood
by the public, and the architect is required to provide it in our
dwellings, he will probably find it to his interest to call to his
aid the specialist who has made ventilation his study, and who
has learned from experience how to meet all the conditions
which complicate the problem so seriously.
In the defects found in the average plumbing work of the
time, we see another instance of the wide difference which
Plumbing exists between the measure of our scientific knowledge and the
“methods of our architectural practice. No fact rests upon a
broader and more substantial basis of truth than that the
gaseous emanations from decomposing sewage, commonly called
sewer gas, are a fruitful source of disease. Whatever the
agency by which sewer gas works, we know that it comes
armed with the power and potency of death. Escaping into
the free atmosphere, its deadly power is quickly destroyed by
Scie the oxidation of its organic poisons ; but when it mingles with
the confined air of our unventilated living and sleeping rooms,
it retains its terrible power for mischief long enough to do its
deadly work effectually. Dr. Mapother, of Dublin, an eminent
authority, states that there occur annually in England 140,000
HYGIENE IN ITS PRACTICAL RELATIONS TO HEALTH. 17

cases of typhoid fever, of which 20,000 terminate fatally,

which are clearly traceable to defective drainage and sewer-gas lee
poisoning, and yet typhoid fever is only one of a long list of 1anaana scot
prevalent zymotic diseases. England and Scotland together ore

gave in the five years ended. January 1, 1870, deaths from

zymotic diseases amounting to 21:9 of the total mortality, as

shown in returns made by order of Parliament in 1871. The

variation of the zymotic ratio in the sum of causes of mortality mortauty
ranges from 10 to 87 per cent. of the total deaths. From such ieee ae
imperfect statistics as have been gathered in this country, it is

safe to conclude that zymotic diseases cause, directly or indi-

rectly, about one-half the deaths occurring in our great cities.

In the vital statistics of New York for the past 11 years, In New York.
zymotic diseases, as now classified, are charged with about 32

per cent. of the deaths from all causes. The figures are as fol-

lows:

Deaths from Percentage of

New York City. zymotic diseases. total mortality.
USBO. cg ni vehisva saris B88 cn puas’ 32°77
TOT caasvesiuaces THESE:  jegacexs 28-41
USCS pate assignee sittin anienans CADDO -eaene ces 29-06
WOOO ovcaieniseuaionees TOTO sxe wees 30°50
PSO Wes ira ye Stacie Seeitore 8314  ........ 30°60
DSL ieSicisheistnssiea a re 31-01
DOR Bias hated cits TI,815) saa os 36°19
Tee Seen eee O08! pakaaes 32-98
OTIS oe sronecorecestiscns OFS: ancheus 33-82
TSO. .aise ee wees, LOOGF casi ene 35°52
1616 sineoeccunanacy “GBB8) -cccacec 29-25

In some of our principal cities the percentage is higher than
in New York. In others it is much lower, as will be seen other amer-
from the following comparison of the average ratio of deaths ere
from zymotic causes to the total annual mortality :

PitishOrg isis sche ee cuca wees gums 35 per cent.
CUICRG Gis soc onee a iexa ent au end eEe a ees 34 Ci‘
18 IIYGIENE IN ITS PRACTICAL RELATIONS TO HEALTH.

Broa: ecini saswensueiCakeyseeees 33 per cent.
BOstODi ses ska cae ea ee 33-C«‘S
CinGinnatt, these kee Mave eway es aics 33.
Malwatikée vcisse ecccas nce oie se eaiaacetee or
BaltimOreisy a iciarese suas etme ere wea 298
Warhmetoliy cn siasseerenedewarers Zo 6
San Francisco..........cc cece eee ee 9
Philadelphia... .. 0.0... ccc eee e eee eee 20 «

If it be assumed that the relation of deaths to the number of
cases of sickness induced by zymotic causes is about the same
on here as in the case of typhoid fever in England, the effect of
filth poisoning upon the public health will with difficulty be
realized. If we look for the cause of this large mortality from
diseases of the zymotic type in our cities, we find it principally
in sewer-gas poisoning. Other causes operate to swell the total,
but to bad plumbing work we may attribute the prevalence of
pythogenic pneumonia, peritonitis, inflammatory rheumatism,
typhoid and malarial fevers, croup, diphtheria and many kin-

dred diseases which are almost epidemic in our large cities.
one citer Unfortunately for the progress of hygienic reform, the differ-
Be Cook between good and bad plumbing work is usually so slight
as to escape the notice of any but the trained expert; but it is
commonly great enough to exert an active and far-reaching
power for mischief. We expect to find in the houses among
which we seek homes for our families all the conveniences
which are rendered possible by the vast systems of hydraulic
engineering which find their consummation in the water service
and drainage of a city house. The bath, the water-closet,
stationary wash basins with hot and cold water, laundry tubs,
. the butler’s pantry and the kitchen water system, are no longer
Pistres in regarded as luxuries but as necessities in all well-appointed
modern houses. There is no good reason why we should not
have all these conveniences, but we often pay a fearful price
for them. Let us follow the intelligent sanitary inspector in an
examination of the pipe systems of an average New York house

of the better class.
HYGIENE IN ITS PRACTICAL RELATIONS TO HEALTH. 19

Beginning with the water service, we find that the pipes are service pipes.
of lead, notwithstanding the fact that the architect has ready to
his hand several kinds of pipe quite as convenient as lead and
much safer than those made of a metal which, under a great
variety of conditions, parts with poisonous salts to the water
passing through it. All conscientious architects familiar with
the literature of chemistry will admit that lead shouldbe dis-
carded as an unsafe metal for service pipes, and tin or black
iron used instead ; but lead is still called for in ninety-nine out
of every hundred specifications." In the drainage system and prainago.
its appurtenances we find evils of a different and more serious
character. We see dependence for the suppression of gases,
often held under considerable pressures in the sewers, placed
upon supposititious half-inch water seals in traps of such shape qyaps
and so placed that they are likely to be emptied, from one
cause or another, every hour in the day, and to stand empty at
night. We find that the foul sewer is provided with breathing
holes into our houses; that in dark, unventilated recesses
adjoininz our bedrooms are cheap and flimsy water-closets, water-
wrong in principle and wholly unsatisfactory in operation, fone
which retain so much of the filth passing into them that they
become pestilent nuisances. In short, we find every condition
so favorable to sewer-gas poisoning that we no longer wonder
at the great mortality from diseases of pythogenic origin in our
sewer-drained cities. As the plumbing work of our houses is
commonly done, it would be better for most of us if we had to
bring our water in buckets from a public hydrant, and carry
our waste to the culvert at the nearest street corner.

Where shall we place the responsibility for this most terrible te responsi.
of the evils which characterize the architectural practice of the pie rer =
time? We know from experience that very few of our archi-
tects have given the problems of hygienic house drainage the
careful attention they deserve, but it is not because they do not
know the consequences of cheap and defective plumbing work
in houses, nor because they consider these defects irremediable.
The architect.

Specifica-
tions.

The owner.

A divided re-
sponsibility

20 HYGIENE IN ITS PRACTICAL RELATIONS TO HEALTH.

The evils to which we have called attention exist and multiply,
simply because the architect in general practice cannot insist
upon a due observance of hygienic laws in house construction
and compete successfully with those in the profession who are
less conscientious in these matters. If his clients neither know
nor care whether a house is well or badly drained, why should
he drive away business by demanding that we shall pay for good
plumbing work, when others will furnish us equally acceptable
plans and specifications which can be followed in construction
more cheaply? Consequently, the architect rarely troubles
himself to learn the theory of plumbing, save in the most super-
ficial way. His specifications of pipes and fixtures are usually
so loosely drawn as to be susceptible of the most liberal inter-
pretation by those who bid upon them. As the lowest bidder
commonly secures the contract, we may be sure that every
advantage will be taken of the incompleteness and ambiguity of
the specifications, which are rarely specific except as to the
number and kind of fixtures to be supplied and the weight of
lead pipe to be used. The shrewd, practical plumber knows
just how much regard it is necessary to pay to the stereotyped
phrases which provide that his task shall be performed “in
a workmanlike manner, and to the satisfaction of the architect
and owner.” The architect gives the work only a cursory
supervision at most, and the owner is commonly satisfied if
the fixtures are all in the right places and look as he expected.
A stain in a marble slab or a thin spot in the silver-plating of a
basin cock is far more likely to give dissatisfaction than a soil
pipe of paper thickness, put together with mason’s cement or
glazier’s putty, instead of substantial pipe weighing (if of 4
inches diameter) not less than 12 pounds to the foot, and put
together with well-calked lead joints.

The specialist in the field of practical hygiene naturally
blames the architect for the existence of evils so prejudicial to
the public health; but there is a divided responsibility. The
architect shifts his share upon the builder, the builder upon the
HYGIENE IN ITS PRACTICAL RELATIONS TO ITEALTH. 21

parsimonious owner unwilling to pay the price of good work,
and the owner upon the “rascally plumber” who “ scamped the
job.” But it does not rest here. , The plumber replies that he
works for a profit, and means to make it when he can. If the ho pumber.
owner expected to get a thousand dollars’ worth of materials
and time for five hundred dollars, he is the only party to the
transaction who is deceived, and that because he deceived him-
self. There is something of truth in each of these specious dis-
claimers, but perhaps the architect has a larger share of the
moral responsibility than he is willing to admit. If he would
let discreditable work go to those more anxious for present gain
than for an honorable professional reputation, we should be
better able than we now are to draw the line between the two
classes composing the profession.

It is, perhaps, too much to expect that there will ever be in
our average architectural practice a close approximation to the
measure of our scientific knowledge. If it follows, even a long
way behind, the footprints of invention and discovery, it will
be as rapidly progressive as we can hope to see it. Generally Qoiservatism
speaking, we gain knowledge a good deal faster than we can {renter
practically apply it, and our progress toward higher standards
in architecture will and should be characterized by a judicious
conservatism. ‘The material interests involved are large, and
must be carefully guarded by the conscientious architect. We
cannot, therefore, expect that he will make haste to utilize
every new fact which may be added from day to day to the
sum of the world’s knowledge, but we have a right to insist
that he shall not carry his conservatism too far, and cling to
systems and methods entailing evils from which we naturally
and properly look to him for protection. In these matters there
should be a much closer relation than now exists between
theory and practice in architecture, and if the conscientious
architect will first educate himself in those branches of his art
in which the disparity is greatest, he will find it an easy task to
bring about the desired reforms. In thus educating the public,
22 HYGIENE IN ITS PRACTICAL RELATIONS TO HEALTH.

by placing before them the results of his own education, he

will open for himself a broader and nobler field of usefulness,

in which he will be less hampered by the limitations and
restrictions of which he now complains.

oe As for the plumber, I can say with confidence that, so far as

ble watea TSHR work is concerned, he will give us what our architects call

‘for, and when he has only good work to do in new buildings,

he will soon learn what good work is and how to avoid mistakes

in jobbing.
CHAPTER II.
Sewer Gas.

Popular indifference to the evils resulting from defective
drainage is, doubtless, attributable wholly to popular ignorance.
A majority even of intelligent people regard the subject as one
in which they have no personal interest, and for this reason it
is difficult to instruct them through the medium of the public
prints. Those who have been engaged in the work of sanitary pimeutty ot
inspection have almost invariably experienced great difficulty Sees
in securing reforms, even of the most dangerous evils; and,
unless supported by legal authority, their suggestions and direc-
tions are nearly always disregarded. The popular belief seems
to be that there is a great deal more talk about sewer gas among
those who lay claim to scientific knowledge, than its practical
importance really warrants. I scarcely need assure the reader Goon"
that this is a serious mistake, which cannot fail to imperil the
public health by giving rise to a false sense of security and
encouraging the toleration of dangerous nuisances. In many
respects the ancients were wiser in sanitary matters than the
moderns. No nation ever had a code of laws embodying so
much of sound, practical wisdom—so far as regards hygiene, at
least—as the Jews under Moses and his immediate successors, elle
and the more we learn of Nature’s laws, the better we under-
stand and appreciate the importance of the regulations estab-
lished for the government of the tribes of Israel in their long
journeying after the exodus from Egypt.

When architecture reached its highest esthetic development,
and drainage systems were adopted, the importance of guarding
against the danger of sewer-gas poisoning seems to have re Sewer venti

well understood, for the ruins of ancient Rome show that all jent Rome.
the cloaca were well ventilated, to the end that the pure atmos-
94 SEWER GAS.

pheric air might oxidize and destroy the poisons arising in the

gases given off by decomposing sewage. The knowledge which

prompted these precautions has never been lost to the world,

but for some reason which it would be difficult to explain, mod-

ern engineers and architects have too generally neglected the

Modern Simple precautions so necessary to the protection of the public

eae health, and, as the rule, modern sewers are but indifferently

ventiistea- ventilated, if at all. As a consequence, the gases generated: in

our sewers are rarely rendered innoxious by dilution with

enough pure air to destroy the organic germs which go with

them, and when they find their way into a house they are

pretty sure to cause serious mischief.

What is sewer gas? The most careful analyses show that it

Chemical is composed chiefly of carbonic acid, nitrogen, sulphureted

panne hydrogen, ammoniacal compounds and fcetid organic vapor.

The elementary gases and those of known composition, which

are commonly found in sewers and unventilated cesspools,

though mostly capable of destroying life under favorable con-

ditions, are not, I think, responsible for much, if any, of the

fatal effects properly attributable to sewer gas. Probably it is

those constituents which analysis cannot find, and of which we

know practically nothing, which impart to sewer gas its fatal

capacity for bearing sickness and death to thousands of uncon-

scious victims annually. This is an opinion, simply ; let us see
whether it will bear the test of examination. |

Carbonic Carbonic acid is the gas usually found present in greatest

ae volume in sewers, both ventilated and unventilated. The pro-

portion, as determined by analysis, varies according to circum-

stances, but it is usually large. This gas is an invariable product

of the decomposition of all substances containing carbon. Its

properties are so well known that I need give but little space

to its description. Inhaled in concentrated form, it quickly

produces death, and even when considerably diluted with

atmospheric air, it produces asphyxia, and, unless the victim is

quickly rescued from its influence, death follows promptly.
SEWER GAS. 25

This gas is the fatal “choke damp” of the coal mines, and
deaths caused by it, in one way or another, are matters of almost
daily occurrence. It does not readily leave sewers and cess-
pools, however, owing to the fact that its specific gravity is
considerably greater than that of air, and so much of it as would
naturally find its way into a house from a sewer, unless drawn
in by a strong current of air, would not, probably, do much
damage. At all events, carbonic acid is incapable of giving
rise to the ordinary phenomena of sewer-gas poisoning.

The presence of an excess of nitrogen in sewers is readily mitrogen.
accounted for by the fact that the union of atmospheric oxygen
with the carbon of organic matter, forming carbonic acid, leaves
it free. It is incapable of supporting animal life, but is not
known to possess any poisonous properties.

Sulphureted hydrogen, also a product of decomposition, is
undoubtedly a very poisonous gas. Various experiments made sutphuretea
with it have shown unmistakably its power to destroy animal iat
life. One part in 250 of atmospheric air will kill a horse, and
life may be destroyed by the absorption of this gas into the sys-
tem through the skin pores, even though the lungs be abun-
dantly supplied with pure air. But experience has also shown
that even this deadly gas cannot be held accountable for sewer-
gas poisoning. In laboratory work it is often necessary to make
sulphureted hydrogen in large volume, and when the manage-
ment of the apparatus is entrusted to students or beginners, the
air becomes so strongly impregnated with its disgusting odor
that one unaccustomed to the smell could not breathe it with-
out serious discomfort. Indeed, a laboratory would not smell
natural without it; and yet chemists, who breathe this and
many other equally dangerous compound, gases almost CON- chemists not
stantly while at work, have not been found to suffer any more eee dies
from typhoid and gastric fevers, cholera, diarrhcea, general pases causes
debility and other diseases known to be propagated by sewer
gas, than those who never enter a laboratory. I have known
instances in which students of analytical chemistry have been
26 SEWER GAS.

made sick by inhaling sulphureted hydrogen, but not seriously,
nor was their sickness of a kind similar to that produced by
sewer-gas poisoning; and yet a house in which the smell of this
gas was as strong as it usually is in many laboratories at any
hour of day or night, would be considered untenable.

Nor can we charge the fatality of sewer gas upon the ammo-

Ammoniacat niacal compounds which result from the evaporation, as well

somponne® as the decomposition, of sewage. We must, then, seek for this

most subtle and dangerous foe to health of all the gaseous ema-

nations from the sewers, in what is called organic vapor.

This is an indefinite name for something of which we yet know

organic but little. Eliminate from sewer gas the organic germs which

“Po float in it, insensible to sight, touch and smell, and I doubt not

it would be drawing the serpent’s fangs. This vapor, so called,

is doubly dangerous from the fact that we cannot tell exactly

what it is. We can tell the exact amount of organic matter

present in a gallon of sewage, but living organisms in sewer gas

elude our senses and defy all but the most subtle and searching
methods of analysis.

This brings us to a consideration of what is generally known

The germ the- as the germ theory of disease, which in this connection will be

ory of disease. re ~
found to possess both interest and importance. For a full and
‘complete discussion of this theory, the reader is referred to the
very able treatise on “The Germ Theory of Disease and its
Relations to Hygiene,” read by Prof. F. A. P. Barnard before
the American Public Health Association, and published in the
report of that association for 1873.

For more than two centuries men of science have been
steadily drawing nearer to the complete acceptance of the germ
theory of disease. Many other theories have been advanced
and discussed in the mean time, and some of them have been
regarded as satisfactorily accounting for the origin and propa-
gation of disease, but none have stood the test of the rigid seru-
tiny to which the close reasoners of the scientific world subject
all theories and hypotheses. Some of them contained a measure
SEWER GAS. oT

of what we now regard as truth; others were extravagant
imaginings, having no substantial foundation. At last the con- ievig’s and
troversy narrowed down to a close and scientific comparison ee :
of the evidence in support of the chemical. theory, of which
Baron von Liebig was the most intelligent exponent, and the
germ theory, originally advanced by Father Kircher, in his

erutinium Physico-Medicum contagiose luis que pestis dici-
tur, and reduced to a scientific basis by Pasteur, the eminent
contemporary and, on many points, the able opponent of Liebig ;
and the latter theory has gradually met with general acceptance.
It is obviously impossible, as well as unnecessary, to follow this
controversy and weigh all the evidence brought forward to sup-
port the rival theories, and I will merely outline what I under-
stand to be the germ theory as now generally accepted. It organic
presumes that disease is propagated by the invasion of the *”””
human system of algoid or fungoid forms, of microscopic pro-
portions but possessing the power of rapid multiplication. The
spores which proceed from these fungi, or the cells of the
algee, are carried by the air currents as the invisible pollen of gow aistrp
flowers is carried, and, penetrating the human system, generate ““™
diseases. The fact that all forms of cryptogamic vegetation
are propagated in this manner, may be regarded as, prima facie,
favorable to the germ theory. Further evidence of the same
kind is found in the results of Dr. Tyndall’s experiments in
transmitting the beams of the electric light through air and
vacuo, by which he has shown that the former is charged with organisms
organic particles. Evidence of this sort is abundant and, as the ™*™
rule, satisfactory, if not conclusive. Of proof we have not as
yet enough to establish the germ theory as a demonstrated
truth, but there are many facts which, it seems to me, can only
be explained reasonably and rationally on this hypothesis. Cer-
tain diseases are known to be propagated by organic germs; in
other cases it is probable, but not certain; in still others it is

Disease con-

uncertain, if not doubtful; but we may, I think, accept with veyed by
confidence the fact that a great many, if not all, diseases are’
Inorganic poi-
sons incapa-
ble of produc-
ing zymotic
diseases.

Their action.

Proof and
disproof.

28 SEWER GAS.

communicated by living organisms which, in systems predis-
posed to disease or in a condition favorable to the development
of disease, rapidly multiply, and, whether directly causing dis-
ease or not, are the media of its transmission and the vehicles
of infection.

Probably the strongest of the many arguments in favor of the

-germ theory of disease is found in the fact that, in the whole

range of inorganic substances, chemical analysis has discovered
nothing capable of producing results in the human system in
any degree comparable with those produced by the agencies
which convey infection and produce disease. The action of the
inorganic poisons is generally well known and definite. They
destroy life or produce certain characteristic symptoms of
derangement in the human system, but they are incapable of
producing any of the diseases known to result from impurities
imparted to air and water by the decay of organic matter. It
may be claimed that the negative results of chemical investiga-
tion prove nothing, but the most determined opponent of the
germ theory of disease has never been able to produce, discover
or describe any inorganic substance, elementary or compound,
which could produce any one of the diseases attributed, and
even directly traceable, to organic poisons.

Since writing the above my attention has been called to a

The gases of paper on “The Gases of Decay in some of their Sanitary Rela-

decay.

Chemical

tions,” read before the American Public Health Association, in
October, 1876, by Prof. William H. Brewer, of the Sheffield
Scientific School, New Haven, Conn. This paper is so clear
and concise in presentation of the subject discussed in this
chapter, that I am glad to be able to quote it in support of the
views I have expressed. After discussing the composition of
sewer gas, as determined by analysis, and showing that none
of the gases yet described are capable of producing the phe-
nomena of sewer-gas poisoning, Prof. Brewer says:

“Tf the physiological effects which follow the breathing of

action of sewer gas, So called, are produced by actual gases acting chemi-

Sewer gas.

cally, then these gases are as yet absolutely unknown to chem-
SEWER GAS. 29

ists, and if they exist at all, they are in too small quantities to

be estimated by any known process of gas analysis. This, how-
ever, is no proof that they do not exist. The sense of smell

tells us that there are organic gases and compounds never yet
isolated, and of whose composition and properties other than
their smell we are entirely ignorant. Indeed we are ignorant

of the composition of most of the smel/s of putrescent matter. smens.
In the investigation of the gases from rotting fish, of which I
have spoken, the gases were very stinking, intensely so, yet the
actual amount of the gas which had the odor was too small to

be detected by the ordinary means of gas analysis, and these
analyses were conducted under the eye, and some of them with

the aid of Prof. von Bunsen, then, as now, the most eminent

gas analyst in the world. The analyses of sewer gases point in Analysis ot
the same direction. For example, the results of some experi- Toungrt
ments on the air of sewers and drains are given in the Report

of the British Association Sewage Committee, 1869-70. Speci-
mens were collected from various street and house sewers,
chiefly in the Paddington district, and during August, so that
there is every probability of the air being as foul as possible.
They were chemically examined by Dr. W. J. Russell. The

most impure air contained half a per cent. of carbonic acid; the
remainder was oxygen and nitrogen, so far as discovered by anal-

ysis. Another ‘with a foul smell’ contained only one-eighth of

one per cent. of carbonic acid. There were ‘no combustible
gases.’ In their investigations they found only small traces of
ammonia, and often no sulphureted hydrogen. It is needless to
multiply cases. It is not, of course, denied that sewer gases have

been found so concentrated and foul as to produce suffocation, suffocation.
but very bad effects are well known to often follow the admission

of such minute quantities into our houses that they can barely

be perceived, much less suffocate. That it lowers the tone of
health and sometimes produces active disease in those who are
subjected to it, is too well proven to admit of a doubt. So far

as this first effect occurs (lowering the tone of health) we can
Poisons.

Effects of
sewer gas on
the human
system.

Typhoid

fever in

0) SEWER GAS.

easily imagine it to be produced by chemical causes. Definite
physiological results are known to follow the absorption into
the system of definite chemical compounds. The effect of
medicines and of poisons are illustrations too common to need
more than a reference to them. The agent may work speedily,
as in the case of active poisons, or slowly, as in the case of
cumulative ones. The effects may be gentle, as with certain
tonics, or violent, and, as in arsenic poisoning, take a somewhat
detinite time, like a fever running its course ; but in all poison-
ing by chemical means, the physiological effect is very largely
proportional to the amount of the chemical used, and the effects
cease with the victim. Moreover, the results are reasonably
uniform.

“This is very unlike the effects believed to be caused by sewer
gas or other ‘filth gases,’ where the results are by no means
uniform, nor do they appear to be at all proportionate to the
amount of the gas breathed, nor to its degree of concentration.
More than this, the results do not stop with the victim ; typhoid
fever, once started, may extend to we know not how many
other victims if the right conditions exist to carry it, and this
brings us face to face with that mooted subject, the germ theory
of zymotic diseases, a theory so generally accepted by chemists,
eo strongly combated by some of the most eminent microscop-
ists and physiologists.

“That typhoid fever has been caused by the escape of gases

Croydon, from sewers and cess-pools into houses, seems to me to be proven

beyond a reasonable doubt. For illustratiou, in the now famous
town of Croydon special cases are mentioned (ninth Rep. Med.
Officer of the Privy Council, 104) where the disease is supposed
to have been distinctly traced to this cause. The gas was
known to have been driven into the house; it ‘did not smell
offensively, only a faint, sickly odor being recognized.’ In this
case the gas was driven into the house by a shower filling the
conductors with water. Other cases at the same time are be-
lieved to be traceable to the same source. The odor was gen-
SEWER GAS. 3l

erally not rank, ‘a faint odor alone being recognized.’ I think

it is generally conceded that typhoid, once started, may be
propagated from patient to patient through the medium of the
evacuations. Now all this is unlike the operation of any known
chemical compound, gaseous or otherwise. Again (from the choterain
same report), the outbreak of cholera in the city of London, nes
Union Workhouse, in 1866, investigated by Mr. Radcliffe, was
shown to have taken place, in all probability, from a sudden
efflux of ‘sewer air from a drain containing choleraic evacua-
tions,’ this efflux being caused, or at least favored, by a sudden
change of atmospheric temperature and pressure. Here again

the gas, or ‘sewer air,’ spoken of as the agent, is not necessarily

a ‘gas of decay;’ yet, if a gas at all, it must have been an
organic gas, acting as a poison, but how unlike all actual chemi-

cal poisons, where the agent is a known chemical compound.

“ Again, decay of filth in the dark, and away from free access oyganicaccay
of air, is supposed to be productive of gases especially danger-‘™°%*"*
ous to health, more so than when the decay goes on in the light
and free air; and, moreover, that sewer gas is rendered less
hurtful by a free circulation of air in the sewers. That this
last is not due to mere dilution, is shown by the deleterious
character of the gas when diluted only after it enters the
houses.

“Considered purely as a chemical question, these facts, if cnemicatas-
facts, are entirely inexplicable. If the germ theory is accepted, fone
a plausible explanation is more easy. It is possible to imagine
a condition of things in decaying organic gases similar to that
which occurs in decaying organic infusions. It is known tliat
such infusions soon swarm with minute organisms, the almost
universal occurrence of which in such connection gave them
the general name of “7énfwsoria,” and that different forms are tntusoria.
generated according to the different chemical characters of the
solution. The changing organic compounds in the fluid are
doubtless the food with which these low organisms are nour-
ished. Certain specific forms thrive best in certain definite
Organic
gases

Practical ben-
efits of sewer
ventilation.

Ialaria.

8Y, SEWER GAS.

infusions, and appear there when given the proper temperature,
and, once started, they increase and multiply as do other organ-
isms. Now it is easy to imagine an analagous state of affairs in
decaying organic gases. Moisture is always an element in the
unwholesome gases of decay, and along with it are some gases
that are organic, generated by the breaking up of the more
complex molecules. Their quantity may be small compared
with the whole volume of gas with which they are mixed, and
yet sufficient to nourish floating organisms, just as a mere trace
of solid matter dissolved in much water, making a very weak
infusion, is often nutritious enough to support its swarms of
infusoria. If this be the case, it may possibly explain the
anomaly that dilution of gas with air within the sewer renders
it comparatively harmless, while it may be very poisonous if it
is diluted only after it enters our houses. Thus if the analogy
is good that floating organisms, which may be the germs of dis-
ease, feed on and multiply in the decaying organic gases of .
sewers, as infusoria feed on and multiply in infusions when the
temperature and degree of concentration are favorable, then
such floating organisms, after having been once produced in the
sewer, and then admitted into the house, would not be destroyed
by dilution of the gases in which they float, while, on the other
hand, proper dilution with air within the sewer might, by oxi-
dation or in other ways, prevent their generation, or at least so
impair the conditions that they cannot multiply, in harmful
numbers.

“The belief that malaria is related in some way to the gases
of decay, has already been referred to. That it is often so asso-
ciated in moist air is well enough known. The draining of
swamps and giving the air access to the vegetable mud accumu-

‘lated in such places, the clearing of land and consequent rapid

decay of the accumulated leaf-mold, have often been related to
the existence or spread of malarial diseases. Even the decay-
ing leaves of our shade trees in the streets are often accused of
adding to the malaria of a region. In these cases the decay
SEWER GAS. 33

goes on in free air and light, and the gases are diluted to the

last degree as soon as liberated from the generating mass. Yet

here, too, we can understand how organic gases may be concen.

trated enough, before being poured forth into the atmosphere,

to give the requisite nourishment to the organisms or “ germs.”

Such decaying vegetable matter is very porous; it contains air

as a sponge may water, and this air, permeating the decaying pecaying vee-
substance, cannot be otherwise than highly charged with the ““”°™“*
products of decay, ready to be driven out in several ways.

Take rotten wood as an example: the measure of its porosity

is seen in the difference of weight when wet and dry. <A little
experiment tried for another purpose the present week may be

used as illustration. A few days ago, where some workmen wood pave
were repairing the wooden pavement in one of the streets of ™™~
our city, I picked up a few pieces of the half-rotten wooden

blocks. They were saturated with the water of the recent

rains. Two pieces weighed, as they came from the pavement,
respectively 287 and 1303 grams. They were then left on the

table in my study four days, and then yesterday weighed again.

They were not yet dry by any means, yet they weighed respec-

tively only 154 and 544 grams. That is, as thus dried, one will

absorb 86 per cent., the other (and most decayed) 139 per cent.

water, before saturation. It is easy to see how much foul air

in a concentrated form a half-rotten wooden pavement may

hold, to be driven out by the first shower or by any other cause

that disturbs the equilibrium of the atmosphere.”

The deadly outbreak of typhoid fever at Over-Darwen, Eng- ryphoia at
land, in the early part of 1875, gave rise to a discussion of much °°*?™"™
interest on the origin and propagation of febrile diseases. Pro-
fessor Tyndall, with characteristic enthusiasm, opened the con- rynaau’s the-
troversy by announcing it as his opinion that the organisms ean
which are assumed to be the immediate cause of fevers, are
evolved from living blood corpuscles by a process of develop-
ment, and that such diseases have their origin in the human
system, practically independent of surrounding miasmata or

3
Beale’s
theory.

Fever Germs

84 SEWER GAS.

emanations from decomposing organic matter. It soon became
evident, however, that the weight of scientific opinion was on
the other side. Dr. Lionel S. Beale, whose authority in such
matters is much higher than Professor Tyndall’s or perhaps any
other scientific man in Great Britain, seems to have taken a
middle ground, and to have discovered that the practical are
of more importance than the scientific aspects of the question.
That the poison of fever grows and multiplies after its kind
like other living things is, he says, a fact established beyond
controversy; although it is still a matter of dispute among
original investigators whether it is a microscopic fungus origi-
nating without, or a living particle rising within and from the
living matter of, the human system. But whatever may be the
truth on this point, he insists that human beings are alone
responsible for the production of these germs and for their
maintenance and spread; and that a state of society is conceiv-
able in which fever germs would neither arise nor multiply, or,
in the event of their introduction ab extra, would themselves
perish instead of damaging or destroying the higher life.
“Fever germs,” he says, “will not be developed direct from
filth, but by permitting people to live year after year in open
defiance of well-known sanitary laws, the generation of fever
poison in their bodies is favored, while its free growth and mul-.
tiplication if imported is reduced to a certainty. It is there-
fore our aim to prevent people from falling into that condition
of health which favors the organization and propagation of
contagious fever poisons in their bodies. * * * Although
we may successfully and without fear contend with fever germs
if we only preserve our healthy powers of resistance, hundreds
of human organisms are, through defective sanitary arrange-
ments, being prepared for invasion.” “Bad air and sewage,
the adjacent dung-heap,” concludes Dr. Beale, “ may all be per-
fectly free from fever germs, but nevertheless certainly will
bring about changes which will render many of those exposed
to their influence the ready victims of disease. While, there-
SEWER .GAS. 35

fore, it is desirable, by the use of disinfectants and by other
means, to destroy existing fever germs with all possible speed,
it is certainly of far higher importance, as regards the welfare
of the people, that we should do our utmost to press upon
authorities the necessity of providing pure water and efficient
drainage wherever men congregate. Good water and well-ar-
ranged sewers render impossible such a calamity as that which
we have now to deplore at Over-Darwen. Even though the
inhabitants of a town well drained and supplied with good
water should be fully exposed to the assaults of hosts of fever
germs in their highest state of morbid activity, they would
suffer no injury.”

The diseases commonly supposed by the medical profession zymotic
to be caused or propagated by the organic germs resulting from“
decomposition, and which we may assume are always present
in sewer gas, are chiefly those classed under the generic name
of zymotic diseases—a name derived from a Greek word mean-
ing to ferment. A zymotic disease is any epidemic, endemic,
contagious or sporadic affection produced by some morbific
principle acting on the organism and producing results similar
to fermentation. The most careful investigations and experi-
iments, extending through many years, have led to the conclu-
sion, generally accepted by the medical profession in all
countries, that gaseous poisons (venena aérea) give rise to
many diseases of the zymotic class, among which are the
following :

Cholera Asiatica, Scarlatina, Diseases com--
Cholera morbus, Diphtheria, cme
Cholera infantum, Measles,

Dysentery, Typhoid fever,

Diarrhea, ‘ Typhus fever,

Small-pox, Yellow fever.

These are by no means the only diseases of the zymotic class
which might be placed in the list, nor are those given arranged
in the order of their relative importance. In times of epidemic,
36 SEWER GAS.

Asiatic cholera is the most fatal, while the milder forms of
cholera are more frequent and, in the aggregate, probably
more destructive to life. At the time of this writing small-
Provaiiing POX and diphtheria are raging as fatal epidemics in many parts
epidemics. of the country, especially in and about New York and in the
neighboring cities of New Jersey and Long Island. There is
no doubt that the prevalence of these diseases is attributable,
primarily, to defective drainage. Many parts of the country
are yearly visited by yellow fever, and the mortality of this
and kindred diseases is greatest where the most unhealthy con-
ditions prevail. Nearly all the diseases on the list have at
times assumed the form of epidemics. Typhus and typhoid
fevers are not known to be contagious, but they are among the
most frequent results of sewer-gas poisoning.

Germtheory  _Lbose who accept the germ theory of disease, even in part,
eee find in it a satisfactory explanation of the deadly power
sewergas. of sewer gas. Dr. Thomson, a careful experimenter, found
organized forms in the air of the sewers of London, and
although this proves nothing in itself, it is significant when
taken in connection with the fact that, during the prevalence
of epidemic diseases in England, their propagation has been
carried on most rapidly through sewers and house drains. A
similar phenomenon occurred under the observation of the
writer a few years ago, which may serve as an illustration of

the transmission of infection by means of sewer gas.
typhoia On the outskirts of a beautiful and generally healthy town
fever com near New York there was a long row of tenements under one

municated
through 4 poof, divided into thirteen separate dwellings. These dwellings

house drain,
were occupied by the families of men employed on the railroad
and about the extensive coal docks not far distant. In the
spring of 1872 a case of typhoid fever made its appearance in
one of the families; soon another, and then several were
reported, and the number increased until every house in the
row was affected. An examination of the premises was then

made by a committee of local physicians, at the request of the
SEWER GAS. 37

town authorities, and it was found that under the houses was a
brick drain common to them all. Connection between this
drain and the waste pipes of the houses was established by
means of glazed earthen pipe of small size, in which the joints
had been made with bricklayers’ mortar. None,of these joints |
were tight. In each house there was one slop hopper, which
also discharged into the drain. The plumbing work had been
done in the cheapest manner possible, and while the waste
pipes leading from the kitchen sinks and slop hoppers of each
house were trapped, the pipes were so thin and had sagged so
much by their own weight that in every case but one a dash of
water would have been quite likely to empty the traps, either
by direct downward flow or by syphoning. Communication
was thus opened from one house to another through an unventi-
lated drain, and although intercourse was not permitted
between the inmates of houses free from fever and those in
which it had made its appearance; the germs of disease, con-
tained in the exereta of those first attacked—which had been
thrown into the slop hoppers—had found a means of access
which had escaped the vigilance of the physicians.

In country districts the germs of typhoid fever are most fre-
quently communicated to the human system through drinking piseaso
water drawn from wells and springs contaminated with organic Sri
impurities. This also occurs to a great extent in cities and Y"°"
small towns not provided with water works, and in which the
inhabitants are dependent upon wells necessarily sunk in close
proximity to privy vaults and cesspools for the reception of
house drainage. In cities drained by sewers and supplied by
water works there is little chance, except when the most inex-
cusable carelessness has been manifested by builders and
plumbers, of any contamination of. the water, unless drawn
from polluted sources, and if the sewers are well ventilated and sewer gas
the house connections properly made, there seems to be no preventable
reason why the public health should suffer from any cause meee
traceable to sewage. But sewers are seldom well ventilated in
The drainaze
of Croydon.

Formation of
sewer gas not

prevented by

flushing.

38 SEWER GAS.

this country, and house connections with sewers are not

always, if often, so made as to offer effective opposition to the
inflow of poisonous gases generated in these channels of pollu-
tion under our streets. The first step in the direction of
reform should be the thorough ventilation of the sewers, and
then any improvement in the character of the plumbing work
in houses and dwellings will be more likely to. accomplish the
results desired.

The history of the sanitary works of Croydon, England
(before referred to in an extract from Prof. Brewer's paper),
shows very clearly the importance of sewer ventilation. This
was formerly a very healthy town, but as the work of providing
it with sewers approached completion an epidemic of typhoid
fever broke out. Latham, in his excellent work on Sanitary
Engineering, which I consider one of the most valuable of
recent contributions to the literature of this very important sub-
ject, gives the following account of the effect of ventilating the
sewers in diminishing the death rate of that city:

“ The mortality of Croydon rose from 18°53 per thousand in
1851 to 28°57 per thousand in 1853. ‘Those early sewer works

were designed on the principle that all matters were to be so

rapidly discharged from the sewers, and the sewers flushed
with such a copious supply of water, that decomposition could
not take place, and therefore it was thought that sewer gas
would never be present; but in practice this theory was not
found to be borne out, and it is a remarkable coincidence as to
the cause of the frequent outbreaks of fever in Croydon which
took place at certain intervals until the year 1866, when the
sewers were thoroughly ventilated, that diseases which formerly
made their haunt in the low-lying districts were transferred,

typhoia After the completion of the drainage works, to the highest or

fever follow-
ing the lines
of sewers.

best portions of the town, thereby establishing the fact that the
presence of the disease in the high localities was due to some-
thing carried in the air of the sewers, which, in obedience to a
natural law, accumulated in the highest part of the district.
SEWER GAS. 39

It may be said that, as Croydon was sewered on the small-pipe
system, the result of non-ventilation was attended with more
marked results than is the case in towns where sewers of larger
-size are in vogue, as the fluctuations in the rate of flow and the
‘effects of sudden changes of temperature, which have an
extraordinary influence on the air of sewers, in this case exer-
cised a more marked effect in increasing the pressure of the
imprisoned sewer air.

“With regard to the results that have arisen when ventila- penefetat et-
tion of sewers has been adopted, the case of Croydon shows a ta
clearly that proper ventilation has been attended with very
beneficial results. Since the introduction of systematic ventila-
tion there have been no periodical outbreaks of fever, and the
general rate of mortality has so declined that, in a district
having a population of nearly 60,000 persons, the rate of mor-
tality rarely exceeds 18 in the 1000, which is a standard
of health unparalleled in sanitary science for a district having
so large a population. The example of London affords another
striking example as to the influence of ‘sewer ventilation. meexampto
Here the sewers are ventilated, though no general plan is“
adopted for dealing with the noxious effluvia escaping from
the ventilators, and yet London stands at the head of all large
towns by: reason of its small death rate, which has been
ascribed by more than one eminent authority to the somewhat
rude ventilation provided for the sewers.”

I think I may say, without doing any injustice to our civil sewer venti-

° . . fs : ‘ ‘i . lation not ap-
engineers, that sewer ventilation is not appreciated in this preciatea in
country in proportion to its importance. Certain it is that our es
public authorities are too generally indifferent to it, and no
plan has been proposed which has secured general adoption,
except that of ventilating through perforations in the man-hole
covers. Most of those who have ventured to propose plans
of sewer ventilation have been ignorant of the conditions
which must be observed to secure the results desired. Like

most matters connected with sanitary engineering, the ventila-
40 SEWER GAS.

tion of sewers seems to be more generally discussed than
Sasol understood. Every little while men who should know better
eet write letters to the newspapers, urging upon the attention of
ation, the health authorities the plan of ventilating sewers through
the chimneys of furnaces provided for the purpose, and illus-
trating the practicability of the system by comparing sewer
ventilation to the ventilation of mines. This oft-invented
plan is an old one, having been practically tried and abandoned
several years ago in England. The fallacy of the idea is
found in the fact that the ventilation of a system of sewers
presents us a problem in no respect analogous to the ventilation
of mines. In a mine we can direct an air current from passage
to passage along its entire length, so that each gallery shall be
swept over by a current of air entering at the downcast shaft
objections 224 drawn out at the upeast. A system of sewers, on the con-
toexhaust trary, may be likened to a tree and its branches. From the
chimneys.

main sewers extend the laterals in all directions, and these, in
turn, become the mains for smaller sewers, until a whole
district is covered with an intricate network of sewers and
drains, ending, in whatever direction we may follow it, in the
soil pipe of a house. These laterals vastly exceed, in their
ageregate area, that of the mains into which they discharge.
Now, to produce even a perceptible flow of air through these
laterals in the direction of ventilating shafts established at
points on the main sewers—say, a current moving at the rate of
one mile an hour—we should have to maintain in tle main
sewers a perfect hurricane. Any engineer who will study a
plan of the sewage system of any of the New York wards, will
see at once the hopelessness of an attempt to apply mine venti-

lation to them.
Another and very important objection to this plan is found
in the fact that even if we could maintain by artificial means
an outflow from the sewers, we should not secure as good a
result as would be attained by simply providing openings and
allowing the sewers to ventilate themselves. The sewers are
SEWER GAS. Al

continually “ breathing.” At times they draw air in with con-
siderable force; at other times they expel the air with a force sewers
great enough, if resisted by obstructions at the openings in the Pragthine,
man-hole covers, to displace the seal of any water trap in use.

Hence the folly of seeking to produce by artificial means effects

which nature is ready to ‘accomplish unaided, if we will only

give her an opportunity. Furnaces, blowers, exhaust fans, and

other mechanical apparatus for exhausting the air in sewers or

forcing fresh air into them, are expedients which suggest them-

selves to those ignorant of the construction of sewers and of the
operations going on within them. They have all been tried

with extreme care and have failed utterly, and yet sewers may

be perfectly ventilated by means of simple openings. If every tho simplest
man-hole cover in our streets were replaced with a grating, as ea
open as might be consistent with strength, and these were kept

free from ice, snow and mud by men employed for the purpose,

and every house owner were required to vent his soil pipe (un-
obstructed by any form of trap along its line) above his roof,

the ventilation of our sewers would be accomplished. The

labor spent in dévising other means of attaining this result

is very likely to be wasted.

The only possible objection to sewer ventilation is, of course,
based upon the assumption that the air from the sewers would
carry with it noxious gases and organic germs to poison the sur-
rounding atmosphere. This objection is less serious than is
commonly supposed, as the organic germs in sewer gas are
quickly oxidized and destroyed by contact with fresh air.

The question of sewer ventilation is, however, one which the
individual citizen is not called upon to decide.. All that he can
do in the matter is to see that his house is properly drained ;
and in such portions of this book as relate to drainage, the
author has endeavored to deal with existing conditions—one of
which is assumed to be defective sewer ventilation.

Were it desirable to multiply testimony respecting the dan-

. gerous effects of sewer gas when permitted to mingle with the
The absence
of foul smells

42 SEWER GAS.

confined air of our—as the rule—badly-ventilated dwellings,
this chapter might be extended to indefinite limits. The fact
is too generally conceded, however, to need the confirmation of
abundant proof.

In determining whether sewer gas is present in the air or not,
dependence is too generally placed upon the sense of smell.
The nose is a much-abused but very useful organ, and, if prop-

no proof of CYly cultivated, is of great service in the work of sanitary

Good plumb-

ing.

Tetroleum in
u New York
sewer.

inspection; but the fact that the air of a house is ordinarily
free from unpleasant odors does not prove that disease germs,
generated in the sewers, cannot find means of access to them.
Two instances will serve by way of illustration. In 1874 a
manufacturer, doing business in one of the upper wards of New
York, had occasion to employ erude petroleum for some pur-
pose, a portion of which, being useless to him and of little
intrinsic value, he allowed to run into the sewers. Immedi-
ately complaint was made to the Sanitary Superintendent of
the Board of Health that every house in the neighborhood
was filled with the smell of petroleum residuum, and petitions
were sent in praying that the nuisance might be abated and the
manufacturer enjoined from running any more of the offensive
refuse into the sewers. The smell of the petroleum could only
find its way into the houses through waste pipes communicating

A nuisance directly and indirectly with the sewers, and its presence only

reveals a

danger. Called attention to the fact that the traps afforded no effectual

protection against the influx of sewer air. The gentleman at
that time filling the office of Sanitary Superintendent, sug-
gested to the committee of house owners and tenants who
waited upon him with their petitions, that the offending manu-
facturer deserved a vote of thanks for having called their atten-
tion to an evil of which they had previously been ignorant ;
but they insisted upon having the nuisance abated, and when it
was done they probably relapsed into the comfortable indiffer-
ence to the condition of the plumbing work in their houses
from which they had been temporarily aroused by an unpleas-
ant but, in itself considered, harmless smell.
SEWER GAS. 43

The other case is somewhat similar to the one already men-

tioned. At the time of this writing there is an oil refinery on
the Long Island side of the Kast River, which runs the unsal-

able residuum of the refining process into a sewer which drains Petroleum in
a populous section of the Eastern District of Brooklyn. When Parenaewey
the tide is low, uncovering the mouth of the sewer, and the
wind is from the west, the smeil of petroleum is unpleasantly
noticeable in the bath-rooms and water-closets of nine-tenths of

the houses in a district of considerable extent and containing a

large resident population. Wherever the smell makes it way,

we may safely conclude that it carries with it poisons capable of
producing sickness and, under favorable circumstances, of de-
stroying life.

In the discussion of questions connected with sanitary engi-

_ neering and public health, it is important to avoid a confusion

of ideas growing out of a failure to discriminate between the

abuses of the sewage system and the system itself. We should a
not be led by failures in engineering and plumbing to denounce

the modern improvements which have rendered water service-

and house drainage possible. Breslau and Munich are to-day conaitions
suffering nearly double the death rate of London and Vienna; tho health
and yet Breslau and Munich have but little house plumbing, and ™ =e
place their cloacal nuisances outside their dwellings. The popu-

lation of London, on the other hand, depends almost wholly upon

indoor systems of water-closets and house drains; while Vienna

has reduced its mortality over 80 per cent. by the provision of

an over-abundant water supply from the mountains, flushing the

house drains and sewers and supplying pure water in excess of

all wants. London, Paris, and the parts of Glasgow, Berlin

and Liverpool which have an ample water supply at high pres-
‘ sures, are for the same reason as Vienna nearly as healthful as

the most favored rural districts. Here also we find the best
sanitary engineering and the best plumbing.
CHAPTER III.
Waste anp Sor Pires.

Those who have given the subject of house drainage any
eae attention do not need to be told that while the plumber may
ae unskillfully perform many parts of his work with no greater
resulting mischief than a perpetual inconvenience to those who
live in the houses in which he makes his ignorance conspicuous,
any deviation from good workmanship in the waste pipe system
may prove a perpetual menace to health and even life. In the
Traps and succeeding chapter I shall speak of traps and seals, and of the
“= method of ventilation by which the gaseous emanations of the
sewers are conducted away from the points at which they are
otherwise likely to exert a pressure great enough to displace or
pass through the water seals upon which we rely, to a great
extent, for protection against the inflow of foul air currents,
In this chapter I shall speak of the selection of suitable pipes,
the uniting of the lengths by water and gas tight joints, and

the avoidance of all causes of obstruction and leakage.
Leadwasto For small waste pipes the material generally employed is
Pipes lead. It can be easiest bent, joined, cut and otherwise mapipu-
lated, and cannot do any damage by parting with poisonous
salts to the waste water brought in contact with it. The size
and weight of lead pipe used should be determined with refer-
polation of (UCC to the service expected of it. A waste pipe should never
ere be so small as to retard the outflow of water or become easily
volume of choked; nor so light as to be rapidly destroyed by corrosion, or

discharge. .

broken from any cause. In my judgment, based upon a some-
what careful examination of good plumbing work, the best

sizes and weights for general use are the following:
Diameter. Weight per foot.

Sizes adapted For bath wastes............. 14 in. 3 lbs.
to various

uses, « © overflows........-.- 1} in 24 Ibs.
WASTE AND SOIL PIPES. 45

Diameter. Weight per foot.
For basin wastes...... 14 to 14 in. 24 to 8 Ibs.
tf “  overflows......... 14 in. 24 lbs.
“©  -wash-tub wastes......... 2 in, 3 Ibs.

For kitchen sink wastes it is generally advisable to use three- traps in
inch pipe, with the exception of the section containing the eee ead
trap, which should be two and one-half inches in diameter, in

order that anything forced out of the trap shall not lodge

further along and again obstruct the flow in a less accessible

place. It is a very common practice among slovenly kitchen

servants to remove the brass strainers and brush all sorts of opstructions
greasy waste matter not valuable as soap grease into the pipe. PSnk
Consequently its stoppage by an accumulation of solid matter

in the trap, which defies boiling water and sal soda, is in many

houses a matter of almost daily occurrence. These accumula-

tions will sometimes form even with good and careful manage-

ment, and to avoid serious trouble it is desirable to make the

trap at least one-half inch smaller than the body of the pipe

below it, and place it near the strainer so that a short flexible

rod of any kind may be passed into it. When trap screws are trap screws.
provided this precaution is unnecessary, as accumulations can

then be cleaned out of the trap without forcing them into the

pipe. <A still better arrangement is what is known as the grease Grease traps.
trap, which has many advantages but is not generally used.

This is a vessel receiving the waste water of a sink and having

its outlet from the bottom through a pipe rising nearly as high

as the top of the trap. As greasy substances are lighter than

water, they float and assume a semi-solid consistence inside the
receiving vessel while the water below passes off readily. This

device saves the fatty matter, which for soap making is of con-
siderable value in the domestic economy.

For large waste and soil pipes, cast iron is the material which cast iron
for about fifteen years has been almost exclusively used in New Margie
York and vicinity. Its advantages over lead aremany. In the
first place it is cheaper, which is an important consideration ;
46 WASTE AND SOIL PIPES.

but its chief superiority consists in the fact that it is lighter,
a eae stiffer, stronger and less liable to accidental injury. Thin lead
large sizes. pipe of large diameter is necessarily weak. It sags by its own
weight and often breaks from inherent weakness. Heavy lead
pipe of sufficient size is both too costly and too heavy for use,
and, owing to the weakness of the material, there is great diffi-
culty in securely fixing it in any position in which its weight
superiority falls upon the fastenings. Iron pipe is wholly free from these
eee objections. It is strong, stiff, and corrodes so slowly that, if of
proper weight and good quality, it will ordinarily last as long
asa house. We could scarcely wish for a better material. It
is easily cast into any desired shape, and the requirements of
plumbers have been so fully anticipated by the founders that it
is very rare to find an architect’s specifications calling for any
form of pipe, joint, trap, Y, branch or bend, which is not kept
in stock, or which, if not in stock, cannot be fashioned by com-
troncast binations of parts already made. One of our iron founders
requires told me, only a few days previous to this. writing, that he was
Pe aImost daily in receipt of orders to cast special shapes of pipe
sections and joints, but rarely found it necessary to make a new
pattern. If he did not have exactly the article wanted, he
could almost always make it by putting two or three pieces
together, no matter what the use for which it was intended or

the position in which it was to be placed.
But while we have in cast iron a material which, all things
conniiiobe of considered, is as good as we could want, the efficiency and safety
use of iron Of a line of cast-iron soil pipe depend in a great degree upon
pie® the manner in which it is set uy and joined. Probably every
practical plumber in the country knows how to make a tight
and permanent joint in iron pipe, which, for convenience in
handling, is cast in short lengths, but they do not always do it.
Careless join. Ln some instances I have seen the lengths set into each other
ing oflensths Vithout any attempt to make joints at all. The consequences
of such slovenly workmanship may be serious and far reaching.
Such connections, while they do not often leak water—which
WASTE AND SOIL PIPES. AT

is much to be regretted—afford a free outlet for the gases of

the sewer and drain. These gases rise along the sides of the uscape ot
pipe, spread between floor timbers and practically distribute trom detec-
themselves over the entire house, vitiating and poisoning the air °°?"
of living and sleeping rooms. There are many houses which

are saturated, so to speak, with sewer gas escaping from loose

or defective joints in soil pipes, and the evil is one against

which architects and builders, as well as plumbers, should care-

fully guard.

There are several ways of making good joints in cast-iron Mois of
pipe. There are also several methods in common use which rane.
cannot be depended upon, and which should not be employed
under any circumstances. Those which are good, as well as
those which are not, may be briefly described as follows:

In making a joint with melted lead, a gasket of oakum, tow Lead joints.
or other fiber should be inserted in the cavity of the hub, and
the spigot end of the length next above it set firmly dawi wien
it; or the gasket may be forced in with a suitable tool after the Gaskets.
lengths are set up. Its utility is to keep the melted lead from
running out of the joint and obstructing the bore of the pipe
at some point below. Upon the gasket the lead is poured from
a ladle, and at this point too many plumbers rest satisfied,
thinking they have made a lead joint. Lead, however, is a
metal which shrinks in cooling; moisture or dirt will pre- Cae
vent its adhering to the iron, and no good workman will con- cooling.
sider the joint made until he has finished it by carefully calking
all around it. With a suitable calking tool, the lead is expanded Cal«ins.
cold until it fills the joints as perfectly as a gold: plug fills the
cavity of a tooth upon which a skillful dentist has operated.

The tightness and strength of a lead joint depend in great ee
degree upon the use of plenty of lead and the manner in which
the calking is done. In good work it is necessary to use a
pound of lead to each inch of the inside diameter of the pipe.

Such, at least, is the general experience. A joint in 3-inch pipe
requires three pounds of lead, in 4-inch’ four pounds, and so on
48 WASTE AND SOIL PIPES.

up to the large sizes. In calculating the amount of metal to be
Allowance poured, it is safe to allow one pound in three, or two pounds in
for waste. . : ’
six, for waste. The amount which a good workman will spill
in pouring is not, probably, as great as this, but one pound in
three is not an excessive margin for loss.

Tn the opinion of many good workmen, a joint should never
be filled by two pourings when it is possible to make it with
one ladleful. This is a mistake. When a little extra time can

Filling joints be given to make the job first class, two pourings are better
pourings. than one. JI know a very expert practical plumber whose
method of calking in first-class work is to pour in enough metal
to form a ring, say half an inch thick, calk this all around, then
fill the joint with metal and calk again. In iron pipe, a good
Good fitting deep hub with a small play between it and the ring on the
pipe the best, ‘ < -
spigot end, is the best for good work. When the pipe goes
together loosely, there is more difficulty in keeping the lead
from running into it and obstructing the water-way. There
are several firms in this country having a high and well-deserved
reputation for the cast-iron pipe made by them.
Jointsmade ‘The use of alloys which expand in cooling has been suggested
wing alloys, £OT making joints in cast-iron pipe. The idea is a good one
theoretically, and would, doubtless, be found to work practically.
The principal objection to this method is that most of the alloys
which possess the property of expanding in cooling are expen-
sive. Old type metal is probably the cheapest form in which
such an alloy can be bought, but is too hard and brittle
owing to the percentage of antimony it contains. Such joints
would enable careless or slovenly plumbers to dispense with the
labor of calking; but lead properly put in and expanded by
tools of the right shape, is good enough and will last as long as
the pipe.
Redtead Joints well calked with red lead are tight and durable under
#0 ordinary conditions. Mixed with oil to the proper consistence,
about that of fresh glaziers’ putty, the red lead is worked down
into the joint with a calking tool, and unless the space to be
WASTE AND SOIL PIPES. 49

filled is very large, the joint will be tight. Ido not, however,
consider this as good as the. method previously described, for
the! reason that, if the pipes are moved a little, or shaken from
any cause, there is great danger that red lead joints will be
broken. Such possibilities of accidents must be guarded against.

Putty joints are sometimes met with in very cheap plumbing putty joints.
work; but as such joints should never be made, the method of
making them need not be described. The same is true of. mor- Mortar joints.
tar joints, which are, if anything, worse than no joints at all,
because they give rise to a mistaken sense of security
among those who are so ignorant and at the same time so credu-
lous as to believe whatever a dishonest contractor may tell them.

- With the expansion and.contraction of a pipe, mortar or cement
cracks and leaves the joint practically open. I would condemn

with equal severity joints made with Portland cement when cement
lengths of cast iron pipe are to be united. This cement is oe
probably the best substance for uniting lengths of earthen pipes

for land drainage and other purposes, but it is not adapted to

iron. It is pervious to both gases and liquids to some extent,

and as it expands and contracts differently from iron, it soon
cracks and crumbles, leaving the joint open.

Joints made with rubber washers have been used to a consid-
erable extent in the West, and attempts have been made to Rubber wosh-
introduce the washers in the New York and other Eastern mar- °°"
kets, but they have not been regarded with much favor. The
washers are rings of vulcanized India rubber, cylindrical in sec-
tion, so that they easily roll when slipped on the end of a pipe,
and completely close the space between the spigot and the sides
of. the hub into which they are inserted. Being elastic, these
rings permit any amount of contraction and expansion possible
in cast-iron pipe, and probably keep the joint tight for a con-
siderable time. The principal objection of intelligent plumbers
to this form of joint, is based upon the fact that it is difficult
to procure pure India rubber, well cured. How far this objec-
tion is valid I am not in a position to say. Were the rings
50 WASTE AND SOIL PIPES.

intended for use in positions in which they would be constantly
submerged, I should not hesitate to trust them. As it is, I have
doubts. Lead is certainly a great deal safer and, consequently,
a great deal better.

Rust joints. Rust joints may be made by means of a mixture of sal am-
moniac, sulphur flowers and iron borings. Such joints are tight
without doubt, since they make a line of pipe one continuous
and rigid piece. It is for this reason that many plumbers
object to them. They assert that a pipe united with rust joints

Difteulty of cannot be taken apart without great danger of destraying it, as

Separation. the breaking of a well-made rust joint is an extremely difficult
operation, and that if it is necessary to open the pipe at any
point, the whole may be destroyed. Rust joints can be sepa-
rated, but it is a delicate and difficult task, involving much care
and labor, and one always attended with some danger to the
pipe. This kind of joint is, I believe, the only one which can

Rust joints be depended upon in pipes which receive the exhaust of steam

aqiubhrstaics engines. In such cases lead joints are almost certain to come
“Seam apart. With regard to the difficulty of separating them, it
does not seem to me much greater than in the case of well-
calked lead joints. The only way to get a lead joint apart is to
melt it, and the pipe is often so placed that the plumber dare

not apply fire to it. In that case it must be broken.

suiphurana Sulphur and pitch joints have been made with a composition

piteh Joints: Consisting of equal parts of these substances. This composition
is used to some extent in the arts for making joints analogous
to those in soil pipes, and if we must have cheap and bad work
there is no doubt that sulphur and pitch joints would be

Cheap fling far better than those made with putty, mortar or cement.

*r 50" Other cheap substances might be used, but when the plumber
ventures any experiments in this direction he should be sure
Qualities that the material he uses is not decomposed by sewer gas, that
required. , i e . . o
it contains no volatile constituents, and that in drying it does
not shrink nor crack nor become rigid and unelastic. Until he
has determined these qualities by tests which admit of no mis-
WASTE AND SOIL PIPES, 51

take, he would do well to use only the best materials employed
by the trade and which experience has shown to be adapted to
the purpose.

In setting up a line of soil pipe, intelligent provision should
always be made for the expansion and contraction of the metal expansion
resulting from changes of temperature. These changes, how-tonor ines
ever, are seldom sudden or extreme, but when the pipe is at ??*
any point. rigidly fastened to the wall it expands in both direc-
tions. The amount of motion at the ends is small, but it must
be provided for or it will provide for itself. The power with
which iron expands as its temperature is raised, is practically
irresistible. The end of a pipe may not move more than an
eighth or a sixteenth of an inch, but the power with which it
moves that distance is so great that it can only be resisted by a
power great enough to crush the metal. This would be, in
ordinary cases, equal to about 75,000 pounds per square inch,
the strength of cast iron to resist crushing strains being from
60,000 to 90,000 pounds per square inch. Consequently, we
see that. unless the fastenings at the ends of a line of cast-iron
pipe are of such a character as to admit of slight movement,
something must give way, and it is not likely to be the pipe.

This, then, must be provided for in the character and position

of the fastenings, which must be so arranged that, while allow-

ing for some movement, they shall not develop a tendency to

break or loosen the joints. Under ordinary conditions the conaitions
amount of expansion is seldom great enough to give much trou- greatest ex-
ble, but when steam or a great volume of very hot water wastes!"
into an iron pipe, it is sometimes great enough to loosen joints

and even crack the pipe.

In good practice a vertical line of soil pipe should be set on supports for
iron flanges, one to each length. There is always more danger ae
of having too few than too many. In much of the work which
has come under my notice, dependence has been placed almost
wholly upon pipe-hooks, which are very good for keeping a Pipe hooks.
pipe steady, but are not to be trusted for carrying any consider-
52 WASTE AND SOIL PIPES.

able weight. There are sundry patented devices for sustaining
Phos vertical pipes against flat walls, in recesses and in corners,
porting pipes. Which, so far as I can speak from experience, are mostly useful
and practical inventions. Of the proper methods of supporting
lines of pipe laid on grades nearly horizontal, I shall speak
further on.

When the small waste pipes are of lead, and the main waste
or soil pipe is of iron, as is found in most examples of good
pp Conmesting plumbing practice, it is necessary to make connections between
them which shall be tight, strong and durable. This is a mat-
ter of great importance, but in much of the cheap contract
work of the time we are very apt to find careless workmanship
at this point. A safe method of connecting lead and iron pipe
Brass ferruies is by means of the tinned brass ferrule. The taper end of the
ferrule is slipped into the end -of the lead pipe and soldered
fast. The other end, which is provided with a flange, drops
into the hub of the soil-pipe branch and is secured in place by
Copper and a well-calked lead joint. Copper and iron ferrules are also used ;
montemtle® ut, while copper is better than iron it is not so good as brass.
A joint made by this method is safe and durable, and will never
need repairing until the pipes themselves give out. A cheaper
method, and one which is probably just as good when properly
employed, is to substitute an iron ring for the ferrule. In set-
Ends of pipe ting up a line of iron pipe, it is almost always necessary to cut
ute for off one or more ends, making rings a few inches wide. One of
‘ermales: these rings, or collars, is slipped on the end of the lead pipe,
which is turned over it. Thus reinforced, the end of the lead
pipe is slipped into the hub of the soil-pipe branch, and the
joint is calked in the ordinary manner—the iron collar answer-
ing every purpose of the ferrule, and utilizing an otherwise
waste piece of metal. Perfect joints may be made by this

method, which can be recommended with confidence.
Noobjection Much of the objection which theoretical sanitarians have
at made against the use of cast-iron soil pipes is founded on the
nections: belief that, because they cannot be soldered together or to lead,
WASTE AND SOIL PIPES. 53

it is impossible to make tight joints between the lengths or
with lead connections. No such difficulty exists in practice.
Every plumber knows this, and the statement is made merely
because a great many who are not plumbers have mistaken
ideas upon this subject.

In connecting an iron water-closet receiver or hopper with a connecting
lead waste containing a trap, we have a problem analogous to "ater slorets
that already considered, but the method employed must be P!Pe
somewhat different. The pipe is brought up through the floor
and, in first-class work, through the bottom of a lead safe, to
which it is soldered. When no safe is used, the end of the pipe
is expanded, so as to form a broad flange resting on the floor,
and this is thickly covered with putty. The nozzle of the hop-
per or receiver is then set into the mouth of the pipe, and is
firmly secured to the floor by means of screws which pass
through the iron flange and through the flange of lead formed
by expanding the pipe. If the putty is properly applied and
the closet firmly screwed down, the joint will be tight and per-
manent. Good white-lead putty, tightly compressed, will make putty.

a joint which will be steam tight for years, and I know of no

good reason why such a joint should not be both water and gas

tight as long as it remains unbroken. India-rubber washers gapper
have sometimes been used in such joints, but I should consider “**°*
putty, properly applied, quite as good, if not better. When

lead safes are used, the lead pipe, as I have already said, is
soldered fast to it, with or without flanging, as the plumber

may prefer. The joint is then made as already described. In

no case should the weight of the pipe, with its water seal, be soints not
allowed to come upon the joint. If not secured to the floor, poe
should have an independent support of some kind under the

bend of the trap. Among the instances of bad plumbing which

have come under my notice, I have seen cases in which the

whole weight of a 4inch lead pipe connecting a water-closet zsamples of
with a soil-pipe branch—so thin as to be scarce able to sustain aa =
its own weight and with four or five pounds of water in the
54 WASTE AND SOIL PIPES.

trap-—has beer. allowed to hang from a joint in which the
only dependence was upon the cohesion of putty., That only
a fool or a knave would do such work—even by contract—is a

fact too evident to need the support of argument.
In the ordinary plumbing of a house there is no part of the
work which is so liable to be slighted, or so likely to give rise
— to conditions unfavorable to health, as the overflows. In jobs
wastes of work of otherwise unexceptionable character, the overflows
are often the weak points, and through them the sewer gas finds
its way into the house. In the cheaper classes of work, both in
New York and Brooklyn, I have seen houses so piped that the
overflows had direct and untrapped communication with the
sewer. When safe wastes are connected with traps, they are at
times as great a source of trouble as the overflows. With the
trap dry, from any cause, it may be necessary to put in the
plug of the fixture to make a seal, which would be effectual but
for the overflow and safe waste, which admit the sewer gases
freely. These openings are usually so located and of such
shape that it is a difficult matter to close them perfectly, and
under such conditions the householder feels that he has abso-
lutely no protection. In summer, when a house is to be closed,
perhaps for weeks at a time, it is almost certain that evapora-
tion will unseal traps, and then, in spite of plugs or other pre-
cautions, the house is open to the enemy. Some two years since
Examples of I had occasion to examine the plumbing of a number of houses,
ei the rent of which varied from $700 to 81000. I found that
on the second floors neither basins nor bath tubs were provided
with traps, and when the plugs were used to cut off the gases
the then unexpected difficulty of the overflows presented itself.
A short time since a friend of mine moved into a house plumbed
in this style, and was soon compelled to invent something that
would make the place safe to live in. The first thing done was
Closing to cover all the overflows. This was accomplished with putty
overflows. + some cases, and in other cases with pieces of muslin put on
with shellac varnish. The plugs were kept in all the time,
WASTE AND SOIL PIPES. 55

except when removed to discharge waste water, and a. little
clean water drawn upon them to make certain that they were
properly seated. By keeping the water-closet cover closed, in
addition to frequent flushing, the house was rendered compara-
tively free from the faint, depressing odors of sewer gas. I
have been thus particular in describing a case in point, as the
means employed may be of service in similar instances. The
plumber will.at once think of the dangers attending the closing
of all overflows, and it was not without some misgivings that
the plan was adopted. The worst that can happen, however, is
the destruction of walls and ceilings, and if due care is exer-
cised this will never happen, especially if the whole household
are aware of the new dangers attendant upon the closing of the
overflows. These dangers are small as compared with those
likely to arise from the introduction of sewer gas into the
house.
In the best water-closets in the market, the weak place is waterctoset
. : : overflows.
generally found in the overflow. Were it not for their over-
flows, some of these would be absolutely impregnable to sewer
gases under the heaviest pressures. Slight as the danger is
from this source in good water-closets, and small as is the risk
in cases where the plumbing is honestly and intelligently done,
I think it is possible to: arrange the plumbing work so that an
escape of sewer gas into the house cannot take place through
the overflows, at least. The plan is this: Make all overflows How to pro-
5 mes i vide for the
a system by themselves, allowing none to enter the soil pipe or wastoot ovor-
its branches. Into the overflow system take also the safe eae
wastes, which are all brought together and run into the cellar
at some convenient point where they can be allowed to empty
into a tank holding from, say, 10 to 20 gallons. In case any
tub or basin runs over, the water at once finds its way to the
tank in the basement or cellar. Here is, of course, perfect
safety, so far as immunity from returning gases is concerned.
There are some other precautions, however, to be taken. The
outfall of the waste water must be so located that when running
Automatic

flushing of

56 WASTE AND SOIL PIPES.

the noise shall be heard, or attract attention in some way. The
water may in some cases be arranged so as to flow directly into
the street, and thus escape the necessity of a sewer connection
for the overflow pipes within the house. Where the tank is
located within the cellar, it can be connected with the soil pipe
by means of a pipe closed by a cock. This should be arranged
by means of a float, so that the cock will be opened before the
tank is full, and closed when it is empty or nearly so. Thus
the sewer connection is entirely cut off, while at the same time
the overflow water has a free escape. With a house thus
arranged several things are possible which could not be
obtained by the ordinary system. For example, if it is desired
to leave the fixtures unused for any length of time, we can put
in all the plugs in basins, sinks and tubs, and thus entirely
exclude sewer gas, while no risk of overflowing is incurred.
From water-closets provided with tight-seating valves, there is
no danger save from the overflows which are sealed with water
only, and where these overflows are arranged in the manner we
have described, a house with such fixtures is safe for any
length of time. Neither the breaking of seals by pressure nor
their evaporation would cause any leakage of gas, the sewer
being entirely cut off from the house.

In some very costly work I have seen arrangements for auto-

safeandover- matically flushing the safe wastes. They are supplied with

flow wastes.

water by a service-pipe branch, and in the case of water-closets
the opening of the valve allows a quantity of water to pass into
the safe and thence into the safe waste. This seems to me a
clumsy method of accomplishing what should never be neces-
sary. The overflow and safe waste are only provided to guard
against accidents, and the water passing through them can be
easily disposed of without giving these pipes a direct connec-
tion with the sewer.

A line of soil pipe extending up through a house should, if
possible, be so placed as to be easily accessible on all sides.
This is a matter for the architect to look after. A very common
WASTE AND SOIL PIPES. 57

practice is to set them in niches, or recesses, built in the walls.

To this some plumbers make no objection ; but a majority of Rethia pines

those who believe in doing good work, and know how to do it,

condemn this disposition of the pipes in unmeasured terms.

The plan is objectionable in some respects, though not so bad

as to afford any excuse for slovenly workmanship on the part

of the plumber. When soil pipes are placed in recesses, it is

generally difficult to make good joints in’ them, though not

impossible unless the space is very narrow and the pipe so

large as to nearly or quite fill it. There is usually insufficient pene

room for the use of the calking iron and mallet, and the

plumber is therefore compelled to provide himself with special

tools when he undertakes a job of this kind. When the pipe

has to be put up in lengths, and joints made after the line is

set in position, the careless plumber will usually content him-

self with running in hot lead and leaving it as it cools... One an cxpedtent
. . . Sina for calxing

plumber of my acquaintance, who is both ingenious and in niches.

honest, gets over the difficulty by leaving a lower joint open

until the rest are done, which enables him to turn the whole

line around and calk all sides equally. The plan is a good

one, but architects cannot expect that plumbers will generally

take this trouble.

Another and serious objection to this method of disposing of importance
the waste pipes of houses, is found in the difficulty usually pines
experienced in getting access to them when they need repair. “*""*
The amount of space saved inside a building by such a disposi-
tion of the waste pipes is of no consequence to anybody. An
architect who has any resources can always make provision in
his plans for the pipe system, without disfiguring any apartment
or sacrificing a square inch of space available for any other yi
use. The pipes should be concealed by movable screens or eesti
panels of some sort, and should be accessible throughout their
entire length. To build them into walls, and especially to
cover them over with lath and plaster, so that they cannot pos-
sibly be inspected without breaking through the walls, is not
58 WASTE AND SOIL PIPES.

good practice. The disposition made of them must, of course,
Dispeattion et depend upon the character of the building, its interior arrange-
entonplan ment and the shape and ornamentation of the rooms. The
vio problem is one which the architect must solve by the aid of a
little common sense. As the soil and service pipes are usually
carried up side by side, the position selected for them should
-be one in which there is least danger from frost in cold
weather. Obviously, this will not be against the outside wall
Protection Of the building. A sheltered corner in which they would be
from frost. “ye
beyond the reach of frost, or an angle of the central partitions,
can easily be found in any house which is not planned with an
utter disregard of the fact that it is ever to be drained.
In good plumbing practice the soil pipe is always larger than
a ed its largest branch. In common work we often find them the
larger than sane size. When the branches connecting water-closets with
Pranen™ the soil pipe are 4 inches in diameter, the soil pipe should be
at least 5 inches. For this there are two good reasons. Any-
thing which is forced out of the closet traps should pass easily
through the soil pipe, or we are liable to have obstructions at
points beyond reach ; and the soil pipe should be so large that
it cannot run full under ordinary circumstances, even when we
have water simultaneously discharged into it from several
branches. The force of this second reason will be shown in
the remarks on the syphoning of seals in the succeeding
chapter.
An iron soil pipe should not be too light. In much of the
Ueavy pipe cheap work of the time the pipe used is lighter than it should
meres be. I have seen pipe set up in houses which, tested with calli- \
pers, I have found to be not more than one-eighth of an inch
thick. The objections to this kind of pipe are numerous and
. Objections to important. It does not possess the requisite strength ; it is. too
Serge quickly eaten through by rust, and it is very apt to have sand
holes and other imperfections which, for a time, may afford an
easy outlet for the gases of the sewer. The difference in cost
between light pipe and that of suitable thickness (a quarter of
WASTE AND SOIL PIPES. 59

an inch for private houses, and three-eighths and upward
where there is a long line of large size to accommodate a con-
tinuous outflow of considerable volume), is not great enough to
make the economy profitable. In architects’ specifications we
seldom find asuitable weight of iron pipe called for. Conse-
quently the principal demand is for very cheap and light
pipes. As made they are as hard as chilled iron—owing to the
fact that they are cast so thin—and about.as brittle and difficult
to cut as glass. If dropped they crack or break, and aro
utterly untrustworthy at all times. In much of the cheap work
of the time we find 4inch iron pipes used which average about
eight pounds to the foot. In good work 4-inch iron pipes should weient ot
be at least of 12 pounds weight to the foot. I know of one ae
large public building in New York in which a 10-inch pipe
weighing 45 pounds to the foot is used.

Thus: far I have considered only vertical lines of soil pipe,
with their branches. In planning a drainage system for a
house which was to be made as perfect as possible without
regard to cost, I should have separate lines of soil pipe for
each floor. I have known instances in which every waste pipe sou pipesfor
in the house was carried separately to the main waste in the “*°°*
cellar, and each was separately ventilated above the roof. This
plan has the advantage of confining obstructions to the pipes in
which they occur, without interfering with any of the others ;
but it involves extra expense, and cannot be considered indis-
pensable to good drainage in average houses.

In sewer-drained dwellings it is usually necessary to give the
soil pipe nearly a quarter turn bend below all the house con- rxtonsion
nections in order to reach the sewer, as kitchens, bath rooms oe
and water-closets are commonly in the rear apartments, while
the sewers are under the streets upon which the houses face.
The pipe must, therefore, be carried: along the cellar-wall or
under the cellar floor. The former is preferable when practi-
cable; but in what are known as English basement houses, in
witoh the kitchen is on a level with the cellar, the pipe which
60 WASTE AND SOIL PIPES.

receives the kitchen drainage must be laid in a trench under
ground. Sometimes this section of the main waste pipe is
made of a different material from the vertical line, usually
because a cheaper one than iron can be had. This is an econ-
omy which does not pay in the end.

Under all circumstances I should recommend carrying the
cee iron soil pipe all the way to the sewer, and in the best work of
preferable. the time this plan is followed. I have never scen a house

drain built of stone, brick or wood, and rarely one built of

earthen pipes with cement joints, which I should be willing to
Stonedrains. live over. Stone drains, having rough inside surfaces, cannot
be effectively flushed, and become coated throughout with foul
deposits, offensive and dangerous in their rapid decomposition.

Brick drains. Brick drains, as usually built, have this same objection,
together with the liability of all but exceptionally good bricks
to disintegrate when buried and kept constantly wet. Even

when highly vitrified and laid with hydraulic cement, their

rough surfaces and the perviousness of their joints to water are
objections which should exclude them from use for this pur-

Tue drains. pose. Earthen pipes, even when well glazed, cannot be
depended upon when laid in cellars, for the reason that the best

cement joints are pervious to water, which carries with it

organic matter to lodge and decompose in the pores of the

Wooden pipe and its joints. Wooden drains usually leak and always
rT aoe very rapidly. When made of plank, they cannot be given

a shape favorable to effective cleansing. If set with the flat

side down, the scouring power of the water flowing through

them is reduced in proportion to the surface covered by it and

the resistance it encounters from friction. If set cornerwise a

better result is obtained, but the bottom of the Y is liable, in

the case of a house drain, to become filled with solid matter

which resists the efforts of the water to carry it away. The

next best thing to iron pipe is glazed Scotch drain pipe joined

with Portland cement, but iron is so much better than any
substitute yet found for it, that it should, I think, always be
WASTE AND SOIL PIPES. 61

exclusively used in the drainage of city houses. The different
methods employed in the drainage of country houses, generally
render the use of earthen pipes desirable and economical.

Soil pipes carried through cellars should have a continuous continuous
support. If conducted along a cellar wall, which is the best ??™
practice under favorable conditions, they should be laid upon
shelves of stout plank, which, in turn, are held up by suitable
brackets. A few pipe hooks will keep them in place, but
these should not be trusted to carry the weight of the pipe. If Flash ote
laid under a cellar floor, a strip of wood should be placed along trenches.
the bottom of the trench, which will give them a uniform
descent to the street. When iron pipe is used this is very
desirable ; with earthen pipe it is absolutely indispensable. In
digging a trench it is scarcely possible to preserve the grade so
perfectly that a pipe can be laid in it without sags. These sags sags.
are so slight, especially when the grade is easy, that they
readily escape notice, but they are almost always great enough
to retard the flow of water and diminish the scouring power.

The air in the pipe will usually find a lodgment at the highest airin pipes
points along the line, and when the pipe is trapped near the

entrance to the sewer (as I think it never should be), these
accumulations of air are likely to offer a very effective resist-

ance to the passage of water. With a very steep grade slight

sags do not usually give trouble, but it is desirable to avoid

them in house drains. A tendency to sag may break or loosen Broken joints
a joint and cause a leak which, if under ground, may escape esses
notice until many cubic yards of soil are saturated with foul

water, and a nuisance is created which can only be abated by
excavating the place and filling in with fresh earth.

Sections of soil pipe carried under houses should have all the Ae
fall which can be conveniently given them. Nothing is gained
and nothing saved by flattening the grade. If a pipe is carried
along a side wall, an ample fall can always be secured ; when
laid under the cellar floor, it should have all the fall possible,
which is not always as much as would be desirable. The aim
Pipes carried
through foun-
dations.

Fracture of
pipes from
settling of
wails.

Good work-
manship.

Danger of
cheap meth-
ods of house

drainage.

62 WASTE AND SOIL PIPES.

of the architect should be to give that portion of a soil pipe
which deflects from the perpendicular as steep a descent as
possible. A pipe cannot be too completely scoured by the
water passing through it.

The opening in the foundation wall of a house for the soil
pipe to pass through should always be enough larger than the
outside diameter of the pipe to allow. the walls to settle with-
out crushing or deflecting it. When this precaution is neg-
lected, the pipe is liable to be broken or disjointed by the set-
tling of the foundations, allowing the sewage to escape and
work its way back into the cellar. I know an instance in which
a pipe was thus broken, and the owner of the house, ignorant
or careless of the fact, neglected the necessary repairs until sick-
ness made its appearance in the family, when his physician, a
very practical man who liked to know the reasons for things,
made an inspection on his own account and discovered the
source of the mischief.

