ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY <— oe ENS ILLER, LITH. EUCALYPTUS ROSTRATA. (Red Gum A SKETCH FROM A PRACTICAL TREATISE on TREE GULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 21S OBE PP gar’ By J. BE. BROWN, F.L.8. Conservator of Forests for the Government of South Australia. WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS BY J. W. LOVE. aa OSU ADELAIDE : PrintEp anv LirmocRarHuRp By E, SpILLtER, GOVERNMENT Printer, Nortu-TERRace. 1881. aT 309218 Published under the authority of the Forest Board of South Australia. H. D. MELVILLE, Secretary. Adelaide, April 4th, 1881. Yatet Board Office, Adelaide, South Australia, pul Ldh, SEL, De Bonid haw muuch please th assisting the Conserratol tn gong this tittle woh te the fblee Ib fipaiation ectdences alelily and. peut: ts comfeilation thas not debit aldeaued te cieteifete ath the Commmmatee 4 empottant and widely ofucad. duties, and ts fcduction a te accefeted. a an tndiation of Ms. Bown s prune tntetest tn Admin, which shoud te eminently satisfactory to the fbi and te the Geveinment, hide affect te ta. G..W. GOYDER, Chairman, B. T. FINNISS, J.P., WILLIAM BARBER, Cot., J.P., RICHARD SCHOMBURGK Dr. Ph. GEORGE McEWIN, J.P., Members of the Board PoNnTENTS. OX) Page. INTRODUCTION .. i oe a ie ae as Sts wi .. Vii. Chap. I.—Importance of Conserving Forests and Forming Plantations in South Australia... . ona 1 II.—The Benefits which sxnitt accrue to the Soil wii Climate of the Calony from a General System of Tree Planting .. 2 4 III.—The Encouragement to Tree Culture in South dustcatie iy Hons from the Government... : oe a ee as 10 IV.—The Commercial Value of Trees as a ‘Ges des « 14 V.—tThe Effects of Forest ee upon the Catchment ei of Reser- voirs = os ‘ 17 VI.—Some General — on Mathass to ie Chnaitianed Pietou to Planting as 7 - 19 VII.—Table showing the Naat af iia: with s can w Planted on an Acre at Stated Distances Apart .. a 20 VIII.—Table showing the Number of Plants Bonste to Plant oe of Trees at Stated Distances Apart .. ‘ cee we 2h IX.—-Distances Apart at which Forest Trees should . Planted ee 22 X.—At what Season of the Year should we Plant . vd . 24 XI.—How the Ground should be a before — are Planted upon it is te 3 = 26 XII.—How Toning ieee Sil be Pinel ne be ae mv 28 XIII.—Treatment of Young Trees after Planting .. 50 er a 33 XIV.—General Planting on Farms ae a6 ns ae ie .. 86 XV.—The Fencing of Plantations .. : ot x a is 38 XVI.—Planting Trees along Fences and Roads ee “ie sg .. 40 XVII.—Planting on the Sea-coast .. sa re af sae 42 XVIIT.—Osier Planting .. 53 is te -. 46 XIX.—Planting on Ground titély ‘Cleared of ‘Tae ee ae a 48 XX.—Town and Park Planting .. te oe ss — ss .. 50 XXI.— Wattle Growing a a a es ait a 36 53 XXII.—Pruning Forest Trees. a9 an 6 ai ae . 58 XXIII.—Thinning Woods and Forests Nes ; a 63 XXIV.—The Growing of Hedge Fences on our Recital — a .. 66 XXYV.—Selecting Plants from the Public Nurseries és ans ie 70 Vi. Contents. Chap. XXVI.—The Different Methods of Rearing Young Trees in the Nursery XXVII.—Trees Suitable for Cultivation in South Australia, with their Des- cription, Soils upon which they Grow, Uses of pk and Mode of Culture . as aie 5 ae XXVIII.— Calendar of Monthly Forest Geaadans dist iis Tae XXIX.—Trees Suitable for Planting on the Plains .. . XXX.—Trees Suitable for Avenue Planting .. Se oe 23 re XXXI.—Trees Suitable for Planting on Saline Soils. . . XXXII.—Trees Suitable for Street Planting eG : “ eg ee XXXIII.—Trees Suitable for Planting on Caleareous Soils XXXIV.—Trees and Shrubs Suitable for Hedges. . XXXYV.—Trees Suitable for Planting on the Sea-coast Page. 72 79 103 108 110 111 112 118 114 116 INTRODUCTION. EAD ARBORICULTURE, according to the common acceptation of the word, 1s the art of planting and rearing trees and shrubs; but in the opinion of the most learned savans of the age it is now also looked upon as one of the most important of the many sciences which regulate the economic and hygienic affairs of nations. It is now generally admitted by all enlightened people that trees play a very important part in the general prosperity of any country, and that, by the amount of attention paid by its inhabitants to their cultivation, so may the physical and intellectual standard of the people be estimated. As our surroundings become physically more perfect, so in the same ratio do we become morally better. As one proof of this we have only to refer to the case of some of the ancient nations in Asia, such as Persia, Palestine, and Syria. In the early and most prosperous days of these countries, the inhabitants paid very great attention to the rearing of both fruit and timber trees, and, in consequence, their agri- culture was highly productive, and all classes were prosperous. What is now the condition of these once fertile regions? It is this: their forests have been long ago destroyed; their fields are now, comparatively speaking, parched and unremunerative to the cultivators, and therefore agriculture is neglected, and their people have sunk into poverty and wretchedness; while the civilisation which once regulated their affairs has fallen with them, and left them in the condition of semi-barbarism in which they now are found. It is evident from the records which we now possess that the planting of trees was understood and practised in the early days of the world’s history, though of course on a more primitive and less methodical plan than is now done in these modern and more enlightened days. Not to speak of what must have been done in tree planting in the early days to which Holy Writ has reference, but of which no positive proof has been handed down to us, we find from the earliest historians that the Greeks and Romans were great arboriculturists, and made wonderful steps in their time in the rearing of trees, both for ornamental and economic purposes. vill. Introduction. It is supposed that the propagation of trees and the introduction of new species into Europe began about the fifteenth century, from which time until the present day various works on arboriculture have been published. At first these were necessarily of the most primitive character, both in style, substance, and knowledge ; now they are of the most scientific and reliable kind. At the present day we find that tree planting in Britain, Germany, France, and other divisions of the Continent of Europe, has become a very important industry; and that, viewed in the light of a commercial transaction alone, it ranks amongst the foremost of the rural industries of the political economy of these countries. Perhaps within the last eighty or one hundred years more has been done towards planting by landed proprietors in the old world than in any former period of its history. This has arisen from many causes, the chief of these being a better knowledge of the art in all its detail management, resulting in a surer and more paying return; the introduction from various parts of the world of quick-growing and valuable species of trees; the general recognition of the now well- established fact that trees exercise a very marked and valuable influence on the climatic and hygienic conditions of a country; and that so many establishments have been started for the sale of forest trees, thereby causing keen competition, and consequently reasonable prices for plants. Of late years, from various causes incidental to the rise and prosperity of the: country, the colonies of Australasia have awakened to the necessity for a proper conservation of their forests, and planting of woodlands on the otherwise unwooded portions of the respective pro- vinces, in order to the permanent good and well-being of the country. Victoria and New Zealand have each given birth to Aets of Parliament on the subject, but these have not been properly carried out. Queens- land and New South Wales are now agitating the matter; but it remained for South Australia to have the honor of being the first Australian colony to establish a system of forestry in her midst. The originator of the scheme was Mr. Krichauff, M.P., who, in the session of 1871, called for a return eliciting information from persons resident in the different districts of the colony, in regard to the supply, preservation, and culture of forests. The answers were summarised and prepared by Dr. Schomburgk, the Director of the Botanic Gardens. Subsequent to this return, Mr. Krichauff introduced, and successfully passed, in the House of Assembly, in 1873, “An Act to encourage the planting of Forest Trees,” which provided for the payment by Govern- ment of two pounds per acre for every acre planted by a landowner in certain districts of the colony, according to certain defined conditions. Introduction. ix, During the same session, a “ Report on Forest Reserves” was laid on the table of the House, which had been prepared for the Honorable the Commissioner of Crown Lands by G. W. Goyder, Esq., the Surveyor- General. This report made suggestions for the proclamation of certain portions of the country as forest reserves, and dealt exhaustively with recommendations regarding the formation of a Department of Forests. In 1875 a Bill was brought in by Mr. Krichauff, and passed, intituled “An Act to make provision for the appointment of a Forest Board, and for other purposes.” In this Act certain districts pointed out by Mr. Goyder were defined as forest reserves. During the session of 1876 a short Act was passed to amend certain portions of the Forest Board Act; and ‘“ The Forest Trees Act,” under which the present operations of the Forest Board are being carried out, was passed in 1878. The latter Act consolidates and amends all the laws in the colony relating to forest trees, and embraces the different matters provided for in all the three Acts previously quoted. Forestry is a branch of rural economy not so easily defined in all its parts as farming is, and this chiefly from its crops requiring a con- siderable number of years to test the results of any experiments that may be made init. The subject of forest management is a long and broad one, requiring an age of observation and experience in anyone to understand the effects of certain modes of operations. In old and long- established countries, such as those of Europe, where the original forests have for the greater part disappeared many generations ago, and new ones been planted, forestry is taught both theoretically and practically, and is, generally speaking, well understood by all classes concerned in the rural economy of the respective countries. On the other hand, in these colonies the inhabitants hitherto have been principally engaged in the destruction of their trees in order to make way for the tilling of the land they occupy, and are, as a rule, unacquainted with even the rudiments of forestry, and are quite at a loss how to proceed should they wish to plant a few trees on their holdings. Now that the thinking and prudent portion of the landowners of the country are alive to the important functions which trees play in our midst, and are already showing a strong disposition to form plantations on their estates, but are often deterred from doing so from want of knowledge of the subject, I have thought it incumbent upon myself to come forward with this concise and practical work on forest management generally, with the view of supplying what I féel is a much-felt want in the colony, and thereby enabling the landowners of our community with its use to improve their properties by planting trees on them, both for ornament x. Introduction. and use, and to become their own foresters with every reasonable chance of success, At first it was the author’s intention to issue this work in the usual way through a publisher, but seeing difficulties in the way of its general distribution, the matter was laid before the Forest Board, offering the MS. on the condition that it be printed at the expense of the Govern- ment and issued gratuitously. This suggestion the members of the Forest Board at once adopted. With these few introductory remarks the author commits his small work to the public, and trusts that many will find useful hints in its pages ; and if only a few will be induced thereby to plant trees on their land, he will feel more than repaid for the labor expended upon it. Forest Board Office, Adelaide, March, 1881. - mTOR TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. CHAPTER I. ae Importance of Conserving Forests and Forming Plantations in South Australia. In nearly all the countries of Europe and in India, forest management is now generally well understood, each having a systematic forest economy of its own, modified to suit the existing peculiarities of the region it occupies, and each carrying out with rigor the arrangements laid down for the development of this branch of its natural resources, all keeping in view to carefully preserve the older portions of their forest crops, and to plant and rear young ones to come in for use as their supplies of the old crops