5 Reena Frew Bork State College of Agriculture At Cornell University Hthaca, N. DV. m Cc | 1 | i 2 The practice of forestry, I THE PRACTICE OF FORESTRY THE PRACTICE OF FORESTRY BY CHRISTOPHER Y. MICHIE FORESTER, CULLEN AUTHOR OF 'THE LARCH: BEING A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON ITS CULTURE AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT’ WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND: SONS EDINBURGH AND LONDON MDCCCLXXXVIII CHAP. I II. III. Iv. Vv, VI. VII. VIII. IX, XI. XII. XIII. XIV. I II. CONTENTS. SECTION I—PLANTING. INTRODUCTION, . ‘ : : : PREPARING GROUND FOR PLANTING, DRAINING, : ; ; . FENCING, . TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES, SUCCESSIVE CROPPING WITH SCOTCH FIR, MARITIME OR SEA-SIDE PLANTING, . ‘ PLANTING BARREN AND EXPOSED DISTRICTS, PLANTING IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES, . - IMPORTANT LOCAL PLANTING, . . PLANTING UNDERWOOD AND GAME COVERT, CITY AND ROADSIDE PLANTING, . . IMPLEMENTS FOR PLANTING, . on CONCLUDING HINTS ON PLANTING, SECTION IL—THINNING. INTRODUCTION, . < MARKING FOR THINNING; . é : = "PAGE 17 20 28 47 54 59 66 72 103 106 112 118 123 138 vi III. Vv. VI. VII. VIII. Ix. x. XI. II III, IV. bs VI. VII. VIII. Ix. XI. XII. CONTENTS. HOW THINNING PINE AND FIR PLANTATIONS SHOULD BE DONE, . : i id m ff VARIABLE EFFECTS OF THINNING, . ; : ? GOOD EFFECTS OF THINNING, . ss EFFECTS OF THINNING ON ADVANCED PINE PLANTA- TIONS, . o. % ‘ ; ; : : EFFECTS OF THINNING ON YOUNG PLANTATIONS, EFFECTS OF THINNING ON ADVANCED HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS, ee ; j © oe THINNING MIXED PLANTATIONS, : THINNING YOUNG HARDWOOD PLANTATIONS, RULES FOR THINNING, . ‘ ‘ ‘ § : SECTION III.—PRUNING. . INTRODUCTION, . . é ~ . 5 5 WHY PRUNE? HOW TO PRUNE, . . e JZ BENEFITS OF PRUNING, . te ak EVIL EFFECTS OF PRUNING, . . . .. GAVIN OREE’S SYSTEM OF PRUNING, e “6 % THE FRENCH SYSTEM OF PRUNING, EXPERIMENTS IN PRUNING, . ORNAMENTAL PRUNING, . ® . . INSTRUMENTS FOR PRUNING, . fs : a RULES FOR PRUNING, ; : : : ; CONCLUSION, . : : : : : : : INDEX, . . . : . : 3 144 147 153 157 168 174 177 200 205 209 213 219 238 252 260 266 284 288 293 300 302 313 SECTION L PLANTING THE PRACTICE OF FORESTRY. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. THERE is much truth in the proverb, “ Well begun is half done.” “It need not here be questioned whether this is literally true or not; but one thing is certain, in the planting and culture of forest-trees every false step taken must be a backward one. As soon as a piece of ground is fixed upon for planting, the forester should take every available means and opportunity of knowing all that can be known about it. By this it is not implied that any one is capable of knowing everything that is desirable to be known, but that he should put himself in possession of as much knowledge of the subject as he possibly can. We often learn as much from the mistakes and failures as we do from the successes of ourselves or others. Experience counts for much in any pursuit, but to 4 PLANTING. be fully successful in planting we need a local as well as a general experience. A forester entering upon a new situation, for example, will be all the wiser for waiting a complete round of the seasons before doing much either in planting or thinning. The climate requires close observation; the soil must be well studied ; and the natural enemies, whether quadrupeds or insects, which are liable to attack the trees, have to be carefully considered and dealt with. To learn and understand the power and influences of all that sur- rounds us in nature, is more difficult by far than to read books or listen to human instructions. The objects of planting are usually manifold— such as affording shelter to crops and farm stock, pro- viding covert for game and foxes, embellishing and beautifying the landscape, ameliorating the climate, and, most practical of all, supplying the district with wood and timber, and remunerating the proprietor for the outlay of his capital. It is seldom, perhaps, that any single plantation is expected or intended to fulfil all these requirements; but as this is not an impos- sible combination, it must be evident that, in order to plant with any degree of certainty, much forethought and consideration are required, and also no small experience. The form and outline of a plantation are matter for wise consideration; and not only the boundary-line and appearance when young, it must also be looked at through the vista of coming years, and in its state of maturity and old age. It should likewise be viewed prospectively in connection with other plantations and all other surroundings—such as hills, valleys, rocks, lakes, rivers, roads, and fields—and should bear a due proportion to the general features and objects of the INTRODUCTION. 5 surrounding landscape. Large areas of plantation in the midst of small arable fields do not look well; neither, on the other hand, do small patches and narrow belts look elegant amongst broad and expansive fields. The north and east sides of fields, steadings, cottages, gardens, &c., should, in this country at least, be sheltered and well protected by trees; while, on the other hand, the south and west should be left open to the sun. Nothing of a rural kind is less in har- mony with good taste, than a steading or cottage with trees in close proximity to the house on the south and west sides, while the north and east are bare and exposed. The breadth of the various plantations is also a subject of no small importance, and deserves much thought and consideration. No fixed rule can be laid down as applicable to all cases; but if an error is committed, let it be that of. planting too broad rather than too narrow. Indeed, unless the ground is too valuable to plant, or the fields too small, no shelter- belt should be of less breadth than 3 chains. This ought to be regarded as the minimum breadth where useful timber is the object in growing it. There are doubtless useful belts not more than 2 chains wide, but the trees in such are necessarily either bushy and -of stunted growth, or weak, tall, and slender, compara- tively speaking. Where the planting is primarily designed to please and gratify the taste, and where the plantation is viewed from various points, it is wise and judicious to set up as many artificial trees as fairly to represent the future plantation, or single tree, as the case may be. Taste in regard to plantations varies, as it does in 6 PLANTING. other things. Bygone generations planted chiefly in rows and straight lines, and now nothing will please but bends, curves, and irregularities. We know of no standard or rule for the one system more than the other; and, indeed, if our ancestors erred in the direction of straight lines, we possibly also transgress in regard to curves. It is, indeed, a legitimate question to ask, Why are we so fastidious as to the curves and circles in plantation fences, when we do not object to straight lines of railroads, rows of telegraph poles, roads, furrows, ridges, field-fences, streets, rows of houses, ribbon-borders, gardens, walks, and an infinity of other things? Practically it would be well to at least modify our passion for curvilinear outlines of plantations, especially seeing that the fences that now protect them are usually of wire, or such other as can only be practically and economically erected in straight lines, and not in regular curves. The species of trees to plant, and how to arrange and dispose of them so as best to afford shelter and produce landscape effect, &, must also be duly considered. Planting may be defined as the work of putting a plant into the ground to germinate or grow. The word is very comprehensive in meaning, and is applied to almost every kind of deposition of plantlet, root, cutting, germ, or seed, whether in the garden, the field, or the forest. Planting is a work of such vast importance that no information respecting it should be withheld. Nothing short of the most attentive observation, lengthened practice, and protracted experience will enable any one to acquire a competent knowledge of the art and practice of planting. To attain success in it we re- INTRODUCTION. 7 quire the refined taste of the artist, the foresight of the philosopher, and the skill of the scientist, especially as relates to the laws of physiology. If planting is rightly done, the results throughout will be pleasing and satisfactory; but if wrongly done, disappointment and loss will be the inevitable results. The subject is a comprehensive one, and would take many volumes to exhaust it; but for the present we shall endeavour only to point out the most common and serious errors connected with it, and how to avoid them. No branch of arboriculture more urgently demands our attention, study, and thought than that of trans- planting large forest-trees ; and it is only upon close observation of what takes place in nature, and by observing the operations of her unerring laws, that we can reasonably expect success to attend our labours. In the ‘ Journal of Forestry ’ for December 1880, Mr Samuel Neil, Edinburgh, says: “Sir Walter Scott humorously expressed a sentiment of truth when he made the Laird of Dumbiedykes, in the ‘ Heart of Midlothian, advise his ‘tall, gawky, silly-looking boy,’ thus—‘ Jock, when ye hae naething else to do, ye may be aye sticking in a tree: it will be growing, Jock, when ye’re sleeping.’ ” To this passage the great novelist adds the following note: “ The author has been flattered by the assurance that this naive mode of recommending arboriculture (which was actually delivered in these very words by a Highland laird, while on his deathbed, to his son) had so much weight with a Scottish earl, as to lead to his planting a large tract of country.” Sir Walter Scott invested £5000 in planting and draining, and set his mind to make Abbotsford a proof of the patriotism, the wisdom, the prudence, and the 8 PLANTING. profitableness, as well as pleasure, of planting. His love of “the good green wood” was found not only in the delight it communicated to his poetic eye, but on his faith in its power to put money into the landed proprietor’s purse, and to provide useful employment for the population of rural districts. He regarded as “ indispensable requisites for success- ful planting: a steady and experienced forester, with the means of procuring at a moment’s notice a sufii- cient number of active and intelligent assistants. En- closing, planting, pruning, thinning, and felling, are,” he said, “ going on successfully in different parts of the estate in one and the same year; and these are opera- tions in all of which a good workman ought to be so expert as to be capable of working at them by turns.” The author of ‘ Waverley’ also found time to discuss, describe, and explain the nature, operations, and bene- fits of transplantation, giving peculiar prominence to the system of Sir Henry Steuart, of Allanton, Lanark- shire; and speaking generally of the transference of trees, he gave it as his opinion that “ earlier or later this beautiful and rational system will be brought into general action, when it will do more to advance the picturesque beauty of the country in five years than the slow methods hitherto adopted can attain in fifty.” CHAPTER IL. PREPARING GROUND FOR PLANTING. THE first consideration is, how to prepare the ground for receiving the plants, apart from draining and drying it. One common and efficient way with heath and rough moorland is to take the opportunity, when the ground is dry, to burn it. By law, no moor-burning can be done between April 11 and November 1, so that any other time of the year may be taken advan- tage of when the herbage is dry. The best time usu- ally is in February, March, and the beginning of April. A slight breeze is desirable; but this is not so import- ant as that the ground be perfectly dry, so that the moss may be all thoroughly consumed. When heath- land has to be dealt with, it should be burned three or four years previous to planting, in order that some herbage may be again grown up to protect the plants, not so much from the winds simply as from snow- drift, and their natural enemies black-game. I have always found trees grow best in heath from 4 to 6 inches high, the plants themselves being from 8 to 10 inches when planted. Herbage other than heath should be cut once a-year till the plants are fairly above it; and it should be borne in mind that the lateral branches suffer even more 10 PLANTING, than the top growth from rank herbage: hence they should be kept perfectly clear of everything that can interfere with their development. What is often more difficult to contend with is the matted thick turf that sometimes covers the ground. This matted surface is often 3 inches or more thick, and before the roots pass through it and reach the active soil the plant is necessarily put in too deep for its prosperity. Under such circumstances it is essential that the surface turf be pared off and laid aside before planting. To pare the whole surface off an acre of ground costs about thirty shillgs; and even this sum is worth spending when only small groups are to be planted for speedy growth and immediate effect. In extensive hill-planting, however, this wholesale paring is impracticable; and the next best thing to do is to pare off the surface turf with a sharp spade, turn it aside, and insert the plant in the central part of the bare space thus made, usually about 8 inches square. The turfing may either be done by the ¥ planter with his spade as he proceeds, or by a separate person going before with what is termed a breast-spade, and the planters succeeding him. In addition to burning the herbage and cutting it for some years after- wards, together with paring off the matted turf that the roots may pro- perly reach their natural soil, another and by no means unimportant opera- Fig. 1. tion may with advantage be employed —namely, breaking or loosening the ground with the forester’s footpick (fig. 1). In using the footpick the operator goes backwards along the PREPARING GROUND FOR PLANTING. 11 line of direction, inserting the tool three times in each space where the plant is to stand; in effect, making a pit for the plant. The operation produces all the benefits arising from pitting, while it avoids the neces- sary attendant evils, and is done at a comparatively nominal expense, In planting ordinary moorland, a man, with a boy or woman to handle the plants, puts in from 1000 to 1200 per day; but when the turf is to pare off in addition to planting, he puts in only from 800 to 900 plants per day with the same assistance. All excessively bare, smooth, bleak surfaces should be rendered rough and broken, as with the plough, spade, or mattock, so that the plants (which are presumed to be small) should have some shelter till fairly rooted. Extreme exposures should be planted by using very small, hardy, well-rooted plants, planting them closely together, and thinning early. The following interesting statement is made by Joseph Bradley, The Hall, Ebberston, York, in the Highland Society’s ‘Transactions’ for 1872 :— “In the month of March those parts of the ground upon which the heather had attained a considerable growth were burned. Some portions of it, however, having been burned some few years ago, and now covered with plenty of young heather 3 or 4 inches high, were not reburned; and from the healthy and luxuriant condition of the trees, it would seem that it would be the best plan to burn the heather three or - four years previous to planting, for the young heather affords great protection to the plants. The land being thus cleared, it was then ploughed. The plough used was one of Messrs Ransom’s Y.R.C., made of wrought- iron. It was found, however, that each furrow-slice 12 PLANTING. on trial fell back into the furrow when the plough passed on. In order to obviate this difficulty, an additional coulter was fixed on the opposite side of the beam, the point of which descended to the wing- side of the share in a parallel direction to, and 9 inches apart from, the other coulter. By this con- trivance the furrow-slice, which is 9 inches wide and 2 inches deep, is completely cut, and falls on the unploughed land. The furrows are 4 feet distant from each other. Two men (one to manage the horses and the other the plough) are required to work the plough effectually. The quantity of land ploughed in one day of seven and a half hours, with one plough, was 4 acres. The ground, rendered hard by the dry season, filled with the heather roots, which are bad to cut, and in many parts abounding in fast stones, thus necessitating a very slow rate of speed and steadiness, is very difficult to plough, and is very hard work. “The Q9-inch furrows being made, the subsoil plough was then used for breaking the moorland pan and loosening the soil under it. By means of this powerful plough the pan is broken up, not only along the whole length of each furrow, but actually over the whole area between ‘the furrows. This was found to be the case both by examining the pan after the plough had passed, and by the fact of the intermediate ground being tilted up and cracked under the feet of the workmen who walked at the side of the plough. Four men and six powerful horses worked this plough, which in a day of seven and a half hours ploughed on an average 3 acres and 2 roods. When this opera- tion was completed, its good effect was at once appa- rent. A heavy fall of rain took place, and the land so treated remained perfectly dry, while the adjoining PREPARING GROUND FOR PLANTING. 13 land of an exactly similar nature, and separated from it only by a wall, was half pond, half swamp, and remained in that state the whole winter. “In autumn, when the subsoil had been exposed to the action of the atmosphere and become somewhat consolidated, a kind of drag, with three tines and a wheel 6 inches wide on the sole in front, was used for pressing down the soil and breaking the clods. The tines of the drag, descending to a distance of 12 inches, work more effectually when the surface is compressed with this wheel. It pulverises the soil and presses it firmly down, and thus not only is the soil in a better state for the reception of the young trees, but also there is less fear of the plants being lifted by the frost. It is a very valuable implement, and indispensable to the barren land planter. One man with two horses will do 6 acres per day. “The writer now wishes to show, by giving an accurate statement of the cost of breaking up the ground for the above-named plantation, that the system of planting advocated in this report is not more expensive than those generally in use :— Cost of previous Ploughing. Two men, at 2s, 6d: each per day, £0 5 0 Two horses, at 3s. 6d. each per aaa F 07 0 Wear and tear, . 010 Four acres ploughed, . £013 0 Cost of ploughing, per acre, £0 3 3 Cost of Subsoiling. Four men, at 2s. 6d. each per day, £010 0 Six horses, at 3s. 6d. each per oo 110 Wear and tear, . 04 0 Three and a half acres per day, . £115 0 £010 0 Equal, per acre, . 14 PLANTING. Cultivating the Furrows. One man, at 2s. 6d. per day, . : £0 2 6 Two horses, at 3s. 6d. each per day, 07 0 Wear and tear, . 4 020 Six acres cultivated a-day, . £0 11 6 Equal, per acre, . £0 111 Planting the whole of the Trees. Labour only—men and boys, . 5: . £38517 6 Taking up trees and couching them on land, 210 10 Carriage from nursery to plantation, . 3.0 0 Seventy acres planted, . . . . £41 8 4 Equal, per acre, . £0 11 10 Cost of Trees. 