ho i 0 Wes Cie) 1B TOWNS AND CITIES Pres a Sy p> NOS RS i as WILLIAM SOLOTAROFF Cornell University | Hew Work State College of Agriculture DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY AQ BR a ara pijiedes ion 2a)rxdue| RETURN TO ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY ITHACA, N. Y. Cornell University Library SB 436.S68 owns and cities :their s wip 3 1924 003 379 819 mam SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES if , “OIG6E Gsnsny “UdyV} MITA SO6L judy UL UOTSSIULWIOS) dal T-apeyg a} Aq powered cl "N ‘93uvIO 4804 oars quid sy SMVQ NIq dO LADULS = S SS Se = = = ——_ SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES THEIR SELECTION, PLANTING, AND CARE AS APPLIED TO THE ART OF STREET DECORATION ; THEIR DISEASES AND REMEDIES; THEIR MUNI- CIPAL CONTROL AND SUPERVISION BY WILLIAM SOLOTAROFF, B.S. SECRETARY AND SUPERINTENDENT OF THE SHADE-TREE COMMISSION OF EAST ORANGE, N. J FIRST EDITION FIRST THOUSAND NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS Lonpoy: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limrrep 1911 vi Copyright, 1911 By WILLIAM SOLOTAROFF Electrotyped and Printed by the Publishers Printing Co., New York, U.S. A. PREFACE DURING the last few years there has been a remarkable growth of interest in the planting of trees for ornament and shade. In an editorial of February 10, 1909, the Savannah News remarked: ‘‘The increasing interest in shade-trees in practically all of the cities of the country is worthy of more than a passing notice. This interest seems to be keeping abreast of the sanitary reforms that are being in- augurated. While it isn’t stated that there is a connection between tree-planting and hygienic reforms, there is no doubt that shade-trees contribute to the healthfulness of a CitVs. 2-4 es The shade-trees have a restful effect, because making homes more attractive. That which tends to give rest and pleasure must also contribute to healthfulness.’’ The awakening of interest in tree-planting has been fol- lowed by the development of the movement for shade-tree departments in towns and cities. The Shade-Tree Com- mission of East Orange, N. J., organized in the spring of 1904, was the third in the State. There are now thirty-one towns and cities in New Jersey that have such departments. The work of the Shade-Tree Commissions, of Newark and East Orange especially, has proved very successful, and during the last few years there have come to these depart- ments hundreds of requests from different parts of the country for information regarding methods of work and forms of organization. The cities of New Jersey may have inspired others. In 1907, Pennsylvania passed a shade-tree vii viil PREFACE law modeled after the New Jersey statute. Within the last three or four years the cities of Buffalo, St. Louis, Chicago, New Orleans, and Pittsburg have established shade-tree departments. The Harrisburg Patriot, in an editorial, January 13, 1909, said: ‘‘We do not see how any one . . . . can doubt the wisdom of a speedy acceptance of the law of 1907 authori- zing the placing of all shade-trees in charge of a Shade-Tree Commission. The fine results obtained in East Orange and elsewhere . . . . could never have been obtained by individual effort at any outlay of money. But it has been demonstrated in East Orange that it is less expensive to get and maintain a splendid, harmonious, and beautiful system of shade-trees, than it is to have such a haphazard arrangement as prevails in most cities where great pos- sibilities are ruined sometimes through indifference and inattention, but more often through ignorance.’”’ To supply the needs of the growing demand for informa- tion regarding the planting, care, and control of shade-trees in towns and cities is the aim of this book. It is the result of the study of shade-trees in a great many towns and cities of the country and experience gained in the ad- ministration of the work of the East Orange Shade-Tree Commission since its organization. While in the prepar- ation of the book the author has used for reference the bulletins of agricultural experiment stations, treating of some phases of the subject, the material has to him taken on a living form through actual practise. The principles laid down are of general application, and it is the writer’s hope that the book may prove helpful in spreading the tree- planting movement throughout the United States, With the increase of the number of shade-tree depart- PREFACE ix ments has grown the demand for trained men to take charge of the work, and as a result many forest schools are intro- ducing courses in the care of trees. The writer has tried to shape and present the material in such a way as to make the book useful to the private owner of trees, to those endeavor- ing to establish municipal tree departments, and to those in charge of the work of such departments. The book treats particularly of the planting and care of street-trees. As in this work, however, the most adverse conditions for tree growth have to be overcome, the problem is considered from the severest standpoint; and the book, therefore, covers the planting and care of shade and orna- mental trees in state and county roads, public parks, private grounds, and other places. Some of the methods, such as pruning and tree surgery, apply to fruit-trees as well. The writer wishes to acknowledge his gratitude to the members of the East Orange Shade-Tree Commission for their encouragement in the preparation of this work. Al} references to the methods of tree-planting in the city of Washington are the result of personal visits and study and information kindly furnished by Mr. Trueman Lanham, Superintendent of the Trees and Parkings Division of the District of Columbia, whose courtesy has been very much appreciated. Authorities for reference to methods used in the city of Paris have been correspondence with the Prefect of the Seine, who has charge of the street-trees of Paris, and Les Arbres de la Ville de Paris, by A. Chargueraud. Ac- knowledgment is due to Dr. N. L. Britton, Director-in-Chief of the New York Botanical Garden, for looking over the manuscript of Chapter III.; to Mr. George B. Sudworth, Dendrologist, United States Forest Service, for looking over the manuscript of the first half of the book; to Dr. W. A. x PREFACE Murrill, First Assistant of the New York Botanical Garden, for suggestions as to the method of treatment of the part of the book on fungous diseases and for naming some species of fungi; and to Mr. Irving T. Guild, Secretary of the Mas- sachusetts Forestry Association for furnishing information regarding the shade-tree laws of Massachusetts. The author also wishes to remember the many kindnesses of Dr. James P. Haney, of the New York City Department of Education, who first suggested to him the idea of writing the book. All the photographs and sketches for the illustrations are ' by the author, with the exception, of Plate 24, Fig. 4; Plate 41, Fig. 4; and Plate 42, Fig.5. The making of the photo- graphs extended over a period of more than five years, Those elucidating methods of work were taken during oper- ations in East Orange. WILLIAM SOLOTAROFF. EAST ORANGE, N. J., January, 1911. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. TREES IN THE LIFE OF A CITY . re ee 1 Development of Modern Civic Ideals—Esthetic Value of Trees — Sanitary Value — Economic Value—Moral Value. Il. SELECTION OF TREES FOR STREET USE. . ... 6 Picture of Ideal Street. Qualities that Street-Trees Should Possess. Hardiness—Straightness and Symmetry —Immunity from Insect Attack — Abundance of Shade—Cleanliness—Longevity. Few Species Answer Requirements. Ill. SPECIES FOR STREET-PLANTING : 5 3 ; 2 10 The Maples: Norway, Sycamore, Sugar, Red, Ash-Leaved, White. The Poplars: Carolina, Lombardy. The Oaks: Pin, Red, Scarlet, White, Swamp White, Chestnut. The Lindens: American, European, Silver-leaved, Crimean, Large-leaved. The Elms: White or American, European. Horse-chestnut. The Plane Trees: Oriental, Sycamore, or Button-Ball—Tulip- Tree. White Ash. Hackberry. Gingko. Sweet Gum. The Catalpas: Hardy, Western. Ailantus. The Locusts: Black, Honey. Species for Southern States: Live Oak, Water Oak, Willow Oak, and Laurel Oak. Great Laurel Magnolia. Pecan. Camphor. The Palms. Conifers. x1 xil CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE IV. STupDIES PRELIMINARY TO PLANTING . A 2 5 62 The Soil. Amount of Soil—Subsoil—Prepara- tion of the Soil. Avvangement of Trees on Street. Parking Strips—Width of Roadway—Divisions of the Street—Height of Buildings—Distance from Buildings—Distance from Sidewalk Curb —Distance Apart of Specimens—Trees Set with Relation to the Street—The Spacing Uniform— Opposite or Alternate—Treatment of Corners— Setting Trees between Sidewalk and Property- Line—Double Row—Number of Rows of Trees. One Species on a Street. What Determines the Choice of Species—Rows of Different Species. V. THE PLANTING OF STREET-TREES . 5 ‘ ‘ . 82 The Tree in the Woods. The Tree in the Nursery. Developing of the Roots—Developing of the Stem—Limitation of Size—Transplanting Large Specimens—Points in Selecting Trees—How Shipped—A Municipal Nursery. Precautions in Planting. Heeling-in—Top and Root Pruning —How the Tree is Set—When to Plant. Staking. Single Stake. Guarding. Box—wWire Guards. Grills. Subirrigation—Drainage of Subsoil. VI. THE CARE OF STREET-TREES . . . . ... 102 How a Tree Grows. Evolution of a Tree—The Seedling—Growth in Height—Growth in Diam- eter—Essentials for Normal Growth—Reserve Material. Watering. How much Water—How to Water. Cultivating and Fertilizing. Training and Pruning. Fixing Height of Branching— Forming the Crown—The Street as a Unit— The Individual Tree—How Best to Prune— Origin of Branch—The Wrong Way—The Right CHAPTER VII. VII. CONTENTS Way—How the Wound Heals—Limb Must Not Split—First Method of Removing Limb—Second Method of Removing Limb—The Rule to Fol- low—Healing of Scar—A Dressing must be Ap- plied—Training to Artificial Forms—Keeping Crown Within Limits—Heading Back Old Trees —When to Prune—Pruning Tools—Hints to Tree-Climbers. INJURIES TO SHADE-TREES AND How TO PROTECT THEM Poor Soil. Roots Lack Air and Water. Salt Water. Dust, Smoke, and. Injurious Gases in the Air. Oiling of Roads. Illuminating Gas. Symptoms of Gas-Poisoning—How to Detect Leaks—Laying of Gas-Mains—Damages for Trees Killed. Overhead Wires. Escaping Elec- trical Currents—How to Protect Branches— Damages for Injuries. Street Improvements. Opening New Streets—Changing Grade. Build- ing Operations. Mutilations by Horses. Trees Must Have Guards. InJuRIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS AND OTHER DISEASES . Treatment of Trees for Insect Pests. Leaf-Eating Insects. Tussock Moth—Gipsy Moth—Brown Tail Moth—Fall Webworm—Bag Worm—Elm- Leaf Beetle. Sucking Insects. Cottony Maple Scale—Woolly Maple Scale—San José Scale— Scurfy Scale—Oyster-Shell Scale—Plant Lice. Borers. Leopard Moth—Sugar Maple Borer— Maple Tree Sesiid—Bark Borers. Fungous Dis- eases. Wood-Destroying Fungi. False-Tinder Fungus — Sulfur Polyporus — Heart-Rot of Sugar Maple. Sap-Rots of Trees. Common Bracket Fungus. oot-Rots. Canker. Leaf xili PAGE 136 159 XiV CHAPTER IX. XI. XII. XUI. CONTENTS Diseases — Rusts—Mildews — Blights. Diseases Due to Conditions of Soil and Climate. Soil Con- ditions—Ulcers—Drying Out and Leaf Scorch— Frost. INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES, AND SPRAYING Insecticides. Stomach Poisons—Contact Poisons —Vapors. Fungicides. Bordeaux Mixture— Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate. Spraying Ap- paratus. Bucket-Pumps—Barrel Hand-Pumps— Power Sprayers—Spraying Hose—Nozzles—Ex- tension Poles and Spray-Rods—Precautions in Spraying. : THE REPAIR AND REPLACING OF TREES The Repair of Trees. Abrasion of Bark—Bridge Grafting—Breakages in Storms—Filling of Cay- ities — Knot-Holes— Crotches. Maintenance of Uniformity. Partial Replacing. Renewal of Plan- tations. Wuo SHALL PLANT AND CARE FOR STREET-TREES , Individual Planting. Municipal Control. Wash- ington—Paris—New York and Other Cities— States—New Jersey and Pennsylvania—Massa- chusetts. Principles Underlying Shade-Tree Laws. A DEPARTMENT OF MUNICIPAL ARBORICULTURE Official in Charge of Street-Trees. Tree Census. Field Books— Mapping the Trees— Value of Tree Census. Records of New Trees. Other Records. Assessment Lists. Labeling Trees. LEGISLATION . New Jersey. Pennsylvania. Massachusetts. Ordi- nances. INDEX PAGE 203 218 231 244 258 277 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES Street of Pin Oaks.............. acd bars ate cate oeenn ale Frontispiece PEATE PAGE Ie “DHE Ma plese. ay ecient ace ciae ac oe aca sh ogee Saks 11 2s Sugar: Maple: iy s.2.5 alsa sahe kee ety sisenatdaeda tea es 13 3. Street of Sugar Maples................0..0 000.0020. 14 A> Red = Maples ¢ iyticnad dive ovis ist alan betrearemut ae inate eel 17 Oe, White Mapleies arsed stare as ye ade cane sana Bh 20 6; Catolina: Poplatyc.c2.c6 inet ni Aa ken NR ew bale ee 23 7. Carolina and Lombardy Poplars...................... 24 S$. THE ‘Oaks ..ni0s cotyh ae cet nee eee ed Saba ee one eee 29 9. Street of Red OakSs :ccne.cesavnes. ad. goees aa awe 33 10; The: Lindens scc0 gaye eee eee eee eh EE Oe Sees 36 Ad. cAmernican lin acca gb thee ier sis Sin ea Se Sa 39 12. Street of White Elms.............. 0.0.2. e cece eee 40 13. Horsé-Chestntit: oc c BESSA aS: pena n Se coe elas /88---- nnn see SSRTggte SE > ' WIvMadls Rae AVMAVO" . 4 ONINYVd | AVMQVOU i WIVMadis semsth ee pees Se Et 1 70 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES may have two roadways separated by a planting-space along its centre. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 4. The central space may be used for shrubs and dwarf trees, but such a street is hardly of sufficient width to permit the planting of more than two rows of large trees, one row along each sidewalk. Avenues or boulevards one hundred and twenty or one hundred and fifty feet wide permit of an arrangement of four rows of trees: two rows along the benmaa -----g54----—-—-—-- I — eat ee ' Aras | ea et ' ' SIDEWALK 1 ROADWAY t SIDEWALK I '<--~-4 204 —— =e —-- 4 266 —-— —-— pig 294 —-- > T T SSS esa OFS aaa SHER m Fic. 6.—Streets having buildings thirty-five feet high, on both sides, should have a width of sixty-six feet. The divisions of the street and the positions of the trees are shown. sidewalks and two rows in the central space. In the city of Washington the streets having four rows of trees are about one hundred and fifty feet in width. Pennsylvania Avenue may be taken as a typical example, shown in Fig. 5. Height of Buildings.—On residential streets the houses are set back some distance from the sidewalk, twenty feet or more. When this is the case there is more room for the trees to develop. When tall buildings are close to the side- walk, the conditions for growth are not so favorable. In ‘UMOYS 91¥ S991} ay} JO suOTIsod ay} pur yoa.t}s 92 JO SUOISIATP JILL, ‘jaay Ayuam} pue parpuny auo Jo YIpPIA B savy prnoys YsY J99F 9ay-A}XIs ssurpping Suravy syaatIg—"L ‘Ol Seo SSS SS SSeS > WIVMadIs rd 72 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES Paris the height of buildings is limited to sixty-six feet on streets thirty-three feet wide. On streets less than twenty- six feet wide, the height of buildings is limited to forty feet. In order that street-trees might get enough light to develop vigorously, it is found on the average that streets bounded on both sides with buildings thirty-five feet high should have a width of sixty-six feet, and streets having lines of buildings sixty-five feet high should have a width of one hundred and twenty feet, as shown in Figs. 6 and 7. On narrow streets having tall buildings, it is possible to maintain trees in good condition by planting a single row in the centre of the roadway, as shown in Fig. 8. Distance from Buildings.—To secure the best results the distance at which trees are set from the building-line should i ee fy | | | | | | I | I | \ \ | I | al Fe 5 y ! ! | \ | | \ \ | | \ \ \ \ \ | ' ORT Ee ma 1 beasties | SIDEWALK | ROADWAY | PARKING | ROADWAY | SIDEWALK ! he = 10! ee = = sat — — ee ~ 40! ae = - - a8 = — Se 10! f t ‘ 1 Bote 664 —- a > Fic. 8.—Single row of trees on narrow street having tall buildings. STUDIES PRELIMINARY TO PLANTING 73 equal about half the height of the houses. In the city of Paris no trees are planted on streets which have tall build- ings and which have sidewalks less than thirteen feet wide and roadways twenty feet wide. It is sometimes possible, however, to secure fair results even on narrow streets having tall buildings, by choosing a — c— i TET TY r \ SIDEWALK ROADWAY | SIDEWALK | rH —-10!— se —- ~~ + 204 ---- ae 10! — > z [= See q052 oS e= > Fic. 9.—Small trees on a narrow street having tall buildings. species that will keep small, or one that will permit of annual heading back to small dimensions, as shown in Fig. 9. Distance from Sidewalk Curb.—Trees should be set not nearer than two feet from the curb, and, when the plant- ing strips permit, it is better to put the trees farther away from the curb than two feet. In resetting curbs, the roots of trees must necessarily be cut, and if the trees are farther away from the curb less injury is likely to result to them. 74 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES There is one phase of modern street-work that does not tend to improve the highway trees, and that is the laying of concrete walks. In order to lay these walks, there must be an excavation of about eighteen inches, and if there are old trees along the curb their roots are usually cut in the pro- cess. Flag walks should be preferred in such cases. Frequently builders make it a practise to extend a strip of concrete of the width of the stoop of the house from the sidewalk to the curb. This is sometimes ten or twelve feet wide, and this encroachment on the parking space takes away still more from the possible nourishment of the tree, that is already severely hedged in by the curb on one side and the concrete walk on the other. It should be the desire of builders to make suburban streets as countrylike as pos- sible, and not to extend these concrete strips. Distance Apart of Specimens.—Even after the proper species has been selected there can be no greater mistake in street-planting than setting trees too close together. The distance between specimens should be such as to permit them to develop perfectly, and the outstretching limbs should not touch, even when the trees are fully grown. Forty feet is about the average distance at which street- trees should be set. The American elm should be set about fifty feet apart; the sugar maple, the red oak, the chestnut oak, and the oriental plane about forty-five feet apart; the Norway maple and the red maple about forty feet apart; the American linden and the pin oak about thirty-eight feet apart; the European linden, the sweet gum, and the horse- chestnut about thirty-five feet apart; the gingko, the catalpa, the hackberry about thirty feet apart; the ailantus and the Carolina poplar about twenty-eight feet apart. It must also be remembered in determining the dis- STUDIES PRELIMINARY TO PLANTING 75 tance apart at which street-trees are to be set whether the specimens are to be allowed to grow naturally, or whether an attempt will be made to limit their spread. Thus, in the city of Paris the spread of the trees is limited, and they are kept rather small. Accordingly the distances above given would be too far apart for the setting of its trees. In Paris, therefore, the street-trees of the species above enumerated are set at distances apart equal to about three-quarters or less of the distances above given. When planting is not done by public officials, nearly every individual wants one or more trees in front of his house. His neighbor has the same desire, irrespective of the front- age of his property or the nearness of other trees. Exam- ples of the results of such methods of planting may be seen on streets in any town. The trees are too close together, frequently not more than twelve or fifteen feet apart. They interfere with each other’s growth, cut off the necessary light and air, and prevent, by their shade, the growth of grass under them. As a result the trees look like a thick hedge and their individual beauty is lost. When the mistake of having planted trees too close together is realized, one frequently hears expressions of regret: ‘‘What a beautiful street this would be, if those fine trees were ten or fifteen feet farther apart.’’ Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, has been a notable example of the crowding of street-trees, due to the lack of foresight of the original planters. The planting-space on this prominent thoroughfare is one hundred feet wide, and the plans provided for the planting of four rows of Ameri- can elms, the trees in the rows to stand opposite each other. In 1880, Professor Charles Sprague Sargent and Frederick Law Olmsted proposed the removal of the four rows of trees 76 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES which had already been planted between Arlington and Dartmouth Streets, and the planting in their place of two rows of trees from one end of the avenue to the other. The city government, however, refused to act on their sugges- tion. In 1880 and 1881, by order of the Common Council, the planting of four rows of trees was continued in this avenue up to Massachusetts Avenue. The Park Commis- sioners of Boston are now confronted with the problem of thinning out the trees. Trees Set with Relation to the Street.—Trees should be set out with relation to each other and the street as a whole, and not with relation to the frontage of individual property. In the more recently developed sections of cities where property is high, single lots may range in width from twenty to thirty feet. The average distance required by shade-trees for proper development is from thirty-five to forty-five feet; hence there must necessarily be some houses that will not have trees in front of them. Fine shade-trees, however, benefit the entire street, and after they become large every house profits by them. When that time comes it matters little in front of which particular property the stem of the tree is located. The Spacing Uniform.—The spacing of the trees should be uniform, and the specimens on the two sides of the street opposite each other. There will be many obstacles in the ordinary street, such as lamp-posts, water hydrants, house, water, and gas connections, that will prevent an absolutely uniform spacing of trees. Judgment will then have to be used as to how to redistribute the distance so that there will be least deviation from a uniform plan. Trees should be kept away at least eight feet from lamp- posts and about ten feet from water hydrants. STUDIES PRELIMINARY TO PLANTING 77 Opposite or Alternate.—On narrow walks and streets the plan of alternating the trees zigzag fashion on both sides of the way is found preferable, because the distance at right angles across the space is so small that the trees would in- terfere with each other’s growth, but in the case of broad streets more effective results are obtained by placing the trees opposite each other. By that method the trees at the intersection of the two streets are symmetrically disposed with respect to the four corners. Treatment of Corners.—Exactly at a corner is a bad place for a tree, as that spot is usually reserved for a lamp-post, letter-box, fire-alarm box, catch basin, or other street fix- ture. At acorner, also, a tree would be exposed to injury, and the curbstones, half surrounding it, would cut off a great deal of the nourishment from the soil. The best arrangement for trees at street crossings, therefore, is to set them from twenty to twenty-five feet from the inter- section of the curbs, so that there will be eight trees at every four corners, as shown in Fig. 10. Setting Trees Between Sidewalk and Property-Line.— While the usual space reserved for tree-planting is the strip between the curb and the sidewalk, trees are sometimes set on the strip between the sidewalk and the property-line. Trees so located are not exposed to the injury of horses and passing vehicles. The soil between the sidewalk and the property-line is also likely to be of better quality, and the trees will grow better. Such plan of planting is to be pre- ferred if the street roadway is rather narrow and the houses are set far back from the sidewalk. If the houses are very near the fence-line it is evident that the trees will be too close to them and will shade them too much. On the other hand, the roadway will get too little shade. It is for these 78 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES reasons that in the great majority of cases the plan of plant- ing shade-trees along the strip between the sidewalk and the curb is followed. The sidewalk and the roadway get ae Fic. 10.—The disposition of trees at street intersections. their fair share of shade and the trees are not too close to the houses. When sidewalks are placed next to the roadway, pedes- trians are more likely to become spattered with dust and mud than when protected by an intervening space. The effect of a walk separated from the roadway by trees, which STUDIES PRELIMINARY TO PLANTING 79 give it a certain amount of seclusion, is also far better than that of a walk which exposes those using it to the continued gaze of passers-by. Double Row.—Frequently a double row of trees is planted on the sidewalk—one row along the curb and a second row between the sidewalk and the property-line or immediately within the property-line and parallel with the street. Such a plan should be avoided. While the trees are small the result is likely to be effective, but within a few years af- ter planting the trees begin to interfere with each other’s growth, and the result is a bad crowding. The inside row of trees grows much more vigorously than the outside row, because it usually has better soil, and crowds the outside row and dwarfs its growth. The row of trees along the curb, however, is the more desirable; and if any trees are to be removed, those inside can be better spared. They are, as a rule, however, the better trees, and it is a difficult problem to decide which trees are to go if one wants to rectify the mistake of the original planter. Number of Rows of Trees.—The total number of rows of trees that might be planted on a street depends upon the width of the highway, the width of the sidewalks or plant- ing strips, and the species used. In the city of Paris an ordinance prescribes the planting of trees according to the following regulations: Width of Width of Width of ee Distance from | Distance Highway. Roadway. Sidewalks. Rows 9 Houses. from Trees. Roadway. 86 ft. to 92 ft. 40 ft. 23 ft. to 26 ft! 2 18 ft. to 21 ft. 5 ft. 100 ft. to 112 ft. 46 ft. 26 ft. to 33 ft. 2 21 ft. to 28 ft. 5 ft. 120 ft. to 125 ft.) 40 ft. to 43 ft] 40 ft. to 41 ft. 4 16.5 ft. to 18 ft, 5 ft. 132 ft. 46 ft. 43 ft 4 21 ft. 5 ft 80 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES ONE SPECIES ON A STREET Not only to obtain variety but also to offset the whole- sale spread of tree diseases, it is important that as many good shade-trees as possible should be planted in a city. All the specimens on a street, however, should be of the same kind. When such a plan is followed there is secured in- creased stateliness, impressiveness, and charm. The beauty and uniformity that are produced by a repetition of the same object are lost when a mixture of species differing in habits of growth and in foliage is introduced, and it is as much at variance with good taste as would be a mixture of orders in the columns of a temple. Streets that have become famous for their beautiful shade-trees, both in this country and abroad, are planted with one variety. No better illustration of the effective results of uniform planting can be found in America than in the city of Washington. Some of the most imposing streets are New Jersey Avenue, nearly three miles in length, lined with four rows of American elms; Massachusetts Avenue, three and a half miles in length, planted with American lindens; Indiana Avenue, set with oriental planes, and Pennsylvania Avenue, with pin oaks. In the capitals of Europe the plan of planting one species of tree on a street is also followed. What Determines the Choice of Species.—The factors which determine the choice of species for a particular street are the width of the street, the nature of the soil, particular local conditions and the general character of the trees in a row as contributing to the beauty of the street. STUDIES PRELIMINARY TO PLANTING 81 Rows of Different Species.—When the plantation consists of more than two parallel rows, highly decorative effects can be obtained by having the central rows of different species than the outside rows. These species may vary in character of growth, color of the foliage or flowers, so as to produce the most striking effects. CHAPTER V THE PLANTING OF STREET-TREES THE TREE IN THE WOODS AFTER the planting plan is complete the trees must be selected in the nursery. If in the woods you will pull a tree seedling out of the ground you will see that the downward or tap-root is almost as long as the stem. If left to grow, the root system of such a seedling would become as large as the top. If you wished to transplant it after a few years’ growth, it would be difficult to take up all the roots; and if many of them were left behind, the tree would have a poor chance to live after transplanting. There is always a bal- ance between the roots and the top of a tree. The cutting away of the roots will tend to retard the growth of the crown. Because of the risk attending the successful transplanting of trees from the woods, it is the practise in the planting of shade-trees to get all the specimens from a nursery. THE TREE IN THE NURSERY Developing of the Roots.—In the nursery the tree is trained to withstand the hardship of being transplanted to its final home. Seedlings a few feet high are dug up, the tap-roots are removed to within a few inches of the stem and set out in nursery rows, the rows being about five feet apart. The seedlings no longer send downward roots, but develop a lateral root system; just as when the leader of a 82 PLATE 21.—FROM THE NURSERY TO THE STREET. 4 $ 1. Seedling in the woods, with long tap-root. 2. Seedlings of White Elm in nursery rows. 3. Fibrous root system of a 2%-inch nursery-grown Norway Maple. 4. Trees shipped in gondola-car. 5. Trees heeled-in. 6. Planting a Norway Maple. 84 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES tree is removed it sends out horizontal branches. After one or two years of growth the trees are again transplanted, and this time the ends of the lateral roots are shortened. As an additional means of preventing the spread of the roots, a plow is sometimes run between the nursery rows. In this manner the transplanting process is continued every year or two, and the roots, being prevented from spreading, develop a compact fibrous bundle near the stem. As a result, when the tree is finally moved to be set out on the street, it has all the roots necessary to supply the top. Developing of the Stem.—In addition to the development of the root system the main stems of nursery-grown shade- trees are kept free from branches to a height of several feet from the ground by removing the lateral buds or small shoots. The upper twigs are shortened from time to time to produce a well-filled top. Limitation of Size.—It is apparent that the processes out- lined above cannot be continued indefinitely, and as a tree becomes larger less of the root system can be taken up on final transplanting. There is, therefore, a natural limitation to the size of the tree that may be most advantageously planted. A larger tree takes longer to recover from the loss of roots and makes little growth; while a smaller one con- tinues its growth after transplanting with the least interrup- tion. It is found that for general planting, trees from two inches and a half to three inches in diameter give the best results. From an economic standpoint also the planting of large trees is impracticable. Trees of considerable size, seven or eight inches in diameter, set out with the care necessary in such cases, are very expensive; because the frequent trans- plantings of the trees in the nursery bring their final cost (UOISSTUIWIOD YIed ““f ‘N ‘A]UNOD xassy ay} 0} SBuOTaq UMOYS IAAOUI-991} 9Y 1) *‘poqiodsuris} Suleq st 991} ay} a[lyM wWuAOJe[d dy} UO JseI S]OoI BY] ‘SuTeYD ay} Aq JYZnNed uLI0;}e/d 9y} pue dn payxoeq SI ‘9a1} VY} UWIM ‘YONI 1ea1 ay, “sa[xe ay} WoIF suIeYd Aq papuedsns WO; e/d B Aq pajSaUUOS dre SYINI} 1esI 9Y} PUL PIVMIOJ OY L “Pp “JOAOUT -99.1} 9Y] JO YONA] V9I 9Y] UO Burjsei 901} oY, *g “poster ei} ay} pue ‘sjasyM ay} JapuN jnd aie syuL]d ‘1aAoUI-991} ay} JO YONI} 1e91 ayy 0} peyse] Uey} SI YUNI] oY “Zz ‘eapeis aaoqe jYsnoIq s}Oo1 vy} pue dn paj[y st Youat} ay) ‘sseul-}O01 By} YJeauIapuN [Ios 3urjjnd pue “19YIO 9Y} 0} UdY} pUk APIs JUO 0} 4SIY 991} 9} SUNN AG ‘pajeiaql] Useq sey ‘I9}9WeIP UI Jaaj UaAas ‘Yea PUL S}O00I JO SseU UAZOIJ Y *T AK 86 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES rather high. Of course in special cases, where an immedi- ate effect is desired and the expense can be incurred, larger trees may be planted with very good results. On the other hand, if one plants an entire street, where perhaps few houses have been built, it is clearly more economical to set out small, thrifty trees that will grow to fair size by the time the street will have been entirely improved. Transplanting Large Specimens.—Very large trees, twelve or fifteen inches in diameter, are sometimes successfully transplanted. It is important in such cases to take up as much of the root system as possible; and there are two pro- cesses of accomplishing that end. One method is to take up the tree with a large ball of earth around the roots, ten or twelve feet in diameter, and transport it to its new place. This is best done when there is frost in the ground. Another way is to dig a circular trench around the tree, about twenty feet in diameter, work toward the stem by liberating the fine rootlets and large roots, and then, by means of heavy machinery, lift the entire tree and haul it to where it is to be placed. Either of these processes is very expensive. When a tree so transplanted is to be placed on a lawn, it is possible to preserve all the roots; but it is evident that if it were to be placed on a street all the roots would have to be cut to accommodate it between the curb and the side- walk, and the chances of its surviving the ordeal would be very small. Besides, on a highway the tree would be a source of danger, because of the loss of the anchor roots. In the city of Paris, in order to maintain the uniformity of plantations along the streets, when trees fifteen or twenty years old die, they are replaced with specimens as nearly as possible of the same size. To accomplish this successfully the trees are trained for that in the municipal nursery. The THE PLANTING OF STREET-TREES 87 roots are cut round every three or four years by digging a circular trench around the base of the trees to prevent the elongation of the roots. By this means the root system is formed in a compact mass within a limited volume. The trees are transported from the nursery in heavy trucks especially constructed for the purpose. Points in Selecting Trees.—In selecting a shade-tree a compact root system is of greater importance than a large top; although, of course, both are desirable. The abundant roots will cause rapid growth; but a large head and scant roots will result in little growth if the tree survives at all. The ideal street-tree must also have a straight stem, clear of branches to a height of at least seven feet from the ground and a well-defined leader. It is always best to order trees from a nursery as near-by as possible. The less exposure of the roots from the time of digging to final transplanting the better for the tree. It is not always possible, however, to get desirable stock at a near-by place, and the planter may be obliged to go a con- siderable distance from home to select his trees. If proper precautions are taken in the digging, packing, shipping, unloading, and protection of the trees on arrival, the danger of loss is greatly reduced. How Shipped.—The trees selected by the purchaser are marked and left in the nursery until the time of shipment. When digging, care is taken to get the entire root system. To insure the delivery of the trees in as perfect a condition as when they left the nursery they are carefully packed. If only a few trees constitute the order they are generally shipped in bales; the roots are packed in wet moss and bur- lapped, and the stems and branches are wrapped in straw. A hundred trees or more are shipped in a closed car. The 88 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES trees are piled in rows and the roots are covered with wet straw and moss. The doors of the car being tightly closed the evaporation is reduced to a minimum, and the trees remain in good condition for one or two weeks. When too many trees are packed in a box car it is difficult to unload them without breaking some of the twigs. Hence it is bet- ter to ship four or five hundred trees in a gondola car with the sides and the roof built up of boards. The top of such car can be removed on arrival and the trees lifted out with absolutely no injury. A Municipal Nursery.—Even with the greatest care ex- ercised in digging, packing, and shipping stock from a nursery, the trees suffer a great deal from these hardships, and their chances to reestablish themselves when set out are not so good as when trees are grown in a municipal nursery, and can be dug and planted the same day. A municipal nursery is a necessary adjunct to a shade-tree department. When a nursery is controlled and operated by a city it is possible to get the quality of trees wanted. Their training from the seedling stage to the time when they are ready to be set out on the street is with the point in view of their use as street-trees. Their branching can be fixed at the proper height and the trees developed with single leaders. The trees from the municipal nursery are available whenever wanted, and they can be taken up and trans- planted with all the roots and the least exposure. The cost of self-grown stock is also frequently much less than that purchased from a nursery. It is also possible in a municipal nursery to keep in re- serve large specimens of different species to take the place of any that die in the streets, and in that way the uniform- ity of the plantations can be maintained. THE PLANTING OF STREET-TREES 89 PRECAUTIONS IN PLANTING Heeling-In.—So far in the history of the tree it has been out of the hands of the planter; but after its arrival success depends upon the protection of the roots, the preparation of the soil, and the careful planting. If the stock cannot be planted immediately on arrival it should be ‘‘heeled-in.’’ This is done by digging a trench about a foot and a half deep, and of sufficient width to accommodate the roots of the trees without bending. In this trench the trees are set close together and the roots covered with soil, care being taken that it is well worked in about them so as not to leave vacant spaces. Trees so protected can be kept for some weeks, and a few planted at a time as the holes are ready. Top and Root Pruning.—Before setting the tree, a few points are to be observed. Since even with the greatest care it is impossible to take up all the roots when transplanting a tree, it is necessary to cut back the top to maintain the bal- ance with the roots. The amount of cutting depends on the condition of the roots; the more fibrous they are the less the necessity of reducing the top. It is a good rule to remove about four-fifths of last year’s growth from all the branches, making a clean cut just above some strong bud. This can be done more easily and rapidly before the trees are planted. All broken roots should be carefully trimmed to enable them to heal. The amount of top-pruning also depends upon the spe- cies, as not all trees transplant with the same ease. The soft maples, planes, elms, and poplars, for example, do not require as severe pruning as the oaks, the magnolias, or the sweet gum. It must be borne in mind, however, that it is better to prune more than not enough. Ina year or two the 90 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES trees recover by rapid growth the loss of the shortening of the branches. New shoots begin close to the stem, and the trees form a compact top. If a tree is not cut back suffi- ciently when transplanted, if it survives at all, the foliage is thin and borne only on the ends of the branches. Figs. 11, ‘| ail si a) Fic. 11.—Young Sugar Maple Fic. 12.—Same Sugar Maple before tree has been top- after being top-pruned, pruned. preparatory to setting out. 12, and 13 will suggest about the way in which trees should be top-pruned. Fig. 12 will serve as an example of top- pruning such species as maples, elms, planes, and lindens. Fig. 13 will serve as an illustration for such trees as the oaks, magnolias, and sweet gum. How the Tree is Set.—The tree is set the same depth it THE PLANTING OF STREET-TREES 91 stood in the nursery, and the roots are spread naturally, without twisting or crowding them. Fine soil is sifted over the roots and carefully worked between and under them, so that no spaces remain unfilled. A pointed stick helps to crowd the soil under and around them. The soil is filled by layers and packed with the feet until within about three or four inches of the top. The last of the soil is thrown loosely on top, so that it acts as a mulch and helps to retain the moisture. When to Plant.—A question frequently raised in tree-planting is: When is the best time to plant, in the spring or in the fall? The problem will be better under- stood if some of the points in tree-growth are mentioned. During the summer—the period of growth—there is a constant demand on the roots to supply the top of the tree. Fatal injury would result to the tree if an attempt were made to trans- plant it at that time, as the leaves would immediately dry. From the time of the falling of the leaves in the autumn to the swelling of the buds in the spring is the period of rest, and it is during that aaa Ss Fic. 13.—Pin Oak, top pruned ready for planting. time, in the dormant state, that trees may be safely moved. Theoretically the best time to transplant trees would be after the leaves have fallen—about the end of October or the beginning of November. The trees would then be ready to resume growth the following spring. Practically, however, the best results are not always obtained in fall planting. 