~ ~~ ~~ AS \\ ANS \ WN : LY ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY NEw YorK STATE COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE AND Home Economics AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Cassell’s popular gardening. THIS EDITION Is specially prepared for Subscription only, and is not obtainable through the general Booksellers. CASSELL & COMPANY, Limited. Madame Levet. Marshal Vict . Her Mazosty. Catherine Mermed, ROSES Marve Van Houlte. CASSELL'S POPULAR GARDENING. EDITED BY De fT. FiISe. ASSISTED IN THE PRESENT VOLUME BY Mr. JAMES BRITTEN, F.L.S., British Museum. | Mr. WILLIAM HUGH GOWER, Murseries, Mr. WILLIAM COLEMAN, The Gardens, East- Tooting. nor Castle, Ledbury. Mr. JAMES HUDSON, Zhe Gardens, Gunuers- Mr. RICHARD DEAN, Zaling, W. bury House, Acton, W. Mr. WILLIAM EARLEY, Jiford, Essex. ' Dr. MAXWELL T. MASTERS, F.R.S. Mr. WILLIAM WILDSMITH The Gardens, Heckfield Place, Winchfield, Hants. GHith numerous Jllustrations, an Vou. I. CASSELL & COMPANY, LimiItTEp: LONDON, PARIS & MELBOURNE. (ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.] ~ t ee INDEX OF CONTENTS. COMMON GARDEN FLOWERS: Introduction—The Daisy—The ac cbt Arabis—Aubrietias—Alyssum .. js ae Adonis—Candytuft Gillyflower Stocks—Wallflowers _gnow- in-Summer —Thrift .. es Lily of the Valley —Solomon’s Seal—Bachelor’s s Buttons—Fair Maids of France—Meadow Rue —Columbine — Dianthus — Delphiniums, or Larkspurs ons ca ae The Antirrhinum, or Snapdragon—Hydranges.— The Prony — Tree Ponies — Michaelmas Daisies ... ia ss: ae ee ee te THE CUCUMBER: X Preparing Materials—Sowing Seed—Planting Out —General Culture—Cucumber-growing iy Ex- press... as be oe oo FERNS: a Introduction—Maidenhair Ferns... to Gold and Silver Ferns—Nephrodium—Davallia oa Asplenium—The Onychiums a ee FLORISTS’ FLOWERS: Introduction—The Auricula .., ay Balsams—Begonias—Carnations and Picotees— Cloves ... a see The Calceolaria —The Chrysanthemum ea a The Cineraria—Cockscombs—The Cyclamen THE FLOWER GARDEN: Position—Style—Formation ... oa Summer Bedding—Colours—Designs for Summer Bedding sin, er 1 Wiebeee Propagation and ‘Wintering “of Summer Bedding Plants — Violas — Calceolarias — Gnaphalium and Thymes— Echeverias — Alternantheras— Verbenas, Mesembryanthemum, and Lobelia— Roots and Tubers—Cannas—Coloured Foliage . Bedders .. = Carpet Bedding—Position and Extent Preparing the Beds—Plans Sub-tropical Bedding -- Character “of Plants— Arrangement and Form of Beds—Lists of Plants and Hints on Culture oy Succulent Bedding—Arrangements— Lists —Gene- ral Culture fk The Mixed Style—Its “Merits Arrangements Lists of Suitable Plants—Annuals and Bien- nials ov ne oe eee fas we a PAGE 57 82 185 199 289 368 48 147 265 14. 120 251 331 100 154 218 222 312 GARDEN POTS AND POTTING: GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS: HARDENING-OFF OF PLANTS see PAGE The Pot Trade—Materials—Sizes and Shapes— Various Miscellaneous Kinds of Pots ... is 3 Potting Plants — Dibbling-in — Flooding Home— eee The One-shift Treatment ... es ao 112, GARDEN WALKS AND ROADS: The Foundation of Roads—The Surface—Construe- tion—Width—Carriage-sweeps ... 76 Garden Walks—Kitchen Garden Walks—Working Walks or Alleys—Abolition of Walks in Kitchen Gardens—Cheap Walks—Maintenance of Walks—Grass Walks, Roads, and Rides— Edgings, Terra-cotta and Living Edgings —Objections to the Latter... a 188 Lines of Beauty in Walks and Roads—Straight Lines and Curves—Laying Out—Enftrances— Avenues—Edgings—Garden Walks—Lines of Divergence—Privacy ws ee oa we 258 Introductory—Abutilon—Acacia — Acrophyllum— Adenandra—Agapanthus—Agave wes w= 62 Aloe—Aotus—Aphelexis—Aralia—Araucaria «. 159 Azalea— Banksia — Beaufortia — Bignonia — Boro- nia— Bossicea— Bouvardia— Burtonia— Callis- tachys—Callistemon ... 3 273 Camellia—Campsidium—Canarina—Cantua— Cera- tostema—Chamerops— Cheirostemon— Choro- zema—Citrus—Clethra ... a aes «. 860 GROUND OPERATIONS: Levelling—Mistakes—Methods cee ais 10 Trenching—Mistakes in Trenching—The Only Profitable Kind—Tools and Methods—Times for Trenching .. 96 Drainage—Keeps Land ‘both. “Dry. ‘and. “Moist and Warm—Enriches and Deepens Soils a. 142 Drainage (continued)—Line of Drains—Distance— Depth—Fall—Sizes—Materials and Forms— Outlets—Draining Tools—Laying the Drains... 237 Digging—Advantages of Digging—Laying out the Work—Changing Hands—Ditferent Kinds of Digging—The Fork ... tea wee oe «. 270 vee ee BIZ HERBS AND SMALL SALADS: Introductory— Angelica— Anise — Balm — Basil— Borage—Capsicum — Caraway — Chamomile— iv CASSELL’S POPULAR GARDENING. HERBS AND SMALL SALADS (continued) : Chervil—-Chicory—Chive — Coriander— Cress— Dandelion—Dill—Fennel—Horse-radish—Hys- ,sop—Ice Plant—Lavender—Marjoram ... Mustard—Onions—Parsley — Purslane — Radish — _ Rampion—Rosemary—Sage— Savory— Skirret —Sorrel—Thyme ie a er by THE KITCHEN GARDEN: eA a a aa Bears, Broad... Shape — Furnishing — Culture - — ” Manure — “Beans, Kidney and Runner—Beet—Broccoli Artificial Waterings—Summer Culture— Season- able Work — Exhausted Crops — Brussels Sprouts—Borecole—Cabbage—Cabbage Cole- worts—Savoy—Cardoon— Carrot— Cauliflower Celery — Celeriac — nee Pe — Endive — Leek— Lettuce . “ia : Onions — Parsnips _ = Peis) _ Rhubarb THE LIFE-HISTORY OF PLANTS: Growth—Seeds—Buds—Reserve Organs ... Germination —The Radicle—The Caulicle— The Seed-leaves—Practical Inferences Growth of Buds—Nature of Buds—How they are Nourished—Their Individuality—Varieties— Bud Scales... Bulbs—Varieties in Bulbs —Corms—Tubers—Prac- tical Inferences a nes sea ze one MUSHROOMS AND THEIR CULTURE: Formation of the Beds—Indoor and Outdoor—The Proper Heat—The Spawn—Portable Culture in Pots or Small Boxes—Mushroom Growth Everywhere ... ve oes eat THE ROSE AND ITS CULTURE: The Botanical Characteristics of the Rose .. Rose Stocks—Briar Stocks—Preparation of Briar Stocks—Planting—Briar Roots, Cuttings, and Seedlings—Other Rose Stocks—Special Stocks for Special Roses Propagation of Roses—By Seeds—Sports—Budding Roses—Preparation, Process, and After-treat- meut—Budding without Stocks ... PAGE 51 136 106 165 205 373 20 195, 295 70 176 THE ROSE AND ITS CULTURE (contined) : Propagation of Roses (continued)—By Cuttings— Dormant and Growing Shoots—Cold and Warm Methods— Spring Cuttings — Grafting—Diffe- rent Modes of eeltie Teen eek Root-division ... Planting Roses—Time “to Plant—Place—Soil— Plans for Rose Gardens and Beds—The Pro- cess of Planting—Arrangement of the Plants SUBURBAN GARDENING: Suburban Difficulties—Preparation—Plans—Ter- races and Rows of Houses—The Forecourt— The Back Garden—Plans—Planting Supply and Management of Small Gardens— Propagation—Sowing Seeds—Buying Plants — Watering—Care of the Soil—The Lawn oo Detached Villa Gardens—Fruit-trees— Unsuitable Subjects — Acclimatised Plants — Times for Planting or Removal — Hedges — Planning— The Kitchen Garden—Maintenance—Fruit— Vegetables ae The Greenhouse and Conservatory i in Suburban Gardens—Vine Culture—Plants for the Green- Louse—Shrubs and Trees—Climbers—Conifere —Roses—Plants—Fruits—Vegetables ... THE VINE AND ITS FRUIT: Introductory—Large Vines and Bunches—Houses for Grape-growing—Artificial ‘Heating .. a Vine Borders—Drainage—Soil—Heated. Borders— Water—Covering—Renovating—Mulching Propagation—Cuttings—Layering—Eyes—Eyes in Turf—Grafting—Inarching—Budding—Green- budding — Planting Vines—Select Lists of Grapes ... eee oes Management of Newly- planted Vines—The First Year—The Second erie ee and Fruiting Year .. General Management—Setting “the Fruit—Thin- ning—Moisture and a as cay Pruning and Training is Keeping Grapes through Winter in Bottles and ‘Troughs—Packing Grapes —Exhibiting—Fruit- ing Vines in Pots—Pot Vines for Table Deco- ration—Varieties of Grapes es ia ac PAGE 210 314 131 225 281 324 91 172 301 3 CASSEHELL’S POPULAR GARDENING. INTRODUCTION. HE design of this work is, briefly, to bring a knowledge of the best gardening practice, and of the principles on which it is based, within easy reach of the people at large. It may be said that there is no lack of works on gardening already; and this is undoubtedly true. Some of these, however, are scarce ; others are expensive ; and most of them are now more or less superseded by the rapid advance made in the knowledge and practice of gardening within the last few years. Horticulture has, in fact, lately advanced with such leaps and bounds that its literature has hardly kept pace with the im- provements made in its practice. It may also be not unfairly said that the majority of works on horticulture have been written for the few rather than for the many. For one interested in gardening ten years ago, however, a hundred or a thousand are interested to- day; and this large public will, it is hoped, cordially welcome an attempt to place the knowledge and practice of the highest authorities within their reach. The rapid rise and progress of commercial horticulture, the demand for open spaces, the multiplication and improvement of public parks, the enormous imports of foreign fruit and vegetables, the marvellous increase in the home culture of flowers, fruit, and seeds ;—all these things point to an unlimited extension of garden pursuits in the near future. When the imperial importance of horticulture as a powerful factor in augmenting the food supplies, promoting the comfort, elevating the character, and improving the sani- tary state of the nation, becomes better known and more generally appreciated, few wil! rest content until they possess a garden of some sort. And few need any longér stand aside from the pursuit of horticulture, as too difficult or too costly for them. Thoroughly understood and properly practised, it is neither one nor the other; while no pursuit yields quicker returns, or richer revenues of pleasure, profit, and relaxation for the money and time invested in it. While aiming, therefore, to make this work a safe and sufficient guide for the most experienced, it is hoped to avoid a glaring fault of many current treatises on gardening, viz., an assumption of the possession of too much knowledge on the part of their readers. Beginning at the very beginning of our subject, as regards the EARTH, and those plants which clothe it with plenty and adorn it with beauty, it will be our aim to teach, by a series of easy articles or lessons, how the former may be ameliorated and enriched, and the latter multiplied and improved. 1 2 INTRODUCTION. The machinery of the pLayt, its outward conformation, internal organisation, and method of working, as well as the circumstances by which it is influenced, will receive proper explanation. In this department the object will be to call attention to those points in vegetable anatomy and physiology which have a direct bearing on the practice of gardening. We shall endeavour to give the cultivator such a general insight into the structure and working of the plant-machine, as shall enable him to regulate his practice intelligently, and independently of mechanical routine. It is also hoped that the information so provided will be of service, by furnishing suggestions for dealing with novel combinations of circumstances, or matters outside the range of former experience ; and thus most effectually enable the cultivator to further the progress of his art, and —in some way or the other—leave it better than he found it. The fullest and latest information will be given on such subjects as the formation and maintenancé of ARTIFICIAL CLIMATES, by the erection and warming of GLASS-HOUSES or other structures; the formation and furnishing of the VrcrraBie, Fiower, and Fruit GARDENS ; and the propagation by every known means of all the plants of the garden. The CULTURE OF FLowers and Decorative Piants will be treated from various points of view. The general formation of the Flower Garden, with methods of keeping up an attractive display throughout the changing seasons, will be dealt with. The plants themselves will also be described in detail, with their special methods of culture and propagation ; the green- house and parterre receiving equal attention. Rosus will receive copious treatment in a series of special articles devoted to their propagation, culture, pruning, training, use in garden landscape, selective and descriptive lists of the choicest varieties—old and new—fov gardens large and small, the clothing of walls, culture in pots and under glass, and planting in out-of-the-way places. In a word, we hope to teach every reader how to form, furnish, and cultivate his garden in the best way, at the least cost, and to the most profitable and pleasant purpose. Without wholly endorsing the suggestive saying, that the smaller the garden the greater is the skill needed to manage it aright, we are so keenly alive to the trials and discourage- ments of smal] gardeners, that we purpose to specially afford as full and safe guidance and as much encouragement to those whose gardens may be found in the front and back yards, area, or house, as to others who may grow acres of fruit or flowers under glass or in the open. SUBURBAN GARDENING will have a series of articles to itself, as also will Winpow GARDENING, and other forms of horticulture in or about the home. Writers of special knowledge and proved ability in every department and phase of gardening have undertaken to treat these various subjects ; and wherever illustrations can assist, either to give an adequate idea of flower or plant, to explain the details of pruning, grafting, or other operations, to elucidate a system, or to make clear the structures or appliances described, they will be freely employed. Neither labour nor expense will be spared to make the following pages a full and safe guide for gardens of all sizes, and for all sorts and conditions of gardeners. GARDEN-POTS AND POTTING. 3 GARDEN-POTS AND POTTING. GARDEN-POTS. T is impossible to over-estimate the vital im- portance of these appliances and operations in the prosecution and progress of horticulture. Supposing the supply of garden-pots and the ability to use them withdrawn! horticulture would not merely stand still, but speedily relapse, into a state of chaos and retrogression. From seed to finished produce, pots minister to the wants of plants, and nurture them carefully through all the preliminary stages and processes from start to finish. Pots virtually endow plants with locomotive powers, making them safely portable at all times and seasons, and in all places; thus enabling cultivators to concentrate the gems of the vegetable kingdom into any given area. By their exclusive and retentive forces, they also pro- vide specially suitable food for any number of plants, and furnish a separate larder for each when neces- sary. Pots of proper quality, skilfully used, hold their food-stores almost as securely and safely for the roots, as iron safes with Chubb-locks hold the property of their owners. But it is not needful to dwell on the usefulness of pots: they are vital necessities to the pursuit of modern horticulture. The demand for them has be- come so urgent and extensive as to have created and sustained a virtually new trade of enormous dimen- sions—that of the special manufacture of garden- pots. The Garden-pot Trade.