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THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.
 

 
THE

BER-KEEPER’S MANUAL

OR

THE HONEY BEE

ITS

MANAGEMENT AND PRESERVATION.

WITH A

DESCRIPTION OF THE BEST APPROVED HIVES, AND OTHER APPLIANCES

OF THE APIARY,

BY THE LATE

HENRY TAYLOR.

Seventh FvVition,

MODERNISED AND VERY GREATLY ENLARGED

ALFRED WATTS,

Assistant Editor of the Third Edition of Neighbour's “ Apiary.”

LONDON :
GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS.
MDCCCLXXX.
E 1481

What well-appointed commonwealths ! where each
Adds to the stock of happiness for all;
Wisdom’s own forums! where professors teach
Eloquent lessons in their vaulted hall:
talleries of art, and schools of industry !
Stores of rich fragrance! Orchestras of song!
What marvellous seats of hidden alchemy !
How oft, when wandering far and erring long,
Man might learn truth and virtue from the bee!
Bowrrne.

SIMSON AND CO., PRINTERS, ETC., HERTFORD.
PREFACE
TO THE

SEVENTH EDITION.

 

issue of this volume appeared, and for some
time its author has been taken from among us.
Through six editions his revising oversight was extended
to the work; and now, when at length it has been
determined to reissue it under other care, the entire
aspect of the subject treated of is changed. Im-
portant facts have been promulgated in the interval,
which, in this country at least, had been hitherto
unknown, and novel apparatus and improved methods
of procedure have taken the place of those of Taylor’s
day. To express this revolution with faithfulness in
the following pages, it has been necessary for a very
large portion of them to be composed of absolutely
fresh matter. Others, and in fact nearly all, have
been more or less extensively interpolated and re-
vised, and altogether the present edition of the
Manual has in three-fifths of its contents become a
new book.
vi PREFACE.

To tur from the general to the particular, the
vast and valuable additions to our scientific know-
ledge that have resulted from half a century of
German investigations have been extensively utilised
in the revision of those sections which deal with
the natural history of the bee. In nearly every page
old errors have been rectified, or newly-ascertained
facts given insertion; whilst the marvellous repro-
ductive economy of the insect has now for the first
time received notice in the work. The importation
of the Italian variety has provided occasion for
another additional section, and in fine this first
portion of the volume has grown from the twenty
small pages of the sixth edition to the forty-five
enlarged ones which are presented to the reader
now.

The introduction of frame hives, with all their
train of concomitant improvements, has compelled
the sections devoted to hives and apparatus to
undergo a renovation no whit less complete. The
department of manipulation has been subjected to
one but little less sweeping, and quite a number
of totally fresh sections will be found to be now
comprised therein. The disquieting subject of Foul
Brood, to which Mr. Taylor did not so much as
offer allusion, is now fully set forth, both in its
past and present aspects, by means of information
from Von Berlepsch and Schonfeld, which may per-
haps prove of interest to other apiculturists besides
PREFACE. Vil

those first beginners whom a manual has principally
in view.

In the carrying out of these extensive transforma-
tions the editor has kept two distinct aims before
him—to modernise everything that was really out of
date, and yet to retain every possible vestige of the
individuality of Mr. Henry Taylor. The adherence
to these sometimes conflicting lines of procedure
has necessarily caused the book to exhibit some
literary iregularities, particularly where the “I” of
the original author is followed somewhat closely
by the “we” of his reviser. But it was felt that
blemishes like these would be readily pardoned by
the reader as a preferable alternative to sacrificing
the only evidence of the presence of Mr. Taylor’s
own hand. ‘There are a host of remarks and recom-
mendations which are essentially his own, and in
which it will be a satisfaction to the reader to
know from whom they proceed, and not less so
to the editor to feel that they are so known.

More especially is the means to this distinction
felt desirable, as the editor most expressly dis-
claims the slightest idea of erecting himself into
an authority. In a literary and not a_ practical
sense consists his connection with the book, and
when he takes upon him to correct a master of
the standing of Henry Taylor, he does it distinctly
and exclusively in reliance upon the statements of
others equally esteemed. And thus, he ventures to
Vill PREFACE.

hope, on sending forth this second apiarian work
which within three years he has made largely his
own, that the accumulations herein from the studies
and labours of others may have made of this
volume a useful and trustworthy guide. More than
this it would ill become him to assert, but if he
has accomplished less than this it has at any rate
not happened from lack of adequate pains.

The first, though very far from the only source
of his emendations, has very naturally been the
volume on which his earlier labours were engaged.
The additions made thereto by himself—comprising
a large part of what is valuable in Von Berlepsch
and Langstroth—as well as the materials gathered
by Mr. Alfred Neighbour, have been freely ren-
dered available for the present purpose, though
never to the extent of even quoting his own words
without acknowledgment. Besides this, there have
been extensive researches made afresh in German
authorities; other aid has been found in Mr. Shirley
Hibberd’s ‘‘ Rustic Adornments,” and in several Eng-
lish periodicals; and, lastly, there have been the in-
valuable communications of the Rev. F. R. Cheshire
and T. W. Cowan, Esq. The assistance rendered
by both these gentlemen, though never involving
their responsibility for a single statement not ex-
pressly cited as from them, has imparted an appreci-
able degree of accuracy and completeness to the
treatment of more than one subject herein, and, both
PREFACE. 1X

in the publishers’ name and his own, the editor has
here to express to the said gentlemen his most
hearty thanks, both for the services themselves and
the courtesy with which they were uniformly given.
To Mr. Cheshire’s unique volume of instructions upon
the practice of apiculture, a special fund of obligations
must be acknowledged, and this may perhaps be most
emphatically conveyed by stating the indispensability of
the ‘Practical Bee-keeping” to every one who aspives
to become a master of manipulation.

To Messrs. Neighbour and Sons of Regent Street
and Mr. James Lee of Bagshot, as well as to Mr.
S. Simmins of Crawley and the proprietary of the
‘Country’? newspaper, further indebtedness, more
or less extensive, must be expressed for the loan
of a number of blocks for illustrations, the absence
of which would have entailed either a sad deficiency
in the value of this work, or else a large addition
to the cost of its production. Doubtless it would
have been found that many other manufacturers
would gladly have rendered similar aid, but it was
felt that, with the exception of one or two speci-
alities, it was better to restrict the selection to the
two houses universally admitted to be pre-eminent.
A mistake, however, was confessedly made at the
outset in imagining that a certain third house stood
almost on a level with the two; but a rebuff was
received from the ruling authority, and one or two
facts which have since transpired have caused a
x PREFACE.

revulsion of opinion as complete as that in the famous
case of the fox and the grapes.

One more word of egotism and the editor may
make his bow. The single claim which he has
advanced to any qualification for treating upon this
subject rests upon his connection with the new
edition of Neighbour’s ‘“Apiary;” but as it was
concluded to make no pointed mention of his name
in that work, it seems only due to his present
readers to notify that, besides entirely recasting that
volume, he compiled and wrote the greater portion
of its new matter, or about one-third of the total
contents as they stand. The frequent and favour-
able allusion to Messrs. Neighbour in the present
work will, it is hoped, without giving it even the
suspicion of being issued in the trade interest of
their firm, yet show clearly that there is no un-
friendly rivalry between the two publications, but
that both editor and publishers desire to reciprocate
to the full the kindly services which they have
themselves received.

A. W.

TwIckENHAM, June, 1880.
CONTENTS. :

 

PAGB
Introductory Notices ... an oe ae bay, she 1
The Queen or Mother Bee ... hee ues an a 4
The Common or Working Bees —... a sss we ‘da
The Drone or Male Bees... <= ae a ae, “9
Laws of Reproduction : oe eh we ee 25
Fertile Workers and Black Bags ive ae ne se Bl
The Italian or Ligurian Bee per pe eae Pop aod.
Egyptian and other Foreign Bees ... ee wwe AS
Swarming (or Single Hiving) and Depriving Sestemie,. 46
Common Straw (or Single) Hives ... Lah Be wae 54
Straw Depriving Hives He tet ses ae -- =—56
Skep Covers... m6 os i ke Bae we 66
Floor or Hive wee wes ae wae ae ae 73
Hive Stands or Pedestals... a sed oes a 76
Wooden Box Hives—without Frames... as ae 28H
Bar Hives ag8 ae ms we nhs me a. = 84
Frame Hives... 63 87

(Outer Covering, 99 ; ‘Stand, 102; Recent Prams Hiv es, ib)

Collateral System ee ae Ae we ae sex. 125
The Nadir System... ai is a ee ex 129
The Stewarton System ies Ws Be un .. 135
The Divisional System sa bad De se oe LAL
Observatory Hives... Bie ve ee ie ww. 144
Nucleus Hives Fo oes = ie se a. $146
Bee Sheds and Higauee- bes nee ae ‘i .. 149
Position and Aspect ... a6 ee ey we 153
Bee Pasturage and Number BE ives a we ye 162
Bee-Protector ... are .. 164

(Remedy for the Sting of a Bee, 166; *pisenican 167. )
xil CONTENTS.

    
   

PAGE
Miscellaneous Apparatus... . 168
(Payne’s Gl Bee Traps, Drone- Preventers, Deene Traps, 169 ;

Cheshire’s Sw. arming Board, Cheshire’s Guide-Maker, 170.)

SUMMER MANAGEMENT ; s . 172
Conveying Bees, 172; Wax and aati ios - ieille 181; Honey,
ib.; Pollen or Farina, 183; Water, 185; Shade, ab. ; Moths, Wasps
Hornets: and other Bremies 186; Super-Hiving 188; Bell-Glasses,

189; ; Triplets and Ekes, 192; Removing » Crown-Board and Frames, 2b.

AvutuMN MANAGEMENT hh a rs we 194
To Remove a full Box or Super, 195; Honey Harvest, 198; The
Honey Extr: Rotor 200; Honey Knives 202: Robbers, 203; Autum-
nal Feeding, 204; Tecins Troughs; 206; Winter Store; 211;
Autumn Population, 213; Autumnal Unions, Fuming, and Trans.
ferring Bees, 214; ee of Bees, 229; Condemned Bees, 233.

sR MANAGEMENT ae 5 es

Winter Position, 2%7 ; Internal Arra ments, 239; “Damp i in Hives,

241; Temperature, 245; Inspection of Stores, 246; Substitutes for

Pollen, 247; Cleaning, "95 0; Melting of Combs, 251; Dysentery,

252; Chilled Brood, 254; Foul Brood, 250.

Spring MANAGEMENT... = 2272

General Directions, 273 : Spring F eeding, O74; Buemiés ana Rob-
, 279; Cleaning or Changing Floor Boards, 74.; Comb-Pruning,
280; Transferring Bees with Combs, ib. ; Super- Hives, 282; Tem.
perature and Weather, 283; Swarming, 286; Returning of Swarms,
289; After-Swarms, 292; Uniting of Swarms: 297-5 Prev ention of
After-Swarms, 300; Maiden Swarms, 301; General Directions on
Swarming, 76.; Transference of Swarms, 308; Artificial Swarm-
ing, 310; Supplying New Queens, 318.

  

   

      
   

  

93

 

 

 

 

 

hers

 

  
 
 

 

  
 
  
 

 

AUTHOR'S CONCLUSION «.. As sed anit bee ws, 321
AppenpDIxX A—Brief Notes... ae 325
1, Age at which the Queen flies, 325; ge x New View. of the

3
Italians, 2b.; 3, Foreign Varieties, 327; 4, Anomalies (a, Drones
born of an Unfertile Mother ; 6, Peculiar Queens ; ¢, Aberrations
of Instinct), 327 ; 5, Orthog eraphical Variations, 328.

APPENDIX B—New Seetion Frame 330
APPENDIX C—German Beehives ... a 332
Appenpix D—Mr. Cowan’s System of W: arene 338
APPENDIX E—American Honey ee a ae eed
APPENDIX F—Bees and their C miinterteily.: 345
APPENDIX G—Extracts from Dr. Evans’s ian . 3855
INDEX... me wae Ate aN dee - <e- S6L
Post Script (Cyprian and Syrian Bees) ... wee oe 872

Corrections, see page 572
THE

BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

INTRODUCTORY NOTICES.

THe Hive or domestic Honey Bes of this country is
classed entomologically Apis mellifica, order Hymenop-
tera, or membrane-winged* insects ; it comprises the
bees, wasps, ants, and some others. Great numbers
of species of wild bees are known, and about 250 are
natives of our islands; but even of the honey-bee pro-
per there are now several kinds kept for domestic
purposes. Of these the principal, besides our own,
is the elegant Italian or Ligurian bee, which,
though sometimes classed as Apis ligustica, is gene-
rally allowed to be only a variety of the common
honey-bee, possessing no clear mark for a specific
distinction, and varying through the widest range
in respect of its differences in external colouring.
A still handsomer bee is the Egyptian, and this is
probably with correctness reckoned as a distinct

* Such (and not “wedded upon the wing” as might perhaps have
been supposed) is the meaning of the word, though the characteristic
is by no means peculiar to this order. But “having four wings,”

which Mr. Taylor gave as its distinctive feature, is one that is common
to no less than six out of the twelve of Cuvier’s orders of Insecta. *
2 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

species under the name of Apis fusciata; but both
it, and the six or eight other kinds occasionally
spoken of, are at present little more than curiosities
of the fancier, The Italian, on the contrary, is
now cultivated in nearly every apiary, and we shall
therefore make further mention of it in a sub-
sequent section; giving also the briefest possible
notice of such of the others as have at present fallen
under our observation.

The limits to which a bee-keeper’s manual of
practice is necessarily confined, permit only the
remark that these extraordinary insects are, as to
origin and history, lost in the mists of a remote
antiquity. We know, however, that they, their habits
and productions, are alluded to in Scripture, and
attracted marked attention and admiration in the
early eastern communities, where doubtless was
familiar their characteristic Oriental name, Deburah—
“she that speaketh.” Subsequently the bee has
spread itself, or been carried, in spite of clime and
temperature, over a large portion of the old
continents; following in the wake of civilised man
wherever he has placed his foot in the primeval
forests of the new world; and later on, in our own
time, has been received as a friend and benefactor in
the boundless regions of Australasia and the islands of
the Pacific Ocean. From the time of Aristotle down
to our own day, treatises on bees have ever been
popular, and the curious naturalist has no difficulty in
collecting a library relative to a subject apparently
inexhaustible. But space allows us to notice neither
the crude speculations to be met with in ancient
INTRODUCTORY NOTICES. 3

literature, the unprofitable disputations too often
prevailing among modern bee-annalists, nor the
endless catalogue of hives, possible and impossible, of
every period, by which the novice is bewildered. Our
present purpose is restricted to a utilitarian view of
the subject of apiarian knowledge, where science,
invention, and the most competent testimony, have
combined to place it in our own day.

The following facts in connection with the literature
of the subject ought however to be known to every
bee-keeper. From the seventeenth century down-
wards, this insect has found able observers in the
persons especially of Swammerdam of Holland,
Maraldi of Italy, Réaumur of France, Schirach of
Saxony, Dr. Hunter of England, and Bonnet and
Huber of Switzerland. The last-mentioned of these
is at the same time the most famous and the most
extraordinary, for though totally blind, he succeeded,
by the help principally of his assistant Burnens, in
bringing to light such marvellous facts that the entire
theory of bee-life underwent a revolution. In our own
day the science has again made gigantic strides, and
this time as the result of German research. A
second revolution, in the same direction as the first,
has in fact resulted from the observations of Dr.
Dzierzon, a Roman Catholic priest of Prussian Silesia;
while to three or four other Germans, especially the
late Baron von Berlepsch, we are also indebted for
discoveries of the highest value. The name of the
Rey. L. L. Langstroth of Ohio must be added as that
of the most esteemed of living writers whom our own
tongue can number among its apiarian authorities.
4 THE BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL.

To those who may be unacquainted with the leading
characteristic of the honey-bee, it is necessary to
premise that in every family, when fully constituted,
its members are of three kinds of individuals ; v1Z.,

od
ee

ys
é

i The Common, or Working Bees ;
ik
‘,

A Queen, ov Mother Bee,

 

   

And (during apart of the year) the
Male, or Drone Bees.

 

Thus associated, they severally perform their allotted
functions in great harmony, labouring for the general
good, combining in self-defence, recognising one
another, but permitting, as a rule, the intrusion of no
stranger within the hive.

THE QUEEN OR MOTHER BEE

Is darker on the back, longer, and more taper towards
the end of her body than the common bees; has
THE QUEEN OR MOTHER BEE. 5

longer legs but shorter wings, and is of a tawny or
yellowish-brown colour underneath. She is further
distinguished from the workers by having a somewhat
rounder head, a smaller proboscis, and legs destitute
of brushes or deposit-baskets; also by a honey-like
scent. She is supreme in the hive, admitting no rival
or equal; and is armed with a sting, somewhat more
curved in form than that of the common bees, which,
however, she rarely uses. Where she goes the other
bees follow; and so indispensable is her presence to
the existence of the commonwealth, that where she is
not, none will long remain. She is the mother of the
entire community, her office being to lay the eggs
from which all proceed, whether future queens,
drones, or workers. Separate her from the family,
and she instinctively resents the injury, refuses food,
pines, and dies. Without a queen, or a prospect of
one, the labour of the hive is suspended, and a
gradual dispersion or emigration of the community
ensues.

Those who have examined the appearance of a
beehive after it has been filled with combs during
a year, will recollect seeing suspended here and
there certain small inverted cup-shaped forms.
These are the partially destroyed remains of what
have constituted or been designed for the  birth-
places of young queens, and are commonly called
royal cells. They are very much larger than the
common hexagonal cells in which the working bees
are bred; and they further vary in their composi-
tion, the material of which appears to be a mixture
of wax or propolis and the farina of flowers.
6 THE BEE-KEEPER'’S MANUAL.

Soon after the foundation of one of them has
been laid, an egg is deposited in it,* the work

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of completion of the cradle being carried on as
required by the increasing growth of its occupant.
When finished and closed up, it presents in form
the appearance of an oblong spheroid, about an
inch long, usually appended lke a stalactite per-

* Considering the antipathy of queens to their rivals, it has long
been supposed that they never themselves lay ege¢s in royal cells, but
that the workers remove them thereinto from worker cells. Tnstances
of both acts may occur, and yet neither give a rule. Von Berlepsch
ascribes it to the queen herself (and certainly other facts show that
her antipathy is not developed till an advanced stage of her rival’s
existence); he further doubts the possibility of an ege when once
laid being removed from its original spot, unless by accidental adherence
to a bee’s body before its glutinous coating has rendered it a fixture.
Mrs. E. 8. Tupper, however, cites an instance of such removal which
seems hard to dispute, and Mr. Cheshire and others have noted
similar ones. But very often, we know, the cell was a worker cell
when the egg was deposited by the queen, and was not till afterwards
transformed into a royal one. This indeed may be accepted as the
general rule, but the whole subject requires further investigation.
THE QUEEN OR MOTHER BEE. 7

pendicularly to the edge of a comb, the small
end or mouth being downwards, a position most
favourable to economy of space in the hive. In
number the royal cells vary from four or five
to a dozen, and sometimes more. They are not
commenced till after the usual ereat spring laying of
eggs for the production of working bees, preparatory
to swarming; as well as of those to produce drone
bees. The existence of the latter, in some stage of
development, is an invariable preliminary to the con-
struction of royal cells, the reason for which will
uereafter appear. The affectionate attachment evinced
by the nurse-bees towards the royal larve is marvel-
lous, and the quantity of food given is profuse.
They arrive severally at maturity on or about the
sixteenth day from the laying of each egg; these
having usually an interval between them of but a
few days. Of the young females, or princesses as
they are often called, and the mode of disposing
of supernumerary ones, we shall speak more at
large when we come to treat of swarming.

The duration of life in a queen bee, under ordinary
circumstances, is, by a wise provision for the per-
petuation of the species, much more prolonged than
is the case with the common bees, and has been
satisfactorily ascertained to extend sometimes to a
term of five years; four years is set down by Dzier-
zon as the average. I am, however, inclined to
believe that changes of queens take place oftener
than we are aware of, for in nothing in nature is
there displayed a more careful attention to the
due preservation of a family of bees than in the
8 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL,

provision made for supplying the casual vacancies
arising not merely from the natural demise of the
sovereign, but from other causes, especially those
involving deficient powers or absolute sterility.
should therefore discountenance any attempt at
direct interference by the forcible removal of a queen,
after a prescribed period, as has sometimes been ad-
vocated.* If, however, it should happen that such
removal is absolutely necessary, the bees will accept
a successor as soon as they have discovered their
loss, which is often not till after the lapse of
several hours. If all is right the previous agita-
tion will cease.

And this leads us on to a curious, if not unique,
fact in relation to the natural history of the honey-
bee, which, though probably not unknown to the
ancients, was re-discovered and promulgated by Schi-
rach, a member of an apiarian society formed in
the middle of the last century at Little Bautzen,
in Upper Lusatia. In contradistinction to the usual
way in which a young queen is created, preparatory
to the swarming season, by what is denominated
the natural process, the details which we are about
to give show that the same thing may be effected
by another mode, or, as it is said, artificially. Whether
these terms, as opposed to each other, are rightly
applied or not, they at least mark a difference; and
bemg thus practically understood, we shall follow

* The editor has left this recommendation of Mr. Taylor’s unaltered
though doubting whether he would express himself just in the same
way at the present date. Still a fair deduction fromthe entire passa 0
is—Don’t remove the queen merely because she is three years old, bab
do so if she exhibits a falling-off in her laying powers. é
THE QUEEN OR MOTHER BEE. 9

the example of other authors in using them. The
fact itself, startling as at first it seemed, has been
so clearly authenticated that any lurking scepticism
has disappeared; and, indeed, the principle is now
so well understood and carried into general use by
the scientific apiculturist that, in a popular treatise
on the honey-bee, our object would be imperfectly
accomplished without entering into a few particulars
in connection with it. And first, we have the assur-
ance that the prevalent opinion as to any supposed
original or generated difference between common
eggs and those laid for the especial, production of
queen bees, is founded in error; an altered and
accelerated mode as to the development of the
ege being all that is needed for the maturation of
a perfect female. That we may understand the
method of procedure on the part of the bees, we
have to suppose that a hive has been deprived of
its queen (no matter whether by death or design)
at a period when eggs or larve, or both, are
present in the cells: such larve, to answer the
purpose, being not more than two or three days old,
for this is essential. Could we at such a juncture
witness the proceedings of the family, a spectacle
would be presented of much domestic distress and
confusion when it had been discovered that the
hive was queenless. Soon, however, the scene
changes to the quietude of hope, for the foundation
of a queen’s cell (and, as a provision against
possible failure, often of three or four) is com-
menced by the bees, usually within twenty-four
hours. They select a worker egg, or else a grub
10 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

or larva not exceeding the age just specified, and
enlarge the cell it occupies by sacrificing three of
the contiguous ones, surrounding it with a cylin-
dvical enclosure; the new cradle of royalty pre-
senting in this stage the appearance of an acorn
cup. The embryo pvincess, for such she has now
become, is amply supplied with a nurture known as
“royal jelly,” which consists of a mixture of honey
with pollen that has undergone partial diges-
tion in the bodies of the nurses; her habitation
in the meanwhile receiving elongation to suit her
erowth. About the fifth day the worm assumes the
nymph state, the cell being now worked into its
usual pear-shaped figure; the bees quitting it as
soon as the lower end is finally closed. About the
sixteenth day a perfectly developed female comes
forth, in no respect differing from a qucen bred in
the natural way. Fecundation and the laying of
egos usually follow in a few days, the economy of
the hive then resuming its wonted course. But
should the loss of the queen happen at a season
when the hive is without any worker brood, the
whole colony must in time die off, unless a new
queen is introduced by the bee-keeper.

The queen bee rarely* leaves home, or is to be
seen, except in hives constructed purposely with a
view to observation. In sucha one [ have frequently
watched the proceedings, as she has leisurely traversed

* Tt should rather be said never, except when in the first few days or
weeks of her life she sallics forth in quest ofa mate. When this object
has been once accomplished, she remains impregnated either for her

entire existence or until hopelessly supcrannuated. Of course the
occasion of swarming will furnish another exception.
THE QUEEN OR MOTHER BEE. 11

the combs, the bees clearing a passage on her approach,
their heads turned towards her, and, by repeatedly
touching her with their antenne, showing what
appears to be a marked attachment—a favour she is
occasionally seen to return. Indeed, in some well-
authenticated instances, the signs of affection have
been continued even after her death. The precise
character of this feeling is now, however, regarded in
a very different light from what it formerly was, for it
is plainly the mere loyalty of a subject rather than
the personal love of a child. But even this view is
only partially the correct one, and to fully realise its
nature we must take into account the intense patriotic
spirit of the bees; they know that the queen is essen-
tial to the prosperity of the commonwealth, and as
such, and not as caring a straw or a crumb of wax
about her individual person, they cherish her devo-
tedly and show their lives to be bound up in hers.

The one great object of her existence being the
perpetuation of the species, her majesty seems
intent on nothing more, during her royal pro-
gresses through the hive, than peeping into the cells
as she passes them, ever and anon selecting one,
within which she proceeds to insert her abdomen,
and to deposit at the bottom an egg. These eggs
are about the size of those produced by a butter-
fly, but they are more elongated, and of a bluish-
white colour. So prolific are some queens that I
have sometimes witnessed an extraordinary waste
of eggs when, as the combs have become in great
part filled with brood or honey, she finds a difficulty
in meeting with a sufficiency of unoccupied cells.
12 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

In such an emergency, impelled by necessity, the
eges are dropped at random, and carricd off or
devoured by the bees. No doubt an carly and pro-
ductive season tends often to this result, and marks
the necessity of a timely temporary addition to the
storing room of the family. he great laying takes
place in April and May, and the number of eggs
then Jaid in a flourishing hive ranges usually from
a thousand to fifteen hundred or two thousand per
day, and has been known even to exceed three
thousand.* But when we take imto account the
enormous demand for the supply of swarms, the
constant deaths occurrmg in the course of nature,
and the thousands of lives always being sacrificed
by casualties of various kinds, both at home and
abroad, even this high estimate necd cause us no
misgivings. As the cold weather advances, however,
there ig a tremendous falling-off in the number of
eges, though the interval is very short in which the
queen, in a flourishing hive, discontinues laying more
or less. “Indeed,” observes Mr. Golding, “it appears
that at any time when the temperature is not too low
for the bees to appropriate the food that is given to
them, the queen will deposit eggs.” In November and
December, however, there will be comparatively none.

The queen’s rate of feeding varies very naturally in
proportion to that of her laying. It is the duty of a

*Von Berlepsch had a queen which he observed to lay six evgs in a
given minute, 3021 in twenty-four hours, 57,000 in twenty days and
to keep on for the five years of her life at a rate of at least! 300.000 per
year. Similarly Dzierzon tells us that even the generality of queens will
ina favourable season produce 60,000 per month, and a superior one
will lay over a million egys in the four years of her life.
THE QUEEN OR MOTHER BEE. 13

portion of the workers to supply her with honey, as
well as with pollen prepared like that used in pre-
paration of the royal jelly. She has no objection
however to sucking honey direct from the cells upon
occasion.

We often read of the combats between rival
queens when there happens to be two in a hive,
but though such have in numberless cases been
witnessed, it is now established that there are
great numbers of exceptions to the rule, if indeed
it can any longer be considered the rule at all.
Very commonly the new-comer is at once destroyed
by the workers, while instances are anything but
rare in which the two are permitted to reign together.
In the case of Italian bees it is stated by Von
Hruschka that the latter course is actually the law as
soon as the elder queen has entered her third year.
But on the other hand the rivals have been often seen
to grapple each other in mortal combat till one
of them is pierced by the sting of the other—this
being the only occasion in which a queen will
ordinarily make use of her sting. Similarly it is
known that a princess on first coming from her
cradle-cell, will rush straightway to tear open the
other royal cells and destroy her rivals before they
issue forth.

The following points should be noticed in cor-
rection of the statements found in older works: the
rule of the queen in the hive is anything but
absolute, the workers very often entirely controlling
her; the personal love which these are said to
evince for her is really a mere matter of business
14 THE BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL.

and law; there is no such thing as a guard in
attendance on her, though the nurses when feeding
her may present that appearance; and lastly, aus
we have just seen, the presence of two queens m
a hive does not invariably result in a fight.

THE COMMON OR WORKING BEES

Are the least in size, and in point of numbers in a
family are variously reckoned at from twelve to thirty
thousand, according to the bulk of the swarm; though
under certain circumstances they are sometimes much
more numerous—indeed from thirty to fifty thousand
may be set down as the average population of an
English hive in a settled condition. As regards sex,
we have already seen that there is no reason to doubt
that there are females, only that the reproductive
organs and ovaries are not so fully developed as they
are in the case of a perfect queen; and this has led to
the erroneous use of the term neuters, as sometimes
applied to the common bees. If any doubt should
remain as to their sex, it is removed by the knowledge
that, in some instances, they are able to pro-
duce eggs. Like the queen, each has the power of
stinging. The use of the sting, however, usually
involves a loss of life, for, being barbed like an arrow,
the bee has rarely the power of withdrawing it.

The eggs for workers are deposited in the common
cells in the centre of the hive, such being the part
first selected for that purpose, the queen usually laying
them equally on each side of a comb, and nearly back
to back. In three or four days’ time they are
THE COMMON OR WORKING BEES. 15

hatched, when a small worm is presented, remaining
in the larva or grub state four to six days more,
during which period it is assiduously fed by the nurse-
bees. The larve then assume the nymph or pupa
form, and spin themselves a film or cocoon, the nurses
immediately after sealing them up with a substance
which Huber* calls wax. It is, however, a mixture of
wax and pollen, being thicker, more highly coloured,
more porous, and less tenacious, probably to afford
air, and facilitate the escape of the imprisoned tenant.
This takes place about the twentieth day after the
laying of the egg, unless the process has been some-
what retarded by cold weather. The attentive observer
may at this time, in a suitable hive, witness the
struggles and scrambling into the world, generally by
its own exertions, of the now perfect imago, the little
grey new-born shaking, brushing, and smoothing it-
self, preparatory to entering upon the duties of life.+

The observations of recent years have added greatly
to our knowledge respecting the arrangement of these
multifarious duties. It was one of the few errors put
forth by Huber that there exist two separate classes
of worker bees—the indoor and the outdoor. This

* See “Observations on the Natural History of Bees,” by Francis
Huber: English edition, London, 1841. An invaluable work to the
scientific apiculturist.

t+ As soon as the young bee comes forth, the others partially clear
the cell, and it again receives an eg ; this being often repeated four or
five times in the season. Afterwards the cells become the receptacles
for honey or farina ; but they are found in time to become contracted
or thickened by this rapid succession of tenants, and the consequent
deposits of exuvize, excrement, dc. It has been asserted by Huber
and other naturalists, that young bees, bred in old contracted cells, are
proportionately smaller in size. Such combs should be removed from

the hive. Brood-cells are at once distinguishable from those
containing honey by the dark colour and convexity of the former.
16 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

distinction is now definitely ascertained to be one of
age alone. The young bee upon quitting its cell takes
upon it a share in the home labour—cleansing or
ventilating the hive, secreting wax or constructing
comb, sealing the cells or warming the eggs; or it
becomes a nursing bee and supplies food as above
described to the queen, the larve, and even the
drones. It must attain the age of at least four and
it may be ten days (for observations have as yet given
no exacter limit) before it commences so much as
sporting before the hive; and it is a few days later
still—somewhere between ten and twenty from its
birth—before it flies boldly abroad and engages in the
task of honcy-gathering.

Much that is very interesting might be added, if our
limits permitted, in reference to several of these
duties. The work of ventilation in hot weather is
carried out by two detachments—the one stationed
outside the flight-hole and driving in fresh air by
fanning with their wings, and the other just within the
hive, and expelling the foul air in a like mode. The
process of wax-secretion is described further on under
the chapter headed “Summer Management.” Another
home occupation popularly ascribed to the workers—
that of acting as sentinels—is now discarded as
equally erroncous with that of serving as a guard to
the queen; for as no bees are to be found at the
entrance at the seasons when invasions are most likely
to occur, it is a safe assumption that those so found in
the summer time are there either as fanners or as a
matter of personal choice. The adult workers—that
is to say, those that have passed these few days

 

 
THE COMMON OR WORKING BEES. 17

of early life—oceupy themselves exclusively in field
tasks, except when there are an insullicient number
of younger ones to attend to them. The bees’ out-
door labours are also adverted to under the heading
just noted, as well as in the section upon ‘‘ Bee
Pasturage.”

The longevity of the working bees has often
furnished matter for dispute, and erroneous ideas have
been engendered where a family has been seen for a
series of years to continue in a populous and thriving
condition. But during this period the queen (or more
than one in succession) has been incessantly occupied
in laying eggs innumerable, to supply by new births
the place of the countless thousands of bees that
periodically disappear. Their dwelling has remained,
but successive generations of tenants have kept its
works in repair, giving way in time to fresh occupants.
The determination of the age they do really attain
has been rendered comparatively simple by the in-
troduction of the Italian bee; for nothing more is
needed than to substitute an Italian queen for a
common one, and then to note carefully the interval
before the last of the old variety has disappeared
from the hive. The results vary widely according
to the season of the year, for the summer labour,
especially if the bees have to fly gréat distances,
or amongst corn or other vegetation damaging to
their wings, will shorten their lives from four to ten
fold. In fact during this season an active worker
can never live longer than three months, while
numbers will be worn out in as many weeks, and six
weeks is set down as the average summer term of

Cc
13 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

existence. But those born at the end of the gathering
season have been known to live for fully eight months,
while if deprived of a queen and well fed (for they
then will not work), the same bees have been sustained
for from ten months to over a year.

To enter properly into the senses and faculties of
bees would necessitate a chapter upon their anatomy,
and for this our limits cannot make room. A few
brief sentences must therefore suffice. Their principal
eyes form lobes at each side of the face, and each eye
resembles a miultiplying-glass consisting of some
thousand separate lenses, each of which 1s constructed
with most marvellous intricacy. Besides these a bee
possesses three small globular eyes on the top of its
head. The insect manifests considerable power in
distinguishing colours. The seat of hearing is
undecided, but probably in the antennse—for that
they do hear may be set down as quite certain, if only
from the responsive pipings of rival princesses. The
sense of smell is thought by many to reside in the
same organs, though this is less clearly established.
But with these it is certain that they communicate
with each other, and telegraph round the hive the
state of affairs and the decrees of their own will. The
same antenne are of course their most delicate
organs of feeling, and altogether if these are removed
the insect becomes useless. The toneue resembles an
elephant’s proboscis, and none will need assurance of
bees possessing an exquisite sense of taste. True they
like many things which we do not, but that only
exemplifies a well-hackneyed proverb. They perform
the most essential services to flowers by conveying the
THE DRONE OR MALE BEES. 19

pollen about from the male to the female organs
(from stamens to pistils), when these are situated in
different flowers or upon different roots.

Bees know the members of their own colonies—it is
supposed from a particular smell belonging to each
hive. If a bee enters a wrong hive it will very
probably be immediately put to death, and thus when
the intruder recognises its blunder it becomes flurried
and seeks to escape—an act which only serves all
the more to attract attention to its delinquency.
But during the gathering season, when stores are
plenteous, there is much more of a ‘communism of
dwellings,” and a strange bee bringing in a load and
depositing it without scruple, is usually admitted
without scruple too.

We might here allude to a prevalent error as to any
inherent difference, local or otherwise, in the
characteristics of the domestic honey-bee. When we
hear it said that some are ‘better workers” than
others, all that ought to be understood is, that the
former have the advantage of being under favourable
circumstances as to locality or season, with a fertile
queen, and an abundant population; for without these
essentials, every operation goes on sluggishly, and
prosperity becomes hopeless.*

THE DRONE OR MALE BEES
Are computed in the early part of the summer at one
to two thousand, and upwards, in a stock-hive; but

* Of course this paragraph has no reference to the debated question
as to the superiority of Ttalian or other foreign varieties.
c 2
20 THE BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL.

the numbers are irregular, for a weak stock will often
have an undue proportion. They possess no sting ;
are larger, darker, and more hairy than the common
bees; easily distinguishable by their heavy motion on
the wing, and by their louder humming or droning.
There is a strong odour about them.

After her great spring laying of common eggs
has far advanced, and as an invariable preliminary
to the construction of royal cells, the queen proceeds
to deposit eges intended for the production of drones
or males, though often without discontinuing those
for workers, and in fact filling the cells of the
one or the other indifferently as she comes upon
them in her progress. In the first year of her life a
queen of the ordinary breed usually lays very few
drone eggs. Italian queens however are said to
disregard this rule, and the circumstance is alleged
against them by those unfavourable to the foreign
variety. The drone eggs are laid in cells larger in
diameter, and deeper and stronger than the others,
and usually placed towards the outer extremities of
the hive. A longer period is necessary for the
development of a male than a female, and the
drones pass through their various stages in from
twenty-four to twenty-six days, being seldom seen
till about the beginning of May (though occasionally
earlier), and then only in warm weather, in the
middle of the day. These are the produce of the
first-laid eggs; for a second smaller laying of drone
eggs commonly takes place about two months later,
though the males are rarely found after August,
unless under certain contingencies.

 
TIE DRONE OR MALE BIKES. 21

The drones take no part in the collection of
stores, nor in any operation or process of the hive,
from which fact they have proverbially suffered
much reproach really ignorant and absurd, since
nature has denied them the necessary means, and
in their creation has allotted them a distinct. office.
Indeed, their flights from the hive are only occasional
short ones, and they rarely alight during such ex-
cursions. They are of the male sex, their presence
in a hive being only required at that particular period
when the young queens are arriving at maturity.
Pairing invariably takes place upon the wing, or at
any rate abroad from the hive. The virgin queen
then sets sail from home, and will continue so doing
day after day if unsuccessful in mating upon the first
flight. Having at length been met by a drone—who
forfeits his life as the speedy or in most cases the
instantaneous consequence—she returns to the hive
with the male organ adhering to her extremity,
and constituting what is known as the ‘wedding
token.” No attempt should be made to release her
from this, as the consequences are dangerous to
her; but she will as a rule succeed in detaching
it by her own efforts, and will in the course of
two or three days commence her functions as
a mother bee. It has been debated whether this
pairing takes place between a queen and drone of
the same or of different hives. It appears estab-
lished that there is no actual law in the matter,
but as a point of fact, interbreeding would seem
the exception. That cases of the latter have occurred
is altogether beyond dispute, nay more, the pre-
22 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

sumption is that they are by no means rare; but
such will scarcely happen when the union is con-
summated remote from the hive, and a_ recent
instance has been cited in which the pair had
met from a distance of five miles—the production
of a mongrel brood in a cottage garden proving
that a drone of the only Italian colony in the
district must have come upon the queen though
at this wide interval of space.*

“Naturalists,” says Huber, “have been extremely
embarrassed to account for the number of males in
most hives, for they seem only a burden on the
community, since they appear to fulfil no function.
But we now begin to discern the object of nature
in multiplying them to such an extent. As fecunda-
tion cannot be accomplished within the hive, and
as the queen is obliged to traverse the expanse of
the atmosphere, it is requisite that the males should
be numerous, that she may have the chance of
meeting some one of them. Were only two or
three in each hive, there would be little probability
of their departure at the same instant with the
queen, or that they would meet in their excursions;
and most of the females might thus remain sterile.”

Were any doubt to remain on the subject, per-
haps the annual destruction of the drones by the
workers throws the most satisfactory light on the
design of their creation. This process varies in
point of time, according to circumstances. If we de-
prive a hive forcibly of its queen, then, according to

* Cited by the “Renfrewshire Bee Keeper” in the British Bee
Journal of May, 1877
THE DRONE OR MALE BEES. 23

Bonner* and Huber, no expulsion of drones occurs.
“In such cases,” says the latter, ‘they are tolerated
and fed, and many are seen even in the middle
of January.” They are retained under the inspira-
tion of hope, for a contingency might arise to
require their presence. Where a necessity for swarm-
ing has been in any way superseded, there are
either no royal cells constructed, or the young
queens meet with premature destruction. Then fre-
quently commences an early expulsion of the drones,
thus rendered purposeless; they become mere con-
sumers, an incumbrance in the hive, and as such,
the worker bees instinctively wage fierce war upon
them, ending in total annihilation; nor are even
the male larve allowed to remain in their cells.
Very little actual stinging takes place, but the
drones are attacked and worried away from the
stores of provisions, until, when thoroughly weak-
ened from exhaustion, they lose all power of re-
sistance, and are driven forth one by one to perish
in the cold. Care should be taken to prevent their
stifling the hive by dying in a pile at the entrance-
hole. This expulsive process often commences
under such circumstances, in the middle, or at any
rate towards the end, of May, as I have repeatedly
witnessed, and not unfrequently is again resorted
to later on in the season. On the other hand, in
the case of swarming hives it does not take place
till July, or even later, according to season and
locality, when all the royal brood is disposed of.

* A Scotch apiarian of the 18th century ; not to be confused with
Bonnet. ‘Lhe observation has since been confirmed by others.
24 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

The circumstances differ in the two cases; and
the bees in this, as in other parts of their practice,
are sufficiently utilitarians to modify their proceed-

ings accordantly. In the one instance the office
of the males is rendered void, and in the other it
is indispensable to the young queens. Such of

these as go forth with swarms become fertilised in
two or three days after (though sometimes it is
later than this), and then follows the laying of eggs
in about a similar distance of time. Thenceforth
they remain fruitful, without the subsequent presence
of a single male in the family till the following
spring. The destruction of the drones, therefore, be
it sooner or later, may be considered an indication
that the hive contains no queen brood, and, conse-
quently, that no swarming is to be expected.
Conflicting opinions have been formed as to the
desivableness of assisting the working bees in the task
of expelling the drones—often a protracted process,
for although the latter are not armed, like
their more numerous opponents, yet their superior
size and strength dispose them often to

make
a stout resistance.

If it can be done at once, without
undue annoyance to the family, much fightine and
valuable time may doubtless be saved by interfering ;
but no advice can be worse than that of attempting ie
accomplish the work piecemeal. When attacked, the
drones, to stave off the impending

storm, will
congregate together

in a remote part of the hive.
Observation led me to think they would at such a
time be clad to retreat for still creater safety into a
separate box, so placed as to be accessible to them.

 
LAWS OF REPRODUCTION. 25

Accordingly, on a 14th of June, in one of my
collateral stock-hives, where the drones for a day or
two had been hard pushed by the others, [ opened a
communication on the eround floor into an empty side
box. My theory was completely realised, for the poor
drones gladly made their way into this, where they
remained clustered at the top like a swarm—not a
single working bee accompanying them—and would
probably have been starved. The following morning I
took away the box of drones and destroyed them,
counting rather more than 2200, besides some few that
had eseaped; altogether a greater number than the
usual estimate gives to a family. I did not find among
them a solitary working bee; nor could I discover in
the parent stock-hive one remaining drone. The bees
peaceably at once recommenced work, and did well;
as if glad in this wholesale way to be rid of their late
unprofitable inmates. What was the cost of their
daily maintenance? And what proportion to the
entire population of the hive did the drones bear ?
After this apparently large abstraction, no sensible
difference was observable wm the crowding. In this hive
the usual second laying of drone eges took place, and
a good many more drones were expelled at the end of
July. I have not been enabled to repeat this
experiment, but have no doubt it would always
succeed under similar circumstances.

LAWS OF REPRODUCTION,

Within the course of the present generation the most
surprising discoveries have been made in this field,
26 « THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

and mainly owing to the researches of the cae
famous Dzierzon. It has long been known that a
unfertile queen will frequently lay eggs, but that a
egos invariably hatch into drones. This fact—now
recognised by the term parthenogenesis, or virgin
breeding—is in itself sufficiently marvellous, as fur-
nishing an instance in which life can be imparted by
the mother alone, and showing that the male sex of
bees require no male side in their parentage. Still it
remained an enigma how the queen could lay both
drone and worker eggs after her fertilisation had once
been accomplished, and moreover how the respective
sexes should uniformly be hatched from the cells
designed by the workers for each. Observation abun-
dantly proved that the same queen laid eggs in drone
and in worker cells, that those laid in the former did
really develop into drones, and that she often shifted
about in her laying, from drone to worker or from
worker to drone, just as the cells happened to fall in
her way.

Both the queen herself and her eggs had to undergo
rigorous microscopic examination before the key to
this mystery was found. The reproductive organs of
the queen are arranged in this manner. She pos-
sesses two ovaries or egg-bags, and proceeding there-
from are the oviducts or egg-passages, which presently
unite in the form of a letter Y. Placed upon, and
opening into the united passage, there is a small
round vessel called the spermatheca (seed-case), and
this vessel was found, in the case of a fertile queen, to
be filled with the same fluid as was met with in the
male organs of the drones, while with an unfertile
LAWS OF REPRODUCTION, 27

queen it was oceupied quite differently—the one con-
taining some millions of spermatozoa and the other
none at all. Then came the search for a distinction
between drone and worker eges—eges which to the
closest scrutiny hitherto had proved absolutely iden-
tical both without and within. But Professor von
Siebold, under the auspices of Baron von Berlepscli,
at length told a different tale, for he proved the impor-
tant fact that worker eges contain within them
spermatozoa, while drone eggs are absolutely destitute
of such. Thus it became evident that every ege, as it
originally issued from the queen’s ovaries, was a drone
egg, but that if on passing the spermatheca a com-
pression was given which caused one or more sperma-
tozoa to enter it, the sex of the egg was thereby
changed, and it would require to be laid in a worker
cell.

A controversy has since been raised as to the actual
cause of the compression just noticed, for it appeared
to some that the queen did not administer the
squeeze herself, but the cells administered it for her.
Thus the late Mr. Wagner of Philadelphia started the
theory, which long found favour with very many, that
when the queen’s abdomen was inserted in the worker
cells, the narrow limits of these compressed her, and
thus produced fecundation of the egg, while the more
spacious drone cells had no effect of the kind. This
hypothesis was ingenious, but assuredly very unhappy
and unnatural. For the queen’s spermatheca is of
infinitesimal dimensions, and thus any external pro-
cess of pinching which would not cause it utterly to
collapse, must necessarily itself be infinitesimal too.
28 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

To obtain this result with absolute uniformity, it
must be essential that all worker cells and all
queens’ bodies should be of mathematically the same
size, and that the one should be inserted into the
other in the same invariable posture and angle! For
how otherwise could such exquisite delicacy be regu-
lated, except by an adjustment controlled by the
queen's own will—a gentle touch against one side of
the cell, that was as easily effected in a wide as in a
narrow one? But there is no conceivable reason to
drive us to even this last hypothesis, for it is at
variance with all the analogies of nature that the
queen should possess an organ which she has no
power within her of controlling. We may therefore
dismiss every vestige of this uncalled-for supposition,
and be satisfied, on the one hand, that just as the
workers know the sex for which they are constructing
the cells, so the queen too knows the sex of them when
they are constructed; and on the other, that as in her
rounds she comes upon each class of cells, she adapts
her eggs by her own power accordingly. The demon-
strations of Von Berlepsch have satisfactorily proved
such to be the case, and the mechanical Wagner
theory may now be said to be melted into air.*

The fact of the descent of male bees from the
mother alone can be made obvious to the comprehen-

* The Baron proves his case by the citation of a host of exceptional
instances in which the space within the cells could not possibly influence
the result—such as the hatching of drones from old and thickened
cells na larger than those of workers; slender queens laying worker
ges as extensively as larger ones ; workers issuing from newly formed
cells which had xo sides when the eggs were deposited ; and the hatch-
ing of workers by thousands from drone cells if the queen is kept in a
hive containing no others.

 

egos

    
LAWS OF REPRODUCTION. 29

sion of all from the following circumstance, which is
another of the valuable discoveries due to the intro-
duction of Italian bees. If the queen of the one breed
is impregnated by the drone of another, it is only the
workers of her progeny which turn out mongrels—the
drones all retain the pure breed of the mother herself.
Thus the introduction into an apiary of a single Italian
queen is sure to be followed by the raising of pure
Italian drones, and this circumstance may be turned to
advantage by the intelligent bee-keeper in preserving
the breed from speedy degeneracy.

A few particulars may here be added to those
which were given on this subject under the section
on ‘‘The Drone.” The queen commences her wed-
ding flights on the first fine day after she is two
days old (many instances are later, but this is the
date fixed by the best authorities). She will con-
tinue them day after day until her object is achieved,
but of this there will be very little hope if they are
prolonged beyond four weeks. Dzierzon and Von
Berlepsch state that they have met with positive
instances of success up to a period of from thirty
to forty-six days from birth; while they have known
queens protract them, hopelessly after date, for a
term of even three months. It is only during the
first few weeks of her existence that she is capable
of receiving impregnation, and if this brief limit is
once overpassed, she is doomed to remain for life
either utterly sterile or else a confirmed drone-
breeder. It is a disputed point whether a virgin
queen that has once commenced the breeding of
drones can ever afterwards become a fertile mother.

 
30 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

Langstroth says that he has had a clear instance
of this change for the better; but Von Berlepsch
sets theory against observation, and believes that
the drone eggs, which Mr. Langstroth had previously
noticed, must have been laid by a fertile worker,*
and not by the young queen. But it is hard to be-
lieve that Mr. Langstroth could be capable of such
a mistake, and if queens are not all alike in this
respect after failing to become impregnated, it seems
uureasonable to conclude that they must be all alike
at an earlier epoch. This, however, is another ques-
tion as to which further observation is to be desired.

A few instances are recorded in which the act of
copulation has been witnessed, and in two of these the
drone fell instantly dead, in a third it survived for a
few minutes, and in a fourth it flew away apparently
unharmed. One of these cases is reported from Ger-
many ; two others are cited in the American Bee Jour-
nl for March, 1861, and the fourth by its British
namesake for June, 1878. This last, if it could be
depended upon as even a probable case of accom-
plished fecundation, would modify the accepted views
very materially; but most unfortunately the observer
did not pursue the matter, and does not therefore tell
us whether the queen exhibited the “token,” or even
whether she proved fertilised or not—and without this
information we must not depart from the established
belief that the act is necessarily fatal to the male bee.
The cause of this singular catastrophe is to be found
in the structure of the male organ, which is a sort of

* This term is explained a little further on.
FERTILE WORKERS AND BLACK Bins. 31

contorted tube, in its normal posture retained wholly
within the body, and joimed at one end with the sem!-
nal duct, and at the other with the external orifice.
For such a tube to be propelled outwards, it would
appear that the duct must be driven down it so as to
turn it inside out like a stocking—an act requiring the
exertion of extraordinary force. It involves a pre-
ceding inflation of the abdomen, and the two move-
ments are comparable to the hasty opening and shut-
ting of a pair of bellows. The result is an internal
displacement, so violent as to cause an immediate
rupture to the system; while the act itself appears
to be quite impossible of accomplishment except
when the breathing vessels are distended by motion
upon the wing.* The remaining of the organ within
the queen’s body is due to the horn-like protuber-
ances detected upon it by the microscope.

FERTILE WORKERS AND BLACK BEES.

Certain anomalous individuals occasionally make
their appearance in a hive, and especially those
known as fertile workers. These bees prove on dis-
section to possess half-developed ovaries capable of
producing eggs, but no spermatheca for fertilising
them, and therefore no means in themselves of
receiving fecundation from the drones. It follows
that they lay no other than drone eggs—a fact suf-
ficient in itself to render their presence undesirable

* This is Professor Leuckart’s very rational explanation of the other-
wise puzzling circumstance that pairing is never attempted within the
hive.
32 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

in a colony, but sinking into a trifle before the far
eveater objection that they evince a propensity to
destroy any proper queen. Happily they are not very
frequent in hives which are in a settled condition,
but make their appearance usually in those that are
queenless, destroying however any queen which the
apiculturist may introduce. Their origin, to a cer-
tain extent, is clear enough—a queen is wanted for
the hive, and the royal jelly is plentifully provided,
but it is partaken of too late to produce genuine
queens. About the third day of the existence in the
larva form is the latest at which this change can be
accomplished; but the bees become so demented,
when deprived of their royal mother, that they
supply it to much older brood—nay, to drones, and
even to lumps of pollen—and the appearance in
some queenless hives of fertile workers by wholesale*
makes it safe to conclude that such late fostering
has been the cause. Whether a worker once hatched
can develop the same power, has not as yet been
satisfactorily shown; but it is strongly so suspected
by some, and it seems possible at least that such
feeding upon royal jelly may account for the anti-
pathy to queens which some individual bees go sin-
gularly manifest; the jelly sufficing, if for nothing
more, to produce this feeling of superiority, and
consequent animosity to rivals, which are so charac-
teristic of the mother bee. If a fertile worker ap-
pears under normal conditions, the occurrence may

* Dr. Dénhoff mentions an instance in which the bulk of the bees in
a hive developed this faculty ; but without more definite particulars we
cannot deduce herefrom at what precise stage of their existence the
acquired the power. cas i
FERTILE WORKERS AND BLACK BEES. 33

be provisionally accounted for on the theory of Von
Berlepsch and Langstroth, that the jelly had been
purposely supplied to it when at the proper stage,
but the design abandoned, and the royal cell never
completed. This explanation is better than the one
offered by Huber, that the jelly had dropped into
the cell by accident.

These fertile workers devote themselves wholly to
the office of drone-producers, and hence apparently
they never fly forth for the purpose of honey-gather-
ing. On this assumption it has been recommended
by Mr. Rorl, as a ready means of destroying such
a pest, to drive out all the bees into an empty hive,
which is to be set up in another part of the garden;
all the bees accustomed to flying will at once find
their way back to their former home, but the one in
question will not know the way, and will thus either
be lost at once, or enter a wrong hive and be
promptly despatched.

The term ‘black bees,” when used to denote a
kind of monstrosity (for very often, unfortunately, it is
also applied to distinguish brown bees from Italians),
refers to individuals of a darker colour than the
rest, and destitute of the ordinary downy coat. The
former feature is now declared to be the result of
nothing more than a smearing with honey, while the
latter is traced to a habit of creeping through navr-
row crevices. They are old-addicted robbers, says
Dzierzon, and both these characteristics may be
taken to point to such a verdict.

It appears, however, that really black worker bees

have been met with—sometimes with the addition
D
34 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

of black hairs—which were s0 distinguished from
their very birth. Still greater curiosities have been
come upon which are all white or with white patches;
others again that are reddish; drones with fiery red
eyes, beautiful red heads, or a blue tint that disap-
pears after the first flight; light fox-coloured drones,
or black with rings like Italians; lastly, queens with
yellow or red rings, or which are nearly or quite
black.

THE ITALIAN OR LIGURIAN BEE.

This variety of the honey-bee was first imported
into England in 1859, Messrs. Neighbour and the
late Mr. Woodbury dividing the honour of having
been the original recipients.* It has been rather
unfortunate in its acquirement of a name, for

* As our author played a part in the introduction of this bee into
England, it may be not unaccept ble to our readers to learn some fur-
ther particulars. He was at the time chief apiarian correspondent to
the Cottage Gardener (now the Journal of Horticulture), and on July
15, 1859, there appeared in its columns a communication from hin,
stating that a friend—whom we learn from “The Apiary” to have
been on: of the Messrs. Neighbour—had just shown him a letter in
which a M. Hermann, of Tamins-by-Chur, Canton Grison, offered to
supply a new variety of the honey-bee, which he recommended as
hizhly superior to the common one. A week or two later we find
in the same paper a long and interesting letter from Mr. Woodbury
(“A Devonsh re Bee Keeper”), in which he states how he had been
fired by this announcement, and had promptly applied for one of the
new queens to be sent to himself. In a most entertaining manner he
describes the receipt and introduction of the yellow queen and her
“thousand people’—how he united these with a queenless stock of ten
or twelve times that p pulation, and how a murderous battle ensued in
which “ British valour was triumphant” and the over-matched and
travel-worn Italians were all slain ¢o @ bee, with the single and _all-
important exception of the gueen--this last fact illustrating in a most
striking egree the intense feeling of regard for the royal mother which
is engraven in the minds of our insects. Several letters follow at inter-
vals, all of which well repay perusal.
THE ITALIAN OR LIGURIAN BEE. 35

whilst ‘Italian’ is in strictness far too wide, “ Ligurian”
is at least as much too narrow, for the bee in
question is chiefly found in Lombardy, Venetia, and
the south-east of Switzerland, with only off-shoots
as it were in Piedmont and Genoa to represent
ancient Liguria. The name “ Italian” is a shortening
of “ Yellow Italian Alp,” which was the one given it
by the foreign bee-masters who in our own day brought
it into notice, and which was a designation as correct
as could be desired, but too long for practical use.
“Lieurian,” on the contrary, was the term chosen by
the first modern observer who appears to have taken
note of the variety—the Marquis de Spinola, who
found it in Piedmont in 1805—but who cannot be pro-
nounced its original discoverer, as the two kinds of bee
were distinctly described so far back as by Virgil and
even Aristotle. In adhering herein to the former
name we have been swayed by the universal practice of
American and German writers, to which there is no
such unanimity in our own country to oppose, though
custom certainly rather inclines the other way.

As remarked in our opening section, this bee is
on all hands allowed to be only a variety of the
common brown insect. Its principal point of differ-
ence consists in the more or less orange colour
of the upper rings of its abdomen; but this orange
varies to so great an extent that while the bee may
sometimes be taken for a species of wasp, it is at
other times so little different from our own that it
would pass unnoticed by most people as anything out
of the common. The drones are always light yellow

underneath, instead of whitish as with our bees;
D2

 
36 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

but the queens are more diverse, being sometimes,
according to Von Berlepsch, “bright yellow varying
into a bluish.” In anatomical structure no differ-
ence whatever has been found; but an American
lady, Mrs. E. §. Tupper, states in a prize essay
that the proboscis of the Italians are longer than
those of the brown bee, as she proved by exposing
food under a perforated cover and finding that
the former continued to suck after the syrup had
been so far sunk in the vessel that all the brown
bees had deserted it. But in its habits and economical
value there is an all but universal consensus of
opinion in favour of the new-comer. It is stated
to be at once more productive of honey and more
prolific of offsprmg, more industrious and _ less
afraid of the cold, more courageous, but much less
addicted to stinging. This phalanx of alleged virtues,
together with its manifestly handsomer appearance,
have rendered it in great demand—even more go in
America and Germany than with ourselves. Baron
von Berlepsch, it is true, retracted his first high
estimate and took to denouncing the bee as a
‘“humbug;” and Mr. Pettigrew has long taken a
similar line in this country. But Dzierzon, Lang-
stroth, and apparently every one else known in the
apiarian world, have with more or less warmth
sounded forth the praises of the stranger. The
additions that it has brought to our scientific
knowledge are valued equally by friend and foe.
The bee-keeper who desires to Italianise his apiary
need not, unless he chooses, buy entire hives of the
foreign bees, but can commence by the purchase of

 
THE ITALIAN OR LIGURIAN BEE. 37

a single queen, which, with a few worker attend-
ants, can readily be obtained throughout the summer
months. He has then to pursue the ordinary pro-
cess of supplying a new queen, or he may carry out
the somewhat more elaborate directions given by
Mrs. Tupper in the prize essay above referred to,
and which we may not unacceptably here reprint, pre-
mising that for English practice the dates must be
altered to at least a month earlier :—

“The queen with which you commence should be
pure beyond doubt. Purchase of some one who will
warrant her, and whose guarantee you can trust—
remembering that in the beginning you will be no
judge of her purity. The fall is the best time to
purchase your queen, because she will then be ready
for early operations the next season. Introduce her
into the best and strongest colony you have, for safe-
keeping through the winter. If you have but a few
colonies, the work for the next spring is very simple.
About the middle of May, if you examine the hive
containing your Italian queen, you will find drones
in all stages. Then take the queen out, and confine
her in a cage, made by rolling a piece of wire cloth
four inches square, into a tube, tying it firmly, and
putting a wooden stopper in each end.* Next remove
from another hive its queen, and having killed her,t
insert the queen-cage between the two frames, and
keep her there forty-eight hours. Then release her,
and that hive has an Italian queen. The one from

* Queen cages can be bought if preferred ; two forms of them are
described further on.

+ Don’t do this for a day or two—you may have to replace her if the
new queen comes to grief.
38 THE BEE-KEEPER S MANUAL.

which you took her will preserve her pure drones
with care, and immediately proceed to rear queens.
In ten days you will find from six to twelve queen
cells nearly ready to hatch. Then take the queens
from as many hives as you have queen cells, and
leave them queenless about ten or twelve hours.
Then from one of the hives take a centre frame con-
taining brood, cut a hole two inches in diameter;
cut out one of the queen cells from the hive con-
taining them, with a little comb each side of it,
being very careful not to press or injure it in any
way; dip the edges of it in a little melted wax, and
insert it in the frame, and put it back in the hive.
In nine cases out of ten this cell will be gladly re-
ceived by the bees, and hatch in a few days. This
process can be repeated with as many hives as you
have cells, and if done by the last of May or first
of June you may be quite sure that these young
queens will be fertilised by Italian drones, because
you will have no others in your apiary so early in the
season.* One or more cells must be left in the hive
where they are reared, that it may be sure of a
queen; and all your hives should be examined from
time to time, to see that the cell in each hatches,
and then to be sure that the young queens all lay
at the proper time. I usually find them depositing
eggs between the third and twelfth days after they
hatch. If any colony fails to secure a fertile queen

* Even by the 1st of AZay you could not be quite sure of this in
England, for drones of the brown variety do frequently make their
appearance in April. Hence the Italian drones should be watched
for from so early as the 10th of that mouth.
THE ITALIAN OR LIGURIAN BEE. 39

in this way, insert into it, from the hive which now
contains your Italian queen, a frame containing eges,
and from that they will rear others. Before doing
this, look over all the frames carefully to see that
they have not commenced cells from their own eggs.

“After you have a fertile queen in each hive,
watch the young worker bees as they hatch, and if
all, or nearly so, are slender in form and have three
distinct golden rings, you may hope they are pure.
If there is a doubt about any one, you can exchange
it for another at your leisure. Bear in mind that
the main thing the first season is to get a young
queen in every hive reared from the one you pur-
chased. That accomplished, all your drones will
afterwards be pure, and young queens reared from
that time forth will be sure to meet pure drones.
The following spring your hives will have drones in
them two weeks in advance of all black bees in the
neighbourhood; and if yours are strong, and you
make early swarms, the chances are much in favour
of your queens being purely fertilised.

“The second season of your operations all doubtful
queens should be replaced; and if pains be taken
you can easily have none but pure queens in your
hives while the original queen which you purchased
lives. I find the temper and disposition of the bees
a better test of purity than their markings. The
Italians are more easily managed, and less easily
provoked to anger. If you open a hive of them,
and lift out a frame, instead of flying in all direc-
tions and getting in a rage (as do the black bees),
hardly a bee leaves the comb—all cling to it quietly
40 THR BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

until it is replaced. Where you find them thus
clinging to the comb you have one good mark of
purity.” She adds, however, that the only certain
criterion is the markings of the young queens; she
has had mother bees which produced workers, to all
appearance pure Italians like themselves, but which in
their royal progeny proved at once that they were
only hybrids.