So far as this part of the subject is concerned, it only remains
for me to urge upon those connected with the building trades,
and upon physicians, house owners and tenants, the vital im-
portance of good workmanship in all departments of plumbing
work related to or connected with house drainage. In this
chapter and the chapter following on Traps and Seals (to which
IT refer the casual reader), I have endeavored to embody such
plain directions concerning waste and soil pipes as I have con-
sidered necessary to give a person of average intelligence an
idea of the conditions under which it is possible to secure im-
munity from dangers that, in cheaply piped houses, are almost
certain to attend the opening of connections with the sewers.
Without going into details of interest only to plumbers, who
ought to be familiar with them, I have endeavored to describe
the means by which a line of soil pipe can be put up so as to
be securely held in place and have tight joints and connections
throughout. There are, doubtless, other ways of accomplishing
the ends sought, but I know of none better or more certain
WASTE AND SOIL PIPES. 63

under all circumstances than those of which I have spoken.
During the past few years I have inspected much of the best
plumbing work of the time, and a great deal of work which

was not good at all, and the conclusion I have reached is that

when sewer gas finds its way into a house through the soil and

waste pipes, the fault lies somewhere between the architect, the
builder and the plumber. In any case it is without excuse. I

know that houses can be drained into sewers—and even into Responstbit.
foul and unventilated sewers—without bringing sewer gas into eee
them. The existence of foul sewers is in itself a perpetual
danger to the public health, but there is no reason why we
should bring that danger into our houses by providing chan-

nels through which the poisonous air of the sewer can find a

means of ingress. I know of houses into which no sewer gas tmmunity
ever comes—unless, possibly, through the windows, borne in °°"
with air of the street—and I have no hesitation in saying that,

when the tenants of houses demand immunity from the dangers

of unhealthful conditions, architects and builders will find a

means of correcting the evils now complained of as practically
irremediable. Sanitary reform in cities only waits until those

to be benefited by it shall demand it.
CHAPTER IV.
Trars AND SEALS, AND THE VENTILATION oF Waste Pires.

The importance of trapping all waste pipes, and of maintain-
Traps in ing in every trap a seal of water, is probably better understood
Ee said appreciated than any other essential of safety in the drain-
age of houses. There is, however, a great deal to be said con-
cerning traps and seals which, if known and applied in plumb-
ing practice, would have a most important influence upon the

public health.
Toomueh The service expected of water seals in traps of every form is
rape usually much greater than they are capable of performing. For
this reason undue reliance is placed upon them. Those who
suppose that a small quantity of water held in a bend of a
waste pipe is alone sufficient to prevent an inflow of sewer
gas through that pipe, know very little about either water or
sewer gis. We can only accomplish this most desirable result
Thesecurity When we afford the sewer gas an easier means of escape than it
Per aeey aa HHLOLS through the water in traps, by ventilating the soil pipe and
ventilation its branches. In common work the waste-pipe system usually
ends in the highest water-closet or wash basin in the house. To
prevent the escape of gases generated in the sewer, and which
naturally find their way into the pipes under certain conditions
to be noticed further on, dependence is placed upon the water
Popularer seals in the waste-pipe traps—the common argument, being
ne aeee that, as the express purpose of the seal is to prevent the escape
at poisonous gases and foul odors, other means to this end will
be superfluous. This argument is based upon an evident mis.
understanding of the conditions which exist in sewers. In New
York, for example, there are periods, often of several weeks’
Unventilatea duration, when the sewers are absolutely without ventilation,

“ewer and when the only escape for gases generated therein, often held
TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS. 65

under considerable pressure, is through soil and waste pipes.

Here, as in most American cities, the chief dependence for Manholes.
sewer ventilation is upon perforations in the manhole covers.

These are better than no openings at all, when they are open,

but they are very liable—certain, indeed—to become choked

with mud and dust during much of the time; and from the muaana
first heavy snowfall of winter until spring—with, perhaps, ainess
few brief intervals of general thaw—they are as effectually

closed by ice and snow as they would be if covered over with

the permanent pavement of the street. The culverts at the

street corners are of course trapped, and during the winter

season they are likely to remain effectually sealed. The mouths Ride water
of the sewers are, as the rule, so placed as to be completely sub-

merged at high tide, at which times the river water forces its

way up into them for a considerable distance, compressing the

air confined within in proportion to the resistance offered at the

various outlets by which it seeks to escape. To increase this

pressure we have still another active agent—heat. In cold or

cool weather the temperature of the air in sewers is considera- expansion cf
bly above that of the outer air. We are continually pouring ie
great floods of hot water into them,.at temperatures ranging

from 80° to 180° Fahr. It is not unusual to allow steam

engines to exhaust into them, and, as showing that the temper-

ature of the confined air of sewers is not low enough in aver-

age weather to condense steam, I may instance what may be temperaturo:
seen any day in the streets of New York—the escape of steam, Oy cate
still a hot vapor, from the perforations in manhole covers in

regular puffs corresponding to the piston strokes of an engine

in some neighboring building. In one way or another we im-

part considerable heat to our sewage besides that generated in

the process of decomposition. In very warm weather the tem- eee
perature of the outside air is usually higher than that of the temperaturo.
air in sewers; and, so far as unsealing traps is concerned, a dif- cpen ean
ference in the temperature of the air inside and outside a sewer

is nearly as effective one way as the other. A simple experiment,
66 TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS.

described by Latham, will serve to show how such differences
of temperature will affect the security of a water seal in a trap.
In the illustration marked Fig. 1, is shown a
| glass flask with a bent glass tube inserted in the
| cork, the bend forming a trap which is filled
J with water. If the hand is placed on the flask,
its warmth is sufficient to so expand the air
within that enough of the water in the bend of
the tube is driven out to leave the trap unsealed.
By partly immersing the flask in cold water, the
air within it is so contracted in volume that the
pressure of the outside air forces the water in
the tube into the flask, also effectually and promptly unsealing
it. The air in the waste pipes of an occupied house is daily
subjected to frequent expansions and contractions, which may,
Baegpllny and often do, unseal traps. Under these conditions it is readily
seen that when the mouths and manhole ventilators of our
sewers are closed, any increase in the volume or temperature of
the flow will cause the confined air to struggle for a means: of
Pressure. escape, Which it usually finds at some trap. It will do this just
so soon as the pressure equals that of the column of water in

Experimental
demonstra-
tion.

 

the trap.
Resistance To displace a seal altogether, no very great force is necessary.
of seals to . . :
pressure: A seal 3 inches deep offers a resistance to the passage of air
equal only to a pressure of two ounces per square inch. With
adequate ventilation of the soil pipe, the pressure upon waste-
pipe traps is relieved, and there is little danger of sewer gas find-
Benefits of ing its way into a house when such ventilation is provided—

ventilation . . . . a6
for waste presuming, of course, that the plumbing work is judiciously

iii planned and properly executed in other respects.

To the pressure within the sewers, tending to displace the
Draught water seals of unventilated waste-pipe systems and to force
sewer gas into our dwellings, we must add what is commonly

called the “suction” of the house. During much of the year,

and especially during the season when we live with closed win-
TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS. 67

dows and doors and depend on fires, there is a constant outflow

from the house through the chimneys, producing a partial Rarifeation
vacuum which varies greatly under different circumstances. In tm houses.
any case it is enough to cause a great deal of air to enter by a

very small opening, and when doors and windows are carefully

sealed with list and weather strips, the draft upon the traps

may be very considerable. Were the traps empty there would

be a strong and steady inflow of air through the pipes; and

when they are sealed the “suction,” as it is called, very effec-

tually supplements the pressure resulting from the causes already

noted.

In trapping pipes there is a good chance for the unskillful
plumber to defeat the end he seeks to accomplish. My atten- i
tion was lately called to the house of a friend in which the "
faint, depressing odor always noticeable in the bath room and
adjoining apartments revealed the presence of sewer gas. A
thorough examination of the plumbing work showed certain Examples of
defects only too frequently met with in badly piped houses. In manship.
the bath room there was a tub, water-closet and wash basin, after
the usual practice, but the bath and basin wastes were con-
ducted into the soil-pipe branch below the water-closet trap.

These pipes were trapped, but the bath overflow was not, and
through this the sewer gas found easy access. Stopping the
overflow remedied the difficulty in part, but not wholly, as the
same smell was noticed until the waste-pipe system of the house
was thoroughly ventilated. Had all the pipes been trapped and
every trap been full of water, the house would not have been
a safe one to live in until their ventilation had been provided
for. In another instance, when inspecting an extensive pipe
system in a large hotel in a Western city, I found that an
attempt had been made to form a stench trap in every waste
pipe, but in a great many instances the pipe had been bent at
such an angle that the water held in the bends would barely
make a seal, while others were so long and so nearly horizontal
that the force of the water coming down the pipe would, in all
68 TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS.

probability, carry it past the bend and leave the traps unsealed.
Evidently the traps were home made, as no two were alike and
not half of them were well made. It may be assumed that no
trap can be so sealed with water as to offer an effective barrier
to the passage of gases held in an unventilated waste pipe,
whether under pressure or not.

As further illustrating the importance of ventilating the
waste-pipe system of a house, I may mention a phenomenon
which has surprised a great many people, practical plumbers

papans included. It sometimes happens that traps which are to all
syphoning. Appearance properly set, so nearly empty themselves as to afford

a free passage for air through them. This may occur in several

ways. For example, if we have a quantity of water thrown into

Causes. the trap so great as to fill the body of the pipe for a distance
greater than the vertical hight of the column of water in the

trap, it will be quickly unsealed. This action is easily
explained, since it is only a syphon in a slightly modified form.

When we take a tube bent into the shape of the letter U, fill
a it with water and invert it, there is no tendency on the part of
the water contained in it to ran from one end of the tube or

syphon more than from the other, so long as the two legs are of

equal length. The liquid in both
, legs may be said to be pulling down-
4 ward and tending to form a vacuum
at the highest point of the bend ; be-
ing of equal weight they balance each
other. If we lengthen one of these
legs, the water in the long leg will
be heavier than that in the short
leg, and will run out, while atmos-
| pheric pressure will force the water
jij, in the short leg up to the top and
\ out of the tube. Now, if the short
end of the syphon be dipped in a
vessel containing water, as shown in Fig. 2, the well-known

 
TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS. 69

action will take place of emptying the vessel by syphoning.
Applying this illustration to the arrangement of waste

pipes and traps shown in Fig. 3, we find that if the ae
flow of water, solid matter, paper or anything of the sort in srepcepite
from the water-closet 0 is great enough to fill the pipe a, we

have a column of water flowing down which is heavier than

that in e, and tending to form a vacuum above it in the main

pipe. Consequently, the water in ¢ and d will be forced over

into the pipe @ by the
atmospheric pressure. Not
only will this happen in
the trap 7, but at the
same time, if there is a
heavy flow of water down
the soil pipe a, as from
the bath tub %, and no
ventilation, the traps g
and 4 may be partly emp-
tied, leaving a free pass- ,
age for foul air from the
sewer until they are again
filled. The emptying of
traps may also occur from
the creation of a vacuum
in a soil-pipe branch, as at
e, by water, as from d, flow-
ing past the orifice at which
it discharges.

In the drawing marked
Fig. 4, I have shown an ar-
rangement of the soil pipe :
and its principal branches which I consider free from any such
objections. It of course admits of such extension as may be arrangement
necessary to adapt it to the various styles of architecture em- peal
ployed in cities. In this arrangement the soil pipe a is carried

 

    
          
 
   
 

ss

Z

a

 

 
TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS.

70

 

 

   

 

 

 

 

\\ i\\ \ \

\\ tN —"\ N

\\ = _ 2 s=\\ ta N ‘ i
ml = i SS Hath

   

LC

ni

      
TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS. 71

straight from the sewer to the poirit at which it takes the upward
bend. This section is of the same material as the vertical line, no trap in
and is without a trap at any point. From the bend in the cellar ae
it is carried vertically up to and through the roof, terminating in
aventilating cap. This is no doubt unnecessary, but when the ne ventita-
pipe is not bent over, some form of cap is commonly used for oe ies
the purpose of keeping the wind and rain out. To leave the "°**
pipe open at the top answers every purpose. Parallel with the
soil pipe, also following it to the roof, is a ventilating pipe, 0,
which connects with every trap in the branch wastes and venti-
lates each one independently of the ventilation secured through supplemon
the soil pipe. This pipe d, for the independent ventilation of Hontustans
traps, is seldom introduced, except in the very best class of
work, but as it entails little increased expense, I should recom-
mend its employment in every case.

It will not do to place too much dependence upon the venti-
lation of the soil pipe alone to prevent the emptying of waste
pipe traps. It often happens that the waste pipes of wash gyphoning
basins placed at a distance from the soil pipe, syphon their oo ypecen
traps even when the latter is ventilated. In such cases the 7
wastes of basins, sinks or closets remote from the soil pipe,
should be carried up to and through the roof. This is the
casiest and surest way to secure good ventilation, and when such
ventilation is neglected we usually have trouble from “ the ventilation
smell of the sewers,” even though the main wastes into which vanes
these branches discharge are ventilated. When this precaution
is neglected, the traps in these long branch wastes are very
liable to be unsealed by syphoning. The pipe usually has a
capacity for discharging more water than can flow into it, and
the rapid downward current makes a partial vacuum which vacuum in
often causes the air to draw down through a considerable body Be ane
of water to fill it. Every one has noticed, in emptying a’ bath “"*"*
tub or wash basin, that air is sometimes sucked into the waste
pipe with a roar long before the tub or basin is empty. The
same thing takes place after the water has all run into the pipe.

a
72 TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS.

The rapid outflow creates a partial vacuum, which is more
easily filled by an air current moving with the water than by
one flowing against it, and the air rushing down the pipe will
often displace the seal in the trap, leaving it open, though per-
haps not quite empty. Ventilating the soil pipe will do much
Nounven- to protect waste-pipe seals, but no trap is absolutely secure
rae against being unsealed by the several causes mentioned, unless
separately ventilated as shown in Fig. 4. When this is done,

the syphoning of seals in traps is an impossibility.
The absence in Fig. 4 of any trap in the main waste or soil
trapsin pipe will, no doubt, surprise a good many readers. In common
mainwaste practice this pipe is often trapped just inside the cellar wall,
the idea being that sewer gas should be prevented from
entering the house drain at all, and that a running trap will
accomplish this object. In my judgment such a trap does
Objections. vastly more harm than good. It is very liable to become
choked by accumulations of solid matter, and unless well pro-
tected its seal may freeze in very cold weather, which is a
troublesome matter. The most serious objection to it, however,
lies in the fact that it detracts from the efficiency of any
arrangements which may be made for ventilating the soil pipe.
When we trap this pipe at any point we immediately close it
against the passage of air currents, and the pipe above and
below the trap is filled with what is known among plumbers as
Blowing “ dead air.”” When there is a copious dash of water down the
throng sca pipe, as when a pail of suds is thrown into a slop hopper or
wastes: water-closet on one of the upper floors, the stagnant foul air in
the pipe must be displaced. The resistance offered at the trap
in the soil pipe will generally be greater, owing to the larger
body of water held in it, than at one of the traps in the lower
branches, and the displaced air is very likely to blow through

one or more of these.

It should be remembered that the most important of the
ends sought by ventilation is the establishment of a free com-
munication between the sewer and the outer air. When the
TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS. 73

pressure upon the air confined in the sewer is increased from House deaths
any cause, it should have an outflow through every house drain. late sewers.
When from any cause a partial vacuum is created in the sewer,

every house drain should be an inlet for air. In other words,

we should allow the sewers ‘to “breathe” through the main

waste pipe of every house, besides giving them as many breath-

ing holes in addition as can be provided. When every branch ene
waste pipe is trapped, and especially if every trap is ventilated tne passage
as shown in Fig. 4, this inflow and outflow of air through the furouah ee
soil pipe of a house is attended with absolute immunity from ee iain
inconvenience or danger to health, provided the jointing is

properly done. There is no pressure of foul air upon the

traps, but little chance for water seals to absorb foul gases, and

none at all for the unsealing of traps by blowing out or syphon-

ing out. With such an arrangement we have nothing to fear Evaporation
as regards the security of water seals except evaporation, and ince,
this is easily guarded against. Should a seal be allowed to dry

out, however, the danger of atmospheric pollution is much

reduced by the double ventilation described.

It is probable that many practical plumbers will consider the maependent
independent ventilation of traps unnecessary. I have seen for aca
many very satisfactory jobs of plumbing in which it was omit-
ted, but for the reasons already set forth it is certainly desira-
ble if not essential. Sewer gas is a subtle enemy to health, cee
scattering broadcast the germs of fever and the seeds of infec- economy.
tion, and when we undertake to securely intrench ourselves
against its attacks we cannot afford to neglect any precautions
of safety to save the cost of a few pounds of lead pipe or a few
dollars for additional labor.

Where there is no danger of an escape of sewer gas to be ventilation
apprehended, the ventilation of the waste-pipe system of a Bia cones
house would be necessary to prevent the rapid corrosion of lead Svns.
wastes. The points at which lead wastes soonest wear out and
begin to leak are the points at which, in the absence of ventila-

tion, the lighter gases from the sewer would naturally accumu-
U4 TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS.

late. I find this is the usual experience of plumbers in this
country, and the same phenomenon seems to have attracted
attention abroad. At a meeting of the Society of Medical
Officers of Health in London, held a short time previous to
this writing, Dr. Andrew Fergus, President of the Faculty of
Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow, stated that while: the
water supply of that city, drawn from Loch Katrine, was so
pure in itself and so distributed as to preclude the possibility of

Typhoia excremental pollution, typhoid fever had increased to a startling

fever in

Glasgow. extent, and as the cause of this disease must be sought either in

Examples

of internal

polluted water or in air poisoned by the gaseous products of
decomposition, it was a safe conclusion that the latter was the
cause of the trouble in Glasgow. Teciting many remarkable
facts in connection with cases of typhoid fever and diphtheria
which had come under his notice, he showed several pieces of

corrosion of 4-inch lead pipe curiously perforated by corrosion commencing

pipes by

sewer gas.

Passage of

from within, and which could only have been caused by the
action of sewer gas. These perforations had admitted sewer
gas into the houses in which mysterious cases of typhoid and
diphtherja had occurred ; and as similar perforations were not
found in such portions of the pipes as were at any time charged
with liquid, they were not betrayed by the leakage of water.
Dr. Fergus further said he had found that such pipes as
were freely open to the sky by an upcast shaft, remained sound
nearly twice as long as those in which there was no effective
ventilation, but he did not think that a lead soil pipe exposed
to the action of sewer gas could be depended upon as sound for
longer than 10 or 12 years. He also asserted, as the result
of careful and intelligent observation, that the usual method of
depending upon water seals in traps allowed sewer gas to dif-

sewer gas fuse itself through a house “ by a process of soakage,” and that

through ,
water seals.

in from half an hour to two hours the foul gases of the sewer
and house drain would have saturated a seal, and thenceforth be
freely emitted into the house. Other eminent and experienced
physicians stated that they had reached the same conclusions
.TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS. 15

from observations. made in London and other British citics,
showing that the rapid corrosion and perforation of unventilated

waste pipes is a matter of common experience on both sides of

the ocean One of the many.examples of the corrosion of lead

pipe which I have seen came to my notice quite recently, and

is especially interesting as showing how the defective drainage

of one house may affect the healthfulness of another. I was
-consulted.as to the cause of a very strong smell of sewer gas in ae
the well-appointed residence of a gentleman of wealth, on one atmospheric
of the finest avenues of New York. This smell was chiefly ae:
noticeable in a passage connecting the front and back bedrooms * *~

on one of the upper floors. A careful inspection of the plumb-

ing work of the house was made without discovering any seri-

ous defect. The bath room, water-closets, wash basins, «c.,

were all on.the north side of the house, while the offensive

smell was confined to a passageway on the south side, and this

was not supplied with water. The first conclusion was that the mistaken
sewer gas escaped from some defect in one of the pipes on the Been
other side of the house, and passing under the floor found a

means of escape through a crack in the passageway floor. .\.

further examination showed that this was not the case, and it

then became evident that the cause of the trouble was outside

of the house. An examination of the adjoining building was

then made, and the source of the trouble was easily found.

The lead soil pipe, which was carried up against the party-wall, Se
extended a few inches above the branch connecting it with the

third story water-closet, and was closed by means of a lead cap

soldered on. From the cap down, for 12 or 15 inches, the pipe

was completely honeycombed. There were countless holes in

it, from the size of a pin point to an eighth of an inch in diam-

eter, and the shell was so thin and rotten that it could be read-

ily crushed between the fingers. From the holes in the pipe,

which was wholly unventilated, sewer gas had freely escaped, transmission
and had found its way into the adjoining house through the thousns
brick wall. The damaged pipe—which had clearly been cor-?™°*"""
16 TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS.

roded by sewer gas alone, as no water had ever come into it—

was repaired and the nuisance ceased. Those in the house in

which the corroded pipe was found claimed to have suffered no

inconvenience from the smell, which one would naturally sup-

pose would have been intolerable to a person with an ordinarily

sensitive nose, while in the adjoining house it was a constant

annoyance.

Dangers As already stated, water seals in traps are liable to two dan-

i gers which are commonly overlooked, but either of which, in the

*eaisin PS. absence of abundant ventilation, will wholly destroy their effi-

Evaporation. clency in a very short time. They may be reduced in volume

by evaporation until a passage is left for air through the traps ;

Saturation by or exposed for even a short time to contact with foul gases

comeen having no other means of escape, they will absorb and transmit

Frequent them. The first of these dangers can, as I have said, be guarded

Derr against by frequently flushing the pipes. A careful housekeeper

should see that this is done daily, at least; and when houses are

closed or left in the care of servants during the absence of the

occupants, provision should always be made for keeping the

traps filled with clean water. This is commonly neglected, but

the consequences of such neglect may be the ruin of health or

the loss of precious lives. The danger of saturation by, and

transmission of, sewer gas through water seals, is less readily

apparent and calls for brief explanation. It will be found in

the chapter on water-closets. Here we will deal only with the

Absorption fact, which is that water standing in the traps of unventilated
of gases by : . . .

water in Waste pipes is constantly absorbing more gas than it can hold.

=P*: Tong before the point of saturation is reached, it begins to give

off on one side the gases it takes in on the other. When the

point of saturation is reached depends somewhat upon circum-

stances which need not here be taken into account; but it is a

fact within the observation of all who have studied the subject

experimentally, that water exposed to contact with confined

sewer gas grows fouler and fouler, and never seems to wholly

lose its capacity for absorbing until it hecomes putrid and de-
TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS. 47

composition takes place within it. In an unventilated trap a
water seal cannot remain pure for many hours. It begins to
absorb at once, and the length of time required to so charge it

that it will begin to give off gases is, probably, as stated by Dr.
Fergus, from half an hour to two hours, according to the pres-

sure of the gases in the pipe and their foulness. For this Renewal
reason, every waste pipe, even when ventilated, should have
enough water passed through it daily to completely replace the

seal in its trap. When the pipes are unventilated, it should be

done very often.

Dr. Fergus, whose eminence as a sanitarian justifies the lib- pr. rergus’s
eral reference I have made to his writings, gives, in a contribu- ae
tion to the Sanitary Record, the results of some interesting 2a.”
experiments with traps and seals. He shows that the water
seal of an ordinary § trap is scarcely to be regarded at all-as a
barrier to the passage of sewer gas, and that it has the further dis-
advantage of retaining enough decomposing matter to produce
within the pipe itself a sufficient amount of sewer gas to accom-
plish all the evil that is feared, except such as comes by the
conveyance from the sewer itself of gases containing the germs
of disease originating in other houses. He made a series of
experiments with a bent tube, its bend being filled with water
after the manner of the usual] trap. In the sewer end of the
tube he inserted a small vessel containing a solution of ammo-
nia. In fifteen minutes the ammonia had passed through the
water of the trap, and had bleached the colored litmus paper
exposed at the house end. In another experiment he produced
the rapid corrosion of a metal wire exposed at the house end.

To prove that this transfusion takes place not with ammonia gases passea
alone, which is lighter than air, he made the same experiment Wr?"
with sulphurous acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, chlorine and car-

bonie acid, all of which were transmitted so as to produce their

chemical effect on the other side of the trap within from one to

four hours. Ile says: “We are, therefore, very strongly in- yo satety
clined to believe the last alternative, namely, that however ™‘*?*
78 TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS.

well drains may be trapped, sewer gas will find its way from
them into our houses, and any one who is acquainted with Gra-
ham’s investigations as to the diffusion of gases, will readily
understand how this will happen.”

vane The same experiments were made with a ventilated pipe,
and although the action was slower, it still took place. The
ventilation was not such as to insure a clear and direct flow of
air through the pipe; but it was more effective than many
devices in use, and was considered quite sufficient.

Concerning the decomposition taking place within the trap,
Dr. Fergus believes that it is almost impossible, even with a
copious flow of water, to cause undecomposed feeces to be dis-
charged through the bend. With any ordinary flow there is
only an eddying of the water in the trap, not a sufficient move-
ment of the whole volume to carry floating matters under the

Lodgment ot bend. “ No mere flow of water will carry out the feeces, which
feeesinttP- simply kept whirling round in it.” Often, with the mistaken
idea that by adding a few inches to the depth of water in the
trap an effective resistance will be opposed to the pressure of
Shallow traps Sewer gas, these are made quite deep. Dr. Fergus recommends
prefereP\ that the dip or bend should be only sufficient to secure a seal-
ing, for the deeper it is made the more complete will be the
retention of decomposing matters at the house side of the trap.
Disinfection In view of the large amount of water being discharged, he con-
tmpracticable siders it practically impossible to use any disinfectant in sufli-
cient proportion and with sufficient regularity to secure a chemi-

eal disinfection of the suspended organic matters.

My own observations and experiences lead me to conclusions
which generally accord with those expressed by Dr. Fergus ;
but if I may be permitted to criticise the statements of so emi-
nent an authority, I will say that he seems to have overlooked
the fact that, with adequate ventilation, the protection afforded

Conditions ot by a water seal, renewed as often as once a day, is enough to
vrtorwais prevent sewer gas from entering a house through a trapped

water seals,
branch waste. I know that such is the fact in this country, and
TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS. 79

if not in Great Britain it must be because different methods
are there followed in plumbing houses. It will be noticed that
Dr. Fergus admits that the venting of the pipes experimented
on was not such as to insure a clear and direct flow of air
through the pipe. This is the one essential condition of good Good ventite-
: » . eh te tion of prime

ventilation, and with this insured a trap with a half-inch seal importance.
which cannot be syphoned out may be depended upon. I
would, however, urge the advantage of occasionally—if possi-
ble, daily—flushing waste pipes from basins, &c., not in con-
stant use.

In a work of this kind, which deals with principles rather
than with the details of plumbing practice, it is scarcely neces-
sary to describe the several forms of traps in use. They are of rormsot
two general kinds—those sealed by water and those sealed by ene
yalves. The latter, though somewhat extensively employed in vatve traps.
foreign plumbing practice, are but little used in this country,
and never in good work. Some modern varieties are still kept
for sale by dealers in plumbers’ supplies, but they are not to be
depended upon for use in connection with house drainage. In all water traps.
water-seal traps the principle is the same, whatever their shape,
namely, a bend in or chamber attached to the pipe filled with
water, which cuts off the passage of air but offers to liquids and
semi-solids passing down the pipe no greater resistance than that
due to the bend. As regards resistance to the pressure of air or Resistance to

gas, traps are efficient in proportion to the depth of seal they Proportion

 

  

contain. Consequently, the volume of water in the trap is of no ‘°° "*
Forms of
traps.

. Fig. 5. Fig. 6.

importance as affecting the depth of the seal. In the accom- peptn ct seat

‘ . . . not di d-
panying illustrations are shown three forms of traps in common ént upon ca-

vse. The first of these, most commonly employed, is the § ™“¥°™
80 TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS.

trap (Fig. 5). The second (Fig. 6) is a form of trap in general
use, embodying the same
principle. Fig. 7 isa trap
of the flat syphon variety,
sometimes used, but of very

 

with house drainage. In each

Fig. 7. of these the distance, A, be-

tween the dotted horizontal lines projected to the right, shows

the depth of the seal. Were the form of trap shown in Fig. 5

changed to the form shown in Fig. 8, it is obvious that the vol-

ume of water it holds would be very

much increased, but the depth of

seal and the efficiency of the trap as

regards resistance to pressure of air F

Dip asdistin. OT gases, would remain unchanged.

Fu paity, OD the other hand, were the trap
shown in Fig. 5 changed to that Fig. 8,

shown in Fig. 9, we should have a less volume of water than in

Fig. 8, but an increased depth of seal. A pressure of air which

would blow through the seal shown in Fig. 5, would also blow

through that shown in Fig. 8, but

a considerably increased pressure

would be required to blow through

that shown in Fig. 9. Arguing

from this fact alone, it would be

natural to conclude that the

deeper the seal the safer the trap.

This is true when we are dealing

Fig. 9. with pressures; but there should

never be a pressure of air, pure or foul, upon a trap seal, and

there never is when the ventilation shown in Fig. 4 is provided.

Much dip un- Leaving resistance to pressure out of account, a great depth of

nooe="T seal ig unnecessary. With adequate ventilation, the service

which seals are expected to render is limited to closing waste

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
‘TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS. 81

pipes opening into houses against a free inflow of air through

them. Without ventilation we should not be safe with traps pressure re-
having a depth of 12 or 15 inches, for while their seals might ae
resist a considerable pressure (in the case of a 12-inch seal about

8 ounces per square inch of sectional area), they would absorb

and transmit sewer gas as readily, though perhaps not as rap-

idly, as those held in pipes of much less dip. We must also accumu
consider the resistance to flow offered by a trap of any form, eee
and the danger of obstructions resulting from the accumulation

of solid ard insoluble matter therein. When we give-a pipe

even 8 inches of dip, we are liable to have trouble from this

cause without gaining increased security. From half an inch

to an inch dip is the most we find provided for in the best
modern plumbing practice. Many practical plumbers of expe- An inch aip

: . . . ‘ . , required un-
rience consider half an inch dip as good as an inch. This is der average
. . . z conditions.
probably true, but as a safeguard against rapid unsealing by
evaporation, I should recommend a dip of not less than an inch
under average conditions.

Two of the best forms of traps I have ever seen are shown in

 

A
4
y
y
H
y
Pr
if
y
i
f
Hy
Y
yi
Uy

  

Fig. 10. Fig. 11.
Figs. 10 and 11. One great advantage of these traps over those ieipewhieh
of the ordinary form lies in the fact that they cannot be syphoned cannot be
out so as to break the seal. A heavy rush of water, producing
a vacuum in the trap, displaces a part of the seal, but the amount
of space in the body of the trap is so great and of such a shape,

that he air passes through the water without driving the water
Experimental
tests.

Convenience.

Sediment

ia traps

82 TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS.

in front of it ina body. In other words, there is a large vol-
ume of water to be lifted up through the trap, but the stream
of air which can be made available to force this water out is
quite small, and hence passes up through the water while the
heavy body of water falls back on each side, instead of being
carried over into the waste pipe. I have repeatedly attempted
to syphon out these traps, but. there was always water enough
remaining, after the heaviest flow, to form a seal. : The -impor-
tance of this feature is one that can hardly be overestimated.
My experiments were made with traps.in the sides of which
watch crystals had been inserted to give a full view of what
was going on within. The operation of the trap is thus easily
seen, and the difference of action between it and the ordinary
S or half-§ trap plainly shown. The very compact form of
this trap enables the plumber to get a large one into very small
space, an advantage which is important when it is desired to
make a neat job.

The number and variety of new traps patented every year
would require a separate volume to describe them. As the
rule, the idea which underlies most of these inventions is that
it is necessary to provide for resistance to heavy pressures from
the sewer. With good ventilation no such pressure is possible ;
consequently, in good work, balls, valves and the like are rarely
used in waste-pipe traps. They are used to some extent in
England and on the Continent, but have never found favor
with American plumbers.

Traps should be kept free from accumulations of sediment.
This is a truism which needs no argument; and yet it is a mat-
ter of almost daily occurrence in the experience of plumbers to
be called upon to clean out traps which have been closed by
articles carelessly or viciously thrown into water-closets and
which could never pass into the sewer. When he suggests
that the cause of an obstruction will be found to be some

‘bulky article lodged in the trap and which has no business

there, he is invariably answered: “Oh, no; that is impos-
TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS. $3

sible. We are always very careful not to allow anything of

the sort to be thrown in.” Upon investigation he may be what plump.
° . - ers findin

pretty sure of finding a miscellaneous assortment of lost arti- traps.

cles. In the house of one of our most experienced New York

plumbers, a scrubbing brush and several smaller articles were

taken from a water-closet trap, and not long since I was told by

a Brooklyn plumber that he had found in a’water-closet trap a

valuable watch and chain and other articles, supposed to have

been stolen by one of the servants. Similar instances might be

given without number. Children and servants seem to be cniaren ana

chiefly responsible for the obstruction of traps. It is no unu-*"""™*

sual thing for plumbers to find lost articles of jewelry, laces,

house cloths, old shoes and worn-out rubbers, combs and brushes,

broken crockery and mantel ornaments, broken glass and num-

berless other articles, which dishonest or careless servants or

mischievous children have thrown in, ignorant of the fact that

traps are great conservators of rubbish, and almost always retain

whatever of solid or insoluble matter goes into them. I have coatashesin

known instances in which much trouble has resulted from the *“"*"*

fact that servants would persist in throwing coal ashes into

water-closets to save themselves the trouble of carrying them

down stairs. It is unnecessary to say that the throwing into a

trap of anything not intended to go into it, is wrong. In water- paper.

closets care should even be taken that stiff paper which resists

reduction to pulp, or large pieces of newspaper, shall never

enter them. Tough paper, or large wads of it, are likely to find

a lodgment somewhere in the pipe, and, if they do nothing

worse, will diminish the scouring power of water passing down

it. Rags are especially troublesome in this respect, and when pags,

caught upon a projecting roughness, will sometimes cling for a

long time.

The trap screw is a device for emptying and cleaning traps trap screws.
which has lately come into very general use—probably because
architects have got into the way of calling for traps with trap
screws in their specifications. Sometimes, for convenience, the
84 TRAPS, SEALS AND VENTS.

plumber puts the trap in so that the screw comes on top—at

pe least I have seen such cases—but as a general thing this makes

no great difference. Not one out of every hundred put in is

ever opened for any purpose. In kitchen sink wastes, trap

Desirable in SCrews are very desirable, but in most small branch-waste traps
Sek wastes. they are rather more ornamental than useful.
CHAPTER V.
Watrer-CLoseEtTs.

The water-closet, though commonly supposed to be one of antiquity of
the “modern conveniences,” has come to us from a very early SP ercceor
and primitive civilization. Ewbank—the best authority on all
matters pertaining to water and its uses—says they are of very
ancient and probably Asiatic origin. They were introduced
into Great Britain during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, but
long before that time they were known, and to some extent
used, in France and Spain. Their general employment is, Thetr generat
however, of comparatively recent date, and from being a luxury ofrceclare
of the rich, they have, within less than half a generation in
this country, become the conveniences of nearly all classes of
the population of sewer-drained cities. In country districts
their use is limited, except in houses of the better class owned
or occupied by people accustomed to the conveniences of the
town. .

In itself considered, the water-closet is not of necessity an water-losets
objectionable fixture in a sewer-drained house. Much as it eee
has been inveighed against, it has many practical advan- "°°"
tages over any other form of closet or privy. The question water
whether it is possible to dispose of the sewage of a town by ae:
other and better means than by water carriage, is not one which
need be discussed here. Water carriage is not without objec-
tions, but it is likely to be generally employed in this country
for many years to come, and we may, therefore, accept it as
one of the conditions with which we have to deal. With water
carriage the water-closet seems to have no practicable substi-
tute. The individual householder may have recourse to earth eatin cree
closets, ash closets, absorbent buckets or any of the other dry water-closets.
conservancy systems, each of which has certain advantages, but
86 WATER-CLOSETS.

unless such appliances used receive more careful and intelli-
gent attention than they are likely to gct at the hands of ser-
vants, they will be found less satisfactory than the water-closet.
Privies. Privies are still used to some extent in cities, but there is cer-
tainly nothing to be said in favor of them. They are, I think,
nuisances which should be abated by law, and if their abolition
cannot be effected, they should be. allowed to exist only in
modified form and under strict sanitary inspection. The only
objections to earth closets in cities and towns are the trouble and
_biy conserv- expense they entail. All the dry conservancy systems are open
to the same objections, unless their employment is so general
that some system can be organized for disposing of the contents
of the receiving vessels without much expense, if any, to the
individual householder. When each person who adopts one of
these systems must pay for materials on the one hand and labor
and cartage on the other, he will be very apt to conclude that
the trouble and expense are far greater than the resulting
benefit. .Probably the time is not far distant when we shall
realize more fully than now that we cannot afford to waste the
wealth we pour into our polluted rivers, and which is needed
for the enrichment of farm lands exhausted by what Baron
Liebig forcibly characterized as “ vampire agriculture.”
everest ts Victor Hugo draws the following startling pean of the
of Paris. sewage waste of a great city, in “ Les Meosabina:?
“Paris throws five millions a year into the sea, and this with-
out metaphor. Tow and in what manner? Day and night,
With what object? None. With what thought? Without
thinking. For what return? Fornothing. By means of what
organ? By means of its intestine—its sewer.
chinese =“ Thanks to human fertilization, the earth in China is still as
wa young as in the days of Abraham. Chinese wheat yields a
hundred and twenty fold. There is no guano comparable in
fer ae power to the detritus of a capital * e
valueot ‘ We fit out convoys of ships at great expense to gather up
soweee- at the South Pole the droppings of petrels and penguins, and
WATER-CLOSETS. 87

the incaleulable element of wealth which we have under our
hand we send to the sea. All the human and animal manure
which the world loses, restored to the land instead of being
thrown into the water, would suffice to nourish the world.

“ These heaps of garbage at the corners of the stone blocks;
these tumbrils of mire jolting through the streets at night ;
these horrid scavengers’ carts; these fetid streams of subterra-
nean slime which the pavement hides from you—do you know
what all this is? It is the flowering meadow; it is the green what sewage
grass; it is marjoram and thyme and sage; it is game; it is eae!
cattle ; it is the satisfied low of huge oxen at evening; it is per-
fumed hay; it is golden corn; it is bread on your table; it is
warm blood in your veins; it is health; it is joy; it is life.

Thus wills that mysterious creation which is transformation
upon earth and transfiguration in heaven. a) ere f

“Tmitate Paris, you will ruin yourself. Moreover, particu-
larly in this immemorial and senseless waste, Paris herself imi-
tates. These surprising absurdities are not new; there is no
young folly in this.: The ancients acted like the moderns.
‘The:Cloacee of Rome,’ says Liebig, ‘absorbed all the well-be- the romaa
ing of the Roman peasant.’ When the Campagna of Rome ae
was ruined by the Roman sewer, Rome exhausted Italy; and
when she had put Italy into her Cloaca, she poured Sicily in,
then Sardinia, then Africa. The sewer of Rome engulfed the
world. This Cloaca offered its maw to the city and to the
globe, Urbi et Orbi. Eternal city, unfathomable sewer. In
these things, as well as in others, Rome sets the example. This
example Paris follows with all the stupidity peculiar to cities of
genius.”

This powerful description of a city’s waste is certainly not
overdrawn. No doubt Paris does throw five millions a year into qe commer-.
the Seine, but the simple statement of this fact might lead to S@yaue*
mistaken conclusions respecting the commercial value of sew-
age. The popular ideas on this subject, which find frequent
expression in newspaper articles on sewage utilization, are
88 WATER-CLOSETS.

pana ot clearly erroneous. The commercial value of the sewage of
‘English cities, taken as it runs, is estimated to be about four
cents per ton. Under favorable conditions, sewage irrigation
can be carried on successfully, but most of the experiments in
this direction have been unsuccessful, and very few of the large
and costly sewage farms in Great Britain have paid or are likely
Sewage of to pay interest. The value of Boston sewage is estimated by the
AmGities, Massachusetts State Board of Health to be about one cent per
ton. The value of New York sewage is still less per ton, owing
to its more liberal and even wasteful use of water per head
Sewage of population. Practically it may be said to have no value,

utilization. ;
notwithstanding the fact that it contains a vast amount of valu-
able fertilizing material. With us the problem of the economi-
eal and profitable utilization of sewage will probably remain
unsolved so long as we continue to dilute the valuable constitu-
ents of sewage with unlimited quantities of water. Great as its
ageregate value may be, it is not usually great enough to pay
for the separation of that which is valuable from that which is
not. When necessity shall compel us to save this wealth, we
shall probably begin by keeping that which is valuable out of
the sewers altogether, and using these conduits only as runways
Waa for dirty water and street washings. Then we shall probably
escaaienDee follow some system of dry conservancy, but for the present the
water-closet remains an established institution, and it is useless
to condemn it as unsanitary. The charge is well founded in a
majority of cases, but vastly more of good will be accomplished
by an intelligent effort to improve the water-closets now in use
and remedy their defects than by riding Quixotic tilts against’
them. In my experience I have never found any good reason
Water-closet Why water-closets should be either unwholesome or offensive.
nuisances: Tt ig quite certain, however, that when any defects exist in the
drainage system of a house, they will commonly be found con-
spicuous in the arrangements pertaining to the water-closets,
and the sanitary inspector is not likely to make a mistake if,
when called upon to correct the evils pertaining to bad plumb-

ing work, he begins there. .
WATER-CLOSETS. 89

The requirements of a good water-closet are various and im- Tho require-
. . : -, ments of a

perative. To be safe and sanitary, as well as convenient, it gooa water-
must be inodorous. If it has any odor at all it will of necessity °°"
be a foul one, disgusting to the sense of smell, nauseous to the
stomach and depressing in its general effect upon mind and
body. If not actively poisonous, it will probably lower the omensive
physical tone of all who are compelled to breathe the air thus "*"
vitiated and predispose them to sickness. Often, however, it
will be found actively poisonous, even when the smell, in itself
considered, is not strong enough to noses accustomed to it to
excite alarm or occasion inconvenience.

It must be so constructed that it can be effectually flushed or rushing.
washed out without waste of water; it must be so simple and
strong as not to be disordered by average usage; and it must strength.
not afford an outlet at any point for the gases of the sewer.
Obviously, but few water-closets in common use conform to
these essential conditions. Nearly all will do so when new, if common
properly put up, but very few, comparatively, can stand the °“**
test of use, even for a brief period, without becoming nuisances.
There is, therefore, much room for reform in water-closets,
even though there exists no hygienic necessity for the abandon-
ment of the principle of water carriage—regarding the ques- ,
tion from the standpoint of the individual owner or occupant
of a sewer-drained house.

To discuss fully and impartially the merits and defects of all
the water-closets in general use in this country, would be a
delicate and difficult task. Every manufacturer is jealous of
his particular product, and every inventor stands ready to
champion to the death his own particular invention and im-
provement. There is nothing in this menace of endless and
bitter disputation to deter the conscientious writer from ex-
pressing his honest convictions; but in the case of water-closets
this particularity is unnecessary as well as undesirable. They ciassiacation
can be accurately divided into certain general classifications, \
and as the defects of a given closet are common, generally
90 WATER-CLOSETS.

speaking, to the class to which it belongs, a few remarks will
serve to assist the reader in judging of the several styles com-
peting for general favor, and in determining whether the ones

he uses or finds in use are safe or unsafe.
rancloscts. Of the water-closets in use in this country, a very large pro-
portion are pan closets. Closets of this pattern are defective in
principle and unsatisfactory in operation; and although they
have been variously modified and improved duris:g the past few
years, it is doubtful if they are susceptible of such improve-
Construction. ment as will wholly correct their inherent defects. In Fig. 12
T is shown a sectional view of the
common pan closet. B is the
basin, usually made of earthen-
ware. P isthe pan which, when
the handle is raised, is tilted,
emptying its contents into the
receiver or containing vessel R,
from which they pass into the
soil-pipe branch, having a trap
at T. As commonly made, the
principal objection to this form
of closet is that in addition to
allowing the foul air from soil
pipe and sewer to escape, it in-
‘ Fig. 22. creases the mischief by manu-
facturing a great deal of very offensive and dangerous gas on its
Youlre- own account. In use, the side of the receiver against which the
a pan discharges its contents when tilted, becomes coated with a
mass of foulness that clings to and cakes upon it. Plumbers
are frequently—though not so often as they should be—called
upon to remove the receivers of pan closets and burn them out
in order to abate the stench which has become intolerable.
This affords only temporary relief, for the process of accumula-
tion begins again at once and continues until the pan has barely
room in which to swing. It is no uncommon thing to find the

Objections.

 
WATER-CLOSETS. -91

‘inside of a receiver so clogged that it is difficult to empty the

pan. Matter thrown out as it descends is often scooped up

again as it returns to its place. Human excrement is naturally

viscous and plastic, and when dashed against a rough surface,

like the inside of an iron casting, it takes hold and clings, espe-

cially as it is untouched by water which rushes down the basin

and into the soil pipe when the pan is tilted. From this cling- poisonous
ing matter undergoing decomposition—more or less rapid S83 or
according to circumstances—there constantly arise gases as poi-

sonous as any which come from the foulest of sewers. These

gases are held under constantly increasing pressure between the

two seals, and when the upper seal is broken by tilting the pan,

the water thrown down must, of course, displace the gases

and force them out. If not thus liberated they will come transmisston
through the water seal in the pan, as explained in the preceding tnreugn seals.
chapter. If the trap in the soil-pipe branch under such a, closet

is unventilated, its seal offers very little effective resistance to

the upward passage of gases from the sewer and pipe. As the msumctent
rule, the flow of water into the closets of this description is *”"
insufficient to flush the trap; consequently, the seal is seldom
completely changed, and there is almost always a mass of un-
dissolved faeces floating therein. ‘With all these facts in mind

it is easy to understand why a disagreeable smell, and some-

times an. overpowering stench, is instantly emitted when the

pan seal of such a closet is broken.

To obviate these serious defects in the pan closet, many de- moaincations
vices have been proposed, some of which are not without great Monte
advantage in modifying its worst evils. It is rather singular
that although the nuisance and danger of foul receivers have
been recognized for years, until recently no one seems to have
thought of the simple experiment of flushing them. In a closet musning
lately brought to my notice the principle of contraction was "°°"
substantially as shown in Fig. 13. A represents the receiver
and B the bowl, both of the ordinary form used in the com-
mon pan closet; C is the pan. The bowl receives water at the
92 WATER-CLOSETS.

top from the pipe D in the ordinary manner, both valve and
levers being operated by the handle as usual. Around the
interior of the receiver A the
pipe G is arranged in the
form of a ring. This pipe
| « is attached to and receives
salle —K water from a pipe, H, which
)\ passes through the receiver
A and communicates with
the pipe D through a con-
« ducting pipe, J, so as to be
Fig. x3. supplied with water by the
operation of the valve at the same time that the pan C is sup-
plied. The pipe G is provided with perforations, g, through
which the water escapes in streams or jets. The pipe G is also
connected with a pipe, K, which communicates directly with the
water supply pipe, and is provided with a stop cock which may
be turned by hand in order to supply the pipe G with water
independently of the pipe D and the valve. When in opera-
tion, the water issuing from the pipe G washes the inside of the
receiver and the outside of the pan and lower part of the bowl,
thus keeping the parts clean and preventing the outside of the
pan from becoming corroded from ammonia. If, as frequently
happens when the pan is emptied, the lower trap is syphoned,
the flow of water from the pipe G overcomes this difficulty
and promptly furnishes a supply for the trap. In emptying the
pan the flow of water upon the inside of the receiver prevents
the adhesion of soil and washes away the contents of the pan.
This improvement is very valuable one, and will do much to

abate the nuisance of foul receivers.
venting  Wenting the receiver is an old expedient, and a good one in
receivers. itself considered, but I do not believe that any amount of vent-
ing will make the common pan closet safe and excellent. Good
ventilation is quite a different thing from simple venting.
Ventilation implies an inflow as well as an outflow, and a natu-

  
 
WATER-CLOSETS. 93

-ral or induced current. It is possible to secure these essentiais
if the proper means are taken, but such ventilation as is secured
by carrying an air pipe into the side of the receiver does not
usually suffice, although it is a great deal better than nothing.

Of late some currency has been given to tbe idea that it is
possible to correct the defects of the pan closet by disinfection,
and an apparatus to apply the disinfecting fluid has been in-
vented and introduced in England. The chloralum or other
disinfecting material is held in an earthen vessel above the
closet, and when the valve is opened a small quantity is auto-
matically let down through a pipe discharging into the basin,
to mingle with the water of the flush and pass with it through
the soil pipe to the sewer. The device has very little practical
utility, if any. We have no disinfecting material cheap enough
for free and general use which is sufficiently powerful to render
any important service when thus employed. A good water-
closet, properly set, amply flushed, kept clean and discharged
into soil pipes open at both ends, will not need disinfecting ;
others will scarcely be benefited by it.

Of closets embodying the essential principle of the pan closet
with certain modifications, there 1
are a great many, few of which -
have come into general use in
this country. Of these the
valve closet (Fig. 14) is proba- Ii
bly the most generally used. ©)
Some of these are a little better

.than the average pan closet;
others have all its defects be-
sides some which are peculiar to
themselves. Few of them will
hold their basin seal for any
length of time when worn with
use. Nearly all of them will
syphon out this seal through the Fig. 14.
overflow upon very slight provocation. They are mostly inex-

   

pee

Disinfection.

Valve closets...
Hopper
closets.

Advantages
over other
cheap appa-
ratus.

Form of
hopper.

Conditions ot When adequately flushed,

security and

efficiency.

94 WATER-CLOSETS.

pensive affairs made tor cheap work, and are not usually recom-
mended for use in well-drained houses, even by those who make
them.

Plain hoppers, without either pans or valves and requiring no
overflows, are in many respects the best of the cheap water-
closets. Their advantage consists in strength, simplicity and
the impossibility of concealing filth within them. They will
become foul and offensive if neglected, but the fact that they
need attention is apparent to the sense of sight, whereas the
closets last described secrete filth within while clean on all visi-
ble surfaces. A. neat housekeeper would not allow the sides
of a hopper to remain foul, but the inside of a pan-closet
receiver is beyond her reach and out, of her sight. The usual
form of hopper closet with automatic valve flushing apparatus
is shown in Fig. 15. In
closets of this kind we have
but one seal—that in the
trap made in the soil-pipe
branch—but when this one
seal is relieved from pres-
sure by ventilation, it is
more effective than three or
four would be if between
them we had accumulations
of nuisance-breeding filth,

the hopper closet is neither
unsightly nor unsafe—pre-
supposing, of course, the
requisite ventilation. The ie ae

hopper should be large and of such shape that it will permit
fecal matter to drop into the trap without touching the sides.
The flush should be strong enough to scour the inside of the
hopper and give a clean seal in the trap after the closet has
been used. In common plumbing work the apparatus is usually

 
WATER-CLOSETS. 95

so arranged. that a pressure upon the seat opens a valve and Automatic
allows a small quantity of water to trickle in as long as the fe
closet isin use. Such a flush is of very little value beyond
wetting the sides of the hopper and preventing accumulations

upon them, and needs to be supplemented by a strong dash of

water, the volume of which is under control of the person using

the closet. When this is provided, either alone or, preferably, see
in connection with a,moderate flow maintained automatically susn.

by means of a valve opened by a downward pressure upon the

seat and closing when that pressure is relieved, the hopper

closet with ventilated connections with the sewer should, if

kept clean, be the best cheap closet in use.

Though seldom introduced into houses, the device known as snip closets.
the ship closet merits attention as a very perfect and sanitary
apparatus.. One of the best forms of this variety of water-
closets which has come to my notice is shown in Fig. 16. The construction.
hopper is of good shape, but instead of being connected at the
bottom with the soil pipe in the usual manner, an iron pipe
makes a connection with the pump barrel seen on the left, the
plunger of which is shown raised in the drawing. When the Action.
handle is lifted, as shown, the contents of the hopper are drawn
into the body of the pump, and at the same time a quantity of
water is forced from the upper part of the pump barrel into the
hopper through the pipe which connects them near the top.

When the handle is depressed the soil, &c., contained in the
body of the pump is forced out through a valve in the soil pipe
rising behind the pump barrel, being prevented from returning
to the hopper by a valve in the bottom of the pump. As the
handle is forced down a vacuum is formed above the plunger,
and through a check valve in the pipe on the left a supply of
water is drawn into the body of the pump. The plunger is
made large in order to reduce the quantity of water needed to
fill the body of the pump at each stroke. The flush of water
in the hopper on lifting the pump handle is forcible and abun-
dant.’ As these closets are intended to be used below the water
96 WATER- CLOSETS. °

line on shipboard, it is necessary that they should be wa-
ter tight in every part, as any inflow through them would
be a dangerous leak in the
vessel. They are, therefore,
so made that they can with-
stand a strong backward pres-
~, sure in the soil pipe without
» difficulty. As made for use
at sea, this form of closet is
mostly brass, substantially put
together and so arranged that
it ean be readily taken apart.
Its positive movements and
ig. x6. efficiency in preventing any
back flow through the soil pipe, render it a very perfect device
Modification regarded from a sanitary point of view. A modification of this
*rtor howe form: of closet, simplified, cheapened and adapted to use in
houses, has been made but is not yet in use.
In buying a water-closet, it is a safe rule to buy the best that
can be obtained and have it put in by the most intelligent and
ae skillful plumber whose services can be secured. This is not
cheapest. Only the best policy from a sanitary point of view, but it is the
most economical in the end. A cheap, flimsy closet cannot be
expected to stand the test of long usage, and will either be con-
stantly out of order or must receive constant repairs. The
essential requirements of a good water-closet have already been
briefly stated at the beginning of this chapter, but with a view
to fixing them in the mind of the unprofessional reader, I will
now consider them more fully. They are:
water tosets 1. Jt should be inodorous. This is a quality of excellence
mast be ree hich few cheap water-closets possess when in use. A faint,
sivesmell. denressing, characteristic odor is almost always noticeable at or
near the seat level, and very commonly in all parts of the room
in which a water-closet is placed. Sometimes it permeates the
air of the whole house. This is less readily detected by one

   
 
WATER-CLOSETS. 97

accustomed to it from the impression it makes upon the sense -

of smell than from its depressing, headache-inducing effects.

Those accustomed to the characteristic smells of city houses characteris
seldom notice this odor, except for a moment when coming in oe aoe
out of the fresh air; but it has often been remarked by people

living in the purer atmosphere of the country that they notice

the smell of the sewer the moment they enter a city house. I

have no doubt this is true, for although I have lived the greater

part of my life in cities, I find more difficulty’ in escaping

than in detecting the smell of the sewers when passing through

most city houses. The water-closets are not wholly to blame pooms con-
for this, but they are largely so. : For this reason, the rooms in troupe
which water-closets are placed should be well ventilated all the *™*e*
time. The too general custom of placing them in little pantries, mispiacea
with no ventilation except through a shaft opening into similar mates
pantries above, and lighted by a water-tight glass skylight, is

bad. When not ventilated at all, as is often the case, the evil is

still greater. Ventilation at the level of the seat is recom- ventilation.
mended by some plumbers, and’ when secured it is doubtless

good. Closets so constructed, in connection with ventilating

shafts, as to provide for a constant current down through the

basin and out, have been introduced and are well spoken of. I

have had no personal experience with them, but if the ventila-

tion for which provision is made can be secured, I can see no

reason why they should not work well. But whatever the form

of closet used, the architect should see to it that the apartments

in which they are placed are well ventilated throughout.

While upon this subject I may remark that a great many water-closets
people, especially young women, pass much more time than is 7)na0™
necessary in the usually unwholesome atmosphere of these
places, taking books and newspapers with them. ‘This is a
vicious habit which entails more than one evil consequence
upon those who practice it; but it is nevertheless very common.

People should learn, and children should be taught, to regard a
water-closet as just what it is. It certainly is not a place in
which to pass an idle hour reading novels.
98 WATER-CLOSETS.

Examplesot. Two instances out of the many which have come to my

bad water-

closets. NOtice will serve to show to what extent sanitary principles are

disregarded in much of the “ bread-and-butter architecture” of
the present time. Both were found in fine brown-stone houses,
commanding a high rental and occupied by physicians of excel-
lent professional standing. In one of these houses I found pan
closets of the worst description, placed in little pantries with a
floor space only equal to about twice the area of the seat. These
pantries had absolutely no light except that provided by gas
burners, and no ventilation except what was had through the
doors opening into the halls, and through little windows
scarcely larger than a sheet of letter paper, opening into
adjoining apartments. The closets were neglected and almost
always offensive, but they had been tolerated for years without
attracting attention, notwithstanding the fact that during this
period sickness was the rule rather than the exception in the
family. In the other case the arrangement was very much like
that just described except that the pantries were rather more

Ventilating roomy. They were, however, without ventilation except such

water-closets

into halls ana 28 might be secured through the halls or the adjoining rooms.
bedrooms. The smell, noticeable at all times, was often sickening, but I was

unable to convince the physician that there was any objection
to the arrangement great enough to justify him in ventilating
his soil pipe and abating the nuisance to which the water-

precept Closets continually gave rise. It is a curious fact, but one
aie: which has often been remarked, that those who are most ready

Importance
of an abun
dant supply
of water for
flushing.

to discover and inveigh against unsanitary conditions in other
people’s houses, are the most difficult to convince that their own
houses are not so well arranged as they should be, even though
conspicuously unhealthy. It is probably for this reason that
sanitarians, as a rule, live in houses that will not bear inspec-
tion.

2. It must be abundantly and frequently flushed. This is
easily provided for. Most closets are so constructed that they
can be. flushed abundantly if the handle is held raised long
WATER-CLOSETS. 99

enough ; but the common practice is to give the handle a jerk
and let it drop. For this reason it is important that the flushing
apparatus should be so arranged that a strong and voluminous
flow is secured, even though the handle is raised only for an
instant. This is provided for in most of the valves in use in mush vatves.
good plumbing practice, by an arrangement which permits the
valve to close very slowly when once opened. If for any
cause the flow of water into and through a closet is not enough
to scour it ont thoroughly and leave a clean seal when the flow
ceases, a competent plumber should be called in to remedy the
defect, which he can commonly do in a few minutes.
Water for flushing closets should not be drawn from a service Service pipes
. . . * 4s . should not be
pipe in which the flow is liable to be interrupted by the open- tappea airect
ing of a cock between the closet and the main. To this aan
rule there are no exceptions. Unless each water-closet has a
separate service pipe which is not tapped for any other pur-
pose, some form of cistern or its equivalent should be provided
and the water needed for flushing drawn therefrom. In cheap anevitchar-
contract plumbing work, however, it is not unusual to find the aiean eos
main service pipe tapped on every floor for all purposes, water-
closet flushing included. Where the Holly system is-used, the
pressure of water in the mains is usually so great that a service
pipe might be tapped several times without interrupting the
flow at the highest cock or valve. In New York, however, and
many other cities where the pressure in mains and service pipes
depends upon the head of water in distributing reservoirs, it is
the rule rather than the exception to have the supply cut off
from the upper part.of a house by the opening of the faucets in
the kitchen. This can be avoided, but it seldom is except in
the best work. Under these circumstances, water cannot be
drawn direct from the service pipe into the basin of a water-
closet without serious danger. Cold or cool water, especially if Sporn
pure, has a vast capacity for absorbing gases. Ordinarily it will water.
absorb many times its own volume, and all sorts of gaseous
impurities are taken up by it as readily as.a dry sponge takes
100 WATER-CLOSETS. :

up water. Such impregnation of course renders water foul
and wholly unfit for drinking or use in culinary operations. It
is for this reason that the service pipe of a house should not be
connected with water-closet basins when, from any cause, the
flow is liable to be intermittent.
Evilsof tap- Suppose that when water is drawn in the kitchen and the
Pinies late flow in the upper part of the house is temporarily interrupted,
watersisets the handle of a water-closet is raised when the basin is foul.
The water in the pipe, which might otherwise have been held
there by atmospheric pressure, runs down as soon as air is
admitted at the top, and the current of air which rushes in to
fill the pipe carries with it the impure gases from the water-
Water pot closet basin. These are at once absorbed by the moisture cling-
‘ing to the sides of the pipe, and water subsequently drawn from
this pipe may be very impure and unwholesome. A striking
illustration of water poisoning by the gases generated in water-
closets is found in the sanitary history of the town of Lewes,
nypnola England. During the year 1874 typhus fever broke out
Lewes. Within the corporate limits, and nearly five hundred cases were
reported within a few days. The town is supplied with water
by three private companies, much as our American cities are
supplied with gas. The fever cases occurred in the districts
Intermittent supplied by the Lewes Water Works Company. The- supply
water service, ‘ ;
furnished by this company was not constant, but was turned on
for three or four hours in the morning, and again during the
afternoon. When the water was shut off the pipes emptied
themselves, and air rushed in at every opening to fill the partial
tos from Vacuum created by the outflow of the water. During the preva-
drawn into lence of the fever an investigation was made, and the following
water pipes. . .
facts were brought to light: Many of the water-closets in the
infected district were flushed with water drawn directly from
the service pipes, and it was the habit of the people to have the
valves open in case these closets were used when the water
was shut off, so that they might be flushed as soon as the flow
was resumed. The consequence was that a part of the air
WATER-CLOSETS. 101

which entered the mains was drawn in through the basins of
foul closets. Other defects were found of a still more serious
nature, by which the gases of foul privy vaults were drawn into
the service pipes through cracks and holes made by corrosion of
the lead. Here was found the cause of the outbreak of fever, In
one district sixty houses out of four hundred and fifty-four were Extent of tho
supplied from the works of the Lewes Water Company, and in sani
this district the cases of typhus fever occurred only in these
sixty houses, with the exception of two cases. The other three
hundred and ninety-four houses were free from it. Even after
the epidemic had become general, and was propagated by other
means, only six per cent. of the total number of cases occurred :
outside of. the houses supplied with this company’s water. '

Other illustrations might be given of the danger of tapping
sewer pipes direct into water-closet: basins, but the fact that it
is dangerous will be evident to every intelligent person without
further argument. I am aware that plumbers are often called Three
upon to do all sorts of objectionable things, and that ani torbaa
attempt on their part to explain the necessity for employing ee
better methods may be regarded as an effort to sell more
material and make a larger job to charge for. But while I am
not’ prepared to say that a conscientious plumber should refuse
to contract for such work, I have no hesitation in saying that
he should not do so without explaining the danger of mistaken
economy, thus clearing himself of moral responsibility for the
consequences if his protest is disregarded. It is not my pur- Plumbing |
pose to discuss the ethies of this question in this chapter,
if at all, but it seems to me that the Health Boards of New
York and other American cities should endeavor to secure such
additions to the local building laws as would relieve plumbers
of the moral responsibility of doing bad work and justifying it
to their consciences with the specious plea advanced by the
starved apothecary of Mantua :

‘* My poverty, but not my will, consents.”
3. It must be strong, simple and not liable to get out of Strength, sim.

* 8 “¢ . . plicity and
order. This is a qualification demanded for sanitary as well as aurapuity.
102 WATER-CLOSETS.

for economic reasons. A complex water-closet, weak in any

Doterloration part or liable to derangement from any cause, is quite certain

closets. to be a nuisance sooner or later. When water-closets were

first introduced into the American market, they were made

large, strong and substantial. Of late years there has been a

tendency to diminish their size, lighten their parts and cheapen

their cost. As the result, most of the water-closets now in the

market are weak, flimsy affairs, not worth the low price at

Noeconomy Which they are sold. There is no economy in buying cheap

Babi water-closets, whatever the character of the houses in which they
are to be placed.

prectua 4. Lt must be sealed against the inflow of air currents

Sealing: from the sewer and soil pipe. This cannot be secured with

certainty unless the ventilation described in the chapter on

Impossibility traps and seals is provided. It is simply impossible to main-

ie tain a clean and efficient water seal in any trap discharging into

pipes Wer an unventilated sewer connection. As already shown in these

pages, water offers no effective resistance to the passage of

impure air or light gases, and unless these are afforded an easy

and direct outlet to the open air from the sewers and drains in

which they form, they will not be held back so long as there

is nothing to prevent their escape except a small quantity of

water which will eagerly absorb and as readily transmit them.

Few water-; From a somewhat careful examination of the various patterns

berecom. of water-closets in use in this country, i am forced to the con-

mended. clusion that but few are to be recommended. So far as I ean

judge, I should say that the best are those which command

Resitete the highest price and are least often called for in architects’

cs specifications. A water-closet which combines the requisite

qualities above specified has never yet been made at a price

which will admit of its employment in cheap work, and

pifieuty ot probably never will be. The problem of constructing a closet

eee which shall be at once cheap and good presents many diffi-

ano nce, Culties, as any one will see who, with an intelligent idea of what

lence.
there is and what is needed, attempts its solution.
WATER-CLOSETS. 1038

The only article in plumbing work akin to the water-closet, stop noppers.
and which can properly be considered under the same head, is
the slop hopper. This is a cone-shaped hopper of iron or
earthenware, connected with the soil pipe by a trapped branch.
Slop hoppers are usually placed on the upper floors of large
houses, hotels, &c., to afford a means of disposing of waste
water without throwing it into the water-closets. or this they vtiuity.
are useful, and should always be provided in large houses. As
commonly put in, however, they give rise to no little mischief.
Water is usually poured into them by the bucketful, and the unseating
strong and sudden downward flow thus provided is very apt to ane
suck the seals out of the traps in some of the small branch
wastes. This could be obviated in most cases by ventilation, stramers to
but additional security is afforded by providing slop hoppers tvomtow.
with strainers so fine that the water thrown into them will not
pass out any more rapidly than the soil pipe can carry it off
without danger to the seals in traps. When traps are not
provided with independent ventilation, I consider this precau-
tion indispensable to safety. Servants cannot be expected to
exercise any discretion in such matters.

When from any cause the water supply of an inhabited,
sewer-drained house is cut off, the water-closets demand imme-
diate attention. At such times they usually become very foul,
and from negligence in renewing water seals in traps, perni-
cious exhalations from the sewers vitiate the air of living: and
sleeping rooms. The accumulation of excremental matter in
basins, receivers and traps cannot but give rise to dangerous
nuisance, which is little bettered when just enough water is
thrown in to wash these accumulations out of sight and into the
containing vessel or mouth of the soil-pipe branch.
CHAPTER VI.
Service Piers anp Water SERVICE In Crry Hovses.

The oceupant of a city house has, as the rule, no choice as
to the character of the water he uses. His only available
source of supply is the street main, and, generally speaking, he
has no occasion to trouble himself in the matter further than
to see that the service system of his house is so arranged as to

Constant ser. Secure, if possible, a constant supply at every cock. This
vv cuisite, cannot always be had without pumping, even in cities abun-
dantly supplied with good water. In many parts of New
ranks, ) ork, for example, it is necessary to pump into tanks or reser-
voirs, near the roof, all the water drawn above the basement
floor. In this case the service pipes are carried down
through the house, which involves a somewhat different
arrangement of them than is- needed when the supply rises
from pressure in the mains.

pressure When the pressure of water in the mains is sufficient to
duetohead- insure a constant service on every floor, as in many Cities,
especially those in which a head is secured by means of power-
ful pumping engines, there is no occasion for any mistakes on
the part of the plumber who understands the mechanical part
of his trade—so far, at least, as securing a good distribution is
Arrangement concerned. The plan upon which the pipes are arranged must,
of Pipes: of course, depend upon the size, character and internal arrange-
ment of the house. The architect should, and sometimes does,
make suitable provision for water service and drainage in his
plans, but too often he designs the house in every detail first and

then provides for the pipes in whatever way he finds easiest.
Conditions ot Lhe conditions of a good water service are that it shall be
a good water constant, in well-laid pipes protected from all danger of freez-
ing, bursting or leaking from any cause, and so placed that,
. SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN city HousEs. 105

when the supply is shut off, the whole system may be drained
by opening a waste cock in the cellar or kitchen. In the chap-
ter on waste and soil. pipes, I ventured some suggestions
respecting the best disposition to be made of the pipe system
ina house. Further on in this chapter I shall speak of the
means which I have found most efficacious in protecting service
pipes from frost at the points where they are most exposed.

The question of the best material for service pipes is one Of yptortal gor
great importance, and it has been long under discussion without **™°° PP
acquiring much interest for the general public. If the ques-
tion of health were not involved, the problem would be a very
simple one, for lead pipe, taken for all in all, would probably
be the one universally preferred. ‘Lead, from its cheapness
and the facility with which it can be manipulated cold, has
been for centuries the favorite metal of plumbers, and the
name of the trade is derived from the Latin name of the
metal. With the exception of ease of working, however, lead
cannot be said to possess qualities which adapt it for use as a
material for service pipes. Lead pipe is heavy and weak ; it objections
readily stretches, and sags or buckles when exposed to varia- ‘°'**
tions of temperature ; it is easily crushed ; rats can cut it with-
out difficulty, as they sometimes do, and many kinds of water
attack, corrode and are poisoned by it. For the reason last pegaraea
mentioned, lead has long been regarded by chemists as an *"™****
unsafe metal for service pipes. Observation and experiment
seem to have confirmed this opinion; and that, under a great
variety of conditions, it will be found to rest upon a substantial
basis of scientific truth, I shall attempt to show in Chapter
VII.

In the effort to find something better than lead as a material see amet
for service pipes, experiments have been made with nearly all ortead.
the cheaper metals, as well as with a good many substances not
metallic, such as glass, paper, gutta percha, &c. Block tin
pipes have been extensively used, but they are not, and prob-
ably never will be, regarded with general favor. Tin is harder qin pipes.

Lead pipes.
106 SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY IIOUSES.

and much less ductile than lead, it melts at a lower temperature

and, in addition to being a more costly metal, it is much less

Conditions of easily manipulated. In some kinds of water it is rapidly cor-

roded, and my observation leads me to believe that those

waters which act upon tin most rapidly do not attack lead vig-

orously, if at all. I may be mistaken on this point, but I have

frequently had my attention called by plumbers in country

districts to instances of the rapid destruction of tin pipe in

waters which apparently had no effect upon lead; while in as

many other cases I have found tin to render excellent service

under conditions fatal to the life of lead pipe. Fortunately,

the soluble salts of tin are not poisonous. Its cost and the dif-

ficulty of manipulating it are not objections which need stand

in the way of its more general use, but they always have and
probably always will.

ae Lead-incased tin pipe—or, as it is more commonly called, tin-

lined lead pipe—has been extensively used during the past few

years, and has generally given satisfaction. In some waters the

tin lining lasts but a short time, but in a great majority of

Aavantages. cases it will be found a safe and durable pipe. As now made,

this pipe has a continuous tin lining throughout, of very even

thickness; and, when properly put together with the appli-

ances furnished, and according to the method prescribed by

the manufacturers, it will deliver water free from poisonous

metallic salts as long as the tin lining lasts and perhaps longer.

pisadvan- If, however, this pipe is worked in the same manner as lead,

8° any but a very skillful and exceptionally careful workman will

be pretty sure to leave lead surfaces exposed, thus defeating the

rinnea Object of the tin lining. The manufacturers of lead-incased tin

as pipes supply tinned brass ferrules, thimbles and T connections,

with which perfect joints can be made, insuring a continuous

tin lining, but plumbers, as the rule, object to using these and

Wiped ae insist on wiping the joints after the usual practice. I know of

no reason for this unless it be that the wiped joints are more

profitable, as they enable the plumber to use a pound and a
SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY rousEs. 107

half of solder, worth from 14 to 15 cents a pound, and charge
it on the bill as five pounds at 50 cents per pound. The objec-
tion to wiped joints in tin-lined pipe is that, in “getting a
heat” preparatory to spreading the solder after pouring, the
lead becomes so hot that the tin is likely to be fused and
destroyed as a lining, but remains in the pipe to obstruct the
waterway. Joints in tin-lined lead pipe can sometimes be
wiped without destroying the tin lining, but I would not trust
any plumber to do it for me. J am not prepared to say that
bad joints will make a tin-lined pipe no better than one of lead,
but it is quite evident that the theoretical excellence of the
former over the latter depends upon the maintenance of a con-
tinuous tin lining, and this plumbers are not usually willing to
give them. ,

Wrought iron has been employed as a material for small wrought.
pipes for water distribution with good hygienic results, but not "°?"**
without some disadvantages when unprotected from rapid oxi-
dation. The water coming through iron pipe is not consid-
ered injurious, even when a considerable amount of the metal
is present. The low price of wrought iron pipes, their great.
strength and the ease with which they are put up render them
very desirable, provided they can be made durable by protec-
tion against rust. I have known of several instances in which
wrouglit-iron tubes have been used as service pipes, but in only
one case have I been able to get the facts necessary to the for-
mation of an opinion as to their advantages compared with
other pipes. This was in the case of Swarthmore College, y.on pipes at
at Swarthmore, Delaware county, Pennsylvania. Water was Soom
introduced into the college building through iron pipes in 1869,
and from that time until March, 1875, at which date my inqui-
ries were made, they had required and received no attention or
repairs. In February, 1875, some changes were necessary,.and pogutts of six
a piece was cut out of one of the pipes which had been in con-7@"* service
stant use for six years., Its original diameter of bore—one inch
and a half—had been reduced to about one inch by the accu-

Rust.
108 SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY IIOUSES.

Analyses, MUlation of rust on the interior surface. At my request the
respected president of the institution, Prof. Edward H. Magill,
caused a series of analyses to be made to determine the chem-

No organic ical effects of the iron upon the water. Samples were taken
impurities. from the spring and drawn from the cocks inside the building,
and the latter were found very pure, containing no trace of
eroaiiaayot organic matter. The most remarkable fact was that the per-
centage of iron in the water taken from the cocks was only
about two-fifths of that found in the water taken directly from
the spring. This was established by repeated determinations,
and the fact cannot be doubted that the passage of the water
through iron pipes caused it to deposit three-fifths of the iron
it had previously held in solution. . In its general character the
water is considered excellent, and at the date of my informa-
tion it was the opinion of the engineer of the college that the
pipes were good for 15 or 20 years more. This is not as long a
life as might be expected of lead pipe under favorable condi-
tions, but when healthfulness is taken into consideration, there

is really no comparison to be made between the two metals.
Galvanzea Galvanized iron pipes have been in the market for many
iron pipes. years, and when they were first introduced it was hoped and
believed that they furnished a satisfactory solution of the prob-
zincunsate. lem of a cheap, durable and safe service pipe. This expectation
has been disappointed, and although still extensively used, pipes
coated with zine are regarded with disfavor by a majority of those
impertect Whose opinions are entitled to consideration. In many cases the
protection iron, unequally and imperfectly coated with the zine, is more
rapidly corroded and destroyed than it would have been if left
unprotected. A great variety of waters used for the supply of
towns attack zine vigorously, and all the resulting zinc salts are
zine poi: poisonous. An effort las lately been made to show that the
soning: salts of zine can safely be taken into the human system in larger
quantities than could be held in solution in potable waters, but
there are too many well-attested cases of zinc poisoning from
drinking water conveyed through galvanized iron pipes to ren-

der the experiment a safe one.
SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN cITy HousES. 109

Many efforts have been made to tin iron pipes, but I have rmnea iron
never heard that they were successful. The outside of the pipe?”
could be very well coated when desired, but the porous and
uneven character of the inside surface causes the tin to be une-
qually and imperfectly deposited, leaving portions of the iron
exposed to the water. In this case the objection isacommer- .
cial one. The pipe is too rapidly destroyed to be economical.

More recently a process has been perfected for the manufacture tron pipes
of a tin-lined iron pipe, which seems to overcome this difficulty. Taig.
It is a wrought-iron pipe with a continuous and perfect inde-
pendent tin lining. The tin pipe is drawn by the usual means,

and of such size that it can be slipped inside the iron pipe of

which it is to form a part. Hydraulic pressure is then applied Process of
by means similar to those employed in testing pipes, and the
ductile tin lining is expanded, conforming to all the inequali:

ties on the inside of the iron pipe and being thus locked firmly

in place. Tin-lined iron fittings are also supplied by the manu-
facturers of this excellent pipe. In making a joint a tinned Ferrutes.
ferrule with a sharp lip, slipped into the end of the pipe, is so
arranged as to take a bearing all around upon the tin lining of

the fitting, and thus, while making a perfect joint, presenting soints.

a continuous lining throughout. These pipes are made in 16-

foot lengths of all the usual sizes. It is, in my judgment, the

best pipe for water conveyance ever made. If the tin lining is satety.
destroyed by the corrosive action of water, there is no danger

of metallic poisoning as in the case of lead and zinc, and we

still have a strong, durable and safe iron pipe behind it. The aavantages
tin is so thick, however, that there is no danger of its complete
destruction except under unusual and peculiar circumstances.

A special cutting tool is used when it is desired to preserve the

tin lining so as to turn it over the end, but the operation is no

more difficult and takes no more time than to cut ordinary gas

pipe .with the common tool.

During the past few years iron pipes with glass lining have ciassimea
come into use and have secured some degree of public favor in “°°?”
110 SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY IOUSES.

Jaina spite of a very determined opposition from the plumbing trade.
’ This opposition is probably due to the fact that plumbers can-
not put them in. They are very difficult to cut with common
tools; the brittle lining will not bear rough or careless hand-
ee ling, and when a pipe tongs is applied to one end of a length
to screw it into a coupling at the other, a workman unaccus-
tomed to the work would probably shiver the glass lining before
he had brought the pipe to a solid shoulder. These difficulties
mente have been met by the manufacturers. If a plan of the plumb-
ing work of a house, with measurements, is furnished them,
they will fill an order for the required amount of pipe cut to
the proper lengths and threaded at the ends to fit the glass-lined
joints. Ifthe plan and measurements are correct the pipes will
go together without trouble. They will not bear a very violent
torsion strain, as the lining is brittle, but if the mechanic who
Carein puts them in—preferably a gas and steam fitter—uses his pipe
mands tongs with judgment and expends no unnecessary energy, hé
will find the setting up of a line of glasslined pipe a
safe and easy matter. Pipes of this kind should be well pro-
tected from frost, as they are likely to be troublesome if allowed
Pee ko freeze. I am informed that water held in glass-lined pipes
will bear exposure to a temperature 14° Fahr. below that which
would freeze water held in lead pipes. I cannot say from per-
sonal experience whether this is so or not, but I have it on good
authority and am quite prepared to believe it, as there is a film

of plaster of Paris between the iron and the glass.
Enameled Of enameled iron pipes there are a great many. Some that
sonP'PT have seen were no better for the “ enameling” they had
received, which was nothing more than a shiny coat of baking
varnish ; others are evidently well protected against corrosion.
The best pipe of this kind which has come to my notice is cov-
ered inside and out with a thick, elastic enamel which has
Bxperimental resisted all the tests to which I have thus far subjected it. In
other and more competent hands it has been subjected to vari-
ous severe tests with acids and alkalies, to boiling in water—
SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN Clry Houses. 111

pure and charged for experimental purposes with various salts
—and to the action of gases. In all cases the results were sat-
isfactory. _ Bsa 2

Qf “composite” pipes, made of alloys of two or more metals, composition
there, are three or four in limited use. ‘Those which I have ™?*
seen and tested have nothing to recommend them. One was
badly made of very impure and inferior .lead,.and another, to.
which my attention was attracted by the announcement that it readin
was “the long-sought and much-needed sanitary service pipe, ““""*
which will deliver pure water and never wear out,” I found to.
be principally. lead.

Brass and copper tubes have, in some instances, been. used 48 Brass ana

service pipes, chiefly in and about Boston. Two or more large °°P?* MP*
firms are engaged. in the manufacture of these pipes, which are
principally used .by.engine builders for the conveyance of
steam.. .They are washed with tin inside and out, inside only,
or not at all, according to the fancy of the buyer. They are
light, strong and very durable, but I should not consider them
well adapted for the conveyance of water for domestic use.
The coating of tin has no appreciable thickness, and would not
long protect the brass and copper from corrosion, and the salts
of these metals are poisonous. From recent, inquiries I learn
that they are going out of use in plumbing work, and that
where best.known they are regarded with least favor.

There are still.other kinds of pipe in the market, but their
employment for the conveyance of. water is so limited that it is
scarcely worth while to describe them.

From the foregoing it will be seen that as regards material opportunity
there is a pretty wide range for selection. A careful examina- for Judicious
tion. of the facts presented in Chapter VIII will further assist
the reader in forming a correct opinion as to the kind of pipe
best adapted.for.use under given conditions.

