eae nese = eet eee Lea “3 a ss ime aaee Sareea Saran : “ : heist wes SS 3s ae Soe : - = = OSes Senta ate: New Bark State College of Agriculture At Garnell University Dthaca, N. Y. Library Cornell University Libra hiner THE FORESTS AND GARDENS oF SOUTH INDIA, BY HUGH CLEGHORN, M.D. F.LS, CONSERVATOR OF FORESTS, MADRAS PRESIDENCY. LONDON: W. H. ALLEN & CO., 7 LEADENHALL STREET. MDCCCLXI. EDINBURGH : PRINTED BY NEILL AND COMPANY. TO THE RIGHT HON. LORD HARRIS, LATE GOVERNOR OF MADRAS, WHO, DURING HIS ADMINISTRATION, INSTITUTED THE DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS IN THAT PRESIDENCY, AND HAS EVER BEEN A ZEALOUS PROMOTER OF BOTANICAL RESEARCH, THIS WORK IS GRATEFULLY AND RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED, ‘BY THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. Tr is only of late years that attention has been drawn to the importance of conserving tropical forests. The ne- cessity of organising a system, whereby it would be pos- sible to control the clearing of indigenous forests, did not at first present itself, especially as advancing civilisation and an increasing population apparently indicated an op- posite course of procedure. The question when viewed simply in its physical relations, and the propriety of clearing forest lands in order to enlarge the area of food- producing soil, pointed perhaps as much to extensive clearance as to vigilant conservancy. It isa fact, however, that moderate and prudent clearing is quite compatible with the maintenance of a profitable system of superin- tendence. The matter of complaint was, that throughout the Indian empire large and valuable forest tracts were exposed to the careless rapacity of the native population, and especially unscrupulous contractors and traders, who cut and cleared them without reference to ultimate re- sults, and who did so, moreover, without being in any way under the control or regulation of authority. The results of this wholesale and indiscriminate denudation a2 vi PREFACE. gradually became apparent, and rendered it imperative that measures should be taken to organise a system of forest administration, which would enable the authorities to economise public property for the public good. The subject was brought before the attention of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, which met at Edinburgh in 1850; and a committee of their num- ber was appointed to consider the question, and report upon it.* The matter was duly investigated, and the results of the committee’s deliberations were laid before the Asso- ciation at the ensuing meeting held at Ipswich in 1851. In the course of this inquiry, it was ascertained that neither the Government nor the community at large were deriving from the Indian forests those advantages which they were calculated to afford. Not only was there a most wasteful and uncalled-for destruction of useful material, but numer- ous products—valuable to science, and which might be profitably applied to the interests of social life—lay neglected within the depths of the forests. This report recorded evidence bearing on the state of the forests in Malabar, Canara, Mysore, Travancore, the Tenasserim provinces, the Indian Archipelago, and the wooded tracts which skirt the base of the Himalaya; and it was dis- tinctly ascertained, that in Malabar, Burmah, and Sind, where some supervision had been exercised, considerable improvement was manifest. The forests in the Tenasserim provinces were brought, at a comparatively early date, under a system of conser- * The committee consisted of Dr Forbes Royle, King’s College, London ; Colonel R. Baird Smith, Bengal Engineers; Colonel R. Strachey, Bengal Engineers, and the compiler of this work. The Report was printed in the Proceedings of the British Association for 1851. PREFACE. vii vancy. At first, they were thrown open to private enter- prise; but the keen competition which ensued among European and native traders led to an indiscriminate felling of the most valuable timber, which threatened speedily to exhaust the forests, and thereby to deprive the State of those supplies which were indispensable to the public service. The unrestrained liberty accorded to any individual to appropriate to himself, under most liberal conditions, the unoccupied forests, contributed, in the first instance, to the prosperity of Moulmein ; but a continuance of the same system tended to the extermina- tion of the finest teak, thereby depriving the State, in a large measure, of a principal source of commercial pros- perity. The somewhat chequered history of these provinces, and the difficulties experienced in blending the interests of the State with those of private enterprise on the one hand, and in maintaining a supply of first-class timber without seriously or permanently interfering with the future prospects of the forests on the other, exercised an important influence on the question of forest administra- tion, both in Madras and Bombay. The earliest reports published are those of Dr Wallich, the first of which was dated so far back as 1827, and refers to the Salween Forest, north of Moulmein. The result of his labours may be said to have laid the foundation of a system of conservancy, without which it would soon have become impossible to maintain even the existence of our most valuable Eastern forests. It is true that the rules laid down by him proved to be of too stringent a character to be practicable, and were constructed principally to meet vili PREFACE. the interests of the State. After having been tested for a period of two years, they were found unsuitable. Since then rules have been formed to regulate and control the present and prospective condition of the forests; but dif- ficulty has all along been experienced in adjusting public and private interests—in giving free scope to individual enterprise, without lowering the character of the timber ’ and permanently diminishing the sources of supply. So much was this the case, that these rules were often a dead letter—they “‘ were violated everywhere: undersized and green timber was commonly felled ; the large logs were often sawed up into ‘ loozars’ (short lengths). The felled timbers were in many instances left in the forest, to be burnt during the periodical fires; and no attention was paid to the renewal of the tree.” When Dr Brandis was appointed by Lord Dalhousie to the charge of the forests of Pegu, it was intended to pursue a policy of strict con- servancy, such as was proposed by Wallich upwards of thirty years before; but, as it was then impossible to adhere to it, it has again been found necessary to relax the stringency of rules which were too.severe to be prac- ticable. In 1805, the Bombay Government, for the first time, laid claim to the indigenous forests of the western coast, and appointed commissioners to fix their boundaries, the Company’s right of sovereignty being asserted by a proclamation issued in 1807. From this period up to 1822 a partial and somewhat ill-advised attempt at conservancy was made, but it thoroughly failed in its object ; and all the restrictions which had been imposed during its existence were removed. This relaxation, or PREFACE. 1x rather abandonment of law, however, in course of time led to results of a still more disastrous nature, which threatened the speedy and complete destruction of the forests themselves. The attention of Government was again seriously directed to the question ; but it was a matter of time and difficulty to establish a system of con- servancy which would not infringe upon private rights. The Forest Department was not organised until 1846, under the superintendence of Dr Gibson, who ten years afterwards published a short treatise, in which he gave a historical sketch of the department from its commence- ment. This handbook and Dr Falconer’s “ Report on the Teak Forests of the Tenasserim Provinces”* are works of the highest importance, especially to those interested in the preservation of teak forests. Of all European nations, the English have been most regardless of the value of forests, partly owing to their climate, but chiefly because England has been so highly favoured by vast supplies of coal; and the emigrants to the United States have shown their indifference to this subject by the reckless destruction of forests in that. coun- try, of which they now feel the want. It is extremely desirable that correct information on this subject should be promulgated among the revenue officers of India. The publication of such works as those of Meaume and Du Breuil in France, and of Hartig in Germany, show the great importance that has been attached to Forestry in those countries, where the population depends on wood, for fuel. If conservation be needful in temperate climates, how * Records of Bengal Government, No. ix. 1852, x PREFACE. imperative is it in the tropics, where the supplies of water, and consequently of food and other produce, are in a great measure dependent on the existence of forests, especially in all the elevated parts of that vast country. If the facts which prove the value of preserving forests, and regulating the cutting of timber on certain fixed rules, were gene- rally known, every official in India would cordially co- operate in the work of conservation. A code of forest regulations for all India is much wanted. If this was drawn up and sanctioned, the rights of Govern- ment (which are in some districts in a confused state) would be placed on as equitable and sound a basis as the rights of the people themselves. The present volume was prepared at the instance of Government, principally for the purpose of furnishing a continuous view of forest conservancy in the Madras Presidency during the four years that the department has been in operation. One of the objects contemplated was to supply a manual to enable the forest assistants to act intelligently, and with good results to the State, in positions of responsibility. The want of such a hand- book has been frequently felt, not only in this depart- ment, but more or less by all who are practically in- terested in the natural products of India, and in their employment by different departments of public works. To the railway engineer, it is hoped that, even in its present form, it will prove of service, enabling him to acquaint himself with the various indigenous timbers, and their adaptation to the requirements of engineering in Southern India. The authorities of the several rai)- way companies have repeatedly adverted to the want of PREFACE. Xi a work such as the present, which could be placed in the hands of their employés arriving in the country igno- rant of Indian woods, of their appearance, capabilities, and place of growth. Similar statements have been made by the authorities in England ; and perhaps to some ex- tent the present volume may supply the information re- quired. The increasing opportunities and encouragement afforded for the development of European capital in India are calculated also to give a practical value to any work which will describe to the merchant or settler his exact relations to the Government, in regard to the forest pro- ducts of the country. It ought to be stated, that the greater part of the con- tents of this volume are on record in the Archives of the Madras Government; but they are not easily accessible. The work lays no claim to literary excellence of any kind. It is simply a compilation of papers, commencing with three Annual Reports, which indicate the progress of the department, and which are followed by a memorandum ou Kumari,—an injurious practice, which destroys vast quantities of the most valuable timber,—and by other me- moranda bearing more or less on the subject of Indian forests. The compilation is not what was originally in- tended, and what it would have been, if prepared under more favourable circumstances. It has been drawn up during the scanty leisure of a twelvemonth’s furlough on sick certificate. The book might have been more acceptable to the general reader had it been less formal in its style, and less fragmentary in its character; but this would probably not have increased its practical utility. xil PREFACE. A sketch map is given, indicating, as far as has been ascertained, the position and extent of the forests of Teak, Sal, and Sandalwood, the most valuable woods growing within the Presidency. The course of the rail- ways, and situation of the chief wood-depots, are indi- cated. A list of the principal works relating to Indian botany, with the most important memoirs on arboriculture, forest management, &c., has been appended, which, though far from complete, may prove useful to the officers of the de- partment, and to botanical inquirers desirous of studying the trees and forest products of India. The classical etymology has been generally adopted, in accordance with the recent orders of Government ; and indeed, this is now employed in all standard works, as in Hooker and Thomson’s “ Flora Indica,” &c. In this matter, also, I have to crave the indulgence of the reader, who will sometimes find the names of places spelt in different ways. From Walter Elliot, Esq. of Wolflee, N.B., late Member of Council at Madras, I have received much cordial aid in Botanical researches; and to Major Douglas Hamilton, 21st N.I., I am indebted for the representations of forest scenery, which have been lithographed by Mr Macfar- lane. Mr D. Paterson, of Madras, has also rendered good service in preparing the work for the press. EpinsurGa, August 1861. CONTENTS. PAGE First AnnuaL Report or Forrest OPERATIONS IN THE Mapras PResIDENcY, ‘ ‘i ‘ i : 1 ORDER OF Goya oN Dir, ‘ : : i 23 SxrconpD REPORT, ‘ : 32 Lerrer or Mr Fisner ON THE Forests OF Canara, ; 49 Lerrer From Lizut. Beppome on THE ANAMALAI Forests, 53 Tuirp Report, ‘ ‘ ‘ . ‘ " 59 A. North Canara, ‘ : ‘ 96 B. South Canara, 5 ‘ , : 105 C. Anamalai Range, ‘ 3 ‘ j 106 D. Sigur Forest, ; 3 ‘ : 109 E. Mudumalai Forests, . : : . ‘ 110 F. Salem Forests, : : ; : ; 113 G. Northern Circars, . : 115 H. Rules for the Preservation of Zz angles, é 5 123 Kumari Cuutivation, i i : , 126 A. Mr Blane’s Letter, . ‘ ; ; 127 B. Mr G. 8. Forbes’s do., ‘ ‘ , 128 C. Mr T. Cannan’s opinion, i i ‘ é 129 D. Mr A, Poulton’s do. 3 i , 129 E. Mr J. Beaumont’s do. ’ ‘ ; : 130 Provisional Order on Kumari, : 131 Views of Revenue Board, : ; i : 131 Order of Government, . i 134 Conservator’s Letter, . ‘ ‘ ; 136 Kumari in Mahratta Country. . 141 Do. Malabar, . és : é ‘ 141 Final Order, ‘ ; ‘ ; : 142 Frirewoop, . Striharikota Jungle, : ; 4 145 xiv CONTENTS, Firewood Jungles, Trichinopoly and South Areot, Nilgiri Hills, Mupvumauat Forests, AUSTRALIAN PLantations on Niueixi Hints, Remarks on their Progress, GopavaRi ‘TIMBER, AVENUES, Madras Aeeiaee, ; Instructions for Planting, List of Avenue Trees, Hepess, General Remarks, Hedge plants most in use, List of Plants (field enclosures), . 3 » (inner fences), a » (garden walks) TIMBER AND ORNAMENTAL bas Nomenclature, Classified List of Woods, Gopavari Forzsts, Telugu List of Trees, Docxyarp Timer, Poon Spars, , Expenmmenrs on STRENGTH OF ¥ Woons, DistriBution oF Forest TREEs, Furniture Woops, Woops For Eneravine, CHARCOAL Maxvracrunn, ‘ Expepition to Anamaual HicuEr Ranars, Trak Piantations, Prev Forest Rures, Sinp Forest Rugs, A. Bangalore Public Garden, Catalogue of Plants in, = B. Utakamand Garden, C. Soldiers’ Gardens, Boranican AND PHARMACEUTICAL InNQUIRENDA, BisiiogRaruy, INDEX, PAGE 149 157 158 164 171 185 189 192 195 197 199 201 201 206 211 211 211 212 219 299 254 265 271 272 277 278 279 283 288 302 324 328 330 344 359 374 378 381 401 DIRECTIONS TO BINDER. Forest Chart, to face title page. Plate L ‘i y ; 5 70 3 IL. +3 : ’ 70 If. 3 : ‘ ; , 75 4 1% oe 107 - Vv. ‘ 108 5 VI. . ; : . 146 we WIL. 5 ; 290 » VIL “ : 289 . %& . . 290 i xX. ae ee . 292 “<, > eo Ok 292 = aL : x 294 » XID. a ae 296 THE FORESTS OF SOUTH INDIA. FIRST ANNUAL REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. From H. Crzenorn, Esq., M.D., Conservator of Forests, to the Secretary to Government, Fort St George. Mancatore, 1st May 1858. Sir,—1. I have the honour to report, for the information of the Right Honourable the Governor in Council, that during the past year I proceeded on my first tour of inspection, traversed Mysore, and visited the depéts at the mouths of nearly all the rivers on the Malabar coast, examining- great part of the Western Ghats, with a view to ascertain the exact state of the govern- ment forests, their extent and capabilities. I travelled through the most wooded portions along the chain of ghats, ascending and descending by the following mountain passes, Anisy, Ar- byle, Bun, Sampajee, Perambady, Sispara, Tambacherry, Pal- ghat, Sigur, Kunur, from the Bombay frontier down to Ponany. Lafterwards went across the Anamalai Hills and round the slopes of the Nilgiri Hills. I also made a circuit of Waindd, and twice visited the Conolly plantations at Nellambur, being altogether eight months absent from the presidency. 2. As I have already submitted my views at length on several topics in accordance with the instructions of government, such as Jackatalla Plantations, Nilgiri Woods, Utakamand Garden, Anamalai Forests, Canara Forests, Striharicotta Jungles, price of timber, memorandum on gutta percha, I shall here confine 2 FIRST REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS myself to a summary of my observations on the forests generally, and of the operations of the forest department during the first year of its existence, mentioning the further measures con- templated when it is in a state of more complete organization. 3. In the beginning of this century, an immense almost un- broken forest covered the Western Ghats, from near the water- shed to the most elevated ridges,—left to nature, thinly peopled, abounding in wild animals, and all the higher portions, without exception, covered with timber.* Now the passing traveller, looking down from the higher peaks of Coorg or Malabar, con- ceives that an inexhaustible forest lies below him; but as he descends the ghats, he finds that the best timber has been cut away, aud that the wood-contractor is felling in more remote localities. I refer especially to teak, blackwood, and poon spars, which are every year becoming more scarce in accessible situations. The practice in India has been the converse of that in Europe, where the soft wood is thinned out and the hard wood left. Here the valuable kinds are removed and the scrub left. By one of these authorities (Buchanan), the burning of jungles was recommended as a sanatory measure, and to diminish the number of wild animals; but circumstances have much changed. Now the axe of the coffee planter and of the kumari cultivator have made extensive and often wanton havoc, devastating a large portion of the area of the primeval forest. The former is en- couraged as endeavouring to rescue the soil for legitimate pur- poses (except when the timber is peculiarly valuable); but the squatter, who clears without leave in one year the land which he abandons the next, is punished and repressed. The waste has been altogether prohibited in Mysore and the Bombay collec- torates, and is checked to a great extent in Canara, but has not altogether ceased. The exertions of the collector and sub-col- lector have, however, been very successful in keeping under the destruction, called kumari, caused by vagabond tribes in burning wood, with the view of raising from the ashes a crop of inferior grain. 4, In Canara, the forest rules, framed by Messrs Maltby and * Dr Hove’s Travels, 1786. Dr F. Buchanan’s Journey, 1801. Lord Valentia’s Travels, 1804. IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 3 Hall, and amended by Messrs Fisher and Robinson, are calcu- lated to ensure a regulated and safe expenditure, if the subordi- nates do their duty, and if the trees be marked by the conser- vancy establishment. In regard to forest arrangements, I may observe that Canara, though still imperfectly organised, is in advance of every other district. The arrangements for the con- servation of the teak and blackwood are so far satisfactory; but there are still difficulties as to the supply of firewood to large towns, and of house-building timber in those parts where there are no auctions. 5. Wants of Public Departments.— The requirements of the Indian navy, the Madras and Bombay railways, the public works and telegraph departments, have been unusually heavy, and the partially organised establishment was seriously crippled and curtailed for a time by the removal of officers, overseers, ele- phants and bullocks, required in the field during this eventful year, so that the pressing indents of various departments have been met with difficulty, and in some cases imperfectly. 6. Ratlways.