The above directions are intended for frame hives;
but the substitution can be effected in the case of
skeps also. What extra labour there is in their
case is occasioned by the difficulty in removing
the old queen; for if the hive be queenless, there *
is nothing to do but to introduce the Italian by
a cage through the opening at the top. But in the
more usual case the course to be followed consists in
driving out the bees into another skep, and then
searching for and removing the old queen, after
which the new one may be inserted by the cage as
above, and the colony left to return quietly to their
home. Before queen-cages were so generally used,
a plan existed of sprinkling the bees with syrup
flavoured with peppermint, and then throwing the
new queen in amongst them to take her chance.
In this case, the bees having first been scared with
fungus smoke preparatory to the driving, and then
newly flavoured so that they have ceased to recognise
their friends by their smell, the new monarch has a
prospect of obtaining a favourable reception before
they are sufficiently themselves to realise that she
is a stranger. The latter portion of Mrs. Tupper’s
directions however have no application to any
THE ITALIAN OR LIGURIAN BEL. 41

other than movable-frame hives, so that in the
case of skeps the simple plan must be to insert
a living: queen in each hive to be Itahanised. She
may be so introduced at any time of the year
which is preferred, and where once placed she
will permanently remain. One of these courses
must be pursued whenever a new queen is intro-
duced into a hive; and it will be better for the sake
of beginners if we add that the above caging of the
queen will be requisite on the first autumnal intro-
duction into the frame hive as well as at the
transfer in the spring.

The great trouble to the apiculturist in respect of
this process is the liability of the colonies to de-
generate into mongrels; and though many are of
opinion that half-bred Italians are even superior
to the pure ones (except as to their temper), it is
still desirable to be able to put a limit upon the
intermixture. This power it would appear that we
now do possess. The precautions specified above
would go a long way to securing this end, and
the excision of drone comb from the other hives
provides a further guarantee, but one which could
not be relied upon when another apiary was in the
neighbourhood, or even within half a dozen miles.
But we now hear of successful efforts at obtaining the
pairing of bees under confinement, and after its having
been considerably adopted in America, we find in
the British Bee Journal of August, 1878, a letter
from the gentleman who writes under the name of
“Dr. Pine,” which states that be has partially sue-
ceeded in a like effort in this country. Those who
42 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

are familiar with Cheshire’s or Aston’s drone-trap
will readily understand the principle of his method,
which consists in affixing over the mouth of the
hive a contrivance of the same kind as these traps,
but considerably larger; the bees all seck to make
their exit through this, but the perforations are too
small to afford escape to either the queen or the
drones, so that the pairing must obviously take
place within the cage or else not at all. In confor-
mity with the principles laid down at the close of
the section on “Reproduction,” it would seem that
such cave ought to be both large and airy enough
to afford to the drone a bona fide flight in the
fresh atmosphere. Unless this rule is thoroughly
carried out, we suspect that success will always be
only ‘‘ partial.”

Another method comes from Germany and has
been highly commended. The young queen may
be placed in a small hive with a frame or two of
workers and the particular set of drones of which
one is desired for her mate (if hatched in a nucleus
hive, that will be just the thing); and forty-eight
hours after her birth this is transferred bodily into
a cellar or some similarly cool and dark place, and
there kept till the afternoon of some sunny day
free from wind, and when the thermometer is not
lower than 70° in the shade. Then at about five
o’clock—at which hour the regular drone flight
has ceased, and there will consequently be no fear
of intruders marring the result—the hive is broucht
out and placed towards the sun, and if possible at
some distance from the rest of the apiary. If a
EGYPTIAN AND OTHER FOREIGN BEES. 43

little liquid honey is now squirted or dropped
within the entrance-hole, the worker bees will
presently be drawn forth and fly around the hive;
after these the drones and queen will issue, and
the return of the latter must be watched, and the
process repeated, if necessary, day after day until
she exhibits either the ‘wedding token” or else a
marked abdominal expansion. The hive must be
brought back every evening to its place of confine-
ment until the end is satisfactorily achieved.

The extent to which the Italianising process
has been pursued, and also that to which the
two breeds tend naturally to intermix, are strik-
ingly illustrated by a statement of Mr. Cheshire
that ‘the black bee hardly now exists—every-
where he has been improved by foreign blood.”
He adds, ‘‘In 1874, in a most isolated moorland
in Northumberland, where frame hives were un-
known, but where little skeps abound, we failed to
find a pure specimen of the English variety.”* So
much the stronger is the reason for a discontinu-
ance of the confusing term “black;” that of “ brown,”
which we herein have adopted, was more correct
from the first, and can by no possibilty perplex
or mislead.

EGYPTIAN AND OTHER FOREIGN BEES.

We have room for only a few sentences in reference
to the other foreign varieties and species alluded to

* © Practical Bee-Keeping,” p. $0.
44 TUE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

in our first section. The following are all with
whose names we have at present met: native to
Germany are the Luneburg Heath bees, the Car-
niolan, and the Lower Austrian; a little further
aficld we come upon the Herzegovinian and the
Grecian; then the Cyprian, the Smyrnwan, and
the Egyptian—not to mention tho Asiatic and one
or two other Indian specics which sccm incapable
of domestication. The first of these, commonly
called simply the Leath bees, appear to be distin-
guishable from our own in no particular as to anatomy
or marking, but only as to habits. The Carni-
olan (Avrainer) bees have whiter rings, and so have
the Lower Austrian, but now and then an indi-
vidual of the latter has a red mark upon the
first ring. Of the remainder all that need be said
is that the Egyptian are a very distinctive and
beautiful bee, and probably a separate species,
though all do not allow this. The rings on their
body, which are orange, are as clearly marked as
those on wasps, and they are clothed all over with
a white down. They possess two very striking pecu-
hiarities—the first that they never use propolis, but
substitute wax; the second, and a still more surprising
one, that they appear to be accompanicd in every
colony by a fourth order of individuals, consisting
in about a dozen of what may either be called
fertile workers or drone-producing queens, but
differing from either of these classes as we find
them with other bees, as they are like quecns in form,
but smaller, and are marked, as are the drones that
they and they only produce, by a yellow spot upon
EGYPTIAN AND OTHER FOREIGN BLES. 45

the breast. The Cyprian bees are intermediate
between the Eeyptian and the Italian. As to the
others, they have been ‘heard of,” and that is
nearly all.

Of the characters and relative values of these
different bees, we are as yet possessed of very
insufficient information. They have mostly been
cultivated upon too small a scale to allow of
authoritative judgments being put forth and re-
ceived. Opinions in fact are often diametrically
opposed, and the nearest approach to a careful
estimate that we have come upon, consists in the
following paragraph, which we cull from the American
Bee Journal of May, 1877, and which is given as
the outcome of a discussion between apiculturists
of Silesia:* ‘Between the German [Inglish] and
Heath bees there is no particular difference. The
Egyptian bee ranks after the German and Italian;
the Carniolan, at the expense of honey, produces
many bees; the Cyprians are diligent, but quite
inclined to sting. The Herzegovinian bee is praised.

* On reference to the Bienen-Zeitung of 1876 we found the full
report of the above discussion, and are disposed to think that so far as
it goes the conclusion may be regarded as of real judicial weight. ‘The
Heath bee, of which we never hear in this country, is spoken of as
“cultured into goodness’ in its own district (from Sleswick to Olden-
burg), but when transfered to other parts it regains its © natural
wildness,” ceaselessly swarming, and hence yielding no honey. The
Cyprian, says Giinther, who opened the discussion, “is beautiful, in-
dustrious, and fruitful, but a fearful stinger.” (Messrs. Neighbour
once imported a stock, and pronounced a like opinion). No special
allusion is made to the Lower Austrian, and it is evident that it is
included with the Carniolan. This would seem a pity, as the latter
has received but a quaified praise from the assembly. The former
inhabits the neighbourhood of Vienna Dathe, who is one of the largest

rearers of hees in Germany, announced soon after this that he had dis-
continued the keeping of the Cyprian, Egyptian, and Carniolan kinds.
46 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

Bees obtained by judicious crossing have the pre-
ference over the pure races.” Baron von Berlepsch
highly praised the Lower Austrian aud not one
besides; the Heath bees he most vehemently de-

nounced.

SWARMING (OR SINGLE HIVING) AND DEPRIVING
SYSTEMS.

The multiplication in the natural manner of fami-
lies or colonies of bees is accomplished by the se-
cession of a portion of the inhabitants of a stock-
hive, which has become over-peopled, with insuffi-
cient room for the breeding and storing departments.
This act of emigration or swarming is sometimes an
affair of expediency only; and by a timely enlarge-
ment and decrease in the temperature of the hive
it may often be prevented. As soon as warm weather
sets in, a common-sized hive becomes crowded and
heated to excess; and at length a separation of the
family becomes a matter of necessity. In anticipation
of this event, royal cells are constructed and tenanted
for the rearing of young queens, for without these no
swarming occurs. A crowded dwelling therefore natu-
rally prompts to this preliminary; whilst, a large hive,
on the contrary, has the effect of retarding the forma-
tion of such cells, and the migration of which they
are the precursor. In the words of Gelieu,* “In the
swarming season the strong hives are almost entirely

* See “The Bee-Preserver.” by Jonas Gelieu, translated from the
French: Edinburgh, 1529. This valuable little work contains the
substance of sixty-four years’ experience.
SWARMING AND DEPRIVING SYSTEMS. AT

filled with brood-combs. At that time also honey
becomes abundant; and when fine days suceced each
other, the working bees amass an astonishing quantity.
But where is it to be stored? Must they wait till
the young bees have left the brood-cells, by which
time the early flowers will be withered? What is
to be done in this dilemna? Mark the resources
of the industrious bees. They search in the neigh-
bourhood* for a place where they may deposit their
honey, until the young shall have left the combs
in which they were hatched. If they fail in this
object, they crowd together in the front of their habit-
ation, forming prodigious clusters. It is not uncom-
mon to see them building combs on the outside.”

In general, honey-gathering is altogether suspended,
necessarily, under the circumstances we have stated;
and, after a long course of inaction, in the very best
part of the season, swarming follows. Indeed there
always appears to be a connection between swarming
and idleness, induced by a succession of interregnums
in the government, causing a suspension of breeding,
when little or no store of any kind is collected. The
proprietor must therefore make his election as to his
course. If the multiplication of stocks is his object,
his bees may thus be impelled to throw off swarms,
but he must abandon the prospect of a large harvest
of honey under such circumstances. This method
of bee management is usually called single hiving,
and is that commonly followed by cottagers. On the

* From the context itis clear Gelieu on'y meant to imply some place
of deposit in proximity to the parent hive, and not anything actuaily
apart from it.
48 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

general subject of swarming we shall enter more at
large under the head of ‘‘ Spring Management.”

The substance of the foregoing paragraph may
be made a little more plain to the beginner, who
may not unreasonably complain of the term “single
hiving” as specially invented to confuse him. It
is the other system which retains the single hive ac-
cording to the ordinary English meaning of the words,
while the one so called consists in forming a number
of hives, but each one of them is “single,” that is,
unprovided with supers or other extra boxes for
the storage of honey. Were he to follow this system
exclusively he might multiply his bees at an enormous
rate, but no one hive would have any appreciable
amount of honey to spare; while by adhering with
equal exclusiveness to the depriving system, and
checking every disposition to swarm by providing fur-
ther accommodation in the existing hive, he may reap
immense takings from this one hive, but of course
he can never overpass a certain limit. The population
of any one hive, under equal conditions, will remain
the same year after year, since increase of bees is only
to be obtained from the increase of queens. Von
Berlepsch says that he has had certainly a hundred
thousand bees living at a time in the same hive,
but this must surely have been under his prodigy of a
mother bee who laid three times that number of
eggs per annum, and it will be a practical impossi-
bility in a general way to attain to such a number.
Any bee-keeper, therefore, who makes “ progress” his
motto will not be content with keeping any one hive
wholly and permanently to itself, however glorious the
SWARMING AND DEPRIVING SYSTEMS. 49

results if may have brought him. But on the other
hand Mr. Langstroth’s advice must be heeded, that
even to double the stocks every year is often too fast a
rate for obtaining a surplus of honey. A middle course
between the two systems is therefore advisable. But
surely, the more gatherers the more honey, it may be
argued. Ultimately so, but not till a settled condition
is reached. Suppose there are sixty thousand bees in
a hive, and half of these leave ina swarm. This half
can store no honey in their new residence till they
have first formed the wax and built the combs, and
though they perform this with great rapidity, yet each
worker must fill itself with honey abstracted from the
old hive in order to acquire the power of wax-secret-
ing; then, while the old hive is nearly emptied of its
outdoor workers, a large portion of those in the new
one, all outdoor by profession, will be required at
home, sealing up the cells and nursing the brood—
and thus about an entire month in tle best portion of
the year will find many of them diverted from the
pursuit of honey-gathering, to which, had they
remained where they were and with plenty of. room
provided, every one of them would have been able
uninterruptedly to adhere.*

The advantages afforded by the frame hives now
adopted by nearly every systematic apiculturist permit
of every desirable variation in the rate at which
swarming is suffered to be carried on. The bee-

* Till the contrary is proved it may be taken as self-demonstrating
that none but adult bees go with a swarm—not necessarily the very
oldest, but those only whose regular period for flying has arrived.

Uence the above assumption that a/2 the home-workers in a new colony
are outdoor iabourers diverted from their natural calling.

E
50 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

keeper whose object is the raising of honey rather
than of bees for sale, has one single purpose to be
steadfastly kept in view—how to secure the largest
number of strong stocks. No swarm, therefore, must
be allowed to escape from a hive on such scale as to
leave the hive otherwise than strong, or indeed ‘to be
otherwise than strong itself. All this is now readily
practicable from the opportunities, by extracting single
frames and so forth, of raising a single swarm from
two, three, or half a dozen different hives, or of obtain-
ing two swarms from three hives, three from four, or
any other modification which existing circumstances
may seem to recommend.

Mrs. Tupper, in her before-mentioned American
prize essay, makes the following practical remarks
upon this point: ‘‘In most places I think bee-keepers
will find it pay best to secure a moderate increase
every year by making one swarm, very early, from
four or five old ones. In this way, quite as much, if
not more, surplus honey will be obtained as when
there is no increase, and the value of the new swarms
(whatever that is in your locality) is just so much
extra profit.” The explanation of the freedom from
loss by swarming upon this system lies in the fact that
a change into an empty hive gives the bees a spur to
extra exertion; for though this would be nothing like
sufficient to balance the loss above described, where an
entire swarm is taken from one and the same hi
it is sufficient, or even more so, when each ao
colonies is only just appreciably diminished in popula-
tion. When so managed, an occasional renovation
has everything to be urged upon its side, not the
SWARMING AND DEPRIVING SYSTEMS. 51

smallest of the advantages being that it gives to an
old stock the change to a younger queen.

We have therefore to observe the natural instinct
of these little animals, and at the proper season to
provide them with such an occasional addition of
storing room as will enable them uninterruptedly to
go on constructing fresh combs—by the workmanship
of the natural indoor labourers—to be filled with
honey, unmixed with brood or other substances. This
temporary receptacle, though in communication with
the stock-hive, can at pleasure, in the way which will
hereafter be described, be detached from it, without
injury to the bees; these returning to their original
habitation, in which the mother bee ought exclusively
to carry on the work of breeding. The honey
obtained by this act of deprivation is always supposed
to be in excess of what is required for the wants of the
family, and almost invariably pure in quality. Various
have been the contrivances for effecting the separation
of the storing and breeding departments in a hive.
The bees, when pressed for room, will extend their
operations almost in any direction, whether the
accommodation is given above (which is termed stori-
fying), at the bottom (nadiring), or collaterally.
Equally indifferent are they to the material of the
temporary receptacle. A second hive, box, or glass,
placed over the stock, is termed a duplet, or more com-
monly a super; by which general name, as we pro-
ceed, any kind of storing vessel so placed will be
designated. A productive season sometimes admits of
a second super (usually introduced between the first
and the stock), called in such case a triplet. An

E 2
52 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

empty box or hive, pushed beneath a full one, is
denominated a nadir—a species of help not always
advisable except in the case of swarms of the same
year, or towards the latter end of very abundant sea-
sons. A still smaller addition to a common hive con-
sists merely of a few bands of straw, on which it is
raised temporarily, and this constitutes an eke. When
either this or a nadir is used, and to facilitate its sub-
sequent removal, a board ought to be placed between
the stock-hive and the nadir, to prevent the combs
from being worked down into it. The nadir will corre-
spond in principle with the stock-hive, but if movable
bars or frames are not adopted in it, then its board
may either be pierced with good-sized holes through-
out, or it may be cut into the form of a grate, with the
openings about half an inch wide. The entrance to
the stock-hive must be stopped, and one made at
the bottom of the eke or nadir. We shall hereafter
describe a modification of the nadir principle, which,
by way of distinction, I have called nethering.

The preference given to either of the two schemes of
bee management we have just detailed, must direct
the proprietor in the choice of his hives, and we shall
proceed to describe such of them as have found most
favour among modern practitioners; premising that in
using the term hive, we intend its general acceptation,
no matter of what material it is made. Neither is it
our object unduly to magnify the advantages of
wooden hives at the expense of those of straw: preju-
dice exists on both sides of the question. They are
each valuable according to circumstances and their
intended uses. Moreover, he only deceives himself
SWARMING AND DEPRIVING SYSTEMS. 53

and others who imagines he has discovered a system
or a hive by which to command an abundance, or an
improved quality, of honey at pleasure. A favourable
season may crown with success some cherished theory
or mechanical device, to be followed in the next by
disappointment; for he has little studied the natural
habits of bees who believes they can be made at will
to conform, under all circumstances, to any settled
scheme of practice we may devise for them. The
attempt has led to the Babel of contrarieties too fre-
quently exhibited amongst apiarian professors, to the
confusion of the novice; each deprecating everything
except the mode of procedure he has found applic-
able to his own case or district, and with which of
course he is most familiar. In the words of Mr.
Golding, ‘‘Let my readers repel the quackery which
would have them believe that it was the kind of
hive which commanded the honeyed store. No; that
will be ruled by the productiveness of the season
and the locality.’* Having taken the honey-bee
under our especial protection, we are bound to pro-
vide for its due preservation from the effects of
climate, &c., and perhaps, in addition to the or-
dinary attentions, the most that can be done with
permanent advantage is to furnish our intelligent little
workmen with a dwelling convenient in its form and
arrangement for the intended purposes; bearing in
mind, as a general rule, that these are best consulted
by an attention to simplicity in its details.

* These remar‘s are obviously intended to have but a limited appli-
cation. Mr. Taylor himself is never slow toinveigh against a hive con-
structed upon a wrong principle.
54 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

COMMON STRAW (OR SINGLE) HIVES.

In their wild state, bees have most usually found
«% secure residence in the decayed trunks of thick
forest trees. Where they are domesticated, the kinds
and shapes, as well as the materials, of bee hives vary
according to climate and locality, or the purse of the
proprietor. Those used in many parts of this country
are made of straw, of a bell shape, and being intended
for single hiving, are usually without any means of
enlargement. At the end of the sccond or third year,
they are too often placed over the pit of destruction ;
and thus, with a little impure honey, flavoured with
brimstone, the scene closes. Is it surprising that an
unpleasant association is thus connected with the use
of such hives? Happily for the cause of humanity,
experience has decided that this consequence is not
inevitable ; and I trust I shall hereafter point out the
method by which it may be avoided, and make it
appear to be the interest of the proprictor never to kill
his bees, let the hive be of what kind it may.

Common hives are best made of unthreshed
rye, or good wheat straw. They would be much
improved by a greater attention to shape, being
usually too high in proportion to the width. It
may be well, in this connection, to introduce the
observation of Gelieu. ‘One of my chief objects,”
says he, ‘has been to ascertain what shape of
hive is the most profitable; and with this view I have
tried all the different kinds, and have invariably
remarked that bees thrive better in low hives than
COMMON STRAW (OR SINGLE) HIVES. 5d

in high ones; that in general those which are
broad and flat amass more honey, thrive better,
and give out stronger and earlier swarms than
those which are high. A hive thrives only in
proportion to the success or perfection of its brood-
comb in the spring. It is therefore of great im-
portance to keep up the necessary degree of heat
for the hatching of the brood. If, at that time,
the bees are lodged in high and roomy hives,
they will crowd together in vain, and the heat
ascending is lost in the empty space above. This
never happens in low flat hives, where it is more
easily concentrated.”’

To prevent the combs from falling, sticks are
commonly put across, or along the inside of a
hive, as a support to them. But these props are
an annoyance to the bees, presenting difficulty
in subsequently extracting the combs, and are
never required in a hive made with a proper
regard to proportion; in other words, where the
combs are not too large to bear their own
weight when fully loaded. As regards the area
of hives, much difference of opinion prevails, and
a certain degree of latitude must be left for cir-
cumstances connected with locality, &c. Credit has
been taken by some apiculturists, and doubtless
with reason, for much reducing the unwieldy hives
of our ancestors. On an average, perhaps, a pre-
ference may be given, as regards a common bell-
formed straw hive, to one made fourteen or sixteen
inches wide, and from eight to nine inches high
at the centre of the crown, both inside measure.
56 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

There will be less of room wasted in a hive thus
formed, inasmuch ag the combs are stored down
to the bottom cells, which is rarely the case in a
high and narrow one. A low wooden hoop is often
used, worked at the bottom of the hive; or, as Dr.
Bevan says, “the lower round of straw may be
begun upon a wooden hoop, the bottom of which
has been planed smooth; it should be perforated
through its whole course, and the perforations
made in an oblique direction, so distant from each
other as to cause all the stitches of the hive to
range in a uniform manner.” The hoop gives
greater stability to the hive, preserves the lower edge
from decay, and affords facility in moving it.

The custom of plastering round the bottom edge
of a hive with mortar or clay is better omitted.
Its own increasing weight will settle it down to
its board: at all events no cement is equal to
that used by the bees themselves; any other only
serves to accelerate the decay of the hive, besides
presenting an impediment on occasional removal
for cleaning or inspection.

STRAW DEPRIVING HIVES.

Straw skeps are best adapted to the depriving
system when made rather cylindrical than bell-
shaped, and as nearly as possible flat on the top,
so as readily to support a bell-class or other form
of super. The bee-keeper who prefers to be his own
hive-maker has first to purchase a skep with a
fairly flat top, and measuring inside about sixteen
STRAW DEPRIVING HIVES. 57

inches across and nine in height (if as flat as the
one below, it will be all the better). Through the
top he will cut a hole three or four inches in
diameter, and fit to it a lid of worked straw for
closing this hole when the super is not required—
placing a small weight upon it or else securing it
by pins. The result will be represented by the ac-
companying figure, except that Mr. Taylor is now
considered to have gone a little too far in advoca-
ting hives of a shallow form. At the
proper time for applying a super, the
straw mat cover can be removed, and
its place supplied by what is termed
an adapter or adapting-board, which is a thin board
to lie upon the crown and sufficiently large for the
super to stand safely upon it. It must have a cor-
responding hole through its centre; thus in fact
adapting it as the floor-board to a super. It will be
preferred by some, instead of one thick adapter, to
have two very thin ones, of equal form and size,
placed together. These should be made of mahogany
or some hard wood, as a security against warping.
When the super is ready for removal, a detachment
of the two boards can be effected by passing between
them a knife, or some fine wire (if there is only one,
this is detached from the super). A piece of thin
metal may first be used to stop the communication.
With a little additional trouble the bee-keeper may
cut away the top of a common skep and
substitute a wooden crown-board in
the manner here represented. The
pins driven into the hive will pre-

 

 
58 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

serve the board from lateral movement, while the
weight of the super, or in its absence the cover
(for which see next section), will hold it firmly
down. The board can, if pre-
ferred, be cut in three slits as
in the annexed figure, the three
being contrived to admit of either
| three bell-glasses or one of the
wider kind introduced by our
author, and known as Taylor’s
classes. The dotted circles show
the double adaptation thus designed. When these
are in use they should be covered by a second
skep hive, in addition to the cover already hinted
at, which will now be placed over all. The slits
in the board may be an inch and a quarter or more
across in the widest part and taper into a point,
their length being two inches. ‘hree*zine slides or
dividers move in grooves cut two inches wide
from the edge of the board and over the holes.
If any interstices are left after fitting the wood-
work into the straw, these can be stopped by the
insertion of a bit of tea-lead, ‘“‘a store of which,”
says Mr. Golding, ‘“‘should be kept for such pur-
poses.”

Those who would wish for a double adapter to
the hive last described, would similarly desire a
single one to place upon the crown-hoard of that
now under notice. Expert apiculturists would laugh
at either idea; but Mr. Taylor, in noting the con-
venience of such double boards, had view mainly to
beginners of a nervous temperament, who desired,

 
STRAW DEPRIVING HIVES. 59

during their operations, to keep the insects shut in
to the utmost possible extent. The confidence gained
from a very little experience of the subduing etflicacy
of smoke, will convince the bee-keeper that such pre-
cautions are not necessary; but nevertheless we shall
adhere in this edition to our author’s practice of
adverting to the use of these boards. It must be
understood, also, that single adapters are often really
indispensable, as when a crown-board is made with-
out openings, and is intended to be wholly removed
when the super is applied—the adapter being then
probably perforated all over with holes just large
enough to admit a working bee, but too small for
either the queen or the drones—and there is also
the case in which it is desired to apply a bell-glass
to a hive with a straw top. In this last instance,
as nothing but straw will stand properly upon straw,
this top must first be freely covered with clay, dough,
or any other kind of luting, or even with the tea
lead just mentioned, and then an adapter must be
placed upon it; indeed, whatever kind of super is
employed, it is far better to place an adapter over
a straw crown, for as, in default of frames, the
combs are sure to be worked down to the crown
itself and attached thereto, it is impossible to separate
them neatly from the uneven surface of the straw
by the usual process of passing a wire between.

If three glasses are applied, then, if the ‘‘ cautious”
system is followed, there must be a separate small
adapter to each. On the removal of a full super, its
slide is first closed, and then its adapter is detached
from the crown-board and taken off with the glass as
60 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL,

above. Without any adapter, the super itself is
detached and removed alone.

We have here been assuming that glass supers
are to be employed, but this is by no means an
essential. The bee-keeper who gives them his choice
is directed to the remarks headed ‘Bell-Glasses,”
near the close of the chapter on ‘“‘Summer Manage-
ment.” The common bell-glasses used as shades
have no opening to admit of ventilation, and should
therefore be avoided. But, instead of glasses of any
kind, a straw super may be fixed upon, and then
all that is necessary is to procure a second skep
small enough to stand upon the first, and to admit
of a third being placed over it for a cover, as in the
case of the bell-glasses in the last paragraph (indeed,
this third hive may be dispensed with, provided some
other cover is substituted; but a complete jacket
for the super is highly advisable). With a flat-topped
hive or a wooden crown-board, adapters may be used
in the same manner as with the bell-glasses.

A straw super can also be made of the same flat and
cylindrical form as the stock-hive above described.
The size may vary in diameter, according to season
and locality, from ten to thirteen inches, or even the
full width of the stock-hive, and three to six inches in
inside height. In good years two or more of such
supers may be filled in succession, the appearance of
the hive determining the expediency of such additions.
Should the stock-hive become hot and crowded before
the first cap is entirely filled, a second smaller one
(or triplet) may be added. In such cases, the first
super is always to remain the upper one, for it
STRAW DEPRIVING HIVES. 61

would be useless to put the triplet anywhere except
beneath this; while the one now added must have a
two-inch hole in its crown as a passage upwards for
the bees. In moving the first super, the upper half
of a double adapter can be lifted with it (but should
not be retained if its hole is narrower than two
inches), first introducing between the pair a piece of
zine or tin, to stop the communication with the stock-
hive. In order to give the straw supers a better footing
when placed one upon another, some persons prefer
an extra cord or rim of straw to be worked round the
outer bottom and top band. As it is
essential to preserve the super from
cold, it is far better for the real super
to be a smaller cylinder enclosed by the
upper of these two hives (which will
then be made witha crown). To enable
the super to be of the full size of the Ss
stock-hive, there should be a jacket fit-
ting over all, like the one upon page 72.

Those who choose may have the supers made with-
out crowns, which gives facilities for fitting them up to
serve any required purpose. This is done by means of
loose wooden crown-boards: they may be prevented
from warping by being made of two circular smooth
boards glued together, the grain of the
wood crossing. These boards are of
different diameters: the smaller circle
falls within the inner diameter of the
cap; the other should be made an inch
or more larger, to rest upon the upper
edge of it. The engraving annexed will illustrate

 

 

y

 

 

(ZZ

 

 
62 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

our meaning. A small weight for a day or two will
adjust the crown to its place. The crown-board to the
stock-hive can be fitted in this same manner if pre-
ferred; indeed, a variety of methods could be adopted.

An annual coat of paint should be given to straw
hives, and nothing looks better than a natural straw
colour. As to the comparison between straw and
wood, attention may be drawn to the words of
Gelieu, who says, “It is commonly supposed that
bees thrive best in straw hives, because the straw
absorbs the moisture, and the combs are less lable
to mould. For my part I can perceive no difference.
The bees are careful enough to varnish over the
interior of the straw hives with a coating of wax,
or rather propolis, to prevent the settlement of
moths; and in old hives this varnish is so thick
that no moisture can penetrate between the cords
of straw. Wooden hives will also absorb moisture
to a certain extent; and experience has shown me
that it is a matter of indifference which are em-
ployed, except as to the price.” To this we may
add a remark from Mr. Cheshire’s ‘Practical Bee-
Keeping,” to the effect that the natural non-con-
ductivity of straw gives it an advantage to begin
with, but that wooden hives can be so constructed
as fully to rival it in this respect; and this end will
be accomplished to a certainty if his own plan is
followed of making double walls with an air space
between. Upon this see the description of his frame
hive further on.

Of skep hives ready adapted to the depriving
system, Messrs. Neighbour offer a far larger variety
STRAW DEPRIVING HIVES. 68

than most of the makers.* Their very simplest
construction of this class is on a pattern already
described, consisting merely of a common skep, with
a second, its exact miniature, standing upon it. The
price of this hive is 5s. Gd. Much superior to this is
the one here represented (price 10s. 6d.), which is
termed the ‘The Cottager’s
Hive.” It has its super of a
very shallow construction and
provided with a window; while
the cover-hive, superior floor-
board, and hooped base add
to the completeness and dura-
bility of the whole. The crown
of the stock-hive is flat enough
to receive an adapting-board.
A very much more elaborate
structure than either of these,
or perhaps than any skep hive
hitherto made, is the one sold
by this firm under the name of
‘Neighbours’ Improved Cottage
Hive,” of which an enlarged representation is given
overleaf. The stock-hive is furnished with a wooden
crown-board, as well as with three windows closing by
hinged shutters and one of them containing a ther-
mometer inside; the hive itself being hinged to
the floor-board. Upon it stand three bell-glasses
holding six pounds of honey each, and supplied with
green baize bags for increasing the warmth; while

 

 

_* Messrs. C. J. Sanders and Son (223, High Holborn) provide a
similar series, and we have some obligations to acknowledge to them.
64 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

above all is a cover-hive with a hoop fitting out-
side the crown-
board, and a
painted Zine
ventilator at the
apex. The price
of this hive is
35s., but 10s. can
be saved by dis-
pensing with
windows and
thermometer,
while there is
also a variation
at 21s. in which
the ventilator too
is absent, the
three glasses are
reduced to one
Tayloxr’s glass,
and the crown-
board cut down
to an adapter,
but one window
is restored (no
thermometer).
Mr. James
Lee also sends
us a form of skep
hive, fashioned

 

upon our own
author’s principle, and termed “Taylor's Improved
STRAW DEPRIVING HIVES. 65

Cottage Hive.” It has a wooden crown-board with
zine slides, and behind it a window; while the
super is octagonal with open-
ing glass sides. This is sold
at 22s. 6d.; but with a straw
super and no window a hive
of like construction (‘The
Economic Hive’) can be had
for 11s., or without the floor-
board 7s. 6d.

Our next cut exhibits ‘ Lee’s
Octagon Straw Hive,” which =
furnishes a connecting link with the bar hives de-
scribed further on ; both it and its super being
provided with fixed bars ranging front and back
beneath the crown. The
super has glass sides
and top lke the one
shown above, and ac-
cess is given to it by
the slits at each side
of the crown-board.
The price of the stock-
hive is £1, the supers
varying according to
make. The cover is
shown at the end of the section on ‘‘ Frame Hives.”

As to the course of procedure to be observed with
hives of this class, the same general directions will
apply to all that we have yet described. The lower or
stock hive is devoted entirely to the use of the queen,

and whatever honey is there deposited must be left
F

 

 

 
66 TITS BER-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

for the sustenance of the family. [ven were any of
it extracted, there would be no dependence upon its
being free from brood-cells and pollen; while the
supers can be shut absolutely against the queen by
simply placing what are called queen-preventers *
over the holes of communication. During the winter
time the bees will be wholly excluded from the supers
—indeed these will be removed bodily from the hive if
the arrangements of the outer covering enable greater
warmth to be thus secured. But when, at the end of
April or a little later, there arrives a time of pleasantly
warm weather, it will then be proper to afford the
additional storing room. Again, a new swarm, what-
ever the season of year, should be allowed from two to
three weeks to furnish its stock-hive, before its attention
is distracted by admission to the super. The signs of
the requisition of this will be an excessive heat of the
weather, a crowding of the bees at the entrance, an
appearance through the windows of approaching ecom-
pleteness, or a rising of the thermometer, where
present, to 90 degrees or thereabouts.

SKEP COVERS.

Whatever difference of opinion there may be as
to the expediency of the practice of placing straw
hives in the open air, independently of a house or
shed, the custom prevails to so great an extent
that our object would be incomplete were we not
to point out some of the modes resorted to for pro-
tecting them in such cases. Of the commoner kinds

* A frame of wire, slits, or perforations just large enough to admit
a worker, but excluding the queen or the drones.
SKEP COVERS. 67

of coverings, many are sufficiently unsightly; some
being of straw thatch (or hackles), others of carthen-
ware, in various ugly forms, and often objectionable
and injurious to the hive from thew weight. The
catalogues of our hive-makers will present us with
varlous species of covers in zinc or wood, but the
bee-keeper can readily provide them for himself by
coiling and riveting a sheet of zinc into the shape
of a cone; or he may substitute felt for zinc, as
recommended by Mr. Cheshire, tacking the edges upon
a thin lath, and pitching pr tarring over the outside.
In either case he may advantageously follow the
directions of this gentleman for cutting out two covers
with the smallest possible amount of waste. A yard of
felt, he tells us, costs eightpence, and measures two
feet eight inches across ; and as we require only three-
quarters of a circular piece for each cone, we can (see

 

 

 

figure) obtain two covers out of a piece four feet long.

Draw a line D G lengthways down the exact middle
F 2
68 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

of the piece of felt or zinc, and from a point A,
sixteen inches from one end, describe a_ three-
quarter circle, and then from B, where this meets
the centre line, describe another to fit into the
former. If the two incomplete circles were now
cut out from the sheet, and the straight edges of
each were brought together, they would be found to
form perfect cones; but in order to allow their edges
to overlap for the purpose of fastening, a margin of an
inch or so should be given down the greater part of
one edge of each cover, an arrangement which can
readily be contrived by means of the waste portion
which still falls between the circles. Instead, therefore,
of cutting straight from the centre of each to one of
the sides of the sheet, a commencement is made at
F, and you follow the thickened line through A, B, E.
There will thus be no overlupping of the edges near
the apex of each cone, but that is of no consequence.
As another form of home-made cover, a ready car-
penter might incline to construct an octagonal wooden
spire, which he could frame together at the base,
and affix at the summit upon a block, with a ball
or other ornamental projecting head.

It scarcely seems needful to remark, even in a
book intended for beginners, that a square cover
must never be applied to a round hive, unless it
fits loosely over it like a house, for if bearing upon
the hive itself it would be likely to press it out of
shape, and thereby ruin the combs. Of the box class of
covers we shall speak further on. Care must be taken to
afford security against the upsetting of the whole
structure by violent winds. If a closely fitting zinc
SKEP COVERS. 69

cover is employed, there should be interposed a
small worked mat of straw bands, to prevent any
ill-effect to the hive from the rays of a hot sun.

Mr. Taylor mentions the following adaptation to
the flat-topped hive; and it will suit other skeps equally
well: ‘In the apiary of a friend I have seen a
dome-formed straw cover to a stock-hive, construc-
ted with a projection all round of
about three inches. On the under-
neath side are attached three or four
bands in a circle, fitting over the
outer diameter of the hive. The
appearance of this cover is ap-
propriate; but unless carefully
painted, wet will eventually find
admittance. It may, however, be
rendered water-proof by means of
some kind of cement (I have
sometimes used for this purpose a
mixture of paint with fine sawdust, pounded into
the consistence of paste); and afterwards painted and
varnished.”

The introduction of his zine covers, though these
may be regarded as ‘‘out of fashion,” will perhaps
be acceptable to some of those home-manufacturers
for whom they were designed :—

“A cover of the same form can be manufactured
in zinc, more or less convex, or sometimes nearly
flat, its edges being turned down over stiff wire. A
descending rim of not less than two inches deep is
attached to the underneath side, encircling the upper
edge of the hive. There cuzht to be perforations

 
70 THE BEE-KEEP@R’S MANUAL.

immediately under the projection of the rim, and a
space left between the cover and the
crown of the hive, for the passage
= of air; or a small worked mat, of

straw bands, may be interposed [as

 

mentioned just above].

“A modification of the last-deseribed zine cover
[ have used satisfactorily for the protecting of flat
straw depriving hives requiring more than one story
in height. Immediately upon the stock-hive is in-
troduced what, for want of a more distinctive term,
I call a shade, encircling the upper edge, as just
detailed, with the same kind of descending rim and
ar-holes. It is made of moderately thick sheet
zinc, cut of such exterior diamcter as to leave a
projection round the outer edge of the hive of three
to four inches, and turned a little downwards over
stout wire, to throw off wet. In the centre of the
shade is a circular opening, which, if required, may
be of the same diameter as the interior of the stock-
hive, and round it is a raised rim, standing up not
less than half an inch. Within this central opening
it is intended to place the super, of whatever kind
it may be. A reference to what has been said on a
previous page* will show the construction of the
shade, the upright rim of which keeps the super in
its place. On the top of this upper hive a second

* The passage in question (which does not occur in its old form
in this edition) remarixed that. supers oug t to be covered even when
within a bee-house, and that the upper hive, as here represented, was
thus aself a cover, the super being a smaller straw cylinder within, and,
as just explained, standing (upon the crown) inside the upturn-d rim

of the shide. The closing paragraph of this section will make the
arrangement still clearer.
SkKEP COVERS.

shade, made like the first, may be placed.

completion of the whole is a
slightly convex zine cap, of
about two inches in height,
fitting securely over the central
opening, like the top of a can-
ister or pot. There is a pro-
jecting lateral rim to the cap,
underneath which air-holes are
made, similar to those under
the projection of the shade.
In winter, and at any time
when a super hive is not re-
quired, the cap is placed over
the shade immediately  sur-
mounting the stock-hive, re-
ducing the edifice to one story.
When feeding is needed by
the bees, a pan may be
introduced for the purpose
within the central opening,
and covered over by the
zinc top. In reply to those
who are dubious as to the
expediency of using metal
coverings, it may be re-
marked that no inconveni-
ence arises in the present
case, as neither the shade
nor its cover comes in
contact immediately with
the crown of the hive.

 

71

The

 
72, THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

“Tf a straw cover to a super is preferred, it can
stand over the rim of the shade, as seen in the
illustration annexed [see last page].

‘“‘An effectual protection to a round hive may be
made by means of an outer case, in fact merely a straw

Q cylinder, with open ends. It

Sore must in diameter be large
—  S-~——s enough to drop loosely over the
hive, and rest on the floor-
board. The height ought to
be sufficient to include any
supers that may be required.
Surmounting the whole, either
one of the zinc covers, shown
«, at page 70, of an enlarged size,
can be used; or the shade and
its top, as seen at page 71.” Of course any of the
more modern kinds could equally well be applied.

The annexed figure exhibits the
position of the super as explained in
the note on page 70. It need
not be so small as here represented,
but the rim on the shade must be
adapted to its size. Enclosing it
will stand the super-cover, and the
whole then present the appearance
of the storified hive on page 71.
It will a once be seen that shades of this description
will interfere with the extra rim of straw at the
edge.

   

 
FLOOR OR HIVE BOARDS. 73

FLOOR OR HIVE BOARDS.

The floor on which a hive is placed should be of
wood, and not of any material too retentive either
of heat or cold, as stone, slate, &c. In summer
the melting of the combs often results, and in
winter numerous lives are lost from chill. Every
hive, of whatever kind, should stand upon its own
separate board, so as to give facility for lifting,
cleaning, or weighing the whole together at any
time, without disturbance to the bees.

The entrance into a hive is generally cut out of
its bottom edge. This has a tendency to cause
decay in that part, particularly if
of straw; besides that, a hole so
made affords but indifferent protec- | /
tion from driving wet or a scorching
sun, and gives imperfect facility for
the escape of moisture from the
hive. It is a better plan to sink
the passage out of the thickness of
the floor-board, till it reaches the inside of the hive.
There are several ways of doing this, but a simple
one is the following: Let the board be of thick,
seasoned wood, and to prevent warping, screw two
strong cross-bars to the underneath side, seven or
eight inches apart. In size the floor-board ought
to be a little larger than the exterior of the hive,
from whence it should be chamfered down every
way, to three-eighths of an inch at the edge. From
the latter the entrance must be cut or grooved out,

 

 
74 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

straight and level till it enters the inside of the
hive, when it may slope upwards. This groove may
be about four inches wide, and three-cighths of an
inch deep where the hive crosses it; for it is better
in all instances that the requisite space at the door
should be given laterally, rather than in height.
This is not only more convenient to the bees, but
shuts out from admission into the hive such guests
as the snail or the mouse. In a board thus con-
structed, a convenient mode of occasionally con-
tracting the entrance-way is by means of small
wooden blocks, of different widths, so formed that
the lower half can be pushed within the hive’s
mouth. The board just described, and its blocks,
are shown in the engraving beneath.

     
   

r y

By
“3

Le

Another kind of hive-board, suitable for some
descriptions of boxes (the square wooden hives to
be presently described), is made by cutting a rabbet
of any required width, and three-cichths of an
inch deep, on all its sides, leaving the raised
part of the board the size of the outside of the
box, with an additional half-inch beyond this every
way. The passage into the hive is to be cut from
the edge of the rabbet, and on the same level,
for about two inches; after which it must slope
FLOOR OR HIVE BOARDS. 15

upwards. It may be four to five inches wide, and
its sides should bevel a little outwards. This gives
facilities for the introduction of movable blocks
or mouth-pieces, for the convenience of contracting
or altogether stopping up the entrance, as may be
required. The blocks are an inch wide (in the
direction front and back), and must all be of one
size, and of the same length and bevel as the
entrance-way. In height they should be three-
quarters of an inch in front; cut down behind, for

 

half the width, to three-eighths of an inch. Thus
made, the lower half of one of the blocks is inserted
within the mouth of the hive, and the other half
projects on the outside. To suit all cases and
seasons, blocks so formed may be cut on the lower
part, from front to back, with any required passage-
way through them at pleasure. The preceding
engraving exhibits the hive-board described, with a
back and front view of four blocks thus varied; the
third one being fitted with perforated zinc.

An entirely covered entrance, for those who desire
it, is afforded by a double board, in which the
passage is cut through the floor, altogether within
the hive; and it may be thus made :—

Take a piece of inch seasoned wood, an inch or
76 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

two broader and longer than the hive. Smooth
both sides, and underneath it cut a groove four or
five inches wide, and four inches back from the edge.
The part next the edge should be
there hollowed out three-eighths of
an inch deep, increasing to twice as
much at the other end, where it
enters the hive. An opening through
from the upper side must be made,
to meet the underneath hollow,
giving a gradual slope down into
it. A piece of three-quarter inch
board, seven to nine inches wide, must then be
screwed underneath, the grain crossing the other;
the doorway for the bees being of course between
the two. The lower board should be a little the
longer, the extra length being intended to form a
small alighting-board in front. All the boards in
the preceding illustrations are shown square as
to form; but any of them may at pleasure be
made round.

 

HIVE-STANDS OR PEDESTALS.

Hives standing singly, in the open air, must be
so placed that there is no risk of their being over-
thrown by the wind or other casualty, and various
kinds of supports have been devised. Whatever
is preferred, it ought to afford facilities for allowing
the lifting up of the hive on its board at pleasure.
A single pedestal or post is sometimes used, cut flat
HIVE STANDS OR PEDESTALS. TT

at the top to six or seven inches square. It may
stand out of the ground fifteen or sixteen inches,
and be firmly fixed, to avoid shaking,
which alarms the bees. Sometimes
a higher elevation than this is given,
but it is not expedient to subject
the hives unnecessarily to the action
of the wind, any more than it is
to place them so near the ground
as to cause the bees to be affec-
ted by damp exhalations. On the
under side of the centre of the hive-
board fix four bars of wood, each
about two inches square in section, and so adjusted as
to form a cap or socket fitting over the top of
the pedestal. The board may be there secured by
the insertion, diagonally, of one or two pins
throuch the sides of the cap and into the post.
This plan may be varied by means of two pieces
or arms, let edgewise flush into the top of a
post, crossing it diagonally; on this the hive-board
may rest, or be secured by a button or two.

Or, on the top of a pedestal, four or five inches
in diameter, a piece of board, of about nine inches
square, may be fixed as a table. Upon this place
the hive-board, of which the parallel bars, appended
to its underneath side, are so adjusted in point
of distance apart as to come on each side of the
table, being there secured by a pin or turn-button.

This last-described stand may be improved, at
a little further cost. Nail upon the pedestal a
piece of strong board, eight or nine inches wide,

        

yy ,
Ml
TOUT TTT EE
o co NT

  
   

 
78 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

and three inches longer than the outside width of
the hive-board. Underneath the table thus formed,
a couple of strets or angle-picces
must be fixed, to render the whole
firm. The under-side bars of the
hive-board are adjusted to fall on
each side of the table, as before
detailed. The extra three inches
of the latter must be thrown to
the front, where it is designed
to form a projecting alighting platform for the
bees. This part is occupicd by a piece of wood
nailed to it, and chamfered to mect the hive-board,
to which it forms a stay.

Another support to an outdoor hive is made by
means of four props, driven upright into the ground,
and cut off level at about
sixteen inches high. The
hive-board in this case has
two cross-bars screwed to its
under side, from front to
back, just coming within the
uprights: to make it still
more steady, four small blocks
can be appended near the
corners, between the crogs-
bars and the elge of the
board, to hold the latter in
the opposite direction, as seen
by the dotted lines in oar illustration.

The same remark applies to the hive-stands just
described as was made in the last section, viz.,

 

 
HIVE STANDS OR PEDESTALS. 79

they can be adapted equally well to round as to
square hive-boards. It may be well also to observe
that, instead of sinking a pedestal into the earth,
where decay soon ensues, it can be fixed upon
strong cross pieces or feet, these being fastened
to the ground by pims passing downwards through

them. Pedestals of this description can, if preferred,
be bought of the manufacturers ready made.

Where there are a number of hives, instead of a
separate stand for each, they may be placed more eco-
nomically, and perhaps safely, on what I term a hive-
range, of any required length. The range consists
simply of a couple of rails, about an inch thick, and
four inches in depth, nailed to the top outer edge of a
series of posts, fixed firmly in or on the ground, and
about eighteen inches high. The space between the
rails may be about twelve inches, measured within-
side. The most suitable hive-board for a range is that
shown at page 74. The cross-bars on its underneath

 

side must be so cut in point of length as to fall within
the two rails, where they are held; whilst what re-
mains of the width of the board lodges upon them,
80 THE BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL.

with a convenient projection before and behind. Nor
does it matter whether the hive-boards are made
square or round. A range of this kind occupies very
little space, and presents few facilities for the incur-
sions of insects or other annoyers of bees. The hives
ought to have a good interval between them; but it is

 

an advantage that on this plan they can be moved, by
sliding the boards to the right or left, if cireumetances
call for it. A range on the same principle might
WOODEN BOX HIVES. 81

readily be made ornamentally, in part or wholly of
iron, standing on feet, movable anywhere, and setting
vermin at defiance.

To the intelligent reader it is unnecessary again to
repeat, that bee-stocks ought always to be raised suf-
ficiently from the ground to protect them, not only
from the baneful effects of damp, but from the incur-
sions of vermin, &c. But inattention on this point is
sometimes met with so gross, that we cannot forbear
giving place to the preceding engraving, from a draw-
ing made on the spot in Dorsetshire, illustrating the
treatment to which the poor bees may be sometimes
subjected by indifference or deplorable ignorance.

WOODEN BOX HIVES

WITHOUT FRAMES.

As far as we have proceeded, our attention has been
directed principally to straw hives. Those, however,
of wood have in modern times come pretty generally
into use, when cost is not an object, as being more
durable and less liable to harbour vermin. It used,
also, to be a great advantage on their side, that they
could be made square, and admitted of glass windows ;
but both these features are now readily secured in
straw hives as well.

As regards the plainer kind of boxes, either
intended for use on the swarming system or on that
where Geprivation is practised, I adhere to the opinion
expressed as to straw hives, and prefer those con-
structed broad and shallow to such as are high and

G
82 THE BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL.

narrow. They may be made of the lighter and more
porous kinds of deal, some preferring red cedar; but
whichever is made use of, it should be thoroughly sea-
soned and well put together; observing that the
grain of the wood always runs in the horizontal direc-
tion, when its tendency to expansion or contraction is
rendered of no importance. Conflicting opinions pre-
vail as to the best size for bee-boxes ; but, like almost
everything else where these insects are concerned,
something must be left dependent on circumstances
and locality, as well as the intended mode of working
them. A fair average size for a plain box is twelve
inches square, by eight inches deep, within-side ;* the
thickness of wood throughout being not less than an
inch, or, if exposed, more than this. The cover of the
box should have a small projection on all sides, for
better appearance, and to afford convenience for lift-
ing. On the top a two or three inch hole may be cut
in the centre, for the purpose of supering, of feeding,
or ventilation. Instead, however, of one central hole,
some persons prefer to have three smaller ones, cut
triungularly ; affording convenience for the use of a
single large, or three small glasses. It is best to leave
the roof of the box, within-side, unplaned, as the bees
have sometimes a difficulty in making the first combs

* A partial reaction has taken place in regard to the objection to
deep hives made by Mr. aylor and others of lus day, for while it was
of course correct that in such hives the heat would rise to the top, it
was found that in the low hives adopted by him and Mr. Woodbury
there was not a suflicient amount of heat engend red. A depth of nine
or ten inches would be now preferred, or the boxes might rather be
larger every way, and fo!low the dimensions of some frame hive in the
next section. A capacity of a bushel is now the recummendation for
stock-hives, whether wooden boxes or straw skeps.
WOODEN BOX HIVES. 83

adhere to too smooth a surface. A window may be
placed at the back, and another at one side, about four
inches high and six wide. The glass should be thick,
and secured by putty; but it must not fit too tightly,
or it is apt to crack from the swelling of the wood.
There are various ways of covering the windows, but
the best is, perhaps, by a sliding shutter of zine.
Round the window there must be a projecting mould-
ing mitred at the corners. On one side the piece of
moulding is movable, and to the back of this is
screwed a plate of sheet zinc. This passes into a rab-
bet to receive it, cut, on the remaining three sides, at
the back of the lower edge of the moulding. Where
uniformity of appearance is studied, blank windows
may be made opposite to the real ones.* No
entrance-way should be cut in the box, as this more
properly belongs to the floor-board.

A reference to the engraving will show a box thus
made, with its sliding shutter. It ought to be painted
a sufficient time before use, or the smell is offensive to
the bees; indeed, I have known a swarm forsake a
box in consequence.f I may observe, however, that
some persons prefer boxes, when in a house, to be

* As regards windows, they are always useful to inspect a hive, but
should, as a rule, be kept darkened. At the same time there is no
doubt that bees will work exposed to the light when the option of dark-
ness is not allowed them. A friend puta swarm into a unicomb hive—
made without shutters on each side, and exposed to the full glare of
light at a window—which I frequently inspected. The bees filled the
hive in a short time, paying apparently no attention to the eyes often
observing their operations. It is to be remarked, however, that
wheter bees are in light or darkness, the one or the other mst be con-
tinwous, as alternations disturb and alarm them. We shall hereafter
give designs for experimental observatory hives.

+ Mr. Shirley Hibberd states that he once lost a swarm from the
same cause, and he well recommends the painting of empty boxes a
year in advance.

a 2
84 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

unpainted. They are always best placed under some
kind of cover, as protection from wet and a hot sun 1s
I f

4 Nt
I a th i
aL

‘k ne
hi /

necessary to prevent warping and splitting, and not
unfrequently the melting of the combs. Some German
bee-keepers have recommended box-hives made long
from back to front, and narrow from side to side. In
fact, one of their most approved hives follows the prin-
ciple of “high and narrow” so strongly condemned by
Mr. Taylor; it may correctly be comparcd to a small
glass-case standing end foremost.

   
   
    

    
   
 

A

         
    

 

pi

 

 

 

BAR HIVES.

Under the heading ‘Wooden Bar Boxes” our
author furnished a lengthy section, much of which
might be readily made applicable to the frame hives
which have now, as far as stock-hives are concerned,
rendered the simple bars all but an anomaly. The
Stewarton hive, so popular in Scotland, and indeed
in England too, is however an example of their reten-
tion; and they continue to be extensively employed in
the supers of frame hives. The use of the bars—a use
which the addition of complete frames secures with
very much more completeness—is to prompt the bees
BAR HIVES. 85

to adopt and maintain straight combs. As one comb
is to be attached to each bar, it follows that the num-
ber of these, and the mtcrvals between them, must
be accurately adjusted to the msect workmanship.
The dimensions usually followed are one inch wide,
and a quarter or three-eighths of an inch thick; they
reach across the top of the hive from front to back, and
Wf we attended to a recommendation of Dr. Bevan,
the three or four central intervals should be seven-
sixteenths of an inch, while the others gradually in-
creased that distance up to nine-sixteenths.* The bars
were at first fixed into recesses cut along the inner
edge of the top of the box, but this plan is now dis-
carded, as the bees were prone to fix the one into the
other inconyeniently tight. The instructions given as
to frames in the next section (page 90) will provide a
more suitable method.

Our author, with his usual preciseness of directions
for home workmanship, gives a figure of a “ pattern-
gauge” which he devised for regulating
the position of the bars, and also of the
holes for admittance to the super. He
would make it of brass, or at any rate
of sheet metal. In other respects the
fieure speaks for itself, but it is

 

 

* The inner combs usually contain worker cells only, while the outer
consist partly of the deeper receptacles for drones and honey. Hence
it would seem that the intervals outside of the three or four middle
ones should be increased sufficiently to admit of thicker comb upon one
side ; while those beyond these two should be wide enough to take it
upon both siles. The custom of transposing frames, has, however,
caused this rule to be totally disteimcreien, and a uniform arrangement
is maintained of about an inch and a half from the centre of one frame
to the centre of the next.
86 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

given here merely as offering a general idea for con-
trivances of the kind. Of course when the super is
not applied, the openings in the crown-board must be
closed, either by slides as on page 58, or by any simple
means that may suggest itself.

Bars of this description can be fitted to any kind of
hive whatever, if only it is provided with a movable
top, and the accompanying cuts show
one of Mr. Taylor’s straw hives so
furnished, together with the method
of affixing. For the purpose of sup-
porting the bars, a well-seasoned hoop
is introduced within, and on a level
with, the upper edge of the hive—
nearly two inches in depth and a
quarter-inch thick; its imterior dia-
meter being the same as that of the
hive. The two upper straw bands of
the latter are reduced in width sufficiently to form a
recess equal to the thickness of the hoop—the outside
of the hive remaining flush. The hoop is there
retained by a few small brad-nails, driven through it
and into the straw; and thus no impediment is offered
on extracting the combs.

Even a hive of this kind, however, might as well be
fitted at once with the bar-frames as with bars alone
—at any rate as regards the middle portion. This
fact is so strikingly evident that it is wholly unneces-
sary to pause over a further description of bar
hives; for though the Stewarton must receive due
notice, yet this is a structure of so highly complex a
nature that we must defer it to a later section.

 
FRAME HIVES. 87

FRAME HIVES.

Our author in his last edition gave to the new
introduction of frames a very brief and hesitating
notice. They were at that date (1860) in the position
of a device which nobody in this country had prac-
tically tried. They appear to have been invented
quite independently in England, America, and
Germany; and their final elaboration was so gradual
a process that it is no simple task to assign the chief
honour to any one person. Major Munn, a friend of
Dr. Bevan, and the reviser of his famous work ‘‘ The
Honey Bee,” would seem, however, to possess @
clearer title than any other whom we could name,
though unfortunately his invention was so hampered
by faults of impracticability, that it fell upon the
world almost stillborn. It was in 1851, ten years
after the Major’s obtaining his patent, that Mr. Lang-
stroth brought out his hive, in the full belief that he
was absolutely the first inventor of the bar-frames.
He has subsequently relinquished his claim, but
his inventions were of immense service in extending
the adoption of this invaluable scheme. The re-
introduction of the frame system into this country
was effected in 1860 by Mr. Tegetmeier; but his
adaptation met with little more acceptance than
Major Munn’s had received before it, and it was the
indefatigable My. Woodbury who really made frame
hives known to English apiculturists. In Germany
the movable bars were the invention of Dzierzon in
1837, while in 1853 the frames were added by Baron
von Berlepsch.
88 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

A frame consists of an addition of three other sides
to a bar, thus constituting it into an oblong honey-
case, which reaches down almost

a to the flosr-board, and serves to
‘| confine the combs of honey or
brood, both preserving — their
straightuess and enabling them
; with ease to be extracted at any
time from the hive. The diree-
tions given as to width and thickness of the bars are
applicable also to the frames, but of course the length

  

and number will in both cases depend upon the
dimensions of the hive. As shown in the figure, cach
frame has its upper ends projecting for the purpose of
suspension. Its sides should come within about a
quarter of an inch of the sides of the hive; if too
close, the bees will fasten them with propolis, while if
too far off, they will be apt to work additional comb in
the interspaces. About the same room may be allowed
between the lower bar and the floor-board.

Various contrivances are adopted for inducing the
bees to commence their combs evenly along the upper
bars, but the simplest of these is to smear the lower
edge of that bar with melted wax. Some persons take
pieces of clean old worker comb, dip their edges in
wax, and stick them to the bar. Yet again there can be
purchased sheets of thin prepared wax for cutting into
strips and attaching in a similar way, or else affixing
im a slit formed for the purpose beneath or through
the bar; while a modification of these sheets, known
as “wax comb foundations,” furnishes the bees with
ready-formed pyramidal bases for their cells. But all
FRAME WIVES. 89

that is really important is to prompt them to make a
true beginning, and this will be satisfactorily accom-
plished if we supply them with a Ime of wax which
shall be quite straight, and not too broad. To
effect this a brush and a ruler will suffice, and the line
may be drawn about three-eighths of an inch in width.*
For a time the desire to aid the bees in this matter
took the form of inserting sheets of wax which
filled the entire frames; but complaints arose that
these sheets would twist and curl, and prove rather
a hindrance than a help to the preservation of
straight combs. Some, however, still use them.

The square form is usually observed in the case of
frame hives, for though, as stated above, a round hive
is capable of being fitted with frames, yet there is a
convenience in being able to shift these to any part of
the hive desired—and still better, in being able to shift
them from hive to hive, if all are made upon the same
pattern. As to material, though, as already stated,
the skilled workman can now produce square hives of
straw, yet the bee-keeper who makes his own hives
will doubtless resort to a wooden box of the description
noticed in the section preceding the last. But, as
there mentioned in a note, the dimensions are better
considerably enlarged; and the inside measurements of
such box may therefore be put down at about sixteen
inches wide, fourteen from front to back, and ten and
a half deep. The general directions under the section

* Mr. Taylor advises taking a piece of sheet tin of the length of the
bars, cutting along it an opening of the required width (to within half
an inch or so of each end), then laying this pattern upon the bar and
painting over the opening with the melted wax.
90 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

just quoted may be observed, but to prevent trouble
from extra recesses in the windows, Mr. Taylor recom-
mends (under “ Bar Boxes’’) to cut a fine rabbet on
the inner side and therein cement the glass flush
with the side itself. The best kind of cement for the
purpose, he says, is a mixture of powdered chalk and
glue.

As for the frames themsclves, several variations
of detail have at different times been adopted. The
upper bar has been made convex beneath instead of
flat, and a ridge run along the centre for covering with
melted wax; very frequently a saw cut, for the admis-
sion of wax strips, is made through the bar, and
almost from end to end; in other cases this slit has
taken the form of a deep groove only; and, again, a
plan has long been commended by some of construct-
ing the frames themselves somewhat wedge-shaped, or
narrower at the bottom than the top, in order to give
greater facility of extraction (in which case the hive
itself should have its inner walls sloping to corre-
spond, the interior measurement from front to rear
being a half or three-quarters of an inch less at bottom
than at top). The projecting ends extend about three-
eighths of an inch, while without these the outside
dimensions will be th’'r.een and a half inches long,
and ten deep. For suspension of the frames a ledge
may be carried round the inside of the top of the hive,
low enough to admit of passage to the bees between
the bars and the crown-board: this ledge should be
sharply bevelled behind on its upper edge, to prevent
propolising. For preserving the intervals unvaried,
Mr. Cheshire’s distance-pin, figured on page 109, is
FRAME HIVES. 91

perhaps the simplest expedient. Over the whole is
placed the crown-board, which, if intended to be retained
in use during the honey season, must be pierced so as
to afford free passage between the super and stock-hive.

The super here again admits of the usual choice, for
it may either take the form of a counterpart of the
hive, exactly fitting to it, but only about half its
depth, or it may consist in as many bell-glasses as
can stand on the crown-board (openings being of
course required in this to correspond); or yet again it
may be of the shape of the stock-hive, but composed of
glass, in which case, if there is not a cover to the
whole of the hive, the super must be slightly smaller,
so as to leave sufficient room for one to stand over
it. As there is not the same occasion in supers as
in stock-hives for a withdrawal of the combs with a
view to examination, it is most usual to furnish them
with simple bars instead of frames; but the latter
are to some extent coming into use even in their
case. As bees usually construct the honey cells of a
deeper form than those intended for worker-breeding,
it is well to set these bars or frames in the super
a little further apart than those in the stock-hive;
indeed, by gradually increasing the space as the bees
progress with the filling of the cells, they may be
induced to add more and more to their depth till
beautiful specimens of honeycomb are produced. If
the full interspaces are given from the first, the bees
will be likely to start intermediate combs, so that
the course must be to allow only the regular inter-
vals to commence with—say a quarter of an inch
wider than those allotted in the stock-hive. This
92 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

will involve the use of one or two frames less
than what are required for the same width in the
latter ; and if the above artistic effect is aimed at, then
one after another of the bars or frames can be removed
when partly full, or the super itself might even be
lessened by a process to be now explained. In all the
better class of frame hives made by the regular hive-
makers it is now usual to insert in the stock-hive
either one or two of what are known as dummy frames,
which consist of two thin boards glued together in
cross directions as to the grain, and affixed under-
neath bars like the ordinary ones, but usually a little
narrower. They are thus of the same size as the
other frames, and lift in and out like them; being
of great convenience for either curtailing the space
of a hive too roomy for its existing stock, or,
still more, for giving facility to the removal of the
genuine frames by allowing them to be shifted further
apart after a dummy has been first extracted. Now
we have never yet heard of the adoption of these
devices in supers; but for the performance of the
above experiment they seem to offer the simplest of all
means. Von Berlepsch says that by the pro-
cess in question the combs may be brought up to a
thickness of four inches.