—Doubtless for many years, in the majority of general potteries, garden- pots have been made. Many of these, from the very circumstances of the case, were more or less inferior. No special preparation of clay or earth was considered necessary, and, as the quantities turned out were limited, few or no special hands were kept for that purpose. All this is completely changed now. One firm alone—certainly one of the largest in the trade— to whose courtesy we are indebted for some of the facts of this chapter, turns out garden-pots at the rate of a million and a quarter ora million anda half a year. Probably other makers almost equal this enormous average, while there are hundreds of provincial potteries spread broadcast over the country where garden-pots are made and distributed; so that thirty millions a year would probably be a low estimate of the actual number produced. Few facts could give a more vivid picture of the enormous extent and growing power of modern horticulture than the reading of such figures; or better still, were that possible, a bird’s-eye view of those piled- up mountains of millions of garden-pots. Mere figures give poor and meagre notions of facts. For example, the number of gallons of bitter beer or stout consumed can hardly be estimated by figures. But enter the stores of full, and the yards of piled- up empty casks, and the magnitude of the consump- tion grows more and more manifest. Fortunately for most of the makers of the finer qualities of garden-pots, their reserve stores are seldom very large. The demands in the form of orders are so urgent and constant, as almost to outrun supplies. Hardly have the pots been drawn from the kilns before they are whipped off by road, rail, or river to all parts of the three kingdoms; and the potters are such adepts in the art of packing, that as u rule not more breakages will be found after a journey of three hundred miles than take place in one of three. The pots are not only distributed throughout Great Britain and Ireland, but to other parts of Europe, to Africa, and New Zealand. Consignments of fifty thousand pots at one time are not unknown to the trade, and some of the great nurserymen use from a hundred and fifty thousand to a quarter of a million pots a year. Orders from a hundred thousand down to forty thousand are comparatively common, and, of course, from these large numbers downwards, orders become thick as blackberries. Hence the gross output of garden-pots a year cannot well be less than that which has been stated. To the.question, Where do they all go? no very satisfactory answer can be given. Of course, growers for sale, who after all are by far the largest consumers of pots, sell their pots with the plants, and as trade grows, and plants increase, the demand for pots increases with it. Hence firms that wanted one hundred thousand last year, are likely to need one hundred and twenty thousand next, and so in degree in private gar- dens; hence the demand for pots is sure to increase and extend. The late agricultural depression, which has lasted through several years, checked to some extent the yearly increase of garden-pots. But it has been reported recently that the trade is rapidly recovering, and is likely to exceed all former dimen- sions. Material and Quality.—Were a horticultural Rip Van Winkle to wake now, nothing would astonish him so much as the enormous number of garden-pots, and their improvement in shape, texture, and quality. They are as unlike as anything can well be to the older pots of English manufacture, and the inferior ware often re- ceived with plants from the Continent. The more the worse, unfortunately applies to not a few of our manufactured products. But the more the better, is emphatically applicable to our modern garden-pots. 4 CASSELL’S POPULAR GARDENING. - Bxtended insatiable consumption has not only stimu- lated production, but improved the methods and products. At one time almost any clay that made fair bricks or serviceable drain-tiles was held to be good enough for garden-pots. Hence not a few of them were coarse, clumsy, heavy, almost as heavy as bricks—very little better, in fact, for cultural purposes, or conveyance to distant parts. Modern garden-pots are light, strong, clean, and durable. Their quality is almost all that can be desired, while prices have fallen rather than risen with their improvement. Several causes have contributed to this result. Most of the leading potters are men who not only put their capital but their hearts into their business. They have a laudable pride in the quality of their wares. Competition in garden pottery, and the offer of medals, or other prizes, at the Manchester, metropolitan, and other great horticultural shows, for the best garden-pots, has also done a good deal toimprove it. A manufactory at Weston-super-Mare has been the fortunate winner of most of the premier prizes at these competitions. Some attribute this to the superior quality of the clay at the above place. No doubt this led to the establishment. of the manufacture of garden-pots in that locality, about half a century ago. But as much, or more, depends upon due intermixture, and proper working of the clay, as upon its original quality or character. That, however, is of the best quality for the making of garden or other pots, terra-cotta or other vases, window boxes, baskets, &c. One hundred parts of the dry clay consist of :— Silica 57°29 Alumina . 13°55 Ferric oxide . 490 Manganese oxide . 0°46 Carbonate of Lime 8°84 Magnesia é 7 ‘ 2°27 Potash : ; i ‘ - : 3°62 Loss in Calcivation (chiefly water and 10-06 Carbonic acid) FE ‘ 5 100°99 A layer of this clay overlies clay of inferior quality and other strata, to a depth of about six feet. Good as it is by nature, the potter immediately sets about its further improvement by art, and the preparatory stages of the process are very similar to those adopted in the formation or further improve- ment of surface mould. Time, admixture, exposure, are the slow but sure influences that bring the clay into workable form, and mellow it into higher quality. To bring these more actively and power- fully to bear upon it, the clay is dug out and spread over the surface to the depth of a yard or so.. In this state it is left fully exposed to every vicissitude of our climate; rain, wind, sun, and frost being the most powerful agents in improving the quality of the mass. After the first layer is sufficiently weathered, a second, third, or more layers may be added until the clay-heap reaches to any con- venient height. The longer the clay can be ex- posed thus, the better asa rule its quality. Before use, this heap of weathered clay is turned over, and thoroughly mixed and incorporated in the process. It is then passed through a mill, which completes the mixing and the tempering of the clay, converting the whole into a plastic mass of as nearly as possible uniform quality. From the pug-mill it is carried to the throwing sheds, where it is worked almost as bread is before being placed in the oven; the workmen being assisted in completely working the clay ‘by cutting it asunder with wires, and dashing it together again, until it becomes sufficiently pliable and homogeneous to be converted into garden- * pots. These particulars refer only to the best clay; when stones abound in the clay, or it contains an excess of silica, the one must be screened and the other washed out before the clay reaches this stage. When the amalgamation of all the parts of the clay is completed, and its homogeneity is perfected, it is then divided into bolls or balls, in a similar way to the division of dough into roll or loaf pieces. These vary in size, according as the pots are to be large or small, and practice enables the workmen to separate the clay into the exact-sized ball needed for any sized pot, with scarcely an atom of loss or excess. Before reaching this stage, however, it was the practice at one time to divide the clay into portions termed casts. These were all of equal size, and thus one cast of clay might make eighty pots or one only, according to the size. Hence eighty, sixty, forty-eight, thirty-two, twenty-four, sixteen, twelve, eight, six, four, two, or one pot, out of a cast or measure of clay, became popular and useful measures of sizes. Until very recently the numbers in the cast were the only index to measure in the ordering of pots. As the amount of clay was the same, the same wages—until the larger sizes were reached—were paid for making eighty pots, twenty- four, or twelve, and the same price was charged to the purchaser. This system of selling pots is now generally abolished, and a sliding scale of prices is established, ranging from a farthing to five-and- twenty shillings or more per pot, and from three- pence to eighteen shillings per dozen. But from the grinding, moulding, or throwing sheds, where the clay has been worked into quality, and divided into balls, it is cast to the thrower, who sits at his wheel, and moulds the finished pots out of the balls as if by magic, by the aid of his fingers. This GARDEN-POTS. a is one of the most primitive and astonishing of all the processes in the art of pot-making. The potter’s wheel has undergone little or no improvement since the Israelites made pots, doubtless as well as bricks, on such hard lines in Egypt; and any one that looks at the speed and perfection with which, under the spell of the eye and hand of the potter, it does its work, cannot wonder that in a world of change this rude piece of mechanism remains the same throughout the ages. As the pots are made, they are ranged by fifties, more or less according to size, on a drying-board, and placed in drying-sheds until fit for baking. When they arrive at this state, they are made into nests, as it is technically called—that is, the different sizes are slipped into one another until the whole is filled with pots, and so placed in the oven. This economises space to the utmost, and has also other advantages. When the kiln is filled, the door is built up, and rendered air-tight with clay. The fires are then lighted, and a strong heat kept up for two or three days of twenty-four hours each. The fire is then allowed to die out, and the fire-place is hermetically sealed to allow the glowing mass of pots to cool slowly and regularly, sudden changes of temperature having a tendency to fracture the pots at this stage. When cool the pots are withdrawn. In large establishments, where from fifty to sixty men and boys are employed, several kilns are in use; as they can hardly be filled with pots, the pots be drawn, and filled again, within less than a week. As the making of garden-pots in quantity is a very modern manufacture, and information in re- lation to it is rare, and not readily accessible, it “is hoped the details here given will prove useful and interesting to our readers. Cleanliness.—This merit was named in connec- tion with the other good qualities of strength, light- ness, and durability. The phrase, however, is liable to be misunderstood. All new garden-pots are clean, but what of the old ones? Ah! there’s the rub. Now the best garden-pots, such as those here described, will wear clean; that is, the texture and quality is such that they offer no foothold for fungoid growths on their outer surface, nor adherence of earth to their inner sides. The best pots are more or less porous ; less, however, rather than more. This matter will be further adverted to in estimating the merits or demerits of glazed pots. Pots sufficiently porous to be seldom or never dry are decidedly dirty pots ; the damp invites and retains all sorts of atmospheric impurities, and living spores cling to, abide, and grow on their slimy surfaces. Similar processes go on inside; and pots thus coated without and within with foreign excrescences and impurities are totally unable to maintain the plants imprisoned or poisoned in or through them in health and vigour. A good pot, when dry, rings clear as a bell; a bad one gives forth a dull sound, more like a soaked brick or a log of wood. No amateur should purchase old pots. They are not seldom poisoned with dirt, and infested with the germs of the most troublesome vermin, and are far too dear even if got for nothing. Purchase only of the best makers, as these cannot afford to make or sell bad pots. They either give them away should any occur by ac- cident, or smash them at the kiln’s mouth. The maker who makes and sells fifteen or twenty thou- sand pots a week, cannot afford to make them of inferior quality: it is the quality alone that creates and sustains the trade, and consequently that must be upheld at any sacrifice or cost. Sizes and Shapes.—If what has been said about casts has been clearly understood, it will be seen that pots must be of many varied sizes, when the same clay that may be moulded into one will make eighty, or even a hundred. These extreme varia- tions of size are also necessary, as the seedling almost ‘too small to handle finds a suitable home in a thimble-pot, while the orange-tree, camellia, oleander, or fuchsia, ten feet high and five through, is as much at home in a number four, two, or one- sized pot. The old names and sizes of pots were as follows; and as they are still used in some parts of the country it may be useful to give them here, as well as the newer nomenclature, which is based on measurement only :— OLD NAMES AND SIZES. Depth. |Diameter. cone Name. Inches, | Inches, Inches. 18 20 1 Ones or 20 14 18 2 Twos - 18 13 ts 4 Fours eo. |B 12 13 6 Sixes a B 11 12 8 Lights x 12 10 11k 12 Twelves 5 ll 9 9% 16 Sixteens a 9 8 84 24 Twenty-fours ,, 8 6 6 32 Thirty-twos ,, 6 5 43 48 Forty-eights ,, 5 3k 3 60 Sixties <3 3 24 25 80 Highties or Hundreds ,, 23 The modern current list of sizes is as follows. It gives the diameter only; and these are inside measurements about an eighth of an inch below the rim. These sizes and prices may be said to be the average of the trade generally, not only of one eminent manufacturer; and it may therefore prove 6 CASSELL’S POPULAR GARDENING. useful to give them entire, with their ordinary prices :— MODERN NAMES AND SIZES. Clear In- Price Clear In- Price side er doz side er doz Diameter, | P&™ CO Diameter. | P . No. | Inches. £s. d. | No Inches. £5. da. 1 1; 00 38 13 11 070 2 23 0038 14 12} 010 6 3 22 004 15 14 014 0 4 3} 005 16 15 017 6 5 oe : ‘ . 