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ALBERT R. MANN
LIBRARY

New York STATE COLLEGES
OF
AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS

 

AT

CORNELL UNIVERSITY

 

 

 

 

 

 
Cornell University Library

the renewal of neglected apple orchar is.
THbelS.

THE RENEWAL OF NEGLECTED aPPLE ORCHaRDS,

J, Le STRAnaL,

~

Aste
De
aces

oe5

J27944
f0nG RENE AL OF NOCLECTED AP La ORCmInS.

Scattered throughout the state are many 2 .ple orchards
of frou three orlfour acres to thirty-five or forty acres in
G6xteat, ehaieh, frou, lack of proper care or al least from
@arcless 0anascient , are “o1ng LO wrack ang ruin. This
State of afrairs is not oly wasteful of the material
bounties of the earth but results in an actual financial
loss to the owner of such orchards. «4 few years or care
and scientific treatwent could bring an orchard that was
costing its owner aunually the rent of the land it was
occurxying, uo to a condition where it would not only pay
that rent but be a source of revenue considerably over and
above it. This has been done by practical srowers ona
coaasreial scale so its validity is tested out, “ith these
in view, it would seem advisasle to study the matter in
soue detail, discoverins, if possible, the most efficient
methods of soil saanacement, fertilization, vruning and
Spraying For GCld trees, Tres Lhe Skperisnices or Men who
nave been successful in bringing their old orchards into
profitable bearing, This paper, being as it is ina way,
& compilation of the results of many, cannot be accented
as final. Diffeient methods of renewal may be equally
efficient in different locaiities, The present study is
therefore designed to be simply suggestive, znd in no sense
the last word on the subject.

For convenience, the subject has been divided into
separate heads, which will be discussed in order, as follows;
iL. Gultiy<ition, including soil management, the use of cover

erops, ete.
—e

2. Fertilization, including the use of the different material
available to the grower as fertilizers and their effects on
the trees,
o. Pruning, including a discussion of the so called practice
of ‘dehorning", scraping down the ba@tk, etc.
4, Spraying, imeluding life history and control of those
pests and deseases which appear most likely to infest old
trees, with a spray eae ax such.
os Profits. Data for this is necessarily difficult to
eolleeL, ad Lnererore thig head Will hou Be discussed
as fully as the writer would like; but what is available
may be suggestive.

CULTIVATION,

Most orchards whicn have been neglected for any
length of time, have been in sod so long, and such a thick,
tough mat has forsed that the trees are starved for lack
of the food which has gone to nourish the grass and weeds.
besides this the soil itself is in poor physical condition
ewing to lack of scration and proper draifure. Obviously
the first thing to be done is to turn the sod over, It may
be found difficult to do this a6 the sod ig lixely to be
tough, the ground hard, and the tree roots near the surface.
Tt has been found advisable, under such circumstances, to
turn hors in and let then: root uo the ground during the
sumer. The following spring, olowing will be found much
easier and the root pruning which the trees will undergo
be benefical rather tnan detrinental. The actual feeding

roots of a.tree are renewed each yeur anyway, and orunings
y Jv?) 2 &
 
aR

the larger roots will have a tendency to make the feeders
develope deeper in the soil during the following season.

This is very desirable, as it allows of deeper plowing and en-
larges the feeding zone of the roots. Following the plow should
come a disk harrow, and the sod be thoroughly disked. This

is essential, as it covers up any exposed roots and puts the
sod in better condition to be decomposed and changed to humus
In slowing, it is well to annually reverse the order of break-
ing the ground, throwing soil toward the trees one year, and
away the next. This tends to keep the surface from becoming
irregular much longer than when the same order of plowing is
followéd year after year. As plowing close up to the bodies of
the trees cannot be safely done through danger of injury by
the traces bruising or mutilating them, it is almost necessary
to have a one-horse breaking plow to finish up the rows.

Fel ieee the plowing or disking, the surface should be
kept clean and mellow with a spring tooth harrow, fine tooth
cultivator or weeder., Cultivation of this kind is kept up
until the middle of July or the first or middle of August,
when some cover crop should be sown and allowed to take
possession of the soil for the balance of the season,

There are two classes of suitable cover-crop plants,
vis;legumes and non-legumes, which should be used alternately
according to the needs of the trees, Legumes, like clover or
vetch have the power, through the action of certain nitrogen
fixing bacteria which live on their roots, of adding a very
considerable amount of nitrogen to the soil which is available

for the use of the trees when the plants are turned under. They
have therefore a fertilizer value above that of the hence
which is a product of their decay. The other class of plants,
the non-legumes, simply add humus to the soil together with
what plant foods they used in their developement, The
condition of the trees should determine which of these plants
are to be used. The action of nitrozen is to stimulate the
growth of wood at the espense of the fruit. If this is the
result desired, then legumes should be used in conjunction
with the regular fertilizing system. If,on the other hand,
the wood growth is too abundant and should be checked, some
one of the non-legumes should be used.

A nunber of different plants have been used successfully
as cover crops. WManmcoth and crimson clover have proven good
for this purpose as have also winter vetch and cowpeas.

These latter are usually sown in irills two feet apart and

at the rate of = to 1 bu. per acre. The young plants are then
cultivated to give them a vigorous start. In order to secure
uniform covering for the ground, a mixture of rye and vetch is
sometimes broadcasted between tne rows immediately preceding
the last cuitication, This combination furnishes a dense
carpeting during the winter and makes an early heavy growth
the following spring by the time the ground should be plowed
again,

In changing from cld sod to cultivation the ground
is very hard to work. One of the crops which has the best
effects in loofening up the soil and getting it in friable
condition is buckwheat, The roots of this plant are pene-
trating in their action and strixe deep thereby helping to

preacku» hard, unyielding soil. This should be used as a
cover cro) the first year for this reason, Turning under
a few such crops will make the soil spongy and friable,
increase its moisture capacity and thereby render it more able

to resist drought.

The cover crop plan is probably the nearest approach to

the clean cultivation method of management which one can
safely use and fulfill all the requirements of the trees. It
combines a neat appearing orchard, which so many men delight
in, with a thoroughly efficient one which, from a commercial
standpoint is the desired end.