The crown-board—also called the honey-board
when intended for the reception of supers, though the
latter name may in other instances refer to some
forms of adapting-boards—should be three-quarters
of an inch thick, and project all round for a dis-
tance of half an inch. It may either be fastened
down by screws—which My. Hibberd hag well re-
FRAME TIVES. 93

commended to be thoroughly greased before use,
in order that thoy may easily be withdrawn—or a
method of Mr. Taylor’s may be simplified thus: Take
an elongated metal ring, like the link of a chain;
under the middle of each projecting end of the crown-
board make a slit which shall be capable of admitting
this link, and through the latter there can be inserted a
movable pin passed through a hole made from the end
of the board; a screw driven into the side of the hive
at the proper distance holds the other end of the link,
and completes the fastening. The usual zine slides
are fitted to the slits giving admittance to the super ;
and not only should the regular close slides be pro-
vided, but also a set pierced with ‘‘ queen-preventing”’
perforations (see page 66), which are to be substituted
for the first, and retained in use as long as the super
is applied.* As to the slits in the crown-board (for
which see the figure of the pattern-gauge under “Bar
Hives’), two of them are to be placed within three
inches of the front of the box (inside measurement).
They are pear-shaped, and, according to Mr. Taylor,
they should be three inches long and an inch and a
quarter wide, but the width may be increased half an
inch or so if perforated slides are to be used. They
are pointed at the inner end, and leave an intermediate
space of two inches. The third hole may be an inch
and a half from the back of the cover, and made an
inch shorter than the other two; “this will be
useful,” remarks the author, “in working glasses and

* A very general practice now-a-days is to remove the crown-board
entirely when the super is to be affixed, and to substitute an adapter
consisting of a sheet of zinc perforated all over in this manner.
94 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

in fecding.” The elongated form is the best for avoid-
ing the killing of the bees on moving the slides.
These last are plates of stout zine or copper, which
draw out one on each side, and one behind the hive;
they should be about half an inch wider than the cross
diameter ot the slits, and they slide within a recess cut
in the crown-board, as shown in the figure opposite.
They are long enough to meet in the centre, their outer
ends being a little turned up for convenience. If the
last inch is perforated with small holes, the slide
becomes a ventilator by drawing it outa little. Mr.
Taylor also recommends giving increased facility of
passage to the bees between the bars and the crown-
board by grooving out the under side of the latter for
a depth of three-eighths of an inch and a width
of an inch anla half, from hole to hole or down
the centre. This is needful, however, only when
the bars fit close up to the board; it is now usual
to depress them sufficiently to obviate such neces-
sity.

The principal features of the whole, as thus far
explained, may be gathered from the opposite
illustration, which served in former editions to show
the construction of the author’s “wooden bar boxes.”
It will be noticed at once that we have here three
boxes, but the two upper ones should be much shallower
than the figure shows, as compared with the lower,
the outside depth of which should equal that of
the two combined. As represented separately in
the upper portion of the figure, No. 1 is the
stock-hive, which is, however, to be furnished with
frames instead of the bars here shown; above it
C Qs
FRAME HIVES. 95

comes the crown-board with its slides; then an
adapting-board, for those who
care to resort to such an
accessory ; next the extra super,
marked 3; and lastly, the first
super, or box No. 2. Mr,
Taylor’s top super was fitted
with movable bars and win-
dows like the stock-hive, but
his lower super (No. 8) differed
in the former respect, for the
bars exhibited in the figure are
fixed, or in other words, are
simply a grated entrance to
the other super, which, though
applied first, will always stand
uppermost. The bars in supers
are not in every case made to
remove, but it is desirable that
they should be so (and if frames
are added, so much the better),
and for this purpose the top of
the super must itself be mov-
abie like the crown-board of the
stock-hive. Supers of this
class, like all others that we have spoken of, are,
it need hardly be said, open at the bottom; they
consequently will admit of the adapting-board men-
tioned on page 57, if such is desired. Both crown-
board and adapter may be retained during the
honey season, in adherence to the general line
of Mr. Taylor’s instructions. But in the case of the

 
96 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

lower super this course is not advisable, for, as will be
gathered from the design of the grating, it is
important to give the freest access from one super to
the other; and as any adapter placed over such grated
board would require to be grated itself to correspond,
there would obviously be little gain to the timid from the
protection of a board such as that. A middle super,
in fact, should have no cover at all, so that the bees
on passing through the spaces between the bars may
find themselves in the top super without any further
impediment. When this latter has been removed, a
crown must be placed over the lower one, or Mr. Tay-
lor’s grated top will require some temporary cover to
close the openings. At the commencement of the
season then the stock-hive stands alone with the
slides in its crown-board closed, and the addition
of a single super must not be made till the warmth of
the weather and the progress of the bees have rendered
the increased space and ventilation both safe and desir-
able. A new swarm will probably require it, according
to the weather, in from twelve to twenty-four days after
hiving. A stock of a previous year, whose dwelling-
place is ready-furnished, will need it in the first warm
season in or after the latter part of April. If it
should be found that royal cells are laid on, or any
other sign showed of inclination to swarm, no time
must be lost, and the aim should be to provide the
additional room just before the commencement of all
such preparations; but by promptly destroying or
removing the royal cells the mischief may be stopped.
The bars in the super (box No. 2) are smeared
with wax, or otherwise supplied, in like manner with
FRAME HIVES. 97

the frames, and then the adapter is placed bencath
and the whole put into position, after which the slides
on the stock-hive are withdrawn. If it be found that
this super is becoming filled before the season is near
its close, the extra super (box No. 3) is prepared in like
manner; then the slides on the stock-hive are closed,
the old super loosened from its honey-board, and the
empty super placed between the two boxes. The
slides are then reopened and work begins again, both
in the new and the old super, for the rule must not
be to wait for the first to be perfectly full before the
second is added.

Yet another plan which has been adopted is that of
using what are known as the Stewarton slides, and
though these would be too troublesome for the amateur
to construct, we may here once for all describe their

principle, In the [— —————
figures annexed are BAR = Ci ste Ly
given illustrations
in section, both of
the bars and the slides which slip between them
—the former (to which frames can be added) being
fastened by screws easily capable of removal. The
projection of the one fits into the groove in the
other, and by inserting or withdrawing the slides we
are able to obtain just as much or as little open-
ing as may be wished—from a grating like the
above to a practically entire crown-board. Small
pieces of slides will be needed to stop up the two
ends of each entire slide that is removed.

It is also well to mention here the plan adopted from
America by some bee-keepers, of substituting a quilt

H
98 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

of flannel or similar warm material in place of the
crown-board when the super is away. This of course
implies the necessity of an additional cover, but that
ought to be furnished in any case. When the suy er is
to be put on, the quilt is removed and the adapter or
honey-board takes its place. But there are grave
objections urged by many competent judges against
the use of the quilt, for besides harbouring vermin it
is very prone to become mouldy underneath, and
this immediately upon the tops of the frames.
Some, however, have not observed this defect, and
are warm in praise of the introduction. But the
bast or phrail, of which fish baskets are made, is
less open to objection, and will answer all the
purpose of the quilt to those to whom the idea
commends itself. It is further noticed in the chapter
on ‘‘ Winter Management.”

Before proceeding further it is desirable to answer
the question, certain to occur to many a beginner,
What is the great advantage of frame hives over the
old-fashioned skeps ? The one important fact out of
which all their advantages grow, is that they give the
bee-keeper the means of ascertaining at any time the
exact condition of affairs within. THe can extract any
one particular comb, search for and take away the
queen, and cage down a new one in her place upon
the cells; or he can in like manner insert a royal cell,
substitute a full comb of brood from another hive, or
one full of honey if the bees are in want of food; he
can remove a comb that has become too old for use,
examine the combs one by one, if disease or the nests
of hostile insects are suspected ; or again he can carry
FRAME HIVES. 99

on the process of artificial swarming upon the precise
scale adapted to the populaticn of any given hive.
Even the frameless bars secured these ends, but they
were far less convenient and complete, from their
failure to hold the combs compact for extraction, or
to prevent their being affixed to the sides of the hive.
Yet even of these Mr. Taylor could correctly write,
“‘The convenience of movable bars can only be appre-
ciated by those accustomed to their use.”

Outer Covering.—For the complete covering of hives
of the box form, Mr. Taylor gives the following instruc-
tions: ‘‘ These boxes, like all wooden hives, should
be placed in a house of some kind, if possible; but
instances occur where such a convenience is not
available. To meet these, I will describe a substitute,
which gives effectual protection, though it would still
be better standing under a shed. A recurrence to the
engraving in the next page will show that our plan com-
prises an outer casing, in two compartments, and
surmounted by a top cover or roof. They may be of
half-inch wood, large enough in the square to drop
loosely over the boxes, the lower compartment resting
upon the rabbet of the hive-board, which may be made
as shown at page 75, and wide enough to leave, on
three sides, an outside margin of an inch. On the
front side a rather more extended margin may be
expedient. The height of the lower compartment,
measuring from the rabbet of the floor board, reaches
to the top of the stock-box, except just as much
as will allow the slides to pass over its edges. A
good-sized elliptical opening faces the mouth of the

hive; or increased to two, where there is a second
H 2
100 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

entrance. The other compartment of the case should
be high enough to enclose within it the two upper
boxes. To its outer bottom
edge, a band or fillet, about
two inches wide, and nearly
half an inch thick,is appended,
half its width. The other
half-width is intended to over-
lap the outer upper edge of
the lower case, when placed
one upon the other; and this
part should be chamfered, so
as to go on and off easily. For
appearance sake, another band
is appended to the upper case,
near its top; unless any other
exterior architectural em-
bellishment is preferred. A
reference to the engraving will
show that the whole design is
completed by a hipped roof or
cover. Under the four pro-
jecting edges of the latter is a
suspended cornice, about two
inches deep on its outer sides.
When in its place, about three-
quarters of an inch of the cor-
nice ought to overhang, drop-
2 ping loosely over the upper
outer edge of the case (a little
chamfered) ; to regulate this,
recessed at the four angles,

 

     

TTT
ATT LTT

    

 

 
FRAME HIVES. 101

within the cover, are attached cross corner blocks.
For the purpose of ventilating the roof, long lateral
openings are cut out on the four sides, from the
upper part of the cornice, under the projecting
edges of the roof. The total projection of this may
be two inches, or a little more. The cover ought
to fit equally well upon either compartment of the
case; for in winter the edifice can be reduced to
one story only.”

Finding some of his friends object to the trouble of
removing covers, he devised for these easy-going
apiculturists a form of
hive to serve as its own
cover, for the details of
which it is sufficient to
state that the sides are
increased in thickness
to fully an inch and a
quarter ; the crown-boards
of the lower boxes project
an inch and a half, while
rabbets are cut in these
to receive either a super
or the roof cover, and the
windows are protected in
winter by the insertion of
blocks between the glass
and the shutters. The
square frame within the
roof has the same inner
diameter as the boxes.
A hint may be taken from the Cheshire hive,

    

     

site 3

TAU

Me
E

   

  
102 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

described further on, to employ double walls with an
air-space between, as an improvement upon the thick
single walls of Mr. Taylor. Again, a super only five
inches deep may dispense with any crown-board.

Stand.—The stand for the whole is simply an
open frame, of the same outside dimensions as those
of the cases; with inch-thick rails, four inches deep,
framed at the corners to four posts or legs. These
may each be two inches square, and eighteen inches
high ; either sunk into the ground, or placed upon
it by means of cross-pieces
pinned or pegged down.
The hive-board drops
loosely down into the
frame, and rests upon the
rails, showing a projection
all round of an inch; the
: eross-bars on its under-
side retaining it steadily.
— The further remarks made
onpage 78 are also applicable here.

Recent Frame Hives.—We may now present our
readers with illustrations and descriptions of two or
three forms of frame hive as constructed and sold by
the leading makers. As already noticed, the first
frame hive brought into general use in this country
was the invention of the late Mr. Woodbury; and the
form still enjoying the widest favour is practically the
Woodbury hive. This arrangement, in its original
integrity as well as in several variations, is to
be obtained of various hive-makers, including either of
those herein named. The one we now represent is

 

 
FRAME HIVES. 1038

“Neighbours’ New Frame Hive,” which differs in no
material respect from the Woodbury, except that
the depth is increased from nine to eleven inches
(inside), while
instead of being
fourteen and a
half inches
square, it mea-
sures fifteen
and a half from
front to rear,
and fourteen in
width. The
frames in the
stock-hive are
nine in num-

 

ber, besides a dummy, and are each thirteen inches
long and ten deep. As can be distinguished in the
above figure, their upper bars are made with long
projecting ends for giving greater convenience in
extracting them; while they rest, as does the crown-
board, upon the edges of strips of zinc, which
prevent the bees from propolising them down to
any troublesome degree, and also, by presenting
a much narrower surface, greatly diminish the
chance of crushing a bee in depositing them in or
on the hive. In the crown-board are two side open-
ings for giving admission to the super, besides a
central hole for the purpose of feeding. The zine
slides for closing these are seen projecting in front,
but they will of course in use be placed behind,
being, like the window, only exhibited in front to avoid
104 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

the necessity for two figures. The side openings are
provided with a duplicate pair of slides, which are
made with queen-preventing perforations; and these
will be kept always inserted when the super is in use.
The latter can
be had wholly of
glass (except of
course the frame-
work at the
edges), or else
like the one here
shown, which,
like the hive it-
self, is formed of
= straw, but with
three windows.
It is similar to
the stock - hive,
but is only two-thirds of its depth, and its frames
number eight instead of nine. They are, however,
bond fide frames (as shown through the window in the
frent of the figure), and not mere bars as usual in
supers. An exit is afforded to the bees from the
super without compelling them to return to the stock-
hive (the outer cover of course requiring to have a
corresponding hole). The flight-hole is made wide,
but with provision for narrowing (it is shown most
clearly in the wooden hive in the preceding figure).
The price of the stock-hive in wood or straw
is 25s.; a straw super is the same, and a glass
one 30s. (this being provided with complete baize-lined
shutters to top and sides).

 
FRAME HIVES. 105

Those desirous of a cheaper article may be recom-
mended to the same firm’s ‘‘ Cottager’s Frame Hive,”
which costs only 7s. 6d. It is of the same inside
dimensions as the preceding, but omits the window
and the dummy, while the floor and crown boards are
of a simpler make. The frame bars rest upon similar
ledges of zine, but they have not the lengthened ends,
and are fixed in position by staples. At the interme-
diate price of 12s. 6d. a large window behind may be
added to this hive, and a crown of straw substituted
for the wooden one. An application for Messrs. Neigh-
bour’s catalogue will secure a still further choice.

Next in order we have to describe the elaborate and
well-known — struc-
ture called ‘“‘ The
Cheshire Hive,”
which was designed
by the Rev. F. R.
Cheshire, and is
made by Mr. James
Lee, of Bagshot.
We annex a figure
from a block lent
us by Mr. Lee, but
it is but fair to say
that it does not do
justice to the ap-
pearance of the
hive, nor even give
a correct idea ag --
to its form—for
its body is almost perfectly square, and not so shallow

 
106 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

from front to rear as would naturally be inferred
from the sketch. It is a hive which has been fully
described not on'y in Mr. Cheshire’s own work,
“Practical Bee-Keeping,” and in the apiarian columns
of the Country, to which he is a contributor, but also
in Mr. Hunter’s “Manual of Bee-Keeping,” and in
the new edition of the ‘“ Encyclopedia Britannica.”
We need therefore make no apology for proceeding
to a considerable extent upon the line of the de-
scription prepared by its inventor.

It is one of the hives which carry their own cover
and stand—at least as here represented, for the stand
can be had ina detached form if preferred, as Mr.
Cheshire concludes it will be by the generality of bee-
keepers. The body of the hive consists of two main
portions—the super-cover and the hive proper. In
front of the lower part is the porch, the roof of which,
consisting of a stout piece of pine about three inches
wide, runs completely along the hive face. This is
chamfered off towards the end, the more effectually to
carry away drip, and has a channel near its front edge
as a gutter to convey the rain to its ends. For many
of these particulars we must refer to the sectional
view as illustrated by a block used in Mr. Cheshire’s
frequently quoted volume, and kindly placed at our
service by Mr. Leonard Gill, the Manager of the
Country. In this figure the gutter referred to is
shown at E. The floor-board projects two and a half
inches in front so as to form a convenient alighting-
board, ten inches of the central portion being grooved
(see first figure), so that, in case of a driving rain, the
convex parts will still give the bees a dry passage to
FRAME HIVES. 107

the interior. The flight-hole has the same length of
ten inches, and is formed by cutting a full quarter-
inch out of the hive wall, instead of the floor. This is
shown at G in the sectional view, while F is a piece
screwed beneath the porch roof to give it additional
stability, and provide a groove for two sliding shutters,
by which the width of the entrance may be regulated
as desired. Two studs at the ends of these pieces pre-
vent the shutters from meeting nearer than within
half an inch, so
as to do away
with the fear of
the colony being
accidentally
stifled, and also
with that of
crushing bees by
the meeting of
the two slides
but if the total
closmg of the
hive is from any
exceptional rea-
son desired, the
doors can be
taken out and
transposed with
each other. The
floor-board is movable, and can be drawn out without:
disturbing the bees upon the combs, the runners
upon which it slides being shown in the first figure.
In the section, A B represents the floor-board, H a

 

 

 

 

 
108 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

back piece against which it presses, and I, K two
movable bars for insertion between it and the runners,
by means of which it is held in its intended position
(the runners not coming into use till the board is low-
ered on to them by the extraction of these bars).
By having the legs fastened to the hive proper there is
opportunity given for cleaning and returning the board
in winter; but on the other hand, when introducing a
swarm, Mr. Cheshire considers the independent stand
more convenient for the beginner. For this last oper-
ation there is a purpose in the bars just noticed, for,
by removing the one at I, but retaining the other, the
floor-board will drop down in front, and offer to the
bees a wide entrance and a sloping floor. The super-
cover forms the upper half of the hive in the outside
view, and is represented by L M N O in the section.
It is hinged so as to open at one side, and is so con-
trived, by the aid of a chain or a side-stay, that it will
fall back just far enough to form a horizontal table,
handy to the bee-keeper for supporting apparatus. It
moreover carries within it a slate with an attached
pencil, for making entry of whatever of note passes in
respect of the hive. The legs splay to widen the
base, and the roof has its eaves amply projecting.

The sectional view shows the walls of the stock-hive
to be double, with a space of dead air of their own
thickness between them. But the hive is also to be
had in straw. Blocks above and below the air-space
keep the inner sides in position. ‘As heat is con-
ducted by air with extreme slowness,” says Mr.
Cheshire, ‘“‘these means prevent the escape of that
generated by the bees during rigorous weather, while
FRAME HIVES. 109

they also exclude the ardour of the sun’s rays during
summer.” The inner wall is made an inch shallower
than the outer one, so as to afford a rest for the ears
of the frames. These are eleven and of the Woodbury
size (fourteen inches long by eight and a quarter deep
outside, but exclusive of the ears), and they rest upon
strips of zine which rise three-eighths of an inch from
the top of the inner wall, and are shown at 1, 2, in the
section. The top bar of the frame is three-eighths of
an inch thick, so that when resting upon the zine it
allows a space of a quarter-inch between the frames .
and the crown-board. The depth of the hive (D H) is
eight and three-quarter inches; the measure from
front to back (1 to 2) is fourteen and a half, and the
width, if with the usual eleven frames and a dummy,
seventeen and a quarter. The annexed figure gives a
view of the top bars of the frames as in position with
three extracted. The dummy (h i) is three-quarters of

 

an inch broad, or rather less than the frames; it
110 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

usually hangs next to one of the sides of the hive, and
consists of a double board the same size as a frame,
and having the grain of its respective thin halves
running in cross directions to prevent warping or
breaking. These are fixed to each other by means of
screws of five-eighths of an inch. At e, f, on the
frame to the right is shown the method of holding the
frames at their proper intervals by means of alternate
distance-pins. These are driven in immediately above
the side-hbars of the frames, so that in extracting one
_of the latter there is no fear of tearing the comb
against a pin. The bar is seven-eighths of an inch
wide, so the pin projects five-eighths, and thus makes
up the total space allotted to each frame to one inch
and a half. By placing the two pins upon different
sides it will be seen that a frame can be turned round
and inserted the other way if desired. As only half
the interval is needed between the end frames and the
hive wall, there is a hollow cut at g on the left-hand
upper corner to admit of half the length of the pin;
while the dummy, which usually takes the place of the
other wall, is similarly grooved at h, and this groove
must extend from top to bottom of its board, to admit
of extraction from the hive without disturbing the next
frame. It carries its own pin at i, made half the
length of the other pins. As the dummy here stands
it illustrates the method of contracting a hive when
the colony is too small to preserve a due degree of
warmth if scattered over the whole: more frames, as
fast as they are required, must be inserted in the
centre of the occupied ones. To enable the dummy to
be placed close up against the right wall of the hive, it
FRAME HIVES. 111

has itself no pin upon that side, and hence, when dis-
placed as above, there is nothing to keep the next
outer frame from touching against it at one end.
Indeed, when in this position it is necessary that they
should thus touch, for otherwise the distance-pin on
the eleventh frame (at /) would prevent the full
number of frames being retained in the hive. At
the right-hand corners, d and b, it will be observed
that the depression over which the frames project is
extended so as to give finger-room for the easy extrac-
tion of the dummy; but the inner side-wall of the
hive, against which this would naturally rest (the
interior piece between d and b), is on the same level
with the outer wall, though it hardly appears so in
the figure. Within the hive there will be a space
of a quarter-inch from the frame to the wall and
floor, as directed on page 88.

The next figure represents the arrangement of the
roof of the stock-hive, which is both crown and
adapting board
in one. In the
sectional view it
was shown by
CD. It consists
of five strips or
slats, clamped at
their ends to pre-
vent warping, and
each seventeen
and a half inches
long. The width
of the central one is five inches, and that of the others

 

 

 

s

 

 

 

———_——— eee eal
l= See ee aS Se eee ann

cs
a

 

 

 

 

 

 
112 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

three and three-quarters. The central one contains
a hole an inch and a half in diameter, and over it
is placed a feeding-stage, consisting of a plate of
vulcanite pierced with fine holes, and rotating on
the screw s, as will be more clearly explained
below. At E F and G H the board is cut away to
a depth of a quarter-inch and for a length of ten
inches, and when the super is in use the two outer
pieces are transposed severally with the two next
them, so that the two slits will fall within the
super, the position of which is marked by the
double dotted line a b d c—the slit E F, for instance,
being brought to E’ F’. While remaining as in the
figure these slits fall outside the hive, the total
width of the five boards being twenty inches.

The arrangements for feeding are shown better
by the following two illustrations. The first gives an
enlarged represen-
tation of the vul-
canite feeding-
stage, A being the
rotating centre,
and Bastopto pre-
ventthe plate from
being pushed too
far. If the feed-
ing-bottle,inverted
as in the second
cut (the shovel is
simply a convenience for carrying and depositing it),
be then placed over the dotted circle, which represent
the position of the central opening in the crowns, it

 

Lis &
FRAME HIVES. 113

will be evident that the bees will not have access to the
food at all; but if the
plate be now shifted
further to the left,
any portion desired,
or the whole, of its
perforated part can
be brought over the

opening, and the ue

rate of feeding regu-

lated as desired. TM TM

The supers are shown in the sectional view at
PQRST U, and they are
Mr. Lee’s own “Crystal _
Palace Prize Supers.” Not fp
being intended to cover
the whole of the stock-hive,
they measure about thirteen
inches square; their depth is four inches. They
have seven bars of the extended width usual im
supers, the slits shown in the figure being
for the admission of strips of wax-sheet.
No form of crown is required, as the
openings between the bars are closed by
Stewarton slides, which, as explained on
page 97, fit closely between them, so
that when all inserted they give to the
entire top surface the solid character
of a crown-board. The sides are of
glass. The whole can be taken to pieces
and packed as a small parcel with the
glass inside. The second cut shows one

  

   
 

 

 
114 THE BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL.

of tke corner pillars. Of course only one of these
supers is to be applied at first; the second, as
usual, being placed beneath this when it has become
in good part filled, and there is prospect of a suffi-
ciently good season to require the two. ‘‘In shallow
supers,” says Mr. Cheshire, ‘bees start more promptly
than in deep ones, while they ever strive to close
up gaps; hence the advisability of having two.”

In outside dimensions this hive is about twenty-
four inches wide by twenty-two from front to rear,
while from the ground to the eaves it stands three
feet hich. Its cost when fixed to its stand is 387s. 6d.
painted, or 45s. grained and varnished; with ordi-
nary floor-board and no stand it is 27s. 6d. These
prices all include the pair of Lee’s supers, which
sell by themselves at 5s. 6d., or 8s. each. The hive
and the supers each obtained for their inventors a
first prize at the Crystal Palace Bee Show in 1874.

The full particulars from which most of the above
is reproduced have been avowedly designed by Mr.
Cheshire for the benefit of those who wish to make for
themselves. It is scarcely necessary to state that in so
doing they will not be compelled to tie themselves to
the Woodbury depth and length, nor even, if they do
not incline, to any one particular external figure. All
that is essential in the above will readily adapt itself
to several variations, and in fact the improvements
introduced by the Cheshire hive have furnished the
type from which the best adaptations of other English
makers have in a large degree taken their start. The
trade, with scarcely an exception, will cheerfully admit
this fact.
FRAME HIVES. 115

Underneath is given a representation of one of the
most complete of Messrs. Neighbour’s frame hives—
that termed by them ‘‘The Philadelphia Hive,” from
the fact of its having taken a prize at the Exhibition
in that city in 1876. The following description is
given by its makers :—

 

“The distinguishing feature in this hive is the
facility afforded for taking out the frames of comb
while the super is on. There is a movable side to
the stock-hive, which allows room for removal from

zr 2
116 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

the end; or, if no super is on, the frames can be
lifted out on top as with other hives. This movable
side or dummy has a window, and there are also
windows at the back and on the other side, so that
a good inspection can be had. The floor-board,
which draws out on the plan adopted by Mr. Cheshire,
projects two and a half inches along the front, thus
forming a convenient alighting-board. There is an
entrance nine inches wide, and the space can be
lessened by two sliding shutters. The crown of the
stock-hive is of straw and wood, with a feeding hole.

“Our new sectional or divisional supers are used
on top, and when these are put on, a zine adapter,
perforated all over with holes too narrow to admit
the queen or drones, takes the place of the straw
crown. The stock-hive contains twelve of our en-
larged-sized frames. The upper part of the cover
falls back on hinges kept in position by a wire or
chain; it opens at one side, as docs the stock-hive.
The hive with its cover is complete without any
further protection from the weather, and it carries
its own stand. It was very highly commended at
the Alexandra Palace Bee Show.

‘Its size outside is twenty-five by eighteen inches,
with a height of twenty-four; the stands are [an
additional] eleven inches. Price, complete with sec-
tional supers and zine adapter, 42s.”

To the above account, which we have pieced to-
gether from the descriptions in “The Apiary” and
in Messrs. Neighbour’s catalogue, we may suitably
append a figure of their ‘Sectional Super” (their
“Divisional Super” is displayed inside the opened
FRAME HIVES. 117

cover on page 121). This may be called a series
of boxes, each measuring seven inches by four by
two, and designed so as to enable any single portion
to be removed and replaced as fast ag it becomes
filed with honey; of which it will contain about two
pounds. In the figure there are shown fourteen of

 

these boxes, but the above hive will take eighteen.
There are glass sides to those that stand at
the ends, but beyond this there is no manner of
partition between them, so that the whole fourteen
sections form practically two supers standing side by
side. That side of each section which rests upon
the adapter is necessarily cut down considerably in
width, so as to afford space for the free admission of
the bees from below. The saw cut in the crown is
for the insertion of wax strips, so that the boxes them-
selves thus constitute their own bars. ‘It is desir-
able,” says Mr. A. Neighbour, ‘“‘to provide against the
admission of cold through the numerous interstices by
keeping a warm woollen covering on the top and
118 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

pasting paper over the divisions—which can easily
be cut through when the super is filled.” The price
for the set of fourteen is 4s. 6d.; the perforated zine
adapter, 2s.

The “Divisional Super” is on the same plan, but not
divided midway. The divisions are attached together
by lateral strips of wood, but capable of separate
removal by undoing the fastenings. In order to allow
of the use of two supers at a time, the lower set have
passages cut in the top board. A set of seven occupy
the same space with fourteen of the sections above,
and sell for 3s. 6d., or 6s. 6d. the double set.

Mr. T. W. Cowan, of Horsham, has introduced a
sectional super consisting of smaller boxes than the
above, inasmuch as they contain only one pound of
honeycomb apiece. They are further distinguished by
possessing a separator of glass between each box and
the one next it, thus preserving the combs of an even
thickness. 'This form of super was exhibited at the
Alexandra Palace Show in 1875; and together with it
Mr. Cowan displayed a set of sixteen sections made of
tin and enclosed in a box lined with felt. The same
gentleman has produced several inventions for the
advancement of apiculture, seeking from them no per-
sonal emolument: one of these, his ‘‘ honey extractor,”
we describe further on. His maker is Mr. Lee, of
Bagshot.

Myr. Lee has also sent us a sample of a sectional
super of his own, which he calls “The Kensington
Sections.” A complete double section came by post
for 23d., and formed a package smaller than that of an
ordinary newspaper. The longer side measures eight
FRAME HIVES. 119

inches in length and the ends four, and as these
are attached by tape glued round the edges, they
fold backwards flat as on a hinge—the fourth side,
which has to rest upon the adapter, being represented
by a narrow spline extending underneath each comb,
and fitting into notches in the end pieces. It follows
from the above that the height here too is four
inches, while the breadth is one and three-quarters to
a comb. As explained in Mr. Lee’s letter, these
sections are usually sent out in pieces to hold four
combs, so that the complete super holding sixteen
combs, equivalent to eight frames sixteen inches long,
is comprised in four portions, making up a super of
sixteen inches by fourteen; moreover, by means of
deep saw cuts extending all round, they can be further
divided with a pocket-knife into eight or even sixteen
sections. Other saw cuts within give admission for
wax guides, and yet a third set is made for the inser-
tion of panes of glass at the ends. Being constructed
of plain quarter-inch deal, the entire super, as above
described, costs only 2s. It is expressly designed for
“those who go in for profit.”

As many hives are sold apart from any outer
coverings, it naturally follows that there are several
covers to be bought independently of hives, and in
general adapted to almost any of these that may be
chosen. There is the one known as ‘“‘ The Woodbury
Cover,” which in general form and construction
is a close resemblance of the one of Mr. Taylor’s
described and figured at page 100. The two follow-
ing are respectively front and back views of an
elegant cover sold by Messrs. Neighbour. Unlike
120 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

the Cheshire and Philadelphia hives, its hinged
portion falls back over the flight-hole, instead of at
the side—an arrangement which is by no means an
essential in every case, but practically important

7 Hi
: l i It ;

 

when the stock-hive has one window, and one only,
and that one behind; again, it is indispensable to
the side opening that the hives in the apiary should
have plenty of room between them. The two figures
sufficiently explain the construction of the cover
before us—the portico, slides, and alighting-board in
the first, and the chain and falling flap in the
FRAME HIVES. 121

second. The upper part is high enough to admit of
the two divisional supers standing one upon the other
(the stock-hive shown being the same as the one

 

beneath the super on page 104). The cover takes
apart from the stand. The total height is forty-five
inches, the width twenty-two, and the depth from
front to back, twenty-six. The price of this cover,
grained and varnished, is £2. It is recommended to
place bricks beneath the feet to preserve them from
rotting.
122 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

A cheaper cover sold by the same firm is identical
in appearance with the one enclosing and forming a
part of the Philadelphia hive (page 115), excepting
only that it opens from behind, that is to say, the
hinges are over the flight-hole as with the above. The
price of this is 27s.

The two following views represent 2 much simpler
form of cover—that known as the ‘‘ Hayrick Cover,”
and made by Mr. Lee. The former illustrates the
mode of using this covering in winter time, and the
latter in summer. The following is Mr. Cheshire’s
description: ‘The dotted lines indicate the hive, of

 

(in

pe ee fg
D c

which A is the alighting-board, and BC the bottom
board. The case consists of four sides, which should
not be less than two inches wider than the height of
the hive ; these are arranged like the sides of a wheel-
barrow, and are cach about five inches wider at the top
than at the bottom. A roof, D E F, consisting of four
triangular pieces, completes the whole. This is
merely lifted on and off, and however rough the work-
FRAME HIVES. 123

manship, it may be made perfectly rain-tight by
adopting the plan recommended for the cheese boxes ”

 

—which consisted in brushing hot pitch over the
bottoms (which form the tops of the covers), as well as
for one or two inches down the sides ; then spreading
a sheet of newspaper evenly all over, and applying a
hot iron till the pitch is re-melted and thoroughly
incorporated with both the wood and the paper. Myr.
Cheshire then proceeds: “The case being put on,
shaving, rag, hay, or straw is stuffed in between it and
the hive, giving a protective covering not to be
beaten; over this the roof is placed. For the summer
the case is inverted, four little blocks fitted on the
inside, enabling it, by two wooden bars, to stand as in
the second figure. Under the roof comes the super,
while the hive is admirably screened from the sun, and
the alighting-board from the rain; and near swarming
time, when the bees are clustering outside, they re-
124 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

ceive that shelter which many more costly covers could
not afford.” This
cover is sold, un-
pitched and un-
planed, by Mr.
Lee at 7s. 6d.

The last of our
illustrations —ex-
hibits the cover
prepared specially
for Mr. Lee’s octa-
gonal hive (figured
at page 65). It is
made in three
bn compartments,
A We with opening shut-
Int NV = ters corresponding

| WAR with the windows
in the hive and
super. Its height
is thirty-two
inches, and its cost
82s. 6d. painted.

Reference might
also be made to
various forms of
covers in zine,
that adopted with
the Carr-Stewarton
Hive being especially picturesque. The apiculturist
has in fact unlimited scope for the introduction of
the ornamental element. But there is another side to

4 x
To

|
|
UN
POW H
ie |
‘a
"Hl

 
COLLATERAL SYSTEM. 125

the question, and confessedly all such appurtenances
of the apiary, however admirable from an esthetic
point of view, are forbidden to the man who follows
bee-keeping for a profit, and concern him only whose
hives, like his hot-houses, are a “thing of beauty,”
and a source of recreation.

COLLATERAL SYSTEM.*

Various modes of working hives collaterally, or side
by side, have been devised, but a very simple one has
been practised with success by a correspondent, which
as adapted by me may with propriety be termed a.
doubling-board. It is formed of a plain board not less
than an inch thick. It must be of sufficient width to

 

 

take a broad shallow hive, and long enough to contain
two of these, with six or eight inches to spare.

* The first portion of this section is from the last edition.
126 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

A stock-hive is in the first instance placed over
the central circular mark, within which is the double
outlet for the bees. When more space is required, the
hive must be moved over one of the side circles, and a
second hive placed over the other. The double outlet
forms a communication within the floor-board from
hive to hive. The part hollowed out for this purpose is
five inches wide, six inches long, and half an inch high
inside, a sloping way being cut on the two further
sides down into it. Two covered passages lead from
this, terminating at one point on the alighting-board.
The bees, having been accustomed to both these
passages, will commonly take to the second hive, and
commence working therein, particularly if it be smeared
with honey. In order to show the position of the parts
hollowed out, these are slightly shaded in the engrav-
ing. They are cut from the bottom side of the board,
in the way described at page 76. A second piece of
wood, nine or ten inches wide, must be screwed to the
under side, to enclose the openings. This ought to
reach back nearly the width of the upper board; at
the same time projecting far enough in front to form
the alighting-place. Another cross-piece may be
screwed to the under side, at each end.

When it is required to take away one of the hives,
the communication below must be cut off between
them. This is done by means of a divider of strong
tin, copper, or iron, pushed in from behind, in a
groove cut edgewise in the bottom side of the main
board, and resting on the under one. The dotted line
in the engraving shows the position of the divider,
which must in depth be the same as the passage
COLLATERAL SYSTEM. 127

between the two hives, so as, when in its place, to stop
it entirely across the centre.

Another plan of working hives side by side is shown
below, two boards being required. They are made on
the double plan, as
described on page 76;
alike in size and
thickness, with the
entrance passages cut
out from beneath.
There must, however,
be two entrances to
the board intended for the second hive—one in front
and the other at the side, with doorways not less than
six inches wide. A wedge or two of wood will contract
them as needed. When room is required, the first
board with its hive must be moved so far sideways that
the second can precisely occupy its place. At the
same time it must be turned half round, so that its
mouth and that on the side of the new hive meet and
fit close together. The bees will pass into the other
hive on going out; on returning it will be the same,
for the alighting-board (which ought to be a fixture)
will remain as usual. On removing a full hive, the
other must be restored to its original position.

“Nutt’s Collateral Hive’”—a wooden bee palace,
with central pavilion, octagonal cover, and two wings—
is still occasionally met with; but it has wholly ceased
to be recommended, and indeed the entire collateral
system had all but become a thing of the past, when
quite recently an inclination to make further trial of it
sprang up in the apiarian world. Messrs. Neighbour

 

 
128 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

have just announced a ‘Philadelphia Collateral
Hive,” with two additional frames on each side of the
brood-combs. Other adaptations will doubtless follow.
We here present an engraving of the ‘“‘ Alexandra Prize
Collateral Hive,” from a block obligingly prepared for

Beet

 

us by the inventor, Mr. J. M. Hooker, of Seven-
oaks; but as he unfortunately has been prevented
by engagements from supplementing the block by a
description, we are compelled to leave the illustra-
tion to speak as well as it can for itself.
THE NADIR SYSTEM. 129

THE NADIR SYSTEM.

There are still many persons who resort to a partial
adoption of this system, and we therefore retain Mr.
Taylor's directions and illustrations almost unaltered
trom the last edition :-—~

Bees not unfrequently take advantage ofa hole or
crack in the floor of their domicile to commence build-
ing combs underneath it, a position possessing some
advantages. Deriving a hint from themselves, I
contrived what, from this peculiarity, I used to term
by way of distinction a
nadir hive, the store-box
being placed underneath
the stock, coming out at
the back, as a drawer.
By way of illustrating the i
principle and the methods rn
of its application, the Ih Mil
engravings annexed will
not be without their
utility. In practice I
found no indisposition on
the part of the bees to
enter and work in the
store-drawer, into which
they have access through
the floor-board above, and
which is in part made
like that shown at

page 125. It will be seen

that the entire design supposes an outdoor hive, with
K

 

 
130 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

a hipped cover. The stock-box is enclosed by four
panels, moving up and down in grooves or rabbets cut
in the corner pilasters, the latter being attached to
the box,

  
 
 

   

im,
Tink om

Tyul TA
; Mi

  

   

 

This mode of applying the nadir, or rather nether
principle, must not be confounded with the usual plan
of disturbing the stock-hive for the purpose of placing
an empty one beneath it, with a new entrance in the
latter for the bees. Under such circumstances the
queen will commonly descend and breed in the nadir,
THE NADIR SYSTEM. 131

which is converted into the stock, occasioning much
subsequent inconvenience. Ihave not found such to
be the case where the stock, and the entrance into it,

 

are not interfered with; and am inclined to believe that
this adaptation of bottom-hiving is worthy of much
more attention than it has received—to say nothing of
its simplicity, safety in management, and obvious con-
venience to the bees. I will therefore proceed to show
in what way it may be made generally applicable to
the purposes of an apiary.

We have just pointed out that the mode we are
now discussing differs from the nadir principle, and
by way of distinction, the term ‘‘nether” will be
used, not only to mark the difference, but as pre-
senting a contrast to the opposite word “super.”

We are to suppose that the shelf on which the
hives are ranged in a bee-house is perforated under
the centre of each, from back to front, with an
opening through, three inches long, and about three-
quarters of an inch wide. The hive-board must be

a separate loose one; and it ought to lie fat on the
K 2
132 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

shelf, with a perforation similar to the other, the
holes in both coming together: to ensure this the
shelf can be marked. By moving the hive-bourd
(which is best square) a little sideways of this mark,
the position of the two holes is altered, and the
communication downwards becomes stopped; always
doing this cautiously, to avoid injuring the bees.
Or the same object is perhaps better attained by
means of a narrow zinc or tin slide, inserted from
behind, between the two boards, and moving in a
sroove ploughed its own thickness out of the shelf.
A reference to our last engraving sufficiently exhibits
a box, or rather drawer (of suitable size), which, when
in its place, moves close on the underneath side of
the bee-house shelf by means. of blocks and run-
ners; drawing out at the back by a handle. It
may have a window and shutter, but no entrance
for the bees, except downwards through the cover,
in which is an aperture, corresponding in size and
position with those in the boards above it. It will
be seen that the cover of the drawer is a movable
one, of half-inch board, fitting down flush into it,
and resting at the four corners upon wire supports,
or small blocks, placed the thickness of the cover
across the angles. The edges of the cover (except
at the corners) are cut away just enough to admit
of passing a knife-blade down, to separate the combs
from the sides, when the whole may be lifted up,
with the combs attached. The honey thus obtained
is of the purest kind,* and I have known a large

* The use of queen-preventers will of course make this far more
certain.
THE NADIR SYSTEM. 133

quantity made available with the least possible dis-
turbance to the bees on removal. The drawer may
be sometimes further made useful for the purpose
of feeding, a trough being placed in it, close up to
the opening in the cover. A small opening or per-
foration, at or near the bottom of the drawer, will
give ventilation should it be needed.

With a further view to facilitating the practice of
under-hiving, when favourable circumstances allow of
it, we will proceed to describe what I have termed
a nether, which may be used
as an adjunct to a straw or
any other hive, as shown in
the illustrations, Fig. 1 back
and front. It may be of half-
inch wood, eleven or eleven
and a half inches square
within, and six to seven
inches deep, as circum-
stances require (see Fic. 4,
next page). It hasa window
and shutter at the back, but
neither a fixed top nor bottom,
these being movable boards,
of half-inch wood, made to
project half an inch beyond
the nether box; except that,
as respects the bottom board,
the projection is increased
at the back, with a view to
giving facilities on the removal of the ne‘her (see
Figs. 3 and 5). To receive and enclose the nether,

 

 

 
134 THE BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL.

there ig an outer case or cover, also of half-inch
wood, thirteen to thirteen and a half inches square
within-side, made half an inch higher than the
nether, its top and bottom boards inclusive. The
outer case is closed on all
sides except the top and back
(see Fig. 2). Upon it rests
the floor-board of the stock-
hive, which may be of inch
wood, showing a projection
all round of an inch, except
at the front, where an addi-
tional three inches is given to
form the alighting-board, this
part bevelling forwards. A
square of half-inch wood must
be screwed to the under side
of the floor-board, of a size to
drop easily within the square
of the outer case, thus re-
taining it in its place. Be-
tween the two pieces of which
the floor-board ig composed,
a groove is ploughed out,
from front to back, two inches
wide, to receive a zine divid-
ing slide, pushing in from
behind. An opening, about three inches long, is
cut through the floor-board, towards the front, and
also through .the cover of the nether, to correspond,
so that a passage for the bees can be opened on
withdrawing the divider (see Fig. 6).

FIG.G.BACK

 
THE STEWARTON SYSTEM. 135

A reversal of this proceeding enables possession or
inspection to be had of the nether box, by with-
drawing it (upon its bottom board) from behind, the
stock-hive being entirely undisturbed by the opera-
tion.

It is well here to remark that experience has
shown that it is seldom expedient to apply the
nether principle to any but strong and populous
stocks, and especially in any other than moderately
warm weather, as the bees would then prefer to follow
the warmth upwards into a super. On their first
admission into the nether, a few bees will often be
lost in consequence of their inability to find the
way out, so that, as a precaution, a frequent in-
spection of the window is at such time desirable.
A small aperture behind, at the bottom or side of
the nether, may be made, as a mode of exit for the
prisoners, to be closed at pleasure.

THE STEWARTON SYSTEM.

The well-known ‘ Stewarton Hive’ embraces the
principles of both nadir and super. We will first
extract the brief description given in Mr. Shirley
Hibberd’s ‘‘ Rustic Adornments :’’—

“This hive is so called from the district of
Stewarton in North Britain, where it is in general use.
It consists of a series of octagonal boxes, four in
number, three of them formed exactly alike, but the
fourth, which forms the summit, is a little shallower
than the others. The inside measure of each is
thirteen inches and three-quarters from side to side, or
136 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

from back to front; the height of each of the three
lower boxes is five inches and three-quarters, the
bottom open in all. With the exception of the top or
shallow honey-box, the construction of each is the
same; the roof is flat, and consists of seven fixed
bars, each one inch and a half wide, and between each
two bars are grooves three-eighths of an inch wide,
which are capable of being closed by strips of wood.
When the boxes are severally placed above the stock,
these slips are withdrawn, to allow the bees to ascend,
and they are prevented from escaping at the openings
outwards of the grooves by little blocks of wood fitted
in at the back of the hive. The two lower boxes have
an additional cross-bar, to give strength to the combs.
Each box has a window back and
front, closed by a movable shutter,
and every one of the three larger
boxes may be used as a stock-box
hy the withdrawal of a slip of
wood from the front, which imme-
ately forms an entrance for the
bees to come and go. The swarm
is hived into two boxes joined and
communicating with each other.
When these are filled, the super
or honey-box is added. As more
room is required, another of the
large boxes is added below the
stock, the original entrance is
closed by a slide, and a new one opened by a similar
slide in the nadir. In the winter this lower box is
removed, and the combs left in it undisturbed for

 
THE STEWARTON SYSTEM. 137

the future use of the bees. The boxes are readily
adjusted by means of buttons, and each has a_ set
of hooks attached to give facilities for lifting and
weighing.

““In a communication
received from one who has
had large experience on
the Scottish moors with
these hives, he says, ‘In a
good season I have known
a skilful hand take honey
to the value of six or
seven pounds sterling
from a single hive,
besides leaving an ample
store for winter.’ ”

In the two figures the broad white spaces on the top
of the hive must be taken for the bars, and the narrow
and partially shaded ones for the slides, or else the
grooves in which these move. In the first figure
these are represented as partly withdrawn, and pro-
jectine over the back of the hive. The arrangement
by means of which the bars and slides fit so closely
together was shown in section upon page 97. The
‘little blocks of wood” by which the openings are
closed when one of the slides is removed are techni-
cally known as “sectional slides.” These hives are
made in Scotland by specially-prepared machinery,
and it will be a formidable affair for the bee-keeper
to construct one for himself; the Scotch maker, how-
ever, does not send out floor-boards with them. The
three stock-boxes contain nine bars to the seven which

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
138 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

the cuts show in the super, but all are alike immov-
able and fitted with intervening slides. The super is
only four inches deep.

Special instructions are needed for the use of this
complex structure. The two middle boxes are tied
together by the aid of the projections at the sides,
the slides in the lower one are all withdrawn, and
the sectional ends inserted, and the whole can be then
reversed and receive a swarm in the usual way. In
about a week (some do it on the same day) a second
swarm is hived into the lowest of the four boxes,
which is kept separate, but close by the side of the
two others, till dusk, and the latter together are then
placed on the top of it, when its slides are removed
and the openings closed by sectional slides, as just
explained in the case of the other box. The new
swarm will pass upwards and join its predecessor,
and on the following morning one of the queens will
pretty certainly be discovered dead before the hive.

But the lowest box is not to be brought into working
use just yet, and now that the bees have deserted it
and gone higher it is at once withdrawn. In a very
few days, if the weather is favourable, the two
remaining boxes will show signs of approaching
fulness, and now the super is added. Do not withdraw
all the slides at the top of the upper stock-box, or you
will have the queen passing into the super too freely;
but with only one at each side removed, she will be
less likely to give you annoyance. The next addition
is the restoration of the lowest box or nadir, which is
to be effected as soon as requisite, and upon adding
this the old entrance hole is closed, and that in the
THE STEWARTON SYSTEM. 139

nadir opened. There are now three boxes in the
stock-hive, but if the bees take to storing honey in the
nadir, you may open more of the slides into the super,
and add a second, and it may be a third super.
Indeed, we are told of the continued addition of
supers and nadirs till a pile of eight or ten boxes has
been reared.

The supers as filled will successively take their
departure in the same manner as other supers; and as
the cold weather approaches, the nadirs must be
removed too. The two original stock-boxes will then
remain well wrapped up through the winter.

The maker of this hive is Mr. James Allan, of
Stewarton, Ayrshire; but it can be obtained through
other dealers ata slight increase in price to cover
carriage. Messrs. Neighbour quote the price of 21s.,
including a floor-board. This is for the four regular
boxes, additional ones being extra.

Octagonal hives possess one theoretical advantage
over square ones in the fact of their beg a much
nearer approach to the circular form, which naturally
is the one in which the interior warmth is most
uniformly diffused, with a freedom from cold corners.
The gentleman known as ‘‘A Renfrewshire Bee-
Keeper” claims this as an important advantage in
winter time, and doubtless the balance is on its side.
But the universal desire for the application of the
frame system will long continue to obtain the pre-
ference for square hives in which the frames can be
freely transposed. The gentleman just named has
partially met the objection by an adaptation known
as the “Renfrewshire Stewarton,” in which all the
140 THE BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL.

bars are movable, and the four central ones (those of
full lensth) have frames attached. Many, however,
will give preference to the form of the *‘ Carr-Stewarton
Hive,” which, if it had no other point in its favour,
micht well claim our notice from its forming the
pretlicst home for bees that has perhaps ever been
constructed. Its inventor is Mr. C. W. Smith, and
its maker Mr. James Lee, who supplies with it a
circular containing full particulars of its structure as
well as its mode of use. It is made of straw, with
wooden frame-work, and a picturesque zine roof. The
two stock-boxes, which are fifteen inches square and
six deep, are each furnished with nine frames made
slightly wider at top than at bottom with a view to
giving greater facility for extraction. From the
greater eapacity as compared with the regular
Stewarton, one stock-box becomes sufficient for start-
ing with at the beginning of the season, that box being
the equivalent of the two which are fastened together
in the prototype, and the lower one being the nadir to
be added when required. The bars of the frames are
like ordinary ones, but there is a crown-board
furnished with four Stewarton slides, two at each side.
The honey-box, which is four inches deep, and wholly
of wood, has seven of the old form of Stewarton
bars-—an arrangement which, one would think, might
very well have been improved upon when the other
desirable changes were made.

Mr. Smith speaks of the ready adaptability of the
stock-boxes to the purpose of nucleus hives (as to which
see a subsequent section). ‘As each stock-box,” he
says, ‘‘when placed on a floor-board will form a
THE DIVISIONAL SYSTEM. 14]

separate colony of nine frames, and as only four
frames will be required for a queen-raising nucleus, the
simple insertion of a close-fitting piece of board in the
centre of the box will at once convert it into a pair of
nucleus hives, the floor-board being made reversible to
form double entrances for that purpose.” The price
of this hive is 46s. or 49s. according to the forma-
tion of the roof. An adapting-board can be had by
those who desire it for 1s. 6d. extra.

THE DIVISIONAL SYSTEM.

We have already observed the growing tendency to
the adoption of this system in the case of supers,
and we have here
to witness its ap-
plication to
stock-hives. Mr.
S. Simmins, of isi a i.
Crawley, Sussex, = i i
has introduced a : ere
“Divisional Hive”
which obtained a
certificate of
merit at South
Kensington in
1878. In its
present improved
and simplified
form it is thus described by its inventor :—

“The ‘Divisional Hive’ is composed of ten sections
(sixteen inches by ten inches outside measure), their

 
142 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

two ends being an inch and a half by three-eighths,
and the top and bottom rails seven-eighths by three-
eighths; it has also a floor-board, cover, and nadir
containing two rows of sections. The nadir, having
four stout legs firmly attached to it, is a simple and
convenient stand for the hive, thereby doing away
with the inconvenience of legs fixed to the stock-
hive. The frames with the two end boards rest at
each side on a quarter-inch rabbet. The cover is
capped with zinc, and is therefore thoroughly water-
proof.

“Although the ends of the frames are an inch and
a half wide, they are constructed so as to allow
both sides of the comb to go close against the cage
of the extractor. As the wide frame ends are worked
true, and are all held tightly
together, the bees are unable
@™ to stick them together with
'| propolis. The frames are per-
fectly rigid, and held so securely
by a simple contrivance at the
| back, that the hive may be
» turned upside down without

their moving from position.

“The hive is so constructed that it may be used
with either six, eight, or ten frames, or more; either
number forming a completely closed-up hive (of course
excepting the entrance), thus economising heat by
allowing it to be enlarged or reduced according to
the requirements of the swarm. For wintering, a
stock may be deprived of its surplus frames of comb,
which may be returned in spring as the bees require

 
THE DIVISIONAL SYSTEM. 143

more room. By taking out the wedge and back
board, a large space is left for drawing back the
first frames, thus giving the operator free access to
any part of the hive. Having wide ends, the frames
will stand on any flat surface without other support.
With ordinary care no bees need be crushed between
the wide ends; if any be in the way, gentle pressure
will cause them to run into the hive.

“By using the nadir, the frames are always ac-
cessible, thus per-
mitting the exami-
nation of the hive
while working the
honey sections,
without disturbing
them in the least; ¢
neither is there
loss of heat, as in
supering. The
floor-board is di-
visible, and can be
parted at the
middle to allow
the bees to work
down into the nadir. The bees may be induced to
take possession of the nadir by taking from the
hive several frames of comb, when, being suddenly
overcrowded, they will more readily make a start
below; and when storing has commenced, the same
or other stock combs may be returned to them.
There is no crown-board to the hive, it being adapted
for the quilt [or of course for the phrail, page 98].

 
144 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

Impressed wax guides are attached to all frames
and honey sections. The price is 27s. 61. comp.ete.”

OBSERVATORY HIVES.

The simplest of these is in form lke an ordinary
frame hive with its sides composed of glass as in the
figure annexed, or more usually now, with the crown
of glass also, and the open-
ings into the super cut
through this. The hive
should be placed in a house
and in winter carefully
covered; an outer case or
box going over the whole
—that is to say, if the risk of keeping the bees in
such a hive during winter is encountered at all.

Another form is that of the ‘Circular Observa-
tory Hive,” the general features of which are here
shown. This hive is adapted
for placing within-doors, a
glazed tunnel connecting the
entrance with an opening
cut through the window-sash.
A glass dome or cylinder
forms the stock-hive, within
which are a number of wooden
bars supported by a pedestal
and designed for the same
purpose as the bars in other
hives ; an opening admits to
a bell-glass super, and, over
the whole, a straw skep fits as a cover. Messrs.

 

 
OBSERVATORY HIVES. 145

Neighbour have a hive of this character, which they
term the ‘Ladies’ Observatory Hive.”

Lastly, there is the ‘‘ Unicomb Hive,” which, as its
name implies, is so narrow that only one comb can be
built within it. In form it is a glass case, glazed
upon both
sides, and in
consequence
the bees, in-
cluding the
queen, can
scarcely ever
get into a posi-
tion in which
they are not
fully exposed
to view. Such
hives, if well
screened and covered over, may be placed out of
doors, but they are better adapted for standing in a
conservatory or drawing-room. In such position of
course the tunnelled entrance is required as described
in the preceding paragraph. The figure represents
Messrs. Neighbour’s ‘Indoor Unicomb,” price £3 10s.

It is far safer to restrict the use of glass hives
entirely to the warmer weather, removing the colony
into wood or straw upon the first approach of winter.
Even inside a parlour the glass is almost sure to
become at that season so chilled as to render the
preservation of the bees a difficult and even doubtful
task.

 

 

L
146 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

NUCLEUS HIVES.

The object of these is the rearing of young queens
with a view either to Italianising or other substitution,
or to the starting of artificial swarms. This process
may be carried on in ordinary hives, but it is safer to
conduct it out of the reach of the old queen, and, when
special hives are appropriated to the work, there is an
obvious convenience in using those which are so small
as to require but a few bees to maintain the requisite
degree of warmth. Mr. Cheshire’s nucleus hive is
widely known and commended. It measures only
three and three-quarter inches in width, and seven
and a half from front to rear, its depth being nine
inches. It thus contains only two frames, and these
are constructed with a tongue in the top bar of the one
and a groove in that of the other, so that, when taken
out of their own hive and placed end to end, they can
be fitted together, and constitute a single frame of the
size of those in the larger Cheshire hive, thus differing
from other frames simply in the dividing-pieces down
the middle. In this arrangement consists the system
of their working. A double frame, thus combined, is
placed in the centre of an ordinary stock-hive, until
one or more royal cells are constructed upon it. It is
then withdrawn with such bees as it contains, only
taking care not to remove the queen; the two parts
are now disunited and placed in the nucleus side by side,
with the royal cells towards the centre. These may,
of course, be not all upon the proper sides, in which
case it is easy enough to transfer them by cutting out
NUCLEUS HIVES. 147

the piece of comb upon which they are affixed,
sacrificing the adjoining cells in order to make sure of
not touching the infant princesses. Each cell thus
extracted must be provided with a new location by
cutting a space for its reception in the assigned spot,
and, if necessary, it must then be fixed by a little
melted wax. But, as anything approaching to
pressure is sufficient, in the earlier stages, to kill the
insect within, it is not right to attempt this transfer
till the top of the cell shows, by its brown colour, that
it is within three or four days of hatching. There is
no danger in leaving the whole in the original hive for
from a week to ten days from the construction of the
first cell; but ten is the extreme limit of safety.

The most certain way of ensuring the preparation of
royal cells is to remove the queen from the hive for a
few hours; then, if two or three of the divided frames
have been previously inserted in the centre, one or
more of these will be sure to provide the apiculturist
with the object of his desires. The transferring
process can, of course, be equal’y well accomplished
from other frames to the one desired; but there is also
another resource which does not appear to have
attracted much attention in this country at present.
It has been ascertained by Dzierzon that, by removing
from any unsealed royal cell a portion of the jelly, and
placing this within any worker cell desired, the bees
will be induced to adopt the occupant of the latter as a
princess, and will construct the cell and rear the larva
accordingly. This plan is especially convenient when
two or more royal cells are placed awkwardly close

together.
L 2
148 THE BER-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

Another precaution has to be observed when several
queens are hatching in a nucleus, for it is well known
that the first which comes forth will forthwith proceed,
if permitted, to the de-
struction of all her rivals.
One of the queen-cages
of the domed construc-
tion should therefore be
placed over a cell from
which danger of the kind
is apprehended; ‘this will
~ press down into the sur-
rounding comb, and keep
the young princess out of
mischief till she is re-
moved to the hive de-
signed for her, when the
cage can be shifted to
the cell next likely to need it. A similar cage will
require to be used if the cell is allowed to remain
longer than ten days in the original hive; so protected
it may, of course, be hatched there, if desired. The
cage must nowhere come actually into contact with
a royal cell, and it may be requisite, in consequence,
to pare down the surface of the opposite comb.

In My. Cheshire’s nucleus hive the walls are
constructed double, as in his larger hive, but every
additional care must be taken to preserve the due
desree of warmth. Moreover, as the older bees, which
were upon the frame at its transfer, will be certain to
desert it and return to the parent hive, it will be
needful to take out other frames, and shake the young

 
BEE SHEDS AND HOUSES. 149

ones therefrom on to a board placed before the
nucleus. The entrance-hole must be narrow, as the
stock is, of course, one of the weakly kind most
helpless against the attacks of marauding bees.

BEE SHEDS AND HOUSES.

Under the head of ‘‘ Hive Covers” we have shown in
what way exposed hives can be protected from the
effects of weather ; and where only one or two of them
are kept, any of these might suffice. The case,
however, is altered when a well-stocked apiary is
aimed at, requiring a more complete provision for
permanent safety. For this purpose, some proprietors
like a covered shed or verandah, in a well-screened
spot, partially open in the front only. There should
be ample space inside for a passage behind the hives,
which may be ranged far enough from the front to be
beyond the reach of wet and too much sun. At page
79 is given a description of a hive-range well adapted
for a position like this.

The wooden bee-houses which are sometimes con-
structed—open in front, and closed altogether behind,
retaining the sun’s heat as an oven—are objectionable.
These are frequently the receptacles of dirt and
vermin, and most inconvenient to operate in. It
would be an improvement to make them deeper
backwards; or with a falling front, moving on hinges,
so that the hives can be recessed behind it, away from
the influence of weather. At the back should be
folding doors, opening from top to bottom, allowing a
good access to the hives. For greater convenience, it
150 THE BEE-KEEPERS MANUAL.

is best only to have them in a single row, with good
head-room. But a still more desirable plan is to
board up the front of the house entirely, making
oblong openings through for a passage to the bees,
with an exterior alighting-board, a good deal slanted
downwards (the bees preferring this to a flat surface).
The hives are arranged immediately behind, upon a
shelf, the further apart the better, as the bees
occasionally mistake their own homes, and fall a
sacrifice in consequence ; it is now a practice to assist
them against this mistake by painting the alighting-
boards distinctive colours. This kind of house is
capable of receiving some architectural form; and,
with locked doors at the back, gives better security
than most others against depredation; for hive-
stealing is by no means rare in many localities.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A spare room in a dwelling or an outhouse may
often be fitted up to serve the purpose of an apiary
BEE SHEDS AND HOUSES. 151

with great convenience ; but it should be on a ground
floor, as bees placed at a high elevation often fly
a long distance before they alight when swarming, or,
perhaps, may settle on the top of a tree. A shelf can
be fixed along the wall, with perforated passages
facing the hives, leading outside. Any space there
may be between the mouth of the hive and the wall
should be filled up by means of a suitably formed
wooden block or covered passage, well hollowed out on
the underneath side; admitting the bees freely
through it into their dwelling,
but excluding them from the
room itself, and thus en-
suring safety in operating.
Even at a common window,
I have sometimes placed a
stock-hive on a doubling-
board; the latter fitting —
within the frame of the —
window, which is raised, to

admit of itt being projected

under the lower edge, so that the bees have no
admission except to their domicile.

Messrs. Neighbour announce that they keep, or
make to order, bee-houses to admit of from one to
twelve hives, and doubtless either they or any other
hive-maker would be able to meet the wishes of
customers in this matter to an almost unlimited
range of choice. But the largest house ever planned
by our makers seems far outdone by what we hear
of in Germany, and the scale of some of the opera-
tions in that country may be gathered from the

 
152 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

portentous heading to a section in Von Berlepsch—
Das hundertvierundvierzigbeutige Bienenhaus ; which
means, literally interpreted, ‘‘The Hundred-and-forty-
four-hiving Bee-house.” The said house is arranged
crosswise like the sails of a windmill, with hives eighteen
in a row upon each side of the four arms.

The annexed illustration exhibits an ornamental
bee-house, referred to in the following section in an
extract from Mr. Hibberd’s ‘‘ Rustic Adornments.”
The frontispiece to this volume, as well as that pre-
fixed to its second portion (page 171), will also perhaps
furnish hints acceptable to some of our readers.

 
153

POSITION AND ASPECT.

