- J 4) New York State College of Agriculture At Cornell University Ithaca, N.Y. Library Cornell University Library S 495.18 in agriculture. wT 891 6 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE BY LESTER S. IVINS, MLS. STATE SUPERVISOR OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, OHIO AND FREDERICK A. MERRILL, B.Sc. PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY AND NATURE STUDY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL ATHENS, GEORGIA AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO CorvRIGHT, 1915, BY LESTER S. IVINS axp FREDERICK A. MERRILL. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE. EP. 3 PREFACE AcricuLTureE, as a public school subject, has been rapidly growing in favor during the past few years. The results of this teaching have been so satisfactory that it is no longer necessary to set forth the value of this subject as a branch of education for the children of our schools. It is conceded by many progressive people that the addition of Agriculture to the public school curriculum has done more to arouse a real interest in school work than any other branch that has been added in years. The study of this subject produces a closer relationship between the home and the school, gives a new significance to farming and farm life, and emphasizes the importance of knowing w/y in order that we may know /ow to farm. Farm life is held up before the young student as a happy and useful life, and the farm is given its proper consideration. Practical Lessons in Agriculture is both a textbook and a laboratory manual. Most of the lessons are laboratory or field exercises, and they are arranged, as tar as possible, in seasonal sequence. ‘The book is adapted for use in the seventh to the tenth grades. The authors feel that if a pupil, by the use of this book, is enabled to obtain a clearer understanding of how the farm may be used as a laboratory in which he may apply the knowledge gained at school, a great step will have been made towards bringing the school into closer touch with the home life of the student in the rural community, In the preparation of this book many sources of information have been consulted and the authors hereby express their indebtedness to all whose writings have been of assistance. For careful reading and criticism of the manuscript the authors acknowledge their obligation to B. M. Davis, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio ; W. F. Copeland, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio; and E. C. Sell, State Normal School, Athens, Georgia. They are also indebted to the Ohio Department of Agriculture, Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio, Inter- national Harvester Company, and others for photographs furnished. iii LO THE TRACER AGRICULTURE cannot be taught successfully by the use of the textbook alone. Many observations and prac- tical demonstrations are necessary to a full understanding of the subject. The student should be encouraged to use his eyes as much as possible and to recurd his observations. He should write his notes with pencil in the blank spaces. In recording notes, conciseness, clearness, and legibility should be insisted upon by the teacher. Each lesson should be made an exercise in Janguage as well as in agriculture. It is neither advisable nor possible to give detailed directions for conducting ]aboratory and field exercises. One general rule, however, may be given: do not take up a lesson unless the material to be studied is at hand. If beef cattle are to be studied, select the very best examples for observation. If crops are to be studied, visit fields in which they are growing. If farm buildings are to be considered, select the best ex- amples to be found in the vicinity. In order to get the best results the teacher should prepare the work in advance, and be entirely familiar with the demands of each lesson, A great deal of material used in the lessons may be collected from time to time and kept in the school for future use. A school museum containing typical soils, samples of fertilizers, mounted insects, seeds, and photographs of farm animals will be of great benefit. The school library should have a number of good reference books on Agriculture, together with many government publications which may be obtained free or at little cost. The Farmers’ Bulletins are of especial value and should be in every rural school. LESSON Is to we 2 bw RN Hw tooo \O i sy b NI 36. 37- 38. 39. 40. 41. x ie 44. mae to An ww CONTENTS SEPTEMBER SUBJECTS PAGE Sources oF Foop Tue Sources oF CLOTHING 2 Tue Sources OF SHELTER 3 Tue Insect af Tue CABBAGE Ne 6 Tur GRASSHOPPER . 8 DissEMINATION OF SEEDS 9 Seep MotsTuRE 10 Osmosis . 3 : II OCTOBER WHEAT 4 ; : a3 Purity AND Vindbuian oF SEED Wueat ag Tue Hesstan Fry anp Cuincu Bue 26 A Srupy oF THE Corn PLANT 28 Types oF Corn 30 SELECTION OF SEED Ears 31 HarvestTiInG Corn . 33 Corn JuDGING 34 SILAGE 37 NOVEMBER PROTECTION OF TREES AGAINST RODENTS 47 Foop SuBstTaNnces IN PLants 48 Composition oF FEEDS 50 Batancep Rations 52 Hay ‘ 4 Beer Cattle . 55 Dairy CaTILe : ee MILK AND ITs PRopucts 59 Tue Bascock Mick Test 61 DECEMBER Sevection oF Meat Animas 77 Location oF Mrar Cuts 78 Census oF Farm ANIMALS So Nature anp Uses oF CoNcRETE 82 Farm BuILpINcs 84 LocaTIoN OF FARM Be tnnmee 86 Tue THERMOMETER ; . 87 Tue BAROMETER AND Hycwouaten : 5 88 LESSON 10. GERMINATION OF SEEDS — TEMPERATURE 11. GERMINATION OF SEEDS — AIR : ; ; 12. VITALITY AND PRESERVATION OF SEEDS 13. Foop Supstancrs IN SEEDS 14. Parts oF A SEED 15. WEEDs 16, STUDY OF THE Pues Ghia 17. Potsonous WEEDS . 18. Weep Census SUBJECTS 28 Census oF NercHporHoop Farm Crops ORIGIN OF THE SOIL 30. CLASSES OF SOILS : ; 31. PERCOLATION OF WaTER IN ake. ‘ ‘ 32. GRAVITATIONAL AND CaPILLARY WATER 33. Capittary Movement or Water IN Soizs . 34. Rate or Caprttary Movement or WaTER IN SoILs , 35. SAVING ioepaea’s BY Niviueires ; ‘4 P SUBJECTS 45. THe Housinc anp Care or Cows : : 46. Breeps oF Horses 3 , Z 47. CaRE AND MANAGEMENT OF Houses 48. Breeps or Hoas 49. Tae Care or Hots so. BREEDS OF SHEEP st. INsecr Pests sz. Tue Cattte Tick . : 53 Housinc anp CaRE oF Fasae Ansara SUBJECTS 62. WeatHeR Maps 63. WeraTHER CHARTS 64. Antal Manures 65. Crop Manures. 3 66. NrrroGenous FErtiLizers 67. PuospHoric FERTILIZERS 68. PotasH FERTILIZERS 69. Home Mrxinc oF FRRtILYZERE PAGE ? 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 20 22 38 39 40 42 43 44 45 46 63 64 66 68 go gl 95 97 98 99 100 IO] MI CONTENTS JANUARY SUBJECTS LESSON PAGE LESSON PAGE 70. Farm CALENDAR . ; : 3 : #103 So. GreNneRAL Purpose Breeps or Hens . ois 71. Goop Roaps . : : 2.) TOA | 81. Tue Housinc anp Care or Hens. . 119 72. PACKING AND Mantenne Peace : . 106 | 82. DistripuTIoN oF CoTTON IN THE UNITED 73. Farm CoOpERATION. : ; : 2, 108 STATES 121 74. THE Uses or TREES . ; : : . 109 83. DisTRIBUTION OF CORN IN THE ue Sates 122 75. Farm Forestry . : CETO, 84. DistripuTIOoN oF Hocs IN THE UNITED 76. A Fiero Stupy oF Forest ne 2 Te STATES . : ‘ : ; 5. 223 77. POULTRY ; : ; ; s, (ETA | 85. DisTRIBUTION OF Chane IN THE UNITED 78. Meat BREEDs oF Has ; , : 1S STATES . , s : ‘ » 124 79. Ecc Breeps oF Hens . ; ’ : x FIG | FEBRUARY SUBJECTS 86. PLows anp Harrows 125 94. Cotron Bott WEEVIL . ‘ : 3 & 1135 87. CULTIVATORS : E 127 95. Topacco : : : 3 E36 88. HARVESTING Macuminy 128 g6. Purity oF SEED oF CLOVER, Tacos AND 89. Farm MacHINERY 129 ALFALFA. : 138 go. Purity anp VIABILITY OF Gas 130 97. GERMINATION TEST OF Rep Cravens Tiki gt. TREATMENT OF Oats FoR SMUT 131 OTHY, AND ALFALFA. ‘ : $139 2. Oats : : ; : 132 98. GERMINATION TEST OF CorRN . : i SEO: 93. CoTTON ‘ k 5 : 133 MARCH SUBJECTS 99. HotsBeps : : : : : : . 142 | 108. Buppinc ; ; ; ‘ s S58 100. Corp Frames : : : : ; . I44 | 109. SHRUBS ON THE ee : : , : - 159 tor. PLantinG Pans . : i : , . 145 | tro. Farm Drarnace . : 2 ; : . 160 102. SPRAYING : ‘ : Z : : - 147 | 111. Sor: TEMPERATURE : : : . £64r 103. SPRAYING FormMuLas. : : ; . 149 | 112. DistRiBuTION OF RAINFALL . : : . 162 tof. CHILDREN’s GARDENS . : 3 : . 151 | 113. Crop Rotation . ; , g 3 . 163 105. ScHoot GARDEN PLaNs : ; : . 153 | 114. PLowInG : : ; s « 65 106. PRUNING : ; : : ; : . 154 | 115. Testinc GARDEN Behe 5 , : . 167 107. GRAFTING. ‘ : : ; : > TS6 APRIL SUBJECTS 116. A Stupy oF Birps : : : ; . 168 | 125. MELons ; : : ; : 2 185 117. Birp MicraTIon . : ; s . 170 | 126. APPLES AND Pans ; : : : . 186 118. FAMILIAR AND BENEFICIAL Bikbs ; . 173 | 127. PEACHES AND PLums . ; : : . 188 119. Harmrut Birps . : : : : . 175 | 128. Grapes. ‘ ; 190 120. PoTATOES . ¥ : 3 ; : . 176 | 129. THE PLANTING AND Coca ATION OF Gauk 191 121. Peas AND BEANS . : 3 : : . 178 | 130. THe Home BeautiFur. : 3 é . 163 122. BeeTs AND TURNIPS . 4 ; : . 180 131. LanpscapE GARDENING : : ; . 194 123. ONIONS . ; ; ; : : ‘ . 182 132. THe ScHoot Grounps . ‘ : ‘ 2 165 124. TOMATOES . é ‘ : : : . 184 MAY SUBJECTS 133. THE FLoweR anp ITs Work ; 2 . 197 | 138. Prum Curcutio . : : . 204 134. Lecuminous Crops A : . 200 | 139. APPLE-TREE TENT Gumcteriak : ; = 1205 135. TUBERCLES ON LEGUMINOUS xox : . 201 | 140. Wootty APHIDS . : ‘ : : . 206 136. San José Scale . ; : ‘ : . 202 | 141. THe Mosguiro. : : s : . 207 137. Copirnc Mot. ; A ‘ ‘ . 203 | 142. Tue House Fry . ; : : : . 208 APPENDIX . ‘ : ae ‘ : . : : : 5 : : : : 6s 3 8 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE SEPTEMBER SUBJECTS LESSON 1 SOURCES OF FOOD In the early history of man his food consisted of such plant products as he could easily pluck from trees and vines and of such animals as he could kill. The cultivation of plants and the domestication of animals were the first great steps toward a regular food supply. From a small, probably accidental, beginning in plant growing, man has developed the art of agriculture until now the vegetable kingdom furnishes him with an abundant variety of palatable foods. He still depends upon some plants in their wild state, but the larger part of his nourishment comes from such cultivated crops as wheat, corn, oats, and garden vegetables. With an increased intelligence, he is able to gather several crops from the same area and to get a maximum of return for his expended labor. Fromthe uncertainties of the chase he has turned to the domestication of food animals and now raises the meats that he con- sumes at his table. Still further has he improved his food supply by selection and cross- breeding in both plants and animals, thus producing the highest grades of cereals, fruits, vegetables, and meats. Under the headings below list the sources of human food. Place a line under the name of each produced in the United States. Place two lines under the name of each produced in your locality. WILD ANIMALS Of the land Of rivers and lakes Of the ocean WILD PLANTS DOMESTICATED ANIMALS DOMESTICATED PLANTS Grains Fruits Vegetables 2 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 2 THE SOURCES OF CLOTHING The earliest clothing that man wore was probably made of leaves and the bark of trees, and was worn as a protection from the weather. The skins of animals were next used to cover the body. At first these skins were simply thrown over the shoulders and tied around the waist with some vine or thong. Later man learned to fasten skins together with a thread- like fber and thus began to fashion garments to wear. When man learned to spin wool into threads and to make cloth, the sheep industry started. At first the making of woolen goods was very crude, but as time went on, man’s natural ingenuity overcame many of the difficulties of weaving, until to-day he manufactures garments of great beauty and fine texture. Other animals, such as the camel, the alpaca, and the goat, were found to furnish hair suitable for the making of cloth. Later it was discovered that a product of the silkworm could be used, and the making of silk goods was rapidly under- taken. Early in his history man discovered that certain plants furnished fibers that could be woven into cloth; and the weaving of the soft fibers of cotton, flax, hemp, jute, and other fiber plants became an important industry. Under the headings below list the sources of clothing. Place a line under the name of each produced in the United States. Place two lines under the name of each produced in your locality. WILD ANIMALS DOMESTICATED ANIMALS PLANTS PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 3 LESSON 3 THE SOURCES OF SHELTER The earliest forms of shelter that man used to protect him from the changes of weather were the widespreading trees and the large shrubs, about which he crouched when it rained and in whose shade he slept when the sun was hottest. In the branches of the tallest trees he found protection from the wild animals that attacked him. After some time he learned to make shelters of branches by grouping them together and covering them with leaves and grass. Next he wove the branches together and filled the vacant spaces with mud, build- ing a sort of hut. As he learned to trap animals, he began to use skins to cover his abode, finally finding a way of fastening the skins together into a sort of tent. In different parts of the world caves have been found that were once the homes of men. In China to-day there live many people whose only homes are caves they have made in the loess deposits of their country. As time went on, man became tired of his cave or temporary brush tent and tried to build some suitable shelter that would be permanent. The first homes of this nature were built of stones piled into rude walls with some sort of covering for a roof. When man learned to make metal tools he improved the quality of his shelter, and as he advanced toward the use of steel his building became more complicated and complete. Stones that were once used in their natural roughness were cut and shaped to meet his de- mands, rough roof covering gave place to boards, which in turn were replaced by shingles and slate. Soon bricks and plaster entered into the structure of his abode, and with the discovery of glassmaking rude huts had passed and the modern home had become a reality. Under the headings below list the sources of shelter. Place a line under each that is produced in the United States. Place two lines under each produced in your locality. FROM FORESTS FROM MINES FROM QUARRIES 4 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 4 THE INSECT An insect is an air-breathing animal having three parts or divisions to its body, six legs, and usually one or two pairs of wings when fully developed. The life history of most insects consists of four distinct periods which are easily traced. First comes the egg which hatches into a worm-like animal called the larva. Most larve are green, as this color forms a better pro- tection against their enemies. It is during this stage of the insect’s growth that it does most damage to the crops. Growth is rapid during the larval stage, and so the young animal is a voracious feeder. When the period of growth is ended the larva seeks some retired place and spins about itself a cocoon. This cocoon is often made from a kind of silken thread that comes from the body of the insect. Some insects build their cocoons by sewing together the edges of a leaf, while others build them of dirt and small sticks. Within this inclosure the insect passes its pupal stage. Here a complete change takes place. It enters the cocoon as an elongated, flexible animal, worm-like in shape, and emerges a hardened insect fully developed. This last is called the adult or imago state. The body of a full-grown insect is divided into three parts, — the head, thorax, and ab- domen. On the head are two large prominent compound eyes and from one to four smaller ones placed between these, two long tapering rods called antennz, and a very complicated set of jaws. The head as a whole is generally long and flat at the front and is attached to the thorax by a very short neck. The kind of food an insect eats may be told by the structure of its mouth parts. There are two kinds of mouth structure, — the biting, as seen in the grasshopper, and the sucking, as seen in the butterfly. Animals of the biting type of mouth may be poisoned through their food; the sucking type cannot be killed in this way. The mouth of biting insects consists of six dis- tinct parts. The upper jaws are called mandibles. Parts oF aN INSECT, They work horizontally, and from their shape it may be told whether the insect feeds upon vegetable or animal food. Covering these mandibles is the upper lip or labrum, which is a part of the front of the head, and seems to have no part in feeding. Below the mandibles there is a second pair of jaws, called maxilla, which are quite complicated in structure and vary quite a good deal in form. The palpi or feelers, the short antenna-like growths about the mouth, are attached to the maxillez. The man- Lire History oF AN INSECT. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 5 dibles cut or tear the food, while the maxilla are used to break it up into smaller pieces. Below these parts is the lower lip or labium. This lower lip is not as complicated as the maxilla, sometimes being formed of one flat plate. The mouth parts of the sucking insects are also quite complicated, consisting of a long tube through which the liquid food is taken, and a series of piercing or probing jaws for cutting into the object attacked. The eyes of an insect are especially interesting. They are of two kinds, the large com- pound eyes formed upon the sides of the head and the small rudimentary eyes between the large eyes. These small eyes are called ocelli and are placed in a triangular form with the apex down. The compound eyes are made up of a number of small eyes grouped together. The compound eye looks much like the comb used in honey making, each little hexagonal segment being a complete eye in itself. As an insect cannot move its eyes and can only move its head very slightly, it is necessary that there should be many eyes with a varying range of vision. EYES OF AN INSECT. The thorax of an insect consists of three parts, sometimes so closely # compound eyes; ges ee , ec . _ b, clypens; grown together that it is hard to distinguish them. These divisions, begin- ¢ ocelli: ning at the front, are called prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax. Each of & peng these divisions bears a pair of legs, and in winged insects the last two seg- : san ments bear wings. The abdomen of the insect consists of nine distinct segments and a terminating cap or pincer-like organ. Each segment has two openings, one on either side, through which the animal breathes. These openings are called spiracles. The blood of the insect needs oxygen, and as it has no lungs, the air has to enter the body through these little openings. The female insect produces her young by laying eggs. These are deposited in many places. Some insects lay their eggs upon the water, others in the ground, and many deposit them in the bark or wood of trees, and in the tissues of other plants. The complete develop- ment of an insect from the egg stage until it reaches full maturity is called its life history. 6 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 5 THE CABBAGE WORM Larva Pupa Adult THE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY. The cabbage worm is one of our most destructive garden pests. This so-called worm is the larva of a small, almost white butterfly that may be seen fluttering above cabbage plants. The first cabbage butterflies are the adults that have hibernated through the winter in the pupa or chrysalis stage on trees and under stones and boards. Soon after emerging these butterflies lay small eggs on the young cabbage plants. These eggs develop into caterpillars that later pass into the pupa stage, and in a few days the pupx change to mature butterflies that produce another generation of caterpillars during the same summer. The caterpillars are velvety green in color, almost like the cabbage leaf, and are often overlooked as they lie closely on the plant. As the season advances, these little insects be- come more abundant and very ravenous. It is during the larva growth that most of the dam- age is done to the plant. The larva or caterpillar eats irregular holes in the cabbage leaf and sometimes into the head of the plant itself, leaving dirty yellow excrements wherever it has been at work. The adult of this insect is a butterfly, rather small, with white or faint sulphur-colored wings expanding about an inch and a half. The adult male has one dark spot on each of the fore wings, while the adult female has two such spots on each fore wing. The under sides of the wings are usually darker and rather powdery. Birds are a great aid in ridding a garden of these pests and should be encouraged to make their homes near us. But even birds will not remove these larve entirely and so it is custom- ary to spray the cabbage plants with some arsenical poison, as Paris green. After the cabbage plant has headed and the caterpillars have entered the head, it is almost impossible to destroy them. FIELD WORK After the cabbages have formed, collect eggs of the cabbage worm. Upon which part of the plant were the eggs found ? How many eggs were found in a single cluster ? PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 7 Number, size, and color of eggs collected f Later, when the larve have developed, collect several for study. Draw a picture of a typical larva. What are the feeding habits of this larva? What part of the plant is attacked most ? How much damage did the larve do to the plant ? Spray a few plants with Paris green. What effect does this poison have upon the larve ? By means of a net, collect several specimens of the cabbage butterfly as soon as they appear in the garden. Draw a picture of this butterfly. 8 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 6 THE GRASSHOPPER Grasshoppers, more properly called locusts, are found almost everywhere in the United States. They are usually very abundant in meadows and along the zoad- sides. There are many species of locusts, but the most destructive one is the Rocky Mountain locust, a near relative of the insect mentioned in the Bible as furnish- ing one of the plagues of Egypt. Al- Rocky Movuntain Locust. though the ravages of this insect have been confined to a limited territory, its devastation has been so great that it has attracted much attention. The female locust drills a hole in the ground with two pairs of horny valves at the end of the abdomen and deposits her eggs in the hard soil. The eggs are laid in regular rows and covered with a mucous fluid which dries around the eggs and fills up the neck of the burrow. Each female lays about ninety eggs in three lots of about thirty each. They are laid through- out the summer and early fall, and most of the eggs remain unhatched until the next spring. In the larva and pupa stages, the young locust resembles the adult in structure, the dif- ference being only in size. The time required for full growth varies with the season and weather, being on an average about two months. The life of a grasshopper extends from the spring to the autumn frosts, and there is but one generation each year. The young congregate in large numbers in warm, sunny places, subsisting upon the green vegetation about their hatch- ing places. Migration never takes place until all surrounding vegetation has been eaten off; this usually happens by the time they are half grown. They travel in vast bodies in the warm part of the day by alternately walking and hopping. Grasshoppers are not always destructive to our crops, but where they are, their eradica- tion may be accomplished in several ways. Harrowing in the autumn or during a dry spell will destroy the eggs. Plowing, if not too deep, will accomplish the same purpose. The object is to thoroughly scarify and pulverize the top soil where the eggs have been laid. Crude coal oil may be placed in specially prepared pans which are dragged over the infested ground. The startled locusts spring up into the pans and expire almost immediately after they reach the oil. Burning is the best method to be used in prairie sections where the locusts abound. Old straw or hay is piled in heaps about the field, and the locusts are driven into the piles, which are then set on fire. When the locusts are making their way from roads to hedges they may easily be caught in nets of muslin or calico. The nets are stretched along the path of the insects and are made to converge where a small pit has been dug. Into this pit the locusts are driven and then destroyed. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 9 LESSON 7 DISSEMINATION OF SEEDS Pupils should bring to school an apple, fruit of milkweed, dandelion, cocklebur, beggar- tick, burdock, bean, witch-hazel, pansy, walnut, and hazelnut. (a) Seeds that are contained within edible fruits. Cut an apple in halves, cutting at right angles to the stem. Locate the seeds with reference to the pulp. What use do animals make of this class of fruit ? Are the seeds eaten? How may seeds from the apple core become covered with earth ? How are seeds of blackberries and raspberries disseminated ? (b) Seeds blown by the wind. Secure the fruit of the milkweed, thistle, dandelion, maple, or elm. Drop them from some height. Did they reach the earth directly under the place from where they were liberated ? Why are farmers who practice clean cultivation often troubled with weeds ? (c) Seeds that adhere to animals. Examine by means of a lens the method by which the fruits of the spanish needle, cocklebur, beggar-tick, and burdock adhere to animals. Place a few of these fruits in the hair of some domestic animal at your own home. How long are they carried? (d) Seeds that are thrown out by the rupturing of the enclosing case. Place pods of the bean or witch-hazel where they willdry. Later on handle these pods roughly and record what happens. (e) Seeds that float. Place four sound walnuts or hazelnuts in water and record the number of hours they remain floating. Nut 1 Nut 2 Nut 3 Nut 4 Name other seeds that will float for long periods. 10 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 8 SEED MOISTURE Select several seeds of various plants for study, such as the lima bean, pea, castor bean, and pumpkin. Have the seeds of each kind as nearly alike in color, size, and shape as_pos- sible. Place the seeds in a dish of water and study carefully. What effect does the water have upon the coat of each seed ? Where does the wrinkling commence ? Draw pictures of a dry seed and one that has been soaked in water. Does the water enter the coat at all places ? Locate the places where the water enters the coat. Submerge several seeds in a beaker of water and heat slowly. Observe closely for air bubbles coming from the seeds. Note carefully the openings in the coat of each seed through which these air bubbles come. May not these openings admit water to the seed when it is in the ground? Place several seeds in a test tube and close the end with cotton. Slowly heat the seeds over a flame. Do the seeds give off any moisture ? Where does this moisture gather ? Fill out the following table, using 5 seeds of the same kind. | SUBMERGED IN WaTER WEIGHT OF SEED Sixty MInutTes TWELVE S Drv LVE Hours | Frrreen Minutes) Tuirty Minutes | Gain | Weight Percent} Weight | Gain | Percent | pte | 7 || Weight Gain | Per cent| Weight | Gain | Percent | | | | | | PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE II LESSON 9 IS wy OSMO Select a large egg that will just ft the end of a large-mouthed bottle without entering it. Remove the shell from the large end of the egg without breaking the inside skin. Make a small hole in the opposite end of the egg and empty its contents. Rinse the interior of the egg thoroughly with clear water. Fill the bottle full of colored water (red ink may be used to color the water). Fill the empty egg with clear water and place the large end in the mouth of the bottle. Observe carefully what takes place. Empty the egg, rinse out again, and fasten a small tube of glass into the small opened end. The tube may be held in place by carefully cementing it to the egg with sealing wax. Fill the egg and tube with a strong solution of sugar and water. Place the egg again in the mouth of the bottle after it has been filled with pure . z water. Fasten a piece of rubber cloth across the top of the tube. Osmosrs APPARATUS. After several days note the position of the sheet of rubber. The process of a liquid passing through a membrane is called osmosis. The colored liquid in the bottle passed through the membrane of the egg into the water contained inside the ege. The sugar solution in the tube has a strong afhnity for the water in the bottle and causes it to pass through the egg membrane and enter the tube. The entrance of the water causes the sheet of rubber to become tightly stretched. When seeds swell and burst their coats much the same process takes place. The sugars and proteins within the seeds have an afhnity for water and cause the moisture in the soil surrounding the seeds to pass through the outer coating, thus making the interior of the seed swell to the bursting point. I. AND M. AGRIC. — 2 12 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 10 GERMINATION OF SEEDS —TEMPERATURE In each of three plate germinators put ten seeds of each of the following plants: corn, wheat, oats, clover, bean, pumpkin, and tomato. Place one germinator in a warm room in which the temperature is 70 to 80 degrees, one in a cool room in which the temperature is 50 to 60 degrees, and the other in a refrigerator in which the temperature is 40 degrees or less. Take the temperature of each place several times to get the average temperature of each. Make a daily inspection of the seeds and report germination results. Which seeds germinated in the refrigerator? What per cent of the seeds of each kind germinated f Which seeds germinated in the cool room? What per cent of the seeds of each kind germinated ? Which seeds germinated in the warm room? What per cent of the seeds of each kind germinated ? Repeat this experiment with other seeds and make careful record of the temperature that is best for the germination of each kind of seed. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 13 LESSON 11 GERMINATION OF SEEDS—AIR Select five bottles of equal size having tight-fitting corks. Fill these bottles to varying depths (the first, one sixth full; the second, one third full; etc.) of moist sand. To keep air out of the sand, first fill the bottles with water and then pour the sand in gradually. When the sand has settled to the bottom, the water may be carefully poured off. Place four well- soaked bean seeds in each bottle, put in the corks, and seal thoroughly with sealing wax to keep out all air. Note which seeds germinate most perfectly. After several days, carefully take out the cork of the bottle about half filled with sand and insert a lighted match. If the match goes out, there is little or no oxygen left in the bottle. What has become of the oxygen in the bottle ? Compare the germinated seeds in the bottles. Which bottle contained the best germi- nated seed? Why? Take a very wide-mouthed preserve jar (one large enough for you to place a small medi- cine glass within it). Fill this glass with limewater and place in the center of the jar. Around this glass place some well-soaked bean seeds. Tightly cork the jar. Keep the jar under conditions suitable for germination. Note any change in the limewater. If the seeds give off carbon dioxide, the limewater becomes clouded. The oxygen of the air unites with the carbon of the plant and makes carbon dioxide, which turns limewater a milky white. Write a short account of the results of your experiment. Fill a bottle nearly full of sand, keeping the air out by means of water. Drain off all stand- ing water. Place a few bean seeds, after soaking them, on the surface of the sand. Cork and seal the bottle. These seeds will have some air, but it will be in a very small quantity. Note how slowly the seeds germinate, if they germinate at all. What do these seeds lack to produce germination ? Iq PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 12 VITALITY AND PRESERVATION OF SEEDS One method of testing seeds for vitality is to place them in a pan of water and to use only those that sink, rejecting all seeds that float. Select several seeds (the older the better) and test by the above experiment. Plant the seeds that sink in one box of soil and those that float in another. Note the percentage of each kind that germinate. Record results below. | SEEDS THAT SANK SEEDS THAT FLOATED Per cent of germination | || Per cent of germination | ill | ‘ ¢ 5 | " ‘ i Average time of germination | Average time of germination | NumsBer oF YEARS THAT CERTAIN SEEDS RETAIN VITALITY 2 YEARS 3 YEARS 4 YEARS 5 YEARS 6 YEARS IO YEARS Corn Pea Tomato Lettuce Squash Wheat q Select some of the above seeds at the age of vitality limitation and test to see if the table is correct. Record results. Factors that influence the vitality of seeds are: (1) condition of parent plant, (2) time of gathering, (3) age of seeds, and (4) method of preservation. (1) Select several seeds from a healthy plant and others from a weak plant. Test for vitality and record results: (2) Select several seeds at intervals during the growing season. Test for vitality and record results: (3) Select seeds of various ages (several years difference if possible) and test for vital- ity. Record results: (4) Select seeds that have been kept under varying conditions (damp or dry situa- tions, places little exposed to the air, etc.). Test for vitality and record results: Study the ways in which farmers preserve seeds. Why should seeds be kept in a dry place? Should they have warm or cool places of storage ? PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE IS LESSON 13 FOOD SUBSTANCES IN SEEDS The principal food substances in plants are (a) protein, (b) fats and oils, and (c) starches and sugars. For experimental purposes select several good-sized butter beans (any other seeds will do as well providing they are large). With a sharp knife cut the seeds into two parts along their greatest diameters. Preliminary Tests. Place a drop of nitric acid upon the white of an egg. The yellow stain is a character- istic test for protein. Place a few drops of iodine solution upon a small quantity of thin starch paste. The dark blue or blackish color is the characteristic test for starch. Test for Protein in Seeds. Upon one of the seed halves place a drop or two of nitric acid. Compare with egg test, and record the results briefly. Test for Starch and Sugar in the Seeds. Place several drops of the iodine solution on one of the fresh seed halves. Note the result and compare with the starch test. Record briefly the results of your experiment. The presence of sugar may sometimes be detected by the taste. Test for Fats and Oils in Seeds. Scrape out the interior parts of a seed half and place on a piece of white paper. Lay the paper upon a plate and heat slowly. Note the effect on the paper. Record briefly the results of your experiment. 16 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 14 PARTS OF A SEED Bean. Select for study a well-soaked bean. Look for a scar (hilum), which is the point where the seed was attached to the pod. With a sharp knife cut through the seed coat along the convex, or round, side and separate the seed into its two halves. All of the bean within the covering is the young plant or embryo. The two halves are seed leaves or cotyledons. These cotyledons are made up of starch and other food substances for the young plant. Notice on the inner side of one of the cotyledons a little stem or sprout and a small bud of two tiny leaves. Notice also where the cotyledons are attached to the stem. The small bud is the plumule, and the stem from the tip to the point where the cotyledons are attached is the hypocotyl. The tip develops into the root while the other part of the hypocotyl grows into a stem and is the part that comes first above the ground. After the hypocotyl has arched up through the soil, it pulls the cotyledons and plumule after it and then becomes erect. The cotyledons, after giving the stored-up food to the growing parts of the plant, turn green and for a short time act as leaves. Corn. Remove the seed coat from a grain of corn that has been soaked. Notice the soft, oval body embedded in the grain near the tip. This is the embryo, and is often called the “germ” of the corn. The hard part of the grain is not a part of the embryo. It is a reserve food supply and is called the endosperm. Only a small part of a grain of corn is the embryo, while all of the bean is the young plant or embryo. Carefully examine the embryo of the corn and find the plumule and hypocotyl. The corn has but one cotyledon. Plants, like corn, having one cotyledon are called monocotyledonous plants; while those, like the bean, having two cotyledons are called dicotyledonous plants. Draw pictures of parts of the seeds. | View oF BEaNn, SHOWING EU ee : A CotyLepon, PLUMULE, | | | Corn AND HypocotTyL | Loneirupinay SECTION oF Corn, SHOWING En- | DOSPERM AND EmpBryo EXTERNAL VIEW OF Bean \| PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 17 LESSON 15 WEEDS Any plant growing out of its proper place may be termed a weed. Cotton in a corn- field or corn in a cotton patch would be weeds. But the term “weed” is generally applied to those plants of wide range that are more or less useless to man and that form the habit of thriving in cultivated fields. Weeds are objectionable (1) because they rob more useful plants of light, food, and moisture, and (2) because it takes time for their eradication which could be more profitably applied otherwise. They are only valuable indirectly to the farmer; the necessity for their removal causes better cultivation of the growing crop. Weeds are divided into three general classes — annuals, biennials, and perennials. Annuals are those plants that live but one year, biennials are those that live two years, and perennials are those that live on year after year. To destroy annuals it is necessary to pre- vent them from going to seed during their vear of growth. Biennials should also be destroyed the first year to prevent their going to seed the second. Perennials must be destroyed root and branch if they are to be removed from the field. If even the roots of perennials are left, they will grow and seed again as if they had never been touched. The following table gives examples of each class. Add the names of others. ANNUALS BIENNIALS | PERENNIALS Ragweed | Mullein Canada thistle Wild mustard ' Bull thistle Oxeye daisy Pigweed Burdock | Sorrel Make a study of six common weeds and record facts in the following table. Name or WEED | cache —— — Rate of growth | Kind of roots Number of seeds When ripe How scattered | Kind of plant | Natural checks “What crops injured 1 = ———h} How injured How eradicated 18 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE Weeds are characterized by a very extensive stem growth, either erect or horizontal, and by special adaptations of growth to soil conditions. They are a type of plant almost ideally constituted to withstand extreme changes of moisture. Their seeds, akenes, are easily dis- tributed and are so made that they will live through droughts and exceeding wet spells. They are also so small and insignificant that they are overlooked by animals that would be likely to feed upon them. By their special shapes they are easily carried about by animals or the wind. Weeds have the most perfect means of seed dispersal of any of the plants and it is for this reason partly that they are so prevalent. Besides seeds, weeds have other means of reproduction. Harmful Effects. The farmer’s profits are lessened in many ways by the weeds, among which are the following: (1) Weeds rob the soil of much moisture and take up water that might well be used by other plants. (2) Weeds crowd out other plants, depriving them of air and soil. (3) Weeds take food from the soil which ought to go to the growing crops. (4) Weeds are great breeding beds for injurious insects, especially when they occur in fence rows and in ditches. (5) Weeds often hurt the stock that eat them, sometimes seriously, and destroy the flavor of the by-products. (6) Weeds found in hay and other farm products make their sale uncertain. Keeping Out Weeds. To prevent weeds from entering a field requires eternal vigilance. Prevention in the handling of weeds is better than curing after the trouble has come. If the ground is plowed as soon as possible after planting, the weeds may be checked. Seed beds should be kept clean and all fence rows and pastures should be cleaned of all weeds before they go to seed. A rotation of crops will sometimes keep the weedsin check. Any smother crop, like clover, will hold the weeds back. A crop that is sown broadcast will cover a field and not give weeds room enough or air enough to grow. Fallow land is the most prolific source of our weed pests. Weeds may be exterminated by applying a strong salt solution to the plants. Spraying with iron sulphate will keep them in check. One sure but slow way is to pull them out root and branch, but care must be taken that the whole weed is removed or it will grow again. If the weed is an annual, plowing or cutting before the plant has gone to seed will destroy it. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 19 LESSON 16 STUDY OF THE WILD CARROT The wild carrot is one of our most aggressive weeds. It has spread all over the eastern part of our country and has been found in several places west of the Mississippi River. It thrives well in all kinds of soil and under marked changes of climate. It appears most fre- quently in pasture lands and in waste places, and is becoming troublesome over wide areas. The plant is easily recognized by its white flowers arranged in cymes at the end of long stems. In the center of each cyme there often appears a single purple flower. These cymes develop from June to September and are followed by bur-like seeds that readily attach them- selves to the hair of passing animals. Frequently these burs are found in unclean clover and grass seed. The seed has surprising vitality, keeping its vigor for several years. As this weed is not so frequently found in cultivated fields, it is a good indication that thorough cultivation will subdue the pest. In permanent pastures, mowing the plants be- fore they have flowered will destroy them. Pulling up the weeds by hand is a slow but sure way of eradication. Sheep pasturing in an infected meadow will keep down this pest. About the middle of September gather several wild carrot plants, being careful to get roots and burs. Make a study of the parts, manner of flowering, structure of bur, etc. Sketch pictures of : — Tue WHOLE PLANT Tue CymMe Tue Fruit In the following table note the distribution of the wild carrot and the methods used in its eradication on farms about your school. | | Numeer oF FIeLps con- MeTHODS USED BY THE FARMER IN ITS Name oF Farm TAINING WiLp Carrot ERADICATION wv 20 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 17 POISONOUS WEEDS Pokeweed. This weed goes under many names, such as poke, garget, American night- shade, and redweed. It grows from 6 to g feet high and is a smooth, rank perennial. It has purplish stems and large alternating leaves. Its flowers come in clusters and are greenish- white in color. In the autumn, shining, purple-black berries form. The plant is a native of the United States and grows in cultivated fields and waste grounds all over the eastern part of the country. Generally the poisoning arises from an overdose when the plant is used as a medicine. The root of the pokeweed is sometimes mistaken for that of the parsnip or arti- choke and poison results from its eating. The seeds when eaten will sometimes produce death. The weed is a slow but violent emetic, affecting the nerves and producing convulsions. Death from it is generally due to paralysis of the respiratory organs. Woolly Loco Weed. This plant is a native of the Great Plains and grows most abundantly in Nebraska, Kansas, and Colorado. Horses, sheep, and cattle are affected by it, the horses suffering most from its poison. It is slow in its action and is not acute in its effect. It is a silvery-white plant with silky leaves. It is a perennial that grows about 12 inches high. The flowers are pea shaped and usually purple. The first effect of the poison upon stock is to cause defective eyesight and a hallucination or mania. After first tasting the plant, cattle refuse any other kind of food. After the first stage, comes a period of great emaciation, and finally the animal dies from starvation. Poison Ivy. This is a climbing or trailing shrub. The leaves are three-foliate and the plant has aérial roots. The flowers are greenish and appear in May and June. The fruit is smooth, waxy, and white, often remaining on the plant until late winter. Poison ivy grows everywhere in open ravines and borders of woods. It spreads along the roadsides and gets into cultivated fields. Crows, woodpeckers, and other birds that feed upon its fruits carry the seed about. The poison of the plant is a non-volatile oil found in all its parts. It is in- soluble in water and therefore cannot be washed off. Alcohol, however, will remove all traces of it. An alcoholic solution of sugar of lead (lead acetate) is used to destroy its effects. Strong alcohol should not be used; a weaker grade, about 50 to 75 percent, is desirable. All poison ivy plants should be carefully destroyed and never permitted to grow about the home. Many persons often mistake the woodbine, or Virginia creeper, for the poison ivy. This is particu- larly true in the fall when the leaves of both are red. The woodbine can always be distin- guished by its compound leaves of five leaflets, while those of the poison ivy have three leaflets. Jimson Weed. These weeds have been introduced into the United States from Europe and tropical America. The plant is a rank, ill-smelling annual that grows from 2 to 5 feet high. It has large funnel-shaped flowers and prickly seed pods. The flowers appear from May to September and the fruit ripens in August. The symptoms of the poison are head- ache, nausea, vertigo, and a general nervous confusion. The seeds are poisonous to eat and the leaves have sometimes been cooked by mistake for other wild plants. Cattle have been poisoned by eating the plant. The jimson weeds should be destroyed wherever found. This can be done easily if cut when the flowers have formed. If the plants listed on the next page are found in your locality, fill out the table as sug- gested. Add the names of such weeds as are said to be poisonous about your home and make a careful study of them. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 21 Name DEscRIPTION Wuere Founp How Portsonous REMEDY FOR Porson Hellebore Larkspur Rattlebox Spurge Sumac Water hemlock Laurel Nightshade PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 18 WEED CENSUS Fill out the following table for such weeds listed as may grow in your neighborhood. Under Duration indicate whether the plant is annual, biennial, or perennial. Under Methods of Propagation indicate whether the plant propagates by seeds, roots, tubers, or other means. Common NaME DuraTION MonrTH oF FLOWERING Mont oF SEEDING CoLor OF FLOWERS MeEtTuHops oF Propa- CATION PLACE OF GROWTH Black mustard Broom rape Buffalo bur Bull thistle Burdock Canada thistle ~ Charlock ~ Chickweed ~Cocklebur Crab grass Dandelion Dog fennel Great ragweed Jimson weed Johnson grass “Milkweed Moth mullein Nut sedge Oxeye daisy Pigweed Poison ivy Prickly lettuce Prickly pear Shepherd’s-purse Small carrot Sorrel Spanish needles Wild carrot Wild oats Wild parsnip Yellow dock PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 23 OCTOBER SUBJECTS LESSON 19 WHEAT Wheat is one of the most valuable crops grown in the United States. This country now produces about one fifth of the world’s wheat crop. The fact that wheat will grow success- fully in such a large variety of soils and that the plant so readily adapts itself to climatic con- ditions, accounts very largely for its being grown over such a large area. Preparation of the Seed Bed. The preparation of the seed bed for wheat is of the greatest importance. The soil should be plowed, harrowed, and rolled. The object of this tillage is to obtain two or three inches of fine loose soil over a compact under soil. This preparation of the seed bed should be done as early as the season will permit. Date of Sowing. The time of seeding depends largely upon the climatic and soil con- ditions. It is the general practice, however, to sow from September 10 to October 15 in the winter-wheat belt. In the spring-wheat belt it should be sown just as early in the spring as the soil can be prepared. Method and Rate of Sowing. A good variety of home-grown seed should be selected. It should be cleaned, graded, and tested for vitality before sowing. It should be sown with a drill from one to two inches deep. The quantity sown per acre varies in different parts of the country. The amount used is influenced by the character of the soil, climate, and time of seeding. In dry regions three to five pecks per acre are used, while in regions of moderate rainfall from five to nine pecks are sown per acre. It is usually advisable to consult the lead- ing wheat grower of the neighborhood before deciding upon the variety to sow, and the time and rate of sowing. Types of Wheat. The classification of the cultivated wheats as made by Hunt are: einkorn, spelt, emmer, common wheat, club wheat, poulard, durum, and Polish wheat. The common, club, durum, and emmer are of the greatest importance in the United States. The two types most used for bread are the common and club wheats. The durum, poulard, and Polish wheats are used for making macaroni, while the emmer, spelt, and einkorn are used mostly for stock feed. Yield of Wheat. The ten-year average yield of wheat in the United States is about 14 bushels per acre, that of Germany is 28, and that of England is 32. The average yield per acre in this country would be greatly increased if more attention were given to the preparation of the seed bed, the selection of better varieties, the testing and grading of the seed, the use of commercial fertilizers, and crop rotation. Enemies of Wheat. The common diseases of wheat are the smuts, scab, and rust. These are partially prevented by treatment of seed and by crop rotation. The insects that are most injurious are the Hessian fly and the chinch bug. Harvesting. Wheat should be cut when the stem, blades, and the head begin to turn yellow. If it is allowed to stand too long, it will become overripe and shatter when handled. The sheaves are placed in shocks to dry out after cutting. If the weather is suitable, thrashing may take place in a week or ten days after the wheat has been shocked. 24 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE Study the methods of preparing the seed bed for wheat on near-by farms and fll out the following table. Name OF Farm Metuop oF PREPARING SEED BED Fill out the following table of facts concerning wheat-raising on the same farms. | ltr ‘KIND AND AMOUNT DaTE OF RaTE OF | a | oF FERTILIZER | SOWING SOwING + | UsEp YIELD PER Acre. Enemies | Metuop oF Erapt- oF Last Crop. PRESENT | CATION PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 25 LESSON 20 PURITY AND VIABILITY OF SEED WHEAT Purity. One of the most important considerations in the selection of seed is purity. Seed often contains weed seeds and other impurities. Obtain some good seed wheat and also a poor grade of seed. Frequently good seed may be obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture or from the State Experiment Station. Weigh out a small quantity of each sample. Closely examine and determine the per cent of wheat grains, of foreign seeds, and of trash. Classify as wheat the shriveled seeds as well as the plump grains. Record the results below. | Per Cent oF Goop Per Cent oF ImMpuRE | 7 i Per Cent oF Trasu SEED | SEED | SAMPLES | ge ee lisses se = = oe Good grade | Poor grade | | Viability. A pure seed may have many grains that are dead or of low vitality. To determine the viability of seeds the germination test must be applied. From the sample of good seed wheat select 100 grains that will represent the average grade of the whole, and place them between layers of moist cloth in a plate germinator. Keep in a warm place for three days. At the end of that time count the number that have germinated. What is the per cent of viability ? Record results. In the same manner make a germination test of 100 seeds of the poor grade of wheat. What is the per cent of viability of this sample? Record results. 26 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 21 THE HESSIAN FLY AND CHINCH BUG Hessian Fly. The Hessian fly is a native of the Old World, in the regions of primitive wheat culture. Its spread has followed quite closely the dispersion of its host plants, — wheat, rye, and barley. It is now found in nearly all the most important wheat regions of the world. The adult female is a small, dark-colored fly, about one tenth of an inch long. It is possessed of two wings and looks much like a mosquito. The male is smaller and more slender than the female, darker in appearance, and has longer and Hessian Fry, more conspicuous whorls of hair on the antenne. The eggs are scarcely visible to the naked eye. They are orange reddish in color and change to greenish white as the maggot becomes older. When full grown, the larva is about three sixteenths of an inch long, without legs or a distinct head. The puparium, or “ flaxseed,” consists of the pupa within the cast larval skin. The common name Is at once suggested by the resemblance of the puparium in form and color to a flaxseed. The true pupa is white in color and is inclosed in the puparium. The fly appears both in the spring and fall, the former period extending from April to July, and the later, or fall brood, from August to November. When the eggs are deposited in the spring, the young go down to the first or second joint above the root as soon as they are hatched, but in the fall, when the plants are much smaller, they usually go down to a point just above the roots. The effect on the wheat in the fall is to prevent the plant from sending up shoots that would bear heads the following year, and to reduce the growth to a mere bunch of rank growing leaves that die during the winter. In the spring, the maggots go down to the first or second joints above the roots and become embedded in the straw, thus weakening it when the grain comes toahead. Straw thus weakened will topple over and become what is known as “‘ straw fallen’ grain. The insect passes the winter in the flaxseed stage about the plants just above the roots. It usually passes the summer in the stubbles that are left in the fields after harvest. The adult flies take little or no nourishment; their chief business in life being to repro- duce their kind, and they live but a few days after emerging to the adult stage. Some preventive measures are (1) avoid sowing too early, (2) maintain a rotation of crops, (3) burn the stubble every few years where this can be done, and (4) use decoy crops, which should be plowed under as early as possible after they have been attacked by the fly. Well- screened seed from a variety possessing a large or medium straw with excellent stooling quali- ties should be chosen for seed, for by this means the crop will be more resistant to this pest. Chinch Bug. The chinch bug is a small, oblong-shaped insect, blackish brown in color, with soft white wings. In spite of its small size, less than one fifth of an inch long, the pest is quite conspicuous owing to its strong coloring. It feeds upon grass crops of all kinds, but is especially destructive to wheat and corn. It probably causes as great a money loss as any of our field or garden insects. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 27 Two broods are produced in a summer, and a single female chinch bug is said to lay five hundred eggs. When the first brood become adults they generally migrate. If the brood has been reared in wheat, this tendency to migrate is almost certain. This is due to the fact that when the brood becomes full grown the wheat is well matured and does not suit as food. Corn is favored by the bug on account of its juiciness. When migrations take place from wheat to corn, protection may be obtained by trenching, as the adults seldom resort to flight. Dry warm weather is favorable to a large increase of this pest, while wet cold weather is unfavorable to its development. The remedies suggested in regard to the chinch bug are more preventive than eradicative. All of the damage done cannot be prevented. Clean cultivation and the re- Cuncn Buc, moval of all trash from fields and fence rows will keep down the pest somewhat. As the insect travels on foot, trenches may be dug and the insects burned after they have fallen into them. Spraying the trenches with kerosene emulsion will killthem. The residents in those regions infested by the chinch bug should inform them- selves upon the latest methods of ridding the fields of the pest. The loss sustained annually in the states of Illinois and Kansas have led the various experiment stations of the infested regions to take up the study of best methods to clean the field of these insects. I. AND M. AGRIC. — 3 28 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 22 A STUDY OF THE CORN PLANT The corn plant bears staminate flowers upon the tassel. These flowers furnish the pollen for seed fertilization. The ears are the pistillate flowers and the long-flowing silk threads are the pistils on which the pollen from the tassel lodges and fertilizes the seed. Since the tassels are above the ears it is easier for the pollen to reach the pistils than it would be if their positions were reversed. The roots of the corn are distinctly fibrous and spread through the soil in all directions. This is done in search of food and also to give the plant a better hold to support itself. In cultivating corn, care must be exercised not to plow too deep, as the tender roots are easily cut and broken. As the corn plant offers a large surface to the wind, it is easily blown down. To help support its heavy stalk and long leaves, other roots are sent out from the stem a short distance above the ground. These roots are large and heavy. Unless something happens to the underground roots, these supporting roots do not give the plant any food. If, however, the lower roots cease to bring enough food to the plant, these supporting roots will take up the work. Few plants have as wide a range of distribution as the corn. It is a native of warm climates, but it can be grown as far north as Canada. It requires at least three months of warm weather and a moderate amount of rainfall. It will grow best on a well-drained loamy soil. Owing to the great length of its roots and to their fibrous nature, the soil should be well broken up and plowed deep. Like most crops, corn needs a nitrogen fertilizer and, like all grains, it requires much phosphoric acid. Different types require a slightly different fertilizer, and the nature of the soil used also influences the fertilizer ingredients to be employed. There are a great many products that may be obtained from the corn plant. Besides the corn meal and the fodder, we obtain starch, glucose, oil, and alcohol. Every part of the corn plant may be utilized for some purpose. Corn is so important a crop to mankind that every means in our power should be employed to improve it and to introduce and cultivate new and better varieties, of all the different types. Select a well-developed plant for class study. The plant should have ears, tassel, and as many roots as possible upon it. Find the four parts of the plant: root, stem, leaves, and fruit. How are the leaves arranged upon the stem? Upon what part of the stem do they grow? Where is the tassel ? What is it for? Where is the silk ? Where do the ears grow? PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE Why are they below the tassel ? How are the ears protected ? Describe the roots of the corn plant. Why do some roots grow out higher on the stem than others? In the space below draw pictures of the root, tassel, and ears of your corn plant. 29 30 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 23 TYPES OF CORN Make a study of the different types of corn grown in your school district and fill in the table below. The most important types are Dent, Flint, Sweet, and Pop Corn. DENT FLINT | SweEeTr | Pop | Number of farmers growing | C | Average yield per acre Time of planting Time of husking | Average selling price per bu. | Select several ears of corn from at least the four leading types. List their general char- acteristics in the table below. DENT Furnt | Sweet | Pop | | | Color of grain Color of cob | Shape of ear | | Condition of tip | | | Condition of butt 17—At center Circumference of et tip | c—Near butt Surface of ear Length of ear Number of kernel rows Condition of kernels Average weight of ears Average weight of cobs Percentage of grain PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 31 LESSON 24 SELECTION OF SEED EARS The breeding of seed corn of high productive capacity is one of the most important things that a farmer can do. In order to obtain a fair return for the labor expended upon any kind of a crop, the seed must be pure and strong. The careful selection and breed- ing of seed require much thought and study and an exact knowledge of just the kind of plant desired and the qualities of seed that will produce such a plant. In order to know how to select good seed ears, it is necessary first to know what are the essential characters of a good corn plant. A good corn for any section is one that matures in time to escape the frost and at the same time is sufficiently late to take full advantage of the growing season. That plant is also considered the best that has no offshoots or suckers, is thick at the base, has well-developed roots, and grows gradually tapering toward the top. The ear or ears should grow a little below the middle point. It is not desirable to have the plant over ten feet in height. The ears should be attached to the stalk by a four or five inch shank, and the leaves, twelve to sixteen in number, should be well formed and of a good color. If good corn is to be grown, it is necessary that seed should come from well-formed plants. Seed ears, therefore, must first be selected from the growing plant and must be first judged by the qualities of that plant. This selection should be made from the standing stalks at ripen- ing time. Good seed ears must be properly cared for after they are taken from the stalk. They should be put away on drying racks that are protected against mice and rats. The racks should be put in a dry place where there is good ventilation. If corn is thoroughly dried out before cold weather, there will be no damage done from freezing. Large seed firms have gone to great expense building drying houses for corn in order that a large per cent of the grains will germinate. The farmer must not neglect the proper care of his seed after it is selected, if he is to secure the best results. The next point to be considered is the desirability of the ear selected. A well-rounded, cylindrical-shaped ear affords the largest percentage of grain to the cob. The cob should be of medium size and should dry well; the kernels should be regular and fit closely together. The kernel which represents the greatest length in proportion to the cob is generally considered the best for seeding purposes, but the size of the cob should not be sacrificed to gain increased length of the kernel. The typical kernel shape is that of the wedge. The work of breeding a productive corn should be begun with the best corn available on the farm. Having in mind the character of the corn desired, select about ripening time those plants in the field that most nearly approximate the standard desired. Mark them by at- taching a piece of string or cloth so that they may be easily seen and left undisturbed. A hundred or more such plants should be selected. Watch carefully the development of this marked corn, and if early corn is desired, select those plants that are maturing early and whose ears are drying well. From the marked corn plants select a hundred or more ears that have fully developed and that seem to possess the qualities desired. These should be placed upon boards or tables with the tips pointing in the same direction. Those ears that most nearly approach the type needed should be selected and the others discarded. From each of these selected ears take two ker- nels about equal distances from the butts and tips. Compare these kernels as to length and 32 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE general shape, being very careful not to mix the kernels from the different ears. From this comparison, select the ears that present the best-formed kernels. These ears are the ones to be used for seed breeding. When the time comes for planting the seed corn, a breeding plot is carefully chosen away from all other corn in order to remove all chance of deterioration due to cross breeding with inferior strains. The size of this plot should conform to the amount of seed corn ready for planting and to the labor available. It is essential that the soil of the plot be uniform and well drained. Each ear of selected seed corn should be given a row to itself and a careful record kept of its growth. It is customary to detassel all the undesirable stalks that grow in the plot, letting only the healthy and well-formed plants mature. Some corn breeders advise detasseling each row from end to middle, alternate ends of adjoining rows being detasseled ; this insures greater vigor of growth. Seed selection from this plot may be undertaken as before and the discarded ears used for seed in the general field crop. If the plot is continued from year to year, it will not be long until a superior breed of corn is obtained. Work out by means of a diagram the plan of the corn plot described in this lesson. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 33 LESSON 25 HARVESTING CORN Most of our corn is harvested by husking the ears from the standing plants, and the stalks are left to be pastured during the winter months. This is a wasteful method, for by so doing about half of the feeding value of the stalks is lost. Cutting the corn insures a more profitable use of the entire plant. The corn should be cut when the lower leaves of the stalk have begun to ripen and when the kernels of the ears have glazed over and begun to dent, and the husks have begun to dry up. Corn is cut both by hand and with corn binders. When cut with a binder it is tied into bundles. The fodder, which is the entire plant before the ears are husked, is placed in a shock to dry out. The corn is dry enough to husk when the grains will shell off the cob. When it is husked by hand, the stover, which consists of the fodder after the ears are removed, is placed back in the shock or taken to the barn. It is a good farm practice to get the stover under shelter as soon as possible in order that loss by weathering may be prevented. If this stover is cut or shredded, it will make better feed and be more convenient to handle. If the corn is husked and shredded by machine, the shredded stover is placed in a mow by a blower attachment on the machine while the ears come out husked and ready for the crib or market. Fill out the table below after visiting farms near your school. AVERAGE YIELD PER ACRE | Type oF Corn |Metuop oF Har-|Date oF Har-|Quatitry—Goop, Name oF Farm : | RaAIsED VESTING VESTING Farr, or Poor 34 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 26 CORN JUDGING The estimating of the value of corn ears for seeding purposes is called corn judging. It requires an accurate knowledge of the different parts of the corn ear and their values in seed- ing properties. Different kinds of corn vary somewhat in characteristics, the ears being of different shape, size, and appearance. A good judge of seed corn is able to tell from a study of the ear which corn is best for planting. To aid in this work a score card, giving the chief points to be observed and their values, is used. Ten ears of any one kind of corn are deemed sufficient to judge the seeding qualities of that corn. These samples for scoring will differ according to the kinds of corn they represent and should be judged accordingly. Varieties that mature early are generally smaller than those that mature later. Corn plants growing in a region of little rainfall show a shallow kernel and are generally smoother than varieties growing where the rainfall is heavy. Varieties will also differ in color of kernel. In order to judge any kind of corn a standard must be set. The points by which corn ears are judged differ slightly, but in the main have certain general characteristics true of all breeds. The ideal ear will approximate the following description which is an explanation of the points to be observed in filling out the score card given in this lesson. (1) Trueness to Type. The ears selected should be uniform in size, shape, color, and indentation of kernels. Uniformity or trueness to type is essential to progress in corn im- provement. Ten ears that are uniform are much more likely to produce good corn than ten ears that differ widely in general characteristics. (2) Shape of Ear. The typical corn ear is nearly cylindrical in shape. A well-shaped ear permits of even rows from butt to tip. The rows should run the full length of the ear. (3) Purity of Color in Grain and Cob. A uniform color of the kernels indicates purity. A mixture of color shows a cross breeding in the corn. Yellow varieties of corn generally have red cobs, and white varieties have white cobs. A variation in such coloring shows mixture in breeding. (4) Vitality. Vitality is life strength. Small, shriveled kernels do not show much life strength and would probably not grow well when planted. If the corn ear is well matured, the kernels will show good vitality. Soundness of kernels on the cob is also an evidence of strong vitality. (5) Tips. The tips should be well covered by rows of kernels, uniform in shape and size. (6) Butts. The butts should also be well filled out with kernels. (7) Uniformity of Kernels. Uniformity of kernels shows trueness to type. Uniform- ity of kernels is also essential to machine planting. ; (8) Shape of Kernels. The typical kernel is wedge-shaped. The thickness of the kernel should be about half the width. Uniformity of size and shape at different parts of the ear is desirable. (9) Length of Ear. Standard lengths for different varieties of corn are given. The ears of the corn to be judged should approximate this length as nearly as possible. (10) Circumference of Ear. A deficiency in circumference denotes a small relative amount of corn. Too large a circumference indicates immaturity. Circumference is de- termined by measuring the ear one third the distance from the butt to the tip. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 35 (11) Furrow between Rows. These should be narrow. Too wide a furrow indicates a small per cent of corn. (12) Space between Kernels. Kernels should be close together on the cob. Large spaces between the kernels indicate low vitality. (13) Proportion of Corn to Cob. Too small cobs and too large kernels or too large cobs and too small kernels show poor germinating properties. Generally the ear with medium-sized cob is preferable. eye Z Bs: et ae ks eee on TrEN CHAMPION EARS OF CoRN. The following rules to be used in judging corn are suggested by the University of Wis- consin : — (1) Length of Ear. The deficiency and excess in length of all ears not conforming to the standard shall be added together, and for every inch thus obtained a cut of one point shall be made. (2) Circumference of Ear. The deficiency and excess in circumference of all ears not conforming to the standard shall be added together, and for every inch thus obtained a cut of one half point shall be made. The circumference is measured at one third the distance from the butt to the tip of the ear. (3) Percentage of Corn. The per cent of corn should be from 85 to 87. In determining the percentage of corn, weigh and shell every alternate ear in the sample. Weigh the shelled corn. Divide the weight of the corn by the total weight of the ears, which will give the per cent of corn. For each per cent short of standard, a one-point cut shall be made. (4) Color of Corn and Cob. A red cob in white corn or a white cob in yellow corn shall be cut five points. For each mixed kernel a cut of one tenth of a point shall be made. Kernels missing from the ear shall be counted as mixed. Difference in shade of color, as light or dark, white or cream color, must be scored according to variety characteristics. (5) Scoring Tips. When one inch of the cob is exposed, a cut of one point shall be made and a proportionate cut as the cob 1s less exposed. Regularity of the rows near the tip, and the shape and size of the kernels, must also be considered in scoring tips. (6) Scoring Butts. If the kernels are uniform in size and extend over the butt in regu- 36 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE lar order, give full marking. Small and compressed or enlarged and open butts are objec- tionable, as are also those with flat, smooth, short kernels, and must be cut according to the judgment of the scorer. Let each student bring to the class room ten ears of one variety of corn. From the pre- ceding directions, fill out the following score card.! Ponts I 2 | Be || a4 5 | 6 | 7 8 | 9 | 10 1 Trueness to type Io | a | ipo a 2 Shape of ear - 10 | | | | 3 Purity of color in grain and cob 5 | | | | 4 Vitality 20 | | -= | 5 Tips of ears 5 eet dee dal 6 Butts of ears i | ‘7 Uniformity ofkernels 5 nn a | | 8 Shape of kernels 5 | g Length of ear 5 | | 10 Circumference of ear % | tr Furrows between rows 5 12 Space between kernels 10 | 13. Proportion of corn to cob 10 | | 100 | | | The following score card is useful at time of corn husking to determine the value of dif- ferent varieties. Select ten ears of different varieties and score according to card. VERT ELV On ae erent oy eee ee a -| First SECOND THIRD | Fourtu 1 Bushels per acre (uniform moisture test)? 50 | | 2 Maturity? 2¢ | | | 3. Uniformity and trueness to type! 15 | | ect eae 4 Color? 10 | 100 | 1 See Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 409. 2Bushels per Acre. Shell the corn and determine the per cent of grain and the total yield. All yields to be reduced to a uniform moisture content. 3Maturity. To be determined by the actual condition of the corn. ‘Uniformity. Uniform as to size, shape, and type of the ears, and marketability. 5 Color. An indication of purity and market quality. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 37 LESSON 27 SILAGE In the gathering of fodder crops and in the storing of them for feeding purposes much of the nutriment is lost and the crops are less digestible. Farm animals relish such crops as grass, corn fodder, clover, and cowpeas much more when these are fed to them green than after the same crops have been cured. The method employed in the South of stripping the corn plant of its leaves and storing the fodder in cribs is very wasteful, since about one fourth of the digestible matter is lost in the natural curing process. Corn fodder can be stored in air-tight buildings and little of its food value lost. Clover and grass cannot be kept in a fresh green state by storing in air-tight buildings, but they can be kept without much change. Specially constructed buildings to hold these green crops are called silos. A silo may be built within or on the’ {5 outside of the barn. Quite frequently ce silos are built partly underground. The main matter of importance is to make the building air-tight. Round silos are the best form as they hold more silage than square silos of equal size. Silage can be packed more easily in the former, and the silage settles more evenly than it does in a square one. The silage at the top of the silo generally decays and forms an air-tight mass that protects the rest of the silage below. Any green matter may be put in silos for keeping. Besides corn, alfalfa, beets, cowpeas, and soy beans are used for silage. Before the green crops are placed in the silo they are generally cut into fine pieces, as in this shape the fodder is more easily handled and more easily eaten by the cattle. Fill out the following table from information gained by visiting farms having silos. | Date oF FILLING | Capacity OF SILO Name oF Farm | CROP USED FOR SILAGE x SILO In Tons 38 CENSUS OF LESSON 28 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE NEIGHBORHOOD FARM CROPS Name oF Farm | | Crops Kinp | AcREAGE | YIELD ACREAGE YIELD AcrEaGE| YIELD ee ACREAGE | YIELD [x te Forage ; | Grain + Root Fiber 4 Fruit 4 Vegetable } = Timber 53 |4 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 39 LESSON 29 ORIGIN OF THE SOIL Soil is the thin layer of surface earth that is capable of growing plants. Its importance 1s very great, because from it all plants derive their food; and plant life is necessary for the existence of animals and man. The soil is very complex in its structure, being composed of finely divided rock, decayed plants, and the remains of animals. This surface layer of earth has been formed by natural forces and agents, and is being continually changed; so that the soil cultivated to-day is not the soil our forefathers cultivated two hundred years ago. Rains washing the hillsides and uplands carry off soil to enrich the meadows and bottom lands, rocks are being broken up by the changes of temperature, swamps are being filled by vegetable growth, and the comparatively level and dry lands are being changed continually by the work of ants and earthworms. The principal forces and agents that have been instrumental in soil making are (1) water, (2) ice, (3) changes of temperature, (4) winds, (5) plants, (6) animals, and (7) gases. (1) Running water is one of the most important agents in making soil. Rain beating upon the soil breaks it up into smaller particles and will even wear depressions in solid rock in time. Rivers do extensive work by wearing away or eroding the soil, and if a river is of sufficient size, flows swiftly enough, and carries sediment to help in the grinding process, the work done is sometimes enormous. Then rivers build up soil by depositing their loads in shallow places, making what are called alluvial or flood plains. (2) Large sheets of ice moving slowly across the surface grind the solid rock into very fine particles. The whole of the northern part of North America was once covered by a conti- nental glacier that extended as far south as the Ohio and Missouri rivers. After the ice melted away much of the surface that had been covered by the great glacier was left with a deep layer of rich glacial soil. (3) Rapid changes of temperature will cause rocks to break up or to chip to pieces. If rocks are heated, they will expand, and this force of expansion is sometimes greater than the force that holds the particles of the rock together. Ifa heated rock becomes suddenly cooled by rains, it will contract rapidly and break. Water entering the cracks of a large rock will expand on freezing and split the rock in pieces. (4) Winds not only transport fine soil but they will wear away heavy rocks by blowing sand against them that gradually.cuts them away by the impact of the sand. Dust blown about the city streets is a familiar example of wind-transported soil. In some countries large areas are wholly built up by this wind-deposited soil called loess. (5) Many forms of plant life break up rocks by producing acids that aid in dissolving the rock particles. Plant roots also grow into the rock cracks and break off pieces. Plants decay in the soil and become an organic part of it called humus. (6) The earthworm increases the porosity of the soil by digging tunnels and bringing par- ticles of soil to the surface. Ants do work of the same character and are very active agents in pulverizing the soil. All animals that burrow help to make soil. Man in his agricultural activities is also a potent agent in soil development. (7) Carbon dioxide has a dissolving action upon some kinds of rock. Limestone is especially affected by water having this gas and is easily worn away. Oxygen also combines with minerals in rocks and causes them to disintegrate. 4c PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 30 CLASSES OF SOILS Bring to school samples of all the leading types of soils found in the school district. Quart samples will be large enough for experimental purposes. Place each sample upon paper and compare. Reduce the number of samples by combining those that seem to be of the same type. Place the soils in boxes for future use. New soil may be added now and then that the supply may always be sufficient for schoolroom work. The samples brought into the school will probably represent gravel, sand, clay, loam, and muck. The mineral particles of the soil are divided according to size into four general classes, — clay, silt, sand, and gravel. The smallest particles are clay. They are so small that they cannot be seen without a microscope. Grains of sand are chiefly of quartz and are large enough to be seen with the unaided eye. Silt particles are intermediate in size between clay and sand. Every fertile soil contains a considerable amount of decaying organic matter, which the farmer calls humus. This organic matter increases the capacity of a soil to retain moisture and furnishes plant food to the growing crop. A sandy soil contains 80 per cent or more of sand. Such a soil is open and allows air and water to pass readily through it. When rubbed between the fingers, it feels gritty, and does not become sticky when wet. A clay soil consists of 60 per cent or more of clay and silt. A clay soil is sticky when wet and likely to become cloddy if cultivated when wet. It holds water well, but the passage of air and water through clay soils is slow; hence surplus water drains very slowly from such a soil, and in tough clays germinating seeds and the roots of plants may suffer from the lack of a free access of air. Loam soils contain sand, silt, clay, and humus in such proportions that the soils are neither too friable nor too sticky. The loams have enough fine particles to hold water well and enough sand to give ready access to water and air and to make cultivation easy. The student must understand that loam is not a substance but a condition of soil. Although we speak of a sandy loam and a clay loam, we really mean a loamy sand and a loamy clay. The addition of sand or humus to a tough clay will make it loamy; while the addition of clay or humus to a sandy soil, by binding the grains of sand, makes it more loamy in character. Muck and peat soils contain large amounts of decaying vegetable matter. Such soils have been formed in swamps or marshes. Place side by side a sample of each class of soil obtained. Examine each sample as to color and fineness. Rub the particles between the thumb and forefinger. Wet a handful of each and note which crumbles most easily. Which is most sticky? Note the differences briefly below. Sample I. Sample 2. Sample 3. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 41 Sample 4. Sample 5s. Place some soil in a glass jar nearly filled with water. Shake well and allow the sediment to settle. Note the layers of different-sized sand particles. Fill four tumblers nearly full of water and add to grams of sandy soil to one, the same weight of clay soil to another, of loam to the third, and of muck to the fourth. After the sand of each sample has settled, pour off the water containing the other particles. Weigh the sand after drying it, and find what per cent of each soil is sand. Weigh a good sample of muck or other humus soil that has been thoroughly dried. Heat over a flame so as to burn off all the humus. Weigh again and compute the proportion of humus by weight. Record the results. This gives only the approximate quantity of humus, since some of the mineral elements may also be driven off by the heat. Weigh a quart of finely pulverized clay soil and another quart of sandy soil. Which is the heavier? The terms “‘light”’ and “heavy” as applied to soils have nothing to do with their weight. The terms are used to indicate the difficulty in plowing them. The strength of cohesion between the particles of the soil gives rise to these terms. A sandy soil plows easily and is therefore “light.” 42 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 31 PERCOLATION OF WATER IN SOILS PERCOLATION APPARATUS. Remove the bottoms of five bottles and cover the small ends of the bottles with muslin and fill to an equal depth with samples of the five different kinds of soil. Suspend the bot- tles over glass tumblers as shown in the illustration. Pour water into one of the bottles just fast enough to keep the top soil wet. Carefully note the time, with a watch or clock, it takes for the water to drip through into the tumbler. (Large lamp chim- neys can be used instead of bottles if desired.) Repeat this experiment with each bottle, being careful to add the water uniformly to each. Make a record of your experiment. Time of percolation | | | 1sT BotrLe 2p BoTTrLe | 3p BotrLe | 4TH BortLe | 5TH BotTLe List the soils in the order of the rate of percolation of water in each. Pack down the soil tightly in each bottle and repeat experiment. . Time of percolation | | 1st BotTLe 2D BotTLe 3D BoTTLE | 4TH BotTLe | sTH BotTLe What effect did the packing have ? What farming processes increase percolation in a soil ? After the time of percolation has been determined for each of the packed soils, add water again until each soil is completely saturated from bottom to top. Leave for several hours until the surplus water of each has dripped away. 1st BotrLeE | 2p Bott Le 3p BotrLte | 4TH BotrLe | stu BotTLe Time of dripping Which of these soils would drain most rapidly ? PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 43 LESSON 32 GRAVITATIONAL AND CAPILLARY WATER Use the same apparatus as in the preceding lesson. Fill the bottles with new samples of the five kinds of soils. Shake until the soil is well settled in each, and have the surface as nearly level as possible. On the top of each soil place a circle of cloth to prevent soil wash when water is poured in. From a graduated quart measure add water to the soil of the first bottle until it is saturated. Catch the dripping water in atumbler. When the soil is thor- oughly saturated, add more water until its level is about an inch above the surface of the soil. At the moment when the loss by dripping lowers the water level to the surface of the soil re- place the tumbler with another containing no water. Pour the water in the first tumbler back into the quart measure. The difference between the amount now in this measure and the amount at first is the quantity of water held in the saturated soil. All the water that will pass from the saturated soil is to be collected in the tumbler ora larger container if necessary, and since the dripping will continue for hours, the top of the bottle should be covered with oilcloth or oiled paper to prevent loss by evaporation. A simi- lar covering for the same purpose should be placed over the tumbler. In the same manner add water to each of the other bottles, and determine the amount held in each soil when saturated. Which soil holds the most water ? Which soil holds the least water ? List the soils in the order of the amount of water held by each, beginning with the one holding the largest amount. When the dripping is finished, determine the quantity of water that has dripped from each soil. List the soils in the order of the amount of water lost by dripping. Calculate the quantity of water remaining in each soil. List the soils in the order of the quantity of water retained by each after dripping has ceased. Of the total amount of water in a saturated soil, the amount that drains away is called gravitational or free water. When a soil is thoroughly soaked, it is the gravitational water that seeps into a hole dug in the ground. It is the gravitational water of the ground that supplies our wells and springs. The water that dripped from each bottle was the gravita- tional water of the soil in the bottle. As the gravitational water escapes, what takes its place in the pores or spaces between the soil particles ? The water that does not escape by drainage but is held as very thin films around the par- ticles of soil is called capillary or film water. It is only the capillary water in the soil that the roots of most crops can use. The gravitational water is detrimental to such plants, for its presence excludes the air that is needed by their roots. Can a crop stand a drought better in a clay soil or ina sandy soil? Why? How can we increase the capacity of a soil for capillary water ? I. AND M. AGRIC. —4 44 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 33 CAPILLARY MOVEMENT OF WATER IN SOILS Place about a quart of dry soil ina conical mound upon a plate. Pour water around the base of the mound and then watch the upward movement of the moisture through the soil. Add water as long as the soil absorbs it by capillarity. After the soil has taken up all the capillary water it can, remove any surplus water that may be in the plate. Flatten the top of the pile of soil and add a small quantity of dry soil. Note what takes place. Record. Remove from the plate the moist soil and place on it another mound of dry soil. Care- fully moisten the upper part of the soil without saturating it. Does the capillary water of the upper part spread through the whole mass? In a dry time, after a shower has fallen upon a cultivated field, notice the depth of the layer moisture by the rain. Near the same spot notice the depth of moistened soil several hours later. Explain. The upper surface of the layer of earth that is saturated with water is known as the water table. In wet seasons the water table may be at the surface of the ground, but in dry seasons it is several feet below. In dry weather the soil near the surface receives moisture from the saturated zone by capillarity. If the water table sinks too low, the capillary water may fail to reach the surface soil or the capillary action may be so slow that the roots of crops may suffer from lack of moisture. Why do crops in a river bottom stand a drought much better than crops on uplands ? Upon a plate place a conical heap of gravel containing no sand, and pour water around the edge of the gravel. Does it rise through the whole mass ? What is the effect upon the rise of capillary water if a layer of gravel separates the surface soil from the water table ? PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 45 LESSON 34 RATE OF CAPILLARY MOVEMENT OF WATER IN SOILS Fill four student lamp chimneys with samples of four different kinds of soil; viz., fine gravel, sand, clay, and loam. Place chimneys, closed end downward, in the drip tray filled with water. (See illustration.) Notice the rate of capillary move- ment in each soil and record results in table below. Carefully note in which soil the water rises most rapidly, and in which it rises to the greatest height. CaPILLARITY APPARATUS. SoIL Hercut oF WaTER 1 Gravel I 2 Sand : : : : 2 Giles Height water rises in I minute ——— SOLE. Se, Se 4 Loam 4 1 Gravel I 2 Sand : : : : 2 Cl Height water rises in 5 minutes SSS 3 ayo 2 4 Loam 4 1 Gravel | I 2 Sand ; : : 4 2 Cl Height water ‘rises in 10 minutes 3 Clay 2 4 Loam ? 