17 16 110 5 < EACH. i ae toa e | BB 18 026 2 oe ae) 20 0 4 6 s i oe | ae ee 090 1 B Cee a | Be 012 6 a ( 23 26 017 6 i2 ig 046 | bo 30 15 0 As the railway freight on heavy goods so often proves a formidable item in their cost, the following table of weight per 1,000, 500, 100, 12, and 6 pots respectively from No. 1 to No, 24, is given, and also the number of each required tomake a ton. All that is needful in ordering pots from a distance is, simply to compare the number wanted with the table, note the weight, and ascertain the freight per hundred- weight or ton between the pottery and the nearest station, and add this to the net cost of the pots at the pottery, and so find the whole cost, and prevent any miscalculation :— TABLE OF WEIGHTS. Numb Number of No. . Pe ad Weight, about | Pots to One Ton, OF LOLS. about Tons. Cwts. Qrs. 1 1,000 0 1i 16,000 2 1,000 0 1 3 12,090 3 1,000 0 3 0 6,500 4 1,000 0 4 0 5,000 5 1,000 0 6 3 3,000 6 1,000 010 0 2,000 7 1,000 017 #O 1,200 8 1,000 1 0 90 1,000 9 500 017 +0 600 10 500 1 4 0 400 11 500 123 0 300 12 500 2 5 0 225 13 100 0 12 #0 170 14 100 1 0 0 100 15 100 110 0 66 16 100 112 0 62 17 100 2 0 0 50 18 12 0 5 2 46 19 12 0 7 2 34 20 12 0 10 O 24 21 6 0 6 0 20 23 6 0 7 +O 17 24 6 09 0 13 It will be observed that from the one inch and three-quarters up to sixtcen inches the sizes hardly .advance an inch at atime. Such close-fitting sizes are practically useless as far as the shifting of plants from one to the other is concerned ; and in this respect the old sizes seem more sensible than the new, inasmuch as there is a greater difference between them. Beyond sixteen inches in diameter there is a difference of two inches between each of the sizes, and this is increased to four inches in the final rise from twenty-six to thirty inches; the latter being an enormous pot very seldom used. However, the nurserymen and florists have been ac- customed to these sizes, as have also the potters, and both classes are almost as con- servative in such matters as the thrower’s wheel,which persists in going against the sun, and in turning off pots as it did, pro- bably, four or five thousand years ago. ‘Those who want greater difference in size can easily obtain it by leaping over one or more intermediate sizes, and ordering Nos. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and so on. An illustration of a nest of pots, arranged according to the above list, is given to make the sizes and forms of the common garden-pots more familiar to the general reader (Fig. 1). Fig. 1.—Nest of Pots, from 18 in. to 12in, Long Toms.—The peculiar characteristic of this form, which has hitherto been chiefly confined to the smaller sizes, included between thumbs and five-inch or less, is that they are deeper than the ‘ordinary make in proportion to their diameter, and that they have no rims (Fig. 2). Being, how- ever, made of the very best clay, and with more than ordinary care, the pots, though also thinner than most others in their sides, are found to be stronger than the average make, though these are fortified with rims. How far it may be possible and safe in practice to abolish rims in the larger sizes, re- mains to be proved, and will doubtless be put to the test. The chief object gained by the abolition of rims is to economise space in the growth, storing, and packing of small plants. This difference in favour of rimless pots must be. seen to be fully appreciated. With the smaller sizes the number of plants placed in the same area may be almost doubled by the abolition of the rims. This is of enormous importance when and where thousands and tens of thousands of these are raised and grown. These advantages, however, lose their force when applied to pots and plants of larger sizes. So soon as the diameter of the plant exceeds that of the pot, the former, not the latter, regulates the distance GARDEN-POTS. 7 between them. But for packing purposes, in which the heads of plants are often tied into less space for travelling than their pots occupy, this gain of space by the abolition of rims would be very consi- derable. Of course, even then some packing material, such as moss, would have to be placed as an elastic and safe buffer between the pots. But almost the less of this the better for safe transport. In cases of breakages in transit it will generally be found to have arisen from an excess of packing material between the pots, and the nearer to a uniform hardness the entire base of the package can be made, the better and the safer. Hence the packing material can hardly be too thin, as it is there that all the evils and destruc- tive effects of displacement of pots, and the sudden jerks, and other accidents of conveyance occur. The rims of pots also become mechanical obstructions to close packing, and hence it happens, as might have been expected, that a basket packed full of long toms, with « minimum amount of semi-elastic packing between them, will travel more safely than one filled with pots with rims, with double, treble, or four times the amount of packing between them. Rims are, however, useful for lifting the larger pots, and hence they are likely to be used for such; cultivators having also got so accustomed to rims that not a few consider the rimless ones unsightly. But millions of pots are used for cultural and propa- gating purposes, the growing of small plants for sale or otherwise, the culture of bulbs, succession pines and plants, and for myriads of other operations in horticulture, in which the appearance of te pots is of no moment whatever. Not, however, that there is anything unsightly in long toms. On the contrary, as they are exceed- ingly well made, each pot being as like another as two peas of the same sort, a house filled with plants in them has a charmingly business-like and orderly appearance. As already stated, the plants can be packed so much more closely together, that from five hundred to a thousand more plants may be packed in a very moderate-sized house or frame. Long toms, like many other so-called and most useful inventions, are rather the revival of an old than the origination of anewidea. Many of the older bulb pots and pine pots of the olden times in horti- culture, were almost identical in form with modern long toms. Some of these even carried the depth in proportion to the width to greater length than in the long toms, and it was a notable feature that the deeper they were the less rims they had, as if the rims had been impressed into the service of making them deeper. The modern bulb pot (Fig. 3), which still survives, though it can hardly be said to be popular in Eng- land, gives a fair idea of those very lanky, and, it must be confessed, rather imperfect long toms of those ancient times, in which the arrival of a hundred pots caused greater excitement than the un- packing and safe storage of ten thousand does to-day. These bulb pots may be had in five or six different sizes, from 42 inches in diameter to 8 inches, and are double the price of garden-pots of the or- dinary form. They have the great merit of holding a considerably greater quantity of soil, and of enabling the plants, alike when growing and bloom- ing, to be placed more closely together. Fig. 3. — Deep Hyacinth or Bulb Pot. The Oxford.—This isa most useful pot for train- ing purposes, brought prominently into notice and invented by Mr. Matthews. It is made exactly like other pots, with the addition that the rim is perforated (Fig.4). This is one of the most convenient and simple arrangements for train- ing purposes. So many plants —-such, for example, as Pelar- goniums, Chrysanthemums, and hosts of others—have to be tied down, that the practical im- portance of this simple contrivance can hardly be ex- aggerated. The perforated rim almost abolishes hoop training; and will go a long way towards reducing the numbers, and for many plants will cause the total abolition of stakes. All that is needful is to slip the ties through the holes in the rim, care- fully draw down the longest shoots, and proceed to make use of these first shoots as holdfasts for the second, and so on till the whole are trained ; or, in cases where considerable tension is needful, the whole of the ties can proceed directly from the rims. In the larger sizes these perforated rims are equally useful for attaching trellises to. The price of the Oxford is one-half more than that of ordinary pots. Fig. 4.—Oxford, or Perforated Rim Pot. The Alpine Pot.—This, in general terms, may be described as a double pot (Fig. 5). Its main pur- pose is to protect the roots from sudden and extreme changes of heat and cold, wet and drought; aiming, as far ag may be, to maintain the roots moist and cool. This is of far more moment in the case of Alpine plants than of any other. For not a few of them in their native homes grow with their feet— that is, their roots—in a bath of snow-water, while they lean their beauteous cheeks against the thick- ribbed ice. Bearing these natural conditions in mind, 8 CASSELL’S POPULAR GARDENING. it is little wonder that so many attempts to grow these children of the mountain wastes and wilds in pots have proved miserably abortive. With the roots hugging the sides of the pot, now scorched by ‘ ‘heat and anon frozen with cold, now parched through drought and again drowning with a deluge of water— the plants, hardy and robust though they be, give up the contest and per- ish. The Alpine pot protects the roots from these extreme variations and kill- ing vicissitudes of alternating condi- tions. It is virtually two pots—the inner made within the outer one. The plants are potted in the inner pot in the usual way; and the open space between may then be filled with water, damp sand, or moss, either of which will guard the roots against all extremes as far as may be, and work towards that uniformity of temperature and of mois- ture most favourable to their well-doing. But the tops of most Alpine plants are as sweet and tempting to slugs and other insect pests, as their roots are sensitive to sudden and severe changes. The Alpine pot combats these dangers as effectively as those of sudden and severe atmospheric changes. By filling the space between the pots with water, each plant is placed in the centre of a little island in- accessible to insect pests, and the cultivator may rest secure that his Alpine favourites are safe. Only the best pot-ware, however, is fit for this mode of culture, and the surrounding of Alpine plants or pots with a cordon of water as a panoply of safety alike for their roots and tops. Were the pots too porous, the best soil would soon be converted into mud by excessive absorption. "With the best ware, it will be found that very little water will be needed by plants thus enveloped with it all round. So far, too, this plan of watering is the best; and during very hot weather, amateur gardeners may safely, and with advantage to their favourites, carry the copying of nature a little further by drafting a few pieces of ice into the water-way around their Alpine pots. Neither must the water be allowed to become putrid. If it is not removed with suffi- cient rapidity by the compound process of absorption by the inner pot, and evaporation through the outer one, to keep it sweet, then it must be emptied by prompt inversion, carefully spreading a hand over the plant and soil during the process. Sufficient attention is not always given to this, as nothing could be more unnatural or deleterious than semi-putrid water for Alpine plants. The price is double that of common pots of the same diameters. Fig. 5.—Alpine or Double Pot. The Double-rimmed Pot.—This is a propa- gating pot, and the use of the double rim is to place the bell-glass on this instead of on to the sand or surface in which the cuttings or seeds are placed. It is doubtful if any cultural advantages are gained by this arrangement. But it affords con- siderably more space, and as the majority of cuttings root more freely against the sides of the pots, the placing of the bell-glasses on the rims would enable the best rooting-places now necessarily left vacant to be fully filled. By filling the rim-space with water or damp sand, the bell-glass will hermetically seal the enclosed atmosphere as effectually as the present mode of placing the glasses on the surface soil of the pot. The use of water as the seal of the air might also dispense with the necessity of water- ing the cuttings ; while, should the moisture prove excessive, sand could easily be substituted for the water. Orchid Pots, Pans, and Baskets.—These differ from other pots in being, as a rule, of less depth, greater breadth, and more profusely perforated at bottom, and also in their sides (Fig. 6), this extreme porosity or openness being adopted for the double purpose of insuring the most thorough drainage, and also the free passage of the roots from the pots or pans into the atmosphere. The shape or form of the openings in the sides of orchid pots or pans is of little moment ; but as most orchid roots are large, and it is of vital importance they should neither be bruised or injured in their exit, nor afterwards, it is very essential that the perforations should be of sufficient size. As orchid pots are specially prominent, it is also well that, especially in the casc of suspended pans or pots, they should be orna- mental. The potters have been among the first to Fig. 6.—Orchid Pots. recognise and anticipate the demand for orna- mental orchid pots, and they may now be had of all forms and sizes, and with every degree of perfora- tion, from a few round holes in the sides to latticed diamonded sides or bottoms, as open and porous to water or roots as the older wire and wooden baskets, so well known to all orchid growers. Earthenware, being so much cleaner and more useful and durable than any other material, is rapidly superseding every- thing else for orchid culture. A few illustrations will show how useful and ornamental these are now made. The price of orchid pots is the price and a GARDEN-POTS. ; & half of ordinary ones; improved ones, with movable bottoms, double price. Pans (Fig. 7) are virtually still shallower pots, arranged for hanging up. Fig. 7.—Orchid Pans or Baskets, Glazed Pots.—A good many years ago rather fierce battles on paper, as in practice, used to be waged over the merits of glazed versus unglazed pots. And along the entire line the unglazed ware has won the victory. The latter was in fact so complete, that glazed garden-pots are now seldom offered for sale, or made unless to order. The cost is almost double that of ordinary pots, and as they are equally or more liable to breakage, the corresponding advantages, if any, hardly make up for the enhanced cost. They undoubtedly wear cleaner on the outside than ordi- nary pots, and this is almost all that can be said in their favour. A few authorities here and there pre- fer them, but the majority shun them as they would the plague. It is doubtful, however, whether this strong aversion is founded on any direct effect of the glazed pots on the plants grown in them. As their sides are impervious, the provision of drainage should be more ample, and plants grown in them need less water than those grown in ordinary pots. When cultivators bear these two facts in mind, glazed pots are likely to prove as successful from a cultural point of view as unglazed. Colours of Pots.