As regards position, it is of great importance that
an apiary should be free from damp, or from the
drippings of trees, and as little exposed to the direct
influence of the wind as possible, for which end a
sheltered nook on a low level is preferable to an
elevated one. Moreover, as Columella pointed out
eighteen hundred years ago, a low level suits the bees
better than a high one when they return laden from
the fields. A dry gravel plot, or well-mown lawn, is
often to be preferred, and it will be the better if
closed in with evergreens, especially the laurel and
laurustinus, which are much resorted to by the bees;
but the arrangement must always be such as to leave
an approach at the back of the hives. Let these not
be placed too near water, into which the bees are apt
to fall or be blown (though a shallow spring, rippling
between pebbles, is rather an acquisition); and it is
desirable that they should be within sight of some
dwelling-house, to prevent losses in swarming time.
The absence of noise and of bad smells ought to be
studied; for no sense in bees is so acute as that of
scent. Disturbers of any kind, as fowls, dogs, pigs,
&e., should be kept at a distance; while the vicinity
of confectioners’ shops, or such like temptations, igs
perhaps as serious an obstacle to success as any that
could be named. Experience has shown that where
bees are very extensively kept, the apiary is best
divided on the same premises, so as not to have the
whole crowded together—a circumstance often incon-
154 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

venient, particularly at swarming time. Nothing high
enough to obstruct the direct flight of the bees should
be allowed immediately in front of the hives; but a
few low plants are rather useful as resting-places, for
bees, from fat'gue, often fall to the ground just on
reaching home, especially in an evening, and numbers
in consequence fall a prey to cold, and various
enemies. Many lives may be saved by spreading out
a cloth or mat in front of a hive when this is
observed. Shrubs or bushes, at no great distance, are
convenient in the swarming season for the bees to
alight upon; and often prevent a longer flight, or
collecting on high trees or other objects.

As regards aspect for bees, many and conflicting
have been the recommendations according as they
have been influenced by locality and climate. So
many circumstances have to be taken into account,
that it is hard to lay down any rule of universal
application, and colonies have been known to prosper
in all positions, from due south to north. We know
that it has been sometimes advised to turn the hives
from the sun in winter, and to screen them from its
direct rays in summer: this has led to an opinion
that a permanent north aspect is the best; and
often it is so. Still local considerations must have
their weight, and we are to look to these as regards
shelter from cutting winds; the more necessary
where no sun reaches the front of the hives. A
north aspect need not necessarily be an exposed one
in winter; nor at other times one wholly unin-
fluenced by the effects of the sun. We have recom-
mended doors at the back of a bee-house, by opening
POSITION AND ASPECT. 155

which at proper times, in the case of a north front-
age, the sun’s rays have access from behind, with
sufficiently good effect in producing a genial general
warmth. In forming a decision ag to aspect, we
ought to take into account the position of buildings,
trees, &c., for we have already observed that the
flicht of the bees from the hives should be uninter-
rupted. Moreover, the kind of house must have
its weight in the scale; for where this is one closed
at the front from the immediate influence of the
sun, aspect is of less importance. Dr. Bevan placed
his hives around the interior of an octagonal erection,
without perceiving any sensible difference in their
well-doing. It may, however, be remarked that,
occasionally, in a hive exposed to the earliest rays of
the sun, the bees have been prematurely tempted out
in the spring months, and fallen victims to the effects
of a damp and chilly atmosphere; this objection can
be obviated by erecting a screen of matting before the
hive in winter time.

To these remarks we may append a somewhat
lengthy extract from Mr. Shirley Hibberd’s “ Rustic
Adornments,” which in great part has reference to
his own apiary at Stoke Newington, of which an
engraving appears in our frontispiece. It will be
observed that he differs from Mr. Taylor’s remarks
above in advocating one definite aspect to the south-
east.

“Tt is by no means an easy matter, even in a
garden of considerable extent, to find a suitable spot
for a bee-shed. This for several reasons, which must
have consideration in the first instance. The bees
156 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

must have a clear way out; there must be no traffic
within at least half a dozen yards of the front of the
hives. It must be confessed that at Stoke Newington
for twelve years the bees stood with their faces
towards the principal walk, and only about eight fect
distant. But at honey-taking times we used to
prohibit any one but ourselves going into the garden,
and if visitors arrived they gave but little trouble after
being admonished that the bees hated strangers alter
they had been robbed. Any way there ought to be no
traflic near the front of the bee-house; the bees must
have an open causeway out and home, and they must
look east, south-east, or south. Ours stand now facing
south-east with an open causeway where traffic is
impossible, with half a mile at least of meadow land
full before them, before they can reach any pathway
or public road. It is not because bees are dangerous
that this rule of an open causeway should be observed.
When the honey is taken, they make it known, if any
opportunity is afforded them, that they have just a
shadow of a temper, and power to demonstrate the
fact. At such times strangers should be kept out of
the way, and if the apiary is so placed that strangers
cannot be kept aloof, then all that remains to be said
is that the apiary is badly placed. On all ordinary
occasions bees have not the least idea of stinging ; in
fact, a bee going about her business must be annoyed
considerably ere she will waste her time to panish
the enemy. So in taking a swarm, it may almost be
said they will never sting: at all even’s none but a
bungler or a very timid person will be stung by them.
Give them a good causeway then, not looking on a
POSITION AND ASPECT. 157

croquet lawn, or a much frequented path, or where
any kind of labour is customarily performed.

“Another requisite of a good position is ample
space for approach in the rear of the hives. The
apiarian will, let us hope, have heavy weights to hit,
and sundry small mechanical operations to perform,
for which he must have room for the free use of his
limbs. When a swarm has been taken, it should be
brought in at the back of the shed, and be placed on
the stand where it is to remain ; it is a most improper
procedure to bring it in the front way—in fact, the
bees will not be bothered with people in front of the
shop; they want no publicity, and we must humour
them if we want honey.

‘“‘ At the risk of appearing tedious we repeat that
these two preliminary conditions are of great impor-
tance. But it must be remembered that bees care
nothing about scenery or indeed propriety. They will
sail across a wood-yard or a melancholy marsh with
as much gladness as over a flower garden, or through
a labyrinth of costly statuary, provided they can find
their way to suitable pasture. When in full work,
they generally rise up high into the air immediately
after quitting the hive, and no one can say where they
are going to; but in coming home laden, they sail
low, and cannot abide interruption in regaining the
hive. Therefore we may plant our bees in any clean
dry place, whence they can go out freely in any
aspect from due east to due south—midway between
these points being best, and where also we can find
room in the rear for necessary manipulations. An
arched recess in the wall of the house forms a capital
158 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

site for an apiary, if fulfilling the primary conditions.
The best apiary we know of is in a stable, which,
being no longer required for its ostensible purpose, was
slightly altered for the bees. One of the walls facing
the south-east was pierced with holes at proper
distances to suit a row of hives. <A shelf was placed
against this wall, the hives were put in their places,
and the bees went on with their work happily, and it
was a rare occurrence to find a bee in the house itself
—they were too particular to keep to their own
porches and halls. The windows on the north-east
side afforded abundant light for the bee-keeper’s
operations; the stall occupied only a width of three
feet at most on the wall appropriated to it, and the
other part of the place was used as a tool-house, and
a store for roots. ‘The best apiary !’ yes, not for any
outward elegances, but for the glorious work that was
done, for the owner knew how to handle bees, the
country was rich in bee pasture, and great honey
harvests were sent from it, and were eagerly
purchased at the rate of half-a-crown per pound.
‘Thou shalt not put thy trust in horses,’ said the
bee-master one day as he lifted a box of honey
weighing twenty-five pounds, and said that it was one
of the purest samples his little workers had ever given
him.

‘Next as to the apiary itself. Bees thrive better
sheltered than exposed, but a free circulation of air
about the hives is of great importance. In des-
perately hot weather, the combs will melt and fall
within the hives if they become over-heated, and a free
ventilation is a grand cooling agent, provided at the
POSITION AND ASPECT. 159

same time that the direct rays of the sun are screened
off. ‘lo make this part of the subject plain, let it be
understood that any kind of shelter will do, for the
bees care not one straw what it is if they are but
dry, and can breathe the free air of heaven. But
a caution here. A low thatched roof standing just
above the hives, will in summer time be always full of
spiders, and to dislodge these vagabonds is simply
impossible. Before we took up our residence in Stoke
Newington we had a pretty low-roofed thatched
cottage for our bees, and the spiders were a perpetual
nuisance. In hot weather spiders may swarm about
the house and do no harm, for the bees pass through
their horrible meshes unhurt; but when the foggy
mornings and chilly damps of autumn come, the poor
dears are trapped wholesale, they stick fast in the wet
webs, and the bees being then weak and the spiders
strong, the first fulfil the undesirable purpose of
making the second fat. To see a bee fight with a
spider, and the spider invariably get the best of it, is a
pretty study for the apiarian, but the less of it the
better. Our bee-shed consists of a hipped roof of
timber supported on stout uprights of larch with the
bark on; over the timber is laid felt well pitched and
dusted with sand. It is open on all sides, but in
winter is roughly boarded in, for our Hermitage is in
a miserably bleak spot—Stoke Newington is a fine
imitation of the arctic regions, consider-ng we are only
five miles north from the General Post Office.
Measurements are useful. The width of our roof is
twelve feet, and the height from the ground eight feet,
affording ample shelter from driving rains and also
160 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

ample head-room for lifting, which is a matter of no
small importance. It matters not what the length of
the house is, but where space is a matter of con-
sideration, a semicircular or half-octagonal form, as
represented at page 152, may be adopted. In sucha
case one side will face due east, and the other side
due south. Perhaps a point or two beyond these
extremes may be allowable, but we cannot say from
experience how far north and west aspects are allow-
able.”

When once fixed, do not move your bees, for the
mischief of this act is self-evident. I cannot enforce
this recommendation better than Gelieu has done.
“T have seen people,” says he, ‘shift about their
hives very inconsiderately; but change of place
invariably weakens them, as the bees will return to
their old residence, the environs of which are so
familiar to them. A hive should remain as fixed to
the spot as the ancient oaks, in the hollows of which
the insects delight to establish themselves; where they
have their young, their companions, their queen,
and all their treasures. When the young bees take
wing for the first time, they do it with great
precaution, turning round and round, and fluttering
about the entrance, to examine the hive well before
taking flight. They do the same in returning, so that
they may be easily distinguished, conducting them-
selves nearly after the same manner as the workers of
a newly-hived swarm. When they have made a few
excursions, they set off without examining the
locality; and returning in full flight will know their
own hive in the midst of a hundred others. But if
POSITION AND ASPECT. 161

you change its place you perplex them, much the
same as you would be perplexed if, during a short
absence, some one lifted your house and placed it a
mile off. The poor bees return loaded, and, seeking
in vain for their habitation, either fall down and
perish with fatigue, or throw themselves into neigh-
bouring hives. When hives are transported to a long
distance, there is no fear that the bees will return.
But this inconvenience would be sure to take place if
they were removed only a few hundred paces from the
spot to which they have been accustomed. The hive
may not perish, but it will be greatly weakened. In my
opinion, if the situation is to be changed at all, they
should be taken at least a mile and a half.” This
removal should only be attempted in winter or early
spring, under usual circumstances. It might, how-
ever, happen that it was required to move a hive only
a very short distance, in the summer time; when no
harm would arise were the change of location made by
daily shifting it a few inches. Mr. Hibberd remarks
on the loss that must inevitably ensue from this cause,
if an established stock (not a new swarm) is purchased
of a near neighbour, in which case a great number of
the bees are certain to return to their old home. He
further gives the useful piece of information, that,
after removing his own apiary a distance of two miles,
he went to the old spot on the following day and saw
just a few bees buzzing about it; but on the day
after there was not a single one. Hence it would
appear that the distance of a mile and a half is
sufficient as far as appreciable losses are concerned ;
but, to be absolutely secure against return of the bees,
M
162 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

there is nothing less to be done than to move them
to double the utmost range of their old flight.

BEE PASTURAGE, AND NUMBER OF HIVES.

It is almost needless to say that on the nature and
extent of the vegetable productions, following in
succession, in the immediate neighbourhood of an
apiary, must mainly depend its prosperity. After
every care has been taken on all points of housing
and management, it is in vain to expect a large
harvest of honey where nature has limited the sources
of supply or restricted them to one particular season of
the year. The most highly cultivated corn districts
are rarely so favourable to bees as those in which wild
commons, woods, and heathy moors prevail; or where
some such farm products as Dutch clover, trefoil,
saintfoin, buckwheat, tares, mustard, colewort, turnip
or cabbage blossoms, do not enter largely into the
staple of the country. The neighbourhood of some
kinds of willows, too, and of hazels, in the opening
spring, is of great advantage to our little collectors in
furnishing farina; as also the blossoms of the furze,
broom, bramble, wild thyme, borage, the golden rod,
&c. To these we may add the large early stores of
honey and farina available from many of the products
of our horticultural gardens and orchards, as goose-
berries, currants, raspberries, apples,* pears, plums,
and other fruits. Wallflowers and mignonette are

* Dr. Dzierzon and some other German bee-masters are, however,
suspicious of apple blossoms as apt to oceasion foul- brood, as well as

a complaint which they term the ‘mad sickness.” They couple in this
connection ‘‘apple and mountain ash.”

 
BEE PASTURAGE, AND NUMBER OF HIVES. 163

also capital stores of honey, and so are lime trees.
Payne says, “‘I have always found the advantage of
planting in the vicinity of my hives a large quantity of
the common kinds of crocus, single blue hepatica,
Helleborus niger, and Tussilago Petasites, all of which
flower early, and are rich in honey and farina.
Salvia nemorosa (of Sir James Smith), which flowers
very early in June, and lasts all the summer, is in an
extraordinary manner sought after by the bees; and,
when room is not an object, twenty or thirty square
yards of it may be grown with advantage. Origanum
humile, and Origanum rubescens (of Haworth), and
mignonette may also be grown. Cuscuta sinensis is a
great favourite with them; and the pretty little plant
Anacampseros populifolium, when in flower, is literally
covered by them. Garden cultivation, beyond this,
exclusively for bees, I believe answers very little
purpose.”

It will follow as a matter of course from what we
have said, that the size of an apiary in any district
must be mainly determined by circumstances. In
some seasons, so prolific a harvest of blossoms and
honey comes all at once, that a large number of hives
may abundantly be filled together. The locality must
be the chief guide ; and I have known instances where
fewer stocks would have yielded a much better return,
for one rich colony is worth more than two or three
half-starved ones.

The distance to which bees will resort during the
honey harvest has been the subject of some in-
teresting observations. Mr. Hibberd writes, “ The

adventurous person who kept bees for many years in
uM 2
164 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

the garret of a house in Holborn,* performed an
experiment to ascertain how far, and to what
pasturage, his bees travelled. As they came out of
the hive in the morning he sprinkled them all with a
red powder, and immediately set off to Hampstead,
thinking it most likely he should meet them there.
What was his delight at beholding, among the
multitudes of humming workers, some of ‘his own
little fellows, which he had inearnadined in the
morning.’ From Holborn to Hampstead Heath is
about four miles.” He refers also to Mr. Huish
having observed bees on an island in the Frith of
Forth, containing no hive, and distant four miles from
the mainland. Such extended ranges may, however,
be set down as both exceptional and prejudicial; and
Mr. Taylor is doubtless right in believing, with Dr.
Dunbar, that the ordinary range of their excursions is
comprised within the radius of a comparatively small
circle. When pressed for stores they may be impelled
to these wider flights, directed, probably, by their very
acute sense of smell.

BEE-PROTECTOR.

In operating with bees it is important to make as
little bustle and disturbance as possible, and have at
hand an assistant and whatever is likely to be wanted,
for a very triflmg matter will often mar an operation
irretrievably. Let all things be done coolly and
quietly, and without ‘hurried motions of any kind,

* This was the celebrated Daniel Wildman, chiefly known by the

extravrdinary control that he obtained over his bees, and the perform-
ances which he trained them to go through.
BEE-PROTECTOR. 165

which cause suspicion and irritation: in short, the aim
should be to do what is needed without the bees being
conscious of it.

 

Security from attack, however, is essential to
self-possession, and I know of no covering so effectual
as an envelope I devised of a kind of light net or
gauze, sometimes called leno. It should be so made
at the top as to go over a hat or cap; with sleeves,
tied at the wrists, and strings, or an elastic band, to
fasten round the waist. The sleeves may be made of
some stronger material (see pre-
ceding figure). The entire upper
part of the person is in this way
enveloped, as seen in our engraving
annexed. The projection of the hat
keeps the dress clear of the face, and
it is sufficiently transparent. A pair
of india-rubber gloves is all that is
further necessary to complete pro-
tection. Some wear these outside of =
woollen ones; it is said, however, —

 
166 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

that the smell of the wool will incite to stinging, and
so will that of some kinds of leather.

Remedy for the sting of a bee.—Various remedies and
directions have been from time to time prescribed. In
the first place, the sting should at once be removed,
but without rubbing the part. My own experience
leads me to recommend, in preference to anything else,
the immediate application of liquor potasse to the
spot, as a powerful alkali, to neutralise the poison of
the sting, which is an acid. It should be used in
small quantity, on a point of some kind, as a needle,
introduced into the wound. In the absence of this,
pure liquid ammonia is said on good authority to
succeed, if properly applied. Keep it ina close-stopped,
small-necked bottle, which should be turned bottom-
upwards, and held very tight over the part. Some
persons have found relief from an immediate applica-
tion of cold water. Indeed, any remedy to be efficacious
must be speedily resorted to; and particularly in the
warm months, for then the poison is much more active
than in winter.

A variety of other recipes are prescribed by different
authors. It is strongly advisable, immediately after
removing the sting, to press the hollow of a key over
and around the point of incision. To wet the part
freely with saliva is one recommendation; another is to
do the same with tobacco-water; and even the blue-bag,
resorted to by cottagers, has a beneficial alkaline power,
though it may be the soda in which it has been steeped
which imparts a large portion of its efficacy. A medi-
cament specially prepared for the purpose is sold by
the name of ‘Dr. Pine’s Bee-keepers’ Lotion;” and
BEE-PROTECTOR. 167

another is made from the marsh stone-crop, or Sedum
palustre.

Precautions.—If attacked by a bee, the best plan is
not to offer resistance, but to walk away and thrust
your head into a neighbouring shrub or bush, when
the enemy will in all probability retire. In addition
to the hints given at the commencement of this section,
there are some peculiarities in the ways and moods
of bees, against which it is well to be on one’s guard.
Without asserting that they are actually fond of par-
ticular persons, we know that their strong discrimina-
tion of scent renders others the objects of their very
marked dislike. They appear to be offended by any
strong smell which is not that of sugar or of wax;
hence, whether it be a sweaty horse or a highly
perfumed dandy, they are equally wont to declare war
against him. There are also particular periods and
occasions when they are vastly more irascible than at
others. The loss of their stores in autumn is likely to
make them deeply resentful; hot weather or electricity
puts them out of sorts, and so does being kept at
home by rain. They, again, are naturally more
excitable if interfered with at night or at any un-
seasonable hour, or when some previous cause of
distraction has arisen, as the discovery that they are
queenless, and this even during the half-hour or so
that her majesty is absent on her wedding flights. The
importance of calmness and confidence has already
been noted, and it is said that the bees are far more
likely to attack a person who watches at a supposed
safe distance, or who fidgets about, or covers his face
with his hands, than one who advances boldly into
168 THE BEE-KREPER’S MANUAL.

closer proximity. Though a pair of bellows is effectual
in quicting them, they must never be blown with the
mouth, for the human breath is to them an
abomination. Again, the hand should not be waved
near them, nor even pointed at them. It is further
advised not to approach them with the head
uncovered, lest a bee might settle, or be blown against
the hair, and there become entangled. When one of
them has stung, the others know of the fact by the
smell, and are incited thereby to go and do likewise ;
while, if one of them is erushed, there will be a
whole troop of speedy avengers aroused. The safest
time for performing operations in the hive is during a
pleasant day atan hour when most of the older bees are
abroad. Stinging ensues when the hive is supposed
to be endangered, and it is only under actual pro-
vocation, or circumstances wholly exceptional, that it
is to be feared from a bee upon the wing.

MISCELLANEOUS APPARATUS.

We have had occasion to make an incidental
allusion to several fittings and appliances besides the
two or three which have formed the subjects of
separate sections. But, in addition to these, there are
a host of articles of more or less necessity or
convenicnce, a full description of which would very
materially enlarge our work, especially if we were to
take into account the many rival contrivances of
different makers. All that it therefore scems desirable
to do is to append a list, with the bricfest possible
descriptive remarks, of those species of apparatus which
MISCELLANEOUS APPARATUS. 169

are frequently of service, or the names of which are
most likely to be met with. Those that have been
already described, or that will be so in the second
part of this book, may be found, when required, by
consultation of the Index.

Payne's Glass.—A bell-glass with a three-inch hole
in the centre, designed to stand under another
bell-glass.

Bee Traps.—Devices of various kinds for placing
over supers upon thew removal, with the object of
letting out the imprisoned bees, but preventing their
return. The figure shows the ‘* Cheshire Pin Trap.”

tftp!
i

Aaa

   

  

   

Drone Preventers.—Another name for queen-pre-
venters, already described (pp. 66, 93).

Drone Traps.—Boxes to affix to the mouth of hives
through which (the entrance thereto from the hive
being light, but the flight-hole darkened) all the bees
seek to make their exit; but from which none can
reach the open air except through drone-preventing
perforations. The object is to detain and destroy

 
170 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

the drones when these are too numerous; but such
traps obstruct ventilation, and their use should at the
least be restricted to about an hour in a day, at the
time when drones are chiefly issuing forth. The return
to the hive is made by the regular flight-hole, where
an interposed ridge just permits of entrance.

Cheshire’s Swarming Board.—A flat piece of board-
ing, some three feet square, to be placed on the hive-
stand for the purpose of transferring a swarm from
a hiving-skep to the permanent hive. The floor-board
is removed, the swarming-board taking its place, so
as to project by half its surface in front of the stand;
the hive is then propped up upon the part resting
upon this, when the swarm can be gently emptied
on to the projecting half.

Cheshire’s Guide Maker.—A cast, in plaster of Paris,
for producing embossed wax guides, or comb founda-
tions (p. 88), beneath the bars of frames.

Honey Cutters—Knives shaped and turned in
different ways for convenience in cutting out the combs
from hives.

 
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172

SUMMER MANAGEMENT.*

Tae question has often been put to me, ‘‘ How and
at what time can an apiary be best commenced ?”
Some remarks in reference to this subject will be
found under the heads both of “Autumn” and
“Spring Management.” At present the reader is
supposed to have been put in possession of a prime
swarm, and the earlier in the season this is done
the better.t Mr. Golding thus advises on the best
method of conveying bees: ‘When these are brought
from a distance, it should be on the day in which
they are hived, and in a cloth of coarse texture,
which should be tied round near the bottom of the
hive, so as to prevent the escape of the bees. Tie
up the cloth by its corners over the top of the
hive; and, if carried by the hand, or properly
suspended, a swarm may be removed in this manner
for miles.” But if the journey is to last for three
hours or more, it will be important to ensure top ven-
tilation. An ordinary skep will thus require to be
inverted, and this operation must be most cautiously
performed, turning the hive in the direction in which

* “Spring” isin this volume placed after “Winter,” for the reason
explained on the next page.

+ All careful bee proprietors will take the precaution to record the
weight of the empty hive, and of its tloor-buard, before stocking it : a
matter of subsequent importance in ascertaining the contents. "A
journal, also, recording dates, and the various operations of the hive, as
they arise, wiil be useful in many ways. ;
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 173

the combs run—in which direction all nives must
be held during conveyance. With frame hives it is
recommended to take two laths, not thick enough to
cause an aperture that will permit the escape of a bee,
and nail them across the tops of the frames (which
must be fastened securely in position), and then to
screw down the crown-board, or, still better, a sheet
of perforated zinc, above these laths. For periods
of prolonged confinement, as in the case of removals
by rail, a material like canvas would be insecure,
as the bees would eat it completely through.

All experienced apiculturists know that no colony
of bees thrives, or works so well, as one that is
populous at the outset. Should any doubt exist on
this point, it is often expedient to unite a second
smaller swarm to the first, but this must only be
attempted within a few days, before many combs are
made, or mischief would result. Our recommenda-
tion applies with greater force in a late season, or
to the case of second swarms, which are rarely
strong enough, separately, to collect sufficient winter
stores. Of the mode of proceeding in effecting these
junctions we shall hereafter speak, when treating of
“Uniting Swarms,” under the section ‘Spring
Management.”

The plan originally designed in the Brz-Krrpsr’s
ManvaL supposes, as has before been intimated, an
arrangement embracing directions for the manage-
ment of an apiary “according to the order of
the seasons.” Our legitimate commencement, there-
fore, must practically date from the separate exist-
ence of the recently established colony; noticing,
174 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

as we procced, the various substances stored or used
in a hive, and collected more or less abundantly,
according to circumstances and season.

Should the weather now be fine, operations are
commenced with astonishing activity, the bees being
at first solely intent on preparing their new dwelling
for its intended objects—the rearing of young, and
storing supplies for the future requirements of the
family. If, however, circumstances are such as to
prevent them from quitting the hive for several
successive days following swarming, and_ before
provision is accumulated, recourse to feeding becomes
expedient, or starvation might ensue. Under any
circumstances, some apiculturists have advised giving
a syrup of sugar to a newly-hived colony; such
syrup to be prepared as explained under ‘‘ Spring Feed-
ing” (page 276)—not the one specified in an earlier
position under ‘ Autumn,” which is not sufficiently
liquid for the insects in seasons of full flight. It
is well known that, on leaving the parent stock, the
bees carry with them a good deal of honey. There
is little doubt that the main object in this provident
proceeding is to enable them at once to commence
the work of building: this they do almost as soon
as they are hived, a piece of comb being frequently
made on the same day, which is as quickly appro-
priated, either as a receptacle of honey or of eggs,
if the queen is already fertile. Where a young queen
has accompanied the swarm, such is not always the
case, and this occasions a delay in laying of several
days.

The entrance of the hive should now (and at all
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 175

times when the bees are at full work) be opened to
its whole extent.*

Wax and Combs.—The material of which the
combs are so curiously formed is wax, secreted by the
bees themselves, and not any substance directly
conveyed into the hive, as is sometimes erroneously
supposed. Its component parts are carbon, oxygen,
and hydrogen. To enable them to form this
secretion, the workers must have access to honey or
some other saccharine matter; and this is the first
thing sought by a new colony. The quantity

 

* To the spectator the view of a recent swarm is animated in the
extreme, and probably suggested the

SONG OF THE BEES,

We watch for the light. of the morn to break,
And colour the eastern sky
With its blended hues of saffron and lake ;
Then say to each other, ‘‘ Awake, awake !
For our winter’s honey is all to make,
And cur bread for a lung supply.”

Then off we hie to the hill and the dell,

To the field, the wildwood, and bower ;
In the columbine’s horn we love to dwell,
To dip in the lily, with snow-white bell,
To search the bal n in its odorous cell,

The thyme and the rosemary flower.

We seek for the bloom of the eglantine,

The lime, pointed thistle, and brier ;
And follow the course of the wandering vine,
Whether it trail on the earth supine,

Or round the aspiring tree-top twine,

And reach fur a stage still higher.

As each for the good of the whole is bent,
And stores up its treasure for all,

We hope for an evening with hearts content,

For the winter of life without lament

That summer is gone, with its hours misspent,
And that harvest is past recall !
176 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

required is very great, it being estimated that
thirteen to twenty pounds are necessary to make
one pound of wax; hence, if the combs of a hive
weigh two pounds and a half, there will be some
forty pounds of honey consumed in their pro-
duction—a fact illustrating the great temporary loss
incidental to the issue of swarms. The popular
opinion is, that the substance often scen adhering
so abundantly to the legs of bees is wax, and that as
such it is the basis of the combs. But at the time
when comb-building is proceeding more rapidly than
at any other period, the bees are loaded with but
little of this substance; while in the early spring,
when few or no combs are constructed, they carry it
into the hive with the utmost avidity. ‘To see the
wax-pockets in the hivetbee,” observe Kirby and
Spence, “you must press the abdomen, so as to
cause its distention; you will then find on each of
the four intermediate ventral segments, separated by
the carina or elevated central part, two trapeziform
whitish pockets, of a soft membranaceous texture ;
on these the lamine of wax are formed, in different
states, more or less perceptible.” ‘* Whenever combs
are wanted,” says Dr. Bevan, “bees fill their crops
with honey, and, retaining it in them, hang together
in a cluster from the top of the hive, and remain
apparently in a state of profound inactivity about
twenty-four hours. During this time, the wax is
secreted, and may be seen in laminew, under the
abdominal scales, whence it is removed by the hind
lees of the bee, and transferred to the fore legs ;
from them it is taken by the jaws, and after being
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 177

masticated, the fabrication of comb commences.”
An extraordinary degree of heat always accompanies
comb-building, supplied no doubt by the large
quantity of oxygen at that time generated. The
rapidity with which comb-building proceeds is some-
thing astonishing. Von Berlepsch tells us of the
construction of four hundred square inches in a single
night; while several other observers have cited in-
stances almost on a level with this.

The form and number of the combs in a hive
vary considerably, the bees adapting them according
to the shape of their domicile, so as to fit and fill
in every part, and often very irrecularly. At first
they are beautifully white, but soon, from the heat of
the hive, they become tinged, and finally turn nearly
black. The worker-breeding cells are made the
first: they are invariably hexagonal in form, and of
one uniform size and depth; but those intended
only for the storing of honey are often somewhat
larger and elongated, sometimes more so on one
side than the other. A small dip or inclination
upwards is given to the cells, the better to prevent
the honey from running out, assisted, moreover, by
a small bar or thickened border of wax, at the
entrances. The cells in which the drones are bred
are larger in diameter than the common ones, and
hey are generally placed nearer the outside of the
hive, though occasionally joined on to the others.
When this takes place, our little architects have the
sagacity to interpose two or three rows of cells of
an intermediate size, gradually enlarged to the
proper dimensions; these, being of irregular figure,

N
178 THE BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL.

are appropriated to the holding of honey or pollen.
In this, as in everything else, the bees adapt their
operations to circumstances; thus they construct their
combs either by suspending them from the top of
their dwelling, or occasionally by working them from
the bottom upwards.

The following details from Mr Shirley UHibberd’s
“Rustic Adornments’ may be acceptable to some of
our readers :—

“The combs, or elusters of cells, are arranged in
vertical and parallel plates, with a space of about
half an inch betwixt contiguous pairs; aud each
comb is nearly an inch in thickness. At the outsct,
when one wax-making bee leaves the suspended
cluster alluded to, and lays the foundation of a cell,
others follow in rapid succession, not only adding
their wax to that of the first, but soon commencing
new combs, one on cach side; and so the work goes
on, in most cases until the whole roof is covered
with foundations. The architects proper, also, are
meanwhile at their finishing work. ‘They have,’
says Reaumur, ‘to solve this difficult geometrical
problem: a quantity of wax beine given, to form
of it similar and equal cells of a determinate ca-
pacity, but of the largest size in proportion to
the matter employed, and disposed in such a
manner as to occupy the least possible space in the
hive. Wonderful to reflect upon, this problem is
solved by bees in all its conditions, in their
construction of hexagonal or six-sided cells. The
square and the cquilateral triangle are the only
other two figures of cells which could make them
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 179

all equal and similar without interstices. But cells of
these figures would have either consumed more
material, or have been weaker; and they would also
have consumed more space, being less adapted to
the form of the bee. In short, the hexagonal form
combines all the requisites of economy and capacity.
Another wonderful arrangement is seen in the
construction of the bottoms of the cells. Each of
these is composed of three rhombs, or plates of wax
in the shape of card-diamonds, disposed in such a
manner as to form a hollow pyramid, the apex of
which forms the angles of the bases of three cells
on the opposite side, giving to each of them one of
the three diamond-shaped plates required to form
their bases. The three rhombs, composing each
cell-bottom, have the two obtuse angles each of 110
degrees, and, consequently, each of the two acute
angles of 70 degrees.’ So far Réeaumur.

“The cells of the bee are extremely delicate, two
or three plates or sides being of the consistence
only of a common leaf of paper. They are made
strong, however, by mutual support and_ other
means, besides a sort of froth which the insect
mixes with the wax. The cells, at first of a dull
white, soon appear yellow on the interior, the
change arising from the plastering over them of a
compound varnish of wax and propolis. Hach cell
is soldered, too, at its mouth, by a similar compound
of a reddish colour, having in it more propolis; aud
threads of the same substance are laid around the
walls, to bind and strengthen them.

“Tt is now to be observed that all cells are not

n 2
180 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

alike. They have four different uses in the eco-
nomy of the hive, and are constructed variously to
suit these. One set of cells is for holding the eges
or embryos of worker-bees; a second for those of
males or drones; a third for those of young
queens, hence ealled royal cells; and a fourth set
are for the reception of honey and pollen. The
first are generally about five lines in depth (or less
than half an inch), and two lines and two-fifths in
diameter. The cells of the young males are much
less numerous, and measure from six to seven lines
in depth, by three and a half in diameter.* It is
worthy of note, that in passing from the con-
struction of worker-celis to those of drones, in the
same comb, the architects do not alter the size at
once, but gradually; thus disordering in the slight-
est possible degree the delicate arrangement of the
bases of the cells. In shifting from larger to
smaller, the same rule is observed. After the chief
breeding season is over (to some extent young bees
are produced at every season of the year), the cells,
both of worker and male bees, are used for holding
honey. Those made purposely for that end are
chiefly marked by a greater divergence from the
horizontal plane, that the honey may be better
secured; and it is curious to observe that, in a very
warm season, these wise insects give the floor a still
greater dip from the mouth inwards. As the store
enlarges, they seal up the mouth with a ring of
wax, to which they gradually add concentric layers

* It may be added that those for drones stand nineteen to the
square inch, and those for workers twenty-seven.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 181

till the cell is filled, when they close it altogether—
reserving its treasure for use during winter and
spring. Pollen, as brood food, is kept in cells of
considerable size.”

Propolis—To attach the combs firmly in their
place, the bees employ a pliable greyish substance
of balsamic odour, called propolis, which is a
glutinous exudation from certain trees, or their
buds, and which they collect immediately on swarm-
ing, blending with it a portion of wax. With this
materiai they varnish the lids of the closed honey-
cells, glue up all crevices in the hive, and cement it
down to the floor. Among the trees which are the
sources of propolis, the fir, willow, poplar, birch, and
alder are noted; but almost any resinous substance
can be utilised by the insects to its supply. It is
kept, says Von Berlepsch, in five-sided outer cells.

Honey.—We have seen that the first want of the
swarm is honey. This the bees collect, by means of
their probosces, from the nectaries of certain flowers,
from whence it derives a greater or less variation in
flavour, aroma, and actual composition ; while, as to
colour, it ranges from nearly transparent to various
shades of brown. The bees receive it into their
first stomach or honey-bag, the greater portion
being subsequently regurgitated into the cells, for
which purpose those of both workers and drones are
employed, in addition to the irregular cells which are
incapable of serving any other purpose. The honey-
cells, when closed, are distinguishable from those
containing brood by being whiter in appearance, and
often slightly concave. The brood-cells are more
182 THE BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL.

coloured, besides being a little convex. In some
seasons honey is abundantly collected when im the
state of what is termed honcy-dew, a viscous sub-
stance found adhering to the leaves of particular
trees, especially the oak.* This occurs largely
in certain years, whilst in others it is found very
sparingly or not at all.

In former editions the following was inserted as a
note at the end of the section on “ Spring Feed-
ing :” “I am not amongst the number of those who
(to my apprehension) go out of their way to
maintain that this vegetable secretion undergoes
some kind of chemical change by passing into the
stomach of the bees (in reality a mere receiving
bag), from whence it is often regurgitated into the cells
of the combs in a few minutes, or even seconds, of
time. Honey doubtless derives both its colour and
flavour immediately from the plants supplying it;
the bees not possessing the power of altering either.
It even sometimes contaims an original poisonous
matter. Its subsequent thickened consistency natu-
rally results from the effect of a lowered tempera-
ture; acting in a greater or less degree, according
to circumstances, season, &c. That the bees have
not the ability to change chemically the contents
received into their honey-bags, is shown by an
examination of the saccharine mixtures given to
them as artificial food; in which I never could
detect any alteration after being stored in the

* There are two species of honey-dew, the one a genuine exudation
from the leaf, the other the deposition of one of the aphis tribe. The

bees resort to both kinds ; but the latter det-riorates the honey sadly
for human use. Honey from the pine ruins the bees themselves.
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 183

combs.” We may add that the majority of authorities
loug coincided with our author in this view; but the
question still remained one of the nicest problems
in the science, whilst the great name of Dzierzon
was numbered among the upholders of a chemical
change. Quite recently, however, as Mr. Cheshire
has kindly informed us, it has been established that
a certain acid, as yet undefined, is communicated to
the nectar by the bee. In all other respects it
would appear that the constituents remain exactly
as they were, and thus we may say that an inter-
mediate result has been arrived at.

Pollen, or Farina.—The hive will be rapidly filled
with combs, and progressively with an increased
population, for the eggs, as we have seen in page
15, are matured in three weeks. In the mean-
time, the bees will have commenced a new labour—
that of collecting pollen or farina. This is the
anther-dust of the stamina of flowers, varying im
colour according to the source from whence it is
derived; and it may be remarked that the bees in
their collection never mix together the pollen of
different plants, but in each excursion visit only one
species of flower.* By a peculiar adaptation, they
are enabled to brush this off, and pack it into the
spoon-like cavities (or baskets as they have been
termed), furnished for this object, on the centre

* This is not the case when it is honey that they are seeking, but
with the pollen there is, we believe, only a single instance recorded in
which the two “stockings” of a bee have been observed to differ in
colour. The fertilisation of the p!ants themszlves (see pp 18, 19) would

be sadly disarranged were it not for this law being observed by the
bees.
184 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

joint of their hind legs, where, as was above pointed
out, it is often mistaken for wax. The powder
or meal thus conveyed into the hive is by other bees
afterwards kneaded up into paste, and stored for use
in the worker cells, adjoining those containing brood.
To preserve it from the air, a small portion of honey
is pat on the top of each cell, coated over with wax.
Thus prepared, it is a very heavy substance; and
this often leads to a false estimate of the value of a
hive, for the annual collection of pollen has been
variously estimated at thirty to one hundred pounds
in a single family.

Naturalists are pretty well agreed that the store of
pollen or farina is used (with a mixture of honey and
water) chiefly for feeding the larve; though a
portion of such compound may form, occasionally, the
sustenance of the bees themselves. It appears
established, indeed, that without partaking of pollen
they are unable to transform the honey they have
eaten into wax. Mr. Cheshire speaks of pollen as
constituting the flesh-forming nutriment, and honey
as the heat-forming; and this view, of course,
corresponds with the fact of the former being needed
chiefly by. the growing grubs, next by the queen (see
page 13) to repair the waste of laying, and least of
all by the full-grown workers, and that chiefly at a
time when they are about to undergo a temporary
loss of substance (though we are told by Von Ber-
lepsch that they also resort to it daily—as a sort of
tonic, we may suppose—for some time after the close
of the working season). It is stated, however, that the
nurse-bees supply digested pollen to the drones as
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 185

well as to the queen, in which case, as far as we can sce,
the design must have reference to stimulation towards
the only known function of the drones’ existence.

Water.—At certain dry periods, but always in the
breeding time, bees require a supply of water, which
is necessary in preparing the farina and honey for
the brood, as well as to enable them to secrete wax.
If no pond or brook is within a reasonable distance,
a shallow vessel should be filled frequently to the
brim, with a piece of thin perforated wood floating on
it and covering the whole surface; or it may be filled
with moss or pebbles, pouring in water to the tup,
and placing if near the apiary. Precaution is
necessary, for the bees easily slip into the water and
are drowned. The partaking of pollen and of water by
the bees are occurrences which go very much together,
and which each of them, at certain seasons, involve
their own special precautions; bnt in summer time
the bee-keeper is obviously set free from any concern
in regard to the supply of pollen.

Shade.—It has already,been observed that out-door
hives ought not to be left exposed to the mid-day
and afternoon sun in sultry weather; the heat not
only rendering the bees extremely irascible, but
subjecting the combs to melting, and with most
disastrous consequences. In all such cases it is well,
therefore, to give the comfort of a mat, or something
of the kind, thrown over them. In the words of
Gelieu, “They delight best in thick forests, because
they there find a uniform temperature and a pro-
pitious shade. It is a mistake to suppose that bees
exposed to the sun produce the earliest and strong-
186 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

est swarms: I have often experienced the reverse.
Bees like the shade when working [at home], and the
sun only when in the fields.”

Moths, Wasps, Hornets, and other Enemies.—In the
warm summer evenings, bees are often much annoyed
by the attempted inroads of moths, particularly the
small wax moth (Tinea mellonella), of a whitish-grey
colour. These are sometimes formidable foes, and
their appearance at dusk on the alighting-board is
the signal for a commotion. It is difficult to eject
them if they obtain a footing in a hive, where they
will deposit their eggs, spinning their silken webs,
and now and then iucreasing so as even to cause the
entire destruction of the colony. When these vermin
have established themselves, there is no remedy but
driving the bees into another hive. To prevent the
ingress of these troublesome invaders, it is some-
times desirable for an hour or two in an evening to
close the entrance, by placing before it a screen of gauze,
wire-grating, or perforated zinc, to be removed at dark.*

Poultry, and some other kinds of birds, will feed
upon bees; and many, that from weakness or other
causes fall to the ground, become a sacrifice to
them. In particular, that little marauder, the blue
tomtit or titmouse (Purus major of Linneus), must
not be tolerated. In summer he will devour bees,
and feed his young with them; and in winter he

* A difficulty some'imes occurs when it is necessary to confine bees,
or drive thein.into the hive, as the alighting-board is often covered
with them in an evening, and the numbers are increased on the least
alariu. In this case take a siuall watering-pot, and gently sprinkle the
ee aud entrance, when the bees, mistaking it for rain, will retire
within,
SUMMER MANAGEMENT, 187

will even try to force an entrance into the hive.*
Rats and mice must also be guarded against, as
well as slugs and snails. The toad, too will
occasionally make his home beneath the hive-stand
for the purpose of capturing such bees as fall.

The nests of wasps ought to be destroyed: from
their superiority in strength and activity, they are
very annoying, and often destructive, to bees towards
the end of summer; and the nuisance must
forthwith be met by contracting the entrance to the
hive, when the passage is more readily defended.t
In this place it may be well to draw attention to a
very simple mode of dealing with wasps attacking a

* In some parts these birds are very numerous ; and poison has been
found efficacious, placed at the hive mouth, in little balls of lard, oat-
meal, and nux vomica, mixed together.

+ lTuber’s observations on some of the habits of bees have b en the
subject of ignorant ridicule from Huish ; as where he says that they
occasionally erect barricades, for greater security. But Mr. Golding
has given a confirmation of Huber’s assertion. He says, ‘‘ At the end
of summer, a kind of curtain, apparently a compound of wax and pro-
polis, and about a sixteenth of an inch thick, was erected before the
entrance of one of my hives ; about two inches and a half in length,
and half an inch in height, with the exception of a small ap rture at
each end.” Dr. Bevan, in the ‘“ Honey Bee,” exhibits a drawing of
this piece of fortification. My own experience is perfectly conclusive,
as the following extract from my journal will show: “July 31, 1842.
Weather fine. Removed a box of honey frum a collateral hive. The
wasps had been troublesome for some days, and as the entrance to the
centre box was left fully open, the bees had contracted it for better de-
fence. A thin wall of what app ared to be propolis was attached from
the upper edge of the doorway, extending along its centre, and closing
all up but a space of about three-quarters of an inch at each end. I
never witnessed a more convincing proof of the sagacity of the bees
than this beautiful proceeding.” So runs my journal ; to which I may
add, that the entrance to the box, so contracted, was five inches in
length, and three-eighths of an inch high ; or double that of Mr. Gold-
ing. From the hint thus derived fr.m the bees themselves, I con-
structed the movable blocks or mouth-pieces described and shown at
page 75.
188 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

hive. We shall have occasion hereafter to notice
the fondness of bees for barley-sugar: let a piece of
this be laid across, or just within, the entrance of
the hive, so as greatly to narrow it. This is 9%
attractive to the bees, that they muster at the door
in creater force than the wasps durst venture to
assail. As fast as the fortification is devoured, it
ought to be renewed, and the out-generalled enemy
will retire from a hopeless contest.

Insects of all kinds, as earwigs, spiders, wood-lice,
&e., should be cleared away from the hives and
stands, and ants’ nests destroyed. Cobwebs must
not be permitted to remain, or numerous deaths
would ensue to the bees from entanglement in
them. In short, we may sum up by a general
recommendation of cleanliness in every way, and the
removal of whatever serves as a harbour to dirt
and vermin.

Super-hiving.—Should the weather continue favour-
able for honey-gathering, the colony must be in-
spected in about three weeks from the time of
hiving. Indeed in sultry weather, and where the
swarm is a large one, it is often politic to place a
glass or small super upon it very soon, for the
purpose of a ventilator, to moderate the temperature,
and prevent the clustering of the bees at the mouth
of the hive. If the combs are worked pretty nearly
down to the floor, and the cells in a good measure
filled, no time should be lost in supplying additional
working room; more especially if symptoms of
crowding are apparent, for by this time young bees
are coming forth. We may here observe that many
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 189

experienced bee-keepers object to supering in the
case of a new colony, preferring to give the requisite
room at the bottom, by means of a nadir; which
often ensures abundance in the stock-hive—itself being
removed in the autumn. Under the head “Swarming
and Depriving Systems,” are some remarks as to
the mode of using nadirs; as also under those of
“Nadir Hive,” and “ Nadiring Stocks.”

As fast as the supers are filled, they should
successively be removed, as directed under ‘ Autumn
Management.” Indeed, after the main honey season
is over, which is usually as soon as the dry July
weather sets in, it is useless, in most localities, to
give any further extension of working room; and,
indeed, from the end of this month there is, under
common circumstances, often rather a diminution
than an increase of store. The supers will, in such
cases, be wholly removed, and, if the weather is
unfavourable, it may even be necessary to supply
food.

In proportion to the wealth of the colony is the
determination of the bees to defend it; and their
irascibility and vigilance are now greater than
heretofore, the strongest stocks showing it the most.
The work of the year being pretty well over, all
their attention is turned towards home. They
become more and more suspicious, and the less they
are approached or annoyed the better; for they are
slow to forget or forgive an injury.

Bell-glasses.—As these are often formed, nothing
can be more objectionable: inconveniently high and
narrow, a few misshapen combs are all that can be
190 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

packed into the space; and these are afterwards
only to be extracted by a general mash. The same
remark applies to all supers, of any material, where
breadth of surface enough is not afforded for a
large number of bees to cluster and labour at one
time. Can it be a matter of wonder that a
chimney-formed vessel should be twice as long in
being filled (supposing that the bees do not forsake
it) as a broad one, in which a genial warmth is
concentrated, and where several combs can be in
progress simultaneously? A reversal of the usual
proportions, both in straw and glass supers, is
therefore to be recommended. The latter may
advantageously be from nine to eleven
inches across; the depth being about
half the diameter: straight at the sides,
and flat on the top. A piece or two of
guide-comb, slightly melted, and fixed by tke edges
to the top of the glass, previously made warm, will
serve as an attraction; or in a large glass, four or
eight pieces, radiating from the centre uniformly,
will direct the bees in working with a regular
design, producing a pleasing effect. A useful ad-
junct to a glass is a small circular tube of
perforated zinc, having a rim round its upper end,
by which it is held suspended within a small hole
on the top. It should be long enough to reach
nearly down to the level of the floor. To the tube,
when a little warmed, a narrow piece of guide-comb
will adhere, and act as an attraction to the bees:
it will be further useful as a central support to the
loaded combs.

 
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 191

Whatever may be said as to the pleasing appear-
wnee of glass supers, it is doubtful whether in point
of utility and economy they can compete with those
of straw, made as directed under the head of
“Straw Depriving Hives,” and which can readily be
packed and sent to a distance, if needed:* or
shallow supers, as wide as the stock-hive admits,
may be cheaply made out of a wooden hoop, three
or four inches deep, on which is fixed a thin top,
by two or three small screws. These are readily
withdrawn, when the top can be lifted up with the
combs suspended.

In the use of glasses it is always well at first to
prevent the escape of warmth, especially at night,
till the bees are well established in their new
work-room; and the admission of light is best
avoided. A little ventilation afterwards, in sultry
weather, is desirable; and this may be given by
slightly wedging up the lower edge of the super. If
both a crown-board and adapter are in use, it is
easy to insert a slip or two of tin or zine between
the two boards, so as to keep them a little
separated, for the passage of air, when it seems
necessary. Sometimes it is even advisable to
introduce between the stock and the super a very
shallow box, as a moderator of the temperature. I
have found, by experiment, that at a temperature
between 95 and 100 degrees, the combs will soften so
much as to be in danger of collapsing.

* This remark, it need hardly be said, has no reference to the com-

parative merits of bar or frame supers, as balanced against round ones
of glass or straw.
192 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL

Triplets and Elcs.—In good seasons and _locali-
ties, the first super is sometimes filled in time to
admit of the introduction of another (or triplet),
observing the rules laid down at pp. 60, 61. But
even where the first super is completely filled, it is
often politic not to remove it for a few days, as its
attraction induces the bees to occupy the triplet.
On the other hand, if from any cause a super has
been left only partially filled upon one hive, it may
be removed (the bees being first ejected), and placed
upon some other fer completion. Instead of a
separate triplet, an addition may, in some cases, be
made to the first super, especially it of straw, by
placing beneath it an eke, consisting merely of two
or three bands of the same material ; in fact, a hoop.
This will save the bees the labour of laying the
foundations of fresh combs, as they have but to
continue the old ones downwards. We may here
call attention to what was said at pp. 96, 97, re-
specting the use of box No. 8 of the frame hive,
and to the various remarks on nadirine.

Ltemoving Crown-board and Frames.—This operation
should be performed only when it is warm enough for
the bees to fly (if needful at other times, it should be
done just after sunrise, the hive being taken bodily
into an out-house). The first care, after removing
the fastenings, is to insert a knife all round the
edges of the lid, and then to pass a string very
slowly underneath its whole surface, in order to de-
tach it from the frames, to which the bees are
pretty sure to have fastened it down. Then a little
smoke should be administered at the flight-hole, and
SUMMER MANAGEMENT. 193

next the lid may be slightly raised, and a few more
puffs blown between it and the frames. The lid is
now lifted, and just a little syrup is allowed to fall
upon the frames and bees, by means of either a
watering-pot, feather, or brush; remembering that
in these operations there must be no waving of the
hand, nor blowing direct from the mouth.

If there is a dummy-frame, the next process will
be to extract this, and then successively to loosen
the other frames with a small screw-driver, and
shift them a little apart. If there is no dummy,
the operator must exercise the greatest care not to
give the slightest lateral movement to the first
frame he extracts, for the combs will perhaps not
be perfectly straight, and the bees upon them may
thus be crushed. After this one has been removed,
the others may be shifted as above. Hither an
empty hive, or box, or some other support, must be
at hand, and the frames must be deposited upon
this in their correct order, so that they may be
replaced exactly as they were; to number them is a
desirable precaution. Each frame must be cau-
tiously extracted, and retained constantly in its
perpendicular position; and, when replaced, it must
be deposited with the same gradual movement. If
there are bars instead of frames, a spatula will be
required to detach the combs from the sides of the
hive. When all are restored, the front edge of the
crown-board is placed upon the back edge of the
hive, and it is then very slowly pushed forward into
its right position.
194

AUTUMN MANAGEMENT.

Our apportioning of the seasons is certainly not very
scientific, for part of what has been said in the
preceding chapter belongs more strictly to the spring,
and much of what now follows refers rather to the
later periods of the summer. The month of August is
usually associated with the collection of harvest.
Though this may often hold good as regards honey,
yet the storified or doubled stocks of the spring are
commonly ready for deprivation at an earlier period,
occasionally in May, and so on throughout July;
the spring-gathered honey being usually to be
preferred in point of quality. I know of no better
rule as to the fitness of a super, or of a side hive, for
removal, than an observation of the state of the
combs and cells, which ought to be completely filled
and sealed over, to prevent a loss of honey by
running out. In this stage the sooner it is
appropriated the better, as a longer continuance
only leads to discoloration. As respects a colony of
the same year, Dr. Bevan remarks, “As a general
rule, no honey should be taken from a colony the
first season of its being planted, though there may
be an extraordinary season now and then which
may justify a departure from this rule:” the pro-
duce in such a case is usually denominated virgin
honey, though that term is often applied indis-
criminately to any honey in combs free from brood.
But in any event the stock-hive should be first
examined, for there is a strong disposition in bees
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 195

to carry their stores into a super, though they some-
times afterwards remove them into the stock-hive.
In cases where doubt exists as to a sufficiency of
winter store, it is often well to allow them to do
this; recollecting the further advice of Dr. Bevan,
that “it should be an invariable rule never to
remove an upper box or hive till an under one is
quite full; nor to diminish the weight of a
stock-box below seventeen or eighteen pounds, ex-
clusive of the box itself.”

To remove a full Box or Super.—The middle of a
sunny day may be recommended as the best time to
take away for deprivation a box or glass of honey.
The mode usually adopted is at once to remove it
from its position to a distance from the stock-hive,
and there get rid of the bees. I have often found
it well to reverse this proceeding. Whether the box
to be taken is a collateral or storified one, let the
communication from the parent hive be previously
cut off, and without any jarring. Entire quietness
is the main requisite. Gently lift up the super on
one side, inserting under it a small wedge or two, so
as just to allow an exit for the bees (the bee-trap
of page 169 may here be utilised). It should thus
be left for about an hour, during which they will
repair the cells that have been severed in the pro-
cess. A little smoke may then be blown in beneath,
or a few puffs from a pair of bellows given above the
bars. Those who have used an adapter in addition
to a crown-board, or a double adapting-board, will,
of course, retain the upper board with the super,
disconnecting the two boards instead; a slide, in

0 2
196 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

such case, may be now passed under each opening
of the adapter.

The position of the queen bee must now be a
matter of careful attention. If she is not in the
super (and she seldom is there after it is filled),
the silence that at first prevailed will be exchanged
for a murmuring hum, attended by a commotion
among the bees; and they shortly after begin to
quit the super, without attempting any attack.
Should the queen be present, however, a very
different scene would ensue, and a hubbub would
then commence in the stock-hive; though the loss
of their queen is sometimes not discovered by the
bees for a considerable time. In such a case, the
box must be reinstated in its former position, and
the communication reopened till some other day.
The bee-keeper who uses queen-preventers need,
however, have no fear of her majesty’s intrusions.
Indeed, she is seldom guilty of them even when free
access is afforded her; but, if she does enter the
super, it is possible that the case may then be
further complicated by the presence of brood—which
the bees leave very reluctantly, and often not at all.
In an emergency of this kind, it is best to restore
matters to their previous state, and let the super
remain till the brood is perfected. A little patience
is sometimes necessary: but all attempts at ejec-
tion of the bees by tapping, smoking, or driving
would usually, in this case, do more harm than
good. So long as they continue to leave the super,
it may remain where it is, for on these occasions
young bees are sometimes numerous; and if the
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 197

super is removed, though only to a short distance,
these are in part lost, not having become  suffi-
ciently acquainted with the position of their home ;
or, if they enter a wrong hive, they pay the penalty
with their lives. This freedom from disturbance
has the further good effect of preventing in a great
degree the intrusion of robber bees, readily dis-
tinguishable from the others by their hovering about
the box, instead of flying from it. These are
strangers from various quarters, immediately at-
tracted by the scent attending the removal of a full
box or glass. Should a few of these plunderers
once obtain a taste or sample of the honey, they
speedily convey the good news to their associates,
when large reinforcements from every hive in the
neighbourhood will be at once on the alert, and
quickly leave nothing behind but empty combs.

If all is as desired, the super may now be lifted
and removed. When separated, it must not be left
or lost sight of, but, if scented out by robbers, be
conveyed into some room or out-building to prevent
a general battle—which might even extend itself to
all the neighbouring hives. The remaining bees
may here be brushed out, when they will escape by
the window or door. Mr. Golding has sometimes
found the advantage of using for this purpose a
darkened room, with the exception of a very small
aperture, to which the bees will fly and thus make
their exit. Others like to remove a super at once to
a short distance from the stock-hive, leaving it shut
up in perfect darkness for an hour or two. Its
edge is then raised up, when the bees will evacuate
198 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

it. In the case of a frame or bar super, after
most of the bees have left it, it can be placed
across a couple of rails or sticks, when the top
cover may be unscrewed and detached. It is then
readily cleared of bees by brushing them downwards
between the bars with a feather or a twig. Single
combs can, of course, with these supers, be extracted
as they are ready, and empty bars substituted.

The same general directions apply when a. full
glass is to be removed. If it stands on a double
board, a piece of tin or zinc can be inserted
between the two, and the upper part then lifted with
the glass. Payne, however, says, “‘I have found the
process much simplified by placing an empty box
between the glass and the parent hive, and leaving
it a few hours. The bees by that time have quitted
the glass, and by this plan robbing is entirely
prevented, whilst the bees are less irritated.” It
might occasionally happen that a piece of comb had
been worked upwards from the underneath hive,
thus causing a difficulty on attempting a separation.
There is no better way of meeting such an emer-
gency than by very gently passing a bit of fine wire
or string beneath the lower edge of the super, from
side to side, and thus cutting through the obstruc-
tion. It may be well to observe that on removal,
the box or glass ought to be kept in its original
position, to prevent the honey, which at first is
thin and fluid, from running out of the cells, and
especially in hot weather.

Honey Harvest.—As regards the quantity of honey
to be taken from a hive in any one year, there can,
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 199

in our uncertain climate, be no general rule, though
now and then I have known a very large amount
obtained by deprivation. Payne says, as the result
of his own experience with depriving hives, ‘It is
usual to obtain from every good stock twenty or
perhaps thirty pounds of honey annually.” This
would be thought too high an estimate in many
districts; as in my own, near London. It must be
remembered that honey thus harvested sells at a
higher rate than that procured by suffocating the
bees, as in the common single hives; for then the
brimstone not only imparts a disagreeable flavour,
but there is no means of preventing the inter-
mixture with the honey more or less of pollen and
brood.

After deprivation, the sooner the honey is ex-
tracted from the comb the better, as it soon
thickens, particularly if not kept warm. The
favourite process now adopted for the accomplish-
ment of this consists in the use of the honey-extractor,
to a description of which the next section is devoted;
but those who object to the cost of one of these
instruments, can proceed by slicing the combs with
a sharp knife, and then inverting them in a
hair-sieve. The honey will of course run off the
sooner if placed before a fire, but exposure to heat
is injurious to fine flavour. We may here resort to
the advice of Payne, who says, ‘‘The honey should
be put into jars, quite filled, and tied down with a
bladder; for exposure to the air, even for a few
hours, very much deteriorates its flavour. I may
observe that honey in the combs keeps remarkably
200 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.
well if folded in writing paper, sealed up to exclude
the air, and kept dry.”

The Honey Extractor.—lt is cnly a few years ago
that the valuable discovery was made by an Austrian
or Hungarian bee-keeper (Von Hruschka) that honey
could be slung out clean from the comb by means of
centrifugal force; but from that date we have had
quite a host of contrivances in one country after
another for turning this fact to practical account.
Every maker very naturally represents his own
“extractor” to be either the best or else the simplest
and cheapest; but without attempting to decide be-
tween their competitive merits, we will simply present
to our readers one which we know to have been highly
commended by others besides its inventor, and which,
moreover, carries with it the special recommendation
that that inventor gave
it to the world with-
out ever seeking to de-
rive from it any pecu-
niary gain. We refer
to the ‘ Rapid HEx-
tractor,” desiened by
Mr. T. W. Cowan, of
i if Ni Ri | } Horsham, by whom we

| Ny nr “ have most obligingly
I ib been furnished with

i ie ll 3 y the data for the fol-
lowing description, as
well as with the
sketches from which
our blocks have been

il 4 i

 
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 201

engraved. In general construction, as shown by Fig.
1, the extractor consists of a galvanised iron cylinder,
with framework holding two wire cages, which reach
down it some two-thirds; also a handle for producing
the revolutions, which is fixed by means of fancy iron-
work to the top of the cylinder, instead of passing
through it by a spindle. The wire cages or cases
will each contain one entire comb, from which the
cappings must first be removed, and then, by turning
the handle at the top, the honey upon the outer side
of each comb is swiftly slung out on to the sides of
the cylinder, from whence it trickles down to the
bottom, which is made conical within, and allows of
its being readily drawn off by the treacle-tap shown
in the figure. For the further particulars we must
turn to Figs. 2 and 3, the one of which shows the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig, 3.

 

Fig. 2.

framework when removed, and the other a top plan of
the same. In the latter the two combs in position
for working are shown by AB and CD, each being
hinged respectively at A and © (in Figs. 1 and 2 the
left hand case is represented as slightly askew upon
202 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

its hinge). When, therefore, the honey is extracted
from the outer sides of the two combs as thus placed,
it is simply requisite to shift them in the directions
shown by the curved lines and arrows, so that they
take the respective positions of AD and Cb. This,
it will readily be seen, will cause the sides previously
inwards to be placed without, and the handle being
again turned, the emptying of the combs will now
be completed. This simple arrangement, in default
of which the combs would require reversing inside
their cases, is the principal advantage claimed for
Mr. Cowan’s invention; while others are the sim-
plicity of its construction and comparative impossibility
of its getting out of order. Galvanised or tinned iron
is the proper material for the cylinder, on account of
its not affecting the honey. The price of 60s. is
quoted by Mr. Lee, but those who care only for the
plain essentials can get the instrument made much
cheaper.

Honey-Knives.—A difficulty sometimes arises in
extracting the combs from common hives or boxes.
A large spatula will separate them from the sides,
but to detach them from the top, an instrument of
a different kind is requisite. The one often pre-
ferred is simply a bar of steel about fourteen inches
in total length, half an inch wide, and an eighth of
an inch thick. At one end it is bent at a right
angle, so as to form a projection an inch and a
half long, rather less than half an inch wide, and
made spear-pointed, or lancet-shaped; sharp on
both sides, to cut either way. The other end may
have either a wooden handle, or another blade of
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 203 -

the spatula or spade form. Different makers supply
several variations. For the purpose of uncapping
the cells previous to insertion in the ‘ extractor,”
a knife made by Messrs. Bingham and Hetherington
is strongly recommended by Mr. Cowan.

Robbers. —Should an attack upon a hive from
strange bees take place, which sometimes occurs at
this season (the strong robbing the weak), no time
ought to be lost in narrowing the entrance, for if
the practice were allowed to continue a day or two,
the ruin of the family might soon ensue. Indeed, it is
always well gradually to make this contraction as
the working season draws to a close. An assault from
robber bees is often a much more formidable evil than
one from wasps, although it is said that one of the latter
is a match for three bees. Unless the colony is very
weak, wasps are usually soon expelled, if the method
pointed out at page 188 is resorted to. Not so with
bees, for if but one or two strangers gain admittance
into a hive, they will return again and again, always
with an accession of force; and for a day or two it
is often necessary entirely to close the entrance against
them, opening it only at night. In such case the
robber bees will sometimes collect in vast numbers
at the mouth of the hive, when a shower from a
watering-pot will send them away to dry themselves.
The thieves are generally distinguishable, and they
are often cunning enough to resort to their ma-
rauding practices early in the morning and late at
night. A supply of syrup given on the top, or even
sprinkled among the combs of contending hives, will
often divert the attention of the combatants; or smoke
204 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

is sometimes effectual, puffed into both hives. If
fighting recommences on the succeeding day, the
smoking should be repeated, followed by a feed of
syrup. Others have found it advantageous to remove
for some days a plundered hive to a distance; or
even to make the belligerent hives change places in
the apiary; which, as a friend remarked to me,
“cives a new turn to their ideas of mewn and tuum.”
A German proprietor, after removing an attacked
stock, put in its place a hive filled with wormwood
leaves, which were so distasteful to the robbers that
they forsook the spot, when the stock was brought
back again.