On some soils, where there is a decided tendency to
wash, rds not advisable to turn the W08 over at all. On
steep hillsides this is likely to be the case. The soil
frou the top of the hill will gradually be transported through
water action to the bottom, leaving the trees up above without
any means of support. For such conditions as these, the sod
mulch method of management has been devised and has proven
quite successful, although it is doubtful whether such good
results could be obtained from it as from the cover crop
method on level or fairly level ground, It consists essentiallyyy;77
of the following. The orchard is seeded down to some such
grass as ord4chard grass or timothy and from these a sod
is allowed to develope. Each year, instead of cultivating
the ground the grass is allowed to grow until late in May or
early in June when it is Bown ang left woere it falls. If it
grows rapidly it should be cut again in July or August. The
grass which is cut forms a mulch and returns to the soil

what plant food it utilized in developing.
There is a wide deversity of opinion among fruit

growers as to which of the two methods is the better.
According to an experiment conducted at the Woburn
Experimental Fruit Farm in England with regard to the effect
of grass on apple trees, it was found that the grass roots
excreted a substance which was toxic to the tree roots and
that the poor results usually obtained from the sod method of
management was due to this toxic effect rather than to the
fact that the grass robbed the trees of noisture and food
when it is most needed. An experiment carried on at the
Geneva Station in this state seems to favor the cover-crop
method. An orchard was divided into two plats, one being
left in sod and the other being cultivated according to
the cover crop method. after running for six years, the

following suggestive data was recorded.

Sod Tillage
Fruits per bbl. 434 309
Bols. per tree,- 28 4.2
Net profit per acre,- L482 110,43
Gain in diameter of trunk,- 1.1 inch eel neh.

These results are undoubtedly in favor of the tillage
method of management.

On of the greatest arguments in favor of sod mulch
is that it is less expensive and takes less time, thereby
leaving the grower more time to engage in other farm
operations, In the above cuoted experiment exact cost
accounts were kept and the sod method was less than one
half as expensive to operate than the tillage method on an

@Verage; but the net gains were nore than proportionatly
less; so much so that tillage proved more profitable. The

following figures for five years ure suggestive.

 

5 OD,
Cutting Harvesting Total Net
grass Crop Expense Income
1904- 19.99 219.25 Ser .ae: 225,76
1905- 7.46 82.89 166,47 360.28
1906- 3.56 104.50 186,29 154,96
1907=- 3.67 138 ¢0% 259.28 487.16
1908- 6,14 173.43 246.88 353,86
Total 40.62 717.94 1166 ,06-1552 .03

, ToL Ll & GE,

 

- Sulti- Harvesting Total Net

vation Crop Expense Income
1904- 33,75 210490 532.55 185,54
1905- 48,71 96.85 2cl40e 555.60
1906- 36.50 201.80 340.73 392,42
1907- 46,63 224.20 St Leoo 800.51
1908= 36,67 OOO «og 447,82 723.41
Total 196.06 Lig? .s4 1714.13 2457 .08

Although the sod method cost@ only *40.62 and the
tillage costa “196.06, yet the net gains of the sod were only

*1552.03 while those of the tillage were *2457.08 or nearly

twice as great. So in this case at least, the cultivation
method proved financially to be the more desirable.

Tith regard to soil management, out of fifteen men who
had been more or less successful in renovating old orchards,
eight were decidedly in favor of tillage and seven favored
sod in some degree or another. Of those who favored sod one
simply delayed cultivation for three or four years until
the other necessary operations such as pruning, spraying,

etc. were well under way and beginning to show results.
Another gave as his reasons for not cultivating that his
orchard was small and located near the house where culti-
vating would spoil the looks of his grounds. He would un-
doubtedly have obtained better results by cultivating. Still
another left his orchard in sod for the main and’ dug up
around each tree every summer applying stable manure and
some form of commercial fertilizer. This in a measure
combines both systems, getting some of the benefits of
cultivation at small cost. Another found that after two
or three years of cultivation his trees made too vigorous
wood growth, so seeded his orchard down and left it in sod
to check the rapid wood developement. Thus his was also
a combined system, receiving practically all the benefits
of cultivation. It must be borne in mind, however, that
not many old trees which require a system of renovating ar
strong and virile enough to allow of such a method of
manageient, although there undoubtedly are conditions where,
as this man states, “cultivation can be overdone". Another
man got “very satisfactory results from the sod mulch method",
It is evident, however, that he never tried the tillase
method, and the chances are that, had he done so, his results
would have been much more satisfactory. It is interesting to
note that of the seven who used the sod mulch method only one
was decidedly for it. He tried both systems and his results
proved much more satisfactory in the case of the sod than in
the case of tillage.

fll eight of the men who favored tillage were emphatically
in favor of it. There seemed to be no possible doubt in their

minds as to which was the better system. One man writes,
 
9

"Our trees under cultivation both with and without cover crops
have made a fine new growth yearly, have increased greatly
in size, have healed over most of the damaged pagk areas, and
are to-day in a most healthy and robust condition. Another ,-
“The effect as noticed from cultivation is slightly larger
fruit but not such good color. Another writes, "Cultivation
much better for all trees", meaning both young and old. A firm
of landscape forresters and entomologists favors cultivation as
evidenced by the following. “Ye generally recommend cultivation
except on hillsides and even then in strips.” This is evidently
to get the benefits from cultivation and at the same time pre-
vent rapid washing. Another grower writes,"Cultivation used,
as secured thereby better annual growth and wounds heal more
quickly; no injurious effects noted." All men quoted so far
as favoring tillage had tried the sod method first as being cheap-
er, and had had poor, unsatisfactory results. Others of the
eight tried the tillage method first and were well enough
pleased with their results to continue with it and recommend it.
From the foregoing evidence it seems to be aparant that for
average soil and topographic conditions cultivation and cover
crops are the more desirable method and gives financially the
better results. Yet there are conditions where , if apples are
to be grown at all, the sod mulch method must be used; as for
instance in the case where the trees are on a steep hillside and
the danger of washing is great, or in the much more unusual
case where the soil is so rich that the trees must be checked,
rather than stimulated. It is only under such special conditions