In putting in a system of-service pipes the plumber should
observe certain general rules, which cannot be disregarded with.
safety. Primarily, he must see that the whole system is so
112 SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY IOUSES.

Emptying arranged that when the supply is shut off every drop of water
Pipes. , ‘ . .
in them may be drained out. To be able to empty the pipes is
a great advantage to the housekeeper, and if judiciously
availed of, will often avert much damage to walls, carpets and
furniture. Unless fully protected against freezing, the water
when destra- of a house should always be shut off at night and the pipes
ble to empty. . ‘
drained in very cold weather. This is inconvenient and dan-
gerous, I admit, but it is less so than a protracted stoppage of
the water service from ice in the pipes, which gives rise to con-
ditions vastly more unsafe, regarded from a sanitary stand-
point, than any likely to result from a stoppage of the service
at night.’
‘snowabe Toso pipe a house that it may be drained dry requires judg-
Prov etans, Ment and skill on the part of the plumber; in some instances
which have come to my notice it would have been practically
impossible had the plumber not received the intelligent codper-
ation of the architect.. It would be difficult to give any rules
for the piping of a house which would admit of general appli-
cation, but a few suggestions on this point may be of use.
Branches When tin, tin-lined or lead pipe is used, all branches from
wnewtinuews the vertical lines should be given a continuous support and
support: such an inclination, that they will drain into the main service
pipe with which they connect. The continuous support, which
is secured by laying them upon shelves, obviates the otherwise
Sags. inevitable formation of running traps. The sagging of pipes
results from expansion and contraction incident to changes of
Expansion temperature. When the metal warms from any cause, it ex-
traction. pands. As it cools it contracts, but does not return to its origi-
nal shape. Lead is heavy and soft, and the force with which
it contracts is expended in stretching the metal, which requires
less power than to lift back into line the part that has sagged.
Oreenin® This phenomenon is forcibly illustrated in the “creeping” of
lead sheets laid upon roofs with even a slight pitch, in Great
Britain and’ some parts of Continental Europe where lead is

used for roofing purposes. The expansion of the lead when
SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITy Houses. 113

warmed by the sun is in the direction of the eaves. When it reaaroots.
contracts again the sheet does not come back to its original
position, but the upper edge is drawn down, pulling out, in

turn, the nails with which it is held or tearing loose from them.

This creeping goes on until the lead has slipped off the roof—

its progress being much like that of a measuring worm. When supporting
iron or other stiff pipes are used, a continuous support is proba- 7"?
bly unnecessary, but the hooks by which they are held in place

should clasp it loosely at frequent intervals. Vertical lines of

lead, or lead-incased tin pipes, are supported by lead flanges,
technically known as “tacks,” which are soldered fast to the racks.

 

Fig. 17.

pipes and held to contiguous woodwork by screws. In good

work horizontal lines of lead pipe are provided with continuous continuovs
and substantial support, and in some of the best jobs I have oe
seen, with continuous safes to catch and dispose of leakage.
When lead or tin pipes are laid under floors or in other posi-

tions nearly horizontal, with only such support as is secured by
occasional tacks, pipe hooks or loops of sheet metal nailed to

floor timbers, they are almost certain, from the causes men-
tioned, to form a succession of running traps, as shown slightly ae
exaggerated in Fig. 17. It may be accepted as a general fact

that any stretch in lead pipe, due to expansion or the stretching streten.
of the metal by its own weight, will be a permanent addition

to its length, and when running traps are formed, as shown in

Fig. 17, ihe pipes cannot be drained. Any defect in the
114 sERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY HOUSES.

" arrangement of the pipes which has this result may give rise to
serious mischief. I saw an example of this a few years ago in
Example of ONG of the most elegant residences in New York. Owing to
manship. the absence of the family at Washington the house was not
occupied during the winter, and the water was shut off and the
pipes drained. In the spring, when the water was turned on,
a leak was developed, and before it could be reached and
stopped it had destroyed a superbly frescoed ceiling and side
wall, ruined a valuable carpet and done injury to the value of
many thousands of dollars. Investigation showed that at some
time a change had been made in the pipe system of the house
and a branch pipe had been cut off. Instead of taking it off
close to the main service pipe, the plumber had left about a
foot of the branch connected, and this had been borne down by
its own weight until it hung suspended, pointing down toward
the parlor ceiling. This had remained full of water, had frozen
during the cold weather and burst, and when the water was
admitted to the pipes it rushed out at this point with the results
above stated. A little carelessness on the part of a plumber
resulted in a damage greater than he could have paid for with

the savings of years.
Importance Service pipes should be accessible throughout their entire
of aetity, length, so that a plumber can make any needed alterations or
repairs without ripping up floors and making work for the car-
penter. Plumbers are very good at this kind of work, and
judging from the vigor with which they attack a floor or wall
with whatever implements are most convenient, I should say
that tearing up houses was congenial and agreeable occupation
Needless de. to many of them. Architects should guard against such destruc-
Siete ay tion of woodwork and plaster by arranging the floor in such a
floors. way that a pipe can be reached without difficulty or delay.
I would as soon think of trusting my watch with a blacksmith
to put in a new mainspring, as give a plumber a carte blanche
to operate on the woodwork of my house with a saw, hammer

and cold chisel.
SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY IL0USES. 115

In piping a house with iron, the work belongs to the trade of Piping

2 7 . with iron.
gas and steam fitting rather than that of plumbing. These are
now a part of the plumber’s trade, however, and the expert is
expected to know how to work on iron as well as lead. When
iron pipes are used, no especial precautions are necessary except
to see that every branch is given a sufficient descent from the
point of discharge to the main service pipe. There is no trou-
ble in securing this if the house is planned with intelligent
reference to the proper arrangement of the pipes, but plumbers
are often. bothered by serious difficulties which the architect
should have foreseen and provided for in his plans. It often srrors ana
happens, however, that the architect is compelled to modify his in; ne
plans at the last minute to bring the plumbing of the house
within the scope of human ingenuity. The lack of a practical
knowledge in such matters, to which a great many architects
must confess, accounts for much of the unsatisfactory work
done by plumbers.

To so arrange the service-pipe system in a house that, so long the distrivu-
as the average pressure is maintained in the street mains, or aaa a
main supply pipe, we shall have a constant flow, if desired, at *°’*
any and every cock and closet valve, is one of the refinements
of the plumber’s art which does not come within the knowledge
of a majority of those who claim to know their trades. Cer-
tainly it is a desideratum for which comparatively few archi-
tects know how to provide without adding greatly to the cost
of the plumbing work in a house. As a consequence, the ser- Intermittent
vice pipes in a majority of houses are so arranged that when a om
cock is opened in the kitchen or on the parlor floor, those seek-
ing to draw water on the floor above must stand and wait
patiently until the cock below is closed, the pipe refilled and
the flow resumed. This often entails great inconvenience, and Unfushea
: . . water-closets.
is sometimes attended with danger, as foul water-closets may
be left unflushed and forgotten by those who, at the moment
of using, cannot get-a flush. When closets are flushed from
tanks, which they should be under all circumstances, this dan-
116 SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY MOUSES.

ger does not exist, but in the case of those flushed through a
branch of the service pipe, the danger of neglect is, as before
shown, further increased by the certainty that if the valve is
opened when the flow is stopped in the service pipe, the column
of water held up in the pipe by atmospheric pressure will at
once drop, and foul air charged with organic impurities will be
drawn in through the water-closct basin to fill the vacuum.
Inconvent- But were there no danger to be apprehended, the inconvenience
acteetive wa, Which those experience who live in houses piped in this
“er servic slovenly and imperfect way, should lead to a reform. For the
architect and the plumber no other consideration need have
weight than that a house thus piped is, at best, a botched
job. The water pipes can be so arranged that with but little
added cost we can have a constant supply of water for every
floor to which its head will carry it. The reader will under-
_stand, of course, that these remarks do not apply to houses in
which water drawn above the kitchen floor is supplied from a
tank to which it has been elevated by a force pump, but only to
those so situated that a distribution is effected by reliance upon
the pressure due to head in the mains.
Tappingare. Lhe plan which first occurs to mind, and which was proba-
turn pire. bly earliest adopted, is that of carrying the service pipe un-
tapped to the highest point at which a service is desired, and
connecting all cocks and branches with the return pipe. This
plan can be adopted with safety only under exceptional condi-
Condit‘ons or tions. When we are sure of ahead at the source of supply
ae sufficient to raise the water, under all conditions, to the turn of
the pipe, it will work very well. For example, in a country
house supplied from a reservoir or constant spring situated on
a hillside above the house, we could follow such a plan without
danger of inconvenience. In cities, however, we are likely to
have trouble with it, as the head varies, sometimes through a
pretty wide range, and when it falls below the level of the bend
in the pive we are likely to have trouble. For the supply of
cocks below the level of the head, the water will continue to
SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY HOUSES. 117

syphon over the bend, but when, during this period of low
pressure, a cock above the level of the head is opened by acci-

dent or design, the syphon is broken, the pipes empty them-
selves and the water is cut off from the house until the head

rises. We must, therefore, have an air cock at the bend, and Aircocx.
the trouble of giving this proper attention at the right moment,

and the danger of having our water supply cut off at. times

when the head would be great enough to maintain a service on

two or three floors, render this plan undesirable for adoption in

city houses. It also entails the expense of a double service pipe,

and renders difficult and troublesome the often necessary expe-

dient of emptying the pipes when danger from frost is appre-
hended. The emptying is easy enough, but the refilling and
reéstablishment of a flow through the pipe often involves some
trouble. For these reasons the plan cannot be recommended

for general use.

Another plan, which gives each floor a separate service pipe, another plan.

is free from objection save that of expense. In a very well

built house which I lately had an opportunity of inspecting,

the connection with the main was made with a ?inch tap and

 

Fig. 18.

a Zinch A A pipe carried down below the frost line. This
extended to the stop and waste cock just inside the cellar wall.
From this point the water was carried to'the rear wall of the
cellar, some 50 or 60 feet, by means of a 2-inch AA A. From
this a separate line of &inch A A pipe was carried up to each
floor. In the drawing (Fig. 18), A is the connection with the
Its advan-
tages ex-
plained.

Relation of
length and
diameter
of pipe to
discharge.

Frictional re-
sistance in
small pipes.

Short and
long pipes.

118 SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY HOUSES.

main ; B, the stop and waste cock; C, the 2-inch main service
pipe; D, the supply for the kitchen and basement; E, the sup-
ply for the parlor floor, and F for the second floor. Though

not in a very elevated position, a constant service could not be
secured above the second floor, so the third and fourth floors, as
well as all the water-closets in the house, were supplied from
an elevated tank in a closet on the fourth floor, which was filled

by a double-action pump with a vertical lever handle. Water

was supplied to this pump by a 1-inch pipe connecting with
the main service pipe at G. This system worked perfectly

under all conditions, and has no objection except the considera-

ble additional cost of pipe.

The theory of this arrangement is that by enlarging the pipe
in the cellar we diminish the friction and facilitate the flow to
such an extent that we secure a considerable increase in the
amount of water available for house service. I frequently meet
plumbers who find difficulty in understanding what advantage
can be gained from using a large service pipe, as the amount of
water which comes in through a five-eighths tap is, they insist,

no greater than will flow through a five-eighths pipe. This is

an error. While the amount of water which can pass through
a pipe bears a certain relation to the diameter of the pipe, the
length of the pipe is in most cases quite as important an ele-
ment in the calculation. For example, the area of friction in
a 1-inch pipe is 3-1 square inches per lineal inch. In a 2-inch
pipe the area of friction is 6-2 square inches per lineal inch.
In the case of the inch pipe, however, the volume per lineal
inch is only about -7 of a cubic inch; whereas in the 2-inch
pipe it is 8-1 cubic inches. Now, in passing a given volume of
water through a pipe under a given pressure, it is evident that
a much greater frictional resistance will be encountered in a
1-inch pipe than in a 2-inch, and that the aggregate of this
resistance will be in proportion to the length of the pipe. It is
a well-established principle in hydraulics that very much more
water will flow through a short pipe than a long one under a
‘SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CIty wousrs. 119

given head. To state this exactly: With a given pressure the
discharge is inversely as the square root of the length, or the
length varies inversely as the square root of the quantity dis-
charged. Thus, for discharges in the ratios of 1, 2 and 4
gallons, the lengths of pipe would be as 16, 4 and 1—that is to
say, a pipe 16 feet long discharging 1 gallon in a given time,
would, if 4 feet long, discharge 2 gallons in the same time, and
if 1 foot long would discharge 4 gallons, the pressure in each
case being the same. Applying this rule to the case under dis-
cussion, we may assume that by reducing the length of the
five-eighths pipe connecting with the main to, say, 20 feet, we
get a flow through it nearly twice as great as we should have
were it carried back the whole 70 feet. To state the difference
exactly, if 70 feet of five-eighths pipe discharged 4:47 gallons
in a given time, 20 feet of five-eighths pipe would. discharge
8:36 gallons in the same time, the pressure in both cases being
the same. The shorter we can make our five-eighths pipe the
more water we shall have, and if we could cut it down to one
or two feet we should get as much water through it as 80 or 90
feet of 24 to 3 inch pipe could carry away. Now, by increasing retative
the diameter of the pipe we also increase its capacity in a very (cuz rr
rapid ratio. With pipes of an equal length, having diameters SUP
of 1, 2 and 3, the quantity of discharge will be as 1, 5-6 and
15°6 respectively. In other words, a pipe to discharge three
times as much as another pipe needs to be only a little more
than one-half greater diameter. To be exact, a pipe 1:55 inch
diameter will discharge three times as much water as a pipe of
1 inch diameter. It requires no further explanation to show
that when we shorten our $-inch pipe to the limit allowed by
law and increase the diameter of the pipe leading from it, the
flow of water will be enormously increased, notwithstanding the
fact that we have only a five-eighths tap and connection with
house to begin with. By making use of this principle, it is
possible to pipe a house upon a plan very little more costly than
that commonly followed in average city houses, and yet secure
120 SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY HOUSES.

a much greater supply and a better distribution than is usually
found.

Platesrandz, In the illustration marked Plate 2, is shown the service-pipe
system of a well-arranged city house, which will be better un-
derstood from an examination of Plate 1, showing the plan of
each floor, with fixtures. The architect under whose direction
the house was built has given special attention to the subjects
of drainage and water service, and is one of the few in his pro-
fession who know how to distribute a water supply in such a
way as to have a constant service at every cock. The drainage
system of the house is shown in Plate 3.

Description AS shown in Plate 2, the house is of the usual style of city
of house: houses, consisting of a cellar, basement and three stories above
ground level. There is also an extension in the rear two stories
high and about half as wide as the main house. This extension
contains a laundry with four tubs, servants’ bath and water-
closet on the basement floor and a dining room above. The
fixtures in the house may be described by floors as follows
(see Plate 1):
Fixtures Basement.—Two water-closets, four laundry tubs, one bath
and one basin, besides the usual kitchen fixtures.
Parlor Floor—aA butler’s pantry, with one sink and one
basin.
Second Floor.—T wo water-closets, one bath and five basins.
Third Floor.—One water-closet and four basins.
Mainservice The water is brought to the house by a -inch pipe, extend-
Peeshes, ing from the tap in the street main to the stop and waste cock
inside the cellar wall. From this point it is enlarged to 14
inch, carried through the cellar and to the top of the kitchen
boiler. All branches for a cold-water service at basins, baths,
closets and wash tubs are made with $-inch pipe.
From the level of the boiler top the main service pipe is
reduced to 1 inch, and so continues up to the level of the sec-
Reduction in ond story, all branches, as before stated, being one-half inch. At
Beagle point the main service pipe is reduced to three-quarter inch
SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN clry nousks, 121

and extends across the house under the second-story floor. As
it rises to the third story it is reduced to five-eighths inch, and
is then branched to supply two of the basins on that floor. The
other basin is supplied by a 4-inch pipe, carried up from the
l-inch pipe on the floor below.

The distribution of the hot water is effected in the same Hot water
‘i - distribution,
way.- Following the general line of the cold-water pipe, as de-
scribed, it begins at the boiler with 1 inch diameter and is
carried to the level of the second story. As it turns to cross
the second-story floor it is reduced to three-quarter inch, all
branches being one-half inch, as in the case of the cold-water
system. All the fixtures below the level of the boiler are sup-
plied through a 4-inch line, which is branched in the usual way.
This gives the smallest amount of main hot water service pipe
on the floor where the pressure is greatest, while on the upper
floors the diameter is greater to offset the diminished pressure.
The circulating pipe extends from the 1-inch pipe on the second Circulation.
floor. down to the branch which ends at the sediment cock.
‘This pipe is of one-half inch diameter throughout. .

It will be seen at a glance that the size of the main service
pipes is in proportion to the quantity of water to be delivered
beyond any given point. The relative capacity of the different
sizes of pipe used may be tabulated as follows, the figures oppo-
site the diameters showing their area in inches and decimals:

Diameter, inches. Area, inches. { Diameter, inches. Area, inches.
1 29 5 ;
De oe heise cae OE Paes uaciegees ree
LD atecabige etieks “78 Be sks eran aes 19 capacities
of pipe.
th tia aurea ae 44.

In going downward from a given point the reduction would
necessarily be very rapid, because the constant increase in the
pressure would have to be equalized by an increased friction.
This explains why, in the basement, a half-inch line is all that is
needed to supply hot water to all the fixtures.

The practical plumber does not need to be told that it is but
little, if any, more expensive to pipe a house in this way than
122 SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY HOUSES.

Advantages. by the method commonly employed. The advantages, how-
. ever, consist in the difference between a distribution which will
permit every cock in the house to run full bore at the same
time, and one in which a flow at one point cuts off the supply
from points in the main line and its branches above or beyond.
The plan we have described admits of such modification as will
adapt it as well to one style of house as to another. Its essen-
tial features are: tr
Essential fea- 1. Where the size of tap and connection with house is pre-
tures of the a ae * :
plan. Scribed by law, making said connection as short as possible.

2. Increasing the diameter of the pipe as soon as the law per-
mits, and carrying it without reduction beyond the point where
the greatest quantity of water is needed.

3. For the sake of economy, reducing the pipe gradually as
the number of branches

D n to be supplied diminishes.

— nl? 4. Making branches as
small as will deliver the
quantity of water needed.
In most cases one-half

 

 

—_—
pale Seadaccaly

7 inch is sufficient, and in
some cases three-eighthis
| ' will answer.
The maintenance of an
Hot-water i.
service. abundant service of hot

 

 

 

 

=== & water through a house
D’ <i presents few difficulties
‘to the practical plumber,
and the suggestions which
I shall have to offer on
this point will occupy but

OY from street

     
 

 

 

WATER BACK

 

 

 

 

The theory of (¢ ——S little space. The theory
aera Fig. 19. of heating water in a

 

 

boiler by passing it through the water back of a range is gen-
erally well understood, but may be briefly described for the
SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CIry HOUSES. 123

information of non-professional readers. In the illustration
marked Fig. 19, the boiler is fed with cold water through the
pipe D, entering at the top and extending down inside the
boiler as indicated by the dotted lines. Consequently, all the
water which comes into the boiler cold is discharged into it near
the bottom. Being heavier than warm water, it remains at the
bottom. Through the pipe B the water is supplied to the water

Circulation,

back of the range, and thence passes back into the boiler through |

the pipe A. The outflow from the boiler to the hot-water cocks
is through the pipe C, connecting with the top of the boiler.
Without applying heat to the water back, we should have
merely a boiler with its connections, including the water back,
full of cold water, which, of course, would stand motionless.
When we apply heat to the water back, however, we compel a
circulation throughout the boiler, the water back and the pipes
connecting them. ‘The reason for this enforced circulation
will be seen at a glance. When water is heated it has the same
tendency to rise which air manifests under like conditions. In
a closed vessel we should only have ebullition, more or less
violent according to the degree of heat imparted to the water.
In the case of a water back, however, which has an inlet and
an outlet, both below the line of the head, the heated water in
its upward flow passes out through the pipe connecting with
the boiler and is replaced by water from the boiler—its course
in the water back being indicated in the drawing by the curved
arrows. Thus a constant circulation is maintained into, through
and out of the heated water back, which is slow or rapid in
proportion to the rapidity with which a high temperature is
imparted to the water.

It will be seen from an examination of Fig. 19 that the pipe
which carries the water from the boiler to the water back is
connected with the bottom of the boiler, while that which car-
ries the water from the water back to the boiler discharges into
the upper part of the boiler. This is done to insure the main-
tenance of a circulation in the boiler. By placing the hand
upon a boiler when a fire in a range or stove maintains a circu-

Boller con
nections.
124 sERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY HOUSES.

lation through the water back, it will be seen that the upper
part is hot and the lower part cool—or at least much cooler
than the upper part. As.the outflow from the boiler to the
various cocks connected with the hot-water service pipe is al-
ways from the top, it is obvious that the supply is drawn from
Cireulating the warmest stratum of water in the boiler. Now if, as we find
ae private houses scientifically piped, the pipe which carries
the hot water from the top of the boiler through the house is
brought back and again connected with the boiler at or near the
bottom, a circulation of hot water is maintained throughout the
house. The hot water rising within the boiler is replaced by
cold or cool water flowing into it at the bottom, and is carried
into and along the pipe by the pressure of hot water rising
Size of eireu- behind it. The pipe by which this circulation throughout the
tating PiPeS. House is maintained is commonly of small size. Under average
conditions half-inch is large enough. The way in which this
pipe is connected with the hot service pipe and the boiler is
shown in Plate 2.

Advantages Lhe advantages of a circulating pipe are twofold. It per-
OF ere eee Mits the water cooled by the radiation of its heat as it passes
through the hot service pipe to return to the boiler, thus mak-
ing room for the hot water which follows it. This keeps the
pipe from becoming cold, and obviates the necessity for empty-
ing it when warm water is wanted on one of the upper floors.
It also maintains a more equable temperature in the boiler, and
tends to relieve it from undue pressure. In proportion as the
temperature of the water in the boiler is raised, its flow through
the circulating pipe is rapid, and the loss of its heat by radia-
tion from the pipe will usually keep the temperature in the

boiler below 212° Fahr.
sags) In providing for such a circulation, care must be taken to
guard against sags. If the pipe drops out of line its own
diameter, the circulation will be very slow and uncertain, if it is
not stopped altogether. It is, therefore, especially desirable to
give hot-water pipes, if lead or tin lined lead, continuous sup-
SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY HousES. 125

port when carried under floors. If laid upon shelves, any
stretch due to expansion will be provided for without interfer-
ing with the circulation.

In connecting a boiler with a water back, it is a good plan to connecting
make the upper pipe a little larger thanthe lower. For exam- ee oe
ple, if }inch pipe is employed to carry water from the boiler
to the water back, #-inch pipe should be used to carry the water
from the water back to the boiler. This gives a free flow and
promotes an active circulation. It is customary, I believe, to
make both pipes the same size, but an important advantage will
be found to attend the use of two sizes of pipe, as suggested.

The boilers most generally employed in good work are of cop- goutezs.
per, tinned on the inside. These are probably the best, as they
are lighter, and stronger in proportion to weight, than those
made of any other available metal. Black iron boilers, though
used to a limited extent in some cities, are no longer employed
in the best plumbing practice, and galvanized iron, though
somewhat extensively used, are not to be recommended for
reasons elsewhere given in detail. Kitchen boilers are not scciaents:
usually subject to dangers of any kind, but prudence suggests °°?"
the adoption of precautions against explosion and collapse.

When supplied from tanks, an air pipe carried up to and bend-

ing over the tank gives the requisite security. When filled

direct from the mains this precaution cannot be taken—unless

it is possible to carry the pipe above the point to which the

water would rise under any possible condition of head or pres-

sure. For such cases vacuum and safety valves are made, but vacuum ana
they are not calculated to inspire the impartial mind with un-“““"""*
limited confidence in their efficiency. They are made of brass,

and as they are commonly allowed to remain untouched for

years, they are very liable to corrode fast in their seats and,

in my experience, are seldom ready for prompt action at the

moment of emergency. Probably they are of little practical

use. I never heard of but one authenticated case of explosion Ezplostons.
in a kitchen boiler in this country, and that took place under
126 SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY HOUSES.

Collapses. Very peculiar circumstances. Collapses are more frequent, but
are rarely attended with any worse consequences than those pro-
duced upon the boilers. They result from the creation of a
vacuum in the boiler by the condensation of steam when there
is a sudden and strong inflow of cold water. If, when water
is shut off from the house from any cause, the hot-water cock
nearest the boiler is opened, and left open until the supply is
turned on again, there is no danger of collapse. I have no
desire to discourage the use of safety and vacuum valves, but
if used and depended upon, they need to be frequently looked
after to see that they are in good working order.

Waterfrom Generally speaking, water drawn from kitchen boilers should
rene not be used in culinary operations. Indeed, there would be
very little temptation to do so if the condition of the inside of
boilers could be seen. They are commonly deeply incrusted
Water cocks. and usually very foul. In good work a waste pipe with a cock
is provided, to empty the boiler and discharge the sedi-
ment. I have no doubt that a great deal of foulness, which
would otherwise be retained, passes out
when the sediment cock is opened, but
from the condition of boilers I have seen
taken down and opened, I am very cer-
tain that vastly more remains in than
passes out. If the pipe which supplies
cold water was closed at the end and
perforated for six or eight inches, it
would fill the boiler equally well and
wash it out a great deal better. This

arrangement is shown in Fig. 20.

Of cocks, or faucets, it is scarcely neces-
sary to speak particularly. They are made
in almost unlimited variety, and there

are a great number of patent cocks, some of them self-closing,
which are competing on about equal terms for popular favor.
Relation ot Concerning them all itis only necessary to say that the best

cost and a wees
quality. are, as the rule, the most cconomical. The effort of a majority

Device for
cleansing
boilers.

 
SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY HousES. 127

of makers now seems to be to compete in cheapness, rather
than in excellence, and as the consequence the market is flooded
with cheap cocks in uncounted variety, which are very flimsy
affairs. Those who want a good article, however, can always
find it if they buy of responsible dealers and pay the price of
good materials and workmanship.

In piping a house, it is of the utmost importance that intelli- Protecting
gent measures should be taken to protect the service pipes from tom on
frost. Nearly one-half of our country is every winter exposed
to temperatures ranging from zero down. Searching winds
aggravate the discomfort of the cold and penetrate every
corner of our houses. For several months of every year we Houses not
have in the Northern States a semi-arctic climate, and as we do weather.
not commonly build our houses with a view to making them
comfortably habitable in very cold weather, frequent stoppages
of water service from the ice in the pipes must be expected.

The houses where the plumber is not needed after every winter
‘cold snap” are few and far between.. Plumbing is often yaabes
done as if summer was expected to last through the whole year.

For this reason the plumber receives in cold weather a larger

share of honest, hearty abuse than any other mechanic con-

nected with the building trades. I am not prepared to say that

much of this abuse is not well merited, for a great deal of the

trouble experienced in winter from the freezing and bursting ‘why athes
of service pipes is due to bad workmanship or to ignorance—

or both. In New York the trouble begins about Christmas,

and unless the season is unusually mild, it grows steadily worse

until the warm spring sun brings relief, when the long inter-

rupted flow is resumed and the plumber comes to do his final
patching up. During and immediately after a “cold snap” in

January or February, our streets present a curious appearance.

At frequent intervals we see groups of laborers tearing up the Experiences
pavement, or building bonfires to thaw the ground enough to eaten aie
permit them to expose the buried pipes. During the winter of

1874 I saw as many as a dozen such groups on one block in the
128 SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY MOUSES.

upper part of New York, and while the effect upon the eye was
picturesque, the effect upon those compelled to pay over and
over again for the same work, which never should have been
necessary in the first instance, was not all that could be desired.
Probably we shall see the same thing every cold winter for
years to come, and while the public misfortune will bring
profit to the plumbers, it will not benefit the trade in the long

run.
Bhadtaty evils Regarded from a sanitary standpoint, the evils of depriving
rupted water a City house of its water service are almost incalculable. The
“orvie® first and most important of these is the impossibility of flushing
the water-closets and renewing the seals in waste-pipe traps.
Foul water- The inconvenience suffered, great as it may be, is of small con-
sequence compared to the danger of sewer-gas poisoning
(especially in the absence of adequate soil-pipe ventilation),
and the nuisance resulting from the accumulation of foul
Secondary Se matter in water-closets. A mass of healthy human excrement
is an offensive, but not necessarily a dangerous, nuisance at
first, but it commonly becomes so in from 86 to 48 hours, and
when houses are without water for a week or two at a time,
the unclean water-closets may become the source of widespread
infection. When water has to be brought into a house by the
bucketful, very little of it is commonly used for flushing
water-closets or for the replacement of seals in waste-pipe
traps, which, in the absence of a regular water supply, have
Influences een rendered foul by the absorption of sewer gases. Winter

which affect . : : eg :
the security jg the season in which the air in sewers acts with greatest

of water seals

{a winter. pressure upon the seals in traps, owing to the closing of the
ventilating holes in manhole covers by ice, snow and mud. It
is at this season that our traps and seals are least able to with-

stand the effects of this back pressure from the sewers.
Service pipes freeze from causes easily recognized and almost
always remediable. Commonly, cheap workmanship and igno-
rant planning are to blame. Plumbers may do a great deal

toward preventing this freezing ; first, by giving their patrons
SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY HousES. 129

directions as to the best methods of protecting individual

houses according to the circumstances of the case; and, second,

if they have a job to put up, doing it in such a way that
freezing of the water in service pipes is guarded against.

There are a great many houses where the plumber, by a little Ha
careful planning and the putting in of a few safeguards in the

way of waste cocks, or by jacketing pipes with a non-conduct-

ing coat, can prevent the water supply from being cut off by

frost.

To prevent the freezing of water in exposed pipes, recourse Water waste
is commonly had to the expedient of maintaining a constant weatee,
flow from indoor cocks. A circulation is thus kept up which,
in any but extremely cold weather, will keep the pipes open.

This is a very easy expedient for the individual householder,
but when it is followed in half the houses of a large city during
the greater part of a cold winter, the expense to the public
treasury involved in paying for the enormous resulting water
waste is a very serious matter. Few people who have not cal-
culated it have any idea of the amount of water which will run
to waste in one night in a stream no larger than is usually con-
sidered necessary to keep a pipe open in frosty weather. A tne now
stream no larger in diameter than a lead pencil and running coe
silently, will easily flow at the rate of 700 gallons in 24 hours.
With a head equal to about 30 feet, I have seen an ordinary
basin cock deliver water at the rate of a gallon in three-quarters
of a minute. This would amount to considerably more than
1400 gallons per day—a quantity more than sufficient for all the
wants of a family of 20 persons. This waste costs the tax-
payers a great deal of money, and will probably continue
wherever water meters are not used. Granting that such a
waste of water will commonly keep pipes open, it must be con-
fessed that there is no excuse for a condition of affairs which
renders it necessary. An architect and plumber who cannot
together pipe a city house in such’a way that no interruption of
the nee nee from frost need be apprehended until the
‘180 SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY HOUSES.

street mains shall freeze, cannot be considered masters of their
respective professions.

Freezingot One of the points at which freezing occasions much trouble

ernie expense is between the main and the foundation of the
house. This section of the service pipe can, as the rule, be
reached only by digging up the street or tunneling from the
cellar out, both of which are troublesome and expensive. In
such cases it is sometimes possible to steam out the pipe by
means of an apparatus made for the purpose, but more or less

excavation is generally necessary, with the inevitable accom-

 

Fig. 21.

paniment of a “nasty muss” in front of one’s door. Street

mains, especially in rocky soils, are often laid within 3 feet of

the surface. When the service pipe is carried straight to the

house from a main thus situated, it is pretty sure to freeze solid

pimicutty in very cold weather. Weeks will pass before it thaws out in
based pipes the natural way, and if the plumber attempts it he is likely to
find it a costly and troublesome job. The best way to protect

a pipe at this point, and the one which is employed by some of

our best plumbers, is shown in Fig. 21. The main, which is
supposed to be 12-inch, is within about 3 feet of the surface,
SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY HovusEs. 131

or about 24 feet from the paving stones. After connection is
made with the main, the pipe is carried down 24 inches, or
about 5 feet from the surface of the street. The vertical part Boxing.
of the pipe and the tap are covered by a wooden box, which
comes about 5 inches above the top of the main. The. box is
made about 18 inches square, and filled with concrete, mortar,
tan-bark, or any substance which will exclude the frost. The
horizontal part of the pipe is protected by its depth below the
surface. When this simple precaution is taken there will be
no occasion for digging up the street until the main shall
freeze.

It is a good plan to carry the service pipe in under the cellar ee
floor, with a large stop cock near the foundation wall. When nouses.
branches rise against the side walls they should be provided
with waste cocks, and should be boxed and packed as far up as
may be needed to protect them from the frost.

When for any reason it is difficult to go deep enough to aia
earry the buried pipe below the frost line, it is a good plan to mlarger ones
inclose it in an iron pipe large enough to leave an air space all
around. In this case it is very easily and quickly thawed out
with steam. ’

In plumbing warehouses, factories, and other large buildings
with deep cellars and sub-cellars, it is often necessary to carry
the service pipe across open areas protected only by gratings,
which are left uncovered to admit light. When this is neccs- sacketing
sary, the pipes should be warmly jacketed in some way—either eee
by boxing in sawdust, or wrapping with felt or other thick, °’™°"*°”
porous fabric. Inside a house they should be carried up in
some warm, sheltered corner, where they will never be exposed
to a freezing temperature. As already stated, stop and waste
cocks should be provided, and the pipes should be so laid and
supported that they can be drained dry. In buildings improp-
erly planned, it is not always possible for the plumber to cor-
rect the original mistakes of the architect without undertaking
more extensive and costly alterations than the owner or tenant
132 sERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY HOUSES.

is commonly willing to pay for. He can, however, do much in
ee this direction by adopting the precautions suggested. There
freezing. are many ways in which freezing and bursting can be guarded
against. The first and best is to have the pipes taken from
cold corners.and put in warmer positions, where they will not
freeze. This will cost something, but it is cheaper in the end
than paying for frequent repairs. This remedy is positive and
effectual. When this cannot be done, a little contriving will
enable the plumber to stop up holes, cover the pipes and thus
protect them in all but the most exceptionally cold weather,
when recourse must be had to the expedient of emptying them.
Cold draughts Sometimes they freeze when apparently well placed, owing to
openings between joints or cracks in woodwork, which con-
vert the pipe boxes or the niches in which they are placed into
cold ventilating shafts. Such openings must be carefully closed.
When a current of cold air follows the pipes up from the cel-

lar, they will probably freeze however placed.

I have seen pipes in exposed positions effectually protected
from frost during long and very cold winters, by bedding them
in plaster of Paris, and have several times tried this plan where
others had failed, with entire success. The material is inex-
pensive, it is easily applied and presents no difficulties or objec-
tions.

eect Of the treatment of frozen pipes I shall speak but briefly.
zen pipes. Every plumber is familiar with the expedient of sending steam
through a small rubber tube introduced into a frozen pipe. To

steam. do this successfully a good boiler is needed, with safety valve,
and a fire lively euough to give a good supply of steam. Some
plumbers consider hot water better than steam for this kind of

work, being more rapid and convenient. Nothing is needed

but a kettle over the fire, the usual rubber tube and a pump.
Apparatus. The pump should have brass valves, and the piston or sucker
must be packed with cotton, as the heat of the water will destroy

leather valves and packing. With sucha pump a stream of hot

water can be sent directly in upon the ice. While an equal
SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY Houses. 133

weight of live steam is many times more effective than hot

water, the amount of steam that can be obtained from one of the

boilers used by plumbers is so small, and the loss from condensa-

tion before the steam reaches the ice so great, that a steady

stream of hot water does the work much more rapidly. The
weight of hot water sent through the pipe can be made, per- Hot water.
haps, twenty times greater than that of the steam which the

same boiler and fire would furnish. In most cases, too, the

water collects in the steam pipe, and the ice is, after all, only
thawed by a small stream of hot water heated and driven by the

steam. The difficulty which bends and angles make in the use genas ana
of this system prevents its adoption in a considerable number ****
of cases.

When excavation is necessary, the quickest and cheapest uxcavation.
mode of procedure in dealing with a pipe leading to the street
main is to employ laborers accustomed to the work, and dig
down to the pipe in two places. Then with small shovels tunnel tunneung.
each way, cutting the earth away under the pipe. Then heat
up with shavings, straw or other light material. When the mawing.
pipe is thawed out, it will sink to the bottom of the tunnel, and
by this means will probably dip below the frost line. The
tunnel is then filled with earth, rammed in to insure solidity,
and the pipe will probably be safe for the future.

These methods of dealing with frozen service pipes are appli- mhawing
cable only to lead, tin and tin-lined pipes. With iron pipes, pump "PP
barrels, steain coils and the like, the external application of hot
water, steam or the heat of a fire would be very dangerous. In
thawing such pipes it is best to employ cold water. The opera- cola water.
tion is usually tedious, but it averts the danger of a burst, which
is of more consequence in the case of an iron pipe than in that
of a soft metal which can easily be repaired by making a solder
joint.

When it is impossible to prevent the freezing of pipes, we cuarding
have one other alternative, and that is to fix them so that-they eorinues:
shall not burst if they freeze. There are two or three ways of ™?*
154 SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY HOUSES.

doing this. The expansion of water in freezing tends to force
it along the pipe, and does not exert any considerable pressure
upon the sides until the whole body of water is caught in such
a way that it must freeze where it is; then the expansion begins
to make itself felt. It is on this account that pipes in which the
cocks are closed by a spring against the water pressure, can so
frequently be frozen without bursting. As the pressure
increases the water finds an outlet. Wishing on one occasion
to prevent the bursting of frozen pipes, I took a short length of
large iron pipe, closed one end with a cap, and placed inside a
three inch rubber ball. This little air chamber was then
Rubber balls. attached to the service pipe by a collar. The collapse of the
ball under pressure made room for the expanding water, and so
protected the pipes from injury. This precaution is ineffectual
at times, because the pipes may be “caught” by the frost at
two different places at the same time and the water confined
between them so as to burst the pipe. If, however, a small
rubber tube be carried all through the service pipe, freezing
would be rendered harmless. The smallest size of rubber
tubing made, which has about one-eighth inch bore, would
answer perfectly, and if the ends were taken outside the service
Continuous pipe this might be made a means of thawing out thé pipe. This
moun pipe is closed at the ends when they are not taken out, and
forms a continuous air chamber, the water flowing around it.
This plan has been proposed a great many times, but I do not
know that it has ever been put in practice on any considerable
scale. An ordinary air chamber would answer the purpose
very well, except for the fact that the air would soon be
absorbed by the water, and then the chamber would be useless.
As the bursting of pipes by ice is a phenomenon not gener-
ally understood by plumbers, a few words on the subject may
be found of interest. When a substance solidifies or freezes,
there is always a change of volume, which usually is a contrac-
tion; but in the case of water and a few metals, such as cast
iron, antimony, bismuth, &e., an expansion takes place. The
SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY HousEs. 1385

expansion of water at the freezing point is by no means
gradual, but it takes place almost instantaneously, and the force
exerted at the time is enormous. Of the amount of force
exerted by freezing water we have ample testimony in the burst-
ing of our water pipes and other sadder calamities; but it is a
very simple matter to calculate pretty accurately the amount of
force developed. Grassi proved the compression of water to be
proportional to the pressure; he also found from very accurate
experiments that with a force of one atmosphere, or 15 lbs.,
water was compressed 0:0000503 of its original volume; and
knowing that water exerts in expanding a certain volume a
force equal to the one required to condense it to that amount,
the following simple calculation will show pretty accurately the
amount of force exerted by water when freezing:
0-0000503 : 0-1 :: 15 Ibs. : 29,821 Ibs.

That is to say, in freezing, water exerts a pressure of about
30,000 lbs. per square inch, which far surpasses the strength of
our stoutest pipes ; and if this enormous power is exerted .on the-
pipe instead of being expended in compressing something
which can yield without fracture, it is not to be wondered at
that the pipe bursts.

The quality of water drawn from the best available sources rutration.
of supply is often such as to require filtration. On this point a
few suggestions may be of use to the general reader. The man the poputar
who buys a filter commonly labors under the impression that pues
the water which passes through it will leave all its impurities
behind. He uses it for a few weeks and probably finds his
expectations realized, so far as he can judge from appearances.
It works so well that he gives it no attention. Presently he
finds that the water is as bad as before he got his filter, and per-
haps worse. Then the filter is condemned and taken out, and
no one need talk filters to him again. The truth is that he
started out with a mistaken notion, and did not give his filter a
fair chance to do its work. It cannot be left to retain the
impurities it removes from the water passing through it with-
out itself becoming foul.
186 SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY HOUSES.

Impzittes _ The impurities in water may be classed under two heads, the
inwater. . .

mineral, or fixed impurities, and the organic, which may be
animal or vegetable, or both. Under the first head may be
classed all those substances which do not undergo decomposi-
tion, as sand, clay, chalk, &c. The operation of these sub-
stances is simply to stop the filter’s action by making it imper-
vious to water, the quality of the water changing very little
even when the filter is well filled with them. With vegetable
and animal matter the case is different. Arrested at the filter,
these substances undergo fermentation, more or less rapid accord-
ing to the temperature and other circumstances. The products
of the decomposition of many of them are soluble in the water
and, consequently, as they are dissolved pass easily through the
filter and make the water even worse for drinking than it was
before filtration. Take, for example, Croton water during the
summer months and in the early spring. In the lower wards
of New York it is found to contain sand, infusorial shells, a
small amount of vegetable matter, and a small amount of ani-
Foul fiters. mal matter, part of which is easily decomposed. The result
is that when any amount of this matter accumulates in the filter
it begins to decompose, and is quickly carried through the filter
either in a dissolved state or else in a more finely divided state.
At first the filter acts well, but the more impurities it arrests
the worse the result, for as decomposition sets in there is a
greater quantity of matter to be acted upon. This decomposi-
tion of substances arrested by the filter is always a source of
more or less danger—easily avoided, however, but one which
must be provided for if pure water is to be delivered continu-
ously for any length of time. It will be understood that these
remarks apply more especially to those filters which deliver
but small quantities of water, and not to the large ones such as

are used for water works.
Fitersuke Jf it is desired to make a filter practically efficient, we must
een; pursue the same plan we should follow in screening gravel
through a sieve. After a certain amount has accumulated
SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY lousEs. 137

which will not pass through the meshes, the operation of screen-
ing is suspended and the sieve emptied. If this were neglected
too long the sieve would become choked and useless. For the Ciseniting
same reason, a filter must be so constructed that it can be washed
clean, or the filtering medium removed and replaced with new.
When sand is the medium, this is easily and quickly done. Sax4.
Sponges and like materials can be washed, and if this is sponge.
thoroughly done they are as good as new and can be
used a long time. Charcoal is not easily purified, but charcoat.
is easily replaced with fresh. It is valuable because of
its vast powers of absorbing and destroying organic matter.
Artificial stones, sandstones, and other porous materials of a Stone.
similar nature, are good for a little while, but if under pressure
are very liable to crack and become useless. The fact that they
are costly and cannot be easily and thoroughly cleaned, is a
great drawback to their use. Cotton cloth, closely packed, espe- cotton ciotn.
cially if old and fine, would probably answer a very good pur-
pose, and would have the advantage of being easily and
quickly washed. For convenience and efficiency, probably
there is no material equal to sponge, tightly packed. It pre-
sents a vast amount of surface in a very small compass, and is.
very elastic and durable.

Another point to be noted is that it is very difficult to filter
water when it is forced through the apparatus under heavy
pressure and at great speed. It should come through slowly. A water shout
foot or two of head is enough, and the quantity must not be sow.
large, as the pores of the material would have to be so large as
to allow passage for dirt as well. A very fair sort of a filter 4 cheap atter.
can be made from two 6-inch flower pots. Fill one with sand
and gravel, stopping the hole loosely, so as to obstruct the pas-
sage of the sand. Pack the other with sponge washed clean.
It will take considerable, but if much cannot be afforded use a
smaller pot, and put it in tightly to prevent the water flowing
through between the pieces. Set the pot filled with sand and
gravel on top of the other, and allow the water to run through
138 SERVICE PIPES AND WATER SERVICE IN CITY HOUSES.

both. Such afilter will give a good amount of clear water and
will not require much washing. This will depend, of course,
entirely upon the character of the water. If it is only clay or
mud, the accumulation of it will simply diminish the flow,
while organic matters must, as I have shown, be removed very

on sonse frequently. Even a cupful of sponge, tightly packed, will
strain Croton beautifully, and probably remove the worst of
the impurities, but it will require to be washed often. A little
ingenuity will enable anyone to devise a convenient and effi-
cient filter, and if too much is not expected of it, one which
will accomplish the object sought. The market is well supplied
with them, and most of those offered for sale will do good ser-
vice for a time if properly managed.
; CHAPTER VII.

TANKS AND CISTERNS.

In city houses it is sometimes necessary to raise the water ranksin
needed to maintain a constant service at water-closets, cocks,“ "°**
&c., into tanks or cisterns. The reason for this is sufficiently
set forth in the preceding chapter; the methods employed in
raising water will be discussed in Chapter IX. Here we shall
consider briefly the vessels or reservoirs provided for the stor-
age of water in city and country houses, and their proper care.

In constructing a tank for the storage of water in a City construction.
house, it is necessary to observe several conditions, none of
which can safely be disregarded. For convenience it should be size ona
of size sufficient to supply the average consumption during at ae
least twelve hours. This is not imperative, perhaps, for it can
be filled as often as may be necessary ; but if the work of
pumping is done by hand, it is likely to be neglected except at
fixed periods. The tank should, therefore, be so large that it is
not likely to be emptied before night if filled in the morning.
Comfort and decency, if not health, demand that water-closets Tanks shoula
should never remain foul because there is no water to flush a
them ; also, that personal ablutions and the toilet should not be
interrupted nor interfered with by the want of water.

When the water stored is to be used only for washing, flush-
ing water-closets, and for any and all other purposes except drink-
ing and cooking, it makes practically but little difference what
the tank is made of, or lined with, provided it be strong, tight
and durable. In houses occupied by single families, water Tank water
from tanks is rarely used in cooking or on the table. A ser- needemeen
vice is almost always maintained from the street mains at the ear
cocks on the lower floors, and there is no need of using the

water which has stood in the tank for culinary or table pur-
140 TANKS AND CISTERNE.

Exceptions. poses. In tenements, flats, warehouses, office buildings, &c., the
water drawn on the upper floors is generally taken from the
tanks. In such buildings it is necessary, and in all buildings it
is desirable, that tanks-should be made of some material which
will not render the water held in them unfit to be taken into
the stomach.

Wooden The best tanks which I have seen for use in city houses are
tanks lined ze wes

with tinnea Strong wooden boxes lined with tinned copper. Of this mate-

“oP vial there are two kinds, and between them there is an impor-
Sera difference. In one kind sal ammoniac is used as the flux
as fuxes. in tinning ; in the other resin is used for this purpose. My
observation leads me to the opinion that the latter only should
be used for tank linings, for the reason that tin put on with sal
ammoniac does not retain its hold upon a copper surface under
water, and a corrosive action is likely to take place which will
Superiority of rapidly destroy both the tin and the copper. The resin tinned
Snwithresin, plates cost a little more than those tinned with sal anunoniae,
but in durability and security against metallic poisoning, there
is no comparison between them.

Wrought- A very good form of water tankis made of rolled iron plates,

irontanks. , ‘ ; bye,
riveted up and lined with cement. If the proper quality of
Cement cement is used—such, for example, as is placed in the bottoms of
linings. , ‘ c ‘
iron ships or on the bottoms of large aquaria—and carefully
applied, it constitutes an insoluble and impervious coating which

Purification Will last for many years. Iron tanks are commonly used with-

aon aie out such lining, and while the water is, if anything, purified
2 and rendered more wholesome by direct contact with the iron,

Rust. the presence of too much iron rust renders it undesirable for
household purposes. This consideration applies especially to

small tanks containing a supply only equal to the daily con-
Discoloration SUMption of one or two families. When the tanks are of great
wet ereatext Size, as in hotels and other large buildings, the surface of iron

in small . . * . ;
me exposed is so much less, in proportion to the cubic contents

of the tank, than‘in small ones, that no perceptible discolora-

Objection to tion from rust is likely to occur. The objection to small iron
small iron

tanks, tanks is chiefly found in the fact that the level of the water in
TANKS AND CISTERNS. 141

them is constantly fluctuating, and that they are drawn upon as

freely when but little remains and that little charged with rust

from the bottom and sides, as when full. Any impervious and rags
insoluble coating of non-poisonous composition which will pro-
tect the metal from rust, will render an iron tank all that can

be desired.

The use of lead as a lining for water tanks cannot be recom- Lead tanks.
mended under any but exceptional conditions. What these condi- ee
tions are need not be considered here, as the action upon lead of
potable waters of various compositions is discussed at, length in
the chapter following. Untinned copper, yellow metal, galvan- Copper, brass
ized iron and sheet zincshould not be used. Block tin is good, Bioek tin.
except under peculiar conditions, but owing to its cost it is not
likely to be extensively employed. Other things being equal, a Solderea
metal which can be used: without having exposed soldered mone
seams, is better than one which cannot. If kept full and clean, ene ic
tanks of cedar, cucumber wood, white pine and certain other out tunings.
woods, without metallic linings, will be found to answer the
purpose very well.

Tanks should be kept clean. This is so evident a truism Tanks shoutd
that the reader may smile at seeing it stated thus seriously ; but ee
Ihave found, from somewhat extensive observation, that the
duty of cleaning them is commonly neglected—often for long negtect.
periods. As the rule they are placed in inaccessible positions,
and are rarely examined for any other purpose than to see how
much water they contain. The dust which falls into them, as geament.
well as many of the impurities of the water, settles to the bot-
tom and clings to the sides, and as tanks are usually so con-
structed that they cannot completely empty themselves through
the service pipe, they sometimes accumulate a great deal of dirt
of very miscellaneous composition. This almost invariably ae
occurs in houses divided into “ French flats,” or let by floors to apartment
several families. In houses of the former class, the tank is praa
usually under the care of a janitor, who probably pays no further
attention to it than to see that it is full; in houses let by floors
142 TANKS AND CISTERNS.

or apartments, the condition of the tank is the business of no
Examination ON in particular, and it is seldom looked at. Not long ago I
was prompted by curiosity to examine the tank from which
was drawn all the water used by two families occupying the
two upper flats in a very elegant building in New York. It
was filled and drained through lead pipes, which is not to be
wondered at, as the employment of lead is usual in plumbing
work. The water was raised by a pump in the cellar, operated
Construction by a small caloric engine. The tank was a wooden bex lined
éndcondition |, '
with sheet zinc soldered at the corners, and between what may
be called the high and low water levels—the tank was never
quite full nor quite empty—the metal was much corroded. The
Character of COlor of the bottom and sides was so peculiar that I climbed into
sediment: it with great difficulty, after drawing off the water, and found
that the bottom was covered with a layer of soft, oozy mud two
inches deep. A similar coating covered the sides to a hight of
Quantity. twelve or fifteen inches. This mud, of which nearly half a
barrel was removed, I found, upon examination under the
Composition. Inicroscope, to be composed largely of earthy sediment and
organic matter. From the fibrous appearance of the latter, I
concluded that it was principally the lint of carpets, drawn up
by the ascending current through the well-hole into which the
room containing the tank was ventilated. The thick deposit of
fluffy dust on the edge of the tank indicated the amount which
must have fallen into it. Exposed to the air for twenty-four
hours, this composite mud became offensive to the sense of smell,
and by the end of forty-eight hours, when partially dried by evap-
oration, it had become mouldy. In the eighteen months dur-
ing which the house had been occupied, no one had thought of
examining the tank, and the two families had continually
drank the water decanted from this unwholesome sediment
Tanks sup- Without even filtering it.. In all houses supplied from tanks
with pumps. there should be pumps upon each floor occupied by a family,
to lift, from the level to which its head will carry it, all the
water needed for drinking or cooking.
TANKS AND CISTERNS. 143

But the sediment was not the only evil discovered during my
inspection of the tank I have just mentioned. The floor on
which it was placed was divided into a drying room, three bed-
rooms for servants, and the tank room, in which was also the
servants’ water-closet. They stood side by side, and the water- conjunction

closet was as bad as one could be. It was a cheap, loose-jointed eas

pan closet, so much out of order that half enough water to seal *"*

it would cause the pan to drop. The soil pipe of the house

ended at this closet, and was without ventilation. As a conse- pangerous
quence, the closet was extremely offensive, and the door of the °"°""*
tank room was kept closed by the servants so that the smell

should not penetrate to their bedrooms. From what has
already been said in the preceding chapters of the capacity of

water for absorbing gaseous impurities, it is evident that this
startling juxtaposition of foul water-closet and water tank was

an evidence of the utter disregard of sanitary conditions which
characterizes much of the contract building of the present time.

In the construction of all kinds of cisterns and tanks for the waterin
storage of water used for drinking (and it may be assumed that Sa
the water constituting the principal supply of a house will i aaa
sometimes be drank, or used by careless servants in the Litdien,,
however impure it may be), it is of the utmost importance to
guard against the poisoning of the water by the gases of decom-
posing organic matter in sewers and cesspools. It is a well organicim-
understood and generally accepted fact that the poisoning of sewer gas.
water by sewage or the gaseous emanations therefrom, is a fruit-
ful source of sickness. The poisoning of the water in tanks
may occur ina variety of ways. Gases of a poisonous character
may find their way into tanks through overflow pipes carried
into soil pipes and, under some circumstances, through service
pipes. These dangers are easily avoided by an intelligent
arrangement of the plumbing work. The only way to keep
dust out of tanks seems to be to cover them. Covers, if used, ooyers,
should be light, tight-jointed and easily removed, and ventila- yentnation.
tion should be secured by means of air pipes. Water, when

:
Purification
of waterin
tanks,

Cisterns for
rain water.

Objections to
underground
cisterns,

144 TANKS AND CISTERNS.

stored in casks or other closed vessels, seems to undergo a sort
of purifying process, by which many of its impurities are
thrown down asa sediment. Sailors assert that water clears
itself by “ working,” after the manner of wine or liquors. This
is not strictly true, but it is a fact that most of the impurities held
mechanically suspended in water are thrown down under these
conditions, and it becomes really purer and more wholesome
than when fresh. If we can exclude dust and give sufficient
time for settling, water is pretty sure to be improved in quality,
unless contaminated by contact with the vessel containing it.
In this country, cisterns in the rural districts are commonly
built underground, of brick and cement. Many country houses
have these large underground cisterns, and are supposed to be
provided with every convenience necessary in the way of
water supply. Yet instead of having to pump water into the
house and carry it about in pails, it should run in and dis-
tribute itself in pipes. There is no difficulty in securing this.

Fievatea Small tanks, supported at a sufficient elevation to give the

cisterns,

Casks and
hogsheads.

required head, are as easily filled from roofs as cisterns under
ground. Thoroughly washed molasses hogsheads or wine casks,
are probably the best tanks which can be used in lieu of under-
ground cisterns. Painted outside and partly filled with
water, they will shrink but little; the water will be perfectly
protected from dust and foul vapors, and there will be no dan-
ger of metallic poisoning. If a single cask or hogshead is not
large enough, two or more can be used, connected by pipes at
the bottom. Each one should be vented separately by a small
pipe. Protected externally by paint; and closed so that evapo-
ration cannot take place, a small quantity of water will protect
them from shrinkage, and save very much of the annoyance of

* above-ground cisterns. Water from the roof should be led to

Washing

roofs.

them directly, so that any shower may fill them before running
into the cisterns below ground.

Provision should always be made for allowing the flow from
the roof to run off without entering either cisterns or tanks,
because it frequently happens that after some time of dry
TANKS AND CISTERNS. 145

weather, dust and dirt accumulate in the gutters, and until they

have been washed out it is not best to attempt to save the water.

Besides providing overflow pipes, a waste pipe taken from the

very bottom of a tank is convenient, for through it much

of the dirt may be drawn off and clearer water left above.

Where a bottom waste pipe can be provided for large cisterns, waste pipes.

much dirt can be got rid of by stirring the bottom a little, and

then, by opening the waste-way it flows out, while a large part

of the water is saved. In some houses the tanks are placed on Sates.

a large sheet of zinc, which has its edges turned up an inch or

an inch and a half, so as toforma shallow basin. This is inclined

a little, and at one corner is connected by a small pipe with the

waste pipe. Any leakage is thus disposed of without going

down through the house and perhaps doing damage to plaster-

ing and furniture.

The cost of setting up a tank of this sort is not necessarily cost of

: : ‘s . elevated

great. An ordinary tinman can do it if a plumber is not to be cisterns.

had. In fact, any one who can set a pump and make the con-

nection may set up a barrel in an upper part of the house, bring

in the water to it bya pipe from the eaves and carry another

pipe down to the kitchen. Connections with the wood are not petaits.

difficult, and if the tinsmith cannot achieve a wiped joint, a

very good, though not very handsome one, may be made with

the soldering bolt. A flange around the end of the pipe gives

means for making a joint with the wood.

The size of a tank to hold the water falling upon a given roof capacity at
is a matter that should be carefully considered. The average “**™
rainfall in the Northern States may be taken at about 48 inches
per year. That is, if all the water that falls on a given surface average
in a year were saved, and, none lost, we should have a depth oe
of 4 feet. This supply is not very evenly distributed through
the year. Sometimes we get 2 or 3 inches in a day, or even
more, and then there are several weeks without a shower. Could
we make our tank large enough to hold all the rainfall on a roof
we should be very well off, but as we cannot always do this we
must make some calculations as to the amount of water that
146 TANKS AND CISTERNS.

falls and what we wish to use each day. The average amount
of rain falling in the United States may be estimated at about
36 inches, or say 8 inches per month. For most parts of the
country this will be an outside estimate, for in some months
there will be no rain and in others it may reach even 6 inches.

Amount ot Now, getting the length and breadth of the roof, we multiply

water collect-

ed on roofs.

Droughts.

Amount of

water repre-
sented by

snow.

them together and find the surface upon which we are to gather ~
our water. This will be exact if the roof is not of too sharp a
pitch. When the roof is sharp the size on the ground plan must
be taken. Talf the area of the roof in square feet, multiplied
by 7-4 will give us the greatest amount of water in gallons which
we can expect to catch in any one month, while the average
will be one-half of this amount. If we have a roof of 20 feet
by 40, from which we mean to take water, we shall have 800
square feet, half of this is 400, which, multiplied by 7-4, is 2960-0
gallons—the greatest amount of water we are likely to obtain,
and 1480 gallons about the average quantity that we shall have
for storage. By asimple calculation like this we get at the
quantity of water to be expected. If in this case we find room
for, say, four 63-gallon casks, we find that we shall have storage
for 252 gallons, or, say, one-sixth of the water that falls. The
remainder will then be available for the cistern below ground.
If there was room for but one of the 63 gallon casks, we could
then use about two gallons per day the year round, and never
run dry save in the most extreme cases. Bearing in mind the
fact that there are occasional months of drought, and that our
storage must, if possible, be large enough to make up for this,
we can easily arrive at some idea of what amount can be used
daily, and what would be needed to take us over seasons of
drought. This subject is further considered in Chapter IX.

In computing the value of snow, it is probably safe to assume
that twelve inches of snow will make one inch of water in
melting.

In the chapter on “Elementary Hydraulics Applicable to
Plumbing Work,” will be found many facts of interest in con-
nection with the subject of tanks and cisterns.
CHAPTER VIII.
Tue Cuemistry or Priruere.

In this chapter it is my purpose to consider some facts qhe geld of
relating to the chemical action of water on metals with which "™”
every plumber should be familiar. These facts will bear tts interest to
directly upon the subject of service pipes, and will include the ones
action of water upon the metals principally used in the manu-
facture of pipes, tank linings, kitchen utensils, &c. As lead is tesa.
the most common of the metals used in plumbing, it will, of
course, receive the largest share of attention.

With regard to the safety of lead pipes for the conveyance piversity of
of water, there exists a wide diversity of opinion among those (renee tag,
claiming to be authorities in chemistry. For example, no less rrankin
an authority than the Franklin Institute of the State of Penn-‘““™**
sylvania declares, in its official publication of April, 1871, that
“there exists no authenticated accounts of the health of the
numerous towns and cities supplied by leaden distributory
pipes having been injuriously affected.” A direct contradiction sass, Boara
to this statement had been made three months before by the % 2°"
Board of Health of Massachusetts, who state in their report of
January, 1871, that on April 8th, 1870, they addressed to their
correspondents a circular asking the following question:

“ Have any cases of lead colic or lead paralysis occurred in saa poison-
your town or district in which you have been able to trace the oestue
origin of the disease to water pipes?” To this circular 170
replies were received from as many different places. In 162
towns lead pipes were used, and of this number 41 reported
affirmatively and 20 were doubtful. The affirmative cases in
the 41 towns in Massachusetts were described in the report,
and the record is very valuable. On the other hand, the Eng- engish set-

lish Scientific Commission appointed to investigate the subject caries
148 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

of the action of water on lead, made in their report the remark-
able statement that “the purest water analyzed by them during
an extended examination as to the most available source from
which to supply the city of London, came from a lake which

received all the washings from neighboring lead mines.
In recounting the history of the use of lead pipe, authorities
M.Belgrand again contradict each other. In support of the use of lead for
water conduits, M. Belgrand, during some remarks before the
Trench Academy a few years ago, alluded to the antiquity of
Lead pipesin this metal. According to Varron, the first aqueduct for convey-
pends ing the Appian water to Rome was constructed in 311 B. C.
From that time leaden conduits have been constantly used.
The entire water service in the interior of ancient cities was of
lead. Each cistern had a branch pipe which tapped a local pri-
vate reservoir, which was a kind of distributing cistern for all
the inhabitants of a particular section. The public fountains
were supplied in the same manner. The public water service
which connected the public reservoir with the private reservoir
Paris, Was always of lead. This mode of distribution, which necessi-
tated very long leaden conduits for private dwellings, has been
used in Paris until quite recently. It is yet employed in Rome
~ and some other cities, and up to the end of the eighteenth cen-
Iron mains, tury the public water service was of lead. The employment of
Great dura- cast iron mains only became general in 1782. There were, in
ion Gpesia fact, found in Paris a few years ago leaden conduits laid during
France. the reign of Philip Augustus, 1180-1223. With these facts in
Belgrana’s View, Belgrand makes this decided assertion: “ Until quite
cpiniom- recently no one has seen the least danger in the use of lead.
Neither Pliny, nor Frontin, nor any other ancient historian has
mentioned anything resembling a case of lead poisoning. It is
only during the last few years that certain persons have sought
to alarm the public by showing that the use of lead conduits is
dangerous.” But while this eminent authority thus endeavors
to plead some of the facts of history in behalf of the 900 miles
of lead pipe in the city of Paris, he omits to notice others quite
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 149

damaging to his line of proof. For instance, it is not true that contradictory
the dangerous character of lead was not suspected in ancient Canam
times. Vitruvius, the Roman architect (B. C. 46), forbade the vitruvius.
use of lead for carrying water on account of its poisonous

qualities, and the physician Galen (A. D. 130) condemned the Gzten.

use of lead as a dangerous material for water conduits. Apart, Remarxabie
however, from the mere statements of ancient authors, M. pipoin Paite
Belgrand presents some remarkable cases of the preservation of

lead pipes.. He states that portions of the public water service

are taken up from time to time, and that “their interior surface

is always smooth and shows no traces of corrosion.” He sub-

mitted for the examination of the Academy two pieces of lead

pipe, one taken from a conduit in the Faubourg St. Antoine,

which was laid in 1670. After this period of more than 200

years, the impressions of the sand of the mould in which the

pipe was cast were distinctly visible in the metal. The other

sample was not quite so old.

In seeking for an explanation of facts apparently so contra- Danger of
dictory, we are met by a variety of results which, viewed with- eaters Toot
out their connections, seem to leave the problem unsolved. In “”*°****
estimating the value of such results, however, it must be borne Labora
in mind that in the laboratory we can only operate on small
portions of lead and small quantities of water. We also find it
difficult to place the two substances in precisely the same condi-
tions as they exist in practice. Waters which in the laboratory
seem to corrode the lead very slightly, often act very vio-
lently on the pipes through which they are conveyed. Here, Uneertainty
then, is a very important source of error in our investigations. investigations
The subject, therefore, abounds in uncertainties. The chemist
can state as a general fact that water, under some circumstances,
will act on lead, but it is difficult to tell in advance how much
lead a given water will dissolve. The physician is also met by eas
a still more puzzling fact, viz., that different persons are soning.

differently affected by given quantities of lead.
150 THE CIEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

Pi The physical properties of lead are such as to peculiarly
of lead, Adapt it for use as a material for water pipes—so far, at least, as
convenience of manipulation and cheapness are concerned.

These are so well known that it is unnecessary to discuss them

Chemical here. It is important, however, to know its chemical composi-
composition.

tion, as we shall have occasion to consider some of the impuri-
ties contained in the ordinary lead of commerce. It alloys
Impurities in Very readily with tin, bismuth and antimony. In its erude
common use. State it usually contains some of its own oxide mechanically
-mixed with it. This impairs its malleability and ductility, but
increases its resistance to pressure. Commercial lead usually

contains also metallic impurities. [ard lead owes its hardness

Reich’s to the presence of antimony. The following analyses of

analyses, ' ‘
various kinds of lead, by Dr. Reich, are trustworthy :

 

German Lead. Antimonial Lead.
Hard
Metals. Dead,

Raw. | Refined. First Second

Specimen.) Specimen.

 

Leads jessie a wawwis 2+) 97.92 cau 87.60 90.76 87.60

 

ATSONICS 6oecia wees es 1.36 0.16 7.90 1.28 0.40
Antimony......ceceeeeee 0.72 | traces 2.80 yeep I1.60
EPO. 4 seas ena Sees 0.07 0.05 | traces 0,13 traces
Copper... . sce eee ee eeeee 0.25 0.25 0.40 0.35 traces
SilVeD. isk cee sees sees 0.49 0.53

 

 

 

Watercor. It is a remarkable fact that water corrodes lead with a vigor
rropertionte proportioned to its purity. This was the theory of Sir Robert
its purity. Christison, one of the early experimenters in this department
of chemistry, and it has been sustained by more recent investi-
English ex- gations. In experiments made by the English commission
cose appointed to investigate this subject, it was found that
pure water in contact with lead for 24 hours became highly
poisonous.
M.Besnonon A very clear explanation of the action of water on lead was
Me eae presented before the French Academy of Sciences by M.
Besnon. Te says: “Rain water and distilled water attack
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 151

lead recently cut with great rapidity, and form upon the sur-
.face and in the water a white, partially crystalline precipitate.
‘The steam formed in the distillation of fresh or salt water
attacks, in condensing, the coolers composed of an alloy of tin
and lead. On the first day of the operation a greater quantity
of lead is taken from the surface than on following days.” For
example, in M. Besnon’s experiments the quantity of lead dis-
covered in the water after the first day’s distillation amounted
to 2°17 grains to the gallon. This proportion was decreased to
1:82 grains per gallon on the third day. In the distillation of
water for pharmaceutical purposes the same thing takes place.
Consequently, such preparations as the extract of orange flow-
ers, brandy, &c., contain traces of lead.

The action of pure water on lead has been regarded as a sub- action of,
ject of great importance by the French experimenters, and the Pa%au,
results of their experiments are very interesting and conclusive.

M. La Pierre states that he passed a current of steam through ™. 1a Pierre's
a horizontal lead coil, which was conducted into a reservoir con- ore
taining water. The admission of the steam and the amount of

the water in the reservoir were regulated in such a manner

that only a portion of the steam was condensed, while the rest

escaped to the atmosphere. To cleanse the coil, steam was

passed through it for eight hours. Steam was then allowed to
circulate slowly through the coil for three days. The water
obtained by condensation had a cloudy and milky appearance,

and gave a deposit of the carbonate of lead. The water so
collected was filtered, and the residue amounted to 5-22 grains

per gallon of water. The water, after filtering, did not give

very satisfactory indications of lead, showing that the corrosion

of lead by distilled water gives an insoluble powder—a very
important fact. M. La Pierre treated this filtered water with
carbonate of ammonia and then filtered again.’ The latter

reagent gave a very slight precipitate of lead, which was left

on the filter paper. The water coming from the second filtra-

tion was evaporated, and even this- gave a residue of lead
amounting to one-quarter grain to the gallon.
Impurities
in distilled
water,

Dr. Christi-
son’s exper!
ments.

Air in water

Corrosion at
the line of
partial
submersion.

152 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

It has been argued that such experiments do not prove that
absolutely pure water does not attack lead, but that the water
obtained by distillation, not being perfectly pure, acts violently
by reason of the presence of certain salts. or instance, ordi-
nary distilled water contains traces of nitric or nitrous acids, in
combination with ammonia, forming nitrite and nitrate. of
ammonia. These salts are volatile, and pass over with the steam
during the process of distillation, They act vigorously on
lead, forming nitrite and nitrate of lead, which, it is claimed,
are converted almost immediately by the carbonic acid of the
air into carbonate of lead. This is not of great importance, for
as water obtained by ordinary distillation is as pure as any found
in nature or used ‘in ordinary operations, we are not interested
in water purer than this. Dr. Christison seems to have settled
this question very satisfactorily. He added to acertain quantity
of water some potash, which combines with nitric and nitrous
acids, forming compounds not volatile. He then distilled the
water, taking great care to prevent the access of impurities
from other sources. Ile subjected some lead to the action of
water thus obtained, and found that its action was even more
vigorous than in the case of the ordinary distilled water of the
laboratory.

The action of air in facilitating the corrosion of lead by
water, is probably very important. If a sheet of lead with a
bright surface be immersed in a vessel of freshly boiled distilled
water, and the vessel be tightly closed so that no air can obtain
access to it, the metal will remain for a long time with scarcely
any symptoms of tarnishing. But if the vessel is uncovered,
the water immediately begins to absorb air, and soon the luster
of the metal is dimmed and small scales of oxide of lead begin
to form upon it. Ifa sheet of lead is partially submerged in
water in an open vessel, there will be found upon it after some
days, at the line where the lead meets the surface of the water,
yellowish white crystals of hydrate of lead, with crystals of the
carbonate of lead also. This line, of course, marks the place
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 153

where both air and water act on the lead at once. Again, if a atmospheric
piece of lead with a bright surface be exposed to a dry atmos- ean
phere, and another to a moist atmosphere, it will be found that

the latter has become tarnished by the formation of a bluish-

gray coating, while the former remains bright.

There is no lack of facts to prove that air is an effective air ana water
auxiliary to water in its action on lead. These facts, while
demonstrating the theory, no less prove its practical importance.

M. Bobierre remarks that “ when the lead sheathing of a vessel m. Bovierro.
is corroded and perforated by the action of water, the damage

is principally sustained at the water line; that is, where the corrosion ata
sheathing is alternately subjected to the action of water and the sete tine
oxygen and carbonic acid of -the air. Those portions of
sheathing that are always below the water line are, on the con-

trary, far less acted upon.” In a paper presented by the samc

writer to the French Academy of Sciences, he mentions a very
interesting and important illustration of the combined action of

air and water. THis attention was called on one occasion to a Examples.
leaden reservoir used in a hydropathic institution, which had

been eaten through with holes, The corrosion had taken place

quite rapidly, although the lead was of the finest quality. A

careful examination of the case showed, also, that there was

no fault in the workmanship of the plumber. It appeared,
however, that the tank was often entirely empty and was sub-
sequently filled by a stream of water from a cock 8 feet

above that portion of the surface which the falling liquid

struck. Here was an excellent opportunity for the combined

action of water and air, and the result showed the effective-

ness of this combination. A carbonate of lead was probably
formed upon the metal, and when the cock was turned on

this coating was washed away from the one spot by the fall-

ing water, allowing an opportunity for the formation of a

fresh coat in the place from which the former crust was
removed. M. Bobierre also states that on being called in a

very ageravated case of lead poisoning in Nantes, he discovered
Bobierre’s ex-
periments
and conclu-
sions,

Moisture and

carbonic acid.

Bloxam.

154 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

that the lead pipes were coated internally with a muddy crust
of carbonate of lead. He found, also, that the pipe, by reason
of its position and numerous curves, formed in certain places
air traps, thus offering all the facilities for an active oxida-
tion. At Nantes such a case of poisoning is quite uncommon,
although the pipes are of lead. The reason for such immunity
M. Bobierre finds in the fact that the metal is kept constantly
in contact with water. In support of this theory, he presented
to the French Academy the results of a very interesting
experiment. Ie placed two lead pipes in contact with distilled
water under different conditions. One was completely
immersed, while the other was laid so that half should be in
the water and half out of it. He also placed on a porcelain
plate a little conical heap of erystalline fragments of lead, and
then added water to a depth equal to half the hight of the
metal. After eight hours the water in the vessel containing
the tube completely submerged, was found to be but little
affected by the metal. A very marked reaction was obtained
in the case of the water which only half covered the tube. In
the case of the water surrounding the broken fragments, the
action of the air in this case being evidently the greatest, the
corrosion had been so vigorous that the water actually appeared
milky from the carbonate of lead held by it in suspension. It
is a question, then, of considerable importance whether the
lead is’ exposed to the alternate action of water and air, or is
always in contact with water. “What is true of a pipe,” says
Bobierre, in speaking of the action of water on lead, “would be
true of a tank; and a pipe which is always kept full by the
pressure of the water in a reservoir above it, is less liable to
corrosion than a pipe whieh is filled by a pump and in which
the water does not remain for any length of time.”

It is known that when lead is exposed to the action of mois-
ture and air highly charged with carbonic acid, it is readily
attacked. Bloxam states that the lead of old coffins is often
found converted into a white, earthy-looking, brittle mass of
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 155

basic carbonate, with a very thin film of metallic lead inside
of it. os

The corrosion of lead pipes is often facilitated by heat. In mauence of
the latter part of 1869, Dr. Wallace, in an address before the on
Glasgow Philosophical Society, remarked that a new and very ¢ricad..
different source of danger was revealed by the analysis of water Dr. watlace.
taken from the cisterns in various parts of Glasgow. It was
found that water which had become warm by remaining in
pipes that were exposed to heat, either by proximity to the
usual hot-water pipes or otherwise, was frequently contaminated
with lead to such an extent “as to render the use of the water
for dietetic purposes dangerous.” Some time ago we had a tead potson-
painful illustration of this new source of danger in a case of oe
lead poisoning from the use of Croton water. An elderly gen-
tleman in this city was completely prostrated by paralysis. lis
physician, judging that his symptoms indicated lead poisoning,
investigated the matter and discovered that the patient had
been using ‘wheaten grits for dyspepsia, and that the cook was
accustomed early every morning to soak them before boiling.

She used for this purpose the water which had stood in the hot-

water pipes over night. It is probable that water might have

been drawn from the cold-water pipes without as serious mis-

chief. The practice is, however, one which all housekeepers rea pipes
should forbid, and the rule of the house should be to allow the Shpnca ot
water which has stood for several hours in a lead pipe to be run S220"3
off before any is drawn for drinking or for use in the prepara-

tion of food.

Prof. W. R. Nichols presents, as an explanation of the in- Prof. nichols
creased corrosive energy which heat imparts to water, the sug- aoe
gestion that the alternate contractions and expansions of the
pipe produced by changes of temperature cause a disarrange-
ment in the particles of the lead and a change in its mechanical
structure. A physical action, according to this theory, develops physteat ac-
or accelerates the chemical forces which previously are either ella chen
dormant or feeble Whatever may be the reason, it is impor-"'""™"
156 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

tant to be sure of the fact, and the following results ot an
Corroborative investigation by the same professor give strong evidence of the
possibility of a dangerous energy being awakened in water by
the agency of heat. A sample of water was taken from the
pipes of a private residence in Boston. The water analyzed
had flowed through 100 feet of tin-lined pipe and then through
10 or 12 feet of lead pipe. The pipes had previously been in
use for six months. The sample gave -029 grain of metallic
lead to the gallon, or only :0342 part in 100,000. A sample
was then taken in the same residence after the water had flowed
through 40 additional feet of lead pipe (hot-water pipes),
through a lead-lined tank and an ordinary copper boiler. This
sample, on analysis, gave °112 grain to the gallon, or ‘191
Mass. Ins.of part in 100,000. The latter results from water which had
Technol0E5- flowed through only 50 feet of lead pipe (40 feet being hot),
compare very strikingly with the results obtained in the chemi-
cal laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
In this case the water had flowed through 150 feet of cold lead
pipe and had stood in the pipes for 14 hours. The water then
only yielded ‘057 grain to the gallon, and after enough water
had been removed to clear the pipes, there was found in the
sample taken only ‘0179 grain to the gallon. The results in
the case of the hot-water pipes were, therefore, not due simply
to the length of pipes.

Prof. Roscoe. A most remarkable and conclusive case was disclosed by Prof.
Roscoe, of Manchester, England, in November, 1874. He
states that he had received from a surgeon of Manchester a
of joad coro” white powder taken from the inside of the covering of a leaden
chester. hot-water cistern. The interior of the cover presented a honey-
combed surface, and in many places stalactite masses hung
down which were from one-quarter to one-half of an inch in
length. “Manchester water has been found, after a considerable
experience of its qualities, to be, when cold and under ordinary
circumstances, quite harmless as regards lead. In this case, how-
ever, an extraordinary activity had been developed. An aunaly-

sis of the powder revealed it as a hydrocarbonate of lead.

Unusual case
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 157

 

Dead oxide (PIO). oss decdeseseesas parts. 85-67
CUPDOHIC HAO. x25 mas wie ceawucees es sy 12°12
WY ALOR Sessa tapi ea he Ane ema te 2-21

MOEN ae ities ns ded a arene: «---. 100-00

Prof. Roscoe presents a very plausible theory for this action. Roscoe's ex-
He thinks that the powder was formed by the action of water ec
which had arisen as steam from the surface of the water in the
cistern and condensed on the cover. This condensed water
would be very pure and would contain air in solution, which
would act on the lead.

A simple chemical fact, usually but little considered, adds chemical
weight to the empirical proof presented above. I have already ee
described some experiments made to determine the action on
lead of the hot vapors formed by the distillation of sea water.

These usually contain some compound of magnesium, gencrally minerat salts
the chloride, but often the iodide, bromide and sulphide, and the

corrosive action of these salts on lead is always increased when

assisted by air and when their temperature is raised to the boil-

ing point of water. Of all the inorganic acids, nitric (agua for- tnorganic-
tvs) is the only one of common occurrence that acts on lead under

ordinary circumstances. Of the organic acids commonly used, organicacids_
only acetic acid corrodes lead. The latter acid is the active prin-

ciple of vinegar. Sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), unless highly omoe vitro.
concentrated, has so little effect on lead that stills of this metal

are used in the first concentration of the acid. Indeed, a little

sulphuric acid present in water acts as a good preventive against

the corrosion of the lead. Carbonic acid, as we shall see here- carbonic acia
after, acts on a moist surface of lead; but I use the term acid in

this connection in its popular acceptation. Nitric acid does not mitre acta.
often come in contact with lead, but the fact that acetic acid acetic acia.
corrodes the metal is of importance. Lead faucets have fre- vanes
quently been used for vinegar barrels, and as good vinegar

should contain from 34 to 4 per cent. of acetic acid, there is

great danger in this practice. Such vinegar unquestionably
158 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

contains lead, and in the form of a virulent poison known as the
Prof. Munroe. acetate of lead (sugar of lead). Prof. Chas. E. Munroe, of Har-
vard University, analyzed two samples of vinegar that had been
drawn from a cask with a leaden faucet. One sample contained
25 grains of sugar of lead to the quart and the other 144 grains
prof. of sugar of lead to the quart. Prof. Hill, in reporting this fact,
mildly characterizes the sale of such poison as “criminal care-
lessness.” Our language affords somewhat stronger epithets

appropriate to the case.
Leadincider. Lead is found sometimes in cider and other liquors. It is
ii ae due in these cases to the use of lead in certain processes of their
manufacture. The fermentation which takes place when tlic
juice of apples is converted into cider results in the production
of organic acids, and if the process is carried on sufficiently
long, cider vinegar containing acetic acid is the product. A
pr. Adams Case Of poisoning by lead contained in cider is recorded by Dr.
Horatio Adams, of Waltham, Mass. The person so afilicted
exhibited, after drinking the cider, the usual symptoms of lead
colic, which were afterward followed by a partial paralysis of

his extremities.