92 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES Work in the fall is most successful when the following winter is mild and a heavy mulching of manure is placed on the ground at the base of the tree. One of the dangers of fall-planting is the upheaval of the tree by the freezing and the thawing of the ground. It is seldom that trees planted in the fall make new roots before the ground freezes. In the meantime the evaporation of moisture from the trunk and branches goes on; the roots likewise suffer, so that the tree is not in so good a state as if it had been allowed to remain in the nursery and trans- planted in the latter part of March or early April. At that time it would be perfectly healthy; and, as growth would begin, new roots would start to form. Of course, there is danger in spring-planting of the unfolding leaves making too great a draft on the roots for sap and moisture that is not always supplied by rain. Artificial watering is then necessary to carry the tree over the critical period of trans- planting, which at best is a severe shock to the tree. = —Fxperience has shown that trees planted in the fall, if they come up in the spring at all, grow very slowly, unfold- ing their leaves later than trees of the same stock coming from the same nursery planted in the following spring. While a good deal depends on weather conditions, it may be said that the fall is not a bad season to plant, but the spring is a much better one, provided the trees are planted before the buds begin to swell. Certain trees which have succulent roots, like the tulip-tree, sweet gum, and mag- nolias, cannot be transplanted successfully in the autumn -at_all. ' The difficulty in spring-planting is that the season is very short. Everybody is rushed, and trees are sometimes not handled so carefully as the longer fall-planting season THE PLANTING OF STREET-TREES 93 permits. From the natural consideration, however, of the tree’s growth, better success is obtained by careful spring work. STAKING One of the elements of beauty in the planting of shade- trees, is to have them perfectly vertical. In spite of the greatest care in planting, the settling of the earth and the swaying of the trees in the wind cause them to get out of vertical. Attempts to straighten the trees from time to time disturb the roots and injure the tree. The staking of trees, therefore, is an absolute necessity to keep them straight until their roots take firm hold of the ground. An elaborate but effective device for holding the trees upright after being planted is employed in Washington, shown in Plate 23, Fig. 3. This consists of a four-sided wooden box around each tree, which is nailed to four stakes driven into the ground. The trees are fastened by means of leather straps to each corner of the box and are kept per- fectly vertical. The boxes, which also serve as guards, are retained for eight or ten years until the trees outgrow them. They are then removed and wire netting is put around the trees to protect them from injury. Single Stake.—It must be borne in mind that in every device designed to keep young trees upright there must be provision made to keep the top from swaying and bending over as well as keeping the stem rigid at a height of six or seven feet from the ground. Oriental planes, and oaks es- pecially, have a tendency to bend over on account of their weight of foliage, and sometimes the tops snap off in a wind. It has been found, therefore, that one long stake is the best thing to use to support young trees. PLATE 23.—GUARDING AND STAKING. 1. Guarding and staking of trees in East Orange. Guard is of No. 16, 42-inch square wire mesh, seven inches in diameter and six feet high, stake is fifteen feet long, driven to depth of three feet. 2. Good guard for large trees, made of No. 16, 2-inch hexagonal wire mesh. 3. Guard- ing and staking device used in Washington, D.C. 4. Making hole with crowbar for stake. End of tarred stake on the ground is seen. 5. Driving stake. An 18-foot ‘‘A’’ ladder is used. THE PLANTING OF STREET-TREES 95 Stakes fifteen feet long are used which are driven to a depth of three feet, thus leaving twelve feet above ground. The tree is tied to the stake at two or three places by means of one-fourth inch Manila rope slipped through a piece of three-quarter inch rubber hose, Plate 23, Fig. 1. The pieces of hose are about eight or nine inches long. The rope is slipped through them, is wrapped around the tree and a double knot is tied, then the ends of the rope are tied around the stake. In that way the stem of the tree does not come in contact with the stake. If only possible, the stake is driven on the side of the tree contrary to the direction of the prevailing winds, so that the tree will be blown away from the stake and chafing will be minimized. The stakes should not be of sawn lumber but of young growth, about three and one-half inches at the bottom and two inches at the top. To make the stakes more durable, they should be tarred to a distance of about four feet from the bottom. Stakes usually rot at the ground level. By leaving them tarred a foot above ground this will be prevented. The bark should be removed to the required distance and the stakes covered with molten pitch. The stakes are placed about ten inches from the base of the tree. When tree-guards of small diameter are used, the stakes may be placed on the outside; or, if the guards permit it, the supports may be inside. To drive the stake easily a hole is made in the ground with a crowbar, flaring out at the bottom to a cross-section of about two inches square and terminating in a sharp point. The stakes are driven with a sledge hammer, ‘‘A’’ ladders, eighteen feet high, being used by the workmen to get up to the required height, as shown in Plate 23, Figs. 4 and 5. 96 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES GUARDING The combination support and tree-guard used in the city ‘of Washington has already been spoken of. While rather clumsy, these guards are very efficient, and remain around the trees for eight or nine years. Some forms of iron guards are used in other cities, which are rather expensive. Unless a tree is exposed to continuous and severe injury a cheaper form of wire guard will be found just as service- able, especially on residential streets. There are many tree-guards on the market with which trees can be protected. A good economical guard for young trees has been adopted by the East Orange Shade-Tree Com- mission. It is made of No. 16, one-half inch square wire mesh, coming in rolls twenty inches wide. It is cut into six-foot lengths, and these are rolled by means of a machine. into cylinders. A good guard for trees of any size is made of hexagonal wire netting six or seven feet high. In the case of larger guards the width of the wire cloth ordered should be the same as the required height of the guard. The amount of wire cut off from the roll will depend upon the diameter of each tree protected. GRILLS Grills are used around the base of trees along streets to prevent the soil from being tramped on by pedestrians. They are especially needed on sidewalks covered with concrete or other material impervious to air and moisture, and where every available bit of room is necessary for the public use of the street. They are circular, hexagonal, or rectangular in form, and are made of cast-iron sections set together around the PLATE 24.—GUARDS AND GRILLS. . pl ~e& a ~*~ fil SS a er a oe ba arene aioe ies ts id 1. Guard and circular grill, Webster Avenue, New York. 2. Guards and rectangular grills, row of Norway Maples, Rutherford Place, New York. 3. Form of guard used by the Department of Parks, Bronx Borough, New York. 4. Guard and rectangular grill, Baird Court, New York Zoological Garden (Photo. by Hermann _W. Merkel, Forester of the Garden). 5. Railing around base of trees on West Fifty-Ninth Street, New York. A railing is excellent if the sidewalk room can be spared. The soil within can be kept loose and the trees watered, mulched, and fertilized. 98 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES tree: They are placed on a level with the pavement and are supported by wooden pins driven in the ground. ‘The soil under the grill is left depressed or basin-shaped, the deepest portion being that farthest from the base of the tree. This Fic. 14.—Method of placing grill. The soil beneath is left depressed. depression of the soil affords a means of watering the trees. The soil immediately around the trunk is left at grade. See Fig. 14. SUBIRRIGATION The installation of a system of subirrigation becomes necessary to permit the watering of trees by sending the water directly to the soil through tile pipes. This usually consists of tile pipes about three inches in diameter, placed with open joints at a depth of about a foot or a foot anda half. A branch pipe, carried up to the surface of the ground, furnishes an inlet to water delivered to the tree from a water-cart or a hydrant hose. The drains are laid either in the form of a rectangle surrounding the tree, or simply in a straight line on one side of the tree, as shown in Figs. 15 and 16. In either case there is a branch pipe for the ad- mission of the water. A cast-iron cap may be used to cover the opening at the top of the branch pipe to prevent clogging with soil. To guard against any tampering with the irrigation device, the THE PLANTING OF STREET-TREES 99 top of the branch pipe may end slightly below the surface of the ground, the opening covered with a cap, and the soil brought to grade. When watering, the soil is stirred aside and the cap lifted, and when through the cap is again re- placed and covered with soil so as not to show on the outside. The ground in which the tree is planted must be thor- Fic. 15.—Sectional view and plan of a subirrigation device of 4-inch tile pipes laid with open joints. A, Tile pipe. B, Layer of broken stone. C, Branch pipe. oughly settled before the drain is placed. Then a channel is dug for the drain and the tile pipes are laid perfectly level and separated from the earth by a layer of broken stone or coarse gravel three or four inches in thickness. This inter- mediary layer is necessary to facilitate the flow of water and to prevent the soil from washing into the drain. Such irrigation devices are costly and are not always efficient. They become clogged with soil and roots of the 100 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES growing trees, and in a short time are no longer serviceable. There is nothing better for the welfare of trees than the planting of them in such a way as to make it possible to loosen the soil around the roots and water them from the Fic. 16.—Sectional view and plan of subirrigation device of 3-inch perforated agricultural tile. A, Perforated tile. B, Layer of brokenstone. C, Branch pipe and cap. surface. If grills are used, they can be removed from time to time, the soil loosened, and then the watering done through the grills. DRAINAGE OF SUBSOIL What is absolutely essential to the welfare of a tree is proper subsoil drainage. It does not matter how good the soil may be, or how much care has been exercised in the THE PLANTING OF STREET-TREES 101 selection and planting of a tree, if the water table is so low that the roots are always moist and there is no access of air to it, the tree will die. Proper subsoil drainage frequently presents one of the most insuperable problems in tree- planting. If the soil is of an impervious nature, but limited in thickness, it should be either dug through to the more pervious soil or a drain carried to the lower stratum. A drain connecting with a street-sewer will also serve to carry off water that is likely to collect at the roots. Such drains should be placed at a depth of from three and one-half to four feet. CHAPTER VI THE CARE OF STREET-TREES HOW A TREE GROWS Evolution of a Tree.—Success in the care of trees neces- sarily depends upon the knowledge of their requirements to maintain life and their mode of growth. Let us, therefore, for a moment trace the evolution of a tree. The tree’s begin- ning is long before it becomes established in the soil, and shows the differentiating parts of root system, stem, and crown. Its birth really occurs on the parent-tree from which the seed comes. The seed contains the rudiments of all the parts of the mature tree. The Seedling.—In Plate 25, Fig. 4, is shown a common lima bean dissected. The thick fleshy parts, which form the initial leaves on germination, are called cotyledons. These are attached to the very short initial stem. Below that is the initial root, which on germination turns downward and penetrates into the soil. As the root continues its growth, the stem adds to its length, and, in seeking the light, brings the seed up out of the ground. In the case of the lima bean the cotyledons become the first pair of leaves. Many seeds of trees germinate in the same way. In the case of the seeds of other trees, as the white maple, for example, the cotyledons are not lifted out of the soil and transformed into actual leaves. The growth below the co- tyledons is nearly all root. The rudimentary bud between 102 “BULIA]VA\ JIOJaq ape YSNOI] VION ‘esoy YouT-h,, ve YSnojyI PeSALYISIP SI1I]LAA “UOISSILUWWOD 9o1L-apeys asuvig¢) isey ay] Aq pasn J1vd-3uLiaje AA “9 “PUIM vy) Aq UOLeUIWassIp Jo ascdind ay] 10} ATU J »SBUIM JUL “a[dey ayy AA JO spoas Su WI9H “G “SAARI]T AY] SWIOJ YSTYA ‘apNuinyg “D !S}OOI ay} SuUIOJ Yor ‘apotpNe| OV 'V i pesassip ueaq-BUIT “Pp “ULI SIM) Ale jUaLUIpPNd ay} SULMOYs ‘png jNUysaYyS-eS1O}{ ay} JO UOIIIS “Eg ‘png [euIUIe} ey) jo do} ey1 01 YW Wwory sea JawuuNs Sulpaseid ay) Sulnp iystey ur yWo1s ayp “png [eulutay “qd ‘feonuey “DQ :sivos jes] ‘gq ‘gq “q + SALOS a[ROSpNg “VW : ]NUJSAYI-aSIOH{ JO SIM} ADIUTAA °Z “UOISSILULUOD 921 L-9PPYS asuLiG Jseq oy} Aq pasn ‘spiens 11M Suljjoi 10} suryoeu Y ‘TL p= 2 “LAVO-ONINALVM ‘SONITGHHS ‘“ANIHOVIA ONITTON-CUYVND—'st ALWId 104 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES them makes the upward growth of stem and leaves. The materials for the growth are supplied by the cotyledons or seed leaves. The seedling, although diminutive and most simple, possesses all the organs of the fully developed tree; namely, roots in the soil, the stem rising out of it, and the leaves in the light and open air. It now draws in moisture and food materials from the soil by its roots, conveys them through the stem into the leaves, where these materials together with the other crude food which the leaves imbibe from the air, are assimilated into growing tissue. Growth in Height.—In the autumn, after the leaves have fallen from the seedling, the bare stem represents the height and thickness of the first season’s growth. If the seedling is carefully examined, it is seen that just above the points where thé leaves were attacked during the growing season are the buds, from which the growth of stems and leaves will be continued. The shoot from the terminal bud will pro- long the height of the central stem, and the lateral buds will form the branches. Growth in height ceases for the season as soon as the shoot develops from the bud, and this is usually indicated when the terminal leaves are fully grown. The tree adds no other way to the length of limb and trunk. There is a general impression that trees add to their height by the gradual lengthening of the trunks and limbs. If this were true, nails driven into the trunk one above the other, would gradually become farther apart, and wire fences nailed to trees would rise in the air. Growth in Diameter.—While the growth of a tree in height is the result only of the shoots developing from the buds, the growth in diameter of the trunk, main branches, and twigs is a process affecting every part of the entire plant. Separating the bark from the wood is a colorless, muci- THE CARE OF STREET-TREES 105 laginous substance called the cambium layer. The cam- bium is under every portion of the bark, which covers the tree completely from the tip of the deepest root to the top of the highest twig. Through the sapwood the soluble inor- ganic materials drawn from the soil by the roots ascend to the leaves, and are there elaborated in connection with the materials taken from the air into organized compounds. This elaborated food material descends through the cambium layer to every part of the plant to build up its tissues. All the tissue arising from the inner side of the cambium ring goes to form the wood, while that produced on the outside goes to make up the bark. The cambium is the life of the tree. If the limb of a tree is removed, a new one may develop near its place. Trees live for years with the trunks hollow, but if they are girdled by the cutting away of aring of bark, there is interrupted the tissue through which the descending food material is con- ducted from the leaves, and the roots are starved and the tree dies. Owing to the climatic variations during the growing season, the cambium tissue is not uniformly active. Dur- ing.the spring, the period of energetic growth, wood of a coarser texture is deposited than later in the season, when it is more closely grained. Through the contrast in the structure of the early and the late wood, the limits between successive annual rings become sharply defined and serve as a means of computing the age of a tree. Essentials for Normal Growth.—The food of trees comes from two sources—the air and the soil. The tree can trans- form the raw materials into wood tissue only under the proper conditions of soil, water, light, air, and climate. Water serves the double purpose of keeping in solution the 106 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES minerals taken up by the roots, and helps to convey these nutrient substances of the soil into the tree body. A large quantity of the water taken up by the roots passes through the tree merely as a medium for the transport of nourish- ment, and is again discharged through the leaves by evap- oration. This evaporation of water through the leaves is called transpiration. The watery fluid absorbed by the roots is carried by the transpiration current to the leaves. These in turn take up the carbonic acid from the air, and under the action of sun- light the carbonic acid is decomposed, the carbon combined with the minerals from the soil into food materials used in building up the tree. This process is called assimilation. The leaves, therefore, perform a very vital function in the life of the tree, and it is evident that defoliation by insects or other causes will seriously affect its growth. Besides, trees, like animals, in order to live must have air to breathe, and in this process of respiration they take up oxygen and give off carbonic acid. Respiration and assimilation are two distinct vital processes, carried on independently by trees and other plants. The process of assimilation is carried on only in the light, carbonic acid is decomposed, and oxygen given off. The process of respira- tion is carried on both by day and by night, oxygen is taken up, and carbonic acid given off. Furthermore, not only the leaves but the twigs, the branches, the trunk, and the roots have breathing pores, and require air for the maintenance of life. It will, therefore, be seen how important it is to keep the soil in a state of culture, and to see that the supply of air is not cut off from the roots by pavements, by filling in around the base, or by flooding of the roots. THE CARE OF STREET-TREES 107 Reserve Material.—All the products of assimilation are not at once consumed by the tree, but some are accumulated for future use. This surplus of reserve material is greatest at the close of the growing season in the fall. It is stored by the tree during the winter, and all growth of buds and leaves of the succeeding spring is dependent upon this store of elaborated food. WATERING Artificial watering of trees is necessary when they do not get by natural means the moisture essential to maintain the soil in a condition most favorable to vegetation. In cities the water from rainfall runs off quickly, and very little finds its way into the soil and subsoil around the roots of trees where it is most needed. Watering depends upon the climate, species of tree, and the nature and extent of the soil and subsoil. Young trees need more frequent watering than older ones. Trees that have surface roots need more watering than deeply rooted ones; also rapidly growing trees more so than those of slow growth. Especially after transplanting, when they begin to rees- tablish themselves and during their first season’s growth, trees need an abundance of water. Before the trees are able to care for themselves, new roots must be formed to take hold of the soil. In the meantime the evaporation from the branches and the developing leaves must be sup- plied artificially. How Much Water.—How much water to give trees, and at what intervals, depend upon the extent of soil occupied by the roots and the nature of the soil and subsoil. Young trees, two or three years after planting, of which the roots occupy a volume of about a cubic yard, require from twenty 108 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES to twenty-five gallons at every watering. Older trees re- quire more water. It must always be borne in mind that enough water should be used to penetrate the soil in which the roots of the tree extend. Watering at intervals of every week or ten days will, on the average, be found sufficient if every time the soil around the roots is thoroughly saturated. While on the one hand there must be enough watering to maintain a uniform degree of moisture in the soil, on the other hand care must be taken not to allow too much mois- ture around the roots. How to Water.—When watering is provided for by a sys- tem of subirrigation of tile pipes, the process is simple, as the necessary quantity of water can be supplied through the branch pipe carried to the surface. When there is no such provision made for watering, the soil around the base of the tree should be thoroughly loosened and a shallow basin formed around the tree about eight inches deep. The size of this basin will depend upon the extent of the roots of the trees desired to water. Ordinarily the extent of the roots of trees is about the same diameter as that of the crown. The deepest part of the basin should be the portion farthest away from the stem of the tree. When trees have grills, the soil underneath should be left depressed in the form of a basin, to permit of watering. The water is applied from a hydrant or from a watering- cart, and is allowed to run slowly, so that all of it will soak into the soil. Before the soil hardens and packs, the loose soil that was removed to form the basin should be replaced, and the ground brought to grade. By keeping the soil por- ous the moisture is retained for a longer period of time. In the city of Paris watering devices, covered with grills, are installed in the intermediary spaces between very large THE CARE OF STREET-TREES 109 trees, the root systems of which have become very exten- sive. Watering of trees should be avoided during the hot- test part of the day. It is best to do it in the early morning and late in the afternoon or evening. In the city of East Orange the watering of the street-trees is done at night, from 7 P.M. to 6 A.M. CULTIVATING AND FERTILIZING The principal elements in the soil essential to plant growth are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. It is generally found in cities that it is not the deficiency of the nutritive elements in the soil that causes the decline of trees, but rather the physical condition of the soil which renders it impossible for trees to perform their normal func- tions. The keeping of the soil around trees cultivated and free from weeds is one of the most important aids to their growth. The keeping of the ground loose allows air to reach the roots, renders more available the plant food the soil contains, and prevents the rapid evaporation of mois- ture. If the ground is hard it becomes heated, the water forces itself to the surface, and passes into the atmosphere. If kept cultivated it acts like a blanket, and prevents the loss of water by surface evaporation. Too much stress cannot be laid upon the importance of cultivation, the full value of which is not generally appre- ciated. When there is no water available, trees can fre- quently be brought through in good condition during a period of drought by just keeping the soil dug up and loose around their base. One of the best ways of improving the condition of the soil of trees is to put a mulching of manure around them in the fall, allow that to remain all winter, and then turn the 110 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES manure into the soil the following spring. The manure not only enriches the soil chemically, but improves its physical condition by making it more porous and less liable of becoming packed and impervious to air and moisture. In the case of young trees this treatment is especially bene- ficial. Instead of manure, chemical fertilizers can be used very advantageously, to stimulate the trees in their growth. The following mixture is recommended by Dr. Jacob G. Lipman, soil chemist of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station: Acid phosphate.................... 700 pounds Muriate of potash.................. 300 pounds The above mixture is used in the fall at the rate of about fifteen hundred pounds per acre of ground. Proportionately the amount is determined for each tree according to the area it is desired to fertilize. In the succeeding spring the fertilizing is continued by an application of nitrate of soda at the rate of 300 pounds to the acre. The Jatter can be best applied by dissolving the chemical in water and then sprinkling the solution over the area to be fertilized. TRAINING AND PRUNING In the shaping and pruning of shade-trees, one is largely governed by the same points as when selecting a tree for planting. A lawn-tree may branch low or may be crooked and unsymmetrical. The very imperfections give it its character. The tree requires very little attention, and is left to grow naturally. A street-tree, on the other hand, must be perfectly straight, symmetrical, and the branches must begin at a height from the ground that will allow the THE CARE OF STREET-TREES 111 free public use of the street. Besides, the tree must have a well-developed, compact head, as nearly as possible of oval outline. Many of the requisites of the good tree will be obtained by selecting the proper species for planting. To produce symmetry, good outline, and branching at a fixed height from the ground are the functions of training and pruning. Fixing Height of Branching.—The training of the tree should begin soon after planting. The fixing of the branch- ing at a certain height above the ground must be done grad- ually, however. It is desirable that a tree should grow in diameter as well as in height in order to support the top without bending. Low branching will cause a more rapid growth in thickness. The lower layers of branches should be removed at intervals of a year or more until the proper height of clean stem, ten or twelve feet, is reached. Forming the Crown.—The training of the crown consists in shaping it for symmetry by the suppression of some branches and the encouragement of the growth of others. If possible, trees should be left with single leaders. Two or three main stems produce crotches which are likely to split in later years. When there is a tendency to the formation of two or more main stems, the central stem should be left and the others entirely removed, or so shortened that the entire vigor of growth will be thrown into the central stem. In the case of young oaks and other species of trees, of which the wood is very flexible, the leaders have a tendency to bend over, and the tops in time become drooping. In such cases the leaders should be tied to bamboo poles of about an inch or an inch and a quarter in diameter. Raffa is one of the best materials to use in tying trees to bamboo poles. When a tree loses its leader, it can be made to re- 112 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES sume the growth of a central stem by tying a lateral twig to a bamboo pole and training it upward for a few years. The training of street-trees when young saves a great deal of work when the trees become older, when they do not lend themselves so readily to the process of shaping, and it is necessary to form large scars by removing large branches. The Street as a Unit.—Very frequently, however, it is found necessary to prune trees of considerable age, and certain principles have to be borne in mind. As in the planting of shade-trees the street is treated as a unit, so in the pruning, each tree must be considered in relation .to the others on the street. All trees should be trimmed to a height that will allow the. unimpeded passage of pedestrians and vehicles. No-limbs or foliage should be left to obstruct the street-lights. The. shading of lamps is a trouble very common on many streets. The limbs are so low that.the entire light is shut off at night, and the street is left in darkness. No matter how healthy and perfect shade-trees may be, if the limbs. are too low the full beauty of the street is not realized. In walking you may not actually be obliged to stoop in order to keep clear of the leaves; but there is a depressing effect produced by looking down the street and seeing the branches and the sidewalk almost meet. The foliage seems to oppress you with its density. The individ: uality of the trees is frequently lost, and the trees look like a great overgrown hedge. On the other hand, if one comes to a street the trees of which are properly pruned on both sides to a uniform height, the ends of the limbs turning upward instead of drooping, one cannot help perceive the improvement. The depressed effect is gone and one looks THE CARE OF STREET-TREES 113 up. Every tree, instead of seeming like one mass of foliage, shows a prominent trunk, and the branching is clearly brought out. The perspective of the street resembles a great archway. Nothing of the health or utility of the trees has been sacrificed; and from an esthetic standpoint the maximum effect has been obtained. Contrast the appear- ance of the street shown in Fig. 17, and that shown in Plate 3. Fic, 17.—A street the trees of which are in need of pruning. Plate 3 shows Midland Avenue in East Orange, after the sugar maples were trimmed. Fig. 17 shows the continua- tion of the same street in Glen Ridge, where the pruning was stopped. The former street shows all the lamps, the branches turn upward and every tree stands out clearly. Fig. 17 shows the drooping limbs forming one mass of foliage that reaches almost to the ground. The Individual Tree.—In the actual treatment of each 114 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES individual tree, great care and judgment are necessary. No two trees have their mode of branching alike, and each case must be studied separately before deciding what limbs are to go in order that the tree may be improved. No branch should be removed from a tree without good reason. There are some points to be observed, however, that are applicable to all trees. All dead and imperfect limbs should be removed. The top of a tree should not be allowed to become so extremely dense as to exclude the sun from the soil or from the buildings near-by, or interfere with the free circulation of air. The tops of sugar maples and red maples particularly have a tendency to become too thick. To thin out the tops of such trees, the main limbs and the branches immediately radiating from them should best be left, and all cutting limited to the third and fourth divisions in the branching. In that way the character of the tree is not changed. Also in the removing of the lower branches of a tree that interfere with the public use of the street or obstruct street-lights, it is not necessary to clear the main trunk of limbs to a very great height; but subdivisions can be removed, giving the branches a graceful upward turn. The ends of the branches can be shortened. In that way the prime object in the pruning of shade-trees, to secure the unobstructed use of the street, is accomplished, and the natural habit of the trees is preserved. In fact, the point to be constantly borne in mind in the pruning of shade-trees is to preserve, as far as possible, the character, natural shape, and habit of growth of each tree, and to avoid all artificial shaping of trees. The art of pru- ning consists of making the finished tree look as if no limbs had been removed at all. How Best to Prune.—The work of pruning should begin THE CARE OF STREET-TREES 115 at the top of the tree, be continued in a downward direction, and completed at the bottom. It is easier to shape the tree by that method, and time is saved in clearing the tree of the pruned limbs. Frequently a limb gets caught in its fall; but as the man works downward he is able to free the limbs and do the cutting at the same time. All cuts should be made close to the base of a limb, and the plane of the scar should be nearly parallel to the axis of the trunk. How to make the cut to prevent splitting and to insure the healing of the scar are the important points in the pruning of all trees. Origin of Branch.—A branch of a tree originates froma lateral bud of the main stem. The first year’s growth of the shoot from the bud is similar to the first year’s growth of the seedling from the seed. As the growth continues and the annual layers of wood are deposited on the main stem, the draft of the sap of the lateral shoot causes these layers to continue up and around the limb. If one were to stand and hold his arms up, the garments around his body would represent the successive annual layers of wood on the tree- trunk, and the sleeves of these garments around the arms would represent the continuation of these layers around the limbs of the trees. The Wrong Way.—In Plate 26, Fig. 1, is shown the trunk of a tree with a limb that is tobe removed. Frequently such work is done by making a cut the shortest way across the limb, line AB, Plate 26, Fig. 1, and the result is that a stub is left, similar to that shown in Plate 26, Fig. 2. When the limb is so removed, let us see what will happen. There being no draft of sap into the stub, because the end is removed, the next annual layer of wood of the main trunk will not be continued up around the limb, but will end at ojdurexa uy *Z sures JO UOT}Iag “+f ‘A TOH-LONH V HAO NOLLATIOAA ‘apeut Ajtadoid reos-Surunid ve yo Burray °g *991} SY} OUT Te} parsed st ABOap yey} SUIMOYsS UOTVDAG “9 "oseq ye Ppeusodap St onssl) ‘ABMB SI[PF HIV “E “Yop sr qnig Zz *Surunad peq AIOA jo ‘ajoy-youy Burarayl “no sypeyqnyg “¢ “ABoap Burmoys Z ‘PV sul ayy suoye paaoutar st quirT aHL—'9t ALWI1d at THE CARE OF STREET-TREES Tye the base of the stub, as shown in Plate 26, Fig. 2. The stub of wood being no longer living tissue and exposed to the weather, will dry, check, lose its bark, and the successive annual layers deposited on the trunk will form a collar at the base of the stub, as shown in Plate 26, Fig. 3. In Plate 26, Fig. 4, which is a section of the specimen in the former figure, is shown the result of such a method of pruning. The decay caused by the stub has been carried to the heart of the tree. As time goes on the stub further rots, and breaks off at the collar, forming an ugly knot-hole, Plate 26, Fig. 5. Knot-holes resulting from improper pruning are very numerous. They form an admirable spot for the ger- mination of fungus spores and the entrance of borers, and are frequently the first cause of the serious injury and final death of trees. The Right Way.—Returning to Plate 26, Fig. 1, suppose the limb had been cut off close to the trunk, along the line CD, as far as possible parallel with the axis of the tree. Separating the wood from the bark is the cambium layer. All the tissue arising from the inner side of the cambium layer goes to form the wood, while the outside produces the bark. When a limb is cut off, as in Plate 26, Fig. 1, along the line CD, the living cells of the cambium bordering on the wound put forth an abnormal growth of tissue, called a callus. It first arises from the exposed cambium, like a thin ring, as shown in Plate 26, Fig. 8. With the growth of the tree it rolls over the scar and finally overcaps it. How the Wound Heals.—While the callus tissue is in the process of overgrowing the wounded surface, it forms a protective bark and a new cambium under it, which is con- tinuous with the cambium of the growing stem. When the margins of the overgrowing callus tissue meet, the edges of ‘ansst} sty Aq paddvoraao uaas st YW qnys ay, ‘ansshy Surpeary ayy yo 10119}xa ay MOYs 0} se Os pauINy APYsrys “eos ay} YSnoy} 92.19 ay} Jo UONoas [eUIpNyLsuo, W “Eg “YUNA. ay} YIM UdAI pure O} asopo apr sEM JNO ay} fAPAITU OS PsP] Teos ay} AYA Surmoys ‘aules ay} JO Mata apg *Z JO MATA JuOIY SuIMOYs “ZO ANYM ‘T 8 FE “AVOS-ONINONAd VW dO ONITVAH AHL—l2 ALVWI1d THE CARE OF STREET-TREES 119 the cambium unite and form a complete layer over the sur- face of the wound. This layer is a continuation of the cambium of the growing stem, and during the next season a layer of growth will be added over the wound continuous with the annual ring added to the tree. The wood produced over wounds differs in structure from normal wood and is called callus wood. Eventually, however, the successive layers become more like natural wood. The callus overgrowing the end of a severed branch never coalesces with the old wood. It simply seals up the remaining stub ie of the branch, which becomes like |” so much dead material buried in the wood of the tree. Fig. 18 and Plate 27, Fig. 3, show the transverse and the longitudinal sections of healed |. wounds caused by the removal of branches. It will be seen that the stubs remained exactly in the same condition as when the limbs were a erie oe cut off, and that the layers of tissue horse-chestnut, showing of the subsequent growth of the trees ae ee have overcapped them. The importance of the proper healing of wounds cannot be overestimated. As has been pointed out before, limbs of trees originate in many cases from the very centre of the tree-trunks. After a limb is removed the remaining stub, which becomes lifeless, is like a cylindrical block of wood driven into the tree with the end exposed to the weather. If nature did not provide for the healing of the wound, or rather its overgrowing with new tissue, the stub would form a soil for fungus spores and the entrance of insects, and 120 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES the decay would be carried to the centre of the tree. It will be seen, therefore, that it is extremely necessary when removing a limb to make the cut in such a way as to aid Fic. 19.—Tree with branch to Fic. 20.—Split caused by improper be removed along line A B. method of pruning. nature to heal the wound as effectively and as rapidly as possible. The way to do this is to make the cut as close as possible to the base of the limb, and in a way that the plane of the scar is nearly parallel with the axis of the tree. Two pur- poses are served by such a method: the wound is brought into the most intimate contact with the healing tissues, and THE CARE OF STREET-TREES 121 the wood being deeper, there is less danger from drying and checking while the wound is healing. Limb Must Not Split.—The necessity of making the cut, as described above, being apparent, the question now com- ing up is how to make the proper cut. In removing the branch in Fig. 19, the cut would have to be made along the line AB. If one were to start the cut with a saw at A, the weight of the limb would cause it to split when near the end of the cut, and the injury caused by the stripping of the bark would be very great. A safe way, perhaps, of remov- ing the limb would be to cut it off about two feet from the shoulder, and then remove the stub. While it would be a safe way, it would not be the easiest or the most practicable way. The green wood across the junction of two branches is very tough, in which the saw binds, no matter how coarse a set it may have. It is desirable to utilize the weight of the branch to spread the saw cut; but at the same time the splitting of the wood must be guarded against. First Method of Removing Limb.—There are two methods of sawing off alimb properly. Plate 28, Fig. 1, shows the tree. Begin with a cut on the under side of the limb, about eight or ten inches from the shoulder, sawing about half way through, Plate 28, Fig. 2. Then remove the saw and make the cut close to the shoulder, as in Plate 28, Fig. 3. When the limb is cut about two-thirds or three-quarters across, the weight of the end will cause it to split up to the under cut, and it will fall off, Plate 28, Fig. 4. You can then safely finish the cut, supporting the stub with the hand, so that none of the bark is stripped. Second Method of Removing Limb.—In the case of a large limb, as in Plate 29, Fig. 1, the swelling at the base may be such that it will not split horizontally, and then there PLATE 28.—FIRST METHOD OF REMOVING BRANCH. Then saw close to the shoulder. 6. Branch is removed, saw about half way through. 35 Finish cut. 5, Start with an undercut, Branch will split horizontally and fall off. 2 at The branch. al THE CARE OF STREET-TREES 123 will be risk of the limb’s splitting at the shoulder. In such case begin as before with an undercut, Plate 29, Fig. 2; then, in order to utilize the weight of the end of the limb to spread the cut for the clearance of the saw, cut close to the shoulder, about half way through the limb, Plate 29, Fig. 3. Then remove the saw, and cut on top of the limb, a little above the undercut, Plate 29, Fig.4. When the two saw- cuts meet on the same level, the limb will drop off, Plate 29, Fig. 4. Then finish as before, by sawing off the stub. The Rule to Follow.—Hence the rule for the proper re- moval of a limb is: Always begin with an undercut about eight or ten inches from the base of the limb you want to remove. Then saw close to the shoulder, as has been pointed out before. When past the centre of the limb, pro- ceed cautiously. If the swelling at the base of the limb is not too great, the limb will split horizontally, turn about the remaining stub as a pivot, and fall off. You can.then safely finish the cut. If, however, the chances are that the limb will not split horizontally, but break at the shoulder, saw above the undercut till the limb drops off and then remove the stub. By following the above directions there is no danger of causing injury to the trunk of a tree. Healing of Scar.