—The progress of the railway has produced mar- vellous changes on the face of the country as regards tree vege- tation in some districts. I may specify Palghat, the Shevarai Hills, and the North Arcot Hills; in these the old woods have everywhere fallen, to meet the urgent demand for timber; and the pressure continues to exist in the central portions of the line between Vaniembady and Palghat: at the two extremities, the supply has been completed. In the Official Road Book, pub- lished by Major Scott not many years ago, opposite Waliar, we find this remark, ‘‘ Dense jungle, beware of elephants ;” but in looking from the staging bungalow, the traveller sees several tentative lines of rail, each 200 yards broad, and so extensive a clearing of the neighbouring forest, that no elephant could easily find acover. The encircling hills, formerly crowned with timber, are now to a considerable degree laid bare. These changes, so far as I can learn, have been the gradual result of unrestricted eutting, but much aggravated, during the last few years, in con- rection with the enormous demand for railway sleepers, and for the department of public works. In the contracts which have been made for the supply of the Bombay railway, 14 rupee has 4 FIRST REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS been charged per tree. In some contracts for the supply of the Madras railway, 3 or 4 annas has been the seignorage per sleeper, according to the kind of wood and the facility of transport; and, with the permission of government, I would re- commend that at least three annas be invariably paid. 7. In other places, and from other causes, wasteful cutting has been observed to a less injurious extent. Lieutenant Bed- dome’s report on the Pulney Hills, communicated by government to the “Madras Journal of Science” (1857), describes the devasta- tion which has been committed there in the formation of plan- tain gardens. The green hills have been stripped of their woods, and much of their beauty has departed. The reckless cutting there, however, has been vigorously checked by the collector, under orders from government. 8. Slovenly felling—The axe formerly, in many districts, was laid to the trunk one yard from the ground, while a further waste took place from diffuse hacking over a broad surface. This unnecessary loss of timber has been prohibited by a printed circular, enjoining all contractors, as well as forest employés, to cut within one foot and a half of the ground, otherwise the contractors are not paid. _ 9. Wasteful tromming.*—The former plan of cutting logs, by which one-half the timber was wasted, is now obsolete. I have only seen one or two specimens, and I hope that dragholes, as shown in fig. 1, may be altogether dispensed with by an improved applica- tion of ropes and the introduction of sling carts, &c. The method of trimming logs, so that they may fit carts in length and width, is still prevalent in many parts, but is giving way to a better system. The old state of things continues only at a distance * See Capt. F. C. Cotton in “ Madras Journal of Science,” N. Ser. vol. ii, p. 94. IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 5 from check and control, or where there are peculiarities of tenure and few facilities of communication, as in Waindd. 10. Proposed system of operations. —The trees are classified according to size.* Ist class, 6 feet in girth, 8d class, 3 feet and upwards. 2d do. 4} do. 4th do. under 8 feet. Ti is proposed that in every forest to be worked, all first-class trees should be marked, and such a proportion should be cut down as will be naturally replaced by those of the second class. This is clearly a sound principle, and, if carried into practice, will prevent the exhaustion of the forests. It would be obviously impossible to fell and remove one twenty-fourth of the trees of the first class in every district. Therefore, to facilitate the execution of this principle, it is necessary to divide each assistant’s range into six divisions, one of which only shall be worked at one time.. These divisions should be formed as much as possible in accordance with the geo- graphical features of the district, and the forest operations should be confined to the district having the largest quantity of ripe wood. 11. Saving of Fragments.—In my visit to the Anamalai and Wainad forests, I found the larger branches, tops and butts, left on the side of the road, or in the place where the tree was cut exposed to the heat of the sun and to the annual fires. I desired that all such pieces as would bear the expense of removal should be brought out of the Anamalai and Heggadevincotta forests, and that no wastage be allowed in future. The importance of saving every foot of teak (at atime when Government has been put to great shifts for its own requirements) has been strongly impressed upon every member of the department. I am also anxious that the use of this timber should be disallowed for common purposes, as camp furniture, hospital almirahs, accoutre- ment boxes, and the like. 12. Auction Sale of Timber.—It having been considered desir- able that an auction sale of timber unsuited for naval purposes * The system here suggested was originally proposed by Dr Brandis, Conservator of Forests in Burma. 6 FIRST REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS (tops, bottoms, slabs, and side pieces), should be held at the foot of the Anamalai Hills, Captain Hamilton, the late superintendent was directed to make the arrangements. Great exertions were made by that officer, and when the timber had been collected, every publicity was given regarding the sale. Before the auction took place, Captain Hamilton was removed on account of the paucity of officers with his corps, and the duty devolved on his successor Lieutenant Beddome. The result proved satisfactory ; the account rendered shows as follows :— Rs. A. P. Amount realized ‘ < z . 8891 5 8 Deduct charges . : , . 189 6 4 Net profit . . ‘ F ‘ 8201 15 4 The average price obtained was one rupee per cubic foot. In the forest this year, after the Bombay Marine were supplied, the better logs were selected for the new jail at Salem and the Trichinopoly barracks, while the fragments sold by auction were greedily bought by the general trader, by the railway department for doors and windows, and by a native surgeon for his dispensary building at Pulachi. In like manner wastage has been dis- -allowed in cutting teak for the military buildings at Bangalore. 18. Zeak.—This invaluable wood has received the special attention of the department, and I may say has occupied two- thirds of my own time during the past year. Along the whole length of the Malabar coast from Goa to Cochin, there is now very little of this wood in a ripe state on Government land below the ghats, and there are only three localities above the ghats where I found teak in abundance and of good size, viz.,— (1.) The Anamalai Forest in Coimbatore. (2.) Wainéd and Heggadevankota (partly in dispute between Mysore and Malabar.) (3.) Gund Plateau, North Canara, near Dandelli. I shall briefly notice the chief points connected with these forests, which stand in the order of their respective value. The Anamallai forests have been the subject of annual Reports to Government since 1848, when their importance was first declared by Captain F. C. Cotton (Madras Journal of Science 1857), and IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 7 as Captain Michael’s Reports have been published in the Madras Government Records (No. V. 1855), I will only now allude to the recent changes and improvements in management of this forest effected during the past year. After the removal of Captain Hamilton, Lieutenant Beddome, travelling assistant, received charge. He was in the immediate neighbourhood at the time of the vacancy. An additional overseer was sanctioned. The timber slip was repaired by Wuddur contract at an expense of 500 rupees. The bridge at Machenackenpollium, much required for the trans- port of wood eastward from the Anamalais, has been rebuilt. The road from Colungode has been repaired, and several nallahs bridged to facilitate the cartage to Ponany. The overseer’s house was purchased; six sling carts were made up by Mr Ross, railway engineer; a depét was arranged at bottom of slip, and a site was selected for the overseer’s house at Pulachi during the unhealthy months. I may here mention, that the prospective supply of teak (roughly estimated at the rate of the present requirements) from ‘the forest now rented from the Coléngad Numbady will not apparently exceed 15 years. This is a serious consideration, as it is the only forest from which long planks suitable for a frigate can be procured. I have in view a scheme for consolidating the table-land of the Anamalais, that part belonging to Government as well as that rented from the Coléngad Numbady, into one Government forest, which should be a reserve in perpetuity for the Indian navy, and where planting operations should be sys- tematically carried on. The working establishment of the Ana- mallai forest has always suffered severely from sickness, and, considering the large number of employés, I recommended to Government the location of a medical officer. Unfortunately, Mr Drew was removed by death before joining, and, as the in- spector of jails disapproved of the introduction of convict labour into the forest, from fear of the escape of the prisoners, I have not again asked for the services of a medical officer, more especially as the establishment of a dispensary at Pulachi under Native Surgeon Kanagaroyen will be of much importance to the depart- ment; and an adjacent piece of ground has been allotted for the overseers. 8 FIRST REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS 14. Waindd and Heggadevincotta Teak.—The forests on the borders of Mysore and Malabar are of great value, and stand second in importance. I went through part of these forests n company with Captain Pearse, superintendent of Astagram, which are about forty miles long by thirty broad, and believe that they will supply 2000 cart-loads annually (or, say 40,000 cubic feet of teak) without apparently injuring the resources of the forest. There being no cultivation, and a very scanty popu- lation, and the timber consequently not being required for local purposes, I would strongly urge that this should be considered a reserved forest. From the situation and natural slope of the country, the timber must be carried eastward, and will be ex- tremely valuable for military purposes in Bangalore. The new barracks there are being built of teak, and it is probable-that this timber will come into use also to meet the increasing demand at Utakamand. It is much to be regretted that no means of trans- port exists by which the crooks and other naval timber found in this tract can be conveyed to the coast, where they would be ex- tremely valuable. The expense of carriage by the usual route to Mysore and Manantoddy, and down the Peria Ghat to Tellicherry, is altogether prohibitory. The average price of teak at the quar- terly auctions held at Mysore has been almost exactly the same as at Anamalai, about one rupee per cubic foot. I have expe- rienced great difficulty in obtaining exact information as to the. extent, tenure, revenue, and productions of this forest, on account of its being little frequented, from the fear of wild animals. In no place have I seen such abundant traces of elephants. How- ever, the authorities at Astagram and Coorg, and the commissariat officer at Hoonsoor, all drew my attention to the waste of teak which occurs there, the timber being carted out in large quantities by three roads under the plea of passes from two Devasthaénams, the limits of whose Enam land I have no means of ascertaining. A particular survey, well-drawn lines of demarcation between Mysore, Malabar, and Coorg, and an improved system of regula- tions, are required for placing this forest on a proper footin g, and securing an uninterrupted supply of this valuable wood for the future. I think this duty would be best performed by an officer of energy and character, who would work well with the neigh- IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 9 bouring authorities, and who would constantly traverse the forests (as was done at Anamalai by Captains Michael and Hamilton), till the system of robbery and spoliation is sup- pressed. I would also strongly urge the location of a European magistrate in the Waindd, who would enforce the observance of regulations, and see to the management of the roads, ferries, police, revenue, conservancy, &c., in that remote locality.* 15. Canara Teak.—This timber generally is of smaller scant- ling than that of Wainéd. It has the advantage of water-car- riage to the coast not possessed by the two last, but it has for some years heen chiefly obtained for naval purposes from the banks of the Black River, where it emerges from the Supah Hills, and the supply has gradually been sent down from more distant localities, as in Malabar, where the teak is now cut by the Terupad of Nellambur, just under the Nilgiri peak. Above the ghats in the Supah and Sundah talooks there is a very considerable sup- ply of smaller wood suited for the engineer requirements at Bel- gam, Dharwar, Lingasugur, &c. .16. The Gund Forest—This is the chief remaining reserve in Canara. I saw here several thousand trees on an elevated pla- teau with precipitous sides. The trees are well grown and ripe, conserved by their inaccessible position, which has been rarely visited by Europeans. The teak here is scarcely intermixed with any other tree (the Billi Nundee} excepted), and grows on slaty rock, in many places having very steep gradients, The early working of this valuable Gund forest is of the first im- portance, being much threatened with fire; some trees are already scorched at the root, and much dead wood lies in the forest. The question for consideration is, how to get out the wood ?—whether by a rocky nullah with at least three small falls, or by making a road twenty-three miles in length. This is a question I cannot venture to answer, but I may mention that the Collector Mr Fisher, and Dr Gibson, I believe, incline to improving the road, whilst Colonel A. F. Cotton and Lieutenant Taylor, Indian Navy, * The appointments of a magistrate and an assistant-conservator have been made, and the vigorous prosecution of the revenue survey is being car- tied out. ¢ Lagerstremia microcarpa (Wight). AQ 10 FIRST REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS recommend the blasting of the rocks in the nullah. I ordered an experiment to be made of floating twenty logs of junglewood, branded “Gund,” at the height of the flood, These were des- patched on a given day, but they never reached Sidashegur, hav- ing been caught in the rocky turnings of the river. The import- ance of removing the valuable teak of this forest at an early date is so great, that I would suggest that an engineer officer be de- puted to visit and report. Captain G. W. Walker, engineer, shortly expected from England, is one of the few Europeans who have visited this remarkable place, and has, I am told, a know- ledge of its requirements. If Government think proper to direct that officer to inspect this locality, Mr Miller would arrange to accompany him. As the Gund plateau is inaccurately delineated . in the survey maps, I have the pleasure to forward a rough sur- vey by my industrious assistant, Mr Miiller, with the tracing of the roads he suggests for working this forest. I would recom- mend that it be lithographed, and a hundred copies struck off. When the forest is being worked, I have instructed Mr Miller to be present at the marking and girdling of the trees. I have reason to believe that proper classification and selection of the trees have not hitherto been made in the Government forests. First class trees—.e., six feet in girth, and those commencing to decay, only, are to be removed at the first cutting. 17. Teak Plantations.—I visited the remains of small teak plantations at Honore, Ankola, and Sidashegur, which had been superintended by Colonel Gilbert in 1804. The trees are poor specimens of teak, the soil is laterite, and the exposed situation of the sea-shore is most unsuitable—a worse locality could scarcely have been chosen. The only possible excuse for so grave a blunder is, that the peculiar requirements of the teak tree were not known in those days. Up the Black River at Tarra-Mallapur is a plan- tation of recent date. The late Mr Poulton commenced this in 1854. There are, I believe, 2000 remaining of 7000 trees put down. 18. Conolly Plantations ——The fine and promising plantations on the banks of the Nellambur River, which were commenced about fifteen years ago by the late lamented Mr Conolly, Col- lector of Malabar, are worthy of a full and separate report, which IN THE.MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 11 will be a historical record of what can be effected by artificial means. These plantations will be an important source of supply in future years. They are under the immediate charge of Chatu Menon, a Nair, who conducted all the preliminary experiments. under Mr Conolly’s orders, and who has watched the young trees from the day of germination. I propose that two Duffadars should be sent, one to the Anamalais, and one to North Canara, to introduce the Conolly system of plantation into those dis- tricts.* 19. Poon Spars.t—These are becoming very scarce, and, con- sequently, are perhaps more valuable than teak. Young trees, especially such as are in accessible places, are most carefully preserved. Strict orders on this subject have been given in Coorg, Mysore, and Canara. In one case which came within my obser- vation, several valuable spars were found in a bridge, the total estimate of which was 250rupees.t This incident will illustrate the importance of officers in the public works and telegraph departments, &c., making themselves acquainted with the descrip- tion of timber available and suitable for their wants. I may also mention that the superintendent of Coorg has received several tenders for the supply of Poon spars and other timber at the dis- tances of at least three miles from the Sulia River, showing the searcity of such wood, and the readiness of the Mangalore con- tractors to carry it several miles to the nearest water carriage. 20. Blackwood.§—This valuable wood has risen much in price. Indents were received during the year both from Madras and Bombay gun-carriage manufactories, each for 5000 cubic feet. This tree was formerly given to applicants at three rupees each ; but, with the concurrence of the collector of Canara, I have dis- * Since writing this, I find that the Nair subordinates are unwillinggo leave their native place. One has been found ready to proceed to the Ana- mallais, but no one is willing to proceed to North Canara on any terms; therefore one of the Canara establishment will be detached for instruction to Nellambur. + Calophyllum angustifolium, (Roxb.) t Several instances of the same kind have occurred. Poon spars, although highly prized for shipbuilding, are ill suited for making bridges. @ Dalbergia latifolia, L. 12 FIRST REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS allowed this practice. There is not much blackwood remaining in the Anamalai forest, but there is a considerable quantity in the escheated forest of Chennat Nair, and it is abundant in the Wainad and Coorg. In consequence of its increasing value, I have given instructions for an experimental sowing this year at Nellambur. 21. Sappan wood.*—This important dyewood has engaged my attention. It appears to grow with great luxuriance in South Malabar, and is cultivated rather extensively by the Moplahs, who plant a number of the seeds at the birth of a daughter. The trees require fourteen or fifteen years to come to maturity, and then become her dowry. I saw more on the banks of the Nell- ambur River than anywhere else. Why itshould be there in particular is not obvious, as Malabar is generally uniform in its character. A better system of cutting and cultivating the sappan is desirable; and the dyewood is damaged, I believe, by being allowed to float in salt water. The quantity raised-is not great, but it grows without any care, and, from the facility of water- carriage to Calicut, I think that the district is very favourable for its extension. I sent a packet of seeds to Canara for experi- mental sowing on the banks of the Black River. 22. Sandal-wood.t—This tree has received much attention in Canara, Coimbatore, Salem, and a littlein North Arcot. It would appear that its spontaneous growth has increased to a consider- able extent; and it seems certain that, with the vigilant super- vision of local officers, and slight assistance to nature in clearing the heads of young plants, which are often matted down by strong creepers, an addition might accrue to the revenue of these pro- vinces, From information received from the late Assistant-Sur- geon Drew, I was enabled to communicate to the commissioner og Mysore the existence of a large band of smugglers in an unfrequented path near the Carkur Pass, who were captured by the Mysore horse, to the number of seventy-eight, with the san- dalwood tied on their backs. This seizure effectually stopped a long-continued system of robbery on the Malabar frontier, 23. Gutta-percha.—The “ gutta-percha tree of the western coast,” so called, has been traced from Coorg to Trevandrum. * Casalpinia sappan, L. ft Santalum album, L. IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY, 138 Ail the reliable information procurable has been condensed into a memorandum, and a large sample has been transmitted to Eng- land for report as to its suitability for telegraphic and other purposes.* 24. Catechu.—The enhanced value of cutt has caused an unusual destruction of the catechu tree (Acacia catechu), which was pro- perly restricted by Mr J. D. Robinson to certain places in the North Canara jungles to prevent total destruction. 25. Kino.—Two thousand trees of the kino tree (Pterocarpus marsupium) were seen along the roads through the Waindd, notched, as delineated in the margin, for the extraction of -kino, which is taken to the coast, where it meets with a ready market, and is exported in wooden boxes to Bombay. As the V-shaped incision ap- peared to be deeper than required, the collector has given instructions for the more careful treatment of the trees. This tree is greatly prized at Dharwar, not for its exudation, but for its timber, which is extensively used in the cotton-gin factory. 