—Good pots, like good horses, are seldom or never of a bad colour, and with cul- tivators generally all colours are bad but a cheerful bright red, a shade or two lighter than red brick. Part of the feeling against glazed pots no doubt has originated in the colour, so suggestive of common pie-dishes or other household ware. Neither have white, French white, nor any shade of stone-coloured pots ever been popular. They look to practical men cold, and by these it is said that they are so; and it is without doubt true that, under the same conditions and treatment, plants in white or light- coloured pots seldom do so well as those in red. As for painting pots green, black, grey, or any other colour, all such practices are universally condemned by practical men, and are only indulged in by amateurs to the increase of their risk of failure and loss. The paint stops up the pores of the pot, and converts it at once into a glazed pot of the very worst sort. It may seem a bold step to vindicate the prevailing colour of garden-pots on esthetic grounds. But taking into account the prevailing colour of floors, roofs, frame-work of plant houses, and the white glare of the glass, perhaps no colour could prove a more effective contrast to all this, or be better adapted for the effective display of plants in growth and bloom, than the light red which characterises all the best makes of garden pottery. Pots for other Purposes than Plant-grow- ing.—These are what are called blanching pots, or such as are used for the growth of sea-kale and rhu- barb. They are large, deep, and have movable tops. Fig. 9.—Sea-kale Pot, high lid. Fig. 8.~Rhubarb Pot. to give room for the development of the tops, and afford easy access to the produce when ready for use (Figs. 8, 9). ‘Though the modern practice of lifting these roots and placing them in heat in the dark has greatly modified and curtailed the old plan of forcing them all out in the open by placing fermenting mate- rial around and over the pots on the ground, yet there is still a. brisk trade in these useful blanching- or growing pots. In the case of rhubarb especially, a month may be gained in time, and the quality of the produce vastly improved, by simply placing the pot (Fig. 8) over the crowns in February or March. 10 CASSELL’S POPULAR GARDENING. Seed-propagating and other Pans, Saucers, &c.—These are made of various diameters and depths, according to size. The most useful range from two inches to four in depth. The price is about the same as pots of the same diameters, as they are more difficult and take longer to make than garden-pots. Square pans are much more troublesome to make than round, and are on that account more expensive. ‘Their only advantage is that they can be packed closely together without losing an inch of space. ‘Garden-saucers are used for placing under pots to prevent drip and economise water. Unless, however, for such thirsty plants as strawberries in full growth in pots, saucers are now but little used. ‘The base of the pot, constantly standing in water, becomes saturated, the water not seldom rising by capillary attraction till the whole mass of soil is converted into mud. Such mishaps, which have not Fig. 10.—Seed Pan. have plunged headlong into the utmost possible variety of shape and elaborateness of ornamentation ; and their success has been so great in these direc- tions as to have run the stonemason, the moulder, and the sculptor rather close on their own lines. Of course, not a few mistakes have been made in this new departure of garden-pottery into the regions of fancy and the domain of taste. Representations of most things in heaven and on earth—and of not a few not likely to be found in either—have appeared. But on the whole the new departure has proved successful, and, by lowering the price of works of art, has made it possible to make some of the artistic garden-pots and baskets almost as beautiful in their way as the plants that fill them. A few illustrations are given here—mere samples of these more fanciful styles of garden-pottery (Fig. 11). So long as these and others do not interfere with the sterling merits and the real utility of garden- pots, the more varied and beautiful they can be made the better. Fig. 11.—Rustic Pots and Baskets. ‘by any means been rare in practice, have rendered the placing of saucers under pots unpopular. Larger saucers, however, prove valuable slug and. other insect guards. The pot in these cases is elevated on a small pot, shell, or pot-stand, so as to raise its base right up out of the water; and it is obvious that the entire army of insects are thus baulked in their efforts to reach it by the water. Notwithstanding this side-use of saucers, however, there can be no question that they are going out of fashion. So much is this the case, that it may almost be said—the more pots made, the fewer saucers. Rustic Terra-cotta Vases, Baskets, Figures, &c.—These bare names, which are far from exhaustive of all that is attempted and done by the modern manufacturers of garden pottery, give but a vague idea of the number and boldness of their designs and the general excellency of their perform- ance within the domain of taste. Having, as it were, exhausted the art of pot- making on its utilitarian side, not u few makers GROUND OPERATIONS. LEVELLING. PERATIONS upon the ground itself are of necessity the first steps in horticulture, and they sometimes prove so difficult and unpleasant that they also become the last. Properly set about and pushed on, however, few operations afford more healthy occupation, and hardly any good cxercise can be made more pleasant; while, as to profit, it may be boldly asserted there can be none without previous operations on the ground. True, at times a field may be found in the open, which is in reality a ready-made garden nature has laid out level, or on a regular incline or slope. The tilth is suf- ficiently mixed; deep, dry, and rich, it needs neither better form, more disturbance, deeper drainage, or manuring, to grow the most choice vegetable pro- ducts to perfection. The more we meddle, the more we might mar its quality and spoil its texture. But such fields are rare as swallows in March, or white GROUND OPERATIONS. 11 sparrows or blue dahlias or blue roses at any season. And hence, notwithstanding the dictum that the land which will grow good wheat or mangold will also grow very excellent vegetables or flowers, it is found by far the best and cheapest policy in the end, to thoroughly remodel and overhaul most ground before it is devoted to garden purposes. For the fact is that the labour-bill and other expenses of the garden reach of necessity such a considerable sum, that only the best soils yield a profitable return. Never was the penny-wise pound- foolish maxim so vividly illustrated as in the en- closure of gardens by brick walls or other fences, the planting of valuable trees, bushes, or other plants, the sowing of the choicest of seeds, and the devotion of skilled labour to horticulture—all doomed to failure through the poverty or bad con- dition of the soil. Horticulture handicapped with inferior soil is bound to prove a losing concern. Skill and energy can do and are daily doing very much to vanquish and destroy other difficulties, such as those of an uncertain climate, the constant assaults of foes, and hindrances of all kinds. But when the earth is in league against the cultivator, he must and does surely fail. Taking it therefore for granted that certain ground operations will be needful, it will be useful to describe the most important, and to give as plain and clear instructions as possible for their proper and prompt performance. The chief are the levelling, trenching, draining, digging, and ameliorating of the ground. Levelling does not mean that every kitchen or flower garden or lawn is to be converted intu a dead flat. Nothing could be in worse taste, or lead to less profit, than such dead seas of unproductive and un- sightly uniformity. Inequalities of surface, causing inclines less rather than more steep towards the sunniest and consequently the most genial point of the compass, are among the most potent causes of augmented fertility and increased yield. The term “level,” as used here, is synonymous with evenness of surface, and even that need not be too rigidly enforced, for some of our best gardens are so uneven, and lie on such steep inclines, that the heavy rains convert the walks into torrents, and carry the gravel pell-mell before them to the lowest points of the walks; while summer showers of unusual severity not seldom bear crops and surface tilth away bodily also, reminding us of the farmer on the blowing sands in East Anglia, who found his barley field, that he had sown over-night, blocking up the drift-way from hedge-top to hedge-top the following morning. But, of course, such steep inclines are far from desirable— they may insure early crops, or mature fruit on walls that could not be otherwise grown in the climate or locality, but they have many drawbacks. The crops may be washed out or burnt up, and are not infre~ quently subjected to something approaching to both catastrophes in turn, while the labour of transporting manure, removing produce, and of cultivating the land, is almost doubled. All such unlevel sites should, if possible, be avoided. Of course, the erection of boundary-walls of hot-houses, and other buildings, is greatly simplified and much facilitated if the garden is or can be made level, or to fall gently to the south, south-cast, south-west, west-south-west, or even, though that is not so desirable, north- west. The most Common Mistake in Levelling. —This important and vital operation, on which so much of the future success or failure in any given garden so largely depends, is too often left wholly in the hands of architects or builders. The result is that the surface is laid level or smoothed over, at the sacrifice of a portion, and not seldom the whole, of the surface soil, Now, as every tyro in rural affairs. knows, this soil is not only the best, but very oftem the: only soil of any possible use or value. Nevertheless: the mere mechanical levellcr throws it here, there; and everywhere, into any and every deep rut ox depression, just as if it were nothing worth. Why, with hardly any figure of speech, that surface tilth may be defined as fragrant roses, crisp celery, sweet cauliflower, luscious peaches, in another and not very distant form. And yet in how many gardens in the course of formation, has it been degraded to the level of mere ballast or builder’s rubbish! sold to surface other gardens with a few inches of presentable soil, that lures so many amateurs to their bitter disap- pointment in horticultural pursuits ; screened to make sand for mortar in the running-up of contract houses, or virtually stolen by speculators ; the barren subsoil alone being left for the future owner of the tempting suburban or villa residences, so tellingly posted up and alluringly described as “self-contained within their own grounds.” Why, the ground proper has been cleared out years ago, almost as clean as a hungry dog picks a bone, and instead has been placed the vilest possible compound of dead subsoil, brick-bats, and builder’s rubbish, about as barren and as utterly useless for horticultural purposes as the same depth of the old or new red sandstone. Neither has this robbery, denudation, and degra- dation of surface been confined to the immediate neighbourhood of great and populous cities. Not a few of the noblest mansions in the country have had the surface of their grounds destroyed for some considerable distance by the overspreading of the subsoil dug out of the foundations all round the house. The stuff was on the spot, such as it was, and the cheapest way to get rid of it was to raise the 12 CASSELL’S POPULAR GARDENING. ground-level into a terrace or artificial wide prome- nade with the worthless diggings. And the fertile surfaces have been entombed where we least expect it, and barren earths without either texture or strength substituted for them. Testing the Depth and Disposition of Surface Soil.—It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of this precaution. The dangerous leap in the dark of some landscape gardeners and civil engineers, who will begin to level ground without first testing its quality, is about the most reckless and wasteful expenditure of time and money. Small test-holes, about half a yard square, at intervals of ten or more yards apart, will generally furnish suffi- cient information, and guide the proceedings of the leveller. It is one of the most mischievous popular errors to suppose that the surface soil, or tilth as it is called, will be found of one uniform depth throughout. As well might the geologist expect the rocky strata to overlay each other with as much regularity as a pile of books on their sides on a shelf or table, without any tilting whatever. The surface soil, alike in depth and quality, is one of the most variable factors in this world of change. Itis no business of the mere leveller to exactly determine its quality, though the more correctly he can read off that at sight, the better for him and the quality of his work. But he can measure its depth, and so estimate its mass, as to calculate with approximate exactness how far it will cover the entire area of the garden to a uniform depth. The following formula, which is tolerably correct, furnishes a useful guide in the practical levelling of gardeny:—An inch per acre requires about a hundred cubic yards or tons of earth. Further, a common cart-load is about a ton. Even where, art has not disturbed the surface soil, it is astonishing how greatly its depth and quality vary in places near to each other. It is difficult to account for these wide variations, whatever theory of its manufacture and deposition be adopted. For its infinite gradations of depth remain almost equally mysterious, whether we attribute its formation to atmospheric influence, or primitive rocks or subsoils, the rise, progress, and decomposition of vegetables, or the direct and active agency of earth-worms. If the latter have formed the mass of surface soil, how came they to be more numerous in one place than another, and that before the surface soil had been deepened ? Leaving this, and kindred subjects concerning the formation and arrangement of surface soil, for special treatment by itself, all that concerns us here is the levelling of soil and subsoil, so as to have the surface or vegetable mould of one uniform depth throughout. Level Subsoil and Surface Soil Together. —At the same time, so vitally important is it that the subsoil should be levelled, that the advice to level it first of all would be given, were that possible. As. that cannot be, the levelling of the two should proceed as nearly abreast as practicable. The surface reveals its own inequalities, but it is only by the use of test-holes that the inequalities of the subsoil can be discovered. It is too often taken for granted that the surface tilth will be found of one uniform depth throughout. There are, however, dips in the surface mould as well as in the subsoil and lower strata; and it is most important that the garden modeller or moulder should make himself acquainted with their existence. They will enable him the better to calcu- late on the depth of surface soil generally, and how much of the subsoil, or other, will be needed to im- part to the garden the most desirable depth of working soil, or surface mould. Having collected these data, Fig, 1.