1 Gravel oI 2 Sand 3 : 2 : 2 ae ee Height water rises in 30 minutes = — 3 ay Bee — 4 Loam 4 1 Gravel I 2 Sand | 4 : : 2 Gs Height water rises in 1 hour SS 3 ay 3 4 Loam 4 1 Gravel I 2 Sand : . g 2 Cl = Height water rises in 4 hours SE id ey nl 4 Loam 4 46 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 35 SAVING MOISTURE BY MULCHES Add an equal weight of the same kind of soil to each of four tin pails of gallon size. Tall cans will serve as well. Add water to the soils, placing an equal quantity in each. Do not saturate the soils; add only enough to furnish capillary water. Number the pails of soils. Cover the soil of No. 1 with a two-inch layer of chopped straw, with a table fork pulverize the soil of No. 2 to a depth of two inches, pulverize the soil of No. 3 to a depth of one inch, and leave untouched the soil of No. 4. The pulverizing of the soils of Nos. 2 and 3 should be continued until a mulch of fine, dry soil is obtained in éach. Weigh each pail and contents, and place them where they may be kept dry for several days. At the same hour each day, for five days or longer, weigh each pail and calculate its loss of water. Enter the record in the table below. LOSS OF WATER WEIGHT ConDITION Bens |i gies 2D 3D 4TH | STH | 6TH | 7TH | StH | gTH | 1oTH | ToTaL oF SoIL ec eeies Day | Day | Day | Day | Day | Day | Day | Day | Day | Day Loss mulch With soil mulch two : | With straw | inches deep With soil | | | mulch one | inch deep Without mulch Which mulch is the most effective protection against loss of water by evaporation ? A layer of loose, dry soil or foreign matter, such as leaves or straw, that retards evaporation is called a mulch. The formation of a soil mulch by shallow cultivation is a very common method of conserving moisture in dry periods. During the dry months of summer, farmers often keep a mulch of loose soil in their cornfields to reduce evaporation of the soil water which is so necessary to the growing crop. A shower of rain destroys the mulch, and so after each shower it is necessary to prepare another soil mulch. Even if no rain falls, after an interval of several days, it is a good plan to renew the mulch, for dew and moist air gradually change the mulch to a crust that will allow capillary water to reach the surface, where it es- capes by evaporation. In desert climates the soil mulch is absolutely necessary to the grow- ing of crops. In pictures of citrous orchards, note the soil mulch that covers the ground between the trees. . PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 47 NOVEMBER SUBJECTS LESSON 36 PROTECTION OF TREES AGAINST RODENTS The loss to tree fruits in the United States caused by rodents (mice, rabbits, and wood- chucks) is a matter of great concern to the fruit grower. This loss is confined principally to newly set orchards, replants in older orchards, and the younger plantations generally. Mice rarely injure trees except where grass, strawy manure, or trash of some kind about the base of the tree provides a hiding place. In mounding fruit trees for protection against mice, first clear away the grass and trash from the base of the tree for a foot or more in all directions. Then take a post tamper and thoroughly pack the surface of the soil. This is to fill runs or burrows that may be below the surface. Last, secure a few shovelfuls of fresh soil, or better, take cinders, and form a mound, 10 to 15 inches in diameter at the base and 6 inches high, about the stem of the tree, firmly packing the soil. Another preventive is the use of the wire screen. This is the ideal all-round protector among mechanical forms. It is light and open and presents the least obstruction to strong winds, the air and sunshine are freely admitted, and no secure place is provided for the hiding of the woolly aphis and other forms of insect life. The screen is made of galvanized wire cloth of one quarter inch mesh (four 22-gauge wires to the inch) and may be purchased from supply houses in rolls of 100 linear feet and in any width from 24 to 36 inches. For apple trees, many use the 24-inch width. This is cut in 12-inch sections, making pieces 12 X 24 in size. These sections are bent into cylinders two and a half to three inches in diameter. The edges should be lapped about one inch to give strength and rigidity. Small-meshed poultry netting is sometimes used. This protector is made of ordinary galvanized wire poultry netting of one inch mesh. It is just as effective against rabbits as the closer woven wire cloth, but will not protect trees from mice. There is no device more effective against rabbits and woodchucks (ground hogs) than the cornstalk protector. Five or six stalks, after having been neatly stripped, may be bound firmly together about the stem of the young tree with twine. By mounding the bases as stated above, stalk-protected trees are quite secure against all rodent enemies. A thick paint of lime, soap, carbolic acid, and sulphur is recommended to protect trees from injury by rabbits, sheep, and mice. The lime-sulphur mixture, such as is used for spray- ing for scale insects, is effective in preventing injury by rabbits in the orchard and nursery. If young trees are girdled by rodents in late spring, just as growth is beginning, they may be treated by binding about the wounded parts a heavy covering of smooth soft clay. A new bark will form beneath the clay if the cambium (growing layer of wood) is not destroyed. It is safer, however, to resort to bridge grafting. In bridge grafting, make the wound clean and smooth and cover with grafting wax. The scions should be cut slightly longer than the span to be bridged so that, when they are inserted, their curving form will tend to keep them firmly fixed in position. The two ends of the scions are cut to a thin wedge form. Incisions are made in the bark with a narrow chisel and the scions are inserted. Then melted wax should be poured about the points of union of the scions with the body of the tree. ~ 48 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 37 FOOD SUBSTANCES IN PLANTS The substances found in plants are woody fiber (cellulose), sugar, starch, gum, fat and oil, protein, water, and ash. These various parts of the plant are composed of certain chemi- cal elements derived from water, soil, and air. The following table gives the most important of these elements and the sources from which they are derived. SOURCE ELEMENTS SUBSTANCES IN PLANTS NIT ee ee Carbon Cellulose Sugar and starch f Oxygen iain ean Gum 1 ee \ Hydrogen Fat and oil Nitrogen Sulphur i + Above elements | Poti Phosphorus Potassium ) SOllgnaaeee beeeae eae « Calcium so Paasphonns Ash Magnesium Iron Onveen S Water _ Hydrogen {. \ All but the first three of the above elements come from the soil. Leguminous crops, such as clovers, alfalfa, and velvet beans, are the only ones able to obtain nitrogen directly from the air. Three of these elements, —nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, — are often deficient in the soil and have to be supplied by some artificial means. Each of these three substances has its own work to perform in plant building and its presence in the soil is very necessary to the farmer. Nitrogen gives strength and growth to the stalks of the plant and is the most essential element in the protein of the plant; phosphorus is necessary if the plant is to produce a perfect seed; potassium adds health to the plant and gives it power to resist disease. Testing Plants for Food Substances. Perform the following exercises to show the pres- ence of food substances in plants. Record your results. Water. Select a well-grown, healthy plant. Weigh carefully and then expose for several hours to a dry heat. Weigh again and the loss in weight will represent the water in the plant driven off by the heat. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 49 Ash. Burn up the plant over a hot flame. The residue is the ash of the plant composed of mineral matter that the heat could not consume. Protein. Mix up a stiff dough of wheat flour. Wash out the starch in running water. The gray, tough mass left is the gluten or albumin of the wheat. Fat and Oil. Crush a castor oil bean on a sheet of white paper. Heat slowly and ob- serve the grease spot made. Gum. Notice the gum exuded upon many fruit trees. Some trees are noted for the chewing gum they furnish. Sugar. Chew some cane and note the taste. Apples, beets, turnips, and many other plants also give a sweet taste when chewed. Starch. Upon a slice of potato or a grain of wheat, place a drop of iodine. The result- ing color is characteristic of starch. Cellulose. Tearacornstalk to pieces. Note howthe partshold together. Pull a cotton stalk to pieces and observe how hard it is to separate its parts. These parts are held together by tough, woody fibers called cellulose. 50 _PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 38 COMPOSITION OF FEEDS The substances in plants are termed dry matter and water. When we drive the water from the plant by applying heat, dry matter remains. When we burn this dry matter, a large proportion of it passes off in the form of invisible gases. This material that passes off is known as organic matter, and what is left is called ash or mineral matter. The organic matter is composed of protein, fats, and carbohydrates. The ash or mineral matter is made up of sodium, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sulphur, silicon, and other mineral elements. Protein. Protein includes all the nitrogenous compounds found in plants. This sub- stance in feeds produces muscle, skin, horn, hair, and milk, when fed to animals. The protein in the tissues of animals is obtained only from the protein substances of feeds. For this reason, and because most feeds contain relatively small amounts of protein, it is considered the most important component of feeds. Fat or Ether Extract. Substances in feedstuffs that are dissolved out or extracted by ether are called ether extract or fat. Examples are cottonseed oil, olive oil, and linseed oil. Fats furnish fuel to keep the animal warm, produce energy, and aid in the production of fatty tissue. Fats are 2.25 times more valuable as heat producers than carbohydrates. Carbohydrates. Starch, sugar, and crude fiber are the most important carbohydrates in feeds. The carbohydrates contain no nitrogen, but are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. These three elements come from the air and water, and therefore the formation of carbohydrates in the crops does not exhaust the fertility of the soil. Carbohydrates are the chief sources of heat and energy, and in fattening animals are converted into fatty tissue. In a chemical analysis, when a portion of a feed is treated with a weak acid and then a weak alkali, all substances are dissolved except the woody fibers, or crude fiber. The carbo- hydrates that are dissolved are known as nitrogen-free extract. Thus the chemist in reporting an analysis uses the terms nitrogen-free extract and crude fiber. For practical purposes the nitrogen-free extract may be regarded as starch and sugar. Ash. This substance supplies materials for the bones and the framework of the animal. It also helps to build up the blood, tissues, and the digestive fluids. Water. All feedstuffs contain water. The green grasses contain about 80 per cent; root crops, 90 per cent; and grain feeds, like oats and corn, Io per cent, of water. The common feeds are divided into two classes, — nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous. Feeds containing proportionately a large amount of protein are called nitrogenous foods, and those containing proportionately large amounts of carbohydrates and fats are called non-nitrogenous foods. Digestible Nutrients. Not all of each of the food materials in feeds is digestible. The digestible portions of feeds are called digestible nutrients. In 100 pounds of corn, 10.3 pounds is protein, 72.6 pounds is carbohydrates, and 5 pounds is fat. Of these food materials, the following amounts are digestible: 7.8 pounds of protein, 66.7 pounds of carbohydrates, and 4.3 pounds of fat. In 100 pounds of timothy hay, 5.9 pounds is protein, 74.0 pounds is carbohydrates, and 2.5 pounds is fat. Of these food materials the following quantities are digestible : 2.8 pounds of protein, 43.4 pounds of carbohydrates, and 1.4 pounds of fat. As a rule, the starches and sugars (nitrogen-free extract) are most digestible, the fats and proteins rank next, and the crude fiber is least digestible. Grains have little crude fiber and therefore PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 51 they have large amounts of digestible matter; while roughage, such as timothy hay, contains a large amount of crude fiber, and therefore has a relatively small quantity of digestible matter. In the timothy more than half of the carbohydrates is crude fiber, and this accounts for the small proportion of digestible matter in the carbohydrates of the hay as compared with that in the carbohydrates of corn. The table below shows the per cent of each of the digestible nutrients and also the total dry matter in some of our farm feeds. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND DRY MATTER IN ONE POUND OF FEED (a) Nitrogenous Grain Feeds :— Dry Matter PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATES Fat BEAMS oe ge. aiewte 881 119 -420 925 Oats. af a ae. 896 .088 -492 043 Oil meal . . . .g1O 315 357 024 (b) Non-nitrogenous Grain Feeds :— Dry Matter PROTEIN CaRBOHYDRATES Fat Gorn: day Gs Se. 894 .078 -668 043 Rye « = sve 4 913 £095 .694 O12 Barley: @ = < 892 084 653 O16 (c) Nitrogenous Roughage : — Dry Matrer PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATES Fat Alfalfa hay . . 916 110 396 O12 Red clover . . .847 .068 358 O17 Cowpeahay . . 893 108 385 O11 (d) Non-nitrogenous Roughage : — Dry Mattrer PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATES Fat Corn silage . . .209 .009 113 .007 Timothy hay. . .868 .028 434 O14 Prairie hay . . 908 .030 -429 016 Water and ash are not included in the digestible nutrients. Water can be supplied in a cheaper form than in feedstuffs; and there is generally sufficient ash present in all feeds, hence, its per cent need not be indicated. 52 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 39 BALANCED RATIONS The food that is fed daily to an animal is called a ration. When an animal is working hard, there is a heavy tax on the muscles of its body. When it is at rest, there is no such strain on the muscles. The idle animal should be fed a lighter ration. If the heavy ration that is needed by the working animal is given to the idle animal, the latter will not be able to utilize it; and animals thus fed often become sick. Many experiments have been made to determine how many pounds of each of the digestible nutrients an animal should receive in its daily ration, but the problem cannot be very accurately solved. This is because the amount needed is influenced by so many conditions. A few of these are the age of the animal, tem- perature under which it is kept, and the condition and purpose of the animal. Experts have arranged in tables the digestible nutrients necessary for all animals of various ages and condi- tions. These tables are called feeding standards. These standards serve as guides to intelli- gent practice. Every successful feeder must study his animals and the feed which he has available, and learn to use such a ration at such a time as will net him the largest returns possible with the least possible outlay of money and labor. When all the digestible nutrients in feedstuffs are combined in the proportions that pro- duce the best results, we have what is called a balanced ration. The proper balance for the ration depends largely on what the animal does and the kind of animal that itis. A balanced ration for a cow giving milk would not be balanced if she were being fattened for the market. A balanced ration for a sheep would not be a balanced ration for a horse. The proportion of digestible protein to digestible carbohydrates and fat is called the nutritive ratio. When the proportion of protein is large, the nutritive ratio is said to be narrow; when the proportion is small, the ratio is said to be wide; and when the proportion is medium, the ratio is said to be medium. To determine the nutritive ratio of a feed we multiply the digestible fat by 2.25, because (Lesson 38) fat will produce 2.25 times as much heat as carbohydrates. The sum of this product and the digestible carbohydrates in the food is divided by the digestible protein in the food and the quotient is placed as the second term in a ratio with 1 as the first term. For example, — one pound of corn contains the following digestible nutrients : — Protein .078 Carbohydrates .668 Fat 043 For convenience in figuring a hundred pounds of corn is taken. This gives 7.8 digestible protein, 66.8 digestible carbohydrates, and 4.3 digestible fat. 4.3 X 2.25 = 9.7 (carbohydrate equivalent of fat) 66.8 + 9.7. = 76.5 (carbohydrates and fat equivalent) 76.5+7.8 = 9.8 The nutritive ratio is 1: 9.8. Refer to Lesson 38 and calculate the nutritive ratio of a ration consisting of 4 pounds of oats, 2 pounds of corn meal, and 20 pounds of alfalfa. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 53 LESSON 40 HAY The grasses, clovers, cowpeas, soy beans, and vetches are the most common plants used for hay. The grasses most commonly grown for forage are timothy, orchard grass, redtop, millet, and blue grass. Grasses. Timothy grows best on clay and loam soils. It is generally sown at the rate of about 15 pounds per acre with wheat or rye in the fall. After the grain crop is harvested the following summer, the timothy plants make a rapid growth. The following year the tim- othy is ready to be cut for hay. When the seed is sown alone in the fall, it sometimes makes a crop the next year. Timothy hay is most valuable for feeding horses. Orchard grass seed should be sown in autumn or spring at the rate of two bushels per acre. This grass should not be sown with timothy, as it matures earlier. Redtop does best on a soil that is rich and moist, but will grow on soils that are too wet and too poor to produce good timothy. It is one of the best grasses for winter and spring grazing, and should be used on the damp places in every pasture. Clover. The red, mammoth, crimson, alsike, white, and sweet are the clovers most generally grown. Red clover, one of the most widely grown of the clovers, requires for its successful growth a well-drained rich soil that is free from acid. The seed is sown with grain in the spring at the rate of a bushel to six or eight acres. If the season is good, it will produce some fall pasture and a hay crop the following summer. The second cutting is often used for seed. Red clover and orchard grass may be sown together, as the time of maturing of both is about the same. Mammoth clover is larger than the red and matures about one month later. This clover matures about the same time as timothy and is often sown withit. Mammoth clover produces but one crop in a season. It is not so good for horses as the red, because of fuzz on the stems, which causes the hay to be dusty. Very dusty hay should be sprinkled with water before it is fed to horses. Crimson clover is an annual that was introduced into this country from Europe. It will not stand the cold winters of the Northern States, hence is not exten= sively grown north of the Ohio River. It is used more for pasture and crop manure than for hay. This clover grows best on loose, sandy loam soils. The seed is sown at the rate of 20 pounds per acre. Alsike clover is the best of the clovers for wet, acid soils. It is smaller than the red and is less subject to disease and injury by root borers. It produces one crop a season but lives for many years. Alsike and timothy are frequently sown together for a hay crop. Alfalfa. Alfalfa is said to be the oldest hay plant now grown. It is a native of Western Asia, and was brought into the United States in 1854 from Chile. It grows best on a well- drained, sandy soil; but may be successfully grown on nearly every kind of soil that is well drained. Failures of alfalfa are usually due to drought, weeds, or a lack of manure, lime, or nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Alfalfa is often sown with a nurse crop, but this plan is not likely to be successful unless the crop is cut early for hay. Experiments in nearly all the states east of Colorado have shown that it is best to sow it in late summer or early fall on land that was plowed in the spring and kept free from weeds by harrowing. This plan affords cppor- tunity for fertilizing or liming in the spring when the ground is plowed. The seed should be sown at the rate of 20 to 25 pounds per acre. Alfalfa when properly started will live for many years. In a good season three or four crops of hay can be cut from the same field. 54 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE Cowpeas. The cowpea has been grown in the Southern States for over a century. In recent years it has been grown in many of the Northern States. Cowpeas, in their relationship and habit of growth, are really beans and not peas, as the name would indicate. They are annuals and are closely related to the lima bean of our gardens. The cowpea, like all other leguminous plants, is a good soil builder, especially when plowed under in the green state. The seed may be sown in rows 28 to 32 inches apart, using 2 to 3 pecks per acre. This plan permits cultivation of the plants.. The cultivation should be carried on when the dew is off, to prevent injury to the leaves. The seed can also be drilled solid, using 6 to 8 pecks per acre. The black cowpea is a good variety for hay. Soy Bean. The soy bean, a native of Japan, is very extensively grown in this country. The time and method of sowing and cultivation are about the same as for cowpeas: When drilled in rows so it can be cultivated, a half bushel of seed is required per acre. If sown broad- cast, a bushel of seed per acre is used. The crop is cut for hay when the pods are about two thirds grown. When seed is desired, cut or pull the plants when the first pods begin to open, and thrash as soon as dry enough. Fill out the following table fiom facts secured from five of the leading growers of hay crops in your school district. | AMOUNT e YIELD IN Market Crops USED FOR, DaTE OF | oF SEED DaTE oF Name OF Farm | Tons PRICE Hay PLANTING | Pyantep |HARVESTING PER AcrE | PER Ton | PER ACRE PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE, 55 LESSON 41 BEEF CATTLE The best breeds of cattle are descended from the wild ox of Asia and Europe, and _ have attained their present values through careful breeding. Cattle have been bred for two distinct purposes, — for beef and for milk. Each of these products demands a_ special breed, and so there are beef and dairy cattle. The pro- duction of either of these prod- ucts has lessened the value of the animal as a producer of the other. The production of milk has been attained at the sacrifice of flesh, and the cow that puts on A Brrr Cow. meat does so at a sacrifice of her milking qualities. In this way the breeds have become distinct in structure, habits, and keeping qualities. The modern facilities for handling meats in cold storage have developed the industry of beef cattle to a remarkable degree. Cattle may be slaughtered, their meat stored for some time on ice, and finally shipped across the ocean without any deterioration. The beef breeds are built rather heavy, on square, stocky lines. The outline of the body is a rectangle. The body is well rounded, the bones not protruding, and the flesh tender. The aim of all beef- cattle raisers is to produce animals that will give the greatest amount of flesh with the smallest amount of food. Hereford and Aberdeen Angus. The principal breeds of beef cattle found in the United States are Hereford and Aberdeen Angus. The Herefords are distinctly a beef breed. They are square in shape, solid in structure, and vigorous in health. They grow rapidly, mature early, and are easily fattened. The color of the Hereford is usually red and the animals are large, weighing as much as 1600 pounds. They can live well under ordinary conditions. The Aberdeen Angus is a Scotch breed. The color is shiny black, and the animals possess no horns. They are large, fatten easily, and are vigorous of body. They are easily kept, as they can adapt themselves to a variety of conditions. As a beef type, many authorities place the Aberdeen Angus in the lead. Some cows, besides producing good beef, give a full supply of milk and are sometimes classed as dual or general purpose cows. Cows of this type are very popular with the small farmer, as they supply sufhcient milk for home use and also give meat for the table. They are generally used as milk cows for some years and then killed for beef. Shorthorn and Polled Durham. The Shorthorns and Polled Durham breeds are suitable - for both milk and meat. The Shorthorn cow combines good dairy qualities with good beef- 56 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE producing qualities. The breed lives and thrives in all places except very high lands. The back of the Shorthorn is level from head to tail and its colors are red and white mixed. The cow is a quiet animal and easily kept. The milk is of good quality and the cow fattens easily. The Polled Durham is a hornless variety of the Shorthorn and has been bred in the Mis- sissippi Valley. The breed originated in this country and is better for beef than it is for milk. Select different beef cattle found in your neighborhood and score their points in the fol- lowing table. Pupils should not attempt to score animals without the assistance of a compe- tent judge. SCALE OF PoINnTs I iy Ww General appearance 38 le Size and weight, | | | 12 mos. = 850 lbs. | | | Form, lines straight, compact, neat | | | Condition, fat | | | 30 mos. = 1500 lbs. Flesh, thick, smooth Head and neck 7 Muzzle, broad | Face, slightly dished Neck, thick, short Forequarters 9 | Shoulders, well-set, compact Brisket, wide Dewlap, skin not too loose, drooping Legs, straight, short Body 31 Chest, full, deep | Ribs, long, well-arched | | | | Back, broad, straight, thickly fleshed | | Loin, broad | | Flanks, deep, full | | | | | | | | Hindquarters 15 | Rump, long, wide, tail head smooth Thighs, thick, full, broad | Twist, deep, plump | Legs, well placed, short, shanks fine 100 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 57 LESSON 42 DAIRY CATTLE Dairy cattle are of different breeds from those of beef cattle. The milk or dairy cow shows a distinct wedge-shaped body when seen from the front, side, or rear. The line of the back in- stead of being straight and well- fleshed as in the beef cow is crooked and the hip bones are especially prominent. The udder of the dairy cow is, of course, the most important feature, as the cow is bred for milk and this organ is the milk receptacle. The udder should be full but not fatty, and should be strongly at- tached to the body behind and should extend well forward. It should be large, as the larger it is the greater its capacity for holding milk. The skin of the milk cow should be fine in texture, soft, and pliable. The hair should also be fine and smooth. Because the energy of this animal goes toward producing milk, its flesh is of little value as meat. A beef cow gives little milk, and a milk cow does not readily put on flesh. As soon as a dairy cow begins to put on meat, she loses in the quality and quantity of milk she produces. Better milk cows may be obtained by breeding the best cows to full-bred bulls of dairy breeds. Only the best calves should be saved for future breeding purposes. The exact value of any cow in a herd may be obtained by carefully weighing the milk when given and testing it for butter fats from time to time. Care should be taken that milk cows do not get too fat or too angular. Good food, clean water, and proper stabling will protect the herd and lessen the chances of failure. Jersey. This breed takes its name from the island of Jersey, from which its ancestors . came. These cows produce milk that is very rich in butter fat. About two gallons of Jersey milk will make a pound of butter, and the milk is sometimes so rich that it has to be diluted before the calves can use it. The Jerseys are small, nervous, and delicate. The breed is very adaptive, that is, mixes well with other breeds. The color of the cow varies from brown to deep black, and there are many Jerseys that are yellow and tan colored. Color has ceased to be a distinctive mark of this breed. The Jerseys are large feeders and will stand rich fodder. When they have passed the milk-giving stage, they are of little use for other purposes. Guernsey. The origin of this breed is very like that of the Jersey; both breeds probably descended from Normandy ancestors. The Guernseys are very closely allied to the Jerseys in their characteristics. They are light yellow in color with considerable white, and the skin is orange-colored. They give rich milk, and stand next to the Jerseys as butter producers. A TypicaL Darry Cow. 58 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE Holstein. This is one of the oldest milk breeds. There were two distinct breeds of Holsteins in olden times, one a pure black breed, the other a white. The mixing of these two breeds has given the present race of Holsteins found in this country. The Holsteins have strong constitutions, and are heavy feeders. They produce more milk than any breeds; the quality of the milk produced is not as good as that of the Jersey or Guernsey. Ayrshire. This breed comes from the county of Ayr in Scotland. The breed is one of the youngest of the well-established dairy breeds. The cows are not large, but they give a fair supply of milk. Their meat is of good quality. Select different dairy cows in your locality and score their points in the following table. SCALE OF PoINTs I be we - wm oO SJ General appearance 16 | Weight, compare to standard Form, wedge-shaped Harr, fine, silky Skin, mellow Bone, fine Head and neck 8 | Head, muzzle, face, shapely Nostrils, large | Forehead, broad Neck fine, rather long, well set on shoulders ; Forequarters 5 | Withers, lean Shoulders, oblique Legs, straight Feet, well placed Body 24 Chest, deep Ribs, long, broad, well sprung Back, lean, strong Loins, broad, long, level Flanks, low | Hindquarters 13 | | Hips, wide Thighs, roomy, long Legs, straight, wide apart Udder 34 Front udder, well forward, soft, full Hind udder, full, good width Milk veins, large, long, elastic 100 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 59 LESSON 43 MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS Milk is made up of water, fat, casein, milk sugar, and salts. Water is present in milk in a large pro- portion, but it is not the most important part. The water of the milk is used to dissolve the salts and to hold the fats and casein in suspension. ‘The fat found in milk is used in the making of butter. The casein, which is the curd in sour milk, is the part from which cheese is made. The milk of the cow gives the young calf all the food substances for rapid growth, the casein furnishing muscles, and the fat giving warmth and energy. Milk requires a great deal of care, as it 1s very susceptible to odors and germs. If milk be left in a room with any strong-smelling foods, as fish or onions, it will readily take up the odors and become very distasteful. Butter made from milk so exposed has a very unpleasant taste. Too much care cannot be taken to keep the milk clean and free from contami- nation of all kinds. The food sometimes affects the milk of acow. A cow fed upon clean, wholesome food and given a clean, well-drained pasture for grazing will produce sweet, rich milk. Strong-smelling herbs should A Cream Separator. not be allowed in the pasture. The butter fat of the milk floats about in small globules in the milk itself. These glob- ules are very small. Cream is made up of globules of butter fat. Being lighter than the milk, they float on the surface when the milk is allowed to stand. There are two ways to separate the fat or cream from the rest of the milk. The old method is to allow the milk to set in pans and dishes until thick cream is formed at the top. When all the cream is formed, it is skimmed off and used to make butter. The later process is to use a cream separator. The separator is a machine so arranged that the milk may be rapidly rotated in a large receptacle. As the milk is rotated very rapidly, the heavier or watery particles fly to the sides, and the cream, which is lighter, remains in the middle. Spouts arranged upon the sides and in the center take each of these products into separate cans or dishes. Thus separated or skim milk runs out at one spout and almost pure cream runs out at the other. The advantage of the separator over the older method is very marked. The cream separator extracts as high as 98 per cent of the cream, while the old method obtained only 80 per cent. By the older method, the milk must stand for some time before the cream is formed, and the liability of the milk to absorb disagreeable odors is very great. The cream derived from the separator is much more uniform than that obtained by setting. When the cream has ripened, it is placed in achurn to make butter. The object of churn- ing is to break up the envelopes around the butter globules. After a while the small butter globules adhere together and make butter grains. The liquid part of the milk, called butter- I. AND M. AGRIC. — 5 60 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE milk, is drained off. After the buttermilk has been removed, fresh water is added and the churning continued. This water is withdrawn and a new supply added several times and the churning is continued until the butter is of the right consistency. The water is used to wash away all the milk that surrounds the butter grains. After the butter is removed from the churn it is worked by hand or machinery to press the grains into solid cakes of butter. There are many kinds of churns on the market, but they all act on the same principle. A dashing motion of any kind that will break up the fat globules is the main thing for which a churn is used. Butter fat placed in an ordinary bottle and violently tossed about will in time form butter. The commercial churn is, of course, espe- cially built to do this work in the easiest possible way. Some churns work by hand, while others may be run by an engine or some other source of power. Butter is as sensitive as milk to odors and germs of many kinds. For this reason, when handling it, the hands should be clean and every vessel into which the butter is put should be thoroughly cleansed and sterilized. Too much working and too high a temperature will ruin but- ter. Salt is added to butter to preserve it and to give it a required flavor. Salting should take place when first the grains are removed from the churn. The salt should be thoroughly mixed with the butter or else the product will be streaked and will not bring a good price in the market. After the salt is added, the butter should stand for a time before final making is begun. Butter prepared for the market should have a rich straw color and a good flavor. It should be firm and not greasy. It should be protected by being wrapped in good, slightly oiled paper. An attractive pound of butter will find a more ready sale than an unattractive one. There are many kinds of cheese made from milk. They differ from each other in flavor and appearance. These differences are due to different foods given the cows and to the dif- ferent methods of curing and ripening the cheese. In making cheese, the new milk is strained and run into large vessels that can be heated or cooled as the cheese maker desires. After the milk is placed in the vessel and the required temperature is obtained, rennet is added. This product, derived from the stomach of the calf, causes the casein to coagulate or curdle. Curdling begins at once and the curds appear in the vessel in solid masses. When they are formed sufficiently, they are cut out with a knife. The liquid portion of the milk with the curds is called whey, and is run out of the vessel by means of a spout or tap. The curd mass is heaped up and allowed to drain that all the whey may escape. Salt is next mixed thoroughly with the curd, and it is then cut into small pieces by a mill and placed on a cheese form. Great pressure is exerted upon these forms until the cheese is made firm and free from whey. Cheeses are made from goat’s milk as well as from that of cows. Some fancy cheeses are allowed to ripen underground in limestone caves. Age gives to some cheeses a much-desired flavor. Cheese making is very difficult and is not now undertaken by farmers as it used to be before modern invention perfected machines to make the product more rapidly and more easily. Large cheese factories make much of the product now found in our markets. A Barret CHURN. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 61 LESSON 44 THE BABCOCK MILK TEST Every school, _ especially every country school, should have a Babcock milk tester. On account of its simplicity and ac- curacy, this tester has become the standard for determining the value of milk and cream. Small cheap machines may be bought of the supply houses, and they will be found to be invalu- able in determining the worth of cows to the farmer. If these values can be determined, the farmer will know which of his cows are profhtable for milk and which he should sell for meat. Complete directions for us- ing the testers come with each BascocKk Test OUTFIT. machine and should be carefully studied and closely followed. The directions for use are too long to give in the lesson, but the teacher and pupil will find no difficulty in using it if the directions sent with the tester are carefully followed. Samples of the milk of various cows living in the neighborhood of the school may be used for testing and a record kept of the results. Samples of milk should be brought in well- cleaned bottles. Care should always be exercised to see that every vessel is scrupulously clean and that the sample is neatly and plainly labeled so that no mistake is made in keeping the record. Select samples of milk from different cows in your neighborhood and test at the school, recording the results in the table below. An interval of three days should elapse between samples. Name oF Cow SAMPLE I | SAMPLE 2 | SAMPLE 3 | SAMPLE 4 | SAMPLE 5 | SAMPLE 6 bw | ¥ | After the per cent of butter fat is determined, an estimate of the total amount of butter fat the cow is yielding can be made. A gallon of milk weighs 8} pounds. Make many 62 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE tests of the same cow’s milk, that a fair average may be obtained. These tests should be made several days apart. A pound of butter fat should make about 1.1 pounds of butter. If a cow’s milk does not give this result, it might be more profitable to sell the milk than to make it into butter. Fill out the following record of milk taken from cows in your neighborhood. DaiLy een ‘B ene More VALUABLE 7 | 7 UTTER FaT U Name oF Cow OwNER YIELD, i Propuct, MILK | TEstT | YIELD i Pounps oR BUTTER wv 1JIn determining whether milk or butter is the more valuable product, account must be taken of the market price of milk and of butter, together with the milk and butter yield of the cow. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 63 LESSON 45 THE HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS The barns in which cows are housed should be warm, well ventilated, well drained, and strongly built. They should be free from drafts, as cows are very liable to catch cold if air blows in upon them. They should be so placed that they will get as much of the winter sun as possible. When cows are fastened up, they should have plenty of room to lie down and to move about. Some of our best cows are kept in box stalls, as our thoroughbred horses are. The light should never enter the barn so that it will fall directly in the eyes of the cows. Windows placed well toward the ceiling will be found to give the best light and also best ventilation. The gutters back of the cows should be so arranged that the refuse may be easily removed and the floors flushed with little trouble. All of the stanchions or other fas- tenings should be as smooth and clean as it is possible to make them. The cow’s bed should be well attended to and should consist of the best straw. One of the most dreaded diseases prevalent among our cows is tuberculosis. This disease is caused by poor attention to the health of our cows. Insufficient light, no ventila- tion, poor drainage, and too close herding are the principal causes of this disease. Sensible feeding and right care will obviate trouble from many diseases that are now lowering the value of our cows. The cow should be treated with kindness and consideration. Rough handling will ruin them. There is no good reason why cows should not be curried as often as our horses are. Such a practice will more than repay for itself. At least, they should be brushed and washed frequently. Cows that live in dirty surroundings become matted with the refuse of the stable and cannot give as good returns as they would with proper care. Plenty of exercise should be allowed; both milk and beef are improved by fresh air and exercise. Find a farmer in your neighborhood who treats his dairy cattle well, and make a study of his methods. Write a short description of his methods. INTERIOR OF A Dairy Barn. 64 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 46 BREEDS OF HORSES All breeds of horses have probably descended from the same parent stock. The various breeds have been developed because of differences in surroundings: for example, where there was plenty of feed and a mild climate, the early horses developed large bodies and heavy limbs; but where the feed was scarce and the climate cold, a smaller type of horse was de- veloped. The various types of horses may be clas- sihed as follows: (1) draft, (2) coach, (3) road- ster, and (4) pony. Draft Horses. Draft horses are those that are large and strong and especially adapted for drawing heavy loads. They have upright shoulders, broad backs, short muscular legs set wide apart, and are usually of heavy build. They weigh from 1500 to 2200 pounds. The leading breeds of draft horses are the Percheron, developed in France; the Belgian, a product of Belgium; the Clydesdale, devel- A PercHERON Draft Horse, oped in Scotland; and the Shire, an English horse. Coach Horses. The coach horses are stylish in appearance and lighter than the draft horses. They have smooth, graceful body lines, arched necks, neat heads, prominent eyes, legs showing cleanness, good bone, and plenty of muscle. The coach horse is about 16 hands high, weighs from 1100 to 1400 pounds, and is used to draw coaches and other heavy vehicles. The leading breeds of coach horses are the German Coach, developed in Germany; the French Coach, developed in France; and the Cleveland Bay and the Hackney, developed in England. Roadster Horses. Roadsters are of light weight, with long legs, heads set gracefully on along, slender neck, shoulders sloping, and bodies slender. The leading breeds of road- ster horses are the Thoroughbred, developed in England; and the American Trotter and American Saddle Horse, developed in the United States. The Thoroughbred has great endurance as well as speed. The American A German Coacu Horse. Trotter has been bred for speed qualities and now holds the fastest records for all distances. The Clays, Morgans, and Hambletonians PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 65 belong to this class. The American Saddle Horse has received considerable attention in the states of Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, Ohio, and Missouri. As a result of this at- tention a good breed of saddle horse has been developed. Ponies. Ponies are horses of small build. The leading breeds are the Shetland, devel- oped in the Shetland Islands; the Indian, developed in the northern and western parts of the United States; and the Mustang, de- veloped in the southern part of the United States. The Shetland ponies are very small and hardy, and are valuable chiefly for chil- dren’s use. The Indian and Mustang ponies are tough and hardy, and are valuable as A Roapster, saddle horses. Mules. The mule is not a true breed, but is the offspring of a mare and a male donkey, commonly called a jack. Consequently ‘the mule is a hybrid. This animal is very valuable to the farmer because it is strong, hardy, and easily kept. The Southern peo- ple prefer the mule to the horse for drawing heavy loads. Make a brief survey of the various types of horses that are used in your school district. Name the breeds found under each type. A PoNY THAT HAS WON MANY PRIZES. Are there any mules in your school district ? How many? Compare the ages of the oldest mules with the ages of the oldest horses. Which usually live longer ? 