become exhausted. In South Australia we have a large and valuable agricultural country, but with the undoubted drawback of having only a limited Ligneous flora. Our forests occupy but a very small percentage of our area, and even much of what is termed “timbered country” is under trees of an inferior class. While, however, our country does not compare with many other portions of the globe in the possession of valuable forest products, it is more than satisfactory to note that it is vastly superior to many others as a field for the development of systematic forestry— whether as to soil, climate, or extent of field to operate on. As in all newly-settled countries, so it has been here, and is yet to some extent in places, the natural forests have been wantonly destroyed. Happily, however, for the future prosperity of the colony, a wise Government has taken steps, by the proclamation of certain districts as forest reserves, and by the establishment of a Forest Board, whereby a thorough system of conserving and planting is being undertaken upon them, to prevent the complete demolition of the natural forests, and at the same time introduce other species of trees which will produce valuable timber to future generations. While, however, the Government is doing all it possibly can in the matter, this is not sufficient for the ultimate good and prosperity of the 2 TREE OULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. colony as a whole. Conserving and planting trees will and must become a universal industry in this country at no great distant day. To the landowners we must look for that general system of planting which will ultimately ameliorate the hot winds of our summers, increase and equalise our rainfall, and conduce to the increased products of our soil. Why should a country such as this is, with its rich soil and general natural advantages, have to depend, as it now does, on foreign im- portations for a supply of even the commonest class of timber? There is no reason why it should be so, and yet it is humiliating to confess that at the present time but a very small proportion of the timber used in permanent works in the colony is from trees grown in the country. If we have to rely upon foreign supplies for our timber now, what shall we do fifteen or twenty years hence, when our population shall have increased tenfold? At that time the demand for timber will be increased to an extent which we can have no idea of at the present time. Will the supply then be had from other countries? No. It is not in the common nature of things that this could be so, seeing that every civilised country is beginning to feel that it must increase its available supply of timber to meet the demands of its own growing requirements. Where, for instance, are the fine forests of Huon pine and Sydney cedar which produced such an unlimited supply of timber only a few years ago? ‘These are getting pretty well swept away by the indiscriminate slaughter which has marked the mismanagement of these fine and . valuable forest lands. Then, from these facts it is evident that the only alternative is, South Australia must of necessity, like other countries, attend to con- serve her existing supply of timber, and to plant extensively, in order to secure artificial crops to take the place of the old and matured ones as these become exhausted. Apart altogether from the quantity of timber that is to provide for the domestic wants of the people, the important and increasing mining operations, which are here as yet but coming into existence, demand an extension of woodlands in order to support them in proper working condition as they gradually develop. I think it is safe to assert that ere many years pass the mining industry of South Australia will absorb vast quantities of timber, as it has already done when the copper mines were in full working order. It is, therefore, incumbent upon us to prepare for this, and to devise such measures as will secure a continuance of the supply of the timber required to carry on and develop a branch of see which has already conduced so materially to our welfare as a colony. Look, next in order, to the vast system of railways which is gradually being opened up in our midst. These will require a yast quantity of timber annually for their proper maintenance. At present much of the timber used in our railways is imported from the other colonies but as these supplies are being gradually exhausted, we must soon ieeie. within ourselves to keep good the supply. Then look at the very large amount of fencing which is done in this country. At present this more than consumes all the available timber TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 3 growing in the colony; indeed, in some districts the farmers cannot even get enough wood for this one purpose within easy distance of their holdings, and have to be content with very unsatisfactory fences made of scrub timber and brushwood. Here, then, we have another very important incentive to planting, and as, in the ordinary course of affairs, the demand for fencing materials will increase as the resources of the colony become developed and the population increases, it becomes more than ever necessary that the woodlands of the country be increased to such an extent as will ensure a sufficiency of fencing materials for all time to come. I am, moreover, of opinion that it is the duty of every landowner here to grow trees himself in such quantity as will supply him with all the timber he may require for fencing and domestic purposes. These statements are enough to satisfy any thinking person as to the great importance of conserving the existing forests, and planting with young trees the waste and other lands of this fine country, so that the supply of timber may be secured under all circumstances. But it is not only the supplying of the various industries of the country with necessary timber that is to be had in view in the preserva- tion of our old forests and planting young plantations, but the present ery for an advanced state of agriculture here demands that a skilful and well-defined system of forest operations be conducted over all for its special benefit. It is well known to all who have given their attention to the improve- ment of lands in any country that the formation of plantations is one of the chief means to this end, and that without a due proportion of these no permanent improvement in this way can ever be attained. Trees are the grand regulators of climate and improvers of the soil, under all circumstances and conditions. ; There is no doubt but that the cause of so much waste land, so to speak, being found in the central parts of this continent, is attributable to the want of trees to give it shelter. Will anyone say that. the great dry wastes at present existing in this country cannot be improved in climate and in soil by a judicious planting of proper sorts of trees on them? I believe that no one acquainted with the general laws of nature affecting such subjects will deny that these wastes may be made Jertile, agriculturally, and made the field for the happy homes of thousands of settlers, by a judicious system of planting, so as to protect them from the local causes which render them. at present unfit for habitation and settlement. Besides, has not the neglect of judicious planting of trees been con- ducive to the present unprofitable state of many of the farms in the older-settled parts of the colony—farms which have no doubt been exhausted by excessive cropping, but which, had they been protected by the shade and shelter of skilfully-laid-out plantations, would have been vastly more remunerative, even with the defective system of farming under which they have been.placed, than they are now? Hence the necessity there is for every landed proprietor in this colony to plant a certain extent of his subject with trées. CHAPIER. Lt. he The Benefits which would accrue to the Soil and Climate of the Colony from a General System of Tree Planting. Tuar large bodies of trees have a direct influence on the atmospheric changes of a district or country is, I think, in these days of so much statistical and other reliable information, now a recognised fact. If we look back and examine ancient, medieval, and modern history, we there find many very noted examples of decrease of rains, dried up rivers, extended deserts, and depleted populations, simply from the clearing of extensive forests ; while again, on the other hand, it has been observed that where large tracts of country have been laid under a crop of trees, and which, previous to this having been done, were designated dry and comparatively unproductive parts, small streams of water have been found where none formerly existed, and the general nature of the districts has been improved to such an extent that they have become highly favor- able for agricultural purposes, and hence more able to sustain an increased population. I now note a few of the influences which would flow to this country by extensive planting on its surface. Trees would give Sheltey.—In the agricultural parts of this colony, especially in the Northern Areas, where extensive tracts of most excellent country are open to every blast of wind which blows, it is self-evident that the planting of belts of trees in different directions through them would have a most beneficial influence on the crops which are produced upon the ground. The direct result of such belts would be that the hot winds, which at present are the scourge of the country so far as their effects upon vegetation are concerned, would, if they were not in time subdued altogether, be at all events considerably softened by coming in contact with the cooler atmosphere arising from the damper surface of the ground shaded by the trees, and therefore pass harmlessly over the country; and thus the crops would not only be more certain, but would grow more luxuriantly, and consequently the yield would be propor- tionately larger. Again, another important result which would arise to the agricultural community from the planting of trees on the plains would be, that shelter would be given to stock both from the hot winds of summer and the storms and cold blasts of winter. Our Soil would be Improved.—To have good agricultural soil, we must have a large proportion of vegetable matter in it. With this fact before ‘us, it is at once apparent that the annual deposit of the leaves and bark TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 5 of trees on the ground which they occupy, must enrich it to a very con- siderable extent. This vegetable matter becomes decomposed and amalgamated with the soil, and thus the surface soil becoming of a porous and absorbent nature, the rain is retained and stored up for the use in dry weather of the plants growing upon it. Moreover, on soils of a stiff and clayey character, the roots of trees planted upon them would penetrate and ramify in all directions through them, and thus not only act as a subsoiler in breaking up the hard pan below for the easier entrance of the small fibrous roots of cereals and other agricultural crops, but at the same time would open up a way for the percolation and retention of the water which would otherwise flow along the surface and find its level elsewhere, without being retained for the after and gradual use of the plants growing upon them. Less Evaporation would take place.—It is, perhaps, almost superfluous to remark, that very great evaporation takes place all over the colony at all seasons of the year, from the thoroughly exposed character of the country generally to the full power of the sun’s rays. In consequence of this, what rain falls upon the ground is, almost as soon as it reaches the ground, again taken up into the air by evaporation, without being retained in the soil for the use of the crops growimg upon it. Even on those parts of the country which are under indigenous forests, from the scattered and generally sparse crop of trees constituting these, together with the peculiarly characteristic feature of the Australian trees, affordin but little shade to the ground—owing to upright habit of the foliage — evaporation goes on in a very rapid manner. It is chiefly to these causes alone that I attribute the fact of there being so few never-failing creeks and rivers in this colony. Now, were there judiciously laid-out planta- tions all over the country, and the trees constituting them being at such distances apart and of such kinds as would effectually shade the ground from the sun, and prevent evaporation toa large extent from these parts— or at least in a much slower manner than is done at present—the rain would have time and opportunity to be absorbed into the ground, and by percolating to considerable depths, come out again at a lower level, and thus cause streams of water where none exist at present, and so on from place to place, keeping up a general degree of humidity to refresh and encourage the growth of vegetation. ‘ On the other hand where forests have been felled, and the surface left exposed, great evaporation takes place; and the rainfall which formerly went to feed streams has been carried away, and these hive in conse- quence dried up. Destructive Floods would be avoided.