—Ground Dug out to Level Surface Soil and Subsoil together. and taken the level by some of the simple processes. about to be described, he may then proceed to remove: the surface soil bodily from a space of ground three or four feet wide, carting or wheeling it away to the other side of the piece of ground to be levelled. The next operation is to dig out or remove a sufficiency of the soil to allow of eighteen inches, two feet, two- and a half, or three feet, for surface earth (see Fig. 1). During this process see that the subsoil is formed of the same shape, with exactly the same incline, as the surface. As soon as this is done, proceed to operate on another space of three or four feet, of exactly the same area. In moving this one to the opening, as it is technically called, it should be manipulated in such a manner as to thoroughly mix the surface soil, sub- soil, and new earth, if any added; that the surface mould should be a careful admixture in proper pro- portions of the three or more earths used in it. It is. impossible to lay down any strict rules regarding the relative proportions used; so much depends on the poverty or richness of the old surface mould, on the sterility or semi-fertility of the subsoil, and on the quality of the new earth added. Sometimes the existing soil is so rich and deep that neither better compost nor any considerable portion of subsoil need be added. As a rule, however, both will be necessary to get anything like a proper depth for horticultural purposes ; and it is seldom that any subsoil is so absolutely barren, useless, or positively injurious, but that something like a sixth portion might be incor- GROUND OPERATIONS. 13 porated with the soil : whereas a full half of maiden surface soil added to that on the spot, will gene- rally be found of the greatest service, and render it far more valuable for all horticultural purposes. But the subject of deepening will recur under the head of “‘ Trenching,” and the chief point here is to insist on the necessity of so levelling the subsoil, either by bodily removal or incorporation with that on the spot, that the surface soil should cover it every where to the same depth. Those most conversant with the economical performance of ground opera- tions will see that this levelling process should com- bine the merits and advantages of trenching, digging, and manuring as well. After levelling the subsoil it should be loosened to a further depth of six inches ora foot with a pick or spade, a layer of manure spread over it before the layer of surface soil, and more added during the process of filling up with the mixture of the different earths. But not a few level first, and it is for these chiefly that the advice is so often repeated to level soil and subsoil abreast at one cperation and the same time. Simple Modes of Levelling.—Levelling ona large scale is an important branch of civil engineer- ing, and requires a theodolite, and other expensive in- struments and appliances. It is not such ascertaining or alteration of levels, on a large scale, that is re- ferred to here, but rather of inequalities of surface or of fall over a few acres at the most. The majority of gardens are either on a dead flat or an even fall, and so far as the kitchen garden is concerned it is desir- able that they should be so. Most fields, on the other hand, before being taken in for gardens, are more or less uneven, and as a rule it is not desirable to perpetuate these inequalities, and hence the importance of having some simple means of removing them. So many words, figures, and diagrams have been expended on this subject, with the result of frightening people away from it rather thar teaching the art of levelling their own garden, that cne almost fears to approach it. In most gardens the starting or standard points are already predetermined for the operator, the house I = \ Fig. 2.—Straight-edge with Level. or mansion on the one hand, and the park, fields or surrounding country, public or private roads, and so forth, on the other. The problem is thus much sim- plified, for few operations can be more simple than the making of ground between two points perfectly level, or on an even regular fall all the way. The only implements needed are a measuring-rod ten feet long, marked into feet and inches all the way, « straight-edge (Fig. 2) or triangular foot level (Fig. 4), a quadrant (Fig. 3), three borning-rods, a bundle of straight stakes, either with or without cross-bars, movable or otherwise, at the top, some smaller stakes, and a mallet. In levelling such an irregularly-shaped piece of ground as Fig. 5, place a row of stakes at equal dis- m Fig. 3.- Quadrant. tances of ten or twelve feet along its surface, and of any convenient height. Having placed the first two in position, take the straight-edged spirit-level (Fig. 2), place it on the top, and see that they are made exactly level. Then drive a third in, and level it to a dead level with the second, and so with Fig. 5.—Levelling with Stakes and Rods. the fourth, and all through to the end. This will form a level line at any handy distance from the earth, the exact height being in no way material. As the slightest mistake becomes of material impor- tance in a long line, it is desirable to test the level by sighting it over a quadrant, or by sighting on a second level, reversing the end of the level be- tween every pair of stakes. Two points must be specially noted at this stage. The gauge for forming a level surface is already provided by the level line on the top of the stakes, and it is quite clear that by measuring the same distance down from. the top of each stake, the earth-line would be as level as this line in the air. But the second point is, where is the surface line of the garden to be? This can be settled thus:—Measure the distance from each stake to the original surface, and. set the distance down, and so on with. all the other stakes throughout. As the ground varies in height less or more at either end, it is better, for the sake of greater accuracy, to measure. the two ends separately, add the product, divide by two, and set down the half under the other 14 CASSELL’'S POPULAR GARDENING. heights. As of course it would not be fair to count both ends in reckoning the number of measurements, this product of the two end stakes will only count as one. Add the different heights, divide by their num- ber ; the product will give the mean or average height throughout. Measure down each stake by this mean and level up to it, and the surface of the ground will present a true level. Levelling with Borning-rods.—This is still more rapid and simple than the method already described. Borning-rods are upright stakes or splinths, from two to three inches broad, and from three and a half to four feet in height, the exact height varying to suit the stature of those who use them. Cross-bars are fixed against the rod at exactly right angles with it, so that the cross-bar forms a horizontal line us far as it goes, the stake being perpendicular with it. Two of these stakes should be of exactly the same height, and one, or what may be called the sighting one, about an inch taller ‘than the other two. On this, and exactly Borning- at the same height from the ground, a small sighting-hole should be bored, at an equal distance from each end of the cross-bar, and an inch from its upper surface. This should be very small, and after making should be burned black with a hot iron, to make and keep it perfectly clean. This sighting or borning-rod is fixed in the earth at one end of the ground to be levelled, and another fixed. Fig. 6,—Levelling with Boruing-rods. atthe other end. (See Fig. 6.) Then a man or a boy distributes stakes all along the line to be levelled, which ought to be kept quite straight between the two points, and places the third borning-stake on to the ground, or a stake driven into it. When, on look- ing through the sight-hole, the tops of the other two can be seen at once, the borning-rods are either level or at an even fall. The process of placing the third borning-stake is repeated along the line at distances of ten, fifteen, or twenty feet, as the case may be, and when completed, the line of earth or of stakes on which they rested indicates a level, or an even fall. In places where the earth is too high, it must be removed, and the stakes driven in till the top of the borning-rod lines with the sight-hole and the top of the fixed stake at the other end. This mode of levelling can be done with tolerable exactness with rods of equal length, without the sight-hole; but that simple contrivance makes the matter much easier; and if the work is carefully done the level or fall is absolutely perfect. The light is apt to confuse the eyes, as it flashes on the cross-bars of the three borning-rods at once, whereas, when seen through a sight-hole, the third can be set in line with the other two with absolute certainty, and far greater ease and rapidity. The cross-bars are best painted white, with half an inch of black from the top downwards. This simple mode of levelling is invaluable for the making of walks, the laying down of box or other garden-edgings, the levelling of lawns, the determining of the regular fall of drains, or any other purpose where. a simple, easy, and expeditious mode of levelling is required. It is always desirable to drive stakes firmly into the ground in this mode of levelling, as these serve the double purpose of forming a ground-line parallel with the top of the borning-rods, and of leaving a permanent guide for the men to work to in moving the soil. In cases of considerable irregularity of ground, the labour of digging to the proper level may be avoided, and the stakes themselves made to serve a double purpose, by starting the stakes a foot or so higher than the ground is intended to be. The process of levelling with the rods proceeds just as before. The tops cf the elevated stakes are level, or on an even fall, and by measuring a foot down on each, the line of the ground is found. In cases of even greater irregularities, the highest points of the ground may be taken as the starting-level for the borning-rods, and the desired level may be found by measuring to the ground-line, and finding the measure as already indicated by Fig. 5. There are many other means of levelling ground, but none more simple and efficient, and therefore none better, nor likely to be of more general use to readers of a work of this character. FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. By Ricwarp Dean. INTRODUCTION. IP\HE distinctive term of ‘florists’ flowers” repre- sents now, with a larger meaning than it did a quarter of a century ago, a group of subjects, some of which have for many years past been taken in hand by persons specially interested in them; and cultivated, as well as improved, with great care, mainly for the exhibition table. The annals of floriculture are prolific of records showing how workers in various positions in society, but mainiy FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 15 in the humbler walks of life, have taken up one, two, or more subjects (such as the Auricula, Carna- tion, Pink, and Tulip, among others), and cultivating them with the greatest care, saved seed and raised seedlings; selecting with intelligence from these only such as were manifest improvements upon the varieties known to them, and rejecting all others as inferior types unworthy their attention. Such cultivators have invariably worked by certain rules, which have come in course of time to be known as “properties” or ‘points,’ and which were eventually formed into a code by some who had a clearer in- sight into what were deemed to be the requirements of quality in flowers than others. Thus an authori- tative statement of the properties of florists’ flowers was made known and accepted by the large body of florists, and acted upon as if they had the authority of an Act of Parliament. When these laws or properties in their more elementary character began first to shape themselves in the minds of florists, we cannot say; but as developments of their favourite flowers occurred, experience gave them a broader application. They were for a time unwritten, yet generally understood. By-and-by, when the neves- sity for a more accurate and complete exposition became necessary, they were codified, and the “ Philosophy of Florists’ Flowers” became a phrase current among florists. A few of the properties held to be desirable may be mentioned by way of illustration :—The circular petal ; thickness of sub- stance in petals; purity of the white ground, where it occurs as a base; density, brilliancy, and unity of any prominent shade or hue of colour; regularity and perfection of the feather on the edge, or the flame in the centre of the petal of a Tulip; the circular edge, the dense, well-defined zone of body- colour, ag well as the thickness, purity, and smooth- ness of the paste in the Auricula. These, with others of greater or lesser importance, serve as illustrations of what not a few modern writers are apt to term the artificial and arbitrary laws set up by the florists. Now-a-days they are being consider- ably relaxed; but in bygone days they did undoubt- edly work out great and important results in the case of many popular flowers, which went altogether beyond the most sanguine expectations of the pioneers of the floral movement, though their faith in time was large. In so strenuously insisting upon the requirements of the code of properties, the florist, during the last forty or fifty years, made such striking advances in the attainment of size, stoutness of texture, sym- metry of form, and comparative perfection in the ar- rangement and distribution of colours in flowers like the Auricula, Carnation, Dahlia, Hollyhock, Picotee, Pink, Ranunculus, and Tulip, not to mention others, that it appears difficult to advance much beyond what has been attained. The florist is now accused of having developed flowers so formal, and so geo- metrically correct, that everything almost has been sacrificed to form: the grace of natural beauty hav- ing’ been overlooked. The chief objection is, however, rather that he has set up a standard of his own, without always suffi- cient reference to the natural conformation and purpose of the flower. Instead of striving to de- velop and accentuate its distinctive features, all of which are important as landmarks in the history of the flower and its relation to outward circumstances, the florist often ignores these in setting up his own ideal, to which he endeavours to make the flower conform, applying to each and all, in spite of their diversity, much the same rules. It would be affec- tation to deny that the result is very beautiful, but it sometimes lacks the highest beauty—that of truth—and thus destroys the significance and evi- dence of purpose and adaptation, which are as dear to the intelligent observer as mere symmetry of outline, or harmony of colour. As a kind of reactionary movement, a great deal of attention has of late years been given to the de- velopment of the eccentric and fantastic in not a few florists’ flowers, so called; and with these new breaks have been associated other properties of size, substance, form, and striking colours; but upon many of these, the florist of the older school looks with undisguised contempt, and