‘Action of or. Lhe action of organic acids on lead is much more active than
ganic ceids in that of inorganic acids. The distinction between the two

lead more ac-
tive than that terms, organic and inorganic, so far as their meaning concerns

of inorganic
acids. yg in this discussion, is simple. We find in lake and river
Organic acids Water various acids derived from the decay of bodies once
nnkeant organized. Such. acids are called organic, whether they are
derived from the decay of animal or vegetable organisms, the
latter, however, being the chief source. Vinegar (acetic acid)
is an illustration, since it is formed by allowing certain bodies,
as wine and apple juice, to ferment or decay. (fermentation
being an operation ‘that goes on in the process of decay).
Organic acids of various constitution are formed in natural
waters, but they are so transient in their character that before
we can separate them from the water in which they exist they

have changed their form. As the decay of wine produces
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMEING. 159

acetic acid, so the decay of wood produces formic acid, &e.

These acids frequently decompose soon after their formation character of
by contact with other bodies, and change their constitution. pre rere r
Sometimes they are soluble in water and color it; at other

times they are insoluble and are simply suspended in it.

These vegetable acids are very powerful in their action on lead. metr action
They induce the formation of oxide of lead, which is equivalent ™ set

to rusting the lead, and then dissolve the oxide (or rust) so

formed. Dr. Samuel L. Dana, of Lowell, Mass., remarks that pr. pana.
he has found vegetable acids so abundant in the Merrimac

River as to dissolve in 24 hours as much lead as pure water.

The vegetable acids also act upon certain insoluble salts formed

on the lead by the action of other materials dissolved in the

water, and cause them to become soluble. Of this and of the

general subject of the action of organic matter on lead, I shall

have more to say further on.

Potash and soda, if they exist in water in very small quanti- ,,...n ana

ties, do not act continuously on lead. They corrode it very 4
energetically at first, causing the formation on the metal of an
oxide of lead, but the latter is soon converted by the carbonic
acid of the air dissolved in the water into carbonate of lead.
This forms an insoluble coating over the interior surface of the
pipe and defends the latter from corrosion. If the alkalies
exist in greater quantities in the water, another effect is pro-
duced.

Water which has been affected with organic matter, as is the organic
case when it comes from or flows in the vicinity of vaults or }mPutities
cesspools, is often very strongly alkaline. The alkali in this
case is neither potash nor soda, but ammonia in various combi-
nations. Such waters have a destructive influence on lead and
operate in a very indirect manner. : I have explained that the
oxygen of the air acts on the lead, forming an oxide which is
somewhat soluble and very poisonous. The carbonic acid, a, sonate
gas which always exists in the atmosphere and is generally dis- of 13¢-
solved in water, usually combines with this oxide of lead and
“160 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

forms a carbonate of lead. The latter operation is attended
with two good results: First, the carbonate of lead is insoluble
and therefore not to be feared as a poison ; second, it is formed.
as coating or crust on the interior surface of the lead and pre-
oo vents the further action of the water on the metal. When,
however, the water contains potash, soda, ammonia or lime,
these alkalies combine with the carbonic acid and prevent its
action on the oxide of lead formed on the pipe by the action of
the water. The consequence is that the poisonous oxide of
lead, instead of being carbonated, is carried off by the water
and a fresh, unprotected surface of lead is left to be corroded.
Indirectac- The alkalies, as I shall explain, have a further injurious
lies tn water, effect in aiding the water to dissolve salts of lead formed by
certain waters, and which, being insoluble, would otherwise
protect the metal. The action is indirect but very corrosive.
ume. Lime acts in both these ways with great energy, and although
the transparency of the water may remain unimpaired, the tests
for lead will reveal it in large quantities. It is scarcely pru-
dent, then, to join lead pipes with cement. A number of cases
have, in fact, occurred of corrosion of lead tanks or cisterns by
pieces of mortar that have dropped into them, the lime of
which causes the oxidation of the metal. Sometimes, too, a
lead pipe is laid in or conducted through fresh mortar, which is
External cor- frequently moistened. Here an outside corrosion goes on with
Toslon posta great vigor. Considerable quantities of fresh mortar are fre-
mortar ouently deposited in pipes during the erection of buildings.
The open ends of such pipes should, therefore, be carefully
closed during the period when this is liable to occur.
Natural wa. Water as we usually find it in streams, wells and springs, is
ters not pure. m 6
seldom even approximately pure. We have considered the man-
ner in which pure water acts on lead, and it is necessary now to
explain the manner in which the presence of foreign substances
in water varies this action. The action, of course, is to a great
degree dependent on the nature of the substance it contains in
solution. It is important, therefore, as well as interesting, to
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 161

recall for a moment the varied composition of water as found
in different parts of the world.

Water is an almost universal solvent. .As it falls through the properties
air it dissolves the gases that are in the atmosphere. Tain fen ee
water is the nearest approach we have in nature to pure water, "°”*""*
but it generally contains ammonia and carbonic acid, and. has ®#™ water.
been found to hold in solution even sulphate of lime and organic
matter of animal and vegetable origin. In Paris it has been
found to contain traces of iodine and phosphoric acid. Rain
water collected near the sea always shows traces of chlorides. In
cities and their vicinity, rain water is usually more impure than
in other places. The first rain that falls during a storm is more
impure than that which falls afterward, since the first washes
the impurities out of the air. Dr. Dana states that after long- ocean satts
continued observation and analysis he has become assured that ane
nearly all the salts of the ocean are found in rain water—of
course in minute quantity. The amount of solid matter in rain Solid matter.
water he estimates at 1°603 grain per gallon. This is a very
small quantity, but from this basis he estimates that one inch of
rainfall yields about one grain of solid matter per square foot,
which is equal to 6-268 pounds per acre. These figures mount
up rapidly when he states that at the rate of 30 inches annual
rainfall on the district included in the 12,077 acres of Lake take co-
Cochituate and its drainage land, there are deposited 2,270,959 eee
pounds salt. Thus the trifling quantity of solid matter in the
rain becomes very great when estimated in the aggregate. As
soon as the rain reaches the earth it begins its work of dissolv-
ing away portions of the soil, and thereafter, until it reaches
the sea—where the water attains its greatest. density—it keeps
increasing in impurity. The character of the water, then, is character ot
determined by the soil over which it has flowed. The purest il ee
natural water is generally found in deep lakes and in slaty and
granitic districts, the material of such formations being very
insoluble. The water supplied to the city of Glasgow is brought
from Loch Katrine, which contains only two grains of solid Loch Katrine.
162 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

Croton. matter to the gallon. This compares very favorably with the
Croton water of New York, which contains 6°66 grains to the
Thames gallon, or the Thames, of England, which contains 20 grains to
the gallon. The solid matter dissolved in river water, such as

is used for drinking, varies in weight from 6 to 50 grains.
aubetanesi Among the substances, some of which are familiarly known,
river water. found in solution in the water of rivers, are sulphate of soda
(Glauber’s salt), sulphate of lime (gypsum), sulphate of magne-
sia (Epsom salt), sulphate of potash, sulphate of alumina, chlor-
ide of sodium (common salt), chloride of potassium, carbonate
of lime (chalk), carbonate of magnesia (common magnesia), car-
bonate of iron, carbonic acid, silica (sand), sulphuretted hydro-
gen (the peculiar ill-odored gas found in sulphur waters), phos-
phate of lime (asubstance found in bones), bromides and iodides
of calcium and magnesium, and vegetable and animal sub-
Impurities stances. Near large towns, the water frequently contains salts
from towns. Of nitric and nitrous acids (nitrates and nitrites) and ammonia.
Spring and Spring and shallow well waters generally contain plenty of sul-
phate and carbonate of lime, and but little salt. The solid
matter held in solution often amounts to 150 grains per gallon.
Artesian Deep or artesian wells generally contain from 50 to 70 grains
‘of solid matter per gallon. They mostly contain a remarkable
proportion of soda salts, and generally carbonic acid. They
usually have but little organic matter or lime, but often hold a

considerable quantity of the phosphates in solution.

Unusual If water did not sometimes contain unusual ingredients in
"eae solution, and if no disturbing local causes ever operated, the
much-discussed question of the safety of lead pipes would be a
very simple one. But, unfortunately, water often contains
matters in solution which change the order of chemical action
already described, and cause it to act quite rapidly on the metal,
often destroying it altogether. On the other hand, the presence
of some foreign substances in solution may assist in the pro-
nost waters tection which some waters normally exercise on lead. Hundreds
ex cin of analyses have been made of water from springs, wells, ponds,
tion on lead. Jakes and open reservoirs, and the results of these examinations
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 163

clearly demonstrate that most waters contain substances which

render safe the use of lead pipes. Even rain water, which in

its pure state acts on lead, becomes sufficiently impure by flow-

ing over roofs and being collected through gutters, especially in

large towns, to be incapable of vigorous action. Unless their ne
action is interfered with by the presence of other substances =
in sufficient proportions, the carbonates, sulphates, phosphates

and borates exercise a protective influence over lead. On the RN
contrary, the sulphurets or sulphides, nitrates and nitrites,
chlorides, organic matter and the alkalies impart to water a cor-

rosive power over lead.

Well water usually contains a considerable quantity of ni- Nitrates ana
trates and chlorides, not only in this country, but in Europe. Is
Spring, pond and river waters do not contain so much. As Pbareatenict
might be expected, well water is often corrosive to lead, the water.
nitrates having this action. Dr. Dana says in all cases which
he has examined where lead pipe has been introduced into the
well for the purpose of a conduit, the water has been found to
contain lead years after the pipe was first used. Such pipes
have been eroded deeply, and in many instances perforated and
thereby rendered useless. Lead pipes used in wells have, in tmyvestige-
some cases, been perforated in six months. In one case in eee
Lowell where a new well was sunk in a district not previously
crowded with inhabitants or exposed to the drainage of the
locality, the lead pipe conducting the water was so eroded as,
at the end of three years, to become entirely useless. New
pipe was supplied which also became useless at the end of about
the same time, and the third set of pipe (in use at the time of
writing) requires frequent repair, having performed nearly the
usual service of its predecessors. It is not uncommon for the
erosion to go on within the pipe until the film of lead forming
the outer boundary of a pit (or cavity on the interior of the
pipe) is too thin longer to sustain the atmospheric pressure.

When the pump is first partially exhausted of air, the film gives
way, bursting inwardly. The plumber having mended one
Dr. Wall.
\

Dr. Hayes.

Lead poison-

ing from well
water.

Spring water.

The chemical
law of the

164 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

hole, produces another in the attempt to “catch the pump.”
These facts are not peculiar to the well water of Lowell. Long
ago Dr. Wall, of Worcester, England, noticed that a lead pipe
was destroyed in about three years by water at a farm house.
Dr. Hayes, State Assayer of Massachusetts, confirms these facts
by similar observations on lead pipes in the wells of Boston and
its vicinity. In one case under his observation, the portion of
the pipe immersed was corroded so completely that it separated —
and fell to the bottom of the well. Cases of severe lead colic,
paralysis and neuralgic affections, have occurred in instances
when well water has been conveyed through lead. Aside from
the abundance of nitrates in such waters, one of the reasons for
the superior activity of well water on the lead is the greater
quantity of carbonic acid from the air held in solution in such
water. This is on account of its coldness. Gases dissolve more
readily in cold than in warm water. When well water is
brought to the surface and exposed to the temperature of the
outer air, it parts with a portion of its carbonic acid and becomes
flat and insipid. Spring water not containing so much of the
nitrates and the chlorides, is less energetic in its action on lead.
Cases of corrosion do occasionally occur, however. An instance
is related of a minister residing at Dedham, Mass., who was
attacked by a complication of affections which forced him to go
traveling for his health. He returned well and, unsuspicious
of the cause of his troubles, began again the use of the same
water which he had been drinking before he left. He was
again prostrated, and this time it was supposed he would lose
his life. The water was examined and found to contain lead.
It had been conveyed ina lead pipe for half a mile froma
spring. The water was abandoned and the disease disappeared.
The chemical law by which the dividing line is drawn be-

influence tween the two classes of salts, those on the one side protecting

of salts.

tne lead and those on the other promoting corrosion, is simple,
but it can scarcely be explained to those unfamiliar with chem-
istry without being somewhat elementary and explaining the
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 165

meaning of the terms carbonates, sulphates, &c. This I shall
endeavor to do as briefly as possible.

Among the range of chemical compounds found in nature or actas.
produced in art, is a class of bodies called acids. Many of them
are familiarly known in the practice of ‘the mechanical arts.
Sulphurie acid, commonly called oil of vitriol, is an instance. sulphuric
It is very corrosive and will combine with most of the metals ne
quite readily. When sulphuric acid thus combines with a
metal, the combination is termed a sulphate of that metal.
Thus sulphuric acid combines with zine and forms a sul- guphates
phate of zine (white vitriol), a substance much used in
calico printing, and as a medicine. Sulphuric acid also com-
bines with lime and forms sulphate of: lime (gypsum), a sub-
stance often contained in solution in water. It must be under-
stood, however, that although sulphuric acid is a very corrosive
acid, it loses this property when it combines with anything,
such aslime. Nitric acid is another illustration of this class of mitricacia.
bodies. It is also corrosive, and is known in commerce as
aqua fortis. When nitric acid combines with anything—for nitrates,
example, lime or potash—we call the combination nitrate. In
the cases mentioned, we say nitrate of lime or nitrate of potash.
The combination has lost the properties of the acid, for when
an acid combines with a base, as the potash or lime would be
called by chemists, each neutralizes the other and the compound
has entirely new properties. Carbonic acid forms carbonates carvonieacia
when it combines with a base. Jor instance, chalk is a com- carbonates.
bination of carbonic acid and lime—a carbonate of lime. Phos- phosphorte
phoric acid, which is formed whenever the phosphorus end of “*
a lucifer match burns, forms phosphates. There cxists in the Phosphates.
human bones a substance called phosphate of lime. It is sim-
ply a compound of phosphoric acid and lime. I have already
mentioned the borates as a class of substances that exercise a
protective influence on lead. Borax is an instance of a borate ; Borax.
chemically it is known as borate of soda. The termination the termina-
“ate” indicates that some acid has combined with something eee
The termina-
tion “‘ide.’

Combination
of an acid
with a base,

166 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

else called a base. Such terms as chloride and sulphide also
mean that an acid has combined with a base, but the ter-
mination “ide ” shows that it is another kind of acid that has
entered into combination. Chloride of iron would mean that
an acid known as hydrochloric acid has combined with iron.
The termination “ide” instead of “ate” is only a device to
denote what kind of an acid it is that has entered into combina-
tion. For instance, chlorate of iron would mean chloric acid
and iron, while chloride of iron would mean hydrochloric acid
and iron.

It is.a peculiar fact that when an acid has entered into com-
bination with a base, if another base presents itself the acid
will often give up the first base and attach itself to the new
base. For instance, water sometimes contains sulphate of
lime in solution. In passing through a lead pipe, the lead
offers a superior attraction for the sulphuric acid contained
in the sulphate and the acid leaves the lime and goes to the
lead, forming a sulphate of lead. So, also, a phosphate of
lime in passing in solution through a lead pipe, will become
decomposed, the phosphoric acid going to the lead and form-

‘ing a phosphate of lead. And so it is with the other “ates”

Salts of lead.

Protection

of pipes.

and “ites” and “ides;” they are apt to form a carbonate,
a phosphate, a borate or a nitrate of lead, or a chloride or a
sulphide of lead, or a nitrite of lead. These new combinations
form on the inside of the lead pipe as acrust. Now, if the
new compounds are themselves insoluble in water, they will
generally continue to form on the inside of the pipe until they
have become sufficiently thick to protect the pipe from the
action of the water. If, on the contrary, they are very soluble
in water they will be washed away, and a fresh surface of lead
being exposed the corrosion will go on until the metal is eaten
through. This explanation will render clear the proposition
which Dr. Christison has stated, that “the proportion of each
salt” (for instance, the sulphate of lime, since all such com-
pounds are known in chemistry as salts) “required to prevent
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 167

action, is nearly in the inverse ratio of the solubility of the
compound which its acid forms with the oxide of lead.” Theo-
retically, then, the answer to the whole question would seem to
depend on the solubility of the salts of lead. The carbonate of sompuity
lead is soluble in 50,000 times its own weight of water. This “****"*
means that it is practically insoluble. The sulphate of lead is
soluble 20,000 times its own weight of water. So far as chem-
ists have been able to tell, the phosphate of lead is altogether
insoluble. The nitrate of lead, on the other hand, is soluble
in only three parts of water—that is to say, a gallon of water
has the capacity of dissolving one-third of its weight of nitrate
of lead. Chloride of lead is soluble in 135 parts of water (a
dangerous degree of solubility). The oxide of lead is dissolved '
by pure water at the rate of 8 grains per gallon.

The problem of telling in advance whether a particular sam- theoretical
ple of water will act favorably or unfavorably on lead, would fumatesof

the corrosive
not be so difficult if the theory just developed was allowed to 2ctonof wa

ter on lead.
remain undisturbed in its application. The trouble is, how-
ever, that other laws are at work distributing and complicating
our calculations. For instance, Dr. Nevins has asserted that
the salts above described as protective of lead, are only so when
they are present in small proportion. When present in large
proportions, they seem to permit an action upon the lead. Dr.
Nevins claims that he has obtained results in his experiments
which warrant him in this statement. It may be, perhaps, that gaits of tea

the salt of lead formed on the pipe, while not soluble in ordi- (scire?>y

stances form-
ing them.

Dr. Nevins.

nary water, is soluble in water containing an excess of the sub-
stance which caused the deposition of the crust on the lead. The
following is an illustration of this peculiar chemical law. If we p.pertment
mix some lime. in water and, after allowing the lime to settle,
pour off the water, we will have a perfectly transparent liquid
containing lime in solution. If we now direct a stream of car-
bonic acid gas through .this liquid by means of a tube, it will
become quite milky, and in the course of a short time a white
powder will settle at the bottom. A chemical change has been

withlime. |
168 THE CUEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

effected in the liquid. The carbonic acid has united with the
soluble lime and formed a carbonate of lime which is insoluble
in water and therefore sinks to the bottom. If we then stir
up the mixture and continue to drive a stream of carbonic acid
through the liquid, the latter becomes clear again. Another
chemical change has been accomplished. The carbonic acid
having changed all the lime into carbonate of lime, went on
dissolving in the water, and soon the liquid became a strong
solution of carbonic acid. Now while carbonate of lime is in-
soluble in water, it is soluble in a solution of carbonic acid, and
therefore dissolves and disappears. Whatever may be the
reason for the action that Dr. Nevins describes, it is well to
Protective bear the fact inmind. In relation to it Dr. Christison remarks,

salts protec- i . : :
tive only to that if the protective salts are not protective beyond a certain
ee limit, it is necessary to fix that limit before we can deduce any
practical results from the suggestion. Dr. Nevins has not done
so.’ From all that we know of the constitution of natural waters
that are applied to household use, it is more than probable that
the proportion of salts necessary to change their own action
from that of protection to corrosion, is greater than is ever

likely to occur outside of the laboratory.

Actionot The most perplexing question in connection with the subject
mixed salts +- that which regards the mixture of salts, some of which are
protective and others corrosive. Thus, suppose nitrate of
lime (a corrosive salt) and carbonate of lime (a protective salt)
are found in the same water, what will be their probable action ?
The answer, no doubt, depends on the proportion of the two
substances as they exist in the water. This matter, however,
can better be explained after we have considered the action of
each class of substances which occur in water. But after all
the questions depending for their answer on theory have been
disposed of, there still remains the fact that local causes may
Lead potson- give us very unexpected results. Prof. Nichols speaks of the
ingin Salem Case of Dr. Treadwell, of Salem, Mass., who suspected that he
was suffering from lead poisoning, and who sent to him for
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING 169

analysis samples of the water supplied to his house. Lead

was found to be present in the water in large quantities. A
specimen of the water from the same aqueduct, but taken from

another locality, afforded only a trace of lead. Here some local

cause was operating. Dr. Christison, whose observations on mauence ot
this subjeet are always of great value, remarks that unforeseen” “""*
circumstances may counteract all the preservative effects of any
particular water.

Most waters, fortunately, contain carbonate of lime, and this carbonate
substance is the most effective protector of lead that exists in ”™*
water. It is to the presence of this salt in drinking water that
we owe the absence of lead in most cases in which the test is
made. I have already explained how the carbonic acid of the
air dissolved in the water combines with the oxide of lead, and
thus reaches the latter harmless. It is in a slightly different
way that the carbonate of lime dissolved in the water affords
the same protection. Carbonate of lime, which is seen in chatk, ime.
nature as chalk, limestone and marble, is not soluble in water— marvie
or at least is practically insoluble, one part requiring for its
solution more than 10,000 parts of water. But as it was shown
in the little experiment referred to above, the carbonate of
lime is soluble in water containing carbonic acid in solution.

If some carbonate of lime be dissolved in water containing
carbonic acid gas in solution, and the latter be removed by
boiling, the water will no longer hold the carbonate of lime in
solution ; the particles of the carbonate will soon be seen fall-

ing to the bottom, giving the liquid a milky appearance. This
experiment can be easily performed by any one, by simply
boiling a little calcareous (or limestone) water. What occurs gotion of
in this experiment is similar to what occurs in the lead pipes, ¢aonsie°t
only the carbonic acid is withdrawn from the water in another
manner. The oxide of lead is formed by the action of the

water on the pipe, as has already been explained, and this

oxide of lead combines with the carbonic acid dissolved in the

water, as previously shown. The carbonate of lead is formed
170 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

and, being insoluble in the water, collects on the pipes. But
the carbonic acid, having been removed from the water by the
oxide of lead, the water can no longer hold the carbonate of
lime in solution, and this collects on the pipes also. Conse-
quently, the crust formed on the inside of lead pipes in districts
in which the water contains any limestone, is composed of a
mixture of carbonate of lime and carbonate of lead, both of
which being insoluble soon become of sufficient thickness to
defend the pipe from the action of the water.
Carbonatesot Other carbonates are present in water besides that of lime.
andiron Ln discussing the constitution of water, I referred to carbonates
of magnesia (common magnesia) and carbonate of iron. The
former, though not very soluble in water, is much more so than
carbonate of lime. It is very soluble in water containing car-
bonic acid. It acts in a similar manner to the lime carbonate,
and protects the lead against the corrosive action of water.

M.Dumaxy An experiment noted by the French chemist M. Dumas is
experiments: interesting, not only as tending to prove the statements already

made regarding calcareous salts, but as being one which any per-
son with moderate skill can try for himself. He took five bot-
tles, and placed in each some pellets of lead. He then poured
into the first some distilled water, into the second some rain
water, into the third some water from the Seine, into the fourth,
water from the Oureq (the drinking water of Paris), and into
the fifth some well water. He allowed them to stand, and
presently tested them with sulphuretted hydrogen, a delicate
test for lead. The distilled water gave unmistakable signs of
lead. The water in the other bottles showed no lead whatever.
All of the latter specimens contained calcareous salts.

Carbonate It is claimed that there are two or three substances whose
°f 04% nresence in water prevents the carbonates from exercising their
protective influence. One of these is carbonate of soda (soda
ash), but so far it has never been shown how much of it there
must be in the water to interfere with the action of the other
carbonates; and besides, as this substance always exists in water
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 171

as the bicarbonate, which has no such effect as is claimed for

the carbonate, the question seems of little importance. Another Carbonic
substance is carbonic acid gas itself. We have seen that the pe
carbonate of lime is dissolved in water containing carbonic acid!

in excess. Now, unfortunately, if the carbonic acid is in great

excess, it enables the water to dissolve some of the lead.

Herein is the: great danger of employing lead pipes in soda- Tan TT es
water fountains, for this beverage, being nothing more than fountains.
water highly charged with carbonic acid, acts vigorously on the

pipes and becomes poisonous. Fortunately, however, in nature

waters highly charged with carbonic acid are rare and are gen-

erally medicinal in their character. Such are the waters of
Carlsbad, Spa, Pyrmont and Seltzer. Prof. Marais made an prot, marais
experiment in which he produced the conditions present when ?°"™"""
soda water is drawn from leaden pipes. He allowed some

water holding carbonic acid dissolved under pressure to act on

a piece of sheet lead for some time. He afterward tested the

water and found that it contained in solution about one grain

of carbonate of lead per gallon. It would seem, then, that un-

der ordinary circumstances a pipe ought to last for an indefinite

time; but, notwithstanding all that has been said, we do occa-

sionally find pipes that have worn out. Prof. Ripley, in a proe,niptey.
report to the Massachusetts Board of Health, from which I have

before quoted, speaks of a specimen which had been in contact

with cold water only for a period of fifteen years, which was

so corroded in the vicinity of the solder joint as to be eaten
through, and along the pipe there was a thick coating consisting

almost entirely of the carbonate of lead (with organic matter, a

little carbonate and sulphate of lime and a trace of the oxide of

iron), which had penetrated the pipe in some places to the

depth. of one-fifteenth of an inch or more. The protecting car-

bonate of lime was there, but the protection was not perfect.

Here we find another instance of the influence of local causes

in defeating the action of gencral Jaws. .The proof which causes which

ig: : : a defeat th
establishes the protective action of the carbonates is ample, and protective

. A
we must look elsewhere to find a reason for occasional excep- demmoten”
172 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

tions to the general rule. The water is sometimes delivered
under great pressure, and other physical agencies tend to impair
the strength of the pipe and to promote corrosion.

Sulphates “Water may contain several sulphates. I have already spoken
of sulphate of soda (Glauber’s salt), sulphate of lime (gypsum),
sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salt), sulphate of potash and sul-
phate of alumina. The sulphates, except in a few cases, are
not found to such a large extent in potable waters as the car-

Heong on ot bonates. The following table gives the number of grains per
and sulphates gallon of carbonates and sulphates in the drinking water used
aed by the cities of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, London and

Arecities Tiverpool. The fourth column gives by percentage the pro-
portion of the sulphates to the carbonates, showing how much
the carbonates exceed the sulphates in their distribution in

natural waters :

Carbonates. Sulphates.
Name. Grains per gallon. Grains per gallon. Per cent.
Croton: 4. .0napese saws 4658 0-388 10
Cochituate (Boston)..... 0°830 0°102 “12
Schuylkill (Philadelphia). 3-867 0:057 01
Lond OM sis. 2 esses: eesiteaies 10-972 5-765 53
Tiverpeoleaveiauysesnss 0°870 1-000 1:15

aoe Sulphates act like carbonates and protect lead from corrosion.
M. Fordos records an interesting experiment which explains the

M Fordos Manner in which the sulphates protect lead. He agitated a
experiment solution of sulphate of soda in contact with some pellets of lead
in presence of air. There was soon formed a white powder
consisting of carbonate of lead and sulphate of lead. The fol-

lowing action had gone on in the liquid: The oxide of lead

had acted on the sulphate of soda and had abstracted some of

its sulphuric acid. This liberated a little soda, which then
combined with the carbonic acid of the air and formed carbon-

cnetanre 2t¢ Of soda, which in turn was acted on by the lead, forming
comblaesiaus carbonate of lead. It must be remembered that such changes
bases. as these are constantly occurring, one substance displacing an-

other from its combination and the displaced substance com-
TIIE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 173

bining with something else. It is the course of things which is
actually carried out in the water pipe.

In ground abounding in iron pyrites (sulphide of iron), disor- sutpniae ana
ganization and oxidation of the sulphide often takes place, the gr men”
product being sulphate of iron, or copperas. The latter substance
frequently finds its way into water, and must be classed as an
exception to the rule regulating the sulphates. It indirectly
causes a very serious corrosion of the lead. It is true, however,
in the case of the sulphates as in the case of the carbonates, that
their presence in water does not prevent the water from dissolv-
ing a trace of lead. It is merely a scientific fact of no great
practical importance, as the quantity of lead dissolved is so
small, although a trifle larger than in the case of the carbonates.

The action of the phosphates, it is agreed, is to prevent the actionor
action of water on lead. The phosphate of lead, which is ProsPyt’*
formed when water containing those salts flows through lead
pipes, is quite insoluble. The importance of this fact, however,
is not very great, as but few waters contain phosphates. The targe per-
Croton is a remarkable exception, as it contains, according to ees
Prof. Silliman’s analysis, 0°832 grains to the gallon, or more ™°°™
than as much as of sulphates. The other waters mentioned in
the table contain no phosphates at all except in the case of some
of the water supplied to London, which contains a trace of
phosphate of lime. The protective influence of the phosphates
may be completely destroyed by the presence of organic matter.

When water flows over iron pyrites it becomes impregnated
with a gas very offensive to the sense of smell. It is called sul- sutpnarettea.
phur water, and owes its offensive smell to sulphuretted hydro- Daye
gen. It is claimed that sulphur waters attack lead pipes very.
vigorously. They form an insoluble sulphide of lead on the action ot suz
pipes; but inasmuch as the sulphuretted hydrogen dissolved in ee
the water is a gas and acts directly on the lead and without the
intervention of the formation of the oxide of lead, it is likely
that the coating of the sulphide presents no obstacle to the con-
stant corrosion of the lead by the gas. The use of lead pipes
for the conveyance of sulphur water is, I think, unsafe.
Action of
nitrates and
nitrites

of lead.

Action of
nitrates not
in proportion
to quantity
in water.

Dr, Muir’s
experiment.

Sources of
nitrates in
water.

174 THE CIIEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

Waters containing nitrates and nitrites usually attack lead
vigorously, forming nitrate and nitrite of lead, both of which
are readily soluble in water and very poisonous. They corrode
the lead; the resulting salts are washed away, leaving the sur-
face of the lead clean, and the corrosion goes on. Both nitrates
and nitrites are formed from the action of organic matter and
act in much the same way. For convenience I may call them
both nitrates.

A very small quantity of nitrate of ammonia in water, or of
any other nitrate, acts just as vigorously as a large quantity. In
some experiments made by Dr. Muir, a grain and a half of a
nitrate to the gallon seemed to act as vigorously as double that
quantity. If the quantity of nitrates be sufficient, they will
corrode a pipe even in the presence of other salts, and in cases
in which pipes badly corroded have been examined, a crust of
carbonate and sulphate of lead has often been found. Beneath
this coating pits in the lead were discovered, sometimes far
apart and sometimes close together ; sometimes a few in num-
ber and sometimes numerous. “The coat over these caverns,”
says the experimenter, “was generally elevated and mammillary
protuberances were thus produced. The action had been most
energetic beneath this elevated portion of the coat, the pits
being generally bright and of metallic appearance.” The action
of the nitrates is often facilitated by the presence of certain
other salts, such as copperas (sulphate of iron).

The source of the nitrates is the decay of animal or vegetable
material. This furnishes the nitric acid which combines with
the lime, or alkali, or other basis found in the soil, and forms
nitrates. Nitrates are largely formed in stables and wherever
sewage is allowed to ferment or decay. Wells often contain
considerable quantities of nitrates. River water, especially after
a freshet, and spring water sometimes contain nitrates, but in
fluctuating quantities. The East London Water Company’s
water contained seven-tenths of a grain per gallon, but this
quantity as yet seems to have produced no bad results.
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 175

The chlorides are much less vigorous in their action upon chioriae
lead than the nitrates and nitrites. Common salt is an example
of a chloride. Its chemical name is chloride of sodium. When Pa
soda is dissolved in hydrochloric acid (muriatic), chloride of
sodium, or salt, is produced. In like manner, when potash is
dissolved in hydrochloric acid, chloride of potassium is pro-
duced. This brief explanation may show the meaning of
the term chloride, which indicates, without going too deeply
into the theory of chemical combination, the union of hydro-
chloric acid with some base, like potash, soda or lime.
Chlorides are abundant in waters, and an exact knowledge of cntoriaes
their action on lead is important. The chlorides found iit gecaor
water are chloride of potassium, chloride of sodium, chloride oe
of calcium, chloride of magnesium, and, rarely, chloride of
aluminum. By reference to a table already given, the reader
will see the amount of chlorides per gallon in the water sup-
plied to several large cities. The chlorides are usually present
in greater proportion than the sulphates in potable waters. A
well at Hartford, Conn., yielded on analysis, 153 grains of
chloride of sodium, 10} grains of chloride of calcium and 24
grains of chloride of magnesium per gallon, or 28-398 grains
per gallon in all. The Red River contains 38 grains of com-
mon salt per gallon. The Hampstead water supplied to London
contains as much as 7 grains of salt per gallon. The Trent, of
England, holds in solution 174 grains per gallon. Now, with actionor
reference to the action of these chlorides on lead, concerning a
which it is very important that we be exact, chemists differ.
The generally received opinion has been for a long time that
the presence of the chlorides facilitated the corrosion of the
lead. The chloride of lead, which is formed by the action of
a chloride on that metal, is slightly soluble in water, one part
of water taking up ;4, of its weight of the salt. This sotputy or
amount of solubility is very dangerous, as the proportion 1 to Pia
135 means 11 ounces of the poisonous salt.to the gallon. On mur'sex-
the other hand, Prof. Muir, after extended research, gave as ee
Solubility of
salts depend-
ent upon con-
ditions.

Muir’s experi-
ment not con-
elusive.

Chlorides act
oa lead with-
out the forma-
tion of an
oxide.

Action of
chlorides
continuous.

176 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

one of the results of his investigations, in a paper read before
the Glasgow Philosophical Society, that the chlorides do not
increase, but rather diminish, the action of water on lead, and
that, too, when the water contains a nitrate. Perhaps the sin-
gular result of the professor’s experiments may be explained by
considering a fact to which I have already referred, and the
disregard of which has been an occasion for stumbling to many
experimenters, viz., that some salts which are only partially
soluble, or quite insoluble, in water, may have their condition
as regards solubility entirely changed by the introduction of
another salt. Prof. Muir suspended bright sheets of lead in a
solution of chloride of calcium. Had he chosen another
chloride his results might have been different. The action of
the chloride on the lead produced a chloride of lead which did
not dissolve, and consequently the water showed only traces of
lead. It is known, however, that the effect of chloride of eal-
cium is to prevent the solution of the chloride of lead already
formed; for, although the latter is soluble in 135 parts of
water, it takes 634 parts of water containing chloride of cal-
cium to dissolve it. The experiments of Dr. Muir, then,
cannot be regarded as disproving the experience of the past.
There is an important difference between the action of the
chlorides on lead and the action of the other salts to which I
have referred. The latter require that the lead should be first
oxidized or rusted before they can act. The chlorides act
directly, without the formation of an oxide. No air, there-
fore, is necessary in such action. It follows from this that the
chlorides will act in cases in which other agents fail. The
action of the chloride, also, does not stop with the formation of
acrust on the lead, as is the case with ‘the carbonates. It is
continuous. The process of solution goes on until all the
salt is used or the lead entirely dissolved. After a time
little white knobs will be found on the lead, varying in size
from a pin’s head to a pea. If these are removed the lead
will be found to be pitted and very bright in these places. But
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 177

besides their direct action, the chlorides have an indirect influ-
ence, since they tend to render soluble in water the otherwise
insoluble sulphate of lead.

The corrosive action of the chlorides has an especial impor- cntoriaesin
tance in connection with sea water, or those portions of rivers” ae
impregnated with tide water. Sea water usually contains from
2 to 3 per cent. of its weight of common salt. The following
table shows the number of parts of the chlorides in 1000 parts
of sea water. Two specimens are given, one from the British
Channel and one from the Mediterranean :

 

 

Salt. British Channel. Mediterranean.
Chloride of sodium..... 28-059 29-494
Chloride of potassium... 0°766 0-505
Chloride of magnesium... 3°666 3°219
Total chlorides...... 82-491 83:148
Jt should be remembered that the corrosive action of the chiorides tess

chlorides is not nearly so great as that of the nitrates, for the es

chloride of lead is much less soluble than the nitrate of lead, ™****
and the former may, therefore, be formed on the pipe as a thin
coating which, under some circumstances, may act as a slight
protection, although it is liable to be, and is, constantly washed

away by the dissolving action of the water.

The evidence of the action of the chlorides, as deduced from zviaences of
cases of disease, is somewhat uncertain, as in a record of cases erate
of lead poisoning a careful analysis of the water is seldom
given. Dr. Christison speaks of a house in Banfshire which
was supplied through lead pipe with water from a spring
three-quarters of a mile distant. Two and a half years after
the owner’s occupation of the house began he was seized with
severe abdominal complaints, apparently incurable. He left
the place and went to Edinburgh, where he recovered. He
returned home and began to use the water from the lead pipes,
and his disease returned. An analysis of the water showed the
DCU lead in it. A more thorough analysis showed the
178 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

solid contents of the water to be z¢}y,, a large portion of which
was chloride of sodium.

Lord Aberdeen’s country residence was supplied with water
from aspring through lead pipes. Several inmates of the house
were presently taken sick with lead disease. A white film was
discovered on the chamber water bottle. Treatment for lead
colic removed the difficulty. The analysis of the water showed
that zj5> of it was solid matter, most of which consisted of
chloride of sodium.

Iodiaesand The iodides and bromides have an effect upon lead very simi-
Promice* Jay to that exerted by the chlorides, but they are rarely found
in potable waters, and then in very minute quantities. They do
not need, therefore, to be classed among the agencies of corro-
sion to which lead pipe is commonly subjected.
organto The action of organic matter upon lead is usually prompt and
oe positive. By organic matter is meant animal or vegetable sub-
The veseta- stances and their immediate products. This part of the
investigation has been to some extent anticipated by what I
have said respecting the action of acids; but organic matter
does not exist in water simply in the form of vegetable acids.
Sourees of In fact, the acids formed by the decay of organized bodies in
tamination, Water are only intermediate compounds. The composition of
the organic matter varies with every stage of decay. Changes
in temperature, contact of other substances and exposure to
the air, induce a constant change in the constitution of such
materials. Asa consequence, organic bodies of various constitu-
tion are found in water.
Serurnense The organic materials present in water are of two kinds—
matterin they occur in a state of solution, or are simply suspended in the
water ss . sos eye
water, retaining in a finely divided condition their solid form.
They sometimes give the water an acid reaction and sometimes
an alkaline reaction.
Soluble Soluble organic matter may be derived from vegetable
organic

matter. decomposition, in which case there is generally no nitrogen,
and, consequently, no ammonia present, or from the decay of
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 179

animal matter, which gives rise to the formation of nitrogenous
compounds (ammonia and nitrates). In fact, the latter class of
compounds usually contain, according to Dr. Wm. Proctor, of
England, from 2°5 to 7 per cent. of ammonia, a dangerous con-
stituent in respect to the action of the water on lead. River Antmatana

a ‘ ‘ a vegetable
water usually holds in suspension or solution a considerable matterin

quantity of matter of animal and vegetable origin. Such are ey ae
weeds, fish spawn, leaves, mud and microscopic animals.

The decomposition of these bodies produces organic com-
pounds.

The action of such substances is most important. If they actionotor-
are simply held in suspension, they may generally be kept out tag”
of the pipes by a proper method of filtering. If they are
allowed to enter the pipes, they are apt to lodge in some
bend or angle, where they form a nucleus around which
other organic matters may collect. Here they decompose and
form compounds which dissolve away the protecting crust of
carbonate of lead and corrode the pipes. By their decomposi-
tion they evolve ammoniacal compounds and nitrates, both of
which are destructive to lead. I have already referred to the
action of the vegetable acids and alkalies. If the organic mat-
ter is dissolved in the water instead of being held in suspen-
sion, it cannot be kept out by means of filters, and if it is
present in large quantity, it renders the water dangerous to the
safety of lead.

The process of decay, or fermentation, gives rise to the ele- Decay ana
ment of danger in the presence of organic matter in the pipes. eae
Decay, or fermentation, is simply the decomposition of a body pipes
into its constituents, and the recombining of these constitu-
ents in new forms with new properties. It is a chemical
principle generally conceded that an element, in passing from
one state of combination into another, is most active in its
properties. So generally recognized is this principle that the
adjective nascent (meaning new-born) is applied to a body in
such a condition. In the process of decay many substances
180 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

must be passing into their nascent condition, being liberated
by decomposition, and out of it again when a new combination
is formed by the free substance. During this nascent condition
the free substance is likely to attack anything which may be
present and for which it has an affinity. Whenever, therefore,
lead is exposed to contact with fermenting matter, it is rapidly
oxidized, and the oxide thus formed is dissolved by the organic
acids which result from the fermentation. Even if the salt
formed by the organic acid and the lead is insoluble in water,
it may be dissolved by an excess of the acid in the water. The
principle in accordance with which this takes place has already
Corrosionof heen referred to. Lead is often corroded by contact with
lead by con-
tact with de- decaying wood. In Amsterdam lead roofs were substituted for
eaying wood. , ‘d . °
tiles. The inhabitants used, for culinary purposes, water col-
Lead poison- lected from the roofs and through lead gutters. Lead colic,
“perdam, Which had rarely appeared in that city, broke out as soon as the
lead roofs were introduced, and in a violent form. Doubtless
the purity of the rain water had much to do with the result,
but as the trouble occurred especially in the autumn, the
inhabitants ascribed the rapid corrosion, in great measure,
to the decaying leaves which at that season lie on the roofs.
ane An illustration of the action of organic matter on lead may
the action of be obtained from a little experiment which any one may per-
*teroniead. form. If a strip of bright lead be immersed in a glass of
dark-colored rose water exposed to the air, the water after
some time will usually be rendered colorless. The organic
matter of the rose water is decomposed by the lead, which itself
during the process is corroded. If such water be tested after-
ward it will be found to contain lead in solution.

One of the most important features of the action of organic
matter on lead is the fact that it enables water to dissolve some
of the protective salts of lead, such as the sulphate and phos-
phate. :

Amountof The amount of organic matter in water is variable. There

organic mat- . .
ter in water, is generally a small amount in all waters. Even water from

a
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING 181

granitic districts, according to Dr. Proctor, contains from 0°3

to 0-7 grains per gallon, while water which has permeated
vegetable soil may afford 12 to 30, or even more, grains per

gallon. The amount of organic matter generally depends on

local causes. The sources of organic matter derived from

animal decay are numerous, chiefly animal excreta and the

refuse of manufactories. The contents of sewers and cesspools sewage con
drain into springs or rivers, or else the water permeates the soil ee
more or less impregnated with sewage. Water may be contam-

inated in this manner by a nuisance at a considerable distance

from it, depending on the porosity and tenacity of the soil.

There is very little doubt that to this cause many cases of corro-

sion of pipes and many accidents are due in localities where

the constitution of the water and the general experience point

to safety in the use of lead pipes. Neither the Croton nor
Cochituate water usually contains organic matter. The Schuyl-

kill water, on an analysis by Prof. Silliman, Jr., showed 0-08

grain to the gallon.

We have considered the action of each salt as though a water action on
could be found which contained only one salt in solution. The Scie
fact is that waters often contain several salts, and the question ™*°¢ 5"
naturally arises, May not one salt interfere with or affect the
action of another? On this question Prof. Muir advances some mutr’s experi
opinions based upon experimental tests. He poured into a clean ree ee
flask 500 ¢. ¢. (about one-tenth of a gallon) of water, and poured
a similar quantity into each of several other flasks. “To these
were added weighed quantities of various salts. Pieces of clean,
bright lead were then suspended by threads in these solutions,
so that the liquid should have free access to all parts of the
lead. Thus the surface of lead acted on could be accurately
determined. Each piece was of the same size, and the surface
acted on was 8°65 square inches. The flasks were set aside for
24, 48 and 72 hours, and at the expiration of each period the
amount of lead dissolved was estimated.” An idea of the accu-
racy of the operation by which these amounts of lead were
Results.

Examination

of Muir’s
table,

182 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

estimated may be gained from the fact that the reaction em-
ployed was sufficiently delicate to detect two parts of lead in
1,000,000 parts of water. He gives the results of his experiments
in tabulated form, and from this table I take so much as refers to
mixtures of salts, changing the arrangement for the sake of
greater clearness. The first column gives the number of the
experiment; the second gives the names of the salts placed in
the flask in which the experiment was carried on; the third
gives the proportion of the salts (the strength of the solution)
in grains per gallon; the fourth, fifth and sixth give the esti-
mated amount of lead dissolved in the water at the end of the
three periods, 24, 48 and 72 hours.

 

 

4 é # 3 Grains of lead per
z = 3 gallon dissolved in
at Names of Salts. 4 :
Z es & pre: eo ose
I | Nitrate of ammonia............-.060. Eq. | OxGE |e es hh 27S
3 { Nitrate of potash...............0.0.. I.4 oak eka
Sulphate of soda..............--.00.. 3.5
3| Nitrate of ammonia.................. 2.8 | 1.05 | 1.05 | 2.24
' | ke Of potash... ses yeewagen sae x ce 2.8 Sie anee haces
Sulphate of soda.................00.. 14.8
5 { Nitrate of potash.................00, ae 663%
Carbonate of potash..... ............ 21.7
6 eee of potash icicwsens eseonsadns a 0.035
Sulphate of potash................... 35-2
( Nitrate of ammonia ................
7 |4 Carbonate of potash.... ............ 0.028
eee Of 80d 8 seissinam wens es eee 14. rs)
Sulphate of soda.................008. 14.0
8 |4 Carbonate of potash..............00. 2.8 >] .... | 2... | 0.007
Chloride of calcium.................. 7-0

 

 

 

 

 

 

The table, although divested of much of its original intricacy,
seems somewhat complicated, and requires a little study in
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 183

order that we may see the important practical truths which it
reveals. In experiment No. 1 a nitrate alone was used and its
corrosiveness noted. The quantity of nitrate used, it must be
remembered, is very large; we seldom see any natural water
with so large a proportion. The East London Water Com-
pany’s water, previously referred to, only contained one-half
this quantity, or 0°7 grain per gallon. In experiment No. 2
the same quantity of nitrate was used and a sulphate added, the
proportion being as 1 to 24. Mark the protecting power of the
sulphate. After 24 hours the nitrate alone had removed 0:91
grain, but when accompanied by the sulphate it only removed
0-14 grain. In experiment No. 4 the proportion of nitrate to
sulphate was 1 to 6. In this case only 0:05 grain was removed
after 24 hours and only 0-08 grain after 72 hours. In experi-
ment No. 3, where the same quantity of nitrate was used as in
No. 4, 2°24 grains were removed at the end of 72 hours. Ex-
periment No. 5 shows that a carbonate exercises a more power-
ful protective influence than the sulphate, for after 48 hours
the nitrate had removed no lead, and only 0-021 grain after 72
hours, practically nothing. In experiment No. 7, in which a
nitrate, carbonate and sulphate were used, there was no action
until after the third period, and then only 0-028 grain had been
removed. In experiment No. 8 a chloride was substituted for
a nitrate.

The results of these experiments are very important, since 1, ortance
they teach that even the dangerous nitrates may exist in water of ume
without any detriment to the pipe if there be also sufficient
carbonates and sulphates. If the proportion of nitrate to car-
bonate or sulphate is large, the latter salts offer but little pro-
tection to the pipe, nor can we expect any favorable result if
the chlorides be in excess. Sulphate of lead is somewhat soluble
in water containing chlorides. A case is reported by Dr. tesa potson-
Thomason of the poisoning of a number of people at Tun- ie
bridge, England. The water was conducted a quarter of a mile
through a lead pipe. An analysis showed that it was very pure,
184 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

containing only one part of saline matter (three-fourths chloride
of sodium) in 38,000 parts of water. In this case the propor-
ioe tion of the chloride was too great. The action of mixed salts
dependent would seem, therefore, to depend upon their proportion to each
mature pro. other in the water holding them in solution. When the pro-
portie® nortion of the corrosive salts is not too great they may be
assumed not to interfere with the action of the protective salts.
Pr oes The water supplied to the city of London is a practical illus-
tration of the truth of these conclusions. It contains both
nitrates and chlorides, and yet, on account of the abundance of
carbonates and sulphates, the influence on the lead pipes through
which it flows is unimportant.
seen When organic matter is present in the water, in connection
ganic matter With other substances, it is almost impossible to predict what
“fon with Will be the action. It is safe to say, however, that unless the
onernes, quantity of organic matter is exceedingly small, the pipes which
convey the water should be suspected until a long experience
has proven that there is no danger. The general experience is
unfavorable, the organic matter in many instances completely
destroying the protective action of the other salts. The crusts
of carbonate, sulphate and phosphate of lead, which owe their
protective action entirely to their insolubility, are often easily
dissolved by an excess of organic matter in the water. Com-
pounds of ammonia with organic acids easily dissolve sulphate
of lead. Phosphate of lead is readily dissolved by the feeblest
acids.
mixturesof The most vigorous action occurs when several corrosive salts
cormalts, are found together in water, or are found in connection with
organic matter. The most usual combination is that of the
chlorides and organic matter. Chloride of lead is soluble to a
dangerous extent in water, as we have seen, but its solubility is
much increased by the presence of vegetable acids, and of am-
monia and other alkalies.
rxamptes Sulphate of iron (copperas) and nitrate of lime (lime saltpe-
of corrosive

salts in com. ter) react on each other in a manner dangerous to lead pipe.
Piston: Copperas is composed of sulphuric acid and iron. When.
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 185

exposed to air and water the iron becomes rusted, and this
reaction sets free some of the sulphuric acid, which then acts
on the nitrate of lime. The latter substance is composed of
nitric acid and lime. The free sulphuric acid attacks the lime
and expels the nitric acid, which, being set free, attacks the
lead.

Extraneous substances not.belonging to the water which Infuence ot
flows through the pipe sometimes act as corroding agents, and abtences
their action has often been confounded with the action of the ™”**"
water itself. I have already alluded to the effect of a piece of
mortar dropping into a cistern or tank, and also to the possi-
bility of outside corrosion of a pipe. I shall now refer to only
one other extraneous substance which may affect the integrity
of lead conduits. Service pipes of this metal are generally untonot
attached to iron mains, and iron rust is sometimes carried from a nips
the main to the pipe. The question is, Does this substance
affect the pipe? Authorities are diametrically opposed in their
answers to this question. In the first place, we have an experi-
ment made by Prof. Horsford. Iron combines with the oxygen
of the air in several proportions. Iron rust is an oxide of iron
which contains one and a half times as much oxygen as the oxide
of iron which usually enters into combination of acids to form
sulphates, phosphates, &c. The latter oxide is called the pro-
toxide. The theory of the action between lead and iron rust is
that lead takes away a portion of the oxygen from the iron rust,
reducing it to protoxide of iron, which combines with other
materials in the water. When the lead withdraws the oxygen
from the iron and appropriates it to itself, it becomes oxidized
or rusted. This theory of the oxidation or corrosion of the prot. nors .
lead Prof. Horsford disputes, and defends his position by fernacas
experiment. He placed bars of lead in contact with iron
rust, in open tubes containing Cochituate, Croton, Jamaica,
Fairmount, Albany and Troy water, and at the end of two days
tested the water for protoxide of iron. No reaction was ob-
tained. Subsequent tests were made at the end of seven,
186 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING

twelve and twenty-three days, but no trace of protoxide of iron
was found in the water. The iron rust had, therefore, not been
reduced by the lead. THe again placed iron rust and bright
bars of lead in flasks of distilled and Cochituate water and sealed
them. These flasks were kept for a long time and the bright-
ness of the lead was not in the slightest degree dimmed. As a
laboratory experiment this is of importance, but in the light of
the actual experience of lead pipe in contact with iron, it seems
insufficient. The following case, although not so systematic
Examples of nor so easily explained, is much more important. The water
lead corrosion

byironrust. of a certain spring in England had flowed into and from a
leaden reservoir for 60 years without injury to the reservoir or
contamination of the water. It was conveyed to and away from
the reservoir in lead pipes. The water was afterward conveyed
through iron pipes and immediately lead was found in solution.
The water was then found also to be so destructive to the bot-
toms of lead cisterns that some of them had to be renewed in

five or six years.
sourcesot 1t would seem that an extreme inference in either direction
lahontors regarding the action of iron rust on lead would be inadvisable.
cxperiments: ()n the one hand, it must be remembered that it is impossible
in a laboratory experiment to reproduce all the conditions which
exist in the lead pipe. For instance, the rust in the pipe is car-
ried along with rapidity by the water flowing through the con-
duit, and physical action may have something to do in faceili-
tating the corrosion of the lead by the iron. Again, the
question of the influence of other substances in promoting
chemical action must not be forgotten. In the experiment of
Prof. Horsford, there were used simply iron rust, lead and
water containing other substances in solution. Suppose, how-
ever, that different waters had been used, holding in solution
different substances, or that another quality of lead had been
employed, other results might have been expected. It is advis-
able to suspect iron rust until by long experience its harmless
character in each particular case is established. Its action no
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 187

doubt varies. with the constitution of the water and the cireum-
stances of physical contact which attend its presence in lead
pipe.
We leave now the subject of the corrosion of the lead, as corroston of

affected by the peculiar constitution of the water, to consider pe as

certain influences which either act independently of the sub- Precntuta
stances that are dissolved in the water or, when an erosion of “°F
the lead has already commenced, tend to increase and hasten

the process. These influences have perplexed experimenters

more than other branches of the subject. They bring about
anomalous and unexpected results, often in direct antagonism

to some pet theory which has been built up on the subject. To

this may be attributed many of the contradictions in the results

of the observations of various chemists.

Prominent among these disturbing influences is galvanic ac- catvanto
tion. No elaborate apparatus is necessary to bring this agency ee
into operation. The lead pipe with its metallic connections is
often a battery in itself. All batteries depend for their action
upon the contact of two metals immersed in a bath of some
liquid. Usually, the two metals employed are zine and platinum gonattions
or silver, and the bath in which they are immersed is dilute of selvante
sulphuric acid. The acid attacks only one of the metals, zine,
and leaves the other intact. The metal attacked by the acid is
ealled the positive metal, and the other the negative metal.
Whenever two metals are brought together a galvanic action
ensues. The intensity of the effect varies with the electrical
character of the metals used. Certain metals, as tin and cop-
per, have but a weak action, while others, as silver and zine,
produce a vigorous galvanic current. The truth of the latter
statement can be ascertained by placing a silver coin on one
side of the tongue, and a strip of zine on the other, and bring-
ing the exteroir edges together. A sharp, prickly sensation is
felt. Here we have the two metals, while the fluid is saliva.

Let it be remembered that the contact of two metals is the sim-
ple principle which, elaborated and applied to convenient ap-
188 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

paratus, underlies the whole subject of galvanic electricity, and

it will be easy to make the application to lead pipes.
Suet When a current of electricity is thus excited by the contact
metals. Of two metals in saline solution, it has been found that only the
positive metal is usually very much corroded, while the other,
the negative metal, is unharmed. Lead pipes are often placed
in contact with iron, copper or tin. In every such case we
have a galvanic battery, the two metals in contact being the
poles, and the water flowing through the pipes the saline solu-
tion. As a consequence, a galvanic current is excited and cor-
rosion takes place. The nature of the salts dissolved modifies
christisonon this action. Dr. Christison says: ‘The presence of bars of
Suionn other metals crossing lead, or bits of them lying upon it, will
ead PIP also develop the same action.” It is possible, also, that iron
rust, and even the carbonate of lead compounds which encrust
the pipe, may sometimes be thrown into electrical relations

with the pipe.

These statements do not present a new fact. The corrosion of
lead by galvanic action, caused by uniting lead with other metals
under water, was proven long ago by the experiments of Dr.

corrosionot Paris, England. The importance of this fact may be illus-
a pier trated by reference to what has probably occurred frequently in
action the case of iron ships, namely, the corrosion of the iron plates
by galvanic action developed by the contact of copper and iron.
The Engineer, a few years ago, in commenting on the wreck of
The Megara. the ironclad Megara, called attention to the startling fact that,
should even a minute piece of copper remain in contact with
the inside bottom plates of an iron ship, in a bath of bilge
water, as under the circumstances of the case it necessarily must
be, an active galvanic energy is established between the two
metals, and the iron being the sacrificial metal (7. e. the positive
metal), “the bottom will sooner or later be eaten through with
a hole somewhat larger than the superimposed copper.”
Electrica The relation of the metals to each other in producing cur-
cf mate rents of electricity varies somewhat with the constitution of the
water. The order is as follows:
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 189

In Acid Waters. In Alkaline Waiters.
Zine, Zine,
Tin, Tin,
Lead, Iron,
Copper, Lead,
Tron, Copper.

In the above columns each metal is positive to all below it;
that is, if any two of the metals are in contact with each other
in a solution, the one that stands above the other (in the table)
will be consumed. For example, were iron and lead brought
in contact in an alkaline solution, the former would be rusted
at the point where the latter touched it.

Copper and brass often come in contact with lead where copper ana
copper couplings, boilers or faucets are used, or, in some cases, tast with”
where copper screws, bars or pipes touch the lead. That gal-'**
vanic action often occurs under such circumstances is unques-
tionable, and as to which of the two metals is corroded there is
but little doubt. By consulting the tables above, we find that
lead, being above copper, is the positive metal, and must, there-
fore, be corroded. Some interesting experiments were made casamajor’s:
by Mr. F. Casamajor, throwing a very clear light on this point. “°°"™°""*
He took four glass flasks, into each of which he poured about one-
fifth of a pint of aqueduct water drawn fresh from the hydrant.

In two of these flasks he placed pieces of sheet lead, perfectly
clean, the surface of lead in each flask being three square
inches. In the other two flasks he placed little bundles of sheet
lead and copper wire rolled up together in perfect contact. The
lead and copper had each a surface of three square inches, and
each was perfectly clean and bright. One flask with lead alone,
and one with lead and copper, were left in a dark place for
forty hours at a temperature of 75° F. The other two flasks,
one with lead alone, and one with lead and copper, were left in
a dark place for 40 hours at a temperature of 150° F. The
object of placing the flasks in the dark was to approach the
actual condition of things in lead pipe. At the expiration of
190 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

40 hours both flasks containing only lead and water were exam-
ined. The lead was perfectly bright and the water limpid.
On testing the water no lead was discovered. The two flasks
containing the lead and copper presented a very different ap-
pearance. The surface of ‘the lead was coated with a white
oxycarbonate, which, on shaking the flask, spread through the
water, making it turbid. The water was tested for copper and
showed the faintest trace. Another portion of water from the
same flask gave the usual reactions for lead.

txampleot So much for the laboratory. A practical illustration will
eatone confirm the truth of the inference to be drawn from the above
experiment. A gentleman residing near Baltimore, having:
occasion to have a pump repaired, on examining the leak found
that the lead pipe, which was connected to the pump by a brass
coupling, was almost destroyed in the vicinity of the brass.
The corrosion extended for an inch from the coupling, and the
pipe was held together bya few shreds of lead. The pipe,
which was used to carry water from a well, was entirely unin-
Dr. Buckler’s Jured in every other portion. Dr. R. Buckler, who reports this
experimen fact, made an experiment upon the water of this well to satisfy
himself of the cause of sucha remarkable corrosion. He placed
about four ounces of the water in two beaker glasses, and in one
immersed a bright strip of lead; in the other he immersed a
strip of lead and brass connected. The beakers were covered
with paper, so as not to exclude the air entirely, and allowed
to remain undisturbed for a week. He then tested water
from both glasses. In the case of the water containing only
lead he obtained a slight precipitate, and in the other a copious
precipitate. The fact that where copper or brass and lead are
in contact under water a galvanic action is liable to occur, pro-

moting corrosion, is, therefore, pretty clearly established.
contacter ‘Tin is very frequently used in contact with lead. Solder is
timandtead- on alloy of lead and tin, and it is well known that corrosion is

Joints intin- generally the greatest in the vicinity of the solder. The cause

lined lead , . . . * 78
“pipes. is galvanic action, which is likely to occur when the two metals

sion by gal-
vanic action.
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 191

composing lead-encased tin pipe are both subjected to the action
of water; hence the importance of making such joints as will
insure a continuous tin lining where this pipe is used, and the
danger attending the practice of merely bringing the ends
together and wiping the joint with solder.

A great variety of physical influences operate either to cause action ot
or accelerate the corrosion of lead by water. These influences qaaeahed
often act in direct antagonism to the agencies which protect the“
pipe, and in the case of anomalous action of a certain water, the
explanation is often to be looked for in this direction. They
come under the head of local causes.

A defect in the pipe will sometimes promote corrosion. Dr. defects in
Dana remarks that he has seen lead pipe which conveyed spring ope
water very much eroded and slightly perforated by the enlarge-
ment of an’original defect in a part of the pipe. The water
was very pure, and yet, ‘notwithstanding a deposited coat of
oxide and carbonate of lead, the erosion continued and lead
was dissolved even at the end of eight years.”

Strains on the pipes will produce unfavorable results. Water strains on
is often delivered under great pressure, and seams are by this”?
means made in the pipes, and a disarrangement of the particles
ensues. Where the circumstances are favorable, the corrosion
is promoted by a combination of mechanical and chemical forces.

The freezing of water, when it does not burst the pipe, has the

effect of straining it, thus producing a change in the molecu-

lar arrangement of the material of the pipe and facilitating cor-
rosion. A strain on the lead produced by bending it sharply, erects or
will sometimes facilitate corrosion, and for the same reasons as 7"? "°*""*
in the instances just named. Prof. Nichols records a case in
which this cause is clearly indicated. He says that he had in

his possession a section of supply pipe “removed from the
aqueduct of a neighboring city (¢. ¢., near Boston), in a portion

of which corrosive action had proceeded so far as to cause leak-

age. The part thus acted upon was confined to an acute angle,

and there is evidence that the plumber, in placing it in its posi-
Prof. Nichols’
theory.

Activity of
corrosion
in new and
old pipes.

Duration of
corrosive
action in
new pipes.

192 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

tion, bent it in the wrong direction, thus creating the necessity
for another turn. This pipe had, doubtless, been subjected to
two violent turns, which seriously impaired the homogeneity of
the metal.” Prof. Nichols suggests that the disturbance of the
crystalline structure of the metal by strains may change its
electrical condition, and that thus galvanic action may be pro-
moted, giving rise to chemical decomposition.

A few simple facts should be here noted, and, indeed, the
omission to give them proper weight may be regarded as
one of the causes of the numerous complexities and contradic-
tions with which chemists have surrounded the subject of the
action of water on lead. First, there is a great deal of differ-
ence in the activity of corrosion in new and old pipes. No
matter what the tendency of a water to form an insoluble pro-
tective coating on leaden surfaces, there is usually some corro-
sive action at first. Croton water is commonly regarded as
exerting no dangerous corrosive action on lead, but when Croton
pipes are taken up at the end of several months they will be
found to be corroded, and in some places the lead is pitted.
Dr. Dana remarks that he has examined small sections of pipes
which had been used in conveying water from the James River,
Va., for twelve years. There was a “fine, reddish colored and
quite smooth and compact coat deposited on the inner surface
of the pipe, which was easily detached, showing evident. and
unmistakable marks of corrosion by small pits and thread-like
channels.” These were evidently made when the pipes were
new and before the crust formed.

It is interesting to enquire how long a time must elapse be-
fore a lead pipe becomes sufficiently incrusted to admit of its
being used with safety. Prof. Nichols immersed a section of a
new lead pipe in Cochituate water for one hour at the tempera-
ture of 65° F. The water then gave decided evidence of lead
being present. The piece was removed and placed in six fresh
portions of water, one hour in each. Each sample of water
gave the reaction of lead. The experiment was continued for
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 193

two weeks, varying the time of immersion in fresh portions of
water from one hour to ten. The lead indications still con-
tinued, although at last they were feeble.

The amount of lead which water exercising a corrosive action amount ot
is found to contain, is usually dependent upon the length of aoe
time it has stood in the pipe. It is also affected by tempera- °°"
ture and season. Waters from given sources do not show the
same constitution from one season to another. An excess of
rain may temporarily change the character of the water and its
action on lead; while an elevation of its temperature may make
a water previously harmless extremely dangerous as regards its
action on lead.

From the facts already presented in this chapter, the reader concimatons
will, in all probability, be led to the conclusion that lead pipe fea pipee
can never be used without giving rise to the danger of lead
poisoning. I think it safe to venture the opinion that the dan-
ger exists in some degree under all but the most exceptional
circumstances. Admitting that severe cases of lead poisoning reaa poison
rarely occur from the use of water drawn through lead pipes, '*°” ”*"
they do occur, and under a great variety of circumstances; and
I have no doubt that nine-tenths of the mischief done by lead
in its effect on the human system escapes the notice of physi-
cians. It is undoubtedly true, however, that certain waters can
pass through lead pipes without practical contamination, even
though they take up enough of the metal to give a lead reaction
when subject to the delicate tests of the laboratory. I have
already spoken of the manner in which water first acts upon
lead and the effects of long-continued contact between them ;
but it is desirable to recur to this, for the reason that it seems
to be the central fact of the whole subject and should be thor-
oughly understood. The first result of the contact between summary ot
water and lead is the formation on the surface of the metal of SPecunsue
a whitish crust or scum of oxide of lead, formed by the combi- action of po
nation of the oxygen of the air dissolved in the water with the a4.
lead of ue pipe. The next result is the solution of this oxide
194 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

of lead by the water and its removal, if nothing prevents. If
this were all, the destruction of lead pipes and the poisoning of
those who use them would only be a matter of time, for as fast
as the soluble oxide was dissolved away a new coating would
be formed. But as soon as the scum of oxide of lead is formed
on the surface of the lead, the former is attacked by the carbonic
acid (which is always present in the air and is almost always in
solution in the water) and the lead is converted into carbonate
of lead, one of the principal ingredients of the painter’s white
lead. This carbonate of lead is practically insoluble, and ad-
heres to the surface of the lead as a hard crust which soon
thickens until it prevents the action of the water altogether.
expedients Fortunately for those who are compelled to use water sup-
sguinst long Plied through lead pipes, chemistry is not without resources for
powonins guarding against lead poisoning. The first and simplest of
these is filtration. Filters made of chalk have been strongly
Robierre’s recommended, and the experiments of M. Robierre are sufti-
“nth chaik Clently minute to warrant us in accepting with confidence his
conclusions concerning the efficacy of this material. He states
very positively that his researches have led him to the conclu-
sion that the greater portion of poisonous lead compounds in
water, obtained by the contact of the common water with lead
pipes, is in suspension, and that frequently the filtration of this
water through chalk deprives it of its poisonous properties.
Woodchar- Wood charcoal, coarsely pulverized, has also been recom-
vor mended. This will remove as much as 7 grains of lead to the
gallon.
Protectionot It is better, of course, to prevent the water from acting on
riForrosion, the pipes at all, and to secure this desirable immunity from
Filtration of corrosive action various plans have been suggested. Among

ter bef . ° .
we passing these may be mentioned the filtration of water before it enters

aes the pipes. Sand, clay and, better still, animal charcoal answer
admirably well as filters, for they not only remove the mechani-
cally suspended particles, but a portion of the organic matter
Beneficial dissolved in the water. The latter result is probably effected

results of . e rs ‘
filtration. by the oxidation of the organic substances into harmless com-
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 195

pounds while passing through the filters. Soluble organic mat-
ter may be almost entirely removed by filtering the water
through black or magnetic oxide of iron. This occurs through-
out the United States as an ore, and when coarsely ground is
an admirable filtering material for organic matter. One of the
most remarkable characteristics of this oxide of iron as a filter-
ing material is that it does not perceptibly lose its power by
time and use. In the water works of Southport, England, a
filter bed was in use for seven years without showing any dimi-
nution of power, and in domestic filters used for the same
length of time there seems to have been no occasion for cleans-
ing them.

When filters cannot be depended upon, the best method of
preventing the contamination of water with lead salts is to line
the pipes with an insoluble coating. There are various plans
for accomplishing this result. One of the oldest, as well as the
simplest, is that recommended by Dr. Christison. He says that
“a remedy may be found in unusually pure spring water by
leaving the pipes full of the water for a few months without
drawing off.” The water acts on the lead, forming the insolu-
ble coating of carbonate of lead to which I have already
referred so frequently. During the long period in which the
water is standing in the pipes the coating becomes hard and
thick enough to resist the further corrosion of the water.
Where this method will not answer, some material should be
put in the water in the pipes which will form an insoluble
coating on the lead. Dr. Christison recommends phosphate of
soda. In one of his experiments he put in some lead pipes
some phosphate of soda, in weight about 1:25000 the weight of
the water. This would require the use in a pipe 100 feet long
and three-fourths inch inside diameter of only 6 grains of phos-
phate of soda. Fourteen days afterward the solution was dis-
charged and spring water readmitted, and a great improvement
had taken place. The solution was replaced and another trial
was made six weeks afterward, and the lead could scarcely be

Magnetic
oxide of Iron.

Insoluble
linings for
pipes.

Dr. Christi-
son’s method.

Phosphate
of soda.
196 THE CIIEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

discovered in the water. There was no further trouble with
regard to lead in the water, although for more than a year pre-
vious the water had continued to act vigorously on the lead.
eect Another plan was suggested by Messrs. Rolfe & Gillet, of
Boston, which is very effective and works more rapidly than
the preceding. They dissolve one pound of sulphide of potas-
sium in two gallons of water, and allow a solution of this
strength to remain in the pipes for twelve hours. The interior
of the pipes becomes covered with a black impervious coating
of sulphide of lead, which prevents the further action of the
Dr. Schwaz’s water. Dr. Schwaz, of Breslau, advises the use of a warm and
concentrated solution of sulphide of potassium. This will do
the work more rapidly, sometimes in fifteen minutes. The
more concentrated the solution, however, the more expensive
is the operation. Crude sulphide of potassium and sulphide of
sodium are sometimes used.
mr. Perrys Another plan was suggested, about five years ago, by Mr.
meee Robert P. Perry, of Newport, R. J. He employs a solution of
chromate of potassa, which is poured into the pipes to be pro-
tected. It forms an insoluble coating of chromate of lead,
which, the inventor claims, protects the pipe and does not inter-
fere with soldering.
Detectionot There are several methods of determining by analysis whether
Oy ansivata, lead is present in water or not, all of which are within the
ability of the plumber of good general intelligence and judg-
ment who will provide himself with the necessary chemicals
and apparatus. Chemical knowledge is not requisite, but neat-
ness, careful manipulation and accuracy in noting results
Delicacy reached are indispensable. It should be remembered, how-
me reacte® ever, that the reactions by which the presence of lead is deter-
mined are very delicate, and any carelessness may cause one to
blunder and arrive at false conclusions. It should also be
remembered that although the positive results of chemical
Kegative re- analysis are conclusive when they show the presence of lead in

sults incon

cusive. Water, negative results do not always prove that no lead is pres-
TIE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 197

ent. For this reason I should advise the employment of a timitation
chemist to make careful analyses whenever lead poisoning is ee
feared or suspected. The intelligent plumber or any one else

may tell, however, whether water has taken up lead during its
passage through pipes or when held in tanks lined with that

metal, and also—approximately, at. least—-whether a given

water is likely to act on lead, and the information thus gained

may often be of great value. In the succeeding chapter some

simple rules are given for determining the constitution of

water. We will here direct our attention merely to tests for
metallic salts taken up by water in its passage through metallic

pipes and reservoirs.

The first step in the analysis of water is to concentrate it. concentra-
Draw from the pipes about five gallons of water. The best age
time to do this is after the water has been standing in the pipes
for two or three hours, as there is likely to be more lead in the
water than when the water is constantly running. This quan-
tity of water should be boiled until it is evaporated down to a
gill or less. In boiling and in all the other operations the
experimenter must be careful to use no vessel containing lead.

The first portion of the operation may be performed in a large metnoa ot
vessel and over a stove. Care should be taken to cover the °™""™"™
vessel so that no impurities get into the liquid from the air.

When the water is reduced in bulk to less than a quart, it
should be transferred to a quart glass beaker. Such -a vessel

can be purchased at any glassware establishment. The beaker,

being a little over half full of water, is placed upon a sand bath

‘while the latter is cold, and a pinch of acetate of ammonia is

put into the water. An alcohol lamp or gas flame is then

placed under the sand bath. The latter is simply a sheet-iron

saucer full of sand. The sand distributes the heat along the
bottom of the beaker. The object of this concentration is to
strengthen the solution. Whenever lead is found in water it

is usually in such small quantities that the reactions are very

faint, but by boiling the water down we obtain in a gill of
Filtration,

Sulphuretted
hydrogen.

198 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

water all the lead dissolved in five gallons, and thus have a
solution in which we are able to discover lead if any is pres-
ent.

If, after this concentration, the liquid appears turbid, it is
best to filter it. Cut filter papers can be bought in packages
from dealers in chemical supplies. They consist of circular
pieces of a material resembling blotting paper. These are
folded and placed in the funnel, which must be of glass; the
liquid is poured into the paper cone held in the funnel, and
trickles from it clear and limpid. No more water should be
poured into the funnel than the cone of filtering paper will
hold, and it must, therefore, be supplied in small quantities
until the whole of the water is filtered.

We are now ready to test for lead. This may be performed
by any of the following methods:

Sulphuretted hydrogen.—This test is so delicate that one part
of lead can be detected in 500,000 parts of water. If sulphu-
retted hydrogen be added to water containing one-tenth grain per
gallon, a brownish color is produced. If the water has been con-
centrated by evaporation to 1-100 of its original bulk before add-
ing this reagent, the thousandth part of a grain in a gallon can,
with a little practice, be detected. During the evaporation acetic
acid must be added to dissolve the oxycarbonate formed. A
small quantity of a solution of citrate of ammonia or of acetate
of ammonia is added to dissolve any sulphate of lead that may
have been formed. It is very difficult to obtain acetate of am-
monia in a solid state, as it requires to be crystallized under the
receiver of an air pump, so deliquescent are the crystals.

Sulphuretted hydrogen gas is obtained by the action of dilute
acids upon sulphide of iron, sulphide of antimony, or sulphide
of potassium (hepar sulphuris). It can also be obtained in an
impure state by heating together paraffine and sulphur. The
gas should be washed by passing through water, and may then
be passed directly into the liquid to be tested, or dissolved in
water and bottled for subsequent usc.
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 199

Sulphide of potassium, or liver of sulphur, can be employed as sutphide ot
a reagent for detecting lead. Its solution produces a dark color ue
in water containing two-thirds grain to the gallon, provided
very little of the reagent is added; if more is added, sulphur
is precipitated and conceals the lead reaction.

Sulphide of ammonium (yellow) produces a change of color, supniae ot

' . . . - ammonium
perceptible by comparison when only one-third grain of lead is test.
present in a gallon of water. Both this reagent and the one
last mentioned also produce black precipitates in water contain-
ing iron, but not in water where tin alone is present. Sulphu-
retted hydrogen, on the contrary, gives a black precipitate with
tin, but not withiron. All three of these reagents possess a vile
odor and do not keep well. As soon as the odor becomes faint
they are useless.

Bichromate of potassa.—This salt possesses several advantages Bichromate
over those previously mentioned. It has no odor, can be kept ao
for years either in solution or in crystals, is easily obtained in
any drug store under the name of potassiz bichromas. The
saturated solution has a deep red color, but when added to a
strong solution of lead a beautiful precipitate of chrome yellow
is formed. This precipitate, when treated with nitric acid,
turns to a bright red, “chrome red.” The addition of bichro-
mate of potassa to water containing one-tenth grain to the gallon
produces a change of color easily detected by comparison. In
this, as in the former cases, the test should be made as follows:

Two test tubes of equal caliber are taken in the left hand; a few
drams of pure water are placed in one and an equal volume
- of the water to be tested in the other. A few drops of the
reagent are added to both, and the tubes held in various posi-
tions against white and dark backgrounds, against the light
and in the shade, viewed vertically and horizontally, until we
are convinced that no ‘change has taken place; then a little
more of the reagent is added, and so on. These precautions are
especially necessary where colored reagents are employed. My
own experiments convince me that bichromate of potassa is
200 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

quite as delicate a test for lead as sulphuretted hydrogen when
these precautions are observed.
sulphuric Sulphuric acid and solutions of the sulphates produce a white
tse precipitate with lead, and, according to Lassaigne, one part of
lead in 25,000 of water can be detected in 15 minutes by the
use of sulphate of soda. As lime also gives a white precipitate
with sulphuric acid, this test is not applicable to water in
general.
toatdeot Lodide of potassiwm produces a yellow precipitate in lead
pomstest, Solutions if not too dilute.
action When water containing lead is exposed to the air, the car-
anion leaa bonic acid of the atmosphere converts the lead into the hydrated
oxycarbonate, which is the most insoluble of all the lead salts—
so much so that only one part will dissolve in four million parts
of water, or one-sixtieth grain per gallon, and hence water
which has been exposed to the air a few hours will not contain
over zgytaoo Of lead in solution. If, however, the water con-
tains free carbonic acid, this salt will be dissolved by it, but is
Advantages precipitated by boiling. From this it will be seen that persons
Red compelled to use water containing lead may reduce the danger
taining lead + a minimum by boiling, allowing to stand exposed, and then
filtering, or even decanting.
teadpoi- In concluding these somewhat extended remarks on lead cor-
ms rosion, a few words on the subject of lead poisoning may not be
without interest for the general reader, and especially for the
Lead pipes plumber. I am not disposed to underestimate the danger of con-
cage oe aad veying water through lead pipes; but it is only candid to admit
poisonin® that lead pipes have probably had to bear the blame of many
cases of lead poisoning with which they have had nothing to do.
In a locality in which lead is used as a material for conveying
water, whenever a case of this disease arises suspicion is gen-
erally directed azainst the water pipes. There are, however,
many methods by which lead can be and is unconsciously intro-
snut. duced into the system other than in drinking water. Dr. Has-

sall explained some time ago, in the London Lancet, that par-
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 201

alysis has been repeatedly produced by the lead contained in

snuff. “In some cases,” he says, “death has ensued, and in Pastry ana
others serious illness has resulted from the preparations of lead, eae
particularly in the chromate and carbonate of lead used in

sugar confectionery, Bath buns, egg and custard powders.

The same result has followed the use of wine to which acetate wine.

of lead has been added for the purpose of clarifying and sweet-

ening it. Entire districts have been poisoned by lead in cider. ctser.
Again, at one time—and it is probably still done in some cases

—lead was commonly added to the rum in the West Indies.” Jamaica rum.
These are cases, and others might be added, in which the true

cause of the disease has been traced, and it is no doubt true that

causes such as these may be at work in some of the cascs sup-

posed to be due to the use of lead pipe. Tanquerel, a cele- ranguere's
brated French authority, says that generally the persons who vere
suffer from this disease are those who have to handle the metal

or some of its compounds in their business. Of 1213 persons

afflicted with lead colic observed personally by this writer, 1050

at least were engaged in operations involving the use of lead or

its compounds. This leaves only a small remainder outside of

these trades affected with the disease at all. Of this remainder

a large number are engaged in occupations which sometimes

require the use of a compound of lead. The potters, for in-

stance, use oxide of lead in the glaze which they put on their

ware. Now, when it is considered how few are the cases of

lead poisoning among those who never use lead in their daily
occupations, and also how various are the means by which lead

may be introduced into the system, there is left but a small

number of cases in which the disease is produced by water

drawn from lead pipes.

Tanquerel gives the following table of the occupations of men occupation
afflicted with lead poisoning who had come under his notice : Spletiok
White and red lead and orange mineral manu- nontbe:

hs ee ee er ee ee ree ee re 481
Painters 243 va cagenes ea eer ean eees 890
202 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

Color primdlers. . ca2ccn ganas Ereheeees 68
PIM eiece va cei ere ede dev eeenies betas 14
Platers (in tin and Tad) on scce ed exes cee tes 8
Manufacturers of tin putty.............00000. 4
Type Tonnies. anedeteeray nce aieias aed 52
PNGORSs Gaea dad ada bran camech Gen anads oie 12
Shot manwiwchinetei. cs 24 saneensacrbaaeeavns 11
Manufacturers of acetate, nitrate and carbonate
i TEA oases Ges hehe wane sien sohsoues dey as 10
1,050
URGES cou ewie hous eee ae eRe woe aes 163
MGtal sca ceeieseeet wiles donna da eras 1,213

Leadan Lead is an “accumulative” poison. When taken into the
accumulative . oye . “Le

poison, System in small quantities it does not exhibit its effect at once,
but as more is taken from time to time, the poison accumulates

in the system until enough has been taken to render it opera-

tive, and then the person affected suddenly manifests danger-

ous symptoms. In following out this theory of the accumu-

lative character of lead, it is evident that, no matter how small

the dose of lead taken, the occurrence of evil results should be

only a matter of time, that is, when the small doses of poison
Differences have accumulated toa sufficient amount. On this point a dif-
of eimong ference of opinion has arisen among physicians, some maintain-
physicians: ing that the accumulative principle does not hold here, and
that, when the lead is conveyed into the system in small doses,

it is conveyed out again as fast as it comes in. Others hold

that while these small doses are not in themselves able to exert

an active poisonous influence, they are the cause of many dis-

eases not usually ascribed to this source. Dr. Muir, previously

quoted, states the question thus: ‘ Does this amount of lead

thus deposited in the system in any way influence the general

health of our bodies? May the healthiness in some places be
influenced materially by the amount of lead dissolved by the

Pr. Dana’s water in constant use?’ Dr. Dana thinks “there is reason to

ini . . .
oe Delieve that a vast number of cases of rheumatic and spasmodic
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 2038

1

and nervous diseases, a general breaking up, as it were, of the
foundations of the great deep of life, have occurred, which can
be attributed only to the small daily doses of lead.” This is
hypothetical. The question is a very important one, but as yet
our information is not sufficiently comprehensive or accurate
to enable us to answer it.