—Sudden, and therefore damag- ing, floods, are characteristic features of the climate of this colony. This is to be expected, and can be easily accounted for. The surface of the country being very much exposed to the sun’s rays, becomes baked and parched: and, in consequence, when heavy rains come on, the soil not being open and porous, these flow along the surface of the ground and accumulating in the hollows, rush downwards, causing inundation and ruin in their course.’ B 6 TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. To mitigate these floods very considerably there are two courses open to us, viz. :-—Ist, by an extended system of arable farming ; and 2nd, by planting large masses of trees. Sars First then, as to the benefits to be derived from more extensive tillage operations. It has been remarked to me that, of late years, not only has the rainfall in the colony been as much as it used to be when larger forests existed in the country than there are in it at the present time,’ but that even the floods are not now so extensive ‘as they were. These facts are accounted for thus :—Now that considerable portions of the country have been put under the plough, and the soil become broken up and rendered more porous by cultivation, the results are :—(1.) The rains are absorbed by the loose soil as they fall, and, being percolated gradually through it to considerable depths, are retained and diffused over the country in small streams. (2.) The water being absorbed b the soil, more vapour is generated in the surrounding neighborhood, and consequently the air becomes more moist, and forms an attraction for rain clouds; thus more rain falls upon the ground than formerly; and (8), the rain being taken into the soil and given out gradually as ex- plained above, the accumulation of large bodies of water by it when heavy showers take place is reduced to a minimum. ‘Therefore, it will be found that as the country becomes more settled, and a greater extent of its surface is broken up, so in proportion will the chances of sudden floods be reduced. ~ Secondly, as to the effects which large masses of trees have in the mitigation of floods. These are (1) by the shelter and annual deposit of vegetable matter to the soil, this is rendered looser on the surface, and of a more absorbent nature, and thus when rains come the water is quickly taken into the ground, and is given off gradually in the form of a watery vapour, exhaled from the leaves of the trees, and by the means of small streams. In this way, in the immediate neighborhood of ex- tensive tracts of forest country, the danger of sudden floods is very much diminished. As an illustration of the very absorbent nature of the soil which is shaded by trees, I would instance the extensive forests of Canada as a case in point, where I have seen it rain heavily for ten hours at a time, and still there would not be any appreciative rise in the rivers.’ Here, then, we see that instead of a destructive flood arising, the rain was stored up in the earth for supply during dry weather. In’ the early days of American settlement, when the country was densely covered with forests, such a thing as a flood was but little known. Now, however, in those parts of the country where extensive clearances have ‘taken place within the last century, floods of fearful magnitude occur, which are the means annually of sweeping off hundreds of lives and thousands of pounds’ worth of property. I cannot but quote here from an excellent essay written by an American lately on this subject.— Now, a body of timber is especially adapted for the retention of the rainfall. Suppose twelve inches of water falls in an open country, and the same amount in a forest in twenty- four hours. In the former instance, though the ground may be dry, it is impossible for it to take in this amount—probably not more than four TREK CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 7 or six inches. Now multiply the area of the watered region by six inches, and you have a flood of fearful magnitude—especially if the- country is rolling. ‘ “Let the same amount fall in a forest. You watch it as it falls. Ten thousand leaves on every tree catch and hold the drops, and when they. strike the ground there are six inches of leaf-mould, and the ground itself for a foot in depth is very porous, the leaves hold it till the ground drinks it in; the old rotten logs are all like sponges, and if the ground mulch cannot retain it, all the roots seem to build dams to obstruct it, and though so much rain has fallen the streams are hardly swollen. And now we see the design of this surface cistern. The water begins to ooze out by slow degrees, and when the streams of the open country have run themselves dry, and the ground is baked for the want of more rain, the wood-fed streams are in their full flow. The navigation of our finest rivers is already affected by thoughtless destruction of the forests. When will man learn that God made trees for more purposes than the lumber in them.” Our Rainfall would be Equalised.—In this colony, the climate of which is considered very dry, nearly as much rain falls within the twelve months as there falls within a same period in some countries which are really humid ones. In moist climates we find that on nearly three- fourths of the days of the year rain falls more or less. In this country, again, there are at least three-fourths of the twelve months which. are entirely cloudless. And still the rainfall in both instances is not in like manner disproportionate so far as the total’ amounts for the year are concerned. These appear somewhat contradictory statements, but yet they are approximately correct for many cases which could be cited. The reason of the difference is not that the one country lies perhaps in the northern hemisphere and the other in the southern, or that the one may be 15 degrees nearer the equator than the other. No; the grand secret is that the country which has its rainfall spread over the whole year is thickly covered with trees, while in the case of our colony there is a very small proportion of its area occupied by forests. In two or three hours in this country as much rain will: fall as would occupy two days steady drizzling in Great Britain. More Rain would Fall—That this would be the result of extensive planting in the colony there is no doubt. Reliable experiments and observations have shown clearly that this is invariably the case where large bodies of plantations are formed. To put the matter specifically we find (1) from the shade given by the trees the temperature of the earth is lowered; (2) the atmosphere hovering immediately above the trees is in consequence also lower than that in any part of the country adjoining which may be clear of vegetation; consequently it follows (3) that if hot winds blow over a plantation they will be cooled down and their moisture condensed upon coming in contact with the cool humid atmosphere hanging about the trees, and as their power of holding water in a condition of vapor is sensibly diminished in a certain ratio according to the fall of temperature, the result is a deposit on the ground of either rain, mist, or dew; and again (4) clouds containing vapour, which have 8 TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. blown over dry ground heated by the sun, where the air is in conse- quence highly rarified and warmer than the clouds, these dissolve them- selves and vanish; but should these clouds come in contact with the cooler air above masses of trees they become overcharged with moisture, and rain is the result. ; Arid Tracts would be Improved.—We have seen that the planting of large bodies of trees has the indirect influence of attracting rain-clouds to the sites occupied by them, and that the atmosphere generally about woodlands is in a continual state of moisture by transpiration from the pores of the leaves, and by a certain amount of evaporation caused by the heat of the sun. From this then, it will at once be seen, that by planting arid tracts of land with properly proportioned belts of timber here and there through them, the result is (1) lower temperature, (2) arrest of hot winds, (3) shelter, (4) more frequent rains, and (5) a more humid climate generally, thus making such tracts of country suitable for agricultural purposes. We would have a more Hunud Climate.— A humid climate is a result and component part of the whole system of the different influences of trees _ upon climate which have already been explained. Water is sucked up from the soil by the roots of the trees, and is exuded again in the form of vapour from the stomachs on the back of the leaves ; this rises into the air and forms itself into clouds, and, if not deposited again on the ground as rain by some counterbalancing atmospheric influence, is wafted across the country, cooling the air and keeping up a supply of heavy dews, which refresh and invigorate vegetable life. While again, the humidity of the climate is maintained from the simple fact that the green moist foliage of the trees constituting the forests has the well- known tendency of preventing the increase of the sun’s rays by radiation, and thus reducing the chances of evaporation. ‘The Landscape would be Improved—How different the contrast of appearance between a country well stocked with trees and one bare of these. The one looks clothed and picturesque, while the other has that barren unproductive look which wearies the eye. Besides, in a com- mercial point of view alone, there exist strong arguments in favor of trees. In the one case we have luxuriant crops, and fine arborous retreats for stock, while in the other both stock and crops are subject to all the changes of the weather, and look stunted and unhealthy. Unhealthy Districts would be made Habitable—Leaves of trees purify the air by absolving the carbonic acid gas thrown into the air by the breath of animals, and from the various forms of decomposition in nature. ‘They separate the carbon from the oxygen, retaining the first as food for themselves and emitting the other for sustaining animal life. In low-lying and swampy parts of a country, where rich organic mould has been accumulating for thousands of years back, thereby promoting ‘a rank growth of aquatic vegetation, gases arise which have a very ‘deleterious effect upon animal life, and produce insidious and mortal ‘diseases. This is counteracted by the planting of certain kinds of trees ; notably that of the Tasmanian blue gum / Eucalyptus globulus). There is great room for the researches of science in this matter yet; but that TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 9 the effect is produced is a fact beyond dispute, and one which has of late years enabled certain districts in different parts of the world to be made habitable and productive. From these statements, therefore, we see that a judicious distribution of plantations on an extensive scale would be the means of improving the climate of South Australia, of greatly increasing the quantity and quality of her agricultural products, and of promoting prosperity in every department of her industries. Will this not induce all who can do so to plant on their land? Let us be up and doing therefore. Every tree planted in a country such as this is like a nail in the construction of a house—one step further towards unity of parts and general strength in one grand whole. “Hpo" CHAPTER. HL - Planting on the Sea-coast. TueERE is no doubt that planting on the sea-coast is a work of very great difficulty, and consequently it is often attended with many disap- pointments when undertaken. This is especially the case in this climate, where, besides the usual drawback of the situation to contend with, there is the no less difficult one of the extreme dry weather in summer to be considered. However, by care, attention, and some nursing during the first two or three years of the plantation’s existence, a fair result may at all times be looked for. Of course, it must always be understood that in planting near the sea, it is seldom indeed that the result will ever be good timber trees. Ligneous growths, as a rule, are very shy of the blasting influences of the sea breezes, and we invariably find that even those kinds of trees which grow in such sites are liable to become somewhat stunted, and show a tendency to a crouching habit, as if they shrunk from and tried to throw off the cold and withering winds charged with saline matter. This dislike of trees to the sea-coast is quite apparent from the fact that we find the greater extent of sea-coast barren, and generally devoid of these. The grand object in seaside planting is to secure shelter either to houses, stock, or crops. Many places on the