66 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 47 CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES A horse should be well fed, well housed, and well cleaned. An animal that has proved to be so valuable to man deserves the best of care and atten- tion. If proper shelter and good food be given the horse, the work to be done can be more easily accomplished. Too many farmers keep their faithful horses in poorly built sheds that have little or no conven- iences, often drafty and ill-drained. The first care of the farmer should be given toward properly stabling his horse. The stable should be well built, light, well ventilated, and warm. Drains should be arranged so that all offensive odors may be removed. All drainage should lead to some receptacle on the outside of the barn that can be covered and protected from the weather. Drafts should be carefully excluded from the barn, as a horse is susceptible to even the lightest draft. A horse will not catch cold in a field, however cold the weather may be, but in a building where the wind blows in through crevices he will easily take cold. The light in the stable should be good but not strong. The eyesight of the horse is very keen, and a poorly lighted stable will cause a horse to shy when he gets into the open day. The bedding used in the stall should be carefully cleaned every morning and all the wet portions removed. Only good straw should be used, and the stable should be flushed with water after the bedding is taken out. If a horse is to be kept in good health, he should be thoroughly cleaned at least once a day, preferably in the morning when the stable is cleaned. A stiff brush and currycomb should be used. Besides removing all dirt and opening the pores of the skin, currying assists the flow of blood and thus brings new nourishment to the skin and hair. The feet of the horse should be carefully washed and cleaned every day. Many farmers allow their horses to stand in stalls until the hoofs are caked up with the refuse of the stable. This is very bad for the horse and causes many foot troubles. All muck and refuse should be carefully re- moved from the frog of the foot and the shoes kept in good condition. In the city, care must be exercised to see that the shoes are in perfect condition, as a horse’s foot will soon split and become diseased if neglected. A horse ought to be regularly fed. The kind of food and the times for feeding depend somewhat on the kind of horse and the kind of work he has to do. The horse has a small stomach and should therefore be fed small quantities and frequently. Early morning feeding is very important. The best feed for the working horse is oats. This grain has a high nutri- tive value. Care should be taken not to feed grains that will produce fat at the expense of muscle. Especially should care be taken in this regard in summer, when the heat-producing feeds are not necessary. Oats, corn, and other grains take the place in a horse’s diet occupied CHAMPION PERCHERON Mare. THE RESULT OF PROPER CaRE. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 67 by meats in that of man. Roughage, that is, hay or grass, should be given with the oats, as it does for a horse what vegetables do for man. Grain should be crushed and mixed with finely ground hay. If the whole mass is moistened with water, it will be appetizing and easily digested. As much care should be taken to relieve the horse of over-exertion as is possible. The harness should be so adjusted that the maximum amount of drawing power may be obtained from the horse. Horses should never be stopped in drawing a heavy load up hill except for rest, and the team should be placed at that time so that there will be the least weight drag- ging upon the animals. High checking, besides being extremely hurtful, is also a very waste- ful way of using the horse. No horse can give his full strength to his task when his head is so highly checked that he isin pain. There is no more graceful position in which a horse holds his head than that naturally assumed when he is free. High checking and other atrocious ways of handling this faithful animal only show the vast ignorance of the horseman. Another very fashionable manner of treating the horse is the docking of the tail. Sometimes this method of torture is carried to an extreme. ‘The tail of the horse is one of his means of de- fense. Flies are the most tormenting enemies of the horse. Their bites are often poisonous and always irritating. The tail is used expressly for the purpose of ridding the animal of these pests. If it is docked, flies cannot be driven from the body and the horse will suffer in consequence. In treating a horse, firmness and kindness are the two essential qualities. Never let a horse conquer vou, but have him understand you are the master. This can easily be done without resort to cruelty of any kind. If obedience is taught early, the horse will never give any serious trouble. The best way to train a horse is to train yourself; keep control of your own temper and never lose your self-control. Patience is the cardinal virtue in overcoming opposition upon the part of your horse. A good horseman seldom strikes his horse with a whip or other instrument of torture. The human voice is sufficient in most cases to bring about desired results. Everything you do about a horse may easily be associated with your tone of voice. Very soon the animal comes to understand what you want and how you want him to do it. It is surprising how quickly a horse understands every tone of your voice. Cases of shyness may often be overcome by a simple encouraging word. Shyness is generally due to nervousness and unfamiliarity with some object. If the horse is allowed to examine that which has fright- ened him, the shyness soon disappears. If the right start is made, there will be little of this trouble. A horse should never be frightened. The horse is timid and sensitive, and we should always remember it. If a horse has confidence in you, he will work faithfully and give you little trouble. 68 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 48 BREEDS OF HOGS The hog is a descendant of the wild boar of Europe and Asia. In many places the wild hog is still found. It is an active and powerful animal, roaming about in well-wooded places, subsisting upon fruits, grasses, and nuts. When very hungry, the animal will eat snakes, worms, and sometimes the higher animals. The first domesticated hogs were captured wild animals. Careful breeding has eliminated the ferocious nature of these animals and caused them to fatten and produce a good quality of meat. There are three classes of hogs, based upon size, and there are many examples under each class. The principal breeds are the following : — LarcE BREEDS Mepium BREEDS SMaLL BREEDS Chester White Poland China Suffolk Tamworth Berkshire Small Yorkshire Improved Yorkshire Duroc-Jersey Victoria Cheshire Chester White. The Chester White breed is of American origin, being de- veloped in Chester County, Pennsylvania. As its name implies, the breed is pure white in color: The head of this animal is short, with long thin ears pointing for- ward. The Chester White is the largest of any of the breeds. These hogs are es- pecially adapted for corn feeding and fat- ten very rapidly. They are quiet, lazy, and not suited to warm climates. A Cuester Wutte. Poland China. This is also an Amer- ican breed. Ohio is the state in which it was developed. The breed is a mixture of several other breeds and required careful breed- ing to fx the type. The color of the Poland China is black with white spots; either color may prevail. The hogs are large, weigh- ing sometimes as much as 650 pounds. The face is dished, the ears are large, thin, and drooping. The Poland China hogs are not so good grazers as the Berkshires, and do not take so good care of them- selves when put to pasture. They are, however, very quiet, not excitable, and not likely to lose weight. Berkshire. This is an English breed. Berkshires are probably the most common of our hogs. They were first imported in 1825 and since then have received much A BERKSHIRE. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 69 attention at the hands of swine fanciers. They reach the weight of 600 pounds at maturity and generally gain this weight evenly and rapidly. The color of the Berkshires is black with white feet, with a small line of white on face and with white tip to tail. The face is short and well dished. The ears are erect, thin, and delicate. They are good foragers and easily make a living for themselves. Duroc-Jersey. The origin of this breed is not known. The color is reddish. The face is only slightly dished and the ears not large. The Duroc-Jerseys are among the largest of the medium breeds. They are very long-bodied animals and make a great deal of side meat, which is by some farmers considered a valuable trait. These hogs are quiet, heavy feeders and do well in pastures. They are especially good for Southern conditions. Fill out the following table with short descriptions of the breeds listed that are found in your neighborhood. LITTER BREED SIZE WEIGHT SHAPE SNOUT CoLor PRODUCED Tamworth Improved | Yorkshire Cheshire Victoria Small Yorkshire Suffolk Essex 7° PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 49 THE CARE OF HOGS The best feed for young pigs during the first few weeks is the mother’s milk. After four or five weeks some food in addition to the milk is needed, therefore provision should be made to feed some light, muscle-forming food, as skimmed milk with a little meal added. In order that the pigs may secure this additional feed, a small run may be made adjoining their pen in which trough room is provided. This run should be so arranged that the large pigs cannot enter. Only clean, wholesome feed should be fed to small pigs and all trough space should be kept clean. Feed only as much as the pigs will eat. The sow and pigs should be turned out as early as possible in order that they may secure the proper amount of exercise. As soon as the grass has a little start they should be given the freedom of the pasture. A pasture furnishes the cheapest food on the farm as well as one of the best kinds of feed. If the pigs are given a chance to eat as described above, they may be weaned with little difficulty at any time after they are eight or ten weeks old. If the sow is doing well, it is usually better to leave the pigs with her until they are about twelve or fifteen weeks old. After the pigs are weaned they should be carefully and regularly fed, and given access to a good pasture. If pigs are kept in good growing condition, the process of fattening will be more readily accomplished. A Turirty Harr Dozen. To fatten hogs, it is simply necessary to supply them with plenty of food, as they usually have a good appetite and are not easily injured by overfeeding. It is wise, however, to change them from one feed to another gradually; that is, when they are being fed all they can eat. Do not confine hogs too closely when fattening, as they are more likely to become diseased. During the early part of the fattening period considerable green and succulent feed can be fed to advantage. Plenty of good pasturage, especially in a field growing legumes, is also de- sirable at this time. If one wishes “to hog off the corn,” that is, turn the hogs in the field without husking the corn, green feed can be provided by sowing rye or rape in the corn at the time of last cultivation. By this plan a large amount of green feed will be supplied at a very small cost and will be relished by the hogs in connection with the corn. In fattening animals of any kind, comfort is an important factor. A good shelter with dry bedding should be provided as a sleeping place for hogs. They should always have ac- cess to plenty of water. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 7I The selection and care of good brood sows are important to the success of the farmer. In the first place, a sow of good type and of the breed desired should be selected. If several litters of pigs are raised, it is well to have some method of marking young pigs so that when they are grown it will be easy to tell from which litter they came. It is desirable to have brood sows that will have large litters of pigs. A brood sow from a large litter is more likely to have a good number of pigs than one selected from a small litter. If pigs are not marked at birth, sows are liable to be selected from small litters as the sow with a small litter feeds her pigs better and as a consequence the pigs are usually a little larger and better looking than pigs from large litters. Brood sows should not be permitted to run with the fattening hogs, for besides being a waste of feed, the sows are injured by getting too fat. Brood sows should have the run of the pasture with only enough grain to keep them in a good thrifty condition. Preventive measures should always be taken to keep off disease. This can be done by regular feeding, keeping the pigs in healthful quarters, and by giving them plenty of exercise. Pools containing stagnant water should be drained and plenty of fresh, pure water furnished. Salt, ashes, and charcoal may occasionally be fed; and a good disinfectant should be placed in the slops from time to time. If cholera breaks out in the community, every precaution must be taken to prevent the germs being brought to the farm. If the disease gets very close, it is well to dispose of all the hogs that are fit to sell unless they have been vaccinated. 72 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 50 BREEDS OF SHEEP Sheep are raised either for their wool or their meat, called mutton. Sheep that are raised on the plains in the western part of our country have not been bred to any distinctive type, while the sheep that are raised as farm ani- mals have been carefully bred. The quality of the wool varies greatly in the different classes of sheep. The sheep that is bred purely for wool produces a very fine quality, while the sheep bred for mutton gives but a medium quality of wool. The third general type of sheep is produced for both wool and meat, a general purpose class. In this latter type the wool is long and not of as fine a texture as the first-named type. The chief wool breeds are the American Merino, Rambouillet, Delaine Merino, and Cheviot. The leading mutton breeds are Southdown, Horned Dorset, Shropshire, and Hamp- shire. The Leicester, Cotswold, and Lincoln breeds are general purpose sheep. The Merino. This is an important Spanish breed of sheep. The wool from this breed is used in every country of the world. The sheep weigh, when mature, from 100 to 130 pounds. They are fully covered with wool, down to the tips of the nose, and have a wrinkled skin. This wrinkled skin has been bred out in the Delaine. The color of the Merinos varies much in shade. Southdown. This breed comes from southern England. The mutton of the Southdown sheep is the best on the market. The animals are hardy, easily kept and fattened, and the wool is of good average quality. Next to the Merino, the Southdown is the most widely raised sheep in the United States. Cotswold. This is one of the oldest breeds of sheep. It is an English breed and comes from the southwestern hills of England. The color is white, the face and head are smooth, with the exception of a curly forelock, and the legs below the knees are white or grayish. The Cots- wold ranks among the large breeds, the sheep weighing as much as 300 pounds. Fill out the following chart from a study of the sheep found in your neighborhood. Prize WINNERS, Onro STATE Farr. z |. KIND oF . 5 BREED Use | - WEIGHT CoLor MarkINGs CaRE | Woot Sey | Cheviot a | | Dorset | Leicester | Hampshire | PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 73 LESSON 51 INSECT PESTS Most insect pests are parasites. A parasite is an organism which obtains its food and lodging of another organism called host without rendering it any service. A permanent para- site passes its entire life in one host, a good example being the common scab found on so many farm animals. The intermittent parasite is one that visits the host for nourishment, as the fly and the flea. Most of the pests that attack our animals are insect parasites. The life growth of these pests is very interesting. Most of them pass through the four stages of life that are char- acteristic of all true insects. First there is the egg, which in a short space of time hatches into the larva. It is during this larval stage of the insect’s life that most of its feeding is done. After a short while the larva passes into a quiescent stage called the pupa. In this stage many life changes go on, and most insects pass from the pupal stage entirely changed in struc- ture and habits. The last stage is that of the full-grown insect and is called the adult period of life. Botfly. This is the commonly known botfly of the horse. It is a species of gadfly of which the larva is called a bot. The fly is about the size of a small honeybee, and is yellowish brown in color. The eggs are laid on the hairs of the fore limbs and breast of the horse. The larve crawl over the skin, producing a tickling sensation. ‘The horse licks the affected parts for relief and gets the larvze into the mouth and thence to the stomach. A larva attaches itself to the pyloric end of the stomach and to the duodenum by two hooklets. The larva develops here for about ten months, passes out of the host, and burrows into the ground, where an earthy cocoon is formed. Six or eight weeks is. passed in the pupa stage when the adult appears. The entire life cycle occurs in about twelve months. Eggs are deposited from June to October. Serious injury to the host is seldom inflicted. Botfly of Cattle. The larve of this fly are called grubs or warbles. The fly is large and black. The female deposits her eggs on the hair around the heels of the cattle, attaching them by a cement-like substance. On licking the affected parts, the animal gets the parasite in its mouth, whence it passes to the esophagus, where it remains about four months. At the end of this time the parasite migrates to beneath the skin. Small tumors are formed by these pests, and the tumors develop as the larve grow. The larve leave the tumors from March to May, usually in the morning. The pupal stage is passed in the ground, and the life cycle occupies about twelve months. The pests cause a commercial loss by damaging the hides. Hog Louse. The eggs of lice, called nits, are white and oval. They are generally cemented to the hairs of swine. Their presence may be told by an itching and a desire of the hog to lick the infected parts. When the hog cannot reach the parts where the lice are, rubbing against some object, as a post or the corner of the stable, brings relief. The head of the hog louse is long, slender, and conical with three hairs on each side. The thorax is short. Hog lice are most abundant in the hollow back of the hog’s ears. Sheep Tick. The sheep tick passes its whole life on its host. Its head is small and sunken in the thorax, which in turn is slender. The abdomen is large and globular in form. The body and legs of this pest are covered with soft short hair and the legs are provided with hooklets. The proboscis is strong and long for sucking blood. The parasite lives on blood, grease, and the yolk of wool. The female does not lay eggs, but gives birth to young in the 74 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE larval stage. Therefore there are but three stages to the life development of these ticks, — larval, pupal, and adult. Eradication of Insect Pests. Hog lice and sheep ticks can be eradicated by dipping. The coal-tar preparations are efficient insecticides. Another good dip can be made by using 10 pounds of tobacco stems, 10 pounds of sulphur, and 4o gallons of water. Dipping has proved to be an effective method of ridding cattle of the Texas-fever ticks. Lice on horses may be killed by a boiled decoction of 4 ounces of stavesacre in a gallon of water. If the weather is warm, clip the hair and apply the solution with asponge. Four ounces of quassia chips to I gal- lon of water may also be used. Repeat in 10 days to kill all the nits. Fleas on dogs may be overcome by a bath in a 4 per cent solution of creolin. Clean kennels and dust with sulphur or tobacco dust. Formaldehyde gas may be used to rid the kennels of these pests. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE Ve LESSON 52 THE CATTLE TICK The losses sustained by the Southern States to its cattle industry through the spread of Texas fever have been esti- mated at $40,000,000 yearly. This disease is spread entirely by the cattle tick. Badly infested cattle lose flesh and in many cases die. The losses sustained from a depreciation of meat value is equal to that of actually diseased cattle. Shipment of cattle to various parts of the country have in some cases been prohibited on account of the presence of these tick pests. The ticks are related to the spiders. They are small, Gapree ties: oval in form, with eight legs. They are not insects although sometimes erroneously so called. The mouth parts are generally somewhat united to form a beak. Most ticks live upon other animals, but some use vegetables for their hosts. One of the ticks produces the disease known as mange in dogs, horses, and cows. The presence of the tick is so detrimental to the raising of good cattle that a very careful study has been made of its eradication. There are three ways in which cattle may be freed from these parasites. The first of these, used by our government experts, is a direct treatment by means of insecticides of oils and other substances. A rotation of pastures will keep down the pests. A third way is to starve the ticks by the removal of all animals from certain fenced areas. In the rotation of pastures, the horses and cattle must be kept off the infected areas long enough for the ticks to disappear. After the pastures are free from the pests, no cattle must be allowed on them until all ticks have been removed from the animals. This may be done by dipping or other means. If infested cattle be allowed to enter the cleaned pasture, it will become reinfested at once. Feed lots should be separated from the pastures by roads at least ten feet wide, and it is preferable to have two feed lots that may be used alternately until the cattle are free from the ticks. The period in which the tick is attached to cattle varies from nineteen to forty days, and eggs may be laid and new ticks infest the animals before the old ones are totally removed unless feeding lots are changed. If the animals are removed to the second feed lot, at the end of twenty days it is unlikely that they will become reinfested. After the cattle are put in the free fields, the lots should be immediately plowed and thoroughly cultivated. Fence corners and any place not reached by the plow should be sprayed with kerosene or crude oil of some kind. By keeping cattle upon cultivated land until the following spring, the infested area becomes free of pests through their starvation. I. AND M. AGRIC. — 6 76 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 53 HOUSING AND CARE OF FARM ANIMALS Study the different ways in which farm animals in your neighborhood are housed and cared for. Learn all you can about the advantages and disadvantages of different methods of sheltering animals. Learn the ways in which animals are fed and cleaned. Fill out the following table briefly from your observations on the farms surrounding your home. How Housep How Carep For NamME oF |- ANIMAL Kind of yy eis 4 When Where Bie Ventilation Sanitation When Fed |, Stesined Based Horse Mule Dairy cow Beef cow Sheep | Hens PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 77 DECEMBER SUBJECTS LESSON 54 SELECTION OF MEAT ANIMALS Health is the first consideration in the selection of animals to be slaughtered. It makes no difference how fat an animal may be or how good its form, if its health is not good, the meat will not have the desired flavor. If the animal is suffering from any disease, the meat will not be a wholesome food. Animals are often killed that are infected with serious diseases and offered for sale in the markets. Such animals should never be bought for meat, for, however incipient the disease may be, it is always dangerous to take any risk of infection. Tuberculosis in cows, cholera in hogs, and other diseases of harmful nature are sometimes not infectious to man in their early stages; but the danger comes in not knowing exactly how far the disease has advanced. It is always best to destroy a meat animal that has been found to have any disease harmful to man. Bruises also have a harmful effect upon meats, although the effect is generally local. A sudden rise in temperature just previous to slaughtering causes the meat to become undesirable. First-class meat cannot be obtained from animals that are poor in flesh. The fatter an animal is, within reasonable limits, the juicier the meat will be. An animal that is losing flesh should not be killed for meat, as the muscle fibers are shrinking and contain too little water to make the meat palatable. An animal that is gaining flesh is always desired for slaughtering purposes. Poorly bred stock seldom gives good meat. Scrub stock is never profitable for any purpose. Fine bones, soft hair, mellow flesh, are good points by which to judge the qual- ity of meat of the animal. The care of the stock has also a very marked effect upon the quality of the meat. Animals that are properly fed and housed produce meat of a higher grade to those ill fed and ill housed. The age at which the animal is killed affects the value of its meat. Meat from older animals is more likely to be tough than that from younger ones. Too young an animal gives meat that lacks flavor and is watery in its substance. An exact age limit for killing cannot be given; but a little experience will determine when any class of animals should be killed for meat. Cattle are generally fit for beef between the ages of 18 and 20 months if properly fed. Meat from animals as young as this lacks something in flavor. If cattle are killed between the 30th and goth month, the meat will be better, although the killing may take place at any time between the extremes of these dates if the cattle are well fed and well tended. A calf should not be used for veal under 6 weeks of age, and it will be better if killed at the end of the roth week. Hogs may be used at any age after 6 weeks, but the most profitable time is between the 8th and rz2th month. Sheep may be used when 3 months old and at any time thereafter up to the end of the second year. 78 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 55 LOCATION OF MEAT CUTS In cutting up meat, the farmer should have a_ small curved knife; a steak knife, about twelve inches long; a good 26-inch saw and an 8-inch cleaver. An ax may be used in place of the cleaver, but will not be found as handy or useful. A cross section of a large log makes the best cutting table, but an ordinary table may be used if it is strong enough. All meat should be cut across the grain if uniform pieces are desired. The meat should be cut to the bone before the saw is used. Beef should not be cut up until the muscles have thoroughly hardened or “‘set.””, When the meat is ready for cutting, divide the carcass into halves, and then cut each of the halves into hind and fore quarters along the line S-T7. Remove the kidney and suet from the hind quarter and cut off the flank along the line N—P. Turn the quarter over and cut off the loin along the line O-N. WN is about 2 inches in front of the stifle joint and O is the middle of the sacrum. If the cut is made along this line, little or no use need be made of the saw. The rump may be cut by following the line R-J, which runs parallel to the backbone. In cutting the fore quarter, begin at P, a point about 12 inches down the mb from the backbone, and cut along P—X, a point in the armpit. Next cut down between the ribs to M and then across the shank to B. Cut the cross ribs from H to X. The prime ribs are taken out between the fifth and sixth ribs, counting from the front. This cut is taken out in one piece and consists of seven ribs. Cut off the chuck ribs, the remaining five, making the division between the first rib and the shoulder bone. Cut off the neck along the line G-H. These cuts may be made smaller as desired for table use by cutting up into other sections. In cutting mutton, the carcass is first split into # halves and then the flank and breast are cut off along the line 4BCD. Cut the leg along line 4-K. The leg of mutton is generally used whole, although it is sometimes cut up into steaks. The line, which is used for chops, may be cut by following line E-B. Chops should be cut one rib thick. To cut the rack, follow line F-C. The shoulder is cut along the lines G-H and J-J. To cut the plate and shank, follow the line B-K. The breast and flank are used for stews and the neck and shank for soups. Pork should be cut as soon as it has cooled and not allowed to become set, as beef or mutton. The carcass should first be split to aid cooling and then the head Pork Cuts. removed about an inch back of the ears. BreF Cuts. Mutton Corts. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 79 The shoulders should be cut off between the fourth and fifth ribs. Cut off the hams about two inches in front of the pelvic bones. Split the hams and trim them smoothly. The feet may be removed by sawing off about two inches above the hock joints. Remove the loin and spare rib, leaving the lean meat, which may be used for fresh chops or for roasting. All meat cut from ribs should be separated as closely to the ribs as possible. Cut the side lengthwise into three evenly sized strips for smoking. If the sides are to be cured instead of smoked, they should be cut into two pieces instead of three. The upper third, called the back strip, is used for salt pork or lard, and the lower two-thirds, called the bacon strip, is used for bacon. In cutting up pork, the edges should always be trimmed square and the scraggy portions removed for sausage or lard. The ribs cients and neck bones should be taken out of the shoulder. The hams, shoulders, and bacon are cured or smoked; the loin is used fresh; and the snout, feet, and ears pickled. The head is sometimes boiled for headcheese. The class should visit farms when animals are being butchered. A study of living ani- mals also should be made to locate the cuts of meat and to become familiar with the animal structure so that the various parts used for food may easily be recognized. 80 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 56 CENSUS OF FARM ANIMALS Under the headings of this table list the number of animals to be found upon the farms in your neighborhood. (List Coach and Roadster breeds under Driving horses.) | Horses Name or Farm - CaTTLE Hocs Draft | Driving) Pony Beef | Dairy Large Medium Small PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 81 | SHEEP PouLTrRy Name oF Farm | aie IG on i | Docs | Wool M | Genera M Genera E | 00 utton Pp eat P gg | urpose urpose 82 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 57 NATURE AND USES OF CONCRETE Concrete has come to be one of the most useful building materials of the day. Its moder- ate cost and its durability have made it a good substitute for wood for many farm purposes. The ease with which it is handled, and the abundance of the ingredients of which it is made have placed its use within the means of every farmer. Concrete may be used for many purposes about the farm. Foundations to the farm buildings are often made of this substance and are found to be cheap and lasting. Walks about the house may be made of concrete. Silos are frequently built of this substance and fence posts are found to be very much more lasting when built of concrete than when built of wood. The floors of the milk rooms and stables, in fact all places that need to be frequently cleaned by flushing, are more durable and easier to handle if built of concrete. The materials necessary for the making of concrete are sand, gravel or crushed rock, and cement. The sand used should be coarse and clean. Varying sizes in the grains of sand used give strength to the concrete. All dirt should carefully be removed from the sand as this often causes failure in making durable concrete. A small amount of clay in the sand will not do any harm, providing it is not in lumps. In the use of gravel all pebbles whose diameter is greater than one inch should be dis- carded. There should be no decayed stones in the gravel and no dirt. The best crushed stone to use is that which is clean and hard. The stone should be in angular fragments that the cement may more solidly adhere to it, and they should not be larger than one inch in diam- eter. Trap, granite, and limestone are the best to use for this purpose. All dust should be removed from the stone. There are two kinds of cement in the market that are generally used for the making of concrete, — the Portland and the natural. Portland cement is a mixture of about one fourth clay and three fourths limestone. These two minerals are ground to fine powder, thoroughly mixed, and then heated in ovens until hard clinkers are formed. The clinkers are then ground into fine dust. Natural cement is a product derived directly from a natural cement rock. It is manufactured in much the same way as Portland cement. On account of its cheapness and ease of handling, Portland cement is generally employed in making concrete. The cement can be bought in any local market and is not at all expensive. In making concrete it is necessary to build a mixing board. The size of this board will vary with the amount of concrete needed and the labor employed. A level platform is erected near the place where the concrete is to be used. This platform is often portable and is moved about from place to place as the need arises. For two men employed in mixing the concrete, the board should be at least 8 by 12 feet; for four men it should be 14 by 14 feet. It should be built of matched boards and have sides about 4 inches high to keep the concrete from running over. The tools necessary are very simple. A shovel of the short-handled “paddy” type, No. 3, should be used. Wheelbarrows to carry the ingredients and the finished products are necessary, and a good measuring box to get the exact proportions of gravel, sand, and cement. The varying quality of the ingredients used call for different proportions in making the concrete. If unscreened “‘bank-run”’ gravel is employed, the proportions should be 1 part of cement to 4 parts of gravel. For crushed rock or screened gravel, 1 part of cement, 2 parts PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 83 of sand, and 4 parts of rock or gravel should be employed. The amount of water necessary in mixing cannot be fixed exactly, as the amount of moisture in the sand, gravel, or stone varies so much with weather conditions. Sufficient water, however, should be used for the concrete to be wet enough, when the mixing is complete, to tremble under a blow from the shovel and to run easily into the molds that are to be used. This amount of water will cause a rich mortar to form on the outside of the mold after the form is removed from the concrete. To use concrete in building structures it is necessary to make molds of the desired shape in which the concrete is wanted when finished. These molds are generally made of wood and oiled or soaped where the concrete is to touch them. This prevents the cement and other ingredients from adhering to the sides of the molds. The molds should be laid flat, filled evenly, and allowed to stand until the concrete has thoroughly hardened. After this hard- ness is reached, the molds are removed in sections and the concrete block is ready for use. One mold, if constructed in sections so that it may be taken apart, may be used over and over again. 84 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 58 FARM BUILDINGS Kifeheo gheves Wane Haire Parley i ™~s osef oe Bed Room 96% 10-6" \ Pass ; SS x [Lv¥i2g Raom isxiz* Pacloc ISx1S PLAN OF FARMHOUSE. “OseSkssgnsssex Poach se = a = Leirs are | ye cow - TALIS iB [ leepenitciee dca eis WAGON | SHU ly j2 ‘ GRAN ROOM oT S FI 5 [hb =] el ' PASSAGE, PASSAGL, 1 c ‘ Wy sta STA STANK STALL | se DouRLE pooRs sx 13 _CACH 318 = a \ Pian OF Barn. House. The accompanying plan is suggested as desirable for a cheap farmhouse that will admit of enlarging at little expense. nal cost of this house is $600. An extra room may be added to the right of the kitchen as sug- gested by the broken lines. For a further ex- penditure of about $500 a second story of three extra rooms may be added. This will necessi- tate the building of a stairway to the upper floor, which may be done by utilizing the passage- way to the right of the living room. Sketch a plan of your home and suggest any alterations that would seem to be of benefit. The origi- Barn. The accompanying plan of a barn has been found very serviceable to the small farmer. It combines room for horses, mules, and cows. It is a frame structure, easily erected, and would cost about $500. Hay and fodder may be stored in the loft, and chutes arranged to feed the stock from above. Plenty of room is allowed for wagons and carriages, and the ventilation is sufficient for the stock that the building can hold. Compare this barn with others in your neigh- borhood and suggest changes that will meet conditions demanded by the farmers about you. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 85 Poultry Houses. The following are ground plans of both the colony and apartment houses for poultry. Study them carefully and compare with those found about your home. In the space below, draw the plans of houses that meet your ideas regarding the housing of hens. Pao" 135° 120" 3 30" 30" 30’ gore zRelelelelelelele | 6 6 6. R E 20! Or Fl PLAN APARTMENT HENHOUSE. SINGLE HENHOUSE IN CoLony PLAN. @— apartments a — feed trough for dry mash 6— yards 6 — feed trough for grits ¢ — grain house d — coop for brood hens g — roost bars 86 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 59 LOCATION OF FARM BUILDINGS Healthfulness of the Home. The first thing that should be considered about the home is healthfulness. |. No matter how beautiful and comfortable a house may be, if it is not a healthful place in which to live, no one will desire to live in it. One who is building a new house should select a site that will give good drainage, ventilation, and plenty of sun- shine. If a farm is bought with the desire of living upon it, it is wise to consider the healthfulness A TyercaL Fara Hoe. of the situation as well as the fertility of the soil. Drainage. There should be a good slope away from the house, so that the cellar and grounds around the house may be dry. The well should be so situated that no surface water or seepage from the house, barn, or any other building can get into it and contaminate the water. It should be located four times the distance of its depth away from any of the outbuildings. It is of the greatest importance to the health of all in the home that the drink- ing water be kept pure. If one finds that he 1s living in a house where water stands in the cellar, and the yard is wet and muddy, he may be sure that the sanitary conditions are not good. A system of drainage should be carefully planned and put in place to carry off all surplus water. Barn and Outbuildings. The barn and other farm buildings should be located back of the dwelling house. All buildings should be located a short distance from the road. This will give an opportunity to prepare an attractive lawn. The buildings should also be near a good gravel driveway that leads from the road to the barn. If a silo is used, it should be at- tached to the barn on the side or end where it is most convenient to the feeding stalls. All buildings should be placed within a reasonable distance of each other for convenience in feeding. If space will permit, they should be located about fifty yards apart in order that a fire breaking out in one may not spread to the others. Sketch the plan of the farm buildings that seem to you to present the best features of location among the farms found in your neighborhood. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 87 LESSON 60 THE THERMOMETER The thermometer is an instrument to measure temperature. With an b a increase of temperature the mercury expands and ascends the tube; with A the lowering of temperature the mercury contracts and falls in the tube. The scale upon all thermometers is based upon the freezing and boiling temperatures of water. Between these two points scales vary in their 100% ||} Pyfjeree divisions. There are two thermometers in common use, the Fahrenheit E and the Centigrade. In the F. scale the freezing point is marked 32, and H the boiling point 212, thus making 180 divisions between the freezing point E and the boiling point. In the C. scale the freezing point is marked o and the boiling point 100. Thus in the F. scale 180 divisions equal 100 of the | of C. scale; hence 1 C. degree = 2 F. degree, and 1 F. degree = $C. degree. SF 0 To change a Centigrade reading to a Fahrenheit reading use the follow- aE e ing formula : — é H < F. = $C 4+ 32°. H ig To change a Fahrenheit reading to a Centigrade reading use the follow- oF. - LH] 920 ing formula: — E C. = 3 (F. — 32°). : 17.8°} Change the following F. readings to corresponding C. readings: 41°; 2129s = 40°s 1317s 0". Change the following C. readings to corresponding F. readings: 40°; oO ° 100°; 0 rar anOs AGS. CENTIGRADE AND Fan- Heat a vessel of water slowly over alamp. Measure the temperature RENHEIT THERMOM- of the water before heating and at various times during the experiment. Goa Note the temperature at which the water boils. Hold a thermometer in the steam coming from the boiling water. Note its temperature. Place a thermometer in a can or jar containing crushed ice and allow it to remain for some minutes. Observe how fast the mercury falls in the thermometer and at what point it remains stationary. Repeat the last experiment, putting in salt with the ice. Note any difference in the rate of melting. 