that, as far as the writer can see, sod mulch for any aged tree

is to be recommended,
10

FERTILIZATION,

Of late years the question of fertilization has been
studied to some extent by scientific men with the result that
in their opinion, a great deal, infact most of the fertilizers
applied to orchard soils in chemical form are wasted. This view
is some what borne out by the United States Department of
Agriculture Bureau of Soils, in one of its bulletins concerning
the soil solution, vis., that all soils contain sufficient
plant food in solution to nourish an average crop every year
providing good cultural methods are employed. Because of its
extensive spread of roots and the consequent great intake of
water from the soil, this theory would be especially applicable
to the apple tree. Even if the solution were weak, the enormous
amount of water taken in and required because of the extensive
transpiring area of the leaves, would provide enough solid food
to meet the requirements of the tree, It would seem unnecessary
then to add any chemical fertilizer to a soil which is already
plenty rich enough. a bulletin from the Geneva Station by
Professor HedricK entitled, "Does the Apple Orchard need
Fertilizers", concludes thus (Bull. 339 Pop. edition) "The
final conclusion must be that the trees in this orchard would be
practically as well off in every respect had not an ounce of
fertilizers been used about them, If fertilizers are not necessary
for young trees in this orchard they have no value in inumerable
other orchards in New York , One of the lessons the experiment
should teach is that fertilizers are not necessary in the
average soils if tillage and good care the rule,- the truth of

the old adage ‘tillage is manure’,
Ad

Although this experiment was run with young trees, there is

little reason to believe that it would not apply equally well

to old trees. Of course, large trees neéd more food than do
small ones, but they are provided with a root system sufficiently
large ot meet their requirements. Another experiment carried on
at the Geneva Station (Bull.289 U.P.Hedrick) between the years of
1895 and 1904 would seem to bear out this idea. An orchard which
had, in sod for forty three years was used for this experiment. It
contained trees of the following varieties; Baldwin, Fall Pippin,
Rhode Island, Roxbury and Northern Spy. In order to test out

the effects of potash and phosphate on the yield and color of

fruit, the following amounts of fertilizers were applied to four

of the eight plats into which the orchard had been divided,

per tree per acre
Wood ashes 1C00# 4800#
# Acid phosphate Bs 4084

xe

The phosohate was applied only during the last seven years.
According to calculations made the actual amounts of

potash and aphosphate applied were as follows:

ee On per acre 72# from ashes 57# from phosphate
Ko Oo it ur i 6 o# Lt iw
Lime 1536# fer acre

After ten years of this treatment, the following results

were noted.
Annual average increase in bu per tree,
Fall Pippin La Vo
Roxbury 2.65
Greening Minus 0.34

Spy 2,55
125

Baldwin mee
From a financial standpoint, the results were
practically negative. The extimated increase in value of
the crop on the treated plats for a hypothetical five acres
was ‘°74,.50,. The net gain was only °*24,50 or hardly enough
to pay for hauling the fertilizers.

It is interesting to note that both treated and un-
treated plats increased markedly in yield from 1893 to
1904, The probable explanation is that prior to 1893 the
orchard had been in sod and no cultural methods had been
employed. Since the beginning of the experiment, however,
the orchard was plowed and managed according to the cover
crop system each year, It was much more productive under
the latter treatment.

The results as to color lack uniformity. They were
not definite enough in a sufficient number of seasons to
warrant the assumption that the color was effected in any
way by the fertilizers applied. The influence on the color
was most marked in years when the climatic conditions were
most unfavorable to the developement of the fruit,

Results seem quite conclusive for the Station orchard.
Fifty three years of orchard cropyving did not reduce the
soil to a condition where a "complete" fertilizer was
necessary. In summing uv his conclusions, Professor
Hedrick says, "The results of this experiment should not
lead the grower to conclude that his soil does not need
the nutrients supplied. They suggest, however, since the
soil of the Station orchard is an average piece of soil for

western New York, that there may be many other orchards in
13
the state that do not need these fertilizers.

The practical application of the results obtained
is that fruit growers should not apply manures in quantity
until good evidence has been obtained as to what food
elements, if any, are wanted in the soil. As long as the
trees are making good growth and producing average crops of
well colored fruit, it may be taken for granted that they
need no additional food from fertilizers, If the contrary
be true, the fruit grower should put in operation tests
with fertilizers to ascertain what plant foods his soil needs.

If the above be true of an orchard that has stood
for fifty-three years in sod, then in view of the fact that
perhaps few orchards older than that are worth renovating,
it would seem that fertilization should be carried on only
very cautiously, for although the fertilizers applied would
not be detrimental to the trees, yet they would not benefit
them materially and their application would only result in
financial loss,

If, however, after careful observation it is found
that the soil is distinctly lacking in some essential
element of plant food, it might be well to apply the defie
cient element alone, There would perhaps never be a case
where a complete commercial fertilizer would be necessary.

For the purposes of the above the principal source
of the three essentials are here briefly discussed,

Nitrogen.

The sources of nitrogen in the soil are many
and it would seem unnecessary to add nitrogenous fertilizers

in the chemical form, when natural agencies are so rapidly
14
at work under good conditions of tillege in keeping up the
supply. Through the action of certain nitrogen-fixing
organisms which live in conjunction- “symbiotically"- with
the leguminous crops such as clover and vetch, nitrogen is
added tothe soil in available form in large amounts, The
decay of all organic material is another great scourse of
available nitrogen. In this connection the trees supply
themselves in some measure with organis nitrogen through
the decay of ti.e leaves which fall from them each year.