Autumnal Feeding. — All labour is now usually
suspended for the year, and it remains to see that
ample provision is laid up for the coming winter and
spring. Mr. Cowan has recently estimated (in his
paper on “‘ Wintering Bees,” referred to more fully
in the next chapter) that a hive consumes, on an
average, an ounce and a quarter of saccharine food
per day, or a total of about thirteen pounds during the
period from the 1st of October to the 1st of March.
But he reminds us that it would never be safe to
supply the bees with only the bare quantity that
they are certain to require, for upon any fall in the
temperature the rate will be greatly increased, and
unless the insects possess a superabundance in their
combs, they are continually given to flying out in
the winter. He would therefore consider it unwise
to settle down for that season with less than from
twenty-five to thirty pounds in the combs.

In ascertaining the weight of a given hive, Mr.
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 205

Taylor enforces the necessity of discriminating be-
tween an old and a new one, as in the case of the
latter some eight or ten pounds more must be
allowed, for old combs are much heavier than new
ones, and besides, they are a good deal filled with
stale pollen, and sometimes contain candied honey,
of no use to the bees.* In a healthy stock there
should be no scarcity of food, if the season has been
tolerable. The worst, however, must be provided for,
and, if necessary, the deficiencies of nature must be
artificially met. Honey is generally too valuable to
be given back to the bees, and in its place they are
supplied with a syrup, which, as designed for autumn
or winter feeding,t may be prepared on the follow-
ing recipe, published by Mr. Cowan :—

White lump sugar... .... 10 Ib.
Water ... ... os. «.. 5 pints.
Vinegar .. ... tak ab sOn.
Salicylic acid solution. 1 oz.
alo de ais as 4 OZ.

Boil for a few minutes. This syrup the bees will
stow away in their cells at the rate of often a quart

a day.

* In reference to this subject, there may still be some degree of use
in the fullowing estimate, as given by Dr. Dunbar: “A common straw
hive weighs, when empty, from five to six pounds ; an ordinary swarm
about four pounds ; ; the wax of a full hive of the current year, nearly
two pounds ; of the preceding year, at least three pounds; and the
farina in the cvlls, not less than one pound [often a great deal more] ;
making in all about fifteen pounds.”— Naturalists’ Library.

+ That for spring and summer use will require to be a little thinner,
and a distinct recipe is given under the head of ‘Spring Feedin, ng.

t In the section on ‘‘Foul Brood,” at the end of ‘‘ Winter Manage-
ment,” the composition of this solution is explained. It acts as an an-
tidote to that disease, and is also useful in preserving the syrup itself.
206 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

The requisite feeding to make up the winter store
ought not to be delayed later than the beginning of
October, and the weather should be fine when it is
performed. At that date, accordingly, each hive
should be fed up to the standard of weight above
stated, and, at the close of the same month, all syrup
or honey found to be unsealed should be extracted from
the cells (a practice of artificial sealing by means of
melted wax brushed over the combs, has, however,
been successfully carried out in Germany). Food
must never be placed in the open air, but under
a cover; otherwise, the smell would attract wasps,
or, what is worse, strange bees; in the latter case, a
battle generally following.

Feeding Troughs.—The feeding of bees, simple as
it seems, is often a troublesome process, and without
due precaution sometimes leads to a good deal of
disturbance. The common swarming hives present
much difficulty, from their construction. Having no
opening at the crown, the clumsy and dangerous
mode must be resorted to of bottom-feeding; either
by tearing up the hive for every supply of food, or
by means of successive strips of wood overlaid with
food, and pushed within the flight-hole. An improved
hive gives facilities for presenting food on the top,
obviating these inconveniences, and allowing of its
being supplhed in any quantity without disturbance, at
the same time that it is rendered wholly inaccessible
to enemies. 5

When there is a hole in the centre of the top of
the hive, a trough may be used, made of tin or zine,
seven or eight inches square and one inch and a
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 207

quarter deep, having a circular two-inch hole in the
middle of the bottom, with a rim round the hole,
standing up half an inch. This opening is to stand
exactly over the feeding-hole in the crown-board,
admitting the bees to rise through it and above the
rim, so as to gain admittance to the surrounding

 

food. Another circular rim or partition, as large in
diameter as the square of the pan will admit, is
soldered within it at the four points where it touches
the sides. It must not go down to the bottom, but
a space should there be left of nearly an eighth of an
inch, as a passage for the food, which is poured in
at one of the four angles. A perforated thin wooden
bottom or float is fitted loosely into the pan between
the circles, removing an objection sometimes made
against the chilling effects of metal upon bees, and
also obviating the risk of their being drowned in the
syrup. The float should be a little raised by means
of two thin strips of wood appended below, to allow
the liquid to flow beneath. A cover is made by a
piece of glass resting on the larger circle, but cut
208 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

nearly octagonal in form, so as to leave the corners
open. The circle on which the glass rests should be
an eighth of an inch lower than the outer rim; the
glass resting upon it will thus be five-cighths of an
inch clear of the smaller cirele through which the
bees rise. In making a trough of this kind, it is
sometimes customary to append beneath it a central
descending rim or tube, fitting down into the hole
on the top of the hive. This is worse than uscless,
and it is in the way on the removal of the pan; on
which occasion it is expedient to push beneath it a
piece of sheet tin or zine, to stop the communication
from below. Instead of the outer circle there may
be substituted a simple partition at one corner going
nearly down to the bottom, so as to cut off a portion
at that corner. The glass pane can then rest on
angele pieces, sunk an eighth of an inch, at the other
three corners, and upon the partition at the fourth,
this part being left open for pouring in the food.

A charge is sometimes brought against zine feeding-
pans as tending to create acidity in the food. There
may be some truth in this, where the syrup is suffered
to remain too long, especially if a general neelect of
cleanliness coexists. Those, however, who prefer wood
altogether, may have troughs made of that material,
either square or round in form, cut or turned in a
lathe from hard wood, a picee being divided off on
one side by a partition, under which the food passes,
beneath a wood float. A pane of glass may rest
upon a circular rabbet turned out to receive it, leaving
uncovered the part beyond the partition. The admit-
tance from the hive can be contrived as before.
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 209

Feeders of the trough or saucer form are supplied
by the makers in zine, earthenware, and wood. But
others are made on the principle represented on
page 118, under the description of the Cheshire hive,
and there is in their case a facility of regulating the
supply of food, which has not yet been devised for the
others. A common pickle-bottle answers the purpose
well, from its wide mouth; if this is narrower, a sup-
port will be required to hold the bottle erect. The
vuleanite plate there mentioned can be obtained by
itself for application to any hive; in its absence, a
piece of net must be fastened over the mouth of the
bottle, and perforated zinc made use of besides. In
the case of the vulcanite, it is recommended to scrape
off exerescences that would prevent its passing smoothly
under the mouth of the bottle, but to roughen it by
scratches beneath, so as to afford a better foothold to
the bees. ‘‘Two cautions,” adds Mr. Cheshire, ‘ are
necessary: first, do not use over-large bottles, for
the syrup to be filled at long intervals, as some have
recommended. Air expands and contracts greatly as
its temperature rises and falls, and that standing
above the syrup in a capacious bottle, increasing in
volume as the morning warms, will pour our food
down over the bees, to their great injury, especially
if the night has been cold. <A bee-keeper of our ac-
quaintance recently lost a stock from this cause.......
Second, bees will often devour whole batches of eggs
deposited under the stimulus of continuous feeding,
if [afterwards] left without supplies for a few hours.
This is more particularly true when the weather is
such as to confine them wholly to their hives.” This

P
210 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

second caution obviously refers only to feeding when
the hive is nearly or quite without stores. The term
“stimulating feeding” has reference to the object of
bringing the bees forward, so that they may commence
operations as early as possible in the season.

If the hive cover is not secure against the admission
of robber bees, the bottle feeder will require some
form of covering. A lell-glass will be quite effectual,
but all that is necded is to protect the part round
the mouth. Messrs. Neighbour have introduced a
feeder on the same principle as the bottle, but in
which this difficulty is done away with; the vessel
consisting of a flat-bottomed tin can with five small
holes closed by a valve. It has a screw top, and a
strip of glass on one side, showing the height of the
syrup.

The sooner the feeding is ended the better; the
bees, if in health, beme on these occasions much
excited and often iascible. Let enough be given
when you are about it. Gelien says, “ Let there be
no higeling with the bees; better that they have
too much than too little.’* Recollect that little of
your bounty is now eaten, but is conveyed and stored
for the day of need; the bees sometimes extending
the combs purposely to reecive it, and often those
of pollen as well; for it is observable that feeding
even in autumn stimulates them to foraging abroad.
Nothing is wasted, and whatever there is to spare

“This is no contradiction of the cautions viven above, which referred
tu supplying food for immediate consumption. In reading of the
quantities appropriated (whether of pollen or of honey) the beginner

must avoid confusion between the actual feeding of bees, and their
colecting of winter store.
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 211

will be repaid with interest in the spring. It must
also be borne in mind, that what food is likely to be
wanted must be supplied now, for very rarely, after
the full weight has been attained, should any further
attempts at feeding be made till the returning spring
restores animation to the family.

Winter Store——We have above mentioned the esti-
mate as to the requisite supply of food for the winter.
Anomalous as it may seem, it has been found that
the quantity which is required is not dependent on
the population of the hive. The number of mouths
makes little sensible difference, even when two or
three stocks have been united. This fact was first
noticed by Gelieu. ‘‘In doubling the population,” he
says, ‘‘I naturally conceived that we must also double
the quantity of food;...... and, in consequence, I
augmented greatly the amount of provision the first
time that I doubled a hive; but, to my astonishment,
when I weighed it again in the spring, I found that
the united swarm had not consumed more than each
would have done singly. I could not believe my eyes,
but thought there must be some mistake ; nor could
I be convinced until I had repeated the experiment a
hundred times over, and had always the same result.”

This seeming anomaly has been partly accounted
for by the fact that increased heat is in some measure
a substitute for food. But in addition to this, the
junction of stocks, alluded to by Gelieu, ensures a
larger supply of labourers in the early spring. It
is not in the cold weather that much consumption
of food takes place, but after the month of February,
when the great hatching comes on; and then not so

P 2
212 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

much by the bees as by the brood. In a thinly-popu-
lated hive, almost the whole family is required within
doors at this time to warm the eges and feed the
young, and consequently little is added to the con-
tinually diminishing stock of honey and_ farina.
Nothing is more common than to sce a hive, apparently
well stored in February, on the point of perishing in
the month of April. This is not the case where a
large number of bees can be spared to go abroad and
bring in fresh supplies, to keep pace with, or even
to exceed, the demands of the craving brood. Still
the principal explanation of the mystery is evidently
that given by Mr. Cheshire, who, regarding honey or
its equivalent as expressly a heat-forming provision,
treats the result as only a matter of course, and
reminds us that on doubling the number of occupants
of the same room, we should rather, if anything,
diminish the consumption of coals.

It is also important to give attention to the supply
of pollen existing in each hive. Those which have
been in full work will often be found to contain an
overplus of this article, in which cage it will be
better to remove a portion (by extraction of frames)
to prevent mildew occurring in the winter. On the
other hand, any hive which, from some exceptional
cause, contains a short supply, should receive the
frames or combs which have been removed from its
overstocked neighbours; or, in the absence of such
provision, recourse must be had to one of. the
substances mentioned in the next chapter under the
heading “ Substitutes for Pollen.” Bees, as already

noticed (page 184), require the building-up nutriment
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 213

which pollen supplies to recruit them from the
exhaustion following their summer labours, con-
joined with the sharpened appetites which a dimin-
ished temperature begets. They will cease to resort
to it in the depth of winter, but immediately upon
their return to activity it will become a primary
requisite, and the socalled “ artificial pollen” will
then be found an invaluable alternative. By that
time, however, the hive may safely be opened, or
themselves will be able to fly forth to appropriate
the proffered supply; what is necessary now is to
ensure their having sufficient to last till this period
arrives.

Autumn Population.—The question of the number
of bees contained in a colony as they are settling
down for the cold season is no whit less important
than that of the provision to be supplied them, the
reasons for which will be fully stated at the
beginning of the chapter on “‘ Winter Management.”
Three main points are to be attended to: first,
that there is a prolific queen; second, that the
entire population is as large as possible; and third,
that breeding is carried on to the latest date that
can be induced. The state of affairs must there-
fore be frequently inspected, the queen, if necessary,
being changed, and small stocks united together on
the method explained in the following section.
Sometimes it is found that by the middle of
August the queen has practically ceased to lay,
and consequently by the time that the great
spring hatching is coming about, there will either be
no living workers left in the hive, or the few that there
214 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

are will be incapable of nursing the brood. The con-
tinuance of breeding must therefore be ensured, at
any rate, until October, and if its cessation is found
to be occasioned by the filling of all the cells with
honey, additional room must promptly be provided ;
whilst, if it is owing to a deficiency of stores, occa-
sioning the provident queen to fear that there will be
no sustenance for her brood, stimulating feeding
must at once be had recourse to. For the
substance of these remarks we are again indebted
to the above-mentioned paper of My. Cowan.
Autumnal Unions, Fuming, and Transferring Bees.*—
The system of autumnal unions of bee stocks is
one of the most important matters in modern bee-
keeping, though it did not at first receive the at-
tention it demanded, in part, perhaps, from the
supposed doubt about maintaining the bees, when
collected in a large body, through the winter. This
difficulty, however, is removed by a reference to what
was said on the subject of winter store in the last
section. I hope I shall be able to show that, by <
safe and simple expedient, the bees of two or three
weak or worn-out families may be joined together to
form one vigorous stock. The process should be
undertaken about September, and in warm weather.
The custom of stupefying bees by some narcotic
substance has long been in practice. By means of
subjection to the fumes, the bees are rendered insen-
*Tt may be well in this place to call attention to the distinction
between the system of transferring bees in autumn, in the way now
pointed out, and that of transferring bees anid combs together from

one hive to another. Directions for the latter process are given under
“Spring Management.’
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 215

sible and harmless tor a time, but soon recover, with
no appreciable ill effects. Perhaps the most simple
apparatus for fuming is that used by an Apiarian
Society once existing at Oxford, and which consists of
a tin tube, eighteen inches long and three-quarters
of an inch in diameter, and readily made by any tin-
worker. One end is extended and Hattened to adapt

 

it to the entrance of the hive, whilst the other is
applied to the mouth of the operator. In the centre
of the tube is a box, two inches and a half long and
two inches in diameter, to contain the fumigating
material; to receive which, one end is made to
draw out like a telescope. The two ends of the box
where the tubes join it are stopped within by divisions
of perforated tin. This part must be put together
by riveting, and without solder, which the heat
would melt. An instrument of this form is adapted
for most purposes where smoke is needed, it being
applicable to fuming a hive either at the mouth
or from the top; for it 1s occasionally move in accor-
dance with the object in view that the bees should
be driven down rather than upwards. When, there-
fore, this is proposed, a bend in the tube becomes
expedient, which is readily managed by having the
farther end made in two pieces, to be disconnected at
pleasure, like the rose of a watering-pot. Another end
piece can then be slipped on like a nozle, and turned
downwards, to enter the hole through the top of the
216 THE BEL-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

hive. The instrument just described is, of course, used
in the hand ; but another kind is sometimes applicable,
made not unlike a pepper-box upon a foot, which
stands on, or in a hole in, the ground, whilst the
hive about to be fumed is placed over it. The top
lifts off to receive the fungus, and both that and the
lower end are pierced with holes. A common pair
of bellows without any smoke will frequently answer
every purpose when the object is to drive the bees
downwards from the tops of the frames, as with the
smoker shown in the next cut.

Messrs. Neighbour, who have fumigators of both
the descriptions above named, have also lately added
what they term the ‘‘ Safety Smoker,” an engraving
of which, with their own description, is here
appended :—

 

“The above engraving represents the smoker in
use when manipulating with a bar-and-frame hive.
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 217

It consists of a long tube, which takes apart in the
middle and has bellows underneath. The air is
communicated to the tube through an upward valve.
Fungus, decayed wood, or rags will answer. To
prevent the fire going out when not in use, set the
smoker down on end.

“The tin guard over the tube is intended to
prevent the hand being burnt in case the smoker is

incautiously laid hold of.” The price is 5s. 6d.
Annexed is a figure of the ‘“‘Cheshire Prize
Smoker,” sold by Mr. Lee (price 2s.). Its inventor

 

thus describes it (‘Practical Bee-Keeping”): ‘A
piece of india-rubber tube, about one inch in
diameter, and six inches long, is fitted over the
bowl of an ordinary pipe, rather brier-root than
clay, while the end is closed with a wooden plug or
short cork, tied well in with wire or string. If, after
the pipe has been charged, a fusee be dropped into
it, and the india-rubber tube placed in position, the
hand can easily work the latter by alternately
compressing and releasing it; at each squeeze &
218 THE BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL.

stream ot smoke will issue, and can be driven in
any direction.” The figure is self-explaining without
the need of the letters added to it by the engraver.

The substance hitherto chiefly recommended for
the fumigation or stupefying of bees is a kind of
fungus, found in the autumn, growing often very
large and round, mostly in rich pastures or planta-
tions. It is the Lycoperdon giganteum, but in
common parlance variously called, as Devil’s snuff-
box, fuzz-ball, or puff-ball. It should be gathered
when nearly ripe. Dry it in the sun, or a cool
oven, and preserve it from damp. It is then a
spongy substance, containing brown dust, and burns
with an offensive smell. The frequent difficulty in
procuring this material led me to make trial of
another kind of fungus, called Racodiuwm cellare, or
mouse-skin Byssus. It may be found growing in
large wine or beer vaults, in immense dark-coloured
bunches or festoons, suspended from the roof, often
wearing a handsome appearance. In a single such
vault in London, I have seen as much as would
suffice for a large portion of the bee-keepers in
Great Britain; and I can recommend it (not too
freely used) as even more efficacious than the other
fungus. It requires no preparation, igniting and
smouldering readily, and may be preserved for
years.

The use of smoke and the fumigator is in request
for nearly all operations with bees; but in effecting
the union of colonies the process is pursued till it
not only repels and quiets, but absolutely deprives
them of consciousness. The hive which is by this
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 219

means to be emptied of its tenants may be lifted
gently from its place soon after dusk, and placed
over some kind of receptacle. An empty hive, turned
bottom upwards, might
answer with a_ little
management, but there
must be no place of
escape for the bees.
The best thing is a
box or bowl, about ten
inches square within,
and four or five inches —-—| | tl. al |
deep; with a wide flat ~""™ Ba
rim all round. The box of the fumigator should be
about two-thirds full of whatever material is em-
ployed; and a few puffs will cause it to send forth
smoke abundantly. The first introduction of - the
smoke will cause an uproar among the bees, which
will speedily be followed by silence, as they fall down
from its effect. A minute or two generally suffices
for this, assisted by striking the sides and top ot
the hive. When all is quiet, turn up the hive
(taking care to move it in the direction front and
back, and not across the combs), and you will have
received the greater part of its inhabitants in the
bowl, in a stupefied state and perfectly subdued.
A portion will remain sticking in the combs, and as
many of these as possible must be swept with a
feather into the bowl, where a little more smoke will,
if needed, keep them quiet in the interim. With a
frame hive every bee can be transferred by the simple
extraction of the frames one by one, and shaking off of

  

 

 
220 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

the occupants into the bowl; no inversion of the hive
will here be requisite, nor is even the removal of the
insects when the frames are interchangeable, as ex-
plained below (page 224). As respects the queen, if
perceived, she can be taken away, but the bees will
commonly dispose of her in their own way by the
next morning. The search for her is greatly facilitated
if the whole stupefied family are emptied on to a
sheet, restoring them to the hive when she has been
found.

The whole b-ing thus collected, they soon begin to
show signs of returning animation; and when this
is about to take place, sprinkle them pretty freely
with a mixture of sugar and ale, to which may be
added a few drops of peppermint. Next, lift quietly
from its stand the hive to which the smoked bees
are to be united, placing it over the bowl, but
leaving no opening except the mouth, for air. The
bees from above, attracted by the scent, will go
down, and begin licking the sprinkled ones. The
whole thus become intermixed, and afterwards ascend
together into the hive over them, in perfect goodwill.
Leave them till the following morning early, when
the bowl will generally be found empty. Replace
the hive, with its doubled population, on its original
stand (or whatever position may be assigned it, see
page 226), and the work is complete. If it is thought
desirable still further to augment its strength, the
bees of a second hive may be added in the bowl;
or a second union may be made in a night or two
afterwards. Yet again, a stupefied swarm may be
divided between two hives, and three colonies thus
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 221

reduced to two; the stupefied colony being first
divided into two portions, one of which is set aside
in an inverted and covered skep, or any secure
receptacle, whilst the other is subjected to the
uniting process. All that remains is to see that
each hive, as now made up, contains honey to last
the winter; and whatever is wanting must be sup-
plied for that purpose, in the way pointed out under
“Autumnal Feeding.” As to the brood in the de-
prived hive, see the final paragraph of this section
(page 229).

We will now detail another mode of proceeding, at
once speedy and efficacious, and attended with no
risk to the operator. In the evening puff some smoke
into the mouth of the hive you wish to empty,
without removing it. Compel as many of the bees
as you can to fall down; then lift the hive, and
brush out those remaining; taking away the queen
if you can find her without much trouble. Collect
the whole in a heap on the floor-board, and sprinkle
them pretty well with sugared ale. You may now, if
the numbers are still thought insufficient, add to
the first the smoked bees of a second hive. Next,
in a quiet manner, and without removal, puff some
smoke within the stock-hive into which the bees
thus collected are to be transferred; just sufficient
to stupefy its inhabitants, and produce a uniformity
of scent. Turn it bottom upwards (with the same
precaution as above), floor-board and all, so as to
drop no bees; and place it, if of straw, in a pail, or
some similar kind of support. In this position lift
off the floor-board, and sprinkle these bees also with
229, THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

a smaller portion of the ale, in the hive where they
are. After this is done, before they have recovered,
sweep the smoked bees uniformly among the combs
of the hive destined to receive them. Clean and
scrape its floor-board, and as soon as symptoms of
returning animation begin to appear, replace it,
turning the whole again into the right position. All
that remains is to station it at once in its allotted
place or stand. Before the hive is left, clear away
from the entrance any bees that may have fallen
down, so that the passage for alr may not be
obstructed. In the absence of fumigators like those
described, it is very practicable to make use of a
common pipe and tobacco; but the latter should be
of a mild kind, and not too freely used, or many
deaths might ensue.

Some apiculturists are expressing strong objec-
tions to the entire practice of stupefying bees—
maintaining that it is most injurious in itself, by
weakening the powers of the workers, and, through
the queen, affecting future generations. It may
readily be conceded that to get into a state of
helpless unconsciousness is not a salutary pro-
ceeding, either for bees or their masters; but in
reference to the former we use the term “anzs-
thetic”’ instead of ‘ intoxicant’—indeed, the anes-
thetic chloroform has been used in the process by
some—and whether there is any radical difference
between the physical effects of the two agencies or
not, the change of words gets rid at least of an ugly
association. Still, it may be taken as advisable that
the operation should not be needlessly prolonged,
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 223

nor yet repeated with the same bees (or the same
queen) whenever it can be avoided. Particularly is
this to be urged when tobacco is used—indeed, the
Baroness von Berlepsch sets down the use of this
drug as one among the superinducing causes of foul
brood. Now the process of uniting colonies is one
that is extensively accomplished without the stupe-
fying process. One of these is described by Mr.
Taylor in the following section, and another is
regularly practised in the use of the Stewarton hive,
with which, as we have seen, all that is done is to
bring the two swarms into contact with each other
in the night-time—a method, however, that would be
unsafe with settled stocks. The editor may be
allowed to quote some general observations on the
subject, which were inserted by himself in the third
edition of Neighbour’s ‘‘ Apiary,’ and founded, in
the main, upon a number of detached remarks by
Mr. Langstroth :—

“After working hours is the best time for this opera-
tion. It is not, however, altogether a simple one, as
strange bees will not intermix unless measures are
taken to overcome their natural hostility to each
other. Whatever be the number of hives in an
apiary, the bees of each know the smell of their
own companions. A single bee that enters the
wrong hive will be stung to death, unless possessed
of a good booty wherewith to disarm animosity.
Similarly on the admixture of entire colonies, if one
has some distinct ground of advantage over the
other, there must be a method hit upon to deprive
it of this, or else to purchase its goodwill, for
224 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

otherwise there will ensue a ferocious and disastrous
slaughter. If both are alike frightened all will go
well, and the same if both are upon the wing in
search of a home; but quite otherwise if one is
self-possessed and active in its own abode, waaile
the others are frightened strangers and gorged, and
it may be still further demoralised by having lived
under an unfertile queen, or with none at all. But
if both are cowed alike by a good drumming on the
hives, they may be sprinkled so as to possess the
same scent, and then taken to a third position and
shaken out on to a sheet together, when they will
enter the offered hive in harmony. If each colony
has a queen, and a battle royal is not desired, one
of them must be searched for and removed.”

With frame hives, if the frames will interchange, a
little smoking and sprinkling are administered to
each, and then the frames containing bees in the
one can be substituted for empty ones in the other:
indeed, in this instance, the brood will be trans-
ferred as easily as the bees. But, if the two hives
have frames of different sizes, then the bees must be
brushed from those of both hives on to a_ sheet,
and there sprinkled a little more, and then intro-
duced to their intended home.

It may not be misplaced here to remark, that, in
the language of apiculturists, the hives of the year,
made up, as it is termed, for the winter, now assume
the name of stocks. Hitherto they have been
denominated swarms. At this time a good selection
of stocks for removal at Christmas may be made by
those about to establish an apiary. In addition
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 225

to the usual characteristics of vigour, such families
are to be preferred as exhibit a certain degree of
irascibility, for this is often most observable where
there is most to defend.

In selecting the future domicile of the family
augmented by the uniting process, it will be well to
take care that the hive is not one of long standing,
in which the combs have become thickened by age.
Indeed, a colony of the same year is to be
preferred, and more particularly where the queen is
a young one. If, however, it is desired to cut out
the old combs from the intended future stock-hive,
this can now be done with safety; first turning on
to the board as many of the bees as you can. A
supply of food will invigorate the new community,
and the vacancies will be filled up with fresh combs,
provided the operation has not been delayed too
late in the season.

It is of great importance here to observe, that
after making autumnal unions, in cases where the
bees have been expelled from hives possessing fresh
combs, the latter ought to be left undisturbed, as so
much gain to a future spring swarm, which will
gladly accept a house ready furnished; moreover, a
vast saving of honey results, for the fabrication of
comb, as we have shown at page 176, consumes a
great deal of this. The same remark applies to
supers partly filled with combs; but they should be
kept clean and dry. It is worthy of remark, that
some authorities maintain the opinion that bees will
now and then re-work portions of old combs,
but these must be free from impurity.
226 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

As far as it can be managed, it is desirable that
attention should be paid to the previous position of
the hives intended to form unions, for there is
always a disposition in bees to return to the spot to
which they have been accustomed. Where it is
practicable, therefore, it is best to unite adjoining
families, and, if a few yards apart, to place the doubled
colony midway, removing the emptied hive entirely ;
or when the union is to consist of three, to unite
to a hive in the centre, one on each side. But
as this cannot always be arranged, it is highly
advisable to gradually shift the colonies nearer to
each other by movements not exceeding a yard per
day. A little foresight as to the arrangement of the
hives, exercised at the time of swarming, will often
facilitate after proceedings. Some have resorted to
the plan of confinement of the bees, but this does not
always meet the difficulty; for, on the first opportunity,
many of them will return to their old haunts, and
seek in vain their former dwelling.*

Fumigation may often be resorted to in cases
where a superabundance of honey exists in a
stock-hive at this season; for after the introduction
of a little smoke the bees will fall down. The
dwelling may then be reversed, and a portion of
comb cut away in due moderation. Restore the
bees to the hive, and replace its board, when the
whole may be turned back to its proper position
without injury. The extreme outside combs will be
the only ones whose honey is pure enough to take.

* Mr. Cheshire, however. says that this danger is passed by the
third day. Our author’s statewent must be modified accordingly.
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 227

With frame hives, of course, this operation will be
shnple enough.

Under the head of ‘‘Common Straw Hives,” we
remarked upon the usual mode of obtaining posses-
sion of the honey by means of suffocation with
brimstone ; the stocks of the second or third year’s
standing being commonly the ones selected for de-
struction. If, however, such stocks can be made
strong and healthy in the way we have been detail-
ing, good policy would point to the colonies of the
present year as those affording the richest harvest of
honey, and that of the best quality, as being in new
combs. These will never be of more value for the
market than in the first autumn. Such of the
older stocks, moreover, as have sent out swarms in
the past season will of course possess young queens,
and this fact will give them also an advantage as to
the quantity of their stores. Under any cir-
cumstances, it is clear that in gaining possession of
the honey, destruction of the bees may be avoided
by adopting the fuming and uniting plan, instead of
that of suffocation; for whether the hive be new or
old, rich or poor, the same principle applies, with ao
amount of time, trouble, or expense, greater than
under the brimstone system. The plea of necessity
no longer exists for a wanton waste of valuable life ;
and to this point the attention of the cottager, in
particular, might surely be directed, as one often
involving his future profits. Let him know that it
is his interest not to kill his bees; but, when
expelled from one hive, to unite them to another,
where augmented numbers will require no more

Q 2
228 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

than the usual stock of winter food. Inform him
that he is acting on a mistaken principle when he
imagines that his bees are worn out with age—the
common plea for destroying them; tell him that
the insects are short-lived, and periodically renewed,
so that the colony alone becomes old; moreover, that
a large proportion of the bees at the close of the
season are those produced in the later months; the
older ones gradually disappearing in the autumn, to
be succeeded by others destined to become the early
labourers of the opening new year.*

As remarked already in the section on “ Autumn
Population,” it must not be imagined that all the
bees collected together at this time to form a stock,
are destined to survive till the spring. The day of life
may, with many of them, be already far spent; but
we have shown in what way their presence, though
but temporary in the hive, indirectly contributes to
augment the numbers of future spring labourers.
However numerous may be the eggs laid in the spring,
a portion only are of avail in any but a hive so well
peopled as to create a favourable temperature for
hatching them, and to supply the means necessary
to their full development. Thus strength in one
year begets it in succeeding ones; and it must be
remembered how influential is warmth to the early
productive powers of the queen, without which all
goes wrong; and also how important it is in the
opening spring to be able to spare from the home

* In many cases where proprietors have been obstinately bent on
the old mode of destruction, the bees have been stupefied by wiser

neighbours, taken home by them, and added to weak stocks of their
own, which have turned to good account in the following spring.
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 229

duties of the hive a large number of collectors to
add to the stores, which would otherwise not keep
pace with the cravings of the rising generation.

Following up the principle thus laid down, I
entirely agree with those who carry it out still
further, by never destroying, if it can be avoided, the
brood often found in quantity in a hive treated in
the way we have been advising; for it is obvious
that the latest-hatched bees are those most likely
to be of use in the spring. Where it is practic-
able, therefore, those combs which contain brood
should, with as little loss of time as possible, to
avoid chill, be arranged in a natural position, in a
frame hive requiring to be strengthened, or, if this
is impracticable, in a well-covered super placed over
the hive. In the latter case the bees from below
will ascend and cluster upon the brood-combs, and
in due time a valuable accession of numbers will
result. A deprived frame hive offers many facilities
in such cases, without injuring the combs.

Driving of Bees.—In the preceding section we
have detailed the modes in practice either for
uniting bees or for obtaining possession of their
honey by the aid of fumigation. Many proprietors,
however, prefer to arrive at the same object by
resorting to what is termed driving; by which
process the inmates of one hive are impelled to
abandon it, and enter some other. When skilfully
performed, this operation is often successful in
attaining the end in view; but it is seldom well to
attempt it except in a pretty full hive. Mr.
Golding has given, in a small compass, general
230 THE BEE-KEEPER § MANUAL.

directions as to the mode of procedure in common
cases of driving, and we will therefore adopt his
words. “Towards dusk, when the family will be all
at home, let the hive be raised gently from its
floor-board, and supported on wedges about half an
inch thick. When the bees shall have quietly
ascended from the floor up into the hive, it may be
inverted steadily on a small tub or pail. An empty
hive, of the same diameter, being at hand, should
be quickly set over the one turned up to receive it
[the colony]. A lighted pipe may be ready to give a
puff or two if necessary, but the operation can gene-
rally be effected without using it. Tie a cloth firmly
round the junction of the hives so that the bees
cannot escape. Proceed to drum upon the full hive
(opposite the sides of the combs, so as not to
detach them) with the open hands or a couple of
sticks; the bees will be so alarmed that in a few
minutes they will have ascended into the hive set
over them. A hive full of combs, and well peopled,
always drives better than a weak and partly-filled
one. The operation should never be attempted
excepting in warm weather. If the object be to
furnish another hive with the bees, there is nothing
to do but to reverse the hive in which they are,
and place the other upon it, again tying the cloth
round the junction. A few raps upon the peopled
hive will cause them to ascend, and early next
morning they should be placed upon their usual
stand. Those who still adhere to the common
cottage hive may, by driving, deprive well-stored
families of part of their honey. Having previously
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 231

weighed the hive, calculate how much may be taken
with safety, and cut away the external combs
accordingly. The bees may then be returned.”
Some operators vary the above proceeding, and
perhaps diminish the danger, by placing, as the first
step, the empty hive at the bottom, and the full one
gently upon this. After making the junction
complete between them, the two hives are reversed
carefully together, so that the unoccupied one
comes to the top, and the drumming then proceeds.
This should be continued from five to ten minutes,
according as circumstances indicate its necessity.
There are diversified ways of uniting the bees
after they have been driven into an empty hive.
Dr. Dunbar says, “Turn up the stock-hive which
is to receive the addition to its population; with a
bunch of feathers, or a very small watering-pot,
drench them with a solution of ale and sugar, or
water and sugar, made a little warm. Do the same
to the expelled bees; then placing these last over
the stock, mouth to mouth, a rap on the top of the
hive will drive them down among the bees and
combs of the underneath hive. Place this last on
its pedestal, and the operation is completed. The
strong flavour of the solution will prevent the bees
from distinguishing between friend and stranger.”
Payne advocates the middle of a fine day as the
best time for driving; removing the hive to be
operated upon to a shady place, and then inverting
over it an empty hive, as already described. A little
smoke might sometimes be needful. Having ascer-
tained that the bees have gone into the upper hive,
232 THE BEE-KEEPER § MANUAL.

Payne continues: ‘Take the latter immediately to
the place where the driven hive was taken from, and
place it upon the same floor-board. Carry the
driven hive fifty or sixty yards away; the few bees
that remain in it, as well as those that are out
at work, will return to the other hive at the
accustomed spot. All is now finished until an hour
after sunset (excepting emptying the driven hive of
its store), when two sticks may be laid upon the
ground, about nine inches apart, opposite the
stock-hive to which the driven bees are to be
joined; then with a smart stroke dash out the bees
between the sticks; and instantly, but gently, place
the stock-hive over them upon the sticks: leave
them for the night, protecting them from the
weather, and an hour before sunrise restore the
stock-hive to its original position. Here will be an
increased population, enabled to stand through the
winter much better, and to send out an earlier
swarm, than if the union had not been effected.”
The autumnal driving of bees is a common
practice when the proprietors reside within a few
miles of the moors and heaths, to which the hives
are conveyed in time to luxuriate in a second
harvest of blossom from the heather. In such dis-
tricts, it is not unusual to appropriate or transfer
the whole contents of the driven hive; the bees
being compelled to begin the world again in a new
house and locality, like a recent swarm. Two or
three small families may be better driven into one.
In a good season, a few weeks suffice to enable
them to fill their second dwelling with combs, brood,
AUTUMN MANAGEMENT. 233

and honey of the very finest quality. On their
return home from the moors, some of the hives are
again driven, and deprived of a portion of their
stores; or united in many instances two or three
together, to form strong families as stocks; for the
value of population is too well understood to allow
of any unnecessary destruction of life.

Condemned Bees.—We cannot forbear from append-
ing an excellent piece of advice on this head from
Mr. Cheshire’s book (under Calendar for September) :
‘*Condemned bees may now be purchased, and treated
as explained above [the directions were to drum three
or four skeps into one, transfer to an empty hive,
and feed well till they reached the proper weight;
pollen, real or ‘‘artificial,”’ being supplied by shaking
it into an empty comb held horizontally]. Whilst
drumming bees for yourself, explain to the owners
the method, and show them the folly of destroying
the little labourers in the sulphur-pit. You may
not be able to make bee-masters of cottagers in one
lesson, but you can let in some light, and may be,
as we have been, gratefully thanked for your
kindness, while your willingness to buy what the old
system destroys, is an unanswerable argument that
there is waste somewhere.” To this we may add a
remark of Mr. Cowan, that ‘‘driven bees fed up in
the autumn invariably make the strongest stocks
the following season, for the simple reason that as
they are obliged to make new comb, breeding is kept
up later, and the population is a young one.”
234

WINTER MANAGEMENT.

Tue management of bees in the winter scason is
probably that which is least understood of wll the
departments of the apiary, and various have been
the modes urged for ensuring safety through its
manifold dangers. It seems, however, to be pretty
generally admitted that it is better to allow the
hives to remain in their usual position throughout
the year; and our care therefore should be directed
to warding off the casualties now to be guarded
against. Ignorant attention, nevertheless, is some-
times worse even than neglect; and having once
made the needful winter arrangements, there ought
to be as litile subsequent disturbance as possible.
The great points to be observed are, adequate
exterior covering and complete protection from the
effects of wind, wet, and sudden changes of weather ;
a sufficiency of food to last till the spring, with
supplies of water as often as required; and pre-
servation from damp in the hive, with full regard to
the laws of ventilation. As regards the store of
food, we have already said that this is a matter to
be clearly ascertained and looked after in autumn.
When, therefore, as the cold weather sets in, the
bees have collected and clustered together, there
must be no more attempts at feeding. The mouth
of the hive should gradually be contracted, as the
winter advances, though never entirely closed. After
every fall of snow, let it be cleared away from the
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 235

hive, and about the stand or house, to prevent the
chance of reflection, which always injuriously arouses
the bees, and also for better security from the
moist exhalations incident to thawing.

Since the original draft of this chapter was in
type, our attention has been attracted by a valuable
paper upon ‘‘Wintering Bees,” which was read by
Mr. Cowan, of Horsham, to a recent meeting of the
British Bee-Keepers’ Association. The greater part of
his recommendations we have been glad to incorpo-
rate into either the following or the preceding pages,
and to the above preliminary statement of essential
conditions we have first to add the necessity of keep-
ing up the temperature as high and as even as
possible, and the paramount importance of a large
population, which can only continue such by com-
mencing the winter with a goodly number of young
bees. This latter item is obviously a practical con-
sideration for the summer and autumn; what is here
to be remarked upon is its value in a theoretical
point of view, and the manner in which its pheno-
mena and the temperature of the hive act and react
upon each other.

We have already stated and accounted for the
apparent paradox of a large colony requiring no more
winter sustenance than a small one. There is hence
everything to be gained and nothing to be lost by
collecting as numerous a population as the hive will
contain. In winter we know that our insects live
several times longer than they do in the gathering
season, and consequently it might follow that a
colony of exclusively summer-hatched bees would live
236 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

on till the return of breeding-time in March. But
to ensure so protracted an existence it is necessary
that they should be subjected to absolutely no exer-
tions; whereas, when, with all our best efforts to
avoid it, the temperature now and then does fall,
much labour to the bees ig entailed in the process
of keeping up a suflicient heat. There should be
an ample youthful progeny in the hive to undergo
this toil; otherwise, even if the elder bees did manage
to live on till laying recommenced, they would hardly
sustain the further labours of hatching and rearing
the brood, and the hive would be doomed to speedy
extinction.

It follows from the cardinal fact above alluded to
respecting the consumption of stores, that the larger
the colony, the less will require to be consumed by
each individual bee. And the less cach bee consumes,
the less of a variety of evils ensuc. ‘There is less of
the activity which fecding begets, and hence less of the
consequent shortening of life; while the very presence
of the large population, by itself increasing the tem-
perature, renders the need for this activity still less.
There is less excretion in the hive, and at the same
time less fear of dysentery from its enforced omis-
sion; and there is less exuding of moisture from
the bodies of the insects, and less carbonic acid to
vitiate their atmosphere.

The closest connection exists between these con-
siderations and that of the tempcrature maintained.
The higher and more equable the temperature, the
less will be the requisition for food or for exertions ;
whilst if the hive is allowed to become too cool,
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 237

the increased exhaling of vapour entailed by extra
feeding will cause a condensation upon the combs,
possibly to be followed by a freezing over of the
honey-cells, and hence starvation of the insects, or
else a subsequent thaw, begetting mould and fungoid
growth. Apart, also, from the increased danger of
dysentery from the larger consumption of food, the
very cold itself renders it impossible to the bees to
retain their feces, and they void them over the
combs, thus contaminating the air of the hive, and
engendering further sources of ill.

The foregoing is a reproduced analysis of what
may be regarded as the science of Mr. Cowan’s paper.
The practical deductions thence derived we have
freely included under the following sections, as well
as under those on “Autumnal Feeding” and “Autumn
Population,” which have already been presented to
the reader.

Winter Position.—It is extremely desirable in win-
ter to keep off the influence of the sun from the
front of the hives. Some persons recommend
moving them from their summer position to a
north aspect, or turning them round on _ their
stands. But this shifting of quarters seems to involve
the necessity of retaining the bees close prisoners,
lest such of them as casually left the hive might fly
back to the original familiar spot, never more to re-
visit home. I entirely agree with those who assert
that bees are never healthy where confinement has
been long continued. ‘‘Who shuts up the wild bees
in the forests of Lithuania, where they thrive so
well?” asks Gelieu. Surely in this, as in other
238 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

parts of our practice, we cannot do better than
follow the guidance of nature. On a fine day, with
the thermometer at or not much below 50° (and such
days are not of unfrequent occurrence in winter), the
bees avail themselves of it, sallying forth in evident
delight, with certain advantage to health and clean-
liness; for they void nothing in the hive, unless
compelled by long necessity or by cold. This is the
point at which disease commences: indced the reten-
tion of their feces sometimes occasions death. Their
impatience of confinement is excessive, and increases
as the season advances, so that they will leave the
hive at a lower temperature alter Christmas than
before. But in thus advocating the principle of
liberty, [ am not insensible to the evil it may bring
with it, if not cuarded against. The most dis-
astrous consequences follow the fight of bees on a
frosty day, when the gleams and deceitful warmth of
a winter sun reach their domicile, particularly with
snow on the ground, the elare of which lures them
out to destruction, for they soon fall down to rise
no more. ‘The remedy for this is
the screening of the hive in some
way from its effects; and it should
be done as soon as winter actually
sets in. At the same time it is
important that no obstruction to the
free passage of air be presented, or
dysentery among the bees would be
the certain consequence. Where the
hives stand singly, I have always seen the ad-
vantage of fixing before each a wooden screen,

 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 239

nailed to a post sunk in the ground, and large
enough to throw the whole front into shade. This
does not interfere with the coming forth of the bees
at a proper temperature; and it supersedes any
necessity for shutting them up when snow is on the
ground. The screen should be fixed a foot or two
in advance, and so as to intercept the sun’s rays,
which will be chiefly in winter towards the west side.
Other pians have been tried for effecting the same
object, such as bloeks placed at the mouth of the
hive; but these answer no good end, as the rays of
light penetrate underneath and around them. In a
bee-house, entirely enclosed at the front, the hives
and their boards may sometimes at this season be
advantageously shifted a little sideways of the
exterior entrance-way; with hollowed blocks (see
page 151), shaped in accordance, to intercept the
light, but not the air.

A screen of the kind we have described has the
further tendency to promote the security of the bees,
where other enemies than wind, frost, snow, or sun
might sometimes endanger them. One of these, at
this time, is the blue titmouse, to which we have
before alluded. Old Purchas says, ‘‘She will eat
ten or twelve bees at a time, and by-and-by be
ready for more. When she cometh to the hive and
findeth none, she knocketh with her bill at the door,
and as soon as the bees come out to enquire the
cause, she catcheth first one and then another, until
her belly be full.” At page 187 we have described a
mode of dealing with these marauders.

Internal Arrangements.—It should be observed that,
240 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

as the inner combs have been employed wholly for
brood, they will now be almost destitute of honey.
With frame hives, therefore, the outer ones, or at
least such of these as are without drone-comb, should
be transposed to the centre, that the cluster of bees
may be supplied with provisions close to themselves.
The outermost of all are better removed altogether,
and the interior dimensions contracted by means of
dummies. Also, in order to save the bees from having
to pass round the cold ends of the frames, to avoid
which they will sometimes prefer to be starved, it
is necessary to cut a hole, an inch in diameter, in
the centre of each comb, about one-third from the
top. Within each of these winter passages, says
Mr. Cheshire, place a coiled shaving of wood, which
will prevent the bees from filling it up with comb.
Mr. Taylor remarks that “hives with flat roofs
have sometimes been objected to, and perhaps
justly, where no provision is made for ventilation.”
Mr. Cheshire admits that the skep possesses an «&
priort advantage over the frame hive for wintering,
but on the ground of warmth rather than of
superior ventilation. The combs in the skep, he
reminds us, are attached not only to the top, but to
the sides of the hive, so that the bees between two
combs are completely shut in from draughts. To
put the two on a par, and obtain warmth together
with porosity for the wooden frame hive, he recom-
mends placing between the frames and the crown-
board a double or triple layer of the kind of matting
used for fish-baskets, and known as bast or frail;
a folded sack will cover the whole, and then, if the
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 241

crown-board will not rest conveniently, a box without
a lid may be inverted over the hive. This last
arrangement will allow of the substitution for an
empty sack of a canvas bag, which is to be stuffed
with chaff, or better with the broken dried fronds
of the common braken fern (a recommendation of
Mr. F. BR. Jackson, of Slindon). Further, to close
the gaps at the ends of the frames, Mr. Cheshire
hangs strips of wood, three-quarters of an inch wide
and about five inches long, from the zine runners
upon which the frames rest.

Damp in Hives.—Upon this point we may first
repeat an instruction of Mr. Taylor, which is not
materially altered from what he left it in the last
edition. Perhaps, he remarks, there is nothing more
prejudicial than the moisture often engendered in
exposed hives at this time, particularly after frost,
and in certain special states of the atmosphere. It
accumulates on the top and sides, moulding the
combs and rendering them offensive, and producing
disease amongst the bees. Gelieu obviated the evil
by placing caps or small hives (cemented down) over
the stocks; the moisture ascending, evaporated
through the opening, “as by a chimney.” I have
tried different experiments, and have found nothing
better than the practice of condensing the vapour of
the hive as much as possible, and conveying it
away. At the beginning of winter, over the hole on
the top, a piece of perforated zinc or wood is
placed. Upon this let one of the common feeding
troughs, already described, be put, from which the
glass cover, and, if you please, the perforated

R
243 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

bottom, are previously removed; the hole in the
pan being placed over the one below. This may be
covered with a bell-glass, standing within the pan.
As the exhalation rises from the bees below, it is
condensed on the glass, and received, often im
considerable quantity, in the pan. When there is
no feeding pan, a bell-glass may
be put within a circular leaden
or zine trouch, having the centre
open. The hole at the top of
the glass may be stopped, oper-
ing it occasionally on a fine
= day, to allow the escape of
vitiated air. The change of air
in a hive, in mild, dry weather,
is always conducive to health, till the early spring
breeding begins, when caution against chill to the
bees is needed. It is well to give to all hives or
boxes a slight inclination forwards, as being useful
in conveying away the moisture.

We have not thought it advisable wholly to omit
this direction of our author’s, but bec-masters of the
present day do not regard it as more than partially
remedying the evil. The largest bell-glass ever used
in apiculture is much too small to collect the vapour
often arising from the hive. A glass bar super or
an observatory hive, similarly placed within a trouch,
would meet the requirement far beticr; but as bee-
keepers seldom keep many of these, we find Mr.
Cowan recommending a simple (wooden) super of
the same size as the hive. This, however, is only
one of the expedients adopted either by him or by

 
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 243

others. We have above referred to the use of covers
of bast matting, the natural porosity of which per-
mits of ventilation without any necessity for a
condenser or vapour-room. In making use of a
covering of this nature Mr. Cowan ensured a passage-
way to the bees over the tops of the frames by
means of splints of wood five-eighths of an inch
thick, and reaching across the bars as far as the
insects were likely to pass. This quilt, he tells us
(for he employed drugget), should hang half-way
down over each end of the hive, when it will act
on the syphon principle so as to carry away the
moisture.

But damp exhalations are not the only evils
which ventilation is required to meet. Vitiated air,
or in other words carbonic acid gas, as the product
of the insects’ breathing and perspiration, has to
be got rid of, and either of the above measures is
effectual also in answering this end. The porosity of
the bast gives it an advantage over arrangements
involving the opening of holes or leaving of crevices,
by propping up the crown-board, or setting its divi-
sions slightly apart, inasmuch as by the use of that
material the draughts from the flight-hole to these
openings are reduced to a minimum, if not altogether
done away with. To open a feed-hole which would
place the cluster of bees in a direct line between it
and the entrance, would obviously be a most ill-judged
proceeding ; but on the contrary, if the cluster is con-
fined by dummies to one end of the hive, while the
opening into the vapour-room is made at the other,

there will be no mischief to apprehend. There is no
R 2
244 THE BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL.

purpose in contracting the flight-hole, say, closer than
half an inch, for the strongest draughts come always
from the narrowest chinks, whilst unless we have
openings both at the top and bottom, the work of
ventilation will itself be nullified. The object of
narrowing it in winter is rather to diminish the
danger of invasion from enemies ; and the adjust-
ment once made at the commencement of the cold
season is better left unaltered till that season is at
an end. The same rule should be observed in regard
to the crown; but as soon, it may be in January, as
days arrive when it is warm enough for the bees to
fly, it is most advisable to take every opportunity
of raising this, or rather its end pieces if divisible
(as is now the case in nearly all well-made hives),
or of lifting the ends of a quilt or matting, or with-
drawing slides when such are present. Mr. Cowan
speaks of having occasionally resorted to the some-
what startling expedient of propping up the entire
hive an eighth of an inch above its floor-board, thus
doing away entirely with the strong draughts from
the flight-hole; but he has since explained that he
did not attempt this bold measure with hives placed
wholly out of doors. And although Myr. Cheshire
tells us of having received his first swarm in 1876
“from a hive which had remained open from the
previous autumn along its whole front, the front
wedge beneath the bottom-board having been left
out,” he does not elevate the occurrence into a pre-
cedent, nor does he tell us that the “consumption

of coals” in that hive underwent no consequent
increase.
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 245

Temperature—Under this heading we have said
most of what is requisite in the introductory para-
graphs of this chapter. We have just to add that
bees when clustered together should maintain a
temperature as uniform as possible of 65°. The fol-
lowing remarks of Mr. Taylor’s, though partly in-
accurate, may still be preserved: “With good pro-
tection from cuttimg winds, from wet without, and
from damp within, the effects of cold alone, un-
less of extreme severity, need not be apprehended,
for the bees of a strong stock will generate suf-
ficient warmth; and a dry season is often better
sustained than a mild, moist one. It is of im-
portance to guard against those sudden changes of
temperature which often occur in winter; and ex-
perienced bee-keepers have recommended covering
each hive with a mat, or something of the kind, as
a regulator.

“It is certain that less food is consumed at a low
than a high temperature, and that the bees are
often healthy in proportion.* I have known the
thermometer down to 82° in a box, with no bad
effect to the bees when clustered together; but they
would become torpid if exposed singly to this, or to
a much less degree of cold, especially towards the
close of winter; and could then only be recovered

*It is marvellous how Mr. Taylor can have fallen into such an
error. It is not the cold itself, but the semi-torpi iity produced by an
extreme degree of that cold, which lends the only particle of accuracy
to a statement opposed alike to science and fact, as will be at once
evident to anyone who thinks of his own appetite upon a cold day.
As to the absence of any bad effect when the thermometer stood at
32°, we must interpret it that the bees got through the risk at the
time by dint of extra feeding and exertion; but how about the after
effect of these upon the duration of the insects’ lite?
246 THE BEE-KEEPER’§ MANUAL.

by artificial warmth.* The action of very severe
frost, moreover, has an injurious effect upon the
honey, which becomes candied at the extremities of
the combs, and sometimes throughout. It is thence-
forth useless as food for the bees.+

“A thermometer is not always a criterion of the
state of the hive at this season, as I have often
found; for the temperature varies as thé bees
vecede from this, and they frequently shift their
quarters, moving in a mass to preserve the warmth.
When congrecated immediately about the  ther-
mometer, I have known it rise as much as 30° on a
frosty day; and an increase of temperature always
follows any commotion, or partial activity in the
dwelling.”

Inspection of Stores—We have stated above that
winter is not the season for supplying food, but if
it should be discovered that, from some accident or
mistake, any hive has not received an adequate
allowance, the deficiency is best met by placing some
barley-sugar over the feed-hole (under a_bell-glass

* “Tt is frequently the case in winter that a number of bees may be
found, apparently dead, about a hive, particularly after sudden disturb-
ance. ‘The greater part of these are merely paralysed on coming out
into a lower t-mperature, and may be recovered by taking them to the
fire. But this should be done with caution ; for, if placed too near,
the bees are not so likely permanently to recover as when the restora-
tion is gradnal. The best way is to put the bees into a large basin,
sprea‘ling over it a piece of muslin to confine them till they are restored
to the hive.” Such occurrences are to be regarded as incidental only,
for the torpid state is not a regular phase in the life of bees, as it is in
that of wasps.

+ “In two stocks which I had an opportunity of examining, at the
end of February, 1838, after a very severe winter, I found cells filled
with honey in a granulated state, and perfectly white. This was un-
touched by the bees, though they were distressed for food. | Notwith-

standing the unusual severity of the season, there was brood in various
stages of progression.”
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 247

or bottle or other close covering), or between the
combs, or even through the flight-hole, the bees
being given full access to it in its dry state. Direc-
tions for making this article will be found under
“Spring Feeding”—that season (or strictly the latter
part of winter) being the time in which it is more
legitimately required. Liquid food, given at this
time, would probably produce dysentery.

Substitutes for Pollen.—Upon the first revival
from their mid-winter inactivity, it will be of the
utmost importance that a good supply of pollen is
ready to the bees’ use, as it will tend greatly to
forward the process of breeding, and therefore the
entire progress of the hive. But, as mentioned on
page 212, it is not advisable in the autumn to
leave a very large stock of it in the hive, for any
portion which is unconsumed by winter has a great
tendency to spoil—that in the outer combs through
mildew, and that in the inner through drying up.
The requirements of the present season are there-
fore better met by a substitute to be supplied by
the bee-keeper, and which accordingly— intelligibly
enough, though not very correctly—has been given
the name of ‘artificial pollen.” Its use was first
discovered, quite accidentally, by Dr. Dzierzon.
Observing on an occasion that his bees were fre-
quenting a neighbouring mill, he found on closer
inspection that they were engaged in conveying from
thence a quantity of rye meal. Deriving a hint
from this discovery, he placed a trough of the meal
in front of his apiary, and found it eagerly carried
to the hives, the bees preferring it to old polien;
248 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

this continued till the opening blossoms supplied
the natural article. Some hives consumed as much
as two pounds. Subsequent experimentalists at
home have used the flour of wheat, or other
grain, with success; Mr. Cheshire specially recom-
mends pea-flour. The knowledge that the collection
of pollen and the need of water by the bees
are simultaneous, led observers a step further, and
they made a rule of giving a supply of both these
essentials at the same time. As this assistance has
been afforded as early as January, it would seem
necessary, in our climate, to place both articles in
some accessible part within the hive. In the absence
of any better provision, wet sponge or moss has been
found to answer for the water; and old combs or
wooden trays may serve, with cottage hives, as
receptacles for the meal. With the movable frames,
of course, the combs can be extracted and filled, for
the meal will not be needed till it is both safe and
salutary to open the hive.

At a meeting of the British Bee-Keepers’ Associa-
tion, in October, 1879, Mr. Cheshire made known a
method of procedure adopted by himself, by which the
meal appears to be supplied on a greatly improved
plan. Recollecting that when bees stored pollen in
their cells they covered it over with honey, he
thought of giving them the two articles—that is to
say, their substitutes, pea-flour and syrup—in a
mixture already prepared. The meal was accord-
ingly cast into the syrup, which, of course, it at
once soaked up, and, when in a consistency that
would just admit of being held upon a knife, it was
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 249

taken up and pressed with the blade into the cells
of the extracted comb. In about an hour he found
that the bees had removed the excess of syrup, and
rammed down the paste, just as if it had been the
naturally-gathered pollen; and in two days he was
astonished to see that every particle of it had been
consumed, though he reckoned that it must have
been about four ounces. He remarks that by this
means, which did not necessitate a single bee
leaving the hive, he accomplished what would have
taken hundreds of the insects many hours if the
meal had been simply supplied them in trays
placed before the hive.

This very simple procedure may therefore be
recommended for general adoption during winter.
But on the days when it is warm enough for the
bees to fly abroad, and especially as the spring is
approaching, the other course may answer every
purpose, the meal being supplied in bulk; when
the bees, as soon as they get to know its value—
which some of them do not very readily at first—
will take to it with the greatest eagerness, rolling in
it till it colours them all over, and carrying it off
in large quantities to their cells. But immediately
that they can obtain the natural pollen, their relish
for its substitute disappears.

It is amusing to note the assertions still made by
some as to pollen being an unnecessary article to
bees. They tell us of instances in which brood has
been reared and comb constructed at times when it
was practically impossible for pollen to be found.
Perfectly true; but they are forgetting Dzierzon and
250 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

the depredations upon the rye-mill. As far as the
letter of the dispute is concerned, their position is
established: bees can do without pollen, the same as
aman can do without mutton—by the simple process
of substituting beef. It is not pollen as pollen that
the insects must have, but they must have some sort
of nitrogenous food; and pollen is the sort most assimi-
lated to their nature, and which most readily falls in
their ordinary way.

Cleaning.—As far as any disturbance of the bees
would be involved, this must be deferred till they
are again on the move—in March, or perhaps at
the end of February. But the flight-holes should be
inspected from time to time, to make sure that
there 1s no accumulation of dead bees within, for
these not only give great offence to survivors, but
endanger the safety of the colony by preventing the
passage of air. Whilst the bees are in activity they
attend to this duty themselves, but in winter it must
be performed for them. This is also the season in
which empty hives should be renovated in readiness
for spring requirements. All other work of the nature
of preparation should likewise receive attention during
this season of enforced comparative leisure.

As soon as the above-named period of cleansing
has arrived, Mr. Cowan recommends a complete
transfer of the family into another hive which has
already undergone its renovation. The old one is
then scalded and washed over inside and out, frames
included, with the solution of salicylic acid, as di-
rected under “Foul Brood,” the combs also being
sprayed with the same before they, are inserted in the
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 251

fresh hive. The bees are fed on syrup containing the
same ingredient—which keeps the syrup from candy-
ing, and serves also as an antidote against the above
disease.

Melting of Combs.—This is one of the tasks that
will be most conveniently carried on at this period,
and there is then the additional advantage that
there is no fear of the bees coming in to annoy the
operator. Here, again, the editor will make free to
quote from one of his own additions to “The
Apiary,” though, as will at once be seen, the passage
therefrom is only re-written from the directions of
others :-

““Comb for which there is no use as such should
be melted down into cake wax. Brood comb which
has undergone its five years or so of service will
probably not repay the trouble, and should therefore
be thrown away. But if in good condition it should
be put into a clean saucepan with plenty of soft
water, and gently boiled or simmered over a clear
fire till it is melted, when the wax will rise to the
top. It must then be run through a strainer (never
mind a little water going with it) into a stoneware
or earthen pan, the sides of which have been
greased to prevent adhesion.* The refuse is then
collected in a coarse bag and boiled again, a flat
iron or other heavy weight being placed upon it to
hold it down, and a plate or other false bottom
beneath it to prevent its burning. By working this

 

* Tf wax of the finest quality is desired, the portion obtained at this
stage in the operation must be kept by itse.f, and, after being covered
well up, must be set in a spot so warm as only just to permit of an ex-
tremely gradual solidification.
252

THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

about with a rod or ladle, a quantity more of wax
will be brought out from it, and more still by
applying to the bag a wet rolling-pin upon a board
also wet; the additional wax thus obtained may be
added to the other, and the whole boiled again
with a very little clean water and over a slow fire.
Skim off the dross as fast as it appears, and then
pour the whole again into the greased pan, and,
after letting it cool slowly, scrape off the settlings.
The above is in the main Mr. Cheshire’s method.
Another is that of Mr. Payne, who would pour the
original boil into a canvas bag of about a quart,
which should be laid on an inclined board in a tub,
with cold water in it below the reach of the bag;
then, applying the roller, the wax is all expressed at
one process, and may be collected on the water and
boiled again as before. The operation must be
carried on where the bees will not be able to get
admittance, or the odour will bring them in great
numbers.

“Virgin comb, being free from cocoons or other
rubbish, will not require the squeezing process, but
may simply be melted into the pan, gradually cooled,
and melted again. If the cooling is artificially de-
layed, the wax will be all the clearer. If bleaching
is desired, melt it again and pour it out so as to
form thin streams or plates, and then lay these for
a few days in the sun; take care, however, that they
are not melted.”

Dysentery.—The presence of this disease may be
known by the dark-coloured evacuations, offensive
smell in the hive, and frequent deaths. It often
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 253

attacks the strongest hives, if too much closed at the
mouth, particularly at the latter part of winter or in
early spring, the most critical time for bees; and
no doubt it is attributable to unnaturally retained
feces in a damp impure atmosphere, with deficient
covering and ventilation. It has been thought that
the want of water predisposes the bees to dysentery,
strange as this may seem by the side of the more
certain fact that too much water, in the form of
liquid food supplied too late in the year, is a frequent
superinducing cause. As soon as it has appeared,
no time should be lost in lifting the hive from its
board, expelling the vitiated air, and scraping and
washing away all impurity; repeating the same
process, if requisite, on some fine subsequent day.
But the board should be dried before the hive is
replaced on it; or a fresh one may be at once sub-
stituted for it, with less loss of time and annoyance
to the bees. Mr. Taylor speaks of having restored
a stock to perfect health by the above measures,
after a third of the inhabitants had fallen a sacri-
fice. Where combs are movable, such of them as
contain unsealed honey should be taken away,
and barley-sugar will be the proper kind of food.
Disturbance of the hive is very apt to bring on this
disease, as the instinct of the bees impels them,
upen every alarm, to gorge themselves to inflation,
whilst their unwillingness to void their feces in the
hive brings on this disorder when they are unable
to venture out. Their abdomens become swollen in
consequence, and even bursting, so that the entire
appearance within the hive is pitiable in the extreme.
254. THE BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL.