123,700 larch, at 13s. 6d. per 1000, £88 10 0 83,500 " 11s. 0d. " 18 8 6 17,450 Scots firs, at 9s. Od. " 717 0 7,900 " 7s. Od. " 215 4 2,000 pines, at 15s. Od. " 110 0 Total, 184,550 Seventy acres planted, . £119 0 10 Equal, per acre . £114 0 Cost per Acre. First ploughing, . : » £0 3 8 Subsoiling, . ; - : 010 O\ =Labour only, Cultivating, . a , a 0 111/£1, 7s. per acre. Labour in planting, &c., F 0 11:10 Cost of trees, . " : ‘4 114 0 Total cost per acre, . . £38 1 0 “The advantages derived from the use of this sys- tem are—First, That the pan is thereby thoroughly destroyed over the whole surface to be planted. Second, That the trees are then planted with less PREPARING GROUND FOR PLANTING. 15 labour than by any of the systems hitherto in use, as the detailed cost given above will confirm. “By reference to the foregoing table, it will be seen that the cost per acre is £1, 7s.; whereas from information obtained from proprietors in the neigh- bourhood, who have followed the system of draining the ground by open grips, made about 15 yards apart, the cost was £2 per acre; and for holing and planting at 4 feet apart, the cost varied from £1, 5s. to £2 per acre for labour alone.” In planting ordinary moorland apart from drain- ing, the most important consideration is to. remove the rank herbage, old matted surface, and use proper sized plants. I have seen two-year seedlings, one-year transplanted plants, prove an almost complete failure ; whereas had the surface been rendered bare, and one- year plants used instead, perfect success would have attended it. Poor moorland, and all ground much exposed, should be planted with the smallest plants possible, provided always that such plants are well- rooted, strong in the stems, and proportionably grown. Having for years tried many experiments with all sorts and sizes of plants, I have come to the settled conclusion that for general moorland, planting with larch, one-year seedlings one year transplanted are the best, and with Scots fir, two-year seedlings one year transplanted. By two-year seedlings Scots fir, I mean what are now generally known as bedded plants, or plants that are lifted out of the seed-bed when one year old, and laid thickly in close lines for another year. By the process of bedding, a good and important work is accomplished, and one which well repays the labour and expense. The practice of bedding seedling forest-trees is of 16 PLANTING. comparatively recent origin, and in some districts, perhaps, is still unknown and unpyractised. Several nurserymen, I find, claim the honour of introducing it, which testifies to its beneficial results—for few men care to contend for that which is unsuccessful or unpopular. In planting deep loamy soil, where the growth is essentially rapid, larger sized plants must be used than for poor and bare moorland. In such cases three- and four- year-old plants may be used ; but they should have been removed in the nursery every year previous to final planting out, in order to form a cor- responding balance between root and top growth. Special attention should also be paid to the develop- ment of the branches, and from these the state and condition of the roots may in a great measure be determined. One condition, however, should always be observed—viz., that the plants are clothed with branches close to the ground. From the fact of this condition not being always insisted upon by planters, nurserymen are encouraged to plant too closely in the lines, and even in the seed-beds, which greatly injures the plants by undue crowding. Higher prices must of course be paid for well-grown plants ; but no intel- ligent man would object to that, as the dearest plants generally prove the cheapest. The lower branches of a tree are the ones which principally nourish and supply the roots with cam- bium; hence the absolute necessity for preserving even the smallest twigs upon seedling and nursery plants, and removing every obstacle to their full and free development, such as weeds, grass, heath, and other herbage. VW CHAPTER III. DRAINING. THE object aimed at with open surface-drains for plantations, is to clear the surface of the ground of all stagnant water, to a depth not necessarily exceeding 12 inches for pine and fir plantation, in order that air may penetrate the soil, raise its temperature, and enable the tree roots to enter and ramify throughout its interstices. Trees, unlike cereal crops, when fairly established in the ground, perform for themselves a very effective operation of drainage; for no sooner does the tree rise to such height as the wind can move and shake it, than it opens and loosens the soil on all sides, there- by inducing the superfluous water to sink to a depth beyond where it can injuriously influence the growth of the tree. And in other ways trees are very effective in drying the soil at all seasons of the year—viz., ab- sorption by the roots, and evaporation by the leaves. The best indication as to whether the ground re- quires drainage or not is probably that of the her- bage growing upon its surface. Any one acquainted with natural grasses knows which are produced under the influence of stagnant water, and which are the product of dry soil. B 18 PLANTING. Another good test is that of turning up a spadeful of earth in ordinary dry weather. If it is found pasty and close, it is too wet for the proper growth of trees, and must therefore be drained. One very decided advantage of draining is pro- duced by spreading the excavations on the surface of the ground; and it is often commendable to put the drains sufficiently close to cover the entire surface with the excavations. The effect of thus spreading the excavations is to encourage in a remarkable de- gree the roots to run upon the surface. The earth thus spread also induces the natural herbage to decay ; and the plants never at any subsequent stage of growth lose the benefits thus conferred on them. Draining is a work that can well be done by con- tract, and should always be so done when it can. For ordinary purposes drains answer well put in at 20 feet apart, 30 inches wide at top, 10 inches wide at bottom, and 20 inches deep. In contracting for a large extent of drains where a diversity of soil exists, and soft mossy parts have to be drained as well, it is most convenient to specify the drains in the mossy ground to be 36 inches wide at top and 2 feet deep. By thus specifying the moss drains to be larger every way two advantages are gained,—one being that the moss ground, which always greatly subsides when the water is extracted from it, receives the benefit of the extra size of drains ; and the other, that on measuring the drains, the price being the same throughout, it is not neces- sary to keep the two classes separate. One precaution it is specially necessary to observe in laying off plantation drains—viz., not to give them too much fall. There is probably more injury done to plantation drains by want of attention to this, than all FENCING. 19 other matters 1.tha nex with it. The drains should only have sufficient fall to enable them to discharge the water sufficiently, which one in every 300 will enable them to do. A difficulty of an opposite extreme is, however, sometimes met with in the levelness of the ground and excessive wetness combined. In such cases the most practical thing to do is to lay the ground up in narrow ridges, and by means of the excavations thus taken out of the drains or ditches, the surface can be raised 2 feet or 3 feet above the water-level. The ridges should not be broad, seldom exceeding 20 feet, and 12 feet is sometimes even more suitable. The fall required for open drains is considerably more than that for underground tile-drains. If open drains require one in 300, underground drains will do well with only one in 500. Covered drains, though the best, are difficult to keep clear of roots, and the only safe method is to put in as large pipes as possible. In cases where a 3- or 4-inch pipe would sufficiently carry all the water, I would put in a 12- or 14-inch pipe or cor- respondingly large culvert; and where this has been done the drains have stood well for over forty years, no tree roots choking them. Annexed are prices which I have paid for planta- tion drains in Banffshire and Morayshire within the last twenty years :— Dimensions—30 inches wide, 20 inches deep, 8s. 4d. per 100 yards. ‘Do. do. do. 6s. Od. do. Do. do. do. 5s. Od. do. varying according to state and condition of ground ; but in some districts the work can now be done 20 per cent cheaper. CHAPTER IV. FENCING. Tue fences in use for surrounding plantations are either wire fences (post and wire strands), turf dykes, stone dykes, or wooden pailings. In erecting WIRE FENCES, the straining-posts should be of the very best quality of larch, oak, sweet chestnut, gean-tree, or matured old Scots pine, which latter is as durable as any other description of wood when old and fully matured. The straining-posts for ordinary purposes should be 74 feet long, 7 inches square, or if round, about 8 inches diameter. The intermediate posts should be of the same description of wood, 54 to 6 feet long, 34 inches square, or if round, 4 inches diameter. They should either be sharpened for driving into the ground with ‘a well-drawn wedge-shaped point from 15 to 18 inches in length, or pitted 24 feet deep, The tops of the straining-posts should stand about 6 inches above the top wire, and the tops of the in- termediate posts about 2 inches above it, and should all be rounded and smoothed for the water to run off. The division between the two upper wires should be FENCING. 21 11 inches, and the next spaces respectively 84, 64, 6, 53, and 6 inches between the lower wire and the surface of the ground, making the height of the fence altogether 3 feet 74 inches. The cost per 200 yards of finished fence, constructed of the following materials, will be as per estimate :— 2 larch straining-posts, at 3s. each, . 