—The time it takes a pruning-scar to heal completely depends upon its size and the rapidity of growth of the tree. A rapidly growing tree, like the Caro- lina poplar, can heal a wound on its trunk, three or four inches in diameter, in one growing season; while it takes a hard maple a few years to accomplish a like result. While the callus is overgrowing the scar from the periphery toward the centre, the end grain of the remaining stub is exposed to the weather. The wood dries and checks, and although all precautions may have been taken to remove ‘quUOP ST YIOAA “9 “qnjs dAOUWIY *¢ “yo doip ][* Yourmg norepun aAoqge Meg ‘p “ABAA JTRY JNoge “Taprnoys ay} 0} asojo vs Udy, *¢ “ABM FEY Aves “noJapun ue YYWM Weg *Z “YouRq oy, ‘T ‘HONVaUd ONIAONATY AO GOHLAW ANOOUS—'62 ALVWId THE CARE OF STREET-TREES 125 the limb close to the trunk, by the time the wound heals the decay may be carried deeply into the tree. A Dressing Must be Applied.—It is necessary, therefore, to apply a dressing to the surface of a scar when a limb is removed that will, as far as possible, prevent the decay of the old wood until it is overcapped with new callus. Thick paint makes a good dressing; but the best way of preserving the condition of the exposed stub is by an application of thick coal-tar.!. This fills the pores of the wood; and, when it sets, becomes as hard as enamel. It checks the evapora- tion of the sap and prevents the entrance of water. The coal-tar also acts as an antiseptic, and prevents the forma- tion by moisture and dust of a fertile spot for the entrance of fungus spores and insects. The function of dressings is not to hasten the growth of the callus; but simply to prevent the decay of the stub. In the case of scars, two or three inches in diameter, on hard- wood trees, one application of coal-tar will be sufficient to keep the exposed wood intact until the healing process is completed. Larger scars may need further applications of tar, one in about every two years, until the surface is over- grown. So long as the exposed wood is kept intact, there is no danger of injury resulting from pruning, no matter how long it takes the wound to heal. Training to Artificial Forms.—In the city of Paris, street- trees are sometimes trained to artificial geometrical forms. 1 Coal-tar is a waste product of gas works obtained in the process of dis- tilling bituminous coal in retorts. The crude tar contains carbolic acid and other impurities that may corrode plant tissues if present in large quantities. The coal-tar found on the market is usually a refined product from which the injurious ingredients have been removed. The coal-tar sold for roof-coating is an efficient and safe dressing for wounds. One must avoid the use of tars having injurious elements in their composition. 126 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES Such formal treat- ment of trees is a matter of taste; but trees always appear more interesting and exhibit more individ- ual character when their natural mode of growth is preserved as much as possible. In this country the training of trees into unnatural symmetri- cal shapes is little practised. height, denuded at the base; to be headed back. Keeping Crown Within Limits. —Street-trees, however, should not be permitted to grow beyond certain bounds, for a number of reasons. It is desirable to restrict the spread of trees when they begin to touch houses or extend over the roadway so as to give too much shade. To maintain a Fic. 22.—The same Oriental Plane, compact crown on some trees, jt headed back to three-quarters of : the original height, with the lateral is necessary to shorten the ends ___ branches shortened in proportion. THE CARE OF STREET-TREES 127 Fic. 23.—The same Oriental Plane a year after the oper- ation. producing a condition known as ‘‘stag-head’’ or ‘‘top-dry.’’ Trees can be maintained in better condition by lim- iting the spread of the top so as to reduce the draft on the roots, and frequently failing speci- mens can be restored to vigor by shortening the branches. Heading Back Old Trees.—When early pru- of the branches to send more energy into the portions near the stem. The diam- eter of the root system of a tree is about the same as that of the crown. On city streets, where the soil is usually poor and the growth of the roots restricted, the ends of the branches be- come ragged in time, the foliage thin, and finally the top of the tree dies back, ft die Fic. 24.—The same Oriental Plane several years after the operation. 128 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES ning is neglected the problems of restoring trees to sym- metry, of suppressing certain branches, and of forcing others become very difficult. Not all trees have the same power of sending out new shoots when branches are cut back. Rapidly growing trees, like planes, soft maples, elms, and poplars, lend themselves more readily to heading back than other trees. One of the advantages. of the use of the planes as street-trees is that they recover quickly from the effects of severe pruning. When trees are cut back, numerous shoots develop from buds near the ends of the remaining branches. Plane-trees especially send out a whorl of new twigs. Two or three years after heading back, it is necessary to suppress or entirely remove some of these new branches, and leave only the more vigorous ones to maintain the growth of the top. Figs. 21 to 24 show the various steps in the process of res- toration of an old oriental plane that had become denuded at the base. An instrument called a dendroscope, Fig. 25, devised by Des Cars,' is sometimes helpful when shaping or heading back a number of trees to the same form and dimensions. It consists of a piece of thin paper or wooden board, about 4x8 inches, in which is cut an opening proportional in out- line to the form it is desired to give the trees. With this device the foreman can indicate to the pruner in the tree the exact places where cuts should be made. The foreman stands removed from the tree at a distance about equal to its height, holds the dendroscope vertically and at such a distance from the eye that when he looks through the opening, the bottom of it coincides with the base of the tree and the top with the place marking the height to ‘“A Treatise on Pruning Forest and Ornamental Trees,” by A. Des Cars. THE CARE OF STREET-TREES 129 which the tree is to be cut back. As he stands in one posi- tion he directs the cutting of all the branches that are parallel to the plane of the card. Then he slowly goes round the tree and indicates where the other branches are to be cut. Sometimes when large branches are removed close to the trunk, adventitious or dormant buds near the place where the cut was made are stimulated into a forced growth, and they produce suckers or water - ; sprouts. If these are desirable to VA) fill out the crown they should be retained; but if they occur low on the trunk they should be removed, for they rob the upper branches of food materials. When to Prune.—Careful atten- /|/ tion to the time of pruning shade- trees is not so important as in the case of trimming shrubs for flowers and fruit-trees for fruit. Very heavy pruning and heading back of old trees are best done in very late fall or during the winter, when trees are dormant. The store of reserve material will cause a rapid growth of new shoots the follow- ing spring. The shaping of trees can be done best when the foliage is on. It is also easier to discover dead, imperfect, and weak branches. For general pruning, therefore, it may be said that any time after midsummer is a good time to prune. During the spring and the early summer, when the sap is most active, it is apt to flow too freely from the wounds, and prevent the adhesion of any dressing, and the bark can be easily stripped from the trunk by accidental splitting of Fic. 25.—A Dendroscope. 130 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES branches. At this time also the removal of very much of the crown is apt to react unfavorably upon the roots by robbing them of so much elaborated food material. It has not been observed that the rapidity of the healing of the wounds is dependent to any extent upon the season when pruning is done. Pruning Tools.—While the tools required for pruning are simple, one will find that a great deal of experimenting will be required to strike the right kind. The saw is the chief requisite, and the kinds actually sold as pruning-saws are very inefficient. A cross-cut saw, that is satisfactory for cutting dry, seasoned wood, is worthless for sawing the sappy, tough wood which is at the base of a limb, where it joins the trunk. After a great deal of trials with all kinds of saws, the writer was on.the point of having a special kind of saw made, when he discovered on the market a saw which is far more satisfactory than any other commonly used for pruning. It is Atkins’ Universal Saw, No. 83, having a patent tooth, as shown in Plate 30, Fig. 4, and is ad- mirable for the green wood of living trees. It works easy, and there is no pressure required on the saw to make it cut. Work can be done very rapidly with this tool. The best way to carry the saw when going up a tree is to suspend it from a belt having a loop provided for that purpose. ~ When hung just behind the hip it leaves the arms and body of the pruner free to climb or shin up any branches.. Plate 30, Fig. 8, shows an admirable form of pruner’s belt for carrying a saw, a small axe, a rope, and a leather holder for supporting the pruner’s body while work- ing. The holder is passed around the tree and the ends clasped to two rings in the belt, one on each side of the body. When not in use it is suspended from one of the ‘sayout 6 “Sua, {sreays-Surunid puexH “6 — ‘s[oo} pure Topjoy YM Gjaq sfountg “g ‘sayout gT ‘aqpuey jo yysuaT “parpuey ‘spunod $z qydiam ‘axe-Suruntg “2 ‘ape[q YOul-7 ‘mes-duarunid aspo apsurg “9 ‘ape}q Youl-7Z ‘avs-Surunid aspa ayqnod *§ “£8 ‘ON “Meg [esTaaruy SUP FO YI99} jo azis [RINIWN ‘+ u ‘c yaunad-aany ajod ,,yderdajay,,, Jo syed Buryioy ‘T “IPR Yul-97 “6g “ON SMES yesqoatuy) SULIYW € ‘asn Ul JUIPS IU LL G — TS nab ; m+ a { Phd! | NA 4} a = j ‘STOOL DNINOUd—0t ALVId 132 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES rings of the belt. A rope, when necessary, can also be attached to one of the rings. A small, one-handed axe is used to remove sprouts, suckers, and dead twigs and small branches. A pole-saw is used on the end of long branches. A combination chisel and hook, Fig. 26, on a long pole, can be used to pull down dead limbs at the tops of trees, and also to remove suckers and sprouts. It is operated either by a downward stroke of the hook or an upward one of the chisel. The cutting edge of the chisel is con- cave, so that it does not glance off to one side when striking a branch. To shape the ends of the lower limbs of trees and to remove small twigs up to an inch in diameter, the pole-pruner will be found an extremely efficient tool. Of these tools, there are many on the w _. market; but some of them fall to pieces Fic. 26.~Combination after a few hours’ work. One of the chisel and hook. : best pole-pruners made is the ‘‘Tele- graph’”’ tree-pruner shown in Plate 30, Fig. 1. It is best to buy the pruner separately, and have a pole especially made. This should be of straight grained spruce, two inches in diameter and twelve or fourteen feet long. Plate 30, Fig. 2, shows the method of using it. It is operated by means of a rope, and the spiral spring brings the knife into position again for another cut. Extra knives and springs can be bought, so that they can be easily replaced when broken. ‘The pruner will last through a summer’s work in good condition. Hand pruning-shears are useful for cutting back trees when setting them out, and for pruning broken roots; also 7A] ) THE CARE OF STREET-TREES 133 in shaping young trees during their first few years of growth. The cutting part of pruning-shears is the one blade—the crescent shaped portion just presses against the branch. When using the shears they should be held in such a way that the crescent is turned toward the side of the branch that is being removed. When trimming back twigs the cuts should be made about half an inch or an inch above a strong bud, which on developing will continue the growth of the branch. The short stub will dry and fall off, so that the active tissue near the bud will forma callus over the wound. When the cut is made too close to the bud, it is likely to be injured by drying, and will not develop. When removing heavy branches it is sometimes best to support the ends, and a rope and pulley-blocks are found very useful. When cutting back the ends of branches that cannot easily be reached by a ladder, the workmen can sup- port themselves partly by means of ropes attached to the belt, and running over a crotch near the stem at the top of the tree. Hints to Tree-Climbers.—The Department of Parks of the Boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens issues, in pamphlet form, the following ‘‘Hints to Tree-Climbers’’ to its men: “1, Before starting out on a tree, judge its general con- dition. The trunk of a tree that shows age, disease, or wood-destroying insects generally has its branches in an equally unhealthy condition. Greater precautions should, therefore, be taken with a tree in this condition than with a young, vigorous tree. “2. The different kinds of wood differ naturally in their strength and pliability. The soft and brash woods need greater precautions than the strong and pliable cnes. All the poplars, the ailantus, the silver maple, the chestnut, 134 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES catalpa, and willow are either too soft or brittle to depend on without special care. The elm, hickory, and oak have strong, flexible woods and are, therefore, safer than any others. The red oak is weaker than the other oaks. The sycamore and beech have a tough cross-grained wood and are, therefore, fairly strong. The linden has a soft wood, while the ash and gum, though strong and flexible, are apt to split. “*3. Look out for a limb that shows fungous growths. Every fungus sends out a lot of fibers into the main body of the limb which draw out its sap. The interior of the branch then loses all strength and becomes like powder. Outside appearances sometimes do not show the interior condition, but one can be sure that every time he sees a fungus prop- ping out, there is trouble behind it, and the limb is not alto- gether safe. ‘4, When a limb is full of holes or knots, it generally indicates that borers have been working all kinds of gal- leries through it, making it unsafe. The silver maple and sycamore maple are especially full of borers, which in many cases work on the under side of the branch, so that the man in the tree looking down cannot see its dangerous con- dition. “5. A dead limb with bark falling off indicates that it died at least three months before and is, therefore, less safe than one with its bark tightly adhering to it. “6, Branches are more apt to snap on a frosty day when they are covered with an icy coating than on a warm, sum- mer day. “7, A rainy or drizzly day causes the branches of a tree to be slippery, and greater precautions are then necessary. “8, Always use the pole-saw and pole-shear on the tips THE CARE OF STREET-TREES 135 of long ,branches, and use the pole-hook in removing dead branches of the ailantus and other brittle trees where it would be too dangerous to reach them otherwise. ‘*9, Examine your ladder before using it. “10. Be sure of the strength of your branch before tying an extension-ladder to it. “11. Do not slant the extension-ladder too much. “12. Always watch the upper end of your ladder. “13. Do not forget to use the ‘danger sign’ on streets where falling branches are apt to injure careless passers-by. “14. Always consult your foreman before taking up any job where risk is involved.’’ CHAPTER VII INJURIES TO SHADE-TREES AND HOW TO PROTECT THEM EVEN in the forest the enemies of trees are very many. Winds break their limbs, snow and ice maim and deform them, hail beats off their leaves and twigs, frost nips their buds and tender shoots, lightning shatters them, and fungi and insects prey upon them. Added to natural enemies, the unfavorable city conditions make the life of a street-tree a hard one. The intelligent planting of trees must be supplemented by their protection, both by personal and legal means. It is idle to plant trees unless their safety can be assured. The vast majority of people have no conception that a tree has. any right to be respected, just as they are slow of compre- hension where the rights of animals are in question, or the right of posterity to what we now enjoy. There is another point to be remembered in dealing with trees; that while they are living objects, and in their modes of growth and reproduction greatly resemble animals, they do not possess the power of locomotion. If a man dislikes his environment, he moves to a more congenial place. A tree cannot move, and its surroundings must be made agreeable to its well being. The writer has often thought of what would happen if trees could run away from the place where they are maltreated and abused. Many people would 136 INJURIES TO SHADE-TREES 137 find their specimens gone—departed to more hospitable regions. The chief sources of injury to street-trees are: POOR SOIL The street-soil is generally very poor and the trees con- stantly take the available plant-food out of it. A part of this matter assimilated by the trees is converted into wood; but by far the larger portion goes into the leaves. In the forest the fallen leaves pile up and form a humus, by means of which the mineral matter contained in the leaves is returned to the soil. In the city, however, the successive crops of leaves are removed and the soil becomes impover- ished. Just as one would not think of success in farming without the yearly use of fertilizers of some sort to enrich the ground, so in the case of shade-trees, the periodic appli- cation of some suitable fertilizer to the soil about them is of the highest importance to aid their growth. ROOTS LACK AIR AND WATER To insure the proper performance of the tree’s functions its roots must have a supply of air and water. The exclu- sion of either of these requisites from the soil is fatal. It is a matter of common observation that a filling of earth, two or three feet deep, about a thrifty tree will damage or kill it. The covering of earth works this injury simply by excluding air from the active rootlets. Street-trees are greatly limited in their supply of air and moisture by the pavements. SALT WATER Salt used in freezing ice-cream is sometimes emptied near trees. When it is dissolved by rains and carried to the roots it becomes very injurious. Plate 33, Fig. 6. 138 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES DUST, SMOKE, AND INJURIOUS GASES IN THE AIR Dust and smoke are liable to choke up the breathing pores of the leaves, and their natural functions are severely hindered. Some trees suffer more than others from this nuisance. The leaves of the sugar maple are especially susceptible; their stomata or breathing pores become clogged up by dust, and they acquire a hard, metallic state. In cities where large quantities of bituminous coal are used and in the vicinity of manufacturing establishments, such as fertilizer mills, paper-pulp mills, copper-smelting and blast furnaces, particularly where sulfur gases are pro- duced, the effects upon all kinds of foliage are very evident. It has been shown that sulfuric-acid gas is the most injuri- ous component of the fumes that prove injurious to foliage, and European investigations have proved that the presence of sulfuric-acid gas in the air, in the ratio of 1 to 50,000, is enough to lead to the destruction of the leaves of deciduous trees. The effects of sulfurous fumes are shown by the turning of the leaves reddish-brown in spots or along the edges, and eventually of their drying up entirely. All the evidence goes to show that little can be done toward mitigating the trouble caused by poisonous gases in the air. In cities suffering from the smoke nuisance it is very difficult to grow many of the ordinary street-trees. The European and the American planes will stand adverse conditions better than any of the other good street-trees. OILING OF ROADS The oiling of roadways during the last few years has led to a great deal of speculation regarding the effect of the dust from such roads on the vegetation bordering them. No INJURIES TO SHADE-TREES 139 case of injury to the foliage of trees or shrubs resulting from the oiling of roads has come to the observation of the writer. The Director of Public Roads of the United States Department of Agriculture writes, under date of September 2, 1910: ‘‘I am pleased to advise that from personal observa- tions and from conversations with officials in a position to know, I am confident that where roads are oiled, so that the roots of trees or shrubbery do not come in contact with the oil, no injury occurs to the foliage.’ On the other hand, the writer noticed some items in the newspapers stating that in Paris the oiling of streets proved injurious to foliage. He wrote to the Prefect of the Seine, who has charge of the street-trees of Paris, and under date of August 23, 1910, received, through the American Ambas- sador in Paris, a reply as follows: “Tam just in receipt of a report of the Commissioner of the Western Section of Thoroughfares, in which the latter indicates the baneful effect of the spreading of hot tar upon the Avenue du Bois de Boulogne, and proposes to call the attention of the Public Roads Service to the withering of the trees on the avenue which, in his opinion, must be at- tributed to the tarring of this road. “Tt appears from this report that a border-plot of stone- crops was burned in 1908, and lost its leaves the very day after the spreading; that some geraniums, and some bego- nias showed leaves shriveled, spotted, and their growth stopped. It was the same with some lilac, currant, and gooseberry bushes. “‘This year, likewise, many of the trees on the Avenue du Bois are in an alarming state of decay; several specimens of ailantus, maple, and American walnut, formerly in good vegetation, are dead. Others are in a drooping state. 140 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES ‘‘The Commissioner of the Western Section believes that this condition arises from the deposit, upon the leaves, of the tar-dust stirred up by the intense circulation of vehicles. ‘‘The: Public Roads Service will be informed of these facts; and perhaps it will be necessary to decide to abandon the tarring in the proximity of vegetation.”’ While the above letter would seem to indicate that there is a relation of cause and effect between the tarring of the Bois de Boulogne and the damage to near-by trees the case is not to be regarded as fully proved. The assigning of the cause of the wilting of the foliage does not seem to be conclusive. The statement about the dying of the stone- crops the very next day after the tar was applied to the road, would lead one to suspect that possibly fumes from the tar were responsible for the injury rather than tar-dust; for a fresh application of oil or tar effectively lays the dust. The subject needs further very careful study before any definite conclusions can be drawn. The writer has begun some experiments to determine the effect of dust collected from oiled roads on the foliage of trees; but has not yet reached any satisfactory results. ILLUMINATING GAS This is extremely poisonous, and is fatal to any tree the roots of which are exposed to it for a sufficient length of time. It is one of the hardships to which city-trees are exposed that it is not always easy to prevent or foresee. Frequently trees are killed before the leak is discovered. While poor construction of mains is frequently responsi- ble for gas-leaks, breaks in mains occur from a great many causes. Trolley-cars, steam-rollers, and other heavy traffic on highways sometimes cause loosening of joints and even *‘SOIIM peayiado Aq Iredet puodeq Pauini “YAOX MAN ‘ANUaAY IWIOIAf UO SLU; ANY AA “G ‘sMmapLs snjidojpgoyy \01-des & st yunsj oY} UO sNSunj ay ‘pays 0} unsaq sey y1eq sy ‘ses Aq pol[}y Useq SurAvy 19jje sya XIs Jnoqe ‘a[dejfAy Jesng JOYUNIL “p ‘surew sumredas Aueduiod ses) ‘seS Aq pal[dy see1L, “¢ “dn popeatys aie SeAb2] OI [[V “Suluostod a1aaes Jo ase ve SMOYS 9Se9 SIY} UL [det pet ey, “IeqMoO1D UMOP SUIALIp Aq UleUL-ses BULYLa[1OF SUNSoL °Z “Uuoljzelojap jeyied ‘suruosiod-ses Jo SwoJdwAs JSI °T ‘SHYIM CGVAHYAAO ANV SVD Ad SHIMA[NI—Ie ALWId 142 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES breaking of gas-pipes, and the resulting leaks sometimes kill a row of trees of an entire block. A very small leak does not saturate the soil at once, and may not be the cause of the immediate death of a tree. Its effect is bound to tell in time, however. The tree will assume an unhealthy look, the foliage will become yellow and thin at the top and there will appear a large amount of dead wood that will not be accounted for in any other way. Symptoms of Gas-Poisoning.—The symptoms of gas- poisoning are characteristic. The effect of a large leak upon a tree is very pronounced. The foliage turns yellow, wilts, and falls from the tree. There is no mistaking the cause. The effect of a small leak is yellowing of the foliage, followed by a greater or less defoliation of the tree, accord- ing to the degree of poisoning. Limbs here and there die, the bark becomes loosened in places, and fungous growths make their appearance on the trunk and the main branches. The poisoned soil generally becomes darker than its natural color. The roots and the sapwood of the lower trunk be- come discolored blue, and have a most offensive odor. The writer recalls a case when he very carefully watched a number of street-trees affected by gas-poisoning. ‘There were several varieties among them. The elms died first, and soon afterward the bark began to loosen and drop from the trunk and main branches. The sugar maples died next. The red maples withstood the effects of the gas the longest. One red maple in particular was observed for about three weeks, the ground at the roots of which was badly saturated with gas. The foliage did not dry up at once, but gradually dropped from the tree, beginning at the top. Ulcers were formed on the trunk and main branches, and the sap oozed out from splits in the bark. It was frothy white and had a INJURIES TO SHADE-TREES 143 fermented odor, as that of cider. Finally, all the foliage of the tree was gone, the sap stopped flowing, and the tree was dead. The formation of ulcers and the oozing of sap are not necessary symptoms of gas-poisoning, however, but may follow other diseased or weakened conditions of trees. See page 199. The wilting of the foliage of a tree following its attack by borers is sometimes mistaken for gas-poisoning. Whena branch of a tree becomes riddled, the exposed wood dries and checks, and in the course of time the draft of sap is interrupted and the end of the branch dies. The wilting of the foliage in such cases makes one suspicious of gas. An examination of the branch, however, will reveal the true source of injury. How to Detect Leaks.—The presence of gas can be detected by making a hole in the ground, three or four feet deep, with a crowbar, and applying the nostrils to the open- ing. Unless the leak is extremely slight, the gas can usually be discovered by the above method. A more certain way of proceeding, however, is to insert a piece of gas or other pipe into the hole made by the crowbar, and draw up and inhale through the nostrils or the mouth the gases at the base of the opening. The slightest amount of gas in the soil can be detected in this way. When the gas is present in the soil in large quantities, it can be ignited by applying a match at the opening made with a crowbar. It will burn with a flash. This method, however, should not be used in testing for gas-leaks. It is extremely dangerous, as it is likely to result in an explosion of the gas-main. When a slight leak is discovered before the injury pro- ceeds very far, the tree can be saved by quickly repairing 144 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES the Jeak and aerating the soil. This can be done by leaving the ditch open, digging a channel around the tree, loosening the soil about the roots, and watering freely. Laying of Gas-Mains.—Care in laying gas-mains is of the utmost importance. The leaking of gas is a great loss to the gas companies, and economizing the cost of first con- Ta ey fac aes poe SS Y “i os LA Fic. 27.—Method of making tight joints in gas-pipes. A, Untarred oakum or hemp. B, Calked lead. C, Rubber packing. D and E, Two malleable iron sectional rings. F, Bolts for drawing the rings together so as to press down rubber packing C. G, G, Wooden blocks for supporting ends of pipes. struction is likely to prove disastrous in the long run. Sometimes gas-pipes are laid with cement joints, as this method is cheap; but the least settling of the ground causes leaks. Threaded joints are efficient on small pipes. One of the best methods now in use of making tight joints in gas- pipes, eight inches or more in diameter, is shown in Fig. 27. Untarred oakum or hemp-yarn is well rammed in first; and above that is poured melted lead, which is afterward com- INJURIES TO SHADE-TREES 145 pacted by a calking hammer. Rubber packing is then in- serted into the annular space left after the calking of the lead, and rammed into the joint and held there by means of two malleable iron rings connected by bolts. The pipes are sup- ported near the joints by means of blocks of wood to prevent settling. Damages for Trees Killed.—The injury to trees from gas has been so conclusively demonstrated, and damages have been so frequently awarded for loss of trees by this means in several States, that companies usually settle with prop- erty-owners out of court. In the State of Massachusetts there are a number of cases on record of payments made by gas companies for killing trees by gas. In 1905, the trees along Middlesex Street, Lowell, began to die. Owners obtained investigation by the Park Commission, and the cause was found to bea leaking gas-main. A complaint against the Lowell Gaslight Company was made by the superintendent of parks, and tried in the police court. The company was fined $900, which was paid to the city, and settlements were made with most of the owners. In 1907, several cases were entered against the Spring- field Gaslight Company, but they were all settled out of court. In one case twenty-eight trees on one street were damaged by gas, and the company paid the owners an aggregate sum of a little over $2,000, as agreed by a com- mittee. In the majority of cases, however, no amount of money can restore the loss of large trees. Continued vigilance is necessary on the part of property-owners and city tree offi- cials to prevent trees from being killed. When there is the slightest suspicion of a gas-leak, tests of the soil should be 146 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES made. The trees along streets having large gas-mains need especial watching. The soil around the roots should be tested at frequent intervals, and repairs of mains immedi- ately ordered if the presence of gas is detected. Tests for gas should be made in the spring, as soon as the frost is out of the ground. During the winter the frozen surface causes an accumulation of gas underneath when there is the slightest leak. When gas is discovered at that season of the year and the leak stopped, there is a chance for the affected tree to recover. On the other hand, if the gas is left in the soil it will poison the tree when it resumes active growth. OVERHEAD WIRES The injury to trees from overhead wires is frequently serious. While cases of wanton destruction of roadside- trees, to make way for telephone, telegraph, electric-light, and trolley-wires, have been numerous in the past, greater vigilance on the part of property-owners and public officials has caused a lessening of the evil. There may still be found, however, hundreds of trees in public highways that have been lopped, butchered, hacked out of their former shapeli- ness by ruthless linemen, who regard nothing with greater contempt than a tree. These crippled shapes are painful to look upon, as are all misshapen or mutilated things, and the pity of it is that a little precaution, a trifle clemency, might have left the greater number of them uninjured. The laying of wires underground is becoming more com- mon. In many cities ordinances have been enacted requir- ing public utility companies to put their wires underground at the rate of a number of miles each year, and no new lines are permitted to be constructed above ground. So long, INJURIES TO SHADE-TREES 147 however, as there are overhead telephone, electric-light, and trolley-feed wires in cities, there will be interference with trees, and it will require continuous watchfulness to reduce the evil to a minimum. In the first place, it should not be permitted to attach wires of any kind to trees on a public highway. Sometimes, as in the case of the telephone, it is not the wire that does the mischief, but the way it is attached to the tree. If rope is used, it does not harm the tree. If wire is employed instead, and is allowed to remain on the tree for a number of years, it girdles the limb and kills it. Such cases are very numerous. The wire is not noticed, and it is only when a dead branch appears on the tree that the fatal wire is discovered. Sometimes when the central stem of a tree is so girdled, the entire top dies and the tree is ruined. Then, again, linemen, unless especially cautioned, use metal spurs to climb trees, and great injury is likely to result to the tree from such a practise. Sometimes a man’s foot slips and a deep gash is inflicted on the limb. Escaping Electrical Currents.—Where wires pass through trees, they should not be allowed to come in contact with limbs, because their swaying causes an abrasion of the bark. The continuous rubbing prevents the healing of the wound; in time the wood dries and checks, the limb decays, and breaks in astorm. In fact, it has been found that all the ill effects of wires running through trees are the result of mechanical injuries followed by decay. The instances of direct killing of trees because of escaping electricity are very rare. It is during wet weather, when live wires touch a tree, that there is a grounding of the electric current through it. Frequently local damage results by the burning of the part in contact with the wire or cable. 148 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES How to Protect Branches.—A limb may be effectively protected from abrasion by an electric light or trolley-feed wire in contact with it by a strip of wood fastened to it by Fic. 28.—Method of protecting a branch from abrasion by wire cable. A, Branch. B, Strip of wood -about 12 inches long, 2% inches wide. C, Piece of insulating fiber, 2 inches square, % inch thick. D, Nail. E, Section of cable. means of two nails, one at each end. The strip should not be nailed against the limb, but should be separated from it by two pieces of insulating fiber, half an inch thick, as shown in Fig. 28. In no case should the cutting of limbs of shade-trees for the purpose of making way for wires be permitted; but should an exceptional case arise, where cutting of limbs is necessary, the work should be done under the supervision of some city official. There is one case of the evil of over- head wires that cannot be overcome except by their removal, and that is where young trees grow under a web of wires. The young shoots cannot force themselves between the wires, but be- come stunted, and the result is an ab- normally shaped, flat-headed tree. The most horrible butchery occurs when a large, wedge-shaped space is taken out of the centre of beautiful trees to allow the passage of wires. The damage is beyond repair, and it would be better to cut the trees down entirely than to leave permanent eye- sores. See Plate 31, Fig. 5. Damages for Injuries—Many cases are on record in which damages have been awarded by courts for injury to INJURIES TO SHADE-TREES 149 trees. The case of Dr. John Marshall against the American Telegraph and Telephone Company, tried in the Pennsyl- vania courts, was an important one. During the absence of Dr. John Marshall from his farm at Douglassville, Berks County, Pa., in 1895, employees of the American Telegraph and Telephone Company cut down sixty-eight trees on his property; whereupon Dr. Marshall immediately brought criminal action against these employees, which action was carried from the court of the Justice of the Peace to the Common Pleas Court in Reading, Berks County, and thence to the Superior Court, with decisions against the telephone company throughout the entire action. The fines required of the three employees of the com- pany were to the full limit of the law, and aggregated $150. The criminal suit having been decided by the highest court in favor of Dr. Marshall, he brought civil action against the company for damages, and on January 3, 1898, the court appointed three viewers to assess damages. On February 14, 1898, the viewers filed their report, from which report the telephone company and also Dr. Marshall appealed, and on October 18, 1898, the case was tried before the Common Pleas Court in Berks County. The verdict was in favor of Dr. Marshall. The telephone company appealed to the superior court, and on April 16, 1901, an opinion in favor of Dr. Marshall was handed down by Justice Beaver, allowing damages to the amount of $400 to Dr. Marshall. In his decision, Justice Beaver said in part: ‘‘The com- mercial idea that the only good tree is a dead tree—that is, that it is only good for lumber—no longer prevails. The tree has much more than a commercial value. Its influence upon climate and water-supply has come to be regarded as a question to be reckoned with in determining the conditions 150 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES under which our increasingly dense population is to live and flourish. Its beauty and sightliness have value in the land- scape. Its shade refreshes and shelters; and even as an investment, young trees have an actual money value which cannot be disregarded or measured by their present value as timber trees.’” Another decision of far-reaching importance to telephone and telegraph companies and other companies maintaining lines of poles and wires -in public-highways, and to owners of property along such highways, was rendered- November 17, 1904, by Supreme Court Justice Garretson, in Long Island City. . It was the case of Mary I. Weeks, a resident of Bayside, ‘Long Island, against the New York and New Jersey Tele- phone Company. The company erected a line of telephone poles on a public highway running through her property, and strung wires thereon. The justice held that the use of the highway for the support of a line of poles and wires for sup- plying the general public with electricity was.in no sense a proper street use, and that therefore, notwithstanding the statute and the city permits, the erection and maintenance of that line of poles and wires for that purpose without Mrs.. Weeks’s consent, was unauthorized and illegal. He directed the sheriff to remove its poles and wires from the street. STREET IMPROVEMENTS Many trees necessarily fall a sacrifice to important improvements in the natural growth of cities. When large buildings are erected on business streets, close to the side- walk, it is inevitable that they must go. Trees also suffer from the mutilation of the needed cutting of large roots in resetting curbstones and flag walks; also in the digging for PLATE 32.—INJURIES TO STREET-TREES. 1. Leader of a 14-inch buckeye broken as a result of abrasion by trolley feed-wire. 2. Top of a 22-inch Sugar Maple, killed by girdling telephone wire. 3. Where the provision for street-trees has been a matter of little concern. 4. Planting strip absent and pavement close to trunk. 5. Sidewalk too narrow; trees planted in gutter in consequence. 6. Trees saved in Cambridge, Mass. Trees planted before street improvement, allowed to project into gutter; curb being interrupted. 152 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES water and gas mains and sewers. Such cases arise from time to time in municipal work, but it is highly important that contractors and builders should consult the proper city officials when it is proposed to do any work that is likely to injure trees. Frequently a way is found of accomplish- ing the results sought without injuring a tree. In many instances a tree may be saved when it seems inevitable to some that it should be sacrificed. The writer recalls a case of two years ago when an archi- tect came to the office of the Shade-Tree Commission, and wanted permission to remove a fourteen-inch sugar maple that stood in the way of a proposed driveway of a house then under construction. He said that he had studied the problem carefully, and that there was no way of construct- ing the driveway without removing the tree. The premises were examined, and it was found that the tree encroached less than three feet on the line of the proposed roadway; but that by making it slightly curved, it would be an easy matter to keep clear of the tree. The architect did not approve of the plan. Finally he was told that permission would not be granted to remove that tree under the circum- stances. He made the driveway curved, and now the owner of the house is very glad that the tree was saved. Opening New Streets.—Great injury results to trees when new streets are opened or the grade of streets is changed. In such cases city engineers and boards of public improvement are frequently as great offenders as public utilities companies. Engineers dislike to deviate from straight lines in the laying of streets, or to change the width of a street, even if by so doing it is possible to save a line of trees. When a street department works in conjunc- tion with that in charge of the care of trees, it is sometimes INJURIES TO SHADE-TREES 153 possible to devise means by which trees may be saved. The writer remembers a street in East Orange that was to be macadamized and curbed. As proposed, the street was to have a thirty-foot roadway. To have carried out that plan would have necessitated the cutting down of five red maples, about twenty inches in diameter. On consultation Fic. 29.—A ‘well’? constructed about an elm-tree when grade was raised. with the Shade-Tree Commission, the city engineer finally decided to make the roadway twenty-six feet in width, and the trees were permitted to remain. Changing Grade.