Chilled Brood.—This is a disaster almost suf-
ficiently explained by its name, but which, till quite
recently, was very generally set down as a milder
form of the terrible plague described in the fol-
lowing section. In its main feature—the brood
dying off and drying up in the cells—it certainly
bears a striking resemblance thereto; yet even
Schirach, in 1784, spoke correctly of it as ‘‘ properly
no disease at all’—it is an accident. Its usual
inciting cause is a sudden fall of the temperature,
at the close of winter or beginning of spring,
causing the bees to crowd closer together in the
centre of the hive, and thus leave the outer combs
deserted, and the brood upon them to be chilled to
death. The bees will sometimes proceed at once to
remove and eject the perished brood of themsclves ;
at other times they will let it remain, when it will
turn to a dry crust at the bottom of the cells. It
is desirable, however, that this should not be
allowed to remain long, or the effluvium arising may
produce the more serious disease. There is ob-
viously nothing to be done for the chilled brood
but to clear it away; but, with a view to pre-
vention, the inhabited part of the hive should be
restricted to dimensions sufficiently narrow to allow
of a proper maintenance cf warmth.

Von LBerlepsch, who, like others, appears to
include chilled brood among the forms of “the
uncontagious foul brood,” speaks of the latter as
sometimes liable to be occasioned by the food of
the bees, in which case his quotation, “not a
disease,” becomes obviously inapplicable. Consider-
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 255

able contusion must be looked for in authors in
reference to this complaint and those which, for
want of a clearer understanding of them, we are
compelled as yet to set down, with more or less
inaccuracy, as milder forms of the next. We
beheve, however, that there are still recognised an
‘uncontagious foul brood,” as well as a ‘‘ mild form
of the contagious foul brood;” and a genuine
example of the former, in its very mildest aspect, is
presented in the case cited by the Baron from
Spitzner, who, in 1781, set some thirty hives in a
wood abounding with bilberries, and found, on
bringing them home, that the combs, to a height of
six inches, were coal-black, and all the larve dead ;
these, he adds, the bees removed, and, after a week,
the cells were reoccupied with brood, which ‘ throve
splendidly.” Obviously, a trifling matter like this is
as different as light from darkness when compared
with the real brood-plague, under whose name it is
at present classed.

Foul Brood.—This formidable malady appears, like
the Rinderpest, the potato blight, and some other
epidemics, to have assumed almost its first existence
in the course of the present generation. It is,
however, probably alluded to by Bonner, in 1798, as
‘‘a, disease which sometimes, though rarely, happens
to bees;” but Aristotle’s mention of ‘‘a disease
accompanied by a disgusting smell,” cited by Mr.
Langstroth, may perhaps have had reference only to
dysentery. At all events, Von Berlepsch tells us
that in the famous bee country of Thuringia it was
absolutely unknown until 1858, and that old Jacob
256 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

Schulze, of that district, who died in 1854, had
never met with a single case of it during his long
practice of fifty years. Our own author, moreover,
passed his work through six editions, each supposed
to be revised up to the latest state of knowledge,
without so much as mentioning the name of foul
brood.

During the past six or eight years the Germans
—to whom we have still to look for all our larger
advances in apiarian science—have been deter-
minedly investigating the real nature and origin of
this pest. To Dr. Preuss belongs the credit of
showing that a certain thread-like fungus, to which
he gave the name of micrococcus—so minute that a
single cell would contain some thousands of billions
—is invariably present im the infected larve; and,
after him, Pastor (now Dr.) Schonfeld carried on
further investigations, with the assistance of Drs.
Cohn and Eidam, the former of whom detected,
amongst the above corpuscles, a multitude of other
thread-like growths, which he at once pronounced
to be bacteria—forms of life till lately set down as
infusoria, but now regarded as fungi, and which are
known to be present in various epidemic diseases
both of human beings and of cattle. When this was
made public, scientific men at once turned to a
remedy which was known to be efficacious in destroy-
ing these bacteria in other cases; and in a short
time bee-keepers were rejoiced to learn that by
the use of salicylic acid they were put in a position
to cope with a plague before which they had
hitherto bowed in utter hopelessness.
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 257

Having been thus tempted to place the most
interesting facts at the head of our notice, we must
now proceed to that description of the disease itself
which ought more strictly to have stood first.
This we propose to supply in the form of an
analysis of Von Berlepsch’s lengthened account of
the symptoms and supposed inciting causes of the
disease; for, though some of his remarks will at
once strike our readers as out of date, the majority
of them remain of value, and there is still sufficient
obscurity attached to portions of the subject to
warrant the reproduction of all that he has to say.
Indeed, foul brood is still the béte noire of apicultu-
rists, and nothing but the most scrupulous and
persevering pains will suffice to save any portion of
a colony, when once attacked, from remaining,
throughout its existence, a propagator of miasma
to every hive and apiary in the neighbourhood.

Let us just premise, for the sake of the beginner,
that foul brood is a disease affecting the brood
alone, but which is so terribly contagious that the
bees in an infected hive will convey the micrococcus
spores wherever they go, and thus renew the
outbreak in any sound brood to which they may
subsequently be conjoined. When we speak of the
bees as being themselves diseased we therefore mean
no more than that they are charged with the germs
which will produce disease in the brood; and when
again we talk of “saving the bees” we refer to the
brimstone-pit to which, if not disinfected, they will
require, sooner or later, to be doomed.

In the symptoms and nature of this malady there

8
258 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

have been three degrees observed. The following is
a description of the first and most malignant of
these—the genuine foul brood, or “ brood pest.” At
first, some ten or twenty cells are observed to have
their covers sunken in, some of them with a small
round hole. Upon one of these being opened the
larva is found of a brownish colour, and with
its head downwards; it usually dies before turning
into a nymph, and shortly after the sealing. It is
rare, in this most serious form of the disease, to find
foul larve still unsealed. The form of the grub
soon ceases to be recognisable, and it melts away
into a clayey, slimy material, which, in from ten to
fourteen days, dries up into a nearly black crust on
the lower side of the cell. The bees attempt to
gnaw down the cells to the middle wall, but, as the
disease advances, they let the mass of corruption
alone; they fly forth but little, and devote their
whole attention to expelling the foul stench by
ventilating with their wings. Sometimes, upon a
fine spring or autumn day (for this disease is
peculiar to no one season, though we have here, for
convenience, placed it along with others), they will
forsake the hive in a swarm. If brownish or black
grains or crumbs appear upon the  floor-board,
which, when rubbed, turn into a smeary stinking
mass, it may be set down as certain that this form
of foul brood is present. From a quarter to a half
of the larve soon die, though, even in the worst
cases, they some of them continue alive.

The second degree is a mere shadow of the first.
The complaint is nothing like so rapid, nor yet so
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 259

severe, and sometimes disappears wholly of its own
accord, as the Baron has himself repeatedly ob-
served; but care is requisite, or it may develop
into the more malignant form.

The third degree is apparently slightly milder
than even the second, but it is noticed on the
authority of Dzierzon alone. In this case it is the
uncovered larve chietly that die, rarely the others.
The material to which they turn is more like broth,
and not so tough or clammy as in the malignant
form; it dries to a crust at the bottom of the
cells, and the bees, so long as they are strong
enough, can remove it without difficulty. It is
made manifest by the appearance of dark brown
little scales upon the floor-board. A stock will hold
out under it for two summers, and sometimes wholly
recover of itself.

All these forms are set down as more or legs
contagious, and the following are noticed among the
means of spreading the disease: feeding with honey
from foul hives; miasma conveyed by the surround-
ing air; robbing; the hands of the bee-keeper as
he passes from hive to hive without washing; the
depositing of a stock where a foul hive had stood
it may be a year before; and even (says Dzierzon)
the settling of bees upon flowers where bees of an
infected stock had settled before them.

The cause, says Von Berlepsch, we do not know,
and all that we can do is to take the ground from
under the feet of the disease by putting a stop to
all breeding. The first degree, he adds, is abso-
lutely incurable, and, at most, the bees may be saved

8 2
260 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

by putting them, for forty-eight hours, into an airy
vessel, and then into a new dwelling, cutting away
all their former comb. But even this the Baron
never managed to accomplish; the bees, in every
instance, catching the disease afresh, and having to
be brimstoned at the last. So wrote Dzierzon:
“Better make short work of it . . . and spend
your money in buying sound stocks. Burn out
the hives with straw [as a first disinfectant], then
brimstone them, wash twice with strong solution of
chloride of lime, and leave them to dry in the sun
or air. After the second degree they can soon be
used again, but, after the first, not for at least two
years. Wash the stands repeatedly in the same
way, and leave them empty a year.” Happily this
paragraph expresses a state of things which the bee-
keeper is not compelled to realise any longer.

There follow, in Von Berlepsch’s work, a series of
speculations as to the origin of the disease, and
some, at any i1a‘e, of these remain as forcible as
at the first, for we are still confronted by the
question, “‘What are the conditions that favour
the development of the bacteria and the micrococcus
spores?” The first supposed cause was that a very
small fly (Phora incrassata) enters the hive and de-
posits its eggs, one apiece, in the brood-cells, makine
choice of such of them as are in an advanced stage,
but still unsealed. The phora larva hatches inside
the bee larva, and eats away its inside in ichneu-
mon style. Now, this particular insect is known
to deposit its eggs only in dead bodies; yet the Baron
believes that some such parasite is the originator of
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 261

the malady in those cases in which only one or two
stocks in an apiary are attacked, and when it
seems clear that there can have existed no means
of contagion. <A second view attributes the origin to
honey that has fermented and become acidified, as
is especially the case, he says, with the American
and Polish cask-honey. Though this honey may
come from wholly uninfected stocks, its fermenting
property seems to exert its effect sometimes upon
the brood. Mr. Mahan, of Philadelphia, when in
Cuba, frequently saw the combs of brood, pollen, and
honey, together with the brimstoned bees, put under
strong pressure, and the juice squeezed out and
called honey! This “horrible sauce” would speedily
ferment, and he knows many instances in which the
supply of such honey to the bees has occasioned
foul brood in America—though the disease is all
but unknown in Cuba itself, for the Cubans know
the danger, and most carefully guard such honey
from the insects. Dzierzon had foul brood in 1848
through honey from Cuba, but the effect of other
cask-honey is mostly similar. It seems to cause the
disease indirectly, by begetting a bad smell, and it
has always been six or eight weeks after its adminis-
tration that foul brood has broken out.

A third view is that if from any cause bees which
have died from the uncontagious form (or from chilled
brood) are not removed from the hive, the smell
arising from their bodies may beget the contagious
form. A fourth view speaks of the possible effect
of a poisonous dew with which blossoms are at times
attacked; Dzierzon inclined to favour this supposi-
262 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL

tion. Fifthly, is set down an idea somewhat resem-
bling that which has been since pursued to the dis-
covery of the cure—the existence of a thread-fungus
in the chyle-stomach of some bees, which it is con-
jectured may prevent their digesting the pollen which
they have to prepare for the larve. This the Baron
would not accept at all; “for,” says he, “ healthy
stocks often exhibit this fungus” (in itself, however,
he tells us elsewhere it is believed contagious). The
sixth and last view ascribes the disease to too great
meddlesomeness on the part of the bee-keeper—in-
cessant interference with the natural course of the
insect life, and the repeated administration of noxious
smoke. The fact of the disease having been all but
unknown till the experimental processes of the present
generation came into vogue,* must cause the reflec-
tive to ponder, as the Baron did, over this quotation :
“The nearer bees are left in a wild state, the less
does the disease show itself; and the movable combs
and especially the Italianising mania, have brought
it to its culmination. It is very likely to be brought
on by too frequent removal of frames, too violent
shaking of combs, the admittance of dazzling light
or hot rays of the sun, or by strongly narcotic to-
bacco smoke.” Very naively the Baron adds, ‘“‘ This
is the view of my wife, who, without my knowledge,
and not altogether to my particular gratification,
communicated it to the Bienen-Zeitung in 1868.”
He winds up, however, by declaring that if we can-
not deny that there is something in the idea, still

*S8o Mr. Neighbour writes in ‘‘The Apiary:” “Foul brood is not
avery general complaint, and, as tar «s our observation extends, has
been most fatal in large experimental apiaries.”
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 263

there are so many other possible causes, that we are
not called upon to deery the movable frames when
in the hand of a sensible apiculturist.

To the above list of exciting influences we append
the following from an excellent paper by “A Lanark-
shire Bee-Keeper:” Foul brood, he says, may be
brought on (1) by internal damp; (2) by immoderate
feeding, which raises an undue heat in the hive,
and, if supplied below or on the fountain principle,
causes the bees to cluster around the openings to
such degree as to choke ventilation; (8) neglect of
ventilation to swarms in transit; (4) the use of old
combs in which, though perfectly clean, a small
quantity of fermenting honey is contained. Hence,
in regard to the second danger, he recommends the
vulcanite plate; and in regard to the fourth, the
washing of all old combs in solution of carbolie acid
(doubtless he would now substitute that of salicylic
acid, mentioned further on). In this connection it
may be added that liquid food liable to ferment should
be boiled again before being supplied to the bees.

We return then to the investigations of Dr. Schén-
feld, as to whom the information may be acceptable
that he has long stood in the foremost rank of
German bee masters, and that Von Berlepsch com-
mitted to him the writing of his own chapters upon
the senses of bees, as being ‘“‘ beyond doubt the best-
informed of apiculturists on these subjects.” He now
stands second to Dzierzon alone, like whom he has
worthily been honoured with the recognition of merit
conveyed in the title of Doctor.

We cannot, however, enter into the details of his
264 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

experiments, which occupy three long articles and
a speech in the Bienen-Zeitung of 1874. The follow-
ing summary must therefore suffice. His object was
to prove to demonstration the truth of the theory of
Dr. Preuss, that the micrococcus fungus in the foul
larve and cells—not that in the stomach of bees—
was the essential accompaniment of foul brood;
and especially that the conveyance of these threads
in the air was the means by which, when once en-
gendered, the epidemic was propagated and spread.
This theory having been assailed by Von Berlepsch,
as well as by others of less note, the Pastor’s experi-
ments were so devised as to be absolutely incapable
of refutation, anl they showed with marvellous uni-
formity that the micrococcus spores were really wafted
about as he had surmised (in a special degree they
would be set afloat by the wings of the fanners),
and that by catching them upon pieces of wool,
he could produce foul brood at his will in any larve
to which these were applied. He tried it first with
the blow-fly, and afterwards with the insects more
immediately concerned, and in both instances his
efforts were crowned with the most striking demon-
stration that his reasoning was true.

A question naturally presents itself as to what is
the relation between the bacteria and the micrococci,
but this we are as yet hardly in a position to
answer with certainty. The latter, however, appear
to establish their presence first, and hence the con-
clusion of Schonfeld seems strongly supported, that
they are germinating spores—the seeds, in fact, com-
parable to thistle-lown—from which the bacteria fungi
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 265

subsequently develop. Though the latter, therefore,
are the essential constituents of the disease, they
appear to be powerless in spreading the contagion
until sufficient of a dry crust has been formed to
enable the micrococeus spores to be carried away by
the air. Whether this conclusion will lead up to
an explanation of the uncontagious foul brood, it is
perhaps too soon to speculate. Schénfeld wrote
thus, in January, 1874: ‘Though, certainly, as Dr.
Preuss rightly remarked, no scientific distinction can
be drawn between the mild and the malignant kinds
of contagious foul brood, there is yet so much the
more decided ground for separating the mild form
of the uncontagious and the bad form of the con-
tagious. The former shows itself as a dying off of
the brood from a variety of causes, but it never
becomes contagious so long as fungi do not make
their appearance; the latter is a dying off of the
brood in the form of a fouling, in consequence of
accumulated fungus formations.”

We come then to the method of using the salicylic
acid, ‘the great antiseptic virtues of which,” says
Schonfeld, ‘‘consist in nothing else than in its
capacity of killing as with a stroke of lightning the
bacteria which are the originators of the foulness.”
As its name implies, it is obtained from the willow
tree (salix); it is a crystal powder of a sweetish
taste, and wholly free from danger if administered
either over the bees or internally. A British apicul-
turist residing in Denmark, Mr. J. 8. Wood, of
Nyborg, published in the British Bee Journal of De-
cember, 1875, some useful particulars which we may
266 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

here present in summary. In place, however, of his
recipe for the acid solution, we refer our readers to
the more recent one of Mr. Cowan given a little
further on.

On the first favourable day after winter, when
the bees have been out, procure some unslacked
lime, and moisten it just sufliciently to make it fall
to powder; sow it plentifully all around the hive,
so as to cover every spot for a distance in all
directions of at least four to six feet; also upon the
hive itself and its floor-board. Examine the hive
as early as possible, and cut out the infected cells,
or reject the combs entirely, if reserve combs are at
hand. The pieces cut out must be dropped into a
box or other vessel containing lime, the utmost care
being taken to avoid leaving them to lie about.
Each comb must then be disinfected by sponging
with the solution, and injecting it into every cell by
means of a spray-producer. If there is a spare hive,
transfer the frames and bees thereto, first disinfect-
ing any combs containing honey which may be in it
(compare the caution above given by the ‘ Lanark-
shire Bee-Keeper”), and then begin feeding with
the medicated syrup. The foul hive must then
be safely closed, and removed for disinfection as
below.

If there is no spare hive, all the wax, refuse, &c.,
must be carefully removed into the lime-box, and
then every available part sponged as above, and the
hive and floor-board wiped as dry as possible by
repeated wringings of the sponge; the combs and
bees are then replaced, and feeding commenced. If
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 267

the weather is such as might chill the brood upon
exposure during the operation, some temporary recep-
tacle must be provided to afford it a shelter.

For hives without frames the bees must be driven
out as soon as the weather is warm -nough (“ about
the timo when gooseberry-trees come into leaf’’);
then the solution must be passed over the combs as
completely as possible with the spray-producer. The
bees are now returned, and left to swarm; when,
after about twenty days, those in the old hive are
transferred to another, the combs destroyed, and the
hive, if worth the trouble, disinfected.

For the carrying out of this last operation, both
with hives and apparatus, the following are the
directions given: Thoroughly cleanse, and then
place them in boiling water (if too large, set them
over a boiler, and pour the water continually over
them with a ladle); scrape, scrub with a brush, and
rinse again with boiling water; set in the sun or
wind to dry, and then disinfect by painting them
with the solution, or dipping therein, as the case
may be.

It will at once have been noticed that the direc-
tions with regard to skep hives involve leaving the
bees and hive only half cured for a considerable
period; and as half cured means uncured, one would
think that by far the wiser plan would be to recur
to the old stamping-out régime, instead of leaving
the colony to be a source of even partial danger to
all its neighbours. Indeed, so difficult is the problem
in the best of cases, that Mr. Cheshire writes to us,
“JT have succeeded in curing it, but the process re-
268 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

quires more unremitting attention than most bee-
keepers would be disposed to give.” *

It is a highly desirable precaution to stop the
production of brood in an infected stock; and for
this end the queen must be removed. It is held
by some that the royal person is proof against the
micrococcus spores, and will not convey the con-
tagion with her; consequently, it is usual to transfer
her to any other hive which is either in a queenless
condition, or ruled by a monarch inferior to herself.
As to this supposed immunity, however, which reads
more like superstition than science, the explanation
is probably very simple: the spores float about freely
in the hive and render the colony infected as a whole;
yet they may have settled upon only one-third or
one-tenth of the individual bees, and hence, by the
law of chances, the queen would in a majority of
instances escape.

Extended as have been our remarks on this subject
already, we cannot abstain from appending some
valuable directions by Mr. Cowan which were con-
veyed in a letter to Mr. Cheshire, and by him in-
serted in the number of the Journal of Horticulture
specified in the note below. He writes as follows:
“You know I had it in my apiary, and it was a
source of great trouble to me, but I stamped it out
with salicylic acid. My proceeding was to excise any
very bad places, and when I found cells affected here
and there I merely uncapped them and sprayed the

* Addressing those who are disposed to give this attention Mr.
Cheshire adopts a more encouraging tone when he writ s in the
Journal of Horticulture, October 2 1879: “I assert its curability
because I have again and again cured it.”
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 269

combs with the solution of which I send you the
recipe. I found generally in mild cases one applica-
tion was sufficient, but in more severe ones two or
three doses produced a complete cure. I found that
if the cells were uncapped before they were punctured,
and sprayed with the solution, injecting a larger
quantity into the affected cell so as to eject the
viscid mass, there was no fear of the disease ap-
pearing again. In this state the viscid fluid in the
cells is of a light brown, and is not permeated with
spores to such an extent as when it is allowed to
remain until it becomes highly coloured and the
covering much depressed. I doubt very much if in
this stage it is very contagious. I have no doubt
the acid acts on the spores and destroys their vita-
lity. So far so good. Now, as regards the honey
that is in the hive, and which is supposed to contain
the spores (although I must say I have never been
able to detect any by the microscope), how are we
to ensure their being destroyed? Simply by uncap-
ping it and feeding the bees on syrup containing the
acid, which they will store with the uncapped honey;
or uncap it and give it a good spraying with the
acid solution. I have done both, but cannot say if
it was really required; but as I think prevention is
better than cure, and as it is not much trouble, there
can be no harm done.

“All my hives are scalded, and so is everything
that has had anything to do with the hive, and after-
wards everything is washed over with the solution.
I believe the germs of the disease are carried in the
air, and we can never feel safe; I therefore always
270 TH. BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

put acid in all the food I prepare. I examined six of
my hives, and all were healthy but one, and that I
thought was also healthy. It was an early swarm.
This year I had thrown off a swarm and a cast, and
had given me six small one-pound sections nicely
filled. I looked on the ten frames and found no
queen and no brood. There was one cell covered
but not punctured, but I at once recognised it as
a foul-broody one. Now, the hive had not been
queenless very long, as about ten days ago I saw
the queen, and aliiount she was not laying, there was
a small quantity of brood hatching out, and all did
hatch out except this one cell. It was uncapped and
injected with the solution, and the other combs
and bees sprayed with it. I have no doubt it will
prevent its spreading in the future, as I shall not
hesitate in using these combs in uniting if I require
them.

‘“‘T have examined six hives to-day, fearing to find
foul brood, but have not detected a single cell in any
of the other hives. Now, how did this appear? Ik
seems to me probable that it was brought there by
some of the bees from outside, or a spore might
have been lurking in some of the corners of the hive
and had escaped the solution. This proves to me
that it is impossible to tell when it may break out
in an aplary; and as we know from experience that
salicylic acid destroys the spores, I think it not only
beneficial but important that a certain quantity of
this acid should be in all the food given to the bees.
Two years ago I tried feeding the bees on syrup
containing a strong dose of acid, without spraying
WINTER MANAGEMENT. 271

the combs, and T found that the disease gave way
to this treatment; but I finl the other plan, that of
uncapping and spraying, the most rapid. I do not
mean to say, if a hive is neglected, so that all the
brood is rotten, it can be cured; but if taken in
time, as every apiarian would do, it has been and
can be cured.”

To this letter My. Cowan appends his recipes for
the salicylic acid solution, as well as for the syrup
medicated therewith, which, as above stated, con-
stitutes the regular supply of his bees. This syrup,
as modified respectively for spring and summer and
for autumn and winter, will be found under the
heads ‘“‘Spring Feeding” and “Autumnal Feeding;”
the acid solution which enters into its composition,
and which serves also, when alone, for purposes of
painting and spraying, and for all the processes of
disinfection and prevention, is prepared as follows:—

Salicylic acid ... aa we Loz.
Soda borax... ae wwe LOZ.
Water .., es iu .. 4 pints,

 
272

SPRING MANAGEMENT.

TnHosz who commence an apiary by the purchase of
established stock-hives, and who did not secure such
in the autumn, can, with the opening of February,
and for the five or six weeks ensuing, make a
selection of those that have the characteristics of
health and strength—a matter which may in general
be very readily ascertained on a fine day by obser-
ving the quantity of farina carried into a hive. ‘The
best time,” says Payne, “to establish an apiary is
from the middle of February to the middle of March.
The stocks will have passed through the winter,
and the removal is safe and easy. There are few
commodities in which a person can be so easily
deceived as in a hive of bees. I would therefore
recommend the young apiarian to take the opinion
of some experienced person before he makes his
purchase. If the hive is not of the preceding year,
its weight is no criterion of its value; for an old
stock contains a large quantity of pollen.” An
examination of the combs, as to discoloration, will
often be a useful criterion of age.

The selected stocks should be removed to their new
quarters by hand, at dusk, as per directions given
on page 172; they must then be no more disturbed.
The caution on page 161 as to purchasing of a near
neighbour must not be overlooked, and if such course
is unavoidable, the hive should be closed for three
days, taking care to give it sufficient ventilation.
The bees of a new swarm just hived never think of

 
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 273

returning to the spot which they had themselves
voluntarily deserted ; but those that are brought away
against their will from the home in which they were
established, or which they had come to recognise
even for a day, are certain to return thereto, if in
the course of their new flight they come across their
customary landmarks.

General Directions.—As soon as vegetation begins
to appear, with genial weather, all obstructions to
the free access to the hives must be removed; and
by degrees extended space given at the mouth. The
critical time for the bees is now approaching; for
in February brood often rapidly increases, requiring
greater attention to the preservation of a uniform
warmth. The tops of the hives not already under
cover should therefore be closed in, to prevent currents
of cold air, which are often at this time fatal both
to the eggs and larve, as may be seen by the
ejectment of dead grubs. Even much later on in
the season the recurrence of cold days will leave
certain proofs of mischief; and at such times the
mouths of the hives ought again to be contracted
and screened, carefully retaining the outer coverings
till all danger is past.

The bees will now, in fine weather, go forth in
search of pollen, which they bring into the hive in
large or apparently in useless quantity, so as
sometimes to render it necessary afterwards to
remove it, at a great expense of labour. “ This,”
says Gelieu, “is the only point on which they can
be accused of a want of that prudence and fore-
sight, so admirable in every other respect.” A

T
274 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL

supply of pollen, together with water, are the first
requirements of the spring, both essential to the
brood; and the eagerness of the bees to seek them
is a certain indication of health and strength in the
hive. The supply of the substitute for pollen (page
246) must, however, be maintained as long as the
bees continue to resort to it—which they will do
until the opening blossoms afford them their natural
provision. Stocks thus treated are greatly forwarded
both in breeding and swarming. At page 162 a
list is given of early flowering plants, which it is
desirable to have in the immediate vicinity of the
hives. At present the bees are weak, and unequal
to a long flight; the weather, too, is on many days
unfavourable for it.

An attentive observer will now readily distinguish
the strong, healthy stocks; but now and then a
family may be seen sluggish in its work, though,
perhaps, not deficient in numbers. The cause may
generally be traced to an unfruitful queen, to be got
rid of as soon as the season is a little more
advanced, when a successor can be reared in the way
described under the head “Queen Bee.” Or the
same may happen if the queen has died before the
bees have the means of establishing another, when
an abandonment of the hive often ensues, though
honey may still be plentiful in store. Prudence will
at this time point out the expediency of surveying
the state of the apiary as to repairs, painting, &e.,
to be carried out before the bees have fully entered
upon a state of activity.

Spring Feeding.—It is well now to examine the
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 275

remaining stock of food, for much will shortly be
required for the increasing numbers. If needed,
some must be given, though in less quantity than in
autumn; and it ought to be placed within the hive,
either at the top or bottom; but the time is arrived
when every precaution should be used to prevent the
effects of chill to the brood by the creation of cold
currents. It usually suffices to supply food about
three times a week, but the feeding trough must be
closely covered, to keep up the temperature, or the
bees will not at first enter into it. When this is
the case, some proprietors do not hesitate to invert
a hive, and pour a cup of honey amongst the
combs, upon which the bees will soon lick one
another clean (if a frame hive, of course no inversion
will be requisite). At this season it is well to give
the food slightly warmed. Many persons recommend
feeding even the strong hives, for it is certain that
the bees are stimulated by the increased temperature
to which this gives rise; and there can be no doubt of
the importance of bringing the stocks forward as early
as possible. But no feeding, unless from absolute
necessity, should be resorted to till a certain degree
of animation is visible in the dwelling, otherwise
the bees are prematurely put in motion, and numbers
perish, unable to reach home. Nor is it of less im-
portance to observe that feeding is not discontinued
too soon; for even after warm days there will be a
return of ungenial weather, and a stock might perish
where a very little additional food would have saved
it. But some limit should be put to the quantity as
the weather becomes fine and warm; for I have
T 2
276 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

known evil arise where the cells have been filled by
the bees with sugared mixtures, at the time when
the queen requires them for the accommodation of
her eggs. We have already alluded to the advantages
of a supply of water within, in the very early year,
before the bees can go abroad.

Where honey of a quality not good enough for sale
is at hand, it is of course preferable to anything
else; and it is no worse for being made slightly liquid
with water. In other cases various kinds of sub-
stitutes have been resorted to. Mr. Taylor advised
good sound ale, sweetened with sugar and honey,
and boiled for a minute or two (a pint of ale to a
pound of sugar, and a quarter-pound of honey). But
except in the above event, bee-keepers do not think
of using honey at all now-a-days, the syrup described
on page 205 being all that can be desired. As the
season advances, it will, however, require to be made
thinner, and Mr. Cowan supplies the following recipe
as modified for spring and swmmer feeding (boiling
for a few minutes as before) :—

White lump sugar... .. 101».

Water ... a6 te .. 7 pints.
Vinegar oes Ne os “Log.
Salicylic acid solutio “ee 102.
Salt... wa we we. Loz.

The kind of food we have been describing is that
which is most commonly used for bees at this season.
I have, however (says Mr. Taylor), turned my atten-
tion occasionally to the saving of trouble that arises
where food can be given them in a concrete form, to
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 277

supersede some of the evils attending the adminis-
termg of liquids at this season. In one of my
feeding troughs I have sometimes put some large
lumps of refined sugar, dipped previously in water,
till pretty well saturated (loaf sugar in a dry state
they cannot appropriate). Of the various concrete
saccharine preparations, however, I have found none
entirely combining the needful requisites except that
in which the erystallising properties of the sugar
had been altogether destroyed. It is well known that
this change can be effected by certain methods of
boiling. I believe I am correct in stating that the
heat required to convert crystallisable into uncrystal-
lisable sugar is from 320° to 360° of Fahrenheit. If,
therefore, to two pounds of loaf sugar half a pint of
water is added in a saucepan, it must be boiled up
to a temperature not exceeding 360° of heat. This
may be pretty well known when the syrup becomes
brittle ; ascertainable by suddenly cooling a little on
a cold substance, or plate, when it begins to assume
a pale yellow colour. The longer it is exposed to
heat, up to this point, the more perfect is the
change produced; but about twenty minutes’ boiling
is usually sufficient. If, instead of water alone, a
fifth to a fourth part of vinegar is mixed with it, the
process is expedited; and when thus made, the bees
appear to give it a preference.* The whole must be
poured out gradually upon a cold dish, or a slab of
stone, marble, or slate, previously rubbed with a very
little fine oil, or other unctuous matter, to prevent

*JIt will be well to add the salicylic acid solution, in the same pro-
portion to the sugar as directed for the syrup above.
278 THE BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL.

adhesion. In a few minutes it is sufficiently
stiffened to allow of being cut, with a pair of
scissors, into such conveniently-formed pieces as are
best adapted for insertion into the hive at its
mouth. To those who do not object to the trouble
of preparing this kind of bee-food themselves, the
cost may be estimated at that of the sugar, as there
does not appear to arise any loss in weight. It will
be seen that this preparation differs but little from
the common confection familiarly known as barley-
sugar. The bees, as lambent insects, have no
difficulty, from the deliquescent properties of this
concrete, in appropriating it speedily; and in the
use of a large quantity there is a freedom from the
usual degree of disturbance observable when syrup
is administered. It may be given at any time of
the day; and an impoverished family might fre-
quently be saved by inserting a few sticks of
barley-sugar within a hive, when any other mode of
feeding was impracticable. In fact it would appear
that no other artificial food is so acceptable to the
bees; and much of it doubtless returns to the
proprietor, intermixed with natural honey. By the
process we have described, common sugar has now
been converted into a substance much resembling in
its properties the saccharine matter of certain
fruits, as grapes, &c., known as uncrystallisable
sugar; probably nearly identical with the honey
collected by the bees from the nectaries of flowering
plants. After exposure to the action of a moist at-
mosphere, the concrete soon assumes a dissolved
form; and thenceforth it so remains, as I have
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 279

proved by keeping it unaltered in any way for several
years; in short, it becomes a substance very much
resembling honey.

One apparent discrepancy may have been observed
in our directions as to feeding, and in part we must
confess that it is more than an apparent one, and
arises from the loose way in which our author has
divided his four seasons. Mr. Taylor’s spring,
during which the bees must receive barley-sugar in
preference to liquid food, is simply the latter half of
winter; while Mr. Cowan’s recipe for syrup of in-
creased liquidity during “‘spring and summer,” does
not apply until the legitimate springtime, when the
insects are again in full flight but possessed of an
insufficiency of stores.

Enemies and Robbers.—The enemies of bees, already
pointed out at page 186, should now have the
attention of the proprietor; and more especially
robber bees, for these are sometimes troublesome at
this season, particularly where the hives are placed
not sufficiently apart. On this subject we would
refer to what has been said at page 203. Let a
vigilant look-out be given for queen wasps, now
becoming common, and destroy them in any way
possible ; remembering that each of these is the
parent of a future family. When the wasps are
seen to alight, the use of a garden syringe and
water is often effectual in disabling them from
flying, when they are easily killed.

Cleaning or changing Floor-boards.—All who have
been accustomed to the care of bees must have
perceived the saving of labour to them, in the early
280 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

spring, in the cleaning of their floor-boards, by
scraping away all filth, removing dead bees, refuse
wax, &c., and thoroughly drying them. In many
cases the best and quickest plan is to change the
board, and particularly when it shows signs of
decay, which always leads to mischief.

Comb-pruning.—In conjunction with an examina-
tion of the floor-boards, opportunity can be taken of
observing the state of the hives as respects their
combs. Where these are seen to be old, mouldy,
mildewed, or infected by moths, they should be cut
away; as also when they have become filled with a
mass of stale pollen and useless honey; at the
same time taking care not to disturb any brood there
may be inthem. It is well to remove, every year, a
portion of the older comb in a hive, with the view
to effecting an entire transfer in the course of five
years. Hives sometimes contain too large a pro-
portion of drone comb, which can now be removed
with advantage. Some persons use a little smoke,
but at this season it must be resorted to sparingly,
as the bees are weak. They will speedily fill up the
vacancies thus made, and a stock in this way
partially renewed may be continued in health for
its successive generations of several years, provided
the hive itself is in good state.

Transferring Bees with Combs.—This process, which
certainly is a formidable one to any but an
experienced hand, is now very frequently carried out
with a view to shifting a stock from a skep to a
frame hive. The bees must first be expelled from
the skep, either by drumming or by smoking. If
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 281

any sticks have been inserted they must be at once
withdrawn in the most careful manner devisable.
If the hive is of no value it can be cut in half; but
if otherwise, the honey-knives mentioned on page
202 must be used to detach the combs. When this
is done the Cheshire transferring board (or rack) is
of most invaluable assistance for the rest of the
work, in place of a common table or other board,
which must else be made to do duty. This board
consists of a sloping stand of parallel bars or teeth
on which to lay the combs as cut from the hive.
The figure shows its construction. A frame is laid

 

upon the teeth, and within it the portions of comb
are pieced together—preserving their original posi-
tion on account of the slight tilt of the cells—tapes
being bound round the whole, where needful. The
operator stands in front (A B), the bottom bar rests
at C D, there is a zine tray (GH) to catch drop-
pings, and as soon as a frame is completed it is
brought into a perpendicular posture by turning the
entire apparatus (tray excepted) upon its hind end
(E F), the angles of which are so adjusted that the
282 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

rackwork will then be exactly erect. The frame can
now be safely removed. If the comb does not fill it,
empty comb may be used to fill the vacancy, or an
additional bar, as a false bottom, may be inserted.
There are hooks at EK and F which allow of the rack-
work being withdrawn when out of use, and slidden
into the tray so as to be held by the triangular eyes
in its corners. This well-devised piece of apparatus
is kept by Mr. Lee in two qualities, which sell respec-
tively at 10s. 6d. and 5s.; but the latter, he says,
with a little adaptation, will prove as useful as that
at the higher price.

As the operation above described is one which it
is-not very easy to run away from when once begun,
there is a value in Mr. Neighbour’s advice to ‘‘ have
in readiness all the necessary appliances. These
consist of a large knife for cutting the hive, a
good-sized table [or the Cheshire board] on which
to lay the brood-combs, a basin of water for washing
off honey which may besmear the hands, tape or
string to fasten the combs in their frames, a pair
of honey-cutters for cutting out the combs, jars to
hold the honey that runs out, and a feather for
brushing off any bees that may remain.”

Super-hives.—As the season continues to open,
young bees will become numerous, timidly peeping
out of the hive, and distinguishable by the lightness
of their colour. With genial weather, wealth also
rapidly accumulates; and the strong odour of the
hive, and increased activity of its inmates, attest the
growing prosperity of the family. Attention is now
requisite to these symptoms of a rising temperature,
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 283

and, consequently, to the crowding of the hive. If
the glass windows become sensibly warm, attended
with clustering at the mouth, increased building
room should at once be given, as above detailed at
PP: 51 and 188, or under the head of “ Nadirs ;”’
for a fertile queen will require a large proportion of
the stock-hive for the purpose of depositing eggs.
Should a few cold nights ensue, the supers must be
kept covered; and more especially glasses, which
the bees will desert unless a warm temperature is
fully preserved in them.

I much doubt the likelihood of our preventing
the swarming of bees when the extra storing room
is delayed till royal cells have become tenanted, or,
perhaps, only formed.* Mischief has also frequently
arisen where the bees have all at once had a large
additional space given them of too cold a tempera-
ture, or been afforded undue or ill-timed ventila-
tion, as in using Nutt’s hives was often the case.
The same cause has sometimes operated to prevent
progress of any kind; and in a collateral hive thus
managed, I witnessed the fact that, during five or
SIX successive seasons there was no more breeding
or storing than barely sufficed to keep the unhappy
family in existence, the proprietor deriving no
benefit whatever.

Temperature and Weather.—With the advance of
the season, and a more abundant efflorescence, the
buzz of the hive becomes louder and more general,

* In frame hives such cells can be cut comp'etely away, and in so
doing the surrounding cells will some of them have to be sacrificed, as
the greatest precaution is advisable against leaving the jelly for the
bees to devour.
284 THE BEE-KEEPER S MANUAL.

and particularly when the family are all assembled
at night. And now the exertions of the bees are
called into action for the purpose of promoting
ventilation and expelling the vitiated air by means
of a rapid and continuous vibration of their wings.
This collective fanning gives rise to a considerable
sound, but we are assured by Von Berlepsch that
that usually known as humming is caused by the
breathing of the bees. Sometimes the heat of the
hive impels the inhabitants to seek a cooler
temperature by clustering on the outside. At such
times it is often well to aid in moderating the
warmth by slightly raising up the bottom edge of
the supers with a few strips of wood or lead. At
page 185 we have given some general recommenda-
tions relative to the shading of exposed hives, as
also on the subject of water.

In most localities, the best part of the honey
season will now be approaching; and much con-
sequently depends on the state of the weather. In
particular, a prevalence of dry easterly winds, acting
on vegetation, causes the suspension of almost all
operations; so that the main honey-storing time is
often limited to three or four weeks in the season,
or frequently even less, in our uncertain climate.
The secretion of honey is remarkably promoted by
an electric state of the atmosphere. Huber says
truly of the bees, “I have remarked that the
collection by these creatures is never more abun-
dant, nor their operations in wax more active, than
when the wind is from the south, the air moist and
warm, and a storm approaching.” A certain
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 285

commencement of the latter is to be looked for
when the bees are seen rapidly hurrying home in
crowds to the hive. Payne may be cited in this
connection. ‘‘I am not aware,” he observes, ‘that
bees have ever been placed in the list of those
animals which are said to foretell the changes of
weather, as many of the feathered and insect tribes
are; but in my opinion they stand foremost of the
weather-wise. A nice observer, by looking at them
in the early morning during the working season, will
very soon be able to form an opinion as to what
the day will be, and that almost to a certainty; for
they will sometimes appear sluggish and inactive,
although the morning is very bright, and showing
every appearance for a fine day; but the sun soon
becomes clouded, and rain follows. And, again, the
morning may be dull and cloudy, and sometimes
rain may be falling; still the bees will be observed
going out in considerable numbers; and as sure as
this is seen the day becomes bright and fair.”

“Thou wert out betimes, thou busy, busy bee!
When abroad I took my early way ;
Before the cow from her resting-place
Had risen up, and left her trace
On the meadow, with dew so grey,
I saw thee, thou busy, busy bee !

“Thou wert alive, thou busy, busy bee!
When the crowd in their sleep were dead ;
Thou wert abroad in the freshest hour,
When the sweetest odour comes from the flower ;
Man will not learn to leave his lifeless bed,
And be wise, and copy thee, thou busy, busy bee !
286 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

“Thou wert working late, thou busy, busy bee !
After the fall of the cistus flower ;
I heard thee last as I saw thee first,
When the primrose blossom was ready to burst ;
In the coolness of the evening hour,

I heard thee, thou busy, busy bee !”
SouTHEY.

Swarming.—The month of May, in fine seasons,
usually brings with it the period of the greatest
interest to the proprietor as regards the swarming
stocks of bees; on which subject we would refer to
page 46. Drones now begin to make their appear-
ance, darting out of the hive in the middle of warm
days, though occasionally in strong stocks they may
be seen in April; in which event early swarming
may be looked for. The usual limits during which
swarming takes place vary in different localities;
but in general they are comprised within the months
of May and June, though in extraordinary circum-
stances @ swarm may issue somewhat earlier, or a
little later than this. When it is expected, the hive
should be watched from ten in the morning till two
or three o’clock, after which time a just swarm
rarely sets forth.* In particular, the bees ought not
to be left for five minutes if a hot sun intervene
between showers; for a greater predisposition to
swarming then exists than in dry weather. It
seldom, however, takes place with an east or north
wind.

It is not always easy to distinguish the appear-
ances that precede a first (or prime) swarm, and

* After-swarms may be later ; Von Berlepsch draws the distinction
that the one usually starts in a morning and the other in an afternoon.
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 287

experienced apiculturists are sometimes deccived.
But observation of the interior of the hive shows
the usual time (accidents as to weather not inter-
fering) to be that in which the larve of the royal
cells are about to be transformed into nymphs, and
therein sealed up; viz., six or eight days before the
young queens are matured; for it is to be re-
membered that on the occasion of a first swarm it
is always the old queen that accompanies it. The
issue of a swarm is frequently to be expected when
the bees have remained for some time previously in
a state of seeming inertness, followed by an unusual
commotion among the drones; and more especially
if these make their appearance in the morning,
hanging out with a cluster of bees; conjointly with
a disinclination among the workers to foraging
abroad. If, in addition, the honey previously stored
in a super is observed to disappear suddenly,
swarming may be anticipated, as the bees are then
loading themselves before leaving home. But mere
clusterimg at the mouth of the hive is not invari-
ably the precursor of a swarm (though it will be a
very strong indication if the cluster is formed in the
morning and continues steadily enlarging in spite of
the sun); for the bees frequently continue to
congregate in unmeaning idleness on the outside,
even though honey may be abundant. ‘In this
case,” says Dr. Bevan, ‘“‘the cluster may be swept
into an empty hive towards dusk, and carried to a
short distance from the apiary, when they will
gradually return, and generally join the family.”
This, however, is often only a temporary expedient ;
288 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

and the prolonged continuance of a period of
inaction may be occasioned by the want of a
princess to succeed the queen. Or it may be that
the hive contains an unfruitful queen, and a weak
population with insufficient warmth, when little of
store is collected and often no drone eggs are
produced, these being always the preliminary of
royal cells. A continuation of unfavourable weather,
moreover, notwithstanding the sealing up of the
queen-cells, will often prevent any issue of a swarm ;
for if the start should not have been made till
within two days of the hatching of the first
princess, she and all her sisters are destroyed;
though new royal cells are set on unless the idea of
swarming is abandoned for the season. Neither as
to swarming will the state of the thermometer be
an invariable guide. I have rarely seen it reach as
high as 95° within a _ stock-hive, but I have
observed the issue of swarms at a temperature four
or five degrees below this; and in one instance it
occurred when the thermometer ranged but little
above 80°.*

It is common to imagine that a swarm consists
exclusively of the young bees of the season; but
this is almost the reverse of the fact. The strictly
young bees, as we know, are the nurse bees, and
nothing short of absolute proof would convince us
that these leave the hive before their natural time

* Some naturalists, and amongst them Huber, have imagined a
much higher degree of heat at the time of swarming ; but in this there
must be some error, for I have proved thit the combs collapse and fall
at a temperature a little above 100°. I am almost ashamed to say that
this experiment cost me the destruction of a fine stock-hive.
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 289

of flying, merely for the sake of going with a
swarm. Von Berlepsch, on the contrary, says that
a swarm is made up of all the adult bees which are at
home at the time of starting, and sometimes this is
equivalent to all the adults in the stock—none but
nurse bees being found to be left. Several hun-
dreds of drones accompany the emigrants. It is not
always an easy matter to estimate the strength of a
swarm. The bulk is not entirely a criterion, as the
temperature of the weather causes the bees to
cluster together more or less closely. A pint will
usually contain about 2000, while 5600 are estimated
to weigh a pound; but this latter varies, for on
swarming they are always provident enough to load
themselves more or less with honey before their
departure, so that the pound would be fully made up
by 4000. A good swarm, however, ought to weigh
from three to five pounds, and if it attains to six it
wil, according to a series of careful experiments by
Von Berlepsch, be more productive than any other
weight either smaller or larger. As to a_ settled
colony, he says, there seems no upper limit—‘ the
more bees the better.”

Returning of Swarms.—Cases sometimes occur in
which it is thought desirable to compel the return
of a swarm to the stock-hive. On this subject we
will use the words of Payne. ‘‘ The process,” says
he, “is very simple, and I have always found it
succeed. As soon as the swarm is settled in the
hive, turn it bottom upwards, and, if the queen bee
does not make her appearance in a few seconds,
dash the bees out upon a cloth, or a gravel walk,

U
290 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

and with a wine-glass she may be easily captured.
Upon this the bees will return to their parent hive.
The queen may also very easily be taken during the
departure of a swarm; for she appears to leave the
hive reluctantly, and may be seen running back-
wards and forwards upon the alighting-board before
she takes wing.” I have sometimes found it
advantageous, instead of a cloth, to place on the
eround four or five large sheets of paper. On these
the bees have been spread, and the sheets carried
in opposite directions, thus enabling a better search
to be made for the queen; and especially is thig
the case with a second swarm, for then there are
frequently three or four. Where there is no queen,
the bees will soon be in confusion and fly to their
original home; but in the reverse case she may be
discovered by their congregating in one particular
part. Nor is there any danger in this proceeding;
for the bees, being gorged with honey, are not often
disposed to attack, provided the precaution of not
breathing upon them is observed. Moreover, any
such operation is best carried on in the shade, as a
hot sun makes the bees less tractable at all times.
Occasionally it might happen that, on the issuing of
a swarm, the queen, from inability to fly, falls to the
ground, when the bees will return to the hive, and
such return is often attended with advantage.

In judging of the desirableness of compelling the
return of a first swarm, we must he guided by
circumstances. Should it be a large issue, ex-
pediency would dictate the hiving it at once as a
new colony; for the queen may reasonably be
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 291

supposed to be a vigorous one, and a compulsory
returning of the bees to the parent hive (the result
of destroying her) would oceasion a loss of valuable
time; a young queen not yet being in a state to
commence laying eggs. On the other hand, a poor
swarm might denote an unfruitful queen, to be got
vid of in the way we have just pointed out. The
bees would reissue under a young sovereign, after
the usual interval, with a large accession of num-
bers, the produce of the brood matured in the mean
time; and this might have the further good effect
of preventing an after-swarm, which it is always
desirable to do.

It has already been said that on the occasion
of a first swarm the old queen invariably issues
with it. It is also a fact that she leaves no actual
successor, but that an interregnum usually occurs of
six or eight days—the royal larva being left short
of maturity by this period, unless bad weather has
interposed to delay the issuing of the swarm, in
which event this interval may be much shortened;
it is also subject to extension under certain con-
tingencies of weather. The first princess that is
subsequently liberated from her cell becomes the
future mistress of the hive, unless she leaves it
with an after-issue; for the law of primogeniture
has been observed to be strictly followed. It is there-
fore evident that no regal disagreement can occur
except in the cases of after-swarms, when a queen
returning to the stock-hive might chance to find a
rival, and would have to contest her way to the
supremacy.

uv 2
292 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

After-swarms.—lIt is not an unusual thing to hear
a boast of a number of swarms from a stock-hive ;
but nothing is proved by this beyond the fact that
a thriving community has been weakened (if not
destroyed) by too much subdivision. The proprietor
therefore must not imagine that his care is ended
with the return of a swarm to the parent hive.
Though one queen has been removed, several suc-
cessors are usually at hand, and swarming may
occur again and again, so long as more than one is
left. The hive must be watched more especially
from the eighth to about the twelfth day from the
departure of a first swarm, after which another
rarely issues; the probability, or rather the cer-
tainty, then being, that the first-liberated young
queen has succeeded in destroying the others—an
event always to be desired. But the symptoms
which precede a second issue, if less numerous, are
more unequivocal than those in the previous case.
The young princesses are now arriving at maturity,
and two or more may be ready to come forth at the
same time; impatiently awaiting the time when, by
the migration of their eldest sister, it will become
safe for themselves to leave their prisons. In this
state of confinement they are objects of ereat
solicitude, and are supplied with food through a
small orifice in their cocoon. On issuing forth they
are already fully able to fly. At this precise period,
a singular and plaintive call or croak, proceeding
from the young queens, may be heard, often at a
distance of several feet from the hive, and more
particularly in the evening. These notes are of two
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 293

kinds, according as the princesses emit them from
without or within their cells. For want of a more
distinctive term, these sounds have obtained the
name of piping. To Huber we are largely indebted
for the knowledge we possess as regards this
peculiarity in the natural history of the bee; and
his observations have since received abundant con-
firmation—perhaps from no apiculturist more satis-
factorily than from Mr. Golding. ‘‘ The first note of
piping heard,” says the latter, ‘is low and plaintive,
and is uttered by the princess already at liberty, and
I have frequently seen her emit it. She traverses
the hive, stopping upon or near the royal cells
which still contain brood, and emits her long
plaintive note. This, when the other young queens
are sufficiently forward (generally in about two days),
is answered by them from within their cells, in a
quick, short, hoarse note. After these last have
been heard for about two days, the swarm may be
expected to come off.” ‘‘ These sounds, therefore,”
in the words of Keys, “convey to the apiarian one
certain warning, that when heard, he may be assured
the first or prime swarm has escaped.” But
universal as this rule has been considered, it has
not been entirely without exception; for im a
stock-hive of Dr. Bevan’s, in the remarkable season
of 1852, swarming had been so long prevented by
bad weather, that a young queen became liberated,
and on her escaping into a super, piping was the
consequence for two days before the issue of a

prime swarm.
After-swarms are frequently accompanied by more
294 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

than one young queen; often by three or four, or
even more than that, and always in the virgin state.
“Indeed,” observes Mr. Golding, ‘it would appear
that all which are ready to quit their cells (one
only, be it remembered, being at liberty in the hive
until the moment of swarming) go off with the
swarm; leaving the more forward of the younger
princesses to come off with subsequent swarms, or
‘fight out’ their title to the sovereignty of the
parent stock at home.”

A third and even a fourth issue sometimes takes
place (a jifth is recorded by Mr. Langstroth), the
intervening periods successively becoming shorter,
and more piping being heard. As all the royal
cells must have been tenanted before the old queen
departed from the hive, it follows that a term of
about sixteen days comprises the limit during
which, under ordinary circumstances, swarming can
occur; and thenceforth the queen bee is mute for
the year. Moreover, the worker brood originally left
in the hive will now, or in a few days, be matured,
leaving the combs less occupied, probably in any
way, than at any other period of the year, until the
young reigning queen is in a condition again to
stock them with eggs. This state of the hive is
therefore considered by some as the most favourable
for examination and excision of old combs, and for
other operations usually attended to in the spring.

I have known piping after a second swarm has
departed, where no third issue has followed. The
second swarm, however, in this instance, was re-
stored to the stock-hive on the same evening,
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 295

together with one queen. This is often the best
time for making a reunion of after-swarms; for I
have usually found that all the queens except one
are ejected on the same day: that one, being
stronger than those still in the parent hive, is able
to destroy them on her return to it. If a cloth is
spread on a table, placed in front of the old hive
at dusk, the bees of the swarm can be jerked out
upon it, and guided to its mouth. In two hours
after the reunion just mentioned, piping from a
queen at liberty was heard. The next day two
young queens were ejected—one of them torn from
its cell, not having attained its full growth; while
from the other the sting was protruding, evidently the
result of a recent combat. Piping was again heard
on the following morning; and soon after, another
princess, doubtless the last, was cast out of the
hive, and this I took away still alive—making five
in all since the issue of the first swarm. We may
observe that when swarming has taken place as
often as the colony intend, the original utilitarian
principle no longer impels the bees to guard the
royal cells; the reigning princess being then per-
mitted to tear them open and destroy any pro-
spective rival. Exceptional cases, however, occur,
and not altogether rarely, in which two or even
more queens will settle down to reign in the same
hive.

It is not clear by what instinct bees are guided
as respects after-swarms, or rather as to the
construction of royal cells; for, as has been shown,
these abound much more in some hives than in
2.96 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

others. ‘The repeated issues occasioned by the
presence of supernumerary young queens, although
there has previously been a rapid development of
brood, not only leaves a hive comparatively de-
populated, but the succession of interregnums is
mischievous as operating to suspend, not breeding
alone, but almost entirely the gathering of honey.
A different kind of instinct appears to direct the
bees from what is observable at the time of the
original issue; for the young queens will depart in
weather that would be thought unfavourable for the
issuing of an old one. This seems as if it might
possibly be owing to the fact that both the reigning
queen and the bulk of her colony are young and
inexperienced; and in strict keeping herewith we
find that there is evidently less of foresight as
regards the future place of abode. Where so much
of prudence and seeming intelligence are discernible
in all the proceedings of these wonderful insects, it
is hardly to be expected that mere chance should
direct on so important an occasion as the change
of residence; a first swarm therefore issues scouts
or pioneers to seek out a place of abode, although
when it suddenly finds itself in a comfortable
dwelling, by the act of hiving, it is rarely inclined to
relinquish it. A hive containing a few combs,
placed in the season near an apiary, is almost
certain to receive a colony, which will sometimes fly
to it at once, without any previous clustering.* The

* In the garden of a friend stood an untenanted hive, in which were

a few empty couibs. : Some straggling strange bees were observed
hovering about and in it for several successive days ; and, at my sug:
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 297

instances are numerous of prime swarms proceeding
a considerable distance to a new domicile, carefully
inspected and cleaned beforehand. I was an eye-
witness to an example of this, where the bees,
taking a dislike to the hive in which they had been
housed, soon after quitted it; and, mounting high in
the air, flew in a direct line to the roof of a church
nearly a mile distant. But an after-swarm appears
to make little or nothing of preparation, and has
been known, in seeming perplexity, to commence
comb-building in the bush on which it had alighted.

Uniting of Swarms.—It has been shown that it is
easy to compel the return of a swarm of bees to
the parent hive; but their remaining there depends
much upon accidental circumstances. We have
seen that several young queens are often only
waiting their time and opportunity to leave their
cells and depart from the hive; and till all these
are in some way or other disposed of, there can be
no progress made in the family. Under such
circumstances, many persons think it best to hive
all swarms in the usual way, and to strengthen the
later ones by joining two or three of them to-
gether; for, separately, these are rarely of any
value. In cases where more than one after-swarm,
or subdivided swarm, comes out on the same day,
each can often with little difficulty be shaken into
gestion, the hive was left undisturbed. On the day following the giv-
ing of this advice, a fine swarm of bees suddenly made its appearance,
undoubtedly from a distance, and entered the hive. Jn this instance, a
few hundreds, or perhaps dozens, of pioneers alone could have been in
the secret as to the locality of the chosen domicile to which they so

sagaciously conducted their queen and a community of perhaps 20,000
bees.
298 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

the same hive, one upon the other; or the
branches on which such swarms cluster may be cut
off and brought to one hive. Otherwise, a cenerally
certain method of union may be resorted to after
working hours (not after dark, unless by means of a
Stewarton nadir, for otherwise the bees in numbers
will fly, and not seeing their way, will settle upon
the operator). On either of the first few days within
which a swarm has been established, another may
be added to it. On the same evening of the issue,
in front of the one to which the second swarm is to
be joined, place a table, over which spread a cloth.
By a sudden and smart stroke the bees may be
displaced from the second hive, and will fall on the
table in a lump. Take the first-hived colony and
place it over them, raising the hive a little at the
bottom, when the bees below will ascend and join
it, forming one family. In moving this hive,
caution is needed, for otherwise the combs, being at
present new and brittle, are apt to fall down. It is
seldom that any quarrel takes place if the business
is done properly; but some persons think that a
little smoke previously blown into both the hives,
has a tendency to prevent fighting. Early the next
morning move the hive back to its former position,
when one of the queens will have been deposed. In
thus uniting swarms, the doubled colony should
always occupy the first hive. As a general rule, it
may be remarked that the mode the most likely to
succeed ig that in which the bees are suddenly
blended together, without space or opportunity for
individual recognition or fighting, bee against bee ;
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 299

but it must be done when the first hive contains
but a few combs.

In this place it may be noticed, that in an apiary
where a weak and sluggish old stock is now
observed, opportunity can be taken to add to its
numbers by uniting to it an after-swarm in the
mode just pointed out; though some persons would
prefer pufting a little smoke to both parties. If
either queen be removed, the strangers will usually
be well received, and this accession of numbers is
almost certain to lead to a vastly increased activity
and industry.

Like most other operations on bees, the mode of
uniting swarms admits of variety, according to
choice and circumstance; and some apiculturists
prefer driving in the way for which general direc-
tions have been given at page 229; a plan that
may be resorted to almost at any time. Another
mode of junction can be effected by the aid of a
sheet of perforated zinc inserted between the two
hives about to be united—which will then require to
be placed the one upon the other. As already
remarked, there is little reason to doubt that the
members of each colony of bees are distinguishable
amongst themselves by a certain peculiarity of
odour, and if this is assimilated to that of another
colony, the proceeding appears to have the effect
of preventing mutual dissension. When the construc-
tion, therefore, of the hives admits of their being
brought into juxtaposition, the perforated zinc allows
a free circulation of scent between them, without
permitting actual contact of the bees. After leaving
300 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

matters in this position for two or three days, |
have usually found, on withdrawing the zinc divider,
that no disturbance has ensued.

Swarms upon the wing have an affinity for each
other and will unite of their own accord upon
recognition. Mr. Langstroth utilised this proclivity
by stringing dead bees together upon a_ bush
selected as being convenient for the hiving of a
swarm. <A piece of dark cloth, or anything resem-
bling a cluster, may be found to answer equally well.

Prevention of Afler-swarms.—Where the construc-
tion of the hive admits of it, no doubt the
repetition of swarming may be prevented by de-
priving it of the royal cells. Under the head
“Frame Hives” we have alluded to the facilities
given for objects like this; and if the purpose is to
restore the first swarm to the stock, it may be
carried out immediately on the issuing of the
swarm, when but a small portion of the bees will
be remaining at home. Let the crown-board be
removed and the frames extracted as directed on
page 192. Cut out the queen-cells as you proceed,
replacing the frames. A quarter of an hour will
suffice for the operation. In the meanwhile, the
swarm may be hived in the usual way, and
afterwards permanently returned; for the queen has
now no prospective rival to involve her tarriance at
home in the necessity of fighting for her life. Or
again, as Mr. Golding says, “after the first swarm
is gone off, subsequent ones may be prevented in
this way: so soon as the long note of piping has
been heard, cut away at the royal cells. The young
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 301

princess, already at liberty, will then remain queen
of the stock.”

Maiden Swarms.—Under peculiar circumstances of
early season and situation, a prime swarm will
occasionally send forth another, the oricinal queen
again going with it. This will be termed a maiden
swarm; it is rarely, however, of much value. Such
issue from the swarm, says Dr. Bevan, ‘ usually
occurs between the twenty-eighth and thirtieth day
of its establishment. The only indication of the
approach of such an issue, besides those already
enumerated, is the worker combs, with which first
swarms generally store their hives, becoming edged
with drone-cells.”’ Indeed, an indispensable con-
dition necessary to a maiden swarm is a queen that
has commenced the laying of drone eggs; and this
rarely happens in the case of a young one, unless
she is an Italian.

General Directions on Swarming.—An absurd cus-
tom, says Mr. Taylor, is very general of beating a
metal pan, or some such sonorous thing, on the ocea-
sion of bee-swarming; this is called tanging the bees.
The practice, doubtless, originated in the precaution
formerly observed of ringing a bell, or giving some
signal of the flight of bees, with a view to an
identification of the property in case of its straying
to a distance. By degrees the idea became preva-
lent that the bees themselves were the parties
interested in the hubbub. So writes our author, and
such is now the orthodox explanation of tanging ; but
as this work has been passing through the press we
have happened to meet with a passage in the Fasti
302 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

of Ovid which attributes to it a far more venerable
antiquity. ‘They report,’ says the poet, “ that
honey was discovered by Bacchus. He was proceed-
ing from the sandy Hebrus, accompanied by the
Satyrs, and they were now come to Rhodope and the
flowery Pangeeum. The cymbal-bearing hands of the
attendants gave forth a clang. Behold, impelled by
the sound, unknown winged creatures swarm together,
and the sounds which the brasses produce, the bees
pursue. Bacchus collects them as they flit about,
and shuts them up in a hollow tree, and he has his
reward in the discovery of honey.”* There follows
a rich passage about Silenus getting stung by thou-
sands of insects on his bald head, through too eagerly
seeking after the new treasure, and his being then
directed by Bacchus to smear his face with clay—a
remedy for stinging which we have not included among
our specifics. But to return to the tanging. It is
clear, not from this mythological story alone, but from
what immediately follows in our own author, that this
clamour does affect the bees, but affects them in the
wrong way; so we leave the question for further
decision to those better versed in antiquarian lore.
Mr. Taylor continues that as regards the bees the
proceeding is worse than uscless, as it frequently
prevents thew settling so soon as they would do if

*This passage occurs at the 736th line of the Third Book of the
Fasti. The translation, slightly varied, is taken from one prepared by
the present editor for the Key to Dr. Smith’s Principia Latina, Part
III. Another sentence occurring in the same work may here be
cited as illustrating an ancient mode of depriving hives ; “What [joy]
when the swarms are flying from the yew-boughs placed beneath them,
that the combs may be withdrawn and relieve the bending osiers!”
(hem, Amor. 185).
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 803

left quietly to themselves. The drenching or anoint-
ing of a hive, intended for a swarm, with any kind
of material, is another common practice much better
avoided. A dry clean hive is preferable; only, if of
straw, cutting off the loose ends.

As respects the precise mode of housing a
swarm, no directions will meet all cases. After
rushing in great apparent excitement from the
family domicile, the bees form a cloud in the air,
Wheeling about in a thousand directions, and ex-
hibiting a scene of the greatest animation; then,
for the purpose of assembling together, they alight
and cluster round the queen that has accompanied
them, usually on a bush or branch of a low tree.
The hive must now be put close under the swarm,
into which it is easily shaken; or, according to
circumstances, swept with a light brush, which is all
the better if made of very fine shavings; but care
should be taken not to crush any bees. The
success of the operation depends upon the inclusion
of the queen, when the new family will soon collect
with her, within the hive, on placing this in its
proper position, a little raised on one side, and
shaded in some way from the sun. In the event of
a swarm settling in an awkward position for hiving,
it may require to be either smoked or drummed
therefrom —the hive being held over it, or a
loose branch fastened by some means to tempt its
acceptance.