100 intermediate posts, at 53d. each, . 6 underground braces, at 3d. each, . 2 No. 4 wires, at 5s. 3d. per 100, 2 No, 5 wires, at 4s. 6d. per 100, 2 No. 6 wires, at 3s. 9d. per 100, 600 No. 6 staples, at 74d. per 100, Cost of erecting, at 1}d. per yard, : 4 gallons prepared coal-tar, at 44d. per gallon, Labour of tarring, at 2s. 2d. per 100, . 7 Cartage of material, say : 5 Levelling surface of ground, say . mH WOlAnrHr OW OTOH HY w& oO m Ses otoeeaeanwS NIOARRODCTDADCAWIMO £7 Or equal to about 84d. per lineal yard. Being all of the very best materials, the cost stated is considerably higher than the work is usually done for, but any one can at once form an approximate estimate from these data. Straining-posts, with brackets attached to them for the purpose of tightening or loosening the wires, are often of great convenience and advantage, especially upon plantation fences. The brackets are in some cases attached in pairs, one on each side of the post, secured by means of a bolt which passes through it; the head of the bolt secures one bracket, and the other bracket is screwed on by means of a nut. In other cases the brackets are put on singly and secured by means of a flat-headed bolt passing through the post. The brackets possess the advantages of allow- 22 PLANTING. ing the wires to be slackened or taken off when snow rests upon the fence, when trees accidentally fall upon it, or where temporary openings are required for clearing wood, &c. Another mode of erecting a strong and substantial fence, for horses and cattle only, in districts where no sheep are kept, differs little from that of the former fence, except that the materials are in all respects stronger and heavier. The following are the dimen- sions found most serviceable in this case, with the cost per 200 yards affixed :— 2 straining-posts, 8 feet long, 8 inches by 8 inches, at 38s. 11d. each, . 3 . £0 710 8 double brackets, at 3s. each, . : 7 140 100 intermediate posts, 6 feet long, 4 inches by 4 inches, at 6d. each, ‘ . a 210 0 6 braces to straining-posts, at 8d. each, . 01 6 2 top wires, No. 2, at 7s. 14d. per 100 yards, . . f . . ‘ 18 6 2 lower wires, No, 4, at 5s. 8d. per 100 yards, . . é . é 110 400 staples, at 74d. per 100 yards, 0 2 6 Cost of labour for erecting do., z . 150 4 gallons prepared coal-tar, at 44d. per gallon, 01 6 Labour of tarring, 4 fj : : 04 4 Cartage of materials, say 05 0 £9 11 2 Or about 94d. per lineal yard. Two No. 6 wires added to the above would con- stitute it a fence for sheep of all kinds as well as cattle, if at any time found necessary, at an addi- tional cost of about 14d. per lineal yard. In many hill districts the only farm stock kept is sheep, hence fences for them exclusively are necessary. Sheep fences differ from those already described in FENCING. 23 the lightness of all materials used, and in the greater closeness of the wires. The following estimate is for 200 yards of sheep fence :— 2 straining-posts, 7 feet long, 6 inches by 6 inches, at 1s. 11d., » £0 310 100 small posts, 54 feet lanes 3 facies a 3 inches, at 32d., 111 3 6 braces to straining-posts, at '34., 01 6 1 top wire, No. 4, : 010 6 2 lower wires, No. 5, 018 0 4 bottom wires, No. 6, 110 0 4 gallons prepared coal-tar, at i, 01 6 Labour of tarring, . : ; 04 4 700 staples, at 74d. per 100, 0 4 44 Cost of labour erecting, 016 8 Cartage of materials, say . 0 2 6 £6 4 5h Or about 74d. per lineal yard. The great difficulty of fencing against sheep con- sists in their going through between the wires. They seldom leap over the fence, and as seldom break the wires, but creep through between them. The divisions, therefore, between the wires should be as ‘follows :— Upper division, . : é ‘ ‘ 9 inches, Next do . ‘ . ‘ : ‘ 8 on Do. do. . . . . . . 6 " Do. «do. . . . a . . 54 " Do. do, . . . . . . 54 " Do. do, 53 " Height about 3 feet 8 inches altogether, allogring 4 inches below the lower wire. It is strongly recommended that in fixing iron into stone it be done with Portland cement, as by it the work is done much cheaper and more expeditiously than either by lead or by boiled sulphur and sand. 24 PLANTING. I am against charring the posts as a means of making them last longer, but prefer simply heating the wood, and tarring or pitching it when in the heated state. It is a common opinion that charring posts improves the wood, by rendering it more durable. It certainly does not; but, on the contrary, assists in opening the layers, and admitting air and water to its destruction. Oil of tar or creosote is, however, an excellent preservative, and much preferable to tar or paint. TURF DYKES are not unfrequently erected as plantation fences, in preference to others, chiefly on account of the material of which they are composed being convenient and at hand. It is very commonly believed that the best and most durable turf for dykes is that which contains least solid earth and most vegetable matter, but just the opposite of this is the case. Gardeners, as is well known, in preparing earth for potting their plants, select that which contains most vegetable fibre and least solid earth, and after laying it together for a time, it becomes a decomposed soft and pulpy mass. A corresponding change takes place with turf for a dyke, especially if laid in a horizontal position, one layer above another, as in common practice. Of two respective dykes built with the same de- scription of turf, the one laid flat and the other set on edge, the latter will be found good and substantial years after the former has fallen down, and perhaps been several times rebuilt. FENCING. 25 - STONE DYKES are probably the best plantation fences, and where the stones can be conveniently got, are the most permanent and cheapest material. In some districts where large surface boulders abound, a rickle dyke, from its construction, is both Sp *; and substantial, and in certain places answers ~ In erecting a rickle dyke, a row of the largest ware laid close together forming the foundation ; thegare made perfectly secure by levelling or pinning rif stones; a third row, and sometimes even a foy¢h, is required to raise the dyke to the required . which, for ordinary purposes, is usually about 4ich ba,,. The building of a rickle dyke is neither dat in P nor. expensive, and usually costs, exclusive of laoad, flown the stones, 34d. to 44d. per yard. req most common of stone dykes, however, is what is t®™ed 2 double dyke, as distinguished from a single or rickle dyke. A fence of this kind, in very general use for surrounding plantations, is constructed accord- ing to the following dimensions and specifications :— First. The line on which the dyke is to be built must be properly levelled and all loose earth removed from it, so as to secure a firm foundation. Second. The foundation to be laid with large flat- bedded stones, which foundation must not be less than 28 inches wide at base. Third. The setting off of building upon the same foundation to be 24 inches, leaving a scarcement of 2 inches upon each side. Fourth. At 24 inches in height the dyke to have a 26° PLANTING. row of through band stones, six at least to the rood of 18 feet. Fifth. The dyke to be built double to the height of 45 inches; and all principal stones in each side must dovetail with those in the heart of the building; and all interstices must be firmly and closely packed. Sixth. The building at the height of 45 inches to be 12 inches in width. Seventh, All holes on both sides of the dyke t#'be firmly pinned with small stones, so as to presP'/-d smooth and uniform surface. See Lighth. All stones to be laid on their natural sides with their seams horizontal, and none of a wg nature to be used. / 5 Ninth. At the height of 45 inches the top pr: building is to receive a coat of well-prepare@@d ee, mixed with the usual quantity of sand, as a.’ or the cope. are st an Tenth. When the building is finished as desepntai: a cope of roughly dressed stones 9 inches in derpt jmd 12 in breadth to be properly placed on it, an or- oughly built and pointed with lime. Hleventh. The entire height of the dyke when finished, and including the cope, to be 54 inches, measuring from the ordinary level of the ground. Twelfth. The whole work to be finished in a proper and workmanlike manner, to the entire satisfaction of the employer. The cost of workmanship alone of such dykes varies from 10d. to 1s. 2d. per lineal yard, exclusive of cartage or preparing materials—some even less, and some more, FENCING. 