—When the street grade is raised or lowered, and there are trees along the line, a problem again arises as to the disposition of the trees. A good deal depends upon the condition of the existing trees. If the grade of a street is lowered about a foot, the trees can safely remain. When the grade is lowered considerably, and the trees are less than a foot in diameter, it will pay to lower 154 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES them. Very frequently an entire row of trees can be saved that way. If the trees are in poor condition, however, it is best to cut them down and plant new ones. With proper selection, planting, and care, better trees result in a short time than if an attempt is made to save poor specimens. When the grade of a street is raised, the filling should not be brought up close to the tree, as the exclusion of air will kill it. A well should be left around the tree of as large a diameter as possible. In a few years the roots will come to the surface, and then it will be possible to fill the well and bring the soil up to grade. A grating may be placed over the opening to the well so as to guard against any one’s falling into it. When the street-grade is raised it is even possible to con- tinue the concrete pavement close to the tree, provided an air-space is left underneath that covers as large an extent of root spread as possible. The pavement should not touch the trunk of the tree, but should keep clear of it, six inches or more to allow for the growth of the tree and the circulation of air. In the New York Zoological Garden, many animal cages having concrete floors were built around large trees, twenty inches and more in diameter. All the trees were saved by raising the floor a foot or more above the ground and leav- ing an air-space between them. The tree-trunks were allowed to pass through circular openings in the floor, and were protected by means of iron guards so that the animals could not injure them. The work was done under the direction of Hermann W. Merkel, the Forester of the Garden. Many cases arise in a city, involving the care and pres- ervation of valuable trees. Each case should be studied carefully, and the best plan followed. In cities having INJURIES TO SHADE-TREES 155 shade-tree departments, the people always have the sense of security that the safety of their trees is being guarded; and, if any are to be sacrificed, it is because of inevitable conditions. If, after careful consideration, it is found that there must be cutting of limbs or roots of trees, the work should be done under the supervision of one in charge of the care of trees. BUILDING OPERATIONS There are minor improvements in city streets during which trees are killed or damaged without any show of reason. Guy-ropes are frequently attached to trees in the process of building which bruise or cut them severely. The piling of lumber, bricks, and other material, and careless carting, cause serious injury to trees while construction is under way. In the erection or repair of a building the owner or contractor should put such guards around the neighboring trees as will effectively prevent their being injured. MUTILATION BY HORSES Of all mechanical injuries to street-trees, however, none are more numerous nor more fatal than the mutilations caused by horses. One would not have to go very far in any town to find scores of examples of trees as badly muti- lated as the one shown in Plate 33, Fig. 3. Such trees owe their present condition to horses that feasted on their bark many years ago. Most cities have ordinances forbidding drivers to tie animals to trees, or to leave them standing near a tree. Occasionally a man is arrested and fined for having allowed his horse to injure a tree, but it is not always an easy matter to catch and punish the offender. Besides, in ‘gI9z901J WOIJ 19}eM jes Aq PoIN(ul ‘A10}DeJ WedaID-99I Ue Iv9U ‘aUL[g [BJUSHO ‘9g “(Uaye}SeM MaIA d1OJZOq jaede peddiys seat Paani) pren3-9e1} Burpulq Aq pal[iy 9a1], “G “} AOJ 931] 00} awWOdaq pey 921} ay} 1a}JP 901] B puNoIe Yea] piens e Aq pasnes asewued “p “spiens Aq pajsejoidun jay usyM sasioy Aq sae1} 0} Salinful Jo WYNSeY “¢ “apeys pue yUaWIeUIO UY} IeYy}O Sasodind Ao} pasn Bulaq SI 991} & oto, @ *gpeid aaoqe $201} ay} SUIARA] pue y[eMAPpIs ay} Surjoayep Aq paaosduil sear joa1j]S USYM Paaes ‘asueIQ seq ‘onueAY UUNTY UO Saar} 951eT IT ‘SHAUL-LAAULS OL SAIMNINI—te ALWId INJURIES TO SHADE-TREES 157 many cases, no fine will compensate for the damage done, because in a few minutes a horse may destroy a tree worth hundreds of dollars, and which no amount of money can replace. Trees Must Have Guards.—In spite of the greatest care, horses will sometimes bite trees; and the only way to make it impossible for them to do so, is to place guards around all trees. On our public streets no tree is safe from the day of planting until the time of maturity. JI have seen trees com- pletely ruined a few hours after they were set out, by the horse of the grocer or butcher, who stopped to make some deliveries. The only thing left to do was to set out new ones in their place. When a larger tree, six or eight inches in diameter, is barked, it cannot be so readily replaced. It is left to grow in its injured state. In case the strip of bark removed by the horse is small, the resulting wound may heal, if a box is placed around the tree to protect it from further injury. When a tree is badly bitten or is exposed to successive mutilations, the bark of the growing tree never covers up the scar so made, and the tree becomes irrepar- able. As the tree grows, successive annual layers of wood are added, and its diameter is increased. The portion of the tree that has been stripped of bark does not receive this new growth; but the wood is deposited in a thick roll around the edge of the wound. The exposed wood dries, checks, moisture causes it to rot and form a fertile field for fungus growth and the entrance of borers. After a while the decay is carried to the heart of the tree, and sooner or later it dies. The first cause of the decay and death of many of the trees annually removed from public streets may be traced to the mutilation of the trunks by horses. 158 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES Trees with the bark removed are unsightly, and as long as they continue their growth their deformity increases. After a time they also become a source of danger. The weakest part of the trunk of a tree is at a point four or five feet from the ground. It is the portion of the tree that with- stands the greatest strain during a storm. For example, if you grasp the end of a rod with the hands and bend it suffi- ciently, it will break in the middle. The resistance of the roots of a tree, on the one hand, and the pressure of the wind against the head, on the other, produce a like result; the tree tends to break across the trunk. Sometimes during storms mutilated trees snap at the points of the trunks where they had been injured, and cause considerable dam- age by their fall. When a tree is supplied with a guard, it must not be allowed to remain after the tree outgrows it. The injury caused by the failure to remove a guard after it becomes too small, is sometimes more fatal than to expose the tree to mutilation. If the guard binding a tree is weak, it yields and breaks; but before giving way under the strain of the tree’s growth, it usually injures the trunk. In Plate 33, Fig. 4, is shown the damage caused by a guard left around a tree after the latter had become too large for it. The guard broke; but the tree was disfigured by an abnormal growth of a ring of tissue. If the guard is very strong and the increase of the diameter of the tree continues, the action of the iron band around it has the effect of girdling, and the tree dies. In Plate 33, Fig. 5, is shown an example of a tree, the death of which was caused by the binding of the protec- tor, which was cut apart before the photograph was taken. The effect of its pressure on the trunk is clearly shown. CHAPTER VIII INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS AND OTHER DISEASES BESIDES being subject to injuries resulting from condi- tions of artificial city environment and abuse, as just de- scribed, trees have natural parasitic enemies such as insects and fungi, and also suffer from diseases in which the con- | ditions of soil and climate are the controlling factors. TREATMENT OF TREES FOR INSECT PESTS The most vital task, by far, in the care of trees is the extermination of the insects that threaten to destroy or in- jure them from time to time. The great damage inflicted by insects on shade-trees throughout the country is usually underestimated. A fully grown shade-tree is a valuable asset to any property, and while it is not always possible to estimate its loss in financial terms it must be remembered that it may have taken a lifetime to grow. The value of street-trees is infinitely greater than their cost of planting. They are treasures which should be most jealously guarded. To give an idea of the extensive damage caused by insects attention need be called only to the depradations of the elm- leaf beetle. From 1898 to 1905 it caused the death of sev- eral thousand trees in Albany and Troy alone, besides seri- ously weakening many others. The leopard moth is a very serious borer, which has become established about New York 159 160 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES City and has killed hundreds of trees. In the northern section of the State of New Jersey, a great many of the sugar maples died in 1905 and 1906 as a result of the injuries inflicted on these trees by the sugar-maple borer and the leopard moth a few years before that time. The gipsy moth, perhaps the most destructive of all tree-pests, has peoine firmly established in Massachusetts. Even in the forest the annual loss of trees from insect pests is very great; but in cities the unfavorable conditions to tree growth are contributory causes that make them still more vulnerable to attack. Like animals, trees can resist disease to a greater degree when they are in a healthy condi- tion. Many insects do not attack trees until they show signs of weakness, and that is especially true of borers. Generally, then, it may be said that one of the best methods of prevent- ing insect injury is to keep trees in as thrifty a condition as possible. It should always be remembered that trees have life—different in kind, perhaps, from that of animals, but nevertheless a life that needs nourishment and favorable conditions for the maintenance of vigor. While protective measures are extremely important, there will be visitations of diseases and pests that will require remedial treatment. Besides, insects are dependent during their development on plant food, certain species preferring certain trees, so that from a natural standpoint the insect possesses its right to exist just as other forms of life. It is admitted, however, that this point of view is not consoling to one whose trees have been killed by caterpillars, borers, or other pests. It should be recognized as absolutely im- perative for the owner of one tree or a thousand trees to be prepared to combat insects when a visitation occurs. Insects feeding on trees are always present; but some- INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS DISEASES, ETC. 161 times in greater numbers than others. Frequently when a certain species becomes very numerous, natural enemies and parasites develop that kill the greater part or an entire brood. Sometimes during the metamorphosis of insects, unfavorable climatic conditions arise that kill a great num- ber. Again, an insect species may become so numerous as to exhaust the food plant and then the race dies. It should not be permitted, however, to adopt such heroic measures in insect fighting. The transformations which insects undergo from the time of their hatching from the egg to their maturity is called their metamorphosis. The egg is the first stage in the existence of any insect. Almost always the eggs are laid by the mother insect on or near the plant food which gives nourishment to the young. The larva is the second stage of an insect’s life and is the form that hatches from the egg. Familiar examples of larvz are caterpillars, maggots, and grubs. The larval stage is the feeding period in the life history of most insects injuring shade-trees, and is of supreme importance from an economic standpoint, for it is during this condition that many insects commit their great- est depredations. The third stage in the life of an insect is the change of the larva into a pupa. Many larve, especially those of moths when fully grown, spin about their body silken cases called cocoons, at the same time transforming themselves into pupe. The pupa remains inactive in the cocoon for some time, then breaks through the cocoon and emerges as the adult or mature insect. Some insects pass the winter or hibernating condition in the egg form, others as partly grown larvze. Again, many hibernate in the pupal stage and still others pass the winter in the adult condition. The transfor- 162 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES mation of insects is of interest not only to the nature student but also to one who seeks some method of controlling them. There is always some one of the stages in the insect’s meta- morphosis when it is most vulnerable and most easily ex- terminated. It may be the egg, larval, pupal, or adult con- dition. It is not usually the time when the most injury to trees is apparent. In insect fighting the point constantly to be borne in mind is, as far as possible, to destroy the pests before they develop and reach their most injurious stage. To do that successfully, a knowledge of the life his- tories of the common tree-pests is absolutely necessary. Most States publish bulletins descriptive of the common insect pests of shade and ornamental trees, with directions how to combat them. The state entomologists are always at the service of any citizen and are glad to give information in the matter of insect control. It is therefore thought suf- ficient in this work to-describe only the most common and destructive of our shade-tree pests and point out the easiest means of destroying them. There are three classes of tree-destroying insects which may be grouped as leaf-eating insects, sucking insects, and borers. LEAF-EATING INSECTS Leaf-eating insects inflict injury by feeding on the leaf tissue of plants. They can usually be reached by poison- ing the leasus with an application of arsenic in some form. Tussock Moth (Orvgyia leucostigma S. and A.).—This. insect passes the winter in the egg state. The eggs are deposited by the females in September and October in con- spicuous white masses on the bark of the trees. About the end of May the larve begin to hatch. They immediately take to the leaves, increase in size and go through five ‘warey Aq payeyosap Ajazajdwioy nuysayo-asloH “p ‘(azis jemmyeu F ynoqe) seu yupy ‘gq cednd aeyy ‘QO ‘ednd ayeuayq Sy cg ‘(azis [RangReu € ynoqe) uapuryT uvoLIOUYy JO SaAba] UO Bulpaay BameyT *Z *(azis Teanjeu F ynoqe) Burisodiio fy ye apeuaz ype ‘apdepy ay Ay JO Yleq uo sassvJy s3q oT | a ok ee E es & ‘HLOW MOOSSO.L HO AUYOLSIH AAXIT—'b€ ALVId 164 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES molts. When they complete their feeding period, nothing but the principal veins of the leaves are left. The larval period lasts about four or five weeks. Then the caterpillars return to the bark, spin cocoons and change to pupze. They remain in that condition for two weeks and then emerge as adults. The males are winged and the females wingless. Pairing now takes place, the males die and the females deposit a cluster of eggs for the second brood. Generally from three hundred to five hundred eggs are found in a single cluster, from which if conditions are favorable, as many caterpillars may hatch. The summer, however, is but half over. Toward the end of July, and the beginning of August, the eggs deposited by the first brood hatch and the young larve go up on the leaves to finish the work begun by the parents. The cycle continues as before—through the larval, pupal, and the adult condition. In September the eggs are deposited on the bark of the trees, remain in that condition through the winter, and hatch in the spring. The casiest and most effective means to control this in- sect is to exterminate it while it is in its egg condition. The clusters are loosely attached to the bark, are very conspicu- ous, and are mostly on the trunks and lower limbs. They can be removed either by hand or by scraping them off. After collecting, the egg masses should be burned. If the eggs are allowed to hatch, the only treatment then possible is to spray the foliage of the tree with a solution of arsenate of lead. (See Insecticides, Chap. IX.) The method of spraying is not always so thorough as removing the egg clusters. During the last four years, very little spraying has been done in East Orange to control the tussock moth. In spite ‘gyeulay Npy ‘q oem ynpy “q ‘ednd ayeurgq ‘jy ‘ednd oyeyy “gq = ‘wo0d05) ‘q ‘taleyT ‘yo ocsseur S8q ‘5D "(as yemnqeu £ ynoge) poy Asdig Jo ArOIsTH aT 7 ‘apewazynpy “H ‘seurynpy “y ‘suoovog ‘YH ‘ednd afew “| ‘ednd eI ‘q ‘sreyenb Suraj yy {DQ ‘BaAleyT ‘gq ‘sseul Bdq “WZ ‘(azis jeANyeu § ynoqe) yo [VL umorg fo Atow!y aT T —--— -> = So SEE ‘“HLOW ASdID GNV HLOW TIVL NMOUE—'SE ALVId 166 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES of the insect’s being epidemic in neighboring cities, the trees of East Orange have been kept free from this pest by the collection of the egg masses. This insect usually attacks the elms, the lindens, the white maple, and the horse-chestnut. Gipsy Moth (Porthetria dispar Linn.).—Closely related to the tussock moth in its mode of development, but more destructive of plant life than any other species of pest is the gipsy moth. Its caterpillars thrive on an exceedingly large number of plants. They eat without hesitation almost all of our native trees and shrubs. It is a European insect, which was introduced into the United States in 1869, by a naturalist who imported it in the course of some experi- ments on silkworms. The winter is passed in the egg condition. The egg masses are rounded or oval clusters covered with yellowish hair from the body of the female, giving them the appear- ance of a small piece of sponge. They hatch during May or early June. Asa rule the caterpillars feed at night and hide during the day. When ready to change to pup the caterpillars are apt to wander from their food, sometimes for a considerable dis- tance. Transformation to pupz takes place during the month of June. The moths appear in July. Both the male and the female insects have wings; but the female rarely flies. Pairing then takes place and egg deposition begins. The eggs then remain till the following spring, when they hatch and the same life cycle is repeated. As in the case of the tussock moth, one of the most effec- tive methods of keeping this pest under control is the care- ful collection and burning of the conspicuous egg masses. This can be done most effectively in the fall, during the winter and early spring. Creosote oil applied to the egg INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS DISEASES, ETC. 167 mass will soak in and kill the eggs. The following prepara- tion was used in the work against the gipsy moth in Massa- chusetts: Creosote oil, 50 per cent., carbolic acid, 20 per cent., spirits of turpentine, 20 per cent., and coal-tar 10 per cent. The last was added to color the compound and thus show at a glance what clusters had been treated. Advantage may be taken of the migrating habit of the caterpillar during the daytime by tying burlap bands around the tree-trunks and then turning down the upper portion of the burlap over the string. The bands can be lifted daily and the caterpillars beneath killed. The larva is quite resistant to arsenical poison, and it requires a large dose to kill it. Arsenate of lead should be used as soon as the leaves are well grown, as the young cat- erpillars are most susceptible to the insecticide. Brown Tail Moth (Euproctis chrysorrhea Linn.).—The brown tail moth is the other species that has been in- troduced into Massachusetts within recent years and is scarcely second to the gipsy moth in destructiveness. About the middle of July the moths are on the wing, and each female lays from two hundred to three hundred eggs in an oblong cluster on the under side of the leaf, near the end of a branch, covering them with a dense mass of brown hair. The eggs hatch early in August. While still young the caterpillars make a nest in which they hibernate during the winter. This is constructed at the ends of the twigs and made by drawing together a few leaves, lining them with silk and surrounding them with a mass of silken threads. ‘The tents are so firmly secured to the twigs that they can be removed only with considerable force. The young caterpillars cease feeding and retire into these tents late in September, and there they remain during the 168 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES winter in a sort of half-dormant condition. They become active again about the middle of April, or with the opening out of new foliage, and feed upon the buds and the unfold- ing leaves. They feed until June, when they spin an open cocoon of coarse silk among the leaves, and transform to pupz. A month later the moths emerge to begin the life cycle again. The brown tail moth attacks a great variety of both wild and cultivated plants, especially the oaks, maples, and elms. One of the ways of combating this species is by removing and burning the hibernating nests which are very con- spicuous during the winter and in the spring. Spraying with arsenate of lead, both when the foliage develops and when the young caterpillars hatch, is also very effective. Fall Webworm (Hyphantria cunea Dru.).—The presence of this insect can be readily discovered by the large tents. formed by the caterpillars. The first brood is rarely abun- dant enough to attract attention, and the nests seem to be smaller than those found later in the season. Early in July the caterpillars are full grown, leave the nests and make cocoons in any convenient shelter near by, in crevices of the bark or on the surface of the ground. Moths issue in a few days and shortly afterward are ready to lay eggs in turn. When the second brood appears in July, or early in August, the tents are so much more numerous that they attract more attention, and the insects grow so fast that unless measures are taken at once, the infested trees may suffer defoliation. Late in August and during the first half of September, the larvz of the second brood leave the nests and wander to some shelter where they change to the pupal state and remain in that condition all winter. The caterpillar of the fall webworm is a general feeder ‘spemaz yNpy SH ‘ajeurynpy “5 ‘ednd ajeuay ‘q ‘ednd aydeyy “q ‘sadr1auta ayeur ype yoryam worzy ‘aseo-ednd Sunoafoid yy ‘eareyT ‘Sq “seq Wolf paaowial BAYT ‘dQ ‘sdda moys 0} uado ynd ‘Taya ul Beg ‘gq soyurM ul seq “Wy ‘(azts yemmyeu ¥ ynoqe) wOAA Seg jo AIOIp{ AIT “¢ = 'apeurazyanpy “y ‘ayeur yopy ‘q vedng ‘9 ‘woosod Sq ‘BAIeT ‘q = "qaaa “T ‘(azis pernyeu % ynoge) uULIOMQaAA [[eY Jo Alo sIFY aFT ‘Zz pure y ce ‘WHOM OVE AUNV WNYOMEEYM TIVA—'9E ALVId 170 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES on many plants comprising fruit, shade, and ornamental trees. The easiest way to control the insect is to cut out the twigs having the nests of caterpillars and -burn them. On large trees where the nests cannot be easily reached, the foliage at the points where the nests are observed should be sprayed with arsenate of lead. There is no necessity for spraying the entire tree, because the insects feed only in the immediate vicinity of the nest as long as there is any- thing to eat at that point. The earlier the spraying is done the more easily will the insects be destroyed. Bag Worm (Thyridopteryx ephemereformis Steph. ).—This insect derives its name from the fact that the larva is pro- tected by a bag or case which it carries about as a shelter and in which it undergoes its transformations. In winter these bags are prominent objects on the leafless trees. In May, the caterpillars develop, which after working out of the parent sack, at once begin to construct a bag of their own. At first the sack, which is just large enough to hold the insect, is carried upright; but as the larva increases in size and adds to the sack it becomes too heavy and is allowed to hang down, fastened to a twig or leaf by threads of silk when the insect is not actually moving. The feeding on the foliage of the tree continues, and when full grown and ready to transform to the pupal stage, the larvz become restless and wander to other trees. When a suitable place is found, the bags are attached to a twig or other support and the pupa is formed. In about three weeks the male moth appears. The adult female is wingless and legless. She does not leave her case, but works out of it far enough to permit pairing, then returns into the pupal skin, fills it with eggs, and wriggles out of the bag and dies. The mouth of the bag closes after INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS DISEASES, ETC. 171 her and the eggs are thus securely protected until they are ready to hatch the ensuing spring. The best way to control the pest is to pick off and burn the bags containing the egg masses during the winter. Spraying with arsenate of lead when the foliage develops is also effective. Elm-Leaf Beetle (Galerucella luteola Mill.).—The winter of the elm-leaf beetle is passed in the adult condition, the beetles taking shelter in attics, sheds, out-houses, and other places. In the case of this insect, the adults also feed on the leaves. The beetles are about a quarter of an inch long and less than half that wide, dull yellow in color with a black stripe on each wing cover. The adults emerge about the time the leaves begin to unfold and immediately begin to feed, eating irregular holes through the leaves. During the latter part of May and the beginning of June, eggs are deposited on the under side of the leaves. From these the larvz hatch until the latter part of the month. The larve are about three-eighths or one- half inch long when full grown. They feed on the under- side of the leaves; but not through the tissue, and give the foliage a skeletonized appearance. Ordinarily their presence is not known until the larve are full grown, when the seri- ousness of the injury becomes apparent. The leaves turn brown, curl, and the entire tree looks as if a fire had swept through it. Beginning during the last days of June and continuing until the middle of July, larvee crawl down the trunks and change to yellow pupz in the ground near the base of the tree. Adults develop about a week after the formation of the pupz and in the latter part of July the summer brood of beetles is abundant. PLATE 37.—LIFE HISTORY OF ELM-LEAF BEETLE. peer TN TT i aie 1. Adult beetles eating holes through leaves after emerging from their hibernating quarters in the spring. 2. Egg mass on under side of leaf. 3. Larve feeding on under side of leaves, giving them a skeletonized appearance (1, 2, and 3 about 4 natural size). 4. The curling of the foliage of the elm as a result of the feeding of the larve. 5. The contrast between sprayed and unsprayed elms attacked by the elm-leaf beetle. Thetree on the left was sprayed with arsenate of lead May 20, 1909. The tree to the right, about 25 feet away, was not sprayed. View taken August 10, 1909. INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS DISEASES, ETC. 173 Ordinarily there are two broods of this insect during a year. The beetles take to the leaves, feed on them and deposit their eggs. The larve of the second brood go through the same cycle of feeding on the under side of the leaves, changing to pupz and transforming to adult beetles. In the latter part of August, the development of the second brood of beetles is complete. They hibernate during the winter in the adult form and begin to feed on the developing elm-leaves the following spring. This insect is confined in its attacks to the elms, and pre- fers the European to the American variety. It has been a most serious pest in many States. The defoliation of a tree in midsummer is a serious injury, and if this occurs for suc- cessive years, the early death of the elm may be expected. Such has been the record of the elm-leaf beetle ina great many cities. The only way to control the elm-leaf beetle is by spray- ing the foliage with arsenate of lead. The time to spray is just when the leaves develop and the adults begin to feed. A thorough spray at this time is very important, because if the beetles can be killed before they lay eggs, there will be no larvz to deal with later. If early spraying is neglected or has not been effective, an application of arsenate of lead is necessary when the larvze begin to feed. It is important in this case to reach the under side of the leaves. The beetles eat the entire leaf tissue and it makes no difference whether the poison is on the under or upper surface. The larve eat only the lower layer of cells, and even if the upper surface be fully covered with arsenical poison they may not get even a particle. When the full grown larve crawl down the trunks to 174 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES pupate, great numbers of them collect at the bases of the elm-trees. At that time they can be swept up and killed by pouring hot water on them. This, of course, is not a very effective measure; but still, it is helpful, and in order to secure the best results the grubs and the pupz should be destroyed every few days so long as they are seen in numbers. The elm-leaf beetle is now a serious pest in many Eastern States. The writer will therefore quote from his records of observations of the work against this pest in East Orange during 1909, as these will show approximately up to what time spraying can be effective. Corrections, of course, have to be made for variations in climate. ““The spraying began on May 18. On June 2, it was no- ticed that the depositing of eggs on the under side of the leaves had begun. The spraying, however, was continued during the period of incubation with good results. On June 10, it was noticed that the hatching of caterpillars had begun. On June 25, made an inspection of all the elms in the city. The early spraying was extremely effective. Some of the leaves were eaten by the adult beetles, but there were few egg masses. Spraying done after June 14 was also effective. Although the leaves showed many empty eggs, there were practically no larve, as these were poisoned as soon as they began to feed after hatching. “On July 2, all spraying was stopped, as it was too late for spraying to be effective. On July 7, the caterpillars of the elm-leaf beetle were observed descending the trunks of the elm-trees to pupate. The devastating effect of the pest was then at its height. Not a single unsprayed tree within the city limits was free from the attack. Only a partial second brood of beetles was observed.”’ INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS DISEASES, ETC. 175 SUCKING INSECTS Sucking insects eat no part of the plant itself, and it is absolutely impossible for that reason to kill them with any of the stomach poisons. They can be reached only by con- tact poisons which act on the breathing pores of the insects. Soaps and oils are the materials used, and these act by clog- ging up the spiracles of the insects and choking them. Cottony Maple Scale (Pulvinaria innumerabilis Rathvon). —The cottony maple scale attacks all the maples to a cer- tain extent, but is most injurious to the white maple. Dur- ing the winter the hibernating females are found along the underside of the twigs and branches. They are oval, brown in color, and about one-sixteenth of an inch long. When the sap starts to flow in the spring the insects begin to feed and grow until they are about one-quarter inch long. In early June they excrete a mass of white, waxy, or cottony material in which the eggs are deposited. There are from one thou- sand to two thousand eggs in each mass. The larve hatch, crawl up on the leaves and settle along the veins on the un- der side. As many as a thousand settle on a single leaf and suck the sap as it comes up through the veins. In the meantime the waxy masses having served their purpose as a protection for the eggs, disintegrate, and the bits of white material are carried away by the winds. The pumping of the sap by the growing larvee continues, the leaves become devitalized and about the latter part of July the foliage be- gins to fall as in late autumn. The insects go through two or three molts and then change to pupz. The mature male insects are winged, the female has no wings. In early September pairing takes place, the males die, the impregnated females remain on the PLATE 38.—SCALE INSECTS. 1. The Woolly Maple Scale in cocoon condition, collected in masses in crevices of bark of Sugar Maple (about natural size). 2. Adult females of woolly maple scale surrounded by cottony tufts containing eggs. The larve are seen along the veins (about ™% natural size). 3. The Cottony Maple Scale, adult females on twig of white maple. The cottony masses excreted by them contain the eggs. 4. Twig infested by San José scale. 5. Twig infested by male scales of Scurfy Scale. 6. Twig infested by Oyster Shell Scale (3, 4,5, and 6, about natural size). INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS DISEASES, ETC. 177 leaves feeding until after the middle of September, when they migrate to the twigs and settle down to pass the winter. It is very difficult to combat this pest. It has, however, a number of natural enemies which sometimes exterminate it before it does serious damage. The only time for carry- ing on spraying operations against the insect is during the fall and the winter, while the trees are in a dormant state. At that time any of the soluble oil preparations will be effective when used at winter strength. There are many mechanical methods that can be used successfully in controlling this insect. Brushing with a stiff broom just where the white masses appear will destroy the eggs and prevent hatching. Small trees especially can be treated with very good results. In 1904 and 1905, the Shade-Tree Commission of East ‘Orange succeeded in controlling this pest by mechanical means. The trees were sprayed with water only, by direct- ing a small solid jet from the power sprayer at the develop- ing egg masses. A nozzle having a bore of about one-six- teenth of an inch was used and the water was discharged with sufficient pressure, so that when the stream was just drawn along the under side of the twigs it cleared it of egg clusters. The insects were dislodged and the egg masses broken up, so that the larve did not hatch. Wherever city water pressure is available the insect may be combated by using a garden hose with a solid jet of wa- ter, and as the infestation is usually on the lower branches and on the under side, the method works in most cases. Woolly Maple Scale (Pseudococcus aceris Sign.).—This insect, which attacks the sugar maple, passes the winter in the larval form. The larvze are microscopic in size, 178 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES collect in the crevices of the bark, and remain in a naked state all winter. In the latter part of May, when they change into the cocoon state, the presence of the pest is easily detected. The cocoons are about one-sixteenth of an inch long and perfectly white. On badly infested trees they are piled one on top of the other in such large numbers that the trunks look as if they had been whitewashed. In early June the insects emerge from their cocoons. The females go up to the leaf and settle on the under side along the veins. They grow in size and surround themselves with a fluffy white mass and lay their eggs from which the young larve hatch. These scatter along the veins and suck the sap from the leaves. They begin to migrate during the latter part of July. They go along the petioles of the leaves, the main limbs, and gather on the trunks where they form their cocoons. During the latter part of July and early August the cocoons of the newly hatched larve begin to appear on the trees. Toward the end of August they leave the cocoons, pair, and then the females of the second brood again lodge themselves on the under side of the leaves to lay the eggs for the winter generation of larve. It is at this time that the infested sugar maples begin to lose their leaves. Unlike other insects the several stages of metamorphosis of this one are not completed within the same time. While some of the insects are in cocoons others are already hatched and still others are laying eggs on the under side of the leaves. The additional fact that there are two broods a year during the summer, produces conditions making it possible to find the insect in all stages of development at any time in midsummer. ‘These peculiarities make the treatment of the trees rather difficult, for the process that will destroy the INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS DISEASES, ETC. 179 larvze or the adults will not hurt the eggs or the insects in cocoons. The best way to control the pest is to wash the trunks of infested sugar maples with a solution of whale-oil soap at the rate of one pound to four gallons of water, or oil emul- sion at weekly intervals from the middle of July until the leaves fall in late autumn. In early November, after the foli- age is all gone, the trunks should be given a final treatment with the whale-oil soap or oil emulsion to kill the tiny larvze that remain all winter. In that way the brood can be killed. San José Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst.).—Al- though this species has been most destructive of fruit-trees, it attacks a large number of shade and ornamental trees as well. The twigs of badly infested trees, instead of being smooth and shiny, are covered with dark gray, scurfy patches that have a peculiar granular look which any one familiar with the bark of a rapidly growing tree will imme- diately recognize as not a normal condition. The winter of the insect is passed in the half grown con- dition, covered by a round black scale about the size of a pin’s head. During that season the insects do not feed and there is no drain upon the vitality of the tree. In May they resume growth. About the middle of June the young larve are born and begin to crawl from beneath the female in- sects. ‘These young are minute, active, yellow atoms that crawl outwardly to the leaves and the young shoots. They insert their slender mouth-filaments into the plant tissue and begin to suck the sap. They change in form, become more circular, and very soon waxy filaments begin to ooze out all over the body, which form the scale. In about five or six weeks the species is mature, reproducing in turn, and by the end of the season the broods are no longer distinct, all 180 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES stages occurring on infested trees at the same time. A sin- gle pair, starting under favorable conditions in June, may have descendants to exceed one thousand million before snow is on the ground. Experience has shown that the most effective way to control the San José Scale is to spray with oil or soap emul- sions as soon after the middle of October as possible. At that time, the functions of the leaves have been accom- plished and any scorching of the foliage by the spray will not affect the tree itself. It is best to choose a sunshiny day for the work, to use a nozzle that will give a fine spray and to apply the mixture until the twigs begin to drip. Scurfy Scale (Chionaspis furfurus Fitch).—This scale usually infests the poplars and the maples among the shade- trees. It is a very pale gray, almost as broad as long, with a yellowish point or head. Beneath this scale the eggs are found during the winter, and in June they hatch into pur- plish-colored larvz, which suck the plant juices. There is only a single brood which matures in September, and is rarely abundant enough to do very much injury. This scale is thinner than most others of the armored forms, and may be reached by caustic sprays in the winter. If no winter application is made it is necessary to wait until the eggs hatch in June, and then apply whale-oil soap or kerosene emulsion. Oyster-Shell Scale (Mytilaspis pomorum Bouché).—Like the San José scale this insect attacks orchard-trees mostly, but is also present on shade-trees. It derives its name from the resemblance to one of the very elongate types of oysters. It winters in the egg state under the scale, and in May or June the eggs hatch into minute yellow atoms that set and begin to form small scales. These suck the juices of the INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS DISEASES, ETC. 181 twigs and increase in size until midsummer, or a little later. Then the males mature, and the females, after impregna- tion, lay their eggs, which fill the space beneath the scale. Sometimes there are two broods during the season. There is only one period during which this insect can be satisfactorily reached; that is, when the eggs have hatched and while the larve are moving about or have just set. This is during late May or early June. As soon as the larve are observed, spray with whale-oil soap at the rate of one pound to five gallons of water, or kerosene emulsion. Repeat, if possible, a week later to reach delayed larve. Plant Lice.—Most shade-trees suffer from plant lice to a greater or less extent; but none more than the Norway maple. These insects multiply very rapidly, suck the juices of the leaves and shoots, and so exhaust their vitality. When the insects become abundant the honey dew excreted by them sometimes covers the leaves with a sticky secretion that may be abundant enough to drop to the street below. This secretion tends to clog the foliage so that it may drop while yet perfectly green, and a black soot fungus is also likely to develop. Plant lice are most abundant during a cold, wet spring, and the attack usually does not continue after the first spell of hot dry weather; so that treatment is generally not found necessary. Should spraying be desirable nothing is better against plant lice than whale-oil soap at the rate of one pound to five gallons of water. BORERS Besides the leaf-eating and the sucking insects that in- jure trees through defoliation, shade-trees are also subject to the attacks of borers that feed on their wood tissue. As 182 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES soon as the larvze of these insects hatch they bore their way through the bark into the wood and make a series of gal- leries either immediately beneath the bark or deeper in the tree. In these they develop and emerge as winged insects. Leopard Moth (Zeuzera pyrina Fabr.).