There may be occassions when these sources do not supply
sufficient nitrogen in which case any of the following
manures may be used;

Dried acd This is obtained by drying the blood and
debris from slaughter-houses and as usually sold contains
from 9 to 13% available nitrogen,

Tankage.- This is composed of refuse matter such as
bones, trimming of hides, hair, horns, hoofs, and some blood.
These are usually dried, ground, and mixed vith a little
slaked lime to prevent rapid fermentation, It usually contains
from 5 to 7% of nitrogen and because of its slower rate of
decay it is not quite so rapidly available as dried blood,

Flesh meal.- This is the flesh refuse from slaughter
houses which is sometimes kept free from the tankage, dried,
ground and sold as flesh meal, It contains from 4 to 8% ni-
trogen,

Fish scrap.- Fish flesh is very rich in nitrogen. The
offal parts, as heads, fins, tails, and intestines are dried
and prepared as a fertilizer. It readily undergoes fermentation

and is therefore a quick-acting fertilizer,
The above, together with some seed residues, are the
main sources of organic nitrogenous fertilizers that are
spread over the ground, There are however, some chenical
fertilizers which are very important sources of available
nitrogen, They may be enumerated as follows,

Sedium nitrate("a.l 0, ) This is commonly known as
Chilli Saltpeter. It is found in an extensive natural deposit
in Chili, Peru, and in the United States of Colunbia., “hen
pure, this salt contains 16.49% of available nitrogen but the
ordinary commercial article contains on an average 16% and
cost anywhere from “50.00 to “60,00 a ton, making the nitrogen
itself worth about. 15 or 18 cents a pound. It is soluble, and
does not have to under go the ordinary nitrifying processes.
it is therefore one of the most, if not the most active
nitrogenous fertilizer being as - is directly available as
plant food.

Ammoniun Sulphate (N H.)S O;,

This salt is obtained as a bi-product in the manufacture
of illuminating gas and Is extensivelt sold as a fertilizer,

Phosphate Fertilizers,

The chief sources of phosphate fertilizers are,-

(1) Phosphate rock- This is found in many parts of
the United States, particularly in South Carolina, Florida,
Virginia and Tennessee, They usually contain from 17 to 30%
of phosphoric acid.

(2) Phosphate slag- In refining of iron ores by
the Bessemer process, the phosphorus in the iron is reioved as
a basic slag. This is variable in composition and at present

but little is formed in this country that is available as
16
fertilizer.

Bones in different forms are very prolific sources of
phosphates,- as done ash, it contains avosout 36 %3 as steaned
bone it contains from 22 to 29%; as dissolved bone it contains
from 15 to 17% phosphoric acid. Bone black, after having been
used in sugar a is sold as a fertilizer and contains

about 30% P oO
2.5

Potasn Pertilizers.
Yood ashes are an important source of potash for the farnm-
er, Thé per cent Panges 4211 the way from 2.5 to 10.2,
The following table gives the amount of potash in

10 ,000# of woods of different kinds;

“hite oak 1,6 Lbs.
Red oak 14.0 lbs.
Ash 15.0 Los.
Pine 0,8 IDs.
Georgiapine 5.0 lbs.
Dogwood 2.0 1ds.

Stassfurt Salts- These combinations of potash,
sodium and magnesium salts are a valuable source of potash
fertilizer,

Kainit., This mineral is mined at Stassfurt and is
mixed with gypsum, salt,potassium chloride and other bodies.

Tt contains ahout 12% 2.0 and is one of the most important

Ss
of the Stassfurt Salts.
Nutriate of potash or (K61) Contains from 35 to 60%
oh
of potaks, It is a manufactured product, is readily soluble

and is a quick acting fertilizer,

Sulphate of potash FO) is prepared fro some
iy
of the crude Stassfurt Salts and contains the equivilent

of about 50,5 0. It is one of the most concentrated forms
of votash fertilizers and is particularly valuable because

it can be safely applied to some crops which would be injured
by the presence of the chlorine in the muriate,
Lime,

Lime is used more as an amendment than as a direct fer-
tilizer. Its action as a floculating agent in the soil is
extremely beneficial and it also acts to nutralize any possiole
acidity. It is also an essential plant food but not considered
as a commercial fertilizer because it is usually present in
sufficient quantities to meét the needs of most plants, It
may be applied as calcium sulphate (land plaster) quick lime
0), hydrate (Ca(OH) ) or carbonate @f lime (Caco ). The

2 3
CaO ahd Ca(OH) are usually used only on very sour land (acid).

If lime is eerie every four or five years it should not be
used in excess of 500# per acre, but ttsually in starting uo an
old orchard the first application should be greater than this-
from 1,000 to 2,000# per acre,

Pruning.

In perhaps fifty percent of the old orchards which it
would pay to renovate, the ipiaaiion of the trees is accon-
plished as much by their being too close together ae by any
other one factor. Farmers fail to notice what is happening
until the trees become greatly damaged. The decrease in yield
does not call attention to the trouble until it is too late,
“hen the tops bezin to mest so as to shut out light from the
lower limbs then one half of the trees should be cut out. If
this is not done, these lower limbs well verin to bear inferior

fruit, then no fruit at all, and finally they will die. The
Ls

Changes take place so gradually that the ower usually fails to
realize what is happening until some year he finds that, instead
of an orchard of well sounded trees he has a lot of forest

trees with a bouquet of leaves at the top.

In the end the bearing surface becomes the nearly level
surface on the tops of the trees. This is a very small surface
when compared to a succession of well rounded tops. If trees are
50X30 and left till they interfere so as to kill the lower limbs
the bearing surface approaches the level surface on the tops of
the trees. Each tree aporoaches 900 sq.ft. of exposure to sun-
light or bearing surface; or @ trees approach 1800 sq.ft. The
area of the surface of a well rounded tree 32 ft. nigh and
having a spread of 40ft. is about 4000 sq. ft. Trees of this
size still lack 2.4 ft. of meeting if they are 42.4 ft. apart;
and 30% of the surface of the ground is exposed to the sunlight.
There can be no doubt in any edies mind which is the more
profilable from a dollars and cents standpoint; the 2 trees with
a total bearing surface of 1800 sq. ft.; or the one tree with a
bearing surface of 4,000 sq. ft. This calculation assumes the
tree to have a regular form and is of course hypothetical; but
it clearly indicates that there are two reasons why trees planted
too close ee do not bear as well as trees at a normal
distance;

l They are not so healthy.
2 They do not have so much bearing surface.
Trees that are too close together furnish favorable condi-

tions for fungous diseases and insect pests; they are hard to

spray; the apples are more difficult to pick and, because they do

not get the sunlight, are of poor color and quality. Perhaps the
19
the most serious result is an indirect effect of the death

of the lower limbs, Trees are left until the large lower limbs
die for want of light. They are then removed and the wounds are
too large to heal. In time they cause the trunk to decay.