considers them as altogether unworthy of his cure. But narrow as are his views in the estimation of some, he knows nothing of finality in relation to his work. He has an unfaltering trust in the possibilities of nature ; his ideal continually recedes as he reaches nearer towards its attainment, taking on new features of beauty and fitness, and inciting him to renewed efforts to realise the better and eventually the best. One result of this floricultural enterprise was the establishment of a large number of small exhibitions of flowers in many parts of the country, where cul- tivators of certain subjects could mect, put their specimens into comparison, and receive premiums for the best. These shows sprang up with marvel- lous rapidity in and around London, and especially in Lancashire, Yorkshire, and other of the Midland and Northern Counties. The Flemish and French weavers, who many years ago were driven from their own country by religious persecution, brought with them their Auriculas and other flowers. Settling in London, Lancashire, and elsewhere, they cultivated them with assiduity and success; and intermarrying with those among whom they came to reside, spread abroad a love for their flowers, anda desire to culti- vate them. At Middleton, near Manchester, quite 16 CASSELL’S POPULAR GARDENING. a colony of these Flemish refugees formed a settle- ment; and to this day florists’ flowers are largely grown there, and frequent exhibitions held. Thirty and even fewer years ago, these exhibitions ‘were a necessity, as they were the only means by SHow AURICULA (Variety C, E. Brown). {i which florists could interchange views as to the best modes of cultivating their favourite flowers. They were then as much of a social as of a competitive character, and when the task of awarding prizes had been performed, the florists sat down, and over pipe and glass talked for hours about their floral pets. In those days a new variety of known quality cf any popular flower, when a sufficient number of plants had been obtained, was “let out’? at one of these meetings, each purchaser paying for and taking home his plants. With the establishment of a horticultural press came more enlarged oppor- tunities for interchange of opinion on plants, and the best modes of culture; and this new vehicle aol rivers. Abrane brought into notice many other plants outside of those then known as florists’ flowers. The Rose, among others, became highly popular; the ‘“ bedding- out system,” as it is termed, began to attract public attention; and the consequence was that some of the most valuable of the best-known florists’ flowers declined in public estimation. The improve- ment in the culture of fruits and vegetables, and the introduction of many new varieties of each, also FLORISTS’ FLOWERS. 17 operated to draw attention away from the flowers dear to the florist; old growers of repute died, and there were none to fill their places. The Tulip, Anemone, Ranunculus, Hollyhock, and a few others, have in these days almost gone out of cultivation, speculation, it may be remarked that the “single” form of the Dahlia, which the florists of the past generation laboured so hard to develop into a symmetrically-shaped, full, and approximately per- fect “double” flower, has become one of the most, DovsLe AvricuLa PuRPUREA, though there are still a few valuable collections of the first to be met with in the Midland Counties, and particularly in Lancashire. Thirty years ago several fine collections of Tulips were grown near London; now there is scarcely a remnant of one to be met with. And, as showing that in the world of flowers there are revolutions of opinion and sentiment similar to those which occur in the realms of thought and 2 popular of the floral pets of the day, and admirers of these look askance at the large, well-formed: double Dablias the florist loved so well. The rapid growth and wide development of a taste for floral decorations, which is one of the prominent social. characteristics of the present day, has had a great: deal to do with originating a preference for “single” flowers, as being more elegant and graceful for table. and general home decoration. The single Chrysan- 18 CASSELL’S POPULAR GARDENING. themums also appear likely to be preferred to the fine double forms, and destined to receive a share of the popular favour given to the single Dahlia. But there is such a thing as “fashion” in the world of floriculture, as there is on the broader stage of our social life. One of these appears to be taking the shape of a renewed interest in some of the old florists’ flowers. For a few years past, exhibitions of Auriculas, Carnations and Picotees, Dahlias, and Pelargoniums have taken place annually in London. The Auricula is receiving special attention, and the circle of cultivators of this charming flower widens every year. There is a decided tendency towards an enlarged culture of hardy flowers, and not a few of the prettiest and most useful florists’ flowers come under this denomination, At present the two most popular of our hardy florists’ flowers are the Rose and the Chrysanthemum; but others will surely rise up to a higher level of popular appreciation before long. Information respecting many neglected subjects is eagerly inquired for; and when this activity is apparent, it is certain that a new era of popularity is in store for some of those fine old-fashioned “ Stars of Earth,” neglected for a time, but which the flower- loving public will not willingly let die. The Auricula.—Some years ago this was very happily described by an old florist as a “ beautiful and fascinating flower.” It is so in every sense of the word, But, unhappily, it has come to be regarded asa flower that can be successfully cultivated only by proficients, and much that has been written respecting the Auricula has tended to deter rather than to encourage lovers of this flower to attempt its culture. It isa flower that the amateur should take in hand, for if only the necessary attention be paid it, it can be grown with comparative ease. Nor is it necessary, as some have said, that it should have a pure, sweet, untainted country air, though this is a decided advantage; for we have seen collections of Auriculas in thickly-populated, smoky districts of Yorkshire and Lancashire, growing freely and flowering finely: indeed, it is a subject that can be gzown in the neighbourhood of cities and towns where many other things would fail. It does not require much space to be grown in: an ordinary glass frame, with the bed raised above the ground-level so as. to. secure, as far as possible, a dry bottom; or a small house on a north or west aspect, will suit the Auricula well when grown in pots; and we have seen in towns pots of Auriculas standing on the outside sil of a basement window—large, vigorous, healthy plants, flowering with great success in spring. Let no assumed difficulties, therefore, dissuade any enc from attempting its culture. We have seen in Lancashire a few plants growing in odd corners, where it would scarcely be believed they could exist, but tended with loving care, and this attentiou neutralising all the disadvantages of position. Classes of Auriculas.—There are two distinct types of the Auricula, viz., the show, or edged and self varieties; and the Alpine varieties. There is no doubt they are both derived from Primula auricula, but how and when the divergence between the two types became so marked is beyond our knowledge. The main distinction between the two consists in this: that while the show varieties have a dense meal —a farina-like substance—round the tube, which comes off at the slightest touch, and which is termed the paste, the Alpine varieties are meal-less. There are green-edged flowers in which the edge is destitute of farina: the grey and white-edged flowers have meal on the margins, in lesser or greater abundance, and between the paste and the edge there is a zone of colour, which is termed the body: the self-flowers have a broad marginal colour round the paste— yellow, mauve, blue, purple, maroon, or black—and this extends tothe edge. The Alpine varieties have a great variety of shades of colour; some are self- coloured, some are beautifully shaded, some have white, some cream, some pale yellow, and some deep golden centres, the last being very handsome. There is a class of Alpine Auriculas known as “laced,” a delicate and beautiful strain, with distinct and well- defined pale margins to deeper colours defined with marvellous regularity. These are of Continental origin, but improved by English florists. There is also a very interesting class of double-flowered Alpine varieties, but they are in but few hands, and at present restricted in numbers. Propagation of the Auricula.—The Auricula is in- creased in two ways: by means of offsets thrown up from the main stem, and by seeds. Some sorts of show varieties throw up offsets much more freely than others ; almost all the Alpine varieties make offsets in plenty. As soon as these growths have made roots, . they should be carefully removed, and potted singly in small pots, using a light sandy soil; or several may be placed round the sides of larger pots. And as they make roots, they should be shifted out into larger pots, taking care not to over-pot, and to give the pots abundant drainage. In this way an in- crease of stock can be secured. New varieties can be obtained by seeds. The sooner they are sown after becoming ripe the better, filling pots, pans, or shallow wooden boxes with rough siftings about half-way up, and then adding fine soil of a light sandy character, which should be pressed down firmly until the surface is quite level, and the seeds should then be scattered very thinly over the surface, FLORISTS’ and be pressed into the soil, adding a very thin sprinkling of silver sand or charcoal dust. A piece of glass should then be placed over each pot or pan, and these stood ina cool frame or green-house, where the seeds can be shaded from the sun when necessary. Auricula-seed germinates slowly, and at irregular times ; and seeds sown in the autumn will sometimes lie in part until the spring before there are signs of germination. Some do not sow until the spring; but when it is convenient, it is decidedly advan- tageous to do so as soon as the seeds are ripe. We may here remark that seeds taken from the finest edged flowers will produce Alpine varieties; and those who are doing their best to improve our varieties of show Auriculas generally do not care to grow Alpine Auriculas. Some of the Lancashire and Yorkshire florists raise their seed in a remark- able manner. They take large pots, half fill them with crocks, on which they place a layer of cinders, -and fill up with the very fine ashes taken from a blacksmith’s forge. The pots are stood in pans of water, and a piece of glass placed over each. The seed germinates much more rapidly than under the older system of sowing ; but it is necessary to prick off the young plants as soon as they can be handled, or they are in danger of dying off: The strongest seedling Auriculas will flower in fourteen months from the time of sowing; the remainder not until the following spring. As soon as the tiny plants are large enough to handle, they need to be pricked out into pots of fine soil, a dozen or so in a pot. When they have grown sufficiently large, the plants can be put three in a pot, or potted singly into small pots to flower. Any one caring to have a choice collection should reject all flowers of poor quality among the seedlings, and retain only those that are improvements, or at least equal to existing varieties. A common error with growers of the Auricula is to over-pot. This is a mistake, as the plants do better when the roots are in a reasonably confined space. The best pots for good-sized plants are those known as forty-eights; these are about four and a half inches in diameter measured inside. Smaller plants need smaller pots; and the sooner the roots have penetrated to all parts of the soil, the more satis- factory will be the condition of the plants. Potting is generally done in June and July, when the plants have done flowering and before they make their summer growth. The soil should be prepared some time previously, and should be composed of the following :—good fibrous, clayey loam, from an old pasture that has lain by and become thoroughly rotten; this should be broken up quite small be- fore using. With this mix a fourth part of decayed cow-manure, or, if that cannot be had, the same FLOWERS. 19 quantity of decomposed manure from an old hot-bed, adding some charcoal and enough silver sand to keep it open. This should be used when it is thoroughly mixed together, and sufficiently moist to cling to- gether a little, but not be wet. The plants must be turned out of their pots, all the old soil shaken out, and any decayed portion of the tap or main root cut clean away; any offsets or side growths from the roots or main stem should be removed and put round the sides of small pots. Potting should be done somewhat firmly, and when finished the plants should be kept in a close frame for a few days, and no water should be applied for two days. Then it should be carefully and gradually applied. The best position for Auriculas during the summer is a cold frame in a shady place; on the north side of a wall or thick fence is one of the best positions. At the end of September the frame can be placed in the open, facing the south. It is a good plan to raise the pots above the ground-level; it is not so neces- sary in the case of a shallow frame, but advisable to have the plants as near the glass as possible. In the case of severe frost it is also necessary to cover up the frame with mats; and it is as well to keep the soil in the pots pretty dry during the winter, as the plants are at rest. In February it is the custom to top- dress the plants, using some rich soil for the purpose. The reason for this is, that the plants put forth roots near the surface in spring, and some fresh soil is applied for the young roots to work in. A portion of the old surface soil is carefully removed, and the fresh soil put in its place. But the top-dressing of Auriculas is not so much followed as it was, and some of’the leading growers for exhibitions dispense with it altogether. And they are found dispensing with rich composts, and use turfy loam in which Cowslips will grow: some friable leaf-mould from the woods, and a little rough stream or silver sand. Those who grow choice collections of Auriculas now build small houses, so that they can go into them and enjoy their flowers at all times; and they some- times heat them with a flue or hot-water apparatus, which, while it keeps frost from harming the beau- tiful flowers, also helps a fine development. But it is by no means necessary that artificial heat should be applied to the Auricula at any time during the year. The choice named Alpine Auriculas need to be treated in the same way as recommended for the show varieties. But being generally of a hardy character they do well in the open ground, such as the shady side of a bank, or shallow rockwork. Inferior varieties—that are, however, too good to be thrown away—can be planted out in this way. The new laced Alpine varieties are singularly pretty, and so attractive that they are well deserving of cultivation. 