26.. Bamboos.—Immense quantities of fine bamboos are floated down the various rivers of the western coast. It is one of the riches of these provinces. They are ordinarily sixty feet long, and five inches in diameter near the root, These are readily pur- chased standing at 5 rupees, and small ones at 34 rupees, per 1000. Millions are annually cut in the forests, and taken away by water in rafts, or by land in hackeries. From their great buoyancy, they are much used for floating heavier woods, as matti (Terminalia tomentosa) and biti (Dalbergia latifolia); and piles of them are lashed to the sides of the pattimars going to Bombay. The larger ones are selected as out-riggers for ferry- * The report is not very favourable; the tree is Bassia elliptica, Dalzell; “ Kew Mise.” vol. iii. p.86; and Lsonandra Cullenti of Drury’s “‘ Useful Plants.” Fig. 2. 14 FIRST REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS boats, or studding-sail booms for small craft, In addition to the vast export by sea, it is estimated that two lacs are taken east- ward from the Supah talook. The Malabar bamboo is much smaller than that of Pegu (Bambusa gigantea), which is often eight inches in diameter. 27, Mode of Floating Timber.—It is curious to see the clever management of the floaters, who are a distinct class of persons. Rafts are of all sizes, usually longer than broad, and the logs bound together by the stringy bark of various trees, and stout branches passing through the dragholes at right angles to the log. In the centre of the raft a small hut is generally made of thatch, or bamboo laths covered with Palmyra leaves. In this the floaters are sheltered at night. It is not usually considered advisable to float logs when the river is at the fullest, as the raft is apt to go over the bank and be stranded. Numerous logs may be seen high and dry all along the sides, and the following year the flood lifts them. At night, floats are brought to under steep banks in deep water; they are then tied to the trunk of some adjoining tree. Occasionally the banks fall in, and serious acci- dents occur. 28. Introduction of Saw Machinery.—This has been much under consideration. There can be no doubt that it is most de- sirable to substitute the saw for the axe, especially when the planks are being prepared, economising both time and labour. Great efforts have from time to time been made, with more or less success, to induce sawyers voluntarily to resort to the forests for employment. As to the question of introducing circular saws to the little frequented forests, the measure would be attended with this difficulty, that, when the heavy machinery was con- veyed to the forest depdt as the elephant station in the Ana- mallays, it must either be carried back again at great expense, or left exposed to the mischievous effects of extreme damp, and perhaps to injury from herds of elephants. At present, there- fore, it seems more desirable that saw-pits should be for the most part confined to the coast depéts, and that their management be left to private enterprise. 29. Forges for Charcoal.—One of the difficult questions con- nected with forest conservancy, is the making of charcoal for IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. I5 iron-smelting. The forges in Canara are few, but there are many in Dharwar, Belgam, Bellary, and Mysore; and parties go into Nuggur or North Canara to make charcoal in large quan- tity. They make a hole 4 feet deep, 8 or 10 feet broad, fill it with wood, and cover it up. Having set fire to it, two-thirds or three-fourths is burnt, one-third or one-fourth remains as char- coal. Not only is there great waste in the making of charcoal, but there is great waste when made, the charcoal being inferior. The blacksmiths insist upon the wood being either of bamboo or jambay (nga aylocarpa), which is without reason, as I saw beautiful charcoal prepared by Mr Lowry at Tuddry of the com- mon woods. Brice and Co. have instructed twenty charcoal- burners, who use these woods, and turn out a superior article. They regulate the furnace by small holes, as do the Porto Novo Iron Company; Dr Forbes also, at the cotton-gin factory in Dhar- war. It is difficult to instruct native artisans in this matter, but it is hoped that the example of so many Europeans may be useful. 80. Executive Engineers, Surveyors, &c.—These officers, when making traces in the ghats, or visiting secluded forest districts, might render good service to this department by informing the nearest revenue-officer or conservancy employé when they see the firing of the jungles or destruction of timber. I have re- ceived, on several occasions, useful information from the chief engineer, who has sent me extracts from the diaries of his offi- cers bearing on the destruction of timber. On the occasion of making a new road, or increasing the breadth of an old one, through a valuable forest (as at Yellapur), it would be desirable that the district engineer should communicate with the forest assistant, so as to give an opportunity of removing the timber, which is often rolled down the side of a ghat, or left to decay where it falls. 31. Noxious Insects—I have called the attention of my assist- ants to the noxious insects of this country, inasmuch as the de- predation of several common Coleoptera (Xylocopa latipes, &c.) are most mischievous, rendering the rafters a mere honeycomb, I have had under consideration the importance of immersing the logs of all woods, except teak, in solutions strongly impregnated with mineral salts, according to Boucherie’s process. 16 FIRST RELORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS 32. Provision for the Ryots’ wants—It is most important that, while strict supervision is enforced in the Government forests, conservancy should not be carried so far as to interfere with the supply of agricultural implements to the bona fide ryot, or to.ob- struct the application of leaves and branches for alkaline material to fertilize his fields. In North Canara, the ryots have their coomuc, or enclosed piece of land, available for the use of their fields,—a good arrangement, when allowed to such estates as have been surveyed. Ido not recommend this in unsurveyed estates, because it leads to fraudulent abuses. The allowance is two hundred yards above ghat, or one hundred yards below. It is surprising how strictly these coomucs are conserved. 33. Provision for Mercantile Classes—I have already ruled, in cases referred for decision, that the ryot is from old custom en- titled to wood for his plough, &c., but that the sowcar, who wishes to make a cradle or a palanquin, or requires wood for house-. building, &c., must pay for the material. There are periodical auctions at nine places in Canara, where the sowcars can suit themselves ; and an extension of the system, so as to have talook depéts, is under consideration. 34. Coffee-—The successful cultivation of the coffee plant is extending remarkably, and applications for grants of forest land pour in upon the revenue authorities. In the Sispara, Perambady, and Sampajee Passes, vast clearings are being made. In the Kunur Ghat, six large plantations may be seen; and there are very large and numerous holdings, above thirty, inthe Waindd, which from year to yeaz*will increase. The plant has succeeded ad- mirably in Mysore; and there are patches of cultivation in Ma- dura and in North Canara. I may observe, that in granting forest land, it seems to me that while the destruction of forest (teak, ebony, and poon spar excepted) for bona fide cultivation may be considered legitimate, yet the preservation of the fringe along the crest of mountain ridges is of special importance in a climatic point of view; and this should never be given over to the axe. As these mountain crests are not suitable for the growth of coffee, the restriction cannot be complained of. T here beg to annex extract of letter to the collector of Coim- batore, dated 2d October 1857, which contains my views in reply IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 17 to a reference upon this important matter :—“ The higher sholas, clothing the ghats on both sides, are of the utmost importance, and the climate is believed to suffer the greatest detriment from their removal. J would therefore suggest that the high wooded mountain tops overhanging the low country (such as Hoolicul) should be preserved with rigid care; the forest there should not be given over to the axe, lest the supplies of water may be injured. It is the opinion of many persons, in which I concur, that the vast clearings which have taken place have had a share in producing the irregularity of the monsoon, which has of late years been so much complained of in Coimbatore. In order that the course of the rivulets should be overshadowed with trees, I conceive that the hills should be left clothed to the extent of about half of their height from the top, leaving half of the slope and all the valley below for cultivation. This available portion would far exceed in extent the higher ridges, which should be conserved.” It seems to me that the immense tracts of virgin forests in the rich valleys of the Kundahs are eminently suited for coffee culti- vation; and the removal of the forest there would not be attended with the same disadvantage as on the Hastern Ghats, where the drier climate does not admit of the same effort at speedy repro- duction. If it be desirable to lay down a general rule in regard to the limits of elevation within which clearing for coffee culti- vation should be allowed, I would specify from about 2500 to 4500 feet, this being, I understand, the extreme range within which coffee planted on a large scale is found to thrive. It is important to give every facility for the cultivation of coffee; but it is desirable to limit the clearings of those situations where this peculiar shrub can be grown with advantage. I have observed some clearings, where the ground is so precipitous that it is ex- tremely improbable that the soil can last many years. It may be urged that, in general, people are sufficiently alive to their own interests to select only those sites which are in every way eligible; but, from the inexperience of many who embark in coffee planting, it seems desirable to lay down some rule. J need only point to the vast amount of land cleared and subsequently abandoned, both in this country and Ceylon, either before or after planting. 18 FIRST REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS It is to be regretted that, independently of considerations of climate, coffee cultivation should find a place in those parts of the forest where the timber is of a superior description, and whieh at present Government is put to great shifts to obtain for public purposes. I would therefore add, that in places which are acces- sible, and which contain very fine timber, it seems desirable that one of the assistants in my department should have an oppor- tunity of removing sich timber as is available, or of marking it, with a view to its being taken at a valuation by the occupier, should he desire to do so. I especially allude to teak, black-wood, vengay (Pterocarpus marsupium), and kara-marda (Pentaptera cortiacea). 35. Tea.—I think it right to bring to the notice of Govern- ment the thriving condition of a tea plantation near Kunur, be- longing to Henry Mann, Esq., who has devoted much attention to it, and has spared no expense. This is a very interesting experiment. The best varieties of the shrub were imported from China in 1854, the seeds having been given to Mr Mann by Mr Fortune on his return from the tea-growing districts. There are now about 2000 vigorous plants; and, to ensure success, it seems only necessary to procure a supply of workmen to teach the ma- nipulation and separation of the leaves. 36. Difficulty of procuring Assistants—The removal of Captain Michael to Hydrabad, followed by the withdrawal of Captain D. Hamilton and the death of Assistant-Surgeon Drew, put me in a difficulty for some time. The two first were most zealous and willing assistants, and the last, from his patient habits of inquiry and botanical knowledge, gave promise of peculiar usefulness. The vacancy at Anamalai has been filled by Lieutenant Beddome, an excellent explorer, who has a good knowledge of the vegetable kingdom, and was recommended to Government solely on account of his powers of observation and description. I have issued “ General instructions to the forest assistants” in a circular, and try to persuade each to keep a small arranged herbarium ot flower and fruit-bearing specimens of all forest trees and their varieties, with notes. By inviting them to do this, I trust some will become at least observers, if not botanists. In India, there is no class of persons who have made it their business to attend IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 19 to forestry as a branch of rural economy; and of all those (about two hundred) who applied for employment, there was not one whe could be considered an intelligent forester, except Mr M‘Ivor, superintendent of the Utakamand Garden; Mr 8. Miller, assist- ant conservator, North Canara, who had been early trained in the Black Forest of Germany; and Corporal Hall, who had been a forester in the Midland Counties of England. Most of the others have to be paid to learn the outlines of their duty; and, generally speaking, those who have been soldiers or artificers are the most teachable, and give least trouble. They have been well disciplined, and obedience comes naturally to them. 387. Contract—Instead of finding a class of persons possessing knowledge of the timber trade, there is only a multitude of rogues ever ready to tender for contracts, to receive advances, and to appropriate them. On the western coast there are a few Moplahs at Calicut, and Prabhus at Mangalore, who possess elephants, the only efficient means of dragging timber. These last take gangs of coolies to the Coorg and Malabar forests, and show con- siderable energy in forming temporary dams, and floating down poon spars, &c. 38. Sub-Conservators in Canara.—The two subordinates I found in North Canara, under Mr Miller (Mr Gilbert and Mr B. Rod- rigues), appeared to be much too sedentary in their habits, de- puting peons into the jungles when they should have gone them- selves, and the like. The former has been removed from the department on account of incapacity; the latter is suspended under an inquiry for receiving bribes. 39. European Contractors—Two contracts have been entered into with Mr Ross, resident railway engineer, Coimbatore, whereby he has been permitted, first, to cut sleepers of certain specified woods in the forest near the foot of Anamalai, paying seignorage at the rate of 3 annas per sleeper; and, second, to fell 2000 trees in the Waliar jungle, at the rate of 1 rupee 8 annas per tree. Messrs Brice and Co., an enterprising firm, tendered for, and obtained permission to fell 2500 jungle trees within the forests of Ekagolly and Codlugaddi, in the Supah talook, North Canara, for supplying sleepers to the Bombay Railway Company, and agreed to pay 2500 rupees (half in advance), being at the 20 FIRST REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS rate of 1 rupee per tree, and on exportation a further seignor- age of 8 annas per tree: also, such quantity of bamboos as they may require to float down the 2500 trees, at the rate of | 5 rupees per 1000 bamboos. This contract extends over a period of two years, closing 31st December 1859. In the contracts with Mr Ross and Messrs Brice and Co., strict provisions are made prohibiting the felling of valuable kinds of wood, as teak, black-’ wood, &e. 40. Establishment of Depéts on Western Coast.—I am desirous of having well-arranged depdts at the mouths of the rivers on the western coast, and a classification of timber to suit the various purchasers. European pensioners of reputed integrity will pro- bably be found ready to take charge of these depéts. Con- tractors have this year been required to separate sound from unsound timber, whilst still in the water. I pointed out at Sidashegur and Hallial some desirable improvements; but the operations were suspended on account of the recent disturbances, At the latter place the depdt occupies an open space, and the large quantity of wood in store is scarcely safe without an enclosure. A small house for the European overseer is also required. The establishment of coast depéts involves an exten- sion of the department not contemplated; but I believe that from the absolute impossibility of finding a trustworthy agency in the interior, this is unavoidable. 41. Additional Overseers required.—T here are several localities, as Putur in South Canara, Palghat, and the hills west of Vel- lore, which require the supervision of a qualified overseer. Iam now en route to explore the capabilities of the first of these places, which formerly yielded much timber. At the second, I believe the salary of an overseer may be more than met from the aggre- gate receipts of the Waliar Jungle, and the escheated forest of Chennat Nair, at present leased to Mr Tomlinson. At the third, which I visited a fortnight ago, it is of importance that super- vision should be exercised over these hills, which the proximity of the railway has tended so much to denude. The demand for firewood has been so much enhanced by the vicinity of the rail, that I have seen root stocks and gnarled stems removed an the hill side, which should have been allowed to remain, in order IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 21 to secure a little moisture, and to afford leaves for manuring the adjoining fields. Mr Sullivan, sub-collector, is at all times most ready to assist in checking wasteful cutting, but the appointment of an overseer in his opinion is desirable. The tract of wood must be extensive which will cover the charge of an overseer’s salary ; and therefore in several instances I have urged the location of two talook peons, as at the top of Palamanair (shat, and at Devaroy-. droog in Mysore. The vigilance of two men during twelve months, at a cost of 7 rupees per month, has produced visible results; although the conservancy has not been adequately provided for, yet the jungle already begins to assume a much improved appear- ance. My attention has been directed to other places, as Raman- droog, the Nalla-malai Hills, the Shevarai Hills, the Nellore Jungles, and various localities in the northerndivision. Thayebeen in correspondence with the collectors of those districts, but refrain from making any recommendation of establishments to supervise these forests until I have an opportunity of personally inspecting them and judging of their requirements. I hope to visit these localities during the ensuing year. The great difficulty I experi- ence is in finding suitable overseers. The qualifications desired are as follows:—1. Robust health; 2. Rudimentary knowledge of forestry; 3. Acquaintance with accounts; 4. Integrity of char- acter; 5. Knowledge of native languages. In addition to the absolute scarcity of suitable men, the exposure, personal risk, and low salary compared with that sanctioned in the Public Works, have united to deter men from entering the department; whilst the formation of the Police and Revenue Survey Estab- lishments have attracted others whose services might have been available. Out of the large body of Europeans who have this year been sent out to India, I hope to find one or two who have a practical knowledge of woodcraft. 42. Proposed Depét of Books and Tools.—It has been proposed to supply a “Forester’s Guide,’’* and the more necessary tools, to each overseer on his appointment. The Conservator, as he has leisure and opportunity, spends an hour or two with his overseers to im- * The excellent work of James Brown, Edinburgh 1860, is perhaps the best manual for the department.—H. C. 22 FIRST REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS prove their minds, and has directed the assistants to teach the overseers, as medical officers are enjoined to train their subordi- nates. By adopting a system of weekly or occasional exami- nations, it is to be hoped that a class of foresters superior to the present may be obtained. 43. System of Correspondence—Where overseers are located, or forest operations carried on, orders are given through the assistant-conservator in whose range the overseer is situated ; but in any case, when forest management appears to affect the revenue or cultivation of the district, I immediately avail myself of the advice and counsel of the collector; and throughout I have desired to be in the position of his adviser, and not an executive trenching upon his authority. 44, Manual of Accounts.—A “ Manual of Accounts” for the em- ployés in this department, compiled by J. T. Maclagan, Esq., under instructions of Government, including simple forms of accounts to be used, and printed circulars for the guidance of overseers, &c,, was submitted to government on the 6th ultimo. At this early stage of forest correspondence, this manual must necessarily be imperfect; but being clear and concise, I believe that it will be of great use in the preparation of contracts and simplifying accounts. 45. Proposed Herbarium of Reference—Having received from the royal gardens of Kew a valuable set of named Indian plants, being duplicates issued after the publication of the “ Flora Indica” of Hooker and Thomson, I intend to arrange these materials in a consultable herbarium at the Presidency. It was indeed upon these conditions that I received the specimens. Such a collection is a great desideratum in the present day, when men of science frequently visit our capital, and we have not a single specimen of the collections of Roxburgh or Wight to show, but can only refer to their description. I shall not ask Government for any pecuniary assistance except to supply paper, the cases, and hereafter perhaps some manual assistance. 