The evident remedy for this state of affairs is to thin
out the trees, If the trees are dlanted in squares, the best
way to thin is to cut out every other tree in each row. This is
done by cutting out every other row diagonally. It leaves the
trees in squares corner wise of the field. (See accompanying
figure) It is interesting to note what removing $ of the trees
would mean. Some persons think that in doing so in an orchard
that is planted 25X25 it would leave the trees in scuares 50X50,
As a matter of fact they would be in squares 35.3X35,.3 when
viewed from the corners of the field. If they were 30X30 and
+ were removed, the remainder would stand 42.4 K% 42.4, LYE
33X33 and $ were removed, they would be 46.7 X46.7. None
of these distances are too large for large, mature trees, If
35X35 and 4 removed the remainder would stand 49.5x49.5 or
approximately 50x50, Large Baldwin trees can make good use
of this much space,

One of the problems to be met in thining is that, if every
other tree is removed regularly there will be some places where
the tree to be cut out is better than the one to be left; or it
may occur that the one to be left may be missing. Y ill it
pay to leave a tree that would other wise be removed, if it
comes next to a vacant place? This question must be answered as
each case arises, but it is well to reuember that if the tree is
left, it will damage one side of three other trees, Before cut-

tine out the trees, it will pay to make a map of the orchard and
29

locate the vacant spaces and poor trees, and so determine which

way of cutting will include the greatest number of these

KO

e

eS

> Dp fF Ww we FF &O &

oO Oo 8 92

J8
£0
HO
GO

oS OO Or eS Oo" 2

FO
EO
DO
co
BO
A®

cl

K
21

Ee &
In the figure, the rows 4A, CC, @@ etc, or the rows BB, bi, FF

etc. may be cut out. Suppose the black circles to represent
poor trees or vacant spaces. According to the figure there are
21 of these. By cutting out rows “24, CC, EE, etc. fourteen
of these spaces are included, where as by cutting out the other
rows only 7 are included. By making such a plan as this seven
trees were saved in this case, enough to much more than pay for
the trouble of the map,
It require courage to ¢o into an orchard and arditrarily

cut down large virile trees, But in many orchards the time has
come when a choice must be made between two poor trees and one
good one. If one has definitely made up his mind tnat his trees
are crowding, perhaps the best vay to thin them is to do as the
owner of a fine Baldwin orchard once did. He decided which rows
wgould be removed. Then, to be sure he would not repent, and
have some of the trees saved, he went away for a two weeks visit
while the boys did the work.

After half the trees are out, providing such a course is
necessary, tnen attention must be turned to the remaining trees,
The probabilities are, that if the trees have had to be
thinned out, those that are left will be too high for convenient
handling. The cost of picking, spraying and in fact all the
orchard operations which involve the tree directly, is nearly

if not quite doubled in the case of the tree forty feet high over

 

that of the tree from 2O to 50 feet high, Therefore it is essential,

to get the head down, Before beginning this operation, however,
every stick of dead wood, large or small should be taken out of
the trees. After his tree is cleared of useless lumber, the

pruner knows just what he has to work with. After taking all the
dead wood out his top may not be symmetrical, but it is quite
evident that an unsymmetrical live tree is better than a
symmetrical dead one. Therefore clean the trees out thoroughly.
He now has a tree, ev2ry part of which is alive and with a
head anywhere from 10 to 20 feet to@high. How to get it down
is the question, It is a well known physiological fact that
very severe pruning will induce the growth of suckers. It is
the result of an effort on the part of the tree to reéstablish
the proper balance between the root system and the top. Accord
ing to this fact, a severe pruning of the top branches should
induce a growth of suckers from so-called adventitious btkds lower
down @n the trunk, This is precisely what hapoens. And from
this new growth of suckers may eventually be formed an entirely
new head. There is another important factor in this cutting down
process which it would be fatal to disregard, It is the action
of the sunlight on the green leaves that furnishes the tree with
its entire supnoly of carbo-hydrate foods,i.e., sugars and starch
ete. If therefore, the entire top should be cut off a tres, its
source of this kind of food would be totally destroyed and the
chances are one hundred to one that the tree would die, MThere-~-
fore do not “dehorn"” the tree all tne same season. Rather cut
say 1/3 of the top out the first year, leaving the remainder to
nurish the tree till the new sucker growth has developed some-
what. The second year cut out another third of the old top, By
this time the first years sucker growth will have attained suf-
ficient developement to play its part in the nourishment of the
tree. By following out this plan, the beginning of the fourth
year will see an entirely new head on the old trees, and the

trees themselves none the worse for wear. By selecting the
25

lowest suckers a head may be developed as low as is desired, and
though perhaps at times the suckers will not come where they

are wanted, yet in the large majority of cases they will.
“Dehorning" may be practiced in the above manner with very
little risk of loss. It is only when a man soes into an

orchard and olindly and thoughtlessly slashes aroun with an

ax that the dehorning fails; and then strictly sneaking, it

is not dehorning; it is simply choping down the trees and in
that case no one expects them to live.

In making cuts, the limbs should be sawed off as close as
possible to the parent branch so as not to leave a stub. “ith-
in a day or two the wound should be painted over with some
material to keep out rot fungous spores. A good matsrial to use
for this purpose is white lead paint to which has been added a
little lamp black to give it as nearly as possible the same
color as thetree, If very large wounds are necessary to be
made it is advisable to repaint them at least once a year until
they have entirely healed over. Otherwise rot may get in and
destroy the tree. It is essential not to leave a stub because
there is no life in it and therefore the wound on the end will
never heal over. If stubs are left there are just three alter-
natives. One is to keep them painted all the time which is a
great bother; another is to cut them off, which doubles the
work of pruning; and the third is to lose the tree, in which
case it would have been better never to have begun renovating,

The opinion of practical growers sees to be almost un-
aminously in favor of scraping down the bark when it is very
loose and scaly and when the trees are more or less affected with

scale, either oyster shell or San Jose. Under the above con-
24

ditions it is perhaps advisable to scrape the bark the first
year, but any repetition the second year would be useless as
the lime sulphur spray seems to have a tendency to keep the
bark clean.