On the occasion of swarming, bees are seldom
much inclined to use their stings, unless uritated
by wind; if any stinging does take place, it will
304 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

probably be from the bees of another hive—these
being very likely to turn malicious if they see their
master making a fuss. The hiving ought not to be
delayed, especially with a hot sun, or the bees would
soon again take wing, perhaps for a long flight, and
be hopelessly lost. To induce them to settle, a
handful or two of sand or mould may be thrown
among them, or a garden syringe applied; or
again, the flashing of rays from a mirror is
strongly recommended. A somewhat larger hive
may be selected for a full-sized early swarm than
for a later one. In case a swarm returns to the
parent hive, which sometimes happens, let the latter
be watched, for it will soon reissue, and perhaps on
the same day. Occasionally a swarm will divide
and settle in two parts, which, if near together, can
be shaken into one hive. Otherwise a junction
may be made in the evening, in the way pointed out
at page 297. An observance of the advice of
Gelieu and others is to be recommended, not to
allow the swarm to remain till the evening where it
had been hived, as is customary, but to place it at
once, as soon as settled, or within about a quarter
of an hour, on the spot (if at hand) it is destined to
occupy. In sultry weather raise the hive a little to
admit air, especially if the swarm is a large one.
When first hived, it is curious to observe the
caution with which bees mark the site of their new
position, making circuits in the air, wider and wider,
till they clearly understand the locality. Having
done this, they are much perplexed at any sub-
sequent removal of their dwelling; nor do they
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 3805

ever, under ordinary circumstances, re-enter the
original parent hive.

We may say a word as to a practice of some
proprietors, with a view of giving additional strength
to a recent swarm: the stock-hive from whence the
issue took place is moved to a little distance, and
immediately that the swarm is settled in its new
hive, the latter is placed on the site which the
other had just left. The outlying bees, on returning
home, will of course fly to the original spot, joining
and strengthening the new family. The old one
must necessarily be weakened in the same propor-
tion, but it will soon be recruited by the maturation
of the brood which it is sure to contain. Some-
times this shifting of the stock-hive has been
allowed to be permanent; whilst in other instances
it has been found more expedient to limit it to the
two or three hours immediately following the swarm-
ing. The hives should, under the latter supposition,
be then made to change places, and no bees would
be lost, as one or the other of the two positions
would be sought by them.

It may be well to refer the reader to what has
been said at page 174, relative to the occasional
necessity that might exist for feeding a newly-hived
family of bees.

We know how largely swarming is influenced by
the condition of the hive as to crowding or roominess ;
but it is erroneous to conclude therefrom that the
inclination to swarm can be wholly disposed of by
affording continually increased space. The increase
ordained by nature could by no other means take place.

x
306 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

“ Without it,” writes Mr. William Raitt in the Journal
of Horticulture (Feb. 12, 1880), “the race would in a
few years become extinct. Many colonies would perish
annually from starvation, disease, or the death of a
queen at a season when she could not be replaced.
To guard against such disaster, the desire for swarm-
ing has been implanted. Young queens are reared.
The old one leads off a colony; in a few days the first
hatched princess follows with a second...... and thus
our one stock is multiplied to three or four.” The
practical remarks that follow are equally worth our
reprinting :—

“Tt is not uncommon for bees to swarm out and
leave the hive tenantless. This generally happens in
spring, and is sometimes a result of approaching star-
vation. More generally, however, it is caused by the
sudden arrival of warm sunshine after a period of
cold. Glad of the opportunity of getting an airing,
the bees become quite excited; the queen catches the
excitement and also sallies forth, and, not marking
her location, she is as likely to alight upon some other
hive; and, the bees following her, the old stock is
forsaken. There may be both honey and brood left
behind. Such cases rarely happen except with weak
colonies. Again, a false alarm frequently causes
colonies with virgin queens to swarm out. The
princess goes forth to seek the drone, and we have
frequently seen a swarm issue with her. When such
happens with an old stock that has already thrown
all its normal swarms, there is seldom much harm
done. The virgin queen marks her location and
returns. Sometimes the swarm returns immediately,
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 307

but more frequently it clusters on a bush. When it
is discovered that the queen is not with them, the bees
return within half an hour or so. Certain stocks will
repeat the delusion day after day, but as there will
generally be sealed brood and lots of newly hatched
bees left at home, and as the queen issues without
any notice of swarming, but with every precaution for
her safe return, there will seldom be any bad result.
The case is quite different with colonies that are them-
selves swarms of the season. Having little or no comb
built, and no brood to require attention, if they come
out at all with the queen on her making flight they
generally come en masse. The queen may return, but,
finding an empty hive, she flies off to join the vagrants.
Very often in such cases they all go to parts unknown.
It is a safe rule for bee-keepers to provide every swarm
with a comb of brood in all stages the very hour it is
hived.

“Tt is well also that bee-keepers should bear in mind
that the clustering of swarms on trees and bushes is
not exactly a natural instinct, but a habit largely due
to domestication. I suspect the natural instinct is to
go directly to a hollow tree or other cavity previously
selected and prepared. In most cases the clustering
is merely temporary, or until scouts select the new
abode. No time should therefore be lost in securing
the swarm and supplying it with a comb of brood as
above directed. The scouts may return and endeavour
to create anew the emigration fury, but in such a case
they will seldom succeed. I have, however, seen a
swarm that must have hung on a gooseberry bush for
three weeks. It had three combs from six to twelve

x2
308 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

inches long, with sealed brood and honey. This
anomaly happened, too, within a few hundred yards
of a mansion, the roof of which was yearly a favourite
resort of swarms.”

Some allusion will perhaps be looked for to the
old-established custom of clipping the wings of the
queen, with a view to the prevention of swarming.
But bee-keepers who once come to understand and
act upon the system of procuring swarms artificially
at their own will and time, will find no occasion to
resort to this device, which, as we have pronounced
it in “The Apiary,” is surely ‘a clumsy proceeding
at the best,” and may even lead to the total loss of
the royal mother through her attempting to issue
forth, and then falling to the ground.

Transference of Swarms.—Many of the elaborate
frame hives now in favour are unadapted or im-
possible for use in the common process of hiving a
swarm, and consequently a skep is employed in the
first place, and a transfer must be made therefrom
to the permanent hive. The skep with its swarm
may be temporarily deposited on the ground, well
screened from the sun, and propped up with stones
or sticks. A sheet may then be spread upon the
ground in the most even spot that can be selected,
and the frame hive, similarly propped up, will
occupy a position near to and within one of the
edges. The floor-board must be either removed or
arranged to form an inclined plane up from the
sheet into the hive. Mr. Cheshire’s plan is to place
a piece of boarding, some three feet square (page
170), upon the hive stand—not centrally, but with
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 309

the hive set down upon it over the stand, and a full
half of the board projecting over the front edge;
then, with his own hive, the front block beneath the
floor-board can be removed, and the board will at
once let down so as to form the inclined plane
required (of course if the hive is combined with the
stand the swarming-board will have to be supported
upon another stand in front). Small blocks about
an inch and a quarter in thickness (thicker if the
floor-board is used), and placed one at each front
corner of the hive, will give the desired admittance
to the bees. Then, when all is ready—between
sunset and dusk is recommended by Mr. Neighbour
—the skep is raised and the swarm smartly ejected
in the immediate front of the permanent hive, and
when all the insects are driven out, the former
should at once be taken out of their way to avoid
the chance of its diverting their thoughts from their
proper home. If there is any hesitation on their
part towards making their way into the latter, they
may be gently swept or scooped up to its mouth, or
else sprinkled, smoked, or driven with a feather dipped
in diluted carbolic acid.

A method adopted by Mr. Woodbury appears much
simpler than the above, but is only to be commended
to experienced manipulators. He would merely remove
the crown-board and eject the bees from the skep imme-
diately on to the tops of the frames, through which
they would, after more or less awkwardness, disappear,
and the board could be then replaced. But, as Mr.
Cheshire said to us in noticing this plan, “the bees
boil over in a manner to utterly nonplus beginners.”
310 THE BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL.

Artificial Swarming.—This practice, which is one
of the chief features of modern bee-keeping, is thus
alluded to by our author in his last edition:
“Many apiculturists have practised the making of
what have been termed artificial swarms of bees;
in other words, have compelled them to leave the
parent hive sooner than they would have done in
their own natural way. What is more common
than to see a large bunch of bees hanging in
idleness, often for weeks, on the outside of a
stock-hive, at the best part of the season? Is it
not a great gain if we can contrive in some way to
set this unprofitable community to work, in a new
home? The advantages of early swarms have been
already pointed out, and in our uncertain climate
the risk is often great, either of losing them
altogether, or of their coming too late for the
principal season of blossoming. Such considerations
have led to the compulsory system, which may, in
one form or another, often be successfully resorted
to by the practised hand, but otherwise it is
scarcely to be wondered at that failure sometimes
ensues.”

Since the date when this was written the system
has immensely developed itself, and the general
adoption of frame hives has brought in many very
material conveniences of which we previously were
not possessed. In fact where there is not the
advantage of movable combs there is, generally
speaking, but one course by which to procure an
artificial swarm—that of driving. The general
directions for this process have been already given
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 311

(page 229), and we need add little here beyond the
quotation from Dr. Dunbar which Mr. Taylor has
placed ready to our hand. We should, however,
premise that the doctor’s confidence as to the queen
being one of the first of the ascending bees is not
shared by all, and the directions usually given
involve the tiresome searching among the driven
cluster to make sure that the monarch is in the
desired hive (if she cannot be found, both hives can
be set upon stands till the bees’ behaviour shows
which of them possesses her, and if this should
be the old one, the process must be repeated).
“We carried,” says Dr. Dunbar, ‘the full hive into
a dark place, turned it up, fixed it in the frame of
a chair from which the bottom had been removed,
placed an empty hive over it, mouth to mouth, and
partially drove it. As soon as we perceived that
about half of the bees had ascended into the empty
hive (knowing that in these cases the queen is
generally amongst the foremost), we immediately
replaced the old hive on its former station, and
removed the new one, now containing the queen, to
a little distance. As the former had plenty of eggs
and brood, they were at no loss to procure another
queen; whilst the other, having a queen, proceeded
to work in all respects as a natural swarm.” We
would merely vary these directions by advising that
if the old hive is to be given the advantage of the
old stand, it will be better to drum out three-
quarters instead of a half of its population. To
avoid annoyance, and loss of the foraging bees as
they continue to return homewards during the
312 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

process of the preceding operation, it is well to set
an empty hive (or it may have a few combs) on the
site just before occupied by the parent stock. The
bees will be in no very placid mood, and this piece
of deception has a tendency to divert their attention
temporarily, till the re-establishment of their old
house restores them to their proper quarters. They
will then be transferred as described in the previous
section; and the same will be done with the driven
swarm if it is not now in its permanent hive.

Some operators so far depart from the mode of
proceeding we have described as to prefer placing
the newly driven swarm, possessing the queen, on
the old site. In such case the original stock-hive
is removed to a little distance, and the entrance
door stopped up, but the bottom edge sufficiently
raised to admit a sufficiency of air only, with but
little of light or sun. The bees thus confined are
left undisturbed during two days, and will probably
have spent their time in founding a prospective new
monarchy. They may then be safely again trusted
abroad, for in their anxiety about the requirements
of the provisional government, they will no more
trouble their old companions. Another variation of
plan, recommended by some, is, instead of shutting
up either portion of the bees, immediately to convey
those driven into the new hive to a distance of not
less than a mile, leaving the original position for
the old one.*

* T may here not inappropriately call attention to a subject touched
upon by Mr. Golding. His remarks are borne out by my own observa-
tion ; and I believe it would be for mutual benefit were bee-keepers
resident a few miles apart, occasionally to exchange swarms in the
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 813

Mr. Neighbour tells us in “The Apiary” that he
once obtained a swarm from a cottage hive by a
much simpler method, in virtue of his having
accidentally caught the queen in a super—a rare
piece of good fortune for the purpose in hand, but,
as he would doubtless maintain if it happened at
the present date, the result of a neglect of proper
precaution in giving her majesty access to such a
position. Promptly closing the glass with a slide, he
substituted an cmpty hive between it and the stand,
and to this the bees on the wing of course
returned, and had to make the best of their lot by
building new combs, to which when ready the queen
was allowed to betake herself (having been detained
in the super with a few bees during the interval) ;
while the full hive was removed to another stand
and a new queen called into being by the starting
of royal cells or the hatching of a princess already
contained in one.

The above may be alluded to as a transition case
which points us to the advantage possessed by
frame hives. The purpose which a rare accident
secured for once with a skep can. with certainty be
accomplished at any time where the combs one by

season. His views are conveyed in a passage in the “Shilling Bee-
Book:” “Though I can give no satisfactory reasons for the fact, yet
it certainly is one, thit bees brought froma distance very generally
thrive better than families long domiciled on the spot. | am borne out
in this opinion by the concurrent testimony of my apiarian friends.
Whether they ply more vigorously on finding themselves in a str nge
situation, or what can be the reason, I leave others to guess at.” An
American author obs rves on this subject, “I am strongly persua led
that the decay of many stocks may be attributed to the fact that the
bees have become enfeebled by close breeding. The cultivator should
guard against this evil by occasionally changing his stocks.”
314 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

one can be extracted and the royal person readily made
a prisoner. But this is very far from the only, or
indeed the chief, advantage of movable frames,
especially if all in an apiary are made of the same
size. For we can then transfer along with her
majesty the frame that she is on, and one or two
more frames if we please from the same hive; and
can next add thereto other frames from other hives
—one, two, or three apiece as each is able to spare
them—and then, by either setting the newly-fur-
nished hive on the stand of one of the old ones, or
else by obtaining a swarm from a distance, we can
make sure of having bees enough to maintain the
warmth needful for the brood. This is a mode of
starting a new colony on the strongest scale; but it
will at once be observed that if only the one comb
upon which the queen was found was supplied, the
colony would still be in a better position by that
one comb than was the cottage hive in Mr.
Neighbour’s case; and yet the latter, he tells us,
prospered.

In transferring hives to different stands in the
way here pointed out, there is no danger of the
entire loss of the bees, for whether these fly to their
old or their new location they are equally sure of
being among their own frienls—a totally different
thing from the promiscuous transters sometimes re-
commended as measures for equalising colonies, for
here, unless during a rich honey-season, a battle may
be the result, or at least an encasement of the queen.
The stock that is removed is, however, certain to lose
a large portion of its population, and if this loss is
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 815

greater than is thought desirable, it may be remedied
by means of another advantage of frame hives, for
the frames of the over-thriving new colony can be
extracted one by one and the young nurse bees shaken
from them on to the alighting-board of the one which
requires strengthening—the day of course being a
warm one upon which there is no fear of chilling
the brood. If this cannot be managed, the hives
may again change places for a day or two; or driving
can be adopted.

In searching in frame hives for the queen it is
advisable to commence at the centre frames, for the
chances are greatest that she will be upon one of
these. Similarly, the frame upon which she is
found should be placed in the centre of the new
hive. As to the hive from which she was taken, the
direction on page 110, to make all additions of empty
frames in this same part, will apply to cases of arti-
ficial swarming, and to all such removals made during
the working season, as it is observed that the occur-
rence of a gap always gives the bees a spur to increased
exertions. But if the transfer should happen from any
cause to be made at another time of the year, the frames
in the hive should then be closed together, and the
space curtailed by the usual shifting of a dummy.

For bee-keepers who desire swarms for their own
sake the above directions supply all that is essen-
tial; but we doubt not that all who wish to go
thoroughly into this branch of apiculture will pro-
cure Mr. Langstroth’s invaluable work ‘‘ The Honey
Bee,” in the tenth chapter of which they will find a
variety of different courses of procedure which would
316 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

simply confuse the beginner if we made room to
describe them all in these pages. In our section
upon “The Swarming and Depriving Systems” we
strongly recommended the practice of obtaining
single swarms from the contributory populations of
several distinct stocks; and the instructions above
given for taking one or more frames from each of a
number of hives will supply the practical method
by which this principle is most readily carried out.
It is open to the practitioner in that case to take
the queen from one hive, and a single frame, or
rather two frames, from each of as many more as
he may choose—thus making up strong new colo-
nies, but yet leaving the old ones comparatively
undiminished. The new hive (or hives) should take
the place of the very strongest of the old ones—it
may be well for some of these to have been left with
their full complement of combs, that they may contri-
bute their adult population instead—for between the
solicitude attendant upon a change of quarters and
the fact that nearly all in the new colony are nurse
bees, there will be not the smallest fear of the lives
of those from another stock being sacrificed when
they come unwittingly to bring the needed additions
to its inhabitants.

Artificial swarming should be carried out just in
time to stop the bees from natural swarming—that
is to say, a8 soon as the state of the weather and
the evidence of crowding in the hive have given
signs of a need for increased storing room. The
best time, as given in “The Apiary,” is ten in the
morning upon a fine summer’s day.
SPRING MANAGEMENT. 317

There is one process adapted to the intermediate
scale of swarming, as to which, though the same
end could be secured by the one just alluded to, the
practical particulars may be valued by some, and the
editor will therefore convey them in one more quota-
tion from his own additions to Mr. Neighbour’s work :—

“There is sometimes a doubt whether a hive is
strong enough to yield a swarm, though apparently
overstocked. In such cases there is an excellent
plan, devised by My. Langstroth and_ strongly
approved by Mr. Cheshire, for obtaining a single
swarm out of two hives. On a suitable morning,
when large numbers are upon the wing, drum a
strong stock till every bee has left it. Place the
foreed swarm on the old stand: this of course
consists of bees in an unfurnished hive, while the
old hive has lost all its bees, but retains its brood.
Remove this hive to the stand of another strong
stock, the hive of which goes to a third spot with
the bees inside it at the time. Those of this last
which were upon the wing will enter and remain
with the first hive and raise a new queen; while
sufficient will be transferred with the second stock-
hive to protect its brood also. Thus the first stock
gives no bees to the swarm, but the whole of its
brood; the second gives the larger half of its bees.
If frame hives are the ones used, the shaking
process [of page 219] may be substituted for
drumming; but as it may not be possible to shake
off every bee without damaging the combs, a goose
wing should be employed to brush off the more
tenacious of the occupants.”
318

THE BEE-KEEPER’§ MANUAL.

We may append the following excellent precautions
as to artificial swarming, which are condensed from
Mr. Cheshire’s ‘Practical Bee-Keeping” :—

1.

bo
.

There must either be drones or sealed drone
brood in the hive before a swarm is attempted
(otherwise a queen already fertilised must be
supplied to the swarm).

Honey must be abundant, or the bee-keeper must
be prepared to feed constantly.

A swarm without a fertile queen must be sup-
plied with ready-formed combs, as it will make
only drone-comb itself.

An artificial swarm must either occupy the old
stand, or be sent to a distance of not less than a
mile or two (not a universal rule, see pp. 311, 312).

If left without either a queen or brood, such
swarm will disperse among the neighbouring
hives.

The best stocks should always be selected to
swarm from.

. The mouths of stocks swarmed from should be

partially closed to preserve from chill and
against robbers.

. Stocks left accidentally too bare of bees should

be fed with very thin syrup, and if necessary
confined (merely opening the flight-hole for a
short fly late in the afternoon, and closing it
again after dark).

Supplying new Queens.—This operation is often
closely connected with those of the previous section,
but is perhaps of more common adoption at the present
SPRING MANAGEMENT, 319

day with a view to Italianising a stock. One method
of carrying out this object has been detailed in the
earlier part of this work under the heading “The
Italian or Ligurian Bee;” but, as there notified, there
ae simpler courses ready to hand than the one quoted
from Mrs. Tupper. With regard, however, to the single
point now under notice—that of introducing a new
queen to a colony—the directions there given cover
nearly a'l that is necessary. The old queen, where
there is one, is first removed, and then the new one
is encaged either in a home-made queen-cage like
Mrs. Tupper’s on page 37, or in one such as Messrs.
Neighbour’s figured on page 148, or again in one like
that shown in the illustration
annexed, which is known as the
Raynor cage, from its designer,
the Rev. G. Raynor, who im-
proved it from one brought
out by the ‘Renfrewshire Bee-
Keeper.” It consists of a square
tube of perforated zinc just large
enough to fit between the combs,
and which is provided with a door both above and
below, and surmounted by a metal flange which
enables it to be suspended from the bars of the frames
or through a feed-hole. Mr. Raynor's own plan is to
imprison the old queen first for some six hours, and
then by opening the upper door to give her egress
from the hive, and substitute her successor without
so much as removing the cage from its position ; then
when the new monarch has been thus detained for
twenty-four hours—or to be on the safe side it may

 
320 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

be better to say forty-eight—the lower door is pushed
open by means of the wire which may be seen
projecting at the top, and she is let out to take her
chances of reception. If there are young bees in the
hive, they may usually be relied upon to supply her
with food through the sides of the cage; but if this
is not the case, the bee-keeper must himself attend
to her, or else prefer the other form of cage, which
gives immediate access to the honey-cells. Mr. Raynor
usually effected the liberation of the queen after dark,
but others prefer a time when they can watch the
behaviour of the bees, which very soon shows unmis-
takably whether they are resolved to receive her or
are bent upon regicidal purposes. If they enclose her
in a knot, this should at once be seized upon and
dropped into a bowl of lukewarm water, when, if the
queen is not already slain, she must again be im-
prisoned for a day or two. If royal cells have been
made, they must be promptly excised, or their presence
will materially interfere with the new queen’s reception.

Cases sometimes occur in which an old queen may
have to be encaged in her own hive. Thus we find
Mr. Cheshire advising that when, with a view to the
stoppage of robbing (page 204), two hives are trans-
posed, the queens in both of these should be in this
way protected from the danger noted above on page 314.
AUTHOR’S CONCLUSION.

In the foregoing pages I have given an outline of
my own experience in the general management of
bees, freely availing myself of such further informa-
tion, derived from the most trustworthy sources, as
seemed most likely to interest and instruct the
reader. My aim, however, has been restricted
primarily to matters of a practical bearing, passing
over the obsolete speculations of bygone periods,
and relying on the superior intelligence of a later
day. Those who wish to enter more fully into the
natural history and physiology of the bee may
consult a variety of works, at the head of which it
is usual to place that of Huber; followed by the
later comprehensive and highly satisfactory one,
“The Honey Bee,” of the late Dr. Bevan; both
publications to which we have often had occasion to
refer.* That portion of the subject relating to the
structure and arrangement of their combs and cells
is treated of at considerable length by Lord Brougham,
in his “ Dissertations on Subjects of Science con-
nected with Natural Theology.” Perhaps the very
accurate observations and elaborate mathematical

* Much more recent information will be derived from Samuelson’s
“Honey Bee,” whic:, however, is exclusively contined to the natural
history of the insect, and does not touch apiculture. If the editor may
be pardoned the vanity, he would also refer to the third edition of
Neichbour’s “ Apiary,” the chapter in which upon ‘“‘ Anatomy and
Physiology” he himself most laboriously revised by means of the best
authorities, finally deciding disputed matters by a personal consultation

with the late Mr. Frederic Smith—whose loss to science has occurred
while this edition was passing through the press.

Y
322 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

demonstrations of the noble author have left little
more to be desired in the particular department to
which he devoted the energies of his powerful mind.
With his summary of the progress of apiarian
knowledge, we may not inappropriately close the
“‘ BEE-KEEPER’S Manuva.”

“The attention,” says Lord Brougham,* ‘ which
has been paid at various times to the structure and
habits of the bee is one of the most remarkable
circumstances in the history of science. The ancients
studied it with unusual minuteness, although, being,
generally speaking, indifferent observers of fact, they
made but little progress in discovering the singular
economy of this insect. Of the observations of
Aristomachus, who spent sixty years, it is said, in
studying the subject, we know nothing; nor of those
which were made by Philissus,t who passed his life
in the woods for the purpose of examining this
insect’s habits; but Pliny informs us that both of
them wrote works upon it. Aristotle’s three chap-
ters on bees and waspsft contain little more than
the ordinary observations, mixed up with an unusual
portion of vulgar and even gross errors. How much
he attended to the subject is, however, manifest
from the extent of the first of these chapters, which
is of great length. Some mathematical writers,
particularly Pappus, studied the form of the cells,
and established one or two of the fundamental
propositions respecting the economy of labour and
wax resulting from the plan of the structure. The

* Vol. i. pp. 333-36. + Called also Philiscu:
+ Hist. An. lib, ix. capp. 40, 41, 42. : ee
AUTHOR'S CONCLUSION. 323

application of modern naturalists to the enquiry is
to be dated from the beginning of the cightcenth
century, when Maraldi examined it with his ac-
customed care; and Réaumur afterwards, as we
have seen, carried his investigations much farther.
The interest of the subject seemed to increase with
the progress made in their enquiries; and about
the year 1765 a society was formed at Little
Bautzen in Upper Lusatia, whose sole object was
the study of bees. It was formed under the
patronage of the Elector of Saxony. The celebrated
Schirach was one of its original members; and
soon after its establishment he made his famous
discovery of the power which the bees have to
supply the loss of their queen, by forming a large
cell out of three common ones, and feeding the
erub of a worker upon royal jelly; a discovery so
‘startling to naturalists, that Bonnet, in 1769,
earnestly urged the society not to lower its credit by
countenancing such a wild error, which he regarded
as repugnant to all we know of the habits of
insects; admitting, however, that he should not be
so incredulous of any observations tending to prove
the propagation of the race of the queen bee
without any co-operation of a male,* a notion since
shown by Huber to be wholly chimerical. In 1771
a second institution, with the same limited object,
was founded at Lauter, under the Elector Palatine’s
patronage, and of this Riem, scarcely less known in
thig branch of science than Schirach, was a member.

“The greatest progress, however, was afterwards

* Chuvres, x. 100, 104.
y 2
324 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

made by Huber, whose discoveries, especially of the
queen bee’s mode of impregnation, the slaughter of
the drones or males, and the mode of working, have
justly gained him a very high place among natur-
alists. Nor are his discoveries of the secretion of
wax from saccharine matter, the nature of propolis,
and the preparation of wax for building, to be
reckoned less important. To these truths the way
had been led by John Hunter, whose vigorous and
original genius never was directed to the cultivation
of any subject without reaping a harvest of dis-
covery.”

In conclusion, whatever may be the degree of
ignorance or doubt in which on certain points
respecting the honey-bee we are still involved (and
these are probably not often practically important),
there are few but may receive instruction and.
example from these wonderful little creatures, in the
duties of persevering industry, prudence, economy,
and peaceful subordination; whilst all may be
taught, by their perfect organisation and faultless
adaptation of means to an end, a lesson of
humility ; and, finally, by the contemplation of their
beautiful works, to “look through Nature up to
Nature's Gop.”
325

APPENDICES.

Brier Notes.

lL. ulye at which the Queen flics—On page 29 of our text
we have set down the usual date of this event as “the first
fine day after she is two days old;” but we think it better
here to point out that there exists much discrepancy between
the results of different experiments upon this point. Mr.
Cheshire informs us that he has pursued a series of most
careful investigations, and his conclusion therefrom has been
entirely in accordance with “the French experiments,” and
has brought out the seventh day as the one in question.
Referring to Von Berlepsch, we find his words are, “The
queen begins her flights on or about the third day after she
has left the cell; at least, among all the queens whose age
was known to me, I never in the course of my long practice
met with one that flew earlier, though I am not prepared to
deny that it may so happen upon occasion.” Thus he has
evidently not so much as an idea of any one denying that
it takes place so early. Can it be that there are climatic
influences at work which bring the insects to sexual matu-
rity earlier in one country than another? Had it been
India instead of Germany, we should think at once of a
human analogy, and accept such an idea with little hesita-
tion. The commencement of laying is set down by the
above authority at from two to three days (probably sixty

to seventy hours) after impregnation.
2, A new View of the Italians.—Under the heading “ Black

a
826 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

versus Ligurian Bees,” the Journal of Horticulture for February
12, 1880, reprints from the Banffshire Journal the following
article signed “Robert Gordon,” which is worthy of the most
careful consideration from those interested in the subject :—

“Having studied closely the habits of bees for a long time,
and having kept and experimented with them successfully for
the last eight years, it may not be out of place to offer a few
observations on the Ligurians. :

“A hive of Ligurians and a hive of blacks, from their very
natures, cannot be placed within a few yards from each other
on equal terms, and the reason is obvious to every intelligent
observer, whether bee-keeper or not. All Ligurian fanciers
claim for them that they work in wet or dry earlier and later
than do the blacks. Now any one can sce that as soon as there
is honey in the flower, so soon will the black bee go for it, and
so long as there is honey so long will the black remain gathering
it. Since the Ligurian can no more make honey than the black,
and since it finds honey after the blacks have failed, it must
obtain it from some other source than the flowers. Ligurian
bee-keepers tell me—and I see no reason to doubt the state-
ment—that the Ligurian thrives amazingly for a time where
plenty of black bees are kept, and that nearly in the same pro-
portion to the number of black hives within reach, so will be
the honey-producing power of the Ligurian. I have often seen
them coming out of the black hives, and certainly they were
not helping the blacks, because in nearly exact proportion as
they increased in weight the blacks decreased; and this transfer
of the honey is not always accompanied with fighting, the
Ligurians having what all successful pilferers generally have—
viz., the knack of introducing themselves unchallenged any-
where if what is wanted is to be had.

“Tt is now a good while since first these persistent marauders
were imported, and from their swarming propensities (I should
have said that their breeding powers are said to be immense),
and the number of swarms and queens sent annually over the
country, one wonders how there can be such a thing as a pure
black. Doubtless there would not by this time were it not for
the Ligurians’ liability to disease, Every now and then I read

 

 

 

 
APPENDICES. 327

in the newspapers that such a one has imported a Ligurian
swarm or queen. After a while I read that the Ligurian is
shooting far ahead of the blacks ; again a short time and I
read that the Ligurians have got foul brood. After a time I
hear that the Ligurians are dead, after having infected a whole
district with this abominable disease. Pure blacks are very
rarely troubled with this or any other disease.”

3. Poreign Varieties.—From a letter of “A Country Doctor,”
published in the British Bee Journal, of March, 1876, we
make the following brief addition to our descriptions on pp.
43—46: “The Hungarian bee is described as black, and more
industrious than the native [brown] bee. The Dalmatian
is raven black, with a wasp-shaped body; very hardy and
industrious, and remarkably gentle when unirritated. In re-
ference to the tendency of bees to sting, Herr Cori [who is
the writer’s authority] seems to show, from the various sorts
he has cultivated, that the higher the merits of the bees
generally, the less inclination is there to irascibility; but
when once exited they sting more viciously. The Herzego-
vinian bee is very similar to the Dalmatian, not however
quite so black or so wasp-like. The first ring of the body
when carefully observed has a slight yellowish appearance,
which comes out very plainly when the body is kept in
spirits. They are said to be as gentle as the Dalmatian,
still more industrious, and the queens still more prolific.” The
Grecian bees, which we have simply named in the text, are
partially bronze and rust coloured.

4. Anomalies—Under this heading we will include a few
of the more or less exceptional appearances and incidents in
bee life, of an altogether miscellaneous character.

(a) Drones born of an Unfertile Mother.—We are assured
by Von Berlepsch that whether drones are descended from
a fertile or unfertile queen, or even from a fertile worker,
they prove on dissection to possess virile organs equally
perfect.

(6) Peculiar Queens.—Queens have been known to vary
in size from real giantesses to no larger than ordinary workers.
As a rule queens will not sting, whatever amount of irrita-
328 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

tion they may receive; but three instances are recorded from
Germany in which, by the most persevering efforts, bee-mas-
ters have succeeded in obtaining this rare distinction from
the royal mother, one of them noticing that the effect was
little more than that of the prick of a needle. It is held
by some that the queen’s sting is of use in guiding the eggs
tothe bottom of the cells. Atany rate, in one of the above three
instances the queen lost the entire faculty of laying for the
rest of her existence. There are queens again that will not
fight when challenged to a royal combat; others that will
not start when the swarm is all ready (Dzierzon relating
that three successive swarms were led off by young princesses
from one of his hives in consequence of the persistent refusal
of the proper sovereign).

(c) Aberrations of Instinct.—Many instances of what appear
to come under this heading, or at any rate are inexplicable
whims, are manifested in respect to swarming. Not to speak
of the above-cited obstinacy of the queen, the bees as a body
sometimes neglect all preparations by means of royal cells,
and then on the arrival of warm weather they suddenly
rush forth and leave the remainder of the stock to begin
these after their departure. Again, in preparing these cells,
they have been known to omit the royal jelly; while the
larva itself has been found with its head downwards, in which
case, being unable to gnaw its way out of the cell, its life
has necessarily been lost (the reversal in the case of foul
brood is supposed to be owing to the struggles of the grub).
The queen, too, will sometimes lay several eggs in the same
cell, though fertile workers are more likely to be guilty of
this freak. The occasional instances of bees murdering their
queen may very probably be explained as the outcome of
individual ambition begotten by partaking of royal food; but
the desperate attempts of a queenless stock to hatch a queen
out of a drone egg or a lump of pollen, have received no
apology except that of Von Berlepsch, who compares such
acts to the clutchings at straws made by a drowning man.

5. Orthographical Variations—We trust that a brief allu-
sion to this point may be accepted by our readers in the
APPENDICES. 329

spirit in which it is made—that of a sincere wish to contribute
towards the settlement of one or two trifles which are occa-
sions of confusion to many who do not express their doubts
in print. Particularly, what is the proper English plural
of the word “proboscis”? Of course, it is a Greek word,
and if we follow the original, as Mr. Cheshire, fortified by
Webster, does, we shall write “proboscides.” No one can
say that this is wrong, and yet does it not sound to nearly
every one as wrnatural? The word has acquired a recognised
English footing, and our regular plural for words ending in
zs is formed by changing that syllable into es—perhaps from
following the Latin, which does so with Greek words whose
original plural ends in e’s. At all events, it is certain that
foreign words do creep into English use, in the case of which
any person adhering to the foreign plural would be set down
as a pedant forthwith (‘‘genius,” “terminus,” and “aquarium”
for instance). It is very easy in scores of instances to show the
incorrectness of usage ; yet after all it is usage that makes the
language, and when it once is settled we cannot override it ;
thus we would even adhere to the English plural “ chrysalises,”
irregular as it is, in preference to the technical “ chrysalides.”
Even if the similar plural of “ proboscis” could be considered
just tolerable in the case of insects, yet could we any of us ever
bear to say “The elephants raised their proboscides”? We
have referred the matter to Dr. William Smith, the philologist,
and he, without offering a dogmatic opinion, replies that his
own preference would be to write “probosces.”

We have been asked whether the word “apiarian” can. be
properly used as a noun. Custom has perhaps by this time
sanctioned it, but “apiculturist” is much the safer form.

The proper name “ Réaumur,” if left without the accent, as
nearly all apiarian authors persist in writing it, becomes cut
down from its correct three syllables to two. We have been
at pains to investigate the matter by means of French bio-
graphical works at the British Museum, and as the result,
we have not a shadow of a doubt that the omission of the
aecent in English use had its rise in the first place in an
ordinary piece of carelessness.
330 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

B.
New Section Frame.
(By Rev. F. R. Corsnire—Journal of Horticulture, Feb.5, 1880.*)

It is now well known to all apiculturists that bees build combs
more quickly at the sides of the brood nest than they do over
it, while in the former position they are much longer sealing the
honey. This doubtless has its foundation in the fact that the
necessity or even opportunity for building comb above the
brood nest is strictly artificial, while that position is the one
above all others favourable to the evaporation of excess of
water in the gathered nectar ; hence here comb-building is less
active, while sealing is most rapidly accomplished. Almost all
true progress is the outcome of correct observation, which in
this case gives the basis for the suggestion that sections—z. e.,
small boxes containing a single slab of comb honey—would be
produced most rapidly, all other things being equal, by being
started in the hive body and finished in an upper story. To meet
this acknowledged need most of the better hives exhibited
during 1879 contained wide frames to take sections, to hang by
the sides of those devoted to the work of the nursery. But in
practice these frames are exceedingly troublesome and incon-
venient, for any trifling error in measurement is likely to make
the sections either too tight or too loose ; and though the latter
defect would appear to be the less perplexing, it is hardly so,
for all spaces the bees most conscientiously close with propolis,
which gives us much trouble in rearranging for the upper story.
To overcome this difficulty I devised the frame, if frame it can
be called, which was exhibited at Long Sutton and received a
special prize. The top bar of the frame is omitted, while the
ears are fixed firmly to the tops of the ends. The angle at one
bottom corner is a rigid right angle, but that at the other is

* Besides abridgment, some trifling verbal alterations have been
necessary in this article on account of its having been originally accom-
panied by ilustrations. These, however, may readily be dispensed
with, and the reader has only to imagine a frame without a top bar, but
with its sides and bottom so widened as to be exactly equal to the depth

of the section boxes from front to back. These then lie across it side
by side and in two tiers.
APPENDICES. 331

hinged. As the frame or holder stands in front of the operator,
the hinged side falls upon the table, and the lower tier of boxes
is placed in position, the first box being pushed to the rigid
angle. The upper tier follows, when the movable side is raised,
and all are at once held together. The weight of the frame and
boxes, as the former hangs in the hive, serves to keep this side
to the perpendicular, while the strips of tin for separators
[between frame and frame] may be most expeditiously fixed by
four ordinary drawing pins for each, which will do duty an
indefinite number of times, and so in the long run prove no
more expensive, although immensely more convenient, than
common tacks. The separators need not be pierced with holes ;
but if all be kept, as they ought to be. of one gauge, then the
drawing pins can be permanently fixed in the uprights of the
holder above and below the separator, and their broad flat
heads will give it every security. I said permanently, because
the removal and replacement of the pins is by no means needful ;
for when the upright of the frame is brought into position, the
ends of the tin slip can ina moment be passed in behind the
pins, and if a small amount of curl be given to it, and its round
side be placed next the section boxes, it will rather press against
them than show any tendency to sag away.

When it is desired to remove the boxes, after lifting the
holder from the hive, the hinged upright is drawn away, and
the separators are at once freed, while the first section at the
top open end presents two of its sides to our unimpeded grasp,
permitting us without jar or wrench to part it from its fellows,
which can in turn be handled in the same facile manner. To
refill the holder with empty boxes and to readjust the separator
is but the work of a few moments.

Facility in the removal of sections is of greater moment than
simply giving comfort and saving time to the operator. Difficulty
here means frequently some fracture, at first perhaps slight and
almost imperceptible, in the attachments of the comb, but this
sets the honey bleeding, while the comb loses its evenness of
tone, for a reason some may not have observed. The air-tight
waxen covers which we call sealing do not touch the enclosed
honey unless the cells get slightly damaged; the covers then
332 THE BEE-KEEPER'S MANUAL.

become semi-transparent, losing their solid white character,
much to the disadvantage of the appearance of the comb.

For heavy supers, solidity—7e., rigidity of build—is of
primary consequence, for the reason sketched above, and on
this account no supers of wood do I find in any way comparable
to the Stewarton. Splendid slabs of honeycomb in these will
bear an amount of handling which would bring most others to
erief, or at any rate start running, which would involve loss of
beauty as well as weight.

C.
GERMAN BEEHIVES.

On page 84 we have remarked upon the peculiar, and to
our ideas strange, construction of one of the favourite German
hives. With that people, however, as with ourselves, there
exists a very extensive variety; and if the adoption in that
case of a seemingly erroneous principle should lead some of
us to conclude that German bee-keepers are as much our
inferiors practically as they are our superiors in a scientific
point, it may be amusing on the other hand to read the
contemptuous judgment which Von Berlepsch passes upon the
practical skill of everybody but Germans. “In all other
countries,” says he, “bee-keeping is at the present date almost
from beginning to end a mere plaything and fancy, which,
instead of bringing in money, causes money, and often a
ereat deal of it, to be expended.” Thus, if we are tempted
to a low opinion of the practice of the Germans, we see
that the feeling is more than reciprocated.

We here reprint from the Floral World a detailed descrip-
tion of one of the better-class hives of this nation, as given in a
portion of a paper upon “Bee Culture,” read before the In-
ventors’ Institute by Sir Thomas Tancred, Bart. The placing
of the hive upou the bare ground, as in the figure, is of course
not an essential, and one would think it must be merely an
error of the engraver’s.

 

In order to obtain the testimony of a disinterested writer
APPENDICES. 333

as to the essentials of a good hive, I will cite, not a German,
but a Fr nch author. TI find these essentials well summed
up by the latest French writer on this subject with which
T am acquainted, the Abbé Sagot, in his “Culture des
Abeilles :”"—

“Every hive which does not allow artificial swarms to be
easily made without stupefying the bees, and the honey to
be taken without disturbing them or destroying the brood
and the provisions necessary for it, is defective, and will
soon discourage a bee-keeper, instead of inducing others to
imitate him. The best hive, therefore, is one which, whilst
agreeable to the nature of the bees, at the same time allows
their possessor to execute with ease all the operations be-
longing to apiculture—such as a complete inspection of the
combs at the opening of spring, prompt and plentiful feeding
when necessary, propagation by artificial swarms on any day
required at the will of the manager, without having to mount
guard over the hives for weeks, and to race across country
in pursuit of natural swarms; easy extraction of the purest
heney as often as it may be suitable, without deranging the
bees in their work, and without destroying a single particle
of the brood, or of the provisions stored up for it; means
of emptying the combs so as to replace them to he refilled by
the bees without their being called upon to waste the best
honey season in providing new ones; lastly, instantaneous
reunion of bees in October without stupefying or drumming
them out, and without any fighting. Such are the advan-
tages, in general little known, very little practised, and often
impracticable in many sorts of hives, yet most necessary to
make apiculture an agreeable and useful occupation.”

These requisites were never really combined in any single
hive, though some of them might be more or less imperfectly
attained, till Dzierzon brought out his exceedingly clever
idea of making each comb movable, so that every comb could
be taken out and examined separately; and not only so, but
all the hives in the apiary being exactly of one diameter, no
matter how different in other respects, any comb in any one
can be interchanged with any comb in any other. In this
334 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

way throughout Germany the hives made on Dzierzon’s prin-
ciple, whether of straw, wood, or other material, and how-

ever different in internal capacity, are on a uniform gauge of

    
 

 
  
 
    
 

  

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Fie. 1. Brood Hive.—A, Lighting-board. EG, False bottom.
C, Stopper inserted beneath talse bottom. D, Double ties of
sliding irames. &, Cover surmounting the honey-box.

92 English inches. In addition to securing all the requisites
above stated, this improved German hive admits of contract-
ing or expanding the space occupied, by pushing forwards
or drawing back a sliding glazed sash at each end, as I will
presently show you.
APPENDICES, 335

Now, asking you to keep in mind the requirements enu-
merated . the French apiculturist, [will vive an explanation
of the peculiarities of the hives before you (sce Fig. 1). You
will observe that the hives are distinguished by a letter, a

  
    

 
  
   

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Fig. 2. Sliding glazed sash.—a a a a, Recesses corresponding
to fillet in hive. b, Aperture for insertion of a smoker for
quieting bees. e, "Sto »pper for closing the aperture.—Fic.
3. Door of hive.—Fig. 4. Movable frame.
number, or a name, which should be entered in a note-hook,
which can be easily carried in the pocket, in order that notes
may be made on the spot when any hive is examined, so
that important particulars about each may readily be referred
336 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

to without any mistake. These letters, numbers, or names
being written in capitals and Roman numerals at one end,
and on all the parts belonging to that end, and in small
letters or Arabic numerals at another end, the parts so marked
can readily be replaced, so as to fit whenever the hive is
opened. The weight also of the empty hive should be in-
scribed upon each, so as to be able readily to ascertain any
increase or diminution of the variable contents. You observe
I take my keys from my pocket, which may also have the
distinguishing mark of each hive upon them, and open the
outer doors (see Fig. 3). No hinges are employed, as they
are apt to crush bees, though, if preferred, they might be
fitted to the bottoms of the outer doors, but the plan adopted
is more simple.

Within the outer wooden doors, cushions of tow, wool,
wadding, &c., are kept against the glass of the inner sashes
to make them warmer. These inner sashes, you will observe,
slide to and fro on fillets or runners, so as to enable me to
expand or contract the interior capacity of the hive at will.
In winter, a comparatively few combs partly filled with honey
are required by the bees, and the empty ones being removed
and stored up safely, the sliding sashes may be moved to-
wards the centre, and pasted over with paper, the space
between them and the outer doors being filled with tow, dry
moss, hay, &e¢, so as to keep the hive entirely free from
draughts. The combs are to be worked in these sliding
frames (see Fig. 4), as you see by the one partly filled with
honey. In order to induce the bees to work their combs
straight and parallel within the frames, a strip of guide comb
is fastened along the under side of the top bar of each frame,
by means of a mixture of bees-wax and resin melted in an
iron spoon over a candle or lamp, as you see. Each frame
is made to hang at a defined distance from centre to centre,
so as to admit of a passage for the bees between every two
contiguous combs when arrived at their proper thickness,
the width of the widest part of the frame being 1} inches.
This is important in the under or brood box, but in the
upper or honey box the interval may be greater, as the bees
APPENDICES. 337

will prolong the cells and make the combs of greater thick-
ness when intended only for storing honey, than they would
if intended for rearing brood.

There are twenty-four combs in the hive when expanded
to its greatest capacity, and as each frame contains a super-
ficies of 9 in. X 8 = 72 square inches, the whole of the combs
in the brood box occupy a superficial space on each side of
1728 square inches. When this space, or nearly as much,
has been well built up and filled with combs and bees, the
stopper at the top being taken out, an entrance igs opened
through a wooden grating to the honey box placed above it,
by which it is expected that the dame or mother-bee will
be prevented from entering this box, so that only virgin
honey will be stored in it.

Following the example of the German model, I at first
made the honey box with outer wooden and internal glazed
sashes, &e., just like the stock or brood hive; but, in con-
sidering the subject, I found that I was going to a needless
cost in this respect, and I now make them much more simple
and inexpensive, as in the one I now exhibit.

The false bottom of the lower box, being formed of separate
thin boards, can be easily taken out, either for the purpose
of cleaning out the dead bees and other refuse in spring, or
for introducing a shallow feeder at that season, whilst the
stops at each end keep any bees from escaping below the
glazed sashes.

The lighting-board is made to take off, in order not to be
inconvenient in travelling; and if the hive be moved when
peopled with bees, by fixing a piece of pierced zinc in front
of the entrance, as well as over the opening on the opposite
side, a thorough draught can be established to keep the hive
cool on a journey.

I have thus explained the construction of the improved
German hive, and I have here some varieties of structure
adapted for particular purposes and operations. I believe that
the more practically acquainted any one is with bee man-
agement, the more he will appreciate the complete control
over a stock of bees afforded by these hives. To pretend to

Z
338 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

describe all the ways of using them in detail would evidently
be impossible within the compass of a lecture; to do so would
be to give a complete treatise on practical bee-keeping. I
can only assert that there is no operation possible with bees
which cannot be performed with these hives, and I believe
more easily than with any other yet invented.

D.

Mr. Cowan’s SysTEM OF WORKING THE BAR AND FRAME HIVE.
(From The British Bee Journal, March 1, 1875.)

It is with much pleasure that I now comply with the
request of some of your correspondents to give them my
system of working the Woodbury hives, which has enabled
me to obtain such large supers of honeycomb. The method
is very simple, but is one that requires much attention,
which is, however, well repaid by the extra quantity of honey
obtained. The hives I use are the ten-frame Woodbury, and
thirteen-frame on the Woodbury plan, only longer. In the
autumn I transfer the bees into clean hives, and leave them
seven to eight frames, and should they be short of food or
of bees I add those that I may take from the cottagers in
the neighbourhood. I feed with sugar and water of the
strength of two pounds of sugar to a pint of water, boiled
up for a few minutes. They are fed up to weigh about
thirty pounds. During the winter they have ample venti-
lation, the hives being raised about one-eighth of an inch
from the floor-board, and the top-board is also raised about
the same height, so that there is a constant current of air
through the hive.*

While I am on the subject of wintering, I may mention
that I have tried several plans. With the above I have
always been free from mouldy combs. I have also tried
wintering without crown-boards, by merely placing an empty
super on the top, and I have done so successfully—in fact,

* See remark on page 244.
APPENDICES. 339

the hive which produced the largest quantity of honey last
year was wintered in this way. Condensers I have tried,
but give the preference to crown-boards without them. [
am trying the quilts this winter on some of my hives, but
must reserve my opinion about them until later on.* I gene-
rally supply my bees with plenty of food in the autumn, so
that they require no further attention until about the end
of February, when, if the weather is fine, the bees are all
thoroughly roused into activity, and induced to commence
and to continue breeding until the honey-gathering season
commences, by which time every frame in the hive is filled
with brood, and the hives are so strong that it is easy to
make an artificial swarm, and to ensure a good supply of
honey besides. If the weather is fine about the end of
February (or if cold then, I defer it a little longer), the bees
are transferred into clean hives; and in this way I get to
know the exact state of the community. Now, suppose it is
a ten-frame Woodbury hive, I do not return the whole of
the eight frames which the bees had for wintering on, but
only from five to six of the centre ones, and contract the
size of hive to the six frames. I then unseal the honey-
cells of two of the frames, and allow the honey to run down
inside the hive. This thoroughly rouses the bees; and the
queen at once begins to lay. The running honey is very soon
collected and stored; and in a few days [ do the same with
a couple more frames, and so on, until all the frames have
been unsealed. I find this a great advantage, as much of the
honey that has granulated, and which the bees will not touch,
is removed by them out of the hive, and gives them increased
space.

I now commence very gentle feeding, for which purpose
I use the very fine strainers found in Loysell’s coffee-per-
colators, and allow each hive from a quarter to half a pint

*We have written to Mr. Cowan in respect of this matter, and
received the reply that he sees neither the great objection that some
do to these appliances, nor yet the indispensability attached to them by
others. In his more recent paper quoted under “ Winter Management,”
it will be seen that he has recurred to their use, though under a modified
arrangement (see page 98).

Zz 2
840 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

of food a day, of the strength of about three pounds of sugar
to one quart of water. When there is sealed brood in three
or four of the frames, I add two more—making eight—and
serve them in the same manner as the rest; then when
there are six with sealed brood, the colony will be sufficiently
strong to have the remaining frames added. The same plan
is adopted with the thirteen-frame hive. They must be con-
stantly watched, so as not to allow them to store too much
food, which would diminish the space available for egg-laying ;
and if such is found to be the case, food should be withheld
for a day or two, or until they are getting short of it. In
this way I keep them going from day to day, watching them
carefully, or it might happen that a hive full of bees—and
at swarming point—might, if not watched and supplied with
requisite food for existence, starve or decamp. So, by the
time there is an abundance of honey abroad, the hives are
completely filled with bees, and contain brood in every frame
in the hive; and then it is that I put on my supers, and
discontinue stimulative feeding.

In place of the crown-board, I place a sheet of perforated
zinc, with openings of five twenty-fourths of an inch, and
supers same size as hive, and five inches deep. The supers
are provided with bars, which are sawn down the centre,
enabling me to fix a strip of impressed wax-sheet without
any difficulty. The bees generally take to these supers at
once ; and in a day or two the crown-board of super is
removed, and I place a second super on the top of the first,
or sometimes I interpose a second super without top-board
between the first one and stock-hive. The supers are also
provided with traps to enable bees to leave them after they
have deposited their load, instead of passing through the
stock-hive. Now it sometimes happens that for some days
the weather is fine, and the bees begin storing a large
quantity of honey in the supers (as they have no room in
stock-hive), then suddenly the weather changes and cold and
wet set in. As soon as this happens I remove supers and
watch the bees, and if they require small quantities of food
I give it to them, and when the fine weather returns they go
APPENDICES. 841

on again in the supers when replaced on top. In this way
it sometimes takes only a week to fill a thirty-eight or forty
pound super with some of the best honey that can be obtained
in this part of the country. If I have not made myself suffi-
ciently clear I shall be pleased to answer any questions that
may be put to me. There is one thing I forgot to mention,
and that is that I discard old queens, and generally select
young and prolific egg-layers.—T. W. Cowan. Horsham, Feb-
ruary 22nd, 1875.

E,
American Honey.

The following interesting account of the production and
exportation of American honey appeared in the Zimes in the
early part of 1879 :—

An experiment which has been successfully carried out by
a firm of American wholesale grocers is noteworthy as the
first step to the introduction, probably on a large scale, of
American honey in the comb. Last year a considerable trade
was done in the exportation of honey from the United States
to Europe, one New York firm alone sending over 300,000lb.
of honey, principally to Great Britain. The bulk of this, how-
ever, was sent in jars, either as pure extracted honey, or as
comb honey—that is, honey bottled with portions of broken
comb remaining in it. In the United States, however, honey
when sold in the comb commands a much higher price than
the honey sold in jars, and the efforts of honey-dealers there
have long been directed to the production of small, clean,
compact, and perfect sections of honeycomb, in a form readily
saleable by the retail grocer. This object has been effected
by placing sets of small boxes in the upper part of the hives
for the bees to store the surplus honey in, and as each box
is filled it can be lifted out and replaced by an empty one,
in which the bees may continue their labours. These boxes
are now commonly made with four glass sides and a strip of
842 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

wood at top and bottom. In size they are a square of five
inches on the side, by two inches in thickness, and a dozen
of them are packed together in a crate for shipment. The
advantage of using this particular form of box is that the bees
finish off the section of comb in the shape and quantity found to
be best adapted for sale, and the seal of the bees upon each cell
is the best guarantee for the purity of the contents. The
difficulty of exporting these delicate pieces of comb, without
the loss of a great part of the shipment by breakages, has
hitherto prevented the growth of what might doubtless be
a lucrative business. During four years Messrs. H. K. and
F. B. Thurber and Co., of New York, have tried to get this
comb honey to England in good condition, but without suc-
cess. The want of proper machinery for unloading the ships
seems to have been the principal cause of the damage. Let
down “with a run” by a sling from the yard-arm, the glass
boxes and their fragile waxen contents were again and again
broken and spoilt. In November last, however [1878], Mr. W. M.
Hoge, the manager of this firm, succeeded in landing a con-
signment of 80 tons in Liverpool, and, encouraged by the
result of the venture, he on Thursday, January 9, landed
at the London Wharf in Wapping, a lot of about 100 tons,
brought over in the “California,” one of the Anchor Line of
steamships. There are 2500 cases in this shipment, con-
taining over 200,0001lb. of honey, and few boxes have sus-
tained any injury in transit. Taught by past experience, Mr.
Hoge had his cases securely boarded up between bulk-heads
on the steamer, and in unloading employed gangs of men
to pass the cases hand-over-hand down the ship’s side into
the lighter, and from the lighter on to the wharf. Visitors
to the Paris Exposition, where Messrs. Thurber and Co. ob-
tained a medal for their honey, as well as one from the
French Agricultural Society, for the best honey in the most
marketable form, may remember the exceedingly neat ap-
pearance of the honeycomb in these patent hive boxes.

The importance which bee-keeping has assumed as a reonlar
branch of industry in the United States, may be conceived
when it is stated that over 35,000,000lb. of honey are there
APPENDICES. 343

produced and sold annually. The tendency in this, as in
other occupations, has been for the trade to be carried on
by persons having large capital. The bee-keepers have fre-
quently from 2500 to 5000 swarms of bees, and some far
larger numbers. Messrs. Thurber and Co., for instance, have
about 12,000 swarms of bees. Of course it is only by a
thorough organisation that such large numbers of these little
workers, who toil without pay, can be looked after and cared
for. The system in the United States is to farm out the
swarms. Arrangements are made with farmers, and those
who own orchards in suitable localities, to allow an apiary,
of perhaps a hundred swarms, to be placed in their grounds.
At a distance of three or four miles another apiary will be
placed with some other farmer. For this accommodation
either a fixed rent or a share of the honey produced is
paid; and the bee-owner sends expert workmen to clean
out the hives, to take out the boxes of surplus honey as
they are filled, and to destroy the moths, grubs, and other
creatures that take advantage of the bees’ frugality. As show-
ing the lucrative character of this business, it is said that
a firm of shippers paid to one bee-keeper, for his season’s
crop of honey, a sum larger than the salary of the President
of the United States. It is estimated that on an average one
acre will support twenty-five swarms of bees, and, as the yield
of a swarm is generally about 50lb. of honey, it is evident that
this trade may yet be greatly developed. Already the firm above
mentioned, in addition to a corps of experienced bee men
to tend the hives, find occupation for nine men and two
steam saws during five weeks of the year, in cutting up the
timber for the 72,000 boxes used to hold the comb honey.
The glass-makers also find some custom from the honey-dealers,
144,000 panes of glass being required to make the slides and
ends of these boxes.

Much attention has been paid in the United States to the
improvement of the breed of bees, and queen bees have been
imported from Italy, Cyprus, and elsewhere, for the purpose
of improving the stock. Some years ago fine Italian queen
bees were sold for as much as £10 each in New York; but
344 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

by forming nurseries, and rearing queens carefully selected
from fine broods, queens of good blood—if a term may be
borrowed from the turf—may now be bought at prices ranging
from one dol. to five dols. each.

Side by side with improvements in the culture of the bee,
too, there have been many ingenious contrivances introduced in
order to save the time and labour of the bees, and of the honey-
dealers. About ten years ago a German suggested that thin
corrugated sheets of wax, which he called “artificial tablets,”
should be provided for the bees to make their comb from.
These, however, did not come into general use, but a few years
azo Mr. W. H. Hoge effected an improvement by starting the
side walls of the cells. When these “foundations,” as they
are called, were presented to the bees, the intelligent little
creatures at once took advantage of them, and extended the
side walls so as to form the regular hexagonal cell. The
machine by which the impression is made on both sides of
the wax is very simple, and somewhat resembles a clothes-
wringing machine, only the iron rollers are studded with
little hexagonal-headed pins, just the size of the section of a
cell, so that when the thin sheet of wax is passed through,
the wax is pressed up between the pegs, to the height of
about one-sixteenth of an inch, thus indicating the position,
and offering the substance for the construction, of the cell
walls. Another remarkable adaptation of machinery is afforded
by the use of a rotating frame, which causes the cells of
the comb placed in it to be emptied by centrifugal force.
The empty, uninjured comb is afterwards replaced in the
hive, and again used by the bees. As about three-fourths
of the time of the bees, it has been computed, is taken up
in the construction of the comb, it will be seen that by these
contrivances a great saving of bee labour is effected.

With the rapidly-increasing supply obtained by this well-
organised system of bee-keeping, the dealers in honey in the
United States are already trying to open new channels for
trade, and to create fresh uses for the product of the hives.
With this object in view, a prize has been offered by the
American Bee-keepers’ Association, for the discovery of a
 

APPENDICES. 3845

method of converting honey into the form of a crystalline

sugar. Looking forward to the time, not, probably, far dis-
tant, when honey will

be produced as cheaply as raw sugar—
honey may x
oney may now

I m be bought wholesale for seven cents per pound
in Calitornia—ithe dealers hope to be able to provide a sub-
stitute for glucose, which will equally well serve the purpose
of the cook, the confectioner, and the brewer.

F.

BEES AND THEIR CouNTERFEITS; oR, BEES, Cuckoo-Bzzs,
AND FLy-BEEs.

We here reprint from the Intellectual Observer of April,
1862, an instructive and interesting article by Mr. H. Noel
Humphreys :—

No insect is so well known to our unentomological public as
the hive-bee of North-Western Europe. All the habits, pecu-
liarities, and interesting social arrangements of this insect have
been popularised in a series of works, the public appetite for
which never seems satiated, and so new volumes upon this
never-failing theme, always possessing more or less merit, are
continually issuing from the press. But although the natural
history of our common hive-bee (Apis mellijica) has been thus
rendered so familiar, the other members of the bee family have
found but few popular historians, and less is generally known
about them— except to entomologists—than about other far
less interesting insect families.

Yet there are many interesting peculiarities connected with
different species of the bee tribe which would amply repay the
cost of a little study. I may, therefore, within the limits of the
present paper, call attention to a few remarkable kinds of
British and foreign bees, more especially with reference to
certain extraordinary resemblances which exist between some
of the honey-collecting kinds and those belonging to the parasitic
or cuckoo class; which will lead to the notice of still more
curious resemblances that exist between bees and certain insects
346 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

belonging to a distinct order, Diptera. These last, though only
furnished with two wings, while the bees, and the whole order
(Hymenoptera) to which they belong, have four, yet bear such a
striking resemblance to the bees in company with which they
are found, that an untrained observer would not, at all events
on a first glance, perceive the existing difference.

The bee family was termed by the great French naturalist,
Latreille, Iedlifera (honey-gatherers), or Anthophila (flower-
lovers), both terms being characteristic of the general habits of
the family. One of the most remarkable features in those kinds
of bees which live in societies, as is well known in the case of
the hive-bee, is the existence of [what was formerly called] a
third sex, the neuter or worker; and there are other singular
peculiarities of this kind in less known species, such as the
existence of two distinct kinds of females. The material of
which the egg-cells are composed is very various. The comb of
the hive-bee, as is well known, is formed of wax, secreted ina
peculiar manner, as described in hundreds of popular works ;
but other species, though forming a comb almost identical in
appearance, make it by the manipulation of certain substances
which they reduce to a material more analogous to common
manufactured paper than anything else ; while others, again,
make cells with sand, moistened with a glutinous secretion,
which reduces it to a kind of tenacious cement. Some of these
species, again, collect an inferior kind of honey, while others
only collect pollen, of which they place a small mass or ball in
each cell in which an egg is to be deposited, so as to forma
supply of food for the grub or larva to subsist on till full grown.
The exactly sufficient quantity is prepared by the instinct of
the parent ; and, in fact, when that is consumed, the young grub
bee has no choice but to subside at once into the torpor in which
his change of organisation is to take place. This is a necessity,
as he has no powers of locomotion, being a clumsy maggot-formed
larva, which, placed at the bottom of a smooth-sided cell, would
have no means of seeking food for himself. The tribes of
parasitic bees which do not make cells to contain honey or
pollen for the separate use of each infant bee, visit the nests
of their more industrious cousins, and surreptitiously place an
 

APPENDICES. 347

egg of their own in the cell containing the honey or pollen, as
the case may be.

It was formerly believed that the egg of the parasitic bee
was placed in the same cell with the egg of the honey-bee, and
that, being hatched first, the young parasite devoured all the
food, leaving the infant of the honey-bee to find himself born
to an empty larder, and consequently speedy starvation ; but
more recent observation has led to the conclusion that this is
not the case, but that the parasitic bee, on entering the nest,
selects cells already furnished with honey or pollen, but in
which no egy has as yet been laid; while the unsuspicious
female proprietors of the nest, finding an unexpected egg de-
posited in the cell they first visit, exhibit no sign of surprise,
but pass on to the next, not seeming to be at all disturbed
by the presence of the uninvited deposit ; just as small birds
make no attempt to exclude the egg of the cuckoo, but hatch
it, and rear the young intruder along with their own offspring.