88 A Barom- ETER, The moisture that is in the muslin wick about the bulb of*one of the thermometers evaporates as fast as the air takes up the moisture. Evap- oration always cools surrounding objects. The faster that evaporation PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 61 THE BAROMETER AND HYGROMETER The barometer is an instrument to measure the pressure of the air. It consists, in its simplest form, of a glass tube closed at one end, filled with mercury and in- verted in a cup containing the same liquid. The tube is about 34 inches long. When the tube is inverted, the mercury sinks until the weight of the column in the glass tube exactly equals the pressure of the air on the mercury in the cup. At sea level the height of the mercury in the tube under ordinary conditions stands at about 30 inches. Air exerts a pressure of 15 pounds to the square inch, so the weight of the mercury left standing in the tube must equal 15 pounds to the square inch. If this were not so, what would happen? With a change of air pressure the column of mercury will vary in height. The greater the air pressure the higher the mercury will stand, so heavy air is spoken of as high pressure. Air that is light causes the mercury to stand at a lower level, and thus light air is termed low pressure. Areas of high and low pressure pass alternately around the world and have much to do with the weather at any place as they pass it. Winds, of course, go from a high pressure to a low pressure. The barometer now in general use is not as simple an instrument as the above description would indicate, but the principle upon which it works is the same. The simplest form of hygrometer consists of two thermometers arranged side by side on a board. One of the thermometers is kept wet by means of a muslin wick, one end of which surrounds the bulb while the other end rests in a cup of water. Such a hygrometer is termed a wet and dry-bulb thermometer. The work of the hygrometer is to indicate the relative hu- midity of the air. When air is thoroughly saturated with vapor, evaporation does not take place; when air is dry, evapora- tion goes on rapidly. The air at any given temperature can hold only a certain amount of moisture, and when that point is reached, saturation is said to have taken place. The actual amount of water vapor in the air, measured in grains per cubic foot, is its absolute humidity. The ratio between the amount of water vapor in the air and the amount it could contain under the same conditions is its relative humidity. The relative hu- midity may be indirectly obtained by measuring the rate of evaporation. takes place, the cooler becomes the bulb and the lower the mercury inthat 4 piyorowrer, thermometer falls. By comparing the reading of the wet-bulb thermom- eter with that of the dry-bulb thermometer, which is merely registering the temperature of the atmosphere, an idea of the relative humidity mav be gained. If both thermometers register alike, the air is saturated. The farther apart the readings, the lower the humidity of the alr. Fill out the following chart from readings made in the schoolroom. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 89 INSTRUMENT TIME Monpay TuesDAYy itescecoue | Fripay 9 = | Thermometer I2 M. | 3 P.M. | | 9 AM. | | Barometer I2M. | | | 3 P.M | | | Gechilb: |) aye ee | Dry bulb Q AM. Hyecsm Wet bulb 12M. | | eter | Dry bulb 12 M. | | Wet bulb 3 P.M. | Dry bulb 3 P.M. go PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 62 WEATHER MAPS eae REFERENCE | Observations taken at S a.m., seventy-fith | Meridian time. . pee Mie pressive tedueeatesen evel. STS | Isobars ¢ ) pass through points of equal air pressure. | Isotherms (----) pass through points of equal temperature ; \ ) | drawn for every ten degrees. ee 4 S | oC scat Bae of weather: O clear: @ partly cloudy. ( spect 30.0 \ | | @cloudy: rain; S snow: 40° =~" “7 \ | cArrows Ay withthe: -Sshadedateaishowerzecipidtion wt ony SO-1 scare of mes 50 aN 4 inch or more, during last 24 hours. J 0 100 200 460400500 Be. A Weatuer Map. Locate the center of high pressure (High) on the above map. Locate each center of low pressure (Low). What is the difference between the highest and lowest air pressure shown on this map? Note the condition of the sky in the area controlled by the Lows. Note its condition in the area controlled by the High. Trace the isotherm of Zero. Trace the isotherm of 30°, which is approximately the line of freezing. What kind of weather attends a Low? What kind of weather attends a High? Obtain the daily weather maps from the Weather Bureau and keep them for future study. If you cannot secure the regular weather maps, obtain those published in the daily papers. In studying the weather, a set of maps for several consecutive days should be used. On them locate the Highs and Lows and note their change of location from day to day, PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE gli LESSON 63 WEATHER CHARTS Fill out the following weather chart from actual observations of the weather during one of the fall months. Baro- TEMPERATURE | | | METRIC | Winp Precipi- | Kinps oF | DirEcCTION TATION CLoups PRESSURE | g A.M. | 12 M. } 3 P.M. bo w I. AND M. AGRIC. —7 92 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE Fill out the following weather chart from actual observations of the weather during one of the winter months. Baro- METRIC TEMPERATURE = WIND PRECIPI- KInDs OF DrirEcTION TATION CLoups 12M. 3 P.M. PRESSURE | Ww bv _ DIO] OIN| AIwWI{i-p I PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 93 Fill out the following weather chart from actual observations of the weather during one of the spring months. Month ‘TEMPERATURE WIND Direction | PREcIPI- TATION KINDs OF CLoups | Baro- METRIC PRESSURE O4 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE Fill out the following weather chart from actual observations of the weather during one of the summer months. | Baro- METRIC PRESSURE WIND PRECIPI- | Kinps oF Day | |t—a--T ] | ] DiRECTION TATION CLoups Blo] | CIN | Alm | | | || O}0 Iz PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 95 LESSON 64 ANIMAL MANURES Composition of Manures. The composition of animal manure varies according to the condition of the animal producing it, the quality of food upon which the animal is fed, and the purpose in feeding. Manure produced by full-grown animals is of greater value than that pro- duced by young animals. Animals fed upon hay and straw without grain yield manure of less value than when grain constitutes a part of their rations. Manure made by beef cattle while fattening is richer in plant food than that produced by the dairy cow on the ordinary dairy rations. The composition of manure is affected by the kind of bedding used and the protection that is given it after it is secured. The liquid part of the manure contains a large per cent of the nitrogen and potash that was in the food. For this reason a bedding should be used that will quickly absorb all the liquid excreted by the animal. Straw is a bedding in common use. Shredded corn stover that has been uneaten by animals is most generally used in the corn belt. Protection of Manure. When cleaning the stables, if the manure is placed out of doors it should be protected by a covering. This will prevent the washing away of the potash and phosphoric acid and the loss of nitrogen by fermentation. Many farmers haul out the manure and place it in piles in the field. When this is done, it gets hot, ferments, and much of the nitrogen is lost. A better method would be to allow the manure to remain in the stables, providing, plenty of good bedding is used. The tramping causes it to keep moist and fermentation is prevented. The greatest protection can be secured by building a covered pit with a bottom made water tight by a cement floor. Preservation of Manure. Another method of preventing the loss of the important plant foods contained in animal manures is by the use of preservatives. Land plaster, acid phos- phate, and kainit are the materials most commonly used for this purpose. Land plaster at the rate of a pound per day per grown animal, in stables, placed on manure heaps, and in manure pits, partially prevents the loss of nitrogen by fermentation. This plaster has the power of fixing and retaining the volatile gases. Phosphoric acid is often used on the manure instead of land plaster. This is done because the phosphoric acid content of stable manure is too low for some soils and the reénforcement by means of acid phosphate is a good practice even if the acid had no preservative effect. The use of fifty pounds of acid phosphate to each ton of manure will assist materially in preserving the nitrogen, and the gain in the phosphoric acid content will repay all the cost for material and labor. The acid should be used daily on the moist manure, as it is made in the stable. It should be scattered in the stalls before the bedding is added, so it will not come in direct contact with the feet of the animals. Some farmers use one half acid phosphate and one half kainit. The kainit is a carrier of potash and also preserves the nitrogen. Distribution of Manure. The manure spreader furnishes the best method of scattering the manure over the ground. The hand method with the use of the ordinary wagon is slow and unsatisfactory. It is also a very slow method and does not give an equal distribution of plant food. Manure is distributed over the land at the rate of from five to twenty tons per acre. The amount used depends upon the kind and the quality of the manure and the crop to be grown. From six to ten tons per acre is considered sufficient for the ordinary farm crops. A larger amount is often used by gardeners. Manure should be distributed over the land as 96 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE soon as possible after itis made. This is especially true if no water-tight pits or covered sheds are maintained for protection of the manure. Plowing under Manure. Plowing manure under as soon as distributed on the field is not necessary. The plant food that is washed out by the rains will go into the ground where needed and will soon be used by plants. Manure that is plowed under adds humus to the soil and also gives more plant food to the crops. It aids the land in holding water and makes the soil looser by preventing it from packing so completely. Value of Manure. A thorough application of well-preserved manure is often notice- able for years on every crop grown on the field thus treated. In the following table note the different methods used in protecting and distributing ani- mal manures on the farms about your school. Name oF Farm | Kinp oF Beppinc Usep Protection GIVEN Mertuop oF DistRIBUTION oO If manure preservatives are used on any of the farms visited, indicate in the table below the name of the preservative, amount used, and when applied to the manure. Name oF Farm | KIND OF PRESERVATIVE | Amount Usep WHEN APPLIED PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 97 LESSON 65 CROP MANURES Organic matter is added to the soil by plowing under certain crops for the purpose of improving both its physical and chemical conditions. These crops are usually plowed under in their green state and the process is called “‘ green manuring.”” The addition of this vegetable matter or humus aids the soil in retaining moisture and puts it in better condition for cultiva- tion. Any plant may serve for this purpose, but the ones most commonly used are rye, red clover, crimson clover, cowpeas, soy beans, and vetches. Many farmers prefer to use the clovers, cowpeas, soy beans, and vetches, because they add more nitrogen to the soil. An acre of an average crop of red or crimson clover or of cowpeas contains one hundred and fifty pounds of nitrogen, an amount equivalent to that contained in fifteen tons of average stable manure. Crimson clover or cowpeas may be sown in corn or cotton at the last cultivation. In the northern sections of our country, rye is more extensively used because the seed is less expensive and the plants live through the winter and furnish a good protection for the soil. It should be plowed under in the spring before it gets too large and while green enough to rot readily. The plowing under of crop manures while green prevents the loss of water which they have absorbed from the soil. It is poor farm practice to always plow under crops that are worth harvesting. Usually it is better to cut the clover or cowpeas for hay, feed them to the stock, and later return the manure to the land. Crop manuring is particularly useful in the improvement of light lands deficient in humus, and on land where continuous cropping has been practiced without the addition of animal manure or other forms of organic matter. By the use of legumes as green manures and the addition of potash, phosphoric acid, and lime, poor soils may be made fertile. Fill out the following table of crop manures raised by the farmers about your home. WHEN PLowep ADVANTAGES GAINED FROM Crop UNDER Name or Crop Usep Wuen PLANTED 98 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 66 NITROGENOUS FERTILIZERS The most important commercial fertilizers used are divided into three general classes: those containing nitrogen; those containing phosphoric acid; and those containing pot- ash. Most fertilizers contain more or less of all three of these food substances, but some brands contain only two and others only one. Fertilizers containing all three of these food sub- stances are called complete fertilizers. A nitrogenous fertilizer is one in which nitrogen is the most important element. While other fertilizing elements mav be present, it is purchased mainly to supply nitrogen to the soil. The most common nitrogenous fertilizers, obtained from organic sources, are dried blood, tankage, dried fish scrap, and cottonseed meal. Dried Blood and Tankage are obtained from slaughterhouses. Dried blood contains from 13 to 14 per cent of nitrogen. The raw material for making tankage is composed of the intestines and other parts of the slaughtered animals that cannot be used in a more profitable manner. Tankage used for fertilizing purposes only, is known as crushed tankage and con- centrated tankage. The difference in these two kinds is due to the different process of manu- facture. The crushed tankage contains from 4 to 9 per cent of nitrogen and 3 to 12 per cent of phosphoric acid, while the concentrated tankage contains from I0 to 12 per cent of nitrogen. Dried Fish Scrap. The solid matter obtained by extracting the oil from dried fish is ground and made into a fertilizer. The material contains from 6.5 to 10.5 per cent of nitrogen and from 5 to 16 per cent of phosphoric acid. Cottonseed Meal. After removing the hulls of the cottonseed the kernels are ground and the oil extracted by pressing. The residue obtained by this process, when ground, is called cottonseed meal. Cottonseed meal contains from 5 to 7.5 per cent nitrogen and from 1.5 to 3 per cent phosphoric acid and 1.3 to 2 per cent potash. Sulphate of Ammonia and Nitrate of Soda are the most common chemical sources of nitrog- enous fertilizers. Sulphate of ammonia contains 20 per cent of nitrogen and is a by-product from the manufacture of gas and coke. Nitrate of soda or Chile saltpeter is found in Peru and Chile. It contains about 15 per cent of nitrogen. This salt is very soluble and should be applied only when the roots of plants will soon absorb it. Make a survey of the commercial nitrogenous fertilizers used in your school district and fill out the table below. | | 1K = B 5 lee IND oF NI- ‘ | Kinp oF Sort Crop on Fer- Name oF Faru | TROGENOUS | FERTILIZED | TILIZED FIELD | FERTILIZER a How Appiiep | AMOUNT USED | PER ACRE | PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 99 LESSON 67 PHOSPHORIC ACID FERTILIZERS Phosphoric acid fertilizers obtained from organic sources are (1) ground raw bone, (2) ground steamed bone, and (3) bone black. Ground Raw Bone. This form of bone is secured by grinding bones. It contains 22 per cent of phosphoric acid and from 3 to 4 per cent of nitrogen. The available phosphoric acid in this form of bone is from 4 to 8 per cent. Ground Steamed Bone. This form is made by steaming the bone to take out the fat. The bone is steamed before the grinding process is done. Ground steamed bone contains from 18 to 32 per cent phosphoric acid and 2 to 4 per cent of nitrogen. The available phos- phoric acid in ground steamed bone is from 5 to Io per cent. Bone Black. This form contains from 32 to 36 per cent of phosphoric acid. Phosphoric acid fertilizers obtained from chemical sources are (1) phosphate rock, and (2) Thomas slag. Phosphate Rock. Large quantities of phosphate rock are found in Tennessee, Florida, and South Carolina. The phosphate rock found in Tennessee contains from 30 to 32 per cent phosphoric acid, that found in Florida 18 to 40 per cent, and that found in South Carolina 26 to 28 per cent. Thomas Slag. This fertilizing material is a by-product in the manufacture of. steel. It contains from 15 to 20 per cent of phosphoric acid. It is also called basic slag. Make a survey of the commercial phosphoric acid fertilizers used in your school district and fill out the table below. e 5 KIND oF PuHos- Kinp oF Sort | Crop on Fer- AMOUNT USED 7 pHoRiIc AcID Ilow App Lieb FERTILIZED | TILIZED FIELD | PER ACRE FERTILIZER | | Name oF Farm 100 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 68 POTASH FERTILIZERS Potash fertilizers obtained from organic sources are (1) wood ashes unleached; (2) wood ashes leached; and (3) tobacco stems. Unleached Ashes. Wood ashes that are unleached contain from 4 to 7 per cent potash, I.5 to 2 per cent phosphoric acid, and 30 to 33 per cent lime. Leached Ashes. Wood ashes that are leached contain little fertilizing value. They are of little use to the soil except for the lime they contain. The leaching is caused by water running over them and washing out the fertilizing materials. Leached ashes contain 1 to 2 per cent potash, I to 1.5 per cent phosphoric acid, and 27 and 29 per cent of lime. Tobacco Stems. The stems from tobacco are good for use on lawns and on ground to be used for garden purposes. They contain 5 to 10 per cent of potash and 3 per cent of lime. Potash fertilizers obtained from chemical sources are (1) kainit; (2) muriate of potash; (3) sulphate of potash. Kainit. Kainit is a salt mined in Germany. It contains 12 per cent of potash. Muriate of Potash. Muriate of potash or potassium chloride is the form of potash gen- erally used in the United States. It is also manufactured from kainit. It contains 49 to 59 per cent of potash. Sulphate of Potash. Sulphate of potash is manufactured from kainit. It costs slightly more than muriate of potash but is preferred when fertilizing some plants because it does not injure their quality. This form of potash contains from 50 to 52 per cent potash. Make a survey of the commercial potash fertilizers used in your school district and fill out the table below. Kino oF Por- ASH FErR- | AMounT usep | TILIZER | | | | Kinp oF Soir | Crop on Fer- | How Appiiep PER ACRE Name OF Farm , "| FERTILIZED | THEIZED FIELD | PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE Ior LESSON 69 HOME MIXING OF FERTILIZERS The materials that furnish nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash can be obtained from dealers, and the farmer can mix them together and make his own fertilizers. Home-mixed fertilizers can be made to suit the crops grown and the particular needs of the soil. The fol- lowing table shows the percentage of the essential element in each of several of the most com- mon fertilizer materials. COMPOSITION OF FERTILIZER MATERIALS ‘ Per CEenT oF AVAILABLE Per Cent or | Per Cent oF Name oF MaTERIAL | PuospHoric AcIp NITROGEN PoTtasH Nitrate of soda 15.5 Acid phosphate 14 Kainit 12 Muriate of potash 50 Sulphate of potash 50 Cottonseed meal | 2.5 6.2 | 1.5 Preparation for Mixing. The mixing can be done on a barn floor or a dry, hard dirt floor. The tools necessary are a shovel, a sieve to sift out the lumps that will be found in the nitrate of soda, a box or barrel, a wooden pestle for pulverizing the lumps. A steelyard or platform scale will be a convenience, but as the materials come in weighed sacks, they may be put together by sackfuls and a fairly accurate mixture obtained. Mixing a 1-8-2 Fertilizer. Such a fertilizer contains 1 per cent of nitrogen, 8 per cent of phosphoric acid, and 2 per cent of potash. In a ton of this fertilizer there are 20 pounds of nitrogen, 160 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 40 pounds of potash. The 20 pounds of nitrogen can be obtained from 130 pounds of nitrate of soda containing 15.5 per cent of nitro- gen. The 160 pounds of phosphoric acid can be obtained from 1150 pounds of acid phosphate containing 14 per cent of phosphoric acid. From 80 pounds of muriate of potash containing 50 per cent of potash, the 40 pounds of potash can be secured. The total weight of these materials is 130 + 1150 + 80, or 1360, pounds to give the constituents required for making 2000 pounds of a 1-8-2 fertilizer. The remainder of the 2000 pounds, or 640 pounds, may as well be common dirt from the field as dirt shipped from Chicago or Baltimore with charges for collecting and the freight added. Nitrate of soda sells for $5.50 per sack of 200 pounds, muriate of potash at $4.60 for the same quantity, and 14 per cent acid phosphate can be purchased from any local dealer at $16 or $18 per ton, while in carload lots it can be secured at from $14 to $15 per ton. Taking the prices above quoted, a ton of home-mixed 1-8-2 fertilizer would cost : — 130 Ib. nitrate of soda, at $2.75 pertoolb. . . . . 2. . 1... $ 3.58 1150 lb. acid phosphate, at $18 perton . . 5 one, ee Bi TOLD 80 lb. muriate of potash, at $2.30 per 100 Ibe ee ee eee ees 1.84 $15.77 102 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE One half dollar per ton will cover the cost of mixing, and the farmer who purchases these materials and mixes for himself may be sure that he has used the most effective carriers of the fertilizing elements. It is, of course, unnecessary to put in the dirt “‘filler”’ required to bring the fertilizer up to the 2000 pounds. Simply use less of the fertilizer when distributing over the field. Be- cause of the tendency of nitrate of soda to absorb moisture, it is well to use the fertilizer within a few days after mixing; with this precaution it may be applied without difficulty through the fertilizer drill. Nitrate of soda is not used in ready-mixed fertilizers for the reason that nitrogen can be bought more cheaply in dried muck, tankage, and other slaughterhouse refuse; but while these are cheaper to the manufacturer, they are more expensive to the farmer. Frequently the nitrogen in a fertilizer is expressed in terms of ammonia, which is largely nitrogen. To find the needed weight of nitrate of soda necessary to yield the desired amount of ammonia, calculate on a basis of 19 per cent instead of 15.5 per cent. Calculate the value of a ton of fertilizer containing 3 per cent ammonia, 9 per cent phosphoric acid, and 2 per cent potash, using the prices quoted above. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 103 JANUARY SUBJECTS LESSON 70 FARM CALENDAR Fill out the following from observations made on neighborhood farms. PLowInG FERTILIZERS SEEDING No. oF Name oF Crop | | | ate | a | AcREs Dates | Depth eae Kind =| Amount Date ae I 3 4 | 5 7 | 8 CULTIVATION Harvest Pests Name or Crop small = : Implements | How Date of = Date | e a pee Used Date | Gathered Injury | ies I | 2 | : |_| | | | ‘ | | | 5 6 | | | | f | | 8 104 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 71 GOOD ROADS The general condition of a community may be known by its roads. Good roads help trade and raise the value of property along them. They beautify the country through which they are built and save a great deal of wear and tear of the farm wagons and carriages that pass over them. Nearly every farmer has had the experience of being stuck in the mud when carry- ing goods to market upon heavily loaded wagons; children are often kept from school because the country roads are impassable; and churches in the country districts lose much in attend- ance through the poorness of the roads leading to them. Wherever a community has good, durable roads, trade increases and the people are more social. A Poor Roan. A Goop Roap. There are several factors to be considered in road building. Grade, drainage, foundations, surface structure, materials to be used, and workmanship are some of the things that must be taken into account whenever new roads are to be built. As far as possible, grades should be slight. Heavy loads cannot be economically transported over roads where there are steep hills to climb. It is better to have the road level and winding than it is to have it straight and hilly. If the road is to be saved from washing, especially during the spring freshets, the drainage must be good. The foundations of the road must be firm and not water-soaked. If the top of the road is to be paved, it is very necessary that the foundation be secure and strong. The surface of the road should also be firm, with a correct slope to allow the water to run off easily. Wherever necessary tile drains should be used to facilitate the removal of surface water. The quality of the materials used should be the best. The lasting quality of the rock used is of prime importance. No road will last that is built of bad material. No matter how good the material used may be, if the workmanship is poor, the results will be unsatisfactory. An overseer who knows the art of road building should be employed. Money spent in this way will benefit the community. It is not to be expected that the ordi- nary farmer will be conversant with the details of good road building, and it would be better for him to employ some one who does know than to try to do the work himself. Many of the natural roads through the country are very sandy. The method of handling these roads differs from that employed with roads of other soils. A sandy road should not PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 105 be rounded. Water easily seeps through sand and if allowed to run off the top surface would badly wash it. Sandy roads are poorest when dry, so it is not advisable to drain such roads. A top-dressing of clay has been found of great advantage to improve sandy conditions in our roads. In the South many of the roads have been greatly improved by mixing clay with the top sand and applying a layer of this mixture to the depth of seven or eight inches. When this is done, the surface may be rounded and rolled. Clay roads are poor because clay holds water and the roads become soft and muddy during the wet seasons of the year. If sand and gravel are mixed with the clay of such roads, it will improve the roadbed. In preparing an earth road, all stumps, brush, and large rocks should first be removed. Holes should be filled up and all high places leveled to the general grade of the road. Large machines called scrapers, drawn by horses, are used to get the right grade. After the floor of the road is laid, the top layer is put on by means of road machines, and thoroughly rolled. Rolling should always be done with machines for this purpose, and not left to vehicles, for the action of narrow-tired wheels tends to cut the roadbed. Split-log drags are often used in farming communities to prepare the top of the road. Earth roads can often be improved by the use of gravel. If this is used, it should be rolled firmly. Shell roads are built in some sections of this country. A thick layer of shells is applied to the road top and heavily rolled into the surface. Macadam roads are exten- sively used in many places. In this road structure, the foundation is built of large stones which permit of under drainage. Over these, smaller stones are tightly packed and these in turn are covered with small pebbles and gravel. A top-dressing of stone dust is then rolled closely and compactly over all. The success of such roads depends upon the quality of the foundation and the skill with which the work is done. The cost of road building depends upon many things. The quality of the material used, the kind of machinery employed, the availability of labor, and the ease with which road build- ing materials may be obtained are some of the chief factors in the cost of construction. A road over which there is extensive travel will admit of more expense in building than would one over which there is little travel. A road should not be too costly, especially in the farming districts. Under the headings below list the kinds of roads found in your community and suggest improvements to same. LocaTION | ConDITION | SUGGESTED IMPROVEMENTS et = ae Sand roads Clay roads es ee ———— —| $$$ $$ : | = Macadam roads | | Gravel roads 106 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 72 PACKING AND MARKETING PRODUCTS A farmer not only must produce what people want, but he must put his goods on the market in such a form that they will be glad to buy them. Neglect of ordinary precautions along this line not only prevents sale, but in many cases destroys the chance of obtaining future orders. The three great considerations in preparing goods for market are neatness, cleanliness, and uniformity. Two products of the same kind offered for sale, one attractively and neatly displayed and the other displayed without any care, will bring far different prices. The first lot will be bought often at a fancy price and the second lot will remain on the market until everything else is sold and then be disposed of at a loss. Cases that are stained by the juices of the products will repel a possible purchaser. The presence of rubbish, sticks, and other foreign matter in the product displayed will hurt the sale. Neatness is essential if a ready market is to be desired. Uniformity of product requires very little extra effort and is very attractive to the possible purchaser. Eggs varying greatly in size and color are not as likely to be sold as eggs that are more nearly uniform in all respects. Peaches, melons, apples, and all the other fruits shipped to our markets should present the best possible appearance. One of the most important principles to be observed in preparing products for the market is honesty. If a trade is to be built up, this principle is of vital importance. A farmer who places his best apples at the top of the barrel and fills the rest of the space with imperfect fruit will not command the respect of dealers as will one whose fruit is uniform throughout. Wher- ever the farmer practices deception, the results inevitably reflect upon his future orders. After the quality of products, packing is next to be considered. There are several factors that determine the way in which farm produce is to be packed. The kind of products to be shipped, the season of the year in which shipment takes place, the distance of the market, and the means for shipping all tend to shape the manner of packing. If much of the farm produce is to be shipped, there should be a packing shed erected at some convenient place. A tight roof supported on poles will generally be found sufficient for all ordinary needs. Heat and moisture are the greatest promoters of decay; and therefore, wherever possible, the prod- uce to be shipped should be allowed to cool from the heat of the day before packing. All fruit and vegetables should be perfectly dry before being placed in boxes, barrels, or crates. Care should be taken to prevent bruising in packing, as bruises permit rapid decay. Either too tight or too loose packing will tend to bruise the products. Some fruits have to be shipped green or unripe and allowed to ripen during transit. With all fruits, the degree of ripeness is a factor that governs the choice for the shipment. If possible, the farmer should personally see to the loading of the car that is to take his produce. In this way he may be sure that his goods have sufficient air and the right temperature to prevent decay during transportation. Most farmers are obliged to sell to a commission merchant; he is the agent of the shipper or producer, acting for him and representing him in the large markets of the city. It is to the interest of the commission merchant to secure the highest price for the goods he handles; and he desires that those goods should have high quality as well as attractiveness. Commis- sion merchants are usually divided into four classes according to the particular line that they handle. These classes are: butter, cheese, and egg dealers; poultry and game merchants; fruit and vegetable dealers; and specialists. Most commission merchants will handle any line, although they generally prefer consignments in the special produce they handle. Farmers PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 107 who ship extensively know each class of merchants and generally open trade accounts with one or more of them. When goods are consigned to a commission merchant, he becomes the agent of the consignor; when goods are bought directly, the commission merchant ceases to be the agent, although he may not have paid cash for the produce. Care should be exercised when shipping goods to be bought outright. When a direct sale is made, a draft should be attached to the bill of lading received from the railroad. The express company or bank will present the bill of lading and draft when the goods have reached their destination and are ready to be delivered. The bill of lading in such a case will not be surrendered until the draft has been paid. Make a study of the methods employed in shipping products from the farms in your neighborhood. List below in a few words the various ways in which the listed crops are shipped from your home town. _ PRopuct QUALITY OF Propuct | UNIFORMITY | oF Propuct How Packep How SHIPPED CoNnsIGNED To WHom Butter | | | | Eggs | Poultry Berries Apples | Peaches | | Asparagus Beans Beets Sweet corn Lettuce Melons Honey I. AND M. AGRIC. —8 I08 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 73 FARM COOPERATION Need of Codperation. The farmer is at a great disadvantage in purchasing his supplies because they are usually bought in small quantities, and hence he must pay the retail price. When an organization is effected, including a large number of farmers, they can buy supplies for the farm in large quantities and by so doing can get wholesale prices from the manufacturer or from the wholesale dealer. The farmer is again at a disadvantage when he sells his products because he has such a limited amount to offer for sale. When a large number of men in the same locality unite their efforts in producing a similar grade of animals or grain, the quantity and quality offered by the group attracts the large buyer, and consequently the persons composing the group get a higher price than they could if each sold his products separately. Buyers can afford to pay more because the expense of purchasing the products is less when they are only required to travel over a small area in order to secure the desired amount and grade of products. Purchasing Agent. When a group of persons form an organization for buying seeds, fertilizers, farm machinery, farm animals, or anything needed on the farm they frequently appoint a purchasing agent. This person is usually an expert in judging the thing he 1s asked to buy, and can select a better quality than the inexperienced man. He visits different markets and finds out where he can secure the best prices. Selling Agent. A farm organization that is formed for selling products frequently appoints a selling agent whose business it is to find out the best market in which to sell. Cooperative Selling Organizations. Organizations formed for codperative selling include farmers who are engaged in dairying, fruit growing, truck gardening, poultry raising, grain growing, stock raising, and general farming. Fill out the following table showing the farm codperative associations that exist in your county. és | e | a. NAME OF ORGANIZATION | a. Propucts SoLp a. ARTICLES PURCHASED b. NumBer oF MEMBERS | b. WHERE SOLD b. WHereE PurcHaseD a a. | a b b. | b | a a. a b b. b \ a a. a b | B. b = | a ae a b | b. b a | 1 da. |) @ b | ob: b PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 74 THE USES OF TREES 109 In settling the forested sections of our country the first work of the settler was to cut down the trees in order to clear the land for farming. Destructive cutting by lumbermen, forest fires, fungus diseases, overgrazing, and windstorms have aided in the destruction of the forests. These processes have been going on continually until the situation has become alarm- ing; and steps are being taken to protect the forests that still exist, and to reforest many steep hillsides and other places not suitable for agriculture. There are many uses for trees on the farm, among which are the following : — (1) wood, (2) protection, (3) bird homes, and (4) beauty. (1) Most farmers use considerable wood both for burning purposes and for repair work, and this comes from the wood lot. Fences, small bridges, and buildings demand wood for their structure. This may often be obtained at home if the farmer has a good wood lot. (2) A good growth of trees protects buildings and stock from severe storms. ‘Trees are often planted in rows to shield growing crops from the driving storms and winds that sweep across the open farm lands. A forest on a hillside preserves the soil from erosion, the tree roots and leafy mold holding back the surface water that would otherwise wash away the top soil. Much of the poor land of the South is due to in- discriminate cutting of trees and thus allowing the soil to be washed into the valleys. (3) Ifit were only for the protection of our birds, it would be well worth while to save our trees. The cutting down of our farm trees deprives many of our best friends of their homes and causes them to seek shelter elsewhere. Trees are the natural homes of most birds, and they will congregate in the wood lot, build their homes, rear their young, and help our crops by devouring the insect pests. It is not always easy to see that our birds are worth more to us than the trees we cut down. We must have lumber for many purposes, but we can, at least, plant a young tree for every one cut down. (4) Besides the purely material value attached to our trees there is another value just as important. Anything that adds to the beauty of life is well worth preserving. A farm without any trees is cold and dismal. One of the chief things that we want when we buy a farm is attractiveness, and good trees cer- tainly add to the attractiveness of any place. The location of a few trees will often change a forbidding farm into one of beauty. 1 Mulberry 7 Chestnut Post TIMBERS. IIo PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 75 FARM FORESTRY Farm forestry has to do with the management of farm wood lots. Most of the wood lots are remnants of former forests. On the prairies, they are artificial tree plantations. Many of the farm wood lots consist largely of species of small value; and, due to lack of attention, a large number of the individual trees are diseased or of poor shape. In order to obtain a future supply of timber, the farmer must give the wood lot a share of his attention. Diseased trees and those of worthless species should be cut out and young trees planted in their places. Care should be taken to plant only those trees that are adapted to the locality and that will be of some future use. If seeds are planted, it is of great importance that they have been gathered from healthy, vigorous trees. Information concerning the planting of trees can be secured from a local forester or the State Experiment Station. In starting new wood lots it is necessary to give the young trees for two or three years the same care that is given to ordinary field crops. Good results need not be expected by merely planting the trees and allowing them to care for themselves. Trees always grow faster under cultivation than in sod or when allowed to compete with weeds and brush. Clean cultivation gives best results, and trees should be properly spaced to permit of proper cultivation. In order to facilitate cultivation and pay for the cost, a crop may be grown between the rows for a year or two. Potatoes and legumes are the best for this purpose. Cultivation may be A Grove oF Brack Locusts. THESE TREES ARE EIGHTEEN YEARS OLD. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE III carried on in the same manner as for any field crop, and should be started as soon as neces- sary after planting, and should be carried on as long as possible. The species most commonly grown can be cultivated for three years. Care should be taken the third year, for by this time the root systems of the trees are developed and too deep tillage may destroy the young fibrous roots. A five or seven- toothed cultivator is a good implement to use. Cultivation both ways is the most effective. When cultivation is discontinued, cover crops, such as cowpeas or clover, may be sown. These crops should be permitted to fall and form a mulch, but they should be raked a foot or two away from the trees in the late fall to prevent injury by mice. The next important step after the proper cultivation of the wood lot or plantation is to learn the best methods of pruning trees. This should be done in such a way that ragged wounds will not be produced. The cut should be clear and smooth and near the trunk. Care should always be taken not to tear the bark of the trunk. The fundamental principle to be observed is the elimination of forks and the securing of straight trunks. The winter months offer the most opportune time, and in many respects are the best period for prun- ing. Many prefer February and March. Do NU GuomtOnm ca onmerrcss not prune forest trees in the late summer. The catalpa is not self-pruning as are some of the common forest trees, and close plant- ing will not clear the trunks of branches. Unlike the catalpa, the locust is self-pruning, and the only operation necessary is the removal of branches that form forked trunks. The osage orange and the mulberry are not self-pruning. Careful attention should be given to the elim- ination of forked trunks and also the lateral branches as fast as they die. Ash, tulip, poplar, oak, walnut, and practically all of the native trees are self-pruning, and the removal of dead lateral branches is usually all that is necessary. Evergreens seldom fork, but when they do, one of the branches should be removed. ET? PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 76 A FIELD STUDY OF FOREST CONDITIONS Forest conditions can be studied best in the feld. Answer the following questions from actual observations of the forest conditions as they exist in the local school district. Was the land that now composes your school district a prairie or woodland when first settled ? If it was a forested region, what per cent is still in timber ? What are the most common species ? What are the most valuable species ? If your district was a prairie when first settled, what forest plantings have been made ? What purposes are the woodlands intended to serve ? Do the woodlands in the district furnish enough wood for the lumber needed in the district ? What trees are cut for lumber ? What trees are cut for posts ? If lumber is shipped into the district, what kinds ? What uses are being made of lumber on the neighborhood farms ? What substitutes for lumber are coming into general use ? What areas should be kept permanently in timber? Why? Are there any cleared tracts in your district that should be planted in trees? Why? PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 113 Make a study of one farm wood lot, whether natural or artificial. Make a list of species in the wood lot. Which are of greatest value? Which are of little value? Is the wood lot bearing a full stand of trees ? Is the wood lot pastured ? Are the trees on the whole healthy or diseased ? What diseases, if any, are attacking the trees? What insect pests ? What steps are being taken to eradicate these diseases and insect pests ? Write out a plan for improving the character of the wood lot. II4 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 177 POULTRY Pure Brep Pouttry. Turkeys, ducks, geese, guinea fowls, and chickens come under the head of farm poultry. It has only been within recent years that poultry on the farm have received scientific attention. In the past, hens, ducks, and geese were looked upon as a side issue for the farmer; if they laid eggs, it was a small profit that could be used to meet household expenses. The poultry were fed the refuse and the scraps of the table and were allowed to roam about at will. Now all this has been changed, and the care of our poultry has become as important as the care of our cows or horses. Most of the modern breeds of poultry are descendants from some European or Asiatic ancestors that roamed wild in the forested and grassy regions. With care and time, man has adapted the various breeds to fulfill purposes that supply some of his needs. Eggs, feathers, and meat are the principal things for which the different breeds of poultry are used. Some- times the animals are raised as insect destroyers, although this is generally a secondary con- sideration. With a better understanding of the nature of the various fowls has come a better system of breeding, a more careful regard to housing, and a more scientific method of feeding. The products derived from poultry are well worth every care and consideration. Full-blooded stock is always cheaper than scrub stock, whether it be poultry, cattle, or horses. A scrub hen will eat more and return less than a well-bred animal. Of all the animals classed as poultry, chickens are the most important and most profitable. Turkeys are more delicate and require careful attention, although their meat is in much de- mand and always brings a high price. Guinea fowls are raised extensively on some farms and are considered to be excellent egg-producers. Ducks may be raised easily, especially if there is water in which they may swim, although this is not an absolute necessity. The food of the duck consists mostly of grasses, insects, and small fishes; and for this reason, the animal should not be fed much hard grain. Geese, on the other hand, must have a free range of water if they are to be raised successfully. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE I15 LESSON 78 MEAT BREEDS OF HENS A Licut BrauMa. A Burr CocuHIn. Hens bred for meat are seldom very prolific egg layers. Among the principal breeds that are used for the production of meat are the following : — Brahma. The Brahmas are Asiatic fowls. There are two varieties, — the Light and the Dark, of which the former is much more popular. The Brahmas are the largest of all our domestic poultry. They are excellent table birds, but do not develop early. Their eggs are very heavy. The Brahma hen is very hardy and a fair sitter. Cochin. There are four varieties of the Cochin and they all stand next to the Brahma as meat fowls. The different varieties are the Buff, the Partridge, the Black, and the White. The Buff variety is the one most commonly raised. They are all fairly heavy, and make excellent table birds. The Black Cochin is the most easily raised of all the varieties. List the characteristics of each of the following breeds. Langshan. Indian Game. 116 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 79 EGG BREEDS OF HENS Farmers raise hens for their eggs. Besides being used on the home table, eggs are a conven- ient source of revenue to pay the small bills of the farm. Gener- ally, the farmer thinks of his hens only as small producers, but the annual revenue from eggs alone, in the United States, ap- proximates one hundred and fifty millions of dollars. A little more care of these valuable an- imals would run this one source Eccs Law BY THE AVERAGE HEN Eccs THE AVERAGE HEN COULD LAY of revenue much higher. Among IN ONE YEAR. IN ONE YEAR. the prominent egg breeds of hens are the following : — Leghorn. Leghorns were originally raised in the Mediterranean countries of Europe; to-day they are found all through the countries of the temperate zone. The two leading varieties are the White and the Brown. These hens occupy a place in the poultry family similar to that occupied by the Jerseys among cows. The Leghorns are active, good foragers, mature early, and cost less to raise than nearly all other breeds. They are the best egg layers of all the hens. Their eggs are pure white in color and heavy in weight. Hens should be carefully housed in winter, as they are sensitive to cold. A Wate LeGcHorn. A Brack Minorca, PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 117 Minorca. The Minorcas probably originated in the same region as the Leghorns, and they are very much like them in appearance. ‘They too are hardy, easily raised, and mature early. They are better for table purposes than the Leghorns, but do not lay as many eggs, Minoreas are not good setting hens. ‘There are three varieties, distinguished by their color and comb, —Single Comb Black, Rose Comb Black, and Single Comb White. Minorca eggs have won many premiums where size, weight, and color were the points considered. List the characteristics of each of the following breeds. Spanish. Blue Andalusian. Ancona. Campines. 118 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 80 GENERAL PURPOSE BREEDS OF HENS Hens that are to be used on the farm for their meat as well as their eggs are termed general purpose hens. Among the most prominent breeds of hens that answer the purpose of supplying eggs and meat are the following : — Plymouth Rock. The Plymouth Rock is the most popular of all the poultry breeds. This breed probably came from a cross of the American Dominique and the Black Java. The two leading kinds of Plymouth Rock fowls are the Barred and the White. The hens are of medium size, well-proportioned, and hardy. They mature early and make excellent broilers. They are good layers, especially during the winter months. The plumage of this breed is very beautiful, Ay RENO URE R OES and sometimes the hens are bred simply for their feathers. Wyandotte. This general purpose fowl ranks next to the Plymouth Rock. Wyandottes are not quite as large as the Plymouth Rocks, but they are easily cared for and bear confine- ment very well. They are good layers and good meat producers. There are eight varieties, having much the same characteristics but differing in color. Dominique. The Dominiques are bluish colored fowls, much like the Plymouth Rocks in structure. They have a rose comb and bright yellow legs. They are hardy, good layers, and dress well for the table. List the characteristics of each of the following breeds. Rhode Island Red. i ' & i f b E Java. Dorking. Orpington. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE T1Q LESSON 81 THE HOUSING AND CARE OF HENS SK Med APARTMENT HousE PLan. There are two systems of housing hens widely different in their general characteristics. One system is known as the colony plan; the other, the continuous apartment plan. The colony plan consists of many small houses for small flocks of fowls placed far enough part that each colony may have free range. The apartment house plan consists of a series of sepa- rate pens all under one roof and opening directly into a hallway in the rear. Sometimes there is an entrance from pen to pen by means of doorways, and sometimes the pens are distinct from each other. Each plan has its own advantages and disadvantages; and each is advo- cated by special breeders as meeting their individual wishes and purposes. In the colony plan the flocks are free to range; no expensive fencing is needed; there is less need for atten- tion to the cleanliness of the houses; and fresh range is easily obtained by moving the houses. The disadvantages are in the initial cost of construction; the greater labor in feeding, espe- cially during bad weather; and the limited number of birds that can be kept on an acre of ground. Some of the advantages of the apartment house plan are (1) the hens are all under one cover where they may be reached rapidly, (2) more birds can be accommodated to the acre than under the first plan, and (3) it is easier to feed and care for them when the birds are in one house. The disadvantages are mainly due to the liability to disease rising from confin- ing so many birds in close quarters. In using either system, the first consideration is the location of the poultry house or houses. An elevation with good drainage should be selected. The grounds used by the chickens should not be damp, for colds will be caught and other diseases contracted by the fowls under such conditions. A dry, porous soil is preferable to a clay soil that holds much moisture. If the soil is not dry, it can be rendered fit for the use of the hens by draining. Sunlight and warmth are very essential, and houses should be placed with this in view. If permanent houses are to be built, it is well to erect them on good foundations. Bricks or concrete should be used wherever possible. The foundation should be deep enough to keep out the frost. The floors may be either wood or cement, but they must be dry. About one square foot of glass surface should be allowed for every eighteen feet of floor space. Too much glass makes the house hot in summer and cold in winter. The windows should be placed high and vertical. 120 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE Cotony House PLAN. All interior fixtures should be built so that they may be easily removed. Comfortable roosts should be made with a board about ro inches below the roost to catch droppings. The rail used for roosting should be smooth and long enough to allow about 10 inches for each fowl. The nests should be placed in the darker parts of the house. Directly beneath the roost platform is an excellent place. Each nest should be from 12 to 14 inches square and high enough for a hen to conveniently enter it. Dust boxes should be provided if the hens have no opportunity to cleanse themselves in the dry soil of the yard. Fresh water should always be kept where it is available and the drinking vessels should be frequently cleaned. Feed troughs and grit boxes should be so constructed that the hens cannot get their feet in them. Several boxes containing meat scraps and grits can be fastened to the walls at a convenient height, about 14 inches, above the floor. Fresh air, dry conditions, and plenty of sunshine should be found in every house. These are cardinal points necessary in good henhouse building. If convenient, it is also desirable to have double yards for the hens to enter. If these are possible, a rotation of green crops may be obtained and the hens given green feed at all times necessary. Clover, rye, and blue grass are good crops for hens. All fowls should be fed carefully. They should have empty crops in the morning and the crops should never be full except at night. Some poultry men feed three times a day and some only twice. If the fowls have a large range where they can pick up much to eat, feeding twice aday is enough. The feed may consist either of dry grains or of a moistened mash. The drv feed consists of cracked corn, wheat, and oats mixed together in about the proportion of 2, 34, 12. This mixture should be scattered in the litter so that the hens will get exercise in scratching for it. The mash feed consists of ground grain moistened with milk or water. The mash should never be sloppy, but should be a fairly dry, crumbly mash. A good mash is composed of the following ingredients, 100 pounds corn meal, 150 pounds ground oats, 150 pounds wheat bran, 30 pounds linseed meal, and 30 pounds beef scraps. Ordinarily a hen does not get enough lime to form egg shells readily. If crushed shells of some kind can be fed to a hen that is a prolific layer, she will the more readily lay. Oyster shells are very good for this purpose; old mortar will also supply the lime. Disinfectants should be used frequently about the houses and yards, and care should be taken to prevent diseases common to fowls. If the ordinary precautions of cleanliness are taken about the chicken houses, disease will be greatly lessened. DISTRIBUTION OF COTTON IN THE UNITED STATES PRACTICAL LESSONS IN LESSON 82 AGRICULTURE T2I SCALE OF MILES 100 «200 «300 ©6400 500 Map Suowinc DistRiBuTION OF COTTON IN THE UNITED STATES, (Dots to be added.) From the following table show the distribution of cotton in the United States by placing on the map a dot for each 50,000 bales. ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF COTTON (bales of 500 pounds) — average of years 1912, 1913 Virginia. . . North Carolina South Carolina Georgia . Florida . Alabama 23,500 828,000 1,278,000 2,046,000 555500 1,418,000 (From Yearbook of Agriculture) Mississippi. . . 1,176,500 Missouri Louisiana . . . ~~ 409,000 Oklahoma Texas . . . . 4,411,500 All other States Arkansas . . . 931,500 Total, United Tennessee... 328,000 States 61,500 925,000 17,000 13,909,500 122 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 83 DISTRIBUTION OF CORN IN THE UNITED STATES \ \ ~. In the following table give the best three-year rotation for the designated crops that are found in your vicinity : — | Crop Ist YEAR 2D YEAR 3p YEAR Cotton PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 165 LESSON 114 PLOWING A PLow. Parts of a Plow. The following parts are found in every good plow: — Standard. The main or central part to which the other parts are attached. Beam. ‘The heavy iron or wooden part to which the power is attached. Handles. Used in guiding the plow. Clevis. A draft iron on the front of the beam, so arranged with a series of holes that the depth of plowing may be regulated by altering the place where the power is attached. Share (or point). The metallic point of the plow that first enters the soil and slices it from the land. Moldboard. The broad, flaring side that turns and breaks the furrow slice. The angle of this board may be changed and the shape of the furrow altered to suit the needs of cultivation. Landslide. The piece that locks the parts and keeps the plow in place. Coulter (not used in all plows). A sharp knife attached to the beam in front of the plow that cuts the furrow slice. Its tendency is to lessen the drag of the plow. Jointer. A part attached to the coulter to cut the grass or stubble before the plow gets to it. Truck. A wheel attached to the fore end of the beam to make the plow run steadier. Objects of Plowing. The objects of plowing are: — (1) To pulverize the soil so that the roots of plants may easily enter it and get the plant food. (2) To make the soil porous so that it can the more readily absorb moisture as rains fall upon the ground. (3) To allow air to enter and circulate through the soil and to get to the plant roots. (4) To prevent evaporation. (5) To alter the temperature of the soil. (6) To thoroughly mix manures or fertilizers with the soil. (7) To kill insects and weeds that are a hindrance to plant growth. 166 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE Time for Plowing. The time for plowing depends somewhat upon the kind of crop cul- tivated. Most of the plowing is done in the spring, but there are many reasons why a good deal of plowing should be done in the fall. Spring plowing tends to dry out the soil and should be done as early as possible. Early plowing allows the soil to become warm before planting and at the same time conserves the water in the lower soil for future use. Ifa cover crop be turned under in early spring plowing, humus will be ready at planting time and the growing crop will not have depleted the soil moisture. The advantages to be gained by fall plowing are: — (1) insects are killed by exposure to the fall frosts, (2) weeds are more easily destroyed, (3) the soil is acted upon both physically and chemically by frosts and water and more thoroughly pulverized, and (4) the land is much easier to work in the fall, (5) more water is stored in the soil. _ Depth. As arule most farmers do not plow deep enough. If the lower soil is exposed to the air and allowed to disintegrate before planting, much new plant food will become avail- able. Deep plowing should be done gradually, a half inch or an inch of subsoil should be turned up each year until ten or twelve inches of depth is finally reached. Shallow soils do not allow plants to obtain a good root hold. The deeper the plowing, the less the land will wash and the better reservoir of moisture and air it will become. Clayey soils, when they are not liable to puddle, are benefited most by fall plowing, because it exposes them to weather- ing. Sandy soils, on the other hand, may be greatly injured by fall plowing, because they are already too leachy. In the sandy lands of the South, much harm is done to the soil be- cause the plowing is done at the wrong time. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 167 LESSON 115 TESTING GARDEN SEEDS Garden seeds may have a low per cent of viability. Very often they are too old. Onion seeds, for example, have low germinating power after the second season. Sometimes, un- favorable conditions of development or harvesting may cause seeds to lack vitality. Again, methods of storage may decrease germinating power. Some seeds may germinate and yet not possess sufficient vitality to develop into vigorous plants. Because of these facts, the germina- tion test should be applied to garden seeds. Place in plate germinators 100 seeds of each garden crop listed in the table below. In the blank spaces at the bottom of the first column the names of additional garden seeds may be entered. Keep them in a warm place that can be kept free from extremes of temperature. Note the progress of germination from day to day and record results. Under Temperature should be recorded the daily temperature of the air near the germinators. : Per ‘CENT OF Per CenT oF SEEDS THAT SHOW Kinp oF SEED TEMPERATURE GERMINATION Vicorous GERMINATION Radish Lettuce Beet Cabbage | Onion | Cucumber | Tomato Turnip 168 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE APRIL SUBJECTS LESSON 116 A STUDY OF BIRDS The prosperity of any state or nation depends largely upon agriculture, and any agent that serves to increase or protect the crops is one well worth studying. Birds, as they depend very largely upon de- structive insects for their food, are one of the most valuable of these agents that help the farmer. Were it not for the birds the loss to our crops from the depredations of trouble- some insects would be very much larger than it is. A knowledge of the birds that protect his crops is therefore very valuable to the farmer. While most birds are useful, there are only a few that never do any harm. Insectivorous birds, besides destroying in- sects that feed upon plants, often rid the crops of parasitic diseases. Sometimes useful parasites are destroyed, and then the birds become harmful to the growing plants. But in general the good that birds do offsets the harm. Birds that are often classed as troublesome really do much more good than harm. The only way to learn whether a bird is harmful or beneficial is to observe closely what it eats and when it is liable to attack the growing crops. The crow is very troublesome in the spring when the young grain is growing and sometimes destroys the eggs and young of useful insects and game birds, but its habit of feeding largely upon white grubs, cutworms, and field mice must be placed to its credit when we come to judge the economic importance of this bird. Most hawks and owls are useful, despite the general bad reputation that these birds have. On account of their wonderful powers of flight, birds are enabled to gather at short notice wherever there is an abnormal gathering of insects. An unusual abundance of grasshoppers will attract birds from a great distance and the ravages of these troublesome pests are greatly reduced until, as a rule, no grasshoppers are left after a visit of the birds. The increase in any locality of small rodents, such as field mice, will cause the birds to gather in great numbers until these pests are reduced. No other creatures are so well adapted to capture flying insects as our nighthawks, swallows, and swifts. The woodpecker saves many of our trees with its wonderful adaptations for removing insects found under the bark. Each kind of bird has its own special field of activity and in that field is generally very useful. The movements of birds are so rapid that increased circulation is necessary to furnish sustenance for muscles and breathing organs. For this reason their temperature is very VING EXTERNAL Parts OF A Birp. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 169 high and much food is necessary to sustain the active energies of the little creatures. Field observations of birds are generally not very accurate unless great care is taken. The pres- ence of a bird in the cornfield is not conclusive evidence that the bird is harmful. It may be seeking insects and not the grain. The indiscriminate killing of birds simply because they are found to be present in our crops is to be discouraged, and a more careful investigation of just what the bird is doing and what its food is, should be undertaken. A knowledge of just which birds are friends and which are enemies is therefore very important to our farmers and orchardists in order that the beneficial ones may be protected and the harmful ones driven off or killed. The bill and feet of the bird are adapted to the work that they are-called on to do; thus the woodpecker has a chisel beak and the duck a spoon-shaped beak. The birds that perch on tree limbs have three distinct toes to their feet, while birds that swim are web-footed. Birds are generally classified into groups by the shape and structure of their bills (or beaks) and feet. Size, color, and habits are important, but are not as characteristic as these structures. Feathers are skin modifications like scales and hair, and are used for protection and flight. Feathers do not lie closely together upon the body of the bird but allow air spaces between them, thus giving warmth. Beneath the outside feathers is a covering of down which also adds warmth to the body. Plumage feathers are generally very valuable for their beauti- ful coloring, and many kinds of birds have almost been exterminated by hunters desiring to get their plumage feathers. Laws have been enacted in many states to protect these plumage birds from the ravages of the hunters. The wings of birds are suited to the special kind of work they have to do. The way in which a bird gets its living or escapes its enemies has a great deal to do with the structure of the wings. Birds that soar, like the gull and hawk, have large wings; while birds that live mainly upon the ground and have to rise quickly, like the sparrow and robin, have smaller wings. These latter birds do not need the power of long flight, but they do need the ability to rise quickly, so the wings are adapted for this special kind of work. The humming bird hangs suspended over the flower from which it gets the nectar; for this reason its wings have to move rapidly to sustain it. Some birds cannot rise unless they first run or swim quickly in order to get momentum. This speed enables them to rise into the air, their wings being too long for quick rising but large enough for continued flight. Fill in the following chart from observation of the birds about your home. Name oF Birp | WHERE Founp Home Kinp oF Nest |Foop (vegetable)| Foop (animal) 170 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 117 BIRD MIGRATION In your locality some birds are permanent residents, some remain during the summer only, others remain during the winter only, and others are transients. The transients spend the summers north of your region and the winters south of it, and therefore you do not see them except for a few days in spring and fall, when they are migrating between their winter and summer homes. List the birds in your home neighborhood under the following headings. WINTER RESIDENTS SUMMER RESIDENTS PERMANENT RESIDENTS TRANSIENTS PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 171 External Features and Habits. Select two species of birds for study and enter your observations on this page and the following one. It may take a full school year to complete this study, but the student should enter observations under their proper headings as they are made. NAME OF BIRD SIZE (compared to English sparrow, robin, or crow) COLORS MARKINGS Top of head Back Breast Wings Tail SHAPE Body Bill Wings Tail MOVEMENTS FLIGHT HABITAT NEST Where found How built Material used FOOD AND MANNER OF OBTAINING IT YOUNG AND THEIR CARE SONG Manner and time of singing Character of song Call notes I. AND M. AGRIC. — 12 172 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE NAME OF BIRD SIZE (compared to English sparrow, robin, or crow) COLORS MARKINGS Top of head Back Breast Wings Tail SHAPE Body Bill Wings Tail MOVEMENTS FLIGHT HABITAT NEST Where found How built Material used FOOD AND MANNER OF OBTAINING IT YOUNG AND THEIR CARE SONG Manner and time of singing Character of song Call notes PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 173 LESSON 118 FAMILIAR AND BENEFICIAL BIRDS Birds are a natural and practical means of ridding us of many of our insect pests. It is easy to exterminate birds but very difficult to get rid of the troublesome insects, so we should be very sure when we kill a bird that we are not destroying a real friend instead of an enemy. If birds are protected and encouraged about a farm, many of our noxious insects will disappear. Field observation of a bird eating is not always the best way to judge whether it is harmful or not. In order to be positive as to its food, the stomach of the bird must be examined and the kind of food determined from its contents. A careful examination has been made of most of our common birds in this way, and dependence may be placed upon the results of these investigations. The Quail. This is a well-known bird throughout most of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. In the South it is called the partridge. Its familiar call has given it the common name of “ bobwhite.’”’ In New England the bird is becoming less abundant, owing to its having been hunted so much for food. It is a ground bird and offers a fine study of pro- tective coloring. About 15 percent of the quail’s food consists of insects, and the rest consists largely of weed seeds. As a weed destroyer the quail has no equal. The bird is a good ranger and if unmolested will go from field to field hunting its food. It should be protected as far as possible, as its value on the farm is greater than its value on the table. The Woodpecker. There are five or six familiar species of woodpeckers. These birds are somewhat migratory, although some species never leave their homes. The woodpeckers do no damage to trees, although farmers are apt to look upon them as tree pests. A little careful investigation of their work upon the trees will easily show that instead of being harmful they are extremely beneficial. The two best known species are the hairy woodpecker and the downy woodpecker. These birds range all over the United States. The males are dis- tinguished by a bright scarlet patch upon the head. About three fourths of the food of the woodpeckers consists of destructive insects. Wood-boring beetles and their larvae, and the insects that generally inhabit trees, seem to be their choicest food. These they get by drilling into the bark and dragging the insects from their burrows. The beaks and tongues of the woodpeckers are especially adapted for the work they have to do. Their beaks are chisel- shaped for digging into the wood of trees, and their tongues are so arranged that they can be thrust out very quickly to catch insects. The Phebe. The phcebe breeds throughout the United States east of the Mississippi River and spends its winters in the South. It builds its nests under some overhanging cliff, bridge, or rock. The phaebe shows a great preference for farm society, and in the more thickly settled parts of the country is seldom seen very far from some farmhouse. The food of the phcebe consists almost entirely of insects, which are caught on the wing. Ninety- three per cent of its food consists of insects and spiders, while the rest is composed of wild fruits. Grasshoppers are eaten to a considerable extent by this bird, while wasps, many flies that annoy cattle, and garden bugs are consumed in large quantities. The Robin. The robin is found in almost all parts of the United States. It is a migra- tory bird and spends its winters in the southern parts of our country. The food habits of the robin have caused many fruit growers much apprehension. The bird is fond of cherries and other small fruits. It is, however, too valuable to be destroyed just because of its 174 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE depredations in our orchards. Over 42 per cent of its food consists of insects, while the re- mainder is made up of small fruits and berries. Beetles, grasshoppers, snails, and earth- worms are eaten. Of the fruits, the wild varieties seem to be preferred. The depredations of this bird seem to be confined to the earlier fruits. As the robin eats ten times as much wild fruit as it does cultivated fruit, it seems unwise to destroy it. The wild fruits that the robin likes are ones that man does not use at all. The Bluebird. The bluebird is one of the most common of our birds. It winters as far north as southern Illinois and southern New York. It frequents orchards and gardens, where it builds its nests in hollow trees or in box: houses erected for this purpose. The bird does not prey upon any of our crops. Its food consists mostly of insects and their allies. It is an excellent friend to the farmer, destroying innumerable grasshoppers, caterpillars, and spiders. Fill out the following chart. ee [lesa Birps | AnimmaL Foop | VEGETABLE Foop | WHERE Founp | Feepinc TIME Mourning Dove. . | Nighthawk Blue Jay Blackbird . Grosbeak Swallow PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 175 LESSON 119 HARMFUL BIRDS Make a list of those birds said to be harmful in your neighborhood. Note the kind of food they are said to destroy. Study the birds carefully and determine as far as you can if they deserve to be classed as harmful birds. Consult the government publications upon birds and any other references you may be able to get. Write your own conclusions in regard to the destructive tendencies of these birds. Make a careful study of the following birds, noting their food habits, what they eat, and how destructive they are to our crops and animals. Owls. Hawks. Sparrows. Bobolinks (ricebirds). 170 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 120 POTATOES Irish Potatoes. The Irish potato is a native of America. After its introduction into Ireland and its general use there it became known as the Irish potato. It is a staple food in the United States and in many countries of the Old World. It grows on many varieties of soils, but thrives best on a well-drained sandy loam abundantly supplied with organic matter. Seed Tubers. Seed potatoes should be of such size that their halves or other divisions would not be extremely small. The potato should be cut in such a way that each division should contain two or more “eyes”’ or buds. If the seed potatoes show any sign of scab, they should be treated with a formalin solution before planting. One half pint of formalin to fifteen gallons of water makes a solution of sufficient strength. If several acres are to be planted, use one pint of formalin to thirty gallons of water. This will not cost more than seventy-five cents and may be used repeatedly until all potatoes have been treated. Soak them in this solution for about two hours before cutting. Planting and Cultivation. It is very difficult to frame a general rule for giving the dis- tances for planting, as much depends upon the variety, season, soil, and fertilizers. They are generally planted in rows three or more feet apart, and from twelve to fifteen inches between plants. They may be planted by hand or with a potato planter. Potatoes require frequent shallow cultivation. Abundance of water is necessary for their growth and the moisture should be conserved by cultivation. Insect Pests and Diseases. The potato beetle is very injurious to potatoes. The plants should be sprayed with Paris green or arsenate of lead. If this is done promptly on the first appearance of the beetle, it can be easily controlled. Two diseases that attack the leaves are early blight and late blight. Spraying for early blight should begin when the plants are five to eight inches high, two applications of Bordeaux mixture being given two weeks apart. Tf affected with late blight three or four applications of Bordeaux mixture should be given at intervals of from one and one half to two weeks apart. Leaf burn is another leaf disease. The leaflets die from the tips and margins. Damp weather followed by hot sunny days are conditions favorable to the development of this disease. Harvesting and Storing. When the vines turn brown, die, and fall to the ground it is time to dig the potatoes. Very early potatoes are sometimes removed before this condition is reached. The large tubers are taken from the growing vine, while the small ones are re- covered to continue growing. The best method of digging a small plot is with a potato fork, while in harvesting a large area a potato digger is often used. Extreme care should be taken in digging not to break the tender skins of the potato, as this lowers their price in market and makes decay possible. In storing as well as in harvesting, potatoes should not be exposed to unnecessary light. While they will not stand a temperature below 32 degrees, too warm a tem- perature causes the sprouts to start. Varieties. Some of the well-known early varieties are Early Ohio, Early Rose, and Triumph. The Burbank, Rural New Yorker, Sir Walter Raleigh, and White Star are some of the well-known medium late and late varieties. Sweet Potatoes. The sweet potato differs from the Irish potato in that it is a thickened root and not a tuber. It is a native of the South and the best quality is produced in this section, but it is grown in many of the northern states. It is best adapted to a sandy soil. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 177 It has no eyes as has the Irish potato and is started by planting the seed potato in hotbeds. When sprouts are from five to eight inches long they are pulled off and reset where they are to be cultivated. Sweet potato plants are set in rows three or four feet apart. In many sections of the country they are planted in ridges. They should be planted as soon as the ground is warm and dry, that they may mature before the killing frosts in the fall. If they are in the ground and the vines attached, the vines should be cut before the frost, as freezing of the tops injures the quality of the potato. After harvesting, the potatoes should be stored in a dry place which has a temperature of 35 or 40 degrees. 178 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 121 PEAS AND BEANS PEAS The garden pea is said to have existed in western Asia before it was cultivated as a garden crop. It has been one of the most important vegetables grown in the United States for many years and is a leading crop in many commercial gardens. It is one of our most nutritious vegetables. The pea is a legume and therefore is a soil improver. Soil and Climatic Requirements. The largest yields are secured on a cool, moist, but well- drained soil. The pea should be planted as early as the soil can be prepared, for it does best in cool weather. Considerable rainfall is required for a good crop. Planting. The method of planting depends upon the disposition that is to be made of the crop. When planted for a cannery, peas are either broadcasted and harrowed in or sown with a grain drill. When sown with grain drills the space between the rows varies from 18 to 36 inches. Early plantings should be covered shallow, and as the season advances the seed should be planted slightly deeper. They are harvested with a mowing machine and a hay rake. Supporting the Vines. When peas are planted for the cannery, low varieties are used and hence no support for the vines is necessary. Brush is often used by the small gardener to sup- port the vines. Some gardeners plant in double rows 6 to 8 inches apart and stretch poultry netting between the rows to support the vines. Harvesting and Marketing. Peas should be harvested before they get hard. Small gardeners usually sell their crops in the pods. The pods will present a better appearance in the market if sprinkled thoroughly with cold water after they are placed in the market baskets. If peas are raised for the cannery they are shelled and graded by machinery at the cannery. After peas are canned the cans are placed in boxes and shipped to all parts of the world. Insect Enemies. The pea aphis and pea weevil are the two most serious enemies of the pea. Kerosene emulsion should be applied on both sides of the leaves to prevent attacks of the aphis. This should be done as soon as the insects appear. Sprinkling the young plants with water in which tobacco leaves have been soaked sometimes prevents the aphis from seriously injuring the young pea vines. The pea weevil injures the pea seed the same as the bean weevil injures bean seed. To prevent injury from this insect pea seed should be treated with bisulphide of carbon at the rate of I to 2 ounces to 100 pounds of seed. Varieties. Varieties of peas are classified as smooth and wrinkled, also dwarf, half-dwarf, and tall. There are dwarf and tall varieties of both the smooth and wrinkled kinds. The Alaska and Extra Early are important varieties of the Early Smooth Type and the Gradus and Thomas Laxton are good varieties of the Early Wrinkled Type. The Improved Stratagem and Telegraph are good medium varieties, while the Duke of Albany, Pride of the Market, and Lincoln are used for late planting. BEANS The common or kidney bean, from which all of our field and garden varieties have been produced, is said to have originated in tropical America. When the early settlers came to America they found the Indians growing beans. These early settlers considered beans a valuable crop. Classification. Beans are divided into two general groups, the field type and the garden type. It is only the garden type that is discussed in this lesson. The two divisions of the PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 179 garden type are the bush and pole beans. Both the bush and the pole are again divided into the kidney and lima varieties. The kidney is further divided into the wax and green pod. Other names are sometimes used to designate different types of beans. Snap or string beans are those that may be eaten with the pod while green. Green-shell beans are those that are shelled and used before fully ripe while dry-shell beans are allowed to ripen completely before they are harvested and cooked. If the green-shell type is allowed to fully mature and ripen they can then be used the same as the dry-shell kind. Soil and Climate. Beans are grown on all types of soil and hence are raised in nearly all parts of the world. They are more widely distributed than any other vegetable. The lima grows best on light sandy soil. If early maturity of any type is desired it should be planted on either a sandy loam soil or a sandy soil that contains a good supply of humus. A very rich muck soil produces too much vine and not enough beans, hence is not satisfactory. No type of beans can stand a heavy frost, but the bush varieties are more hardy than the pole, and consequently are planted earlier. The limas are very tender and require a long season for growth. The dwarf varieties of the string type mature in six to eight weeks and are some of the first beans to be found on the market. Planting. Bean rows are made from 16 to 18 inches apart for hand cultivation and 30 inches apart when horse-drawn tools are to be used. Beans may be properly planted with the corn drill if a bean plate is used. They should be planted about four inches apart in the rows and covered with sufficient soil to insure the required amount of moisture for germination. From three to six pecks of seed are used per acre. The amount depends upon the type of seed used and planting distances. The pole types are generally planted in hills 4 by 4 feet apart with from three to five beans in the hill. Poles 6 to 8 feet high are placed soon after ~ planting for the beans to climb. This type is sometimes planted in the cornfield and the vines climb the corn stalks. They are also planted in rows and the vines permitted to run on wire netting placed for that purpose. Cultivation and Harvesting. Beans should not be cultivated when wet with dew or rain. Frequent shallow tillage with implements having narrow teeth or shovels is necessary for a good crop. Level culture is best until the last cultivation, when a small ridge can be thrown up to support the bean stalks. Marketing. Commercial bean growers ship their string or snap beans in hampers by express or refrigerator freight. Green-shell beans are usually marketed in small baskets. Bean Weevil. The bean weevil is the most destructive insect enemy of the bean. This insect is about one eighth of an inch long and is covered with a gray and olive down. The eggs are generally deposited before the beans are harvested. The most effective treatment to prevent the weevil is to fumigate the beans with bisulphide of carbon. This may be done in the following manner: Secure a tight barrel that will hold three bushels of beans. After filling the barrel with beans pour three ounces of bisulphide of carbon on the beans and cover the top of the barrel with a tight lid as soon as they are treated. Leave the cover over the barrel at least forty-eight hours. This treatment should be done in an open lot away from buildings, during daylight so no artificial light will be needed. This precaution is neces- sary because the vapor of bisulphide of carbon is very inflammable. Anthracnose. Anthracnose is a fungous disease that attacks all parts of the bean except the root. The infection even spreads to the beans in the pods. ‘This disease can be detected by the spots or cankers that are black with reddish or yellowish margins. It may be prevented by planting healthy seed and by rotation of crops. 180 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 122 BEETS AND TURNIPS BEETS Soil and Climate. The beet is cultivated in almost every garden in the country but does best in a moist well-drained soil. It produces larger yields in a cool climate, consequently the best crops are grown in the north. Planting, Fertilizing, and Cultivating. The so-called seed is not really a seed but a fruit containing several seeds which are surrounded by a corky pericarp. The early varieties can be planted as soon in the spring as the ground can be prepared. These varieties are usually ready for market in six or eight weeks. The long and half-long varieties are planted in April or May as they require four to five months for maturity. The oval and turnip-shaped varie- ties are better for a late crop because they can be planted after two crops of other vegetables have been produced. : The planting distances between the rows are 15 to 18 inches when cultivation is done by hand, and 24 to 30 inches when horse-drawn tools are to be used. Seeds are planted by hand or with a drill about one inch apart in the row. The plants are afterwards thinned to the proper distance apart. The plants taken out may be reset to other rows or used for greens. Shallow cultivation is essential to the best growth of beets. The beet requires considerable plant food to produce an early crop of good quality. Ex- periment Stations advocate the use of from 600 to 800 pounds of nitrate per acre. This is dis- tributed at different times during the growth of the plants. The largest application is usually made the first time, when Ioo to 200 pounds per acre are used about three weeks after sowing. Marketing. Beets are usually sold when small and tender to enable the gardener to prepare his land for another crop. When sold in large quantities the roots are packed in crates for shipping. Beets may be stored in cellar or pit if the air is dry and the roots are covered with moist sand or soil. Insect Enemies and Fungous Diseases. Flea beetles are the most destructive insects that live on the beet. They may be destroyed by spraying the plants with Paris green and arsenate of lead. The potato scab and the leaf spot injure the beet. These diseases may be avoided by planting healthy seed in soil that is free from the fungus and by practicing rotation of crops. Varieties. The common garden varieties are the Early Model, Eclipse, Crosby Egyptian, Yellow Turnip, and Long Dark Red. TURNIPS The turnip is supposed to have originated in Eurasia. It is grown very extensively as a root crop. Turnips are eaten by man and they are also fed to domestic animals on the farm. Many farmers bury turnips in the fall and keep them for green feed for their stock during the winter and early spring. Climate. The turnip grows in nearly all sections of the country but does best in a cool, moist climate. Because of its hardy qualities it is an important crop in cold latitudes. Seed Sowing. Two crops can be raised in one year in many sections. If an early crop is desired the seed should be sown in very early spring; for a late crop, sow from the last of July until the middle of August. If the turnips are to be cultivated by hand, plant in rows from Io to 20 inches apart, and if a horse cultivator is to be used, make the rows from 25 to 35 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 181 inches apart. When an early crop is desired seeds are planted from 2 to 4 inches apart in the row, but if the later varieties are grown the seed should be planted from 5 to 6 inches apart. The seed should be thinly covered with loose, fine soil. Turnips are often sown broadcast at the rate of 25 to 3 pounds of seed per acre and raked into the ground with the ordinary garden rake. Enemies. Clubroot is the most serious disease of the turnip and cabbage. This disease also attacks the cauliflower, brussels sprouts, kale, radish, and kohl-rabi. The trouble is caused by a slime mold. When the disease has advanced for several weeks, the deformed roots are incapable of supplying the plant with sufficient moisture and nourishment. The disease is less serious with the early than with the late crop, and thrives best in acid soils. The use of stone lime to the extent of 75 bushels to the acre has proved to be a preventive of the disease. Roots, stems, and leaves from infected fields should be burned. Maggots are also destructive to turnips, radishes, onions, and cabbages. The application of carbolic acid emulsion is the most effective treatment. This emulsion is made by using one pound of soap, one gallon ot water, and one pint of crude carbolic acid. The emulsion is injected into the soil about the roots. Root crops should always be grown in rotation to avoid losses from attacks of insects and diseases. Varieties. The popular varieties of English turnips are the White Milan, Purple Top, White Egg, and Yellow Globe. The varieties of the rutabaga are the Kangaroo and the Holborn Elephant. 