coast which would otherwise be uninhabitable from their exposure to the sea-breeze, have been converted into pleasant and beautiful abodes by careful and well-executed planting. To do this, however, requires a greater amount of skill and practical oversight than planting trees under any other condition which will come within the planter’s experience. Little assistance will be derived from nature, so that the best of artificial means must be applied to the subject in order to arrive at the object aimed at. As a rule, also, it will be found that planting on the sea-coast is con- siderably more expensive work than the operation of planting is in more inland parts of the country, and this from a greater preparation of the ground and the erection of guards being necessary. The formation of sea-side plantations has been carried out very successfully in some parts of Scotland, in France, and at the Cape of Good Hope, and although these have, generally speaking, been carried out under very unfavorable circumstances in regard to soil, salt water, and strong winds, several of them have flourished in a remarkable manner, and given every satisfaction. In the Gulf of Garcony, in France, over 13,000 acres of poor open sandy waste have been put under a very thriving crop of Pinus Pinaster. This was done by simply sowing TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 43 the seed of the tree, mixed with seed of the broom (2lbs. of the former to 5lbs. of the latter to an acre) in lines, and covering the ground with pine and furze branches to protect the seed until it germinated, and afterwards until the young plants had attained strength to withstand the vicissitudes of the site. The broom was sown in order to give some shelter to the young pines until they made some headway, when the latter eventually overtopped and killed the former. This system is worth trying here, and I have no doubt but that where the soil is not of too drifty a character, and the site not too much exposed to the direct blasts of the sea, fair results would be obtained by it. It has also been tried with good results on the flats of sand towards Wynberg, at the Cape of Good Hope. There, however, the, planting the trees directly into their sites from the nursery has also met with success. In Scotland, the plantations on sea-side sites are always formed of young plants from the nursery, specially prepared with strong sturdy stems, plenty of fibrous roots, and of a hardy constitution ; and I am of opinion that this is the most certain, and, in the end, expeditious manner of forming plantations of the kind in this country. I shall now, therefore, give a few general directions as to how the operations connected with the formation of plantations on our sea-coast should be conducted in order to a fairly successful issue. _ , The Choosing of the Site.—There is, of course, great differences in the soil, subsoil, and exposure of localities on the sea-coast which are not far from one another. This is, I think, more marked as a rule than in inland situations. Some have a good clay-loam throughout, with a fair amount of shelter from the wind by the ground sloping inland from the sea bank; while others have a soil of a very poor drifting sandy loam, with an exposed aspect to the sea. Again, there are the several intermediate sites between these two, so that much variety of material consequence exists in this way. Of course, there may sometimes be a considerable tract of sea-coast which it is desired to have put under a crop of trees, which possesses all the variety of sites named. In any case, however, the site chosen for the first planting operations should be selected with the twofold view of making an encouraging beginning and of affording shelter to other plantations to be afterwards formed. Preparation of the Soil—Much of the success will depend upon whether this be done properly or not. Where the soil is ofa clayey nature, I would advise that, if practicable, the whole of the ground enclosed be ploughed and subsoiled toa depth of at least sixteen inches. If the soil is naturally of a wet and sour nature, a few open drains should be run through it, so that it may become pervious and sweet to the rootlets of the young trees. The ground having been all dealt with as advised, the next operation will be the opening of the holes for the plants. These should be about two and a-half feet wide on top, two feet in depth, and they ought to be kept open for a month or two before planting, in order that the soil may become thoroughly loose and nicely pulverised before being put round the roots of the trees. In opening the holes, the top soil should be carefully kept on one side, and not mixed with that of the subsoil, and afterwards it should be put as the top covering to 44 TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. the roots, when the trees are planted. Where there isa dense mass of native vegetation, it will be found that considerable difficulty will _be ex- perienced in rearing flourishing plantations on the site, as this will take up all the nourishment to the exclusion of the young trees. Where the soilis of a clay nature, this herbage will of course be destroyed by the ploughing, as advised; but where the site is of a sandy nature and liable to drift, the herbage is of course of value to prevent the soil from shifting, and it should therefore be retained. In this case, therefore, it is advisable to destroy the herbage immediately round the plants only, and to leave the ground betwixt the rows in a perfectly undisturbed state. In sandy sites, the holes for the plants need not be opened until planting season ; they should, however, be of about the same size as recommended for clayey soils. Kinds of Trees to Plant.—There is, unfortunately, not a very extensive selection of trees which are known to do well in situations near the sea- coast. Such as I shall give, however, have been well tried in different parts of the world, and may, therefore, be accepted as suitable for the purpose. (See Chapter XXXYV. for this list.) Description of Plants.—For sea-side planting it is necessary to success that the plants used be specially prepared for the purpose, so that they may possess plenty of strong fibrous roots, be well-branched, sturdy, and have a hardy constitution. It would be mere waste of money and labor to plant trees on such sites which have been tenderly reared and nourished. This is a matter of very great importance, and ought never to be neglected in the formation of sea-side plantations. All the deciduous trees, and others which will bear moving readily, should be .transplanted fice in the nursery before they are put out into their permanent sites, and the second operation of this kind ought to be in an open piece of ground, where they should stand well clear of one another in the rows in order that they may get well-branched and symmetrical inshape. Again, where the plants have to be grown in pots, they should be re-potted two or three times, and on each occasion into a pot of a larger size than the previous one. The plants must not be allowed to get pot- bound. Plants of this class should also be reared in the open-air as much as possible, and in an open and somewhat airy place. When to Plant.—The trees to be planted on such sites, being Conifere and Deciduous kinds chiefly, and hardy, may be put out in their sites immediately after the rains of winter have fairly begun, say about the middle of June; but this, of course, will depend very much upon the local climate of the district in which the planting is to be done. If planted early in the season the trees will have all the better chance of getting settled down into their sites, so that they may be ina position to make an early start in spring, and thus get thoroughly established in the soil before the summer droughts set in. How to Plant—Too much care cannot be displayed in the operation of planting the young trecs out into their sites. Some nicely prepared soil, with a little manure in it, should be put all round the roots of the plants as they are inserted; indeed, if possible, the holes made for the trees in very sandy sites should be filled up chiefly with prepared soil of TI © eee : ar fe SPHLERR UH r Fic lo. TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 45 this kind, together with ordinary black loam. The roots of the trees must not be long exposed to the sea breeze, as the small spongioles or spongy tissue at the end of the roots, through which nourishment is conveyed to the plant, will otherwise soon get dried up, and failure will follow. The system of “ puddling,’”’ which is elsewhere explained in these pages, should especially be applied in the treatment of trees for sea-side plantations. Distance Apart to Plant.—This should not be more than 8ft., plant from plant, in the plantation grounds. On the outside of the plantation, or that nearest the sea, a belt of say one chain in breadth should be formed of commoner kinds of trees and shrubs, put in at 5ft. apart, in order to come up quickly and form a break-wind to the more valuable kinds. to leeward. Break-Winds.—In seaside planting, of whatever description, it is indispensably necessary to protect the young plants for a while until they get established in the ground, and become of such heights and strength as will admit of their resisting the effects of the vicissitudes of the site. There are many ways of doing this; and of course much will depend on the size of the plantation, as well as the kind of material at hand for the purpose, as to what kind of structure should be erected. One of the best and least expensive materials for the purpose is the common brush- wood which is always to be found on our coasts. This can be worked up into excellent screen-fences by driving stakes into the ground at every 10ft. (these to stand 7ft. out of the ground), with three wires run through them at about 2ft. apart. The brush can then be laced into the wires like hurdle-work. with the ends of the lower tier sunk 6in. or 8in. into the ground. Or it can be piled up to a height of 6ft. to 7ft., in regular bush-fence fashion, with stakes driven into the ground on both sides to keep it stationary. Much, of course, will depend upon the character of the site—whether it be more than usually exposed, or the reverse—as to the number of screen fences which it may be necessary to erect in a plantation, but I can only say that if the brushwood is plentiful, the more fences there are put up the better will it undoubtedly be for the young trees. The first and largest fence should be run close to the sea-margin of the plantation, and in a line parallel with the sea- line; the second fence parallel to the first, and about 200ft. from it; the third, 300ft. from the second; the fourth, 500ft. from the third (each time increasing the distance between the fences as they get further from the coast); and so on through the whole plantation if it is very much exposed, or, if it is not of this character, until fairly sheltered ground is reached, when the screen may be discontinued altogether. In very sandy sites, where there is likely to be a drift, bushes should be laid all over the surface of the ground until the plants get a fair size and cover the space betwixt the rows. In Fig. 10 I give a rough sketch of plantation on sea-coast, showing brush-screens as described above. Cleaning and Muiching.—The soil should be frequently stirred about the roots of the young trees, and afterwards carefully mulched before summer, all in the manner elsewhere described in this work. CHAPTER XVIII. Ss Osier Planting. THERE are many spots in the colony where osiers could be grown to great advantage and profit to the owner. At present the making of basket- ware is not one of our industries, but when we think of the large num- ber of baskets which could be utilised in the shipping of fruit and potatoes to our local and foreign markets, it is, I think, a matter of sur- prise that the subject has not been taken up before now. Feeling con- vineed, however, that it will ere long receive that amount of public attention which it here deserves, I devote a short chapter to some recommendations regarding the formation of oszer beds. The Osters (salix—trom the Celtic sai, near, and fix, water) are a genus of plants indigenous chiefly to the continents of Europe and America. The family is a very numerous one, and possesses many varieties closely allied to one another. The term ‘‘ willow” is applied to the same genus. Some members of the family attain to the size of trees, and produce timber valuable for works requiring soft woods. The species most suitable for the purpose of osier plantations in this country are the following :— Saha Viminalis, or common osier.—This is the common willow of Europe, and is extensively cultivated as an osier. For wickerwork and hoop-making the shoots are unequalled. A rapid grower, and easily pro- pagated from cuttings. Sahz Stipularis, or the auricle-leaved osier.