46. Manual. of Indian Botany.—I have the honour to enclose a specimen of the “Manual of Indian Botany,” now being prepared in compliance with the wishes of the Honourable Court of Di- rectors. The small amount of time which I can spare from other IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY, 23 avocations, the bodily fatigue and exposure I undergo, and the absence from my library for great part of the year, will neces- sarily protract the preparation of the work; but the great op- portunities I enjoy of collecting materials are eagerly laid hold of, and I trust that the Manual may, when completed, be a use- ful guide to the botanical riches of the Presidency. 47, Hmpenditure—The expenditure on accourit of the depart- ment generally has been as follows :— Rs. A. P. Salary of the conservator, the assistant in charge of the office at the presidency and the establishment, 17,873 0 7 Salaries of travelling assistants and their establish- ments, ' ‘ ji . ‘ . 6847 10 4 Contingent charges, . 7 . . - 8,868 14 4 28,089 9 38 ORDER OF GOVERNMENT ON THE FOREGOING REPORT. Extract from the Minutes of Consultation, dated 5th August 1858. _ No. 1086. Read the preceding letters* from the Conservator of Forests, submitting a summary of his forest operations during the past ‘official year (1st May 1858, No. 337). 1. The first of the papers recorded above contains the report of the Conservator of Forests on his first tour of inspection. His general route is thus described at the outset :— “T traversed Mysore and visited the (timber) depéts at the mouths of nearly all the rivers on the Malabar Coast, examining great part of the Western Ghats, with a view to ascertain the exact state of the Government forests, their extent and capa- bilities. I travelled through the most wooded portions, along the crest of the ghats, from the Bombay frontier down to Po~ * The substance of the other letter, relating to the labours of my tra- yelling assistants, is included in the subsequent reports.—H. O, 24 FIRST REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS nany, ascending and descending by the mountain passes. I afterwards went across the Anamalai Hills and round the slopes of the Nilgiris; I also made a circuit of the Wynéd, and twice visited the Conolly Plantations at Nellambir, being alto- gether eight months absent from the Presidency.” 2. The report has been perused by the Government with much interest. It is unnecessary to review the whole in detail; the points which require special notice are particularised below. 3. After noticing the extensive and often wanton havoc and devastation caused by the axe of the coffee planter and the kumart cultivator, Dr Cleghorn states that the profuse waste has been altogether prohibited in the Mysore and Bombay collec- torates, and is checked to a great extent in Canara, “ but has not altogether ceased, though the exertions of the collector and sub- collector have been successful in keeping under the destruction caused by vagabond tribes in burning wood, with a view to raising from the ashes a crop of inferior grain.” The Govern- ment resolve to communicate paragraph 3 to the collector of Canara, through the Board of Revenue, and that officer will be good enough to furnish a brief report of the result of his exer- tions for the repression of the system of kumart cultivation. The conservancy system in Canara is stated to be in advance of every other district, though still imperfect. A set of forest rules are said to have been framed, which are calculated to ensure a regulated and safe expenditure, provided the subordinates do their duty. The Government will be glad to see a copy of these rules, 4. Par. 5. The requirements of the various departments (Indian Navy, Madras Railway, Bombay Railway, Department P. W., Telegraph Department) have been unusually heavy; and owing to the withdrawal of the employés and matérial of the Forest Department, on account of the mutinies, the latter has scarcely been able to meet the demands made upon it, so that the operations of the past year do not afford a fair criterion of the prospective effectiveness of the Forest Department. 5. Par. 6. Speaking of the marvellous changes in the face of the country as regards tree vegetation, produced by the pro- gress of the railway, it is mentioned that a traveller looking IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 25 from the staging bungalow at Waliar, sees several “ tentative lines of rail, each 200 yards broad.” The Government suppose that Dr Cleghorn refers to the first attempts at opening the line through the Palghat gap some two or three years ago, and which Colonel Pears noticed at the time. The question of the payment of seignorage for sleepers, also referred to, will be dis- posed of elsewhere. 6. Par. 7. The collector of Madura will be called upon, with reference to this paragraph, to state whether he has succeeded in putting an entire stop to the devastation formerly caused on the slopes of the Pulny Hills by the formation of plantain gardens. 7. Pars. 8, 9. The improved methods of felling and trim- ming which have been introduced are satisfactory, though Dr Cleghorn mentions that, in some places, ‘* peculiarities of tenure” have operated as an obstacle to the introduction of improvement. In what way these peculiarities of tenure operated disadvan- tageously should have been explained. 8. Pars. 10-12. The proposed system of operations, and the measures taken to economise fragments and pieces of timber unsuited to naval purposes, are approved. The auctions de- scribed in par. 13 should be systematically held. At the end of par. 4 mention is made of the difficulties which still exist as to the supply of firewood to the large towns; if a regular supply of timber were ensured to the people by means of these sales, it would go far to prevent clandestine cutting; and judging from the result of the sale of teak held in the Anamalai Forest, they are likely to be a source of no inconsiderable gain, for even the frag. ments were greedily bought by the general trader, the Railway Department, &c. 9. Par. 138. Teak. This invaluable wood, the Conservator states, has received the special attention of the department. There is said to be very little ripe teak on government land be- low the ghats, along the whole length of the Malabar coast,* and there are only three localities above the ghats where it is found in abundance and of good size, viz. :— I. The Anamalai Forest. * Travancore is not alluded to, as not being in the jurisdiction of the Conservancy Department. B 26 FIRST REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS II. The Wainad and Heggadevankota Forests; partly, Dr Cleg- horn observes, in dispute between Mysore and Malabar. III. The Gund Plateau in North Canara. Sundry changes and improvements in the management of the Anamalai Forests which have recently been effected are detailed ; and with reference to the further development of the valuable resources of these forests, the Conservator notices that the supply of teak from the forest now rented from the Colangéd Numbody (Nambédri?) will not last more than fifteen years; “ which is a serious consideration, as it is the only forest from which long planks suitable for a man-of-war can be procured.” Dr Cleghorn has therefore conceived a scheme for consolidating the table-land of the Anamalai range, that belonging to Government as well as that rented, into one Government forest, to be systematically worked, and held in reserve in perpetuity for the Indian navy. It appears probable that the forest now rented is the Janmi pro- perty of some Malabar chief, with which it is not likely that he could be induced to part, so that it is not clear how such an arrange- ment as the one proposed could be carried out, except by means of a money compensation. In the separate communication which the Conservator promises on the subject, full particulars of the renting system should be given, and such peculiarities of forest tenure as may come under Dr Cleghorn’s notice. 10. Par. 14. The Waindd forests adjoining Mysore are of great value, and stand second in importance. They are capable, Dr Cleghorn roughly estimates, of supplying 2000 bandy loads, or 40,000 cubic feet of teak annually, without permanently in- juring the resources of the forest. But at present no means of carriage exist, by which “ crooks” and other timber required for naval purposes can be conveyed to the coast, where they would be extremely valuable. This paragraph will be communicated to the chief engineer, who will (after conferring with Captain Francis, who is, the Government believe, well acquainted with the locality) suggest a remedy, and show what line of communication could be most easily opened to the sea, or to any river navigable from where the timber could be conveyed to it, to its mouth. In the same paragraph Dr Cleghorn mentions that he has ex- perienced great difficulty in obtaining exact information as to the IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 27 extent and tenure of these forests. It is not stated whether the required information was sought from the collector of Malabar. The Government are of opinion, that the authoritative determi- nation of these tenures is an important preliminary towards the establishment of any system of conservancy in the forests; and they understand that a report on the subject is now about to be submitted to them by the Board of Revenue with especial refer- ence to Waindd. 11. In the same paragraph of the report, DrCleghorn also alludes to a subject (before noticed in the correspondence* respecting the Mysore and Malabar boundary dispute), which demands im- mediate and careful attention. He states that the authorities at Astagram and Coorg, and the commissariat officer at Hunsii, all drew his attention to the terrible waste of teak which occurs in the disputed tract, “ the timber being carted out in large quan- tities by three roads, under the plea of passes from two Devas- thanams, the limits of whose Inim land I have no means of as- certaining.” If these Devasthanams are in the Company’s territory, there would be no difficulty in prohibiting all cutting until the Dhar- makarta of the pagodas showed title; and if this was deemed good, measures might be taken to prevent rigidly any cutting, except within the limits assigned. But adverting to the scanty means of supervision in these remote regions possessed by Dr Cleghorn, the Government doubt whether it would be found prac- ticable to confine the felling within proper bounds; the better course would be to prohibit any such felling by the pagoda people ; and to fix an equivalent in money to the value of the timber, which inquiry may show they have a right to. If the Devastha- nams are found to be within the Mysore territory, a communica- tion of the views of Government will be made to Sir Mark Cub- bon. The arrangement of the disputed boundary is now before Government. When the difficulty is solved, the Government will be prepared to consider the proposition ,of the Conservator as to an officer being specially appointed to that tract of country. * From the Com. of Mysore, 16th January and 16th February 1858; from the Conservator of Forests, 28d January 1858; and from the Sec, Board of Revenue, Ist April 1858. Ex. Min. Con., 8d May 1858, No. 564. 28 FIRST REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS They remark that the timber may be essentially serviceable for the barracks and riding-school at Bangalore, and even for the military buildings at Jackatalla. 12. Par. 19. Dr Cleghorn here states, that a particular survey, and well drawn lines of demarcation between Mysore, Malabar, and Coorg, are, among other desiderata, necessary for securing an uninterrupted supply of teak for the future, and placing the estab- lishment for the conservancy of this forest on a proper footing. 13. As to the suggestion following, that a European magistrate should be permanently located in Wynad, the Government con- ceive that much benefit would result from such an arrangement. Independently of the fast-increasing European population, which renders the presence of such an authority desirable, the residence of a European officer in regions so inaccessible and so seldom visited as Wynad, would not only enforce the observance of conservancy regulations, but keep the Government aw fait as to the real wants and state of this important district: the present casual visits of the collector are quite insufficient to do this. This question is also before the Government for consideration. 14, Pars. 15 and 16. Canara teak is stated generally to be of much smaller scantling than that of Malabar; the chief remain- ing reserve is a forest on the Gund Plateau, the trees on which, now well grown and ripe, are said to be conserved by their inac- cessible position. Dr Cleghorn describes it to be of primary im- portance, that this forest should be immediately worked, as it is much threatened with fire. There are two ways by which the wood may be got out, either by a rocky water-course with at least three small falls, or by making a road of twenty-three miles. The collector, and Dr Gibson, the Conservator of Forests under the Bombay Government, incline to the latter course; whilst Col. Arthur Cotton,* and Lieut. Taylor, I.N., recommend that the rocks in the water-course should be blasted. Dr Cleghorn sub- mits a map of the forest surveyed by his assistant Mr Miller, in which the roads necesggry for the working of the forest are sug- gested. And he proposes that an engineer officer be deputed to visit the locality, and report on the best mode of getting out the * Now Sir Arthur Cotton, C.B. IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 29. wood; Capt. Walker of the Engineers, shortly expected from England, being one of the few Europeans who have visited the spot, and who has a knowledge of its requirements, might, the Conservator thinks, be directed to make an examination. The Government are fully alive to the importance of this Gund Forest; and as Capt. Taylor of the Indian navy is now surveying the Kala Nuddee near Sidashegur, that officer will be requested to afford the Government any information as to the accessibility of these forests that it may be in his power to give. 15. With reference to Dr Cleghorn’s request that 100 copies of the map of the forest now laid before Government should be struck off, it is observed that 200 copies of the report have been asked for; these and a similar number of the maps will be printed and lithographed at once. 16. Teak Plantations, p.17 segg. Colonel Gilbert’s plantations, commenced in 1804, are generally failures, owing to the injudi- cious selection of site too near the sea. The Conolly Plantations, on the other hand, are in a very promising condition; and the Government recognise the very great importance of restoring the ancient and valuable forests of Malabar, and will be glad to receive the report preparing by Dr Cleghorn. The Conservator proposes to depute two of his subordinates to introduce the plant- ing system in vogue there into the Anamalai forests and North Canara. 17. Par. 19. Will be communicated to the D. P. W., with a request that the chief engineer will impress upon his subordinates the necessity of care in selection of timber for Government works. The wood (Poon spars) which Dr Cleghorn saw used for the con- struction of a small bridge, it is most important to preserve for naval purposes. 18. Sandal Wood.—The spontaneous growth of the sandal tree has increased, it is stated, to a considerable extent in Mysore, Canara, Coimbatore, Salem, and a little in North Arcot; and the Conservator thinks, that if the supervision of local officers is vigilant, and slight assistance be given to nature in clearing the heads of the young plants, which are often matted down by strong creepers, an addition might accrue to the revenue of these pro- vinces. 30 FIRST REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS 19. Introduction of Saw Machinery.—Par. 28, The Government concur with the Conservator as to the propriety of deferring the introduction of saw machinery to the little frequented forests. This expensive plant can only be desirable when operations are to be conducted for a length of time on a large scale at the same place. At the depots, the saw machinery might advantageously be introduced, the timber being conveyed thither entire; mean- while every endeavour should be made to abolish the use of the axe. 20. Para. 30. Will be communicated to the chief engineer, with a request that he will direct his subordinates to follow the course suggested. 21. Par. 33. The principle here laid down is fair and highly proper, and collectors should give their aid in securing its ob- servance. 22. Par. 34. The Government fully concur in Dr Cleghorn’s views, as enunciated in this paragraph; which may be stated ina few words to be, that while it is desirable to give every encourage- ment to the extension of coffee cultivation, the destruction of timber must be prevented, by restricting grants of coffee land to places where the shrub can be grown with advantage; and, at the same time, the denudation of the higher ridges and slopes of hills, which if allowed may result in a serious diminution of the rain fall, should be absolutely prohibited; while those intending to occupy land containing fine timber, should be compelled to take the land without the timber, or take the latter at a valuation. The Government are aware that the (late) collector of Coim- batore, Mr Thomas, was fully alive to the importance of the prin- ciples laid down; but they desire that the Board of Revenue will communicate to the present acting-collector their wish, that the views expressed in the letter quoted should be adhered to in every way. 23. With reference to par. 35, the Government notice with much interest the successful attempt by a private individual to introduce the tea plant. Dr Cleghorn will be good enough to keep them informed of the progress of an experiment so creditable to Mr Mann. * The Government would be glad to see the general instruc- IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. él tions, par. 86, issued by the Conservator, when he next reports progress. 24, Par. 40. The Government will be prepared to take into consideration the establishment of depéts, when the Conservator lays a definite scheme before them. 25. Par. 41. The Conservator here represents the difficulty of procuring suitable overseers; and he shows the causes which combine to prevent qualified persons from entering the depart- ment. If, on further experience, these causes are still found to operate detrimentally to the interest of the establishment, it will be Dr Cleghorn’s duty to propose a remedy in the shape of a higher scale of remuneration. 26. Par. 44, The “ Manual of Accounts” alluded to has already been approved in Ex. Min, Con., 21st May 1858, No. 669, and 200 copies will be struck off for the use of the Conservancy De- partment, é&c. 27. Par. 46. The “ Botanical Manual,” under preparation, in accordance with the wishes of the Honourable Court of Direc- tors, will doubtless be a most useful production. The Govern- ment would wish some uniform system to be adopted in the repre- sentation of native terms in the Roman character. . 28. The account of the disbursements of the department, in the last paragraph of the report, should have been placed side by side with one of the receipts, 29. The present report, as well as Dr Cleghorn’s second letter submitting a detailed account of the tours of his two travelling assistants, will be submitted to the Honourable Court of Di- rectors, with a copy of the foregoing remarks. T. Prcrort, Chief Secretary. SECOND ANNUAL REPORT, 1858-59. From H. Creauorn, Esq., M.D., Conservator of Forests, to the Secretary to GOVERNMENT. Mapras, 31st December 1859, No. 890. I have the honour to report, for the information of the Hon- ourable the Governor in Council, that during the official year 1858-59 I proceeded on my second tour of inspection through the Government forests, and visited the Chittari, Yellagiri, and Jawadhi ranges of the Salem district, and afterwards travelled through great part of Canara, north and south [both above and below the ghats], and the principality of Coorg. Subsequently, I had the honour of accompanying Lord Harris over the Shevaroi Hills, and through Malabar and Travancore, After a few weeks’ stay at the presidency, I proceeded to the northern division, and visited the mouths of the rivers from Masulipatam to Ganjam. On this occasion I took the opportunity of visiting the S4l forests of Gumsir. 2. During the year, I have, in accordance with the instructions of Government, submitted my views on several subjects, such as— Railway requirements in Salem. Higher ranges of Anamalai. Do. do. Belléri. Wyndd Boundary. Utakamand Gardens. Report on Fuel and Firewood. Canara Forests. 3. Public Departments.—There has been a constant and heavy pressure upon all the district establishments and local depdts, which has been met with difficulty. The requirements of the Indian navy were not so large as in previous years, but the requi- sitions of the different railway companies were much greater. The Public Works and Telegraph Departments have continued to press for supplies; and the erection or enlargement of barracks FOREST OPERATIONS IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 39 at Belgam, Belléri, Bangalore, and Jackatalla, have in a special manner taxed our resources. 