But while there is not a perfect agreement among physicians amount of

. lead required
as to the amourit of lead necessary to produce poisonous effects, ¢o era

it is generally admitted that but little of the metal is required Posen
to develop, in time, very serious results. Dr. Parkes, an En-
glish authority, Professor Graham and others, think that water
which contains one-twentieth of a grain per gallon must be re-
garded as unsafe. When it is considered that a gallon contains
70,000 grains, it is seen that such a dose amounts to only one
part of lead in nearly a million and a half (1,400,000) parts of
water. The poisonous character of so small a dose is due to the
accumulative nature of the poison. Small as this quantity is,
there are those who would fix the limit of safety at even a lower
standard. Dr. Adams, of Waltham, Mass., reports a case of poi-
soning in which only one-hundredth of a grain per gallon was
found in the water, and states that such cases are not rare. This
would amount to only one part of lead for every seven million
parts of water. This statement was made by Dr. Adams in
the report of the committee appointed by the American Med-
ical Association to investigate the action of water on lead pipes
and the diseases proceeding therefrom. It is safe to infer from
these opmions that whenever hydro-sulphuric acid detects lead
in water, the use of such water is likely to prove disastrous to
some constitutions.

It should always be considered in any discussion as to the pitterences
poisonous dose of lead, that there is a great variation in the sus- susceptinnty
ceptibility of various persons to the effects of lead. A case is sone PoP
recorded in which two members of a family were made seri-
ously ill from the use of water containing only, at times, a mere
trace of lead—“a quantity,” says our authority, “so infini-
204 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

tesimally small as not to have the least effect on the health of
the others.” It is probable, also, that when once the disease
has been contracted by a person he is more susceptible to it
than before.
Sa The indications of lead disease are usually pain, constipation,
teristics of a yellowish complexion, not affecting the eyes or coloring the
“soning, urine as in ordinary jaundice, and the blue or slatish colored
line on the gums. This line is usually located on that portion
of the gum that overlaps a tooth. It sometimes happens that
this blue line is seen only on a portion of the gum.

The curative treatment of lead diseases has been a subject of
much study among medical men. It is too complex a topic to
admit of any consideration here. For information on this
point the curious reader is referred to the various standard
medical works in which the subject is treated.

‘We now come to the consideration of the manner in which
water acts upon the other metals employed more or less exten-
sively in plumbing work. I feel that no apology is needed for
having devoted so much space to the subject of lead, as it is the
metal most used in pipes for the conveyance of water. Iron,
zine, tin and copper will be considered more briefly.

Ironasa Were it not for the inconvenience sometimes attending the
Taterpipes, discoloration of water, iron would possess many advantages over
any other metal as a material for water pipes. The purifica-

tion of water by contact with iron, is a fact well known in
chemistry. Prof. Medlock proved by analyses, several years

ago, that iron by its action on nitrogenous organic matter pro-

duces nitrous acid, which Muspratt has called “ nature’s scaven-

Muspratt’s ger.” The last-mentioned chemist found, as a general result,
eae that by allowing water to remain in contact with a large surface
of iron for about 48 hours, every trace of organic matter was

either destroyed or rendered insoluble, in which state it could

be removed effectually by filtration. Medlock found, on exam-

ining the water at Amsterdam, which smelled and tasted badly,

that the sediment charred on ignition and was almost consumed,
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 205

showing that it consisted of organic matter. He also found that
instead of taking iron from the service pipes, the water, before
entering those and an iron reservoir, contains nearly half a grain
of iron to the gallon ; while in the water issuing from the pipes
there was only an unweighable trace. Before entering the reser-
voir, the water holding iron in solution formed no deposits;
while the water coming from the pipes, and freed from iron,
gave organic sediment above mentioned. He then made analy-
ses of water brought in contact with iron, and water not in con-
tact, with the result that the water which had not touched iron
contained 2°10 grains of organic matter, and 0-96 grain iron ;
the other gave only aslight trace of both, showing plainly that
the organic matter in the water was either decomposed or
thrown down in contact with iron; and this water when fil-
tered was found to be clear, of good taste, with no smell and
free from organic matter. It is not stated in -what shape the
iron was held in solution, but it was probably in that of carbon-
ate, the usual iron salt of springs, since carbonic acid is so com-
mon in water in general. These facts may be made useful
under certain circumstances in effecting the purification of
water rendered offensive or unwholesome by the presence of
organic matter.

Pure water has no action on iron whatever, provided it. is ghomtcal
free from air or other dissolved gases, especially carbonic acid Se me
gas. On the other hand, dry oxygen and dry carbonic acid are
unable to attack iron, but in solution they produce the well-
known form of oxidation called rusting. That it is the oxygen
of,the air, and not that of the water, which combines with the
iron, can be easily proved by a simple experiment. Take a
piece of clear ice, melt it and heat to boiling; after boiling a
short time, pour it into a small vial containing some pieces of
bright iron wire. The vial must be quite full and tightly
corked. Place a similar piece of wire in an open vessel and
partially cover it with water. Set both vessels aside for a few
days, when it will be found that the wire in the former is still
bright, while that in the latter is rusted.
206 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

trondis- Carbonic acid gas in solution not only attacks metallic iron,
solved by car- ‘6 ‘ . a
ponicacid. but also dissolves it, forming a protocarbonate of iron. If a
small quantity of finely divided iron be introduced into a syphon
used for transporting mineral water, and the apparatus filled
with carbonic acid water under pressure, the iron will soon dis-
appear, being entirely dissolved. This method has been pro-
posed for administering iron medicinally.
ssa As most kinds of potable water contain either air or carbonic
acid in solution, it is evident why iron pipes are attacked by
running water. In limestone districts the water seldom contains
free carbonic acid, but in every case, unless very impure or
just taken from a lively spring, air is present. It has, in fact,
been laid down as a rule that no water is fit to drink unless a
fish will live in it; and fish cannot live in water that does not
contain dissolved oxygen. There are, however, springs in
which fish cannot live, but still the water is not unfit to drink,
its only fault being a lack of oxygen, which it soon acquires on
standing.
Infuence The presence of salts in solution are not without influence
of salts: hen air has access to it; of these, common salt, or chloride of
sodium, hastens the rusting, and carbonated alkalies retard it.
protective When a crust of the hydrated oxide of iron has formed on
onsen? the surface of the iron, it seems to protect the iron by prevent-
ing the oxygen from obtaining access to it. This explains the
fact that water from new iron pipes contains more iron at first
than it does after being in use awhile. Some persons take the
trouble to pour thin milk of lime through the pipes and then
expose them to the air nntil it is converted into a dry crust
of carbonate of lime, which is a very good protection from rust.
Unfortunately, in this as in many other methods of protecting
pipes, the sudden jars occasioned by quickly shutting off the
water with a full head on, break off this crust.
i ha The protection afforded by a film of oxide is well shown by

of oxide. an experiment described in the Berg- und Huettenmaennische
Zeitung (1878, p. 19). Several pieces of bright wire, some of
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 207

which were protected by a bit of zinc fused on, the others un-
protected, were placed in a jar of moist carbonic acid and air;
beside them was placed a third lot of pieces of wire which had
been heated throughout toa blueshade. The unprotected bright
wires rusted in less than 24 hours; those with zine attached re-
mained free from rust from 3 to 5 days; the blued wires were
unattacked for 3 weeks, showing that a blue film of oxide is
more effective than contact with an electro-positive metal.

The usual tests for iron is ferrocyanide of potassium, known ‘ests tor iron
as yellow prussiate of potash, which produces a deep blue color **“*"
in dilute solution. Cornelly has even proposed to determine
the quantity of iron present by the comparison of the blue
colors produced by adding to a solution of ferrocyanide of
potassium, in one case a solution of iron of known strength, and
in the other the water in which the iron is to be determined.

A more delicate test is the sulphocyanide of potassium, which
is said to produce a red color when one part oxide of iron in
64,000 parts of water is present. Dollfus states that salicylic
acid produces a violet color with one part of sesquioxide of
iron in 572,000 parts of water.
Zine is a metal which should never be allowed to come in zinenot

contact with water which is to be used for drinking or cooking. Seritor

I make this statement with a knowledge of the wide diversity Srvice Pipes
of opinion which exists among chemists and physicians on this

point. Its physical properties as a metal are, I think, very ac- pyysica
curately described by Prof. H. von Fehling in Handwerkerbuch Pronerties
der Reinen und Angewandten Chemie (IX, p. 899), as follows :

“Tn using zinc for technical purposes it must be remembered

that it expands and contracts greatly by change of temperature,

and that in cold weather it is especially brittle; and, further,

that in contact with other metals, as iron, copper, &c., it readily
oxidizes; that it also oxidizes easily in contact with water alone,

with brandy, wine, milk and the like, and that the salts are
poisonous. It remains unchanged only when in contact with

pure olive oil. Sheet zinc must, therefore, have much play so
Chemical ac-
tion of water
on zinc,

Influence of

carbonic acid

208 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

that it may expand or contract. It must be fastened only with
zine nails, or with iron nails thickly covered with zinc. On
moist wood it oxidizes very easily. The metal must never be
employed for vessels where it can come into contact with food,
drinking water and the like.”

I take exception to Prof. von Fehling’s statement only so far
as to claim that zinc is not acted upon by chemically pure water
free from air; but the exception is of no practical importance,
for the reason that plumbers never have to deal with pure
water, still less with water free from air or other dissolved
gases. It is well known to every one that when a bright sur-
face of zinc is exposed to the air it soon loses its luster from
oxidation, the thin film of oxide then formed protecting it from
further corrosion. This film adheres so firmly that it can
scarcely be removed, and Pettenkofer found the film of oxide
on a zine roof that had been exposed to the weather for 27 years
to be only 0-04 inch thick ; on a square foot of surface only 142
grains of zine had oxidized ; half of the oxide had been carried
off and the other half remained.

When zine is placed in water containing air and carbonic

and chlorides acid, the zine soon becomes covered with a white coat of basic

on zinc,

Water from
galvanized
iron tanks.

Prof. Cassell’s
experiment
with galvan-

ized iron.

carbonate of zine. If the water contains soluble chlorides, such
as common salt, it attacks the zinc more violently. Zinrak
analyzed a water containing a relatively small amount of chlor-
ides, and found that after standing some time in a zine reser-
voir it contained 58°9 grains of zinc in a gallon.

A French chemist named Roux examined the water kept in
galvanized tanks on shipboard and found it turbid ; it contained
oxide of zine and suspended particles of carbonate of zine.
These, he remarks, are dissolved by the acids in the stomach
and are exceedingly dangerous. The result of Roux’s experi-
ments was that the use of galvanized iron tanks in the French
navy was forbidden by the war minister.

Prof. J. L. Cassels, of the Cleveland (Ohio) Medical College,
reported the following interesting experiment made in 1870:
“ A piece of new galvanized iron chain weighing 1211-95 grains
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 209

was placed in a glass beaker containing one pint of water taken
from the hydrant near the college and loosely covered to ex-
clude dust. In 24 hours the water was of a bluish-white color
and tasted distinctly of the salts of zinc. In three days a
whitish sediment was observed collecting on the zine, which
was easily detached by agitation. . After remaining a week in
the water a large deposit of carbonate of zinc was formed, and
the water was strongly impregnated with chloride of zine.
Traces of lead were also detected in the water, derived, proba-
bly, from the lead impurities in the zinc. The links of chain
had decreased 1-04 grain in weight and were heavily coated
with the carbonates of zine and iron.

A similar experiment was recently made with commercial zxperiment
sheet zinc at Columbia College, New York. A strip of zine Gone
weighing 2°22 grams was placed in a gill of Croton water. In
a short time it became covered with a white film, a greater part
of which fell away on the slightest agitation. The loss of
weight in a week was 0:006 gram, or nearly 0°3 per cent. In
distilled water it was still greater, or about 0°5 per cent.

From the foregoing experiments it is evident that zinc, even au waters
when alone, is corroded and dissolved by spring, well and river °"°*°""*
waters without exception. The experiments are of such a
nature that any person can repeat them and remove all doubts
that may remain in his own mind. The galvanic action which Gaivanic ac-
takes place when zine is in contact with iron or other metals pon Deyo
hastens the solution of the zinc, rendering galvanized iron pipes
more objectionable than those of zine alone. Another danger mpurities
attendant on the use of zinc is the fact that it often contains *""*
other and still more objectionable metals, especially arsenic and
lead. The difficulty of obtaining zine free from arsenic is
shown in the fact that such zinc sells for 60 cents per pound,
whereas at the time of this writing ordinary spelter is quoted
at 74 cents.

Zinrak recommends that zinc tanks, when used for water,
should e painted on the inside with ocher or asphalt varnish.
210 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

amountot It seems to be at present a disputed question how much zine
zinc required . * : *
toeftecta is required to produce serious consequences. According to the
Influence, United States Dispensatory, “the compounds of zine are pois-
zinc com- onous, but not to the same extent as those of lead. The oxide
pounds, ‘
of zine used in painting is said to be capable of producing a
colic resembling that caused by lead, and called zine colic.”
The sulphate known as white vitriol is used externally as a caus-
tic; internally it is tonic, astringent and, in large doses, a prompt
emetic. The dose, as a tonic, is 1 to 2 grains; as an emetic, 10
to 30 grains. In an overdose it acts as an irritant poison.
Chloride of zine also acts as a caustic. Internally it is given in
doses of a half to one grain; in overdoses it is also a corrosive
poison. The oxide of zinc is sometimes administered as a tonic
in doses of 2 to 8 grains or more, repeated several times a day.
Poot ail Prof. J. R. Nichols states that he examined a whitish pow-
der alleged to have been taken from the joints in the galvanized
pipes and found it to consist of carbonate of zinc mixed with
_a little sesquioxide of iron. In one instance nearly half an
ounce of this salt was scraped from the interior of a galvanized
pipe 60 feet in extent. The courageous doctor took half a
grain of this salt an hour before retiring and passed a very un-
comfortable night.
During the past few years a great deal has been communi-
cated to the chemical and medical journals on the subject of
zine poisoning, but the space at command is not sufficient for a
review of the testimony.
rests forzine Linc is the most difficult of all the heavy metals to detect,
‘nwater- since iron, which is likely to be present in water, helps to con-
ceal zine. It it safe, however, to predicate in advance that zinc
is present if the water has been in contact with that metal.
Sulphuretted hydrogen does not precipitate zinc from acid solu-
tions unless acetic acid alone is present. Zinc salts give a white
precipitate with sulphide of ammonium and ferrocyanide of
potassium. To detect zinc in the presence of iron, add enough
ammonia to precipitate the iron and to redissolve the zine which
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 211

was at first precipitated. Filter and test for zinc in the filtrate
by means of sulphide of ammonium or sulphuric acid.
Pure tin is less acted upon, either by water or saline solu- eo omoe ds
tions, than any other of the common metals. When exposed
to the combined action of water and air, it does, indeed, oxidize
slightly, but the oxide being insoluble remains attached to the
tin unless mechanically removed. The ordinary constituents of
potable water have but little effect upon tin, even when in con-
centrated solutions. Dilute acids destroy it, even the vegetable
acids, as do the caustic alkalies. At the writer’s request Mr. mr. Hanock's

experiments

E. J. Hallock, of Columbia College, New York, made some with tin
interesting experiments to determine the action of saline solu- ie
tions upon tin, the results of which may be briefly stated as fol-
lows: When a piece of block tin, free from lead, is exposed

for four weeks to the action of a strong solution of common

table salt (chloride of sodium), the solution becomes slightly
milky and gives a reaction for tin, although very faint and
slowly produced. On filtering, the liquid failed to give any
reaction, indicating that the oxide of tin was suspended and not
dissolved in the liquid. Strangely enough, the amount of tin

in solution at the end of ten months was little, if any, greater

than at the end of one month. Several other salts were tried

with similar results. Nitrate of ammonia, chloride of magne-

sium and chloride of calcium acted upon tin sufliciently to give

a tin reaction within a few days. Croton water which had been
concentrated until it contained 22 grains of salt in a gallon, in
contact with tin was soon found to contain a trace of tin. So-
lutions of chloride of ammonium and of bicarbonate of lime
required at least six weeks to acquire a perceptible trace of tin.
Sulphate of lime forms a protecting incrustation upon tin.

The nitrates and nitrites have a perceptible action on tin mauence ot
when concentrated. It was not found practicable to determine nitrleea il
the loss of weight in the tin, owing to the difficulty of remov-
ing the incrustation of oxide formed upon it. Two points
were, however, clearly demonstrated: First, that tin is acted
212 THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

upon by most saline solutions, although very slightly, even
when exposed for a long time; secondly, the oxide and what-
ever other compounds—probably oxychloride—were formed
remain suspended in the liquid and can readily be removed
by filtration. Tin salts are not injurious when taken internally ;
hence, from a sanitary point of view, it is immaterial whether
potable water takes up tin from the pipes or not.
jeteentne It is a curious fact that saline solutions dissolve out the lead
on alloys of from tin-lead alloys, even if the amount of lead be very small.
Bn andes: Weber analyzed a slimy deposit found in a salt-water bath in
Reischaur’s laboratory and found it to consist of 68 per cent.
oxide of tin and 21 of oxide of lead, although the alloy of
which the bath was constructed contained but 153 per cent. of
‘ lead to 81 of tin.
cen It is reported that certain well waters corrode tin pipes rap-
well water. idly, but Iam not able to say to which constituent they owe
this corrosive action. It is not impossible that the metal alloyed
with the tin in the manufacture of such pipe constitutes a very
important factor in the reaction. A well water which is com-
petent to destroy pure tin should, we think, be subjected to
chemical analysis before venturing to use it for drinking, the
probability being that it contains some unwholesome constitu-
ent to the presence of which it owes its corrosive action.

aa As the salts of tin are not poisonous, their detection is of in-
poisonous. terest only for the purpose of ascertaining whether a given
water is attacking the tin pipes through which it passes, for

water containing chlorides and nitrites will generally do so.
tests fortin, Chloride of gold, which can be obtained of any photographer,
will produce a purple in very dilute solutions of tin salts. A
little nitric acid should be added to the gold solution, and if no
purple color appears on mixing it with the water to be tested,
it should be allowed to stand a few days, when the purple pre-
cipitate will have settled at the lowest point of the test tube,
where it is readily seen on placing the tube on a sheet of white

paper.
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 213

Sulphuretted hydrogen yields a precipitate with tin salts,
which may be brown or yellow, according to which oxide is
present. This precipitate is soluble in alkaline sulphides, and,
as above stated, is not formed by sulphide of ammonium.

Copper has far less affinity for oxygen than iron, and will not action of wa-
decompose water except at a bright red heat, if at all. Whether erpeee er
it will under any circumstances is, I believe, a matter of dispute
among authorities. Even water which contains acids does not
attack copper unless air is also present. On the other hand, in
dry air copper is not affected, but air and moisture combined
attack it rapidly, especially if any acid, however weak, such as
carbonic or acetic acid, be present. Inasmuch as moist air
always contains, practically, some carbonic acid, bright copper
exposed to its action becomes covered with a film of basic car-
bonate of copper, very generally but improperly called verdi-

gris.
Copper not only dissolves readily in the weakest acids, but action ot

also in alkaline and saline solutions if exposed to the air. dome
Kersting states that while all potable water dissolves more or

less copper from copper pipe or vessels used to hold or conduct

it, it attacks the copper with especial violence if nitrate of am- nitrate ot
monia is present—a fact which also holds good with regard to *™™°"™
tin and lead. If water which holds copper salts in solution is Gatvante ac-
passed through lead pipes, the copper, being more strongly Doe
electronegative than lead, is precipitated by it, and a corre-™™™"*
sponding quantity of lead is probably dissolved. The same is

true to a still greater degree with regard to zine, so that when

water containing copper salts is passed through galvanized iron

pipes, the latter are especially attacked by them. This weak

galvanic current is well known, and the principle is often em-

ployed to protect copper by means of zine, as in the case of the
coppered bottoms of ships and other vessels navigating salt

water. The galvanic action of lead and copper is weaker and

was long overlooked by practical men, and even yet is not so

generally understood as it deserves to be. It is possible that in
Salts of
copper.

Danger of
copper uten-
sils in culin-
ary opera-
tions.

914 TIE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING.

cases where pipes have been corroded and no cause could be
detected, this weak galvanic action has been at work between
the positive pipe and some more negative constituent of the
water.

The carbonate of copper is one of its most insoluble salts, and
hence could easily be removed by filtration, because it is merely
suspended, not dissolved, in the water. It is said to be decom-
posed by boiling, forming other insoluble compounds, ehiefly
the black oxide. The nitrate, sulphate and chloride of copper,
which are liable to be produced by the action of waters contain-
ing nitrates, sulphates and chlorides, are mostly soluble and
possess very dangerous qualities. The true verdigris, or acetate
of copper, when brought into contact with water breaks up into
two other acetates, one of which contains less copper and is very
soluble; the other contains more and is entirely insoluble. It
is necessary to rematk that this compound is only produced
when vinegar or acetic acid comes in contact with copper. It
is this which imparts the beautiful green color to cucumber
pickles when prepared in copper vessels, as is easily proved by
inserting a bright steel knife blade in a green pickle. Ina few
hours the blade is more or less perfectly copper plated. The
oxychloride of copper, which is usually produced when copper
is left in contact with salt water or other solution of chlorides,
is not soluble in water. It was manufactured and used as a
pigment under the name of Brunswick green, but has now
given place to the more dangerous Paris green.

Copper utensils are much employed in culinary operations,
and with less danger than would seem at first thought. Boiling
water contains no air, and hence, if it contains salts or acids, is
not able to attack the copper so long as it continues to boil.
Food cooked in copper vessels should not, however, be left
therein until cool. The black oxide of copper is soluble in oils
and fats, so that greasy matters boiled in copper utensils which
are not kept bright are liable to become impregnated with the
metal. Considering the risk, their use should be entirely aban-
THE CHEMISTRY OF PLUMBING. 215

doncd. Copper salts are highly poisonous, causing vomiting, Poisonous
violent pains in the stomach and bowels, fainting, violent head- ae
ache, cramps, convulsions and death.

In the foregoing pages I have attempted to show, with as conetustons.
much particularity as seemed to be necessary under the cireum-
stances, what results we may expect will follow the exposure of
lead, iron, zine, tin and copper surfaces to the action of water.
If the facts are as stated, it is obvious that the only metals
which can be counted safe under all circumstances are iron and
tin, but these cannot always be used with advantage for eco-
nomic reasons. Under some—and perhaps many—conditions,
lead can be used with safety; but it is well to be sure of our
conditions before we trust lead. It is unnecessary, however, to
add any general remarks to the very full discussion which has

occupied so many pages.
Relation of
hydraulics to
plumbing.

In cities.

In country.

Elementary

character

CHAPTER IX.
ExLemMentary Hypravuics APPLicaBLE To Pirumping Work.

Plumbers in cities are rarely called upon to face difficulties
of a nature requiring a more extensive knowledge of the prin-
ciples of hydraulics than they may be supposed to have gained
in the practice of their trades. All their calculations are based
upon definite data. They know the head of water with which
they have to deal, and the size and weight of pipe required.
They have their constant supply in the street main, and to tap
this, bring the water into the house and distribute it, calls for
very little of the knowledge which country plumbers must
have to compass equally satisfactory results. All of the science
of hydraulic engineering which the city plumber needs to
know might be given in a few simple rules and tables; the
country plumber, who must often seek his water supply where
he can find it, and sometimes bring it long distances through
small pipes, must be something of an engineer as well. Ie
certainly meets with difficulties which would puzzle hydraulic
engineers accustomed only to large undertakings, such as the
construction of water works and the supplying of towns. For
the benefit of this large and important class of artisans, as well
as of those who employ them, I will briefly consider what seems
to me the most important of the elementary facts pertaining to
the science of hydraulics. Were this chapter intended for the

of chapter, perusal of engineers, or those presumably well acquainted with

the principles of hydraulic engineering, I should omit many
things to which I have given place, and put in many which are
here omitted; as it is, my aim is simply to give practical
plumbers and others who may be interested in the subject the
items of information which my experience has led me to be-
lieve they will find most useful. Under the circumstances,
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. O17

therefore, no apology is needed for the elementary character
of this chapter.

Water is a practically incompressible liquid, weighing, at the water
average temperature of 60° Fahr., about 62:3 Ibs. to the cubic
foot, and 8°3 lbs. to the gallon. These figures are subject to
slight variations incident to changes in temperature.

A column of water 12 inches high exerts a downward pres- rressure duo
sure of about -43 Ib. to the square inch. A column 2 feet ‘°"**
high exerts a pressure of about ‘86 Ib., or just twice that ex-
erted by a column one foot high. This pressure per square
inch, due to head, is irrespective of volume or anything else,
except vertical hight of column. With these figures in mind,
the calculation of the pressure per square inch due to any head
isa simple matter. The following rules will be found valuable
for reference:

To find pressure in lbs. per square inch exerted by a column to catculate
of water.—Multiply the hight of the column in feet by ‘43. Gna head.

To find the head.—Multiply the pressure in lbs. per square
-inch by 2°31.

Pressure of water.—The weight of water or of other liquids weignt
is as the quantity, but the pressure exerted is as the vertical pressuro.
hight.

Fluids press equally in all directions; hence, any vessel or pressure of
conduit containing a fluid, sustains a pressure on the bottom ontn sr en
equal to as many times the weight of the column of greatest “7™*o™
hight of that fluid as the area of the vessel is to the sectional
area of the column.

Lateral pressure.—The lateral pressure of a fluid on the sides xaterat
of the vessel or conduit in which it is contained is equal to the”
product of the length multiplied by half the square of the
depth, and by the weight of the fluid in cubic unit of dimen-
sions. The following formula is simple and satisfactory: Mul-
tiply the submerged area in inches by the pressure due to one-
half the depth. By submerged area is meant the surface upon
which the water presses. For example, to find the lateral
218 IIYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

pressure upon the sides of a tank 12 ft. long by 12 ft. deep;
144 x 144 = 20,736 inches of side. The pressure at the bot-
tom will be 12 x -43 = 5:16 Ibs., while the pressure at the
top is 0, giving us, say, 2°6 lbs. as the average. Therefore,
20,786 X 2°6 = 58,914 Ibs.

Desshinee Discharge of water—The quantity of water discharged dur-
ing a given time from a given orifice, under different heads, is
nearly as the square roots of the corresponding hights of the
water in the reservoir or containing vessel above the surface of
the orifice.

Relationot Small orifices, on account of friction, discharge proportion-
sizeof orice, ately less than those which are larger and of the same shape
under the same pressure.
cireular Circular apertures are the most efficacious, having less surface
se a proportion to area than any other form.

Discharge If a cylindrical horizontal tube through which water is dis-

Sire aee charged be of greater length than its diameter, the discharge is
much increased. It can be lengthened with advantage to four
times the diameter of the orifice.

contents 0 find the number of U.S. gallons contained in a foot of

Gee pipe of any diameter.—Square the diameter of the pipe in
inches, and multiply the square by -0408.

ee Velocity of flow of water.—Water which has a chance to

flow downward does so with a velocity in exact proportion to

its head. The following table gives the velocity of flow of

water due to heads of from 1 to 40 feet:
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 219

Velocity in Feet per Second due to Heads of from 1 to

 

 

40 Feet.*

Head. | Velocity.|| Head. | Velocity.|| Head. | Velocity.;| Head. [Velocity
0.5 5.67 I0.5 25.98 20.5 36.31 30.5 44.29
I. 8.02 II. 26.60 ai. 36.75 31. 44.65
1.5 9.82 IL5 27.19 21.5 37.18 31.5 45-0L
2. 11.34 12. 27.78 22. 37.61 32. 45.37
2.5 12.68 12.5, 28.35 22.5 38.04 32.5 45.72
3. 13.89 13. 28.91 23. 38.46 33. 46.07
3.5 15. 13.5 29 46 23.5 38.88 33-5 46.42
4. 16.04 14. 30.00 || 24, 39.29 34. 46.76
4.5 17.01 14.5 30.54 24.5 39.69 34-5 | 47.10
5. 17.93 15. 31.06 25. 40.10 35. 47.44
5.5 18.81 15.5 31.57 25.5 40.50 35-5 47.78
6. 19.64 16. 32.08 2€. 40.89 36. 48.12
6.5 20.44 16.5 32.58 26.5 41.28 36.5 48.45
7. 21.22 17. 33.06 27. 41.67 37. 48.78
7.5 21.96 17.5 33-55 27.5 42.05 37-5 49.11
8. 22.68 18. 34.02 28, 42.44 38. 49.44
8.5 23.38 18.5 34.49 28.5 42.81 38.5 49.76
9. 24.06 Ig. 34.96 29. 43.19 39. 50.08
9-5 24.72 19.5 35-41 29.5 43.56 39-5 50.40
Io. 25.36 20. 35.86 30. 43.92 40. 50.72

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In plumbing work we cannot secure this velocity in the flow maton
of water through pipes because of the friction which con-
stantly tends to diminish it. The longer the pipe the greater
the friction and consequent retardation of the flow. In the
following table we have the head of water consumed by friction
in pipes one yard long and from 1 to 4 inches-in diameter.
This table shows the head of water required to produce a given
flow per minute. By means of the rules given on page 221 it
is made applicable to any length of pipe, and a variety of prob-
lems relating to lengths and diameters of pipe, discharge in gal-
lons and head in feet are solved by it:

* Box’s Hydraulics.
Loss of head
by friction.

220

HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

Head of Water Consumed by Friction in Pipes one

Yard Long.*

 

Diameter of the Pipe in Inches.

 

 

 

 

    
  

Gallons
per I 136 2 2% 3 3% 4
Minute:
Head of Water in Feet.
Taseesee -004r -00054 .00012 .000042 .000016 -0000078 +000004
Bares -0164 200216 -O0051 .000168 «000067 .0000313 .000016
Bos «0370 .00487 sOOII5 +000379 +0001 52 «0000705 -000036
Aes 20658 .00867 .00205 «000674 .000271 .000125 -000064
Ses -1028 -01354 -0032I +001053 +000423 .000195 -000100
Oiie «1482 .01950 00463 sOOI517 .000609 .000282 -000144,
Joe -2016 .02655 .00630 .002064 +000830 -000383, 00196
8. 03468 .00823 .002696 «001084 «00050 000257
9. 04389 -O1041 +003413 .001372 .000634 000325
TO... 20541 01286 -00421 .0016g -000783 000401
i +2167 +0514 -01685 00677 00313 -00160
4877 «ITS .03792 .O152 .00707 00361
-8670 +205 .06742 .0271 -01253 00643
1.35 +32 +1053, +0423 .01958 1004
1.95 463 +1517 «0609 .02820 01446
2.65 +630 «2064 +0830 03839 01969
3-46 823 «2696 «1084 .O5014 02572
4.38 I.04I +3413 «1372 206346 03255
54 1.28 +42 «169 .078 «0401
6.5 1.55 +509 2205 «094 0486
7.8 1,85 +606 +243 112 «0578
g.i 2.17 +712 -286 132 0679
10.6 2.52 825 +332 «153 -0788
12.1 2.89 +948 «382 176 +0904
13.8 3.29 1.078 +433 +200 -1028
15-6 3-71 1.217 +485 +226 1161
17.5 4.16 1.365 +549 +253 -1312
19.5 4.64 1.521 .611 282 1450
21.6 5.14 1.685 -677 +313 1607
23.8 5.€7 1.858 +747 +345 1772
26.2 6.22 2.039 .819 379 1945
28.6 6.80 2.229 896 3414 2126
31.2 7-40 2.427 +975 0452 -2314
33-8 8.03 2.033 1.058 «489 251t
36.6 8.69 2.848 1.145 «529 2716
39-5 9-37 3.07% 1.234 2571 2929
42.4 10,08 3.303 1.328 614 -3150
45-5 10,81 3544 1.424 +658 +3379
48.7 11.58 3-792 1.524 +705 -30I7
52.0 12.35 4.049 1,627 +752 «3162
55°55 13.16 4.215 1.734 .802 -41I5
59-0 14.00 4.589 1.844 853 -4376
62.6 14.87 4.872 1.958 +905 +4045
66.3 15.75 5.162 2.075, +959 +4923
70.2 16.66 5.401 2.190 1,015 5248
74.1 17.60 5.769 2.336 1.072 -5502
78.2 18.57 6.085 2.446 1.131 -5803
82.4 19.56 6.408 2.576 I,IQI 6112
86. 20.57 6.742 2.710 1.253 ~6430
g1.0 21.6% 7.083 2,847 1.317 -6755
95-5 22.68 7-433 2.988 1,382 7089
100.1 23.8 7:79 3-13 1.448 +743
104.9 24.8 8.15 3-27 1.516 778
109.7 26.0 8.53 3-43 1.586 813
114.6 27.2 8.91 3.58 1.657 .850
119.7 28.4 9-30 3-74 1.730 887
124.8 29.6 9.70 3-90 1.805 +925
130.1 30.8 10,1 4.06 1,881 +964
135-4 32.5 10.53 4.23 1.958 1.004

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

* Box’s Hydraulics.
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 221

The practical application of this table will be found in the
following rules:

To find the head of water when diameter and length of to Ana head.

pipe and number of gallons discharged per minute are known.
—In the above table the head due to a length of one yard is
found opposite the number of gallons. Multiply that number
by the given length in yards and we have the required head in
feet. Thus, to find the head necessary to deliver 130 gallons
per minute by a pipe 4 inches in diameter, 500 yards long:
Opposite 130 gallons in the table and under 4 inches in diam-
eter is ‘679, which, multiplied by 500, gives 339°5 feet, the
head sought.

To find the diameter of the pipe when head, length of pipe to ana diam-
and the number of gallons discharged per minute are known.— aa cae
Divide the head of water in feet by the length of the pipe in
yards, and the number nearest to this in the table opposite
the number of gallons will be found under the required
diameter.

To find the number of gallons discharged when the head, to sna ais-
length of pipe and its diameter are known.—Divide the head °°?”
of water in feet by the given length in yards, and the nearest
number thereto in the table under the diameter will be found
opposite the required number of gallons.

To find the length when the head, number of gallons per tosnatength
minute and diameter of pipe are known.—Divide the given ne
head by the head for one yard found in the table under the
given diameter and opposite the given number of gallons, and
the result is the required length.

The actual discharge of pipes is easily calculated with sctuatais-
approximate accuracy by Prony’s formula. In using this a
formula, find the discharge in gallons per minute by multiply-
ing the head in inches by the diameter of the pipe in inches,
and divide the product by the length of the pipe in inches

= xd

axel . In the following table find the number nearest
222 HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

to the quotient thus obtained in the first column, and the dis-
charge in gallons per minute will be found opposite it, under
the diameter of the pipe used :

Discharge of Pipes by Prony’s Formula.

 

Diameter of the Pipe in Inches.

 

 

 

| Velocity
H Xd |inFeet| 1% 2 26 3 3% | 4 | 5 | 6
Prony's L per
formula. Second.
Gallons Discharged per Minute.
| |
.00002402|  -025 sO5IT +1150 | .2045 +3196 -4602 -626 -818 sez, 1.841
«00005437 +05 «1022 +2301 «4091 -6392 .9204| 1.252 | 1.636 ae 3.682
«00009108]  -075 +1534 | .3450 | .6136 -9588 | 1.382 1.878 | 2.454 3-834, 5.523
-0001341 +100 22045, -4602 -8182 | 1.278 1.841 2.504 | 3.273 Sens 7 363

-0001836 +125 +2556 +5750 | 1.023 1.598 2.301 3-130 | 4.090 6.390, 9-205

«0002394 +15 +3067 | 6900 | 1.227 1.917 2.761 3-756 | 4.908) 7.668 r1.05
|

«0003016 +175 +3578 | 8053 1.432 2.237 3.221 4.382 | 5.728) 8.947 12.83

0003702 +z -4090 | .g204 | 1.636 2.557 3.682 5.008 6.546 70.23 [x4.73
«0004452 «225 -4601 | 1.035 1.841 2.876 4.142 5-634 | 7.363 11.50 |16.57
-0005266 +25 +5112 | 1.150 2.045 3-196 4.602 6.260 8.160 12.78 ea
0006140 +275 +5624 | 1.265 2.250 36515 5.062 6.886 9-000 14.06 20.25
0007080 3 +6135 | 1.382 2.454 3-835 5.522 7512 | 9.819 15.34 Les
0008087 +325 -6646 | 1.496 | 2.659 4.154 5.982 8.138 |10.64 |16.62 3.03
-0009154 | +35 +7157 | r-6rx | 2.864 | 4.474 | 6.443 | 8.764 |xx.46 |17-89 25-77
0010286 +375 +7669 | 1.726 | 3.068 | 4.794 | 6.903 | 9.390 |12.27 |19.17 27-6
-0011480 4 -8180 | 1.842 3-273 5-113 7-363 | 10.02 |13.09 a 45 29-45
.001274 +425 -8691 | 1.955 3-477 5.433 7.823 | 10.64 13.91 21.73 31.29
-001406 +45 +9202 | 2.071 3-682 5.757 8.284 | 11.27 [14.73 3.00 153.33
-001545 +475 -9713 | 2.186 | 3.886 6.077 8.744 | 11.89 [15.55 24-29 134-97
-001690 “5 1.023 | 2.301 4.091 6.392 g.204 | 12.52 |16.37 25.57 36.82
002 +55 1.125 | 2.532 4.500 7-031 | 10,12 13.77. |18.00 8.32 |40.50
+00233 6 1.227 | 2.76% 4.909 7.670 | 11.04 15.02 |19.64 |50.68 44.18
-002693 65 1.329 | 2.991 5-318 8.309 | 11.96 16.28 |21.27 133-23 | 47-86
=003079 7 1.43 | 3-221 5+727 8.948 | 12.88 17.53 |22.9% 35-79 'sr.54
-003490 +75 1.533 | 3-450 | 6.136 9-588 | 13.82 18.78 24.54 38.34 ‘55-23
«003926 8 1.636 | 3.682 6.544 | 10.23 14.73 20,03 |26.18 ‘40.90 58.90
-004388 85 1.738 | 3.912 6.954 | 10.86 15.65 21.29 |27.82 143-46 62.59
-004876 9 r.84r | 4.142 | 7.3€3 | 13.52 16.57 22.53 |29.46 |,6.02 66.27

|

.005928 1.0 2.045 | 4.Go2z 8.182 | 12.78 18.41 25.04 |32-73 51-13 73.63
.00648 1.05 2.147 | 4.832 8.59r | 13.42 19.33 26.29 |34-37 [53-69 |77.32
-00708 1.1 2.249 | 5.062 | 9.000 | 14.06 20.25 | 27.54 |36.00 |56.24 80.99.
-007691 1.15 2.35 | 5.292 9-409 | 14.70 21.15 28.80 |37.64 58-80 84-67
-008338 1.2 2.454 | 5.522 | 9.828 | 15.34 22.09 30.05 |39.28 61.36 88.36

+009 1.25 2.556 | 5-753 | 10.23 15.96 23.01 | 31.30 |40.91 63.0% 92-94

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

pischargeot The discharge of small pipes may be calculated with sufficient
small pipes. * . *
accuracy for practical purposes from the following convenient
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 223:

table, showing the quantity of water that will flow through a
pipe 500 feet long in 24 hours, with a pressure due to a head of
10 feet :

3-inch bore.... 576 gallons. 3-inch bore.... 3,200 gallons.
Y-inch “ .... 1150 t-inch ‘f .... 6,624 ‘S
H%-inch “ .... 2,040 * 1Y%{-inch “ .... 10,000 ‘

Having determined the pressure due to head with which he strengtn

has to deal, and the size of the pipe needed to discharge a given ove
quantity in a given time, the plumber must calculate the
strength which his pipe must possess to resist this pressure
under all conditions. This he need not do with absolute accu-
racy, for the reason that he must use the pipe he finds: in the
market ; but the strength of the sizes in the market is known,
and on the basis of this knowledge he can determine the weight
of pipe he requires. In all such calculations, however, there
should be a liberal margin for safety. The pipe may corrode, contingen-
external influences may weaken it, and extraordinary pressures scene eae
may be brought to bear upon it—as by the sudden closing of ™™*P°™*
a cock, which, owing to the incompressible nature of water,
causes it to strike a powerful blow, due to the suddenly
arrested momentum of the entire column of water in the pipe.
This often bursts pipes which are amply strong to resist a great
deal more than the normal pressure to which they are subjected.
Other causes also operate to increase the pressure and tax the
resisting powers of the pipe, and it must be strong enough to
bear these without straining. Through the courtesy of Mr. T.
O. Leroy, of New York, I am able to present a table of much
value, which gives the relation of size and thickness to strength
in standard lead pipes. These figures, from which I have
omitted the decimals, are compiled from the results of careful
tests :
Q24 HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

Weight and Strength of Lead Pipes.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3 #H s. | 3 # abhi | ley
ge] |? bale £)8| (2 |ksle
be ~ wie itd. & 5 . a|/2e 5
: Aa) ad. \ES 2 Alula |Aa 2 |KO
2/2 18/8 |o3| Be IS8l . 212 18] S28 | ag 8
H ~ ° g Bai $i Re Ba oT = 2 $s! aa RD Ba
5 ‘ S \.n |i lesa a |P Rll & ep cet = a 89/2 al 3
2) # | 218 |S 88) ge gh lets “4/2/38 |$)| 85) 28) sh jos
Strengthof @]|/ & qo) (2a) os | om (Bes | & -| XH 1a] ae e Om | 3
aes S\ S/F |S elas is as) a [FP] a fala ls [Fa
AAA! 112] .75 |.18] . 1 I AA | 4 8] 1.46 |.23 | «18 50 | QIo | 227
AAA! 112 ‘B 18 “23 rie 1968 | 492 1 A |4 0| 1.42 }.21 TO

AA|I5]/. 15 | .07| 1610 \\z A |4 0| 3.42 |.21 | .08 | 905 | 857 | 214

AA |x 8 | .68 |.15 | .05] 1645 | 1627 | 406 |r B |3 4} 1.34 |-17| -IE | 790

A |r 2) .64 |.13 | .05) 1350 £ B |3 4 134 18 | 700] 745 | 186

A |r 2 .64 |.13 |..07| r412 | 138r | 347)|r Cc |2 1.28 |.14 | -16 | 560

B |r o| .625 |.125! .03! 1330 I G |2 8| 1.28 |.14] 15} 565 | 562 | 140

B .| 1 0 | .625 |.125] .03) 1355 | 1342 | 335.|r D | 2 4 | 1.25 }.125) «1 5

CG |} 014] .60 |.1r | .05] 1 {|x D |2 4 | 1-25 |-125) -1 B12 | 518 | 129

C |o134)| .60 |.1r ea 1212 | 1187 | 296 |r E | 2 0] 12.20 |.10| «17 | 475

“yeee’| 0.10 | 155 |.087) .07| TO80 (It BE | 2 0| 1.20 }.10| .14} 475 | 475 | 118

wees | OTO| 255 |.087) 05] 1 1085 | 271)'1 weee | I 8] 1.18 |.09 ] «20 | 320
7-16) .- 2 ig «5975|-08 | .04]. 7’ |\t save. | 28) a8 1. «19 | 330] 325| 8r
9-16 .... | 0 96) .5975].08 | .05] 770 | 775 | 193)|T AAA) 6 12 | 1.80 |.275] .20 | 937

AAA) 3 0lr. 125° lisinsae E750! jr AAA! 6 12 | 1.80 |.275] «18 7 | 962 | 240

AAA! 3 0/1. - |.28 | .08] 1825 | 1787 | 446, |1 AA | 5 12 | 1.75 |.25 4 5

seve | 2 8] .95  |.225] .09| 1620 | © \|z AA | 5 12 | 1.75 |-25 | + - 762 | 823 | 205

asine f 2 8 3 228 .09| 1690 | 1655 | 413 |I A | 411 | 1.67 |.27.| .12 690

AA |]2 0]. «18 | .07| 1425 (|x A | 411 | 1.67 |.21 | .09 685 | 171

AA |2 0} .86 |.18 | .12| 1362 | 1393 } 343 /1 B | 3431 | 1.59 |-17] -12} 505

A |1i0} .82 |.16 | .06) 1230 | I B | 311 | 1.59 |.17 | .14 | 587 | 546 136

A |110| .82 |.16 | .03| 1340 | 1285 | 32x |r Cc 3 0 | 1.52 |.135} 14 | - 415

B |1 3| .75 |-125) .05| 930 - [It CG 13 of 1.52 |.135] -15 | 425 | 420 | 105

B |x 3] .75 |.125] .04] 1030 | 980 | 245 |I D | 2 81} 1.50 |.125] «15 | 375

Cc I 0| .70 |,.10 | .09] 790 [2 D | 2 8} 1.50 |.125] .19 | 325} 350} 87

© | 1 0|.70 |.10 | .07} 775 | 782 | 195 1 sees | 2 0 | 1.44 [095] «---] 325

D |o 9] .63 |.065 of 462 ut seen || 2 10 rag 095} .1I } 320 | 322] 80

Djo9|. 065) . 475 | 468 | 117 111g | AAA! 8 0 | 2. 29 | .20| 730

wees | O10} .65 |.07 | .09) 550 {jz AAA| 8 0 | 2.08 |.29 | «1 755 | 742 | 185

seoe | O8FO 8 .07 |. oe 556 | 139 F AA|]7 0/2. 25 | .1 goo

wieareg [OPER |i +09 "08 37 {ia AA Z o|2. +25 | .16 |. 700 | 700 | 175

wee. | 012 | .68 |.09 | .05] 613 | 625 | 156 |x A 4 | 1.96 |.22 | .22 5

AAA] 3 8 [1,10 |.23 | .14] I510 {ja A |6 4 | 1.96 |.22] .15 2 | 628 | 157

AAA| 3 8 jx.10 |.23 | .13] 1587 | 1548 | 387)|1 B | 5 0| 1.86 |.18| .20| 500

AA | 212 |1,06 |.21 | .10| 1340 {|x B-|5 of] 1.86 |.18! .t9 | 512! 506) 126

AA | 2 12 |1.06 |.21 | «10, 1420 | 1380 | 345 |1 C |4 4] 1.80 |.15 | 24} 445

A |2 8'r, 18 | og] 1115 {|x Cc \4 4 I 15 | .20]° 415 | 430 | 107

A /28r -18 | .12] 1190 | 1152 | 288 |x D {3 1.78 |.14 | .2r | 310

B |2 0| .95 |.16 +08 1000 \r D |3 8| 1.78 |.14] -23 | 320] 315] 78

B/}20 -16 | .! 975 | 987 | 246 |x eeee | 3 0 | 1674 [12 | 23. 260

Cc KZ ts +117] .1I 5 {)x aeee | 3 0} 1.74 |.12 | .21 230 | 245] 61

C |r 7j .86 |.117| .07 5 | 795 | 198 |1! B |5 0/2. 116

D |x 4} .84 |.10| .09| 680 |\z C 14 0/2.

D |x 4| .84 |.10 | .09)_ 737 | 708 | 177,|2 Cc |\4 0/2. 93

ca 434 1.33 [429 | 12] 1450) | \z D 310/2..

414 1.33 |.29 | .08! 1475 | 1462 I 310 | 2.
AA /3 d .1.20 |.225] .10) 1200 2 >| 2 AAA Io It} 2. 2
“| AA |3 8 1.20 |.225) .07] 1250 | 1225 | 306 2 | AAA ro 51 | 2. 152

A |3 0.1.13 |.19 | .10) I145 il2 AA | 814} 2.

A |3 0'1.13 |.19 | .12] Io00 | 1072 | 268 2 AA | 8 14 | 2. 127

B | 2 3 1.05 |.15 | .06) 890 \\2 A |7 0/2.

B |2 3.1.05 |.15 | .10) 840] 865 | 216 2 Aé| 7 0}]2. I0r

Gl aael, 125] ,12| 790. \|2 B |6 0j2.

Cc j,rrirn 125] . 775 | 782 | 195 2 B |6 0/2. co

D | 1 3 .93 |.09 | .12) 505 { Cc 5 0]2.

Dit 3 +93 -09 | .12} 5e5 | 505 | 126 (2 Cc 15 of2. 65
yr |AAA!6 o jr. 30 | .09] 1220 \\2 D \}4 ol2. =
x |AAA}6 0 {160 +30 | 07} 1240 | 1230 | 307,,2 D |4 0j;2 50
xr |} AA le 8 pe 23 | .25| 870 7 |

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
IIYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 995

Tin-lined lead pipe is somewhat lighter than lead pipe bear- Weight of
in-1
ing the same mark, as will be seen from a comparison of the sean pines

following table with the one last given:
| Weights per foot of Tin-lined Lead Pipes.

Aa |

A AA
Caliber. [Weight [pert Weight

 

D™ |DLi ent | E  |E Light
wer ‘ht o Weight Weight Weight | Weight

per ft. | per ft. | per ft. | per | per ft. | per ft. | per ft. | per ft. per ft.

 

 

 

| | :
Ib. oz. Ib, oz. 1b. oz. /Ib. dens oz. 1b. oz. Ib, elite oz. Ib. oz.

 

 

 

 

 

 

1 8ir 5/2 2/5 O}]0 13] 0 10 |.ceseeee ° Br | srerereretnce
te RS Se ee a me ees o Irjo 9g
-}3 8{|2 awl2 8/2 oj w}r 8]1r 4l/xr ojo 2

4 813 813 o/|2 4j;2 off wir 8)r 4]/r 0

6 014 2/4 of 3 4/2 8) 2 0 farseseee I Bi il sccia(seiaie'e

6 w/5 w2)4 w/3 w/3 of 2 8Bf........ B16 |awmeeeies

9 0/8 of 6 45 ol4 4/3 S Meistsiatcerats: 3 & | eesissew
To 12/9 Of J Of 6 Of] 5 4] 4 — O fecceccselsccavecelesneveee

 

 

 

 

The strength of tin-lined pipe is about the same as that of strengtn.
lead pipe, the greater strength of the tin being offset by the
lighter weight per foot of the pipe thus made. Some experi- craven’s
ments made by Mr. A. W. Craven, OC. E., chief engineer of the rar
Croton Aqueduct Department of New York, gave the follow-
ing results:

Size of Pipe. Lead. Tin-lined.
A, Breaking strain, per square inch...... 1500 1600
AA, « « « “ 1.2... 1600 1665
AAA, « o e We oe one 1800 1930

t
Were the tin-lined pipes made the same weight per foot as sate working

lead they would no doubt be considerably stronger. As it istmiea”
they are probably fully as strong, but I should not advise sub- !°*¢?*
jecting them to a greater working pressure than would be con-
sidered safe with a lead pipe of the same size and mark. The
manufacturers do not claim for it any greater strength than
they have allowed for by making the pipe lighter than lead.

Block-tin pipe is stronger for a given weight per foot than strength ot
lead or tin-lined. As compared with lead its strength is about ae

as 34 to He The following table shows the
226

HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

Weights per foot of Block-Tin Pipes.

 

XY inch, AA...... 33% OZ.
5-16 * AAA.. 6% “
% “ AAAQ.... 7 *
% « AA... 4%
% ‘“ AAA... Io «(f
% rt? Pa 8 “a
wo AAC, 6% * |x
Bf A a eee 4%“ |

% inch, AAA....... Ir 0Z
% “ AA... eee ges
KS Meee 6“
% AAA, x3.*
By RR ciceisia ats xr
Bae ABS Ss osdaielaeis Ceug

BBB wwe ay *

BA eee xq ‘

I

 

wrought- Wrought-iron pipes suitable for water service range in diame-

iron pipes.

ter from $ inch to 16 inches. The following table, compiled

by Messrs. Tasker & Co., of the Pascal Iron Works, Philadel-
phia, gives the

Standard Sizes and Weights of Welded Iron Pipes.

 

 

s ° 3

23 os | ed

Inside Diameter. 63 4 4s Bb

aa 3 ad as

BA 3 £4 “Bes

<4 a < z

Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Lbs.
Boe ea a a teiwralvteleieveeGisiaiace 0.84 ©.109 0.623 0.845
Bf ane Gia Moet Beem eaaLehies 1.05 0.113 0.824 1.126
Ti Ge 2ie oes aeons 1.315 0.134 1.048 1.670
I aes iee seeceaaates 1.66 0.140 1.380 2.258
DUG sd aciswrare ac tioiccahieaicianls I.9g 0.145 1.611 2.694
BY eth saan 2.375 0.154 2.067 3.667
ER Te 2.875 0.204 2.468 5-773
Bie | IE's dota Dore aso bcaub cnc dusiaresie 3.5 0.217 3.067 7-547
Bios sue eaten wigahsieeees 4.0 0.226 3.548 9-055
Ai eS aisaanecasswss 4.5 0.237 4.026 10.728
BVA cs Sine AsisienaseyGoieie bess. & 5. 0.247 4.508 12.492
5 gcse aoe tee ys 5.563 0.259 5.045 14.564
O. wate chen eecnatenn ysis 6.625 0.280 6.065 18.767
Oh <a seuptesnyaveceinis (ehahetenn 55.4 7.625 0.301 7.023 23.410
BS seein Wwe Sea eoe 8.625 0.322 7.982 28.548
Q anc vecv cane nsenecens 9-688 0.344 9.001 34.077
TO™ nasierieen iirdeanees 10.75 0.366 10.019 40.641

 

 

 

 

 
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 227

y

These pipes are subjected by the makers to the following strength of

wrought-
tests: iron pipes.
¥% tor in, butt welded 300 lbs. hydraulic pressure per square inch.
1% to Io in. lap 66 500 6c “ce ce 6c “ce “

Practically, they are strong enough to bear any pressure with
which the plumber has to deal. The same is true.of drawn
brass and copper pipes.

The pressures to be dealt with in American plumbing prac- Pressures.
tice vary through a wide range. In cities supplied by what are

“known as gravity works, ¢. ¢., where dependence is placed on
natural head at the distributing reservoir, as in New York, the
pressure of water is often very light. Where pumping ma-
chinery is used and a high head is maintained in tall stand
pipes or the pumps deliver directly into the mains, we
sometimes get pressures of 100 pounds to the inch and
upward. In such cases pipes are subjected to very severe
strains, and are often burst by the sudden closing of a cock or water
valve. The power exerted by a column of water suddenly ware
arrested is almost always great enough to make the pipes quiver
and rattle from end to end, and for safety, as well as for con-
venience, we must make some provision for cushioning the
water hammer. An air chamber, always useful, becomes a airchambers
necessity when heavy pressures are dealt with. These are com-
monly made by carrying the pipe from 15 to 20 inches above
the cock or valve, and in this added length the air is compressed,
making an elastic cushion upon which the blow expends itself
harmlessly. This, at least, is the theory of the air chamber.
Now in practice, where there are heavy water pressures, these
air chambers often fail precisely as they sometimes fail in steam
fire engines. The air in them is gradually carried out with the
water which surges up into them, and when they are full of
water, the water hammer, as it is called, is not cushioned, owing
to the incompressibility of water. With the hydraulic ram,
the fire engine, the steam pump and other hydraulic apparatus,
this difficulty is overcome by the use of a small valve, through
228 HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

which, at certain points in the stroke, air is drawn in in suffi-
cient quantity to supply any loss in the air chamber. In house
plumbing we cannot well have recourse to this expedient, and
for this reason the common form of air chamber is not usually
worth the lead used in making it. An air chamber or its
equivalent can, however, be made which will meet all the re-
quirements of the case, and cushion the water hammer what-
Rubberbails. ever the pressure. Take a piece of iron pipe, say 7 or 8 inches
long, and large enough to hold a couple of solid rubber balls of
24 or 8 inches diameter, such as can be procured at any toy
store. Cover the top of the tube with a screw cap, and fit it in
position by means of a reducing collar and nipple. .A chamber
of this kind never fails. The blow of the water is expended in
compressing the rubber balls. It would be well if such cham-
bers were attached to the service pipe system of every house,
since they not only greatly reduce the strains upon the pipes,
couplings and closet valves, but in case of freezing permit
such expansion within the pipe as will be very apt to avert the
nuisance of a burst. I know of cases in which pipes have been
protected by this simple device during repeated freezings, and
can recommend it with entire confidence as likely to save a
great deal of money in cold weather to landlords and tenants.
Locationof The location of the air chamber depends upon circumstances.
air chambers. é : : :
A safe rule is to place it as near as possible to the point where
the shock is felt most sharply. The philosophy of this is
that the column of water, flowing rapidly and forcibly from
a cock or fixture, is suddenly arrested by the closing of the
cock, and strikes a blow precisely in the same manner as a stick
of timber when used as a battering ram, but with this differ-
ence, that the blow is distributed at once through the whole
mass of the water in the pipes. The concussion should be
arrested at the point where it is produced, which is at the cock,
basin, or closet, as the case may be. The resulting jar when a
cock is closed is heard all over the house, it is true, but the first
strain is felt at the point where the water is shut off.
WYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 229

In providing for the storage of water, the plumber usually storage
makes his calculations by “rule of thumb.” Unless guided in ue
this by knowledge gained from long experience, he is very
likely to make mistakes. In the case of cisterns for rain water, cisterns.
it is important for economic reasons that he should make them
large enough to contain all the water which will drain into
them ;- for sanitary reasons it is desirable that they should not
be unnecessarily large. The following rules and information
will be found to apply especially to cisterns:

To calculate the amount of water which will drain from a Peainae
roof.—Multiply the area of the roof in feet by the average rain-
fall in a month, in inches, and the product by 623. This gives
the number of gallons which will drain from the roof ina
month.

‘With a regular consumption for domestic purposes, cistern
capacity for one-quarter to three-eighths this amount of water
' will be ample.

When a roof has a steep pitch, its size should be determined
by the area of ground it actually covers.

The amount of rainfall in a given locality is determined by Rainfall in

; i: ; r 7 United States
averages. The average rainfall in vertical inches is 30 inches
in the basin of the great lakes; 32 inches on Lake Erie and
Champlain ; 36 inches on the Hudson River, at the head waters
of the Ohio, through the central portions of Pennsylvania and
Virginia, and the Western portion of North Carolina; 40
inches in the extreme Eastern and Western portions of Maine,
Northern New Hampshire and Vermont, Southeastern Massa-
chusetts, Central New York, Northeastern Pennsylvania, South-
eastern New Jersey, and Delaware; also in a narrow belt run-
ning down from the Western portion of Maryland, through
Virginia and North Carolina, to the Northwestern portion of
South Carolina; thence up through the Western portion of Vir-
ginia, Northeast Ohio, Northern Indiana and Illinois to Prairie
du Chien; 42 inches on the East coast of Maine, Eastern Massa-
chusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut, and middle part of
230 HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

Maryland ; thence on a narrow belt to South Carolina; thence

up through Eastern Tennessee, through Central Ohio, Indiana

and Illinois to Iowa; thence down through Western Missouri

and Texas to the Gulf of Mexico; 45 inches from Concord, N.

H., through Worcester, Mass., Western Connecticut and the

City of New York to the Susquehanna River, north of Mary-

land ; also at Richmond, Va.; Raleigh, N. C.; Augusta, Ga. ;

Knoxville, Tenn.; Indianapolis, Ind.; Springfield, Il.; St.

Louis, Mo.; thence through Western Arkansas, across Red

River to the Gulf of Mexico. From the belt just described the

rainfall increases inland and southward until, at Mobile, Ala.,

it is 63 inches. The same amount also falls in the extreme
southern portion of Florida.

obstructions An important subject intimately related to practical hydrau-

re lics, is the obstruction of pipes from causes other than the

complete or partial closing of the water-way by the lodgment

airtraps. of solid substances therein. It is a matter of frequent expe-

rience in plumbing work that water cannot be made to flow

through pipes under certain conditions frequently met with,

until openings are made to allow the air confined in the pipes

to escape. A great many cases of this kind have been brought

to my notice during the past few years by correspondents in

different parts of the country, and examination has usually

shown that the trouble resulted in bends of the pipe. It often

happens that, through carelessness, or because of difficulties in

the way of laying them straight, pipes have high and low

Highana points. The latter give little trouble, unless by collecting and

oe holding sediment; but when we have low points we are very

certain to find high points, and

when these occur they are like_

ly to give trouble. In Figure

22 is shown an exaggeration of

one of these high points, or up-

igvae. ward bends, which will serve

for purposes of illustration. Water always contains more or
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 281

less air and undissolved gases, which, being lighter than water,
naturally collect at the highest points in a long pipe or con-
duit, and, as shown in the illustration, partially close the water-
way. When several of these obstructions occur in a line of
pipe, it is not unusual for the flow of water to be stopped alto-
gether. If the pressure of water was exerted only on one side
of such an air cushion, it would be quickly dislodged, but in the
case shown in the figure the pressure is the same above and be-
low the bend, consequently the water only presses upward. Ob-
structions of this kind give a vast amount of trouble to plumb-
ers, and as the principle involved is not generally understood, a
few facts on the subject which I take from a paper by Mr.
Richard H. Buel, C. E., will be of interest. I have changed 8.4. Bue
the numbers of his drawings to make the figures number in
regular order: “The collection of air in high points of a pipe
may stop the flow of water altogether, even when a considerable
pressiire is applied. In Fig. 23 (1) represents a bent tube con-
taining a liquid, which stands at the same hight (on the level of
the line a 0) in each leg when no pressure is applied. Suppose

Illustration
of action of
air in water
pipes.

 

Fig. 23.
that, by means of a weight and piston, a pressure is put upon
the liquid in one leg, producing a rise of ¢d in the other. In
the same figure (2) represents a set of four bent tubes connected
together, each similar to (1), and with the same amount of
liquid in each, the upper connections being filled with a lighter
liquid. If the same pressure is applied to this set, it will only
cause a rise of about one-fourth of the amount that occurred in
(1), since there are four equal columns to resist the pressure.
This principle is applied to great advantage in the construction
Obstructions
in city mains.

282 ILYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

of mercury gauges, obviating the necessity of employing a high
column to register a considerable pressure of steam. But it
will be seen that the application of this principle is anything
but desirable in the case of water pipes. Thus suppose that
the pressure applied to one leg of (1) was just sufficient to force
water out of the other leg; then, if the pipes were arranged as
in (2), about four times as much pressure would have to be
applied to one open leg to force water out of the other. An
arrangement something like this may occur in a long water
pipe, being represented onan exaggerated scale in Fig. 24. We

 

Fig. 24.
may suppose that this pipe was fe first full of air, and that
water, being admitted, compressed the air into the high points,
and collected in the low points, very much as in (2) Fig. 23. It
might happen, then, that the pressure required to force water
through the pipe would be more than sufficient to burst it; so
that the only remedy would be to make a few holes and release
the air. Such an effect is not very common, only occur-
ring in the case of-very long and crooked pipes. It is
frequently observed with long syphons when the accumula-
tion of air at the high points stops their action. The remedy
is to have valves at such points that can either be opened by
hand from time to time to let out the air, or can be arranged so
as to open automatically when the air attains a certain pressure.
This trouble is sometimes experienced in the mains of city
water works, and it is attended with great danger if the water
is forced through the mains by an engine, since, if a pipe be-
comes air bound, the effect may be to increase the water pres-
sure, and thus burst the pipe. In layinga city main, it is often
impossible to avoid high points on account of the nature of the
ground ; but they should be carefully noted by the engineer,
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 233

and at every such point means should be provided for drawing
off the air. If possible, it is a good plan to place a hydrant at
each high point, as it will probably be used often enough to
allow the air to escape. Wherever the main is tapped for the
purpose of furnishing water to a building, it is well to drive
the tap into the upper part of the main, so that it will aid in
relieving the pipe of air. In pumping water through a main
after the engine has been stopped for some time, it is necessary
to see that the valves at the principal high points are kept open
until the pipe becomes filled with water.”

The only correction I consider it necessary to make in Mr.
Buel’s explanation of the causes of, and remedy for; the inter-
ruption of the flow of water in pipes, relates to what seems to
be a misuse of the word syphon. A syphon, strictly speaking,
is a tube through which water passes,
partly by gravity and partly by the
atmospheric pressure, or suction, so
called. In other words, the water is
lifted above the level of the water
in the reservoir by means of the &
column of water in the longer leg, Fig. 25.
which, by its weight, is constantly tending to form a vacuum
in the highest part of the pipe, into which vacuum water from
the reservoir is forced by atmospheric pressure. Opening the
top of a syphon of this character would merely empty both legs
of the pipe. If, however, the top of the bend in the pipe be
below the level of the water in the reservoir, the opening of
the pipe at the bend allows the air to escape. This form of
pipe is often called asyphon, but incorrectly. The pipe on the
left of the vessel containing water shown in Fig. 25 is a
syphon, while that on the right is not. From a syphon the air
can be drawn by means of a pump, but not by simply opening
a valve, it being necessary to create a partial vacuum in order
to remove the air. It is quite common to speak of any vertical
bend in a pipe as forming a syphon, but under ordinary circum-
stances syphons are rarely formed in pipes, since they can only

 

Syphons.

Difference
between a
syphon and
a bend.
Raising
water.

Pumps.

284 HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

be made to lift water about 33 feet at the sea level when work-
ing to the best advantage. They work under the same condi-
tions in this respect as a suction pump.

In practical plumbing it is not always possible to deal with
natural heads. Water must often be raised—as from wells and
cisterns, and when drawn from sources which give an available
head but not strength enough to carry them to the level re-
quired—by mechanical means; and the problem is how to raise
most water with the least expenditure of power. When no
head is available, recourse must be had to pumps. These may
be driven by wind, by water under certain circumstances, by
steam or calorie engines, by animal power or by hand. The
following tables will be found useful for theoretical calcula-
tions :

To Find the Power Required to Raise Water to any Hight.
—Multiply the quantity required per minute in cubic feet by
the lift in feet, and this by 6°23, dividing the product by 33,000
for the nominal horse-power required. By adding 30 per cent.
we can find the actual horse-power required in most instances.
If the quantity required per minute is in gallons, the multiplier
will be 8°3 instead of 62°38.

Table of the Power Required to Raise Water from Deep Wells.

 

 

 

 

 

& & Maximum depth from which this quan-
5 3 § tity can be raised by each unit of
& Eo power.
3 ne
Diameter of a ° g 6 ;
ump barrcl. 3 b ne
pene ee 23 One man a One horse | horse-
8 ag turning a rorlein y a working | power
8 & i crank, in 8 agin. |steam
gin. engine
3
Inch. a Gallons. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet.
D | ieee & . 225 80 160 560 880
BNL. vaeeadueos g a 360 50 100 350 550
ee 8 a 520 35 70 245 | 385
a
FU etic eecnlae 3 5 700 25° 50° 175 275
A wieuatnesce ey 3" goo 20 40 140 220

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 235

The problem of raising water was the first one of a mechani- primitive
cal or engineering character which mankind was called upon to Eo ee
solve. The most barbarous races as well as the civilized are
alike compelled to draw water. The means used may be simple
or complex, but the necessity is equal in both cases and, in not
a few instances, the mechanism is identical. The question of
how to raise water is not only the most important but the most
frequently recurring of all the mechanical problems which the
modern engineer has to solve, and, unlike most other engineering
problems, this is a question which personally concerns every indi-
vidual of the community. The earliest device for the purpose
was probably an earthen pot or a bag of skin attached to a cord
and let down to the spring or into the well.

The shadoof, or common well sweep, seems to have been the oe d

next step, and from drawings found in Egypt it is proved that
this device is at least 3000 years old, and, probably even older.
. Of simple forms of water-raising contrivances, such as flutter
wheels, chain pumps, Persian wheels—having a number of pots
upon a ropé or chain—and the simple suction pump, it may be
safely said that there is little, if anything, new for the last
thousand years or more, modern progress consisting chiefly in
improvement in workmanship, better materials and a greater
attention to the details.

Very early in the history of the world animal power was used Motive power
to assist in the raising of water, and tread wheels, horizontal
winding drums and the direct attachment of animals to the
bucket rope, which was led over a pulley, were some of the
more common means used. ‘The plumber, in dealing with the
question of water raising, has usually to depend upon manual
labor or upon some motor, as wind, steam or hot-air engines.

Animal power is rarely employed, because a “horse-power” or
similar machine for utilizing the force of animals usually costs
more than a small steam engine or other prime mover of equal
power.
Men taken at an average are equal to the production of one- Hand power.
A man’s work
in pumping.

Size of pump
barrels.

Leverage.

Economy

of power. +

236 HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

fifth of a horse-power for ten hours per day. A strong man
has, for a few minutes at a time, exerted a force equal to more
than half a horse-power, lifting a weight of 18,000 pounds one
foot high in a minute, but this could not be kept up. In esti-
mating the quantity of water required to be raised, a man’s
power can be estimated as equal to the raising of 5000 pounds
one foot high per minute. In putting in a pump to be worked
by hand, a mistake is often made in choosing one in which the
leverage is so large that the hand does not have a perceptible
resistance, and is obliged to travel over a very great distance to
do the work. The books give a resistance of 30 pounds and a
speed of 24 feet per second as the greatest rate of speed at
which work can be kept up. The weight, I should judge, was
about right, but it seems to me that the speed is much greater
than can be conveniently maintained in pumping. I should
think that a double 18-inch stroke would be much nearer a
practicable rate. That is 3 feet per second, but only half of the
time performing work.

‘When a man has to work a pump for a short lift, we see no
objection to the use of a good-sized barrel so as to obtain a fair
amount of resistance. ‘This reduces the time necessary for
pumping a given quantity of water, though it makes the work
a little harder. Where a pump has to be used by women and
children, especially if the whole distance through which the
water is carried is considerable, a pump which works easily is
absolutely necessary. In such cases a pump with a long lever-
age and a comparatively small bore must be selected. For a
well or cistern from which a great deal of water is to be drawn
by different persons—as, for instance, one by which a large
school is supplied—it is necessary that the pump should deliver
a large quantity of water at each stroke. No one individual
pumps more than one or two pailfuls at a time, and it makes
little difference whether the whole force is expended in two or
three strokes or in seven or eight. It makes a vast saving
in time, however, when the pail is filled in two strokes. In
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 237

setting up a pump that delivers a great quantity of water at
each stroke, care should be taken to have a large nozzle and a
free water-way, otherwise the stream will be too violent and
spatter and splash. This is a very common fault with many
pumps when they are worked rapidly.

The distance to which water can be raised by the common nign’ to
lifting pump varies with the hight above the sea level and also ee
with the pressure of the atmosphere. At the sea level the phéve ores.
column of water that the atmosphere will support is about 33 °°
feet in hight, and a pump will draw water, as it is called, this
distance; but it must be remembered that the force which
sends the water into the pump at this hight is so small as to be
almost balanced by the weight of the water; hence a lifting
pump would deliver water very slowly drawing it this distance.

The nearer the pump barrel is to the surface of the water, the

more rapidly the pressure of the atmosphere forces the water
through the suction pipe. Hence many pump makers, in put-

ting up a pipe, never put it further than 25 feet from the water

level. This sends the water to the pump with a force nearly
equal to a head of 7 or 8 feet. Where a greater distance ts uma- yaeuum
voidable—as, for example, where the suction pipe must be very "#™?"
long and the pump has a large bore and is worked rapidly—a
vacuum chamber is very valuable in preventing the water from
“breaking” in the pipe. With pitcher and other pumps hav-

ing very large cylinders, the suction pipe can rarely be made

large enough to supply the pump, and when working fast there

is a loss both of power and capacity. My experience with
pumps leads me to think that a vacuum chamber is very desira-

ble at any time. I have seen a pump of, say, 2 or 24 inch bore
supplied through a long half-inch pipe fitted with a vacuum
chamber, and found that by the most rapid pumping it was
almost impossible to “break” the water in the suction pipe.

In putting up pumps plumbers frequently pay too little atten- setting up.
tion to details. When a pump is ordered care should be taken ">
to obtain one suitable for the work to be done, neither too
Wooden
pumps.

238 WYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

large nor too small, and the connections should by all means be
properly made. Not long since a boiler pump was returned to
a manufacturer because it would not work, and on examination
it was found that the suction pipe had been put on to the de-
livery opening and the delivery pipe on the suction. It was of
course little wonder that the engineer could not get his boiler
full of water. It often happens that a house pump is put up
in such a way that the water cannot be made to run down.
This may happen through accident or design. Where, on the
approach of cold weather, the plumber carelessly leaves the
house pump in such a condition that the water cannot be
made to run out of the pipe, he should be held responsible for
the damage resulting. Such carelessness should always be dis-
countenanced, as it brings the trade into bad repute.

Until within a few years the form of pump in common use
consisted of a single log of wood bored out and provided with
a spear, two valves and a spout. The bark was removed, but
there was seldom any attempt to shape the log or reduce its
size, unless, perhaps, around the top. The objection to this
form of pump was found in the fact that the wood decayed and
the inside of the pump barrel disintegrated. The surface of
the wood also became slimy, and after a few years’ use the
water would be found charged with particles of wood fiber and
fungoid growths. Their durability was surprising, however,
and in spite of the objections named, water was delivered by
them in very pure condition—at least until the pumps had be-
come old. The selection of the log determined in a great
degree the life of the pump. But while in some respects
admirably adapted to outdoor wells of moderate depth, they
were not efficient in delivering water from wells of 60 feet or
more in depth, as the power required to work them was out of
all proportion to the amount of water raised. The reason for
this was the necessarily large size of the bore and consequent
heavy load always on the plunger. While still in limited use,
however, wooden pumps of this kind have been to a great
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 239

extent superseded by lighter and cheaper ones made by ma-
chinery.

Following the primitive form of wood pump came the chain chain pumps.
pump, which was also adapted to raising water from wells of
moderate depth. This, although one of the oldest forms of
pumps known, has come into use in this country within twenty
years. It is very cheap, simple, durable, and will rarely freeze
in the coldest climate. A chain pump will raise water with
great rapidity—faster, perhaps, from wells of moderate depth
than any other mechanical device in use. In deep wells, how-
ever, the labor of raising water by the chain pump is very
severe, as there is a long column of water to be supported and.
the leakage is considerable. The waste of power increases
as the tubing wears, giving the chain free play from side to
side. The only really objectionable feature of this pump is the
zine coating which it is commonly considered necessary to give
the chain. The chances of zinc poisoning from this cause are
very small, but-I have heard of instances in which zinc poison-
ing has been traced to it and proved by crucial tests.

Since the day of: the chain pump the iron pump has come tron pumps.
into more general-use than any other device for lifting water.
What is commonly known as the cistern pump is made by all cistern
pump manufacturers and has become standard. In their gen-”
eral features all pumps of this class are alike, consisting of a
cast-iron cylinder with spout, and base for securing it to the plat-
form upon which it stands; a brake and its fulcrum, or stand;

a piston, piston rod and valves. These pumps are in use in
nearly all parts of the world, and have been for some years an
important article of export. In this country they are used by
the million, and, all things considered, they are the cheapest,
most durable and most efficient hand pumps ever made. In
these pumps the diameter of bore ranges from 2 to 34 inches,
increasing by quarters of an inch. The pipes used with them
are from # inch to 2} inches, and may be of any kind known
to the trade. The following table shows the average efficiency
240 HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

Duty of els Of good pumps of this pattern, worked moderately with one
tern pumps,

hand:

Diameter of bore. Gallons per minute.
O ih cieercaeeeeiekes en bet cal wea dyes 6
I heh asia ea ek rsa alge gt ean 8
ae OY oa fasuttn ba Gist Maras onary tovergedrarayalibcanel cies Giarevacauaseisceupas 12
pees anaes Mlnn aR RE 15
Bir “Ta Sa ata Canela ee laltel ante ang lore do uigrae a geste) Mb alin alae ee 22
Oe iasieraae tee e ee ene ecb aa eat ieeaensalas 26
Dc wg ates cae esa atonal nea esse aadaty shades a pelamentnesaseciiaes 30

ee iat The size of pipes used with pumps of this class should be de-
termined with reference to the hight to which the water has to
be rasied. The following table will be useful to those who put
in pumps and make the connections:

Size of bore. Size of pipe.
2 inch. For any ordinary hight......... # inch.
at « Under 18 feet............0008. g «

Over 18 feet................-. 1 «

on « Under 18: feeii.s .ccvneisseeaws j
Over 18 feet..............205. Wz «

oR « Under 18 feet................. 1; «&
Over 18 feet.............0.00. 14“

3 « Under 18 feet................. 14 “
\ Over 18 Teetss sagiawek ses ccs ym

gt «  S Under 13teet cose yon vuaicninn ay
(Over TS Teetc5 sei ssanues ions 2

gh « Under 18 feet cee csdes careers a
Over 18 Seto coer eave meee at «

Pumps of this class weigh from 15 to about 50 pounds each.

Leather valves and packing are commonly used, but brass valves

can be had from the makers when hot water is to be pumped.
purapiity Properly cared for, these pumps will wear for an indefinite
ae period. Various parts may get out of order, and persons inex-
perienced in such matters are apt to think that a new pump is

needed. Commonly this is a mistake. Pumps of this class are
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. Q41

made on the system of interchangeability of parts, and any part
which wears out or breaks can be replaced at small cost. The
most expensive part of a small size of this style of pump—the
cylinder—costs less than half the price of a new pump, and
$1:50 will replace all the parts likely to wear out in many years’
service. A few cents spent on new leathers as often as may be Repatrs.
necessary, and an occasional tightening of screws and nuts, will
extend the life of such a pump indefinitely. If a pump “runs
down” when left standing for a few minutes and water must
be poured into the barrel to make the piston suck, it needs
attention. The repairs necessary to correct these defects are
easily made, but if neglected the pump will rapidly wear out.

For outdoor work iron pumps are rapidly superseding other tron pumps
kinds. One of the prime essentials for an outdoor pump is that erie
the brake shall be long enough and the barrel high enough, so
that it may be worked by a person of common hight, standing.

When the barrel of the pump is above ground, however, there precautions
was always danger of freezing in cold weather, and the first “#™™* ™°%
great improvement in this class of pumps consisted in sinking

the working parts below the surface. Up to that time pumps

of this class had been of the ordinary suction-pump pattern, the

water flowing immediately from the piston out of the spout.

We now have three classes of these pumps—lift, lift and suc-

tion, and suction and force. In the lift pump the barrel and sitt pumps.
lower valve are carried down below the surface of the water,

the upward stroke of the piston carrying up the water raised
without the aid of atmospheric pressure. This form of pump

is much used, especially in driven wells. The working parts

are perfectly protected from frost; they are simple and strong,

and may be removed without trouble. The lower cylinder is

made very compact in form, so as to go into the bore of a driven

well, and is commonly provided with a strainer of some sort,

which is screwed upon the end. When the cylinder is not long

enough to reach the water level, a length of suction pipe is
attached, oe the pump then sucks as well as lifts. The capacity
249 HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

of such a pump is about the same as that of a cistern pump of
‘the same diameter lifting water the same distance, ranging
from 8 to 26 gallons per minute. In the more perfect form
it is so arranged as to allow the water to run back when de-
sired, to prevent freezing; the brake-stand swivels so as to
make it either a right-hand or a left-hand pump, and by adding
to the wrought-iron set-length and piston rod, it is adapted for
use in wells of almost any depth. When the well is very deep,
however, it may be necessary to increase the leverage by
lengthening the brake, and to counterbalance the added weight
we have the greater weight of the piston rod and column of
Strainers. water. It is frequently an advantage in deep wells to use a
strainer provided with an iron rest, which projects far enough
to be firmly imbedded in the earth at the bottom of the well.
Braces for This holds the pipe steady and aids in supporting it. Pipes in
ner deep wells should be well braced, as the jarring and hammering
of the brake is usually great enough to rack a long line of pipe,
loosen the connections and necessitate frequent repairs. In
light, sandy soil, cisterns, dug wells, and in any situation where
there is danger of drawing dirt into the pipe, and where there
“Mushroom” is room enough to use a large strainer, the so-called “ Mush-
same room” strainer presents many advantages. This strainer is of
the saucer shape and the water enters it at the top, while that
which runs back from the barrel when the valve is tripped
flows out of the strainer in an upward direction, thus prevent-
‘ing the roiling of the water by stirring up the mud and sand

on the bottom.
ee be The lift and force pump differs from the lift and the suction
and lift pumps in an arrangement of parts by which the water
is ejected from the cylinder under pressure great enough to
carry it beyond the point at which power is applied. As
adapted to ordinary work, force pumps are always piston pumps,
arranged with an air chamber to equalize the pressure and
afford a constant stream instead of an intermittent one, which,
by its action, might seriously strain the pipe. The force pump
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 248

is the one which in cities is most frequently used, since it is not
only able to lift water above the point at which power is ap-
plied, but to send it in any direction and to almost any distance.
It is largely used for raising water to tanks on the upper
floors of houses supplied from mains in which the pressure is
not great enough to give the required head. These pumps
usually require more power for a given lift than any other,
owing to the greater friction of parts. There are one or two
hand-force pumps, however, in which the internal friction is
but little, if any, greater than in the most efficient lift pumps.
The efficiency of the best of these pumps, provided with an air Emciency.
chamber and worked with sufficient power, may be averaged as
follows :

Size of bore, Size of pipe. Gallons per minute.
2 ANCHi x. dusk eseeat ees PACH cine ckerea se ae 6
DE hears BOE AN eee 9
De EO crates uate eee awa tat ta 88s oc ceise ave ure ats ners 12
2% i, To see tap 15
3) Svea ceagereuaiis Dee SO tee eae eis 22
oa Nace ols re ices are. Be SEN ec lianas aie ek vare 30

The efficiency of a pump without a vacuum chamber will be Power
somewhat less than this, as it might be found difficult under pict
certain circumstances to work the pump to its capacity. The
power necessary to obtain this efficiency depends, of course,
upon the hight to which the water has to be forced, as well as
the distance. When one of the larger sizes is employed for
raising water to a great hight, one man would probably be
unable to work the pump to its capacity. The force pumps of
all leading manufacturers are able to do this amount of work.