—In Holland this species is largely cultivated for the making of hoops and rods. Salic Rubra, or green-leayed osier—A very tough species, now in general use, and a rapid grower ; suitable for crates, basket, and wicker- work. Salix Forbyana, the fine basket osier. A strong, pliable, and easily worked species ; valuable for the finer sorts of wickerwork. Salix Triandra, the long-leaved osier.—This is a very common kind, and is grown for basket and hoop-making. Shoots grow 9ft. long in one season. Salix Purpurea, or the bitter willow.—A very tough willow, and used for withes and baskets. It is bitter to the taste, and hence is not liable to be eaten by insects. This kind will grow in sites constantly covered with water. Prefers soils somewhat light, and not retentive or clayey. In suitable spots makes a quick-growing and valuable hedge or screen. TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 47 Osiers must have plenty of moisture to succeed well and grow to per- fection. Unless they have this, it is useless to attempt to grow them. They succeed best upon soils of a deep, loose, strong loam, with a retentive subsoil, such as we invariably find where water lodges. They also, how- ever, grow well on soils of a poorer and lighter character, so long as there is plenty of moisture in the subsoil, although, in this case, the crop will not be in such bulk and to such perfection as in the other case re- ferred to. An excellent site for an osier bed is on a flat with high grounds all round it, from which moisture is supplied to the plants by gravitation. Perhaps, however, the best site of all is on the banks of a river near the sea, which are subject to tidal overflow. Onsuch a site the beds are supplied with plenty of water and manure in the shape of mud-sediment, from which cause a great growth ensues, and notwith- standing frequent cuttings, no deterioration of the crop takes place. As a rule, osier beds, if properly planted and managed, will last from 30 to 70 years, according to the quality of the soil, without renovation, except by oceasional mending. In this remark I, of course, refer to my experience of osier plantations in Europe; but at the same time, I think that the remark will apply to them in this country as well. The preparation of the ground previous to its bemg planted is an important matter to the after success of the crop. No expense should, therefore, be spared in order to give it full justice in this respect. The soil must be made loose, and entirely free from obstructions in the way of stones, tree-roots, &c., &c.; and in order to do this, it should be carefully trenched to a depth of from 18 to 24in. In very wet and cold places the ground should be drained. The ground properly prepared, as advised above, the osiers may then be inserted in their sites. It is usual to put cuttings in instead of plants, and these should consist of strong young wood, about din. to lin. thick, and about ldin. to 18in. in length. The cuttings should be procured at the season of the year when the trees have cast their leaves and their vitality is in a dormant state. The sets should be inserted in the ground to a depth of from 10in. to 12in., and placed in rows 2ft. to 24ft. apart, with the sets 18in. from one another in therows. It is absolutely necessary to plant them at this short distance apart, in order that the shoots may become straight and slender, and therefore fit for the purposes of basket-making. If the shoots are not very strong the first year, they should be allowed to remain for a season in order to strengthen the stocks. In cutting the first crop, care must be taken to leave several buds on the stocks. In after-cuttings the shoots should be removed close to those parts. Of course, as to how long they should remain on the stock, much will depend upon the purpose for which the shoots are intended; if for common basket-work, one year’s growth will suffice; but if they are to be used for hoop-making, &c., two, and perhaps three years’ growth will be necessary. The crop should be cut after the leaves have fallen. After the crop has been removed, the ground all round the stocks should be dug, manured, and otherwise carefully attended to. CHAPTER XIX. mL OOo Planting on Ground lately Cleared of Trees. Trezs must be looked upon by the forester in many respects the same as the farmer views a cereal crop. No intelligent agriculturist would think for a moment of cropping a piece of ground with the same kind of plant for several years without some period of rest to the land, in order to return somewhat of the various constituents taken from it by his crop. We, of course, know it is done, but then we are also painfully aware what the result is. Land cropped with trees or wheat—it matters not which it may be—requires some systematic course of treatment after one crop is taken from it before another is made to take its place. Where trees have stood thickly for a long series of years upon a piece of ground, and then felled, it is found that from the large deposit of vegetable substances upon the soil, together with the fact that it has not had the salubrious influences of the sunlight upon it for many years, the site has become somewhat uncongenial to the health and growth of a younger crop of trees. In this country, the crop of indigenous trees is, generally speaking, very sparse upon the ground, and consequently, plenty of light penetrates through the foliage to the soil; there is less fear therefore of bad results flowing from replanting ground here which has been recently denuded of its crop of trees. It-may have been noticed, however, that where eucalypti have grown for any great length of time, the soil becomes hard and of a sour and uninviting appearance round the trees ; it is therefore generally unsuitable for early replanting. The roots of old trees and stumps are a means of encouraging insects on the ground, which attack the young trees and prey so much upon their vitality that they become of a very sickly appearance, and eventually die. After the ground has been cleared of its old crop, the branches and other debris left should be spread over the part, so as not to have too much of it upon any one spot, and at a suitable’ season the whole should be thoroughly burned. Where by chance any fire of more than ordinary size has occurred, the ash deposited upon the site should be spread over the adjoining ground, so that no heavy deposit of it is left upon any one spot. This is necessary, as, although a small quantity of ash is of great service to young plants, a heavy dose of it will kill them. TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 49 This done, I would advise that the ground be then thoroughly ploughed as far as possible to a good depth, and afterwards summer- fallowed (say by two ploughings and harrowings) one or two seasons, in accordance with whether the old crop was thick upon the ground or not. If the ground cannot well be spared lying idle for such alength of time, it may be cropped once with nice clean wheat, which should be taken off in the form of hay, and then ploughed, harrowed, and ploughed again that season before it is planted with trees. By this time the soil will have become nicely mellowed, and the rain having percolated through it charged with the sweetening and renovating gases from the atmosphere, it will now be fit for planting purposes once more. Where the situation is of such a character as will not admit of its being ploughed and treated in the manner just described, the following mode of procedure must be adopted :— After the site has been’ freed of all the branches and other rubbish left upon it from the old crop, holes or pits for the young trees should be prepared as early as possible, so that they may lay open for a period of not less than three or four months before planting. In making these pits great care should be exercised to see that all the old roots are removed for some distance round the space to be occupied by each plant, and that they are at once burned or otherwise removed from the ground. These pits ought not to be less than 30in. square on top, and about 20in. in depth. Should the ground be more than usually hard round the spaces thus opened for the plants. it should be loosened on the surface with the pick for a breadth of about 2ft. round each hole. The plants used in a plantation of this kind, where the soil cannot be ploughed, should be of the very best description and possess plenty of fibrous roots, with a fine strong and healthy habit throughout. SlGSu8 FeO. H CHAPTER XxX. —~Seran~ Selecting Plants from the Public Nurseries, I will now endeavor to give a few practical hints on some matters which ought to be observed in the selection of plants from the public nurseries in the colony. As the operation of planting is somewhat expensive in this country, it is particularly necessary that every precaution be taken to ensure success the first season, so that little or no filling-up planting in after years will be required. A very great means towards this most desirable end is, therefore, the taking care to plant good strong healthy plants only. Of every hundred persons who plant in the colony, perhaps a proportion of something like ninety get their plants from our public nurseries. It is very important, then, that our nurserymen should sell the very best of stock only. The first thing to consider, when about to purchase trees, should be— Which nursery in the colony comes nearest in soil, situation, aspect, and elevation to the site you are about to plant? Having found this, then I would say, buy your trees there. This is a very important matter indeed, and ought never to be overlooked. At the present time it is never thought of, and hence no doubt bad results arise. What I mean to impress upon my readers in this paragraph is, that for healthy and generally satisfactory plantations the trees put out should, as far as possible, be reared in a soil and climate somewhat analogous to those of the site of the plantation. At least there ought never to be a very marked difference in these. Hence one very important point in favor of everyone growing their own plants. For instance, how absurd it would it be to plant a piece of poor sandy soil in a high-lying exposed country, with plants reared in a low-lying warm gully, where the soil is a deep black, rich loam, and the situation nicely sheltered from all storms and cold winds. This is apparent, and no further explanation is necessary. Plants reared in poor soils are always the best, and can be transplanted out into almost any kind of site, even into one at a high elevation. For the formation of plantations in exposed situations, choose plants of a strong, bushy, and generally healthy appearance. Allow no pruning of the trees before they leave the nursery, nor until after the first year from date of planting. TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA, 71 All open-root plants should have plenty of fibrous roots, and in the case of the slower-growing kinds, they should be transplanted once in the nursery lines before they are put out into the plantations. If, however, they are only required for lining out in the nursery at home, then, of course, one-year seedlings will be sufficient for this purpose. Great care is necessary in the selection of plants in pots. The follow- ing are some of the principal points to be attended to in their purchase : —aAvoid such as are drawn up and spindley. A very large proportion of potted plants are of this character; I have seen plants in a 4in. pot stand 30in. high, with their foliage of a pale, yellow-green colour, showing disease and general weakness. Still, it must be admitted that trees of this class are planted and yet do well. It would be unwise; however, to conclude from this that spindley trees are the proper kind to purchase. No man knowing anything at all about the physiology of plants would suppose so for one moment. They, of. course, succeed at times by great care and attention in staking, watering, &c., combined with the excellent character of the climate, which does much to push forward the tenderly-grown plant into full life and renewed action, even under most disadvantageous circumstances. Pines are often kept in small 4in. pots for two, and even sometimes three years. These are really not worth planting, and should, in my opinion, be burned as worthless stock; at all events, let me strongly advise my readers to avoid purchasing them. Pines and gums should not be longer than nine or ten months in the pots, and at the time of planting they ought not to be over 8in. or 12in. in height, and they should be wide-spreading and branchy, and have been reared the greater portion of the time in the open air and not under cover, as is too frequently done. Some nurserymen have a habit of “trimming,” as it is called, all deciduous trees as they are sent out of the nursery. This operation is carried out upon the roots of the plants as well as their side branches. The system is iniquitous, and