27 WOODEN PALINGS. Various descriptions of wooden palings are also in use, and serve very good purposes in places where they are found suitable. A common paling is constructed as follows: The line of fence having been resolved upon, and guide- poles set up at convenient distances apart along the line, a garden-line is stretched between the poles, and the posts are driven into the ground or pitted as de- scribed for wire fencing, page 20, but not more than about 43 feet apart. The posts are driven to about 3 feet above ground, and their tops made to run at one uniform level, according to the inclination of the ground. The upper rail is next nailed on, and is kept about 14 inch below the top of the posts. The rails are sawn out in lengths of about 16 to 18 feet, 34 to 4 inches broad, and 14 to 14 inch thick, according as strength is required. On nailing on the rails they are not necessarily joined on the post, but at any other con- venient place, and are overlapped about 8 inches, so that two nails can be driven into each joining to keep it secure. The next rail is put on 9 inches clear be- tween it and the upper one, and the next one 7 inches below that, which leaves a space of 64 inches between it and the ground. When a four-bar paling is required instead of a three-bar one, the fence is about 4 inches higher, and the rails kept respectively 1 inch closer. The cost of erecting a three-bar paling, including materials and workmanship, varies from 4d. to 6d. per yard, according to quality of wood, &c. 28 CHAPTER V. TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES. One curious circumstance connected with transplant- ing hardwood trees came under my observation about thirty years ago. A farmer having occasion to fix two gate-posts at an entrance to one of his fields, thought proper to use two sycamore-trees for the pur- pose. Experience having taught him that the heavier the posts were at the base the firmer would they re- main in the ground, the trees, instead of being cut down in the usual way, were grubbed round the base, cutting nearly close to the trunk all the principal roots. They were thus lifted with a club base, but without any small roots or fibres; and after being felled, were cross-cut at about 7 feet from the ground, thus leaving that part intended for the gate-posts entirely void of branches, and almost equally so of roots. Holes having been prepared, the posts were put into the ground, in the form of planting. The ground was firmly beaten around them, and the gate hung between them in the usual way. The work was performed about the month of March, and by midsummer the posts began to produce shoots near the top. Next season the shoots were prolonged, and the growth has uniformly continued to the present day. TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES. 29 Though the above system cannot be recommended for removal or transplantation of large trees, yet enough is to be learned from the practice of reducing the top, that certain modifications of it may, with advantage, be carried out in practical operations of planting large trees. Another interesting case occurred in the parish of Oxnam, Roxburghshire, in the following manner. In the course of erecting the farm-steading of Millheugh, an elm-tree stood in the way. From the size of the tree, and the advanced season of the year (the latter end of June), it was deemed unadvisable to attempt transplanting it. Whilst the workmen were engaged in digging around the tree, with the view of throwing it away, the proprietor, the Marquis of Lothian, an intelligent nobleman, happened to pass at the time, and very courteously tendered his advice, by recom- mending to lop off a considerable portion of the top of the tree. This was accordingly done; and al- though the work was somewhat rudely performed by unpractised hands, yet the success was everything that could be desired. Another instance indicative of the importance of reducing the tops of trees in proportion to the roots came under our observation five years ago. From fifty to sixty trees had at one time been left in a private nursery, and after remaining till they attained from 15 to 20 feet in height, were transplanted in the vicinity of a village in order to produce imme- diate ornamental effect in the landscape. This took place about twenty-five years ago, and with the great- est success. Owing, however, to subsequent improve- ments in the place, it became necessary to lift and transplant the whole of the trees, which had now 30 PLANTING. stood about twelve years in their present situation. On their removal they were carefully dug round in the usual way, their tops reduced, and the whole operations conducted with skill and care, resulting in all the trees growing remarkably well. Again, about eight years subsequently, owing to the widen- ing of a road at the place, it became once more neces- sary to lift the whole of the trees, and remove them backwards a distance of about 5 feet towards the field side. On this occasion, however, the trees were lifted without any preparation, and planted without at all reducing their tops. The results were, that more than one-half of them either perished or became so sickly that only the very faintest hopes were enter- tained of their recovery. Considering the advantages these trees enjoyed by being removed several times previously, and conse- quently more than usually well rooted, they would almost to a certainty have grown well on their third removal but for want of reducing their tops propor- tionately. The writer is aware that the operation of top-pruning is objected to on account of disfiguring the tree; this, however, is the result only of unskilful and unpractised hands, and has by no means a bad effect when carefully performed. Last spring I had the opportunity of observing an elm-tree transplanted in a conspicuous public place ; the tree was 14 feet high, and very proportionably and well grown. The work was well performed, and at a good season of the year (the latter end of March). From the moderate size of the tree, its state of growth, &e., success might have been anticipated; yet, sad to relate, total failure was the result! What was the cause of the sudden death to which the tree suc- TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES. 31 cumbed? It underwent no operation preparatory to transplanting, by way of lightening the top, which, if done, would in all probability have preserved it alive. A Turkey oak of large size, weighing several tons, was successfully transplanted at Cullen House some years ago. The tree was dug round in the usual way at the time of removal, and conveyed to its new situ- ation upon the common janker. It received every attention by watering, and also had some of the larg- est top branches slightly reduced. It was also well sustained against winds by moorings of cable wire. Having witnessed the unfavourable results of re- moving large trees from cold clay soils into soils of different qualities, we were anxious to witness fur- ther examples of transplanting under different con- ditions, such as the removal of trees from a warm dry soil to a cold one, and also of seeing the effects pro- duced by removal from a cold unfavourable soil to that of a favourable opposite extreme. A small proprietor near Hawick, Roxburghshire, had a number of oaks and other trees taken from a large plantation of about twenty years’ growth. The soil of this plantation was a strong red clay, and the trees when lifted had scarcely any earth-balls attached to them. Being for ornamental planting, they were selected with the utmost regard to their form and proportions every way, and were very carefully taken up, so as to inflict as little injury on the roots as possible. The trees were carted to their new destin- ation, a distance of fully ten miles; large pits were dug for their reception, and every possible care be- stowed upon them in planting. The soil into which they were planted was loam of various qualities, but far surpassing that of the plantation from which 32 PLANTING. the trees were taken; yet scarcely half of the trees lived. It was found, on examining their roots a few years after transplanting, that the original ones had completely decayed, and a new class originated from the lower part of the stem. About one-third of the original number planted perished during the first five years after removal, but those that did not succumb are now splendid trees. During the month of February 1848, a row of trees was planted upon the side of the highway between Jedburgh and Denholm in Roxburghshire. The trees were lifted out of a reserve nursery, and were about twelve years old from the seéd when transplanted. The soil in the nursery ‘was loam, rather strong, and the trees on being lifteil had their roots considerably bruised and mutilated.) The soil to which they were transplanted was a clay loam. The trees, while badly rooted, were equally ;destitute of branches, having much the appearance, about two years after planting, of May-poles. The side branches, though few in number when the trees were trans- planted, had still further diminished. Not only were the branches dead, but the bark of the limes had also become detached, and hung in unsightly shreds, waving in the wind; while the branches themselves appeared white, barkless, bleached, and weather- beaten. Indeed, at that stage, nothing more unsightly in the form of trees could possibly be seen, and many proprietors could not have resisted the temptation of cutting them all down. The line of trees, as origin-~ ally planted, contained altogether 105; and ten of them died within two years from the time of plant- ing. In the row the trees stood 36 feet apart, and 2 feet out from the hedge towards the fields) The TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES. 33 species of trees comprised sycamore, lime, elm, beech, and poplars, &c.; the greater number, however, are sycamore. The writer having frequent occasion to pass along the highway, took particular interest in watching the progress of this strange, unpromising row of trees. During the first five years after plant- ing, the only signs of vitality were the putting forth a few small shoots at the junction of the dead branches with the stem ; and for several winters subse- quently the number of dead branches upon them made them still appear as if quite lifeless. In the course of the next five years, and up to the present time, the progress of growth has been quite marvellous; and not only are the stems shooting up, and rapidly assum- ing the character of timber trees, but the branches are growing equally well, altogether forming, if not magnificent tops, at least handsome and beautiful trees, well formed and proportionably grown. General height of the tree, 20 to 30 feet; girth of stem near the ground, 34 to 44 feet, with clean stem 8 feet, which is a very good proportion for hedgerow trees. In this case nature, unaided and unassisted, was about ten years in accomplishing that which by the aid of art she would have done in three