The amount of power required, of course, depends upon cir-
cumstances. When the pump is continually supplied with all

the water it can take, the amount of power required will be at

a minimum, and the pump will be able to work up to its full
capacity. A vacuum chamber on a small suction pipe is almost vacuum
a necessity, because it frequently happens, in a city, that the “™">
244 ITYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

small head of water in the street mains, and the small pipe
used to bring water, prevent a sufficient supply from reaching
the pump, and consequently the pump does not do half the
work of which it is theoretically capable. The addition of a
vacuum chamber below the pump keeps a constant stream flow-
ing to the pump, and at the same time acts as a reservoir from
Primers. Which the pump may draw a supply at each stroke. The ordi-
nary water charger or primer used on common suction pumps
answers this purpose, and adds greatly both to the ease and the
capacity of a force pump under the circumstances named.
Their cost is small, but their utility is very great and will

repay the expense and trouble of applying them.
Pumpstor In city houses the pump most used for raising water is a side

city houses,
pump mounted on a plank. These pumps are often sold un-
mounted. They are very convenient to fasten to the side of a
building or partition, as they have side ears, while the suction
pipe and lower connection can be got at without disturbing the
pump. The brake is usually arranged so as to be right or left
hand as may be desired. The parts are commonly all brass.
Sizes vary from the small 24-inch bore, with a capacity of 12
gallons per minute, up to 43-inch bore, capable of delivering
Deunie nay 50 gallons per minute. When a steady and constant stream of
force pumps. water is required to be forced up, and a rapid supply needed, a
double acting suction and force pump is used. The pumps
deliver water at both upward and downward strokes. A pump
with 2}inch bore will deliver about 16 gallons per minute;
with a 24-inch bore, 24 gallons; 3finch bore, 52 gallons;
At-inch bore, 100 gallons per minute. Such pumps, when fur-
nished with an air chamber and hose, are very effective for
throwing a stream of water either for fire purposes or for wash-
ing windows and carriages and sprinkling walks. The larger
sizes are very heavy and require so much power that a power
pump would in many cases be preferable. In putting up
pumps of this class large pipes are absolutely necessary, since
the waste of power in forcing through small pipes the large
quantity of water they deliver, is enormous.

\
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 245

When as large a quantity of water as these pumps will throw
is to be raised by hand-power, some form of pump with a
double brake is commonly used, so that two men can work at
the same time.

In this country hand pumps are made in almost unlimited variety of

variety. Our manufacturers have brought the business to a
high standard of excellence, and in no country of the world
are pumps made which are so cheap and efficient as ours. The
illustrated catalogues of our leading pump manufacturers are
so full of exact and specific information that no one who has a
correct idea of the work to be done need make a mistake in
choosing a pump that will do it.

hand pumps,

There is scarcely any work which the laboring man is called tne tabor ot

upon to do which is more irksome than that of pumping when
the labor is to be long continued or when the quantity of water
is large. On this account it is always desirable to employ
power for pumpinz where that is possible. In country towns
horse-power is frequently available for this work, the so-called
“ horse-powers,” either double or single, being readily arranged
to drive a pump. These are not, however, sufficiently common
or cheap enough to be very generally available. The best
power for driving small pumps, in locations where it can be
used, seems to be wind. A small windmill, working, as it
does, for a good proportion of the time, is a much more reliable
power than is generally believed.

pumping.

Wind was one of the first sources of power utilized by man. wina power.

In Holland, windmills have for a very long period furnished
power for grinding, pumping and draining, and in that country
the windmill of large size has been brought to a degree of per-
fection of which we have little idea. Mills of very large size
and great power are used, and for a long time were able to com-
pete with steam engines as sources of power, even when a con-
siderable amount was needed. Now, however, the steam engine
furnishes power, where a great deal is needed, as cheaply as a
windmill. The reason for this is that the large mills cost a
Windmills.

Utility of
windmills.

Location.

246 HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

great deal of money; indeed mills costing from $10,000 to
$20,000 are not unfrequently met with. These require even
more attention than an engine of the same power, and do not
work continuously. For small powers, however, they have a
great many advantages, especially when they are to be employed
at such work as that of water raising.

A good windmill will head itself to the wind from any direc-
tion without attention. It governs its own speed, not increasing
above what is desired, even in a heavy gale. It can work con-
stantly day and night as long as there is wind. To be durable
it must be well built and furnished with self-oiling boxes. It
is important to have it noiseless in its action, especially if it is
to be located near a dwelling. It is not worth while for any
one to attempt to build a windmill, as a much better machine
can be bought for less money than it would cost to make one.
These mills are usually regulated by an adjustment of the sails
or vanes. In the large mills in Holland the canvas which covers
the arms is taken in when the wind blows hard, more and more
being removed as the force of the wind increases. In this
country it is found better to turn the slats or vanes so that the
wind has less effect upon them. One of the best means of do-
ing this seems to be to turn the slats edgewise toward the wind,
the slats being arranged in frames for this purpose.

In the Western States, in level countries, on the tops of lofty
hills and along the seacoast, windmills do more work than in
sheltered places among hills or in a well-wooded country.
Thus in Kansas, California or Texas a windmill will do double
the work it will in Central New York. The stronger and
more continuous the wind, the more power will be obtained,
and a wind blowing 50 feet per second will give four times the
power of a wind at 25 feet per second.

In locating a windmill care should be taken to set it in as
exposed a situation as possible. This is usually done by placing
the mill upon the top of a building on a framework erected
for the purpose, and generally directly over the spring or well
WYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 247

from which water is to be taken. There are windmill pumps,
however, which work at a distance from the mill. In this case
both mill and pump can be located in the places best adapted to
them.
The following table shows the average power of windmills Pumping
of different sizes : windmills.
9 feet mill from 1 man to 4 horse-power.
12 ee “ 2men to 1$ se
Ty - “« 4men to 3 -
25 im “  Lhorse to 6 :
40 ie “ 10 horse to 20 e

Best Diameters for Pumps.

 

 

 

Elevation in Feet.
Diameter of
Windmill,
10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | 30 | 40 | 50} 60 | 80 | 100] 125 | 150
8 feot........ 5 4 3%] 3%| 34) 3 | 2%) 24] 2 | 134) 1341 1 pameter
Q Sawiaasn 6 | 4%) 4 | 3%) 3%] 3%) 3 | 2%] 2%] 2 | 134] 1% of pumps
TO. “© esriseoees 6%! 5 | 4%] 4 | 3] 341 3K) 3 | 2%l2X%)2 114
12 ON eratciuern's 8 7 6 5 | 43%] 4 | 334] 334) 3K%| 3 | 2%] 2
T4 sce eeeee 9 | 8 | 7 | 6 | 5 | 4%) 4%) 44) 4 | 3%) 3 | 2%
17 “8 vescrevaeis 12 | 10 9 8 |7 |6 |5 | 4%) 4%) 4 | 3%l 3
26. me cmvenns 15 {13 |12 |t0 |}g9 |8 |7 1/6 | 5¥%i5 | 4¥l4

 

The stroke of the pump is assumed to be from 4 to 6 inches ;
but many mills are so arranged as to allow a variation of the
length of stroke according to the force of the wind and amount
of work done.

The speed at which mills can be driven varies, of course, speea.
with the speed of the wind and the load. The following is an
approximate statement of the number of revolutions per min-
ute. Above these velocities the regulators begin to act to pre-
vent any increase :

Diameter. Revolutions
Feet. per minute.
8 ci a ee oe@eteseeeoeoeeeee ene se eee eee eee ewe ty 5

U citing ten otahusunat agin wee g eee ne te ie
Construction.

248 HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

Diameter. Revolutions.
Feet. per minute.
LO esas ieee aN ea iM was eee CO tO OD:
Desig ta etait waa tocecgiw oa a eraccianiee uavar coeuaeesa eee 50 to 60
LAs pec Bae ame (eve ante alles ne 45 to 50
Lela ti siiod 4 re cbt arabe tao wun tusatese doom henatonaras oa aes 35 to 45
Daa aise secs Jo mi neaievas bla NKameaatacs teat yal la atta dese ah 20 to 30
Ye ci ee akg dal int a sea nagis ean eatin alebs wie dathepedb ah alge hes 12 to 15

The smaller sizes of mills are set upon cast-iron columns or
timber frames. The larger sizes are usually placed on the top
of rectangular towers formed of four strong timbers set
inclining toward each other, and strongly braced to make the
whole firm. Where large sizes are necessary, the manufacturers
furnish drawings and specifications showing how the framing,
&c., must be set up. In this case the manufacturer needs to
know the depth of the well or spring below the surface of the
ground; the least depth of water ever known in it; the
hight above the platform of the well to where the water is dis-
charged ; the lateral or side distance (if any) from the supply

Adaptation to the place where the water is to discharge; the amount or

of windmills
to conditions.

Cost

quantity of water wanted, or at least the purpose for which it
is to be used; also the extent or quantity of water afforded by
the supply or source; and the hight at which the mill must be
erected to secure a free current of air. In case of a bored or
driven well, he should know the diameter.

There are windmills in New York, built a number of years
ago, which pump water into tanks on the tops of lofty build-
ings at a merely nominal cost—in one case the repairs for some
five or six years amounting to but few dollars—the cost for
pumping being practically only the interest on the first outlay.
The prices range from $75 to $80, for the smallest sizes, to
something like $2000 for the 40-feet mills. In places where
fuel is very costly, it may at times be economical to employ
still larger mills, especially if it is a place where strong winds
prevail. :

In Hingham, Mass., a 9-foot windmill was erected several
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 249

years ago which lifts water 50 feet above the pump and forces rxamptes
' it 450 feet through an inch pipe. A mill 9 or 10 feet in diam- Total
eter, when well constructed, seems in most locations to be amply "™?*
able to lift and force water to an elevation of 60 feet, and sup-
ply it in sufficient quantity for a large house with bath rooms,
water-closets and the like. In some places windmills have been
used for the purpose of drainage. The following is the de-
scription of one used for draining after the Dutch plan; it
serves to show the power of a comparatively small windmill:
The tower is 27 feet high, with a building 22x24 and 14 feet
high, used as a house for a family. The whole is built on piles
driven into the soft ground. The mill, 25 feet in diameter,
drives a baling wheel 11 feet in diameter, 17 inches face, placed
in a large wooden box or receiver to which the drains lead.
The water is lifted 6 feet, and in an ordinary wind, when the
baling wheel makes four to five revolutions per minute, it
raises and discharges 1920 to 2400 gallons per minute, and in a
strong wind, at seven revolutions, 3360 gallons, or 84 barrels
per minute.

In one instance of which I know, a small windmill takes
water 550 feet distant from the house and raises it with ease to
an elevation of 65 feet. During a stiff breeze it has pumped
600 gallons in an hour. Thereare very few days in which the
mill cannot work at least some part of the day, and by having
ample tank room the supply is always sufficient for lavish use.

In closing these remarks upon windmills, I cannot do better
than present the following extract from an article upon the
subject in the American Agriculturist: “ A few years ago mechanical
a windmill was an unusual sight in this country, except in the ike
very oldest portions. We were not a sufficiently settled people,
and did not remain long enough in one place to make it profit-
able to build such substantial mills as have been so long in use
in other countries ; we needed cheaper and more quickly con-
structed mills. Those which we could then procure were not
satisfactory ; they were slightly built, and were not able to take
Horse-power
of wind
engines

‘Pumping
by steam.

250 HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

care of themselves when the breeze became a gale or a hurri-
cane. Recently our mechanics have turned their attention to
wind engines, and great improvements have been made in their
construction. We have now a choice of several kinds of them,
all of them useful, but differing chiefly in their degree of
adaptation to varying circumstances. At the recent Illinois State
Fair there were no less than thirteen different wind engines on
exhibition, from the small one, 8 feet in diameter, costing but
$100, of but half a horse-power, and fitted for pumping stock
water or churning, to those of 80 or 40 horse-power, costing
$3000, and able to run a grist mill or a woolen factory. Be-
tween these extremes there area number of mills capable of
adaptation to almost every purpose for which power is needed
on the farm or in the workshop. A mill 22 feet in diameter,
costing about $500, has a power of five horses; a two horse-
power mill is about 16 feet in diameter, and costs about $325.
The cost is less than that of a steam engine, and a wind engine
needs neither fuel nor skilled attendance. Neither is there
danger of fire or explosion from accident or carelessness. The
wind engines are now made self-regulating, and in a sudden
storm close themselves. They are also made to change their
position as the wind changes, facing the wind at alltimes. On
the Western prairies, and almost everywhere, except in shel-
tered valleys in the East, we have wind enough and to spare,
which offers to us a power that is practically incaleulable and
illimitable, and the means of utilizing this power is cheaply
given to us in the numerous excellent wind engines now manu-
factured. In fact, so cheaply can these mills be procured, that
it will not pay for any person to spend his time in making one
although he may be a sufficiently good mechanic to do it.”

In a great many locations where power has to be employed
in raising water, steam is the only power which can be conven-
iently applied. It is suitable for almost any situation, is easily
managed, is generally understood by mechanics, and presents
no difficulties not easily overcome. Its universal adaptability
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 251

and the immense demand for steam-driven pumps has turned
the attention of engineers and capitalists in this direction, and
at the present time the manufacture of steam pumps and their
accessories is one of the largest industries inthe country. It is James watt.
interesting to note the fact that James Watt, the so-called
father of the steam engine, was really a steam pump man, all
his engines for a great many years being devoted entirely to
the pumping of water out of mines. The application of the
steam engine to the furnishing of power for other purposes was
done by other persons while Watt was busy with pumps. The steam pumps.
manufacturer of to-day has so simplified and cheapened the
steam pump that, while its cost is very small, its management
is so simple that it may almost be said to be perfectly automatic.
The chief item of cost, and the portion of the apparatus requir-
ing the most attention and care, is the boiler. In cases where
steam for heating is employed, a steam pump can be used with-
out any additional trouble. Many people fear to use steam
boilers on account of the supposed danger attending them and
an idea that the insurance will be increased by them. There
are a great number of boilers in the market which can be used
in insured buildings, the companies considering them no more
dangerous than a coal stove.

I have in mind one among the many excellent steam pumps steam
for light duty which may be taken as an illustration of the best Tighe auty.
machines of its kind in use. The pump is 2 inches in diameter
and six inches stroke. The steam cylinder has the same length
of stroke, and is 5$ inches in diameter. The pump discharges
08 of a gallon of water at each stroke, and when running at
an ordinary rate of speed makes 100 strokes and delivers 8
gallons of water per minute. It can with ease be run up to
a speed of 150 strokes, when it would deliver 12 gallons per
minute. The pump will run even faster than this, but it would capacity
not be advisable to keep it running steadily at a higher speed,
because the wear and tear would become too great. The boiler,
which consists of a coil of steam pipe inclosed in a suitable
Boiler.

Pump.

Coal con-
sumption.

Economy.

Duty.

Detatls.

252 HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

case, is perfectly safe against explosion. The ordinary pressure
carried is from 5 to 80 pounds per square inch, while the boiler
is tested to 800 pounds per square inch. With 7 pounds pres-
sure in the boiler the pump will force water 50 feet high. In
such cases the boiler is fed from the tank, the pressure being
sufficiently great to force the water into it against the pressure
of the steam. The boiler and pump form an arrangement com-
plete in itself, and may be used for warming as well as pump-
ing, the boilers in such cases being made larger to suit the ser-
vice required of them. An indicator or steam gauge is attached
which shows the pressure, and there is a safety-valve by which
the pressure is prevented from rising above the desired point.
The pump is so arranged that it is always ready to start as soon
as there is steam pressure in the boiler, provided, of course, the
steam valve is left open. The amount of coal required to run
one of these pumps is very small. It is stated on good authority
that 30 pounds of coal will run one 8 hours, discharging 13 gal-
lons of water per minute 95 feet high, or a little more than 6200
gallons of water raised 65 feet high at a cost of, say, 10 cents.
The cost for pumping the same amount by hand would be at
least $1:50, and perhaps more. One of these pumps and boilers
is calculated to furnish all the water required by 12 families, yet
they are capable of doing much more. In a French apartment
house in New York one of these pumps and boilers is supply-
ing 24 families with water. It is in this case, however, some-
what overtasked, and the supply at times is a little scant.

With a pressure of 12 pounds per square inch, pumping 70
feet high, one of these pumps has run continuously at 150
strokes per minute, delivering upward of 700 gallons per hour.
When less water. is needed the pump can be run slower and the
consumption of coal will be proportionately less. The princi-
pal parts of the pump are brass, for the purpose of preventing
corrosion. The steam pipe is half inch in diameter and the
exhaust three-quarters. The discharge pipe is 1 inch; suction,
14 inch. The boiler is but 3 feet high and takes up a space
ITYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 953

2 feet in diameter. In case of the grossest neglect possible, the
only damage which could be done to the boiler by cutting off
the supply would be to rupture one of the pipes of which it is
made, and so allow steam and water to escape and put out the
fire.

Another pump for a similar purpose, but constructed on an An automatic
entirely different plan, has recently been attracting a good deal jer
of attention. Gas or kerosene is the fuel used. It is not
of the direct-acting kind, like that just described, but has an
oscillating cylinder which drives after the ordinary manner a
shaft to which the pump is attached. This machine is made
perfectly automatic in all respects save, perhaps, that of oiling
all its bearings. It keeps the steam pressure constant by turn-
ing on or off the gas or kerosene as the pressure tends to vary.

The water supply is also self-regulating, the feed pump sending
water into the tank when it is not needed in the boiler. When

gas is used, five or six minutes are sufficient to get up steam.

One of these engines will pump 10 barrels of water per hour at cost ot:
a cost of about 6 cents. It only occupies about as much space as ean
a flour barrel, and weighs 250 pounds. This engine possesses
another point, sometimes of great value, and that is it can fur-

nish power for light work, like running a turning lathe, sewing
machine and the like. The principal objection to these pumps

is that they are not very strong and are likely to wear out some-

what sooner than is convenient.

One of the most common methods of raising water by power gyarautic
is by using the so-called hydraulic ram. The simplicity of oper-™™*
ation of the hydraulic ram, its effectiveness and economy,
together with the fact that it is applicable in thousands of situ-
ations where it is now unknown, render a better knowledge of
its operations desirable. The hydraulic ram is decidedly the
most important and valuable apparatus yet developed in hydrau-
lies for forcing a portion of a running stream of water to any
elevation proportionate to the fall obtained. It is perfectly ap- where usea.
plicable where not more than 16 inches fall can be had; yet the
254 HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

greater the available head the more powerful the operation of
the machine and the higher the water may be conveyed. I
know of a ram working near Philadelphia which, with a head
of 16 inches, raised 40 feet all the water needed to supply a
Bie caned large farm. It has been in use 25 years. . The relative propor-
eMiciency tions between the water raised and wasted are dependent en-
tirely upon the relative hight of the spring or source of supply
above the ram and the elevation to which it is required to be
raised—the quantity raised varying in proportion to the hight
to which it is conveyed with a given fall. The distance which
the water has to be conveyed and consequent length of pipe has
also some bearing on the quantity of water raised and discharged
by the ram, as the longer the pipe through which the water has
to be forced by the machine the greater the friction to be over-
come and the more power consumed in the operation ; yet it is
common to apply the ram for conveying the water distances of
100 and 200 rods, and up elevations of 100 and 200 feet. Ten
feet fall from the spring or brook to the ram is abundant for
forcing up the water to any elevation under, say, 150 feet in
hight above the level of the point where the ram is located; and
the same 10-foot fall will raise the water to a much higher point
than that last named, although in a diminished quantity in pro-
portion as the hight is increased. When a sufficient volume of
water is raised with a given fall it is not advisable to increase the
fall, as in so doing the force with which the ram works is in-
creased, the amount of labor which it has to perform greatly aug-
mented, the wear and tear of the machine proportionately in-
creased and its durability lessened ; so that economy in the ex-
pense of keeping the ram in repair would dictate that no greater
fall should be applied for propelling the ram than is sufficient

to raise a requisite supply of water to the place of use.
Cateulating To enable any person to make the calculation as to what fall
quiet tora WOULG be sufficient to apply to the ram to raise a sufficient sup-
siven duty. 1y of water to his premises, I would say that in conveying it
an ordinary distance of, say, 50 or 60 rods, it may be safely cal-
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 255

culated that about one-seventh part of the water can be raised
and discharged at an elevation above the ram five times as high
as the fall which is conveyed to the ram, or one-fourteenth part
can be raised and discharged, say, ten times as high as the fall
applied; and so on in proportion as the fall or rise is varied.
Thus, if the ram be placed under a head or fall of 5 feet, of
every 7 gallons drawn from the spring one gallon may be raised
25 feet or half a gallon 50 feet. Or with 10 feet fall applied to
the machine, of every 14 gallons drawn from the spring one
gallon may be raised to the hight of 100 feet above the machine.

The following is an example of what a ram will do when exampte
properly set up and with supply and other things proportioned Smetency
to each other. The fall from the surface of the water in the%*"™ .,,,,
spring is 4 feet. The quantity of water delivered every 10 min-
utes at the house is 3} gallons, and that discharged at the ram 25
gallons. Thus nearly one-seventh of the water is saved. The
perpendicular hight of the place of delivery above the ram is 19
feet, say 15 feet above the surface of the spring. The length of
the pipe leading from the ram to the house is 190 feet. This
pipe has three right angles, rounded by curves. The length of
the drive or supply pipe is 60 feet; its inner diameter 1 inch.

The depth of water in the spring over the drive pipe is 6 inches.
The inner diameter of the pipe conducting the water from the
ram to the house is three-eighths of an inch.

It is essential that the drive or supply pipe should be on the suppiy pipes
curve of quickest descent to get the full value of the head. **™”*
This approximates a catenary. If ona regular grade, the bot-
tom water runs away from the top water so to speak.

Care should be taken to set the ram in a pit deep enough to
protect it from frost, or else the frost should be kept out by
boxing and packing.

The following table gives the capacity of rams of different capacity
sizes, together with the weights and diameters of pipes to be *™™"*
used in connection with them :
Supply and
discharge
pipes.

Size of ram

256 HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

» Quantity of water furnished Length of Pipe. Caliber of Pipes,
rig per minute by the spring
Ram. or brook to which the ram Dis-
is adapted. Drive. Discharge. Drive. charge.
No. 2. 3 quartsto 2 gallons, 25 to so feet. |Where desired.| 3{ in.| 3 in.
No. 3. 1% se be 4 oe ris 77 “cc oe I rT} % 6
No. 45 3 “cc “a 7 oe “ . “ bs 1% 6 % o
No. 5: 7 “c “cs 14 Ty ve “ “cc “ 2 “c x “
No. 6. 12 46 “c 25 “ce + “oe “cc oe 2% 4b I as
No. 7. 20 oe ce 40 oc ‘ T7 7% “ 2% 2% ac 1% “se
No. Io, 25 a iy 75 a“ Ty oe ar oe 4 ae 2 oe
Weight of Pipe if of Lead.
a

o Drive Pipe for any head . ; : Diseharge Pipe for over

iia or fall not exceeding | Discharge Pipe for not 50 and not exceeding
x0 feet, over 50 feet rise. zoo feet in hight.

No. 2. 6 pounds per yard, 8 pounds per rod. 14 pounds per rod.
No. 3. 8 “ “ 1 “ “ 16 “ us
No. 4. Io “ “c Ir “ “ 16 “ “
No. 5: 23 “ “ce 20 “ “ 28 “ “or
No. 6.) go Pe 6 ‘per yard. 8 “ per yard,
No. 7 40 to 48 “ 9 sc “oe 11 “ “cc
No. 1o.} 48 lbs. per yard c, iron, zo cn 23 ¢«C*S ss

 

If the ram is to be placed under a greater head or fall than
named in the above table, it will of course be necessary to in-
crease the weight and strength of the drive, or supply, pipe;
also, if the water is to be forced to any greater hight than above
mentioned, the discharge pipe should be proportionately in-
creased in weight and strength. Where the water is to be
forced to any great distance (say more than 1200 feet) it is
preferable to use a discharge pipe of larger caliber than named
in the above table.

With a given supply of water under a great fall, the ram is
not required to be of a larger size than for the same quantity of
water under a less fall. That is, a No. 4 ram would be of sufti-
cient capacity for taking the water from a spring or brook fur-
nishing 7 gallons per minute where the fall is 8 or 10 feet; if
there is not over 3 or 4 feet fall to the same spring or brook,
then a No. 5 ram would be better adapted to the place.
HYDRAULICS OF PLUMBING. 957

If the stream is a large one and a greater supply of water be working
required than one of the large-sized machines will supply, it is batteries.
better to increase the number of machines than to increase the
size of the one in use. Several rams may be set so as to play
into one discharge pipe, each having a separate drive pipe.

The durability of rams under constant service is quite won- Duravuiity
derful. I know of one put up in Durham, Conn., in 1847, er
which had been in constant use up to the time when I last heard
of it, in 1873. It had not cost $5 for repairs and seemed good
for many years more. The drive pipe was 1} inch bore, 40 feet
long. The discharge pipe was half inch in diameter and 825
feet long. The water was discharged 85 feet above the ram in
a perfectly steady, continuous stream.

There are many subjects omitted from this chapter which
might properly be considered under the head of elementary
hydraulics; but as most of those which seem to me of especial
interest in connection with plumbing work are considered more
or less fully in other chapters, their omission here is due rather
to design than to oversight.

17
Health de-
pendent upon
good drainage

Filled lands,

Under-
drainage.

Cerebro
spinal menin-
gitisin N.Y.

Stagnant
water.

CHAPTER X.
Sanirary Construction AND Drarinacr or Country Hovsss.

Health and comfort in country houses depend upon the selec-
tion of a well-drained site. If the natural drainage is not good,
it must be artificially drained by one of the several approved
methods, which need not be described here in detail. A loca-
tion which cannot be drained should never be chosen, and, as
the rule, those which are not naturally well drained are not de-
sirable. This is a point which should be very carefully looked
after, especially in the suburbs of large towns, where marsh and
low lands have been filled in to raise them to the desired grade.
In such cases the level of the subsoil water is likely to be dan-
gerously near the surface. Filling in a basin, or low swamp-
hole, does not change the level of standing water, and land
made over such original depressions, unless exceptionally well
underdrained, is almost certain to be an unhealthy site to build
upon. The importance of underdraining filled land was very
strikingly illustrated during the epidemic of cerebro-spinal
meningitis in New York during 1872. In the early months of
the epidemic, and before the disease spread throughout the
more densely populated districts of the city, it was found that
in a majority of instances the spread of the infection was along
the lines of the old water-courses, long ago filled in and forgot-
ten, clearly showing that the filling up of natural springs and
water-courses without providing for the thorough drainage of
the soil, is dangerous to public health. Our civil engineers are
beginning to understand this better than they did a few years
ago, and we are likely to have fewer mistakes of this kind in
the future than in the past.

Surroundings should also be looked after. Stagnant water
should not be allowed to remain anywhere in the neighborhood.
DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES. 259

Running water rarely remains impure for any length of time,
as its organic impurities are gradually oxidized and enter into
combinations which render them harmless; but when water
stands, as in ponds without outlets, in undrained swamps, &c.,
it is a fruitful source of malaria. The early morning is the Borie
best time in which to choose a site for a country house—sup-
posing, of course, that the person proposing to build is in a
position to select an eligible location. If one place is covered
with a fog, while other places are free from it, tle choice should
lie in favor of the latter. The presence of such a fog, or even
a thin, opalescent mist, indicates wet ground; and although
there may be no appearance of standing water on the surface,
the source of the excessive moisture in the air will be found
under the surface, if sought.

The subject of land drainage has a literature of its own tana
which is so complete that I need not extend the scope of this ““"***
volume to include it. Those interested in the subject can find
several cheap and excellent manuals on land drainage on the
shelves of any general bookseller, and the most that I can
attempt in this place is to urge the importance of the subject
upon all into whose hands this work may pass. The almost Fever ana
universal prevalence of fever and ague attests the need of more ~~
thorough drainage of districts in which the value of land is
great enough to justify the expenditures needed. There is
scarcely a place within forty miles of New York that is free
from intermittent and‘worse fevers, and not one that I have
seen which could not be made healthful if the proper means
were taken to drain the soil. To secure good results the drain-
age of a populous district must be undertaken as a public work 5
but so general is the indifference still. manifested’ to sanitary
reform, that it is always difficult to secure the popular consent
to the levying of a tax for any such purpose. We shall be wiser
in these matters a generation hence.

The plan of a house and the direction in which it fronts are Pianandposi-

tion of acoun-

not always matters to be determined by the preferences of the try house.
260 DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES.

owner. When practicable, however, as is generally the case in
isolated country houses, it is desirable to give as many of the
living and sleeping rooms as possible the benefit of abundant
sunlight. This is usually best secured by giving them a south-
Toomuch ern exposure. Droad piazzas, heavy vines trained upon trel-
Metsuabie, lises, and overhanging shade trees are very attractive and beau-
tiful, and often comfortable during the warm days of summcr ;
but in so far as they exclude the sunlight and render a place
“damp,” they are bad. We cannot afford to make too many
sacrifices to secure picturesque effects, and the differences which
the observant traveler notices between our country houses and
those of Europe are largely duc to differences of climate and
sunlight as Other circumstances. Experience has shown that health and
a purifler. oe : ‘
comfort are promoted by giving the sunlight a. fair chance to
penetrate to every nook and corner to which it can make its
way. It will do more than tons of disinfectants to purify and
sweeten the environments of our dwellings. Iluman beings
are as dependent upon the vitalizing and energizing power of
sunlight as are the plants in our conservatories or the vegeta-
shaded bles in our kitchen gardens. A house hidden in the deep
nouses- shadows of great trees and surrounded by broad, curved piazzas,
always seems to me like a gloomy man with overhanging brows
sitting in the Valley of the Shadow of Death; and I never find
myself in such a mansion, even in the hottest of summer
weather, without involuntarily recalling the lines;
‘* Blest power of sunshine, genial day,
What balm, what bliss are in thy ray !
To feel thee is such perfect bliss
That had the world no joy but this—
To sit in sunshine, calm and sweet—
It were a world too exquisite
For man to leave it for the gloom,
The dim, cold shadow of the tomb.”
Sunshine is rarely appreciated, though it comes to us with
blessings woven into every ray; and the sanitarian who should
devote a lifetime to proclaiming its benefits would do more to
DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES. 261

promote public health than any who have yet entered this wide
field of philanthropic labor.

It does not follow, however, as the logical sequence of what vines ana
has already been said, that the occupants of country houses pore
must altogether dispense with vines and shade trees. These
are eminently desirable in their proper places, only we must
not let them come between us and the sunshine. The greatest
favor that Alexander could do the philosophic Diogenes was
to step aside and permit the sunshine to fall into the tub which
gave the old cynic shelter. Let us, who boast a larger knowl-
edge and a broader and more comprehensive philosophy, be not
less wise than the ancients in matters which concern us so
deeply as this. Science has taught us that the sun is the source sunshine.
of all life. All terrestrial phenomena are dependent upon
light, heat and actinic force, and when these are excluded life
and vigor yield to death and decay. We know how dependent
plants and all living organisms are upon the sun, but we are
apt to forget that we need the sunshine as much as plants and
flowers—vastly more, indeed.

When health is a consideration—and I do not need to say ctean, ary
that health is not always considered—the occupant of a country iste eee
house should see that his cellar is clean, dry and well venti-
lated. If possible it should be light, for we are not likely to
have any one of the three essential conditions above mentioned
in any place where daylight never comes. In a great many
instances cellars are allowed to become so foul as to be a per-
petual menace to the health of those living over them. When causes ot
sickness comes how seldom do we look for the cause of it in the ion t emma
right place, if at all. As the rule, country cellars are damp, ™°"""*
mouldy vaults, chiefly useful as places for the storage of the win-
ter supplies of vegetables. To suggest putting provisions any-
where else would shock a farmer’s sense of propriety ; but in all
the buildings on his farm he could not find a worse place for the
storage of vegetables than the cellar under his house. Many of
my readers well know what cleaning out the cellar in the spring
. 262 DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES.

Decom-
position.

Wet cellars.

A New Eng-
land cellar in
spring time.

means, and how munch decayed and mouldy vegetable matter in
advanced stages of decomposition is usually gathered up from the
floor. A farmer would be shocked and disgusted if it was sug-
gested that a sheep’s carcase be allowed to rot all winter in the
cellar; but it is a well-known fact that the danger to health from
decaying animal matter is small compared with that resulting
from the decay of vegetable substances. A little care expended
in keeping the cellar clean would be amply repaid; but unless
the broom and shovel are supplemented by abundant fresh air
and wholesome sunlight, the labor of purification will never be
fully accomplished. .

When from any cause a cellar is liable to be wet, either from
the inflow of water under or through the foundations or by
soakage through the soil, it should be drained. I have seen
cellars which were always dry, and I have known of one in
which cider has been kept for 20 years without turning to vine-
gar, and a buck-saw might lie on the floor for an indefinite
period without showing a spot of rust; but such cellars are not
common, and an arrangement for drainage should be provided
in all but exceptional cases. In his excellent work on “Farm
Drainage,” published some 20 years ago and still standard,
Judge Henry F. French draws the following vivid picture of
a New England cellar in spring time, which is so appropriate
to the subject we are considering that I cannot resist the temp-
tation to quote it:

“No child whoever saw a cellar afloat during one of these
inundations will ever outgrow the impression. You stand on
the cellar stairs, and below is a dark waste of waters of illimita-
ble extent. By the dim glimmer of the dip candle a scene is

presented which furnishes a tolerable picture of chaos and old
night, but defies all description. Empty dry casks, with cider

barrels, wash tubs and boxes, ride triumphantly on the surface,
while half-filled vinegar and molasses kegs, like water-logged
ships, roll heavily below. Broken boards and planks, old hoops

-and staves, and barrel heads innumerable, are buoyant with this
DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES. 263

change of the elements, while floating turnips and apples, with
here and there a brilliant cabbage head, gleam in the subterra-
nean firmament like twinkling stars, dimmed by the effulgence
of the moon at her full. Magnificent among the lesser vessels
of the fleet, like some tall admiral, rides the enormous mash-
tub, while the astonished rats and mice are splashing about at
its base in the dark waters like sailors just washed at midnight
from the deck by a heavy sea.

“The lookers-on are filled with various emotions. The
farmer sees his thousand bushels of potatoes submerged and de-
voted to speedy decay ; the good wife mourns for her diluted
pickles and apple sauce and her drowned firkins of butter,
while the boys are anxious to embark, on a raft or in the tubs,
on an excursion of pleasure and discovery.”

This picture, though drawn with the free hand of caricature,
is not greatly exaggerated. I have many times witnessed such a
scene, and not a few of my readers will recognize it as something
which has come within their own experience. Cellars liable Net cellars
even to excessive dampness, and especially those subject to
inundation, are unsafe. The drainage of a cellar can usually be
accomplished without difficulty by means of earthen tiles. The
methods will be found fully described in any good work on
land drainage.

«A. barn and its surroundings may be a perpetual nuisance or Barns ana
not, according to circumstances. Ordinarily it is clean enough a
inside, but the cattle yard is generally so foul that, except in
unusually dry weather, one who ventures to cross it must tread
ankle deep in filth of the nastiest description. A neglected pig- rig-styes.
stye is another horror—disgusting to look at and giving off a
pestilent effluvium day and night, to be wafted, with the min-
gled musk and ammonia odors of the barn-yard, into open win-
dows and doors. Such a disregard of sanitary laws, to say
nothing of the violation of decency involved, is without excuse,
and its only explanation is found in the charitable supposition
of ignorance on the part of those responsible for it. I have
264 DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES.

seen barns that were as clean in themselves and all their sur-
Manure. roundings as the houses of the people owning them. This can
never be when manure is spread out over the barn-yard to rot
Composting. in the open air. Everything in the way of manure, including
weeds, fallen leaves, refuse vegetable matter, carcases of dead
animals, kitchen garbage, animal excreta—in fact everything
capable of fermentation and decay—should be composted and
utilized. Not being a farmer, either scientific or practical, I
will not venture specific recommendations as to the best and
most economical methods of composting manure on a large
seale for profit, but a few suggestions on this point may be of
interest to those who, for sanitary reasons, are willing to take
the trouble of making muck heaps for the safe and convenient
disposition of whatever might give rise to nuisance if left to
ferment and decay in its own way. Others are referred to the
several able and exhaustive works on the subject, written by
eminent scientific agriculturists, which may be had of any book-

seller.
The theoryot The theory of composting waste organic matter is to pro-
composin® vide for the decay and transformation into useful, or at least
harmless, compounds. The means by which this can be accom-
plished are numerous and exceedingly simple, entailing no
expense which is not more than offset by the value of the
manure made, and no trouble that is not vastly more than com-
methods. pensated by the sanitary benefits attained. All that is neces-
sary is to thoroughly intermix and cover the matter to be
treated with any light, dry, absorbent substance, and keep it on
a dry bottom under cover. The substances suitable for
covering are dry mould, peat, spent vegetable ashes, marl,
sawdust, crushed straw and many other substances equally
cheap and available. Sand and clay are not suitable. A
superior material for composting may be made by mixing
Composting peat, wood ashes and dry mould. When composting is to be
re done on a small scale, the first treatment of the matter to be
composted can be carried on conveniently and safely in a
DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES. 265

large box or tank. This may be made the receptacle for every-
thing suitable for transformation into manure, and when full
the contents may be removed and piled under a shed until
needed for use. If the person who takes the trouble to make
a compost for sanitary purposes has no use for the manure, he
can usually sell it to those who are intelligent enough to
know its value for a good deal more than an equal bulk of
stable manure will command. The reader for whom this sub-
ject has any interest—and it is of vital importance to all who
live in houses not drained into sewers, as well as to a large pro-
portion of those who enjoy this doubtful advantage—should
study this subject carefully with the aid of any one of the
manuals on composting manures. To treat the subject in any
detail would require the surrender of more space than can be
spared in this volume. I could, moreover, add nothing of
value to the mass of exact scientific information on this sub-
ject compiled by careful experimenters and accessible in many
inexpensive books and-pamphlets. The practical interest which sanitary pen-
this subject has for the sanitarian is this: Any substance te a
which, left to decay in its own way, becomes a dangerous nui-
sance capable of exerting an influence unfavorable to health,
may be rendered inodorous, and what is vastly more impor-
tant, innoxious, by intimately mixing and covering it with clean,
dry absorbent earth. No more trouble is required to do this
than any person of refined tastes should be willing to take for
the sake of decency and comfort. If the sanitary policing of
a house and its surroundings is attended to from day to day, the
labor will not be onerous nor exacting ; and when to the bene- rrost.
fit of more healthful conditions we add the pecuniary profit of
conserving and utilizing all waste substances which can be.
made available for fertilizing purposes, even poverty and pre-
occupation cannot be accepted as valid excuses for the neglect.
of this important duty.

The privy next invites our attention—although it cannot privies.
usually be said to be an inviting object. This is commonly a
266 DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES.

place so foul and offensive that a person not accustomed to its
characteristic odor is prompted to avert his face and hold his
me spploal Hig8 when compelled to go near it. Very often the privy is
“packhouse,” Set on top of the ground, with nothing to prevent its becoming
a pestilent nuisance except the action of the air in drying the
Saturation Mass of putrefaction beneath. The soil becomes soaked by the
liquid constituents of the excremental matter, and each rain
may wash some of it off toward the well or spring from which
drinking water is taken. The very thought is sickening, and
yet the case is by no means uncommon. In every village and
country town such privies are the rule rather than the excep-
tion. I have seen in a New Jersey town, in a light, porous,
sandy soil, the privy located within 50 feet of the house and

in close proximity to the well.
The neglected privy is a relic of barbarism which should no
Earth closets. longer be tolerated in civilized communities. The earth closet,
of which I shall speak more fully further on, should be substi-
tuted for it; but if the privy must remain, let us respect
health if not decency, and compost the foulness it is built
Substitutefor to contain. There should be no such thing as a privy vault.
pergve™ Under the seat there should be a box with tight joints into
which everything could fall. The back of the building should
be so constructed as to permit this box to be drawn out and
emptied. A good shape for a box of this kind is to have the
bottom slightly rounded up at one end, to which is fastened a
stout iron ring so that a horse may be hooked fast to it and
How to make draw it away like a stone drag. When placed in position the
eee bottom of the box should be covered to a depth of 3 or 4
inches with dry earth, the more absorbent the better. For
greater convenience it would be well to have the seat hinged
so that it can be raised, giving access to the box from the top
for its entire length. With these simple and inexpensive prep-
arations made, it is only necessary to sprinkle a little dry earth
Disinfection daily over the contents of the box. Properly, a quart or two
alonot ex. should be thrown in whenever the privy is used ; but this is not
crete. im likely to be done unless the operation can be footed automatical-
DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY IOUSES. 267

ly, and few persons will incur the expense of providing a privy
with the regular earth-closet apparatus for letting down a cer-
tain quantity of earth upon each fresh deposit of faecal matter.
I recommend this arrangement for several reasons. The most
important of these are its cheapness, simplicity and efficiency.
I have seen excellent results secured by placing a tight cask
under each seat, with a bottom layer of earth. In connection
with such an arrangement there should be a box of dry earth
in one corner of the privy, and a scoop or small shovel with
which to throw it in. It is some trouble to keep this box
filled and to throw earth into the receptacle, but it is am-
ply repaid. I know of nothing more disgusting to sight and
smell, more nauseating to the stomach or more dangerous
to health, than a typical country privy, with its quivering,
reeking stalagmite of excrement under each seat, resting on
a bed of filth indescribable. I feel as if it devolved upon
me to ask pardon of the reader for even mentioning such a
nightmare horror; but the writer upon such subjects must not
stop to choose his words when attacking an evil so serious as
this. Such privies as I have described are by no means excep-.
tional. One may find them peering over the lilacs or hiding in
conscious shame behind the grape arbors close beside an unfor-
tunately large percentage of country houses occupied by people
who, in all other matters, live decently and comfortably.

There are several ways of composting fecal matter with dry composting
earth, but I know of none better, simpler or less expensive ack
than that I have suggested. Disinfectants may be used with nisintectants
advantage in connection with earth, if needed, but they are
practically powerless, if used alone, to render harmless and
inodorous the contents of a foul privy vault. I have tested
this very thoroughly, and my conclusion is that a long-neglected
privy is beyond reform by any means other than those needed
to reform it out of existence. The best way to do this is to
empty the vault, fill it with clean dry earth and split up the
house for kindlings. I also know from experience that a sum- a sanitmy
mer hotel privy, used daily by a large number of people, can oor
268 DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES.

be so well taken care of that it will be as free from unpleasant
sights and smells as the front porch. In the case in mind a
small quantity of sifted dry earth was thrown in two or three
times daily by a boy, and as often as necessary the boxes were
taken away and emptied in a place where their contents could
be made available for further service in composting with
kitchen garbage, &c. The expense was trifling and the results
secured were such as to satisfy the most rigid sanitarian. The
method is attended with no difficulties, and no illustrations

are needed to make it plain to the simplest understanding.
Priviesshould But an outdoor privy, however well kept, should not be the
Aecciopite: only convenience of its kind provided for the occupants of
country houses. In dry summer weather they answer the pur-
pose well enough, perhaps; but in wet weather, and especially
in winter, their use involves an exposure which few constitu-
tions are strong enough to bear with impunity. Women are
especial sufferers from this cause; hence we find that in wet or
cold weather they defer their visits to the privy until com-
pelled by unbearable physical discomfort to brave the dangers
and annoyances of a dash out of doors—for which, I may add,
Irregularity they very rarely wear sufficient clothing. The results of the
oe ense itregularity of habit thus induced are, if possible, even worse
auenees- than those attending the frequent exposures incident to greater
regularity. It is not an uncommon thing for women in the
country to allow themselves to become so constipated that days
Constipation and sometimes weeks will pass between stools. Physicians
Oe practicing in cities, where every provision is made for comfort
and convenience, if not health, by means of indoor water-
closets, tell me that irregularity in attending to the require-
ments of nature is a fruitful source of sickness among women.
It seems to be a tendency of the sex which easily assumes the
form of a habit. If this be so in cities, what can we expect in
country districts, where a visit to an outdoor privy in a cold
storm or when the ground is covered with snow and the air
frosty is attended with a physical shock which even strong
DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES. 269

men dread? Under such circumstances we can scarcely blame

those women who, ignorant of the consequences to themselves,

defer the performance of this important duty as long as possi-

ble. We may more justly pity them as the victims of a custom

which, in this age of enlightenment, is simply disgraceful.

This, however, is a subject upon which it is of little use to

talk or write merely. Until we provide our families with sanitary
better facilities than are now commonly enjoyed by them, the ae
important duty of a daily evacuation of the bowels will be neg- °"™"°"**
lected in wet or cold weather by all who can find any excuse

for so doing.

When the need of a substitute for, or indoor supplement to, water-closets
the privy is felt, the owner of a country house, if in comforta- maa
ble circumstances, commonly has a water-closet put in. This
obviates the difficulty of which I have last spoken, but it usually
gives rise to another which, though wholly different, may exert
a still wider influence for mischief. The cbjection to a water-
closet in a country house lies in the difficulty of providing the
means of effectually disposing of the matter which passes down
the soil pipe. Under exceptional conditions the house can be piicutttes
drained into a running stream, but while this may solve the ot so
problem so far as the individual householder is concerned, it
immediately acquires an interest for the community. It is pos-
sible, of course, to dispose of water-closet soil even when we
have no sewer into which to run it; but this can only be done
properly by separating the solid and fluid constituents of the
waste, filtering the latter and mixing the former with dry earth
or other material which will absorb the gases generated by its
decomposition and render it innoxious. The function of water water omy
in house drainage is only that of a carrier. When it has per- Ty
formed its work it leaves the matter carried pretty much as it
found it, and wherever the place of final deposit may be, if
above ground or massed in pits, there are bred poisons which
may do infinite mischief.

A simpler, cheaper, safer and altogether more convenient— the earth
because movable—apparatus than the water-closet for country ee
Dry earth asa
disinfectant.

Earth closets

of English

origin.

270 DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES.

houses, is the earth closet. This device is as yet little under-
stood or appreciated in this country. It is a machine for dis-
posing of excreta with the least possible trouble ; and so perfect
is it in operation that an earth closet may remain in a bedroom
or sitting room or the chamber of an invalid, and be in con-
stant use, without making its presence known unless neglected,
and without receiving other attention than an occasional refill-
ing of the hopper with dry, sifted earth and emptying the
receiver placed under the seat as often as it becomes full.

The deodorizing and disinfecting qualities of dry earth have
been known from the earliest ages. In the instructions given by
Moses to the Israelites during their march through the wilder-
ness, as recorded in Deut. xxiii, 12th and 18th verses, these
qualities are recognized and put to practical use. The Chinese
have also known and profited by the same facts from time im-
memorial. The power which dry earth possesses of absorbing
the effluvia and all other noxious elements of excreta has, by
the latter people, been so utilized that not only is the atmos-
phere in and around their dwellings kept free from contamina-
tion, but the earth itself, after being so used, becomes an excel-
lent fertilizer, and to its extensive employment for this purpose
is ascribed the wonderful and perpetual fertility of the more
densely peopled regions of the Chinese Empire.

Earth closets are of comparatively recent origin, having been
patented by the Rev. Henry Moule, an English clergyman, in
1860. Mr. Moule, who lived at a country parsonage, had been
greatly troubled with the nuisance caused by the cesspool of
his house, which, like many others, was situated in close prox-
imity to the well from which the family had to draw their sup-
ply of water; and as the well was threatened with complete
pollution, he made an effort to avert the danger and get rid of
the nuisance. He abolished privies and water-closets, and
placed small buckets beneath the seats for the reception of the
excreta, the contents of which were regularly emptied into a
trench made in the ground for that purpose. In a short time
DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES. 271

he made the discovery that the effect of the earth on the feecal
matter was to totally deodorize and disinfect it. This discovery
led to further experiments, until he devised the mechanical
means of using dry sifted earth in an ordinary closet or com-
mode, and having patented his invention he introduced it to the
public. His system has been tried with success in many places
in England and in India. It has been found especially useful
as applied to large public institutions, barracks, encampments,
&c., and the strongest testimony has been obtained as to its
complete success.

In a report to the Privy Council the following summary of Dr. Buchanan 1
the advantages of this system are given by Dr. Buchanan: poi

1. The earth closet, intelligently managed, furnishes a means
of disposing of excrement without nuisance, and apparently
without detriment to health.

2. In communities the earth-closet system requires to be
managed by the authorities of the place, and will pay at least
the expenses of its management. .

3. In the poorer class of houses, where supervision of closet
arrangements is indispensable, the adoption of the earth system
offers special advantages.

4. The earth system of excrement removal does not super-
sede the necessity for an independent means of removing slops,
rain water and soil water.

5. The limits of application of the earth system in the future
cannot be stated. In existing towns, favorably arranged for
access to the closets, the system might at once be applied to
populations of 10,000 persons.

6. As compared with the water-closet the earth closet has
these advantages: It is cheaper in original cost, it requires
less repairs, it is not injured by frost, it is not damaged by im-
proper substances being thrown down it, and it very greatly
reduces the quantity of water required by each household.

7. As regards the application of excrement to the land, the
advantages of the earth system are these: The whole agricul-
272 DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES,

tural value of the excrement is retained; the resulting manure
is in a state in which it can be kept, carried about and applied
to crops with facility ; there is no need for restricting its use to
any particular area, nor for using it at times when, agricultu-
rally, it is worthless; and it can be applied with advantage to a
very great variety, if not to all, crops and soils. After the dis-
posal of excrement by earth, irrigation will continue to have its
value as a means of extracting from the refuse water of a place
whatever agricultural value it may possess, for the benefit of
such crops and such places as can advantageously be subjected
to the process.

8. These conclusions have no reference to the disposal of
trade or manufacturing refuse, which, it is assumed, ought to
be dealt with as belonging to the business in which it is pro-
duced by the people who produce it, and not to come within
the province of local authorities to provide for.

From personal experience, and after the severest tests which
I could devise, I can recommend the earth closet as the best,
cheapest and most generally satisfactory of indoor commodes
for country houses.

alge cant There are several forms of earth closets in the market. From
$20 to $25 is, I believe, the price of one made after the most
approved pattern, with a capacious hopper and an arrangement

for discharging a fixed quantity of earth into the receiver.

Those who are able and willing to pay this price will get a good
Homemade article, with full directions for its use and care. For the benefit
“orinodes, of those who are not, I will say that a convenient earth closet
can easily be made, at small expense and without infringing
anybody’s patents, by any person with intelligence enough to

build a hen-coop. My own experience in building and man-

aging an earth closet may not be without interest. I made it

of pine boards in the shape shown in Fig. 26. It was simply

a box with two covers and no bottom. The under cover, which

served as the seat, was hinged to the edge of the box, and the

upper cover was hinged to the lower, so that they could be
DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES. 273

raised singly or together, as desired, without interfering with
each other. Under the seat, and standing upon the floor, I

A cheap and
convenient
form of earth
commode,

 

 

Fig. 26.

placed a galvanized iron coal-hod. A tin pail, full of dry, sifted
earth, stood beside it. When two or three inches of earth had
been sprinkled upon the bottom of the coal-hod the earth closet

 

7 —=_—=s fp

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 27.
was ready for use. The whole cost of the apparatus, including
a large coal-hod, did not exceed $3-50, but it was as satisfactory
8
274 DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES.

as one could be. A small shovelful of earth was thrown in
when the closet was used, and it was perfectly free from un-
pleasant odor, though in daily use by several persons. The
only attention it needed or received was to empty the hod when
full.

A somewhat more convenient shape for the box would have
been to make it long enough to admit of partitioning off one
end for an earth reservoir, as shown in Fig. 27. This would
dispense with the pail for holding earth and make the whole
apparatus complete in itself.

For fuller information concerning such closets and their use,
the reader is referred to a pamphlet of great interest and value

Geo.£. War Written a few years ago by Col. George E. Waring, Jr., of
"*"" Newport, R.I. The title of this little book is “Earth Closets
and Earth Sewage.” Mr. Waring is a writer who combines a
knowledge of sanitary engineering with extensive experience,
a habit of careful and intelligent observation, and a literary
style so pleasant that even the casual reader is interested and
instructed. If a copy of his pamphlet on earth closets were
placed in the hands of every country physician, I am satisfied
that great and important benefits would result in drawing the
attention of the profession to many things concerning which

they are, generally speaking, either ignorant or indifferent.
sanitary If there is no water-closet to complicate the problem, the
berries sanitary drainage of a country house is somewhat simplified.
houses: Tt ig a mistake, however, to suppose that human excrement is
the only constituent of sewage which is liable to give off offen-
sive and poisonous gases during the process of decomposition.
A sewer into which no matter of this kind ever finds its way
is, under ordinary conditions, as dangerous to health, if unven-
tilated except through house connections, as one which receives
Organic mat- all the waste of a town. The waste water of the kitchen car-
‘erin water, ries with it enough organic matter to breed pestilence under
favorable conditions, and for this reason the proper drainage of
a country house which has a sink in the kitchen is a matter of

prime importance us affecting the health of the inmates.
DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY ILOUSES. 275

At the back doors of farm and village houses we commonly Back-door
find a serious evil, either in a defective drain or in the absence Baars
of any drain at all. In the latter case the “slops” are com-
monly thrown out upon the ground and left to take care of
themselves. The ground, instead of being soft and absorbent,
is bare, hard and often covered with mould. To a person un-
accustomed to it the smell is nauseating. Ifa drain is used it Drains.
generally ends nowhere, and is often not more than 10 or 12
feet long—a little pool at the end catching what passes through
it. The miscellaneous refuse of the kitchen finds its way into
it and must go through the usual process of decay in the drain
or about its mouth. When we tind such a slovenly method of
disposing of the kitchen refuse, we may take it for granted that
wash water from the bedrooms is thrown out of the window
and chamber lye poured on the grass.

The common method of draining country houses of the better
class in the United States is into stone or brick cesspools. The
same system is employed in a majority of villages and unsew-
ered towns when any provision is made for house drainage.
As the rule, such cesspools are merely unventilated cisterns
with bottoms and sides more or less porous, through which a
part of the foul water discharged into them escapes to saturate
the surrounding soil. That leaching cesspools are wholly bad is
a statement which I can make without fear of intelligent con-
tradiction. Such cesspools are a fruitful source of disease and
death in rural neighborhoods where they have been intro-
duced. Sewers are bad enough, even under the most favor-
able conditions, though for the present they seem to be neces-
sary evils in cities and populous districts; but leaching cess- reaching
pools at their best are liable to be worse than sewers at their S208 |
worst, since they are not channels to carry away filth, but *°”°™
receptacles for its storage, wherein we can manufacture our
own supplies of sewer gas and conduct it into our houses
through the waste pipes which we fondly imagine are effectu-
ally sealed against it by water in the traps. How much of a
276 DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES.

dependence this is has already been explained in a previous
br.L.Playtair Chapter. Dr. Playfair, in an excellent address before tle
enecessPook British Social Science Association, speaks of such cesspools as
follows: “Instead of allowing garbage to be freely oxidized,
or applying it to plant life, which is its natural destination, we
dig holes close to our own doors and cherish the foul matter
in cesspools under conditions in which air cannot enter freely,
and therefore the most favorable to injurious putrefaction.
We forget the superstition of our forefathers, that every cess-
pool has its own particular evil spirit residing within it, and we
are surprised when the demon emerges, especially at night, and
strikes down our loved ones with typhoid fever or other form

of pestilence.”
cesspools 1 am not prepared to advocate the abolition of the cesspool,
Ser as it is still indispensably necessary under a great variety of
ana bottoms eonditions; but in every case it should be made as tight as a
bottle to start with. Any mason can build such a cesspool,
and the method and materials to be used need not be described.
The end to be secured is to prevent leaking, and there is no
Frequent More trouble in attaining this in a cesspool than ina cistern. It
emptying would be well to make it so small that it should need to be
emptied every few weeks, and provision for such emptying
cesspool Should be made by means of a suitable pump always ready for
mmP* use. There are many in the market which will do this work
admirably. The cesspool should be dug as far from the house
as convenient—say 100 feet—and the top should be left open
so as to afford a free vent for gases which must otherwise
House con- WOrk their way back through the pipes into the house. The
nectior® Connection with the house may be made with glazed tile—
rrapping ana preferably Scotch—with the best cement joints. There should
veraste pines, NOt, in my judgment, be any traps except those in the branch
waste pipes inside the house, and, as in city houses, the main
waste should be ventilated above the roof. The cesspool may
be covered in whatever way is most convenient or ornamental,
provided an abundant vent is left, as before specified. My own
DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY ILOUSES. 277

plan, in venting cesspools near houses, has been to cover the
top with a flagstone, in which a hole is cut about 10 inches
square. Into this I set a wooden box or chimney about 6 feet ventiation
high, with a door in one side, which, when opened, discloses a ee
series of alternating shelves extending half way across the chim-

 

 

ney, as shown in the drawing, Fig. 28. The top of the chimney
is finished with a cap of metal or wood, merely to exclude snow
and sleet. Upon the shelves charcoal is placed, the door is
shut and fastened with a hook, and the arrangements are
complete. The charcoal should be renewed occasionally. It
Charcoal.

Backflow
from unven-
tilated cess-
pools.

278 DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES.

absorbs all the offensive and hurtful impurities in the gaseous
exhalations from the cesspool, and without interfering with the
ventilation keeps the thing from becoming a nuisance. This
is similar in principle to the ventilating shaft recommended by
Mr. Latham, and applied by him to sewers in several English
cities with excellent results. As charcoal retains its power of
absorbing organic impurities for a long time, and as this power
is self-renewing, the charcoal in the ventilating chimney of a
cesspool does not need to be changed oftener than the cesspool
needs emptying. The next best arrangement is to leave the
top open, like that of a curb well, but I should not advise this,
as it might prove a source of anxiety and, possibly, of danger
where there are children. Roofs and sheds should never drain
into a cesspool, nor should storm water have access to it. The
danger of overflow and backing up of the contents of the
cesspool into the pipes should be avoided. I know of a house
in Orange, N. J., and have heard of many others elsewhere,
which suffers from this evil to an extent which renders it
wholly unfit for human habitation, although usually occupied
by tenants paying large rentals. In the one case to which my
attention was called, it is no uncommon thing for the kitchen
sink to suddenly fill with dirty water forced back through the
pipes, sometimes by overflow and sometimes apparently by
atmospheric pressure. I did not have an opportunity of study-
ing the causes of these phenomena as carefully as I wished, but
from even a partial examination of the system I learned some
very interesting facts which greatly surprised me. I found
that by opening the closet valve on the second floor and flush-
ing the closet abundantly, I could at any time half fill the
bath tub beside it with greasy water of milky color, evidently
from the cesspool. As this subsided, water of similar color
and smell would rise a few inches in the basins and sink on
the first floor. The tenant of the house, who was unwilling
to incur any expense in the matter, said that emptying the
cesspool only helped the matter for a few days, and that it
DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY ILOUSES. 279

recurred again long before the cesspool was refilled. As
the cesspool was sealed tight and the pipe system was wholly
unventilated, it was not difficult to account for the phenomena
to my own satisfaction.

A very common method of drainage in some parts of the puna arains.

country consists in discharging the main waste into a blind
ditch filled with cobble stones and covered with earth. This
is open to the same objections as the leaching cesspool system.
These ditches do not commonly fill up with water, but the
interstices between the stones become choked with grease and
solid filth, and long before the outflow of the house waste is
checked the gaseous products of organic decomposition,
formed in great volume, work back through the pipes and
past their seals into the living and sleeping rooms of the house.
So far as healthfulness is concerned, I would as soon carry a
speaking tube from my bedroom into a grave where some
body lay rotting as carry an unventilated waste pipe from my
wash basin into such a subterranean grave of decomposing filth
as this.

Col. Waring, from whose writings I have before had occa- tne tntermit.
sion to quote in this chapter, employs at Ogden Farm, New- fovann
port, R. I, and has introduced in Lenox, Mass., and else- “™*¥**e™
where, a system of drainage which will be found to answer
admirably under favorable conditions. It may be described
as follows: The house drainage is discharged into a Field
flush tank, which will be described hereafter. ‘This tank,
when filled, empties itself into a system of drain tiles laid
with open joints, consisting of one main 50 feet long and
ten lateral drains 6 feet apart and each about 20 feet long.

These pipes are laid from 10 to 12 inches below the surface.
In describing the details and practical workings of this sys-
tem, Col. Waring says: “My suggestion is to use this sys-
tem usually when there is no public water supply, with an
area of 2500 square feet for each household. If there are ten
persons in the family, there will be an area of 250 square feet
Field’s flush
tank,

280 DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY IOUSES.

for each. The character of the soil will have much to do with
the process of purification, but probably not much with its
efficiency. Heavy clay soils exert in themselves a stronger
absorptive action than do porous soils, but porous soils are
much more open to the admission of air, with its destructive
oxygen. Naturally, the system will work best when the
ground is not frozen, and during the season of vegetation we
have the further advantage, which I believe to be only a sec-

 

Fig. 29.

ondary one, that the products of decomposition are taken up
by the roots of plants. If not so taken up they will be
entirely dissipated. Let us suppose that a household of ten
persons use 300 gallons of water per day. This will give 3
gallons of sewage to 25 square feet of ground. If there is no
gravel streak to lead the descending water of heavy rains to
the well, until we reach a depth of only 6 feet we shall have
150 cubic feet of earth to filter 3 gallons of water per day.”
DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES. 281

The flush tank, which forms an important feature of this
system, is a self-emptying cesspool of small size, shown in suffi-
cient detail in the sectional drawing marked Fig. 29.

A cylindrical tank, A, has an opening in the top with a
movable cover and grating, B, whereby access for cleansing
purposes is given to the inside of the tank, but also acting as
a trapped inlet for the flow from the sink pipe, which dis-
charges over the grating, the tank being placed outside the
house, so that direct communication between the drains and
the interior is interrupted, completely preventing the entry of
foul air. The top of the tank is also provided with a venti-
lating pipe, C, and a syphon pipe, D, the outer and lower
extremity dipping into a discharging trough, F, which consists
of a small chamber fixed go that it can be turned round, with
the object of setting its mouth in any direction that may be
requisite to connect it with the outlet pipes G. A movable
cover provides for access to the mouth of the syphon when
requisite. The position of the ventilating pipe C may obvi-
ously be varied according to convenience.

Construction
and operation

The trapping of the inlet and the discharging power of the Features

outlet, are the two chief features of this apparatus which merit
attention. As regards the former, it is to be noted that some
considerable difficulty was at first experienced, owing to the
inlet trap becoming emptied inductively by the suction due to
the rapid discharge of water from the tank whenever the syphon
came into action. By means of the arrangement of trap and
air pipe shown in the engraving, this difficulty has been entirely
overcome. The bend of the trap being located below the top
of the tank, the suction, which could only arise when the level
of the surface of the water had sunk as low as the top of the
bend, is prevented by the supply of air from the air pipe. It
will be observed that the inlet is doubly trapped, being water
sealed by the flanges on the rim in addition to the bend of the
trap.

of merit.

As regards the action of the syphon, it may be remarked that Action of

to bring an ordinary syphon into action it would be necessary *

hoe syphon.
282 DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES.

that sufficient water should be run in rapidly to raise the level

of the surface in the tank above the top of the syphon bend, so

as to expel all the air quickly, which would require a consider-

able volume of water; and, on the other hand, in the case of
small dribblets of water flowing in at intervals when the tank is

full, they would simply trickle away over the lip of the syphon,

and so the tank would remain full and the syphon continue in-

Device for se Operative. It is by the peculiar construction of the discharg-
matic action, ing trough, which is a special and important feature of the
tank, that aid is given to assist small quantities of liquids in
bringing the syphon into action, instead of dribbling over the
syphon without charging it, as would otherwise happen, as ex-
plained; and this is attained by checking the efflux of fluid
from the syphon outlet by the agency of a peculiar arrange-
ment of weirs at the discharging orifice or mouth, thus obviat-
Discharging ing all the difficulties. The mouth of the syphon pipe dips
“ne into the discharging trough to the level of the top of the weir,
and the weir. itself is provided with a notch, the object of which

is to prevent the partial or false action of the syphon, such as
would result if its mouth were entirely sealed when the flow of
water is not adequate to fully charge the syphon. For such a

case the notch is so proportioned—as determined practically by
experiment—that very small quantities of water, which are in-
sufficient to fully charge the syphon, may run away through the
notch without sealing the mouth of the syphon; whereas, on

the other hand, an adequate charge, being more than will pass
freely through the notch, accumulates behind the weir, sealing

the syphon so as to generate its full action and initiate a com-
plete discharge. So effectual is that action that a mere hand-
bowlful of water or slops thrown down a sink and flowing into

the tank when full, suffices to set the syphon in operation. This
device for securing an intermittent automatic syphon action is
singularly simple and effective. So soon as established, the con-
tents of the tank are completely discharged with considerable
flushing force, producing an efficient scour in the outlet drains.
DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES. 283

As an idea of the operation of this system can best be had Theeartn
from a description of its practical working, I further quote temae-
from Col. Waring, as that gentleman is entitled to the credit of °°"
introducing the system into this country and making the pro-
fession acquainted with its advantages. In an account of the
drainage of his own house, he says:

“Seven years ago last October, when I built my present
house, I applied this method there in the most thorough way,
and have been watching it with great care with a view to what
I might learn from it from that time to this. \ I do not hesitate
to pronounce it absolutely perfect. Iam satisfied that it affords
relief which is open to every one who has even a little bit of
ground adjoining his house. I would say, by the bye, that I
have no water-closets in the establishment ; we use earth closets
only; so that my experiment has not been complicated by
that element. At the same time there is no practical difficulty;
there is no reason why that may not be taken care of as well as
the other.

“Outside of my kitchen the waste pipe of the kitchen sink riztures ana
discharges into a flush tank—that is, a vessel holding about ican
barrel of water supplied with asyphon which comes into action
automatically; it holds back all the flow of the kitchen sink
until it becomes entirely full; then almost instantly—within
three or four minutes—it discharges the whole of that volume,
which in my case is about a barrel of water, rapidly into the
drain and drives or carries everything forward with it. The
water from the baths and the housemaid’s sink and other things
enter the drain further down. If they do deposit any small
amount of matter, this flow, which occurs as often as two or
three times a week, is sure to carry everything forward. This
goes to a settling basin, which is very small, having a capacity
only of about 40 or 50 gallons, and which is simply for the
purpose of restraining the grease which floats on the surface of
the water and the solid matters which settle at the bottom.

The overflow from the settling basin is through a pipe which operation
284 DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES.

points down below the surface, so that whatever enters this

pipe must enter it below the scum and above the deposit, and

whatever is discharged from this settling basin is liquid, and

that liquid is carried forward through a tight pipe a distance of

about 40 feet from my library window, and there it turns and

runs parallel with the house for a distance of 60 feet. At in-

tervals of 6 feet, leading from that like a gridiron, are drains of

ordinary agricultural tiles; these drains which lead from it are

ten in number ; they are 20 feet long, loosely meeting together

Depth below at the ends with no cement; they lie 12 or 13 inches below the

surface of the ground, which is, I am satisfied, somewhat too

deep—9 or 10 inches would be better. Whenever that flush

tank discharzes, it flows into a settling basin and displaces an

equal quantity of liquid matter from there, which is at once

driven forward and is sufficient to gorge these tiles from end to

end; the contents instantly begin oozing out at the joints, and

the overflow in a very short time is dispersed into the ground.

The water of course settles, for this must be on tolerably drained

land; it would not do to try this on the surface of a swamp

Fitration which is saturated below. The water settles through the soil,
through tne ‘ . : :

ground. thus finding an outlet, and the soil through which it passes

filters out the foul matters. Immediately the water passes

away fresh air enters from the surface; and by the well-known

concentrated oxidizing power of porous matters, whether pow-

dered charcoal, earth or whatever it may be, an entire decom-

position is effected of this foreign matter, so much so that after

five years, there being from defective work an occasion to take

up a part of this system of drainage, I took up the whole and

gave it a thorough examination, and in no place could you de-

tect in the earth which lay adjacent to these tiles, in which

they were immediately encompassed, either by appearance or

odor, the slightest difference from ordinary fresh-smelling gar-

den mould. This has been going on, as I say, since seven years

ago last autumn, for a household of six persons, with rather a

copious use of water, and there has been no other means

adopted.
DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES. 285

“T should not, of course, on my own single experiment, venture

to recommend this, as I have done frequently, to the public as
being worthy of adoption. Its use has extended very much. I
applied it last year to the sewage of the whole village of Lenox, town sew.
in Massachusetts; and in England it is being adopted for “” mene
the sewage of country houses far and wide, and is based on the
principle which is thought by many English engineers to prom-
ise the only relief that they can have from their sewage. When
I am describing this, the question which is almost universally
asked is, What becomes of the solid matter and grease in the thesettiing
settling basin? At first I used to have it taken out and buried ™*™
about once in three months—dug a trench in the ground near
by, cleaned out the settling basin and buried its contents in the
trench. But once, only a week after cleaning it out, I had
occasion to empty it again for another purpose and found that
it was as foul as it had been after a longer interval. That was
about three years ago. Since that time the settling basin has
never been opened except for inspection, and its condition
remains always the same. The explanation is perfectly simple :
The solid matter at the bottom of the tank is decomposable
matter and is constantly passing itself off in solution in the
water that flows away; and the matters which are decomposing
are very strong producers of ammonia, which acts upon the
under side of the floor of grease and converts that into soap,
which in its time passes off.”

Having had three years’ experience with this system, so far tne author's
as its essential details are concerned, in draining my own house, “°°"""*
I have no hesitation in expressing the opinion that under favor-
able conditions it will work satisfactorily and be found an im-
provement on any other system which can be contained within
the restricted limits of a village lot or villa site. There seems
to be no reason why it should not work equally well on a larger
scale, and in the case of Lenox I am informed that it does.
English testimony is also strongly in its favor, and nowhere else
has it been tested with equal thoroughness nor under so great
286 DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES.

a variety of conditions. When the conditions are unfavorable or
householders are unwilling to venture even so simple an experi-
ment in sanitary engineering, I should recommend the tight,
well-vented cesspool already described.

When there is no plumbing work in a house and no facilities
are needed except those which afford a safe and convenient
means of disposing of dish water and kitchen slops, a cheap
and simple device is a box filled with absorbent earth. The

a

:

ei

—=
function of this filtering tank is to remove from the waste water
all matters which can readily be strained out and retain them
in such shape as to admit of their subsequent utilization for fer-
tilizing purposes. I have generally found a tank 4 feet square
amply capacious. This gives us a cubic contents of 64 square
feet. The shape of the tank is not a matter of great impor-
tance, provided the bottom is so inclined that all the water
flowing into it shall find its way to the point at which an outlet
is provided. The shape I prefer is shown in Fig. 30, and when

  

 

  
     
  
 

      

Tig. 30.
DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES. 287

one is made especially for this use it might as well be of this

form as any other. As will be seen, the bottom has the shape

of an inverted pyramid, formed of four triangular pieces join-

ing the straight sides. For convenience in emptying, one of Provision for
the sides is made in two parts, united with hinges at the line A. mene
The tank may be set into the ground to the line A, which

has the advantage of bringing the pipe OC, which carries off the
filtered water, below the depth to which frost will penetrate

the ground except in high northern localities or exceptionally

cold winters without snow. At the point of discharge, B, which strainer.
is formed by nailing a collar of zinc to the bottom pieces, it is

well to have some kind of strainer—either a perforated metal

sheet, a piece of wire cloth, a block of .soft peat or anything

that will serve the purpose. <A sabot of hay or straw will an-

swer as well as anything else. In the bottom of the tank place straw in
a quantity of broken straw, packing it tightly. On this throw?”
about 12 inches of dry, absorbent earth, leaf mould or any kind contents
of soil other than sand or clay. The tank is then ready to” ""
receive so much of the drainage of the house as requires such
treatment. The pipe D is the waste from the kitchen sink. Ceeenot
The outflow from this pipe is water more or less charged with
organic matter. The water passes through the filtering mate-

rial in the tank, but the grease, the bits of meat, the vegetable
particles and all the solid or semi-solid constituents of the out-

flow are retained in the tank. As often as may be necessary to
prevent the escape of any offensive odor, or even the character-

istic greasy smell which is usually noticeable in a kitchen drain,
throw in more earth until the tank is full. In warm weather

a little powdered gypsum (ground plaster) thrown in would be
found useful in absorbing and retaining the ammonia formed

from the decomposition of substances containing nitrogen. The xitchen
matters which come out of a kitchen through the sink waste are ao
not in themselves offensive or injurious. They only become so

by decomposition, a process which does not commonly begin
under 24 to 48 hours. If kept covered with any dry, absorbent
288 DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES.

material, the products of decomposition are all retained, and this
will continue until the earth in the tank is saturated and ceases
to absorb and deodorize the matter which it holds, and then it
Renewal Will require renewing. Jlow often it will need this depends
 orhias. upon circumstances. In the instances J have in mind in which
this system has given perfectly satisfactory results, the tanks
have not required to be emptied and refilled oftener than once
in two months. In one case four times a year was often enough.
A layer of earth an inch thick is commonly sufficient to throw in
at one time, and this may be done two or three times a week
in very warm weather when decomposition goes on rapidly.
With good management less attention than this will keep the
The discharge tank in good condition. The pipe C is common earthen tile.
toed water. A few feet away from the tank and for the rest of its length
it may be laid with open joints. It may extend under a garden
or lawn, or indeed anywhere. Water which flows into it leaks
out at the joints or through the pores of the pipe, is absorbed
by the soil and appropriated by vegetation.
position Such a tank as I have described may be placed anywhere. I
of 2 have never found any objection to placing it against the foun-
dation of the house, so that the kitchen sink waste needed to be
cover. only a few feet in length. To exclude rain it requires some
kind of light spreading cover, raised high enough above the
sides to give the fullest ventilation and permit free evaporation.
‘When full, one side is lowered and the contents are shoveled
into a wheelbarrow and removed to the compost heap.
Country ais) Experience has shown it to be a great mistake to suppose that
oie isolation, with good surroundings and plenty of fresh air out of
doors, will insure good health. The fallacy of this notion was
forced upon my attention during the summer of 1876. In the
course of a ramble among the hills of Orange county, N. Y., I
made the acquaintance of a farmer and his family who had
Typhotdfever lately experienced a terrible visitation of typhoid fever. The
on & moun-

tain top. farm occupied one of the most beautiful locations I had ever
seen. It lay upon a mountain top about 1440 feet above the
DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES. 289

sea and some 600 feet above the lake in the valley. The view
was extensive in all directions; the formation was such as to
insure the best natural drainage, and the winds from every
quarter of the heavens had fuil sweep over the whole place.
Any one would have fixed upon this spot as a sanitary paradise,
but the fever had found it, though there was not another dwell-
ing from which the seeds of contagion could by any chance
have been carried. The cause was not difficult to find, how-
, ever. My friend. the farmer made dairying his principal
business. In the barn, almost immediately adjoining the house,
he wintered his cattle, and as it was easier to carry water for
the family than for the stock, he had sunk his well in the barn-
yard. Gradually but surely the sources of his water supply had
been poisoned, and with all natural conditions favorable to
health in a peculiar degree, he had in his ignorance brought
upon himself worse evils than he would probably have encoun-
tered in the dirtiest neighborhood of the bad-smelling city.
His folly had cost him a son stricken down in the full vigor of
early manhood, and left himself broken in constitution and
forever enfeebled by the scourge which had brought him and
still others of his family to death’s door.

People who leave convenient and comfortable city houses to seeking
seek pure air and healthful surroundings in the country, often ar ae
find that they have made a sad mistake. Fresh air and sunlight
are certainly great purifiers and disinfectors, but these potent
agencies will not purify our wells nor arrest decomposition.

The absolute dependence often placed upon them in country
districts accounts for the fact that these districts, when fairly

well settled, are rarely free from epidemic diseases of one kind

or another. It may seem like an extravagant statement, but I Bevo ot
have no hesitation in saying that were hygienic precautious as cautions in
generally neglected in New York city as in the country districts, istrict
the columns of our daily newspapers at any season of the year

would read like chapters from De Foe’s history of the London

plague. 14
290 DRAINAGE OF COUNTRY HOUSES.

Noexcusefor With every possible facility for keeping in good health, the

cotsem'* residents of country districts and of our smaller towns have no

excuse for the fevers and other epidemic diseases which are

so common nowadays, and which are so very generally caused

by willful violations of hygienic laws. We can hardly imagine

any reason why a farmer or the tenant of an isolated house in

the country should ever see a case of typhoid. Yet typhoid

fever is common, and people wonder at the Providence which

robs them of their friends and children, and try to be resigned

to the decrees of a higher power, when the cause is really to be

found in their own disregard of the laws of health—laws of

which no one has any right to be wholly ignorant in this age of
enlightenment.
: CHAPTER XI.
Water Suppry rw Country Districts.

In selecting a place of residence or a building site in the mportance
country, care should be taken to secure an abundant supply of mcoeaey
pure water. Other things are important and should be given ?*°*
due weight, but the quality of the water supply upon which
dependence must be placed, is of prime importance. It is pos-
sible to correct nearly all the evils prejudicial to health if the
proper means are used, but we cannot find good water where
it does not exist. To the neglect of this precaution we may, I naa water
think, attribute much of the sickness in populous suburban dis- a ay
tricts surrounding our principal cities. No country house is
desirable as a place of residence which does not at least have a
good well or an unfailing spring of pure water near it, and in
such a position that it is free from all danger of contamination
by surface water flowing into it, or by impurities reaching its
sources through permeable strata of the soil. There is a great
deal of valuable literature on the subject of water which is
easily obtainable by those who seek it. In a work of this kind
it is necessary to discuss the subject somewhat briefly.

In judging of the quality of water and its fitness for drinking petermining
and general domestic use, the principal points to be determined ¢ricuer””
are:

Total solid residue.

Hardness, temporary and permanent. Charac.
Chlorine. corer
Nitrogen in nitrates and nitrites.

Ammonia and organic matter.

. Metals.

The first is easily determined by evaporating a given quan- soua residue.
tity, say 3 ounces, on a water bath to dryness, and drying the

Sot go bo
292 WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS.

residue in an air bath at 266° Fahr. The total operation, ac-
cording to Wanklyn and Chapman, requires about an hour and
a quarter.