cannot be too strongly condemned. As already explained under another heading of this work, such lateral shoots of the branches as show signs of interfering with the growth of the proper leader, should be shortened only before the plants leave the nursery; but, as for trimming up the roots, do it not at all, unless it be occasionally the shortening of a very strong tap-root, which may be devoid of fibrous roots, and therefore better cut off in order to encourage a flow of rootlets from the edges of the cut—which generally follows an operation of this kind. CHAPTER XXXVI. ~LHAGKRD-D The Different Methods of Rearing Young Trees in the Nursery. Auruoves, I daresay, the greater proportion of my readers will prefer to purchase their [plants from the public nurserymen rather than go to the trouble of rearing these themselves, still there will be a few who will reverse this condition of things; and for such I will now endeavor to give a brief description as to how a small nursery should be established, and trees reared in it under the different systems of culture now in vogue in the colony. The advantages arising from having small home nurseries cannot be too highly estimated. "When extensive planting is carried out, I do not know of any country in which these would be of more advantage and produce better results than this. The climate of our country is so dry that trees cannot be safely carried any great distance without bad results arising to them ; besides, treesreared in the neighborhood of the site which they are to occupy permanently, are much more valuable and more likely to succeed upon it than if they were grown some hundreds of miles away, in an entirely different altitude. and with different sur- roundings. Asa rule, however, I advocate farmers getting their plants from the public nurseries. In almost every farmer’s garden a suitable spot can be selected for a small nursery, and with a very little expense such appliances can always be erected upon it as will enable him to grow all the young trees he may require for planting upon his holding. Such a site as I refer to should, as far as possible, be somewhat sheltered, and have a soil of a free loamy nature. This should be well and regularly trenched to a depth of at least 24in., specially fenced off by wire netting and paling, (in order to pre- vent the inroads of poultrv), and afterwards laid out systematically with footpaths, and divided into equal-sized blocks. It is also an advantage to enclose the ground with a quick-growing hedge for shelter. On the north side of the ground thus laid off as a nursery, a Propa- gating Shed should be erected ; this to be of such a size as the requirements of the planter will necessitate. The structure may consist of split palings saplings, or “bamboo” reeds. The side facing the north should be oOo a {| MINT WHI | I!!| | | Fic 58. TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. “3 close fitting, in order to thoroughly protect the plants, which will be placed inside, from the hot winds coming from that direction. The top should consist of sliding shades, made of deal framework, with bamboo reeds nailed lengthways to it. These shades must be made portable, in order that they can be removed at will, and thus prevent the drawing up of the young plants, which,"as I have already pointed out, is very objection- able in the rearing of forest trees of any kind. Fig. 57 represents a Propagating Shed of the kind referred to ; Figs. 54, 55, and 56 show the mechanism of sliding frames for the top ; and Fig. 58 the ground-plan of the shed. A building of this kind is indispensable for the rearing of plants in a climate such as ours, and may be used for potting plants, and for the storage of such as may be of a somewhat tender nature. I shall now endeavor to give some general directions in regard to the rearing ef young trees. There are three ways of doing this, namely, (1) open root in the nursery-beds; (2) in pots: and (3) in bamboo reeds. Each of these systems has its special features and recommendations, and I propose, then, to describe the modus operandi of each separately, and at the same time to indicate the particular kinds of trees which are best reared under each one. I begin with that of— Plants Grown Open-Root. Briefly described, this consists of growing the plants in the open ground, without reference to any artificial aid for keeping the soil about their roots during the process of transplanting. This is the system in uni- versal application in Europe and America, and it is there found to be admirably adapted to the rearing of all kinds of plants, both evergreens and deciduous. Here, however, the system cannot have such general application as in more cold countries, owing to the quiescent stage of the growth of trees in this climate being uncertain in its duration and season, and also from the intensely drying nature of the air, to which it is at times dangerous to expose the tender roots of trees. Owing to the comparative mildness of the climate here all the year round, our evergreen trees, both indigenous and exotic kinds, do not seem to have any clearly defined period for ripening their young wood, and as these kinds of trees, if grown under the system of “open root,” must only be lifted when their growth is quiescent, the difficulty of applying it to trees of this class is at once apparent. Of course it can be done, and that successfully, as has been shown upon the Forest Reserves ; but without some good practical knowledge of plant physiology applied to the system, it is unsafe to extend it to planting generally in this country. The great point in transplanting evergreens which have been reared in this way, is to watch for the dormant season of their growth, and to plant them out in dull damp weather only, with their roots well puddled in earth and water. By attention to these matters of detail, good. results can always be obtained by the system here. 74 TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. The principal features in favor of open-root rearing of plants, where it cari be safely done, is that stronger, better-rooted, and much more healthy plants can be reared by it than by any other system. Frequent transplanting in the nursery lines induces the formation of a mass of fibrous roots, which will materially assist the plant in establishing itself on its new site in the plantation. a Owing, however, to the difficulties attending it which I have just pointed out, I do not recommend its adoption by our farmers to the evergreen class of plants. ‘ To all deciduous trees, however, the system should be universally applied. The seedlings may be grown thickly in boxes, or in open beds, according to the degree of hardiness of the tree, and transplanted out in the nursery during the rainy season—say in July or August. The plants should be put in at from 3in. to 8in. apart in the rows, according to their character and likelihood or otherwise to make good growths during the year. ‘The rows should be from 10in. to 18in. apart, being lessened or increased in accordance with the same rule. Room must always be given to the trees to make good strong stems, well covered with leaves and branchlets, and also to allow the soil about them being regularly hoed and all weeds kept under. Frequent hoeing during the summer time will encourage their growth and prevent unhealthiness arising from their closeness to one another. ; In “ lining out” or planting the young trees in this way, the operation should be conducted as follows:—The soil dug up and levelled, gently beat it down with the spade, and then stretch a garden line across the whole length of the block intended to be filled with the trees; this done, then make a cutting in the earth, along the said line, to the depth required by the length of the roots of the seedlings. This cutting should be nearly perpendicular, and as regular as possible. Remove the plants carefully from the sced-bed, and “ puddle” their roots at once; then lay them along the cut line, putting each one in separately and covering up the roots by the hand with as much soil as will keep the plants in position and prevent the roots from drying. The line all finished, dig the soil over the roots of the trees ; tramp firmly with the feet, then make up the space until it is a little broader than the required distance between the rows of plants; level and press with the spade, and cut edge as formerly; pro- ceed with laying in the plants, and so on from row to row, until the required number of plants are put in, all as represented in Fig. 59. Cuttings of trees should be lined out in much the same manner as described above. They should be cut from good strong young wood, of one or two years’ growth, from 9in. to 12.in in length, somewhat rounded at bottom and the top cut sharply upward, at an acute angle immediately above the bud in the wood (Fig. 60), and planted in the ground with the soil well-up to the bud, as shown in Figs. 60 and 61. In Fig. 62 I show the young tree beginning to form upon the cutting. When trees reared from cuttings are planted out into the plantations, they should be inserted in the ground in such a way that the whole of the cutting, and about an inch of the shoot, is buried in the soil—see Fig. 68. This is necessary for the proper support of the shoot. Mies fixe 59. ©. SPILLER, LITH TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA, 7 Plants Reared in Pots. This method of raising plants consists, as is well known, in growing them in earthenware pots instead of openly in the nursery ground. The method possesses many good points, while at the same time there are also several objections to its application to forestry under all circumstances. The special features in its favor are these:—All roots are carefully preserved; the plant can be moved from place to place to harden and thus made gradually suitable for exposed planting ; and it can be trans- planted at any season of the year, and in almost any weather, without feeling injurious effects therefrom. These are very valuable properties in favor of the system. The disadvantages of the system to the proper growth of forest trees are:—Should the plant be kept long in the pot, its roots get what is termed pot-bound: that is, the roots assume such a coil-like shape that no amount of after culture will remedy this; and when the tree is planted they take a purely downward tendency, without extending them- selves horizontally (which is their natural habit); thus they soon get down into the cold subsoil, and the tree often becomes stunted and unhealthy in consequence. Again, it is well known that trees which have stood long in pots, with the roots contracted in the manner described, are not able to support themselves properly in the ground, and often get blown down with ordinary winds when they attain to tree size. Be advised then, never to plant a young tree which has been long confined in a small pot. Owing to the nature of our climate making the quiescent period of evergreen trees somewhat uncertain, as has already been referred to in this chapter, the system of rearing plants in pots is peculiarly well adapted to trees of this class. To the ordinary run of farmers, plants in pots are much more suitable for their planting than those grown in any other way, because (1) they are less liable to injury from neglect previous to planting; and (2) they will bear bad planting better than open-root plants will do. At present, the only real drawback to their general adoption is their price, which, from the present limited demand, is higher than any farmer can afford to pay in the formation of a plantation of a few thousands of trees. This, however, will right itself as the demand for plants increases, and their sale upon a large scale will allow our spirited nurserymen to accept smaller profits. The pots used should not be less than those quoted as “ 4in.,” that is, having a diameter of 4in. inside at the top. Any size above this is, of course, preferable, and should be used if possible. Sizes 43in. and 5in. are very suitable for all practical purposes. ‘These cost from £5 to £6 per thousand. Plants for potting should be reared in small boxes ; brandy cases are very suitable for the purpose (Fig. 65). The process of * potting” should, if possible, be done in nice cool cloudy weather, and with soil of a fine sharp sandy-loam nature. The seeds may be sown in the boxes about March or April for transplanting into the pots in August or September; or they may be sown in September or October for potting in January. The plants will then remain some six or seven 76 TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. months only in the pots before they are put out into the plantation. Immediately the plants are potted they should be put under a frame made entirely of calico, or one of stonework with glass frame on top (Fig. 64), in the ordinary way, and kept nice and moist for some eight or ten days, until their roots have “struck”? once more. This can be judged