years. One re- markable circumstance in this case was the small number of trees that actually perished. The explanation of this phenomenal success appears to be that the trees were so far deficient in branches as to bring them into fair balance with their roots. The branches upon a tree are arranged and disposed very much the same as the roots are. In this case, however, in consequence of the trees having grown slowly in girth previous to transplanting by standing closely together amongst others, they thus underwent c 34 PLANTING. a supernatural process of pruning and top-reducing, which, to a considerable extent, explains the mystery regarding their growth, which, though exceptionally slow at first, became ultimately so rapid. In 1858, in the parish of Oxnam, the writer planted a considerable number of trees of various sizes and sorts for ornamental purposes, comprising oak, lime, sycamore, and horse-chestnut. The district was well furnished with pine plantations, but few hardwoods of any sort. Much of the arable land of the district, though in a comparatively high state of cultivation, is nevertheless naturally thin and poor. The subsoil, too, is uncongenial to most sorts of hardwoods. An effort was made to clothe the barren and bare road- sides by introducing hardwoods, which would form a pleasing contrast to the dull pine plantations and square fields around. Two difficulties at the outset stood in the way, neither of which was easy to surmount. The one was a want of the proper sort of trees at command; the other an unsuitable soil. Operations of planting, however, were commenced, and carried out as best they could upon a somewhat ex- tensive scale. The lime-trees were originally grown in an advanced private nursery a few miles distant, with a view of transplanting for immediate effect. The trees were thoroughly well rooted, having been, while in the nursery, several times lifted and trans- planted for the express purpose of improving their roots, and were from 8 to 10 feet high, well clothed with branches, and altogether forming handsome trees, and likely to do well. In planting, the pits were duly prepared, soil was taken from the fields adjoining, and put into them to encourage their growth. After planting supports were put to them to ensure stability TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES. 35 against the prevailing winds. At first the trees bade fair to thrive, produced broad healthy leaves the first season, and in some cases small shoots; gradually, however, signs of sickness appeared, the leaves by degrees became smaller, and early in the season assumed a rusty appearance, and became autumn- tinged in August. At the end of autumn, some of them had died down to within two feet of the ground ; and when last we saw them, the whole, with only a few exceptions, might be regarded as a failure. The exceptional trees were planted upon deep rich loam, mixed with road scrapings. From the general appear- ance of the whole trees, the writer was led to believe that the chief and only cause of failure was poverty and coldness of the soil. That the trees grew well at first, was mainly consequent on the sprinkling of good earth borrowed from the fields, which, when once the roots had gone through or exhausted, they languished and ultimately diad The manner in which the failure was produced may be further accounted for from the circumstance that the trees, when in the nursery, were grown upon very good loam, and in a sheltered situation. Altogether, it might have been feared that the change to the trees must have been unfavourable, but it could scarcely have been predicted that so many of them would have perished. Throughout the same district other planting was performed about the same time as the above. In corners of fields we planted small groups of trees, composed of oak 8 feet high, spruce 3 feet high, and black Italian poplar from 5 to 6 feet high. Twenty- five years afterwards the oaks were only a few feet higher than when planted; the spruces were about 36 PLANTING. three times their original height; while the black Italian poplars were from 20 to 25 feet in height, and proportionably thick of stem, and producing al- together a very imposing effect. The annexed table will show the cost, very nearly, of each tree respectively as it stood transplanted. Cost oF TRANSPLANTING. © me os a 3 g | 2a] £328 [esd| Bs! 2 | 28] x, E | 22 | S283 |222| 62) 3 | £2 | 32 Species of trees, 8 £3 Bee a ges 5. ‘3 z 3a Ee @ | 2o| S832 |282| ag | 3S | a2 | 38 @ | gf | Fee (82d) 3) = | S| 8 mofl¢ an 8 s 8 3 Feet. | Years.| Times. Miles.| 8. d.]s. d]/s. djs. a@ Lime ‘ a ri 10 10 5 6 |1 0/1 4/6 0/8 4 Oak. a 3 a 8 5 1 6 }0 9/1 4/2 0)2 9 Horse-chestnut . 9 5 1 5 ]0 9/1 4/2 6]/3 8 Black Italian poplar 5 2 0 15 |0 6/1 4/0 8/1 2 Sycamore , 4 10 6 1 56 10 9/1 4/3 6/4 3 Spruce . : . 3 1 1 5 |}0 3/1 4/0 9/1 0 At Cullen House, during the spring 1880, we lifted and transplanted above 200 large hardwood trees of various sorts. The trees were dug round for lifting during the previous winter and spring, and were transplanted in March and April the following year. At the same time that the trees were dug round preparatory to transplanting, their tops were all considerably reduced, which has a very beneficial effect in preventing the trees from blowing down with the wind, which they are very liable to do if at all top-heavy or exposed. Though compelled by circum- stances to prune the tops of the trees in winter or spring, the fact must not be overlooked that June and TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES. 37 July is a much preferable time of the year for doing the work. Notwithstanding the amount of labour and expense attending the transplantation of advanced trees, it is doubtless the best way of raising them, especially hedgerow trees for beautifying the landscape or afford- ing shelter to stock, and will be found to beara fa- vourable comparison, in point of expense, with that of growing them from small plants or any other way. The losses that attend the transplantation of large trees very little, if at all, exceeds that of planting, or rather growing, small ones. The writer is so fully persuaded of the advantages, pecuniary and otherwise, arising from transplanting trees from 15 to 20 feet over that of beginning with small ones, that in thinning hardwood plantations he seldom cuts down trees that are suitable for trans- planting. Upon all such trees he puts a special mark, known to the woodmen, who leave them at the time of thinning ; and afterwards, when convenient, they are dug round, top-pruned, and are thus ready when re- quired for transplanting, and for which there is always ample room on a large estate. The practice of deep planting is one of the most hurtful that can be adopted, and is always, sooner or later, followed by baneful effects. Considerable difficulty is often experienced in water- ing trees to induce the water to penetrate the surface, which becomes caked and hardened after repeated waterings. To facilitate the absorption of the water, it is often advisable to perforate the surface of the ground with a sharp instrument or -footpick. As this practice, however, is often attended with results injurious to the roots, by cutting and bruising them, 38 PLANTING. it is safer, and in some respects better, to insert pipe- tiles into the ground, the upper end level with the sur- face. The water, when poured into the tiles, soon finds its way to the extremity of the roots. Of all others, the most economic and efficient method of watering appears to be to leave the surface of the ground, at a short distance from the stem, in a depressed or con- cave form. The water thus rests in the cavity till it sinks down upon the extremities of the roots. It is sometimes asked, What is considered a fair and sufficient watering when the ground is considerably dry? One gallon of water to a square foot of surface may be considered a fair allowance, and administered twice a-week. Tn selecting hardwood trees for transplanting, such only should be chosen as have a perfectly healthy appearance. In healthy trees the juices circulate freely, and possess inherent powers of healing, which is of vital importance in case of injuries having been inflicted on the roots, trunk, or branches. os gfuvox|'p s ¢ |avox| ‘p's ate wox}p s 3 | 8 3 a2 a a E 3 Bo) P| & baeax | -od -oz ‘oy |-avox | ‘ourey.] ‘on Be ze ey 3 gs 23 : 2 2 EB ee é e | Bee | Sz “age 98 soqeq 4v Be any sau oid | wounymeta | S ‘ery aod g | wonvuea| & | 85° 58 atay ied ony. a1DV Jad one, a B UAMO. ot [ove o Seapedeoue ateraseuEee Ee Ta aiek CaeIeAe ate OE 3 a eer], JO satoedg yous Jo 1OqUINY osBIEAY z oqo) E ite BE Ps o, 3 = |§e8/5a ° Br ge ge # é 5 “ATIVL GONGYHATY TVYENaD IMPORTANT LOCAL PLANTING. 