—The most de- structive species on city trees is the leopard moth. Practi- cally all kinds of shade-trees are attacked by the larva. During the latter days of June and in early July the adult insects are most abundant. The eggs are deposited by the females either singly or in masses, a single adult depositing between five hundred and one thousand eggs. They are usually placed in a bark crevice or other sheltered situation on one of the small twigs or branches. On hatching, the young caterpillar makes its way to the crotch of a small branch or bud and at once bores into the wood tissue. It works downward toward the base, and grows very rapidly. Presently it leaves its burrow and wanders to a large branch and again begins feeding. The caterpillars bore a straight channel through the centre of the branch or eat out a large cavity on one side of it. Many of the cater- pillars gnaw an irregular chamber of the size of a man’s hand right under the bark. Two years are required to complete the life cycle. By the end of the first season the larva is half-grown and has usually made its way to one of the large branches. The caterpillars remain in the dormant state during the winter and resume feeding the next spring. During the second summer, growth is rapid, and at the end of the season the larve reach their full size of two inches or more. In that state they pass the second winter, and early in the spring following work close to the surface and form pupz from which the adult moths emerge. PLATE yy g 1. Bronze Birch Borer, Galleries in inner bark of White Birch made by larve (about } natural size). 2. Life History of Sugar Maple Borer (about ’% natural size). A, Larva. B, Adult male. C, Adult female. D, Galleries made by larvz. 3. Life History of Leopard Moth (about ¢ natural size). A, Larva. B, Pupa. C, Adult male. D, Adult female. E and F, Galleries made by larve. 4. Life History of Maple Tree Sesiid (about /% natural size). A, Larva. B, Pupa. C, Adult male. D, Adult female. E, Galleries made by larve. 184 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES The injuries to trees by borers are very severe. When they girdle a limb the effect is immediate. The circulation of the sap is cut off from the end of the branch and it soon dies. When a large wound is made on the side of a branch, the bark covering it breaks away, the wood is exposed, it dries and checks, the successive annual layers do not cover up the scar, so that in time the circulation of the sap is re- tarded and the end of the limb dies. The injury to the trees in that case is not immediately apparent, but is none the less fatal. The leopard moth is hard to combat. The moths do not feed and the caterpillars feed on the surface only for a short. time, when they change their quarters and start ina new place. At the end of July and during August the larve force great strings of partly digested wood or ‘‘sawdust’’ through the openings by which they entered. At that time they can be readily killed by injecting through the openings of the burrows a few drops of bisulfid of carbon and clos- ing them with putty. When the trees of a city are attacked by borers it would seem that the task of combating them is almost hopeless. Persistence will yield results, however. On August 20, 1909, for example, the Shade-Tree Commission of East Orange began work against the leopard moth. By September 22, about eight thousand trees were treated by a gang of six men. Two methods were used to kill the borers; by in- jecting carbon bisulfid into the burrow and plugging the opening with putty, and also by using a wire. The latter method was found to be more rapid. Badly infested small branches were entirely removed. In this work it was possible to cover only the trunks and the main limbs of the trees. The men could not reach the INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS DISEASES, ETC. 185 ends of the branches and small twigs where the newly hatched larve are found. The work done, however, was effective, as the caterpillars that would have matured by the following spring were killed and thus the deposition of eggs for another brood was almost entirely prevented. In the summer of 1910, when the overwintering larve began their borings farther down the trees, the work of killing these was carried on in the same way as during the summer of 1909. In that way the entire brood of borers was extermi- nated as thoroughly as it was possible. Sugar Maple Borer (Plagionotus speciosus Say).—Sugar maples on streets and roadsides have no more serious en- emy than the sugar maple borer, which, unlike other borers, attacks trees in full vigor. Like the leopard moth this insect takes two years to complete its growth. At the end of the first season the larva is partly grown. It passes the winter in that condition, resumes feeding and growth the following summer, hibernates as a full grown lar- va the second winter, and in the spring after that changes into a pupa and then emerges as a beetle. Constant watchfulness is needed to detect the presence of this borer. Each fall and spring sugar maples should be examined for characteristic signs of borings. The pest can be exterminated in the same way as the leopard moth. Maple Tree Sesiid (Sesia acernt Clem.).—This is another caterpillar borer found in soft and hard maples. It hasa special fondness for tissues growing over wounds in which it makes round holes not over one-eighth of an inch in di- ameter. Trees wounded from any causes find difficulty in covering the exposed wood with bark after being attacked by this insect. The injuries caused by this borer are not so serious as 186 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES those of the former. The caterpillars bore near the surface and are easily dug out and destroyed. Where the insects are observed in great numbers it will pay to whitewash the trunks several times during the season. This will repel the moths that would otherwise deposit on the trunks, and it would cover over or partly fill the small holes that have been made by the insects. Bark Borers.—Some borers which attack trees work in the cambium layer just under the bark, making a series of galleries which interlace each other and extend all the way around the branches of infected trees. The effect of these borings is slow girdling. The circu- lation of sap is cut off and the upper part of the branches die. Some of the more common bark borers attacking shade and ornamental trees are the bronze birch borer (Agrilus anxius Gory.), which attacks the various species of birch, the two-lined chestnut borer (Agyvilus bilineatus Weber), which infests the chestnut and the oak, and the hickory- bark borer (Scolytus quadrispinosus Say), which is most injurious to the hickory. The cutting out of infested branches sometimes checks the disease if it has not spread far down to the trunk. In the majority of cases, however, there is no remedy for trees once attacked by these borers. FUNGOUS DISEASES Many diseases of trees are caused by low forms of vege- table life, known as fungi, which live upon and within the tissues of the higher plants. They possess none of the green coloring matter of ordinary vegetation and are made depend- ent upon the organic matter prepared by green plants. They INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS DISEASES, ETC. 187 are thus parasites which obtain their nourishment by the breaking down of the cells of the plants on which they exist. As affecting shade-trees the fungous diseases are not so serious as the injuries by insects. Very few wood-rotting fungi are capable of entering an injured tree and beginning growth. Nearly all gain lodgment in wounds, grow in these and rot the wood. Fungous diseases, therefore, are usually the result of some form of neglect, and it is the preventive measures rather than the cures that count for most in main- taining the health of trees. The various types of fungi will therefore be mentioned only briefly. WOOD-DESTROYING FUNGI The most familiar fungi are the shelving or bracket forms seen on dead or decaying trees. These shelves or brackets are the fruit bodies, which on maturity liberate millions of spores for the reproduction of other plants. The spores, which are unicellular, microscopic bodies correspond- ing to the seeds of higher plants, are scattered by the wind and find lodgment in wounds of trees, where they begin to sprout. They grow unseen for a long time by threadlike roots called hyphe which bore through and between the cell- walls forming a mass of white meshes called the mycelium. This spreads through the heart of the tree, rapidly disinte- grates the wood and causes it to rot. When the mycelium has spread over a large feeding area and has stored reserve food it can then grow out through a wound or old knot-hole and form the bracket fruit body. False-Tinder Fungus (Pyropolyporus igniarius (Linn.) Murrill) (Fomes igniarius (Linn.) Gillet).—The fungi which are responsible for the decay and destruction of the heart- wood of various broad-leaf trees are quite numerous. They PLATE 40.—FUNGOUS DISEASES. es alo 1. Living Apple with fruiting body of False-Tinder Fungus (Pyropolyporus igniarius). 2. Cross-section of living Beech diseased by Pyropolyporus igniarius. Fruiting body is seen on the outside. 3. Living Sugar Maple with fruiting bodies of Hydnum septentri- onale causing Heart-Rot of Sugar Maple. 4. Cross-section of same Sugar Maple as 3, two feet above fruiting bodies, showing centre rotted by mycelium of Hydnum septentri- onale. 5. White Oak, with fruiting body of Dedalea quercina growing out of a knot- hole. 6. A longitudinal and transverse section of the white oak in 5, two feet below fruiting body, showing the disintegration of the wood by the mycelium of Dedalea quercina, INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS DISEASES, ETC. 189 are more or less alike, however, in their manner of entrance into the trees, their subsequent development, the production of their fruiting bodies, and general remedies. The false- tinder fungus may be taken as a type of this class of fungi. Among the trees it is known to attack are the following species: the beech, the aspen, the willows, the sugar, the red, the silver and the striped maples, the oaks, the apple, and the hickory. The disease caused by this fungus is commonly known as “‘white heart-rot.’’ It is usually confined to the heart-wood of the tree. This is changed by the growth and develop- ment of the mycelium, into a whitish, soft substance, which is bounded from the healthy wood by very thin black layers. These show as black lines when the trunk of the tree is sawn across. The fungus gains entrance into the trunk of the tree through some wound. In a majority of cases infection takes place through old branch stubs. The spores germinate on a stub, and the hyphe grow down through the wood of a stub until they reach the heart-wood of the main trunk. The destruction of the wood follows very shortly after the en- trance of the mycelium into the trunk, progressing outward and up and down as long as the tree lives. The formation of the fruiting bodies takes place usually at the point where infection originally occurred. A tree attacked by the fungus shows no particular change in its general external appearance during the early stages of the disease; in fact, it is practically impossible to recognize a diseased tree until the fruiting bodies of the fungus form on the outside of the trunk. When the fruiting bodies appear it may be taken for granted that the disease has progressed within the trunk in both directions for two or three feet from the point of infection. As the disease progresses new 190 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES fruiting bodies appear and the older ones grow in size. The rotting of the heart-wood continues until the tree, checked in growth and become a mere shell of weak sapwood, is broken off by a windstorm and its existence terminated. There is no cure for diseases caused by wound parasites after the fungi enter into the interior of the tree. For a few years there may be no apparent injury, but with the lapse of time the tree becomes badly decayed if not destroyed. The only practical measures of controlling these fungi are of a preventive nature. All broken and dead branches of trees should be removed as quickly as possible, and all wounds, either natural or as a result of pruning, should be covered with tar. The destruction of the fruiting bodies as they appear helps to check the spread of the diseases. Sulfur Polyporus (Letiporus speciosus (Batt.) Murrill) (Polyporus sulphureus (Bul.) Fr.).—The sulfur polyporus has a very wide distribution, and is important because it is found chiefly on the oaks. It also occurs on the apple, ash, birch, butternut, hemlock, locust, and pine. It is a wound parasite like the false-tinder fungus, and grows on living trees. The mycelium rots the heart of the tree and the fruit bodies grow from knot-holes, and also arise from portions of the trunk killed by the fungus. The sulfur polyporus is easy to recognize because of the yellowish color of the soft, spore-bearing bodies. They form a series of shelves overlapping one another. Some- times they form very close together, so as to produce a large, round mass about the size of a person’s head. The fruiting bodies of this fungus rarely remain on the tree for any length of time, because they are attacked by insects which destroy them. The fungus is also eagerly sought by mushroom hunters on account of its excellent edible qualities. INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS DISEASES, ETC. 191 The effect of the destruction of the heart-wood of trees brought about by this fungus is of a nature resembling the decay caused by the false-tinder fungus; and what has been said regarding methods of control of the latter applies to this species as well. Heart-Rot of Sugar Maple (Hydnum septentrionale Fr.). —This fungus is found principally on the sugar maple; but also on other species of deciduous trees. The effects of this fungus upon the wood of diseased trees produces a heart decay similar to that of the false-tinder fungus. The color of the sporophores is creamy white, and they appear in bracketlike clusters that have a striking appear- ance. SAP-ROTS OF TREES In the economy of nature many fungi serve a useful purpose in breaking down dead wood and clearing the forest of débris. Fungi which grow only on dead wood are saprophytic, while those which feed on living tissue are parasitic. Frequently no sharp line can be drawn between those fungi which are capable of growing on dead wood that has died after being cut from a living tree and the fungi which grow on dead wood of the still living tree. Some of these fungi are mentioned in this connection because they are frequently taken to be the cause of disease. The Common Bracket Fungus (Elfvingia megaloma (Lév.) Murrill) (Fomes applanatus (Pers.) Wallr.) may be taken as a type of this class of fungi. It is frequently found on living trees, but a careful examination always shows it to be growing on wood which is actually dead. Generally this is the outer sapwood. The sporophores or fruiting bodies of this fungus constitute brackets. The upper surface is more or less marked by concentric zones which divide off PLATE 41.—FUNGOUS AND OTHER DISEASES. Partly dead Sugar Maple with fruiting bodies of sap-rot fungus, Elfvingia megaloma. 2. ‘‘Stag-head’’ White Maple. 3. Ulcers on Red Maple, suffering from gas-poisoning. 4. Fruiting bodies of Sulfur Polyporus (after illustration, Bulletin 149, Bureau of Plant In- dustry, U._S. Department of Agriculture). 5. Leaf scorch of Sugar Maple. 6. Leaf of European Linden, spotted by the Linden Rust, caused by Cercospora microsora. 7. Leat of Horse-chestnut curled as a result of Leaf Spot, caused by Phyllosticta pavie. 8. Partly dead Red Maple with fruiting bodies of the sap-rot fungus Hopalopilu gilvus. INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS DISEASES, ETC. 193 the growth of the different years. The fruiting surface is white, and when bruised turns brown, and hence the brackets of this species are used for sketching. A sap-rot fungus frequently found on city trees is Hopa- lopilus gilvus (Schw.) Murrill (Polyporus gilvus Schw.). It has no common name and is classed with the ordinary poly- pores that live on decayed wood. One of the most important enemies of structural oaks and chestnuts is Dedalea quercina (Linn.) Pers. It is generally found on oak and chestnut logs, ties, telegraph-poles, fences, etc., all of which it destroys with rapidity. This fungus also occurs on dead portions of living trees, and the sporo- phores may be found growing out from large wounds. ROOT-ROTS The roots of trees are also subject to diseases of which the rotting caused by the honey agaric (Armillaria mellea Vahl.) is an example. The fungus usually gains entrance through some wound in the root system. The young myce- lium grows into the cambium layer, attacks the living cells, and finally completely encircles the base of the trunk of an affected tree. The most characteristic parts of the honey agaric are the hard black strands popularly known as ‘‘shoe strings,’’ which extend in all directions through the ground and along the roots of affected trees. The danger of any root-rotting disease lies in the fact that trees so affected are liable to be blown down without warning. Such rots as gain entrance through wounds at the base of the trunk can be prevented by properly treating all abrasions of the bark; but other forms of the disease, inclu- ding the case of the honey agaric, spread through the ground and are difficult to prevent. Careful inspection of such 194 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES trees, however, will reveal the disease, and they can be cut down before they become dangerous. If the trees are not blown down they usually die suddenly in early summer, the foliage wilting completely. CANKER Diseases of the bark of trees manifest themselves by the appearance of small protuberances and other malformations. commonly known as canker. The disease is due to fungi, one of the most destructive of which is Nectria cinnabarina (Tode) Fr. Its spores obtain entrance into wounds caused by hailstones, insects, or breakages, and the mycelium grows through the partially weakened wood, and ultimately pro- duces small red clusters of fruiting bodies. A small area of the bark is killed and a healing callus begins to form at the edge of the wound. The callus of the first year is then invaded by the fungus and killed, and a second layer of callus starts to develop. The continuation of this process extends the growth of the canker over a large area. Canker can be treated by cutting away all diseased por- tions of wood and bark, washing the exposed surface with a solution of copper sulfate, one pound to five gallons of water, and then painting the same with coal-tar. The chestnut bark disease or canker (Diaporthe parasitica Murrill) is now the most serious of all the fungous diseases of trees. The spores enter the bark through an abrasion or some other wound. From the point of infection the fungus grows, kills a small patch of bark, and then spreads all around the limb or trunk and girdles it. The disease then becomes conspicuous by the brown color of the dying foli- age. The branches are usually attacked first, and from these the canker spreads through the entire tree and kills it. INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS DISEASES, ETC. 195 Up to the present time no means has been discovered of successfully combating this pest. LEAF DISEASES Shade-trees sometimes suffer from diseases which affect the foliage. The assimulating area of the leaves is thus reduced, and the growth of the tree is diminished in propor- tion to the leaf area destroyed. While ordinarily they check the growth of the trees for one season only, if the disease appears several years in succession it may seriously weaken and even kill the tree. Diseases of the foliage can be controlled by timely spray- ing. The germination of fungi may be prevented by the use of mineral salts. Those of copper are more commonly used, especially the sulfate, usually in the form of Bordeaux mixture (see page 207). Just as long as leaves or other tissues of plants are covered witha thin coating of Bordeaux mixture, no fungi can develop upon them. Thus a fungi- cide is a preventive, and its application should begin long before the disease has advanced far enough to manifest itself to any extent. Rusts.—This term has been applied in more or less of an arbitrary manner to a large group of fungi that produce masses of spores on the surface of the leaves, generally yel- lowish or brownish in color. The linden rust (Cercospora microsora Sacc.) may be taken as an example. Leaves attacked by this fungus become badly spotted, and the mar- gins decayed and tattered. Spraying the branches thoroughly with copper sulfate, one pound to twenty-five gallons, or strong Bordeaux mix- ture, before the leaves unfold, will destroy all of the earlier spores upon them. Then if the trees are where the Bor- 196 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES deaux mixture will not be too conspicuous, it may be applied at intervals of from two to four weeks during July and August. If the trees are in a very conspicuous place, the dilute copper sulfate, one pound to two hundred and fifty or three hundred gallons, may be used, as often as every two weeks and after heavy rains. The great advantage of Bordeaux mixture is that it holds the copper firmly to the leaves and with every rain or heavy dew, minute quantities are dissolved and the spores are prevented from germi- nating. Mildews.—These are parasites which produce white spores and more or less white patches on the leaf or other parts. The powdery mildew of the willow (Uncinula salicis (DeC.) Wint.) and the mildew occurring on some species of maple (Uncinula aceris (DeC.) Wint.) may be taken as examples. Coming on later in the season than the brown rusts, two or three applications of either the Bordeaux mix- ture or dilute copper sulfate will be effectual, but no applica- tion need be made generally until the middle or last of July. Blights.—The leaf blights are unlike the rusts in that they attack and destroy small portions of the leaves, and when these spots or places become numerous the whole leaf is destroyed and it soon falls off. The leaf spot of the horse-chestnut and the sycamore leaf blight are two of the most destructive leaf diseases of this class. The destructive work of the leaf spot of the horse-chest- nut (Phyllosticta pavie Desm.) becomes conspicuous early in the season by the appearance of small brown spots on the leaflets; these spread to a large size and produce dead areas of curled and broken tissue until the foliage becomes ragged. This is followed by early defoliation of the trees. INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS DISEASES, ETC. 197 The leaf spot can be controlled by spraying in winter with copper sulfate solution to destroy the spores lodged in the bark. This should be followed by applications of Bor- deaux mixture once before the flowers appear and two or three times thereafter at intervals of about two weeks. The sycamore leaf blight (Glaosporeum nervisequum Sacc.) needs particular mention. It attacks both the Euro- pean and the American species, but the native variety, Pla- tanus occidentalis, seems to be more susceptible. It develops with great rapidity at the time of the development of the foliage in the spring, and causes the leaves to hang lifeless upon the stems. In severe cases the leaves are dropped pre- maturely, and if the attacks are continued for several years the trees become seriously weakened. This trouble can be controlled by raking up and burning loose bark, dead branches and leaves, and spraying with Bordeaux mixture. The spraying should be done during the resting period of the trees, as the leaves begin to develop, ten days later and within three weeks of the time of the unfolding of the buds. DISEASES DUE TO CONDITIONS OF SOIL AND CLIMATE Diseases due to insects and fungi are more easy of diag- nosis than those due to unfavorable surroundings. Some- times, however, no sharp line can be drawn between the two classes of diseases. As long as the conditions for obtaining food and water from the soil and for conducting these to every part of the tree are favorable and the effects of cli- mate are not detrimental to growth, the tree will continue to be in full vigor. If, on the contrary, there be a continual drain on the supply of soil-foods with no addition, and there be long periods of drought, severe cold or other unfavorable 198 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES climatic conditions, the tree will become so weakened that it will succumb to the attacks of parasites. By examining a tree carefully and noting its condition as compared with other trees of the same species known to be in a state of full vigor, one may determine whether the specimen is in a good state of health or not. The points to consider are generally the following: the growth in height as shown by the vigor and length of the shoots; the growth of the trunk in diameter; the color and mass of the foliage; the time of the unfolding and shedding of the leaves; the development of the crown, whether regular in all its parts; and the mode of shedding of the foliage, whether simulta- neous in all parts of the tree. Soil Conditions.—There is no doubt that in the case of city trees, causes of decay and death can in the majority of cases, be traced to poor conditions of the soil, such as lack of food and water and root suffocation. A disease known as ‘‘stag-head’’ or ‘‘top dry’’ fre- quently results from lack of proper food in the soil, and manifests itself by the gradual death of the top of the tree. Where trees grow year after year and there is no addition to the available soil foods, and where the earth is dried out by the sun and grass, starvation necessarily follows. The tree, therefore, gradually stops growing, the branches slowly die, and other diseases set in, until finally the last branch is dead. A constant supply of proper food is necessary to prevent this disease. The ground underneath the tree should not be sodded. It should be worked and top dressed at frequent intervals to keep up the food-supply. Imperfect circulation of air in the soil has an important bearing on the health of trees. City trees are likely to suffer a lack of aeration of the soil, because of pavements and INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS DISEASES, ETC. 199 walks. The use of grills and the keeping of the soil loose will help the exchange of gases between the soil atmosphere and the air. Root asphyxiation is especially liable to occur along streets where the ground water is only a few feet from the surface. During prolonged rainy weather the water rises, making the soil wet up close to the surface. The pavement adds here to the evil of poor under-drainage, preventing evaporation and aeration. Young trees set too deep are often killed, and covering the earth about trees with soil a foot or more deep usually results in injury, if not death from asphyxiation. Ulcers.—This general term will be made to include all internal injuries and diseases which manifest themselves externally by the flow of sap over the bark. A disease known as slime-flux is characterized by the appearance of various colored slimy masses with a decidedly acid odor which start at or near wounds. They make their appear- ance usually in the spring when the sap, containing more or less sugar, flows from the wounds. In the sap a number of forms of algz, bacteria, and fungi begin to grow and form a slimy, dripping mass over the bark. The cambium beneath dies rapidly, and if the disease is not checked the destruction may extend completely around a tree, resulting in the death of branches and sometimes of the entire tree. An exudation of sap sometimes occurs through splits in the bark, not near any wounds, and which from the outside appears to be perfectly normal and healthy. The liquid is usually mucilaginous and fermented, and as it flows over the bark it discolors it gray, brown, or reddish. The species on which such a condition is most frequently noticed are horse- chestnuts, elms, maples, poplars, and oaks. 200 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES The writer once had under observation a number of trees suffering from gas-poisoning. There were elms, Norway maples, sugar maples, white maples, and red maples among them. About the time when the red and the white maples began to show the usual symptoms of the poison, such as the etiolation and the partial loss of the foliage, the sap began to ooze out from a number of places on the trunk and main branches. The sap did not come from openings made by borers or other causes, but through splits of bark looking normal on the outside. On removing the bark there was seen a discoloration of the sap-wood, and the descending cur- rent of sap flowed freely near the point of this discoloration. If a part only of the bark covering this diseased spot was cut away, the sap was seen coming out from under the por- tion of the bark still covering the remainder of this blister- like formation. The sap flowing from the splits in the bark was frothy white in appearance (Plate 41, Fig. 3), and had a fermented odor, as that of cider. The exact cause and nature of the formation of ulcers in trees is not yet fully understood. The condition is variously ascribed to an excess of humidity in the soil, to sudden changes of temperature during the growing season, to the non-utilization of all the sap for growth, to a decomposition of internal tissues, and to a modification of the chemical com- position of the sap. There is no doubt, however, that the disease is due to a general disturbance of the nutrition of the tree which is followed by local fermentation of bark areas. The division of Forest Pathology of the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture, expects to undertake within a few years systematic work on phenomena of the class to which ulcers and slime-flux belong. INJURIOUS INSECTS, FUNGOUS DISEASES, ETC. 201 Ulcers can be treated by making vertical incisions in the bark near the wound to allow the liquid to flow off as rapidly as possible and, when the current stops, cutting away the diseased bark and painting with coal-tar. Drying Out and Leaf Scorch.—Young leaves and some- times tender shoots which have pushed out during a spell of cold or cloudy weather frequently wither and die, when ex- posed to bright, hot sun. The trouble usually occurs when a rather moist spring, favorable to growth, is followed by dry and very hot weather. Remedial measures are not always easy to carry out, but the harm may be lessened by any treatment that keeps the soil moist and aerated, so that the foliage may have an am- ple supply of water to draw upon. Frequently there is much complaint of the leaves of many trees, especially sugar maples, being affected with an apparent disease that causes a loss of green in those parts most distant from the main veins. The trouble has been studied at several experiment stations, and the consensus of opinion. is that it is of physiological origin. A lack of water-supply to the leaf tissue causes the death of the least resistant portions of the leaf during a hot and dry spell. The writer has found that such a condition can generally be remedied by the mulching of trees in the fall, keeping the soil loose and watering freely. Frost.—The injuries from freezing are of a nature simi- lar to drying. Freezing of the plant tissues in fact is the drying out of the water which they contain. If the tissues are dried beyond the point where they are able to take up water again, they are killed. In general, trees native to a given section resist injuries of this sort. In the case of trees 202 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES introduced from warmer regions care has to be exercised in their location and protection from frosts. Smooth barked trees sometimes have their trunks and larger branches injured on the southwest side during the winter, the injuries being characterized by the death of patches of bark. During the latter part of winter and early spring, when there are periods of several days of warm weather, the cambium on the south side of the trunk and larger limbs is stimulated to premature activity. If the warm spell is followed by freezing weather these partially active areas are killed. After a time the bark separates from the wood and splits. The injury does not manifest itself until well into the summer. The dead tissue forms a favorable place for the growth of parasites that cause the rotting of the wood. Trees can be protected from injuries caused by alternate freezing and thawing by wrapping with burlap or straw. When injuries have been produced the affected areas should be cut away and painted with tar. CHAPTER IX INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES, AND SPRAYING INSECTICIDES INSECTICIDES are of two general types, those that kill by being eaten, or stomach poisons; and those that kill by actu- ally touching the insects, or contact poisons. The distinc- tion is an important one. Insects that eat up the foliage can be killed by applying to the leaves some mixture containing arsenic. Insects that suck the juices of a plant are safe from all poisons because no poison can be got into their food. They make a minute puncture in the leaf-tissue and then pump the sap, and get none of the poison. Such insects must be killed by a contact poison which must cover them and corrode their tissues, or choke them by clogging their breathing pores. Stomach Poisons.—Against those insects that feed upon plant tissue there is nothing better than arsenic in some form. Paris green, which contains about 50 per cent. of arsenic, has been frequently employed; but the safest arsen- ical poison for spraying trees is arsenate of lead. Its use has become quite common during the last few years. Paris green is an effective insecticide, but is liable to injure the foliage. Arsenate of lead is effective against insects and is harmless to foliage when used at any reasonable strength. It remains in suspension longer than Paris green, and adheres to the foliage a longer time than any other stomach poison. 203 204 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES When sprayed in midsummer, leaves retain some of the arsenate of lead when they fall in autumn. Arsenate of lead may be prepared as follows: Acetate of lead ccc anc dich mentees denen 12 oz. Arsenate of soda..............00 cece eee 4 oz. Waters ca. cise has ee ees 15 to 20 gallons. Pour the acetate of lead into two quarts of water and the arsenate of soda into another two quarts; then pour these two solutions into a tank containing fifteen or twenty gal- lons of water. This gives a white precipitate of arsenate of lead. Good chemicals should be used. It very seldom pays in actual spraying operations to pre- pare the arsenate of lead. It is best to buy it in paste form ready made. The manufacture of insecticides has become more general during the last few years, and with the passage of the National Insecticide Law their adulteration will be prevented. This law is known as ‘‘The Insecticide Act of 1910,’’ and came into effect January 1, 1911. It is ‘fan act for preventing the manufacture, sale, or transpor- tation of adulterated or misbranded Paris greens, lead ar- senates, and other insecticides, and also fungicides, and for regulating traffic therein, and for other purposes.’’ The standards of strength and purity of insecticides and fungi- cides are prescribed in section 7 of the act, which is as follows: “Sec. 7. That for the purpose of this Act an article shall be deemed to be adulterated— “In the case of Paris green: First, if it does not contain at least fifty per centum of arsenious oxid; second, if it contains arsenic in water-soluble forms equivalent to more than three and one-half per centum of arsenious oxid; INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES, AND SPRAYING = 205 third, if any substance has been mixed and packed with it so as to reduce or lower or injuriously affect its quality or strength. “In the case of lead arsenate: First, if it contains more than fifty per centum of water; second, if it contains total arsenic equivalent to less than twelve and one-half per cen- tum of arsenic oxid (As.O;); third, if it contains arsenic in water-soluble forms equivalent to more than seventy-five one-hundredths per centum of arsenic oxid (As.O;) ; fourth, if any substances have been mixed and packed with it so to reduce, lower, or injuriously affect its quality or strength: Provided, however, That extra water may be added to lead arsenate (as described in this paragraph) if the resulting mixture is labeled lead arsenate and water, the percentage of extra water being plainly and correctly stated on the label. “In the case of insecticides or fungicides other than Paris green and lead arsenate: First, if its strength or purity fall below the professed standard or quality under which it is sold; second, if any substance has been substituted wholly or in part for the article; third, if any valuable constituent of the article has been wholly or in part abstracted; fourth, if it is intended for use on vegetation and shall contain any substance or substances which, although preventing, de- stroying, repelling, or mitigating insects, shall be injurious to such vegetation when used.’’ Contact Poisons.—Whale-oil soap, which is a common name for all fish-oil soaps now on the market, is the simplest contact insecticide, especially if only a few trees are to be sprayed. Used at the rate of one pound in from four to six gallons of water in the summer-time it will kill plant lice and other sucking insects. At the rate of one pound in two gallons of water it can be used on dormant trees for winter 206 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES washes to kill the cottony maple scale or the woolly maple scale. Kerosene emulsion is one of the most common contact insecticides. A 10 per cent. solution of kerosene in water is the usual strength employed in spraying foliage with safety. Kerosene and water alone do not emulsify, and if an attempt is made to spray with only a mechanical mixture of the oil and water, the chances are that neither pure oil nor water is pumped at any one time. Soap is therefore added to the oil in order to make an emulsion. The preparation is made as follows: Kerosene: .cacncdee ieee eae etas Sead 2 gals SOd Pina uc2 sues havea ented horas cau aee tae 4 |b WALET reir trreea ainvrninn hans n Sau verona s 1 gal Dissolve the soap in hot water, add the kerosene and churn thoroughly, or pump into itself till a creamy emulsion is formed. This emulsion, diluted with from twelve to fif- teen times its own bulk of water, is an excellent summer remedy for plant lice and other soft-bodied insects that can be reached with contact poisons. There are now soft soaps on the market by means of which it is possible to emulsify kerosene with water without heating any of the ingredients. The soap is dissolved in the water and then the kerosene is added while the mixture is being pumped into itself until an emulsion is formed. There are also many oil and petroleum preparations now manufactured that are soluble in cold water and are ready for use on mixing. A perfect emulsion is formed without pumping, and no stirring is necessary while the mixture is being applied. These miscible oils are rather expensive, but have the advantage of being always ready for use. To INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES, AND SPRAYING 207 the owner of a few trees nothing better could be recom- mended. For extensive spraying the use of miscible oils will usually be found advisable also. The time and labor necessary to prepare the oil emulsions bring their cost up to an amount equal to or greater than that of the soluble oils. Vapors.—The vapor of bisulfid of carbon is used in kill- ing borers. The liquid is injected into the burrow with an oil-can or syringe, and the opening plugged with putty. The fumes given off by the carbon bisulfid are fatal to all insects that breathe it. Carbon bisulfid is very inflam- mable. FUNGICIDES Fungicides act as preventives of plant disease by ob- structing the germination of the spores of the fungi causing such disease. If the leaves of trees, for example, are cov- ered with a coating of copper sulfate or other chemical deleterious to the germination of the spores, the reproduc- tion of the fungi is held in check and disease prevented. Bordeaux Mixture.—This is the standard fungicide and consists of a combination of copper sulfate, fresh lime, and water. The formula in most general use is the following: Copper Sulfate se. .icoctacaiawee aeeee 4 Ibs. Press a-at iecencasketece aerate atedn en tnsate 4 Ibs. Water to make....................00005 50 gals. By combining the copper and the lime it is found that the copper sulfate may be used more freely and with less in- jury than if used alone, and it will adhere a long time to the foliage. For preparing this fungicide on a small scale, the copper sulfate should be dissolved in twenty-five gallons of water, using a half barrel for the purpose. To dissolve the copper sulfate readily, it should be placed in a coarse cloth 208 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES bag and suspended in the water so that the salt is just covered. The lime should be dissolved in another vessel, using only a small amount of water at first, adding more as the process of slacking progresses, and then diluting to twenty-five gallons. The copper sulfate solution and the milk of lime should then be poured into a third vessel. It is best to strain the materials when pouring them together. It is important that practically equal amounts of the two solu- tions should be poured together at the same time, otherwise the proper chemical combination may not take place and the results of the spraying may not be satisfactory. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate.—In conspicuous places the Bordeaux mixture is objectionable on account of the deposits of lime and copper that remain on the foliage, and therefore ammoniacal copper carbonate is used. It is a clear, light blue solution which leaves no stain. It is not so adhesive to the foliage as Bordeaux mixture, is washed off with heavy rains, and requires frequent renewals. The formula for making it is as follows: Copper carbonate.................005. 