4, Military and Naval_—The requirements of the different arsenals have been numerous and miscellaneous, but, except in the case of the gun-carriage manufactory, not individually very large. The various items mentioned* will give some idea of army and navy demands. ; 5. Railways—The establishment of railways causes an im- mense demand for timber, and thus, as I remarked last year, entirely changes the features of the districts through which they pass. Each sleeper measures three cubic feet; and as one mile of single rails requires 1760 sleepers, and these will not, on an average, last above eight years at the most, we have an annual demand of at least 220 sleepers per mile, or 22,000 for every hun- dred miles. The total length of lines within the presidency, either sanctioned or contemplated, is, I believe, about 1150 miles; so that, if the above estimate as to duration be correct, at least 253,000 sleepers (say 35,000 trees) will be required annually. A portion of these will no doubt be procured from England, Ceylon, Burmah, the Andaman Islands, and Australia ; but there will still be a regular and heavy drain on the forests of this presidency. To meet this prospective demand, it seems most desirable that immediate steps should be taken to raise large num- bers of hard-wood trees suitable for sleepers, especially as sleepers of indigenous woods may be estimated at one-half the cost of those obtained from England. I have already suggested that railway companies, irrigation companies, sugar-factory proprietors, and others, who,consume large quantities of fuel, charcoal, and tim- ber, should plant to some extent for their own use in station com- pounds, along railway embankments, on the banks of channels, &e. 6. South-West Line, 400 Miles—The supply along the South- West Line has been better managed than at first, when a multi- tude of contractors appeared who engaged to contract for wood which was not their own. In August 1858 the Salem establish- ment was sanctioned, and Mr Blenkinsop appointed. The resi- * Gun-carriages, boats, gun-stocks, scaling-ladders, saddletrees, plugs for Minie-rifle balls, ropes for arsenals, &c. B2 34 SECOND REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS dent railway engineer reports that the supply of sleepers comes in much faster, and that they are in general of better quality, than those received at first. 7. Bangalore Branch, 80 Miles—The country near the line selected for this branch is remarkably wanting in useful timber, which, so far as I can learn, must be supplied in great part from the Denkinacotta taluk of Salem and the Concanhully taluk of Mysore. A special establishment will be required, and this is now engaging my attention. Seasoned teak for the Bangalore work- shop can be obtained at a moderate rate from the depét at Mysore. 8. North-West Line, 300 Miles——The first part of this line, which runs through the North Arcot and Kadapa districts, tra- verses a moderately wooded country, where there is a good deal of excellent timber. I do not anticipate any deficiency of supply in Kadapa and Karnil; the chief points to be attended to are the opening up of the country with roads on either side of the line, and the selection of people who will not cut wastefully. An estab- lishment to mark suitable trees will probably be required in the Kadapa and Karnil districts. The Belléri district is absolutely destitute of timber suited for railway requirements, and the price even of firewpod is excessive. In anticipation of the railway demands, an establishment has been organised in Mysore, and large quantities of timber have been floated down the Tunga, Bhadra, and Wurda rivers, to a point near where the railway crosses the Timbhadra. At this spot a depdt has been established. Piles of faggots for making charcoal, and large rafts of bamboos, have also been floated down. 9. Great-Southern, 300 Miles—No timber resources are avail- able for that portion of this line which runs from Negapatam to Trichinopoli. It is understood that the directors propose to send sleepers from England for about thirty miles, and it is probable that part of the remainder of the line may be supplied from Ceylon. For the proposed extension to Carir and Errode, and southwards to Tuticorin, we must look to the forests at the sources of the Ambrawatti and Bhowani rivers, along the banks of the Caveri, and those on the Pulny Hills, especially in the Cambam Valley. Sleepers and fuel can probably be rafted down the above- mentioned rivers, IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 35 10. Preserving Timber, Boucherie’s Process —The process of Boucherie, which impregnates timber with metallic oxides, ren- dering the softer woods durable under ground, and thus saving much valuable timber, would be of great importance to Indian railways, and should therefore be patronised. A prize medal was awarded for this process at the Great Exhibition of 1851, and a “grande medaille d’honneur” at the Paris Exhibition of 1855. 11. Telegraph.—The wire is supported on posts of sawn teak- wood, and not on young trees, as formerly. In some places, as near Darwar, “ matti” (Pentaptera coriacea) is now used, and many of the posts are excellent. In the northern division, the posts are of salwood (Vatica robusta), from the Gumsir forests. Two hundred poles of different species of trees indigenous to the Nil- giri Hills were lately supplied by this department for the experi- mental line from Utakamand to Kunir. 12. Augtions—I have endeavoured to impress on all in the department, that no wastage of timber (which will bear the cost of removal) can be permitted ; and every effort is now being made to turn to account all fragments of sound timber. My assistants have been enjoined to collect all outlying timber, and convey it to the depots, where it is sold by public auction, a full month’s notice of sale being given in all the local as well as the “ Fort Saint George Gazette.” No auction was held at Anamalai last year, the demand for timber being so great that offers were immediately made for all that could be brought down. Logs, planks, &c., unsuited for public purposes, are being collected at the foot of the ghat for sale by auction. One.auction was held at the depdts in Canara during the present year. On the whole, the proceeds were remunerative, and more than covered the ex- pense of dragging the timber out of the jungles, while, the lots’ being small, the poorer classes were able to suit their wanis. Much of the refuse timber which was not required for the Jacka- talla barracks, or which would not bear the carriage to Utaka- mand, is being sold below the ghat at Gindelpett, 18. Extension of System—(1.) Waindd.—The great demand for timber in connection with erecting public buildings on the Nil- giris, particularly the Jackatalla barracks and the jail, has called my attention to the extensive forests at the base of these moun- 36 SECOND REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS tains, stretching in a northerly direction towards Coorg, and some parts of which have been the favourite resort of sandal- wood robbers and wild beasts. In accordance with my recom- mendation, Government have sanctioned the appointment of an officer, whose salary is to be defrayed partly by this Government and partly by Mysore.* (2). Sigér—This forest has been much exhausted by a succes- sion of unscrupulous contractors, and there is very little teak or blackwood at present fit for felling. It is important that the forest should be allowed to recover, as it is the main source of supply to Utakamand for house-building purposes. I proposed that Captain Morgan should have charge of this in addition to the Madumalai Forest, with a small establishment costing fifty rupees per mensem. This was sanctioned,t and operations have now commenced. I hope that the sale of sandal and jungle wood will not only cover the expenses, but also yield a profit, while the young teak is coming on for future supply. (3.) Nuggur—In the Nuggur division of Mysore, also, an establishment has been organised, which promises to be exten- sively useful for the supply of wood to Belléri and the bare country to the eastward. 14. Financial results of Conservancy —From the returns of my assistants in Canara, Anamalai, and Salem, rendered to the close of the official year, it may be seen that the operations have in these ranges been financially profitable. Large supplies of timber have been furnished to public departments at a time when such was indispensably necessary. Receipts, Expenditure. Profit, Anamalai . . . . 9,835 33,012 97,318f Canara, ..... 100,604 34,325 66,279 Salem. 6 uw 2 4 7,805 3,048 4,757 15. Price of Timber.—The price of wood all over the country * Ext. Min. Cons., No. 577, Rev. Dep., 28th April 1859, par. 3, and letter of Commissioner of Mysore, 4th April 1859, par. 3. + Ext. Min. Cons., No. 668, 16th May 1859, Rev. Dep. { To appear in the next account-current, vide par. 17. IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 37 has been steadily rising for some time, and large timber is ob- tainable with more difficulty than formerly. In some localities, on the other hand, the price of timber has somewhat decreased, in consequence of the establishment of depéts having broken up the monopoly previously existing in the hands of a few pro- prietors and contractors. 16. Canara.—The forest operations have been more extensive than in any previous year, but chiefly above ghat, and, as pre- dicted in my letter of 7th December 1858 [par. 6], the gross return has not been so large as in the years 1855-56 and 1856- 57. Nevertheless, there has been a net profit of 66,000 rupees. The subjoined statement shows the quantity and quality of timber supplied to various public departments during the year :— Tak. |BLAcKWwooD.| JoNGLEWooD. ToTaL. : -| a]. | a o Deraneest | |e (S/glel [| | 3 lal | ©] 2 lel. AS secs} 4 15 lacie & [Glo |s ete eae 409} 904/12 45] 2 4/10)... | ... [.....]...f 421) 960] 1] 4)... Hydrabad, Scinde, en| BT] 118] ..elevelecefecc{eoe] see | cee feeeleeefeee] 87] 118] 2] 2/10) gineer, . Darwar engineer,| 187] 3441...)...|...|...|---| 538] 842)/...| 4]...) 725/1186) 3}...1 5) Belgam do., 88] 146]...|.:.|..-]..|---| 875] 160|...| 3/17} 463] 306] 1) 4)17 Lingasugur do., | 103} 188)...). ve] 16} 23)...} 2} 1] 119) 211) 3) 3/18 Darwar factory, | ... ] ... |.-.|--.[-..|...[---| 80) 48] 3) 4115! 30] 43] 3} 4/15) Belgam Barrack, 215] 417] 7| 6| 3) 1) 3) 531! 907} 3) 3111] 753/1892)...) 2)... ae WOK 1] 100) By). leesfeedeeeleeet ove | coe [eocfeealeee] 100] 88] 2) 3/13 Eduljicontractor| 9] 18)...|...|...l...[--.| 25] 21) 2)...]7| 34} 40)... 6 Total, . |1148/2177)19)52} 2).../13)1515/1998) 3).../11}2682\4229)...) 1) 4 The forest chart, which has been carefully prepared by Mr Miiller, shows the position of the teak forests, superior jungles, sandal-wood tracts, poon spar localities, and timber depéts. As this chart is likely to be useful to revenue officers and engineers, I beg to recommend that it be lithographed. The letter of Mr Fisher, collector of Canara (page 49), notices fully the chief points in the forest management for the year. I concur with him in reprobating (par. 18) the admission of the agents of public officers to fell timber in our reserved forests. The deviation was 38 SECOND REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS exceptional, and arose from the necessity of meeting large and emergent military demands, especially for the Belgam barracks, which could not be instantly met by the small staff of employés in the Conservancy Department. (1.) Gund Forest—Some progress has been made in working this valuable forest, and Captain Taylor, Indian Navy, has explored the Black River and taken the levels. He reports favourably as to the quantity of teak, and that although there is a.succession of small rapids, amounting to a fall of 120 feet in the river, the timber can be floated down, though not without some difficulty.* (2.) Wurdah River—Rafts are being floated down the Wur- dah and Tambhadra Rivers to Bellari, to meet the requirements of the north-west line of the Madras Railway. (8.) Roads.—The two lines of road specially recommended by the collector (par. 20) would be of great value to the Forest De- partment, and enable us to extend our operations into tracts which at present are inaccessible. (4.) Wood in Depét—The accompanying table shows the quantity of wood in store in different depéts; the proceeds of the auctions will appear in this year’s account :— Trak & BLAcK.| JUNGLE-woop. Tota, NAME oF : . Teets Derérs. a | 3s | a | i |g. 2) 2 ig) ..| | 8 ley Ba el AS See [s lade) 4 Sd be Anko-} | Sidashegar, {1112}... uefa ae fae fists? 1121 vole es lah, } Gungawally,|2362) 1... ...lof..] cee | ove fecsfereeee] 2362] 00. [thee - BINCY; « «| ome Town ae ...[-..] 981) 770} 3} 4 2} 891) 77013! 4) 2 4 [ Malanji, «| +. |... .../...]...{ 298} 292) 3) 410) 298) 299) 3 | 4110; 3 Katur, . . }1856/1498 2} 4115)1873)1812) 3] 1 4} 3229/3311) 2 |...119 3 | Mundagode, | 268} 224 2) 2/12) ... |... fu.) 268] 224] 2 | 2 (12) - Kantanally,| ... |... ... ......| 875] 549) 13 5| 375] 54911131 § Fy Kolekery, 266 195 ...} 1! 3'1634/1960) 1] 2 5) 1900'2155)1/3] 8 3 Bagwatti, GO) 35 8] 4/16(1055/1138|..., 212) 1115/1174] 0/2] 8 3 Hallial, 520) 878, 3) 2/17] 368) 428]...]... 1] $88!1306]3]2 118 a Shivapur, coe | see fecsfee|--e[1285/2216} 2) 211] 1285/2216] 2| 2 11 Sapah, | Harrigalli, [1411 2198) 2|,../12| 593) 941) 3 3| 3) 2064/3140) 1 | 3 115 BBE) cia [eelort| of BSTD| say. nrlsccf al STEP ace Lachaslc * Captain Taylor’s letter to Government in Ext. Min. Cons., No. 677, Rev. Dep., 17th May 1859. IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 89 17. Anamallait.—Liettenant Beddome, in his annual report, gives a concise and faithful account of the economy and working of these forests, which is generally satisfactory. The quantity of work done is considerable, but it would have been much greater if a sufficient number of axemen could have been pro- cured; the Palghat labourers, from whom we have hitherto drawn our main supply, find full and remunerative employment at the railway workshops close to their own houses. (1.) Extension of Road to Cochin Backwater—I hope that ultimately the forest road, which has been gradually extended westwards as our operations have progressed, may be carried on to the Cochin Backwater, forming another avenue of traffic be- tween the rich taluk of Polachy and the western coast, opening up a very wild country, intermediate between the Palghat Gap and the Aringole Pass. The estimate for the Anamalai Ghat, to supersede the present rude timber slip, has been for some time before Government, and the extension of the road above alluded to is a strong argument in favour of making this ghat. (2.) Elephants——Mr Beddome has been instructed to pay the mahouts what he considers necessary, and the services of a foujdar have been procured. The account-current does not show the actual profit of the year, from the circumstance of the assistant not having entered the receipts of the Bombay timber-agent as cash, in accordance with the order of Government. The sum [107,117 rupees] will of course appear to the credit of Government in next year’s account. It may also be noticed that the great object originally of working these forests was to reduce the price of first-class teak, which was yearly becoming more scarce and difficult to procure ; and indeed the Indian navy have latterly procured almost all their frigate scantling from this forest. 18. Salem District.—The indiscriminate felling of trees in the Government forests of Salem have been urgently brought to my notice by the collector, coffee-planters, and others. While the demands of the railway company required to be speedily met, I submitted a scheme for the consideration of Government, and suggested that a seignorage of 3 to 4 annas per sleeper, or 1 40 SECOND REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS rupee to 1-8-0 rupee per tree, should be charged; and to carry out this measure, I recommended a temporary establishment for marking trees suited for the railway. This was sanctioned in Ext. Min. of Cons.,-9th July 1858, No. 9438. As it was desirable to have an assistant immediately in charge of these operations, Mr L. Blenkinsop was appointed* to the Salem range, on a salary of 200 rupees per mensem. [I learn from the railway engineer that the selection of trees for sleepers is now more satisfactorily conducted than heretofore, and, as a larger proportion is accepted by the railway, there is less waste of timber. The seignorage derived from this source covers the expense of the establishment, as originally contemplated. The permanent employment of an assistant, overseer, and four peons, was sanctioned by Govern- ment.t Looking to the fact that the Salem district is to have the benefit of two, if not three lines of railway, and that the de- mand for renewing sleepers will certainly be very great, I think that planting operations will eventually be required in this dis- trict. During a period of financial difficulty, I did not venture to solicit a grant for this purpose, nor is it yet necessary. The forests on the banks of the Caveri are still unworked, but they are notoriously unhealthy, and little opened by roads. The Shevaroi, Collemalai, Chittari, and Yellagiri forests, have all con- tributed their quota. The following abstract gives the receipts for railway sleepers compared with cost of the establishment :— September 1858, Rs.18 12 0 October - $ 828 14 0 November _,, 5 127 14 Bs, December _,, : 654 6° 0 Assistant, , 200 x 9=1800 January 1859, . 1002 9 0 Overseers, . 60 x10= 600 February _,, - 1152 9 0 Peons, . x 648 March : . 8261 0 0 ae April Zi - 1259 7 °0 Total Rs. 3048 Total Rs. 7805 7 0 19. Ferry-boat.—Considerable difficulty has been experienced * Ext. Min. Cons., No. 1187, 18th August 1858, Rev. Dep. t Ext, Min. Cons., No. 626, 6th May 1859, Rev. Dep. IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 4] in obtaining large logs suited for the preparation of jangars or ferry-boats. (Vide Sketch). The wood best adapted and most used for this purpose is that of the aynee (Artocarpus hirsuta), which, though still existing in considerable abundance along the ghats, has been cut away in all the most accessible localities. The trunks of other trees (Terminalia sp. and Calophyllum angus- tifoliwm) are now hollowed out for making canoes. 20. Teak Plantations—(1). Nellambir.—Great attention has been paid to the important work of propagating timber. The thinnings of this plantation [several thousand poles] were adver- tised for sale, and readily purchased. They were admirably suited for fencing, scaffoldings, roofing second-class houses, and other economic purposes; as also for poles of country carts, yokes, &c. &c. The proceeds during the past year have almost covered the expenses of the plantation, and I believe I can with certainty assure Government of its prospective return being amply sufficient to meet all charges which may be incurred. This plantation was inspected by the late Governor (Lord Harris) in November 1858, and was noticed in his Lordship’s minute.* An ornamental wood- * “On the 19th I visited the Government teak plantations near Nellam- bar. I was highly gratified with the inspection of these flourishing woods, which speak fnost effectually for the sagacity, perseverance, and foresight, of the late Mr Conolly. So far as it is possible to judge at the present early stage of the experiment, complete success has been obtained. “Specimens are to be seen in different parts of the plantations of trees from one to fourteen years old, all growing most luxuriantly, and with a regularity and straightness which leads me to suppose they will become very valuable timber. The older trees had not, in my opinion, been thinned 42 SECOND REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS man’s knife and belt were presented to Chatu Menon, the native sub-conservator, by the collector, under orders of Government. (2.) Canara.—Ground has been prepared and plantations com- menced on the banks of the Black River, and two young men have been trained at Nellumbir to carry out the work. (8.) Nug- gur—Two teachers of planting have been trained by Chatu Menon, and reported qualified to form a teak plantation. 21. Australian Plantations.—These were commenced in 1856 by Captain J. Campbell, and were reported on by me in June 1858,* when I solicited a further grant of 2500 rupees, which Government were pleased to sanction. The increasing European population at Jackatalla and Kunér renders the preservation and increase of these plantations of essential importance to the barracks now occupied by about 1500 persons. They are now under the charge of Overseer E. Hall. A detailed report on these plantations has been submitted. 22. Planting at Utakamand.