Hardness. By the hardness of water is meant the quantity of soap it
will consume in forming a lather. Although hard water is
not usually considered unwholesome, it is quite unsuited for
general domestic use. The quality of hardness results chiefly

Doan from the presence of lime and magnesia in the water. There

hardness. are several methods of determining hardness, the simplest of
which consists in preparing an alcoholic soap solution, of which
a given quantity is just capable of neutralizing one gram of
carbonate of lime. For the benefit of those who have access
only to Troy weights and apothecaries’ fluid measures, I give
the following simple directions for determining the hardness
of water with United States weights and measures. Weigh out
8°88 grains pure fused chloride of calcium, made by dissolving
cale spar in pure hydrochloric acid, and dissolve it in 82 fluid
ounces of distilled water. Next prepare a solution of hard
white soap in strong alcohol, filter and add an equal volume of
water, Take 4 finid drachms of this solution, and place in a
bottle with 4 fluid ounces of distilled water. The standard soln-
tion of chloride of calcium is added to this from a graduated
pipette until on shaking the frothing stops. If more than 4
drachms of the standard solution of chloride of calcium is
required, dilute the soap solution with just enough 40 per cent.
alcohol to make 4 drachms of the lime solution neutralize 4
drachms of soap solution in the presence of 4 ounces of water.
In determining the hardness of a natural water, measure out 4
ounces of the water and place in a glass stoppered bottle, then
add sufficient soap solution to produce on shaking a permanent
lather. The number of drachms of soap solution consumed will
indicate the number of grains of carbonate of lime (or its equiv-
alent of magnesia), in a United States gallon of 2381 cubic
inches, allowing 128 fluid ounces, or 1024 drachms, to the gallon.

Permanent The determination of the permanent hardness is made as

wariness: above after boiling the water for an hour, distilled water being
WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS. 298

added to replace that which evaporates. The difference between
total and permanent hardness is equal to the temporary hard-
ness.

Chlorine is usually determined volumetrically, by means of a Chlorine.
standard solution of nitrate of silver, and requires some skill
and experience to insure accuracy. If 7:37 grains nitrate of
silver be dissolved in 33 fluid ounces distilled water, 0-033
ounces of the solution will precipitate 0:0015 grains of chlorine.
About 0:0077 grains of neutral chromate of potash in solution
is dissolved in a measured quantity of the water to be tested,
and the standard silver solution added, drop by drop, until a
permanent red color is noticeable. Water which contains a
large amount of chlorine may have derived part of it from
sewage.

Nitrates and nitrites are not easily determined, and no method yitrates
now in use would prove of any value to a person not a skilled °°"
chemist. The presence of even small quantities of nitrites is rest ror
objectionable, and for these the following qualitative test will"
suffice. A very thin paste is made of starch, and to this is
added a little solution of iodide of potassium. Iodide of potas-
sium is a solid, and the solution may be prepared by taking a
very small piece, say half as large as a pea, and dissolving it in
a test tube two-thirds full of water. A gill of the water to be
tested is taken, and about five drops of dilute sulphuric acid
are added. The acid is previously diluted by mixing a little of
it with an equal weight of water ina beaker. A little of the
water to be tested, thus acidified, is poured into the mixture of
starch paste and iodide of potassium. If it turns blue, a nitrite
is present. Otherwise there are no nitrites in the water.

Nitrates are thus detected: to a quarter of a gill of the sus- posts tor
pected water in a small beaker, add half a gill of pure con-
centrated sulphuric acid, and warm the mixture on a sand bath
until the temperature is 140° Fahr. While the mixture is still
warm add a few drops of an extremely dilute indigo solution.

If the color of the indigo disappears immediately, even on
294 WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS.

repeated addition, a nitrate is present. The indigo may be
purchased in solution, and should be ordered as sulphate of

indigo solution. A very little of the liquid added toa pint of

water gives the dilute solution, which should be used as above.

ammonia Ammonia and organic matter are especially objectionable in

and organic . . . . . . .

matter, potable water, and their quantitative determination is as im-
The Ness- portant as it is difficult. The Nessler test is a very delicate one
*°* for ammonia, as it will detect one part of ammonia in 20,000,000
parts of water. Ammonia may be concentrated by distillation,

for if 67-6 fluid ounces of water be distilled, nearly all the am-

monia contained in it will pass into the first 3-4 ounces of dis-

tillate, thus rendering the test ten times more delicate than

before. The Nessler reagent is made by dissolving 77-19

grains iodide of potassium in a small quantity of hot distilled
water, and adding to it, while on a water bath, a solution of
corrosive sublimate until the red precipitate no longer dissolves ;
filter and add 231°57 grains of solid caustic soda or 308-76 solid

potash dissolved in water; dilute to 33-8 ounces, and add 0:169

ounces of saturated solution of corrosive sublimate ; allow to

subside and decant the clear liquid. It gives a brown color

with ammonia.

Quantitative In using the Nessler test for quantitative determination,
tion by News, 0°05 ounce of the reagent is added to 3-4 ounces of the water
ters method. to be examined, and the color observed. The same quantity of
reagent is added to a given quantity of a standard solution of
ammonia also diluted to 3-4 ounces, and the colors compared.

The standard ammonia solution is made by dissolving 0°6 grain

sulphate of ammonia, or 0°49 grain chloride of ammonium in

33°8 ounces of water.

The presence of any considerable quantity of ammonia is
almost certain proof of sewage contamination, as urea is readily
convertible into carbonate of ammonia.

test foror- One of the simplest tests for organic matter in water is made
Sneak anh permanganate of potash. This salt is remarkable for its

great coloring power, a very small quantity producing a purplish
WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS. 295

red color in a great quantity of water. To perform the test,
about 3 grains of the salt should be dissolved in one pint of pure
water. A very pure water can be obtained by melting ice.
About one pint of the water to be examined, not concentrated,
should be introduced into a colorless glass beaker, and 5 drachms
of dilute sulphuric acid added. The acid should be so diluted
as to consist of one part acid and five parts water, by measure.
The permanganate should then be added, a few drops at a time.
If organic matter is present, the colored solution of the per-
manganate of potash will be decolorized as soon as it touches the
water, and a brown deposit will slowly settle to the bottom.
By continuing to add the colored solution until it is no longer
decolorized, we can form some idea of the amount of organic
matter in the water.

If water examined for organic matter be allowed to stand for Burning the
a day, a sediment will often settle to the bottom. If a portion wate.
‘of this sediment be dried and burnt in a porcelain dish over a
spirit lamp, it will smell bad if there is animal organic matter
present. It will turn black if there is organic matter of any
kind present. This of course shows organic matter in a state
of suspension in the water. The permanganate test must be
resorted to to discover organic matter in solution.

A very simple test for organic matter in water consists in the sugar
dissolving therein a small quantity of white sugar. In a few seme matter
days if sewage, urine, albumen or any other organic impurity
be present, the water becomes white and milky from the devel-
opment of certain fungoid growths. Prof. Frankland, F.R.S.,
presented a paper on this subject to the Chemical Society of
London, as long ago as Feb. 2, 1871. In this paper he ad-
vanced the theory that these germs are everywhere present in
the atmosphere, but that they cannot develop in the sugar solu-
tion without the presence of phosphoric acid or some compound
of phosphorus. The following comparative tests were recently
made in this city to determine the value of Prof. Frankland’s
suggestion in a practical way: Four 8-ounce bottles were filled
296

WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS.

Experiments With water, and to each was added 15-44 grains of powdered

with Croton
sediment, SUZAar.

The first of these solutions, which contained boiling

distilled water and no air, remained unchanged during the
whole experiment, lasting 50 days. No. 2, which contained
Croton water and a little air, began to exhibit a white sediment
in nine days, which seemed to adhere to the bottom of the

bottle.

In two days the third solution, to which had been

added 0-17 ounces urine (or about 2 per cent.), had a milky
look; in three days a heavy froth on top, and in eleven days
was perfectly opaque and contained small white flakes; at the
end of a month still heavier deposit and cloudy; in 50 days
less opaque, heavy sediment. To the fourth solution was added
0-17 ounces of a solution of phosphate of soda. The changes
were more marked than in Croton alone, but far less than in
that containing urine, showing that some other ingredient than
phosphorus aids in producing the change. Neither 2nor 4 were
opaque at the end of 50 days unless shaken to diffuse the heavy
sediments in them.

Atraceofor. A trace of organic matter does not necessarily disqualify

ganic matter

not necessari- water for general use. The following table shows the number

ly dangerous.

of grains of organic matter in the water supplied to some of

our American cities. The insignificance of the quantity will
better appear if we bear in mind the fact that a gallon contains
70,000 grains of water :

New. Yorke (Croton) 44.5.40s1aessn vewesee ener Ler

Brooklyn (Ridowood)..c0ssas saweveinsdenwees 1:43

Boston (Cochituate).c.yscuers sa deewe wees caer 1°22

Philadelphia (Fairmount, Schuylkill)........... 2°06

eee ee Albany (rom the hydrant)... ..s0.ascessanesson 3°96
organic mat- Troy a Oe asa i leaden chet 2°30
“mppiedts Utica «= Re Gente eame gan ened 164
oe Syracuse (New Reservoir). .........02-000055 3:08
Cleveland: (Iaike Mate isin cent thane wees 2°62

Chicago (Lake Michigan)..........0600sssee0. 1:81

Rochester (Genesee River).........0..0 000008 2°12
WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS. 297

Schenectady (State street well)..............655 400
Newark, Jersey City, Hoboken, Hudson City (Pas-

pile TRIED) cons ve ca eu eecen eon eee nner ene 4:90
Trenton (Delaware River)........... Ssemucewel 0:95

Of the metals, lead and zinc are the most dangerous and the metats.
most frequent. As directions for the determination of the
various metallic salts are given in a previous chapter, they need
not be repeated here.

Some natural waters contain sulphuretted hydrogen acid, Bulbiaestict
which is easily detected by smell, and by its action on bright
silver coin or on paper dipped in acetate of lead solution.

Carbonic acid may be present either in a free state or com- Carbonte acla
bined with lime and magnesia, for bicarbonates. In either
case it is expelled by boiling. To ascertain whether any of the
carbonic acid is in a free state a strip of turmeric paper is em-
ployed, together with a freshly prepared solution of clear lime
water. If the addition of asingle drop of lime water to the
water to be tested causes it to turn the turmeric paper
brown, no free carbonic acid is present. If it is necessary to
add several drops of the lime water before this action takes
place, the quantity of free acid is quite large. Dr. Von Petten-
kofer also employs for this purpose rosolic acid. Free carbonic
acid is seldom if ever present in the waters of limestone regions.

The sanitary condition of water employed for domestic PUr- Dissolved
poses is, says M. Gerardin, intimately related to the presence 7*™
or absence of dissolved oxygen, and the proportion of this gas
present and dissolved determines the hygienic state of the water.
Unfortunately, the quantitative determination of dissolved
oxygen is very difficult. The French chemist just mentioned
employs for this purpose hydrosulphite of soda; Prof. Wurtz
employs a solution of pyrogalline acidified with hydrochloric
acid. Gerardin has discovered that when water retains a nor-
mal proportion of dissolved oxygen, the lives of fish and green
plants are preserved. As the oxygen diminishes, those animals
which have the most active respiration first disappear, and sub-
Amateur wa-
ter analysis.

Deceptive
character-
istics.

298 WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS.

sequently those of lower respirative powers; and he concludes
that organic matters in a state of decomposition deprive water
of its dissolved oxygen, and consequently render it impossible
for either plants or animals of superior organization to live in it.

A person with no knowledge of chemistry cannot commonly,
if ever, be trusted to determine the potability of water, or
judge of the comparative excellence of two or more kinds of
water, provided they do not contain impurities which are
plainly palpable to the senses. There is a great deal of differ-
ence in the color and taste of potable waters, and one not an
expert in judging of water might be misled in many instances
—especially as some of the most dangerous impurities occurring
in natural waters are less readily detected than those which,
though harmless, noticeably affect their color and taste. I have
seen and drank very wholesome and satisfactory water—notably
that drawn from the juniper swamps of Virginia—which one
not accustomed to would hesitate to taste; I have also seen
water drawn from deep wells, cool, clear and sparkling, which
was the means of poisoning many people—some of them fatally
—and which no one could drink with impunity. The notion
that taste and smell can be relied upon as sure indications of
the quality of water is a dangerous error. In 1866 an epidemic
of cholera was caused in London by the use of impure water
from wells poisoned by foul liquids permeating the soil; and
yet we have it on the authority of Dr. Letterby and other emi-
nent sanitarians and chemists, that many of these wells “ yielded
cool, bright and clear water.” In the sixth report of the Rivers
Pollution Commission it is asserted that samples of water taken
from London wells consisted almost wholly of soakage from
sewers and cesspools, and that some of them actually possessed
a manure value one hundred and fifty per cent. greater than
that of an equal volume of London sewage. Many of these
polluted wells enjoyed a high reputation, and water drawn from
them was considered better than that furnished by the water
companies.
WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS. 299

For these reasons it is commonly advisable, though not always
necessary, for those selecting sources of permanent water supply
in the country to refer the question to a chemist experienced in
water analysis. A qualitative analysis will usually answer, and
the small expense attending the employment of a chemist for
this purpose will be found a good investment.

The sources of water supply in country districts are wells,
springs, and, occasionally, ponds and running streams. Rain
water is also a dependence for many uses on account of its soft-
ness. Of these several sources of supply, wells are given a de-
cided preference in this country. A well is a shaft by which
we reach the water-bearing stratum, the depth depending upon
the formation through which it is sunk. They are of three
kinds—those which are dug, those which are bored (commonly
called artesian wells), and those which are made by forcing a
tube into the ground (commonly called drive or driven wells).
These will be considered separately and at such length as the
scope of this chapter may warrant.

The common open well, excavated by digging, dates its origin
back to the remotest antiquity. Some of the oldest wells in the
world are among the most remarkable, extending to a great
depth through solid rock, with winding pathways, also
hewn in rock, descending to the water level. In some instances
these pathways are so wide and so easy in their descent that one
may ride down to the water on horseback. Joseph’s well, at
Cairo, Egypt, is 297 feet deep; Jacob’s well, near Sychar,
formerly known as Shechem, on the road to Jerusalem, is 105
feet deep. We have many wells much deeper than these, but
none so remarkable when we consider the primitive character
of the tools employed in digging them, the nature of the strata
through which they pass, and the fact that the ancients had no
explosive agents for blasting.

As the work of well digging is commonly performed by men
specially skilled in the art, and as the methods and tools em-
ployed are of little interest to the general reader, I shall limit

Advantages
of employing
a chemist.

Sources of
water supply,

Wells,

Open wells.

Remarkable
ancient wells.

Joseph’s well.

Jacob’s well.

Well digging
300 WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS.

my remarks to a few suggestions respecting the location and

care of wells.
Water-vear- In most localities desirable for residence, and in many which

ing strata. ‘ : :
are not, water can usually be obtained within reasonable dis-
tance of the surface. It is not commonly necessary to go more
than 20 or 80 feet to reach a water-bearing stratum. In excep-
tional instances, as in cases where wells are sunk in gravelly
knolls or in other positions where the local formation is such
as to bring the water-bearing stratum further from the surface,
it is necessary to go deeper. Under these circumstances wells
Location are sometimes as much as 80 feet in depth. In selecting a site
ore" for a well we must remember the fact that a hole in the ground,
for whatever purpose made, is very liable to become under
ordinary circumstances a receptacle for surface drainage, as
well as a cesspol for other matters which find their way from
Sources of the surface down through permeable strata. For this reason
contami-

nation. Wells should be as far as possible removed from barn-yards,
muck-heaps, privics, cesspools and other possible sources of con-
net note contamination. The idea that simple filtration through soil
will free water from organic impurities and rob it of all hurtful
properties, is clearly erroneous. Adequate filtration will do this
for a time, but the fissures and veins through which surface
water makes its way down to the strata from which wells are
supplied, may become so filled with impurities that they would
poison pure water passing through them. It is not unusual for
wells to become suddenly affected from causes which have been
operating without apparent effect for years, and the germs of
disease are thus often taken into the system under circum-
oe stances which excite no suspicion. Decomposing organic mat-
ter of any kind, and especially animal excrement, is the great
source of danger, and when such matter is allowed to accumu-
late in the neighborhood of wells upon the surface of any but
the most exceptionally impervious soils, we may be very certain
that sooner or later it will render the water impure and un-
Local sources wholesome, if not positively fatal. It is not uncommon, how-

aE. ever, to find wells in light sandy or gravelly soil in close prox-
WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS. 301

imity to privy vaults, cesspools and barn-yards. They are, as
the rule, lined with loose stones which afford surface water free
access, and are often, especially in times of heavy rain or when
the winter snows are thawing, receptacles for water charged
with all manner of impurities scoured from the surface. I
have seen instances in which a well, barn-yard, garbage heap, a
pervious cesspool receiving the liquid refuse of the house, a
privy, a*house and a well-manured garden, were all to be found
within the limits of a plot 50 by 150 feet, and in soil so light
that only after heavy and long-continued rain would any water
be found standing on the surface. Under such circumstances
it is scarcely possible for the water in a well to be fit for use.
In calling attention to a dangerous proximity of well and privy,
or cesspool, I have usually found people unwilling to believe
that any harm could result therefrom—or indeed from any
other source of surface contamination provided the earth was
banked up 6 or 8 inches around the curb.

In villages and towns where the dwellings are close together wens in vit.
and wells are necessarily in close proximity to houses and out- a”
buildings, the danger of water poisoning is imminent at all
times. That such villages and towns are commonly healthy
places of residence in this country would prove nothing if true.

In Great Britain some of the most fatal epidemics of typhoid zptaemtes ta.
fever have occurred in such towns, and the same is true in this nr
eountry. As the rule our towns and villages have outgrown
the simple methods and appliances that provided adequate-

, Grainage for the few comparatively isolated houses forming the
nuclei around which they have gathered. Localities which were mataria.
conspicuously healthy half a century ago, and which for that
very reason attracted population, are now scourged with mala-
ria, and not a few of those who can do so are removing to the
cities to regain lost health. There is probably not a village or
settlement within 40 miles of New York in any direction that
is free fron) malarious diseases of local origin. There may be

. particular neighborhoods to which these remarks do not apply,
Deficient and
insufficient
drainage.

Unpopularity
cf public san-
itary works,

Typhoid fever
in cities and
country dis-

tricts.

3802 WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS.

and which, from natural advantages of location, with good
drainage and abundant water supply, have the means of keep-
ing healthy; but most of the country which has afforded ac-
commodation to the population crowded ont of New York by
high rents and the insufficiency of home accommodations within
its limits is not healthy, and cannot under existing conditions
expect to be. In a majority of cases defective and insufficient
drainage, with its attendant and almost inseparable evil of
water poisoning, is at the root of the whole trouble. In but few
instances have attempts been made to deal with these evils by
measures of sanitary reform. Each house has within the little
inclosure it oceupies its own source of water supply and its own
sewer—the former a well and the latter a leaching cesspool.
Even when the true nature of the evils undermining the public
health is understood and appreciated, it is not always possible to
remedy them. It is casy to levy a tax for such improvements
as stone sidewalks and road macadamizing, but a tax for drain-
ing a village and supplying it with water finds few advocates,
even among those whose families have suffered most from dis-
cases which such reforms would forever banish from the neigh-
borhood. It is a well-established fact that since the introduc-
tion of aqueduct water into large cities, typhoid and many
other fevers, resulting among other causes from water poison-
ing, have become more common in the country than in cities.
This I have no doubt is attributable to the poisons taken into
the system in well water contaminated with organic matter.
Instances of such contamination which have given rise to

Poisons in zymotic diseases are numerous and well authenticated. The

well waters.

slimy matter often found covering stones in wells is a true fun-
goid growth, and is an active blood poison when taken into the
system. In wells polluted by sewage these fungoid or confer-
void growths are, I believe, always found.

The danger of impure water is a subject to which public at-
tention cannot be too often nor too forcibly called, and I regret
that the scope and purpose of this volume prevents the colla-
WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS. 3803

tion and presentation of the mass of exact and unquestionable
evidence which establishes the fact that water poisoning is a
fruitful cause of disease and death. Where wells are neces-
sarily depended upon, the only means of protecting them from
contamination which admit of general application are, I believe,
those suggested in the preceding chapter.

There should be no permanent woodwork inside a well. It Sommer
attracts and shelters various forms of animal life, and by its
decay, which is likely to be rapid, it may give rise to unwhole-
some conditions affecting the character of the water. It is also curving.
desirable that the curbing should be of stone or brick, and it is
always a good plan to cover open wells with low, wide-spread- Covers.
ing roofs of steep pitch, supported on corner posts and inclosed
on three sides with lattice work. Such roofs, if kept clean and
in good repair, will be useful in excluding dust, leaves and
other matters likely to affect the quality of the water. Any- Cleaning
thing falling into a well should be fished out at once, and all ee
wells should be cleaned as often as may be necessary. Some
wells foul more rapidly than others, especially those shaded by
overhanging trees which drop rain and shed leaves into them.

The condition of the sides and bottom of an open well can
always be determined on a bright day by reflecting the sunlight
into it with a mirror.

‘When the character of the formation is such that good water.artesian
cannot be reached by open wells of convenient depth, recourse ara
is commonly had to the boring of what are known as artesian
wells. These, though costly, are often of great advantage in
securing an abundant supply of water in localities where it can-
not be had at or near the surface. Many wells of this kind
have been bored in this country within the past few years,
some of them to a great depth, and the proportion that have
failed to give an abundant and unfailing supply of water is not
great. The objections to artesian wells are their great cost and Uncertainre-
the uncertainty of striking water of the right kind. At the rae

time of this writing there is an artesian well at Reading, Pa.,
304 WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS.

2000 feet deep, costing $22,000, which contains 47 grains Ep-

som salts to the gallon. An artesian well at Fifth and Cherry

streets, Philadelphia, containing 116 grains of foreign matter to

the gallon, can only be used to condense steam for the boiler.

An artesian well in South street, Philadelphia, furnishes water

not fit for steam. In the suburbs of the same city there are

two artesian wells, each 100 feet deep, but the water of both is

so impure that it can only be used for condensing. The water of

the well at the Continental Hotel is not pure. At Louisville

there is a well 1649 feet deep, one in St. Louis 2080 feet deep,

one in South Bend and one in Terre Haute, but the water of

them all is impregnated with minerals and fit only for medici-

nal uses. At Atlantic City a number of wells have been bored

in the hope of getting pure water, but not one yields water fit

for household use.* Instances have been known where the

sinking of a second artesian well near one which was yielding

an abundant supply of water, has not only proved a failure, but

has for some cause spoiled the first success. Such accidents,

Sees however, are exceptional. The rocks of the paleozoic series

extend in nearly horizontal strata over the greater part of

North America, and the geological structure of the continent is

thus particularly favorable to the general employment of arte-

ae sian wells as sources of water supply. As the boring of these

wells is a special industry, practiced by few and commonly un-

der the direction of engineers, they are beyond the means of

most individuals residing in suburban or rural districts. This

would not be the case, however, were such wells common

wellsin enough to encourage an active competition for orders. In the

Av yrovince of the Artois, France, from which these wells are

named, the use of boring tools has been practiced for several

centuries, and although the apparatus employed is of the sim-

plest and rudest kind, such wells are to be found beside the
door of nearly every cottage.

* The statements made in the few preceding lines respecting artesian wells
are based upon information gathered during the winter of 1875.
WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS. 105)

The artesian well seems to afford, in many instances, the only spectatuti ty
solution of the problem of supplying with water small towns anon
‘which, though not large enough to justify the expense of pub-

‘lic water works, are too crowded to render open wells extend-
ing only to the first water-bearing stratum a safe dependence.
Such wells, as has been already shown, are continually liable to
become contaminated by surface water, by house drainage and
by foul liquid absorbed by the soil. It is usually difficult, and alate ten
often impossible, for town and village authorities to find within
practicable distances sufficient supplies of water of suitable
quality for home service so situated as to be available. In too
many instances the water question has been decided without
due consideration, and, as a consequence, many of our towns
are supplied with water which the sanitarian cannot but regard
with suspicion and disfavor.

A cheap modification of the artesian well is the drive well, Drive wes
made by driving into the ground a metal tube perforated at
the end and armed with a sharp point. These wells have be-
come very popular in this country and are used to a considera-
ble extent abroad, and they possess certain important advan-
tages over the old form of open well. The principal objection Getvaniees
to wells of this class is found in the general use of galvanized
iron tubes. No important advantage is gained by coating a
pipe with zine which cannot be better secured by other and
safer methods of protecting the iron against rapid oxidation.

The great merit of the drive, or driven, well consists in the savantages
ease and rapidity with which it may be sunk. In light, open ors
soils, half an hour usually suffices to strike water and have a

pump going. These wells average in depth with the usual form

of open wells. They are easily protected against direct contami-

nation by the inflow of unfiltered surface water, but are as

liable as open wells to be rendered unwholesome by organic im-

purities which penetrate the soil and find access to their sources.

In many parts of the country it is possible to obtain from springs.
springs a sufficient water supply without the trouble and
306 WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS.

expense of digging deep wells. When unfailing springs of

eae good water are at hand, nothing more is to be desired. It

does not follow, however, that because the water in a spring is

clear and cold and free from any unpleasant taste, it is fit for

drinking and household use. As already stated, many danger-

ous impurities are not apparent to the senses, unless, possibly,

under the microscope. As springs are altogether fed by

water which has fallen upon the surface, and as the purity of

the water they contain depends upon the filtrative power of

the superficial strata through which it passes, it is extremely

liable to become contaminated if its course lies through any

Gases from impurities. In its passage through the lower strata of the
the atmos-

phere. atmosphere, water discharged from the clouds as rain absorbs

oxygen, nitrogen and carbonic acid (the amount averaging

about 6°93 cubic inches to the gallon), divided about as follows :

Nitrogen, 64 per cent.; oxygen, 34 per cent.; carbonic acid, 2

per cent. It is also customary, especially in populous districts

and near cities and large towns, to find a trace of ammonia,

which is commonly combined with nitric, sulphuric or carbonic

acid. These dissolved gases are usually held by water in its

passage through the earth to the reservoirs whence springs are

fed, and others are taken up, as well as various soluble mineral

impurities, from the earth itself. The percentage of dissolved

gases is from two to five times greater in spring water than in

rain water, those of most common occurrence in the former

being oxygen, nitrogen, carbureted hydrogen, sulphuretted

hydrogen and carbonic acid. The mineral impurities taken

up by spring waters are so numerous, and differ so widely

under different circumstances, that it is difficult to make the

Mineralim- list complete. The minerals of most frequent occurrence are

eas lime, magnesia, potash, soda, iron and manganese. These are

usually found as sulphides or chlorides. To what extent the

quality of the water, as regards its fitness for domestic use, is

dffected by these impurities, depends upon circumstances.

What has already been said in preceding pages regarding water
WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS. 307

analysis is probably sufficient for the non-professional reader.
Generally speaking, good springs will yield soft, clear water, Chesaciertt
free from visible impurities and pleasant to the taste. The spring waters
character of the water can be determined by the methods

already described.

When spring water is used for house service or for drinking, te care of
it is important that the spring from which it is drawn should °™"*
be frequently and carefully looked after. It should be kept
clean and free from rank vegetation, and protected against
contamination by water which has not been filtered through
the soil. Cattle and horses should not be allowed to trample
the soil about it, or they will be very sure to pollute it. In
other words, the spring should be as well taken care of in its

1 way as the water pitcher which comes to the table. I know 4 neglectea
an instance in which a family of refined tastes were for years"
content to draw all the water they used for drinking and cook-

‘ing from a spring choked with rank weeds and mosses, full of
reptile life, and lying in the middle of a foul mud-bed, kept soft
by the constant tramping of horses and cattle which were

allowed free access to it. They had apparently never given the maitterenco
to known

condition of the spring a minute’s thought, and even when its danger.
bad condition was discovered by a sanitary inspection of the
premises which followed the outbreak of diphtheria among the
children of the family, it was difficult to make them under-
stand the necessity for reform.

What I have said of springs applies in a general way to Ponas,
ponds, running streams and all other available sources of water"
supply for country houses. In the case of streams and of
ponds fed by streams, it is important to trace them to their
sources. Ifa stream flows through swamps or low-lying pas- now streams
ture lands, or receives the drainage of swamps, stagnant pools *°***
or dwellings, it is fair to assume that safer and purer water can
be had by digging or boring. If the supply is drawn from a cieaning
pond, it must be kept clean and free from accumulations of yore
fallen leaves, decaying wood, organic impurities, &c. When
308 WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS.

the importance of pure water is better understood and appre-
ciated by the public, and proper means are taken to secure it by
all who are able to do so, there is reason to believe that the
death rate in country districts will show a marked falling off
from present averages.
hence It is sometimes impossible for the temporary resident in a
fication of country house to obtain satisfactory drinking water. Even
‘though he knows what should be done to secure a supply of
good water, he cannot always apply his knowledge in carrying
out necessary reforms, and must perforce take things as he finds
them. In such cases he can usually neutralize the more dan-
Panter ot pe Berous impurities if he will take the trouble to do so. The
dangers attending the use of impure water are so great, how-
ever, that it is scarcely safe to give the information. I
would impress it upon the mind of the reader that methods
of rendering impure water fit for drinking should only be
Uncertainty resorted to in case of extreme emergency. In all other cases
orpn*ion, total abstinence is the best and indeed the only safeguard, as
none of the methods which can be employed for rendering it
less dangerous can be absolutely depended upon.

Methods, ‘The means by which water is purified and rendered potable
may be briefly summarized as follows:

Filtration through charcoal or iron sponge.

Oxidation of organic matter by permanganate of potash.

Precipitation of organic matter with sulphate of iron or
alum.

Destruction of organic germs by boiling.

a In all cases of suspected impurity the filter should come into
use, for fresh charcoal possesses a remarkable power of arrest-
ing and retaining not only suspended, but even dissolved
metals and salts. A good charcoal filter, for use on a large
scale, is made of bone-black ground to a fine powder and
mixed with Norway tar and other combustible materials, also
in a fine powder. The mass is kneaded into a plastic condition

with liquid pitch, moulded into blocks and exposed to a great
WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS. 309

heat. This produces a very porous block, the pores do not so

soon become clogged, and all the water comes in contact with

the charcoal. The value of iron as a purifying agent has been

mentioned in a previous chapter. Iron sponge, when used as tron sponge

a filter, renders important service in oxidizing organic impuri- ae Se
ties, but it is dissolved slowly and carried away in the form of

a soluble carbonate; hence it must be followed by another

filter to hold this back—say one of marble dust.

For the partial purification of water on a small scale the permangar-
most convenient agent is, probably, permanganate of potash. ™°% ?°*™
This should be added until a faint pink tint is seen in the
water. Time is then allowed for visible impurities to settle
and the water is decanted for use. This has been recom-
mended as a certain method of freeing water from organic
impurities, but it is by no means a sure dependence. Accord- vitatity of
ing to Henri de Parville, animaleule remain in full life and 2 WNG”
vigor in water to which permanganate of potash has been added
in large proportion. Hence, too much dependence should not
be placed upon it.

For the purification of water on a large scale the neutral neutratsu-
sulphate of peroxide of iron may be used with good results. Peucce bon,
The proportion in which this solution is to be added to the
water is determined by the degre® of impurity to be removed ;
and the proportions suitable must therefore be determined by
careful experiment, practiced from time to time if the impurity
of the water is found to vary. The water to be purified may
be run into a tank or reservoir, and the solution of neutral snl-
phate added as it runs in, so that it may be well mixed with
the water: A short time after the neutral sulphate is added to
the water it becomes decomposed, and forms, with some of
the impurities contained in the water, a basic salt which is
insoluble in water. The solid and insoluble particles of this
new salt are precipitated, and, together with the impurities
contained in the water, form a sedimentary deposit, from
which the purified water may be allowed to run off, leaving
310 WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS.

the deposit in the tank or reservoir. A repetition of this pre-
cipitating process on other bodies of water which may be run
into the same tank or reservoir, will cause additional deposits,
which, when allowed to accumulate to a sufficient depth,
may be collected and removed from the reservoir from time to
time.

Botting. Whether the boiling of water is efficacious as a means of
destroying animal and vegetable organisms and their germs, has
been much discussed among those claiming to be authorities on
the subject. It is enough to say that there is no difference
of opinion as to its being the best and surest way at this
time known of effecting the purification of water containing

Destruction organic matter. Animalculee are not salamanders, and after we
ofanimeie® have destroyed their life we can, if we like, complete the pro-
cess by cremating their corpses with permanganate of potash,
precipitate them with alum or iron, or strain them out with a

charcoal filter.
Restoring After water has been boiled it should be cooled for 24 hours
pane ears OF longer in a cold cellar, to restore its “freshness” and
remove the “flat” taste. It is impossible, however, to make
it as agreeable to the palate as water which has never been
why boiled boiled. The reason for this is that boiling has expelled all the

water is .

“sat.” free carbonic acid, besides’ decomposing the bicarbonates of
the alkalies and alkaline earths, leaving the monocarbonates

Unpleasant behind. Another reason for the disagreeable taste which
taste and %

smell. Often belongs to boiled water is found in the fact that some
of the organic matter is decomposed, partly by heat and partly
under the influence of the carbonated alkalies, giving rise to
compounds of unpleasant taste and smell. When the charac-
ter of the organic impurities is such that they make the water
disagreeable, it is probable that the difficulty will be reme-
died by adding an acid before boiling. To restore the free car-
bonie acid and render the water “lively,” bicarbonate of soda

may be employed.
Citrieacia. The best acids to employ are probably citric and hydro-
WATER SUPPLY IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS. 311

chloric. If the former is used, care must be taken not to sub-
sequently add enough bicarbonate of soda to make the water

neutral to test paper, as that would prevent any appreciable
improvement in the flavor. The taste is a safe guide. Enough metnoa ot
acid is added to give the water a sharp and unpleasantly est
sour taste; the water is then boiled, and after cooling neutral-

ized until the unpleasant acidity has given place to the refresh-

ing taste of the acid salts. When hydrochloric acid is used, Hyarochtoric
less than 58 grains to the gallon is amply sufficient, but it is oe

of great importance that it should be free from thallium and importance
arsenic, nitric acid, chlorine and sulphurous acid—impurities eee
often found in the hydrochloric acid of commerce. For this

and other reasons the process cannot be recommended unless
employed under the direction of achemist. Citric acid is much

simpler and probably safer.

The taste of water not positively offensive after boiling can Teaasafia-
usually be sufficiently disguised to render it agreeable to most et
‘palates by pouring it upon tea leaves. Cold tea, when not
too strong, is an agreeable and refreshing beverage, and may be
used moderately without hurtful results. I should doubt its
advantages as a steady drink, but should at any time prefer it
to unboiled, impure water. Iced tea has become a very popu-
lar summer beverage, and while usually taken much stronger
than is necessary to disguise the flavor of water, it is often
preferable to ice water.

As I said in the introduction to the concluding remarks of abstinence

. . . ae é from impure
this chapter, the best precaution against injury from impure watertnebest
water is not to use it. No one can afford to be indifferent “°*"*"*
to the dangers of water poisoning, and when hurtful impuri-
ties are known or suspected in water, no trouble or expense
should be spared to secure a better supply. When this is
impracticable for any reason, the person compelled to use
impure water may have temporary recourse to whichever of
the expedients for purifying it suggested in the preceding
pages he may find most convenient.
Cleanliness.

Dirt.

Decaying or-
ganic matter.

Neglect of
health in
cities.

CHAPTER XII.
Svaecestions Concerning TuE Sanitary Carr or PREMISES.

It has not been the author’s intention in writing this book to
make it a manual of sanitary science, but a few remarks on the
sanitary care of premises will not be out of place, as it not
infrequently falls to the lot of those for whom this work is
intended to deal with unhealthful conditions existing outside
of the pipe systems of houses.

The first essential condition of healthfulness is cleanliness.
The shovel, the broom, soap and water, sunshine and ventila-
tion, are the agents upon which we must mainly rely in guard-
ing against unhealthful conditions in our surroundings. How,
when and where the broom, shovel and scrubbing brush need
to be employed, the reader must decide for himself. I can
only say in a general way that anything and everything which
can be properly classed as “dirt” should be put where it be-
longs. It will then cease to be dirt. There are few things so
dangerous that we cannot rob them of-their power for mischief
by putting them in their proper places. Decaying animal and
vegetable matter of all kinds should be carefully composted
and used for manure. We thus return it to the earth where it
belongs, and its elements remain in the soil and are taken up
and assimilated by vegetation. Under these circumstances

decaying organic matter fulfills its ultimate functions, and in so

doing is powerless for harm. This of course applies especially
to country houses. In cities there is neither opportunity for
composting nor use for manure; but the conditions are also
different, in that the occupants of city and town houses can
usually dispose of all organic refuse without difficulty. Unfor-
tunately, however, we often see in cities a gross neglect of san-
itary laws, resulting in great part from the ease with which
SANITARY CARE OF PREMISES. 3138

filth can be got rid of. The foul, offensive ash barrel standing
unattended to for hours under our parlor windows, and the sour
and sickening swill pail perfuming our back areas or awaiting
on the curbstone the arrival of the scavenger’s cart, are evils
peculiar to cities, and, I think, more noticeable in New York
than anywhere else. I have often suffered severe nausea when ash, swit
walking through elegant streets in the upper wards of New aa:
York, caused by the horrible smell of ash and garbage recep-
tacles strung along the sidewalk about ten paces apart. As the
rule these vessels are barrels or firkins, which readily absorb
and retain a share of the foulness they contain, and which are
rarely cleaned out or disinfected. In most families a barrel ash batreis.
once dedicated to this ignoble service remains in use until it
falls to pieces from rottenness or is fortunately stolen by strect
gamins to feed election-night bonfires. During ten hours of
the day these receptacles stand beside the kitchen doors or un-
der the front stoops. They are set out at nightfall on the curb-
stone, emptied when the ash and garbage men come around,
are by them replaced on the curbstone and, at the convenience
of the housekeeper or servant, reclaimed. Many houses, espe- carbage bins.
cially those occupied by several families, have large permanent
ash bins on the sidewalk. These are wooden boxes with one
side cut down to make it more convenient to partially empty
them with a shovel. They are seldom or never cleaned, and as
they are receptacles for more different kinds of nastiness than
could be named, they soon become in summer disease-breeding
nuisances. They are only worse than the typical ash barrel
because larger.

The only vessels suitable for this service are those made of catvantzea-

* : * iron garbage

galvanized iron. As they are emptied every twenty-four hours, receptactes
there is no excuse for the offensiveness which almost invariably
characterizes them. There are but few things in. the waste of
a house which enter the garbage receptacle in a state of decom-
position, and when such a receptacle stinks it is evident that it
is neglected. An occasional—if necessary a frequent—scalding
314 SANITARY CARE OF PREMISES.

out, followed by a thorough scrubbing with a broom and an
airing in the sun, will correct any tendency to offensiveness in
a metallic vessel, and go far toward reforming an evil the exist-
ence of which is a perpetual surprise.

ap The sanitary care of a house should in all cases extend to the
cellar. In a previous chapter I had something to say on the
subject of country cellars. The same remarks apply with even .
greater force to the cellars of city dwellings. As the rule these

Refuse tn. SHG neglected. Vegetables not fit for use are allowed to remain
in them and decay; dirt of all kinds accumulates in dark cor-
ners; coal dust, always damp, gives off sulphurous gases which

‘ are peculiarly irritating to the throat and lung passages; mold
gathers on floor and walls, and foul and unhealthy conditions
exist in every part. When such cellars are cleaned out the
amount of rubbish and dirt removed is a ten days’ wonder to
the householder, but he consoles himself with the reflection
that it will not again need cleaning for a very long time. Con-
sidering the condition in which a large proportion of city and
town house cellars are allowed to remain from one year’s end to
another, there is no occasion for the surprise often felt at the
mortality tables and the prevalence of diseases which have no
excuse for being.

Disinfection. When everything has been done in the way of cleansing and
purification which is possible with broom, shovel, clean water,
fresh air and sunshine, it is sometimes necessary to have recourse
to disinfection as a means of correcting unwholesome conditions.
As there exists a very general misapprehension outside of the
medical profession with regard to what are known as disinfec-
tants and their uses, some remarks on this subject may have
interest and value for practical people. ‘

prof.Bakeron na letter from Prof. II. M. Baker, a chemist who has given
Usinfectants: uch attention to this subject, addressed to Surgeon II. M.
Wells, of the U.S: Navy, the theory of disinfectants is so well
presented that I cannot do better than quote therefrom. Prof.

Baker says:
SANITARY CARE OF PREMISES. 815

“As the action induced in the process of ‘deodorizing,’
‘disinfecting, &c., varies according to the agent employed, it
is impossible to make a general rule applying to all substances
possessing such characters, but one may acquire a general
knowledge of their mode of operation upon special well-known
principles.

“Tt is a theory of chemistry that any body of organic consti- Decomposi-
tution (especially if one of its elements be nitrogen) is subject pacio ste
to enter into spontaneous decomposition under mild influences,
such as a certain range of temperature, the presence of moisture,
the action of direct or diffused light, or contact with another
body of like feeble structure. The reason for such properties
is founded upon the fact that, for the most part, the greater
the number of chemical elements existing in combination to
form a particular body the more feeble becomes the chemical
affinity that compels such combination, and should nitrogen be
one of those elements then the chemical constitution is rendered
very much less stable, because nitrogen is very feeble in all its
affinities. Those bodies which emit foul odors are of organic
structure, and it is during the progress of what we call ‘spon-
taneous decomposition’ that these odoriferous compounds are
evolved; so that any substance placed in contact with the de-
composing matter, which arrests chemical dissolution or putre-
faction by displacement, substitution, elimination, direct com-
bination, mutual decomposition, or by inducing a change of
molecular structure, or catalysis, thereby forming a new and
stable compound, may justly be styled a ‘ deodorizer.’

“The bodies of most frequent occurrence, and that exist in oftonsive pro-
excessive quantities, which exhale offensive odors during decom- sama esl on
position, are the animal and vegetable tissues—as albumen, gela-
tine, fibrine, caseine and a vast number of nitrogenous com-
pounds from the blood, bile and excrementitious substances at
slaughter-houses and provision stores, and also feecal and urinary
matter in water-closets, urinals, &c., besides the unexamined
products of decomposition in cesspools, sinks, offal barrels,
casks and the like.
Infections
and con-
tagions.

Power of
a virus.

Anti-infec-
tants.

Disinfectants.

Efficacy of
disinfectant
preparations.

316 SANITARY CARE OF PREMISES.

“The term ‘disinfectant’ is often employed as though it
indicated or implied anti-infection, but it seems that its mean-
ing might with propriety be extended to substances which
induce the chemical destruction of, or removal from, infected
tissues of virulent matter. Some infections are of local and
others of a general character and may be communicated by
contact, but many contagions are supposed to be transmitted by
the atmosphere to the lungs, where the poisonous matter meets
the blood, and thereby finds food which it appropriates to its
own growth, against the faithful protest of the vital powers.

“The power of virus is chemical in its character; so if the
vital forces are in a depressed condition it is most probable the
chemical forces will acquire the mastery, although an active
strife exists between the two. No positive knowledge prevails
as to the origin of infecting bodies, nor any proofs of distinct
characteristics except in the effects manifested. The venom of
the reptile differs from the virus of rabies and variola, and
these three again from the carcinoma of the cancer.

“ An ‘anti-infectant’ cannot be indicated through the aid of
reason until a sufficient quantity of the isolated contagious
matter can be procured for the investigation of its properties ;
so we must content ourselves with the employment of those
agents which experiment and observation proclaim most trust-
worthy.

“A ‘disinfectant’ should possess the property of destroying
the chemical structure of virus and thereby produce in its stead
a body with inert characters, and consequently afford the natu-
ral chemical and vital forces an opportunity to pursue their
regular vocation or function of removing effete matter, and
replenishing the exhausted tissues unobstructed.”

Concerning the efficiency of the various disinfectants avail-
able for general use it is difficult to speak with contidence in
all cases. The opinions of experts in sanitary matters seem to be
undergoing a gradual change, as conclusions formed in the labo-
ratory are contradicted, modified or confirmed by practical expe-
SANITARY CARE OF PREMISES. 317

rience, or vice versa. I can only give my own opinions, formed
in part from practical experience in the use of many of the dis-
infectants generally employed, but still more from a study of
the results obtained by eminent and trustworthy experimenters.

What are known under the general name of disinfectants
may be classified as follows:

Ist. Positive disinfectants, which destroy or restrain infec- positive ais-
tious virus. ‘ ee

2d. Antiseptics, which merely prevent or arrest fermentation antiseptics.
and decay.

3d. Deodorants, absorbents, &c., which destroy bad smells, Deodorants.
deodorize putrid exhalations, or absorb moisture and gases.

As the functions of these several chemical preparations are
quite distinct, it is important that, before selecting one for use
under given conditions, we should know just what we want to
accomplish. In certain cases two or more kinds of disinfecting
material may be advantageously combined, but such admixture
must be made by persons familiar with their properties or uses
or there is danger of defeating the object sought by bringing
in contact substances which neutralize each other and together
become inoperative.

Carbolic Acid.—This is one of the most generally used of carbotic acia.
the positive disinfectants, but it has lately fallen into some dis-
repute among chemists. It is probable, however, that the lab-
oratory tests have not in all cases been made under conditions ,
which determine its general value for use in the sanitary polic-
ing of premises. Employed in solution, carbolic acid is a
powerful destroyer of the lower animal organisms. Solutions
of one part to 2000 parts of water kill infusoria and bacteria
instantly ; 2 milligrams (0-03 grains) will stop fermentation in
100 ¢. c. of sugar solution. In another experiment where tts powers
meat was kept under water, in three days it was very turbid Seeing
and there were numerous bacteria. In asolution of one part car-™°"™*
bolic acid to 10,000 parts of water, the meat began to decom-
pose in six days; but in a solution of one part in 2000 it did
318 SANITARY CARE OF PREMISES.

not putrefy until the expiration of five weeks, when all the
acid had evaporated. In water containing 1 per cent. of car-
bolic acid, at the end of eight weeks the meat had the appear-
ance of fresh meat, and no bacteria could be detected. From
a practical point of view there is probably nothing so well
adapted as carboliec acid to prevent the evolution of putrefying
and infectious organisms in large masses of readily decompos-
ing matter (such as excreta and sewage), until they can be
removed and rendered harmless in other ways.

For employment as a disinfectant it may be diluted by add-
ing from 40 to 100 parts of water to one part of acid. It may
then be sprinkled upon garbage or decaying organic matter,
upon unclean surfaces, in drains and elsewhere with good re-
sults. A more perfect solution of carbolic acid in water is
secured by adding one part of strong vinegar to one part acid.
This is only necessary or desirable, however, when clothing or
other fabrics are to be washed in the solution.

coaltar Both carbolic and cresylic acids are coal tar products, and are
Proauc'® not properly acids but alcohols. Coal tar itself is useful in
many ways as a disinfectant, and if mixed with sawdust or dry
lime may be employed with advantage in foul places or upon
heaps of decaying refuse.
sulphate. Sulphate of Iron and Sulphate of Zine.—These salts possess
oreo Well-known properties as positive disinfectants. The former is
expressly recommended, in admixture with carbolic acid, for
the disinfection of privies, cesspools, drains, sewers, and all ves-
sels or places where discharges from the sick are evacuated.
The sulphate of iron (copperas) is dissolved in water in the pro-
portions of eight or ten pounds of the former to five gallons of
the latter, and half a pint of fluid carbolic acid is added. In
using this preparation for the disinfection of privies, sewers,
drains or garbage heaps, pour in or throw on the solution, a pint
or so at a time, about once an hour until the nuisance is cor-
rected.
Sulphate Sulphate of zine solution is made by dissolving two ounces
of the salt in a gallon of water. It is chiefly useful for disin-
SANITARY CARE OF PREMISES. 319

fecting clothing, bedding, &c., and answers as a temporary ex-
pedient until they can be more thoroughly cleansed by boiling.

Permanganate of Potash.—As a disinfectant, permanganate permangan-
of potash is of very little value, although favorably regarded by “°° ?°*™*™
some. Schroter has observed that infusoria swim around for a
long time in the strongest solutions of this substance; then these
organisms turn brown inside and die. Yeast cells act in a simi-
lar manner, while the spores of mold fungi germinate even in
the strongest solutions. Bacteria are killed in concentrated
solutions without turning brown; in solutions of 1 to 1,000, on
the contrary, they increase. The effect of permanganate is still
further weakened by first acting upon decomposed organic mat-
ter, and is thereby decomposed. For example, if a piece of
fresh meat is put into a solution of permanganate of potash, its
surface becomes brown, the solution is soon decolorized and the
permanganate is decomposed. The water then extracts sub-
stances from the undecomposed meat ; bacteria appear, multiply
rapidly, and the meat is further attacked. On account of the
large mass of decomposed organic matter, a great quantity
of permanganate is required for its repeated disinfection, and
still after one or two days there is a large increase of bacteria—
turbidity and the odor of decay reappearing. In spite of the
use of large quantities of this disinfectant, the meat spoils
almost as rapidly as in pure water. Permanganate of potash
may, therefore, be used with profit for washing out wounds, but
for disinfecting filth it is totally unsuitable.

Quicklime and Chloride of Lime.—As an absorbent of moist- quickitme
ure and putrid fluids, quicklime is good. Fresh stone lime
should be broken into small pieces—the smaller the better—
and sprinkled on the places to be dried. Sick rooms, stables,
outhouses, &ec., may be greatly purified by whitewashing them
with lime, but little or no benefit is derived from kalsomining.
The free use of lime may be recommended, but the admixture
of whiting, chalk, glue or any other of the substances usually
employed to improve the whiteness or insure the adhesion of
lime, will do much to neutralize the benefits of limewash.
Chloride
of lime.

Chiorine gas.

Charcoal.

Oxygen.

Pores of
charcoal.

320 SANITARY CARE OF PREMISES.

The value of chloride of lime is doubtful. It gives off chlo-
rine, which is supposed to form stable compounds with the
products of decomposition in bodies containing nitrogen, but it is
doubtful if the resulting compounds are at allstable. Further-
more, dry chlorine gas has no effect upon the lower organisms,
and it is totally useless to fumigate clothing with chlorine. Its
disinfecting action upon liquids, excretia, and the like, is insuffi-
cient, and very rapidly exhausted.

Charcoal.—As an absorbent of foul gases and a general puri-
fying agent, charcoal is invaluable. It should be fresh and dry
to give the best results. Voelcker says of charcoal: “It pos-
sesses the power not only of absorbing certain foul smelling
gases—sulphuretted hydrogen and ammonia—but also of de-
stroying the gases thus absorbed; for otherwise its purifying
action would soon be greatly impaired. It is very porous, and
its pores are filled with condensed oxygen to the extent of eight
times its bulk. We have, therefore, in charcoal, oxygen gas in
a condensed form and more active condition than in the
air we breathe; hence it is that organic matter in contact with
charcoal is so rapidly destroyed.” Liebig says that “a cubic
inch of beechwood charcoal contains pores equal in area to 100
feet.” The oxygen contained in these pores attacks and burns
up whatever is absorbed into them, and as the powers of char-
coal are self-renewing, it will retain its properties for a very
long time. It should be used whenever there are noxious ex-
halations to be absorbed and destroyed.

This by no means concludes the list of disinfectants in use,
but from those recommended the reader can select one or
more which will be of service as an aid in sanitary work. This
book is intended chiefly for practical people who are not likely
to venture any difficult experiments, and who would, as the
rule, have difficulty in procuring other‘ disinfecting agents than
those above noted. During the past few years a number of dis-
infecting fluids have been introduced into use, and are usually
sold by dispensing druggists. They are somewhat costly, con-
SANITARY CARE OF PREMISES. 321

sidering the value of the materials employed in making them ;
but, so far as my experience goes, they are convenient for use
on a small scale, and will accomplish all that any disinfectant is
capable of if used as directed.

In the reports of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council Dr. Baxter on
and Local Government Board (New Series No. VI) for 1875,
is given an elaborate report by Dr. Baxter on the experimental
study of disinfectants, which is probably the most valuable of
recent contributions to the literature of this subject. I have
only space for-his conclusions, which are as follows:

I. Evidence has been adduced to show that carbolic acid, sul- ee
phur dioxide, potassic permanganate and chlorine, are all of
‘them endowed with true disinfectant properties, though in very
various degrees.

II. It is essential to bear in mind that antiseptic is not syn- antisepttes.
onomous with disinfectant power; though as regards the four
agents enumerated above, the one is, in a certain limited sense,
commensurate with the other.

III. The effectual disinfectant operation of chlorine and po- cntorie ana
tassic permanganate appears to depend far more on the nature ate ot potash.
of the medium through which the particles of infective matter
are distributed than on the specific character of the particles
themselves.

ITV. When either of these agents is used to disinfect a viru- retraction
lent liquid containing much organic matter, or any compounds
capable of uniting with chlorine, or of decomposing the per-
manganate, there is no security for the effectual fulfillment of
disinfection short of the presence of pure chlorine or unde-
composed permanganate in the liquid after all chemical action
has had time to subside.

V. A virulent liquid cannot be regarded as certainly and suipnurous
completely disinfected by sulphur dioxide unless it has been re
rendered permanently and strongly acid. The greater solubil-
ity of this agent renders it preferable, ceteris paribus, to chlo-
rine ang sautolic acid for the disinfection of liquid media.
3822 SANITARY CARE OF PREMISES.

carpouc acid. WI. No virulent liquid can be considered disinfected by car-
bolic acid unless it contain at least two per cent. by weight of
-the pure acid.

VII. When disinfectants are mixed with a liquid it is im-
portant to be sure that they are thoroughly incorporated with
it; that no solid matters capable of shielding contagion from
immediate contact with its destroyer, be overlooked.

Disintecting VIII. Aérial disinfection, as commonly practiced in the sick
‘room, is either useless or positively objectionable, owing to the
false sense of security it is calculated to produce. To make the
air of a room smell strongly of carbolic acid by scattering car-
bolic powder about the floor, or of chlorine by placing a tray of
chloride of lime in a corner, is, so far as the destruction of spe-
cific contagion is concerned, an utterly futile proceeding.
virusinar, IX. When aérial disinfection is resorted to, the probability
that the virulent particles are shielded by an envelope of dried
albuminous matter, should always be held before the mind.
Chlorine and sulphur dioxide are both of them suitable agents
for the purpose; the latter seems decidedly the more effec-
tual of the two. The use of carbolie vapor should be aban-
doned, owing to the relative feebleness and uncertainty of its
action. Whether chlorine or sulphur dioxide be chosen, it is
desirable that the space to be disinfected should be kept satu-
rated with the gas for a certain time, not less than an hour; and
this in the absence of such gaseous compounds as might com-
bine with or decompose the disinfectant, and so far impair its
energy.
Disinfection X. When the thorough disinfection of a mass of solid or
OP use liquid matter through which a contagium is disseminated is
impracticable, we should guard against giving a false security
by the inadequate employment of artificial means. It is proba-
ble that all contagia disappear sooner or later under the influ-
ence of air and moisture, and that the absence of these influences
may act as a preservative. When, therefore, we cannot advan-
tageously or effectually supersede the natural process of decay,
SANITARY CARE OF PREMISES. 3238

we must be sure that we do not hamper it by the injudicious
use of antiseptics.

XI. Dry heat, when it can he applied, is probably the most seat
efficient of all disinfectants. But, in the first place, we must
be sure that the desired temperature is actually reached by every
particle of matter included in the heated space; secondly,
length of exposure and degree of heat should be regarded as
mutually compensatory factors within certain limits.

In conclusion Dr. Baxter says: “The above statements are py. paster's
not so discouraging as they may appear at the first glance to °°"
our reliance upon artificial disinfection. If we believe that all
contagia are generated, like those of small pox and scarlet
fever, in the infected organism, and there only, the outlook is
a hopeful one. We might even anticipate an approach to the
perfect fulfillment of the work of disinfection by submitting
all matters, immediately after their removal from the affected
‘person and before any dilution or admixture, to the full influ-
ence of one or other among the destructive agencies at our
command. On the other hand, if the contagium of any disease generation of
is capable of being generated de novo, outside the body °"*"™
(pythogenic origin of enteric fever, typhus created by over-
crowding) such contagium can hardly-be eradicated by any
method of artificial disinfection. Jor cases of the latter kind
the opening words of the memorandum previously referred to
‘furnish the only solution: ‘It is to cleanliness, ventilation and conaitions
drainage and the use of perfectly pure drinking water, that cas
populations ought to look mainly for safety against nuisance
and infection. Artificial disinfectants cannot properly supply
the place of these essentials, for, except in a small and peculiar
class of cases, they are of temporary and imperfect useful-
ness.’ ”

A committee appointed from the St. Petersburg Medical russian re-
Academy by the Russian government to investigate the same ea
subject (antiseptics and disinfectants), arrived at the following
conclusions :
324 SANITARY CARE OF PREMISES.

1. Carbolie acid is the most efficient means against the
development of ammoniacal gas, putrescence and development
of lower organisms in organic matter under decomposition, and
is, therefore, the best antiseptic. 2. Vitriol, salts of zinc and
charcoal are the best means for deodorizing matter under putre-
faction. 3. The powders of Prof. Kittary, besides the proper-
ties they share in common with other carbolic disinfectants,
deserve attention because of the isolated state of phenol in them
and their contents of quicklime, which absorbs moisture—the
principal condition of each kind of putrefaction—as also some
part of the gases. 6. Chloride of lime and permanganate of
potash quickly destroy the lower organisms in putrid liquids.
7. The disinfectants certainly retard the putrid processes in
organic bodies, but their influence is only temporary. <As a
means of purifying air in dwellings their influence is very
small, if not totally nz, because of the very small degree of
concentration of their ingredients that can be used without
injuring the health of inhabitants. 8. For uninhabited build-
ings the best disinfectants are nitrous acid and chlorine.

pifterenceot It willbe noticed that there are some points of difference
opinion re. between Dr. Baxter’s conclusions and those reached by the St.
ee Petersburg committee. In the words of the proverbial conun-
drum, “ When doctors differ who shall decide?” The whole
literature of the subject is as full of contradictions and differ-
ences as the conversation of a tree full of katydids on a summer
night.
n.y.Board In a “Memorandum on Disinfection,” issued by the New
ome York Board of Health in 1868, the following recommendations
are made:
_puintedtion “To disinfect privies, water-closets, close stools, bed-pans, &c.,
use solution of copperas and carbolic acid.
Dampplaces. “To disinfect cellars, vaults, stables or any damp, offensive
places, use quicklime, charcoal, copperas or carbolic acid.
Livingand =“ Wor sick rooms, bedrooms and closets, cleanliness, good

sleeping ‘ . . e
rooms. ventilation, quicklime and charcoal.
SANITARY CARE OF PREMISES. 325

“ To disinfect a privy, use copperas and carbolic acid solutions,
mixed as above described, to the extent of two or three pints to
every cubic foot of filth treated.”

These directions, though probably not in accordance with
the best practice of sanitary experts at this time, are simple,
practical and easily followed, and for this reason I have given
them in condensed form.

In the use of disinfectants we should remember that they
are at best a very uncertain dependence. In operation I can stay ot pro-
only compare them to the legal document known as a “stay °°"
of proceedings,” which does not set aside the judgment of the
court, but merely arrests for a time the execution of its decree
to afford time for fuller inquiry or for appeal to a higher court.
Like the “stay of proceedings,” the disinfectant is operative
for a time only. We arrest decomposition and stop a nuisance
for a time by this means, but if we do nothing more, the dan-
gerous processes we seek to avert will go on as before. In the sanitary
meantime we must attack the evil by more vigorous and per- Bese
manent means. The decomposing matter must be removed
to some place where decomposition can go on safely; the foul
drain or cesspool must be cleaned out and ventilated ; the hor-
rible privy vault must be emptied, purified and filled with
clean, dry earth, and the privy transformed into an earth
closet; the offensive water-closet must be put in order or abol-
ished—in a word, we must remove filth, abolish dirt and cor-
rect all conditions of known or suspected unhealthfulness. Dis-
infectants will not do this. Dr. John Simon, Chief Medical Offi- pr. simon.
cer of the Privy Council of the Local Government Board of
Great Britain, in his able memoir on “ Filth Diseases and their
Prevention,” says with much of grace as well as force: “ To ximitation ot
chemically disinfect (in the true sense of that word) the filth “"™*4°™
of any neglected district, to follow the body and branchings of
the filth with really effective chemical treatment, to thoroughly
‘destroy or counteract it in muck heaps, and cesspools, and ash
pits, and sewers, and drains, and where soaking into wells and
326 SANITARY CARE OF PREMISES.

where exhaling into houses, cannot, I apprehend, be proposed
as physically possible, and the utmost which disinfection can
do in this sense is apparently not likely to be more than in a
certain class of cases to contribute something collateral and
supplementary to efforts which mainly must be of the other
sort. This opinion as to the very limited degree in which
chemistry can prevail against arrears of uncleanliness does not
at all discredit the appeals which are constantly and very prop-
erly made to chemistry for help ina quite different sphere of
operation—with regard, namely, to the management of indi-
vidual cases of infectious disease, and to the immediate disinfec-
sctentite tion of everything that comes from them. In this latter use of
infectants, disinfectants everything turns on the accuracy and completeness
with which each prescribed performance is done; but sach
accuracy and completeness are, of course, only to be insured
when operations are within well-defined and narrow limits, and
in proportion as disinfection pretends to work on indefinite
quantities or in indefinite spaces it ceases to have that practical
meaning. Again and again in the experience of this depart-
ment a district has been found under some terrible visitation of
enteric (typhoid) fever from filth infection operating through
house drains or water supply, but with the local authority inac-
tive as to the true cause of the mischief, and only bent on prac-
ticing about the place, under the name of disinfection, some
futile ceremony of chemical libations or powderings. Conduct
such as this, referring apparently rather to some mythical
‘epidemic influence’ than to the known causes of disease, and
savoring rather of superstitious observance than of rational
recourse to chemistry, is eminently not that by which filth dis-
eases can be prevented, and contrasting it, therefore, with
means by which that result can be secured, I would here
specially note a warning against it.”
With regard to the sanitary policing of premises Dr. Simon
Says:
Sanitarycare ‘‘ Wherever human beings are settled for residence the

ea lands, Cleanliness which is indispensable for healthy life can only be
SANITARY CARE OF PREMISES. 327

secured by strict method. Even where houses stand singly and
with wide space around them, the householder cannot safely
neglect that sanitary obligation with regard to the refuse of his
own household—the slop waters, cooking waste, various house
sweepings, the human feces and urine, the excrements of
domestic animals, &e.; and the obligation becomes more and
more important in proportion as dwellings are gathered to-
gether in comparatively small areas.”

A very practical country physician was once asked by a
neighbor who was not over particular as to the condition of his
premises, what would be the best disinfectant to get for use
before hot weather came on.

“I will give you a prescription if you will get it filled and : ee
use it,” said the doctor.

This was agreed to and the doctor wrote as follows :

Fe, Rakese ooo S0.sh--8. 45, So oe Be ad
Shovels a < « @ © = 2 = « «i
Wheelbarrow. . . ae SY. Gee

Sig. Use vigorously every 24 hours until relieved.
The hint was taken and the premises were cleaned up. Sun-
shine did the rest.
CHAPTER XIII.
Tur Priumper anv JIis Work.

Popular" There is probably more gratuitous abuse of one kind or’
abuse of :

plumbers, another lavished upon plumbers than upon all the other me-

chanics directly or indirectly connected with the building

trades. The person who buys or leases a cheap house is not

commonly surprised to find it badly built in every part. If the

floors warp and shrink away from the surbases; if the doors

spring, the windows stick and the moldings drop off, we shrug

our shoulders and console ourselves with the reflection that, if

people will build cheap houses they must expect that cheap ma-

terials and cheap workmanship will be put into them. We

never think of assuming that the carpenters did not know their

trades, or would not have done good work if they had been

paid for it; and when repairs are needed we send for some-

cnt body who can make them. When, however, we find a house

badly piped, we seem to take it for granted that the plumber

who did the work was an ignorant fool. As repairs become

necessary, our spite against the individual plumber who piped

the house by contract extends to the whole trade. We send

for them under protest, growl at their bills, denounce them as

frauds and swindlers, and wish we could make our home on

some barren isle in mid-ocean and forever escape their misera-

ble swindles and exactions. When the plumber whom we call

in to mend the pipe in some inaccessible place has to tear up

our floor or break down our walls, we never think of blaming

Blame where the architect or the builder. The unfortunate plumber takes it
it does not , ' .

belong. all, and if he is not rendered unhappy by the consciousness that

he is not loved by the public, it is probably because he is quite

indifferent to what people think of him so long as they pay

him his bills. They will come after him fast enough when his

services are needed.
THE PLUMBER AND IIS WORK. 329

Popular writers who are constantly seeking targets for their Tho pump-
wit—which consists very largely in exaggerating the vexations Memhie.
and annoyances of daily experiences and magnifying the com-
monplace—have done not a little during the past few years to
make the public regard plumbers as the natural enemies of all
mankind. An example ofthis kind of literature, which has the
exceptional merit of being witty and not ill-natured, occurs in
the very popular book entitled, “ My Summer in a Garden,”
from which I quote as follows:

“And, speaking of a philosophical temper, there is no class Corentiring
of men whose society is more to be desired for this quality :
than that of plumbers. They are the most agreeable men I
know, and the boys in the business begin to be agreeable very
carly. I suspect that the secret of it is that they are agreeable
by the hour. In the dryest days my fountain became dis-
abled; the pipe was stopped up. A couple of plumbers with
the implements of their craft came out to view the situation.

There was a good deal of difference of opinion about where the
stoppage was. I found the plumbers perfectly willing to sit
down and talk about it—talk by the hour. Some of their
queries and remarks were exceedingly ingenious, and their gen-
eral observations on other subjects were excellent in their way,
and could hardly have been better if they had been made by
the job. The work dragged a little, as it is apt to do by the
hour. The plumbers had occasion to make me several visits.
Sometimes they would find, upon arrival, that they had forgot-
ten some indispensable tool, and one would go back to the shop
amile andahalf after it, and his comrade would await his
return with most exemplary patience and sit down and talk—
always by the hour. Ido not doubt but it is a habit to have
something wanted at the shop. They seemed to be very good
workmen, and always willing to stop and talk about the job or
anything else when I went near them. Nor had they any of
that impetuous hurry which is said to be the bane of our
American civilization. To their credit be it said that I never
Reasons for
popular dis-
satisfaction.

Practical”
plumbers.

Good men
not scarce.

Second and
third rate
mechanics.

330 THE PLUMBER AND HIS WORK.

observed any of it in them. I think they have very nearly
solved the problem of life. It is to work for other people,
never for yourself, and get your pay by the hour. You then
have no anxiety and little work. If you do things by the job
you are perpetually driven; the hours are scourges. If you
work by the hour you gently sail on the stream of time, which
is always bearing you on to the haven of pay whether you
make any effort or not. Working by the hour tends to make
one moral. A plumber, working by the job, trying to unscrew
a rusty, refractory nut, in a cramped position, where the tongs
continually slipped off, would swear ; but I never heard one of
them swear, or exhibit the least impatience, at such a vexation
working by the hour. How sweet the flight of time seems to
his calm mind.”

Now in a book addressed chiefly to plumbers it would no
doubt be the proper thing to say that the popular feeling of
dissatisfaction with them, their bills and their work rests upon
nothing more substantial than an unfounded and wholly un-
reasonable prejudice unworthy of an intelligent community,
&e. Such, however, is not the fact. It is unfortunately true
that a very large proportion of those who call themselves
“practical plumbers,” and who set up in business for them-
selves, do not know their trade and are not as honest as could
be desired in its practice. In my intercourse with the trade I
have met many plumbers of large intelligence and much expe-
rience who exemplified in all their business relations a delicate
sense of honor and an obligation not always found in bank
parlors nor in the counting rooms of great merchants. Men of
this kind are not so scarce in the trade that we need have
trouble in finding them. I have also met a great many plumb-
ers of average skill and intelligence—honest, as the world goes,
but without any very keen sense of the obligation which rests
upon all men to take nothing for which they do not render a
fair equivalent. I have also come in contact with a great many
clumsy ignoramuses whose knowledge of the trade in which
THE PLUMBER AND HIS WORK. 831

they called themselves “practical” is limited to the wiping of
misshapen joints and what ideas they managed to “ pick up”

while carrying a bag of tools for a few months, and who would

not hesitate to charge all they could get for materials and ser-

vices, wholly irrespective of their value. It is the botching, potcnins,
the “sogering” and overcharging of such plumbers as belong Gyercharges.
to the latter class that have created in the public mind a preju-

dice against the whole trade. The reader, if he be a plumber,

ean classify himself; but it is safe to assume that he does not
represent the class of which I have last spoken. Men of this

stripe never read.

From a long and somewhat intimate acquaintance with those quanfcations
connected with the trade in its various branches, I have learned «onenca>
to regard the work of the “practical plumber” as demanding P°m>"s
high and peculiar qualifications. In some respects it is the the tradeeas
easiest of all trades to learn, and a man with average mechan- Soneoet
ical ability could, with application, make himself a good work-
man in very much less time than would be required to learn a
majurity of mechanical trades. This is an advantage to the ap-
prentice, in so far as it enables him to become a good workman
in a comparatively short time; but there is constant danger
that the ease with which the practice of the plumbing shop may
be learned will encourage laziness on the part of the appren-
tice and a disregard of the obligation which rests upon every
mechanic to master the theory as well as the manipulations of
the trade he essays to learn. The work of the plumber looks riumvers
so simple to the apprentice, and is so simple in many isha
respects, that before he has carried the tools for six weeks
he imagines he knows it all, and unless he be a young
man of exceptional good sense he gets through the bal-
ance of his apprenticeship as easily as possible,.encouraged by
the proud consciousness that he could wipe a joint as well as
the boss if he only had the opportunity, and that on his twenty-
first birthday he will set up as a “practical plumber” with as
good a right to the title as nine-tenths of those who assume it.
332 THE PLUMBER AND IIS WORK.

This feeling of self-sufficiency, which is quite natural under the

circumstances, commonly leads the apprentice to look with pro-

found contempt upon study or solid reading. A majority of

the workmen with whom he comes in contact know very little

more of the theory of the business than he can “ pick up” with-

out much effort, and he is rarely called upon to perform any

work during his apprenticeship which requires a knowledge

greater than he possesses, or encourages him to study causes and

investigate principles. Thus the golden opportunities of youth

slip by unheeded; at the proper time he is graduated a full

aoe fledged journeyman, and after that he has, as the rule, little of

either time or inclination for study. As a consequence we

have a very large proportion of practical plumbers who are only

practical, knowing simply the characteristic manipulations of

their handicraft, but who are practically ignorant of its princi-

ples, except perhaps such as have been learned by experience

and are imparted from generation to generation in the tradi-

tions of the shop. I do not mean to say that all plumbers enter

Learning upon the practice of their trade unprepared. Such a statement

would be unfair and untrue. The thoroughness with which an

apprentice learns his trade depends largely upon his own intel-

ligence, character and habits, and upon the character of his em-

ployer. Those who are so fortunate as to be brought up in

well-ordered shops, under the direction of men who know their

business and believe it to be their duty to teach it in all its

Tense branches to their apprentices, have themselves to blame if they

do not become skillful and thorough workmen. But all boys

are not thus fortunate, and when left to “ pick up” their trades,

they are apt to pick up only so much as they can carry without
straining their mental capacity.

Quaufcations I have said that in my judgment the practical plumber re-

quires high and peculiar qualifications for the work he has to

Good sense perform. Primarily he must be a man of sound good sense

and general

information. 20d possessed of a wide range of general information. He
needs these qualifications for the reason that he must be to some
THE PLUMBER AND HIS WORK. 3833

extent a jack-of-all-trades. In jobbing there is no telling what
kind of work he may be called upon to perform, and his success
in jobbing depends largely upon being able to do the right
thing first and do it in the easiest way. His general informa-
tion must be comprehensive, including a knowledge of practical
hydraulics, of arithmetic and algebra, of the principles of chem-
istry, and of half a dozen trades connected with or relating to
house building. He must at times do and undo the work of
the carpenter, the mason, the gas-fitter, the plasterer, the
painter and the carpet layer. It is not always possible for
these to follow him and repair the mischief he is compelled to
do, and he should know how to repair it when necessary, as
well as know how to avoid making unnecessary work for others.
I have more than once had plumbers do a vast amount of un-
necessary damage to walls, woodwork and carpets in my own
house, and I can sympathize with those who find cause for com-
plaint in the way which a great many of them apply their talent
for pulling things to pieces. The skillful plumber needs to be cenerat
a “handy man” with tools of all kinds, and this dexterity he aooua
can easily acquire if he have the sound good sense and general
intelligence which I have placed first among his essential quali-
fications.

He must be a man of quick perceptions and prompt in action, perception
always ready for an emergency. He is often called upon to 22¢PremPt
render services which are valuable to those who employ him in
proportion to the promptness and intelligence with which they
are performed. Unnecessary delays in responding to calls, tar-
diness in getting to work where instant action is demanded,
and “fooling around” on any pretext when his work is done,
will destroy any man’s business reputation and leave him de-
pendent upon chance custom.

He must not be afraid of himself or his work. Much of it not atrata
is dirty and disagreeable ; but it is useful and honorable, and ts
should never be slighted out of consideration for his nose or
his fingers. He need not fear that his dignity will suffer or
334 THE PLUMBER AND HIS WORK.

his character as a gentleman be called in question because he
goes at his work like a man and does it as well as he knows
how, whatever it may be.

Thoroughness Te must be thorough. Few of those who employ him know
whether his work is well done or not. He can cover up the
worst kind of botching if he wants to, and generally get the
same price for it that would be charged for better work by a
better man. It is a matter between himself and his conscience.
The consequences of his blundering or carelessness may be
serious and far reaching. The few dollars he saves on a poor
job may cost hundreds in damaged walls and furniture, or
possibly bring sickness and death to happy households. He
cannot afford to assume this moral responsibility for the sake of
a present petty gain in money.

The plumber. He should be—and before many years must be—a sanitarian.

a sanitarian. . . : :

The manner in which houses are drained is of vast, and as yet
unappreciated, importance as affecting the public health. Much
of the literature of this new and beneficent department of scien-
tific investigation has a direct, practical bearing upon the work
of the plumber. He must lead as well as follow the progress
of reform now fairly begun. What has already been said and
written has awakened no little popular interest in the subject
of better and safer drainage systems than are now commonly
employed, and before many years those will monopolize the
cream of the business who are abreast with the progress of sani-
tary reform, and who are untrammeled by ignorant prejudices
and narrow views. The plumber of the near future will be a
man who can intelligently begin where the engineer leaves off,
and bring any system of drainage which the former may carry
out in part to its complete, perfect and scientific consumma-
tion.

Honesty. He must be honest. I do not mean by this that he should
not be a thief, for in no trade of which I have any knowledge
is the standard of honesty, as regards a sense of the difference
between meuwm and twwm, higher than in the plumbing trade.
THE PLUMBER AND HIS WORK. 335

The plumber enters a house with almost a carte blanche to go

where he will, and I am happy to say the confidence of the

public is rarely abused by one of the craft. But honesty im- wnatnoresty
plies something more than a respect for the property rights of ‘™?"*
others. It implies honor between man and man, and this can-

not exist where false charges are made or exaggerated items set

down in bills. The man who wastes the time for which I pay

is as dishonest, morally, as the man who picks my pocket. If wastingtime.
he charges me with two hours time when the work done could

have been finished in one hour, he does not deal honestly by

me, and cannot claim to be an honest man though he respects

the sanctity of bureau drawers and leaves my wardrebe unmo-

lested. This is plain talk, but there is no reason why it should

give offense to any one. No one will deny its truth. Not long aj imeicent.
ago some students in the School of Mines, in New York, were

taking photographs for the use of one of the faculty in a room

where a plumber and his assistant were at work. “ Gentle-

men,” said the plumber, “suppose you take a picture of me

reading a newspaper with one eye and watching the door with

the other to see if the boss is coming, while the ’prentice pot-

ters around making believe he is doing something.” Such a

picture would be characteristic it must be confessed.

With regard to overcharges on materials there is more to be overcharge

said in extenuation. Ifa man charges me $3 for what cost him °° ™#*e"4ls.
$1, or 50 cents for what cost him 15, he may justify it to his
conscience without much trouble by claiming that the buying,
transporting and risk in handling are worth the difference be-'
tween the value of the article and the price he asks for it.
Sometimes they are, but oftener they are not. I will not dis-
cuss the question here. ' It is enough to repeat the old proverb,
“ Honesty is the best policy.” Good work and fair charges for
labor and materials are the prime, and indeed the only, condi-
tions of sure, permanent and legitimate success in the plumbing
business,
336 THE PLUMBER AND HIS WORK.

whatthe Now while the ordinary work of the plumber is simple and

vena easily learned, as I have said, a knowledge of how to handle,

ow: out and connect pipes does not make a man a master of the

plumber’s trade. There are a great many good workmen who

are by no means good plumbers. This is a fact which the in-

telligent and ambitious apprentice should keep in mind, and not

be misled by self-conceit and the pride of half-knowledge into

the idea that his little experience has taught him all there is to

know. The great evil of the trade is that a man can practice

it without learning it. If it were not so the possession of a

solder pot, ladle, cloth, shave hook, hammer, saw and a few

other tools, a sign and a little practical knowledge, would not
constitute so many men “ practical plumbers.”

It is not my intention in this chapter to waste space paying

compliments. The reader has probably discovered this already.

If he will follow me to the end, however, he will see that I con-

sider the ignorant, incompetent and dishonest plumber the

legitimate product of a system, and believe that with the aboli-

tion of that system he will disappear from the ranks of the

trade and turn blacksmith’s helper, horse-car conductor or

something else better fitted to his abilities.

Pimple I will now speak somewhat generally of plumbing work. In
* building a house there are many things which can be sacrificed
to economy, but there are four things which cannot be too
good. These are the foundations, the roof, the plumbing work

Essentials and the apparatus for heating. The two essentials first men-

building. tioned are usually secured at any cost, but the economy comes
in in the plumbing work and the furnace. The extent to which
this curtailment of necessary expenditure is carried is often sur-
prising. When people set out to build houses to live in they
usually desire that they shall be healthful, comfortable, and as
elegant in external and internal appointments as their means
will permit. The carpenter, the mason, the roofer and the
painter are all expected to do good work and charge a good
price for it; but the plumber is required to make his bid be-
THE PLUMBER AND HIS WORK. 3837

low the cost of even second-class work, and the owner canvasses what is ex-
the market for the smallest and cheapest furnace he can find pina
which can be driven to do the work expected of it. The fact
that good drainage and pure air are the essential conditions of
health and comfort is seldom taken into account. These are
matters in which economy can be carried to any extent and
Mrs. Grundy will not know it; consequently useless: ornamen- geaith sacri-
tation is paid for while health and comfort are left to take care *“"'°*"°""
of themselves. We would naturally suppose that in this age of
the world’s progress a majority of the houses built to live in
would be so arranged as to guard against all conditions known
to be unhealthy ; but such is not the case, and until the intelli-
gent classes of the community realize more fully than they now
do the importance of having good drainage at any cost, we shall
continue to have economy practiced just where it can least be
afforded.

As the rule, new work in this country is done by contract. Cantante
The community are willing, under favorable conditions, to trust”
masons, carpenters, plasterers and painters to work by the day
when good work is to be done; but for the reason already
explained, a majority of house builders consider it advisable to
bind the plumber under a contract. Now let us see how this
system works. The plumber takes the architect’s plan and speci- How thie cim:
fications and makes.a calculation thereon. If he be an honest works.
plumber, with a reputation to protect and work enough of the
kind he prefers to make him indifferent about getting contract
jobs, he will make a bid at a price which will enable him to
carry out the letter and spirit of the architect’s specifications
and leave him a fair, honest profit. IZf he does this the chances
are ten to one he will not get the contract. If, on the other
hand, he be a plumber with no reputation to lose and in want
of business, to whom a contract is important, he will make his
estimate upon a very different basis. He studies the architect’s
specifications to see where and how and to what extent he can
take advantage of any errors or omissions and save in cost of

ad
338 THE PLUMBER AND HIS WORK.