This occurs in the nests of wild bees constructed in different
situations, some kinds making an excavation expressly, others
adopting the deserted work of some other insect, or taking
advantage of an accidental hollow. For instance, Anthidium
manicatum, one of our summer bees, generally uses the holes
bored in willow stumps by the Cossus Ligniperda; but a nest of
this species was once found, as described by Mr. F. Smith, in
the keyhole of a garden door. Some of the humble-bees, on
the other hand, carefully construct their own burrow. A beauti-
ful exotic species, a large and powerful bee, has received the
specific name of Jatipes, from the singular broadening and
strengthening of the front pair of feet. These broadened feet
assume somewhat of the character of the front feet of the mole,
or rather those of that curious insect the mole cricket. These
enlarged feet, with the thick brushes of strong hairs with
which they are furnished, are evidently excavating implements,
and no doubt the works produced by their agency are of a very
interesting kind ; but entomological discovery has not at present
made us acquainted with the nest architecture of this handsome
insect. A pretty little English bee, one of the solitary kinds,
often makes its burrow in sheltered parts of hard gravel walks,
348 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

an affair evidently of very great labour, as the female bee, who
is the sole architect in this instance, frequently comes to the
opening of the burrow to rest, when the male commences flying
rapidly round and round his mate with great rapidity, as though
to encourage her to renew the task.

 

IT am not aware whether the nest of the little bee of the
gravel walk is subject to the visits of a parasitic cousin, but
among those most subject to intruders of this kind is that
of the common garden humble-bee, Bombus hortorum. In
the encraving above, this pretty bee (Fig. 1) is engraved side
by side with its parasite, Apathus barbutellus (Fig. 2). These
bees bear such a generally close resemblance to each other,
that one may easily be mistaken for the other, even by the
initiate l, till after a close examination, as colour, size, and
general form are almost identical. There is, however, one
marke difference, which is easily perceived when the trained
eye has been taught where to look for it: the hind legs of the
honey or pollen collector are invariably furnished with an en-
larged tibia, the flattened and somewhat hollowed breadth of
which serves as a reservoir, in which the pollen collected from
flowers is carried to the nest. This peculiarity of formation
will be observed in the engraving, Fig. 1, whilst in Fig. 2 the

 
APPENDICES. 349

same part of the hind leg will be found simply rounded, and
entirely without that broadened, flattened, and hollow character
which distinguishes the hind leg of the honey-collector. This
parasite, having neither the instinct to collect food for its
expected progeny, nor, in fact, the means of carrying it home,
even if the will existed, has been deemed by naturalists to be
entirely devoid of those parental and home instincts which
distinguish the recoltant or harvesting kinds. It is on that
account that it has, ike the genus to which it belongs, re-
ceived the name of Apathus; apathy in regard to the provid-
ing protection or food for their young being the leading charac-
teristic of parasites. It will be observed that the light band
on the thorax, near the head, is less distinct in the Apathus,
and also that the abdomen is not quite so profusely furred.
Latreille termed these parasitic bees Cuculince, or cuckoo-bees,
the term <Apathus having been substituted by an English
naturalist.

The resemblance of the third insect figured in the group above
is still more curious. Although, at a glance, it so much re-
sembles both the bees represented in the engraving as to cheat
the careless observer, it will on closer examination prove itself
not only far from being identical, but will be found so radically
different as at once to show that it belongs to another and
distinct order of insects, the Diptera, or two-winged order.
It is, in fact, merely the general size and the colouring which
deceive the eye untrained to appreciate anatomical form with
accuracy. On examination, almost every part of the structure
will be found to be exceedingly distinct from that of the bee :
the eyes are differently placed and different in form, while
their size and colour are nearly identical ; the antenne, instead
of being horny and robust, like those of the bee, are delicately
slender and feathered, like some kinds of moths—but these
are not conspicuous appendages, and escape the attention of
the ordinary spectator. The thorax, or fore part of the body,
is, however, furred with orange hairs next the head, which
become yellow near the abdomen, leaving the centre of the
thorax black ; the segments of the abdomen nearest the thorax
are clothed with yellow fur ; the central segments are black,
350 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

and the last segments, or tail, are white. This is precisely the
colouring of both the bees (Figs. 1 and 2); but then the single
pair of wings, the legs without the enlarged or honey-bearing
tibia, and even the anatomical structure of the body itself,
though under the disguising fur mantle of identical colour, is
of itself amply sufficient to denote that the insect belongs to
another and very distinct class.

Still, the close general resemblance of this insect, Volucella
plumata, is indisputable, and as it passes into the nest of the
bee, in order to deposit its eggs (one to each) on many of the
living larvie of the bees, it might certainly, to a casual observer,
pass for one of the family, wLile entering the bees’ nest on its
mission of murder to the infant bees in their cell-cradles. The
egg of this parasite, being deposited in the warm folds of the
soft skin of the bee larva, is rapidly hatched, and it at once
proceeds to its unnatural feast, slowly devouring the foster
parent whose breast had warmed it into life; the bee larva, as
I have stated, being a soft, legless grub, with no powers of
escape. The larva of the Volucella is an odious-looking creature,
with its broad tail armed with sharp spines, and its muscular
body tapering to the head, and furnished with rigid serrations
along each side, forming a striking contrast to the soft, helpless
larva of the bee. Like all the larve of the Syrphide, to which
the genus Volucella belongs, it is blind; but resting attached by
the broad tail, it moves its head rapidly about as a feeler,
before changing its position. The spikes at the tail may be
adapted to enable it to raise itself up the smooth sides of the
cell of the bee larva, in case that one infant bee should prove
insufficient, and that it might require to pass on to the next
cradle. But it may be as well to describe the progress of the
parasitic larva on the supposition that one baby bee will prove
enough for its purpose. The devoted larva of the bee, then, is
gradually eaten alive by the parasite; which, with seemingly
horrible instinct, spares all the actually vital parts, taking only
the more fleshy portions, until the carnivorous young Volucella
feels itself full fed and ready to undergo its torpid state of
change. Then the last remains of the wretched infant bee
are greedily consumed, and the parasite passes into its sleepy
 

APPENDICES. 351

chrysaline stage, taking its long siesta in the comfortable cradle
whose infant tenant it has devoured, and from which it event-
ually comes boldly forth in all the pride of its winged and
perfect state, walking out of the bee home as from its own
proper abode, and attracting no notice whatever from the bees,
in whose nursery it has performed the odious act of eating a
baby bee, and appropriating its comfortable cradle cell, The
stolid unconsciousness with which the bees allow this insect
vampire to pass out and escape from the scene of his horrid
proceedings with impunity, has induced some naturalists to
believe that the carnivorous Volucella owes its safety to its
complete disguise in the colouring of the bee, which is sup-
posed to be so perfect as to deceive the bees themselves into
the belief that these strangers are members of their own
fraternity. Mr. Westwood, quoting Messrs. Kirby and Spence,
in their admirable work, in which the habits and instincis of
British insects were first classified and grouped together in a
pleasantly readable form, makes the following statement on the
likeness of the Volucella to the bee: “This similarity to the
humble-bee is of eminent service to the insects which deposit
their eggs in the nests of those bees, an admirable provision of
Nature, since, as Messrs. Kirby and Spence observe, ‘did these
intruders venture themselves among humble-bees in a less kin-
dred form, their lives would probably pay the forfeit of their
presumption.” This statement, however, though appearing so
plausible, is not borne out by analogy, there being many para-
sites on bees which do not bear the slightest resemblance to the
insects whose nests they invade. Not only are some of the
Diptera, who deposit their eggs in the nests of bees, very unlike
the bees whose homes they infest, but even the parasitic bees
themselves do not always resemble the bees whose nests they
appropriate. For instance, the species Hucera longicornis has
a broad brownish body, without any conspicuous mark, while
its parasitic relative, Vomada sex-fasciata, has the narrow body
of a wasp, and, as its name implies, six conspicuous yellow
bands on the abdomen, which, with the intermediate black
spaces, make it a very distinct-looking creature indeed.

In some of the exotic bees more especially, the distinct
852 THE BEE-KEEPERS MANUAL.

aspects of the harvesting bee and the parasite are very strik-
ing; they are, in fact, so much so, that the insects might be
thought to belong to entirely different families. The beautiful
Brazilian bee, Zuglossa dimidiata, has an attendant purasite as
totally unlike it as it is possible to conceive of insects of the
same order. Euglossa dimediata is one of the most beautifully
and variously coloured of the whole bee tribe. A specimen
was captured by Mr. Bates, at Para, in the Brazils; and it is
found in other tropical parts of South America. Latreille
described this handsome species in Schomberg’s “Fauna of
British Guiana;” but it had been previously described by
Fabricius, from specimens taken at Cayenne, and named by
him Apis dimidiata; subsequent divisions of the family having
rendered another generic name necessary, this beautiful species
was attached to the genus Huglossa. It forms its nest by boring
tubular hollows in large reeds, and there is a specimen of a
reed in the British Museum bored in this manner by this bee,
or by a bee belonging to a closely allied genus.

Into such a tube the parasite bee penetrates, for the purpose
of depositing its egg in the cells which have been furnished
with honey or pollen by Huglossa dimidiata. In this case,
in order to support the theory of Messrs. Kirby and Spence,
it would be more than usually necessary that the intruder
should be furnished with a very complete disguise, as he must,
in such a narrow tubular home, necessarily come to very
close quarters with the master of the house. Yet, on the
contrary, the whole aspect of the parasite of Huglossa dimi-
dvata is not only extremely different, but its appearance is
of that striking character calculated to excite immediate at-
tention. Instead of being soft and furry, after the fashion
of the humble-bee tribe and their allies, he is entirely hard,
smooth, and glittering—the entire body, thorax and abdomen,
and also the legs, being of a light vivid metallic green, like that
of our rose-beetle. It might be urged, on the other hand, that
although not provided with a security in the form of a dis-
guise, a defence of another kind has been substituted, in the
suit of impenetrable plate-armour, of magnificent green bronze,
in which this insect is encased But I feel convinced that it is
 

 

APPENDIUES. 358

entirely futile to attempt to explain the nature of providential
arrangements, and point out the secret purposes for which
vither apparent analogies or discrepancies were devised. The
best explanations offered, indeed, are too full of contradictions
to be for a moment seriously accepted as revelations of in-
tended purpose. Asa ready example of the contradictions to
which such speculations must be liable, I may mention here,
that although the parasitic bee, which infests the nests of
Euglossa dimidiata, is entirely unlike the harvesting-bee whose
home he invades, yet the doubly-unfortunate Euglossa has a
second enemy, in the form of a gigantic Diptera, whose simi-
larity to the bee is most curious. This enormous fly-bee,
Astlus fasciatus, has, it is true, only two wings, but these being
of deep brown to half their length, and transparent for the
remainder, bear an extraordinary general resemblance to those
of the bee; while the colouring of this handsome insect being
nea~ly identical with that of the bee, and the size and shape
of the markings being almost identical, the general resemblance
becomes very remarkable; hence the conspicuous appearance
of one enemy is rendered utterly useless as a defence, while
the seemingly perfect disguise of another apparently favours
his fatal entrance to the nest.

There is a handsome bee, Yylocopa nigrita (the female); it is
a native of Sierra Leone, and is remarkable for the fuil deep
velvety black of the greater part of the body, while the sides of
the abdomen are conspicuously fringed, and partly covered,
with milk-white furry hairs; the effect of which calls to mind
the appearance of an aged negro of the same part of the
African coast, whose woolly hair has become white with age.
The legs, algo, are thickly fringed on one side with a similar
white fur, and the “iace” is white, with large brown eyes.
The wings are nearly opaque, and of deep, dull purple, with a
metallic gloss, bronzy-red towards the extremities. The Dip-
tera, or two-winged counterpart of this insect, has all the
characteristic contrasts of black and white, similarly disposed,
even to the white face and brown eyes; while the opaque,
iridescent wings are precisely similar in tone and colour. The
somewhat longer legs, the single pair of wings, and the dif-

AA
354 THE BEE-KEEPER’8 MANUAL.

ferent structure of the antennz, at once prove to the entomo-
logist that these two insects are not only not the same, but
that they belong even to different orders. They are, however, in
all probability found together, like the other bees and Diptera
which so strongly resemble each other—the larva of the Diptera,
no doubt, preying upon the larva of the bee. In proof of this
hypothesis, it may be stated that both specimens were brought
to England from the coast of Africa—the hee from Sierra
Leone, the bee-fly from Port Natal—and probably both will
eventually be found in the same district. The last, the bee-
fly, is at present an entomological novelty, and has not yet
been named. The bee exhibits, in an unusual degree, a peculi-
arity common to many of the family, namely, a marked dif-
ference in the general aspect of the two sexes, the male being of
a light tawny brown colour, and having a much longer body, a
characteristic which generally distinguishes the female rather
than the male. It would be interesting to know whether in the
bee-fly, which bears so extraordinary a resemblance to this fine
bee, an equal disparity of appearance exists between the two
sexes; but, as we have at present only a solitary specimen of
this insect, that is a point which cannot be decided; but other
specimens will doubtless be captured, which may enable us to
solve this interesting entomological problem.

In concluding my remarks on curious resemblances between
“bees” and various kinds of two-winged “flies,” I may mention
a curious instance of resemblance between a dipterous insect
and one of the wasp tribe (Vespide). Humenes esurtens, a
small Indian wasp, found in Bengal, has its counterpart (the
resemblance being truly extraordinary) in Cesia ewmenordes,
the specific name of which has been conferred upon it in
consequence of this singular resemblance. I ought also to
mention, as a case in point not the least singular, that a British
dipterous insect of the Syrphus tribe, belonging to the genus
Eristalis, is so like the common hive-bee, that it would, at a
glance, deceive any observer untrained as an entomologist.
 

APPENDICES. 555

G.
Exrracts rrom Dr. Evans's Porm.

Most apiarian works of recent publication have contained
a larger or smaller number of quotations from the above
writer, who has been well termed the apiarian laureate. We
have not in this edition made any change in the poetical
extracts inserted by our author hinself, but our strong pre-
dilection for “The Bees” of Dr. Evans renders us unwilling
to let the book leave our hands without furnishing our
readers with some opportunity of looking into its undeniable
nierits. The author was at one time a physician of Shrews-
bary, but he subsequently removed into and died in Wales.
His poem was in four parts, though only three of these appear
ever to have been published; but in a presentation copy in
the possession of Mr. A. Neighbour, to which we had access
while engaged upon the revision of “The Apiary,” there is
a written memorandum stating that the fourth part existed
in manuscript ready for the press in the possession of the
family. On the strength of this we wrote letters of enquiry
to more than one medical man, but wholly in vain. The
gentleman known as “A Renfrewshire Bee-Keeper” was how-
ever engaged simultaneously in the same effort, and proves
to have been more persevering and successful, though only
in reaching the disappointing result, that the only survivor
out of a family of eleven could simply give him no informa-
tion at all. Should the lost part happily ever come to light
it will prove a real treasure to apiarian literature; but we
fear the idea is a hopeless one.*

Dr. Bevan cited a large number of passages from this
poem, and many of these have been repeated by Mr. Lang-
stroth and others. The present editor added several to those
which were already given in Mr. Neighbour’s work, and from
the total of those now contained therein the following may prove
an acceptable selection.

* The carelessness or ignorance which has allowed such a document to
perish may suggest to some of us a reflection such as this :—

Degenerate scions of the gifted sire!
His “words that burn” they thought should light the fire.

AA2
356 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

The first is a description of the monarch of the hive—
overdrawn of course to our ideas, and indeed fictitious, but
admirable according to the information of the poet’s own day:—

“But mark, of regal port and awful mien,
Where moves with measured pave the insect queen !
Twelve chosen guards, with slow and solemn yguit,
Bend at her nod, and round her person wait.
Not eastern despots, of their splendour vain,
Can boast, in all their pomp, a brighter truin
Of fear-bound satraps; not in bonds of love
Can loyal Britons more obedient move.”

Next we have the drones :—

“ But now, when April smiles through many a tear,
And the bright Bull receives the rolling year,
Another tribe, to different fates assigned,

In ampler cells their giant limbs confined,

Burst through the yielding wax, and wheel around
On heavier wing, and hum uw deeper sound.

No sharpened sting they boast; yet, buzzing loud,
Before the hive, in threatening circles, crowd

The unwieldy drones. Their short proboscis sips
No luscious nectar from the wild thyme’s lips ;
From the lime’s leaf no amber drops they steal,
Nor bear their grooveless thighs the foodful meal :
On others’ toils, in pampered leisure, thrive

The lazy fathers of the industrious hive.”

But far better than either of these, and rising to an alto-
ge.mer higher level of poetry, is the following beautiful
apostrophe to the working bees :—

“Ye light-winged labourers! hail the auspicious sign,
When the twin stars in rival splendour shine !
Cheered by their beams, your quickening numbers swell,
And pant your nations in the crowded cell.
Blithe Maia calls, and bids her jocund train
Breathe the warm gale, or softly falling rain;
APPENDICES. 357

Inhaled at every pore, the dewy flood

Spreads the young leaf, and wakes the sleeping bud.
* * * * * * *

Yes, light-winged labourers! still unwearied range
From flower to flower, your only love of change!
Sull be your envied lot, communion rare,

‘To wreathe contentment round the brow of care!
No nice distinctions, or of rich or great,

Shade the clear sunshine of your peaceful state;
Nor Avarice there unfolds her dragon wing,

Nor racked Ambition feels the scorpion sting;
Your tempered wants an easy wealth dispense,
The public store your only affluence:

For all alike the busy fervour glows,

Alike ye labour, and alike repose ;*

Free as the air, yet in strict order joined,
Unnumbered bodies with a single mind.

One royal head, with ever-watchful eye,

Reins and directs your restless industry,

Builds on your love her firm-cemented throne,
And with her people’s safety seals her own.”

What again can be happier, and at the same time more
scientifically true, than the fullowing lines on the system by
which bees rifle the flowers, but bestow upon them in return
the means to a fresh development and beauty ?—

“And plains sad Chloris how these spoilers steal
From her ripe crests the vivifying meal,
Pare the thin films that shield her anthered reign,
And all her nectared cells insatiate drain?
No! kind intruders; all reserved for you
She pours through honeyed horn her luscious dew,
While, grateful for the rich repast, ye shed
Fresh showers prolific round her genial bed.”

Then we have a description of a colony of bees just on
the point of starting for a swarm :—

* “ Ownibus una quies operum, labor omnibus unus.’’— Virgil, G. iv. 184.
354 THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

“See where, with hurried step, the impassioned throng
Pace o’er the hive, and seem, with plaintive song,
To invite their loitering queen; now range the floor,
And hang in clustered columns from the door ;
Or now in restless rings around they fly,
Nor spoil they sip, nor load the hollowed thich ;
E’en the dull drone his wonted ease gives o’er.
Flaps the unwieldy wing, and longs to soar.”

Presently the hesitation 1s over :—
‘Mounts the glad chief! and, to the cheated cye,
» Ten thousand shuttles dart along the sky,
As swift through ether rise the rushing swarms,
Gay dancing to the beam their sun-bright forms,
And each thin form, still lingering on the sight,

Trails, as it shoots, a line of silver light.
* * * * * * *

High poised on buoyant wing, the thoughtful queen
In gaze attentive views the varied scene,

And soon her far-stretched ken discerns below

The light laburnum lift her polished brow,

Wave her green leafy ringlets o’er the clade,

And seem to beckon to her friendly shade.

Swift as the falcon’s sweep, the monarch bends

Her flight abrupt: the following host descends ;
Round the fine twig, like clustered grapes, they close
In thickening wreaths, and court a short repose.”

Next we are presented with a detailed account of the
process of comb-building, in the course of which Dr. Evans
strikingly exhibits his power of describing the common-place
in language which is never for an instant common-place
itseli—a power in which he has certainly never been sur-
passed, and scarcely equalled, unless by Pope, who apparently
was his model :—

 

“So, filtered through yon flutterer’s folded mail,
Clings the cooled wax, and hardens to a scale.
Swift, at her well-known call, the ready train
(For not a buzz boon Nature breathes in vain)
APPENDICES. 859

Spring to each falling flake, and bear along
Their glossy burdens to the builder throng.

* * * * % * *
These in firm phalanx ply their twinkling feet,
Stretch out the ductile mass, and form the street,
With many a cross-way path and postern gate,
That shorten to their range the spreading state.
Those with sharp sickle, or with sharper tooth,
Pare each excrescence, and each angle smooth ;
Till now, in finished pride, two radiant rows
Of snow-white cells one mutual base disclose.
Six shining panels gird each polished round,

The door’s fine rim with waxen fillet bound,
While walls so thin, with sister walls combined,
Weak in themselves, a sure dependence find.”

This precise exposition of facts may conduct us to the
following reflections upon the whole subject of the marvels
of insect mechanism, and with them the present volume may
a second time appropriately conclude :—

“On books deep poring, ye pale sons of toil,
Who waste in studious trance the midnight oil,
Say, can ye emulate, with all your rules.
Drawn or from Grecian or from Gothic schools,
This artless frame? Instinct her simple guide,
A heaven-taught insect bafiles all your pride.
Or ye on theory’s wild wave that roam,
And skim from science but its froth and foam,
Who wield ’gainst Truth the sharp yet shivery lance,
Devoted bending to your idol, Chance;
Oh! say, could Chance her lawless atoms bind,
And weave the tissued woof of sense and mind,
Or her blind impulse in yon mansions trace
The firmest fabric with the amplest space?
No! while ye boast to bow at Reason’s shrine,
That Reason bids you hail the Power Divine.
Not huge Behemoth, not the whale’s vast form,
That spouts a torrent and that breathes a storm.
THE BEE-KEEPER’S MANUAL.

Transcends in organs apt the puny fly,

Her fine-strung feelers, and her glanceful eye

Set with ten thousand lenses. Not the pile

By fabled giant raised in Erin’s isle,

Not Staffa’s crystalled shore, where now, Fingal,
Roar the hoarse surges through thy columned hall,
Nor all yon marshalled orbs that ride so high,
Proclaim more loud a present Deity,

Than the nice symmetry of these small cells,
Where on each angle genuine Science dwells,

And joys to mark through wide creation’s reign
How close the lessening links of her continued chain.”

 
361

INDEX.

*,” To enable this index to be of real practical value, without being
unnecessarily bulky, its sub-headings seldom include items which occur
under a section denoted by the principal heading, and to which the mark §
after the figure calls attention. Thus “Queen Bee 4§” implies that an
entire section on the subject of the queen will be found at page 4, whilst
the entries which follow have reference to incidental allusions in other
portions of the work. Many, however, of the items contained in that
soction, and strictly referring to the queen, will be found under some other
heading, eg., Eggs, Sting, Royal Cells.

The additions to a figure of bis or ter are made occasionally when the
subject is referred to respectively twice or thrice on a page, and the second
time more or less independently of the first.

Adapting board, 57-60, 95, 195; | Anomalies in bee-life, 3278.

queen-preventing, 116. Antenne, uses of, 18.
Adult workers, 16, 148; no others | Anthophila, bees called, 346.
go with swarm, 49, 289. Ants as enemies, 188.

286; may contain several queens, | Apiarian Society, at Little Bautzen,
290; desirable to prevent, 291, 8, 323 ; at Oxford, 215.
292, 296 ; third, fourth, and | Apiary, better divided if large, 153 ;

fter-swarms, 2928; time of issuing, | “ Apiarian,” the word, 329.

fifth issues, 294; returning of, when to commence, 172, 224, 272.
295 ; sometimes build on a bush, | ‘‘ Apiary, The,” Mr. A. Neighbour’s,
297, 3)7 ; how to prevent, 300§. 34, 116, 223, 251, 262, 782, 308,

Age, queen’s, 7; when workers fly, 309, 313, 316, 317, 321, 355.
16; workers’ (total), 17, 235; | Apis, mellifica, 1; ligustica, ib. ;
when queen flies out, 24, 29, 325 ; fasciata, 2.

 

when she lays, 24, 38, 325 Apple blossoms, suspected, 162.
Air, conducts heat slowly, 108; ex- | Aristomachus, 322.

pansion of, 209. Aristotle, 2, 35, 255, 322.
Air-space between walls, 62, 108. Artificial, sealing, 206; pollen, 2478,
Ale used for sprinkling, 221, 231 ; 274; swarming, 310§ (see also 48-

4lighting boards, 78, 102, 116, 120, | Ash, mountain, 162.
334 ; slanting, 150 ; diversely | Asiatic bees, 44.
coloured, ib.; driving bees from, | Aspect of hives, 153$.
into hive, 186. Autumn feeding, 204§ ; population,
Allan, Mr. Jas., 139. | 2138.
“ American Bee Journal,” 30, 45. | Bacchus connected with bees, 302.
American Bee-Keepers’ Association, | Back of hives, access to, 149,153,157.
344. Bacteria in foul brood, 256, 264, 265.

American honey, 341§. | “Banffshire Journal,’ 326.

!

for syrup, 276. | 51); tablets, 344.
|
|
362

Bar hives, 848.

Barley-sugar, device with, for ex-
cluding wasps, 188 ; used as food
in winter, 246; how to make,
277 ; how to supply, 278.

Barricades in flight-holes, 187.

Bars, fixed, 65, 137; free, 84; in
supers, 7b.,91, 95; in straw hives,
86; passage way above, 94; with
long ends, 103.

Bast (or frail), 98, 240, 243 (bis).

Battles, 34, 197, 203, 206, 224, 314.
See also Royal combats.

Bee-houses, 1498, 154, 159.

Bee-keeping, when to begin, 172,
224, I72.

Bee-protector, 164§.

Bee-traps, 169, 195, 340.

Beehives—see Hives.

Bell-glasses, 60, 189§ ; as condensers,
242; must be kept warm, 283.
Bellows instead of smokers,195, 216.
Berlepsch, Baron von, 3; cited, 6, 12,
27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 36 (bis), 46,
48, 92, 152, 177, 181, 184, 254,
255, 257-262, 263, 264, 284, 286,

289 (bis), 825, 327, 328; intro-
duced frames, 87 ; his opinion of
non-German bee-keepers, 332.

Berlepsch, Baroness von, 223, 262.

Bevan, Dr., cited, 56, 85, 87, 155,
176, 187, 194, 195, 287, 293, 301,
355 ; his ‘‘ Honey Bee,” 87,321.

“ Bienen-Zeitung,” 45, 262, 264.

Bilberries producing disease, 255.

Bingham and Hetherington’s honey-
knives, 203.

Birds as bee-enemies, 186.

 

Black bees, 31§; term commonly ,

applied in distinction
“Ttalian,” 38, 43.
Bleaching wax, 252.
Blocks for flight-holes, 74, 75.

from

Blossoms, apple and mountain ash, |

suspected, 162, 261.
Bonner, 23, 255.
Bonnet, M., 3, 323.
Bottom-boards—see Floor-boards.
Bottom feeuing, 206.
Box hives, 81§.
Braken, for stuffing quilts, 241.

INDEX.

Breath, human, hateful to bees, 168.

Breathing of bees, 284.

Breeding, maintained in some de-
gree all year round, 12, 180; to
be kept on as late as possible, 213 ;
this mustcertain with driven bees,
233; close—see Interbreeding.
See also Laying.

Bricks under feet of stand, 121.

Brimstone system, 54, 199, 227.

“British Bee Journal,” 22, 30, 41,
265, 327, 338.

British Bee-Keepers’ Association,
2355, 248.

Brood, in supers, 196 ; demands of,
inearly spring,212 ; indispossessed
hives, 229 ; should be supplied to
new colonies, 307, 318.

Brougham, Lord, 321.

“Brown bees,” term, 43.

Burnens, 3,

Buying bees, 272.

Carbolic acid, 263, 309.

Carbonic acid in hive, 286, 243.

Carniolan bees, 44, 45.

Carr-Stewarton hive, 140.

Cells, of queens—see Royal cells ; of
workers, 15,177; used afterwards
for honey, &c., 15 ; become con-
tracted, ib. ; of brood, how known
from honey, tb., 181; of drones,
20, 177; whether they govern
sex, 27 ; for honey made deeper,
91 ; construction of different
classes, 177-181; tilted, 177, 281;
transition, 180; for pollen, 181 ;
for propolis, 2b. ; too many filled
with honey, 214, 276.

Cement for straw covers, 69; for
windows, 90.

Chaff in quilts, 241.

Cheese-boxes used for covers, 123.

Cheshire, Rev. F. R., cited (chiefly
from his ‘Practical Bee -Keep-
ing”), 6, 43, 62, 67, 108, 114, 116,
122, 183, 184, 209, 212, 226, 233,
240 (bis), 241, 244, 248 (bis), 252,
267, 268, 309, 317, 318, 329, 325,
829, 330; his hive, 105-114 ;
nucleus hive, 146 ;  pin-trap,
169; guide-maker, 170; swarming.
INDEX,

board, /b., 308; smoker, 217; trans-
ferring board, 281; section frame,
330.

Chill from stone floor-board, 73.

Chilled brood, 2548.

Chloroform as a stupetier, 222.

Clay prescribed for stings, 302.

Cleaning, hives, 250§ ; tloor-boarcs,
2798.

Clipping queen's wings, 308.

Cloth spread before hive, 154.

Clustering outside of hive from heat,
2845; previous to swarming, 287 ;
on bush during swarming, 307.

Cobwebs, 159, 188.

Cocoons, 15.

Cohn, Dr., 256,

Collateral hives. 1258.

Colours known by bees, 18, 150.

Columella, 153.

Comb foundations, 88, 344.

Combs, in supers worked down to
bottom, 59 ; melting on stone
floor-boards, 73 ; from exposure
to sun, S4, 158, 185; additional,
worked into interspaces, 88, 91 ;
contrivances for keeping straight,
88 ; bow to produce beautiful
specimens, 91; rapid construc-
tion of, 174, 177 ; comsumption
of honey in order to construct,
176; form, appearance, &c., of,
177; collapse at 100 degrees, 191,
288; worked upward imto supers,
198 ; old heavier than new, 205 ;
extended for winter store, 210 ;
thickened by age, 225 ; saving, froin
empty hives, 7b. ; re - working
portions of old, ib.; outer, in stock-
hive often contain pure honey,
226 ; inner, destitute of honey in
winter, 240 ; winter passages
through, 2b. ; attached to sides of
skeps, 7b. ; turning mouldy, 241 ;
melting down, 251§; containing
fermented honey may cause foul
brood, 263 ; pruning and excising,

2808, 294; transferring to new |

hives, 280§ ; built on bushes, 297,
307; new ones brittle, 298 ;
where built quickest, 330.

 

363

Combats—see Royal combats,
“Communism of dw ellings,” 19.
Condemned bees, 233.

Condensers, 241, 339.

Confectioners’ shops, 153.

Confinement, pairing under, 41 ; of
colonies, 226, 237, 318 ; of queen,
319; in her own hive, 320,

Conveying bees, 172, 272.

Copulation—see Pairing.

Cori, Herr, 327.

“Cottage Gardener,” 34.

Counterfeit bees, 3458.

“ Country Doctor, A,” 327.

Covers, of hives : for skeps, 66$; of
zinc, 67, 68, 69-72, 124; of felt, 67 ;
of straw, 69; for frame hives, 99,
119; opening as tables, 108 ;
whether to open behind or at side
120; hayrick, 122; of cheese-
boxes, 123 ;—of cells : brood dis-
tinguished from honey, 15, 181; ap-
pearance of,in foul brood, 268,270 ;
not touching honey, 331.

Cowan, Mr. T. W., cited, 203, 205,
233, 24%, 244, 250, 276; his
sectional supers, 118; extractor,
200$; paper on “ Wintering,”
204, 214, 235 ; on ‘‘ Foul Brood,”
268; 0n “Working Bar and Fraine
Hive,” 3388.

Crown-boards, 57, 61, 82, 91, ‘2,
111; mode of fastening, 93 ; re-
moving, 192§; substituting box
orempty super, 241,242,338 lifting,
in winter, 244.

Crushing bees, excites rage, 168.

Crystal Palace prize supers, 113.

Cuban practices, 261.

Cuckoo bees, 345§.

Curiosities among bees, 34.

Cyprian bees, 44, 45, 372.

Dalmatian bees, 327.

Damp in hives, 81, 236, 241§ ; a
supposed cause of foul brood, 2:3.

Dark, bees to be undisturbed in, 208.

Dathe, Herr, 45.

Dead bees, to be removed in winter,
250; strung together to attract
swarms, 300.

Deprivation, 51.
364

Depriving, system, 46§ ; hives, 56; ,

ancient method, 302.

Devonshire Bee-Keeper,” 34.

Diptera, 346-354.

Disease, statement that only Italians
are subject to, 327. See also Dy-
sentery, &e., &e.

Distance, to which bees fly, 21, 22,
163 ; bees from, thrive best, 313.

Distance pin, 110.

Dividers, 58.

Divisional hive, 141.

Divisional supers, 116, 118, 121.

Dogs objectionable, 153.

Donhoff, Dr., 32.

Double hive-walls, 108, 148.

Doubling-board, 125, 151.

Draughts in hives, 243.

Driving, 229§ ; in artificial swarm-
ing, 310.

Drones, 19§; theirpresence necessary
to royal cells, 7, 288; fed by nurse
bees, 16, 184 ; numbers of, 19, 25;
when they appear, 20, 286 ; de-
scended from mother alone, 26, 28;

a

 

always same breed as mother, 29 ;
male organ of, 30; peculiar as to |
colour, 34; commotion among,
previous to swarming, 287 ; take
part in swarm, 289 ; essential to
artificial swarms, 318 ; from un-
fertile queen or fertile worker,
327. See also Kyys, Pairing, Re-
production.

Drone-comb, 280, 318.

Drone-preventers—see
venters.

Drone-traps, 42, 169.

Di umming, 224, 230.

Dummy frames, 92, 109; hives con-
tracted by, in winter, 240.

Dunbar, Dr., 164, 205, 231, 311.

Duplets, 51. See Supers.

Dysentery, 236, 237, 238 (bis), 247,
2528.

Dzierzon, Dr., 3; cited, 12, 26, 29,
33, 36, 87, 147, 162, 183, 247, 259
bis), 260, 261 (bis), 263, 328.

Economic hive, 65.

Eggs, whether removed, 6; queen-
producing, when developed, 7, 10;

Queen-pre-

INDE.

process of laying, 11; appearance
of, 2b. ; waste of, 16.; devoured. by
bees, 12, 209; number laid, 12;
worker, 14; drone, 20; un-
fertilised, produce drones, 20, 27.

Kgyptian bees, 1, 438.

Kkes, 52, 192.

Electricity promotes honey-gather-
iny, 284.

Kncasement of queen, 314, 320.

!’nemies of bees, 1868, 2798.

I'ntrance-ways—see Flight-holes.

vans, Dr., and his poem, 3585S.

i{vergreens in rear desirable, 153.

Eves of bees, 18.

“abricius, 352.

!
Vanning, 16, 258, 264, 284.
|

 

‘arina—see Pollen.

‘eeding, in autumn for winter store,

2048, 2118; in common skeps, 206;

precautions as to, 209, 340 (bis) ;

stimulating, 210; distinction as
to, for present consumption and
for winter store, 7b. ; stimulates to
foraging in autumn, ¢é). (but when
well performed then, keeps at
home in winter, 204); must becom-

plete before winter, 211, 234;

begets activity, 236, 275; im-

moderate, supposed to cause foul

brood, 263; in spring, 2748; of

stocks left bare of bees, 318.

iny-bottles, 112, 209.

Feeding-can, 210.

Feeding-hole, 93.

Feeding-stage, 112.

Mveding-troughs, 2068.

elt covers, 67.

Fertile workers, 31§ ; peculiar class
of, among Egyptians, 44; drones
descended from, 327 ; laying seve-
ral eges in a cell, 328.

Fertilising, of flowers, 18, 183; of
ezys, 27 ; of queen—see Pairing,
Reproduction.

Flap, falling, 120.

Flight, range of, of drones, 21; of
queens, 22; essential to pairing,
31, 42; from or to high elevations,
151, 153; high objects obstruct,
154 ; fatigue resulting from, id. ;

  

 
INDEX.

high at starting, 157; homeward
lower, ib. ; of young bees first
time, 160 ; back to old spot, 161,
226, 237 ; range of workers’, 163 ; in
winter, 204, 238 ; first, after hiy ing,
404. See also Wedding flights.

 

Flight-holes, 73-76, 107 ; contraction

of, 187, 20%, 234, 244.

Floor-boards, 738, 106-108; clean-
ing, 2798.

“Floral World,” 332.

Flowers, fertilised by bees, 18, 183;
those desirable to cultivate, 162.

Food—see Feeding, Syrup, &e.

Foreign bees, 438, 8278, 4458, 372.

Foul brood, apple blossoms suspected
of causing, 162, 261; the uncon-
tagious, 254, 265; the contagious,
2558 ; the two compared, 265,

Fowls—see Poultry.

Frail—see Bast.

Frame hives, 87§; advantages of,
98, 224, 227, 313, #14, S152
Neighbours’, 103-105, 115; Che-

shire, 105 ; Philadelphia, 115; how |

to place, on a par with skeps as to
wintering, 240.

Frames, intervals between, 8);
construction of, 7b., 88, 90; inven-
tion of, 87; wedge-shaped, 90 ;
resting on strips of zinc, 103, 109;
in supers, 104; Woodbury, 109:
transferring and adding, 110, 315;
removing, 192; outer ones trans-
posed or removed in winter, 240 ;
gaps between, cause exertions,
315 (ep. 114 as to supers); for
sections, 330§. See also Bars.

Fuming, 2148; suspected of being
injurious, 222, 262; honey taken
by, 226.

Fungus, in fuming, 218; in stomach
of bees, 262.

Gaps incentives to exertion: in
frames, 114; in supers, 315.

Gauge for frames, 85.

Gelieu, M. Jonas, cited, 46, 54, 62,
160, 185, 210, 211, 287, 241, 272,
304; his “‘ Bee-Preserver,” 46.

German, hives, 84, 332§; bee-houses,
151.

365

Glass, compared with straw, 191.
See also Bell-glasses, Observatory
hives. ,

| Gloves, 165.

Golding, Mr. Robert, cited, 12, 53,
58, 172, 187, 197, 229, 292, 294,
300, 312; his “Shilling Bee-
Book,” 313.

Gordon, Mr. Robert, 326.

Grating in crown-board, 95.

Grecian bees, 327.

Guard round queen a fiction, 14 (ep.
456, poetry).

Guide-comb, 88, 190.

Giinther, 45.

Hackles, 67.

Hand not to be waved or pointed at
bees, 168.

Hayrick covers, 192.

Hearing, seat of, 18.

Heat, conducted slowly by air, 108;

_ honey a source of, 184, 212.

| Heath bees, 44, 45, 46.

Hermann, M., 34.

Herzegovinian bees, 44, 45, 327.

| Hibberd, Mr. Shirley, his “Rustic
| Adornments” cited, 83, 92, 135,
| 152, 155, 161, 163, 178.

| Hinges apt to crush bees, 336.

| Hive-range, 79.

' Hive-stands, 76§, 102, 108 ; bricks
| under feet of, 121.

Hives, common straw or single, 548;
whether high or broad, 54, 57,
82; sticks in, 55; plastering, 56;
straw depriving, 2b.§; painting,
62; Neighbours’ cottage, 64, 64;
Taylor's, 64; Lee’s economic and
octagon, 65; with bars, 7b., 845 ;
procedure with cottage, 65;
intervals between, 80; exposed to
damp, 81; wooden box, tb.S;
capacity of, 82; German, 54,
432§; with sloping interior walls,
90; with double walls, 108 ;
contracted by dummies, 110;
collateral, 125$; nadir and nether,
129§; Stewarton, 135§; Renfrew-
shire, 159 ; Carr-Stewarton, 140 ;
nucleus, ib., 146§; divisional,
141§$; observatory, 144§; trans-

 
366

posing two, 204, 320; comparison
of skep and frame, for wintering,
240; advised to incline slightly
forwards, 242; leaving open at
bottom in winter, 244, 338;
disinfecting, after foul brood,
266 ; preparing, to receive swarms,
303; transferring quarters of,
814, 316. See also Frame hives.

Hoge, Mr. W. M., 342, 344.

Holes in crown-board, 58, 85, 93,
103.

Home labours, 16.

Honey, 181§; essential to wax-
secretion, 49, 174,175;instock-hive
impure, 66 ; large harvests of, 137,
158, 341, 343; chemical change in,
183; gathered from flowers
promiscuously, unlike pollen, 7b. ;
virgin, 194 ; sometimes removed
from super to stock-hive, 195 ;
smell of, attracts bees, 197;
thin and fluid at first, 198; spoiled
by brimstone system, 199; average
quantities, ib. ; how extracted and
preserved, ib. ; candied, 205, 246;
unsealed, to be extracted, 206 ;
artificial sealing of, 7b.; taken
from stock-hive by fuming, 226 ;
by driving, 230; Polish and
American cask, 261; infected
with foul brood, 269; pouring,
into hive in spring, 275 ; seldom
used for feeding, 276 ; collection
of, promoted by electricity, 284 ;
sealed latest at hive sides, 330 ;
unsealing, to rouse bees, 339 ;
American, production and export-
ation of, 841§; project of convert-
ing, into sugar, 345.

“Honey Bee, The’”—see Bevan,
Langstroth, Samuelson,

Honey-board, 92.

Honey-dew, 182.

Honey-extractor, 2008.

Honey-knives, 202§

Hooker, Mr. J. M., 128.

Houses, stables, &c, hives within,
150, 158. See also Bee-houses.

Hruschka, Herr von, 13, 200.

Huber, cited, 3, 15 (ter), 22, 23, 33,

 

 

 

INDEX.

187, 284, 288, 293, 321, 323, 324;
his “ Observations on the Natural
History of Bees,” 16.

Huish, 164, 187.

Humming, caused by breathing, 284.

Humble-bees, 348-351.

Hungarian bees, 327.

Hunter, Dr. John, 3, 324.

Hybrids, 41, 43.

Hymenoptera, 1, 346.

Imago, 15.

Indian bees, 44.

Insect enemies, 188.

Instinct, aberrations of, 328§.

“ Intellectual Observer,” 345.

Interbreeding, 21, 312.

Interregnums in hives, 291, 296,

Intervals between hives, 80; between
frames, 85, 90; between frames
and hive, 88 ; comb worked into,
ib. ; between frames in supers, 91.

Intruders often slain, 19, 223; not
so between swarms and parent
stocks, 314; nor by any new
swarms, or young bees, 316

TInverting hives, 172, 219.

Italian bees, 1, 34$; have often two
queens at once, 13 ; service of, in
proving age of bees, 17; queen
lays drone eggs in first year, 2),
801; prove descent of drones
from mother alone, 29; test of
their pure breed, 39 (bis); sus-
pected of thriving by plunder,
326; and of introducing foul
brood, ib. (cp. 262); queens,
price of, in America, 343.

Italianising, 36, 319; reprobated,
262, 326.

Jackson, Mr. F R., 241.

“Journal of Horticulture,’ 268
(bis), 306, 326, 330.

Kensington sections, 118.

Keys ‘apiarian writer), 293.

Killing bees, 54, 227.

Kirby and Spence, 176, 351.

Krainer (Carniolan) bees, 44.

Labours, home and field, 16; effect
of, upon life of bees, 17.

“ Lanarkshire Bee-Keeper,” 263.

Landmarks of bees, 273.
INDEX.

Langstroth, Rev. L. L.,3 ; cited (from
his “Honey Bee”’), 30, 35, 36, 49,
87, 223, 255, 294, 300, 317 ; his
book, 315.

Larva, reared into queen, 9, 32;
of worker, 15; with head down-
wards, 258, 328 ; of humble-bee
devoured by Volucella, 350.

Latreille, 346, 349, 352.

Laying, process of, 11; period of,
12; when commenced, 21, 38,
3/5; often almost ceases in
August, 213.

Lee, Mr. James, 64, 65, 105, 118,
118, 122, 124, 140, 202, 217, 282.

Legs, hind, of bees, 184, 348.

Leno, 165.

Leuckart, Prof., 31.

Life of bees—see Age.

Ligurian bees—see Italian.

Lime, used in curing foul brood,
266.

Lithuania, bees in, 237.

Longevity—see Age.

Lower Austrian bees, 44, 45, 46.

Loysell’s coffee-percolators, 339.

Luneburg Heath bees, 44, 45, 46.

“Mad sickness,” 162.

Mahan, Mr., 261.

Maiden swarms, 301§.

Male, bee, 4; organ, 30.

Maraldi, 3, 323.

Mat spread before hives, 154.

Mellifera, bees called, 346.

Melting combs down, 251§.

Metal, effect of, upon bees, 207 ;
upon food, 208.

Mice, 74.

Micrococcus, 256, 257, 264 (ter),
265, 268.

Moisture in hives, 236, 241§.

Mongrel bees, 41.

Monstrosities, 33, 34. See also
Curiosities.

Moors, harvests from, 137, 232.

Mother bee—see Queen bee.

Moths, 186.

Moving bees, to be avoided, 160,
237, 304; limit of safety as to
distance, 161 (bis); time and
manner of, ib., 226.

367

Munn, Major, 87.

Nadirs, 52, 129§, 186, 138, 142, 143,
189.

“Naturalist’s Library” cited, 205.

Neighbour, Messrs., 34, 45, 62-64,
103-105, 115-118, 119-121, 127,
139, 145 (bis), 151, 210, 216.
See also “ Apiary, The.”

Neighbours, stocks bought of, 161.

Nethers, 131-135.

Neuters, incorrect term, 14, 346.

Nitrogenous food, 250.

North aspect, 154.

Nucleus hives, 140, 146§.

Numbers of bees, 14, 48, 289; of
hives, 163.

Nurse bees, 7, 10; feed queen, 13 ;
feed larve, 15; feed drones, 16,
184. See also Young bees.

Nutriments, heat and flesh forming,
184.

Nutt’s hive, 127, 283.

Nymph, princess, 10 ; worker, 15.

Observatory hives, 144§.

Octagon straw hive, 65.

Openings in crown-boards, 58, 85,
93, 103.

Oriental name of bee, 2.

Orthographical variations, 328.

Osiers, ancient material for hives,
302.

Outdoor labours, &c., 15, 17, 49.

Ovaries of queen, 26; of fertile
workers, 31.

Ovid, citations from, 302 (bis).

Oviducts, 26.

Painting, 62, 69, 88, 274.

Pairing, on the wing only, 21, 22,
31, 42; fatal to male, 21, 30;
instances observed, 30; how ac-
complished, 31; under confine-
ment, 41.

Pappus, 322.

Parasitic bees, 345§.

Parthenogenesis, 26.

Passage way beneath crown, 94;
through combs in winter, 240;
under quilt, 243.

Pasturage, 1628.

Patriotism of bees, 11.

' Pattern gauge, 85.

 
368

Payne, Mr. J. H., 163, 198, 199 |
(bis), 231, 232, 252, 272, 285, |
289. |

Payne’s glass, 169. |

Pea flour used for pollen, 248. |

Pedestals, 76§. |

Peppermint used in sprinkling, 40, |
220.

Perforated zinc used in uniting |
colonies, 299. |

Pettigrew, Mr., 36.

Philadelphia hive, 115; collateral, |
128.

Philissus, or Philiscus, 322. |

Phora incrassata, 260. |

Pigs not to be near bees, 153.

“Pine, Dr.,” 41, 166.

Pine honey mischievous, 182,

Pint of bees, how many, 289.

Piping, 18, 292, 294 (bts).

Plastering hives, 46.

Platforms—see Alighting-boards.

Pliny (the Elder), 322.

Polish honey, 261.

Pollen, 183§; supplied to princesses,
10; to queen, 13, 184; to drones,
16, 184; kept in large cells, 181 ;
a flesh-forming nutriment, 184,
212; given to larve, 184; re-
quisite to wax-secretion, 7b. ; taken
by workers, 7b., 212; weight of
stale, in hive, 205, 272; winter
store of, 212; substitutes for, or
“artificial,” 247§, 274; spoiling
in winter, 247; mixed with syrup,
248; how far essential, 249;
quantity carried into hive a
criterion of strength, 272; large
quantities gathered, 273; attempt
to hatch queen out of, 428.

Po-ch to entrance, 106, 107, 120.

Position of hives, 151, 153$; in
winter, 237§ ; marked by bees on
first flight, 304.

Poultry objectionable, 153, 186.

Pound of bees, how many, 289.

“Practical Bee- Keeping” — see
Cheshire, Rev. F. R.

Preuss, Dr, 256, 264, 265.

Princesses, how long developing, 7 ;
rearing of, 10; one first hatched

 

INDEX.

destroys rivals, 13, 148, 292, 295;
destroyed if swarming delayed,
23, 288; law of primogeniture
among, 291 ; remain in cell after
maturity, 292; able to fly on
hatching, ib.; piping of, 293;
several may issue at once, 294;
instance of one returning with
swarm and destroying four others,
295. See also Queen.

Probosces, 18; longer in Italians,
36 ; form of the word, 329.

Propolis, 181§ ; not used by Egyp-
tians, 44; hives fixed with, 56 ;
varnished with, 62; frames fixed
with, 88; walls of, within flight-
holes, 187.

Pupa—see Nymph.

Purchas, 239.

Queen, 4; workers destroy rivals
to, 13; two living together, ib.,
295; when none in hive, bees will
not work, 18; lays worker and
drone eggs on same occasion, 20,
26 ; when absent, workers do not
destroy drones, 23; when flies,
24, 29, 325; when commences
laying, 24, 38, 325; remains
fertile for life, 24; drone-breeding,
29; age when larva can be reared
into, 32; disposition of some bees
to destroy, id., 328 ; attempts to
raise, out of pollen, drone eggs,
&e., ibb. ; of unusual colour, 34 ;
instance of one preserved. on
slaughter of subjects, ib. ; supply-
ing new, 38, 40, 318§; to be
changed if unprolific, 213, 274,
341 (cp. 8); whether subject to
foul brood, 268 ; old one accom-
panies first swarm, 287 ; how to
capture, in a swarm, 290; often
more than one in after-swarms,
w., 293; vigorous or unfruitful,
in a swarm, 291; law of succession
with, 7b ; destruction of, on re-
turning of swarm, 295; young
less foreseeing than old, 296 ; only
an Italian, lays drone eggs first
year, 301; clipping wings of, 308;
encasement of, 314, 320; search-
INDEX.

 

for, in frame hives, 315;
wing, in) own hive, 320;
peculiar, 827; stinging, (b.5 sting

of, supposed to guide eves, 328 ;

aying several eges in a cell, ib.
See also Princesses, Reproduction,
Royal combats, Wedding flights.

Queen-cages, 37, 40, 148, 319.

Queen-preventers, 66, 93,
diameter of openings in, 340.

Queenless hives, 9, 18, 22, 32.

Quilts, 97, 248, 339.

Raitt, Mr. W., 306.

Range of flight—see Flight.

Raynor, Rev. G., 319.

Rear of hives, access to, 149, 153, 157,

Reaumur, 3, 178, 323; the name,
329.

Red bees, 34.

Remedies for stinging, 166§.

Removing, bees—see Conveying,
Moving ;—supers, 61, 189, 194,
195$ ; crown-boards and frames,
1928.

“ Renfrewshire
139, 519, 355.

Renfrewshire Stewarton, 139.

Repairs, when to attend to, 274.

Reproduction, laws of, 258.

Return of bees to old quarters, 161,
226, 272.

Riem, 323.

Robber bees, 33, 149, 197, 2038,
279$ ; transposing hives to per-
plex, 204, 320.

Rorl, Mr., 33.

Royal cells, construction of, 5
(figures, 6, 148); started upon
loss of queen, 9, 38; none con-
structed when swarming super-
seded, 23; always before swarm-
ing, 46; transferring, 146; cau-
tion in handling, 147; guarding
from queen, 7b.; how to obtain,
ih. ; cut out to prevent swarming,
283, 300; destroyed if swarming
postponed, but new ones set on,
288; no longer guarded when
swarming over, 295; cut out to
prevent opposition to new queen,
320; omission to prepare, 328.

   

104 ;

 

 

 
 

9¢

“2,

Bee-Keeper,”

 

369

Royal combats, 13; oldest princess
victorious in, 295; some queens
refuse, 328.

Royal jelly, 10; supposed to incite
workers to regicide, 32; transfer-
ring, to worker cell chosen for a
queen, 147; omitted by bees, 328.

Runners to floor-board, 107.

“Rustic Adornments’’—see Hibberd,
My. Shirley.

Rye meal used for pollen, 247.

Sack, for covering in winter, 240.

Sagot, Abbé, 333.

Salicylic acid, 256, 265, 270; solu-
tion of, 205, 250.

Samuelson’s ‘‘ Honey Bee,” 321.

Sanders. Messrs. C. J., and Son, 63.

Schirach, 3, 8, 254, 323.

Schonfeld, Dr., 256, 263-265.

Schulze, Jacob, 256.

Scottish moors, honey from, 137.

Scouts in swarming, 296, 307.

Screens from sun, 155, 238.

Sealing of cells, 180; of pollen, 184 ;
artificial, 206.

Section frame, 3308.

Sectional slides, 137.

Sections, or sectional supers, 116-
119; of tin, 118; Kensington, 7b.

Senses of bees, 18.

Sentinels a fable, 16,

Separators, 118, 331.

Sex, not determined by cells, 27 ;
dissimilarity between male and
female, of some foreign bees, 354.

Shade, 185$.

Shades (covers), 70.

Shaving, in winter passages, 240.

“Shilling Bee-Book,” 313.

Shovel (to feeding-bottle), 112.

Shrubs useful to alight on, 154.

Shutters, to windows, 64, 83, 101,
124, 136 ; to entrance, 107, 116.

Siebold, Prof. von, 27.

Silenus stung, 302.

Silesia, a bee country, 45.

Simmins, Mr. 8., 141.

Single-hiving system, 46$.

Skeps, covers for, 66§; advantages
of, for wintering, 240. See also
Hives.

BB
370 INDEX.

Slate for journal, 108.

Slides or dividers, 58, 64, 93, 103.

Smell, seat of, 18; bees know each
other Py, 19, 223, 299 ; know of
stinging by, 168.

or bad or strong

158, 167.

Smith, Mr. C. W., 140.

Smith, Mr, Freceric, 321, 347.

Smith, Dr. Wm , 302, 329

Smokers, 215-217.

Smyrnean bees, 44.

Snails, 74.

Snow, to be cleared away, 234;
reflection from, 235, 238.

“Song of the Bees,” 175,

South-east aspect recommended, 157

Southey’s lines, ‘Thou busy, busy
bee,” 285. :

Spatulas, 202.

Spermatheca, 26, 31.

BE nn 27;

Spiders, 159, 188.

Spinola, Marquis de, 35.

Spitzner, 255,

Sporting before hive, 16.

pps , need of supplies for, 212;

i i 3; fee ving in,

Is in, 339.

Sprinkling bees with scent, £0, 220;
with sugared ale, 221.

Stewarton, hive, 54, 1358, 223; slides,
97, 113, 137; supers, superiority
of, 332,

Sticks 3

Stimulating feeding, 210.

Sting, of queen, 5,328; of workers,] 4.

Stinging, when to be apprehended,
156, 167, 1 rare at swarming,
156, 290, 308; precautions ayainst,
164, 167§; remedics for, 1668;
ancient specific, 302; dispositions
of different varieties as to, 327 ;
by queen, 328.

Stock-hive, 65.

“Stockings” of bees, 183.

Stocks, strong, 50, 227; the most
irascible, 189, 225; meaning of
tern, ee which best for depriy-
ing, 227; ; driven bees make strony.
est, 233.

g, objectionable,

 

 

  

 

 

 

Storifying, 51; up to eight or ten
boxes, 139.

Strange bees—see Intruders.

Straw compared with wood, 52, 62,
81; with glass, 191.

Stupefying bees, 218; objections to,
222, 262.

Sugar, how far suited to hees,

sstallisable, &e., ib., 27%

ject of converting honey into,
345.

Sun, direct rays of, to be excluded,

154; in winter lures bees out,

| 238; makes less tractable, 290 ;

| swarms must be sheltered from,

|

|

    

305.
Supers, defined, 51; detached hy

 

 

passing wire beneath, 59, 198 ;
bell-glass, 60, 189$ ; of straw, 60,

 

| 191; first uppermost, 60, 95 (ut

cp. 540); applying, 57, 66, 96,

188, 2828, 340; should be covered,

60, 61, 70, 191; removing, 61,

189, 194, 195§ ; for frame hives,

91, 95; of glass, 91, 1043 exit

from, 104, 340; Lee’s, 113; shal-

low, 114; sectional—see Sections ;
divisional, 116, 118, 121; as venti-
| lators, 188 impor tance of warmth
in. 191,283; raising edges of, when
too warm, 191, 284; temporarily

| removing, in bad weather, 340.

Supplying new queens, 3188.

Suspenders, zine, for frames, 103
109.

Swammerdam, 5.

Swarming, how it affects rearing of
princesses and life of drones, 23;
and depriving systems, 468 ; lx
placed high fy long distance in,
151; stinging rare during, 156,290,
303; arrangement of hives at
time of, 226 ; how far preventable,
283, 305; time, conditions, and

signs of, 2868; causes of del: vy in,
288 ; limit of term of, 294: :
ultimate causes of, 305 ; irreeilar
issues for, 306; artificial, 310
(see also 48-51); anomalies in,
328. See also Swarms,

| Swarming board, 179, 308.

 

 

 

 

 

 
 
  
 

    

 

 

 

  
 

 
INDEX. 371

Swarms, carry honey with them, 49,
yadult bees take part in,
49, 288; -time required by, to
furnish hive, 66; feeding newly
settled, 174; never return to old
hive, 272, 305; old queen accom-
panies first, 287; weight of, 289 ;
returning of, 10.8, 304 ;evilof many,
292; issue scouts or pioneers, 296,
307; entering unoccupied hives
with combs, 296 ; disliking hive,
297 ; uniting, 7.$; added to old
stocks, 299; aftinity of, for ch
other, 300; attracted by dead
bees or dark cloth, 7.3; maiden,
3018; preparing hives for, 303 ;
hiving, i). ; devices to cause to
settle, 304; divided, tb. ; station-
ing, ib. ; transferring hives to
strenythen, 305; feeding, 7. ;
clustering on trees, 307; brood to
be supplied to, ib. ; transferring
from skep to hive, 5083; some
queens will not lead, 328. See
also Swarming, After-swarms.
Syrian or Holy Land bees, 372.
Syrup, to be given to new swarms,
174; recipe for, in autumn and
winter, 205 ; stowed rapidly away,
ib. ; preserved from candying by
salicylic acid, 251; for spring and
summer, 276 ; for stocks left too
bare of bees, 318.
Tablets, artificial, 344.
Tancred, Sir T., 332.
Tanging, 301.
Taylor's glasses, 58 ; hive, 65.
Tea lead, 58.
Tevetmeier, Mr., 87.
Temper, of Italians, &c., 89, 41;
excited at certain times, 167.
Temperature in winter, 235, 245§ ;
in early spring, 283§.
Thatched roofs over hives objection-
able, 159.
Thermometers, 64, 66, 246, 288.
Thurber, Messrs., 342, 372.
Thuringia, a bee country, 255.
Tibia of hind leg, 548.
“Times,” extract from, 341.
Toads, 187.

 

 

  
  
 

 

Tobacco, care requisite in using,
222; believed injurious, 223, 264.

Tomtit or titmouse, 186, 239.

Tongue of bees, 18.

Torpidity in bees, not usual, 245,
246.

Traffic near hives objectionable, 156.

Transferring, frames, 110, 315; bees
with combs, 280§ ; swarms, 3088;
hives, 311, 314, 316.

Transposing two hives, 204, 320.

Trees, bees’ natural residence, 54,
160, 307; high, should not be
béfore hives, 154.

Triplets, 51. See also Supers.

Tupper, Mrs. E. 8., 6, 36, 37, 50.

Unicomb hive, 83, 145.

Uniting : stocks, 214§ ; by stupefy-
ing, 218-222; without stupefying,
224; in frame hives, 224; choice
of domicile upon, 225; shifting
hives previous to, 226 ;—swarms,
297§ ;—swarms to stocks, 299.

Unsealed honey to be extracted, 206.

Unsealing honey to rouse bees, 339.

Vapour in hives—see Damp.

Veil, 165.

Ventilation: by wings, 16, 258,
264,284 ;—artificial, of supers, 191,
284; of hives in winter, 242-244;
neglect of, supposed to cause foul
brood, 263.

Ventilators, 64.

Virgil, 35, 357.

Virgin, honey, 194; comb, 252.

Volucella, 350.

Vulcanite plate, 112, 209.

Wagener theory, 27.

Wasps, 187, 208, 279.

Water, only shallow, should be near
apiary, 153; to be supplied to bees,
1858, 248, 274.

Water-pot, useful for driving bees
within, 186; for driving robbers
away, 203.

Wax, 1758; smell of, attracts bees,
167, 252; pollen requisite to
form, 184 ; melting down, 251S.

Wax sheets, 88, 89; comb founda-
tions, 88, 344.

Weather foretold by bees, 285.

BB2
2, INDEX.

 

Wedding flights, 21, 29, 167, 325; | ferring colony at end of, 250;
swarms issuing upon, 306. when to remove extra coverings
Wedding token, 21, 30, 43. for, 273.

Weighing hiv Wood, Mr. J. 8., 265.
Weight of bees, Wood, straw compared with, 52, 62,
Westwood, Mr., 351. 81; box hives of, 81.
White bees, 34. Woodbury, Mr., 34, 82, 87, 102,
Wildman, Daniel, 164. 309; hive, 102, 338; frames,
Windows, in hives, 64, 81, 83, 90; 109 ; cover, 119.

of dwelling houses, hives within, Workers, 14§ ; developed into

queens, 9; control queens, 13 ;
vlass unsafe in, 145; con- munber of, 14, 48.
on of food ine 204; bees | Wormwood used to repel robbers,
e out in, 1b. ; store for, ib, | 204.
number of mouthsin, no dif- | Yellow Italian Alp bee, 35. See
, 211; population in, 213, Italian.
; points for observance in, | Yew boughs anciently used for
3 beesto beundisturbed in, | depriving, 302.
234,244,250; feeding to be finishe d | Young bees, occupations of, 16; in
before, 234; temperature, 236,2458; | nucleus hives, 148; first flight
position, 2 Q of, 160; essential in winter,
|

“tT
to

    
 

172, 204, 231, 2

n
s)

    
 
  

 

 

  
    

 

ays to be excluded in, 2B8 ; 235 ; distinguished by their light
directions as to frames in, 240 : colour, 282; do not issue with
use of bast and sack in, 7.; roe box swarms, 288; service of, in
or super with chaff or braken,241, artificial swarming, 815; do not
838; lifting crown-board in, 244; kill intruders, 316.

hives propped up and left open in, | Zinc—see Covers, Perforated zine,
ib., 388; feeding in, 246; trans- | Slides, Suspenders, Ventilators,

 

 

Post Script.—While this sheet is in the press a paragraph has appeared
in the papers (“ Daily News,” June 3) announcing the introduction of a
large number of Cyprian and Syrian bees into this country. The importer
is Mr. D, A. Jones, of Beeton, Ontario, who at the date mentioned was
exhibiting his insects at the London offices of Messrs. Thurber, in Cannon
Street. He speaks of the Syrian or Holy Land hee as a race of especial
value, noting particularly the long distances to which they will travel, the
great speed of their flight, and the surprising loads which they are capable
of bearing home. Will they prove identical with the Smyrnean bees ?

 

 

   
 

 

 

CORRECTIONS.

Pp. 98, line 13, and 148, last line, for phrail read frail.

P. 106, line 5, for is a contributor read was formerly a contributor,

P. 118, line 7 from bottom, for His maker is, &e., read Mr. Lee of Bagshot
makes his inventions, bat they are open to others besides.

P. 170, last line, add See page 202.

P. 189, line 8, delete and “Nadiring Stocks.”

 
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