—Government, in Ext. Min. of Cons., 8d June 1858, were pleased to sanction the disbursement of 2050 rupees for planting out 10,000 Australian trees in the neighbourhood of this station, under the supervision of Mr M'‘Ivor, who reports “that four thousand plants have been planted in the sholah at Malf Mund; but about one-third of these died from being planted too late in the season. About seven hundred trees have been planted round the Utakamand lake and in the neighbourhood of the station. Six thousand sufficiently ; but I have no doubt this error will be remedied under the able management of Dr Cleghorn. “There was at first of course considerable outlay, without any return; but the thinnings are already beginning to amount to a considerable sum, and will of themselves shortly repay the expenditure, while the trees left for timber will be almost clear gain. “JT look upon this as a most important matter, and one worthy of being brought to the notice of the Supreme Government, as too great pains can- not be taken for increasing the future supply of timber. The native sub- conservator, Chatu Menon, is stated by Dr Cleghorn to deserve the highest credit for his care of the plantations for fourteen years. He is desirous of receiving some token of the approbation of Government; and I would pro- pose that an ornamental woodman’s knife should be given him.” *® Vide Ext. Min, Cons., 3d June 1858, No. 748, Rev. Rep. IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 43 young plants of acacias, cypresses (different sp.), deodars, and willows, have been planted out in clumps along the road to Jacka- talla,”’ where shelter is much required. 23. Distribution of Tree Seeds——Many applications have been made with which I have been enabled to comply. The French Government received a considerable quantity of teak and other seeds for experimental introduction into Algeria. Two supplies of sandal-seed were sent to Major Phayre, commissioner of Pegu, for the King of Ava; and at various times seeds of different useful trees have been sent to the Hyderabad territories, and to various stations in the Bombay Presidency. 24, Arboricultwre—The masses of the people have until lately been ignorant of the value of trees; but in the vicinity of large towns and along the line of railways they are now alive to the importance of this kind of property. I am full of hope that the ryots will gradually be induced to plant useful trees in their hedgerows and by their wells and water-courses, which, accord- ing to the new regulations, will be indisputably their own. 25. Avenues—Much has been done in some districts by the executive engineers in the way of planting avenues, and the trunk-roads are better sheltered by trees than formerly. There are few districts also without a nursery of seedlings, and the canals have in many places been planted. For the most part these avenues are under the charge of the Department Public Works; and, except occasionally supplying seeds, my work is confined to giving advice as to the suitability of particular trees to certain localities. 26. Reserved Trees.—The list of trees which, under the native rule, comprised only teak, sandal, and black wood, has been ex- tended to other trees highly valuable for building purposes, which in most districts are— Jack (Artocarpus integrifolia). Marada (Pentaptera coriacea). Ayni (Artocarpus hirsuta). Cedar (Cedrela Toona). Vengé (Pterocarpus marsupium). Erul (Inga xylocarpa). Palavu (Mimusops Indica). There are others which require to be conserved in particular dis- tricts. 44 SECOND REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS 27. Minor Jungles——The shrubby copsewood, which is so use- ful for fuel, is protected in some degree from wasteful cutting and conflagration. The management of these jungles, however, must always remain with the local authorities, who, in commu- nication with me, promulgated rules according to the necessities of their districts. No circular that could be devised would be generally applicable. 28. Sandal-wood.—The preservation of young plants, and the means of ensuring a regular income from this source of revenue, have engaged my attention. The system adopted in Mysore for this purpose appears to be judicious. Colkars are employed to destroy the strong creepers, which tend to choke the young plants springing from seed dropped in hedgerows by birds. It is their duty also to cut annually all ripe trees twenty years old, and no other, and to take care that the billets are properly pre- pared and sorted, and brought into the sandal godown. The sandal tree grows to perfection in Mysore, and yields a large annual revenue to the State. It also thrives well in some parts of Salem, Coimbatore, and North Canara, in which district it is now under the charge of Mr Miller. I have been in correspon- dence with the collector of Coimbatore, and have instructed Lieutenant Beddome to visit the téluks (Danaickencotta, Andyur, Collegal, Suttimungalum) in the Coimbatore district, and to sup- ply full and accurate information—(1.) As to the size and abun- dance of the trees; (2.) As to the method of curing or preparing the wood adapted in the district; (3.) As to the means most likely to improve the quality of the billets, and to secure a regular revenue to the State. Mr New, superintendent of the Lall Bagh Garden, Bangalore, has raised a large number of seedlings in a nursery, and finds the seeds germinate readily if sown within a fortnight after removal from the tree; but they do not bear car- riage well to a distance, and few germinate if a month old. Illicit Trafic in Sandal-wood.—On different occasions, while travelling down the Carir Ghat, I met parties of Mapillas with fresh cut sandal-wood on their backs, On inquiry, I ascertained that these men barter the wood with the Kirumbers for salt fish and cocoa-nuts. I addressed the commissioner of Mysore, the collectors of Malabar and Coimbatore, requesting their co-opera- IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 45 tion in stopping this illegal traffic, and I am happy to say steps have been taken which have nearly put an end to it. Mr Grant suggests that the most effectual way to stop the practice will be to grow the tree in Malabar. This will be tried; but there is reason to doubt whether the aroma, for which it is valued, will be produced in that climate. 29. Babul Preserves.—I have suggested that this most useful tree (Acacia arabica) should be conserved along the banks of the Tambhadra, both in the Bellary district and in the Nuggur divi- sion of Mysore. The babul springs up in the alluvial soil on both banks, in similar ground to the shikargahs of Scinde; and if three trees be planted when one is cut, there will be an in- creased supply of useful material in a few years. The pods and tender twigs form a favourite food of sheep in the hot weather. 30. Munjit.*—Samples of this dye-root have been sent to Cal- cutta and England for experimental trial and report. The pro- duct is abundant upon the slopes of the Nilgiris; and if it could be prepared for export so as to be packed in small compass, a trade would probably spring up. There appears to be very little difference between the Nilgiri and Punjab article. 81. Firewood.—There is no doubt that this necessary of life is more scarce than formerly, and more expensive near all large towns, owing to the greater distance from which it is brought, and the unrestricted license with which it is cut. Zamindars have increased their tax on wood, owing to the great demand for railways and other public works; whilst Government, in a liberal spirit, have left the fuel of a district untaxed, unless special reasons can be shown. Rules for the cutting of Striharicotta and other firewood jungles have been laid down,} and the subject is receiving much attention generally from revenue officers. 32. Charcoal.—Native iron-smelters employ fuel from one to three inches in diameter; and, to procure this, they take saplings, or the tops and branches of the largest hardwood trees, allowing the trunks to decay. Large trees are not adapted for fuel for smelting, as the cost of splitting them adds greatly to the ex- * Rubia cordifolia, L. + Ext. Min. Cons., 4th June 1859, No, 744, Rev. Dep. 46 SECOND REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS pense; and, unless the logs are split, the inner wood is not car- bonised. Skilled Europeans prefer branches four to eight inches in diameter, which size they consider most convenient for char- coal burning; if smaller, the wood is liable to be overburnt, and if larger, it is not properly carbonised. In the forests of the Western Ghats, the average price of charcoal, brought several miles to the furnace, is three annas a basket of 50 lbs. 38. Forest Conflagrations.—These are of frequent occurrence. The unextinguished fixe of a camp of Brinjarris, the sparks from the torches or cheroots of travellers, the spontaneous ignition from friction of bamboos, but much more frequently the wilful burning of grass by the hill tribes (as heather is burnt in Scot- land), in order that the ashes of the herbage may nourish the roots of young grass, and thus improve the forage of their cattle— are among the causes of this devastation which extends annually over large tracts. The largest trees skirting the forest suffer more or less from these fires, the saplings are scorched and muti- lated, and the smaller seedlings perish. If the same spot is again visited by conflagration in the following year, the largest trees which escaped the first time are often consumed. 34, Elephants—On several occasions my attention has been directed to the unceremonious way in which the mahouts of ele- phants, belonging to devasthanums, lop the branches of trees on trunk roads, as if they were entitled to gratuitous forage. This practice should be stopped by the officer in charge of the roads. 35. Forest Assistants——These are four in number. (1.) Lieu- tenant Beddome succeeded Major D. Hamilton two years ago in the charge of the Anamalai range. His report of the operations in that reserved forest will be found at page 538. Heis a botanist of great industry and promise, and has made some important addi- tions to our knowledge of the flora of Southern India. (2.) Mr S$. Miiller has been in charge of the North Canara forests since the death of Mr Poulton. He is a good Canarese scholar, is well acquainted with his district, and the forests under his charge have been brought into good order. (8.) Mr L. Blenkinsop was appointed to Salem this year, chiefly in connection with urgent railway requirements. Itisintended that he should have charge of the sandalwood in the north of the collectorate, and any plant- IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 47 ing operations which may be found necessary. (4). Native Sur- geon Francis Appévu is in charge of the office at Madras, and, during my absence, countersigns the abstracts and arranges the herbarium. I have also the benefit of the partial services of Captain Morgan, executive engineer, who has the oversight of the Sigdr Jungle, which lies on the road from Utékamand to Midumalai Forest. 36. Overseers —Two officers of this grade have been appointed during the year—Mr E. Thompson at Putir, and Mr Curry at Hal- lial—the former in South, the latter in North Canara. There are several places in which I am anxious to place overseers, as Den- kinacotta, Palghat, Pulny, Gumstr, and Kircumbadi. It is, how- ever, extremely difficult to find men of good character, steady habits, robust health, and some education, who are willing to take appointments involving a lonely residence in unhealthy climates. The risk of fever, the frequent difficulty of obtaining necessaries, and the small amount of salary, deter many persons from joining the department. 37. Public Gardens.—The horticultural institutions at Utaka- mand, Bangalore, and Madras, are respectively superintended by Mr M‘Ivor, Mr New, and Mr Brown. These gardens are valu- .able adjuncts to this department in promoting arboriculture ; young trees being supplied to the Road Department, soldiers’ gardens, and the public, at low rates. Seeds are also distributed to applicants at cost price. 38. Manual of South Indian Botany.—In consequence of ex- tensive travelling and separation from books and specimens, I much regret that little progress has been made in digesting the mass of materials accumulated in my different journeys. I hope to work up these in after years; but at present I can do litile more than collect and arrange specimens. Government will, I trust, excuse the delay which has occurred, my time having been so much occupied with investigating trespasses, settling boundary disputes, arranging jungle contracts, and conducting miscella- neous inquiries connected with the vegetable kingdom. The recent publication of Major Drury’s “Useful Plants of India,” a book which has had a rapid and extensive sale, has, to a great: extent, supplied the present want; and the researches of Lien- 48 SECOND REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS tenant Beddome, alluded to elsewhere, will greatly assist in the preparation of the Manual. 39, Presidency Office —Towards the close of the official year, Mr Maclagan, assistant in charge of the office at Madras, re- signed his appointment, having been nominated agent of the Great Southern of India Railway Company. The object con- templated in Mr Maclagan’s appointment to the department— viz., the arranging of a system of accounts—having been in a great measure accomplished, I considered that it would now be desirable to have an assistant at the presidency who possessed a knowledge of botany, and who could devote a considerable por- tion of his time to the herbarium, and answer some of the minor references during my absence. I accordingly recommended the appointment of Francis Appavu, native surgeon, whose assist- ance I had previously found of great value, when Professor of Botany in the Medical College; and with this recommendation Government were pleased to comply. Mr Spring, my head clerk, has accompanied me in many of my travels, and has made himself generally useful, often at the expense of much personal discomfort. The expenditure has been as follows :-— Rs. a. P. Salary of the Conservator, the assistant in charge of the office at the presidency and the establish- ment, é ‘ - . . 17,198 4 7 Salaries of the three assistants and their establish- ments, . p = ¢ 5 ‘ 5 . 183877 4 2 Contingent charges, . 3 ss 3 ‘ . 6,623 4 4 Rs., 41,193 18 1 The accounts of the Anamalai and Canara forests for the official year 1858-59 have been forwarded to the Board of Revenue. After three years’ experience I may observe, that it is only by the cordial co-operation of the revenue officers, and those under their orders, that the Forest Department can be successfully car- ried on; and I therefore strive to keep the collector and sub-col- lector informed of the nature, scene and extent, of all the forest operations in their districts, with a view to receiving their aid. IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 49 In conclusion, I beg to state, that throughout my tour in the pro- vinces, I received every attention and assistance from the local authorities. From W. Fisusr, Esq., Collector of Canara, to H. Ciuauorn, Esq., M.D., Conservator of Forests. MancGatore, 9th July 1859. 1. IT have the honour to submit the following report on the forests of this district, for the year ending 30th April 1859. 2. The account-current shows an expenditure of Rs, 34,325-7-9, and the gross receipts to be Rs. 1,00,604-10-9, leaving 66,729-3-0 rupees as net profit for the year. 3. The principles on which this account is prepared were ex- plained in my report for 1857-58; and, as I need not recur to them here, I shall proceed at once to notice the operations of the year under report, and make such observations on forest manage- ment generally as circumstances call for. 4, The transactions of the year may with advantage be divided into amani and contract works. 5. In the Supah Forests, 11,880 logs of teak, blackwood, and jungle-wood have been felled, trimmed, and for the most part brought into the depéts, under the superintendence of the Con- servancy establishment—the 22,794 candies of timber so secured costing Government about Rs. 1-6-2 per candy. 6. 10,300 teak poles, measuring 2495 candies, from clearings about to be brought under cultivation, are ready for sale, and will be disposed of with other timber after the monsoon. 7. The Wudders employed by Mr Miiller have been allowed to export butts and ends of timber lying about the jungle, on pay- ment of R. 1 per candy, and Rs. 139-7-7 have been realised on this account; but the arrangement does not appear to have proved satisfactory, and has, I gather from Mr Miiller, been dis- -continued, in Sonda at any rate. 8. Two thousand trees have been girdled on the banks of the Gangawalli, and some progress seems to have been made in plant- : c 50 SECOND REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS ing teak; but I learn this from the accounts rather than from Mr Miiller’s statements. In the southern taluks, the overseer, Mr Thompson, collected and sent down to Mangalore 189 logs of jungle-wood, the sale proceeds of which more than doubled the expenditure incurred in saving this wood from destruction. Scattered as it was, I am rather surprised that we succeeded so well, and I should have been satisfied by the mere payment of expenses of an operation which necessarily preceded the introduction of a new system. The timber in the forests from which wood can be floated down to Mangalore, is very much scattered; but Iam now engaged in arranging contracts, from which I hope to obtain a supply of timber for this market. Four contracts are in the course of com- pletion—two satisfactorily so; the third, however, has in point of fact expired, and some correspondence is now passing between Mr Miiller and me regarding it, as Mr Miiller does not appear to have put a stop to the contractor’s operations, but to have allowed him to proceed with his work, though there is little hope of his ever completing it. 10. Of the execution of the fourth within the period fixed, Mr Miller holds out but small hopes. 11. One new contract has been entered into for the conveyance to the coast of 2000 teak and blackwood trees, girdled in the lower part of the Gund Forest. The rates are Rs. 2-11-11 per candy, no distinction on this occasion having been made between selected and rejected timber. 12. A three years’ vaidah (permit) has been recommended by Mr Miiller on account of tbe difficulties the contractor will have to overcome in bringing out his timber, which is scattered over a jungle high up the Black River. The trees having been all spe- cially selected and girdled by the Conservancy establishment, it was thought unnecessary in this instance to make the distinction which contracts hitherto entered into have contained, and the contractor will be paid by the candy, and have no share of any sale proceeds, 13. From our depéts, timber has been furnished to the different public departments (Bombay Dockyard, engineers of Hydrabad, Darwar, Belgam, Lingasugir, Canara, and the Darwar factory) ; IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. dl but so much of it as is still unpaid for, appears in the accounts as at the depét. Mr Miiller has been led, I am sorry to find, into breaking through our forest rules, because otherwise unable to meet the sudden and enormous demands that have been made for timber. I however strongly object to this system of allowing the agents of public officers to fell timber in our jungles. 14. The people so employed are generally the very men whom we have had so much trouble in getting rid of, and who are system- atic plunderers. To return under any circumstances to a system which has cost us so much, not only in timber actually stolen, but in wanton waste, and to re-admit men into the forests who have every temp- tation to tamper with our establishments, is indeed a false step, and one against which I hope you will steadily set your face. 15. Dr Forbes, I see, continues to obtain his honé-wood (Ptero- carpus marsupium) at nominal rates, and I think this should be put astop to. Other public officers pay for the timber they take, and charge for it in their accounts, and Dr Forbes should in my opinion do so likewise. The Bombay Government manufacture and sell cotton gins below cost price, with a view to encouraging their adoption in place of the native instrament; and however praiseworthy or politic this may be, there can be no reason for our breaking through our system, the fairness of which both the Bombay and Madras Governments have admitted, when the onty point gained is a reduction in the cost price of the gins at the expense of the Canara Forest revenue. 16. Sales——As the contractors employed failed in delivering their timber in proper time, no coast sales have taken place; and Mr Miiller having postponed the Supah and Yellapiér sales, but one of any consequence has come off. The amount realised at this auction in the Sonda taluk was Rs. 22,465. 17. The only other points which call for comment, are depéts and roads. 18. As regards the former, Mr Miiller urges, I think correctly, that depédts above the ghats must from time to time be changed according to the position of the forest being worked, and the means of communication between it and the market. He would not, therefore, go to any expense in protecting them with walls, 52 SECOND REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS &c., where land carriage only is available; and experience shows that protection is unnecessary, no thefts having as yet occurred. Below the ghats, there is great reason to think that properly con- structed depdts would save timber, which can at present be occa- sionally floated away, sunk, or otherwise disposed of, until a sale can be effected. 19. On this subject I have already been in communication with the district engineer, who will take steps, in consultation with Mr Miller, for submitting plans and estimates for your con- sideration and approval. 20. Roads.—In Supah, roads are required* not only to enable the Conservancy establishment to work the forests to advantage, but for every reason, military and political. The subject has been constantly before Government, but hitherto nothing has been done beyond the rejection of the plans and estimates sent in, on account of their extent and magnitude. I would, however, ‘ take this opportunity of again urging the propriety of making these taluk roads the subject of special sanction, as one of the best means of restoring peace and safety to the people, and se- curing the future advancement and prosperity of the taluk. 