20 CASSELL’S POPULAR GARDENING. Selections of Aurieula—The following are the most noteworthy varieties :— SHow anp Epcep VARIETIES. Green-edged, White-edged. Anna (Trail). Aeme (Read). Mrs. Moore (Deng eey cae ee. 2 O- ory (Taylor). Rev. FD. Homer (Simo-| oun Simomite (Walker). nite). 0 Colonel Taylor (Leigh). Conservative (Douglas). Freedom (Booth). Lady Sophia Dumaresque Lycurgus (Smith). i asst (Lightbody). Prince of Greens (Trail). Silvia (Douglas). Talisman (Simouite). Regular (Ashworth), Grey-edged, Selfs. : Alexander oa (Kay). . Blackbird (Spalding). 'C. E. Brown (Headly). |. J. Perry (Turner), Confidence (Campbell). Clipper (Turner). Dr. Horner (Bead). | Heroine (Horner). George Levick (Walker). | Ellen Lancaster (Pohlman). George Lightbody (He:dly). | Lord of Lorne (Lightbody ). Lancashire Hero (Lanca-h.). Pizarro (Campbell). Richard Headly(Lightbody). | Ruby (Read). Victor (Read). _ Topsy (Kay). ALPINE VARIETIES. Amelia Hartwidge(Douglas). | King of the Belgians(Turner). George Lightbody (Turner). | Mercury (Turner). Sailor Prince (Turner). Mrs. Ball (Turner). Unique (Turner). Napoleon III. (Turner). Colonel Scott (Turner). Phenix (Turner). Diadem (Gorton). Slough Rival (Turner). John Ball (Turner). Topsy (Turner). Of double Auriculas, the black and yellow are well known. Purpurea (purple), and Delicata (primrose), are both very fine, with large double flowers, and other striking types are being raised. The laced varieties have not yet reached a stage of development to admit of named varieties being put into commerce; but seed can be had anywhere. THE LIFE-HISTORY OF PLANTS. By Dr. Maxwety T. Masters, F.R.S. GROWTH, SEEDS, BUDS, ETC. HE degree of excellence at which practical gar- dening has arrived must be attributed mainly to the accumulated teachings of experience. Every gardener, be he professional or be he amateur, has to learn his business mainly from experience. No amount of book-learning or help from others can supply the want of this quality. This truth it is which leads unreflecting persons to uphold what they call practice at the expense of what they con- sider theory, and, as they imagine, to confound all opponents by the statement that ‘‘ an ounce of fact is worth more than a pound of theory.” Such persons do not trouble themselves to consider whether their so-called facts are deserving that name, or whether what they conceive to be theory is rightly so entitled. Experience, whether gained by the individual himself—the most valuable of all—or whether handed down as a tradition from his. predecessors, is in any case only the result of conscious or un- conscious inference from observed phenomena. The observation may be correct, it is almost certain to be incomplete; the inference may be just, it is almost certain to be faulty. A perfect theory implies the elimination of all error, whether of observation or of inference. Such a consummation is rare indeed ‘jm any science, and unattainable in any department of natural history. Butina practical art like gardehing it will, at any rate, be admitted that the more per- fect the observation and the more correct the infer- ence, the more valuable will the experience and the practice founded upon them be. This being so, the necessity of knowing something of the nature of ahi Ih N | i it Fig. 1—Slice through a Lily-bulb, showing the conical. growing point enveloped in a number of fleshy scales, from which it derives its nourishment in the first in- stance, and the roots which help to supply food when that in the scales is exhausted. the plant, and of the way in which it lives, feeds, breathes, grows, propagates, dies, will at once be admitted, and will serve as our excuse, if any be needed, for devoting some space to the life-history of the plant; in other words, to its general structure and to the work which its several parts individually and collectively do, and to the means whereby that work is either helped or hindered. Were science perfect, it is probable that every detail would be found of more or less direct practical importance; but in its present fragmentary and im- perfect state there are whole departments in which we either know little or nothing definitely, or in which imperfect observations and conflicting views necessitate further study and discussion on the part THE LIFE-HISTORY OF PLANTS. 21 of the practitioner in the laboratory, before they can be made safely available for the guidance of the practitioner in the garden. For full information as to the existing state of structural botany, or of those Practically, however, we may take them as start- ing-points, in which the activity of the plant chiefly: shows itself, after the rest and relative cessation of work of the winter season. departments of chemistry and physics which are inseparably bound up with the physiology of plants, the reader must consult the standard text-books. All that we can do here is to call atten- tion to the leading phenomena of plant- life, as observed under conditions in which they are -brought under the notice of the cultivator in the course of his ordinary routine. Growth.—As we have to trace the record of plant-life from day to day in due sequence from its beginning to its M/ Fig. 2.—Germinating Seed of Canna, showing the black seed-husk, and the seedling plant protrud- ing its two growing joints, one upwards to orm the stem, the other downwards to form the root (slightly enlarged). Reserve Organs.—Sharply-drawn definitions are not applicable, except to a very limited extent, in any branch of natural history or physics. One thing is always wholly or partially inseparable from some other thing. The several parts act and react upon one another, so that anything like an absolute line of demarcation which shall hold good in all cases, at all times, and under all conditions, must not be looked for. “Hence, when we say that the seeds and buds, and their modifications, with end, it mat- ters little at what part of the cycle we begin ; but as growth is the most strik- ing pheno- menon ob- servable at the time when these pages come before the reader, it may be ap- propriate to begin our re- marks with that subject. The pro- priety of this will strike some so forcibly that they will natu- rally think no other course than that of “ begin- Fig. 3.—Bud of Horse-chestnut sur- rounded by scales, the outer of which are becoming shed by the growth of the growing point within, Fig. 5.—Portion of the Peer of the Seed which we are now princi- pally con- cerned, are “ yeserve or- gans,’ it must not be inferred either that they have no other office, or that no other parts of the plant can fulfil the same duty. Both seed: and bud (we are speaking especially of leaf-buds) contain a “ growing point” in their interior, but the growing point of a bud, or of a bulb (which is only a form of of Wheat, highly magnified, to show the poeutor? in the shape of grains of starch. ning at the begin- ning” would be correct. And this is no doubt Fig. 4.—Section showing the Seedling Plant of Canna surrounded by the food-store in the perisperm (enlarged). Fig. 6.—Section of Seed of Date, showing the hard, horny perisperm from which the minute embryo (shown in the centre and close to the upper edge) derives its nourishment. a bud), remains attached to the shoot from which it originated, and the case; but, un- fortunately, we do not know where to fix the starting-point. Neither the seed nor the bud can be strictly considered as beginnings—seeing that they are merely remanets from last season's growth. ; grows principally in one direction (Figs. 1, 3); the growing point of a seed is detached entirely from the seed, and grows in more than one direction (Fig. 2). The growing point of a seed is, in fact, the germ or embryo plant which, on its escape from the seed, becomes the seedling. 22 But in either case the growing plant is surrounded by a protecting investment in the shape of the husk of the seed, or the scales of the bud (or other device having the same object). With that protecting in- vestment we are not greatly concerned now; it is not in itself a centre of activity at any time; and now that we may assume it to have done its work, it is no longer of service, and is dis- carded either by gradual decay or by being pushed off by the constantly in- creasing growing point within (Fig. 3). The Perisperm.— Beneath the protecting husk, in the case of the seed, is very frequently to be found a mass of tissue generally of «a white colour and floury appear- ance—this is called tech- nically the “perisperm’”’ of the seed (Fig. 4). Sometimes it is called albumen, but this latter term is objectionable as conveying an altogether erroneous notion of iden- tity with the chemical substance of which the white of eggs furnishes a familiar example. The perisperm is filled with starch grains, and other materials suitable for the nutrition of the growing point. This is the sub- stance which constitutes the bulk of the wheat- grain, and which is ground up to supply our requirements (Fig. 5). Another familiar example is the flesh of the cocoa- nut, which also is filled with food destined for the benefit of the young plant, if it be not previously requisitioned for the requirements of mankind. The hard bony stone of the date (Fig. 6) and of some other palms (by no means to be confounded with the CASSELL’S POPULAR GARDENING. Fig. 7.—Seed of Broad Bean after removal of the husk, to show the embryo without any perisperm, but with large fleshy seed-leaves or cotyledons, in which food is stored for the use of the growing plant. In A, the line at c points to one seed-leaf, and p to the plumule or growing point of the stem. B shows one seed-leaf re- moved; + is the growing point of the root; a, the scar formed by the removal of the seed-leaf; p, the plumule, Fig. 8.—Tuberous Root of Dablia, serving as food-store. L become exhausted. stone of the peach or the shell of a filbert), affords another illustration of the perisperm, filled in this case also with food for the embryo plant. The nutritive power of the perisperm is well illustrated by some curi- ous experiments of Van ‘Tieghem, who removed the embryo plant of the Marvel of Peru (Mira- bilis) from its bed of perisperm, and fed it not only with artificial nutri- tive solutions, but also by portions of the perisperm bruised and laid over it. The embryo plant grew almost as well under this system of artificial nurs- ing as under natural con- ditions. But such seeds as those of the pea and bean have no perisperm; their em- bryo plant is immediately invested by the seed-husk without the intervention of any perisperm (Fig. 7). In these cases it will be found that the embryo plant itself is large, and its tissues filled with food- matters. Thus, while the embryo plant or growing point of a date-stone is no bigger than a pin’s head, that of the pea or bean occupies the whole of the seed; the plant in this latter case carries its store with it. The seed of an orchid is very minute, and is equally destitute of peri- sperm. It is so small that there cannot be much store of nutriment within it; hence it is clear that it must be enabled to shift for itself from a very early period, or it will dry up and die; while the other seeds we have mentioned are not under the necessity of obtaining supplies from without, un- less it be of water, till after their own stores have An examination of different THE LIFE-HISTORY OF PLANTS. 23 seeds from the points of view we have named will at once supply the grower with a hint as to the method of treatment most appropriate to them. Buds have no perisperm to draw upon for their supplies, but they have nutritive matter stored up within their tissues, and they have a still more abundant supply in the bark and young wood of the shoot from which they originate. The thick root of the carrot or.turnip contains a supply available for the growing bud, which forms the crown; the thick fleshy root-stock of such plants as the Solomon’s Seal (Convallaria), the tuberous roots of dahlia or orchis (Figs. 8, 9), the tubers of the potato (Fig. 10), the fleshy stems of cactuses (Fig. 11), the fleshy scales of the bulb, also contain much nutritive matter available for the support of their growing point. In the corm of the crocus, the old corm serves as a storehouse for the new growths, We have now to see in what way that store is rendered available, and what circumstances in- fluence it—matters of the greater moment, seeing that the food as it exists in the perisperm or tissues of the bud or seedling is insoluble, and quite in- capable of serving as food until it has been in some. way rendered soluble, and capable of being digested and assimilated. Germination.—It hence appears that the bursting of the seed to liberate the enclosed seedling, the unfolding of the scales to let loose the young shoot, are phenomena dependent on a gradual change in the nature of their contents— a change brought about, in the first instance, by the absorption of water, or at least by the transfer of water from one part to another, under the influence of the increasing heat of the soil or of the atmo- sphere. It cannot be the result of the more intense light of the lengthening day, for the seeds grow beneath the soil away from the access of light, and the buds or eyes will sprout in the darkest cellar, as every one who stores potatoes knows to his cost. On the other hand, every gardener knows what a little “ bottom-heat ’”’ will do to start his seeds or buds into growth. Fig. 9.—Tuberous Root of Orchis, serving as food-store. Increasing heat, then, is the prime mover in start- ing seeds and buds into growth, if the water sup- ply from within or from without be adequate. The amount of heat required is different in different cases. Hardly has the soil of the Alps or of the Arctic re- gions become loosened from the grip of frost than growth commences. In other cases, nothing cooler than the temperature of a hot bath suffices to stimu- late either bud or seed. Each plant grows best at a certain temperature; high in one case, low in another. What that temperature is, the physiologist fixes precisely in the laboratory, and the practical cultivator approximately by means of his experi- ments, aided by what he may know beforehand of the source whence the seed was derived, and its pro- bable requirements. Under , natural circumstances, in temperate countries, the heat of the soil, treasured. up from last summer’s sun- rays, is always greater during the winter than that of the atmosphere, so that in many instances a very little additional heat in spring suffices to incite the dormant activity of the plant. We are now brought face to face with the question, ‘What does the heat do’ In reply, it may briefly be said that it disturbs the balance both of the solids and of the fluids of the plant; it expands the gases; it causes currents in them and in the fluids; it provokes chemical action; it necessitates the ab- sorption of water. What is the result of all this, we shall have to consider further on. The absorption of water is the most important of these early stages (provided the bud or seed have access to oxygen gas, as it would always have under ordinary circumstances). This absorption of water is rendered evident by the increased size of the seed or bud, an increase beyond what could occur at so early a date from any growth, were that possible. The water may be derived from without, or it may in the first instance be simply transferred from one portion of the bud, bulb, tuber, or seed, which has much, into another portion which has little, no living portion ever being absolutely destitute of water. This movement of water, either from with- 24 CASSELL’S POPULAR GARDENING. out or from within, is checked by too low or too high a temperature, the most favourable temperature varying with different plants and under different circumstances. The absorption of water, however, may be more fitly dealt with hereafter, under the head of “ Root-action.” Digestion of Reserve Food.