101 The vertical or top growth of a tree being found, an acre or forest can very easily be ascertained by the eye of the practical forester, and reduced to authentic figures by a very simple process of arith- metic. And it would be well if all other figures re- lating to forestry and tree culture were as much to be relied upon. The tree, however, not only increases in length, but also in thickness; and while ninety-nine persons out of every hundred will tell at sight how much a tree is annually making in height, probably not over one in a hundred will be able to say (even approximately) how much the tree is increasing in thickness or girth. The following is our method of doing it, and practice alone perfects the process: Take a tree 48 feet high, equal to 576 inches, and ifa pine or fir, and proportionally grown, it will be 48 inches girth at base, or 24 inches at the centre; therefore multiply the length, 576, by the girth, 24, and 13,824 super- ficial inches are the result. Now, ifthe layer of wood were an inch thick, the figures 13,824 would just remain as they are; but if, instead of the zone or layer being 1 inch thick, it is only one-eighth of an inch— which I consider the proper thickness for the tree to make if proportionally and well grown — therefore, instead of multiplying, we require to divide, and ac- cording as the zone or layer is thick or thin, so will the quotient be. Assuming, therefore, that such a tree is making woody layers one-eighth thick, the tree is thereby mak- ing 1 cubic foot of timber annually. Taking the same size of tree, however, and making not one-eighth thick- ness of layer of wood, but only one-twelfth yearly— therefore, instead of making 1 cubic foot, it is making 102 PLANTING. only 1152 cubic inches; or if making only one- sixteenth instead of a twelfth, the result is 864 cubic inches, or half a foot. Therefore the tree will only contain one-half the quantity of timber at a given age, when making one-sixteenth of layer, that it would if making one-eighth. It must then appear that, unless a tree is allowed conditions under which it can grow sufficiently fast, it will die of disease or old age before it attains proper timber size. CHAPTER XI. PLANTING UNDERWOOD AND GAME COVERT. AS soon as there is sufficient moisture in the ground, autumn planting should be proceeded with, and no time should be lost after the middle of September for planting in general, and especially game covert, of evergreens—as holly, yews, box, privet, laurel, rhodo- dendrons, &c. When a plantation has ceased to grow game covert properly, which all plantations and forests do in course of time, if grown in masses, and the trees for profitable purposes, they must either be renewed in order to maintain their efficiency, or new ground taken for the purpose. Failure is the general result of planting amongst old trees, notwithstanding that the space is quite open and clear of branches overhead. It is not enough, on entering a plantation and finding an open space, to conclude therefrom that trees or shrubs planted in it will grow. It is quite necessary that the space be clear and open, but that is not suffi- cient to ensure the success of newly put in plants. The roots of the surrounding trees, though distant, have invariably taken full possession of the open area, and thoroughly interwoven and exhausted it of every par- ticle of plant-food within reach. 104 PLANTING. The only two ways in which I have ever attained true success in making up blanks and renewing old plantations, apart from cutting down and clearing the whole crop, is either by grubbing out all the trees and roots within the area to the depth of 18 inches, or to cover the whole surface of the ground from 12 to 18 inches deep, less or more, with new and fresh soil from any convenient place; and as the surface-soiling proceeds, the old turf should be roughly broken and mixed with it, but always kept underneath. Where a new road is in course of formation, the surface soil taken off is suitable for the purpose. When arable fields have in places unnecessarily deep deposits of moss, sand, or loam, such may at times be reduced, without detriment to the land, and suit the purpose well. In other cases the requirements are met by carting the surface excavations of open drains, remov- ing old turf dykes, &c. Indeed, almost any change of soil will do; but the distance of cartage is a very important consideration. When surface-soiling is impracticable, and trench- ing of some sort is resorted to, the ground should, if possible, be allowed to lie one season unplanted. What applies to group-planting applies equally to that of planting single trees or shrubs. It is not sufficient preparation of the soil in old plantations merely to trench it up and make a pit large or small. The old soil should in all cases be taken out, and either wholly or partly substituted by other and better soil, or be improved by fallowing, mixing with leaf- mould or other compost—always excepting lime— when pines or rhododendrons are to be planted. The principal reason for maintaining old woods near the mansion in this way is, that there may never at PLANTING UNDERWOOD AND GAME COVERT. 105 any one time be so much wood cut down as to cause a serious blank or opening, so as to detract from its beauty and amenity, and that, without unduly extend- ing the area of the woodlands, sufficient game covert may be uniformly maintained. In isolated places the soil is found sufficiently rich to admit of replanting without any artificial aid beyond drying it, which is necessary in all cases. Such places are, however, very rare, and would grow still better by breaking up and removing the old roots; and for the better growth of hardwoods, such as oak, elm, and ash, the addition of a little lime is sometimes com- mendable. Next to preparing the soil and putting it into proper condition, is that of having the plants in good order for planting. For this purpose it is essential that they be either grown in a home nursery or in a public nursery near at hand. This is necessary, in order that the plants may be safely removed at such times and in such a manner as suits the circumstance of each case; and it rarely gives a plant full justice to convey it from a distance, often also from a rich soil and sheltered situation, and place it under conditions quite of an adverse and opposite nature. The shrub plants most preferable for this and other districts where a strong breeze prevails, and rabbits have to be contended with, are, first, the common variety of the rhododendron, the Rhamnus frangula, Daphne laureola, the buckthorn, tree-box, and the common elder and American hag. The two latter to be occasionally slashed and laid down half cut through, in which position game are fond of going underneath for shade, shelter, and security. 106 CHAPTER XI. CITY AND ROADSIDE PLANTING. Extract from the ‘Journal of Forestry,’ November 1884 :— : “ Tree-planting in Edinburgh.—This topic has recently occupied the correspondence columns of the ‘Scots- man,’ and we recur to it the more readily, as the sub- ject was originally started in these pages some years ago. Some progress has been made. In one or two thoroughfares young seedlings, carefully guarded, are struggling into life, despite the smoke and mists of the grey metropolis of the north. But in other streets, such as Melville Street, as has been pointed out, noth- ing as yet has been attempted to give diversity to the weary platitudes of plate-glass and freestone ashlar work. The ornamental shrubbery strips in the Mea- dows (thanks to the taste of Mr M‘Leod, city garden superintendent) now show some of the arboreal amen- ities we have already bequeathed to our grandchildren. But what is to be said of the new demand that her Majesty’s Commissioners of Woods and Forests cover with thick tree growth the unique lion’s haunch of Arthur Seat, and in whole or in part the escarpments of Salisbury Crags? A moderate amount of planting CITY AND ROADSIDE PLANTING. 107 in the area of the Queen’s Park would increase its amenity. It might renew an aspect of scenery already to be found in old pictures of this and the neighbour- ing hills. Important scientific truths regarding the adaptation of soils to different trees might be gained were the hill an experimental station in connection with the new Forestry School. The decomposing basalts, dolerites, and the diversified rocks forming the area of the hill, render it an infinitely preferable site either to the Arboretum or the Royal Botanic Garden, which, situated on the newer formations of recent sands and gravels, have ever and anon iron bands running through them, very inimical to the maturing of shrubs and trees. “The extension of private tree-planting, notably in villa residences, has also been proposed. This subject is the more apposite, as already one of the sides of Arthur Seat is being encroached on by streets. The city is now possessor of Blackford Hill, and its adorn- ment in the fashion of the landscape-gardener may irretrievably mar the surrounding historic landscape, or display it in more scenic beauty. Why should not the Cockburn Association call for competitive plans, showing how planting and building might be simul- taneously carried out, especially in that wide area, probably so soon to be taken from the agriculturist by the opening of the new Suburban Railway? Such plans would embrace not only villa residences and public gardens, but working-class streets, cottage allot- ments, and children’s playgrounds. The marvellous outgrowth of the city during the last thirty years towards the south and west, shows such dreams of further growth may be other than utopian.” 108 PLANTING. Extract from the ‘Journal of Forestry, November 1884 :— “ Tree-planting in London and San Francisco.—Mary Wager Fisher writes to the ‘Rural New Yorker’ from San Francisco— “* Fuchsia, heliotrope, geranium, and plants of this order of hardiness, are left in the ground the year round. When the winter is more than usually cold, as was last winter, they are likely to freeze down, but sprout again in the spring. Fuchsias grow to be several feet in height and several feet in diameter, forming a great bush when left untrimmed, like our spireas, and are used as hedges, while their bloom is enormous. Pelargoniums and geraniums grow to a similar size—6 to 8 feet high. I saw in Oakland, a suburb of San Francisco, an abutilon fully 20 feet high, nearly covering the large side of a dwelling- house. Oakland is an exceedingly beautiful city, and in its most fashionable quarter the lawns and gardens are wonderfully fine. They are not large, but are kept in perfect freshness by means of hose and water. A great many cypress hedges enclose the lawns; and as cypress grows here in greatest luxuriance, it bears any amount of pruning, and the trees and hedges are trimmed into any desired shape, quite as fantastic as those one sees at the Versailles Gardens in France. “ Fig. 9.