21. In conclusion, I have to observe, that the establishment seems altogether to be working satisfactorily. Since Mr Miller closed his account of the year’s operations, a writer has been found for Mr Curry. Mr Thompson, in addition to the work performed in the Buntwal and Putur taluks, was for a short time employed in looking over the jungles in Barcur and Udipy, in which sandalwood stills are worked. Much of the jungle seems to be of little value, and is well turned to account; but the sandal- oil manufacturers have in some instances, notwithstanding all the precautions I have taken, found their way into tracts of good timber jungle. It is true, perhaps, that at present, at any rate, this jungle is from its position valueless, as it will not pay to work it, but I have taken measures to punish infringement of contracts, and to put a stop to the wasteful proceedings brought to light by Mr Thompson’s visit. The amount realised during the year under report, from sandal-wood oil stills, amounts to only * 1, Hallial to Mallapar wi@ Anshi Ghat; 2. Hallial to Tinny vid Jugglepett, IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 53 Rs. 75; but the fact is, that, up to June 1858, the proceeds have been entered as motarfa-tax, and those to be realised under the new system have not been collected within the official year. From Lieut. R. H. Beppomz, Assistant Conservator of Forests, to H. Crugnorn, Esq., M.D., Conservator of Forests. CommBaTorE, 1st May 1859, No. 87. 1, Ihave the honour to forward the annual accounts of the Anamalai Forests for the official year 1858-59, duly counter- signed by the collector of Coimbatore, with reference to E. M. C., 12th November 1857, No. 1153, par. 9. 2. I have experienced much difficulty throughout the season in procuring axemen, ag, owing to the great demand for sleepers, many Malabar axemen, who formerly looked to our forest for work, have taken contracts with the railway company. I pro- cured some axemen from Cochin, but I found it difficult to per- suade these men to remain long in the forest. From the above cause, I have not been able to cut as much teak for the Bombay dockyard as I could have wished; 275 trees, all of very large size, have been felled in the Colongode Nimbtdy’s territory, and 44 girdled trees have been felled in the Government forest ; these were dressed into 1565 pieces, and classed as follows :— 1st class, . ‘ ‘ : , 131 2d, ; ; : 187 3d, : : 281 Rejected, . 3 4 ‘ _ A 541 Heads, : F ‘ P x 345 Butts, ‘ : ‘ 130 Total, 1565 3. I was unable to cut the amount of timber (blackwood) re- quired by the Madras gun-carriage manufactory; but as Colonel Maitland’s demands were urgent, I purchased 4000 cubic feet of c2 54 SECOND REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS it from the Colongode Naimbidy. This I-succeeded in getting at 40 rupees per 100 kolls, all first-class planks, which, consider- ing the market rate on the Malabar coast is now Rs. 65 per 100 kolls, I consider was purchased at a favourable rate. The cost of this timber forms an item in my annual expenditure, but will be refunded by the gun-carriage manufactory. Late in the season I felled thirty-nine blackwood trees in the Govern- ment forest, which yielded 2430 cubic feet, now stored in the forest. 4, Tho Malsar tribe, inhabiting the foot of the Anamalai Hills, took contracts to supply me with vella naga (Conocarpus latifolia) and ven-ték (Lagerstremia microcarpa), two timbers required by Colonel Maitland for the gun-carriage manufac- tory. They cut about 2000 cubic feet of the former and 1500 cubic feet of the latter timber. Of this, about 2000 is of the di- mensions and quality required by the gun-carriage manufactory, and the remainder can be sold at the annual auction. 5. This tribe have been very useful during last season, as I could not otherwise have procured axemen for this work, The Malsars have hitherto done nothing in the forest but prepare elephant ropes from the “ vaca nar” (Sterculza villosa), assist in the clearing of brushwood, and repair of roads, &c., for which they are paid daily hire. This season I found them willing to take contracts for the supply of the above timber, though they often would not come up to work in the forest for daily wages. I could not procure the services of any of this tribe for the usual repairs to the forest roads, and was obliged to contract for the same with the Wudders, who are an unsatisfactory tribe to deal with; they will only work by contract, and two-thirds invariably run away when they have received their advances. They also suffer more from fever than the Malsars.. I had great difficulty in getting the roads repaired before the carting commenced: hitherto the Malsars have performed this work, but I could not persuade them to give their services this season. They seemed under the impression that they were not allowed to work in the forest even if they wished; and sometimes I had great difficulty in procuring the necessary supply of elephant rope from them. IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 55 6. Almost all the girdled trees were felled and trimmed this season, and Rs. 84 were spent in clearing the brushwood round the outlying timber and young saplings, to guard against fire. This amount was expended chiefly in February and March, pre- vious to the periodical fires. No timber was lost by fire this season. I could wish to do more in the way of clearing, trim- ming, and protecting the young teak saplings in the forest, but the impossibility of procuring labour is an obstacle that I cannot contend against. 7. The timber slip was put into fair repair at the end of No- vember, at the small cost of Rs. 70. These repairs only last for the slipping season, and require to be repeated each year. It is useless attempting any repaiis until after the rains, as the slip is then a watercourse, and everything is swept away with heavy rain. The slipping of Bombay planks, however, need not com- mence until December, and logs and butts are not much damaged by the slip being out of repair. 8. The slipping of planks, &c., has this year been entirely per- formed by our elephants. The Malsars will never undertake this work; and the Colongode coolies, who undertook part of this work last season, lost so many of their number, and suffered so much from the fever, that they refuse to come this year. 9. Ihave had great annoyance and difficulty with cart con- tractors this season ; many have left us and gone over to the rail- way, preferring to take work in and near Palghat to entering the forests. The advances formerly given to these cart con- tractors were very large. I have lessened these, never in any case giving more than Rs. 10 per cart in advance, and half of this is withheld until the carts are brought up above ghat. I have lost the services of several contractors by so doing, mie the measure seemed necessary. 10. Of the planks cut this season, 885 have been carted to Mungara, 105 remain at foot of ghat, and will be carted before the end of the month. 11. I tried this year to procure coolies to float planks down the river to Ponany, thinking that thereby a saving might be made upon the eontract system ; all the coolies, however, are in the pay of the contractors, who have the monopoly of floating all the 56 SECOND REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS timber that goes down the river. I failed in my attempts, but succeeded in getting the contractors to reduce their rates from 7 to 6 annas per plank. 12. In anticipation of Lord Harris’s visit to the forests, a wooden bungalow was erected, at a cost of about seventy rupees. This amount is included in the hutting expenses. The building has proved very useful for the establishment. 13. The Kaders, who were formerly located near Tunacadava (our forest station), have entirely left our portion of the forest, and have gone over to the Cochin territory. They state their reasons for so doing to be, that the hill produce on our side is exhausted. ‘They pay Mr Kohlhoff, on behalf of the Cochin forests, Rs. 100 per annum for the privilege of collecting cardamoms, ginger, &c.; whereas they paid no seignorage for the hill produce collected in our forests. I regret the loss of their services as guides; but otherwise they were of no use in the forest, refusing to undertake any labour whatever. One of the tribe (Atly) has agreed to reside at Tunacadavi as a guide, receiving an increased salary. 14. There have been great changes in my office establishment during this year. Myr St Martin, head overseer, resigned his ap- pointment. Mr Lennon, second overseer, was then at Madras, and his return to the department was at the time doubtful; so I nomi- nated Mr Smith to the office. He suffered much from fever, and resigned immediately. Mr Lennon was afterwards appointed first overseer, and has given much satisfaction during the last working season. Mr Martin, junior, third overseer, also resigned his ap- pointment about the middle of the working season. I procured a second overseer in Mr Eagles, and I have appointed a native to the office of third overseer. My writers and duffadar have several times been changed, the fever frightening them away; and one writer, who had been two years in the Forest Department, died from jungle fever. 15. The district engineers of Trichinopoly and Salem have indented largely for teak timber this season; the former has paid Rs. 3342 for teak logs, and the latter has received teak to the value of Rs. 2270-12-10, This timber was all supplied from logs cut in former years, and outlying in the forest. These large IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 57 demands from public offices precluded the possibility of my holding an auction during the year. I used every effort to meet them, and supplied every log that I was able to cart and slip out of the forest. I hope to hold a public auction in August or Sep- tember next. 16. I greatly require the services of more elephants, but do not know where to procure them. From the Rs. 10,000 sanc- tioned by Government for the purchase of elephants, 4945 still remain in hand. I regret to report the death of one of our forest elephants during the past season, and also of two old decoy-ele- phants lent by the collector's department. 17. The services of a Foujdar to look after the elephants, and to treat them when sick, would be a great addition to the Forest establishment. I have great difficulty in procuring mahouts and under-mahouts. The pay sanctioned for the former being only five rupees per mensem, and for the latter only three rupees, which is less than half the salary generally given on the Malabar coast, I can only procure men of the lowest description, and they are continually running away. 18. The Waliar jungle, close to the Anamalai Hills, has been worked systematically this season by Mr Ross of the Madras Rail- way Co. Trees only of a certain girth have been cut. He has paid Rs. 8342 seignorage upon sleepers cut from jungle-wood in this forest. Teak and blackwood are strictly preserved. 19. A new platform to the large bridge near Colongode, over which all the timber for the Bombay Dockyard is carted, was made this season, at the cost of Rs. 179-2-9. 20. The account-current does not show the actual profit of the year, as only the sums of money which have been actually paid appear on the credit side; -all wood sold and not paid for during the year appears in No. 3 Memorandum. After deducting the sum of Rs. 6,110-12-9 that has been paid for the gun-carriage manufactory, and which is being refunded to us, the expenditure of the year, including the pay of the establishment, amounts to Rs. 22,383-0-2. The amount of timber sold during the year amounts to Rs. 119,701-7-9, which gives a profit for the year of Rs, 97,318-7-7. 21. The following is a comparative statement of teak timber 58 FOREST OPERATIONS IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. supplied to the Bombay Government for dockyard purposes in the years 1857-58 and 1858-59, showing the number of planks, quantity, and class, delivered, and the amount realised in each year, the rate being determined by the collector of Malabar from the fair market value :— For the year 1857-58. For the year 1858-59. Quantity. 5 Quantity. 3 gz o g ° a =| Amount, a =} Amount. |, a a] 3] 3 B aj] a|S 3 9 . oo Set * > Zio! 4 [ale is Zio] 4 |aele A Rs. |a.|P. Rs. /a.J Pl. 715|1st. | 49,971| 4| 24|80) 39,977| 1| 2} 74gliet. | 56,107 | 9| 3175) 42,080] 8| 7/2 572[2d. | 33,503] 2/14/70 23,452] 4) 3| 46iad. | 25,565 |10| 7|65| 16,617| 8| 6st 1314|3d. | 60,331 |10) 4 |60) 36,199! 1] 9] zaslsd. | 33,164! 8110/55/ 18.240] 6| 4/2 260/4th.| 9,440] 4 2 |50} 4,720! 9] 9} go0l4th.| 9,345) 7l14l45] 4/205) 6| 4l@ 81}5th.| 2,685] 2) 3 |40} 1,074 1] 2] 1oi/sth.| 3,813 11) 240] 1,525] 6| 23 112|Infe- Infe- " rior.| 4,841) 6113/35} 1,694! 8| 8! 157lrior.| 6,557) 7| 1/30 1,967] 3] og 3057} | 160,773| 6 5 | |107,117| 3] 9j2sea| [184,555] 6| 5| | 84,636) 611 THIRD REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS. From H. Cuzauorn, Esq., M.D., Conservator of Forests, to the SECRETARY to GOVERNMENT. Fort Sr Groras, 31st August 1860, No. 148. Sm,—My annual tour commenced on 4th Jan. 1860, by an inspection of the sandal-wood tract in Nuggur, Mysore, and then of the railway operations in the neighbourhood of Shemoga. Afterwards I crossed into North Canara, and observed the general state of the forests in the neighbourhood of Sircy and Yellapur; then I went with Mr Miller to Hallial, and to the Sidh temple on the Belgam frontier, which has been the subject of old stand- ing controversy. ‘We passed down to the plateau of Gund, where operations are now commencing, and reached Sidashegur by boat. From this my most distant point I was summoned by Sir C. Trevelyan to meet him at Utakamand, and, en route to the Nilgiris, inspected the Nellambur teak plantations. I had the honour of discussing with his Excellency various questions con- nected with the forest management of the mountain ranges, and visited the Australian plantations, Sigar and Mudumalai forests, part of Wainad and Coimbatore. In July, having suffered from the effects of fever, I returned to Madras. 2. Special Reports despatched during 1859-60, and dates of Orders :-— Mem. on the Introduction of the Cinchona Trees, 280th ane} G. O. 10th Sept. 1859, No. 1397. 1859, No. 766. Kuntr Teak Plantation, 27th Aug. 1859, No. 762. } G. 0. 2ist Sept. 1859, No. 1272, Report on the Mudumalai Forest, } 8th Aug. 1859, No. 744 G. O. 24th Sept. 1859, No. 2298. Report on the Malsar Farm, 15th Oct. 1859, No. 820. G. 0. 4th Nov. 1859, No. 1500. 60 THIRD REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS Suitability of Gali-Paravattam Hill for Coffee, 15th Dec. 185, | G. 0. 10th Jan. 1860, No. 78. No. 874. Second Report on the Australian Plantation near Wallington, } G. 0. 20th Jan. 1860, No. 101. 15th Dec. 1859, No. 877. The Forests and Fuel of the Nilgiri Hills, 8th Nov. 1859, | G. O. 20th March 1860, No. 425. No. 836. 3. Pressure on Forests.—There are many causes at work which are gradually thinning the ranks of our indigenous forests. The first, and by far the most formidable of these, is railway require- ments. It is scarcely credible the many thousands of large forest trees which have been felled in the neighbourhood of the various lines of railway within the last few years. Another source of diminution, affecting only scrubby copse and minor forest, is the extension of cultivation consequent upon the reduction of the land-tax and increased facilities of communication. There is every probability that the clearing both of the forest and jungle will go on so long as grain maintains its present tempting price. 4, Military Requirements—The barracks at Wellington are now nearly finished, and there has not been much pressure during the year from the gun-carriage factory or arsenals; the only special references have been with regard to materials for gun- stocks and saddletrees.. The palavu-wood (Mimusops indica) is in large demand by the Ordnance Department for gun-stocks. Until recently it was not included among the reserved woods, and the tree accordingly was extensively cut for private pur- poses. Steps, however, have now been taken to prevent this wood being removed ; and the collector of Tinnevelly (where the tree chiefly grows) has been requested to inform the subordinate revenue officers in his district that all private cutting of palavu is restricted. The bér tree (Zizyphus jujuba) is approved for saddletrees. 5. H. M. Dockyard,—A reference was made from the Secretary of State for India, through the Government of Bombay, as to the possibility of supplying a durable timber called Ayni or Angilt (Artocarpus hirsuta) for the Royal Navy. The officers IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 61 in charge of the forests in Canara, Cochin, Travancore, and the collector of Malabar, were called upon for their opinions as to the size and quantity procurable in their respective districts. The report of the resident of Travancore, and all the papers connected with this subject are recorded in Pro. of Government, No. 806, dated 19th May 1860. Mr F. N. Maltby believes that 10,000 loads per annum for five years might be supplied, at the rate of Rs. 12 to 14 per candy (154 cub. ft.), to the great advantage of the Travancore State. The Admiralty are looking to India for supplies of timber. If the forests of this presidency are called upon to any extent to meet the demands of the Home Government, it is evident that the conservancy of all reserved tracts must be rigorously enforced. There are many temptations to rob the forests of the young trees; and the result is, that ma- ture timber (teak especially) is becoming everywhere more scarce. 6. Railways——The Madras Railway has hitherto used to a very great extent the indigenous woods for sleepers. About thirty kinds of timber* have been tried experimentally, but the expe- timent has not been attended with satisfactory results—not always because the woods were worthless, but from the timber not having reached a sufficient age, and from its being used in a comparatively green state. Experience has been gained, and better prospects are dawning on the company in this great essen- tial of railway operations. The chief engineer issued a useful * Revised Specification List (1860). 1. Teak (Zectona grandis). 18, Katvai maram (Acacia speciosa). 2. Sdl (Vatica robusta). 19, Cumbadri maram. 3. Sissoo (Dalbergia sissoo). 20. Somida wood. (Vide 11.) 4. Pedowk (Pterocarpus indicus). 21, Aré wood. 5. Kara mardd (Terminalia glabra). 22, Angili (Artocarpus hirsuta). 6. Maruthy maram (Zerminalia alata). 23, Chor kalli. (Vide 11.) 7. Acha maram (Hardwickia binata). 24. Karungalli (Acacia sundra). 8, Véngé maram (Péerocarpus marsupium). 25. Nat vadam cott6 (Terminalia catappa). 9. Cadukai maram (Terminalia chebula). 26. Vaden Cumé (Bignonia xylocarpa). ~ 10, Nicani maram (Conocarpus latifolia). 27, Vella nagd (Conocarpus latifolia). 11. Sem maram (Soymida febrifuga). 28, Sadachu (Grewia tiliefolia). 12. Karn véngé, or Chila Wungé maram 29. Mulu véngé (Briedelia spinosa). (Acacia odoratissima). 30. Ané carrar (Garuga pinnata). 18, Perambé maram (Prosopis spicegera). 31, Padri maram (Bignonia chelonoides). 14, Erul maram (nga xylocarpa). 32. Privii maram (Schleichera trijuga). « 15, Velvéngé maram. (Vide 18). 83. Vilagam (Jeronia elephantum). 16. Karuvela maram (Acacia arabica). 34, Aynt (Vide 22.) 17. Dud Ilupé maram (Bassia longifolia). 62 THIRD REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS circular to the officers of districts regarding the branding of sleepers, of which the following is an extract :— “At the time of passing the sleepers, they must be branded with a letter showing the kind of wood according to the table annexed, Zinc labels will be prepared, which, being nailed to the sleeper, will remain legible even after its decay. These will not supersede the branding, but be used in addition to it.” Mr Ross, resident engineer at Palghat, is working the Chennat Nair Forest on contract, where there is a large supply of well- grown eral (14), véngé (8), kara-marda (5). He conducts the operations with energy and judgment. The work is occasionally inspected by myself, or the assistant in charge of the Anamalai range. Permission has also been given to the same company to obtain timber for the north-west line from the forests of Nuggur in Mysore, which have lately been placed under the care of Dr Oswald. Mr Brice, resident engineer at Bellary, met me at Hurryhur, and we concluded the arrangements with the Mysore Government. The large and extending timber trade on the Tumbhadra is forming a new and interesting feature of the country. Teak, which is more durable than any description of fir, although prepared with creosote, and the best of all woods for sleepers, is considered by the officials of the company too ex- pensive. Sal, the next best, is only procurable in any quantity in Orissa. The agent of the Madras Railway has been negotiating with Messrs Binny and Co. for the purpose of procuring it from the district of Ganjam. The pyengadu of Burmah, which Lieut. Williams recommended in his letter to the chief secretary,* as a superior wood, and suitable for railway purposes, is identical with the erdl of Malabar, the jambé of Canara, and is the Inga sylocarpa of botanists. Jarrah or Yarrah (Eucalyptus rostrata), a wood from Western Australia, was specially noticed in a despatch from Lord Stanley to this Government (9th Jan. 1859), and furnished to the agents of the railways in this presidency. This pseudo mahogany of * E. M. C.. No. 644, dated 18th Aug. 1859. IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 63 the colonists is being largely imported into Scinde and Ceylon ; and Mr Acworth intimated to me that he had entered into a contract for 7000 Jarrah sleepers. It is important to watch this experiment, as the result is of the first moment, no wood having hitherto been found to resist white ants (Termites), combined with exposure to heat and moisture. A timber trade with Australia would benefit the colony, and supply the Indian market with a substitute for teak, which is yearly becoming more scarce and costly. The first cargo of yarrah has arrived from Swan River. Some species of Hucalyptus are considered half hardy in the south of England; and as there are many fine specimens on the Nil- giri Hills, and a few at Bangalore, there is reason to hope that these valuable trees may succeed on our mountain-ranges, and furnish a timber superior to any of the indigenous woods. It has recently been proposed to substitute sleepers of cast-iron for those of wood, and the plan has already been carried out on a large scale; it is thought that iron will in the end be found the most economical material for sleepers. Trenails and Wedges.