Loose spect- materials. Usually there is plenty of chance for this, for a
fications. oe . . : : .
majority of architects draw their specifications of plumbing
work so loosely and with so little knowledge of the practice of
the trade, as to leave a liberal margin for “skinning” on the
part of the plumber who does the work. If given to under-
stand that the lowest bidder will get the contract, his sole study
is to see how cheaply he can do the work, and the result of this
study is a plan for doing it so that, even at the low price he
puts upon it, he can make a profit. The price will probably be
below what every intelligent plumber would know to be the
net cost of the work called for by the specifications.
Why contract We will suppose the contract is awarded him and he goes to
wore’ Gone work. What is he to do? Obviously he must make the econ-
tract pay if he can, for he cannot afford to lose money for any
one else’s benefit. There is but one course open to him. He
must resort to what the shipbuilders call “scamping,” and his
success in making the job pay depends upon his ability to do
this successfully. Tle takes advantage of every error or over-
sight on the part of the architect; he uses the cheapest mate-
rials he can get and puts them together in the easiest way, and
where he can depart from the letter of the specifications and
escape detection he will do it, provided loss cannot be avoided
Aninstance in any other way. I know of instances in which, in place of
of scone» lead pipes carried under floors, plumbers have used 2-inch gas
pipe, and the fraud could not be detected at the time without
taking up the floor, which no one thought of doing. As all the
pipes which showed were lead, the natural supposition was that
all which did not show were lead also. J know of another case
Houses with- still. more remarkable. The contract for the plumbing work in
connections a Tow of houses built on speculation was awarded to an irrespon-
sible man, who bid so low that none of those who competed
came anywhere near him. He did the work, and while it was
not well done, it was accepted and paid for. The houses were
subsequently sold and people moved into them, but it was not
long before they were “stunk out”—to use a forcible but
THE PLUMBER AND HIS WORK. 339

somewhat inelegant expression familiar to plumbers. An in-
spection revealed the startling fact that in no case had any con-
nection been made with the sewer. The soil pipe was carried
down to the cellar and far enough underground to conceal the
fact that it ended there. The drainage of the houses had been
emptied into the cellar, and when the soil ceased to absorb it
the smell gave warning of the nature of the evil to be remedied.
The architect had taken it for granted that some sort of a con-
nection would be made with the sewer, but it was not called
for in the specifications and the plumber had not made it.

I do not propose to tell what I know of the methods by which now con
cheap contract work is usually made to pay the plumber a aa eee
profit. Those in the trade who have practiced these devices
know a great deal more about them than I do; those who do
not had better not learn. In a general way it can be said that
the difference between the work called for in the intent and
meaning of architects’ specifications and that usually done by
the lowest bidder under contract, is about as great as that which
exists between gold and thinly gilded brass. It appears in
every item of material used; in every detail of workmanship.

There is certainly nothing in this to afford any occasion for sur-

prise. We have no warrant for supposing that any man will

for 50 cents furnish materials and do work to the value of $1.

The less of that kind of business a man has the better off he

will be. Plumbers work for profit; they are entitled to it;

they should have it, and, under all but ‘exceptional circum-

stances, they will manage to get it. If we eut down their me piumy.
prices they will cut down in the quality of materials and work- ne
manship. They must do this or give up the business. The

effect of this is to demoralize the trade, to encourage dishonesty, the eftect up-
to discourage the introduction and employment of improved "°°"
methods and appliances calculated to render our house-drainage

systems safer and less liable to give rise to unhealthy conditions,

and to bring business to a class of men who would get it under

no other conceivable circumstances. There are a great many
340 THE PLUMBER AND IIIS WORK.

plumbers who make money out of cheap contracts without any

compunctions of conscience—which is not to be wondered at

under the circumstances ; there are a great many who do this

under protest and who consider the contract system utterly and

unconditionally bad; there are some who will estimate on work

when requested, but will always demand a fair price with the

intention of doing good work if the contract is given to them ;

there are a fortunate few who are in a position to do business

in their own way, and who will not take a contract on any

Aplumber terms. I know a man of this class who is almost daily called

“estimates.” upon by gentlemen with whom he has conversations something
like this :

“You have been highly recommended to me, sir, as a plumber
who thoroughly understands the business, and I should like to
have you do the work in my house. If you will stop in at my
architect’s, see the plans and give me an estimate, I will come
in to-morrow and make a contract with you.”

“Thank you,” replies our friend the plumber, “but I don’t
think I care about the job.”

“T want you to do it; I propose that it shall be well done ;
I intend to pay for it when it is done, and I don’t propose that
any second-class man shall do it.”

“Well, sir,” answers our friend, “if you want me to do the
work I shall be happy to do it well and charge you only what
is right and fair; but I will not give you any estimate nor will
I sign a contract. I can’t tell, nor can any other man, what the
work will cost until it is done. If I fix a price I shall cheat
you or cheat myself, and I do not propose to do either.”

This is our friend’s ultimatum. No persuasion can induce
him to change his answer. That he has plenty of the best work,
has made an honorable and extended reputation and stands at
the head of the trade in the city in which he lives, is not to be

The policy of wondered at. If all first-class plumbers would take the same
a ae stand, refusing to be tempted to bid for contracts or to agree
to do any work for anybody at a price below what they be-
THE PLUMBER AND HIS WORK. 341

lieve to be enough to cover cost, contingencies and profit, they

would soon monopolize all the business that is worth seeking.
Incompetent and unprincipled plumbers thrive upon the mis- popular
taken idea which lingers in the public mind, that the way to ceaaea
get good work done cheaply is to have it done by contract, °°"
The experience of generations—centuries, even—has had little

effect in exposing the fallacy of this notion. When none but '
second-class men will bid on an architect’s specifications, the

public will not be slow in recognizing the difference which

exists between first and second class work.

It is probable that one reason why so large a proportion of why thecon-
the plumbing work in this country is done by contract is found anced
in the fact that a majority of people have an exaggerated idea
of the profits of the plumbing business, as well as the low esti-
mate of the standard of honesty in the trade already noted.

With regard to profits, I have no hesitation in saying that they sman pronts.
are usually moderate when good work is done. “There is not

one plumber in a dozen who can afford to be honest,” said one

of the trade to me not long ago. Certainly there are very few,
comparatively, who succeed in making anything more than a

living. The largest percentages of profit are usually made out

of people who imagine that they have made close contracts and

are getting their work done cheaply. As regards honesty, I fail

to see that the average standard in the plumbing business is

above or below that of other trades. Contract work of all contract
kinds is proverbially bad, and cheap contract work always was iin een
and always will be the standard of comparison for everything

inferior in quality and transient in character. “The world

seems to be going to rack and ruin,” said a wealthy contractor

to Foote when that famous wit was in his prime. “ Why is

it?”

“T cannot imagine,” answered Foote promptly, “unless it
was built by contract.”

The now historic joke only crystallized a bit of universal ex-
perience. Plumbers are probably as honest as other mechanics
B42 THE PLUMBER AND IIS WORK.

in carrying out their contracts, and no doubt they give as large
a percentage of value for the money they receive as do masons
Competition or carpenters. The kind of competition to which they are sub-
in the trade. .
jected, however, from those in their own trade forces them
to work cheaply and, as the consequence, to do cheap work.
Vee It is safe to assert that the economy practiced by housebuild-
ers in the matter of plumbing work is always of the kind which
saves at the spigot and wastes at the bung. I am informed by
experts in the trade who are authorities on all matters pertain-
ing to it, that the widest margin of saving on poor work as
No savingon Compared with good rarely exceeds 25 per cent. An average
Sew city house can be piped scientifically, with the best materials
and in the best way, for about $1200, including all necessary
fixtures. It is possible to make the work cost more, but this
amount will pay for as much first-class plumbing work as is
needed in most New York houses of the better class. The
house could not be plumbed at all, provided the same plan were
Repairs. followed, for less than $900. The saving of $300 thus secured
is a trifle compared with the sum upon which the annual
expenses for repairs would pay interest; and when we con-
sider the dangers and discomforts to which bad plumbing work
gives rise, it is too paltry and insignificant to merit a mo-
ment’s consideration. If we cannot afford to have the plumb-
ing work in our houses well done, we had better have less of it.
When we aspire to the luxuries of baths, water-closets, bed-
room wash basins and similar refinements, we should first count
the cost and see whether we can afford them. If we cannot
afford to have the best materials and workmanship, we had bet-
ter content ourselves with wash bowls and pitchers in our bed-
rooms and one water-closet somewhere out of doors.
Reforming The contract system is an evil which cannot be easily or
oe an. promptly reformed. No doubt arguments could be found in
favor of it, and it must be admitted that the abuses of the sys-
tem, rather than the system itself, need reforming. The proba-
ble cost of a job of plumbing, plus a reasonable allowance for
TUE PLUMBER AND HIS WORK. 343

profit, can always be ascertained with approximate accuracy.
Now it may safely be assumed that a man who agrees to do the
work for less than this is either mistaken in his estimates or
proposes to make the contract pay at any price. In either case
it is not desirable that he should have it. If mistaken in his
estimate he will, as the rule, save himself from loss if he can.
There are some men who would carry out a contract in letter
and spirit if it ruined them, but such men are exceptions
in any trade, and, moreover, they do not often make the mis-
take of agreeing to do work for less than it is likely to cost
them. If, on the other hand, the contract is taken with the in-
tention of making it pay, there is little reason to hope that you
will get more than your money’s worth, though it be done for
half price. The chances that you will get an honest plumber
‘to cheat himself for your benefit are about as one to one hun-
dred that you have reason to conclude, after the work is done,
that you are the victim of your own smartness, and that the
man with whom you made your shrewd bargain has far better
reason to feel satisfied than you have. The great danger of the wnytnetow-
contract system is the temptation it offers to give our work to ae
the lowest bidder. Plumbers who can be trusted and whose peng?”
bond is good for anything, do not make any haphazard esti-
mates. If an architect’s specifications are specific, they can tell
to a dollar the cost of every ounce of material called for, and
with approximate accuracy, at least, the time it will take to put
these materials together. To the cost every honest practical
plumber will add the percentage he has learned by experience
to allow for waste and contingencies, and to the sum of these a
fair and legitimate profit. If we are willing to contract with
him to do our work on this basis, well and good. We know in
advance just what the work will cost us, and we shall probably
have it well done whether the plumber’s profit be a little more
or a little less than he expected. But on no other basis can we
afford to contract with any man for anything. Bids ander the
price named by a responsible plumber of character and experi-
Architects’
specifications

How the evils
affecting the
trade may be

reformed

‘The percent-
age system.

its advan-
tages.

Jobbing.

344 THE PLUMBER AND IIIS WORK.

ence who is willing to give you a memorandum of items, can
safely be regarded with suspicion. Obviously, therefore, con-
tracts—if awarded at all for plumbing work—cannot always be
given to the lowest bidder. This is a proposition so plain that
no man with the average allowance of common sense can fail
to see its wisdom.

For much of the looseness which has crept into the morals
and practices of the plumbing trade, the architects are respon-
sible. A very large proportion of their plans and specifications
are prepared with so little knowledge of the principles of plumb-
ing work that it would be impossible to pipe a house in accord-
ance with them. The plumber cannot be held responsible for
their errors or mistakes, but for his own protection he is very
apt to take advantage of them. As I have spoken of this sub-
ject in another chapter, I shall not discuss it here.

For the evils of ignorant and dishonest plumbing there is
but one remedy which promises to be permanent and certain.
It is to employ only skillful and honest men who will not agree
to work for less than fair prices. When this is provided for in
advance it makes, practically, but little difference whether our
work is done by contract or for a percentage. The latter sys-
tem has many advantages, however. The plumber who works
for a percentage, usually ranging from seven to ten, according
to the size of the job, agrees to bill materials and labor at their
net cost and take the percentage of the total agreed upon as
his profit, including the superintendence, &c. If the builder
or house owner prefers, he can buy his own materials and the
plumber will furnish the labor required to put them together.
This insures good materials and good workmanship, and costs
no more than any man should be willing to pay for work he
has done. The fact that a majority of our best plumbers are
willing to work on this system, shows that they are content
with fair profits and ready to give their customers every
reasonable advantage. Where job work is to be done, such as
repairs and alterations, the customer has but one means of pro-
TIE PLUMBER AND IIS WORK. 845

tecting himself. He must intrust his work to some man who

has a reputation for honesty and fair dealing. The moment he

begins to haggle about the price of work before it is done, he

invites the plumber to cheat him in order to save himself. In Good pay tor
a word, it is with the plumbing business as with all other ye
trades—if you want good work and fair dealing you must deal

with good men and pay fair prices.

How do the plumbers regard this subject? I believe that a rice
majority of those who will see this book will agree perfectly
with everything I have said in this chapter. Perhaps I cannot
furnish better proof of this than by quoting from a few of the
many letters I have saved out of an extensive and interesting
correspondence with representative men in the trade, extending
over a period of several years. These letters are dona fide, and
my quotations are given verbatim.

A plumber of thirty years’ experience, doing business in Extrartstrom
Syracuse, N. Y., sent me a letter, called out by a published ao
article of mine, from which I quote as follows:

“You say that the responsibility which rests upon the a pmmter's
plumber is often more serious than he imagines, and that eee
ignorance is, at best, a poor excuse for the mischief which
may result from his mistakes.

“Now, I admit that this trade, like most others, is imper- the trade
fectly learned in America, because we have no apprentice sys- ei
tem worthy of the name; but the worst feature of the case is
that builders and owners of houses think they know as much
about plumbing as the man who has served a lifetime at it. It
is this dangerous ignorance, mistaken for knowledge, which
enables employers who know but little of the business and who
hire cheap men, to get contracts for plumbing work, because
they will follow the directions laid down for them by men who
know still less than they do. If you will make inquiry in the Practical
trade I think you will find that about one-half of the so-called case
‘ practical plumbers’ cannot lay out a job so that it will work
right when finished. I call to mind laborers, masons, hardware
incompetent
architects

346 THE PLUMBER AND HIS WORK.

dealers, jewelers, carpenters, tinmen, machinists, a county
sheriff and a tanner, who think they know all about plumbing
and can make money out of it. A member of a prominent
house in your city, dealers in plumbers’ supplies, told me only
a few weeks ago that they had lately received an application
from a man for their catalogues, with list prices, &c., and all
the information they could give him. Tle knew nothing of the
business, but was going to set up a shop, as several men in his
place had done very well at it, and he believed there was money
to be made in the business. It is such men as this who do the
kind of work you justly characterize as ‘unscientific plumb-
ing’ 9

Another correspondent, a successful and well-known plumber
in Boston, comments as follows on some views expressed by me
in a paper read before the Public Health Association and sub-
sequently published in the Sanztarian :

“ As to faulty plumbing work, in most part it lies with in-
competent architects and very often with gents of that profes-
sion who think themselves well posted. They of course can
design the plans of a house, locate where the plumbing work is
to be, write a very elaborate specifications, &c., get half a dozen
plumbers to estimate with a knowledge from the start who is
going to do the job. They will call in the specification for cer-
tain places, ‘AAA pipe ;’ for other places, ‘AA pipe.’ At the
same time they don’t know one from the other except they
see the trade-mark. They will come into a building; they see
the ends of pipes sticking out where shown on the plan, and

Flow they See the trap for a closet put in. They simply take a bird’s-eye

supervise
work.

view of it and pass on; may possibly sing out, ‘Plumber, are
you sure that is right?’ They know no more how it is put in
than a school-boy, for they do not examine it. Then again,
sir, I confess there is a good deal of the fault with the plumber.
The plumber is the architect’s man—that is understood. The
plumber is the man of that worst of leeches, the house agent.
The house agent and the architect know each other. The
TIE PLUMBER AND IIIS WORK. 347

plumber, between the two, is in a sweat box. I am giving you How tne
these plain, simple facts before going into details of the causes is is bled.

of defective plumbing work or advancing an idea for a remedy.

Now the plumber, having to give 10 per cent. to one and 10 Making Qhedp
per cent. to another, must curtail from the AAA pipe and the

AA pipe in specification; and where cast-iron soil pipe is

called for, calked with molten lead, I will guarantee that more

than two-thirds of the hub is filled with paper and sand. It theconse-
won’t leak water—oh, no—because the end of the pipe is let as
into the hub and has generally arun. But will it leak sewer

gas? Oh, yes—because there is not lead enough there to keep

it back; and all this is done under the eye of the experienced

architect. Then again, sir, a great deal of the fault is with a House buila-
contemptible set of house-building speculators, who probably do a
not own $200 in the whole block when the buildings are started.

What do they care how the plumbing or any other work is

done if they can make a few thousands, honestly or not?

“Then again, not a little rests with penurious (honest pay, renurious
though) house owners, who are always trying to make some- Puerco
thing a little less answer the purpose.

“The class of men styling themselves carpenters and builders carpenters
are also responsible for much of the cheap and inferior contract cee
plumbing work. For example, a person contemplating the
building of a house—worth, say, $6000—goes to an architect
and gets a set of plans and specifications, which of course in-
eludes the work of the plumber, roofer, painter, &e. The car-
penter and builder estimates on the whole job, without consult-
ing any of the mechanics upon whom he must rely in carrying
out the plans. We will suppose that he gets the contract. He now1ow bids
goes to the plumber, with whom he has acquaintance, and says: ee
‘John, I have the contract to build a house for Mr. , at
such a place, and I want you to estimate on the plumbing; but
remember, I want it done as cheap as you can do it. I have
taken the job so low that it is only to keep my hands going.’

The same story is told in confidence to half a dozen plumbers,

 
348 THE PLUMBER AND IIIS WORK.

and the consequence is that a very imperfect job is done, and
perhaps without so much profit to the plumber as would repre-
sent the price of a potful of solder. There are, of course, a
great many plumbers who will not do work on this basis; but
there are, unfortunately, a great many who will take anything,
and so long as these can get work to do for parsimonious house-
builders, so long will we have bad plumbing with its attendant
evils.
Comiatition “J must confess there is a good deal of the fault with plumb-
plumbers. ers in trying to cut one another out of work until there is not a
scrap of solder profit left. In my opinion, with the foregoing
facts, it is impossible to have other than defective plumbing
work.”

This, it should be remembered, gives the experience of a
plumber, and is not to be classed with the generalizing of one
not practically acquainted with the business. Another plumber,
long established in business in New York, gives us an insight
into the kind of competition which those in the trade experi-
ence from their fellow-craftsmen. I quote as follows:

aaiviaea “ Allow me to give you a view into the plumbing trade and
for vad work. how the plumbers act toward each other, and how it is that
they are mainly responsible for the bad estimation in which

they are held by the public, and why house owners are respon-

sible for defective plumbing, sewer pipes, &c. Most people

think that plumbers, as a trade or body, are more leagued to-
gether and more loyal to each other and the trade than any

other class of workmen in New York city, but, with a few ex-
ceptional cases, quite the contrary is the fact. When it is possi-

ble to cut one another out of custom they are bound to do it.

Now to come to the point, suppose you have plumbing work in

your house. A pipe bursts, you send for your plumber, but as
neither he nor his men are in you send around the corner for

some one else. That some one comes; he takes a view of matters,

and then does what you should have done—shuts the water off.

Then, instead of at once beginning the job, he will begin find-
THE PLUMBER AND IIIS WORK. 349

ing fault with all the plumbing work in the house, until he

makes you believe that he is the only workman in New York

that knows anything, and that the man who has been doing

your work for years is nothing but a fool. Ie makes you be- eo
lieve also that if your pipes were altered thus and so there

would be no chance for any more bursting. The upshot of the

matter is you keep sending for the smart man until there is
something disturbed, perhaps under your floor or it may be in

the cellar, that your smart man knows nothing about, and the

first intimation you have of the matter is your need for a doc-

tor or perhaps the undertaker. And all this happens because

you did not shut off the water and have patience until the fool

came home to get your order. People, I know, are not to be
blamed, in case a pipe’ bursts, for sending for the nearest
plumber; their haste is usually the result of ignorance as gow pump
to the danger which menaces the boiler or some other part of Sovtier
the plumbing work. . All that is necessary in case a burst occurs ‘Tne
is to shut off the water, and every adult member of every house-
hold-should know how to do this. Then open the hot-water

cock in the kitchen sink, or over the bath, keep a moderate fire

in the_range, and the boiler will last for 48 hours without

harm. ‘The water in it will bubble and boil, but that is all.

Your plumber, when he comes, will know how to handle mat-

ters.

“ Again, house owners are largely responsible for defective working tor
work, for the reason that they often impose upon the plumber **"*"*
the disagreeable necessity of working for the cook or the coach-
man. He must please these potent officials of the household.

If not, they complain, and on the strength of their complaints

the plumber is dismissed and a new man is employed who will

do things as the cook or the coachman may be pleased to direct,

and who will also ‘make it right with them.’ <As the rule, the

new man undoes or spoils the work of the old. By neglecting rhe auty of
to exercise a judicious oversight in such matters, the householder *™""""*
has himself to blame for the defective sanitary condition of his
350 THE PLUMBER AND HIS WORK.

premises. I would, in conclusion, advise all householders to
find out for themselves whether their plumber is an honest man
and does his work properly. If so, he would do well to disre-
gard all complaints of servants and interested parties. When
you find you have a good man, trust him as you do your family
physician. The comparison is not a bad one, for to his skill,
intelligence and judgment you owe immunity from a large
variety of causes of disease. Good plumbing is of vastly more
consequence than all your rich furniture and costly carpets.”

I might fill many pages with similar quotations from my cor-
respondence, but those already given will show how plumbers
regard the evils affecting the trade. They are the almost con-
fidential utterances of men who. speak from long experience,
and every plumber among my readers will agree with them as
well as with my own general remarks on the subject.

Aaviceto I will conclude this chapter with a few words of friendly
ithe traae. counsel to young men in the business. There is in a great
many trades a feeling that the more repairs there are the better

it will be for the prosperity of the trade. A hard winter that

bursts pipes in all directions is very generally regarded as a good

thing for plumbers and welcomed accordingly. Mechanics often

say: “ We like to have work wear out because it gives us jobs.”

This feeling is the cause of a great deal of willfully poor
plumbing work. Now, this is killing the trade. Poor work-

men find employment, the business is demoralized and good

men have altogether too little to do. So bad is plumbing work

in general that people have just as little of it as possible. They

know that in a few years the repairs will more than equal the

first cost, and in putting up a new building they have, as the
vhework-Tule, only the few indispensable fixtures. The true aim
man’sve of the workman, therefore, should be to make the work
good and durable. If it were certain no repairs would be
necessary on the plumbing of a house for a long series of years,

there would be much more work put into a house. The in-

crease of new work would more than equal the amount lost in
THE PLUMBER AND WIS WORK. 3851

repairs, while the quality of the work and the character of the
workmen must necessarily be much higher than now.

When an accident happens which makes large repairs neces- Repairs.
sary, or when there is a general freeze-up of pipes, every indi-
vidual in the community is injured toa certain extent. There
is so much value wasted and the community is poorer. It is a
short-sighted selfishness that regards such misfortunes as bless-
ings to the trade. The wise policy is to make each job thor-
ough, so that repairs may not be needed.

Some years ago I overheard a conversation between two twokinds of
plumbers as to the best methods of doing work of a certain eae
kind.

~ Said one: “I don’t want-to do my work too well, or I shall
have no repairs to do.” _

Said the other: “It has always been my policy to do work
so well that it ‘won’t need repairs, and the consequence is I am
always full of good work while you are always jobbing.”

' To the young plumber, ambitious of honorable success in Precepts
life, I offer the following brief and easily remembered advice : cane

Learn your trade thoroughly.

Study its literature and learn all you can of every subject
which bears upon it, directly or indirectly.

Do no work that you cannot point to with pride.

Make no charge which you could not, upon oath and with a
clear conscience, declare to be, in your judgment, just and
reasonable.

Deal honestly and honorably with all’ men, and do unto
others in the trade as you would have them do unto you.

These may seems like platitudes, and so they are; but they
are the sole conditions of honorable and permanent success.

The man who follows this policy through life, and who com-
bines industry and thrift with right principles, will merit success
avhether he achieves it or not.
Plate I.

PLAN oF FLOORS oF A CITY HOUSE,

Showing Position of Fixtures.
(See Page 120.)

CHAMBER

 

 

 

 

CHAMBER

 

3% sToRY 2¢ STORY

 
INDEX.

 

 
 
 
 

 
   
  
    
  
  

 

  
  
  
   
   
  
  
   
  
   
 

 

    

    
     
 
 

   

  
 
    
  
   
 

 
  

  
  
 
  
 

. Page. Page.
Absorption of Gases by Water ................. 9 | Bursting of Pipes, Means of Preventing the.... 134
Acids, Action of, on Lead....... Reason for the..........- ee baa eenerdeare 127

With Bases, Combination of 166
With Bases, Unstable Combinations of..... 172 | Calking......... agenpeee nese eiatalenieainaics Beenie. 47

Advice to Young PlumberS..............-....65 Pipes in Niches, Difficulties of.............. 57

Atrial Disinfection.......... a Capacity of Pipes, Relation of Length and Di-

Air Chambers...... iin a \aeois ae @mMeter tO...... ec cee cc ce seers eceneeecetes 118
Chambers, Continuous... Carbolic Acid as a Disinfectant. + 327, 322
Cocks. ...........0.000. Carbonate of Lead....:..........-. eliibicitetaterei orcs 159
In Water..........-.....5 gaie Staidiantiotarnts HiNaclelais 152 Of Lime as a Protection to Lead. + 169
In Water Pipes, Mustration of Action of... 231 Of Magnesia and Iron........... - 170
Traps in Water Pipes.......... Soe RLGe eee 230 Of Soda........- she tstaterges - 170

Alkalies in Water, Action of, upon Lead....... 160 | Carbonates........-.-.2.0. seseeeee techy se ciataiSieyetcrs 105,

Amateur Water Analysis...............eeeeeeee 298 And Sulphates in Waters Supplied to Cities 172

American Houses..........cc cc ceece cee eee eee ee Ir Formed on Lead, Causes which Defeat the

Ammoniacal Compounds in Sewer Gas........ 26 Protertive Action Of..............0055 Wassiste IRIE

Amsterdam, Lead Poisoning in................. 180 | Carbonic Acid............... ie eng iOS

Analyses, Limitations of Amateur............. 197 GOS is iicssisaoscteeunee ure srafeciasinnas sa ieieiscapiain & 172

Analysis, Concentration of Water for.......... 197 Tron Dissolved DY..........ccseeeee eens eee ee 206.
Filtration of Liquid for..................005 198 In Sewer Gisias sincnsa v6 tees cake pea eee wen ay

Ancient Wells, Remarkable.................++5 299 In Water....... Le ceeenennectensesraascesesves 297

Animalcule, Destruction of - 310 | Carpenters and Builders...............-...ee00e 347
In Water, Vitality of.............0ccee cece ee 309 | Carrying Service Pipes into Houses...... cdi 131

AD -TafeCtants v4.4 exes see Rasen ree enenees 16 | Cassamajor’s OriMents........--cee reer ees 189,

Antiseptics.............005 SaRTASe ay 317, 321 | Cast-iron Waste Pipes............. ssrove srainin'is/arahas 45.

Apprentices in the Plumbing Trade............ 331 | Cellars, Causes of Sickness found in........... 201

Architects, Incompetent + 346 Banttary Cave Ohissav. nana pennenesioeaeas 4 314
Mistakes of............ 16 Under Country Houses....°...........c00ue 201.
Specifications of Plumbing Work. Wet. case ce cece eee eens ceeeee eee etrenereeees 26a:

Architectural Practice, Evils in...... Cement Joints....... 49,

Architecture, Conservatism in Cement-lined Tanks....... 140
Hygiene i. ....2cs ca ceeens Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis in New York....... » 2358,

Artesian Wells... Cesspool Drainage..............4. ian ays aiatareesratens 275
For Town and Village Supply RAED OS rcs sas fosarngs. car atate-e's cya7asah oar staialafoiarerfetazeluis S 276

PASTE Barrels s.icic:via.cicieisisre.n oisia/ere ove aveseinieie:e.vieinigse-0i0ieya\n 313 | Cesspools, Backflow from..............00eseees 278.

Atmospheric Contamination by Sewer Gas.... 75 onstruction and Care of........,.....60065 276
Pressure, Hight to which Water is Raised "Gases Of... 1.0.0 .ce ee eeee cence ee cece eee eee - 24

DY sadcaen 22809 we BOE: ss ie RR Te 237 WOE a brs TOP aie inane cwid anokek scageetiiie ah wean 277
Chain Pumps........ sss see eereceeeee eee eeee ne 239.

Back-Door Nuisances..... -.-.cseseesseseeereee 275 | Charcoal as a Disinfectant. 320, 321

BA BIE xnnae mieceiny eammes aa Te HIGERS > csc sireciersie be ctelstas er eiaemevsesieias eae Miatee 308 .

Baker, Prof., on Disinfectants. 314 In Cesspool Ventilators..................... 273

Barns and Barn-yards 263 | Chemical Action of Sewer Gas................+. 23.

Baxter’s, Dr., Report on Disinfectants. 32 Composition of Sewer Gas......... 0 -..... 24

Beale’s Theory of Fever Contagion... 34 Tests for Tin............+ nla irlareanivsah ha 212

Belgrand, Mons..........+++5 ++ eseee ata 148 | Chemistry of Plumbing, the............... seine EAT

Bichromate of Potassa Test for Lead, the. 199 | Chester in the Sixteenth Century, Mortalityin 38

Bidders, Lowest.....-...:.0:00: eeeeeenere 343 | Chloride of Lime..............seeeeeeee eee eens 319

Black Assize, the (1577)... 9 | Chlorides......--.0. sesseeseesesseeseeseeeeeeees 163

Blind Drains.........0 . seseccsesscacceees 279 Action of, on Lead 175, 176

Blowing through Seals in Branch Wastes 72 Formation of...... ih NOEs Sia har Solas genaeaeee se 175

Bobierre’s Experiments with Lead....... 154 In Sea Water.......... sin beacchoravansteiie 170

Boiled Water, Restoring the Flavor of. 310 Solubility Of. ..........+20ssseee veeeseee eens 175

Boiler Connections..........++--+-+0++ 323 | Chlorine Gas, Disinfectant Powers of.......... 320,

Boilers, Accidents to.... .. 125 | Chlorine in Potable Water, Tests for........... 293
Device for Cleansing... 126 In Water. .......-2 see ree eee cen eens 3
Explosion of Kitchen.. x28 | Cholera in London. !

FRAG CI OD jesse -siessace 3 seaete eins | a 125 | Christison’s Experiments with Lead........... 152
Vacuum and Safety Valves for. 125 | Circulating Pipes........... cesses cesses eeees 124
Waste Cocks for........--.02ceeee 126 | Circulation....... + 121,123
Water from.... 126 | Cistern PUMPS..........-see cere seer eee asec ees 239.
i to Pi 310 Durability Of. sccc.ceseiss soveusees oaae ae 240

165 | Cistern Safes and OverflowS.................... 145

Boxing Pipes.... 132 | CisterMS......0.. cee eee sence eee ee eee ee eee eaee 229,

Braces for Pipes 242 Capacity Of..... 6c ccsecee seen eeteeceeeeenes 145

Brass Service Pipes...... IIr Blovated ......... 0 ese esece seers sence eneaes 144

Bromides.......+..-+- +++ ‘ 178 For Rain Water. ........scesseseeeee seen enes 144

Buchanan, Dr., on Earth Clo: 27o|  Underground.........-..sesseeseeeeeeeeees + 144

Buckler’s, Dr., Experiments. x90 | Cities, Neglect of Health in..................... 312.

Buel, Re Hi scsces oe hi adele < 231 | Citric Acid. ....... sees eee ee ermine te Seidtiate eee 31m

 

 
354 INDEX.

      
  
 
 

      
 
  

  
     
      

  

 
  
 

  

 

  
 
  
  
  

  
  
  
  
   

 

   
   
  
 
 

   

   
 
 

   
  

 
   

 

 

Page. Page.
City Houses, Characteristic Smell of...... -.. 97 | Drainage, Defects in House...........-++++ Sieh 28
Cleanliness and Dirt................ +. 312 Importance of Good...........0 seen eee e eee 44
Coal Tar Product ss: ioscisieiaisiciais siaiaisysie:sioressiereie ois 318 Of Country Houses.............;0e eee reece 274
Cochituate Water, Carbonates and Sulphates in 172 Of European Cities.............. se cere neers
Cocks and Faucets. ....... 0... 2.005 cece cece eee .. 126| .. Of Lands.. .........
Combination of Acids with Bases. . 166 Of Roofs. 00... ..eceee cece eee ee cece ee eeee 229
Competition among Plumbers.... .. 342 | Drains for Country Houses..............+++ o. 275
Composting Feeces......... 0.22... . 267 | Draught upon Traps............. 2. cece ee eee - 66
Composting, Theory and Methods of. ... 264 | Driven Wells..........2 cece cee eee eee ee es 305
Concentration of Water for Analysis . «. 197} Drive-Well Tubes. ++ 305
Conditions of Health............ ...... «++. 323 | Droughts..............556- + 146
Connecting Boilers with Water-Backs. -» 125 | Dry Conservancy Systems. . +. 86
Conservatism in Architecture.......... «« @r| Diimes’ Experiments. cnenixsinnes saniaae tame 170
Constant Service, Importance of a@............. 104 ee
Constipation Induced by a Lack of Suitable Barth as a Disinfectant: .1. vic ox. sevenessdvseys 270
ivy Accommodation.............6..2055 6: Closets........ peecc ene ere eeaaeeeeneeeees 266, 269
Contagium, Generation of.... English Origin of........ ...-.see senses 270
Contents of PipesS.........0.. cece cece eee eens 2 Price Of i.e: esis diaieicis Sis akatate MNase 272
Contract System, How it Works in the Plumb- Commodes, Home-made.... ......16-...00- 272
AT TACO ee ov sesa sete sia cdusvnyslscahraiclelelosbidiinints 337) 339 Privy, How to Make att....cies sieninencen ey 266
Reforming the. . sicdesvsie~ 342. Sewage System, the............... eee eee 283
Contract Work............2-+ ++ 337, 341 | Economy of Power in Pumping................ 236
Copper, Action of Water on........ :++. 213 | Electrical Relations of Metals.................. 188
And Brass in Contact with Lead............ _189 | Empiricism and Superstition in Medicine...... 5
And Other Metals, Galvanic Action between 2:3 | Emptying Pipes ........... ..eseeee eres see eee 112
Kitchen Utensils, Danger of..............-. 214 | Encasing Buried Pipes in Larger Ones......... 331
Salts OE oisia) fais ie Besse sievecdearerbiate ie Epidemics in Country Districts .. ............. 290
Sewer Pipes te Po Sra TOWOS eas xs cneemnannenmranmaen's jor
Corrosion in New and Old Lead Pipes, Activity Medizeval and Modern.. ..............+005- 7
OR Scrars sesicsave ncetsish a ciaNca era's aisle dental arabada, Ste ardee 162! Prevailing oni cis ayers icine salowisisainie s aleleioaveic 36
Of Lead Pipes by Sewer Pipes. 74, 75 | Essentials in House-building................... 336
OL TPIDOR is sisejaiisa cis: o:dioits eiereiadisiartyanarigoiaya ose ao» 200 | Estimates, PIWMbCrs’ os cc cw acer s ontenenceme enn 340
Of Ship Plates by Galvanic Action. 188 | Europe in the Middle Ages, Life in............. 7
Corrosive Salts, Mixtures of............... 2.0 184 | Evaporation of Seals ...... 60... cece sees e ee ee 76
Country Districts, Causes of Unhealthfulnessin 288 | Excrement, Disinfection of.................606+ 324
Neglect of Health Precautions in... Expanding Alloys....... PO CRT Pi eee 48
Water Supply in .... 291 | Expansion and Contraction of Iron Pipes...... 5r
Country Houses, Sanitary Construction and Of Metal Service Pipes..... jasu a Sisse eras ie alnickest 112
DYQIN GEO) OF 5.0 ois sects sae csicinvarataleiecviognee eesti 258 OF Air in Sewers by Heat.. coos 65
Craven’s Tests of Pipes. 225 | Explosion of Kitchen Boilers............... ++ 125
Creeping of Lead....... 112 | Extracts from Plumbers’ Correspondence...... 345
Croton Water..............005 162
Carbonates and Sulphates in. . 172 | Fergus, Dr., Experiments with Lead Pipes and
Sediment, Experiments with. ALTADBS ios OS Sts Ss late aie Sib aiSis aie'sioie sae BONG 74,77
Croydon, Sanitary Works of... OG sssierSenisiorsestasade'e: o. 52
phoid Fever in......... Substitutes for.... wis ae 52
Curbing for Wells.......... aictaeeond 5 Fever and Ague............ 0.2 ..e5 259
Fever Contagion, Beale’s Theory of.. 34
Dana’s, Dr., Opinion of Lead Poisoning... .... 202 GOP i556 ae ea7s ds vaietnie uns wees + 34
Decay, Gases Of............ 0.0 cease - 28 Nests...........
Decaying Organic Matter. . . 312 | Fields’ Flush Tank........... 280
Vegetable Matter....... . 33 | Filled Lands.............. 258
Decomposition in Cellars . 262 | Filling Joints with Lead.. 48
Of Organic Matter.... - 35 | Filter Pipes .............. 198
Defects in Pipes...............5 « Ign Tank for Kitchen Drainage 286
Defective Joints in Waste Pipes.. .. 47 | Filtering Mediums..... aay 137
Defective Trapping............ .-. 67] Filters, Charcoal.............0.sceeeeee 308
Deodorants......... vee 317 Cleansing Of............0060 ceeeeeeee oes 136
Disease, Causes of............... 6 For Water Containing Lead................ 194
_ Communicated by Sewer Gas. . 35 OU) sc ssessisitioeteass isaieie signee wes alates Stee statNores atals 136
Diseases Conveyed by Germs........ ves 27 Tron Sponge.............505 Danae eee e 309
Disinfectants.................2... 267, 316 Macnee IGM, cous ox sana des aaea any “vanes 195
_ Scientific Use of <i 998) TOI POISOMIG ci ocus torre yea acaos akan aeanee 18
Disinfection............ aie +. 314 | Filtration of Liquid for Analysis................ 198
WV TIER, xcs ns 2 Pre 323 Of Water........ at sikge i cunnd fapn era cr cvoretetetefatsiavan sore 135
Differences of Scientific Opi Through Harth..........2. ccsseeeeeeee eens 284
MING tcc casts ssininiesdyessib onaiesaia ere (oveterntera Wajeseiecbreh wis 324 | Flow of Small Streams................000ee eee
BADIAONS OF os scene weed damernen viemmenuins od 325 | Fluids, Presence of......
New York Health Board’s Memorial on.... 324 | Flush Valves steccans shee Meets oe oeice cai 99
Of Damp Placesi i. ccscanies. aous sad genset. 324 | Flushing Closets by Direct Connections with
Of Excrement............ sos B24 Service Pipes, Dangers of .... .......0e.005 Ico
Of Foul Matter in Masses --- 322 | Flushing of Traps............ ‘ 76
Of Foul Waste Pipes........... oe 78 DOW OES ois a mnn nas 38
Of Living and Sleeping Rooms..... --- 324 | Fordos’ Experiments 172
Of Water-Closets.............. +» 93| Freezing in Pipes, Precautions Aga: 132
, Russian Report on. 4 vas 323 Of Underground Pipes............. 130
Dip of Traps............ cee eee ees .-. 80, 8r _ Of Water in Glass-lined Pipes. easy g: TIO
Distribution of Water in Houses. 115, 120 | Frictional Resistance of Small Pipes 8
Drainage, Dangers of Cheap....... .ssesereeeee 62 | Friction of Pipes....................... Be

 
  
  
 
 
 
  
  
 
 
     
  
 
   
 
 
   

 

   
  
   
 
  
   
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
  
 
   

 

 

 

 

 

INDEX. 355
Page. Page.
Frozen Pipes, Evils Resulting from. . .»..- 128 | Iron, Chemical Action of Water on.. +» 205
Methods of Thawing....... wetietsa seen sees T92 Dissolved b; Carbonic Acid... 206
Frost, eee Pipes SfrOM. sss slee seve ee sees 58 Influence of Salts in Water 0) 206
Protecting ervics Pipes fm wieearneys 127 In Water............... 108
Furnace Heat, Healthfulness of................ 13 In Water, T 207
Furnaces, Hot-Air......ce cesses 2 iss sragetoisvchetejais cua 13 ane oie aoe cists foie Seta “obs abolayaraiats Stee 148
‘ipes, 6
Galvanic Action between Copper ane Other Expansion Bid Contraction of i
Metals................ + 213 Joints of Lead and Iron 185
Between Zinc and Iron 209 Sizes and Weights of 226
Corrosion of Ship Plates 188 Supports for........... 113
Lead Corrosion by......... 187 Supports for Vertical ‘Lines 6! EI
a i Iron, Cassell’s Expe: 208 Thawing Ice in. 133
araioreceraieiioceie' 108 With Tin Lining 109
Tanks Water 208 Wrought..... 107
Garbage Bms......... 833 Piping in Houses ... 115
Gases 4 Absorbed by Wate 99 Protective Oxidation | 206
28 Pumps....... Bistevete and 239
77 ‘or Outdoor Wor! 241
47 Rust, Corrosion of Lead by 186
Generation of Contagium. 323 Sponge Filters........... - 309
Germs, Diseases Conveyed 27 Sulphide and Sulphate of 173
FOVOP so5 ccsisis seca rearcnes sen 34 MBAS 6 a jcsisdscrancoins ots. 38 140
= Theory, Chemical Aspects os 32 Waste Pipes, Weight of................2.065 58
lanation of Sewer Gas Poisonin, the 36
OF isease......... 26 | Jacketing Pipes..
Glasgow, Typhoid Feve 74 | Jews. Sanitary Laws of the
Glass-lined Water Pipes. tog | Jobbing.......... aon
Glass Service Pipes. 110 | Joints, Cheap Filling fo:
Gaol Fever. . 8 In Iron pes.......
Grease Traps 45 In Iron Pipes Made

 
 
    
    
   
    
 
    
  
  
  
   

Handiness with Tools.

 

   

 

Hand Pumping........ parespiece 6 230
Hardness of Water, De ination 0: 292
Permanent ..........:eseceeeeeners 292
Head of Water, Calculation of...... 217
Consumed by Friction of Pipes.. 220
Rule for Finding............... 221
Head, Pressure of Water Due to.. 104
Health, Conditions of............... 323
In Cities, Conditions Affecting... .. "43
Sacrificed to Show in Architecture. 337
Heat, Disinfection by................ 323
Honesty among Plumbers. 334
Hopper Closets........-.--.++. 94
Horsford’s, Prof., Experiments 185
Hot-Air Furmaces...........0..000+ 13
Bove Distribution . 121
pee cca ren ecnsccsses I2@
House-Building, Essentials in. 336
In the United States..... Ir
Speculators.............--++- 347
House Connections with Cesspoo! 276
Drains of Stone...........6.+ 60
Drains, Tile...... 60
Drains, Wooden ...........- to
Ete: without Sewer Connections = + 338
0, eee on the Sewage Waste of Paris... 86
Hydebutic Re c
Hydraulics Pippeable to Plumbing 216
Hydrochloric Acid.......-.-+-.+++ 310
Hygiene in Architecture......... ...... ze RE
as its Practical Relations to Health......... s
ip in Spring Water. .......-.ss+seseeeee 306
Mh Water... 2... cere cs caccenectseeneeneeeree 136
radars Commodes, Sanitary Importance of.... 269
Infections and Contagions 6
Infusoria......... eee eee eee
Inorganic Poisons.......-.0-++2reeecpreses ee nees 28
Intermittent Downward Filtration System, the 279
Water Service in HouseS.......-..-.sese+ee+ 116
Jodide of Potassium Test for Lead, the......... 200
Todides.........ce0-ceeenereee gisleiata, atnidie'a/siyiarwarsiste 178
Iron and Lead Connections.....--..-+0.+s+eeeee 52
Iron as a Material for Service Pipes sie wane ene B24

 

 
  
 
 
  

h Putty.
In Tin-lined Lead Pipes, Corros:
Made with Cement.
Made with Ex, anding
Made with red Lead.........

 

 
   
  
  

 

  

Made with Rubber Washers
Rust..
Sulph
Wiped..........
ve Drelnaces Filter Tank for.... ........ 285
ddaksesrnapals he) ssesbibnoredetecclosninins WiateZeie elev be 287
Laboratory Experiments, Sources of Error in. 186
Land Drainage 259
La Pierre’s Experiments with Lead............ I5r
Lateral Pressure of Fluids...................665 217
Leaching Cesspools.............sseeseeeeeee ners 275
Lead, Action of Air and Water on.............. 153
‘Action of Acids on......... 157, 165
Alkalies in Water upon................ ~ 160
Carbonate of Soda on.................- 170
Carbonic Acid Gas on........ .......... X71
Chlorides On..............05 cee eeee 175, 176
Todides and Bromides on............... 178
MGIC BON osc sia as isi 5.6 sig) Sietnsasais cu ciacejepsiain, 160
Mineral Salts on........ see eee eee eee 15
Mixed Salts upon 168, 181, 182, 184
Moisture and Carbonic Acid on......... 154
Nitrates and Nitrites on................ 174
Organic Matter on................4. 178, 184
Physical Influences on................25 19z
Povash and Soda on........ ....-....08- 1g
Pure Water On............ cece eee eee 151
BODES OF sonian neinodayenncdiadneiccenian 172
Sulphide and Sulphate of Iron upon.... 173
Sulphur Waters on......... 2.0.6... eee
Vegetable Acids on.

An Accumulative Poison. .
And Iron Pipes, Joints of 18.
And Tin, Bice Conditions Induced by

 

 

Contact Of.....cccccceceessseeresecuesseee
Asa pinned Material. ..........2-ceeeeee
Bicromate of Potassa Test for.

Carbonate Of bi cess cain enienianecieeinen ets 3% sles 159
Carbonate of Lime as a Protection to...... 169
Causes which Defeat the Protective Action

of Carbonates Formed on........... sidiosates DPE

Chemica] Composition of...........600..005 1590
356

  

   
 
 

 

 
  
 

INDEX.
Page. Page,
Lead, Chemica] Law of the Action of Salts upon. 164 | Letterby’s, Dr., Report on London Wells....... 298
Copper and Brass in Contact with.......... 189 Peverae® of Pum oar i :havancn/ahe/eearauaieveteioveie eae 236
Corrosion by Galvanic eee ot 187, Lewes, Typhoid Fever in.
By Iron Rust.............+6+ Lift Pumps...........-seeee eee pent ceneeeeenees 241
By Well Water.............:eeeeseee Lime an Ton Experiments with. . etveeein De7
From Contact with Decaying Woo” 2 380 Lime, Lead Corroded DY siacitsns cre ceteaeties plan 160
Corrosive eae of Water on..........-00- 167 Liverpool | Water, Carbonates and Sulphates in 172
OVE CDI 08 iis sa'ecg piece wenminny wademaks Hane ar2| Loch Katrine, Walter Of. ccs weiss cease cs Ween we 16x
Effect o: feat i i Promoting Corrosion. of... ass | London, Cholera i. 1c..422ncnas ne nee temen na oan 31
Faucets for Vinegar Barrels........ In the Twelfth Century........ sine eis asicmenae we
Filling Joints with........-..... Plagues, CHO x osa.csis sis sien: acors Sieiare sie esate diesen
Filters for Water Containing Water, Carbonates and Sulphates in.......
Impurities in Commercial Water's SUDPlys. vecicece ssecea ve east aleleatdiointee
Infrequent Corrosion of ................. -+
In Connection with Solder, Corrosion of... 17: | Magnetic Iron Ore Filters............ ......000-
In Liquors used as Beverages « etiec i eesbioratoen 158 | Main ee and Branches..............eseeee
In Pastry and Confectionery .. DOG: | MEAVATAG a Gini Assisi nin: sasereye shcperdrane shais avers coteiseccorse's
a Spirituous Liquors................. 200 Manholes. sieiduebainaintss
ater, Action of Carbonic Acid on. zoo | Manure.............

  

 

  

 

 

 
 

 
   
   

168
mM Besnen on the Corrosion of . I50
Phosphate of............ ..+5+ + 173
Physical Properties of. 350
MPUDOS co -eepcscee esate ern suayava tia cia pure via aialt Pe 105
Activity of Corrosion in New and Old.. 192
Corroded by Sewer Gas..........066-5+5 74
Decay of Organic Matter in.... ........ 179
Duration of Corrosive Action in........ 192
Efforts of Sharp Bends in Inducing Cor-
FOSION: Of; ccwinis ia03 se ewinaies senses
In Ancient Cities
EN HTAN CO's. ote ccsciahe siete ats ty abies Beirne 148
In Massachusetts, Investigations Con-
COTM os acassleenioye ra aero erscosacerend sa a eis
Jn Mortar, Corrosion of 00
In Soda Water Fountains. .
Insoluble Coatings for.............. 95, 196
oe of Ancient Authorities Con:
COLT Gs 5ara1e, seratete cavalo svereleianascia aie Siero sce 149
Protection against Corrosion in........ 194
ISGP OCCH OF sooo srelocoiais:eiary se aintdisin/aragainrstejaiere’s 113
WEBI ie cousn ic cea enmamhnnn Gcnaiainbiicn 19
Poisoning at Tunbridge......... ........... 183
By, Smuth sicccperiias scatariieia share aaialatonneorentets 200
By Water is. ceccisnnosanwcsenneiaeeine 193
Due to Chlorides, Evidences of......... 176
Muglisk Scientific Commission’s Report
Expedients for Protection Against ..... in
Tn Amsterdam.,..........ceeee cece eee ee 180
in Manchester, oe Misdtiimcauteiasapes 156
In Massachusetts. .......0.0.5 ceeeeeeees 147
An: New Yorke icgus sees ceeale Posner I55
IM Sale Mes ws-sececeateceieis oe, Zech weeks 1€8
Occupations of Victims of.............. 201
Susceptibility to.................005 149, 203
Symptoms and Characteristics of...... 204
Tanquerel’s Observations of............ 200
Various Causes of .............-.0.. 00s co
Quantity Required to Exert a Poisonous In-
NUON COs as t2clnscoryuhys eich Suis Hi ees Mees 203
TROOES 2: ssivtes cntin ee ceraieece 1I3
Salts of..........-... 166
Salts, Solubility of..... 167
Shrinkage of, in Cooling....... 47
Sulphide of Ammonium Test for... 199
Sulphide of Potassium Test for. . 199
Sulphuretted Hydrogen Test for... 198

 

Summary of Facts Concerning the Action

 
  

of Potable Waters on.
STAIN ¢ sescsceacsa: Sissasigasire sesis wraieie Oe Plott
The Iodide of Potassium Test for.
The Sulphuric Acid Test for..... + 200
Waste Pripes........ cece cece eee e cece eteenene 44

‘| Metals, Electrical Relations of.

 

 

Marais’ Experiments...........-.0++seeeeeeneeee rye
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Tests
for Lead in Water at the.................. 156
Materials for Service Pipes.............02+++65. 105
ae of ier Names ending in ae
“ide

Medical Profession in fanitary Work..
Medicine, Empiricism and Superstition in..
Megara, the....... 1 ss sees eee eee eeeee eee
Metallic Salts in Water.........

   
 
  
  
  
 
  
  

 

- Positive and Negative..........
Middle Ages, Life in Europe in the.
Mineral Impurities in Spring Water. .
Mistaken Economy of Cheap Plumbing. |
Modern Conveniences..............6-

 

 

  

  
 
  

 
 
 
 

Morning Mists on Wet Eeote: + 259
Motive Power for 235
Moule, Rev. Henry....... 270
Muir’s Experiments.. 181
Mushroom StrainersS............ceeeeeeseeee noes 242
Nessler vot thE srwsiaecersigcer ane oe 204
Nevins, D: 167
New york, Deaths from Zymotic Diseases in,
in 1866- Fe 7 Ores step gia csane star agbsete yaar aschasaassuateloressic’e + 7
Lead Poisoning in................ - 155
Nichols’, Prof., Experiments with Zinc 210
Nitrates... ....0 0. ccc ccc cccee ec ececeeas 163
And Nitrites, Action of, on Lead. 174
Tests: £OM: scissors Wa aiete tees 293
In Water, Sources of.. 174
Nitritess vce 02 escent 2s Ga eae - 165
Nitregen in Sewer Gas............. atepsicth rahe: 25
Obstructions in City Mains............ 0.0.0... 232
In: Pipes 's« sicccoiweveeniae oe 230
Ocean Salts in Rain........... 161
Organic Acids, Character of. + Irg
Decay in the Dark........ 31
GaseS............665 32
GOL IIS i ii:0:5 Gages cwiedesdne isaaierere a SOE
Destruction of. . 24
Impurities in Water.. 19
In Well Water sces sisi. canavices oevecsnese 300

Matter, Decomposition of................... 3
In Combination with Other Substances,
In Waste Water...... 0.2.0 ceeceeeeeeee
In Water, Action of, on pee:
In Water Supplied to Cities. .
In Water, Tests for
Vapor in Sewer Gas
Organisms in Air........ .........
Overcharges on Plumbers’ Materials
Overton and Safe Wastes, sue wene Flus'

 
 
  
 
    
  
INDEX. 857.

   
  
  
 
 
 
  
 
  
 
 
 
  
 
    
 
 
  
    
  
   
   
  
 
    
  
 
  
     
  
   
  
   
  
 
  
 
 
 
  
 
 
  
   
  
 
  

   
    
    
  
 

 

 
 
 

 

  

 

     
  

 

  
    
  

  

 

 

 

Page. Page.

Pan Closets. ........sccceeeseseccees seceseseeees, go | Plumbers, Honesty AMong............0.0e0008 + 334
Defects of.... .. 91| . Popular Abuse of....... ‘ + 328
Improvement in....... +. 92 Responsibility, the....... ... + 345
Poisonous Gases oe + gt | Plumbing Fixtures in Houses.. « a3
Venting Receivers of.. 92 Practice, Examples of Bad.. - 53

Pan-Closet Receivers..............0008 go The Chemistry. o: Obscene sarlver + 147

Paris in the Twelfth Century, Streets of . aie 7 Trade, Competition in the. ‘s - 342
The Sewage Waste of.............. .. 86 Easily Learned, the .. + 332

Percentage System, the..........-..eecee cece 344 Profits in the........... 340

Permanganate of Potash.. + 309, 319, 322 WOLKE. oars steierare: ors aiere 336

Petroleum in SewerS...........c.c.sveevecteess 42 Contract....... + 337

Phosphate of Lead.... ++ 173 Goodand. Bad cee. uccmviwenys - 18

Phosphates....... eierstesy - 165 | How Low Bids are.Secured for.. + 347

Phos mone Acid. +. 165 In American Houses........... - 16

PAF GS cease tate ind yoeeen Wane aveter es van 263 Responsibility for Bad..... 19

Pipe Connections for Pumps, Proper Sizes of.. 240 | Poisons in Well Waters............ ate
TOONS 5 32 5 55 6.045550 5s oe isseloscrsiavascio’e aresersaiees nceceitnsta sr | Ponds and Streams......

Pipes, Accessibility of Service .. 114| Positive Disinfectants 317
Actual Discharge of........ 0... sce seen cease 221 And Negative Metals.............ccseeee eee 188
Brass and Copper... .... 11x | Power Required to Raise Water, Table of...... 234
Capacities of....... .. tat | Practical Plumbers...............cseceeeeeeeeee 345
Circulating. . ». T24 PYeSCriptiON, Arise e isc seis ve'e-o 0's oesdnies sulelcin ies 327
Composition......-...-» ....-. . 111 | Pressure Due to Head of Water................ 104
Conditions of Galvanic Action in .. 187 Air in Pipes....... Bauiicisaeisis asajareuarinar? OO}
Contents Of ...........0.e00s -. 218} ' Of Fluids............ sideecninie ET
Corrosion of... ++ 106 Of Water Due to Head...........00.- eee eee 217
Craven’s Tests of.. eo BEG PRIMER Scns excuses miiiernud rede re nds peas HAteies 244
Defects in..............-5 igi | Primitive Methods of Raising Water.......... + 235
Decay of Organic Matter in.. i$) FQ ELAVIOS tarasic tyate ciatate xeatejeletnorals ware a vec ieNnramw aiaaleta
Difficulty of ‘Thawing Buried... ++ 139 Country
Discharge of Small........ . 222 | Privy, a Sanitary.............ce. cece cece eee een + 267
Discharge of Water from.. .. 218 | Privy Council Report on Earth Closets......... 27
Encasing Buried............. . 131} Prony’s Formula........ccseceee ceeeae sarscoiivetate 222
Fractured by Settling of Walls.. -. 62| Protecting Service Pipes from Frost........... 127
Freezing of ei asian signe ee . 130 |,Protective Impurities in Water................ « 163
Friction in Small. . , .. 138 Salts Formed on Lead................0.0005 168
Friction of.........-..+-. .. 219 | Putty Joints in Iron ae ca ofaieress cee ayaasayte Sitios 49
Galvanized-Iron Service. . 108 | Pump Barrels, Size Of............ ceeeeeee ceeee
Glass-Lined........-02:.eee eee . 109 ¥or Outdoor Work, Iron..

7 ortance of Free nee to. aa 57 eee Beverage of......
aep Wells, Braces for.. «242 eRe
. i NICS 5 sisiccsinrss teoistana siaie sien - 57 fa
Insoluble Coatings for Lead. +. 195 The Labor of
Packotin soe: scpcasveansieaisstacese «. 129 Wind Power in
aan of Lead on Iron «+ 185 | PUMPS........- 0 cee cece eee plate See He See Nee Nee
dick oie reese PIES . Tos hain ...., te
Margin of Safety in. + 223 CISHO PMs tess eisai cin Siete ais Bois a jase) aieferatas ashcyaa
Materials for Service....---.---- . 105 Durability of Cistern........ 00.2... cc eee ee 240
Non-Metallic Substitutes for Lead. < Oy Double-Action Lift and Force... .......... 244
Obstructions: Minis: weve vewewsa ve « 230 Early Forms of............+66+ Aiea a aeascarie 235
Protection from Frost... ......+..+.- 53 es My HOUSeS is xcsowes ain ay fea Relas ae.artets 244
Protection in Cold Weather for Serie 127]. DPOM sists swaneiwtesnetintaaeagess alae aaieens 239
Relative Capacity of Large and Small . _1I9 Tate BR MOREE cccusens uienaereiua ee GARG eee 242
Rule for Fin Diameter of......... - 221 Motive Power for.,........ dee coals <e 235
Discharge of........ Sassiees . 221 Pipe Connections for.... .......ce cece eee 240
BiOmFED 08 sesiiarcaiice seen snd «OE Protecting, from Bro8t.cocsscececceseesvaes 24r
Sizes and Weights of Wrought. . 226 OS UD wwe an cioan viwenncs hy Wak Milan ano 237
Strains on.... ----.eeseeeeee gr Vacuum Chambers for............ ...0e0e ee 237
Strength of . 223 Varieties of Hand....... 02... ce cece cece eens 245
Block-Tin. +» 225 ‘Windmill, Diameters of............ ....-005 247
Wrought-Iroa - 227 Wooden weiezsa we vaees sienna Ne eeceiee is he 233
papportins Iroa. . 113 | Purification of Water by Contact with lron.... 140
catea siunletelevale 105 | Pythogenic Diseases.............ccceseeeceeeees 13
Te ‘Lined Lead 106
Tinned Iron 319
Weight and Strength of
Why They Burst. 50: ccsses ceeaseeee ee 16x
Wrought-fron Servi MO |. AEB B ec icuneunaie axnk cas Meet RS 161
Zine as a Material for Serv + 207 7 “ polid Matter in........... .....-. . 16x

Piping with Iron.. gee » 115 | Rainfall.... 0.0... c cece cece cee e eee eens «145

Plagues, the Londo : 9 In United States............... - 229

Plates rand 2 Descrip . 120 | Ram, Efficiency of He Hydraulic. . 255

Playfair, Dr. L., on cere 276 Rams, Capacity of..........-..-... 255

Plumber and His. Work, t! 328 Durability. of.. 237

A Sanitarian, the....... + 334 Fall Required for a Given Dut: 254
ualifications of the ‘Practica - 332 _ Hydraulic... 253

at is Expected of the - 337 ‘In Batteries 257
Plumbers, Advica to Young + 350 Supply Pipes fo 255
APPVENtICOS.. 1. seeesreceereeenersnnceeneees 331 | Raising Water..... 234

 
  
 
  

   
 

 

 

 

 
 
 
   
    
 
 
  
 
 
 
  
  
  
   

 

 

 

 

 

  
   
    
 
 
 
   
  
 
 
    
  
   
  
   
    
   
 
 
 
  
  
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
  
   
  

 

 

 

 

 

358 INDEX.
Page. Enge.
Rarification of Air in Houses................... 67 | Sewer We Boonie nbs spect erste
Receivers, Foul Pan-Closet................2 0006 Nitrogen in.........
Red Lead Joints..........0c.ccccceeceeeceesaees Organic Vapor in............. ++ 20
Reich’s Analyses of Lead.. Passed futngh Water Seals..... + 74) 91
Renewal of beals........... Poisoning in Cities.........-....++ me. OP
Repairs. . seats Poiso: , Responsibility tobi 63
Ripley, Protein veers wade an hing shane uv ols Suffocation from.......s...0+00 ie 29
Roman Cloace®.............4. Sulphuretted Hydrogen in. 25
Rome, Sewer Ventilation in. . Transmitted through Brick ‘Walls... 75
Hoots, DeNIMO Re Olea ec cnc wesw eurga-a vomeyaes ve 229 Ventilation through House Drains..... 73
Roscoe, Prof., on Lead Poisoning in Manchester 156 | Sewers, Breathing of.......... peeeee ie 41
Rubber Balls in Air Chambers................. 228 Expansion by Heat of Air in. 65
In Walter Pipesecsoc.c. soaiiaatis seedenie a oi 134 Petroweum 1B. we cyan aaene nas 42
Rubber Washer Jot... is. soawess oeucinnensn 49 Tide Water in. 65
Running Traps............. Unventilated.. 64
Rust Joints in no Pipes venue sc botluiwia davon. iessdn git ale sesyees 24
eee be Plans for ..... 40
Safe Wastes sjcccc cise) sitiecannies sates Sab eciieeiesae 54 a Croydon..........06 ee 39
Safes for Service Pipes, Continuous. 22212272271 113 Tn Lend on. sce se sjscesesiares wooden soaesaw ve 39
Safes, Wastes from...............005 55 ‘In ROMC ss.nccctaess wie na ameamaees 23
Safety Valves for Boilers..........-.....0eeeeee 125 In United States..........:e cece eee eee + 39
Sags in Service Pipes......-..--.- . 112, 124 Practical Benefits Of.........0.:eeeeeeee 32
Salem, Lead Poisoning in............0. ee eee eee 168 | Shade Trees, Dangers of.............- 2€0
Salts, Action of Mixed, on Lead ........ 168, 181, 182 | Shaded Houses, Unhealthfulness OP sins inivie-cinieiisee 260
Chemical Law of Action of, upon Lead... 164 | Ship Closets i 95
Conditions Affecting the Solu lity of...... 176 Modification of..... 96
of Copper, tH Ohare 'saraisrpaterasatewratersiatss sicher . 214| Shrinkage of Lead in Cooling 47
OF Leads, sicce snare scene . 166} Sink Wastes, Obstructions in... 45
Sanitarian, the Plumber a. 334 TPADS UN wesc. vis 6.0 8:60 oleate oe 45
Sanitary Care of Premises 312 | Slop Hoppers...........c cece eee ee ee 103
Construction and Drainage of Country ? Smells, Composition of... ......... 29
HOUSES cc de;a stateisarejsierniesers reves Reais fetes cise neorete 258 | Snow, Water from Melied.........- 146
Laws of the Jews.......... 23 | Soil-Pipe Connections with Sewers.... 59
Policing of Premises....... 325 | Soil are es Carried through F oundations. . 62
Science a Popular Study......... Bes Required in............ sees 6x
Work, Practical Binevolencs of.. ee 16 For E i ee ee - 59
ibis chord srertcaa aletansh Neuve dfarare - 9 Fractures and. Broken Joints in 6r
Saturation of, Beals by Sewer Gas.............- 76 Sags in........eeeseeceee Be ios ed 61
‘““Scamping,” an Instance of........ ....-..006. 338 Supports for.......... 6x
Schuylkill, Carbonates and Sulphates in....... 172 Beiances of Water Supply... 299
deals, Conditions of Security for........... - 78| Specifications, Architects’ 200
DO Pth OB sissecssciarsscisiesarers siatesiaieraate va » 79 LOOSC.........ccereeee 338
Evaporation of..........-.0... 065. - 76| Sponge Filters............ 138
In Traps, Dangers which Menace........... 76 oeane, and Well Waters.. 162
Effect of Changes of Temperature upon 65 WINES seneiee sx 9koy Whee een eees 305
Resistante:- Of: sccnceste 1 cous cinnse ne wi €6 Perel Salts in. Shaneshet ot) 306
Tn Winter, Dangers which TErented 128 The Care Of .......00.s-ceseees 307
Mistakes Respecting Water........ Stagnant Wuater........ 258
Fressures Required to Displace.... Stay of Proceedings, @............... 305
Renewal of....... ...ceees eee ‘ Steam Apparatus tor “thawing fipes 132
Sea Water, Chlorides in. Pump, An Automatic........... 253
Secondary Decomposition. Pumping, Cost of....... 253
Sediment in Traps....... ge a Udtstapaneyn sosis SPs METS 251
Service Pipes..............00e00 oe ‘or Light Work.. 25
Continuous Supports for Branc! Stone Drains..............+- Fi €0
POMP bY osc 6io edie sis. css ainiee Sae'in Strainers for Deep Wells.. 242
For tach Floor, Separate. For Slop Hoppers..... 103
In City Houses......... Strains on Pipes.............05. seers
Should be Accessible Streets of Paris in the Twelfth Century. .
Should not be tapped into Wa eerie OF PIPCS iiss aia Sees Ase 9
Basins. 99 coe of Lead Pipes + 113
Sewage, Commercial Value of. 88 near Tests for Greanie Matter in.Water, t é. . 295
Contamination of......... 18 (phate of Iron 4
Of American Cities 88 Of Zinc........
Of English Cities..... 88 | Sulphates...............
tilization...,.... .....ceeee eee 88 me Be on Lead.. 172
fewer Connections, Houses without. 338 In Water..........scecceeeee 172
EG ois weitere arate arclavarons steloiay anger 23 Sulphide oral Sulphate of Iron..... 173
Ammoniacal Compounds in, 26 Of Ammonium Test for Lead, the 199
Analyses of ...............005 29 Of Potassium Test for Lead, ihe 199
Atmospheric Contamination by. _75 | Sulphur and Pitch Joints........... 50
Carbonic Acid in........ arateate 24 Waters, Action of, on Lead 173
Chemical Action of 28 Sulphuretted Hydrogen afabe ora eras 173
Chemical Compositi 24 Test for Lead, the.............. ieieichaicinrarsire 198
Corroding L Pipes...... 74 | Sulphuric Acid Test for Lead, the.............. 200
Diseases Somunmaraten by Dante 35 eeuces Acid, Disinfectant Properties of.... 321
Effects of, on the Human System.. 30 ae asa Purifying i ee 260
In Dwellings, Determining the Pres: Sune ementary Ventilation for Traps = 71, 73
Overs: aise crmens onan eee gids oeialcin ats wasceeelelets 42 | Swarthmore College, Iron Service ‘ipes in. soe 107
INDEX. 359

 

   
  
   
 
  

 
  
   
  

   
 

 

       
   

 

  
 
 
 
  
 
 
  
 
 
  
    
 
 
  
 
  
 
  
 
 
 

 

   
  
 
 
 
 
  
   

 

  
 
 
  
   
 
 
 
   
  

  

Page. Page.
Swill, Ash and Garbage Pecepucles, taney seater ds 313 | Typhoid following Sewers.............. dawns ” 98
Syphon, Phenomenon of the........ 63 On a Mountain Top...............-026+ so inraters: S208.
Syphoned, Traps which Oakuat be 8t
Spphoning of Traps in Long Branch Wastes... 71 | Uncleanliness of Person in the Middle Ages.. 8
Seais in Waste-Pipe Traps “68, 69 | Underdrai e of Wet Lands..........
Syphons........... aka Bipraheisiaele aerate aaly eratvanedetare. Htsreie 233 pope round Cisterns.....-.+.+.++eeee2+ eereee
thfulness in Country Districts
TACKS. cesiscn views Heyes ve ROS CUE Bei abate otis: 113 Unhealthy HOUSES, ......--.00 see eeeeee
Tanks and Cisterns.. sages + 139 | Unsealing Traps.........
Tanks, Cement-Lineu.. -.. 140] Unskille ponaney et
Cleanliness i AN ceejceas - 141 | Unventilated Sewers. .
Contamination of oe ate in.. . 143 | Utilization of Sewage.............cceeeeeeueeees
fn ther Brass and Zinc. .
Houses..........
POM iris Wiarcieierantiaieina ered
Lined with Tinned Copper ac p 237
Purification of Water in. + 144 In Pipes Caused by Flow of Water.........
Sedimentin.... ... ... gt.) Valve: Closete s saisicccicaissrsts cas sisniere amrereie tries sins 93
Size and Capacity of 239 Traps 79
Tanquerel’s Observations of Lead Poisoning... 200 Vegetable Acids, Action of, on Lead........... 178
‘Tapping Return Pipe : In the Merrimac Run............ s: sities 59
Tests for Zinc in Water. . . 210} Velocity of Flow of Water.....-.....-...+65 218, 219
Thames Water... .....se6.e0s00 6 . 162 | Ventilated Traps...........0..ceeeecce seen sence 78
Thawing Ice in Pipes, ‘Methods of. . 132| Ventilation as a Protection to Lead Pipes...... 73
Theory of the Water-Back duets atest « 122 Failure of Attempts at......... ..ceeeeeeeee 14
Thoroughness in Plumbing Work. + 334 For Branch Wastes........ qt
"Tile DAI ae ossisre'e cintg spats tapas wieielae toate see 60 For Traps, DEEHIEMERIREY : qr
Tin, Action of Nitrates and Nitrites on......... 211 Of Dwellings .............. 14
*Action of Water ON..........-..-0050 cee 211 Of Roman.............. abies 23
And Lead, Action of Salts on Allo: S Of... 212 Of Sewers..........eeeeeeee 24
Electrical Conditions Induce by Cone BOTMCHES OF sess in faintossinjern care nse oparesajsiauteransiers 32
HACE OF o.ni0i5) fo:sie.siaeieyereiajosoisiciecievdiaeines gies 199 Impracticable Plans for.... .......... 40
In Well Watz2r, Corrosion of ae. 212 In VOM oie-sistacetses asia cverdpiadarerecetereraie’s - 39
Lined Iron Pipes for Water SeEriCs aerate 8 109 Dt LON OW iors coiniora areca sors ists aebrensiaa sis 39
Tead. Pipes: sis:ccctesersiaccsasrcde cots shane Through House Drains................+ 73
Corrosion at Joints of. . ORT TADS icles cars wiewteres eaciplnecnias Wasi le Garele'e & 64
Weight and Strength of. Of Waste Pipes...... . 2... ce cee cee cece eee 64
Non-Poisonous Salts of.......... Bene ft: OF oo: cicisic ios issais siejejsiorecieiaiais ae nie ae 66
POSUSSPOR a accein 2avacainsscidieieinsszecs syasecaceseds iva dseiaios 212 Popular Indifference to.. dain eee)
Water Pipes i iotcse a ays vacatize sje ers iiaiovssciash(oreiescuetarels ros | Ventilators for Cesspools...... haves ae 297
Tinned Spee for Tank Lining................ 140 | Venting Pan-Closet i 2 woe? 2
Tron Pipes.....-2sssececeeseecesenecereceeees tog | Verdigris..............sseeeeeee nee 214
Tide Water i ID SOWOrSiisee: searii ene sieteigleicamicsee. .65 | Vines and Shade Trees. . a ae. 261
"Trap! SCrOWS S3icie2 ss siecle crite Miawerieg Seatean nase 45, 83 | Virus, Power Of.....-......-ereseeeeee Braietatavetey ta 316
ELAS co nccpie debian eeen Lime ieeeaes eked ae ets 19
Accumulations in.......... csc eeese eee cones 8r | Waring, George E., JP........-..seeeeee eee eens 274
SNES OAS isceies 2 sceio.50 cssvaceroseie ninye io njarsarsicnechyars win 44, 64} Warming Houses..... fan 2
Dangers which Menace Sealsin............ 76 | Washing Roofs....... - 144
Dip Of» scssicigee nsteisss sc vistetes eave Wietateeutere ears 80 | Waste and Soil Pipes...... - 44
Draught Upon si -saissscins seaene ne stsieninie see 66 | Waste of Time by Plumbers. + 335
ee 4 “Cannges of Temperature upon Pipes, Arrangement of ...... - 69
65 Benefits of Ventilation for. - 66
82 Cast-Iron......-..-02eeees 40
76 Lead........ eaves 44
79 Pressure of Air in.... €6
45 Sizes and Weights of........ . 44
In Main Wastes sac cstana oh lorae Bisteda sis etalaies ashe 72 Trapping and Ventilation of.. + 276
In Service eee Haein: sabes . 113 Traps in Main.....-........- 72
In Waste Pipes......... 64 Ventilation for Branch. qr
Limit of Uti ity of. 64 Ventilation of........... - 64
Lodgment of F'zeces 78 | Water, pees of, on Tin 211
Sediment in.......... 3 82 Air in Ie2
Sup, lementary Ventilation for 71 294
oning of Seals in.. 8, 69 298
Cewaseae of 66 106
Ventilated... 78 179
Ventilation of...- 64 Back, Theory o: 122
‘What Plumbers Find in.... 83 Bearing Strata.. 300
Which Cannot be Syphoned. 8x Carbonates and Su
Trai ee aples of Defective 67 In Cochituate
Moin Waste PiGe8. 40402 qr In Croton.
True Disinfectants............. - 32z In London
Tunbridge, Lead Poisoning at.. 183 In Schuylki!
Typhoid Conveyed by House Drain ....... wavs 180 Carbonic Acid in
Fever in Cities and Country Districts....... arriage..........
Tn Gry don jis ieicicresisreyst faiesis peraccet este Substitutes for..
In Glasgow....... Causes of Sickness in......... 291
In Great Britain. Chemical Action of, on Iron.. 205
In LeweS.......-.+- darelaiesseeiene On Zinc....... sadsgtastaiaiaaistaiene 208

 
  
 
    
   
     
 
  
 
  
 
  
    
    
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
  
   
 
  

 

 

  
  
 
  

 

 
    
   
    
   
   
 
  
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 

 

 
  

360 INDEX.
Page ; : Page.
Water. Chlorides in Sea . 176| Water Closet Connections with Waste Pipes.... 58
Chlorine in........ 293 Nuisances. 83
Collected on Roofs,...........e.ceceeeeeeeee 45 Overflows. 55
Containing Lead, Advantages a Bciling... 200 Receivers......-..0.05 - go
Corrosion of Copper i TN, seen spestiaievan sisteteaid nraevetcee 213 Requirements of a GOOd cose eacencedn 89
PDE ATa WOU a cinscusyc-aesih eielaisieiseie cia ei unions 212 CHOREES « sisscan carn ernie Ribtatedteeasbrearsreiave Cintivnais ia 19
Corrosive Impurities in.................4005 163 Antiquity Of.........--.0:2e eee eee ee eee 85
COO s:nscccic sctciers waco ees FA sate Wee uaiesoeaG Yea ns 162 Classification Of..........:.::ss eee eee eee 89
Deceptive Characteristics of................ 298 Deterioration of. seeee LOZ
Determining Hardness of..............06005 292 Disinfection Of............ cee eee eee eens 93
THO: Quelity OLs siessseccie as see hevinteoG-0R once 29% Effectual Sealing of........ .......0.065 102
Discharge of........ ar rsiayols ohoreceteyeasiensiSibiateusiond 218 Evils of Tapping Service Pipes into.... 100,
Disease Germs in i 37 Examples of Bad............ cee cece eee 98
Dissolved Oxygen in............ cece e eee eee 207 FLOP POR ozs: diseascierse araeeer Siainie eielaicinjare sicleioale O4
Distribution in Houses............ ss ssc ssc. 115 Importance of Abundant Flush for... 98
For Analysis, Concentr: ation of. 197 In the Country .........cceceee eee e ee eeee 2Cg
From Boilers............0065 x26 InodorouS...........++ ves 90
Galvanized Iron Tanks. 208 Misplacement of......-....-.+6+ nice, OF
Glasgow Cisterns............ceeceeeeenee 155 Not Necessarily Objectionable. - 85
TANKS) cases ccapeinye cideisincaie ne 139 ls foe Rooms........ +++ 99
Gases from the Atmosphere in ~ 306 go
Hammer, the............... 227 or
Head Consumed by Fr 220 - 95
Impurities in. 136 93
In Distilled 152 104
In Natural.. 160 Importance of a Constant. . Tod
In Spring.... 306 In Cities..............6. 104.
Lake Cochituate 161 wipes, Iron as a Material for . 204
Metallic Salts in....... + 207 NDTIS (03s acdicyaiacare’sns,siasahsja ie ayes s/he aioini sig nisieiees:s 638 uc 79
Methods of Purifying..... 308 Waters, Properties and Composition of Potable 16z
Nitrates and Chlorides in... 163 | Watt, JAMES... 0... eee cee een t ence eee eens
Nitrates and Nitrites in......... 293 | Wei ‘ht of Iron Waste Pipes..........0...0-
Organic Acids in Lake and River 158 | Well Curbs ‘
Impurities in..............6+ 159 igging
Matter in Waste.. 275 Water, Sources of Contamination in ...
Physical Properties OE sii unecs 217 Waters, POISONS iN... 6... eee eee eee eee
POTSOWIT Toon a occa cerscazaiasasaces elect eisai too | Wells a aie
Potash and Soda in....... 159 Artesian
Pressure Due to Head of.. 217 Braces for Pipes in......
PYOSSUT CS. cc-sisie:stosis 3 cieieicce 227 DIPIV ONY icisissiners isis ised dueseintosase@ vias seaisipeteieteisaticisia
Primitive Methods of Raising. 235 Tr ArtiS.. 2. cece ete eee eee e ete een eee enes
Purification by Boiling In Towns and Villages......--...ceeeeseeeee
With Neutral Sulphate of Peroxide ae Location Ofsi:c.6 areas ace anand veeeeureses
‘on os ROE Woodwork in........
FRAG saceige amines eo recuperate aus tw hae 309 | Wet Cellars..........cs cece ee ec cece eee n ewer eens
Restoring the Flavor of Boiled..... 310 | Wind Engines, Horse-Power of...........-...++
Sewage Contamination of............ 181 | Wind Power in Pumping............ .......e0ee
Solid Matter in Rain...... 36x Mechanical Application of..................
Residue of..... 291 | Windmill Pumps, Duty of ..
Sources of Nitrates i 174 Diameter of......
Organic Contamination of Windmills, Cost o:
Spring and Well For Pumping
Stagnant....... Speed of...
Storage Of......-. eee s eee eee cee eeeeeee Wiped Joints...........
Substances Found in River Wood Pavements, Unhe
MSU ALeS 21m ice: sleidcainsee a/b: aceiersjoreiearchaiosanarats 172 | Wooden Drains........ 6.66 seer tee eeee nee n ee enee
Supplied to Cities, Organic Matter in....... 296 PUMPS iis seiasivieowinie sedan see aralereaicte/sleravciarayeeterateie 238
Suppl y. in Country Districts..........6 008 291 ;
LOR ON sescse sdnaasiion- onsen ot aes 184 | Zinc as a Material for Service tines eatase) aeons BOF.
SOUrCeS Of) 3. cisiey catenin sear oe Chemical Action of Water on. sree 208
Table of Power Required to Raise. . is COMPOUNDS <i shia icstiaie sictsucrdign aes See citi oes 210
Tests for Tromin...... cece eee cece eee eee Experiments at Columbia College with! 2c9
ING AT je es evaeyesesare Sie Nercvaqnrade hetdheralaserel See deacs For Water Conveyance, Dangers of........ 108
NUTINI OS csa/sesoiss evaracctesras bee esick eo aceioitvainaca ucoracsaard DIN PUTUIOS AMS c.cpere ise sccsecare era's isl evosese versus eyes aveves 209
To Calculate the Head of.................. Influence of Carbonic Acid and Chlorides on 208
Town Pollution of HRiver.............. -.. . Water, Corrosion of
Unusual Ingredients in..................065 TEStS LOLs 23's seaeaseacasne
Velocity of Flow of........ Physical Properties of
Vitality of Animalcule in. Poisoning..........eeeeee eres
Waste in Cold Weather...........6:.0e00ee 129 | Zymotic Diseases. . 35
Weight vs, Pressure......ssscse cesccueceees 217 Mortality from......sss.ssesessssccecceceee 17
               

 

 

 

 

 

 

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