—The conversion of the insoluble and indigestible reserve matters into the soluble and digestible food-material is a very marvellous and a very intricate process, one only imperfectly known, and one to which we can only incidentally allude. It must suffice to say that it is effected by the action of a substance called ‘‘ diastase,” practice to prevent the germinating seed from get- ting too dry, or too cold, or too deeply buried in the soil. On the other hand, they furnish sug- gestions as to the best method of preserving seeds, and of transporting them:from distant countries. These are points which will be further dealt with under the head of “‘Seed-sowing.”’ Not so well known to practitioners are the means whereby germination may, in some cases, be hastened and facilitated. In the laboratory it is found that solutions of chlorine, iodine, and bromine favour germination, and this is accounted for by the fact that water (consisting of hydrogen and oxygen gases combined) is decomposed ; as for instance by chlorine Fig. 10.—Tubers of Potato, serving as food-store. which exerts its action only when the juices of the plant are acid. Lately it, has been shown that certain extremely minute organisms or germs, com- monly known under the general term of “ Bacteria,” act on starchy matters in the same way as diastase ; indeed, it is stated that they secrete a ferment identical with, or having the same properties as, diastase. The fatty and oily matters contained in some seeds undergo corresponding changes, and are converted by the agency of a nitrogenous ferment from an insoluble to a soluble condition. Conditions requisite for Germination.— Sufficiency of moisture and of heat, together with access of air, then, constitute the chief essentials in the germination of the seed or the sprouting of the bud. These facts, coupled with an examination of the na- ture of the seed, large or small, thick-husked or thin- husked, with or without perisperm, and a knowledge of the climatic conditions of the country from which it comes, furnish the reasons for the care taken in under the influence of light forming hydrochloric acid and setting oxygen at liberty, which “nascent” oxygen, as it is termed, is forthwith appropriated by the growing seed as a powerful stimulant and as food. On the other hand, the application of anzsthe- tics, such as ether or chloroform, arrests germination for a time, the process being resumed after the effects of the vapour have passed off, provided the dose be not so strong as to destroy vitality altogether. Vitality of Seeds.—The length of time during which seeds can retain their vitality is very variable, being dependent on the conditions under which the seed is kept, and on the nature of the seed itself, as may readily be inferred from what has been already said. Generally speaking it may be said that oily seeds lose their vitality sooner than starchy ones, owing to the greater readiness of the oil to decompose. Even undér ordinary circumstances there is great variation as to the duration of the time for which seeds of different plants will preserve their THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 25 vitality ; and this will not surprise the gardener, who knows how frequently seeds of the same plant —e.g., Primula japonica—sown on the same day, and under apparently identical circumstances, germinate at very irregular intervals. In any case, the reader will do well to exercise scepticism as to the tales of extremely prolonged extension of vitality, as in the case of the so-called mummy wheat, such cases being usually attributable either to faulty observa- tion or wilful imposture. matters, the result is likely to prove a perpetual source of irritation and disappointment, to say nothing of real loss. A kitchen garden entailing only the needful amount of labour can be made highly productive, where these considerations are given effect to in connection with its formation. Too frequently it is the practice, in connection with building new houses, for the architect to choose the site of the garden without bestowing any thought upon these needful considerations; whereas, those Fig. 11.—Stem of Cactus, the swollen tissues of which are laden with nutritive material. THE KITCHEN GARDEN. By Wiutiam EaRLey. SITE. SIZE. SOIL. HE kitchen garden, being that wherein vegetables and indeed fruits are grown for domestic uses, is necessarily an essential and important department. Tt is intimately associated with the economy of “home,” and is, like all divisions of the garden, a luxury, having the advantage of being, when pro- perly utilised, self-supporting. In view of its great usefulness, and that it is indispensable, far more consideration should be given to its formation, &c., than is customary, in regard to site, proper appor- tionment of size according to the demands likely to be made upon it, soil, shape, disposition, &c. When proper deliberation or study is not given to these versed in such matters should always be consulted, in order to obtain the best-arranged whole. The Site.—Considering this in relation to the house and the other parts of the residence, the site of the kitchen garden should be one con- venient of approach therefrom, through and beyond the flower garden, or an ante-garden devoted to floral embellishment, possessing agreeable features. It should also be so arranged as to be convenient to the stable-yard, from whence an entrance should exist, in view of obtaining and utilising such materials as are usually carted from thence into the garden. The aspect due south is always desirable, in view of securing more favourably the sunshine of the early spring months. Level ground is most con- venient generally, though « site having somewhat 26 CASSELL’S POPULAR GARDENING. undulating slopes is capable of producing, by proper culture, excellent crops in kind. These simple facts show that the situation should never be in front of the residence, nor immediately in the line of view from the chief windows. It is desirable, so far as possible, to secure for the crops immunity from direct north and east winds. This is an important factor connected with the growth and production of winter supplies, and very which choice of situation can be made, it is highly desirable to avoid as far as possible low-lying spaces or valleys. This from the twofold fact that colder subsoils generally abound, and late spring frosts prevail; both of which cause injury to early crops, the former being very injurious besides to the roots of perennial vegetables wintered therein. A source of advantage and profit is always to be found in the possession of an abundant supply of early crops of young spring vegetables. Where the water in connection with this department. When- i TI et apy 2 FLOWER iE IN Terrace KiTcHEN GARDEN TO NORTH-EAST OF RESIDENCE ; PLANNED SO AS TO CATCH THE GREATEST AMOUNT OF SUNSHINE. natural conformation of the land in the immediate neighbourhood does not give this, or plantations do not exist around, high fences or walls should be constructed. These latter are all but invariably associated with this department, owing to this necessity in a measure, but also from the other important one of choice fruit supply. By growing such things together, all can be more certainly secured, and in the most economical manner possible. I have thus far treated the subject from the point of view that areas of limited extent most generally prevail. Where large mansions exist, however, and in connection with them extensive grounds, from ever a neat pond can be formed, it is a very desirable feature, especially when the garden is formed midway upon a sloping ground, enjoying the happy mean of being between the ‘higher-up ground, where too full exposure to cold north or easterly winds exists, and the lower ground so subject to cold in spring, with the drawback of cold subsoils, and sour soil generally, Such a pond should be artificial. in construction, of oblong or ornamental shape, formed by water imprisoned in its descent from the higher to the lower grounds. From such a source, water in the best possible state for periodical summer waterings, obtained in the handiest possible manner, is under command, very THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 27 different from that, so cold and hard, which ‘is laboriously brought thither from wells, To summarise the above explanations, it will readily appear that all considerations attached to grounds of limited extent as a whole, decide the fact that the kitchen garden should, if possible, be situated north or eastward of the residence. By this arrangement, fruit, or protective fences, walls, or tree screens, &c., will act beneficially in regard to such residence. Besides, the approach to it will be “set off’ to great advantage, by having the most cheerful aspects, and their varied garniture in form of crops and trees, facing both the residence and the more direct ap- proach (see illustration) ; whereas a kitchen garden at the western side must be approached and entered to a disadvantage in these respects, to say nothing of the fact that all space south or west will be far more eligible for flower garden, lawn, and shrubberies. Size.—The extent of the kitchen garden is to be determined by the extent and habitual require- ments of each family. It is important also to con- sider whether other arable land exists, in connection with the estate, whereon some of the common, albeit most important crops so essential to household uses can be grown. ‘These consist of potatoes, turnips, and such other very hardy subjects as could be most successfully grown as main crops, leaving only early supplies to be furnished from the garden itself. Where no such aid exists, more space whereon to grow these things should be allotted. Itis surmised by many that the potato supply is as cheaply pur- chased as grown. ‘This is not so, however, where a proper system of successional cropping is carried out. To form a kitchen garden possessing the ut- most usefulness in produce, and pleasing in appear- ance, it must be so laid out that good walks exist for enjoyable pedestrianism, and easy access and working. Small side-wall and side-walk divisions or borders should be formed, whereon, in the former case, to winter and produce early crops, and sustain the roots of fruit-trees grown against the walls; and in the latter case, to grow bush, espalier, and pyramidal fruits, the lesser kinds of herbs, &c. A garden thus neatly arranged will occupy more space than an ordinary piece of vegetable ground ; and it should not be less, supposing potatoes, &c., be grown for the main crop, than an acre in extent, if it is to furnish all the supply for a moderate-sized family maintaining an establishment of dependents. The question of labour has also something to do with this matter. It is universally admitted that one man’s time will be fully occupied the year round upon one acre of kitchen garden. Upon this basis a proper calculation can be made on this score: a calculation, when desirable, which should always be made in conjunction with flower and pleasure gardens and glass structures. Nor should the fact be overlooked, that it is economical to possess a glass structure, whether for fruit or otherwise, where labour can be economically main- tained in activity during inclement weather, &c. Neat and effective kitchen gardens, including bush fruits, &c., may be arranged in connection with villa residences upon a space comprising half an acre of ground. It is always desirable, however, to exceed requirements rather than limit the space, where the real supply of a family is contemplated. Additional fruits, &c., can always be grown, which in themselves are a minimum tax only on the labour bill, Rising from the villa garden up to ducal kitchen gardens and requirements, a variety of sizes exist in the country, up to as many as ten or twelve acres. It has been held that a rood of ground will produce a supply of vegetables pur et simple for four persons. But much may be done far short of supplying the entire necessities of a family. A few choice or early vegetables out of “one’s own garden,” fresh, not only seem to, but really do taste different to any other ; and not a few manage, by dint of skill and close cropping to get most welcome, and what almost seem ample supplies out of the tenth or twentieth part of a rood. By successional and what is called express cropping, that is, the driving of two or more crops abreast on the same land at the same time, an amazing amount of produce may be obtained from a few square yards of ground in the course of the season. But such small-size kitchen gardens, which are intimately connected with allotment gardens, averaging one or two rods in extent, require comparatively quite as much supervision as do those of greater extent. The chief object in regard to all is to grow the greatest quantity possible of excellent crops. There is no good tangible reason why all the best kinds of hardy vegetables should not be produced by owners of vege- table ground very limited in size. For ‘instance, Asparagus, considered so,very difficult to grow, and so great a luxury, is as easily grown as any crop, and should be essentially an amateur’s plant; and more especially if its culture be undertaken on tho modern principle advocated by advanced growers during the last few years, i.e., united row culture, rather than the older plan of separate beds and their attendant expense. Two or three rows sown across even an allotment space will give constant crops by means of such simple preparation only as will be found under the head “ Asparagus.” Besides, the space may be conveniently utilised to grow carly lettuces upon, providing always the seeds are sown very thinly, and plants grown so also. By these 28 CASSELL’S POPULAR GARDENING. means such superficial-rooting plants do not injure the bed or the permanent crop, especially if the annual surface dressings of manure are given as advised. In small gardens, herbs and minor subjects may advantageously occupy the outer sides or edges, and all corners. A regular system of successional