—The Capon-tree. The following are also cases where pruning is com- mendable, and of very decided advantage. 1. Where two or more contending shoots grow up together, either starting from the neck of the tree or from any point farther up on the stem, as is very common in the silver fir, the larch, and cedars, in- cluding the deodar,—in all such cases we relieve the tree of all except one to form the stem of the tree. 2. Where, from accident or other cause, a tree loses Q 242 PRUNING. its leading top, and strives to regain it, assistance should be given, either by means of the knife, saw, or pruning-chisel, to enable it to do so. The pruning-chisel is the best instrument for this purpose, as the top, where the operation is to take place, is too slender to carry even a light boy, so that long- and short-handled chisels are the best instruments to use for the work, and by them much good can be accomplished. 3. Where the branches have become dead and withered, which the lower ones of conifers always do, except in the case of single trees standing openly, such branches should always be cut off close to the stem of the tree as soon as vitality has ceased, which is best done by means of a small-toothed sharp hand- saw. If the branches are allowed to remain upon the tree after becoming withered, they get embedded in the wood, and remain attached to it sometimes over seventy years, producing all the while what ultimately forms the lamented black knots, which is one of the greatest detriments to wood, especially when cut into boards or small scantlings. The cutting off of withered branches, no doubt, pro- duces a partial evil, by leaving a discoloured streak in the wood, but the evil thus inflicted is infinitely smaller than that produced by allowing the dead branches to remain on. 4. There is another species of pruning termed dis- budding, which is generally practised upon compara- tively young plants, and is at times useful in directing a leading shoot, or retarding the growth of an ambitious one, or side branch. This practice consists in simply pinching out the large central bud at the point of the shoot, and is best performed in autumn or winter. BENEFITS OF PRUNING. 243 5. There is yet another practice of pruning, which differs from either cutting the branch or disbudding it, and yet answers the purposes of either, which is simply pinching off with the fingers the points of the young shoots when about two-thirds grown. This, of all others, has the best effect of stopping the growth in any direction without incurring evil consequences. It is chiefly performed upon young plants in the nursery, or single ornamental trees in pleasure-grounds, where any special effect is required, but is quite impracti- cable as a general forest operation. Any species of pruning necessary to be done to coniferee is attended with less risk or injury to the tree than to hardwoods generally as the wound in- flicted is immediately covered with resin, which soon hardens and completely stops running or bleeding ; and not only is the surface of the wounded part coated over, but the wood to a considerable depth is filled with crystallised resin, to the complete exclusion of air, water, fungi, and rot. Thus nature both compounds and administers her own balm to the wound, thereby dispensing with paint and other artificial appliances. Our own practice in pruning pines or firs, when cutting the branch, is to rub the wound all over with an earthy turf, which not only assists in restoring the cut part to the natural colour of the bark, but also in forming a crustation to the wound by the earth mixing with the resin. Of the common species of conifers, none require or stand pruning so well as the larch and silver fir, as both are apt to produce plurality of leaders, and both submit well to their removal. Indeed, but for the removal of double shoots of the silver fir, it would seldom attain half its value as a timber tree. 244 PRUNING. Another case for pruning is that of branches having become dead upon a tree. So long as the branches are vital, they are in a state of growth and enlargement, forming woody layers along with, and in conjunction with, the trunk of the tree, whence they issue ; but as soon as life ceases in the branch, the annual layers of wood upon the trunk, by continuing to increase gradu- ally, absorb the base of the dead branch attached to it, and which, when enveloped in the wood of the trunk, forms the said lamented black knot. If this occurs in a young tree, while the branch is a compara- tive sapling without heart-wood, it soon decays and falls off without any serious consequence; but when a large branch dies upon a tree after the heart-wood is formed in it, an evil of no small magnitude is incurred. The dead branch in this state remains upon the tree for many years, till embedded deeply in the trunk. The consequence is, that when the tree is sawn into boards or thin scantlings, a black knot is frequently found to go right through it, and on the wood being seasoned it frequently falls out, thereby leaving a hole in the wood, and rendering it useless for many purposes. Therefore, in all cases of young growing plantations, we at once prune off all decayed branches from the main body of the tree; it is not necessary to prune branches off branches, or even off small limbs, but only off those parts of a tree which yield timber proper. In pruning off dead wood from young trees, we use only the pruning-knife or chisel ; but when the trees are aged, and the heart-wood formed in the branches, the operation is performed by other means. It is often difficult to say what the truly natural habits of trees are, as soil, climate, and situation have each a powerful influence in altering their appearances, BENEFITS OF PRUNING. 245 and even their qualities. We find that when trees are grown singly, and are fully and openly exposed to sun and air, they are, in most instances, clothed with branches from near the surface of the ground to the top, so that the aid of art is called to assist in produc- ing a clean, tall, handsome, and useful tree. Pruning in this case might be almost, if not altogether, rendered unnecessary by timely and judicious thinning ; yet, as already shown, this, in the general management of woods, is found impracticable, and consequently pruning is rendered necessary. The operation of clearing the bole of a tree is the simplest of all depart- ments of pruning, and is performed upon young trees with the pruning-knife; but in the case of tall trees and those further advanced, the pruning-chisel is employed. As a general rule, the trunk of the tree is kept clear of branches to about one-third of its entire height: thus a tree 30 feet in height should have a clean trunk of 10 feet, and a tree 60 feet high, a trunk clear to 20 feet. In low-lying sheltered situations, where the soil is deep, the trunk of the tree may be cleared to nearly half its entire height. Though this is the simplest of all pruning, yet it is in many cases sadly abused by clearing the tree of its branches to near the top, and doing the work roughly and in- artistically. It is often found necessary, although not altogether desirable, to prune trees in hedgerows, and along avenues, rides, carriage-drives, and roadsides, not with the view of benefiting the tree, but only to check the growth of the branches, and prevent them from unduly hanging over, shading surrounding crops, and impeding traffic upon roads. In this case the principal duty 246 PRUNING. required is to lop off the offending branches without imparting to the tree a mutilated, unnatural appear- ance, to cut each branch so as to leave the part re- maining upon the tree in such a state as sufficiently to elaborate the sap and maintain its vitality. In the operation itself, sometimes the saw and spokeshave, and sometimes the pruning - chisel, is used; but in either case the greatest skill is required in amputating the branch in such a manner as to be altogether unobserved. In this department of pruning, as in most others, no positive definite rule can be laid down as appli- cable to all cases, since the entire execution of the work depends upon the taste and skill of the operator. We always cut either close to the trunk of the tree, and dress and paint the knot so as to avoid observation, or cut at such a considerable distance from it as to secure and maintain vitality in the branch, and preserve the symmetry and outline of the tree. In amputating a large limb, we always endeavour to do so within an inch or so of a smaller branch; and thus many a noble tree is prevented from falling a victim to the woodman’s axe, or being subjected to a tortuous mutilation. It is unaccountable how pro- prietors of cultivated minds and refined taste can tolerate the unskilful and distasteful manner in which handsome and often noble trees are so outrageously disfigured by unscientific and inartistic pruning. But, as already remarked, this instance of pruning is not performed with a view to improve or benefit the tree, but simply for other and yet very important reasons. In the case of large branches growing upon one side of a tree, such branches, from being disproportionately large, attract an undue amount of nourishment to BENEFITS OF PRUNING. 247 themselves ; thus a tendency is created to overbalance the tree by an excessive weight of branches and foliage on one side. A tree thus unequally balanced increases in woody matter on that side to which it inclines, and this evil is increased as the tree advances in size. This seemingly unimportant circumstance, which com- menced in a disproportionately large branch, soon becomes magnified to such an extent as to terminate in very mischievous results.