Spraying.

It is in the old neglected orchards of the country, which
have been left to themselves, that all manner of fungous
diseases and insect pests run riot, not only ruining the
trees theuselves, but also endangering the health and possibly
the very life of neighboring orchards. And so, in the work of
renovating, a stiff fight must be put up against all such con-
ditions, which is not only one of prevention as would be the
case in ao well, cared for orchard, but also one of cure, involving
in many cases very radical methods of proceedure,

Those fungous diseases and insect pests which are more
Likely to be in evidence in neglected orchards are here set forth,
together with the most efficient methods of control as determined
by experiment and successful practice.

New York Apple Tree Canker.

The cause of this disease was worked out in 1898 by “endell
Paddock of the Geneva Exp. Station and found to be due to a
fungous called Aphaeropsis Pk,

It is widely destributed in orchards in New York State especially
in old ones which had become infected before preventive measures
had been worked out. The cankers form enlarged and darkened areas
on the larger limbs of the infected tree, The bark is roughened
and in the center of the canker it may be missing. It is very
adhesive to the surface of the decaying wood, and itlis this feature

which distinguishes it from sun scald where the bark peels off
25
readily. The scars are formed by the spores of the fungous en-
tering through a a in the bark. They seem unable to pene-
trate through living bark|to the cambium, but as above stated
must have a passage made for them, This fact is suggestive of
preventive measures. In regions where canker is prevelent the
utmost care must be exercised to avoid wounding the bark. Often
wounds are wade by the pickers in scraping their ladders against
the limbs, or by the cultivators or plows barking the trunk
during the cultivating operations, All such accidents are to be
strictly avoided if this disease is to be successfully prevented.
Often cankers can be cured (if they have not completely girdled
the limbs, in which case the limb should be removed) by cutting
off the diseased area until clean wood and bark % reached, and
painting the wound with white lead to which a little lamp-black
has been added just as in pruning. Paddock recommends painting

ihe
the wougd with the following wash.

“hale oil soap----1 part.
Slaked lime------- 2 parte,
“Mater-----ccc rere 4 gallons.

‘wood ashes to thicken as desired.

Dissolve the soap in hot water, then stir in the lime.
“hen the ingredients have been reduced to a smooth state by
stirring, dilute with water to 4 gallons, then stir in the wood
ashes until the wash is of the desired consistancy.

Pire Blight.

This is a bacterial disease caused by Bacillus amylovarems.
Tt as 2 2: awe to which young trees between the ages of eight
yo fifteen years of age cre especially susceptible. It occurs,

however, on older trees and is often the cause of their death,

Many parts of the tree are affected by it, and its extensive
26
distribution over the tree has led to its receiving different names
according to the manner in which it shows itself. Accordingly,
there is the blossom blight, which causes the blossoms to wither
prematurely and often times preventing the fruit from setting;
or if the fruit should set, caus ing it to remain small and
unsightly; the twig blight which causes the death of many of
the fruit spurs and is usually a direct infection by the blosson
blight; then there is the blight which manifests itself on the
larger limbs and trunk,properly known as fire blight or just
plain “blight". The cankers appear as discolored and somewhat
sunken areas ‘of smooth bark, the margin along the advancing
border being raised in a sort aia The tissue in actively
spreading canker is of a darker than that of healthy bark and
is very watery or sappy. On damp sienay days drops of a milky
sticky fluid exhude from the cankered tissues through the
lenticels or pores of the paek. A large proportion of the
cankers are active during only one season but there are always
some which are perrenial and live over to the next season. The
diseased bark is usually killed to the wood to which is sticks
tenaceously the first season. It gradually decays, however,
and falls out, leaving the wood bare and exposed, The bacillus
can gain entrance into the bark in any of the following ways:

lst. Through infected water sprouts or suckers.

end. Through infected pruning instruments.

3rd, Through wounds made in the bark by careless workmen
im cultivating.

4th, Through the agency of insects which puncture the leaves
and small fruits.

The dissemination of the disease is furthered by damp
at
weather, Abundant water is necessary for the developement and
multiplication of the organism. From these causes preventive
and curative measures may be suggested as follows:

If the cankers are very extensive,cut the tree out of the
orchard and burn it up. If not so large they may be cut back
to healty wood and bark as in the case of the apple tree canker
and the wound|swabed with a weak solution of corrosive sublimate
or a 3% solution of CuSO (copper sulphate or bluestone) as a
disinfectant, and when ae painted with some heavy lead paint.
Repeat the painting until the would is completely healed.

Preventive measures,- remove all dead wood from orchard and
burn it. Cut out all cases of twig blight from both pear and
apple tree as soon as it becomes apparent and expecially watch
any pear tree that may be in the neighborhood as that tree is
very susceptible to the blight. ‘hen pruning paint all cut
surfaces with the disinfectant mentioned above, also paint
and disinfect all accidental wounds. Carefuily watch all water-
sprouts which are toa become new heads and remove all not needed
for that purpose. Keep the trees well opened up.

These two diseases are perhaps the two which cause the
greatest damage to old apple trees, The insects wnich are par-
ticulerly bad in the apole tree are as follows:

San ea scale and Oyster Shell Scale,

It would be well to give the life history in brief of these
pests so that they may be more intelligently combated. In this
climate the male San Jose Scale insect matures in April and about
one month later the females be;in to give birth to their young.

Unlike most insects, these young are brought forth alive, the

average number from each female being about 400. They continue
28
producing for 6 or 7 weeks. The newly born scales are micro-
scopic in size and remain under the parent scale for a short
time, finally coming out to wander about for a while until they
find a suitable place on the bark to locate. As soon as they
settle down, the waxy thread like secretions begin to appear on
their backs. These secretions form the scales. Owing to the
compartively long period during which young are produced it is
difficult to ascertain how many generations occur in a year.
Judging from the scales as they appear in winter, however, it is
probable that the young are produced until the latter part of the
summer or early in the fall. After all their young have been
produced, the old females die, the young surviving to continue
the species.