by the appearance of the plants: if all right, they will stand upright and have no appearance of drooping. After the plants are considered secure in this way, they should be removed from the frame and “plunged” in the propagating shed. This plunging consists of packing the pots close together in nice loose sandy soil to their full depth, but closer than ‘is shown in Fig 66, in which position they should now remain until the summer moriths are over. It is as well to have beds specially prepared with concrete floors for this plunging, in order to prevent worms getting amongst the roots of the plants. Once every fortnight, or three weeks, the pots should be gently lifted and replaced in their positions again, so as to check any undue growth of the roots through the holes in their bottoms. Plants Grown in Eamboo Tubes. In the Forest Department of India, a system of rearing young plants in short pieces of bamboo cane, was introduced a good many years ago by a Captain Beddome, one of the conservators of forests there. This was found to be admirably suited for the purpose, and is thus briefly described in the Journal of Forestry for July, 1880 :—-“ Cut the bamboo of which estate baskets are made, and which is not more than an inch or two in circumference, into bits about three inches long. Place these pieces endways close together, in thousands, cover over with forest mould or fine soil and sow your seed. In this way there will be from one to three or four seedlings in each piece of bamboo. When carried out in the bits of bambvo the best plant can be left, the others being removed and utilised immediately or at a subsequent period.” When the subject of forest conservancy was first being mooted in this colony, His Excellency Sir Anthony Musgrave, the then Governor of South Australia, in a lecture on the subject, incidentally referred to Captain Beddome’s system, which he had heard of or seen carried into effect in India. The idea of trying to adopt the method to tree planting here was not, so far as I am aware, suggested at the meeting in question ; simply, I would suppose, from the want of bamboos wherewith to carry it into effect. The idea, however, occurred to Mr. Murray, who was subsequently appointed as conservator to the Forest Board, that the same results might be obtained by the use of small pieces of the well- known reed, arundo donax. Acting upon this notion, he had several pieces prepared, filled with fine soil, and gum seeds sown in them; and the result was such that on his appointment to the Forest Board he suggested that he might be allowed to apply the system to the planting on the Bundaleer Reserve, where the Board had just commenced opera- tions. This the Board allowed, and under the immediate supervision of Mr. John Curnow, nurseryman, the system has been carried out at Bunda- — SPILLER, LITH TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 7 leer with a certain degree of success in the raising and planting of eucalyptus plants. With pines it has proved a failure. I will now describe the system. The reed referred to farundo donax) is a native of the south of Europe, and is now seen growing luxuriantly in different parts of the colony. It can be cultivated here wherever there is moisture in the subsoil, although, of course, it prefers deep, moist, low-lying spots for quick and rapid growth. The roots (or cuttings) should be planted during the winter season, and may be planted in rows 3 to 4ft. apart. The ground should be cultivated about them occasionally, so as to encou- rage health and vigorous growth. The first year’s shoots will generally be found too small and slender for the purpose of forest-tree growing ; they should, therefore, be cut down two or three times during the season and removed. It should be remembered that the oftener the reeds are cut, the stronger will the growths become. The second year’s growths will generally be found suitable for the purpose of tree-rearing, and if the reeds have been planted ina congenial site, sometimes more than two cuttings may be obtained from the same stocks in one season. The young and tender growths should now there- fore be cut and stacked for a time until their woody matter has dried and become slightly hardened, after which they may be cut into the required lengths. All tubes should be cut and rotted twelve months before being used. This was not done at first, with the result that many plants died off from the reed not decaying in time to allow the full expansion of the stem. The operation of cutting the tubes should be done with a sharp saw, and the motive power may be by horse, water, or hand, in accordance with the number of tubes required. In the Forest Department Nurseries the work is performed by water-power chiefly. For all ordinary purposes, however, a very sharp small hand-saw will suffice. The tubes should be cut to about din. in length, and it is necessary for the proper working of them afterwards, that they be all as nearly equal in length as possible. When cutting them, the knots or junctions of the various growths should be left out as much as practicable, as shown in Fig. 71. Should reeds be scarce, however, these junctions may be utilised, and the woody matter afterwards cleared from within them by a long angular shaped tool such as is represented in Fig. 70, before they are made use of. The next operation consists in laying the tubes in position for the re- ception of the soil and seeds. There may be various ways of doing this according to the conveniences and appliances of the intending planter, but we have found the following to be a ready and inexpensive way of doing it:—Beds about 4ft. broad, 9in. deep, and of such lengths as may be required, are laid out in the nursery ground, with sides and bottoms of concrete or boards. These bottoms must be properly level in order to secure uniformity of surface on the top of the bamboos. An inch or two of good loamy soil should now be spread upon the bottom of the bed, 78 TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUdrHaAuLa. and the tubes then taken one by one and packed tightly together as shown in Fig. 67. This should be followed throughout until the bed is full; then afterwards (with a levelling tool, as shown in Fig. 69) the tops of the tubes should be gently pressed down until a level surface is obtained. Fine sharp forest-mould, having been previously kept perfectly dry, should now be filled into the bamboos in the following way :—With a sieve a man gently riddles the soil over the top of the tubes, while another man, with a strong piece of wood (Fig. 68) beats their tops until the soil is all shaken down into them. Great care must always be taken to see that the tubes are perfectly full of soil, otherwise bad results are sure to follow. The very best of seed having been procured, this should now be sown, by putting two or three seeds in each tube; afterwards, soil of the description already given should be riddled equally over the whole of the bed to a depth of somewhat less than half an inch and until the tops of the tubes are completely covered. Immediately after the sowing of the seed is completed, the whole of the bed should receive a good watering applied gently with a very fine hose. This watering should be repeated at least once a day (in the evening). The bed should now be protected during the day time by shades con- structed of bamboos or palings, as may be found most convenient, and erected some 6ft. from the ground on posts placed 8ft. apart along the edges of the beds. In rainy weather remove the shadings, as these will cause a “ drip” which will lift the soil and seeds out of the tubes. Indeed, until the seeds have germinated and the plants are secure in their tubes, care must be taken to see that the rain itself when heavy does not touch the beds, as the same result will follow. During heavy rains, a tarpaulin or piece of calico can be stretched over the beds for their protection. After the seeds have germinated, they should be carefully looked to, by watering in the evening and shading during dry and hot weather. In cool weather, however, all shades may be removed with advantage. When the plants have reached a height of half an inch or so (which should be regulated to take place about March or April) the process of sorting, thinning, checking, and hardening the plants will now take place. This consists in taking out the tubes with the hands, removing all superfluous seedlings, leaving one strong plant only in each tube, and after- wards packing them away close together in another concrete bed, but on a higher and drier site if possible. The plants will now grow slowly, and will thus become fine handy subjects for exposed planting by the month of July or August. Fic 69. £,SPILLER, LITH CHAPTER XXVII. S09 Trees Suitable for Cultivation in South Australia, with their Description, Soils wpon which they Grow, Uses of Timber, and Mode of Culture. THE capabilities of this colony in regard to the growth and profitable culture of exotic trees have not yet been clearly defined. The settlement of the country is of course of too recent a date for much to have been attempted in the introduction of trees from the forests of other parts of the world; yet more has been done in this way than may at the first glance appear. And while the work of introduction goes on apace each year, we have already such a number and variety of foreign species acclimatised as are sufficient to show us at least that our forests are capable of being permanently and profitably improved with these. So favorable are our soil and climate to some of the exotic trees that their annual growth with us is in several cases about three times greater than that which they attain in their natural state. Of course, this is. where they have been planted in specially suitable spots. The list which iam now about to give will embrace, besides those trees indigenous to the colony which are worth cultivation for their timber, only such exotics as are known to succeed well in our climate. While the list will deal chiefly with what are generally looked upon as forest trees, others, possessing ornamental attractions only, will also be included so as to make the work as comprehensively useful as possible. It must, however, at the same time be distinctly understood that the list is not a complete one as regards the trees suitable for ornamental planting in the colony, and that so far as trees of this class are embraced, it will deal only with such as are in most general request. The list will be taken up alphabetically, in accordance with the botanic names, and each tree will be briefly described and information given in regard to the soils and situations upon which it will grow, the economic uses of its timber, and the manner in which it should be propagated. In one or two cases a sketch showing a typical specimen will be given. Following out this course, I begin with :— ACACIA DECURRENS.— Willd. This is the well-known black wattle tree, which yields one of the tannic barks of commerce. According to Baron F. Von Mueller, the bark produces from 18 to 83 per cent. of tannic acid. The tree isa 80 TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA, rapid grower, and is indigenous to the coast country extending from ‘our south-east through Victoria, New South Wales, to Queensland ; 30ft. to 50ft. in height ; timber soft, and not durable. When young this is a very ornamental tree, afterwards it gets very straggling and rugged-looking. Should be cultivated for its bark. Luxuriates in sandy soils; will grow well in limestone country, and in fact there are few sites upon which it will not grow. = Sow the seed in the ground where the tree is to stand. ACACIA DEALBATA.—Link. The silver wattle, common to the plain and hills about Adelaide. It is simply a variety of the former. The bark is less valuable than that of the other. Makes a good ornamental tree for a few years. The remarks as to soil and culture given under 4. decurrens are appli- cable to this tree as well. ACACIA MELANOXYLON.—R. Brown. (Blackwood.) Indigenous to the cooler parts of our colony, and therefore well-known in the country. In the south-east attain heights of 50 to 60ft., and 3ft. in diameter. The timber is of excellent quality, being light, durable, and of good lateral strength, and is available for furniture-making. The tree must have a cool moist bottom, with a loamy soil, to do well in. Soak the seed in hot water, and sow in the plantation broadcast or in rows. ACACIA PYONANTHA.—Bentham. (Broad-leaved Wattle.) The great ‘mimosa”’ tree of commerce, and common to this colony and Victoria. The bark yields from 30 to 35 per cent. of the best tannic acid. Seldom attains a greater height than 20 to 24ft., grows rapidly, and may be cut for stripping purposes when five or six years of age. It Springs up spontaneously in nearly all parts of the country, even after the land has been cropped for many years in succession. I recommend its extensive culture on the poorer parts of our farms as a very remunerative crop. Seed can be collected almost anywhere. These should be well soaked in hot water (almost boiling) and sweated until quite soft, then sow at once. It isa good tree to rear as a “nurse” amongst more valuable kinds, or as break-winds and binders in drifting sands. , ACER PSEUDO-PLATANUS.