5 oz. Strong ammonia...................0.. 1 qt. Water to make................. 00005. 50 gals. Dilute the ammonia with two gallons of water, add enough to the copper carbonate to make a thin paste, pour on about half the ammonia and stir thoroughly. Allow the mixture to settle, and then pour off the top, leaving the undissolved portion behind. Repeat this operation, using small quantities of the remaining ammonia until all the cop- per sulfate is dissolved, taking no more ammonia than is necessary to complete the solution. Then add the remainder of the required amount of water. INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES, AND SPRAYING = 209 As in the case of insecticides, there are ready-prepared fungicides on the market. These preparations have been steadily improved and are coming into general use. They may cost more than the crude chemicals do when pre- pared by the user; but they are more economical in the long run, because of the saving of the cost of labor of making them. SPRAYING APPARATUS There is now on the market machinery for spraying the smallest bush or the tallest tree. There are atomizers, bucket-pumps, barrel hand-pumps and _ power-sprayers. What sprayer to get depends upon the work required. No matter what capacity sprayer it is intended to purchase it is always best to communicate with the state experiment station for information and advice. During the last few years rapid strides have been made in the manufacture of spraying apparatus, and it pays to take the trouble to ascer- tain what is the best on the market. Bucket-Pumps.—A most serviceable and very cheap ap- paratus for spraying fruit and medium sized shade-trees is a bucket-pump shown in Plate 42, Fig. 4. When using this sprayer, the insecticide should be mixed in a barrel or other receptacle, and small quantities poured into the bucket from which the mixture is pumped. Barrel Hand-Pumps.—More powerful than the bucket- pumps are the barrel hand-pumps. These consist of a hand- pump set ina barrel of fifty or sixty gallons capacity which contains the insecticide. They can generally supply from two to four leads of hose and give sufficient pressure to pro- duce avery fine spray. A good hand-pump, mounted on a barrel or tank, furnishes a good outfit for the orchardist and *g ‘duind *(Aueduio9 Surinjoejnuepy sp[noy ay} jo SZojejzed & Ur uOTeISNI[I Ue 10}J2) duind-puey [a11eq e JO MAaIA [BUOI}DaS jexyong ‘p (UOISSIUIWIOD 9291L-apeYys sd3uUeIO Jseq ey} Jo JUeUIdINba SurAeids ay} jo a1e ¢ puke ‘Z ‘[ SIOABIdG-IaMOg) ‘UOBEM 9Y} UI 4YBII oy} uo UB ay} Aq YURID Be Aq pauin} ‘adA) [eoLUeYSOL JY} JO SI 10}eNTe AY, “YUL) aplOljdasur UOT[e3-QGT BY} Jo Jo] BY} 0} 9qnj oY} Ut SI ses pInbIT 24L “Pixorp uoqies prinbiy Aq pajetedo 1aAeidS-IamMog “¢ ‘adj jaf ay} Jo SI 10}eUIZe ayy ‘“WYeaq B Aq SI UOIsstuIsUeI] BY] ‘duind xed, e Suyessdo 10}0u surposes 1amod-asioy-¢ ‘YUe} aploloasul uoT[es-G[]T B fo Suljsisuod ‘1aAeidg-Iamog auljosey °Z “aulZua ay} Aq payetedo 10;e}13e ‘duind Aeids 0} pajo9uUOD A}Oe1Ip VUIBZUS JApUI[AD pe[ood-1le Ue Jo ZUNSISUOD ‘1aAeIdS-1aMOg aUT[OSey) “T eotueyseur pue Yue} aploljoasul uOTTeS-10Z ‘SSUAAVUdS— ‘tr ALVI1d INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES, AND SPRAYING 211 will be found equally satisfactory for spraying shade-trees when only a limited number are to be treated. Power-Sprayers.—For spraying very large trees and for city work in general, power sprayers are absolutely neces- sary. There are many kinds of spray outfits of which those run by gasoline and by liquid carbon dioxid are now the most common in use. Gasoline sprayers consist of a gaso- line motor, pump, and insecticide tank. The transmission of power from the motor to the pump is either by means of a belt, or the pump and engine are directly connected by reduction gearing. The latter arrangement is much the better. The insecticide tanks are usually of about two hundred gallons capacity. A very necessary accessory of the insecticide tank is an agitator to stir the spraying mixture while the machine is in operation. This may be either a mechanical contrivance operated by the engine or of the jet type. The latter con- sists of a jet of the spraying mixture sent back into the tank by the pump. If the capacity of the motor is ample, an agitator: of the jet type is excellent; but if the pressure is very much reduced by sending some of the liquid back to the tank, a mechanical agitator is to be preferred. Whether the agitator be of the jet or the mechanical type, it is very important that it should be worked by the engine and not by man power. When a man is put to turning a crank for eight or ten hours a day, the chances are that the agitator will not work very uniformly. As a result, when such mixtures as arsenate of lead are used, the precipitate will settle and the spraying will be done with clear water. The writer has known of many cases of ineffective spraying work due to inefficient agitating devices. The sprayers operated by liquid carbon dioxid have 212 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES come into general use during the last few years. This type of machine is very easy to operate. The power is supplied by liquid carbon dioxid contained in steel tubes connected with the steel insecticide tank by means of a piece of hose. When the valve of the carbon dioxid container is opened, the liquid in passing through the gas-tube turns into a gas which creates the pressure in the insecticide tank. The amount of the pressure is indicated by a pressure gage. Sufficient force can be supplied by the carbonic-acid gas to spray the tallest trees. Gas-sprayers are good, but require a supply of gas con- stantly available, and the actual cost of operation is very expensive. The liquid carbon dioxid costs about a dollar for every one hundred and fifty gallons of insecticide used. On the average, a man sprays about one hundred and fifty gallons of insecticide mixture per day, so that with three nozzles working, the operating cost of gas-sprayers is about three dollars per day. The operating expense of gasoline- sprayers is trifling—only a few cents a day. The simplicity of gas-sprayers, however, makes them frequently desirable even in spite of the additional operating cost. So long as there is a supply of carbon dioxid on hand there is no loss of time during the working day. Gasoline-sprayers some- times get out of order, and the loss of time for repairs is con- siderable. If a good mechanic is available to run a gasoline- sprayer there is little loss of time; but a gas-sprayer gives better results in less skilled hands. The agitator.on the gas-sprayers is of the. mechanical type, operated by a crank. Care must be taken to see that the man turns the crank every minute of the time that the machine is in operation if a mixture is used that will settle. Spraying Hose.—The very best hose made is none too INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES, AND SPRAYING 213 good for spraying work. It should safely stand a pressure of not less than one hundred and forty pounds to the square inch. For spraying tall trees it is absolutely necessary to maintain a pressure of about one hundred and twenty pounds. A number of brands of hose now made will answer these requirements. While it is desirable to use a light hose so that the equipment will be less cumbersome and it will be easier for the workmen to take the lines up the trees, it has been found undesirable to use hose less than one-half inch in diameter. This is the most common size used, although three-quarter inch and one inch hose are also employed. Nozzles.—Although the smallest, the nozzle is none the less one of the most important parts of the spraying outfit. It must break up the mixture into the finest particles and send them against the foliage with the greatest possible force. A very fine, mistlike spray is excellent when the object is simply to cover a large surface; but such a spray has no penetrating power. The ‘‘Vermorel’’ nozzle, or some modification of it, is now used by almost all makers of spraying machinery. In this type of nozzle the stream enters a circular chamber tangen- tially, acquires thereby a rotary motion, and issues from a small, central opening on the upper disk of the chamber. The Vermorel nozzle is especially serviceable in spraying medium sized trees when all the foliage can be easily reached. This type of nozzle has a disgorging device for forcing out the obstruction when it becomes clogged. The construction of the ‘‘Cyclone’’ nozzle is similar to that of the Vermorel, and has the same uses; but is not pro- vided with any disgorging device. The ‘‘Bordeaux’’ nozzle is so constructed that the character of the spray can be changed from a solid 214 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES stream to a mistlike, fan-shaped spray by turning the handle. For spraying very large trees, especially elms, the ends of the branches of which are pendulous and impossible for a Fic. 30.—Spray-Nozzles: A and B, types of cyclone nozzles. C and D, types of Vermorel nozzles. E, Jet nozzle. F, Bordeaux nozzle. man to reach, nozzles of the jet type are indispen- sable. Such a_ nozzle, devised by the writer, is shown in Fig. 30, E. It has a bore of about one-sixteenth of an inch. The mixture comes out ina solid jet; but if there is sufficient pressure, the stream is thrown fifteen feet or more from the nozzle and breaks up finely enough so as to cause the spray to ad- here to the foliage. It is important that as fine a spray as the com- bination of high pressure and good nozzle will pro- duce should strike the foliage. The finer the spray the better it will adhere to the foliage. A coarse spray rolls off the leaf. Especially when spraying with arsenate of lead or other stomach poisons, the efficacy of which depends upon its adhesiveness to the leaves, the use of a fine spray is necessary to secure the best results. INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES, AND SPRAYING 215 Extension Poles and Spray-Rods.—For reaching the tops of trees bamboo poles are used, which are fastened alongside of the end of the hose. The nozzle is inserted into the \ ewe | i Fic. 31.—Spray ‘‘Ys.’? A, Four-branched ‘‘Y’’ of Vermorel nozzles, pee CORT TR ae B, Two-branched ‘‘Y’? of Cyclone nozzles. These ‘‘Ys’’ may be used in the place of single nozzles. They cause a more rapid dis- charge of the spray mixture. hose, so that the pole serves the purpose of making the spray end of the line rigid. Spray-rods are now made, however, which make it easier to handle the hose. The spray-rods consist of aluminum tubes, inside of bamboo poles. One end of the rod is at- 216 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES tached to the hose, the spray mixture passes through the tube and out of the nozzle at the other end. Precautions in Spraying.—Spraying is one of the most important and expensive operations in the care of trees. To be at all effective it must be very carefully done and can- not be left to ignorant hands. There must be thoroughness. in all applications made. The man at the nozzle must know precisely what he is aiming at and how he expects to accom- plish his aim. With the best appliances and proper insecti- cides, failures frequently result if the work is not carefully done. : When applying stomach poisons, the spray should not b continued until the foliage drips too freely, for the effective- ness of the fine mist will then be destroyed. All the glob- ules on the leaf will unite to form a film which will run off and leave little of the poison adhering to it. After a fine mist dries on the leaves, they can be sprayed again and will then hold more poison than would have been possible to apply during one operation. The application of contact insecticides, however, should be more thorough than that of stomach poisons and contin- ued until the leaves drip. These poisons act only until they dry, and if any insect is not touched it will escape. Stomach poisons adhere to the leaf-tissue, and the chewing insect is bound to get some of the poison if it continues to feed long enough—if not on one part of the leaf then on another. All spraying mixtures should be carefully strained before being poured into the insecticide tank. This precaution will prevent the clogging of the nozzle. A warm, sunshiny, calm day is ideal for spraying. When there is no wind there is little waste of spraying material and the insecticide adheres more firmly to the leaves and INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES, AND SPRAYING 217 dries quickly. When doing considerable work, however, that must be finished within a certain time to be effective, one cannot always wait for the ideal day. No spraying, however, should be done on wet days or when rain is anti- cipated. If it should rain shortly after trees have been sprayed, they should be carefully examined afterward to see if the spraying material has been washed off. If so, the trees should be sprayed again. CHAPTER X THE REPAIR AND REPLACING OF TREES THE REPAIR OF TREES IF trees were planted and maintained under ideal condi- tions and were not subject to injuries or diseases they would continue in good condition and health to a very old age. But these conditions are not possible among a community of trees any more than among a community of human beings. Natural enemies such as windstorms, insect pests, and fungous diseases, failure of placing guards around trees to protect them from horse-bites, the leaving of short stumps in pruning, abrasions caused by overhead wires and general neglect cause serious damage to city trees. Although slight at first such injuries, when left unattended at the time of occurrence, are frequently the first cause of the decay and death of valuable trees. The preservation of grown trees ina city is sometimes of greater importance than setting out new ones. The repair of trees or tree surgery forms one of the chief and most necessary tasks in the care of shade-trees. Abrasion of Bark.—One of the simplest cases requiring treatment is a body wound on a tree caused by the abrasion or stripping of the bark. In such cases the thing to do is to cut away with a sharp knife all loose, ragged, or injured bark as far as the injury extends. Bark once loosened can never attach itself to the trunk again. When left on the tree it soon dries and decays and forms a shelter for 218 THE REPAIR AND REPLACING OF TREES 219 insects and fungus spores. After the injured bark has been carefully removed, the exposed wood should be painted with coal-tar to prevent the checking of the exposed wood. A callus will soon form and in time the entire scar will heal. Bridge-Grafting. — When the abrasion of the bark extends al- most around the tree, or if a tree is completely girdled, a connec- tion between the separate parts of the trunk may be reestab- lished by bridge-grafting. (Fig. 32.) The edges of the girdle are trimmed, and cions are in- serted under the bark so as to bridge the wound. These cions are cut to a wedge shape on either end and are inserted be- tween the bark and the wood. A cloth bandage is tied about each edge of the wound to hold the bark in place over the cions. Melted grafting wax is then poured or molded over the entire work, so as to cover the exposed Fic, 32.—Method of bridge- eratting u girdled trunk, wood and also the edges of the bark for two or three inches from the wound. Grafting wax may be made as follows: 220 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES Melt in mass, pour into a tub or pail of cold water, then work with greased hands until it develops a grain and becomes the color of taffy candy. If instead of one part tallow, one and a half parts of lin- seed-oil are used, and the ingredients then melted, the grafting wax can be drawn out for use without any ne- cessity of remelting. The hands should be greased when working the wax. Breakages in Storms.—When a limb breaks in a storm the fracture is usually very rough and some of the bark is stripped. The branch should be cut back close to a crotch and the scar painted with coal-tar, just as in pruning. Any loose bark must be removed. Filling of Cavities —The mutilation of trees by horses has already been discussed. Any neglected injury to a tree in which the bark is stripped from the trunk, causes the wood to rot and the decay is carried to the centre of the tree. Frequently such cavities can be treated and the life of the tree greatly prolonged. The repair of tree cavities is very much like the process of filling a tooth. All decayed and diseased wood is removed as far as the living tissue. (Plate 43.) A great variety of tools is found useful in this process of scooping out the bad: wood: a ship bit, chisel and hammer, gouge, adze and hatchet can be employed. It is found that in old cavities, the bark, in an effort to cover up the wound, is deposited in thick rolls around the edges that turn inwardly. It is necessary to remove all this tissue to such parts of the trunk that be- long to the natural contour of the tree, to the points AA, Fig. 33. Every cavity requires different methods of procedure in the way it is cleaned, in the amount removed and the means ‘patoysar aai} ay, °9 «= “AQIARD AY} JO azIs ay} Jo vaprl uy *S “Bury tof Aprar AyArd ay “f “punom ay} Uvapo 0} Ppasn ae s[oo} Jo spury AULT, 9912 9} OUT AVF spuayxa “¢ pue z ‘sursaq surqoid ay} Udy A, ‘sNOlIas Ulaes OU sa0p Ammlur ay} aptsyno ay} uC 7 27 ADAVT V ONITIA—Er ALV Id 222 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES employed for the reenforcement of the tree or the retention of the filling. The cavity is finished in a way that it will retain the filling. In the case of small ones it is sufficient if the interiors are made larger than the openings. Shallow cavities and those of considerable size are treated in another Fic. 33.—A transverse section of a tree showing the precautions to be taken when preparing a cavity for filling. The rolls of tissue must be cut away to the points A A, and all decayed wood removed. The filing must follow the natural contour of the tree, B C B, and stop at the points B B, depressed a distance equal to the thickness of the bark. way. A deep channel is cut just inside of the opening, all around the periphery, and this helps to retain the cement. Before filling, the cavity is sterilized by washing with an antiseptic solution of copper sulfate, one pound to fifteen gallons of water, and then covered with molten coal-tar. In order to secure a better adhesion of the cement to the walls of the cavity, the hole is filled before the tar hardens. To THE REPAIR AND REPLACING OF TREES 223 insure the firmer retention of the filling in the tree the cav- ities are studded with nails. When a tree is weak because of a large cavity, steel braces are sometimes inserted hori- zontally and vertically for reenforcement. Small cavities are filled with a mixture of two parts of sand to one part of Portland cement. Larger openings, sev- eral cubic feet in volume, are filled by using broken stone and brick with the concrete. In this way it is easier to build up the filling, and its strengthening power is increased. After the filling has had time to stiffen, but not to become perfectly hard, it is finished with cement, a trowel being used to shape it according to the contour of the tree. An extremely important point to remember is that the filling must not be brought up flush with the outside of the bark of the tree; but must stop at a depth equal to the thick- ness of the bark and the filling shaped to follow the contour of the tree, as shown by the line B C B, Fig. 33. This precaution must be taken to enable the healing callus to overgrow the filling. If not very large, the tissue may in time completely heal over the cement and bury it, just the same as the stub left when a limb is removed. (Plate 44, Fig. 3.) It is a good plan, when the cavity is ready for filling, to cut a strip of bark about one-half inch wide all the way around the periphery of the opening, as shown in Plate 44, Fig. 4. The cement can be brought up flush with the wood. The healing callus will start to roll over the wood (Plate 44, Fig. 5), and then over the cement, hermetically sealing the cavity. The edges of the wound only, or the surface of the entire filling may be painted or covered with coal-tar. When the hollow trunks of trees are filled with concrete, they are immensely strengthened and are not in danger of PLATE 44.—EXAMPLES OF TREE-SURGERY. 9] 1. Cavity in a tree cleaned ready for a coating of coal-tar and filling. 2. The cavity filled, showing the cement depressed a distance equal to the thickness of the bark. The same tree three years later, callus overgrowing filling. 4. Before the filling was done in this example, a narrow strip of bark was cut around the periphery of the opening and the filling then brought up flush with the wood. 5. The samea year later. The healing callus is beginning to roll over the wood. 6. Injury caused by banding a crotch. 7. Large knot-hole in trunk of white maple, showing ring of tissue around opening. 8. Side view of thesame. A cut is made along the line AB. 9. The decayed wood is re- moved and cavity filled flush with saw-cut. Callus is beginning to overgrow the wound. THE REPAIR AND REPLACING OF TREES 225 being overthrown by strong winds as trees of which the trunks are hollow shells. The concrete acts as a pillar which reenforces the tree. Knot-Holes.—Equally as serious and more numerous than Fic. 34.—1. Methods of strengthening a weak crotch: A, by means of a bolt. B, by means of hook-bolts and chain. 2. Vertical section of branch, showing method of bolting. A, Wood. B, Bark. C, Bolt. D, Cement. E, Washer and nut. Healing tissue will overcap the cement. wounds on trunks of trees are knot-holes caused by the decay of stumps left by improper pruning. In these cases the grain of the wood running toward the centre of the tree instead of vertically, the decay is more easily carried to the 226 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES heart. When the stump is left the new tissue makes an effort to overgrow the stub, so to speak, and the result is that a thick layer of wood is deposited at the base of the crotch. (Plate 26, Fig. 3.) When the stub rots and falls out, this tissue remains like a ring around the opening of the knot-hole. (Plate 44, Fig. 7.) To fill such a cavity properly, it is generally best to make a cut across this ring close to the trunk, A B, Plate 44, Fig. 8, then scrape out all the decayed wood and fill the cavity flush with the saw cut. Although by this means the area of the scar is in- creased it is brought in more intimate contact with the healing callus and will be like a cut of an amputated branch. The callus will form over the wood first (Plate 44, Fig. 9), and then over the cement and bury it. Cavities resulting from other causes, such as those made by borers, can be treated the same way. Surface wounds need only a painting with coal-tar; but if the decay is deep it needs scraping and filling with cement. Crotches.—It frequently happens that a tree forms a sharp angle by the division, near the ground, into two or three limbs. The addition of the annual layers of wood and the swaying of the tree cause a prying apart of the limbs at this point, and in time a split is the result. It is then necessary to brace the crotch to prevent the branches from breaking off. A common though wrong method of repairing such a defect in a tree has been to put a band around the two limbs forming the fork. The result of such a method is shown in Plate 44, Fig. 6. The action of the band around one-half of the circumference of the tree has resulted in partly gird- ling it. It has cut into the layers of new growth and the tree has been disfigured. The proper way to brace a crotch THE REPAIR AND REPLACING OF TREES 227 is to run a bolt through the branches, as shown in Fig. 34, by boring holes through them. With the growth of the tree, the nuts holding the bolt are buried by new tissue and no injury results to the tree. A great many trees can be saved by the practise of tree surgery and their life prolonged for a great many years. It is, however, work that requires great judgment and skill, as every tree presents a different problem and one should not entrust his trees for treatment to impostors who claim to possess miraculous means of curing trees of all diseases. MAINTENANCE OF UNIFORMITY It is very disagreeable to see among a line of street-trees one or two failing specimens, more so than among a group of trees, or trees scattered over a large area. The task of maintaining all the trees on a long street in a uniformly good state is sometimes a difficult one, because of varying conditions of soil and other:factors. Frequently the trees on .a low portion of a street will not be so thrifty as those higher up because the drainage is poorer and the water-table close to the roots. In order to maintain in the same state of health all the trees of a street plantation, some specimens may need extra culture, watering, and fertilizing to enable them to keep pace with their more vigorous neighbors. PARTIAL REPLACING When specimens are drooping or sickly and do not re- spond to culture; or when they are hopelessly injured in some way, so that they cannot be restored, they should be re- placed with new trees. The new trees should be of the same species and, if possible, of the same size as the trees 228 ,. SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES which constitute the plantation of which they are to form apart. For this purpose a nursery has to be maintained where trees of different species and sizes are grown, ready to take the place of trees that fail. The method outlined above is followed in Paris. The trees that are to be trained for transplanting, to take the place of large specimens, are set out in the municipal nursery about twenty feet apart each way to allow room for develop- ment. The branching is gradually raised and then fixed at the proper height. Every three or four years the roots are cut or circumscribed so that they do not spread out, but are made to grow compactly, restricted within a certain volume. This work of cutting the roots consists of digging a circular ditch around the base of the tree and cutting the roots as neatly as possible. The size of the ditch depends upon the size of the tree. Thus in the case of a tree about four inches in diameter, three feet from the base, the circular ditch is about three feet in diameter and about two and one- half feet deep. After the roots have been cut the soil is replaced and closely packed. In the cases of trees that have been trained as described above, the Board of Works of Paris prescribes the dimen- sions of the ball of earth and roots with which trees of dif- ferent sizes are to be transplanted about as follows: Diameter of Tree Three Feet Diameter of Ball of Depth. ' from the Base. Earth, zi 3 in.to 5 in. 3 ft. to 3 ft. 3 in. 2 ft. 54 in. to 8 in. 3 ft. 4 in. to 3 ft. 10 in. 2 ft. 6 in. 8} in. to 12 in. 4 ft. to 5 fr. 3 ft. 12} in. to 14 in. 5 ft. 10 in. to 6 ft. 4 in. 3 ft. 4 in. 14} in. to 18 in. 7 ft. 6 in. to 8 ft. 2 in. 4 ft. THE REPAIR AND REPLACING OF TREES 229 Transplanting of this kind is usually done in late fall and winter. The specimens are carried in heavy trucks especi- ally constructed for the purpose of moving large trees. RENEWAL OF PLANTATIONS As the trees on a street advance in age and the failing specimens become in the majority, the plantations would look ragged if an attempt were made to replace only the dead trees while those that were still alive, but also on the verge of decay, were left standing. Then when the new trees reestablished themselves, the old trees would die, and under such conditions it would no longer be possible to maintain a uniform planting. It is best to set out new trees entirely. The soil should be renewed and as a general prac- tise it is best to replant with a different species. Dr. W. A. Murrill writes in his bulletin on ‘‘Shade- Trees,’’? ‘‘I was struck by the absence of old or even large trees on the streets of Paris. All trees seem about the same in age and size, and all are in the very prime of life.”’ The splendid condition and the imposing effect of the street-trees of Paris is due to the most painstaking methods of planting and culture; the partial replacing of failing spe- cimens just so long as the uniformity of the trees can be so maintained; and, finally, the renewal of the plantations en- tirely when the majority of the trees begin to fail. The planting of small trees between old ones is a bad practise, because it is hard to establish young specimens in such cases. They grow slowly on account of the cutting off of sunlight, they tend to shoot upward rather than to spread, and the roots of the old trees invade upon the available food 1 “Shade-Trees,” by W. A. Murrill, Bulletin 205, Cornell University Agri- cultural Experiment Station. 230 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES of the young trees. If, however, it is found desirable to interplant young trees among large ones, which are to be removed when the young trees grow up, then the branches of the old trees should be so trimmed as to allow plenty of sunlight to reach the small ones, and the roots of the neigh- boring trees should be cut so that they will not interfere with the new specimens. The period of the duration of life of city trees is much less than that of the same species growing in the forest. Their length of life depends upon the conditions of soil and the care and culture bestowed upon them. CHAPTER XI WHO SHALL PLANT AND CARE FOR STREET-TREES IN every town and city of the country where trees are most abundant and where they are most likely to thrive, at one time or other there arises the problem of taking care of those trees and of setting out new ones. There comes a time when a certain species of tree is attacked by an insect, when the trees along a certain street need pruning, when trees are to be guarded from horse-bites and passing vehi- cles; or when it is desirable to plant a newly opened street. INDIVIDUAL PLANTING There are two ways by which the work of planting and caring for street-trees can be accomplished. The work must be done either by individual land owners or public officials. The prevailing policy of most of our cities has been to leave this task to the individuals who own the property on a certain street. The results thus obtained have been very unsatis- factory. It will be an easy matter for those at all concerned with municipal improvements to picture to themselves a street or a number of streets in any city where the plan of the individual control of street-trees exists. What picture do these streets present? There are long stretches that are not planted at all. The trees that have been set out bear evidence of the diversity of taste of the planters. There are half a dozen or more species of trees on 231 232 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES the same street, undesirable mixed with desirable, of all shapes and sizes, set either too closely or too far apart. In some cases the trees are not trimmed at all and the limbs are so low as to touch the heads of pedestrians; in others they are pruned too high. The trees have been left unpro- tected by guards, many of them have been bitten by horses, and there is evidence that they have been injured by destructive pests. The writer has had the opportunity of studying the street-trees of a great many towns and cities in different parts of the country and the conditions de- scribed above are universal. Especially in the control of insects which infest certain species of trees from time to time the system, or rather the lack of system, of the individual care of street-trees utterly fails. The citizen is entirely powerless to accomplish any- thing. He may plant an undesirable species of tree if the task is left to him, but in insect fighting he will do even less. His efforts will come to naught if his neighbor allows the pest to remain on his trees. In the extermination of insects in a city it is absolutely necessary that all the infested trees be treated in order to obtain effective results. It is impossi- ble to have concerted action on the part of thousands of people of a community in the treatment of infested trees at the same time. Insect fighting requires persistence and knowledge of what to do at the proper time to obtain results. There is a period in the life history of most of our tree pests when it may be most easily destroyed. This stage is not always at the time when the most injury is apparent, or when the average citizen wakes up to the necessity of doing something. The life history of the pests must be known in order that treatment may be given at the right time. Besides, to spray trees of considerable size requires an WHO SHALL CARE FOR STREET-TREES 233 apparatus which the average citizen cannot be expected to have. ; The injury to trees by borers is acase in point. The foliage does not show the effects of the damage nor do the limbs begin to die until three or four years after the cater- pillars of the borers do their fatal work. Then the people wonder why the trees are dying. Hundreds of sugar maples died in the northern section of the State of New Jersey dur- ing the years of 1905 and 1906 as a result of the ravages of the borers a few years before that time. Attention to them at the time the insects were active would have saved the trees. We cannot blame the individual for unsatisfactory re- sults. Weare seeking in the planting of shade-trees that which is for the common good of all, and we expect the work to be done by the citizens without instruction, without system, and leave to each one, if it so pleases him, to do his share when and how he desires. It is the system that is wrong, and the remedy can readily suggest itself. Other municipal interests are vested in commissions, committees, or other organized bodies. Experience has shown that in order to obtain the greatest degree of excellence in the plant- ing and care of street-trees, the matter must be entrusted to a similar body, and a shade-tree department should be incor- porated in every municipality. MUNICIPAL CONTROL It is only when the planting and care of street-trees is vested in a special department that all the principles essen- tial to secure the most stately and impressive effect of high- way planting can be applied; such as the choice of the prop- er species, the use of one variety on a street, setting out 234 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES of specimens at uniform and proper distances apart, and the protection and cultivation of the trees afterward. The task of such a department is not a mean one in the life of the modern city. In the prospectus issued by the New Orleans Parking Commission, created in 1909, to have exclusive con- trol of the planting and care of street-trees in that city, the Commission beautifully defines its function and its mission as follows: “Tf this Commission diligently searches out its true relationships in the beautiful or fine arts, where it rightfully belongs, and studiously possesses itself of that largeness of thought and trained facility of imagination, inspiring within itself the idealizing faculty, whereby the true architect and painter project visually the creations of genius before work is laid on drawing board or brush on canvas, then, of very necessity, as like begets like, there will begin throughout this city a development in pure art, dignified in orderly elegance and grace, beautiful in unity, becoming more apparent and impressive with each succeeding year, just as the Washington city of to-day was visually projected as a living painting by l’Enfant a hundred years ago—and the city of Cleveland, with its newly projected grandeur by the Chapter of the American Institute of Architects. ‘To initiate this is the work we are called upon to do—a work that must be carefully mapped according to specifica- tions in the general plan, in which every tree planted and dollar spent shall count just that much toward the end in view ; which is the real and practical uplifting and betterment of the whole community—physically, mentally, morally, in the actual comfort and pleasure of living and in a growing sense of self-regard and civic pride. It is a home mission work in a strictly rational, business way, with certainty of WHO SHALL CARE FOR STREET-TREES 235 returns, far exceeding expenditure; an enterprise rich in utility; not of a mechanical or directly commercial kind; for the city does not propose to open a wood yard or grow trees for lumber; but it does contemplate something far more useful in a beautifully environed, clean, wholesome, con- tented citizenship; for as the environment, so are the peo- ple. If the one is slovenly and degraded, so is the other; and the contrary is true, as proved in every community; partic- ularly in large manufacturing centres where the extremes of comparison are so distressingly in contrast.’’ Washington.—While the idea of the municipal control of street-trees is not new, it is only during the last decade that the benefits derived from such a system have become gener- ally recognized. In this country the City of Washington offers the most mature results of the system of public con- trol of street-trees. The department for the planting and care of trees is offi- cially known as the Trees and Parkings Division of the Dis- trict of Columbia, and was first organized in the year 1872. At the close of the year 1909, there were 94,799 trees along the streets, all of which were planted under municipal con- trol and paid for by the city. An average of eighty men is employed by the department during the working seasons. The annual appropriation for maintenance of the shade-trees of Washington is usually $40,000. This amount is half of what is appropriated in Paris for the care of fewer trees, and strong efforts are made each year for a substantial in- crease in this amount, it being felt that at least double the sum.could be used with advantage. Paris.—The street-trees of Paris are under public control. The plantations on the public highways number about 86,000 trees. In this figure are not included the specimens in the 236 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES squares, gardens, and parks. The annual expenses of main- tenance are about $80,000. This sum is spent on wages of workmen, repairs of guards, grills,-etc.; the supply of new soil to drooping specimens and the replacing of dead trees. The work is done by a force of one hundred and two men, divided into gangs entrusted with a certain kind of work, such as planting, transplanting, pruning, etc. The work of transplanting large trees in trucks is done by special contractors. The trees existing on the public highways are planted and cared for at the expense of the city. The Pre- fect of the Department of the Seine writes that about eight- een hundred trees are planted annually to take the place of dead trees. New streets are also planted, but these planta- tions are very small, as trees have already been set out on all the streets that are sufficiently wide to have them. New York and Other Cities.—By an act of the year 1902, of the Laws of the State of New York, the jurisdiction of the Park Boards of Greater New York was extended to the preservation and planting of trees on the streets of the sev- eral boroughs. Among the other’cities of the country that have assumed control of the street-trees within recent years are Chicago, St. Louis, Cleveland, Buffalo, Hartford, New Orleans, and Pittsburgh. Through the efforts of local im- provement societies of a great many towns and cities of the country efforts are being made to provide in some way for the proper planting and maintenance of highway trees. States.—The States that have passed the most advanced laws along lines of securing the more general adoption of the system of the municipal control of street-trees are New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. New Jersey has been the pioneer State of the Union in the enactment of a model statute in 1893, to provide for the planting and care '606T SSNS UT UayV} sv MATA, D> aarp-apeys ayy Aq sour[_ [EMO t pin payurg *'[ 'N SS ‘INGAWLUVdAd AaaL IVdIDINON Ad ONILNV1d-LadaLls— sp dLVv1d 238 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES of shade-trees on the highways of the municipalities of the State. Massachusetts, in 1899, passed an act providing that every town must elect a tree warden, and defined the duties and powers of the office. In 1907, Pennsylvania passed a shade-tree law, modeled after the New Jersey Act of 1893 and its amendments. The texts of these model laws are given in Chapter XIII. New Jersey and Pennsylvania.—The laws of New Jersey and Pennsylvania which provide for the establishment of shade-tree commissions are not of general application to all municipalities, but are of local option. They become opera- tive in a town or city only after its adoption by the town or city council. Up to date, thirty-one towns and cities in New Jersey have established shade-tree commissions. These are Allendale, Arlington, Bloomfield, Caldwell, Camden, Chat- ham, East Orange, East Rutherford, Elizabeth, Jersey City, Kearny, Madison, Metuchen, Montclair, Morristown, New- ark, New Brunswick, Nutley, Passaic, Perth Amboy, Plain- field, Point Pleasant, Rahway, Ridgefield, Ridgewood, Roselle, Rutherford, South Orange, Summit, Westfield and Wood- bury. The Pennsylvania statute has been adopted by Am- bridge, Pittsburgh, and Wilkes-Barre. The New Jersey act of 1893 was amended in the years of 1905 and 1906. The law of Pennsylvania of 1907 com- bines the act of 1893 of New Jersey and its amendments. Briefly, the provisions of these acts may be summarized as follows: When by resolution of the city council it is decided that the law shall become operative in a city, then from that time all matters pertaining to shade-trees are placed in the hands of the respective commissions. All work is carried on in a systematic way and the trees are planted, pruned, sprayed, WHO SHALL CARE FOR STREET-TREES 239 and removed under the direction of the commissioners. Wherein these commissions differ from other similar bodies is that they have the power of initiative in the matter of planting. They decide that a certain street is to be planted and determine the species of tree. An advertisement of the intention to plant is inserted for two weeks in the public newspapers, and all persons interested in the improvement are given an opportunity to be heard. After the work is done the commissioners meet and certify a list to the re- ceiver of taxes on which are given the names of the owners in front of whose property trees. were set out and the cost of the work. These assessments are entered by the receiver of taxes on the annual tax bill and are paid the same way as any other legal lien. The cost of pruning, spraying, remov- ing dead trees and repairing old ones is provided for by a general appropriation. These laws give the shade-tree commissions the power to pass ordinances for the planting, protection, regulation, and control of street-trees. These ordinances have been ex- tremely efficient in securing the protection of trees. They do away entirely with the abuses of public utilities corpora- tions who in the past have so ruthlessly mutilated and de- stroyed trees along highways for the passage of overhead wires. In fact some of the most important work of a shade- tree commission is to protect the trees already existing in a city. Massachusetts.