The Oyster Shell scale or Oyster-shell Bark Louse as it is
usually called is very similar in life history to the San Jose
scale. The main difference are that whereas the San Jose young
are born alive, the oyster shell young are hatched from egss, and
again, whereas the San Jose female gives birth to 400 or more,
the oyster shell female gives birth to but fron. 40 to 60,

The latter is not so destructive or so rapidly disseminated as

the San Jose but in many districts- noticeably in the neighborhood
of Elmira, N, ¥.- it causes much damage, It is expecially pre-
valent in localities where its developement has never been
checked, i.e., where the trees have been allowed to deteriorate
and £o to ruin. it would be well to icok for this insect,
therefore, along with San Jose Scale where the work of renovation
is comtemplated.

For both these pests it has veen recommended to spray with

lime sulphur wash, using the commercial article at a concentra-
eo
tion of from (1 to 8) to (1 to 10), apelying either in the fall
after the leaves have droped, in tiie spring before the buds open
or in very extreme cases at both times. For usual,average cases
however, one spraying is sufficient.
Codling Moth,

Perhaps the most injurious biting insect pest known to
New York apple growers is the codling moth. It is a small
brown moth, seldom seen in the day time, which lays its ezgs on
the young fruit or leaves. As soon as the caterpillars hatch out,
they migrate to the “blow” or calyz end of the apple where they
take their first meal preparatory to entering the fruit. They
eat their way into the core of the apple through the calyx end
and stay there until they become full grown in July or August},
when they bore a hole out through the side and leave for the loose
bark, where they spin a coocoon and hibernate over the winter.
In most parts of the country tnere are two broods annually,
the second one being the one to hibernate over the winter and
thus perpetuate the species,

It is of course impracticable not to say impossible, to
attnept to exterminate the pest by reaching the mature moth,
The most vulnerable period of its life history is right after
it hatches and before it enters the fruit. If its first meal
contains a small dose of poison, it is very likely to be its
last and it cannot hope to get very far on Lis way inte the core
of the fruit. Therefore have the poison ready for it by spray-
ing with arsenate of lead 2# to 50 gallons just as soon as the
fruit sets and the petals have fallen. At this time the calyx
is open and the poison can reach the calyx tube, It will be

useless to spray after the calyx has closed up, as the cater-
10)

pillar will not get any of the poison, but will pass into the
apple unharmed,

Some nozzle that drives the spray rather forcably is prefered
for this spray as a misty spray will not reach the desired point.

beat Slister Mite.

The leaf blister mite cuases serious damage to the foliage
by mining in the leaves between the upper and lower epidermis,
causing dead areas or blisters to apoear Wherever they have
worked. During the winter-i.e., from the time the leaves begin to
fall till the buds begin to open in the spring the mites live
underneath the bud scales. It is during the period of their
migration from the leaves to the stems, or when they emerge in

the spring to infest the young foliage that they can be reached b 4

 

a spray. The time to spray, therefore, is in the fall just
after the leaves have fallen, or in the spring just before the
buds open. It is useless to spray for them later than this, for
once they get inside the leaf, they are protected and cannot be
reached. Any contact spray such as lime sulphug-or the miscible
oils, is efficient in controlling this pest, Usually the spray
applied in the spring for the scale will usually get the mite
if applied late enough. If sprayed for at the proper time, there
ie Little Gi Tfleelty i) Controlling it,

Apple Scab.

This is a disease known as ‘Scab", " theFungous" or “Black
Spot", It is very distructive and attacks both the fruit and
foliage. It is caused by a minute fungous which grows just under
the cuticle of the apple and when ready to form spores or “seeds"
pushes the cuticle up and shoves it to one side causing a dark

snot or scab to appear. The spores are disséminated through the
31
air by wind and insects and infects more fruit. The process
continues all summer and if not checked will prove very injurious.
In the fall a new (asexual) kind of a spore is formed which infects
the leaves and lives in them all winter in the ground. In the
spring they have matured and formed many other spores in small
dark sacs or perithecia on the upper surface of the leaf. By a
peculiar device they are discharged into the air with considera-
ble force in much the same manner as a pea comes from a pea-shooter
and, being very small and light, are carried by the wind to the
young fruits. This is about the time when the petals have just
fallen. Some fungicide, Like lime-sulphur is very efficient in
controlling the disease at this time, and usually the spray applied
for codling moth will also get the scab,

It sometimes happens that there is a later infection by scab
so it oo Held to protect the young fruit by another application of
the fungicide about two weeks after the first. The first spray,
however, is the more important one, as it gets the spores before
they have a chanwe to infect the fruit.

The above mentioned diseases and insects are not the only one
that will trouble the fruit grower, of course, but a spray calen-
dar which will cover them, the most imoortant ones, will also take
care of the other and lesser pests, It will be unnecessary, there-
fore, to discuss any other life histories at this time, It might
be well though to say something about the application of the spray.
Up will very recently it has been advocated to spray with the wind.
This is a good practice in the early spring before the foliage has
started out, when spraying for scale or blister mite. The spray
will be carried to all the little crevices in the bark and will
reach every part of the tree. But in the case of the spray for

““aditions are very different. It is necessaby
32
to be most efficient, to have the spray enter the calyx, and
it is evident that this is impossible if sprayed from the wind-
ward side, because all the petals of the blossoms will be turned
away from the sprayer. It will therefore be necessary to spray
against the wind directly into the calyx, driving the liquid
under comparatively ve pressure from a coarse spray nozzle. Of
course it would not, spray thus against a heavy wind,for most of
the liquid would not reach its destination any way, but would be
blown back and lost. Itwould be better to wait for the wind to
subside,

In summing up the matter of spraying, th might be well to
append a calendar for spring spraying which would be universally
applicable for the above-mentioned pests, and only subject to
slight modifications in time of apvlication according to varia-

tions in season and weather.
SPRAY CALENDAR,

352

 

 

 

 

No. Material Time Pest
Commercial lime- Just before San Jose
1 Sulphus 1-10 buds open Oyster-shell
4rsenate of lead in the spring Blister mite
2# to 50 galls. Bud Moth
Commercial lime- Just before Scab(early
Sulphur 1-40 blossoms open stages)
2 Arsenate of lead Bud Moth.
2# to 50 galls.
BO.
e
Just after Seab,.
3 same as 2 petals fall Codling loth

 

Same as 2 minus
the arsenate,

2 weeks later

Scab

 
bo
Prolits.,

Does it pay to renovate the old orchard? That is a
question to be considered carefully before any attempt at
renewal is made, for 1f it does net it tere belter to pas=
ture the old orchard and feed the wormy drops to the pigs than
to spend money siaply for the satisfaction of having a nice
looking, picturesque bit of landscape near the house for the
aesthetic edification of your city friends.