—The Indian woods which appear to be best adapted for these purposes are Kara-mardé (Terminalia glabra), and Sal (Vatica robusta); the former for trenails, the latter for wedges. él is a hard wood, possessed of considerable elasticity, and resists the attacks of white ants. These woods should have a second seasoning after they are manufactured, as there is a material shrinking immediately after the piece has been cut out of the log and shaped. The ends of the trenails should be dipped in tar as a precautionary measure. 7. The Preservation of Timber—In an economical point ot view, this subject is of the greatest importance. Railway sleepers, which ought to have stood five or six years at least, have been found useless after being laid down not more than one-third of that time; in fact, there are some parts of the Madras line where it was necessary that they should be taken up and replaced before the district itself was completed. The durability of woods is affected by a variety of causes, and their liability to rapid decay may be prevented by certain precautionary measures :— (1.) Season of Felling —The sapwood is the portion of the tree 64 THIRD REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS first liable to undergo fermenting changes ; it is to these changes that the decay is traced,-and it is therefore of the utmost im- portance that the tree should be felled at those seasons when it contains the smallest portion of sap; in the case of trees (teak) whose leaves are deciduous, this is indicated by the nakedness of the tree, and in evergreens by the ripening and falling of the fruit. The proportion of heart to sapwood varies* in different trees, according to the age at which they have been felled, and the soil upon which they have grown ; for instance, the teak tree in Mala- bar differs from teak in Anamalai. In mature trees there is no sapwood, and it is one of the main objects of Conservancy that these only should be cut. There is another point in connection with the period of felling which ought to be noticed. It is a wide-spread opinion that trees should be felled during the wane of the moon. This planetary influence is open to doubt, but the opinion prevails wherever there are large forests; the wood- cutters of South America act upon it, and the natives of this country believe that the timber is much more likely to decay if cut when the moon is in ‘‘ crescente.” (2.) Ringing or Girdling—The custom of ringing the tree before felling has been advocated, on the ground that the sea- soning is thereby expedited, and also more thoroughly effected. This is doubtful, at least in oil-containing trees (as teak), but the practice appears to be contra-indicated for other reasons; when a tree has been ringed, the woodcutters object to cut it down, on account of its increased hardness; this objection might be waived, were it not for another and more serious one which has been adduced. It is believed to be a fact by some, that trees felled after girdling have the heart-shake increased. It is difficult to explain this if it be actually the case. (3.) Splitting —It is of the utmost importance that timber, in the process of seasoning, should be protected from heat, and par- ticularly from the hot winds. The external fibres of the wood, being first exposed, contract; and as there is no corresponding shrinking of these fibres in the centre, cracks and splits are the * As to the varying quality of cedar-wood, see Hooker and Thomson's Flora Indica, p. 30. 66 THIRD REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS solve out. Some of the modes which have been adopted are in- compatible with this, and are therefore so far unsatisfactory. The object of Boucherie’s process is to displace the fermentable sap by a fluid less liable to change. His method has been largely practised in France, and there favourably reported on ; but subsequent experience shows that its success remains to be proved. Another fact should be mentioned, that this fluid can only be made to penetrate the softer woods, refusing to pass through hard wood, such as fully-formed oak. Reference was made to this process in last year’s summary (par. 10). A full account of it is given in the Report of the Permanent Way Com- pany in London, who have adopted this method in the prepa- ration of railway sleepers, using for this purpose a solution of sul- phate of copper. Timber, if expected to endure, must be thoroughly dried by exposure to sun and air; this desiccation may be ex- pedited by first immersing the timber in water and then drying it in a current of air. The importance of ventilation cannot be over-estimated ; in fact, there are instances where the dry-rot* has assailed beams of wood, and been arrested by allowing a free current of air to act upon it. Instead of immersing the logs in water, the practice is sometimes adopted of burying them in a dunghill, This is simply a modification of the steaming process, by which the nitrogenous matter is dissolved out. The following modes of preserving timber may also be referred to, viz., Sir William Burnett’s process and that of Mr Bethell. The former, which consists in charging the wood with a solution of chloride of zinc, appears, on the whole, to be the best and most practicable. It has been thoroughly tested in Her Ma- jesty’s dockyards, and found to withstand not only the effects of moisture, but the inroads of insects and fungi. The fact that insects and dry-rot are in this country the greatest enemies of timber, is all in favour of the chloride of zinc, Mr Bethell uses creosote, with the object of “coagulating the albumen, and pre- venting putrefactive decomposition.” His process has been, and still is, being tested on the railway. It would be premature to * For details of experiments and summary of this important subject, see Professor Balfour’s Memoir, read at the Edinburgh Architectural Institute, April 1857. IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 67 give an opinion on this experiment; but expectation is not now so sanguine as it was some time ago. The fact is, the creosoted sleepers have of late been found decayed in the centre, the in- terior portion scooped out, leaving nothing but a deceptive shell, in some instances not more than half an inch in thickness. Much credit is due to Mr M‘Master, resident engineer, Salem, for the careful observations which he has been making for some years, on the sleepers laid down along the districts under his charge. The result of these observations* will be interesting and important. Apart from the tendency of timber to decay from causes existing in itself, and the attacks of fungi, insects, and the like, it is said that another and very important source of . destruction is the applying end to end of two kinds of wood, as, for instance, “oak to Malabar teak, or lignum vite; the harder of the two will decay at the point of juncture. If this be really true, it is a matter of great importance, and its truth should be established or overthrown by experiment.’’—Gard. Chron., 30th June 1860). In summing up this subject, it ought distinctly to be borne in mind that no tree ought to be felled except those which have arrived at maturity; unless strict attention be paid to this rule, the most careful seasoning may fail, and premature decay be induced. Another error frequently committed is that of painting green wood for stakes, posts, and the like. The almost inevitable result of this is, that the centre is transformed into touchwood. Considerable difficulty is experienced by this department in having always the requisite amount of seasoned wood in store. It is therefore of importance that public depart- ments should forward their indents, so as to allow sufficient time for the proper selection of the tree and due seasoning of the log. One great advantage of careful seasoning, seldom taken into account, is, the increased facility of carriage both by land and water. Capt. Morgan calculated that the seasoned logs (teak), carried up the Sigdr Ghat to the Wellington barracks, are 25 per cent. lighter after lying two years in depét below; this would be a material consideration in estimating the cost of the Law- * Mr M. informs me that ‘decay of sleepers nearly always commences under the chairs ; these hold water like a cup, which gradually soaks into the wood.” 68 THIRD REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS rence Asylum, or any other large buildings on the Nilgiris. Again, as to floating, the seasoning of the logs is indispensable; two years are required for teak and sal, and three years for blackwood. 9. Kumari Cultivation——The Government have issued (23d May 1860, No. 830) definite orders on the future treatment of kumari cultivation in Canara, which is now prohibited, except in cases where the land has been so cultivated within the last twelve years. It is understood, that under no circumstances are valu- able forests to be so treated. It has been shown that the system is injurious to the welfare of the wandering tribes by whom it is practised; for although kumari.is itself profitable, the growers are not the gainers, the Soucars on the coast enjoying the larger share of the profits. Moreover, the cultivation is probably pre- judicial in a sanitary point of view, and the ease with which a subsistence is obtained has an effect upon the people by no means conducing to enterprise and healthy development in any form. The benefits, such as they are, following this rude system of cul- ture, are only temporary. The crop of the first year brings good returns, and the clearance may be useful to health ; but the ground being abandoned after the gathering of the crop, becomes quickly overgrown with dense impenetrable scrub, more injurious to the inhabitants than the forest of lofty trees which had been destroyed. When kumari does not interfere with the growth of valuable tim- ber as in the talik of Bekul (where it is exhausted), the Govern- ment has exercised forbearance, and it has been allowed to con- tinue for the present. The operations of the Malaialis on the Shevarai Hills have in like manner been restricted. 10. Telegraph Department.—The demand for telegraph posts is much less than it was formerly. Instead of using teak for the support of the wires, matti (Pentaptera coriacea) is employed in those central districts where teak is scarce, and sal in the northern division. So long as the timber was sunk in the ground, the posts were constantly damaged by the ravages of white ants; but now that a metallic socket has been supplied, the wood is safe from their attack. A further precaution is taken to preserve the lower end of the post by running liquid dammer into the metallic sheath, so that the enclosed part of the post is encased with a coating of resin. IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 69 11. Auctions.—The system of periodical auctions is continued. All sound timber which would otherwise be left to rot or burn is collected and disposed of in this manner. The numerous heavy indents and constant pressure on the forests disposed of most of the wood as soon as it was arranged in the depdts, so that the sales are confined to the second and third classes of timber. It is most important that this system should be continued, as, if we do not enable the people to procure wood by purchase, illicit practices will certainly spring up. 12. Economical Working—In my first report, allusion was made to the system of slovenly felling and wasteful trimming which generally prevailed throughout the country. I am not able to state that these practices have been abandoned by the forest tribes, who are notoriously improvident; but wherever Government is working the forest under the supervision of their own officers, the rules laid down as to felling, squaring, and seasoning are strictly attended to. The introduction of the cross-cut saw in lieu of the rude woodman’s axe made by the village blacksmith, isa source of great economy, and the use of Fig. 6. Natives using the Saw. this implement is insisted upon wherever practicable. As it is very expensive to bring gangs of trained sawyers from the towns, it is found advisable to instruct the hill tribe (Malsars and Wud- ders) in this occupation; and by paying ready money for the work done, a great improvement is taking place. Fig. 6 shows the method of using the cross-cut saw, which may be purchased 70 THIRD REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS in the shops for about Rs. 8. Planks and sleepers are now pre- pared for the most part by the saw instead of the axe, and a great saving of material is hereby effected. The introduction of saw machinery was referred to in my first summary, and the opinion I then expressed, that it should be left to private enterprise, was approved of by Government. Since that time a large steam saw-mill has been in active operation at Wel- lington, under the superintendence of an engineer, which is indispensable, When the logs are prepared, they are placed upon carts, and carried to the inland depdt or to the rivers, as the case may be. The annexed sketch (plate I.) shows the usual way of loading a country cart with a squared beam of say 18 or 20 cubic feet. The effects of the great destruction of trees are already visible. The extravagant waste of wood in the roofing of na- tive houses is gradually being diminished, at least in our large towns, where the increasing value of timber is distinctly felt. The manufacture of tables or other furniture from a single piece of wood is seldom seen, and materials less valuable than teak are now used for camp chairs and ammunition boxes. 13. Noxious Insects —The injuries sustained by the woods and forests from the attacks of destructive insects can scarcely be estimated. Those which are best known to us as wanton and indiscriminate destroyers are the white ant (Termites) and the carpenter-bee (Xylocopa). The former attacks the timber, not only during its growth, but after it has been felled; the latter confines its ravages to the dead wood. Much good might be effected if the public servants attached to Government buildings were instructed to destroy this insect whenever it is seen by them. Several species of wood-cutter (Xylocopa) tunnel through the beams and posts of our public buildings, which they frequent in numbers. The passages are from 12 to 15 inches long, and more than half an inch in diameter. If the insects are numerous, their ravages are dangerously destructive, and they soon render the beam unsafe for supporting the roof. The accompanying illustration (plate II.) shows the mischief caused by the car- penter-bees in a log* of cadukai (Terminalia chebula). The wood appears as if pierced by an auger, and well represents the pe- * Sixteen carpenter-bees were found in a cubic foot of wood. Cleghorn’s Forests of S India, a A eee Bl B is i "pa | \ 4 ——— —— SSS] SSS = Fold out PLATED 2 ae Cleghorn’s Forests of S. India. 1." Wood perforated by Xylocopa. (reduced.) ~ 2. Xylocopa latipes. 3. Larva of ditto.- 4. Xylocopa sp. oe Be Pet ptt IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. W1 culiarly injurious nature of their attacks. It would be very useful if officers in charge of buildings directed their attention to the best means of ejecting or destroying these hymenopterous insects.* White Ants.—Numerous expedients have been suggested to arrest the ravages of white ants, all of which have been only partially successful. Some of these appeared in the Government records, and have been circulated for information. Capt. Fraser, Bengal Engineers, mixed yellow arsenic (hurtal) with the paint, whitewash, and masonry of the King’s Magazine, Fort-William, and the building was favourably reported upon after three years. Capt. Man and Capt. M‘Pherson painted the joists and planking of several buildings at Singapore with Gam- bir composition ;+ the result was perfect success, although the buildings had been previously infested with white ants. Colonel Scott, chief engineer at Bombay, records instances of timber being boiled under pressure in various antiseptic solutions with very satisfactory results;{ but considerable apparatus is * Useful information will be found regarding “ Insectes nuisibles” in the “ Manuel d’ Arboriculture,” par A. Du Breuil. Paris, 1860. t Gambir Composition.—Dissolve 3 pints of gambir in 12 of dammer oil over a slow fire ; then stir 1 part of lime, sprinkling it over the top to pre- vent its coagulating and settling in a mass at the bottom; it must be well and quickly stirred. It should then be taken out of the caldron and ground down like paint on a muller till it is smooth, and afterwards re- turned to the pot and heated. A little oil should be added to make it tractable, and the composition can then be laid over the material. To be treated with a common brush. Against the teredo, I substituted the same proportion of black varnish or tar for dammer oil. I of course omitted the grinding down, which would not answer with tar. Extract from Milburn’s “ Oriental Commerce,” 1818.—“ Gutta gambir is juice extracted from the leaves of a plant of the same name (Uncaria Gambir) . growing in Sumatra, &c., inspissated by decoction, strained, suffered to cool and harden, and then cut into cakes of different sizes or formed into balls. Chief places of manufacture, Siak, Malacca, and Bittang. It is used by the Malays with the leaves of betel in the same manner as Cutch (or Catechu) in other parts of India. For this purpose the finest and whitest is selected; the red being stronger tasted and rank, is exported to Batavia and China for the purposes of tanning and dyeing.” Gambir is now ex- ported to England to some extent. } Sulphate of copper, arsenious acid, corrosive sublimate, 72 THIRD REPORT ON FOREST OPERATIONS ee and the expense forbids its use except in large public works. Little or nothing is on record regarding the many insects which prey upon Indian forest trees. The subject is most im- portant; they perhaps effect more injury than all the other sources of decay. The only one who has paid particular atten- tion to this branch of science, and who is able to supply in- formation, is Mr S. N. Ward, C.S. By means of his beautiful figures, I hope to interest the subordinates of the department in this part of practical forestry. If any meet with pieces of timber attacked by wood-boring beetles, I should be glad to receive spe- cimens showing the burrows, especially if they contain the larve. 14. Extension of System.—I. Ossur and Denkinakota.—Steps have been taken towards the appointment of an overseer for the conservancy of the sandal-wood jungles in Ossur and Denkina- kota. It was thought desirable to extend the system of con- servancy to these forests, it being necessary to provide against the theft of the sandal trees, and to prevent the young plants from being destroyed by strong creepers which grow everywhere around. The progress of the Bangalore Branch Railway, more- over, pointed out the propriety of having a subordinate of this department, to number and register the trees available for sleepers, &c. II. Madura.—In compliance with a recommendation made by His Excellency Sir C. Trevelyan, in par. 33 of his Minute, dated 8th Feb. 1860, an overseer has been appointed to the Madura Forests, to prevent the reckless cutting of timber, and to mark from year to year the trees which arrive at sufficient maturity and are fit to be felled. His attention will be particularly di- rected at first to the slopes of the Pulny Hills and Cumbum Valley, which are reported to contain valuable timber. III. Cuddapah.—This district has hitherto been inadequately explored and conserved. It has now become necessary that the jungles there be brought under strict surveillance. The railway, which is to run through the whole length of the district, is ad- vancing, and the demand on these forests for sleepers and other timber will soon become pressing. An efficient assistant has been appointed for this duty. IN THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 73 IV. Karnil. The present and prospective operations of the Irri- gation Company, as well as other public works, have invested the forests of the Nalla-malai Hills with considerable importance, and the attention of this department has been drawn to them by Go- vernment.