—The laws of Massachusetts in regard to the planting and care of shade-trees in towns and cities are among the most progressive in the country. The “Tree Warden Act’’ of 1899, provided that every town must elect a tree warden, and defined the duties and powers of the office. This act did not apply to cities; but by the laws of 240 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES 1910, the ‘‘Tree Warden Act’’ has been extended in practi- cally all its provisions, except that requiring the election of a tree warden, to the cities of the commonwealth as well. Thus the act of 1899 of Massachusetts and its amendments secure the regulation of the planting and care of shade-trees in practically every town and city of the State. The charters of the Massachusetts cities vary so widely in the provisions for local government that it was not possi- ble to secure uniformity in the election or appointment of shade-tree officials or in the matter of administration. Con- sequently, each city is free to appoint under its special char- ter provision, some board or officer for the care of public shade-trees. There are now 301 towns and 33 cities in Massachusetts. Every town at its annual election elects a tree warden. Every city but one has made provision of some kind for the care of the shade-trees, either by the appointment of a spe- cial officer, or by giving authority to an already existing officer or board, as follows: , Officer or Board umaaet of Park Commission....................00000000. 8 City Improvement Committee. ................ 1 lly PObestet sc: uh cuane bow ewan ncis-recrees 3 Tree and Forest Warden...................... 1 Ee WARE alread alk aes Ga ena, coc s 1 Forest Commissioner.....................005. 1 Board of Public Works........................ 5 Commission of Public Works.................. 2 Sireet: Commissioners siiuy widgswetuxeaw awa: 2 Board of Street Commissioners................ 2 Superintendent of Streets..................... 4 Superintendent of Highways.................. 1 City MGIC ER sek wenn SSaxtad nace ois vhs 1 WHO SHALL CARE FOR STREET-TREES 241 PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING SHADE-TREE LEGISLATION When a department for the planting and care of street- trees is established in a city, there frequently arises misun- derstandings with the property-owners regarding the rela- tion which the shade-tree has to the street. The placing of shade-trees under municipal control is of comparatively recent introduction, and therefore, although the citizen is accustomed to regulations affecting the pavements and the sidewalks, he still considers the shade-tree as something affecting only his own house and not as something con- tributing to the value of the entire street. For example, a man is used to paying assessments for the paving of the roadway, for the curbing and the laying of the sidewalk, and still he does not absolutely own the pave- ment. He cannot open up the street without good reason, and unless he has permission from the city authorities to do so. Hecannot take up the macadam pavement and replace it with asphalt if it so pleases him. It is an accepted fact that as regards the paving of the highway there must be a uniformity of plan that will be productive of the best results for the benefit of every resident of the street. The relation of the shade-tree to the highway is the same as that of any other road improvement. The tree is some- thing which benefits not only the abutting property-owner but the entire street, and it is upon this idea that all legisla- tion regarding the planting and care of shade-trees is based. A man may plant a shade-tree along the street-line, but he does not own it in the sense that he owns the trees within the property-line. Neither he nor anybody else has the right to mutilate or cut down the street-tree, for the whole street would incur a loss by such action. 242 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES One of the sections of the ordinance passed by the East Orange Shade-Tree Commission provides that no tree shall be planted in any of the public highways until such tree shall have been first approved and the place where it is to be planted designated by the Shade-Tree Commission and a permit granted therefor. If the citizen were permitted to plant shade-trees as he saw fit he might plant a tree unsuited. for street use or might place it close to a tree on his neigh- bor’s property, and in either case would produce a result detrimental to the street. The other sections of the ordi- nance relating to the protection of trees also embody this idea, that the shade-tree is something in which all the resi- dents of the street share. The Supreme Court of the State of Illinois, in the case of Baker vs. the Town of Normal, in Laws of Illinois, volume 81, page 109, says:—‘‘The town under its charter has the control of streets, may improve them and adorn them. It may per- mit its citizens to improve and adorn that part of the street in front of his lot, but the improvement and adornment does. not thereby become the property of the citizen. The plant- ing of a shade-tree in the street by a citizen by permission of the village or city authorities is a gratuity to the public, and the citizen has no more right to control the shade-tree so planted than he would have had it been planted by the city authorities. The control is in the public. The adjoin- ing proprietor has a common interest with other citizens in these shade-trees and incidentally derives a special benefit from their existence, but no title of authority over them, as against the public.’’ A little over two years ago, two citizens came into my office and complained that one of the residents of their street had cut down a tree in front of his own house. They were WHO SHALL CARE FOR STREET-TREES 243 greatly agitated about the matter and told me that the re- moval of the tree was something in which every property owner was concerned, as the resulting gap spoiled the uni- , formity of the row of the remaining trees. I investigated the matter and found that‘a tree had indeed been removed, but that permission “had been previously obtained from our office. The tree in question was in a diseased and danger- ous condition, could not be saved, and it was the advice of our office to remove the tree and put a new one in its place. When the complainants were informed why the tree was removed, they felt satisfied that their interests had been protected. Their action in bringing complaint when they thought that the tree had been unwarrantably cut down was a just one, and it illustrates the point that the destruction of a shade-tree is something that affects the entire street. During the winter of 1909, I was called to Harrisburg to help in the movement to organize a department that would look after the shade-trees of that city. One of the citizens told me that he was going along a street one day when he saw a man cutting off the branches of a large tree in front of his place and leaving nothing but the trunk. He asked him why he was spoiling the tree and the man replied: ‘‘I can make use of the wood, and don’t care for the shade.’’ As there were no regulations in that city in regard to shade- trees, that man, in spite of the protestations of his neighbors, went on‘with his work and left the mutilated specimen as a permanent eyesore to the residents of the street. CHAPTER XII A DEPARTMENT OF MUNICIPAL ARBORICULTURE No matter by what legislative provision a town or city establishes a shade-tree department, its task after organiza- tion should be the same, namely: to secure the very best results obtainable in street decoration for the benefit of the whole city, according to the most approved scientific prin- ciples and methods. The laws of Massachusetts provide for the appointment of tree wardens in towns. The statutes of New Jersey and Pennsylvania provide for the establishment of commissions to have the control of trees along public highways. As practically operated the commissioners serve as an organization, and they employ a trained arboriculturist who has charge of the executive work. OFFICIAL IN CHARGE OF STREET-TREES To secure the best results there must be one official to carry out the duties which a shade-tree department de- mands. Those in charge of city trees have been variously designated as ‘‘Tree Wardens,”’ ‘‘Tree Doctors,’’ and City Foresters.’’ The writer has always felt that to call one charged with the preservation and care of shade-trees a “‘forester’’ is a wrong application of that word. He agrees with Dr. Fernow? that the term ‘‘Tree Warden’’ is a more expressive title for such an official. The term ‘“‘Arboricul- turist’’ is also a very apt one. A forester is concerned with 1“The Care of Trees,” by Bernhard E. Fernow. 244 DEPARTMENT OF MUNICIPAL ARBORICULTURE 245 the economic side of tree growth, the product of the tree: its wood. The arboriculturist cultivates trees for their esthetic value and their shade, and deals with them only in their living state. To call one in charge of tree culture in a city a ‘‘city forester’ is to imply that the city is growing trees for lumber. The propagation of trees in cities has an en- tirely different aim, and trees cultivated along streets become by their beauty and utility more valuable than the lumber which they contain. When a tree is cut down it is no longer of value to the street nor does it interest the arboriculturist. Perhaps a better term than ‘‘Tree Warden”’ or ‘‘Municipal Arboriculturist’’ will be invented that will express ade- quately the functions of an official in charge of the planting and care of city trees. The tree warden who understands his position correctly has a greater task to perform than simply the propagation of trees according to scientific principles. He must bean enthusiast in his work and inspire among the people of a community the proper appreciation of the value of trees. The people will then in turn help him in the administration of his office; for his success will largely depend upon the interest of the people of his town or city in their trees and the support which they give him. He must also appreciate the responsibility of his position as the guardian of one of the chief resources for maintaining the beauty and health of a city. TREE CENSUS In its details, the work of the tree warden is partly that of the municipal engineer. It is necessary to enumerate the existing trees, to make layouts for new plantations and keep records of these. In order to care intelligently for his charges the municipal arboriculturist must know how many fe 246 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES trees come under his jurisdiction. One of the first things he should do when he assumes the task of caring for the trees of a city is the taking of a tree census: that is, the enumera- tion of all the trees of the city in field books and the careful plotting of these trees on maps prepared for that purpose. Field Books.—A form of field book for the enumeration of street-trees designed by the writer has proved very ade- quate and could be used advantageously in any town or city. The book is made in a form similar to an engineer’s transit or level field book. A few leaves from such a book are in- serted after page 275. The size of the leaves is four and one- half inches by eight inches. The right hand page is cross- sectioned into fifths of inches. On these pages each street is plotted to a scale of fifty feet to the inch. Four red lines drawn vertically in the centre of the page represent in con- ventional form the sidewalks of the street of which the trees are to be recorded. The inner two lines are the curb-lines, and the outer two are the property-lines. The divisions of the abutting properties are indicated by lines drawn at right angles to the outer red lines. The cross streets are similarly indicated by lines making the proper angles with the curb and the property lines. This field book admits of the plot- ting of sections of street 350 feet in length on each page. On the leaves from the field book inserted after page 275 is plotted the short street, ‘‘Shepard Street,’’ a map of which is shown, Fig. 35, The cross-sectioned paper obviates using ascale in transferring the street to the field book. Likewise in the indication of the position of the trees, the cross-sectioning will be a guide, as the sides of the little squares represent ten feet. On the left hand page are given the descriptions of the trees. At the top of the page the name of the street and the DEPARTMENT OF MUNICIPAL ARBORICULTURE 247 date are noted. The columns are headed as ‘‘Tree Number,”’ “Species, ’’ ‘‘Diameter,’’ ‘‘Condition,’’ and ‘‘Remarks.’’ Be- ginning at one end of the street, corner of Beech Street, the first tree is numbered as one. Its distance from the corner is found to be fourteen feet. The tree is shown by a small black circle on the right hand page. The small ‘‘c’’ after “*14”" indicates. that the distance is from the corner. The tree is then described on the left hand page. It is a Norway maple, five inches in diameter, measured breast high, and in good condition. In the column under ‘‘Remarks’’ is entered anything about the condition of the trees that is abnormal or unusual. The distance between the first and second trees is then measured, noted on the right hand page and the entry of the tree made on the left hand page. And so on the enumera- tion continues, first on one side of the street and then on the other. Todo this work effectively and rapidly, three men are required in the gang: arear chainman, a head chainman, and a man who makes the entry of the trees. Distances are measured from the centre of one tree to the centre of another. The head chainman calls off the distances and the enumerator notes all of the other data which are entered on the left hand page. The method of rating trees with respect to their condition depends upon the object sought in enumerating them. So many factors are to be considered in the judgment of the condition of a tree that it would be impossible in taking a general census to enter a detailed description of each tree. A general method of classification therefore has to be adopted that will enable the tree warden, from a study of the records, to form a good idea of the general condition of the trees on a street. 248 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES In judging the condition of a tree, its immediate future rather than its present state should be considered. It is sug- gested that trees may be rated as ‘‘good,’’ ‘‘medium,’’ and “‘bad.’’ A tree is rated ‘‘good’’ that is in full vigor and gives no indication of immediate decline. A trée is called ‘‘medium’’ which begins to decline, but which can be re- stored to vigor by culture, fertilization, pruning, treatment of cavities, or in some other way. A tree is ‘‘bad,’’ which is in such a state of decline that it cannot be restored to vigor. A summary of a survey of trees in a city may be exem- plified by the following: SUMMARY OF SURVEY OF STREET-TREES IN EAST ORANGE, PLANTED BEFORE THE SHADE-TREE COMMISSION WAS ESTABLISHED Species. Number. Species. Number. LB RTUS: os oncons og ead eae 6 | Maple, Norway......... 1,210 ADDIE: deere ecicew Case acs 1| Maple, Red............. 2,847 Arborvitea ............. 1| Maple, Silver........... 2,228 Ash, White............. 81 | Maple, Sugar........... 2,232 Aspen, Large-toothed.... 1 | Maple, Sycamore....... 51 Beech, American ....... 6 | Mulberry, White........ 1 Buckeye............... EW OdKy PAM 5 te nis cd eee 23 Catalpa ............... 30 | Oak, Red.... ......... 11 Cherry, Cultivated...... 2 | Oak, Swamp white..... 11 Cherry, Wild........... 4) Oak, White ............ 19 Dogwood, Flowering .... 3 | Pine, White............ 5 Elm, American ......... 995 | Poplar, Carolina........ 728 Elm, Slippery ......... 2 | Poplar, Lombardy....... 2 Gum, Sour.... ....... 1| Poplar, White.......... 7 Gum, Sweet............ 5 | Plane, American........ 22 Hickory, Mockernut..... 2| Plane, Oriental......... 6 Hickory, Pignut........ 6 | Sassafras .............. 2 Hickory, Shagbark...... 2] Silverbell........0..... 1 Hornbeam ............. 4 | Spruce, Norway ........ 2 Horse-chestnut ......... VET | Tulip ecco oo eet oases 9 Linden, American....... 133 | Walnut, Black.......... 2 Linden, European....... 46 | Walnut, White ......... 1 Locust, Honey.......... 1 | Willow, Weeping ....... 4 Maple, Ash-leaved...... 13] Total............... 10,953 ‘spueulap YyIsuay st se syaays Aue se UO panuTju0D. #uraq yaans ay ‘sdeut asay3 Toy JUsTUIAUOD a1e ‘zZIs UT sayoUT ZT x $7 ‘1aded Jo syaayg “yout U0 0} yaaz AIY JO a]Bs B OF UMBIP ate fraAsMOY sdeut aoyjo [rurduo ayy, “Your ue Jo sypyBta-samyy 07 yaez AYY jo feos B OF UMBIP SI aINSY SIU, *s9aT}-JaaNs Suro] Jo poyyout surmoys— "se ‘OI a = m n a Zz Cc 4 IS ala xe 218 aS ge als OL zs os ge sg sg ° ° ° ° ° ° ° 21 3G} ° 3 é ae : ed 7B i por rae J eae we J we ieee a ate i qt J g g @ Se Set os 2 8 g 3 sort ye Tee “Pe: SP ee spe ae PS ig ae oO oO fe] Oo 3° oO 3° ° [e) oO H 02 os ] og Gt wo | We xis a8 sie gs 4 aD m m = | *3OV1d 3WVS NI 13S aau.L M3N ONV G3AOWSY 33HL@ “G3AOW3Y 33au1 © “33uL MANO “dau ONILSIXE O :0N3937 u%kZ0S JOS so6l 11Yudv SSATdVW AVMYON HLIM G3LNV 1d LaRaYLS GHYVd4aHS 250 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES As regards the condition of the trees, they have been rated as good, medium, and bad, as follows: Condition. Number. (GOOd is RAGE OGM REE As ee 9,422 Mediunt. 5.05 sce as awe ecw ew ens 558 BAG ss Sere cc ree air Tacks Sore tb ecaceheetncecare been 973 TO Gal sobs sse ve Sicsea bes Gel oe See ake oe Ge 10,953 The sizes of the trees, measured breast high, are as follows: Size. Number. Under 6 inches. ..............0020008- 1,698 6 inches to 12 inches................. 3,089 13 inches to 18 inches................ 3,947 19 inches to 24 inches......... fees dis 1,451 Over 24 inches............cee eee ee eee 768 TROta delice eee aak AAR Riel ee 10,953 Mapping the Trees.—The method of plotting the trees to scale on maps is shown in Fig. 35. This figure is drawn to a scale of fifty feet to three-eighths of an inch, to accommo- date it on a page of this book. The original office maps, ° however, are carefully drawn toa scale of fifty feet to the inch, and on them are shown the width of the street from property-line to property-line, the width of the sidewalks, the frontage of the abutting properties, the city block map, and the lot numbers. The divisions of the abutting proper- ties are likely to change when sales and transfers are made. It is therefore best to indicate in lead pencil the lines mark- ing the property divisions, and the figures showing the widths of the properties and the lot numbers. The trees noted in the field book are then drawn on the map. A good conventional form for existing trees is a small black circle. DEPARTMENT OF MUNICIPAL ARBORICULTURE 251 The spacing of the trees and the numbers given them are also indicated. Value of Tree Census.—The maps are found to be ex- tremely valuable office records in a great many ways. When a request is made for attention to a certain tree on a street, the tree warden can immediately find out the species and condition of the tree by referring to his field book and maps. When it is proposed to plant certain streets which have some existing trees, the records can be used to determine the trees that are to be removed, and adequate provision made for the planting of new ones. Records of street-trees are invaluable in organizing a campaign against an insect pest attacking a certain species. By knowing the number and distribution of affected trees coming under his jurisdiction, the tree warden can make ample provision for their treatment and direct the work intelligently. In most cases the period of time is limited during which the extermination of insect pests may be done most effectively. The treatment of elm-trees for the elm- leaf beetle is a case in point. The insect can be controlled only by spraying, and the time when that may be done most effectively is limited to two or three weeks. When the tree warden knows the total number of elm-trees in his city and the number on each street he can accomplish the most work within the limited time. The field books and the maps can be used to compute the number of the trees necessary to plant on a street. From the records of the conditions of the trees it will usually be possi- ble to determine what trees are to be cut down. Thus from the descriptions of the trees numbered 10, 19, and 20 on “‘Shepard Street,’’ it is seen that they are not fit to retain, and they are checked off as trees to be removed. 252 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES While the average distance at which certain species are to be planted may be prescribed, the actual spot where the individual specimens are to go cannot be determined from the maps, unless every street obstruction were carefully noted and its position indicated on the map. Such work would entail a great deal of useless labor, for on the aver- age street there are many lamp-posts, fire-hydrants, cross- walks, and water, sewer, and gas connections that are to be avoided. The writer has found from experience that it is better to decide the exact spot where new trees are to be planted while in the field. It usually becomes necessary in many individual instances to increase or diminish the aver- age prescribed distance in order to keep away from points where trees cannot be planted. After the places for new trees have been marked, their dis- tances apart should be noted in the field book, using a small cross for each tree as shown in the specimen pages. Usu- ally one species is used on a street, and therefore it is not necessary to mark every tree as in the case of existing trees. One record of the species and the date planted may be made in the field book on the first page of the street. A similar record should be entered on the finished office maps. RECORDS OF NEW TREES The newly planted trees are plotted on the same maps as the old trees, and are indicated by red circles. These trees are numbered with a new series of numbers, beginning with number 1; but in order not to confuse the new trees with the existing trees a zero ‘‘0’’ is prefixed to the numeral. The beginning of the trees on each street with number ‘‘1,”’ or number ‘“‘01,”’ eliminates the use of large numbers. Each tree is absolutely fixed by the designation of the street DEPARTMENT OF MUNICIPAL ARBORICULTURE 253 and the tree number. A small, inexpensive brass label bearing the tree number might be attached to the guard of each newly planted tree for the purpose of identifying each specimen. The assigning of numbers to newly planted trees enables the tree warden to keep a record of the behavior of new plantations. Each tree may be recorded on a separate card having the following form: RECORD OF TREES PLANTED STREET TREE NUMBER aA cae __SPECIES ee WHEN PLANTED a SIZE WHEN PLANTED NURSERY WHERE PURCHASED LIFE HISTORY OF TREE _ Records of the behavior of trees form a fair basis for the judgment of the hardiness of certain species, the quality of stock purchased from various nurseries and the peculiar local conditions affecting tree growth. The causes of the failure of trees should be definitely determined, in order to remedy, if possible, the conditions before new trees are set out, or to improve cultural methods after they are planted. A few years after planting, the life stories of trees might 254 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES appear as follows: ‘‘Planted April, 1905. Died summer 1905, poor underdrainage. Installed drain October, 1905. Re- planted spring 1906’’; or, ‘‘Planted spring 1905. Did not come out in foliage. Dried out in shipment from nursery. Replanted fall 1905’’; or, ‘‘Planted April, 1905. Foliage dried out summer 1905, failure to water. Replanted spring 1906’’; or ‘‘Planted April, 1905. Died summer 1909. Dried out. Not enough good soil supplied when planted. Re- planted fall 1909’’; etc., etc., etc. OTHER RECORDS Other forms of office records will readily suggest them- selves to the municipal arboriculturist who desires system in his office. When requests are made for attention to trees it is best to keep each item on a separate card, like this: RECORD OF COMPLAINTS LOCATION COMPLAINANT DATE OF COMPLAINT __REQUEST __DATE OF INSPECTION _ __ CONDITION OF TREES WORK DONE ON __ DEPARTMENT OF MUNICIPAL ARBORICULTURE 255 Daily reports of the work of each gang can be kept on separate cards: SHADE-TREE COMMISSION—DAILY REPORT DATE FOREMAN KIND OF WORK | STREETS NO. OF TREES .JERIMMED, | SPRAYED REMOVED PLANTED | __ = HOLES DUG. STAKES DRIVEN WATERED _OTHER WORK _ ASSESSMENT LISTS When the cost of the trees set out ona street is to be charged to the abutting property-owners the maps, with the newly planted trees carefully located, are absolutely neces- sary in making up the assessments. When the trees are plotted to scale it is seen just in front of which property they come. Very frequently there are vacant lots on streets planted and there is no way of determining in the field the description of the property. Thus by referring to the map 256 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES of ‘‘Shepard Street,’’ Fig. 35, it is seen at a glance in front of which property the new trees come. An assessment record of the newly planted trees on ‘‘Shepard Street’’ would then appear as follows: SHEPARD STREET Tree Block Map Lot Name of Property- No. Feet) Number Number. | Number. | Number. Owner. Frontage| of Trees. Cost. 01 323 119-121 Edward Willis 46 1 $5.00 02-03 323 115-117 | Estate Jos. Heller 54 2 10.00 04 322 99-101 Alfred Ward 57 1 5.00 05-06 322 95- 97 Annie Wyman 58 2 10.00 07 322 91- 93 | Eastern Realty Co. 55 1 5.00 08-09 322 87- 89 Marcus Rowe 55 2 10.00 010 322 83- 85 Mary Smith 48 1 5.00 oll 322 79- 81 Robert Gilbert 50 1 5.00 012 322 75- 77 | Robert Mott 52 1 5.00 013-014 316 72- 74 | John Williams 60 2 10.00 015 316 76- 78 Joseph Little 50 1 5.00 016 316 80- 82 Peter Sacks 50 1 5.00 017-018 316 84- 88 Walter Jameson 75 2 10.00 019-027 316 90-112 Chas. M. Bingham 310 9 45.00 028-031 317 118-128 Frank J. Hill 150 4 20.00 LABELING TREES To create an interest in the work of a tree department and to help the people to become familiar with trees, it isa good plan to put labels on street-trees, giving the species and date of planting, in some such form as this: The Trees on This Street Are NORWAY MAPLES They Were Planted by the SHADE-TREE DEPARTMENT in the Spring of 1905. DEPARTMENT OF MUNICIPAL ARBORICULTURE 257 Information about trees spread among the people of a city in an appealing way helps them to realize that hardy trees grow rapidly with proper cultivation, and that it is not necessary to plant trashy, quick-growing trees to secure shade in a few years. Records about trees in the office and outside form interesting commentaries on tree life. CHAPTER XIII LEGISLATION WHILE a number of States have laws regarding the plant- ing and care of street-trees, none are as broad as the pro- visions of the statutes of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts. The laws of these States are therefore given in full. NEW JERSEY LAWS OF NEW JERSEY General Public Laws; Session of 1893. Chapter CCLXXXV. AN act to provide for the planting and care of shade-trees on. the highways of the municipalities of this State. SECTION 1. BE 1T ENACTED by the Senate and General Assembly of the State of New Jersey, That in all the municipalities of this State there may be appointed, in the manner hereinafter provided, a commission of three freeholders, who shall serve without com- pensation, and who shall have the exclusive and absolute control. and power to plant, set out, maintain, protect and care for shade- trees in any of the public highways of their respective muni- cipalities, the cost thereof to be borne and paid for in the manner hereinafter directed. Sec. 2. And be it enacted, That it shall be optional with the governing body of any municipality whether this act shall have effect in, and such commissioners shall be appointed in, such municipality; and when any such governing body shall by resolu- tion approve of this act and direct that such commissioners shall 258 LEGISLATION 259 be appointed, then, from that time this act and all its provisions shall be in force and apply to such municipality, and such com- missioners shall be appointed for terms of three, four, and five years respectively; and on the expiration of any term, the new appointment shall be made for five years, and any vacancy shall be filled for the unexpired term only; and in cities, the said appointments shall be made by the mayor thereof, and in town- ships by the chairman of the township committee, and in villages and boroughs by the chairman or president of the board of trus- tees or other governing body. SEc. 3. And be it enacted, That whenever said commissioners shall propose to make any such improvements as setting out or planting any shade-trees, or changing the same in any highways, they shall give notice of such contemplated improvement (specify the streets or portions thereof where such trees are intended to be planted) in one or more newspapers of their said municipality, if there be any newspapers published in said place, for at least two weeks prior to any meeting, in which they shall decide to make such improvement. Sec. 4. And be it enacted, That the cost of planting and transplanting any trees in any highway, and boxes or guards for the protection thereof, when necessary, shall be borne by the real estate in front of which such trees are planted or set out, and the cost thereof as to each tract of real estate shall be certified by said commissioners to the person having charge of the collection of taxes for said municipality; and upon the filing of said cer- tificate, the amount of the cost of said improvement shall be and become a lien upon said lands in front of which the trees were planted or set out, and the said collecting officer shall place the assessment so made against any property in the annual tax bills rendered to owner or owners of such property, and the same shall be collectible in the same manner as the other taxes against said property are collected. Sec. 5. And be it enacted, That the cost and expense of caring for said trees, after being planted or set out, and the expense of publishing said notices, shall be borne and paid by a general tax to be raised by said municipality; said tax shall not exceed the 260 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES sum of one-tenth of one mill on the dollar annually on all the taxable property of said municipality, and the needed amount shall be each year certified by said commissioners to the assessor, and assessors of said municipality, and be assessed and raised as other taxes. Sec. 6. And be it enacted, That this act shall take effect im- mediately. Approved March 28, 1893. Under Chapter 169, Section 97 of the laws of 1899, this act was repealed in so far as it related to or affected townships. This act was amended in the years 1905 and 1906 so as to extend the jurisdiction of the shade-tree commissions over the public parks, and to give the commissions the power to pass ordinances for the protection of shade-trees on the public streets and in the public parks. LAWS OF NEW JERSEY OF 1905. Chapter 108. A supplement to an act entitled, ‘‘An act to provide for the planting and care of shade-trees on the highways of the munici- palities of this state,’’ approved March twenty-eighth, one thou- sand eight hundred and ninety-three. BE IT ENACTED by the Senate and General Assembly of the State of New Jersey : SECTION 1. In any municipality which now has or hereafter shall take advantage of the act to which this is a supplement the commission appointed under the provisions thereof shall have exclusive control over the public parks belonging to or under the control of such municipality, or any department in the govern- ment thereof, with full power and authority to improve, repair, manage, maintain, and control the same. Sec. 2. The said commission shall have full power and authority and is hereby empowered to pass, enact, alter, amend, LEGISLATION 261 and repeal ordinances for the protection, regulation, and control of such parks, and the trees, flowers, shrubs, statuary therein, and also for the protection, regulation, and control of all shade- trees planted or growing upon the public highways of any such municipality, and to prescribe fines and penalties for the viola- tion thereof and fix the amount of the same; the method now in use for the passing, enacting, altering, amending, and publishing ordinances in said municipality shall be the method used to pass, enact, alter, amend, repeal, and publish the ordinances therein mentioned. Sec. 3. All moneys collected from fines or penalties for the violation of any ordinances of any such commission, and all moneys collected for assessments made upon the property for the cost of planting and transplanting any trees; and the boxes or guards for the protection thereof in any such city, shall be forth- with paid over to the proper municipal authorities and shall be placed to the credit of the said commission and subject to be drawn upon by the said commission in the manner provided by law for the payments of moneys in any such municipality. Sec. 4. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with this act are hereby repealed. SEc. 5. This act shall take effect immediately. Approved April 6, 1905. LAWS OF NEW JERSEY OF 1906. Chapter 186. A supplement to an act entitled ‘‘An act to provide for the planting and care of shade-trees on the highways of the munici- palities of this State, approved March twenty-eighth, one thou- sand eight hundred and ninety-three.’’ BE IT ENACTED by the Senate and General Assembly of the State of New Jersey : SECTION 1. The said commission may prescribe penalties for the violation of any of their ordinances, and the courts which 262 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES now or hereafter shall have jurisdiction over actions for the viola- tion of ordinances of the municipality in which said commission has been or shall be appointed shall have jurisdiction in actions for the violation of such ordinances as the said commission shall enact; and said ordinances shall be enforced by like proceedings and processes, and the practise for the enforcement of said ordi- nances shall be the same as that provided by law for the enforce- ment of the ordinances of the municipality in which such com- mission exists. SEc. 2. The officers authorized by law to serve and execute processes in the courts, as aforesaid, shall be the officers to serve and execute any process issued out of any court under this act. Sec. 3. A copy of any ordinance or ordinances of said com- mission, certified to under the hand of the clerk, secretary, or president of the said commission, shall be taken in any court of this State as full and legal proof of the existence of such ordi- nance or ordinances, and that all requirements of law in relation to the ordaining, publishing, and making of the same, so as to make it legal and binding, have been complied with, unless the contrary be shown. Sec. 4. This act shall take effect immediately. Approved May 2, 1906. LAWS OF NEW JERSEY OF 1906, Chapter 245. AN act in relation to the control of public parks belonging to or under the control of any municipality of this State or any department in the government thereof: BE IT ENACTED by the Senate and General Assembly of the State of New Jersey : SECTION 1. In any municipality which now has or hereafter shall take advantage of an act entitled ‘‘An act to provide for the planting and care of shade-trees on the highways of the muni- cipalities of this State, approved March twenty-eighth, one thou- sand eight hundred and ninety-three,’’ the commission appointed LEGISLATION 263 under the provisions of said act shall have exclusive control of the public parks belonging to or under the control of such muni- cipality or any department in the government thereof, with full power and authority to improve, repair, manage, maintain, and control the same. Sec. 2. The said commission shall have full power and authority and is hereby empowered to pass, enact, alter, amend, and repeal ordinances for the protection, regulation, and control of such parks and the trees, flowers, shrubs, statuary, and other improvements therein, and to prescribe fines and penalties for the violation thereof and to fix the amount of the same. The method now or hereafter in use for the passing, enacting, alter- ing, amending, repealing, and publishing ordinances in said mu- nicipality shall be the method used to pass, enact, alter, amend, repeal, and publish the ordinances herein mentioned, and said ordinances shall be enforced in the manner provided at the time of said enforcement by law for the enforcement of the ordinances of the commission authorized by the aforesaid act and any amendments or supplements thereof. Sec. 3. This act shall take effect immediately. Approved May 17, 1906. In the years 1907, 1908, and 1910, the shade-tree law of 1893 was further amended. Under Chapter 156 of the laws of 1907, Section 1 was amended making it optional with the governing body of any municipality to increase the number of members of the commission to five. Chapter 151 of the laws of 1908 amended Section 2 so as to make it “‘optional with the body or board having charge of the finances of any municipality’? whether the act of 1893 shall become effec- tive. Under Chapter 198 of the laws of 1908 and Chapter 167 of the laws of 1910, the law of 1893 was amended as fol- lows: ‘‘In any city or town in this State in which a park commission now exists, the governing body invested with the power of adopting the act to which this is a supplement, 264 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES may, in the resolution adopting said act, provide that the said park commission shall also act as a shade-tree commis- ‘sion; and the act to which this is a supplement, and the amendments thereof and supplements thereto, shall take effect in said city or town, except that no independent shade-tree commission shall be appointed.’’ PENNSYLVANIA LAWS OF PENNSYLVANIA Session of 1907 AN act to provide for the planting and care of shade-trees, on highways of townships of the first class, boroughs, and cities of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, and providing for the cost thereof. SECTION 1. BE IT ENACTED, etc., That in townships of the first class, boroughs, and cities of Commonwealth of Pennsyl- vania there may be appointed, in the manner hereinafter pro- vided, a Commission of three freeholders, to be known and designated as the Shade-Tree Commission of said township, bor- ough, or city, who shall serve without compensation, and who shall have exclusive and absolute custody and control of, and power to plant, set out, remove, maintain, protect, and care for shade-trees, on any of the public highways of the said town- ships, boroughs, and cities, the cost thereof to be provided for in the manner hereinafter stated: Provided, That in townships, boroughs, or cities in which a Commission for the care of public parks shall have been created, said Commission shall, upon the acceptance of this act as provided in section two, be charged with the duties of the Commission as above provided, and shall, for that purpose, be possessed of all the powers herein mentioned and granted. SEC. 2. The commissioners of any township of the first class, or the council of any borough or city, in case of the com- missioners, or by joint resolution in the case of the councils, LEGISLATION 265 accept the provisions of this act; and when such majority vote or joint resolution shall have been duly passed and approved, and such Shade-Tree Commissioners appointed, or, in their stead, the duties and powers herein provided have been devolved upon an existing park commission, then, from that time and in that event, this act and all its provisions shall be in full force and application in such township of the first class, borough, or city, so accepting; and such commissioners shall be appointed, for terms of three, four, and five years, respectively, and, on the expiration of any term, the new appointment shall be for five years, and any vacancies shall be filled for the unexpired term only; and in townships of the first class the said appointment shall be made by the commissioners thereof; and in boroughs, by the chief burgess, and in cities, by the mayor thereof: Provided, That in cities where a Commission exists for the care of public parks, the term and appointment of such Commission shall not be changed by this act, but shall be and remain as provided by the act of Assembly, and by the ordinance of councils creating such Commission for the care and maintenance of public parks. And such Shade-Tree Commission shall, twice in every year, report in full its transactions and expenditures for the municipal fiscal year then last ended, to the authority under and by which it was appointed: Provided, That an existing park commission, acting under this enactment, may embody its report in its reg- ular report to the councils, as by law or ordinance provided. SEc. 3. That when such Shade-Tree Commissioners, or Park Commissioners so acting, shall propose the setting out or plant- ing or removing of any shade-trees, or the material changing of the same in any highway, they shall give public notice of the time and place appointed for the meeting at which such contem- plated work is to be considered, specifying in detail the high- ways, or portion thereof, upon which trees are proposed to be planted, removed, or changed, in one or more—not exceeding two in all—of the newspapers published in said township, bor- ough, or city once each week for at least two weeks prior to the date of said meeting. Sec. 4. The cost of planting, transplanting, or removing any 266 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES trees in any highway, and of suitable guards, curbing, or grating for the protection thereof when necessary, and of the proper replacing of any pavement or sidewalk necessarily disturbed in the doing of such work, shall be borne by the owner of the real estate in front of which such trees are planted, set out, or re- moved; and the cost thereof as to each tract of real estate shall be certified by the commissioners to the township commissioners, or to the presidents of the councils in boroughs and cities, and also to the person having charge of the collection of taxes, for the said township, borough, or city; and upon the filing of said certi- ficates, the amount of the cost of such improvements, of which notice shall also be given to each property-owner involved, ac- companied with a copy of the aforesaid certificate, together with a notice of the time and place for payment, shall be and become a lien upon said real estate, in front of which said trees have been planted, set out, or removed; said lien to be collectible, if not paid in accordance with notice as herein provided, in the same manner as other liens for taxes are now collectible against the property involved. Sec. 5. The cost and expense of caring for said trees after having been planted or set out, and the expense of publishing the notices provided for in section three, shall be borne and paid for by a general tax, to be levied annually in the manner that taxes for township, borough, and city purposes are now levied in such townships of the first class, boroughs, or cities; such tax not to exceed the sum of one-tenth of one mill on the dollar on the as- sessed valuation of the property in such townships of the first class, boroughs, or cities; and the needed amount shall each year, in due time be certified by the Shade-Tree Commissioners to the proper authorities charged with the assessment of taxes in said townships, boroughs, or cities, to be assessed and paid, as other taxes are assessed and paid, and to be drawn against as required by said commissioners, in the same manner as moneys appro- priated for township, borough, or city purposes are now drawn against in said townships, boroughs, or cities; Provided, That the commissioners of any township of the first class, and the councils of any borough or city, accepting the provisions of this act, may LEGISLATION 267 provide for the expense of the maintenance of trees on highways, in accordance with the provisions of this section by actual appro- priation, equal to the amount certified to be required by the said Commission, in lieu of the specific assessment above authorized. SEc. 6. The Commission, under which the provisions of this act shall be carried out, in any township of the first class, bor- ough, or city, shall have power to employ and pay such superin- tendents, engineers, foresters, tree-wardens, or other assistants, as the proper performance of the duties devolving upon it shall require; and to make, publish, and enforce regulations for the care of, and to prevent injury to the trees, on the highways of any township, borough, or city accepting the provisions of this act; and to assess suitable fines and penalties for violations of this act, provided such regulations shall have been published at least twice in one or more, not exceeding two, newspapers of the township, borough, or city involved, after having been sub- mitted to and being approved by the commissioners of the town- ship of the first class, or the councils of the borough or city affected; and such fines and penalties, so assessed for violations of this act, shall become liens upon the real property of the of- fender, and be collectible by the constituted authorities as liens for taxes upon real property are now collected. Sec. 7. All the moneys due and collected from fines or penalties or assessments, in consequence of the acts of said Shade-Tree Commission in enforcing this act, shall be paid to the treasurers of the townships, boroughs, and cities accepting its provisions, and shall be placed to the credit of said Commission, subject to be drawn upon by the said Commission for the pur- poses of this act. Sec. 8. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with this act are hereby repealed. Sec. 9. This act shall take effect immediately; but its pro- visions shall not be and become binding upon any township, bor- ough, or city until it has been duly accepted, as provided in section two. Approved.—The 31st day of May, A.D. 1907. 268 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES MASSACHUSETTS The act originally known as the ‘‘ Tree Warden Act’’ is as follows: AN ACT TO CODIFY AND AMEND THE LAWS RELATIVE TO THE PRESERVATION OF TREES. (Acts of 1899, Chapter 330.) BE IT ENACTED, etc., as follows : SECTION 1. Every town shall at its annual meeting for the election of town officers elect a tree warden, who shall serve for one year and until his successor is elected and qualified. He may appoint such number of deputy tree wardens as he deems expedi- ent, and may at any time remove them from office. He and his deputies shall receive such compensation for their services as the town may determine, and, in default of such determination, as the selectmen may prescribe. He shall have the care and control of all public shade-trees in the town, except those in public parks or open places under the jurisdiction of park commissioners, and of these also he shall take the care and control if so requested in writing by the park commissioners. He shall expend all funds appropriated for the setting out and maintenance of such trees. He may prescribe such regulations for the care and preservation of such trees, enforced by suitable fines and forfeitures, not exceeding twenty dollars in any one case, as he may deem just and expedient; and such regulations, when approved by the select- men and posted in two or more public places in the town, shall have the force and effect of town by-laws. It shall be his duty to enforce all provisions of law for the preservation of such trees. Sec. 2. Towns may appropriate annually a sum of money, not exceeding in the aggregate fifty cents for each of its ratable polls in the preceding year, to be expended by the tree warden in planting shade-trees in the public ways, or, if he deems it expedi- ent, upon adjoining land, at a distance not exceeding twenty feet from said public ways, for the purpose of shading or ornament- LEGISLATION 269 ing the same: provided, however, that the written consent of the owner of such land shall first be obtained. All shade-trees within the limits of any public way shall be deemed public shade-trees. SEC. 3. Whoever, other than a tree warden or his deputy, desires the cutting or removal, in whole or in part, of any public shade-tree, may apply to the tree warden, who shall give a public hearing upon the application at some suitable time and place, after duly posting notices of the hearing in two or more public places in the town, and also upon the said tree: provided, how- ever, that the warden may, if he deems it expedient, grant permis- sion for such cutting or removal, without calling a hearing, if the tree in question is on a public way outside of the residential part of the town, the limits of such residential part to be determined by the selectmen. No tree within such residential part shall be cut by the tree warden, except to trim it, or removed by him without a hearing as aforesaid; but in all cases the decision of the tree warden shall be final. Sec. 4. Towns may annually raise and appropriate such sum of money as they deem necessary, to be expended under the direction of the tree warden in exterminating insect pests within the limits of their public ways and places, and in the removal from said public ways and places of all trees and other plants upon which such pests naturally breed: provided, however, that where an owner or lessee of real estate shall, to the satisfaction of the tree warden, annually exterminate all insect pests upon the trees and other plants within the limits of any public way or place abutting on said real estate, such trees and plants shall be exempt from the provisions of this section. Sec. 5. Whoever affixes to any tree in a public way or placea play-bill, picture, announcement, notice, advertisement, or other thing, whether in writing or otherwise, or cuts, paints, or marks such tree, except for the purpose of protecting it and under a written permit from the tree warden, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding fifty dollars for each offence. Sec. 6. Whoever wantonly injures, defaces, breaks, or de- stroys an ornamental or shade tree within the limits of any public way or place shall forfeit not less than five nor more than 270 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES one hundred dollars, to be recovered by complaint, one-half to the complainant and the other half to the use of the town. Sec. 7. Whoever negligently or carelessly suffers a horse or other beast driven by or for him, or a beast belonging to him and lawfully in a public way or place, to break down, injure, or destroy a shade or ornamental tree within the limits of said public way or place, or whoever negligently or wilfully by any other means breaks down, injures, or destroys any such tree, shall be liable to the penalties prescribed in the foregoing sec- tion, and shall in addition be liable for all damages caused thereby. Sec. 8. It shall be the duty of the tree warden to enforce the provisions of the preceding sections. (Approved May 4, 1899.) The above law of Massachusetts has never been repealed, but it has been several times amended, mainly in the direc- tion of extending and more accurately defining the duties and powers of shade-tree officials. In 1902 a general revision of the State laws was made by the legislature, and the principal provisions of Chap. 330, of the Acts of 1899, were embodied in Chap. 53 of the Revised Laws, although several provisions of the original chapter were distributed in other places. This arrangement has made it somewhat difficult to refer to the laws relating to shade-trees, and has led the Massachusetts Forestry Associa- tion to issue, from time to time, compilations of the law brought up to date. By Chap. 363, of the Acts of 1910, the ‘‘Tree Warden Act’’ has been extended in practically all of its provisions, except that requiring the election of a tree warden, to the cities of Massachusetts. The extensions of the ‘‘Tree Warden Act,” and the amendments thereto, as regards the authority of city and town officers, are embodied in the following: LEGISLATION 271 R. L., Ch. 53, Sections 6 to 11 (as amended by Acts of 1908, ch. 296), including the old spike provision. Repealed by Acts of 1910, ch. 363, which follows. Acts of 1910, Ch. 363, Section 1. The powers and duties con- ferred upon tree wardens in towns by Section 12 and 13 of Chap- ter 53 of the Revised Laws, as amended by Chapter 296 of the Acts of 1908, are hereby conferred upon officials now charged with the care of shade-trees within the limits of the highway in cities, by the charters of the said cities, by other legislative enactment or ordinances of the city governments of said cities, and upon such officials as the city governments shall hereafter designate to have charge of said shade-trees where it is within their powers to transfer such duties, by ordinance or otherwise. SEc. 2. Sections 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 of Chapter 53 of the Revised Laws are hereby repealed. R. L., Ch. 11, Section 334. Every town at its annual meeting shall in every year, except as is otherwise provided in the fol- lowing section and in Sections 339 and 341, choose from the in- habitants thereof the following named town officers, who shall serve during the year: . . . . a tree warden. R.L., Ch. 53, Section 12 (as amended by Chap. 296, Acts of 1908, Section 2, and Chap. 321, Acts of 1910). The tree warden may appoint and remove deputy tree wardens. He and they shall re- ceive such compensation as the town determines, or, in default thereof, as the selectmen allow. He shall have the care and con- trol of all public shade-trees in the town, except those in public parks or open places under the jurisdiction of the park com- missioners, and of those, if so requested in writing by the park commissioners, and shall enforce all the provisions of law for the preservation of such trees. He shall expend all money appro- priated for the setting out and maintenance of such trees, but no trees shall be planted within the limits of a public way with- out the approval of the tree warden, and until a location therefor has been obtained from the selectmen, or from the road commis- sioners where authority has been vested in them. Regulations for the care and preservation of public shade-trees made by him, 272 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES approved by the selectmen and posted in two or more public places, imposing fines and forfeitures of not more than twenty dollars in any one case, shall have the force and effect of town by-laws. All shade-trees within or on the limits of a public way shall be public shade-trees; and when it appears in any civil proceeding under process of law where the ownership of or rights in the tree are material to the issue, that from length of time or otherwise, the boundaries of the highway cannot be made certain by the records or by monuments, and for that reason it is doubt- ful whether the tree was within or without the limits of the high- way, it shall be taken to have been within the limits of the high- way until the contrary is shown. Sec. 13 (as amended by Chap. 296, Acts of 1908, Section 3). Public shade-trees shail not be cut or removed, in whole or in part, except by the tree warden or his deputy, or by a person holding a license so to do from the tree warden, nor shall they be removed by the tree warden or his deputy or other person without public hearing at a suitable time and place, after notice thereof posted in two or more public places in the town and upon the tree and after authority granted by the tree warden therefor. Whoever violates the provisions of this section shall forfeit not less than five nor more than one hundred dollars to the use of the town. Acts of 1908, Chap. 296, Section 4. Nothing in this act shall be construed as applying to any highway now or hereafter within the jurisdiction of the state highway commission. R. L., Ch. 25, Section 15. It (a town) may at legal meetings appropriate money for the following purposes:..... For planting shade-trees in the public ways or, at the discretion of the tree warden and with the written consent of the owner thereof, upon land adjoining such ways at not more than twenty feet from the way for the purpose of shading or ornamenting the way, an amount not exceeding fifty cents for each of its ratable polls in the preceding year. SEc. 16. Towns may appropriate money to be expended under the direction of the tree warden for exterminating insect pests in LEGISLATION 273 the public ways and places, and for removing therefrom trees and plants upon which such insects naturally breed, except trees and plants from which the owner or lessee of land abutting on said public way or place annually exterminates all such insect pests to the satisfaction of the tree warden. ORDINANCES The State laws of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Massa- chusetts leave each town and city free to supplement the statutes by local ordinances. The provisions of such ordi- nances are of course varied by special local conditions; but the general points to be covered by them will be indicated in the sections of the East Orange Shade-Tree Ordinance: AN ORDINANCE relating to the planting, protection, regula- tion, andcontrol of shade-trees planted or growing upon the public highways of the city of East Orange, Essex County, New Jersey. Be it ordained by the Shade-Tree Commission of the City of East Orange, N. J., as follows: ‘SECTION 1. No individual or officer or employee of a corpora- tion shall, without the written permit of the Shade-Tree Com- mission, cut, prune, break, climb, injure, or remove any living tree in a public highway; or cut, disturb, or interfere in any way with the roots of any tree on a public highway; or spray with any chemicals or insecticides any tree in a public highway; or place any rope, sign, poster, or other fixture on a tree or guard in a public highway; or injure, misuse, or remove any device placed to protect such tree on a public highway. SEc. 2. No shade or ornamental tree or shrub shall be planted in any of the public highways of the City of East Orange until such tree or shrub shall have first been approved and the place where it is to be planted designated by the Shade- Tree Commission, and a permit granted therefor. Sec. 3. No person shall fasten a horse or other animal to a tree in a public highway in the City of East Orange, nor cause a 274 SHADE-TREES IN TOWNS AND CITIES horse or other animal to stand so that said horse or animal can injure such a tree. Sec. 4. No person shall, without the written permit of the Shade-Tree Commission, place or hereafter maintain upon the ground in a public highway, stone, cement, or other substance which shall impede the free passage of water’and air to the roots of any tree in such highway, ‘without leaving an open space of ground outside of the trunk of said tree in area not less than four feet square. - Sec. 5. In the erection or repair of any building or structure the owner thereof shall place such guards around all nearby trees on the public highway as shall effectually prevent injury to them. ; Sec. 6. No person shall pour salt water upon any public highway in such a way as to injure any tree planted or growing thereon. Sec. 7. No person shall, without the written permit of the Shade-Tree Commission, attach any electric wire, insulator, or any device for the holding of an electric wire to any tree grow- ing or planted upon any public highway of the City of East Orange. SEc. 8. Every person or corporation having any wire or wires charged with electricity running through a public high- way, shall securely fasten such wire or wires so that they shall not come in contact with any tree therein. Sec. 9. Every person or corporation having any wire or wires charged with electricity running through a public high- way, shall temporarily remove any such wire or wires or the electricity therefrom when it shall be necessary, in order to take down or prune any trees growing in a public highway, within twenty-four hours after the service upon the owner of said wire or wires, or his agent, of a written notice to remove said wire or wires or the electricity therefrom, signed by two members of the Shade-Tree Commission, or its secretary, upon the order of such Commission. Sec. 10. No person or corporation shall prevent, delay, or interfere with the Shade-Tree Commission or its employees, in LEGISLATION 275 the planting, pruning, spraying, or removing of a tree on a public highway, or in the removal of stone, cement, or other substance about the trunk of a tree. Sec. 11. Every repeated violation by the same person of any provision of this ordinance, or the continuation of the violation of any of its provisions on any day or days succeeding the first violation thereof, shall constitute an additional violation of such provision. SEc. 12. Any person violating any of the provisions of this ordinance shall, upon conviction thereof, forfeit and pay a pen- alty of ten dollars for each offence. Sec. 13. This ordinance shall take effect immediately. Adopted May 13, 1907. enu Sample page s from actual et trees. field book, fo the merating stre Blank field | publishers. Field books 4% inches x books may be obtained from | | 0 pag in lots of one da es. i 5 | Prices: 75: cé ents net each, ozZen. 7 inches 16 | and $8.00 ne ‘Strett____ Stebard Srreef-...Date___ Oct: 131904._, ‘Tree No. Species Diameter _| Condition _| Remarks / Norway Maple a" Good | 2 White Maple 6" | 3 | White Maple 12" — Medium | Cavity ia Trortk 4 Sugar Maple 14" Good JS Norwa ay Maple /0" | Good : 6 | Fred Mabfe 16” | Medium Brauch decayed _| 7 | Hed Maple | tt* | Good S Where Ely 0" | Good w " e 2 Z a “10 While Maple 10” | Bad Cavity ~ antl $6 7 Y19 | Red Maple | lp" | Nearly dead “20 a " ale eg Trunk voted 2/ | White Maple 14" | Good 22 7” ” 15” | 23 Wed Maple T* 1 2 24. w te 7" ” 25 o ” ow | Medium | Ca “ty 26 ” ” ! a | Good 27 ie se eo” : Gooq 20° ee TPE | ! | Flanted Norway Maples April, 90S OF! o> U Qe (2 8 x OR x | y ) y | & Ny & . ~@ v Lee “ ’ x \ c Sab ¢ wz | ae Jez | ez | sep . _ oe a c+ 6 © o B a5] | | & | * ifs | | | fs JN SN she Skee H : sii pisos — Oot ve Stitt. Shepard Stree date ’ Oct: 13,1904._. | { Trt Species Diameter “Condition Remarks a2 i. 4 Paeeon me | 10° Good 12 | 2” oat /3 , Red maple | 4" Good 4 i ee ” 15 o a | 6 ww ” a oe ‘ f 4 x Je x te x le x Be KE } | | it aT Xp 4 | €€ KX FE Mw bE K LE } BIE 1 ey = SEEN “Mile R Le Ke | | op to | a me We. ee Sie Sheperd Streefi._0ite____Oct: 18 1904._4 | "Tree No:, Species ! Diameter Condition Remarks 16 Am. ingen | 6" | Good 17 Am. Ela _ 8 | Good Barkéd (@ 8 "9" Good op oy ptfest cesses: ancl ee eta 3 tiie ATs 2 aah Uo ! ! Tree No, Species Diameter! Condition Remarks | | | : | 2 ; : } I INDEX Numbers refer to pages. Illustrations are indicated by an asterisk after page number. Acetate of lead, 204. Acer, negundo, 19. platanoides, 12. pseudo-platanus, 15. rubrum, 18. Saccharinum, 19. Saccharum, 16. Acid phosphate, rzo. Aesculus hippocastanum, 42. Agrilus anxius, 186. bilineatus, 186. Ailanthus glandulosa, 56. Ailantus, 30, 55,* 56, 74, 133, 135. Air, in soil, 199. injurious gases in, 138. need of, 106. reots lack, 137. “A” ladders, 94,* 95. Albany, elm-leaf beetle, 159. ordinance pertaining to poplars, 27. Allendale, N. J., 238. Ambridge, Pa., 238. American Telegraph and Telephone Company, case of, 149. Ammonia, 208. Ammoniacal copper carbonate, 208. Annual ring, 105, 226. Apple, 189, 190. Arboriculture, municipal, 244. Arboriuclturist, 244, 245. Arlington, N. J., 238. Arrangement of trees on street, 65- 79+ Arrangement of trees between sidewalk and property line, 77. double row, 79. number of rows, 79. Opposite or alternate, 77. Arsenate of soda, 204. Arsenate of lead, 164, 167, 168, 170, I7I, 173, 203. how prepared, 204, 205. Arsenic, 203. Arsenic oxid, 205. Arsenious oxid, 204. Ash, white, 30, 49, 50,* 134, 190. Aspen, 189. Aspidiotus perniciosus, 179. Assessment lists, 255, 256. Assimilation, 106. Atomizer, 209. Bag worm, 22, 41. life history of, 169,* 170, 171. Bamboo poles, 111, rr2. Bark, abrasion of, 218. around cavities, 220. borers, 186. cutting around cavity, 223. over filling, 223. shedding of, 46. Barrel hand-pump, 209, 210.* Bean, dissected, 103.* Beaver, Justice, quoted, 149, 150. Beech, 134, 189. Beeswax, 219. 277 278 Birch, 183,* 186, 190. Bisulfid of carbon, 184, 207. Blights, 196. Bloomfield, N. J., 238. Bordeaux mixture, 195, 196, 197, 208. how made, 207. Bordeaux nozzle, 213, 214.¥ Borers, 143, 181-186. bark, 183,* 186. cavities, 226. Boston, 76. planting too close, 75. Box elder, 19. Branch, origin of, 104, 115. Branching, fixing height of, 111. Bronze birch borer, 183,* 186. Brown tail moth, 41, 167. life history of, 165.* Bucket pump, 210.* Bud, horse-chestnut, 103.* scale scars, 103. section of, 103.¥ terminal, 103.* Buffalo, 236. Building operations, injuries, 155. Buildings, height of, 70. height of limited, 72. height in Paris, 72. tall, 72,* 73.¥* Bushey Park, 42. Butternut, 190. Buttonwood, see Sycamore. Caldwell, N. J., 238. Callus, 219, 226. over filling, 223. Callusing, 224.* Camden, N. J., 238. Cambium, 105, 202. Camphor-tree, 60. Canker, 194. chestnut, 194. Carbolic acid, 167. Carbon bisulfid, 184, 207. Carbon dioxid or carbonic acid, 106. INDEX Carbon dioxid sprayer, 210,* 211, 212. Carlisle, Pa., streets, 66. Catalpa, 30, 74, 134. hardy, 54, 55.* western, 56. Catalpa catalpa, 54. Speciosa, 56. Caulicle, 103.* Cavity, filled, 224.* filling of, 220, 221.* section of, 222.* Cecrospora microsora, 192,* 195. Celtis occidentalis, 51. Cement, Portland, 223. Census of trees, 245-252. Chatham, N. J., 238. Chestnut, 30, 133, 186, 193. bark disease or canker, 194. borer, two-lined, 186. Chicago, 2, 236. Chionaspis furfurus, 180. Cinnamomum camphora, 60. Cion, 2109. Cities, founding of, 1. City forester, 244, 245. Clay, in soil, 63. Cleveland, 234, 236. Coal-tar, 125 and nofe, 167, 222, 226. over-filling, 223. Concrete, filling, 223. reenforcing tree, 225. Conifers, 61. Contact poisons, 205, 216. Copper carbonate, 208. Copper sulfate, 194, 195, 197, 207, 208, 222. Corners, treatment of, 77, 78.* Cottony maple scale, 22, 175, 176.* Cotyledon, 102, 103.* Creosote oil, 167. Crotch, banding of, 224,* 226. strengthening of, 225.* treatment of, 226. Crowbar, sounding for I41,* 143. gas leaks, INDEX Crowbar, uscd in staking, 94,* 95. Crown, forming of, 111. Cucumber-tree, 30. Cultivating, roo. Curb, nearness of trees to, 73. Cyclone nozzle, 213, 214.* Dedalea quercina, 188,* 193. Daily reports, 254. Damages, injuries by wires, 149. trees killed by gas, 145. Dendroscope, 128, 129.* Des Cars, 128 and note. DPiaporthe parasitica, 194. Distanc s apart of specimens, 74. in Paris, 75. Drain, connected with sewer, ror. Drainage, of subsoil, 65, 100, zor. poor, 227. Drying out or leaf scorch, 201. Dust, effect of, 138. East Orange, N. J., 238, 242, 273- cottony maple scale, 177. clm-leaf beetle, 174. guarding, 94,* 96. leopard moth, 184. Shade-Tree Commission, 96, 177, 184, 242. staking, 94.* trees pruned, 113. trees saved, 153. tussock moth, 164. watering, 109. East Rutherford, N. J., 238. Elfvingia megaloma, 191, 192.* Electricity, effects of, 147. Elizabeth, N. J., 238- Elm, 134, 142, 166, 168, 200, 251. European, 41, 173- street of, 40.* top-pruning, 89, go. white or American, 30, 38, 39,* 74, 80, 83,* 173- Flm-bark louse, 41. 279 Elm-leaf beetle, 41, 159, 251, 171-174. life history of, 172.* Etiolation of leaves, 200. LEuproctis chrysorrhwa, 167. Extension poles, 215. Fall planting versus spring planting, 91-93- Fall webworm, 47, 168, 170. life history of, 169.* False-tinder fungus, 190, IgI. Fernow, B. E., 244 and note. Fertilizers, chemical, 110. 187, 188,* 189, manure, 119, IIo. Fertilizing, 109, 227. Field book, 246. sample pages, after 275.* Flushing, N. Y., 28. Fomes applanatus, 191. tgniarius, 187. Food of tree, sources of, 105. Forester, city, 244, 245. Fox, W. F., 30. Fracture, repair of, 220. Fraxinus americana, 49. Frost, 201, 202. Fungi, 196. blights, 186-197. canker, 194. chestnut-bark disease, 194. common bracket fungus, 191, 192.* Dedalea quercina, 188,* 193. entering wounds, 117. false-tinder fungus, 187, 188.* heart-rot of sugar maple, 188,* rgr. Ho palo pilus gilvus, 192,* 193. leaf diseases, 194. leaf spot of horse-chestnut, 192,* 196. linden rust, 192,* 195. mildew on maple, 196. mildews, 196. on branches, 134. parasitic, 191. powdery mildew of willow, 196. 280 Fungi, rusts, 195. sap-rots, IgI. saprophytic, 191. sulfur polyporus, 190, 192.* sycamore leaf blight, 197. wood-destroying, 187. Fungicide, 195. Fungicides, 205, 207. Fungous diseases, 186-197, see Fungi. Fungous growths, 134. Garretson, Justice, 150. Gasoline sprayers, 210,* 211. Gas, illuminating, damages for trees killed by, 145, 146. effect of, 140, 142. injuries by, 141.* leaks, how to detect, 142. symptoms of poisoning, 142, 143. Gas-mains, how to lay, 144, 144,* 145. Gases, injurious, in air, 138. Gingko, 52,* 53, 54, 74- street of, 52.% Gingko biloba, 53. Guards, 97,* 232. injuries for lack of, 156.* necessity for, 157, 158. wire, 94,* 96. Gum, 134. sweet gum, 52,* 54, 74, 92. top-pruning of sweet gum, 89, go. Gutter, tree planting in, 66, 151.* Gipsy moth, 41, 160, 166, 167. life history of, 165.* Girdling by band, 226. Glen Ridge, N.J., trees need pruning, Tr3* Glesporium nervisequum, 197. Grade, changing of, 153, 154, 155. trees saved, 156.* well around tree, 153.* Grafting, bridge, 219, 219.* wax, 219. Grills, 96, 97,* 98, 199. method of placing 98, 98.* INDEX Growth, essentials for normal, 105. in diameter, 104, 105. in height, 104. in height, shown on horse-chestnut twig, 103.* rapidity of, 28, 30. seedling, roz. Guard, large tree, 94.* Guard-rolling machine, 103.* Guarding, 96, 231. East Orange, 94,* 96. Hackberry, 30, 51, 52,* 74. Harrisburg, 243. Hartford, Conn., 236. Heading back old trees, 126,* 127,* 128, 129. Heeling-in, 83,* 89. Hemlock, 190. Hicoria pecan, 60. Hickory, 134, 189. bark borer, 186. shagbark, 46. Horse-chestnut, 30, 42, 43,* 44, 74, 166, 200. leaf spot, 192,* 196. winter twig, 103.* Hopalopilus gilvus, 192,* 193. Hose for spraying, 212, 213. Humus, in soil, 63. on forest floor, 137. Hydnum septentrionale, 188,* 191. Hyphe, 187, 189. Hyphantria cunea, 168. 127, Illinois, case in Supreme Court, 242. Insect pests, 159-186. bag worm, 169,* 170. bark borers, 183,* 186. borers, 181. brown tail moth, 165,* 167. cottony maple scale, 175, 176.* elm-leaf beetle, 171, 172.* fall webworm, 168, 169.* gipsy moth, 165,* 166. INDEX Insect pests, injuries by, 159. leaf-eating insects, 162. leopard moth, 182, 183.* maple tree sesiid, 183,* 185. metamorphosis, 161, necessary to combat, 160. oyster-shell scale, 176,* 180, plant lice, 181. San José scale, 176,* 179. scurfy scale, 176,* 180. sucking or scale insects, 175. sugar maple borer, 183,* 185. tussock moth, 162, 163.* woolly maple scale, 176,* 177. Insecticide law, 204, 205. Insecticides, 203-207. Irrigation, see Subirrigation. Jersey City, N. J., 238. Kearny, N. J., 238. Kerosene, 206. Kerosene emulsion, 180, 181. how prepared, 206. Knot-hole, 187. evolution of, 116.* treatment of, 224,* 225. Ladders, “A,” 94,* 95. Letiporus speciosus, 190. Laws relating to shade-trees, Mas- sachusetts, 236, 237, 238, 239, 268-273. New Jersey, 236, 237, 258-264. New York, 236. principles underlying, 240. Lead acetate, 204. Lead arsenate, see Arsenate of lead. Leader, tied to bamboo pole, 111. well-defined, 87. Leaf diseases, 194. Leaf-eating insects, 162. Leaf-scars, 103.* Leaf scorch or drying out, 201. Leaf spot of horse-chestnut, 192,* 196. 281 Leaves, part in assimilation, 106. Legislation, 248-275. Massachusetts, 236, 237, 238, 239, 268-273. New Jersey, 236, 237, 258-264. New York, 236. ordinances, 273-275. principles underlying legislation, 240. PEnfant, 234. Lenticel, 103.* Leopard moth, 18, 19, 22, 41, 44, 159, 160, 182, 184, 185. life history of, 183.* Lime, 207. in insecticides, 208. in soil, 63. Linden, 134, 166. American or basswood, 30, 34, 35, 39,* 37, 74, 80. Crimean, 38. European, 36,* 37, 74. large-leaved European, 38. silver-leaved, 37. street of, 36.* top-pruning, go. Linden rust, 192,* 195. Lipman, J. G., 110. Liquidambar styraciflua, 54. Liriodendron tulipifera, 47. Locust, 190. black, 56. honey, 30, 55,* 56. street of, 55.* yellow, 30. Lowell Gaslight Company, case of, 145. shade-tree Mac Veagh, F., 2. Madison, N. J., 238. Magnolia grandiflora, 60. Manure, 109, 201. Magnolia, 92. great laurel, 59,* 60. top-pruning, 89, 90. Maple, 168, 196, 200. 282 INDEX Maple, ash-leaved, 11,* 19. Norway, 11,* 12, 15, 23,* 25, 74, 209 roots of, 83.* street of, 11.¥ red, 17,* 18, 19, 30, 74, 142, 189, 200. fungus on, 192.* ulcers on, 192.* striped, 189. sugar, 13,* 16, 18, 30, 74, 138, 142, 160, 177, 189, I9I, 200, 201. heart rot of, 188.* street of, 14.* top-pruned, go.* sycamore, I1,* 15, 134. White or silver, 19, 20,* 21, 22, 30, 46, 133, 166, 175, 189, 200. row of, 20.* stag-head, 192.* top-pruning, 89, go. Maple tree sesiid, 183,* 185. Marshall, J., case of, 149. Mapping street-trees, 249,* 250. Massachusetts, 236, 238, 244, 258, 273. brown tail moth, 167. gipsy moth, 160, 167. laws of, 239, 240, 268-273. Merkel, H. W., 97, 154. Metuchen, N. J., 238. Mildews, 196. Mites, 51. Montclair, N. J., 238. Morristown, N. J., 238. Mulching, 2o1. Municipal arboriculturist, 245. Municipal control of street trees, 233. Municipal nursery, 88. Muriate of potash, 110. Murrill, W. A., 229 and note. Mycelium, 187, 189. Mytilaspis pomorum, 180. Nectria cinnabarina, 194. Neowashingtonia robusta, 60. Newark, N. J., 238. New Brunswick, N. J., 238. New Haven, Elm City, 38. New Jersey, 236, 238, 244, 273. borers, 233- shade-tree laws of, 258-264. New Orleans, 236. Parking Commission, 58, 234. New York City, 236. causes of high death rate, 4. leopard moth, 159. New York County Medical Society, 4. New York and New Jersey Tele- phone Company, case of, 150. New York Zoological Garden, 154. Nitrate of soda, r1o. Nitrogen, in soil, 63, 109. Nozzle, Bordeaux, 213, 214.* cyclone, 213, 214.* jet, 214, 214.* Vermorel, 213, 214.* “V's,” 215% Nursery, 227, 228. municipal, 88. nursery rows, 83.* training of tree in, 82. Nutley, N. J., 238. Oak, 93, 134, 168, 186, 189, 200. chestnut, 34, 74. fungus on, 193. laurel, 60. live, 58. street of, 57.* pin, 29,* 30, 31, 74, 80. street of, 29,* frontispiece. top-pruned, gt. red, 29,* 30, 31, 74, 134 street of, 33.¥* scarlet, 30, 32. swamp white, 34. top-pruning, 89, go. water, 59,* 60. white, 29,* 30, 32, 34. willow, 60. INDEX Oil emulsion or soluble oil, 177, 179, 180, 206. Oil, linseed, for grafting-wax, 220. Oil, soluble, or oil emulsion, 177, 179, 180, 206. Oiling or tarring of roads, 138, 139, T4O. Olmsted, F. L., 75. Ordinances, 155, 273, 275- Orgyia leucostigma, 162. Overhead wires, 146, 150. Oxygen, 106. Oyster-shell scale, 176,* 180, 181. See Wires. Palm, desert, 60. palmetto, 59,* 60. Parasitic fungi, 191. Paris, 3, 229. black locust, 56. effect of tarred roads, 139, 140. holes for trees, 64. horse-chestnut trees, 42. nursery, 228. planes, 46. regulations for number of rows of trees, 79. species used, ro. transplanting large trees, 86, 87. tree-department, 235. watering devices, 108. Paris green, 203, 204, 205. Parking strips, 65. Passaic, N. J., 238. Pavement, 199. Pecan, 59,* 60. Pedestrians exposed to dust, 78. Pennsylvania, 238, 244, 258, 273- shade-tree laws of, 264, 266. Perth Amboy, N. J., 238. Petroleum, soluble, 206. Philadelphia, planes, 46. Phosphoric acid, in soil, 63, 109. Phyllosticta pavie, 192,* 196. Pine 190. Pittsburg, 236, 238. 283 Plagionotus speciosus, 185. Plainfield, N. J., 238. Plane-tree, oriental, 44, 45,* 74, 93, 138. heading back, 126,* 127,* 128. street of, 45,* 237.* top-pruning, 89, go. western, or sycamore, or button- wood, 138. Plant lice, 12, 19, 35, 37, 181, 206. Plantations, renewal of, 229. Planting, 238. fall versus spring, gr. how, 90, 91. new street, 231. Norway maple, 83.* precautions in, 89-93. street-trees, 82-101. studies preliminary to, 62-81. too close, 75. too deep, 199. with relation to street, 76. Platanus occidentalis, 46, 197. ortentalis, 44. Plumule, 103.* Point Pleasant, N. J., 238. Polyporus gilvus, 193. sulphureus, 190. Poplar, 133, 200. Carolina, 22, 23,* 24,* 25, 26, 27, 44, 74- Lombardy, 27, 28. street of, 24.* top-pruning, 89. tulip, 49. Poplar habit, 27. Populus deltoides, 22. ttalica, 27. Porthetria dispar, 106. Potash in soil, 63, 109. Power sprayers, 209, 210,* 211, 212. Prefect of the Seine, 3, 139, 236. Pruning, 110-135, 231, 232. coal-tar, 125 and note. dendroscope, 128, 129.¥* 284 Pruning, first method of removing limb, 121, 122.* fixing height of branching, 111. forming the crown, III, 112. general points, 114, 115. heading back, 126,* 127, 127,* 128, 129. how, 120, 120.* individual tree, 113. keeping crown within limits, 127. limb must not split, 121. results of bad pruning, 116.* right way, 117. root, 89. scar, healing of, 116,* 123. scars, how healed, 117, 118,* r19, r19.* second method of removing limb, 121, 123, 124.* split by improper pruning, 120.* street as a unit, 113. to artificial forms, 125, 126. tools, 130, 131,* 132, 133- top, 89. when, 129. wrong way, IT5, IT7- Pruning tools, 130, 131, * 132, 133. Pruning saw, see Pruning tools. Pseudococcus aceris, 177. Pulvinaria innumerabilis, 175. Pyropolyporus igniarius, 187, 188.* 126, Quercus alba, 32. bicolor, 34. coccinea, 32. laurifolia, 80. nigra, 60. palustris, 31. phellos, 60. prinus, 34. rubra, 31, 32. virginiana, 58. Raffa, 111. INDEX Rahway, N. J., 238. Records, of complaints, 254. of trees planted, 252, 254. Repair of trees or tree surgery, 218- 226. examples of, 224.* Replacing, 227. Reserve material, 107. Resin, 219. Respiration, 106. Ridgefield, N. J., 230. Ridgewood, N. J., 238. Roads, tarring or oiling of, 138, 139, 140. Roadway, width of, 66. Roots, asphyxiation, 199. cutting of, 230. cutting of, in resetting curbs, 150. discoloration by gas, 142. fibrous, 84. important when selecting trees, 87. lack air, 137. lack water, 137. Norway maple, 83.* preserving when transplanting, 87. pruning of, 89. training of, 228. training in nursery, 82, 84. Roselle, N. J., 238. Rust, 195. on linden, 192,* 195. Rutherford, N. J., 238. Sabal palmetto, 60. Salisburia adiantifolia, 53. Salt water, injuries by, 137, 156.* Sand, in soil, 63. filling cavities, 223. San José scale, 176,* 179, 180. Sap-rots, 191, 192, 193. Saprophytic fungi, 191. Sapwood, 105. Sargent, C. S., 75. Scale or sucking insects, 175. winter washes for, 205. INDEX Scar, healing of, see Pruning. Scolytus quadrispinosus, 186. Scurfy scale, 176,* 180. Seedling, 104. in nursery, 82, 83.* in woods, 82, 83.* white maple, 103.* Seeds, germinating, 103.* Sesia acerni, 185. Sewer, drain connecting with, ror. pipe filled with roots, 23,* 26. Shade-Tree Commission, 238, 254. in East Orange, N. J., 96, 153, 177, 184, 242. in New Jersey, 238. Shade-tree department, 233. nursery, 88. Shade-tree laws, Massachusetts, 36, 237, 238, 239, 268-273. New Jersey, 236, 237, 258-264. New York, 236. principles underlying, 240. Shadc-trees, benefiting entire street, 241. economic value, 4, 5. esthetic value, 2. moral value, 5. sanitary value, 3, 4. shipping of, §3,* 87, 88. source of pleasure, 3. Sidewalks, concrete, 74. close to trees, 151.* Slime-flux, 199, 201. Smith, S., note 4. Smoke, effect of, 138. Soap, 206. ‘Soil, amount of, 64. clay in, 63. diseases due to, 197, 198. humus in, 63. lime in, 63. moist and aerated, 201. nature and preparation, 62. nitrogen in, 63. phosphoric acid in, 63. poisoned by gas, 142. 285 Soil, poor on street, 137. potash in, 63. preparation of, 65. record of kind, 62. renewal of, 229. sand in, 63. source of food, ros. suitable for trees, 63. Southern States, opportunities for tree- planting, 58. South Orange, N. J., 238. Spacing, uniformity of, 76. Species, choice of, 80. different when replanting, 229. few for streets, 9, 10. mixture of, 231. one on a street, 80, 233. rows of different, 80. used in Paris, ro. used in Washington, 10. Spirits of turpentine, 167. Spiny elm caterpillar, 41. Splitting of crotches, 226. Spores, 117, 187, 207. Sprayers, barrel hand pump, 209, 210.* bucket pump, 209, 210.* gasoline, 210,* 211. liquid carbon dioxid, 210,* 211. nozzles, 213, 214.* power sprayers, 210,* 211. Spraying, 238. apparatus, 209-217. hose, 212, 213. precautions in, 216. rods, 215. Spring planting versus fall planting, 91-93- Springfield Gaslight Company, case of, 145. Stag-head or top dry, 198. white maple, 192.* Staking, 93. crowbar used, 94,* 95. how, 95. in Washington, 93. 286 Staking, kind of stakes, 95. methods, 94.* single stake, 93- State laws, 236, 258-273. Stem, development of, 84. St. Louis, 236. Stomach poisons, 216. Street, changing grade, 153, 154, 155- divisions of, 66, 67. improvements, 130. layout of fifty-foot street, 67.* layout of sixty-foot street, 67.* layout of eighty-foot street, 68.* layout of one-hundred-foot street 68.* layout of Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, 69.* lights, obstruction of, 112. narrow, 72. opening new, 152. picture of ideal, 6, 7. treated as a unit in pruning, 112. Street-trees, census of, 24s. individual planting, 231. injuries to, 136-158, 151,* 156.* municipal control, 233. points in selecting, 6. qualities of, 7, 8, 9. selection of, 6. survey of, 248. who shall plant, 231-243. Subirrigation, 98-100. devices, 99,* 100.* Subsoil, drainage of, 65, 100, rot. poor, 227. Sugar maple borer, 18, 160, 185. life history of, 183.* Sugar maple heart-rot, 188, ror. Sulfur polyporus, 190, 192.* Sulfuric acid in air, 138. Summit, N. J., 238. Surgery, repair of trees, 218-226. examples of, 224.* Survey of street trees, 148. Sycamore, or Western plane, or button- wood, 30, 45,* 46, 134, 138. INDEX Sycamore leaf blight, 196, 197. TALLOW, 2109. Tar, see Coal-tar. Tarring or oiling of roads, 138, 139, I4o. Thyridopteryx ephemerejormis, 170. Tilia americana, 34. argentea, 38. dasystyla, 38. europea, 37. platyphylla, 38. Tools, pruning, 130, 131,* 132, 133. Top dry or stag-head, 198. white maple, 192.* Top, pruning of, 89. Training, 110, 111. Transpiration, 106. Transplanting, in nursery, 82, 84. large specimens, 86. large specimens in Paris, 86, 87, 228. training of trees for, 82, 84, 228. twelve-inch European linden, 85.* watering after, 107. Tree census, 245-252. value of, 251. Tree-climbers, hints to, 133, 134, 135- Tree doctor, 244. Tree-guards, see Guards and Guard- ing. Tree-surgery, repair of trees, 218-226. examples of, 224.* Tree warden, 240, 244, 245. Tree Warden Act, 239, 240, 268. Trees, labeling of, 256. mapping of, 250. records of new, 252, 253. Troy, elm-leaf beetle, 159. Tulip poplar, 49. Tulip-tree, 30, 47, 48,* 92. street of, 48.* spot gall, 49. Turpentine, spirits of, 167. Tussock moth, 22, 35, 41, 44, 47, 162, 163, 164,-166. life history of, 163.* INDEX ULCERS, 142, 143, 199, 200, 201. on red maple, 192.* Ulmus umericana, 38. campestris, 41. Uncinula aceris, 196. salicis, 196. Uniform spacing of trees, 76 Uniformity, maintenance of 227. Vapor, bisulfid of carbon, 207. Vermorel nozzle, 213, 214.* WATER, 105. asphyxiation by, 199. how much, 107. part in transpiration and. assimila- tion, 105, 106. roots lack, 137. salt, injuries by, 137, 156.* Watering, 107, 201, 227. after transplanting, 107. cart, 103,* 108. how, 108. Washington, ID. C., 2, 3, 234. gingkos, 53. holes for trees, 64. honey locust, 56. oaks, 28. one species on street, 80. 287 Washington, D. C., oriental planes, 44. species used, Io. staking, 93. tree-department, 235. tree-guard, 94.* Was, see Grafting-Wax. Weeks, M. 1., case of, 150. Well around tree, 153,* 154. Westfield, N. J., 238. Whale-oil soap, 179, 180, 181. White heart-rot, 189. Wilkes-Barre, Pa., 238. Willow, 134, 189. powdery mildew, 196. Winter washes for scale insects, 205. Wire guards, 94,* 96. See Guards and Guarding. Wires, damages for injuries by, 148, 149, 150. how to protect branches, 148, 148.* overhead, injuries by, 141,* 146- B50, 151.* Woodbury, N. J., 238. Woolly maple scale, 18, 176,* 177. “Ws? spray “V's.” 21s. » SP , Zeuzera pyrind, 182.