—Linné. (Sycamore, or False Maple.) A well-known, deciduous tree, indigenous to Europe. The timber is -of good quality and suitable for implements, furniture, and turners’ work. Grows to over 100ft. in height, and is recommended as an ornamental tree. TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 81 The tree does not stand the hot winds well in the colony, but in sheltered spots, with a fair amount of moisture, it may be planted with a fair chance of success. Will grow on different kinds of soils—sandy, clayey, or loamy. Pro-- pagate from seeds; sow in rows, and transplant out into the nursery lines one year before putting out in the plantation. AILANTHUS GLANDULOSA.—Desf. (The Tree of Heaven.) A broad-topped deciduous tree suitable for ornamental plantations and avenues. Indigenous to China, grows 20ft. to 30ft. in height and 12in. to 24in. in diameter. Very large leaves, unequally pinnate, with long footstalks, and numerous flowers in a terminating pedicle. Wood hard, heavy, glossy like satin, and susceptible of a fine polish. (Loudon.) Arapid grower. Does well on any soil, and will grow on very poor ones. Suitable for planting on limestone or other calcareous soils. Propagate from cuttings of the roots, or by seeds sown in rows in the open nursery grounds. ARAUCARIA EXCELSA.—2. Brown. (Norfolk Island Pine.) As the name indicates, we have here a tree native of Norfolk Island, and popularly known as the pine of that island. We read of its attaining a height of over 220ft., and 8-1Uft. in diameter in that portion of the globe. For masts of ships and other purposes in connection with ship building, the timber is invaluable. (Mueller:) The straight, well-proportioned appearance of this tree, with its radiating branches are now well known in this country, to the soil and climate of which it appears to adapt itself readily. In the many gardens. in the neighborhood of Adelaide, some very fine specimens are now attaining good heights and diameters of stem. The tree is very accommodating in regard to soil and situation. It will grow in soil having a limestone subsoil, but it will become pre- maturely aged if this is not broken through, so as to make passage for the roots. It, of course, thrives best in warm, sheltered situations, with good soil and plenty of percolating moisture ; but in almost any situation the tree will make a strong effort to grow. Propagate from seeds, which should be sown as soon as possible after they are collected. ARAUCARIA CUNNINGHAMII.—dAiton. (Moreton Bay Pine.) From Moreton Bay, in Queensland. A peculiar tree with tufty branches, but withal a very ornamental species. According to Baron Mueller it attains a height of 130ft. The timber is vf fair quality, and is used by cabinetmakers chiefly. 82 TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Already in general use for ornamental planting about Adelaide, where it succeeds to the best of expectation. There are some very fine speci- mens about our principal gardens, some of which are over 80ft. in height. The tree delights in deep soil with good shelter, in which position it will grow rapidly and with every feature of health and strength. It will, however, also grow to good dimensions in somewhat exposed situations where the soil is even poor and calcareous. Raise from seeds, which sow immediately after collecting. ARAUCARIA BIDWILLII.—Hooker. (The Bunya Bunya Tree.) Queensland, between Brisbane and the Burnett River; grows 100 and 200ft. in height, and from 8ft. to 4ft. 8in. in diameter, (W. Hill.) There are extensive forests of the tree. A large massive looking tree of great beauty. Trunk straight; smooth bark ; branches in whorls like the spokes of a wheel. The tree produces large cones 9in. to 12in. in length, and 10in. in diameter ; seeds, 2in. to 24in. long and lin. broad, and largely used by the natives as food. Timber strong and good, with beautiful veins when polished. (W. Hill.) Grows freely in this colony. A little more fastidious in regard to soil and situation than A. excelsa, but still a hardy tree here, and worthy of extensive planting in ornamental grounds. Propagate from the seeds, and rear in pots. ARAUCARIA COOKII.—R. Brown. (Captain Cook’s Pine.) Indigenous to New Caledonia. A very large and beautiful tree, with great ornamental capabilities. Propagate from seed. The tree grows well in our climate. ARAUCARIA RULEI.— Mueller. New Caledonia. Baron Mueller says it is a magnificent tree, with large shining foliage ; doubtless not merely of decorative, but also of utilitarian value. Grown from seeds. CASUARINA QUADRIVALVIS.—La Billardiere. (The Sheaoak.) South Australia; height 20ft. to 30ft., with diameters of 18in. to 24in.; timber useful for axe-handles, wheel-spokes, furniture-making fencing, and firewood. This is a very handsome tree, and does well for planting in masses, to contrast with other kinds of trees in ornamental plantations. It grows freely in soils of the poorest description, and is particularly useful for planting in limestone country and on the sea-coast. Can readily be grown by simply sowing the seed in the plantation. When reared in the nursery the plants should be put in pots. 20. CEDRUS DEODARA. (Indian Cedar.) E.SPILLER LITH. TREE CULTURE IN soUTH AUSTRALIA $3 BIOTA ORIENTALIS.— Don. (The Chinese Arborvite.) China and Japan. Grows 20m. high: forms a dense pyramidal bush of great beauty. Suitable only for well-sheltered ornamental grounds in this country. It delights n good, deep, sandy-loam soils. CATALPA SPECIOSA. (The Catalpa Tree.) Indigenous to the middle states of America, where it forms a large tree of over 100it. in height and from 3it.to 4#t. in diameter at the base. It is of remarkable celerity of growth, almost equalling in that respect the eucalyptus family. The leaves are large and deciduous. The timber is very durable, and is now largely used for telegraph poles. rail- way sleepers. tence posts, and for machinery construction, The writer has a piece of timber in excellent preservation which had lain in the ground for some seventy-five vears. The tree is generally found on the banks of rivers, and in somewhat swampy places. 1. however, find it to do well here in all spots where the soil is deep and the subsoil cool. Where the soil is deep, rich, and kept constantly moist by percolation. and the site somewhat sheltered, it grows very rapidly i in this country. We have it in the Wirrabara Forest over 10ft. in height at eighteen” months old. The tree ns only lately been introduced to the forest reserves. and, so far, it shows to be a great success. Propagate from seed—which should be sown in the spring. and the plants transplanted out into the nursery rows one season before putting out into the plantation. CEDRUS DESODARA—Lsudon. (The Deoiar, or Indian Cedar.’ On the Himalaya Mountains in India. at elevations ranging from 3,000ft. to 12,000%t. above the sea. In these regions we find it inter- mixed with Abies Smithiana, Picea pindrow. and Pinus longifolia. A majestic and finely-proportioned tree. Foliage a light :parkling green. If allowed plenty of room, throws out great lateral branches. bending down and lying upon the ground. Sketch of young tree given on opposite side. The timber is of a light vellow color, close grained, agreeably scented, light, extremely durable, well-resisting the Vicissitudes of a variable climate. and furnishes one of the best building timbers known. Pillars of Kashmir Mosques of this wood are found sound after £00 years, and bridges of sti!l greater antiquity are in existence. White ants hardly ever attack the heart wood. Boats built of this wood last forty years. Tt is also used extensively for canai edges and for railways. (Baron F. Von Mueller.) The tree is not too particular as to the kind of soil in which it will grow. It will thrive in both light and strong soils: but these must 84 TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA, never lie on a retentive subsoil, or be in a wet spot. If they do, the tree will die. Give it a deep soil, with plenty of moving moisture, and a good result will follow. Of course, from its natural habits, the tree likes a high elevation. Our mountain ranges and gullies are well suited for its cultivation. There are some very fine specimens now growing at Highercombe ; one of these covers a space of over 60ft. in breadth. Propagate from seed. Sow thinly in boxes and transplant into pots in the way already directed. CEDRUS LIBANI.—Barrelier. (The Cedar of Lebanon.) Mount Lebanon, in Syria; 100ft. in height; grand and majestic ; great spreading branches; one of our best ornamental trees. See other side. Timber soft, reddish, very durable, and much used in ancient times in the building of mosques, &c. : Will grow in almost any kind of soil so long as it is deep, open, and free from retentiveness below. It must, however, have shelter and elevation in this country to do well. Raise from seeds and rear in pots. CEDRUS ATLANTICA.— Manetii, (The Mount Atlas Cedar.) In Barbary, on the Mount Atlas Mountains; at elevations 7,000ft. to 9,000ft.; attains over 100ft. in height; timber of excellent quality and durable. A very ornamental tree, and deserving of cultivation. It resembles C. Inbani to a great extent when young, although much freer of growth and of a more upright habit than that cedar. To plant it successfully, it should have a somewhat sheltered situation, and soil of a deep porous, marly loam. It will, however, as a rule, grow in most soils not of a retentive nature. Propagate from seeds. Raise the plants in pots. CUPRESSUS SEMPERVIRENS.—Linze. (The Common Erect Cypress.) A tree indigenous to the shores of the Mediterranean, where it reaches heights of 75 to 95ft. The timber is very durable, and is said to have been used extensively by the ancients in the construction of the cases made for their dead, which we now call mummies. Cases are cited where the timber has remained in excellent condition for over 1,000 years. Undoubtedly, it is the most durable timber known. The habit of the tree is close and upright, the same as the Lombardy poplar. The sketch given is a fair representation of it. In long straight ‘avenues, or in clumps, with a good background of other kinds of trees, it has a grand effect. els CEDRUS LIBANI. (The Cedar of Lebanon.) E SPILLER LITH = 3 CUPRESSUS SEMPERVIRENS. E. DPILLER, LITH.| +The Frect Cuvbress.)} TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 85 It prefers a sandy-loam soil, with a good subsoil of a stronger character. Does well, however, on almost any site in this country. It is at the same time partial to somewhat sheltered spots, like the most of trees. Plenty of seed can now be got from trees grown in the colony. Sow this thinly in rows or open beds in the nursery ground, and line out the seedlings 6in. apart in nursery rows for one year before planting out. The tree is very hardy and will transplant open-root with very little trouble. CUPRESSUS SEMPERVIRENS HORIZONTALIS.—WMiller. (The Horizontal Cypress.) This tree is simply a variety of the upright C. sempervirens. The two kinds are found growing together in their native forests, and together form one species only. This variety is very spreading in its habit, and only grows to about 40ft. to 50ft. in height. It is a handsome tree, and well deserving of having a place in our ornamental plantations. It is easily raised from the seed, and will grow luxuriantly in open sandy loam soil. Not partial, however, to any particular soil. It is most valuable for planting on limestone. CUPRESSUS GOVENIANA.—Gordon. (Gowen's Californian Cypress.) A beautiful cypress, indigenous to Upper California; worthy of a place in all ornamental grounds. It is hardy, and does well in this climate. CUPRESSUS BENTHAMI.—Endlicher. (Bentham's Cypress.) Mexico, 50 to 60ft. in height, growing at elevations 5,000 to 7,000ft. above the sea. A beautiful tree, which delights in our climate. Propagate from the seeds, and raise in pots. CUPRESSUS UHDEANA.— Gordon. (Uhdea’s Cypress.) Syn.—C. Thurifera.— Humboldt. This is the incense-bearing Mexican cypress. A handsome tree, 50ft. high, branches spreading horizontally, sometimes pendant at tips. Indigenous to Mexico, where it is found at high elevations (7,0008t. above the sea). : A very ornamental tree, and should have a place in all pleasure- grounds and parks. It is hardy, and easily propagated from the seed. Plant in good deep sandy-loam soil. . The tree grows excellently well about Adelaide. G 86 TREE CULTURE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA. CUPRESSUS MACROCARPA.—Hartweg. (The Large-coned Cypress.) Syv.—C. _Lambertiana.—Gordon. Upper California on the heights at Monterey.