On the face of it, it would seem to be a profitable
undertaking, because so uany fruit growers, who are not in the
business for love, are taking it up and making money out of it
I t will taxe, in the worst case of deterioration, not more
than four years to get a good paying commercial crop of apples
whereas if a new orchard were set out there would be no apples

Cates
even in the,earliest bearing varieties before six years, If,
therefore, a man has an old orchard and wants to grow fruit,
by all means get the old one in snape while waiting for the
new one to come into bearing, and realize some revenue from
the business. “Some may be pessimistic as regards the real
value of this work. For them a few concrete examples might
be Helorul «

A Vermont orchardist reports the followins results from

renovating a twenty acre orchard.
1908 nothing,
1909 gross sales,- $13, 000
1910 . "y- = 20,000
1911 nowt sold yet, fruit in storage,
These figures seem large but are by no means impossible.

A man in Connecticut reports the following results from

two orchards, one 40 years old and the other 90 years. He
3

Ha

worked with then 10 years so that now the one is 50 years old
and the other 100 years.

“Have no accurate figures as to cost and returns but have
sold from $200 to #300 per acre from winter fruits for several
years,- and there is certainly a handsome profit in the
operation, ”

Another reports,- "Formerly one to two barrels, llo.2 and
No. 5, now 5 to 8 barrels, No. i, per tree,

An orchardist in Floradale, Pa. reports an increase in his
prorits of “over 200%".

The Frost and Bartlett Co., Landscape foresters and
entomologists, when cuestioned concerning the value of reno-
vation state;- “It is imnossible to quote you exant figures from
a commercial standpoint as to the value of orchard treatment,
I can state positively, however, that many of the orchards
that have not borne fruit for many years, have produced enough
fruit to pay for the treatment of the trees, both pruning and
spraying, cavity work, etc., and to give a handsouwe profit
besides. Hach year after such treatiient, they have improved
and it is almost all profit after this done,

Another man from New Hampshirs writes as follows:

In regard to profits, will sav that I have established a
retail trade for all my best apples; for the past two years

have sold all of my fency grade as follows:

bbl, box
Baldwins 5.00 2.00
MeIntosh 100 2400

And sell good No. 1's at °4,00 per bbl. Ly cheaper
grades go through the commission iasrchants, where I think I can

do the best. Have put in lots of work, but think it is paying
35
a good return,
The following very suggestive report is had from a New
Hampshire grower.
From 1902 to 1908 his trees were neglected with the

following results.

Year No. bbls. Receipts,
1902 408 756
1903 305 737
1904 299 408
1905 186 400

1906 L172 Zoe

1907 245 551

1908 102 300

In 1908 he began to look after his trees again ina

scientific manner with the following gratifying results,

Year MoO, bd4S Receipts.
1909 473 $1,000
LOLO 475 1625

LoLL 508 1487

Most of these were exported to Liverpool. The figures -
quoted are net profits, not cross receipts.

Even the most pessimistic will have to acknowledge that
there is money to be had if the old orchard is renovated
properly, in the light of the foregoing array of facts. Men
in New Yor’: State owning old orchards should profit by the
experience of those outside the state and put into their
pocket books what is now droping on the fround or going to
the codling moth, If they don't want to do it themselves
let them sell their places to men who are anxious to, and

t -dog in the manger",
bis
36
Sunmary.

In the first place, decide whether or not you are going
to renovate. If you are, do it well; if not,do not start.
Half way methods will accomplish no results other than
perhaps a more fluent vocabulary and a general aversion to
all things horticultural.

Then, if the trees crowe, follow the suggested plan and
cut half of them out, cutting all dead wood from the remain-
ing trees. Burn all the brush. Pruning should be approached
with due consideration to the carbohydrate needs of the tree,
and the tall ones should be brought down by degrses and not
in one year. Form the new heads low from the induced
water sprouts.

Turn the sod over as soonp as the ground breaks up
sufficiently in the spring and follow immediately with a
cuLaway and spring tooth harrow. Keep the orchard cultivated
until the middle of July er first of August, and then
sow a cover crop, oreferably buckwheat, the first year. This
cover crop should be turned under tne following spring.

It might be well to appnly lime at the rate of from
1,000# to 2,000# per acre, the first year the amount to vary
with the apparent needs of the soil, Do not apply fertilizer
tne first year, anyway. It is quite imoossible to know what
is wanted at that time, if indeed anything is, and the chances
are that turning over the sod and loogening up the soil will
make sufficient plant food available for the needs of the trees,

Follow the spray calendar as closely as possible and there
will be little trouble in controlling any of the diseases and
pests comnon to old apple trees, Spray against the wind for

codling moth; not with it,
IO.
37

By following the above suggestions there is little doubt
that many a man can change the condition of his old orchard
from one where it is now costing him the rent of the land
it is occupying to one where it will not ony pay that rent

itself but be a source of revenue considerably over and

above it,
OUTLINE,

I Introduction,
II Cultivation,
III Fertilization.
le Minds: of TerLilizer,
2. Use of using fertilizer.
5. Effects on trees and fruit.
IV Pruning.
Opening up orchard.
: “ trees.
“Dehorning”
Scraping bark.
V Spraying.
Insect and fungous pests.
Commercial sprays.
Spray Calandar for N. Y,.
VI Profits.
Discussion

Concrete examples,

General summary and conclusion,
  

 
  

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