182 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 123 ONIONS The original home of the onion is supposed to have been in southern Asia or in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. The onion holds third place among the truck crops grown in the United States. In 1908 about 14,000,000 bushels, valued at $10,000,000, were produced, practically all of which were consumed in this country. New York, Ohio, Indiana, Florida, and Texas are leading states in the production of onions. Soil. Onions do well in well-drained loams that contain a large amount of humus. Large crops are raised on muck soils of reclaimed marshes. Green crops, fine manure, and com- mercial fertilizers are used to enrich the soil for onions. Propagation. Most of the onions grown in the United States are propagated from seed. This is done by three methods: (1) by sowing the seed in rows where the crop is to be grown; (2) by sowing the seed in beds and transplanting the seedlings; and (3) by first growing sets from the seed and then, after keeping them through the winter, planting them in the field to produce a crop of mature onions. Large growers practice the first method. Small gardeners often use the second method. If only a few rows are to be planted, sets are generally used. Planting the Seed. The planting of onion seed should be done as early in the spring as the soil can be placed in the proper condition. If hand cultivation is to be carried on the rows should be about 14 inches apart, but if horse-drawn cultivators are to be used they should be from 30 to 36 inches apart. Four pounds of seed per acre are usually used when the rows are 14 inches apart, and 13 to 23 pounds when the rows are 30 to 36 inches apart. By the transplanting process we secure an earlier crop, a uniform stand, and bulbs of more regular size. In growing onions for transplanting the seed is sown in hotbeds, cold frames, or greenhouses. The rate of sowing is 4 pounds for each acre to be planted. When onion sets are planted they are placed about 3 inches apart in furrows and covered 2 inches deep. From 8 to 10 bushels of sets are required per acre. Cultivation. Onions require thorough cultivation, which is usually done by hand. In some sections the rows are placed 3 feet apart and horse-drawn cultivators are used. In all cases frequent and shallow cultivation should be practiced. The weeding and thinning must be done by hand. Harvesting and Storing. Onions are ripe when the outer skin of the bulb is dry and the tops have fallen. They are then pulled and placed in windrows to dry out. After the tops are thoroughly dry the onions are taken to a drying shed. They are afterwards screened and placed in storehouses that are frost proof and well ventilated. Marketing. Large quantities of onions are sold and shipped directly from the field. Some of the best grades are held for the later markets. The Bermuda crop is usually put on the market in April and May, after most of the storage onions are sold. Fifty-six pounds of dry onions are generally considered a standard bushel. Enemies. Onion smut and downy mildew are serious diseases of the onion. Smut attacks the entire plant and prevents the proper development of the bulb. It may be partially prevented by treating the seed with formalin solution at the rate of one ounce of formalin to one gallon of water. Soaking the seed for twenty minutes in a solution consist- ing of one ounce of formalin in one gallon of water is recommended for destroying the spores PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 183 that may adhere to the seed. The mildew can be prevented by spraying with Bordeaux, composed of 3 pounds of copper sulphate, 6 pounds of fresh lime, and 50 gallons of water. Cutworms and onion maggots do considerable damage to the young seedlings. No satis- factory means of preventing the work of these two pests has been found. Common Market Varieties. Important varieties of the yellow globe class of onions are the Yellow Danvers, Yellow Globe, and Ohio Yellow Globe. The white varieties are the New Queen, the Silver Skin, and the White Silver King. The Red Globe, Red Wethersfield, and the Australian Brown are among the most important red varieties. The important Bermuda varieties are the Red Bermuda, White Bermuda, and Crystal Wax. 184 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 124 TOMATOES Tomatoes are cultivated in nearly every American garden. They are also a field crop in sections in which canning factories are located. The leading tomato-growing states are New Jersey, Maryland, and Florida. Starting Tomatoes. Tomatoes are started in window boxes or hotbeds. The seeds are usually planted in March and the young plants are put in the garden or field when danger of frost is over. Sometimes the plants are started in small paper boxes, a single one to each box. In transplanting, both plant and container are placed in the soil. The paper soon decays and the tomato continues to grow without being retarded, as is usually the case in the ordinary method of transplanting. Soils and Fertilizers. Tomatoes grow well in many kinds of soil and it is difficult to say which soil is best. Some gardeners, however, claim that a fertile sandy loam with a well drained clay subsoil produces the best crops. The most common fertilizer used by truck farmers is nitrate of soda. Stable manure produces a vigorous growth of vine and delays the fruiting season. For this reason, it is not extensively used in growing this crop. Cultivation. Cultivation is necessary to keep the ground free of weeds and to conserve soil moisture. In small plots, hoes and hand cultivators are used. In fields, tomatoes are planted in check rows four feet apart in order that horse cultivators may be used. Three or four cultivations are given during the season. Frames for Plants. Where only a small number of plants are desired- for the home garden, training of the plants is recommended. Some of the advantages of this plan are (1) the fruit ripens earlier, (2) the fungous diseases are diminished, (3) spraying, cultivation, and harvesting are more easily accomplished, (4) since the tomatoes ripen earlier, the ground may be used for some other crop. Harvesting. All the tomatoes on a vine do not ripen at the same time, and therefore several pickings are necessary. If grown for the cannery or the local market, the tomatoes are allowed to ripen before picking. If grown for distant markets, they should be picked as soon as they begin to turnred. When picked before they are mature, the individual tomatoes are wrapped in thin paper before being packed in boxes or baskets. Insects and Diseases. Flea beetles and cut worms are common insect enemies. The tomato is subject to many fungous diseases, most of which may be prevented by rotation of crops and by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. The spraying should begin in the seed bed and be continued about every ten days after transplanting to the field or garden. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 185 LESSON 125 MELONS The Watermelon. The watermelon is a very important crop in the Southern States. Georgia and Texas lead in the production of this fruit. The seed should be planted in rich ground, well manured, and in hills about 8 by 8 feet apart. The manure used should be well rotted and the seed should be planted about an inch deep in the soil. A sandy topsoil with a well-drained subsoil is considered ideal for melons. Melon seed should never be planted until the ground is thoroughly warm and all danger from frost is over. The seed is usually planted in the open ground where the crop is to mature. In northern districts, however, the farmers have found three distinct advantages in starting the plants in hotbeds or greenhouses. These advantages are: (1) the melons ripen from a week to ten days earlier than in open air planting, (2) it makes possible the grow- ing of melons where the summers are short, and (3) serious trouble from the attacks of the striped cucumber beetle and other insects is avoided. Cultivation must be shallow and frequent. Many growers continue tillage until the crop is well advanced. ‘This is done by shifting the vines. Hand hoeing should be practiced dur- ing the entire growing period. Thinning should not be done until the plants are well started. One or two plants to a hill produce the best crops. Melons must be sent to market at the proper stage of ripening. If they are green, the quality will be poor; and if overripe, they will not carry well on wagons or cars. Experience enables one to determine the proper time to pick melons. The sound heard when the melons are ‘thumped ”’ is the most reliable means of determining the state of ripeness. Watermelons are shipped in bulk in box cars. The striped cucumber beetle is one of the most destructive insect pests to watermelons, muskmelons, and cucumbers. As poisons are not successful in controlling this pest, preventive measures are usually employed. Where only a few hills are planted in the garden, the plants can be covered with squares of mosquito netting, but this is too expensive for a large field. Air-slaked lime or tobacco dust may be used to prevent attacks. The melon louse is a serious enemy in some seasons. The usual insecticides for these insects may be used, but it is difficult to kill them, as they feed on the underside of the leaves. Bacterial wilt is a serious disease of melons. Wilting is caused by the germs of the disease filling up the water ducts and preventing circulation in the plants. No reliable means have yet been discovered to combat this disease. Rust or blight often causes heavy losses in various parts of the country. This disease is most likely to be destructive in warm, showery weather in low altitudes, and where there is little circulation of air. Rust may be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture, the spraying being done when the plants begin to vine and every few weeks afterwards to keep the plants free from the disease spores. The Kolb Gem, Pride of Georgia, Dixie, and Sugar Stick are popular varieties. The Muskmelon. Large quantities of muskmelons are raised in California, Colorado, New Jersey, Indiana, and Maryland. What has been said regarding the planting, cultivation, and enemies of the watermelon applies equally well to the muskmelon. The Rocky Ford is decidedly the most important variety grown in the United States. Other varieties are the Jenny Lind, Emerald Gem, Paul Rose, and Hackensack. 186 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 126 APPLES AND PEARS APPLES The apple which was introduced into North America at a very early date, is our most valuable fruit. It grows in nearly all parts of the United States, but the chief apple-growing section is the region bordering the Great Lakes. The fine orchards near Lake Erie and Lake Ontario make New York the leading apple-producing state. Oregon and Washington are also noted for their large orchards of choice apples. Propagation. If the seeds of an apple tree are planted they will not grow into trees like the parent tree. In other words, a variety of apple does not come true from the seed as a variety of corn or wheat comes true from the seed. Therefore to propagate certain varieties of apples we must do so by means of budding or grafting. Usually young trees are produced by grafting buds of desired varieties on seedlings. Some trees are propagated by grafting scions to the roots of seedlings. Planting. In the second year after budding or grafting, the young trees may be taken from the nursery and planted in the orchard. The orchardist should select his trees from nurseries situated in the region in which they are to be planted. Thus, his trees are adapted to the cli- mate in which they are to grow. They should be planted in a well-prepared soil. Planting may be done in the fall or spring, and the trees should be set 40 feet apart each way. The hole in which an apple tree is to be planted should be sufficiently large to permit the roots to be placed in their natural position. Fine, rich soil is then placed about the roots and packed firmly. After the hole is filled, some fine, loose soil is scattered on the surface as a mulch. Tilling and Fertilizing. An apple orchard to bear good crops continuously must receive proper care. ‘Tillage improves the texture of the soil, saves moisture, and makes plant food available. Barnyard manure should be applied and cover crops should be planted frequently to furnish humus to the soil. Commercial fertilizers should also be used. Pruning. After a tree is planted it should be pruned. Three or four side branches are chosen for the main limbs and these are cut back to within six inches of the stem. All the other branches are removed close to the stem and then the top is cut back. During the life of the tree pruning should be done. Summer pruning is said to encourage fruit production, while winter pruning is said to increase the growth of wood. Spraying. The insect enemies and some plant diseases of the apple may be partially controlled by spraying. Fire blight and canker which affect the apple crop cannot be controlled by spraying. Branches affected with either of these diseases should be cut off. Varieties. Some summer varieties of apples are Yellow Transparent, Red Astrachan, Duchess, and Early Harvest. Fall varieties include Rambo, Fall Pippin, Maiden Blush, Bell- flower, Grimes Golden. Ben Davis, Wine Sap, Rome Beauty, and Winter Banana are winter varieties. PEARS The pear is a native of Europe and was brought to America by the early colonists. It thrives best in America in the regions extending west from the New England States to the Great Lakes, and in the states of Washington, Oregon, and California. The growing of the pear tree is becoming more common in the Southern States, where the climate is too hot for the successful growing of the apple. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 187 Propagation and Care. Pear trees grow best on a heavy clay soil. The trees are started in the same manner as those of the apple. They are planted from twenty to twenty-five feet apart each way. Pear trees demand good care to make the crop a success. They suffer more from the lack of proper attention than do apple trees. When the fruit appears, if the pears are too thick on the tree, they should be thinned to four or five inches apart. This will improve the fruit. Pears are usually picked before fully ripe and stored in a moderately cool place to ripen. Diseases. Pears are often attacked by a disease known as leaf blight, which causes the leaves to die and fall off, the twigs to become black and dead, and the fruit imperfect. Bor- deaux mixture is the most common remedy for the disease and should be applied as soon as the first leaves are opened. Fire blight or twig blight is also a serious disease of the pear, quince, and apple. When the tree is affected by this disease, the leaves look as though they had been scorched by fire, but they do not fall off. The fire blight is caused by bacteria that grow in the cambium layer. The plant suffers because the nourishment in the cambium, where the growth of new wood takes place, is utilized by the bacteria. These bacteria are carried to healthy trees by insects. Treatment that will destroy insect pests of the orchard will assist in keeping the trees free from fire blight. In addition to the apple and quince, the crab, haw- thorn, and mountain ash trees must be carefully watched, as the disease is often transmitted from them to the pear. When a tree shows blight, every diseased twig should be cut off and burned to destroy the bacteria. These twigs should be cut off about twelve inches below the blackened portion. This plan will make sure that the diseased parts are removed. The blade of the knife used in cutting should be dipped in a solution of carbolic acid after each twig is removed. The acid will kill all the bacteria clinging to the blade and thus prevent the spread of the disease. If several large limbs are affected, it 1s advisable to cut and burn the entire tree. Trees should be examined in both fall and spring for evidences of the blight. Varieties. The varieties that have proven most satisfactory over the greatest range of territory are the Bartlett, Keiffer, Flemish Beauty, Seckel, Clapp’s Favorite, Duchess, and Wilder’s Early. Some varieties cannot fertilize their own blossoms and must be planted near other varieties so that cross fertilization may be accomplished. I. AND M. AGRIC. — 13 188 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 127 PEACHES AND PLUMS PEACHES Peaches were grown in Virginia previous to the year 1650, and New Jersey and Delaware were famous for their peaches as early as 1800. This fruit thrives in nearly all parts of the United States except New England. Georgia, Alabama, Maryland, Michigan, and Cali- fornia are states that have become famous for their crops of peaches. Propagation and Care. Near the end of summer a bud from a peach tree of the desired variety is budded to a seedling grown from a seed planted in the spring. In the next spring the portion above the bud is cut off and the bud develops into a shoot four or five feet high. In the fall of the same year the young peach tree is removed from the nursery and sold. Peach trees are planted about 20 feet apart, and seem to do best on arich, sandy loam. The methods of planting, tilling, fertilizing, and pruning are, in a general way, similar to those used with apple trees. Enemies. Peach yellows is a disease that causes the peach to ripen too soon. The leaves on trees affected with this disease come out in tufts and are yellowish in color. The cause of the disease is not fully understood. All affected trees should be destroyed by fire. Brown rot or fruit mold is a disease that attacks the unripe fruit and causes it to become soft and brownish in color. A little later the peach so affected is covered with a coat of mildew. It can be partially prevented by spraying the tree several times with Bordeaux mixture. The disease known as “ peach curl”? may be prevented by spraying with a weak solution of Bordeaux mixture before the buds open in the spring. The San José scale does serious injury to the peach crop. A lime-sulphur treatment is used in some sections of our country. Some authorities claim there are certain insects that will destroy the San José scale. If this proves to be true, these useful insects will be introduced in large numbers in peach-growing sections. (See Lesson 136,San José scale.) The peach-tree borer injures the tree by boring into the tree trunks. Young trees are often girdled, and the vitality of old trees seriously impaired by borers. The presence of borers may be detected by the exuding gum found on the tree trunks. If only a few trees are affected, the larve may be dug out with a knife. Some fruit men claim that a frequent application of a lime-sulphur solution on the trunks of the trees will prevent the borers from entering the bark. As new materials are con- stantly being used as sprays for nearly all plant diseases and insect pests, it is best to consult your State Experiment Station before using any spray. Varieties. Freestone varieties commonly grown are Elberta, Champion, Lemon Free, Early Crawford, and Late Crawford. Clingstone varieties are Lemon Cling, Carmen, and Heath Cling. The flesh of the peach in the freestone varieties comes loose from the seed easily, while in the clingstone kinds it sticks closely to the seed and has to be cut away. Fruits Resembling the Peach. The apricot is grown most extensively in California, where it was introduced at an early date. It is cultivated and cared for the same as the peach. It blossoms very early, and consequently is often killed by frost, hence is difficult to raise except in warm climates. The nectarine is a kind of peach that has a smooth skin. It requires the same cultiva- tion and care as does the peach. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 189 PLUMS There are a great many varieties of plums raised in America, and most of them came from foreign ancestors. Southeastern and western Asia and southeastern Europe were the homes of many varieties that have been brought into the New World. There are many varieties, also, that have come from American ancestors. The trees can be grown in nearly every part of the United States. The seedlings, grown from seeds, are generally budded at the end of one or two years’ growth; and the trees begin to bear fruit when three or four years old. They are planted about twenty feet apart and do better if planted in soil heavier than that used for peaches. The conditions that favor peach growth are also good for plums, and the methods of planting, cultivating, fertilizing, and pruning are about the same for each. Varieties. The varieties of plums differ more widely than those of the peach, coming as they do from more distinct species. Of all the varieties there are three general or common types: first, the common plum or European plum, of which the best known varieties are the Lombard, Bradshaw, Green Gage, Prune, and the Damson; second, the Japanese plums, which are adapted to a wider range of country than the first type; third, the native plums, which are especially adapted to the plains and the southern sections of the country. There are some varieties of this third type that thrive in the cooler North. Wherever the first two types can be grown, the native plums are not popular. The native plums are much hardier, and there- fore can be used under more severe conditions. Of the Japanese plums, the Red June, Abun- dance, Chabot, and Satsuma are the best. The Berger is an excellent early plum. The Lombard plum of the European type and the Wild Goose of the native type are more widely distributed than all the other varieties. The Weaver, Quaker, Wayland, and Forest Garden are all good varieties of the native type. Enemies. The plum curculio is one of the most serious enemies of the plum. The plum gouger is an insect that resembles the curculio in its destructive work. It lays its eggs in the plum, but makes nocrescent mark like the curculio. The adult insect also does a great deal of damage by eating into the flower. The same methods of prevention are used with this pest as are employed in regard to the plum curculio. The same brown rot that attacks the peach is an enemy of the plum. It first appears in the form of brown spots, and generally is more prevalent in wet weather thanindry. The infested fruits should be burned and Bordeaux mixture used. Black knot is easily recognized by the swellings on the twigs and small branches. As the knots grow older they become darker in color. If the tree is badly infected, the twigs and branches should be cut out. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture will sometimes prove of value. Igo PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 128 GRAPES The grape is one of the oldest cultivated plants and was grown in the Old World before America was discovered. The Old World type of grape has been cultivated in America with success in a very limited territory in the western part of our country. Most of our successful varieties have been produced from native species. These native species can be grown in almost all parts of the country, but thrive best in regions bordering the Great Lakes. Propagation and Pruning. Grapevines are propagated from seed, cuttings, layers, and grafts upon old vines. If cuttings are to be used, they should be taken from the more mature wood rather than from the soft young wood. The vines grow best when planted in a warm fertile soil. The rapid growth of the vines makes severe annual pruning necessary. This plan reduces the amount of wood and limits the quantity of fruit produced. The pruning ray be done in either winter or early spring. The twigs taken off can be used as cuttings to start new vines. Uses of Grapes. Grapes are eaten raw, made into grape butter, and used for making grape juice, wine, and raisins. Enemies. The grape phylloxera is a serious pest, and its work can be detected by the galls upon the grape leaf. The Clinton grape is the variety more seriously affected by the phyl- loxera because it is not a strong resistant variety. The mildew, anthracnose, and black rot are the most serious diseases. The vines should be sprayed regularly to prevent these diseases. Special attention should be given the black rot as it probably destroys one fourth of the annual crop. If this disease 1s present, the fruit shows brown decayed spots which finally become dark and rough with small spore-producing pimples. The fungus of this disease also attacks the leaves, tendrils, and the canes of the grape. All affected parts become the source of new infection, hence should be destroyed to prevent the spread of the disease. The vineyard should be kept free from weeds and the vines pruned and trained so that good ventilation can be se- cured. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is the most common means of preventing this dis- ease. The first spraying should be given when the second leaf appears; the second, before the blossoms open, and the third, after they have fallen. The fourth and fifth applications are sometimes given about two weeks apart, after the berries have partly matured. Varieties. Popular varieties that are grown over the greater part of the country are the Concord, Worden, Niagara, Delaware, and Brighton. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE IgI LESSON 129 THE PLANTING AND CULTIVATION OF CORN The Chief Crop of the United States. Corn has played an important part in the history of our country. When the early New England colonists came to this country, they found the Indian using it as his staple food product. The colonists soon learned to grow it and many would have died from starvation had it not been for this grain. Under the careful tillage given corn in the United States, it now furnishes twice as much food per acre as any other of our grains. Although it is raised in every state in the Union, the largest and best crops are grown in what is known as the corn belt, comprising the states of Iowa, Illinois, Kansas, Missouri, Indiana, Nebraska, and Ohio. Many Southern States are now growing great quantities of corn, and it is not unlikely that there will be a southern corn belt in a short time. Soilfor Corn. The corn plant will adapt itself to various kinds of soil if the proper amount of moisture is present, but the richer the soil, the heavier will be the yield of grain. Good results are obtained by plowing under a clover sod that has been manured with well-protected stable manure. If stable manures cannot be obtained, commercial fertilizers should be used, especially to supply the phosphoric acid and potash. To supply the necessary nitrogen, the farmer should grow legumes in his rotation. If corn is to be planted two years in succession, rye can be planted in the corn at the last cultivation. This should be plowed under the next spring and will help to keep up the supply of humus in the soil. Preparing the Seed Bed. Land for corn must first be plowed. With some land, fall plow- ing is practiced; with other ground spring plowing is advisable. Fall plowing enables the rain- fall to penetrate the subsoil. In the spring these fields may have a dry surface but much moisture has been stored. If ground is plowed in the spring, it should be done as early as the ground will permit before the early rains. After plowing, the land should be harrowed. The fall plowed land sometimes requires disking before it is harrowed. If the clods are large and hard to pulverize, drags and rollers are used. Many farmers use the drag just before planting in order that the seed bed may be level and well prepared. Planting. After the seed bed has been prepared, corn may be planted if the soil is warm. In the Southern States the planting may be as early as March or April; in the Central States, in May; and in the Northern States, the last of May or the first of June. Corn should, of course, not be planted in cold or wet ground simply because the planting time has arrived; but by proper methods the farmer should have his land in good condition to plant at the proper time. The corn should be carefully tested before it is planted. It should also be graded after it is tested. The grading removes all the large, small, and irregular shaped grains that might not feed regularly through the planter. If the corn is hilled, from two to four kernels are dropped in each hill, and these should be covered from one to two inches deep, depending upon the soil and the climatic conditions. Cultivation. A few days after the planting, the cornfield should be harrowed to loosen the top soil and to kill the grass and weeds that start before the corn is up. The harrow should be used again when the corn plants are from a half inch to an inch high. A little work at this stage of growth will save many days of labor during the rest of the season. The culti- vation of the corn should be frequent enough to keep down weeds and to maintain a loose soil mulch. A greater number of cultivations will be necessary if there is much rain that 1g2 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE causes the surface soil to crust. The soil mulch must be restored or the moisture will be lost by evaporation. If the soil demands it, shallow cultivation should be kept up until the corn is tasseling. Many crops are cut short by stopping the cultivation when the corn becomes too tall. Should the corn be too large for the use of a double cultivator, a one-horse cultivator can be used. Deep culture of corn is not advisable. The roots in their early stages are shallow feeders and by the time the corn is about two feet high they extend from row to row only a few inches below the surface. The cultivation that destroys or disturbs the roots in- jures the plants and lessens the yield. CORN RECORD The following record should be filled out by the pupil from work done on his own corn plot or on a cornfield of the home farm or a neighboring farm. Area of plot. Kind of soil. Method used in preparation of seed bed. Type of corn — Variety. Locality from which the seed was obtained. Was the seed tested for its vitality? Ifso, what per cent germinated ? Date of planting — Depth of planting — Drilled or checked. Was a commercial fertilizer used? If so, what were the ingredients ? Was a legume plowed under? If so, which one? Date corn appeared. Dates of cultivation. Methods of cultivation. Purposes of cultivation. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 193 LESSON 130 THE HOME BEAUTIFUL It is just as important that the buildings and grounds of our farms should be attractive as that our crops should be successful. A pleasing home is restful and helps to lighten labor and make life more worth while. Besides the personal satisfaction from liv- ing in inviting surroundings, they add to the money value of any farm. A farmer who is slack in attending to the comforts and beauty of his home is very apt to be neglectful of his crops. Before any building is erected or before any alterations are to be made upon buildings in use, careful study should be made of the natural environment, so that every advantage may be taken of natural features. There should be a unity to all plans of building and ground plant- ing. Buildings, trees, shrubs, and vines should harmonize as much as possible. Walks. Only those that are absolutely necessary should be built. As a rule, the natural type of walk is preferable. Straight walks impress the visitor as being forbidding. Nature does not work in straight lines, and we should follow her methods as far as AN ATTRACTIVE Home, possible. Lawns. There is nothing more inviting and beautiful than a well-planned and well- kept lawn. It adds beauty of color and gives an opportunity for fresh air to reach the build- ings. Trees and shrubs should not be scattered over the lawn, but should be grouped as naturally as possible about the sides of the grass plot. In order to have a beautiful lawn there should be a good stand of grass. The seed used for the lawn grass should be pure and not contain a mixture of grasses that do not harmonize in colors. Trees and Shrubs. Trees should never be scattered about. Only small ones that grow readily should be used. The trees should be so planted that the good views from the home are not interrupted. Shrubs should not be planted singly, but be grouped with an eye to color and growing effects. Tall, upright shrubs may be placed in the middle of groups and the lower shrubs planted about them. Strive to have the growth as natural as possible. Groups of shrubs are more pleasing when they are made up of several varieties than when they contain but one kind. The varieties must not contrast too strongly, however. Vines are useful for hiding buildings that are unsightly and for covering fences. Permanent vines are best for the grounds as they do not have to be replanted continually. The English ivy, the Japanese ivy, the Virginia creeper, and the honeysuckle are probably the most used of all our vines for decorative purposes. If fast-growing vines are desired, the sweet pea, morning-glory, and moonflower may be planted. 194 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 131 LANDSCAPE GARDENING Landscape gardening is an art in itself and most farmers are not prepared to give it much attention. However, there are some rules that govern proper planting and laying off of the grounds that can be followed to advantage. It is well to have the home grounds laid off as artistically as possible and no grave mistake will be made by an intelligent home-maker if a few simple laws are followed. There are two methods generally followed in laying off the home grounds. In one of these the walks, drives, bushes, and shrubs are set about in formal designs and trimmed and trained into some geometrical shape. This LANDSCAPE GARDENING AROUND A Factory, AN EXAMPLE OF style of ground decoration is much used in THE NATURAL PLAN. . ; : Italy and is known as the Italian style. In the other method the grounds are planted and laid off as nearly natural as possible. As this kind of gardening is much used in England it is called the English style. A combination of both these styles is sometimes desirable. The type of gardening chosen depends much on location, the style of house, and the individ- ual preferences of the owner. If the grounds are large, the natural type is, perhaps, best because not so much work is necessary to keep the grounds in good condition. Where large sweeps are to be had from the house, a natural planting will be found to be much more pleasing. Geometrical forms and designs are often tedious to the eye after they have become very familiar with long use. When the grounds are to be laid out, the first thing to do is to decide which of these two schemes of planting is to be used. After this is done a careful plan should be made, and every bush should be noted in the exact location where it is to be set. A clear and concise knowledge of what is to be planted and where, should be in the mind of the farmer before anything is put in the ground. The first consideration is that the final effect should be harmonious. The topography of the land, the position of the farm buildings, drainage, sunlight, winds, and color effects should all be considered before any work is attempted. A careful regard to a few things will greatly help the looks of the farm. There should be one idea to the whole plan and small details should not be allowed to mar this unity by being too prominent. All trees, shrubs, and other plants should not only harmonize with each other in color but they should help the general color scheme. The cost of the garden planting should not be too much. It is sometimes very foolish to follow out a plan in which the cost will be excessive. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 195 LESSON 132 THE SCHOOL GROUNDS a Many school grounds both in the city and rural districts are bare of all forms of vegeta- tion. Aside from protecting the school building, one of the strongest reasons for school ground planting is that it adds to the comfort and pleasure of both teacher and pupil. Better work can be done in congenial surroundings than can be accomplished when the environment is unpleasing. The planting of trees and shrubs on the grounds has an educative value aside from its protective value. The knowledge of plant life, the ability to raise something, is just as much a part of school education as the matter to be derived from the usual textbook. Students interested in beautifying the school grounds can gain in the work no little amount of actual knowledge of right principles and methods of growing plants. Some knowledge of tree cul- ture will be of great advantage on the home farm, and very often this knowledge can be ob- tained only at the school. ScHOOL GROUNDS MADE ATTRACTIVE BY TREES AND FLOWERS. The first step in improving the school grounds is to prepare a plan. This should be a detailed outline of the work to be done, based upon the exact conditions prevailing at the school. The plan should first be a map of the grounds with all the buildings upon it. A careful consideration of a unity of effect should be given, and then the place where every tree and shrub is to be planted should be indicated upon the map. Free discussion should be given to personal opinions; and when any point cannot be settled by teacher and pupil, it should 196 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE be submitted to some one who is an expert in the matter of landscape planting. Very fre- quently it is well to have the plans made under what has been termed the ‘“‘district policy.” This is to get all the members of the school district interested in the work by asking opinions and requesting that each member of the school district contribute something that will be available for planting. Arrangement of Trees. Trees must be so arranged that they will serve for protection as well as ornament. In many cases it is well to plant a belt of trees across the rear of the school lot. Solid planting should be the rule, as it is protective to buildings and better for the trees planted. The rear views from the school are generally the least desirable. The side planting is next in importance to the rear. If trees are planted in belts along the sides, there will be room enough reserved for playgrounds. Openings for walks and views should always be kept when the planting is done in belts. A formal arrangement of the trees is sometimes desirable, as it gives better opportunity for cultivation and can be made simple and attractive. If the grounds are large, a better effect may sometimes be obtained by open, irregular planting. If it is necessary to hide objectionable buildings, trees and shrubs may be planted solidly about them. Groups of trees may be introduced where they will not interfere with the play- ground; and if they are judiciously placed, the effect will be artistic. Vines, shrubs, and other plants should be used to help the unity of the planting plan and not to destroy it by offering too much detail. Trees for Planting. Several kinds of trees are suitable for belt planting. They should be placed in groups and not planted singly. In one group could be elm trees, in another could be oaks, while a third could be pines. The elm, oak, and maple are easily obtained anywhere and can be easily transplanted. These trees grow in a great variety of soils and are well adapted to most school grounds. The beech, chestnut, walnut, ash, pine, and spruce may be obtained from various localities and used about the school building. As the school ground is to be permanent, long-lived trees can best be used. Tree plant- ing is one of our most altruistic activities. Trees are for future generations and we should always plant with this end in view. A short-lived tree grows quickly, but it lasts only twenty- five or thirty years. A long-lived tree usually grows more slowly, but lasts for a century or more. ; Thorough preparation of the soil should precede the planting. Clay soils should be plowed in the fall that they may weather before the spring planting is started. Subsoiling is often of great benefit where clay soils abound. Just before planting time, the ground should be thoroughly pulverized with a harrow. If the planting is to be done in rows, the ground should be carefully marked off and the positions of each tree marked. If the planting is to be in groups at irregular intervals, the spots designated for each type of planting should be staked off and carefully marked. Holes should be dug large enough to contain all the roots fully spread out and deep enough to allow the tree to stand about four inches lower than it stood when a seedling. The time of planting will vary somewhat with the location of the school. The usual custom employed in the locality of planting trees and shrubs may safely be followed. Have some one present on the school ground who is familiar with local con- ditions when planting takes place. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 197 MAY SUBJECTS LESSON 133 THE FLOWER AND ITS WORK The flower of a plant is the part that forms seeds. stamen Only flowering plants bear seeds. The lower forms of ERS plant life, such as fungi, mosses, and ferns, bear spores instead of seeds. corolla— In a typical flower there are four parts. In the center 1s a pistil, or several pistils; around the pistil or pistils are the stamens; surrounding the stamens is the corolla, usually made up of several parts, called petals; SECTION OF A CHERRY BLossom. and outside of the corolla is the calyx, which usually Pa aah ar ac awes is made up of several parts, called sepals. The pistils, stamens, petals, and sepals are really modified leaves. The petals are usually bright-colored and give a showy appearance to the flower. The essential organs of a flower are the pistils and stamens; and many plants have flowers consisting only of pistils and stamens. The large base of a pistil is the ovary, in which the seeds are developed. The stalk of the pistil extending above the ovary is the style, and the enlarged end of the style is called the stigma. A stamen consists of a slender stalk, called the filament, and a little capsule at the end, which is called the anther. Inthe anther are the pollen grains, which are scattered when the anther opens. When a pollen grain falls upon the stigma of a pistil, it adheres and sends a thread-like growth down the style and into the ovary and fertilizes an ovule, which then develops into a seed. A perfect flower contains both stamens and pistils, but all flowers do not contain both of these organs. Some, called staminate flowers, bear stamens only; while others, called pistil- late flowers, bear pistil only. Most species of plants bear perfect flowers; while in some species a single plant bears both staminate and pistillate flowers; and in other species one individual plant bears only staminate flowers, and another plant of the same species bears only pistillate flowers. Most of our wild flowers and fruit trees bear perfect flowers. Corn is a plant bearing staminate and pistillate flowers. The tassel is a mass of staminate flowers while the ear is a group of pistillate flowers. The long silks of the ears are the styles which project beyond the green husk in order that pollen may fall upon the stigmas. In spring, if you examine a number of willow trees, you will find a number of catkins, one kind only upon a single tree. One kind of catkin is a bunch of pistillate flowers, while the other kind is made up of a large number of staminate flowers. The staminate catkins are larger than the pistillate catkins. Pollination. Plants cannot bear seeds unless the pollen of the stamens fall upon the stigma of the pistil. In plants where the pistils and stamens are close together there is little trouble for the pollen to reach the stigma. When these organs are separated, the pollen must be transferred by some means from the stamens to the pistil. This process is called pollination. Nature has several ways in which pollinatien takes place. Wind is the chief agent for the distribution of the pollen of such plants as the corn, willow, and pine. The spores from the staminate flowers are blown about and some few of them succeed in landing on a pistil, when fertilization generally occurs. This is a very wasteful way of pollinating as only a very few stamen 198 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE spores succeed in reaching a pistil; for this reason, such plants have to manufacture a great deal of pollen. Note how numerous are the staminate flowers of the corn. Some flowers are made to attract various insects by means of color or odor, and the insects carry pollen from one flower to another. In plants of this type, the parts of the flower are so arranged that the insect cannot enter to get the nectar without becoming dusted with the pollen. Bumblebees are necessary for the pollination of clover. When flowers are adapted to insect pollination, they become unfit for wind pollination and will not be pollinated if insects do not visit them. When the pollen of one plant fertilizes the ovary of another plant, cross pollination is said to have taken place. As a result of this cross pollination a stronger, sturdier seed is made. The introduction of new life from another plant is of much benefit to the seed. Cross polli- nation is sometimes done by hand. If this is to be done, (1) remove the anthers before they open so that they will not pollinate the stigma, (2) cover the flower thus deprived of its anthers with a paper bag to prevent pollen from other plants reaching the pistil, (3) when the ovary has developed sufficiently carry pollen from some other plant to the stigma and carefully rebag the flower so that no other pollen may get to it, and (4) when the seed has matured, care- fully collect them and place them in some receptacle properly labeled. Hand pollination offers the advantage of enabling one to know exactly the parent plants. A careful selection of parents will breed a very high grade of seed. When the pollen of one kind of plant is used for fertilizing the pistil of another kind of plant, the resulting growth is a hybrid. The plants used must be of two distinct kinds, as an apple and a pear, to produce a hybrid. If the parents are more closely related, the result is simply a cross, as, for example, the pollen of one kind of apple used on the stigma of another kind of apple. Hybrids and crosses are valuable, as they generally combine some of the desirable qualities of each parent. By careful selection and intelligent breeding, the good qualities of two plants may be emphasized and after several generations a plant may be produced that is a distinct gain to agriculture. Bring to the classroom some of the common flowers that show the four parts. Separate the parts and study them closely. Make drawings below as suggested. | Cross SECTION OF | Ovary Tue Wuo te FLower | STAMENS PISTIL PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 199 Bring to the class some of the tassels of the corn plant. Make drawings as suggested below. A small hand microscope will be of advantage in observing the parts. WHOLE TasseL InpDIvipuAL FLoweR ONE OF THE STAMENS Describe where the flowers are found on the following plants and tell how each individual flower is adapted for its work. Goldenrod. Sweet pea. Squash. Okra. Cotton. Irish potato. Velvet bean. Sunflower. 200 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 134 LEGUMINOUS CROPS A leguminous plant is one that bears its seed in a pod or legume. Cowpeas, velvet beans, alfalfa, peas, clover, beans, and vetches are examples of leguminous crops. The prin- cipal plant food that is lacking in most soils is nitrogen, and these leguminous plants have the power of taking the free nitrogen from the air and making it available for plant use. In the little warts, called tubercles, situated upon the roots of legumes are bacteria that feed upon the nitrogen that is in the soil air. The nitrogen compounds made by these bacteria are then absorbed by the leguminous plants. If these plants are plowed under in the field, the soil is enriched with the nitrogen that they have gathered while the plants themselves are of great food value. Nitrogen-gathering plants have exceedingly long roots which tend to deepen the soil through their deep-growing habit. If the soil does not need nitrogen but does need humus, any non-nitrogenous crop may be plowed under. Of all the leguminous crops red clover is the best for northern conditions. Its deep root system withstands dry spells, loosens the soil, and helps to bring plant food to the surface. Cowpeas in the South take the place of the red clover of the North. They grow anywhere and easily flourish until the frost kills them. The roots are always as deep as those of red clover and the plants thrive on poor soil if not too wet. Crimson clover is the third legume of importance. The value of crimson clover lies in its ability to grow late and to make good winter pasturage. Alfalfa is the best soil-improving crop grown in arid lands and its culture is being rapidly extended to other areas. Gather plants of the following leguminous crops, — red clover, cowpeas, and velvet beans. Grind up each plant separately and preserve intact. Fill five flower pots with the same kind of loam soil. Add (in equal weights) to the first pot the pulverized red clover; to the second, the cowpeas; to the third, the velvet beans; to the fourth, ordinary stable manure; and leave the fifth pot without any fertilizer addition. This latter pot is to be used as a check pot. In each pot plant some quick-growing seed and keep a record of the experiment. Rate oF GrowTH | Por 1 Pot 2 Por 3 | Por 4 Pot 5 (Cueck Por) First week Second week Third week Fourth week State in a few words the relative values of the fertilizers used as compared with the check pot. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 201 LESSON 135 TUBERCLES ON LEGUMINOUS PLANTS Carefully dig up a flourishing clover plant and examine its roots. How many tubercles do you find ? Where are they located ? What difference in size do you find? Fill two pots with sterilized soil and a third one with soil obtained from a field in which clover has grown. Soil may be sterilized by passing hot steam through it and then drying thoroughly. Inoculate one of the pots of sterilized soil with a pure culture of nitrogen-fxing bacteria. [Write to the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., asking how you may obtain these cultures.] Transplant several clover or alfalfa plants to these pots and note any differ- ence in growth between the three sets of plants. TUBERCLES ON THE Roots oF Soy BEAN, What farms near your school have nitrogen- gathering crops? What condition of soil is a common cause of the failure of clover or alfalfa to make a success- ful growth? How may this condition of soil be overcome? ALFALFA Roots Grown IN AN INOCULATED SOIL. What crops are generally planted after the legumes are harvested ? At what time of the year are legumes generally plowed in? 202 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 136 SAN JOSE SCALE The San José scale is one of the most dreaded enemies of fruit trees. It is extremely minute but multiplies so rapidly that it soon covers large sections of the tree branches. Young trees infected with this scale should never be allowed to enter the orchard. If the scale is found on any orchard trees, they should be burned at once and every care taken to prevent the spread of the pest. A spraying with kerosene emulsion has been found bene- ficial. No halfway measures will suffice, and with this pest, as with many others, it is easier to prevent than to eradicate. The insect generally winters on infested trees in its larval stage. Both males and females are found clinging to the bark of fruit trees throughout the winter months. When spring comes the males mature early and the females Saw José Scare, Aputr AND Younc, about a month later. The young of the insect is brought forth alive; that is, eggs are not laid, but the young are born. The larve are like those of other scales, and attach themselves permanently in about twenty-four hours’ time. The insect reaches its adult condition and is ready to reproduce in about a month. During this period of growth, the parent has produced many broods which, on becoming mixed, cause all stages of development to be present on the same tree trunk. The character of this life history makes the insect very hard to control. The scale usually infests fruit trees, and occasionally such trees as the elm and walnut. Visit an infested orchard and bring some of the scale insects to school. Upon which part of the tree are most of the scales found ? What damage have they done to the tree? What is the color of the scale group? What methods are used in your locality to eradicate this insect ? PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 203 LESSON 137 CODLING MOTH The codling moth and the plum curculio are the most troublesome insects Ths CERES ‘ that the orchardist has aac) TD vas to contend with. The gs damage done by both of Larva. Pupa. ae Cocoon. Adult. these little animals is very great and much care is needed to exterminate them. It is said that the codling moth causes an annual loss in the state of New York of some three million dollars. Like many other insects, it is a visitant from the Old World, having been brought into this country during the present century. It was unknown in the Middle West twenty years ago, but during the last seven or eight years it has spread largely through the Western States. The moth makes its appearance about the time that apple trees are in bloom. ‘The fe- male lays her eggs upon the young fruit and the leaves. The larve hatch in a few days and en- ter the apple at the blossom end or from the side. The “worm” so often seen near the core of the apple 1s the larva of the codling moth. The females fly from fruit to fruit, depositing eggs until they die of sheer exhaustion. After about twenty days the larva becomes full grown and eats its way out of the apple. If the infested apple is still hanging upon the tree, the larva drops to the ground upon a silken thread of its own spinning, or crawls from the apple to the bark of the large branches or trunk and beneath the bark spinsacocoon. The larve that drop to the ground or emerge from fallen apples crawl to the trunk or some other conven- ient place and there make their cocoons. In some localities the adult moths do not emerge from the cocoons until the following spring. In other sections where the summer season is longer the moths come out from the cocoons in a few weeks, and then produce another generation to infest the apples. The moth is small and not commonly known, even among fruit growers, but its work is easily seen and its larval stage very common. Many suggestions are given as to the means of eradication. Destroy all trash where the insects are likely to winter. Spray the infected trees with a Paris-green-Bordeaux mixture (see Appendix). Trap the climbing larve by stretching’ bands of flannel or burlap about the trees. When the larve climb the tree they will stop and spin their cocoons under the first shelter. After the cocoons are spun under the band, it may be removed with the cocoons and burned. If spraying is done, the first application should be made just Worx or ae LARVA oF A after the blossoms fall. A second spraying should be made three Copiinc Mots. or four weeks later. Every leaf, twig, and fruit must be sprayed if good results are to be obtained. Copiinc Mora. I. AND M. AGRIC. —I4 204 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 138 PLUM CURCULIO The plum curculio is only one fifth of an inch long, plump in appear- ance, brown in color, with black and gray mottlings. The damage done by this insect if neglected is about as great as that done by the codling moth. The beetle appears in the early spring after Yi hibernating all winter. It HP ACAD feeds first on the un- opened buds and afterwards on the young tender leaves of the plum, cherry, peach, apple, and pear. When the fruit has developed to about the size of a marble, the female injures the fruit by piercing it with her ovipositor or egg-laying organ. The method of laying these eggs is especially interesting. The female first digs a hole in the fruit, lays the egg in it, and presses it down as far as possible. Next a crescent-shaped cut is made in the fruit around the egg by the snout of the little animal. A flow of gum follows this cut and is a sure sign that the curculio has been at the fruit. Having finished with one plum the female industriously at- tacks other plums until all her eggs are laid. It is only a few days after the eggs are laid that they hatch into whitish grub-like larve. The larva bores into the center of the fruit, causing it to falltothe ground. By midsummer the larva leaves the decayed fruit and passes its pupal stage under ground. The adult beetles go into hiding at once and are not seen again until the following spring. In the apple and pear, the larva cannot fully develop unless the fruit drops to the ground, which it does not always do. As it is almost impossible to get at the larva, it is rather hard to eradicate this pest. All fallen fruit should be destroyed at once. If the curculio is jarred off the tree while it is laying its eggs, it may be caught in sheets and then destroyed. Chickens and hogs eat all the larve they can find. The beetle may be killed by spraying just before it begins to eat out the cres- cent about its egg, but the practice of spraying is not found to be very satisfactory. The gathering of the fallen fruit at intervals of a few days throughout the early summer is probably the best means of eradicating these beetles. The curculio is most numerous at the first part of the fruit season, and in fields that have timber standing near them. As it can fly, bandages about the trees do no good. Both the male and female puncture the fruit for food, but the female alone makes the crescent-shaped cut. Most of the deposition of eggs takes place before the stone of the fruit becomes hard. Larve will not develop well in dry soil, so during drought seasons the pest is less troublesome. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 205 LESSON 139 APPLE-TREE TENT CATERPILLAR The eggs of these caterpillars are laid during the month of June in oval rings about the smaller twigs of trees. They are easily seen, as each cluster is rather prominent, containing from two hundred to three hundred eggs. The egg clusters are pro- tected from the weather by a coating of glutinous matter which swells and breaks as the tempera- ture increases. This warming of the eggs causes the larve, which have developed in them, to take on greater activity and to eat their way out to the limbs of the tree. If the season happens to be forward and the larve come out before the leaves of the tree have formed, food is found in the glutinous mass that surrounded the eggs, and the young insect is so hardy that it will live on this several days until the tender green leaves are formed. The young caterpillars begin spinning the mo- APPLE-TREE TENT CATERPILLAR. ment they leave the eggs. All the individuals hatched Pes Poe from one egg mass work together and form a colony by themselves. Perfect harmony prevails, and each individual performs his share of the work of building the family tent. This tent is so common that a description is hardly necessary. The small, glistening web, if left alone, will soon spread and _ inclose whole branches of the tree, the caterpillars meanwhile getting their food from the leaves that have been included in their house. The feeding takes place usually twice a day, in the forenoon and in the afternoon. In about five or six weeks the caterpillars attain full growth after having molted their skins four times. After growth they seek out sheltered places, where oval yellow cocoons are spun and the pupa stage passed. At the end of three weeks the adult moth emerges. This moth is yellowish or reddish-brown in color, with striped forewings. The adult does not feed, and its only occupation seems to be the per- petuation of the species. As soon as they have mated and the female has deposited her eggs upon some twig they die. Besides the apple and cherry trees, the apple-tree tent caterpillar will feed upon the thorn, the rose, and the plum. Many of our larger trees, as the oak and willow, are also attacked by this insect. There are three methods of eradication : — (1) Encourage the presence of birds. (2) Burn the nests at midday when the worms are all at home. Care should be taken not to scorch the tree. (3) Destroy the egg masses as fast as they can be found. Regularly sprayed orchards are seldom troubled with this pest. A few wild cherry trees might be planted in every orchard to attract the insects. They will go to the cherry trees in preference to any others, and may thus be captured and destroyed. 200 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 140 WOOLLY APHIDS The aphids or plant lice are insects that may tae be found on all our garden plants, on plants in our ie '{ conservatories, and on many field and forest trees. | | They live upon the juices of the plants, which they get by piercing the plant fibers and sucking the liquids. The woolly aphids of the alder, beech, and apple are very destructive. These pests give a great deal of trouble to our fruit growers. The eggs of this insect are laid upon the bark where the twigs leave the main stem. A great many eggs are laid, and they are always deposited where the young can get their food with little trouble. The eggs are yellow in color, turning black as they grow older. Small black aphids hatch from the eggs and commence to eat upon the tender bark of the tree. Young trees are seriously attacked by them and sometimes the bark is sadly scarred by the small pits they make. After a serious attack by the young, the bark stops growing and the tree becomes diseased. The first aphids hatched are all females. These females when they are about two weeks old give birth to living young, which are also females. All the young born in the earlier part of the year are females, the males not appearing until the fall. A variety of the woolly aphids of the apple attacks the roots of the tree. This pest is very difficult to eradicate. It works deep in the ground and feeds upon the fibers of the roots. There is no good way to prevent the pest from doing damage to the roots. If a tree has become badly infested it should be dug up and destroyed. Another apple tree should not be planted in the same place, or the trouble will be renewed. Plant lice have many enemies. If this were not so, our plants would be overrun with the pests, for they multiply very rapidly. The larve of the ladybird beetles, of the lace-winged flies, and the ichneumon fly feed upon thousands of these aphids and help to keep them in check. Spraying with kerosene oil will destroy this pest, providing it is not the root- inhabiting kind. If the roots have not been severely attacked, a solution of one part of carbon bisulphide to three parts of hot water if applied to the soil will sometimes be of benefit. The earth about the tree should be closely covered to prevent evaporation. PLANT LICE. PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE 207 LESSON 141 THE MOSQUITO Mosquitoes, The eggs of the mosquito are found on the surface of standing water. They generally hatch out the same day they are laid, and the young mosquitoes, called wrigglers, spend the larval and pupal stages in the water. It takes from one to two weeks for the pupa to emerge as an adult and fly away. After spring comes, the egg rafts of the mosquito may be found in nearly any body of standing water; old barrels, water tubs, pails, and stagnant pools are good breeding places. As the early life of the mosquito is spent in water, a comparatively easy way of eradicating the insect is at hand. The larva has to come to the surface to breathe, and if its supply of oxygen can be cut off, it dies. This is generally done by pouring kerosene upon the water where the eggs have been found. The oil gradually spreads over the surface and forms a thin film through which no air can penetrate. In this way the mosquito is smothered. It does not take much oil to cover a rather large pool of water; a few drops will be sufficient for a good-sized tub where the insects are breeding. For larger surfaces, an ounce of oil for every fifteen square feet is enough to kill. Fishes, especially gold fishes, are very fond of young mosquitoes. Toads, frogs, swallows, and dragon flies are valuable aids to the destruc- tion of these pests. : The two common kinds of mosquitoes are known as the Culex and the Anopheles. It is the latter genus that is responsible for the spread of malaria. Whenever malaria is present in a district, the standing water should be thoroughly inspected and removed. Every pool should be drained and kerosene used as far as possible. Screens at the house will form a pre- ventive but not an eradicator. The Culex is troublesome but not as dangerous as the other genus. The wrigglers of these two mosquitoes may be distinguished by the positions they take when at rest in the water. 208 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN AGRICULTURE LESSON 142 THE HOUSE FLY The house fly is a common and dangerous insect. Much of the sickness that occurs to man is transmitted by these insects. Typhoid fever and other diseases are often transmitted from one person to another by the house fly. They speck everything with which they come in contact and bring the filth of their breeding places to the food we eat. The life history of the fly is typical of true insect growth. There is an egg stage, a larval stage, a pupal stage, and an adult stage. The larva is sometimes spoken of as a maggot. The eggs of the house fly are laid in the manure about our stables and in the trash thrown about our back- yards. Some flies deposit as many as forty-five eggs in one night and probably lay many hundreds during a_ lifetime. It is not known exactly how long a fly will live. In about one day the eggs hatch out and the young larve begin to grow. After a growth lasting about six days the larve enter the pupal stage. In this stage the animals remain practically quiet for a week. At the end of the week, the pupw emerge as adults. A generation of flies is produced in about two weeks’ time. This accounts for the innumerable flies that appear every summer. Too much care cannot be taken to rid the house of flies. Besides being dangerous they are a personal nuisance. All filth and trash that is likely to breed theinsect should be burned and the premises about the home and stable should be kept very clean. A fly will go anywhere and will generally adapt itself to its environment so that it is not easy to eradicate it. Mulk, which is especially susceptible to germs, is very attractiveto flies and should be covered to keep out all contamination. Screens over windows and doors are an absolute necessity for protection against these pests. There is a great similarity between the house fly and the stable fly. These insects are often mistaken for each other, but a close examination of each will show distinctive differences. The mouth parts of the stable fly are different from those of the house fly. The house fly has a sucking tube for its mouth, while the stable fly has a mouth formed for piercing the skin. The bite of the stable fly is very annoying but not necessarily dangerous. Horses, cattle, and dogs are greatly troubled by this fy. Ifthe stable fly has any poisonous matter upon its mouth parts when it bites, an inflammation will probably develop. The bluebottle fly is another insect that comes into the house and is very common. It breeds in decayed animal matter. Any insect that has such an environment for its home is one that is to be dreaded about the house. . APPENDIX 209 SECTION I RURAL BETTERMENT When we work in the interest of movements that are intended to make life for the country people happier and better, we are working in the interest of rural betterment. Considerable time and thought have been given to the study of country life and its problems. The National Commission on Country Life appointed by Theodore Roosevelt gave us some valuable infor- mation on rural conditions. This commission in making its report said, in part : — “Rural society is lacking chiefly in a knowledge on the part of the farmers of the exact agricultural conditions and possibilities of their regions, resulting in the widespread depletion of the soils with the injurious effect on rural life; in the proper training for country life in the schools; in good highway facilities; and in organization for buying and selling. ‘There is an absence of any adequate system of agricultural credit, a shortage of labor; a lack of insti- tutions and incentives that tie the laboring man to the soil; the life of the farm woman is burdensome and narrow; and the farmer is handicapped by the speculative holding of lands, monopolistic control of streams and forests, waste of our natural resources and restraint of trade.” In transmitting this report to Congress, President Roosevelt pointed out the desirability of codperation among farmers in buying and selling, saying: ‘“‘From all that has been done and learned, three great general and immediate needs of country life stand out : — “First — Effective cooperation among farmers, to put them on a level with the organized interests with which they do business. “Second — A new kind of school in the country which shall teach the children as much outdoors as indoors, so that they will prepare for country life, and not, as at present, mainly for life in town. “Third — Better means of communication, including good roads and parcels post, and better sanitation; for easily preventable diseases hold millions of country people in the slavery of continuous ill-health.” We have many organizations in our country to-day that are promoting rural betterment. Some of these are the Grange, farmers’ institutes, the agricultural press, ministerial aid as- sociations, teachers’ associations, Junior and Senior Agricultural Clubs, community improve- ment clubs, and county improvement associations. Perhaps no organizations have done more for rural betterment than the Junior Agricultural Clubs. These have been organized in nearly all of the states, and they have met with marked success. Judging from the results obtained, the most important of these are the Corn Clubs, Cotton Clubs, and Canning Clubs. Some information concerning them is given in the three following sections. SECTION II CORN CLUBS Corn clubs have been organized in many schools throughout the country to encourage the study and practice of better methods of corn raising. The work has met with such success that every school should have a corn club afhhiated with the state and national organizations. 210 APPENDIX The purposes of the corn clubs, as set forth in a recent circular published by the Depart- ment of Agriculture are as follows: — (1) To encourage more intensive farming by using the best known methods of soil building, selection of seed, seed testing, cultivation of corn, etc. (2) To offer a medium through which vocational guidance, inspiration, information, and careful direction can be given to the average boy now in rural life. (3) To adapt the boy to his agricultural environments, and make him capable of self- expression within those environments. (4) To teach the value of intellectual guidance, careful observation, cultural comparison and investigation, and the need of a broader education for the farming population. (5) To teach the boy the proper adaptation of plant life to local climatic and soil condi- tions. (6) To assist the teacher and the public school to find an easy approach, educationally, to all the interests of rural and village life. (a) The club should be the laboratory for the club member and the demonstration plat for the farmer. (b) The club work becomes the connecting link between parent and teacher, farm and school, and last but not least, it forms a cooperative atmosphere in which rural boys may be developed to the highest ideals of rural life. The best results are always secured when the following organization in a county 1s main- tained : — (1) The school teacher is the local corn club organizer who, together with the parents, helps the boy to understand the written instructions on corn growing, sent him by the National Department of Agriculture, the State College of Agriculture, the State Experiment Station, and the State Department of Education. (2) The County School Superintendent is the county corn club director, and as such holds all county meetings, formulates the county rules, and settles all contests. Township and District School Superintendents do this work in states not employing county superin- tendents. (3) The instructor of the county club may be a supervisor of Agriculture, a special teacher of Agriculture, or a farm demonstration agent in counties where these agents are employed. This person will give instruction on the preparation of the soil, the cultivation of the crop, fertilizers and seed selection and attend field meetings of the club. The work is promoted jointly by the State College of Agriculture and the United States Farm Demonstration Work in cooperation with the rural school officials of the state. In Ohio four supervisors of agricultural education in the State Department of Education have charge of all agricultural work done in the public schools. If the school has no corn club, one should be organized at the earliest opportunity. Send to the institutions mentioned in (1) for bulletins directing this organization and for all infor- mation available upon the growing of corn. SECTION III COTTON CLUBS In the cotton states, clubs have been organized among the young farmers upon the same plan as used by the corn clubs. The object of these organizations is to study cotton in all its APPENDIX 211 aspects, — as a plant its cultivation, and its harvesting. In order that the young students may investigate for themselves, contests are inaugurated and individual farming upon a small scale is encouraged. Prizes are offered on the best acre of cotton, on the best five stalks, and on the best stalk exhibited. The same general rules that govern the corn con- tests are applied to that of cotton. Reports must be filed with each exhibit and the yield certifed to by competent judges. The average yield of cotton in the United States is only about 200 pounds of lint and from 350 to 400 pounds of seed per acre. If proper selection of seed is made, right cultivation undertaken, and care used in handling the soil, from 500 to 600 pounds of lint and 1200 pounds of seed can be obtained from each acre in cultivation. It costs more to grow a pound of cotton when the yield is less than it does when the yield is greater. Cotton clubs should be organized in every school situated within the cotton belt. Send to the College of Agriculture for bulletins regarding the raising of cotton and ask that all help possible be extended to the school in organizing cotton clubs. SECTION IV CANNING CLUBS In order that the girls in our rural schools may have clubs similar to those for the boys, canning clubs have been inaugurated. These clubs make a special study of garden vegetables and fruits that are suitable for canning, and of the simplest process of preparing them for the market. Tomatoes, beans, apples, peaches, and other garden and orchard products are all studied with this aim in view. Inexpensive canning outfits may be obtained by any school, and products prepared for the regular county exhibit. Each girl should be encouraged to enter a contest, exhibiting one line of canning or preserving. The rules that govern the entrance to canning clubs are as follows : — (1) Girls should be regularly organized by the teachers into local school clubs; and the school clubs into county organizations, with president, vice president, secretary, and treasurer. (2) No limit should be placed on the number of girls belonging to the club. (3) All girls must be between the ages of 10 and 18, but not necessarily pupils of the school. Any girl not having the opportunity to attend school may join the club, and enter the contest. (4) The members of the club must agree to read the instructions sent out by the State Department of Education, the State College of Agriculture, and the United States Department of Agriculture. Teachers should set aside certain times for periodical meetings of the club, during school session, when the bulletins and circulars may be discussed. (5) Each girl must make her plans and do her own work. (6) A written report must accompany each exhibit, giving in details the method of doing the work which will be considered by the judges in awarding prizes. Establish canning clubs at your school. Write to the Department of Agriculture in Washington for bulletins upon this subject, and to the State Department of Education and the State College of Agriculture for any help needed. Encourage local enthusiasm by admit- ting to the club other girls in the neighborhood who have not the opportunity of attending the school. 212 APPENDIX SECTION V SUPPLIES The apparatus listed below can be obtained from laboratory supply houses. list is estimated as the amount necessary for a class of ten students. found advisable to allow students to work in groups of three or more. The following It has frequently been In such cases the equip- ment necessary will not be so extensive and can be arranged to suit the needs of the class by the teacher in charge. Some of the apparatus may be used by the class as a whole and duplicate equipment will not be needed. The prices quoted are catalogue prices and liberal discounts are allowed by nearly every supply house. 5 doz. test tubes . 5 test tube racks : 2 trip scales weighing to #1; gram : 5 glass tube thermometers, graduated in C. ond F, 5 soil thermometers . 1o glass beakers 1 yard parchment 1 yard sheet rubber . 5 lb. glass tubing, assorted sizes cared 4 to 1 inch diameter 10 dissecting knives . 5 alcohol lamps 5 iron supporting stands 2 doz. spring brass wire clamps . 2 doz. crucibles 2 mortar and pestles 1 barometer 1 hygrometer . 5 pruning knives . 5 pruning shears . . 5 pruning saws, double adse : to hand microscopes 1 Babcock testing outfit 1 bucket spraying outft 2 doz. bottles for milk samples 2 lb. grafting wax 2 rolls grafting tape . @ $.26 doz. .27 each 6.65 each .go each 1.25 each .15 each 522 gO .44 |b. .25 each .50 each .60 each .0o doz. 55 doz. 1.00 each 5.00 5.00 -70 each .60 each .go each .44 each 9.00 II.I0 73 doz. .40 |b. .15 roll + Many supplies can be provided by the teacher, made by the pupils, or bought at neighbor- hood stores at small cost. If the school is small and only a few pupils are studying agriculture, the number of each kind of supplies may be much less than is given in the following list. 2 doz. homeopathic vials — assorted sizes. 2 doz. shallow tin pans to be used as drip pans. doz. large flower pots. yards muslin cloth. BR ®N APPENDIX 213 2 doz. preserve jars — one pint and one quart jars. 2 doz. tumblers. 2 yards thin cotton cloth. 2 doz. large-mouthed bottles. 6 sticks sealing wax. 10 soil boxes (these should be made by pupils). 2 doz. ordinary lamp chimneys. 2 doz. student lamp chimneys. 5 large tin pans to be used as drip pans. 5 shovels. 5 wire sieves. 2 barrels. 1 large wooden pestle (this can be made by the pupils). 10 large blotting pads. 1 large tub to be used for mixing. 4 doz. 3 lb. sacks for holding seeds. 4 doz. corks, assorted sizes, to be used in chimneys and bottles. pint iodine solution (tincture). pint nitric acid. pint formalin. 3 Ib. salt. 2 bushels sawdust. 2 doz. dinner plates, either tin or china. 1 book litmus paper. ie vie The following list of seeds is necessary and may be obtained from neighborhood farms : — velvet beans, lima beans, horse beans, poppy, castor beans, clover, wheat, oats, corn, red clover, cowpeas, potatoes. These should be kept by the school in quantities. The following plants should be gathered when needed for the lessons :—corn, clover, and cane. Several kinds of seed of varying age should also be gathered by the school. The school should have bins in which can be kept samples of soil and fertilizers. SECTION VI SCHOOL EXHIBITS OF WORK IN AGRICULTURE AND DOMESTIC SCIENCE Rules governing entries, record cards, and premiums should be adopted. Corn ond Other Field Crops Best ten ears white corn. Best ten ears yellow corn. Best ten ears of any other color than white or yellow. Best ten ears of sweet corn. Best ten ears of pop corn. Best single ear of corn. 214 APPENDIX Best exhibit of parent ear and 5 ears from seed of parent ear. (Parent ear to have not less than 25 per cent of grains left on cob.) Best display of corn — by one pupil, by one class. Best 4 peck of wheat. Best 4 peck of oats. Best 4 peck of barley. Best 3 peck of rye. Best quart of clover seed. Best quart of alfalfa seed. Best quart of timothy seed. Best stalk of cotton. Any other field crop grown in your district. Best display of any other field crop than corn — by one pupil, by one class. Best story of work done in raising any crop. | Garden Crops peck of potatoes. peck onions. peck of sugar beets. Best 4 peck of tomatoes. Best 3 peck of turnips. Best plate of beans in pods. Best plate of peas in pods. Best head of cabbage. Largest squash. Largest pumpkin. Largest muskmelon. Largest watermelon. Any other garden product grown in the locality. Best display of garden products —by one pupil, by one class. Best Best Best tole! tole tolH bole ry Fruits Best basket of mixed fruits. Best plate of fall apples. Best plate of winter apples. Best plate of pears. Best plate of plums. Best plate of peaches. Best plate of grapes. Any other fruit produced in the locality. Best display of fruits —by one pupil, by one class. Canned Goods Best quart of canned peaches. Best quart of canned quinces. Best quart of canned pears. APPENDIX 215 Best quart of canned plums. Best quart of canned grapes. Best quart of canned cherries. Best quart of canned beans. Best quart of canned berries. Best quart of canned peas. Best quart of canned jellies. Best quart of canned preserves. Best display of canned goods — by one pupil, by one class. Bread, Butter, Pastry Best loaf of white bread. Best loaf of brown bread. Best roll of butter. Best pie. Best white cake. Best dark cake. Best plate of six cookies, buns, or rolls. Best display of products of this group — by one pupil, by one class. Sewing Best stand cover. Best quilt block. Best pillow top. Miscellaneous Products Best herbarium of ten common weeds in school district, of ten common flowers in school district. Best set of agricultural drawings. Best display of agricultural apparatus — made by one pupil, by one class. Best corn tester. Best device for drying seed corn. Best model of silo. Best model house for hogs. Best model house for poultry. Best model farm showing farm buildings and system of crop rotation. Best collection of seeds of garden plants, of field crops, of weeds. Best collection of woods, of leaves. Best single plant — of alfalfa, red clover, alsike clover, soy bean. Best collection of useful insects, of injurious insects. Best composition on, The Protection of Our Useful Birds. Best bird house made by pupil under sixteen. Best set of drawings in natural color of six of our useful birds. Best set of drawings in natural color of two of our harmful birds. Best pin cushion. Best colored apron. 216 APPENDIX Best white apron. Best handkerchief. Best plain dress made by a girl under fourteen years of age. Best plain dress made by a girl under nineteen years of age. Any other work in sewing. Best display of sewing — by one pupil, by one class. Language Work Best story of work done in raising any crop. Best composition on the protection of useful birds. Best composition on any subject in domestic science. SECTION VII ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL The teacher should write to the following concerns and secure a supply of their free illus- trative material for use in schools : — OmaN ANY D 10. II. 12s 13. 14. 15. 16. 17; 18. 19. 20. . Products of corn. Corn Products Refining Co., New York. . Products of silk. Cheney Bros., South Manchester, Conn. . Products of mines. German Kali Works, New York City. . Products of wheat. Northwestern Milling Co., Minneapolis, Minn. . Products of wheat. Washburn-Crosby Co., Minneapolis, Minn. . Products of cottonseed. The American Cotton Oil Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. Fertilizers. Fertilizer factories. . Cocoa and Chocolate Products. Walter Baker & Co., Dorchester, Mass. . Agricultural Literature and Farm Pictures, Service Bureau, International Harvester Company, Chicago, III. ' Bird pictures. Singer Sewing Machine Company, Cincinnati, Ohio. Seeds. Congressman representing your district. Seeds. Experiment Station of your state. Seed Catalogues. Any of the large seed-furnishing concerns. Trees for school grounds. Experiment Station of your state. Weather Charts. Weather Bureau, Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Audubon Leaflets. National Audubon Society, 141 Broadway, New York. Farm Machinery Catalogues. Any of the large manufacturers of farm machinery. Food products. Postum Cereal Co., Battle Creek, Mich. Petroleum products. Standard Oil Company, New York. Samples of flint and pod corn. Experiment Station of your state. APPENDIX 217 SECTION VIII GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS The following publications issued by the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., will be found available in teaching the lessons in this book. This list does not exhaust the various bulletins issued by the government but contains the titles to the more important ones that may be used in the class. The teacher should write to Washington for the latest lists of publications on agricultural subjects and make such selections as the class work needs. Be sure to give title and number when writing for publications. 35: 48. G2. 81. 110. 132. 157. 192. 209. 211. 27 229. 245. 250. 253. 257. 266. 59: . Clover Root-borer. 69. 70. AGRONOMY (Soils, fertilizers, field crops, and crop pests) Farmers’ Bulletins Potato Culture. The Manuring of Cotton. (Rev.) The Sugar Beet. Corn Culture in the South. Rice Culture in the United States. Insect Enemies of Growing Wheat. The Propagation of Plants. Barnyard Manure. Controlling the Boll Weevil. The Use of Paris Green. Essential Steps in Securing an Early Crop of Cotton. The Production of Good Seed Corn. The Renovation of Worn-out Soils. The Prevention of Stinking Smut of Wheat and Loose Smut of Oats. The Germination of Seed Corn. Soil Fertility. Management of Soils to Conserve Mois- ture. 279. 302. 310. aT 2. 3135 314. . The A Method Grass. Advantage of Planting Heavy Cotton Seed. of Eradicating Johnson . Beans. . Some Important Grasses and Forage Plants for Gulf Coast Region. Sea Island Cotton. A Successful Diversification Farm. A Successful Southern Hay Farm. Harvesting and Storing Corn. A Method of Breeding Early Cotton to Escape Boll-weevil Damage. 8. Cowpeas. 1. Forage Crops for Hogs in Kansas and Oklahoma. . Alfalfa. . The Boll-weevil Problem. . Onion Culture. . Peanuts. . Conditions affecting the Value of Market Hay. . Soy Beans. Circulars of the Bureau of Entomology The Corn Root-worms. Some Insects affecting the Production of Red Clover Seed. The Hessian Fly. 77: 87. 95: Harvest Mites, or “ Chiggers.” The Colorado Potato Beetle. The Most Important Step in the Control of the Boll Weevil. bo H oo APPENDIX Office of Experiment Stations Circular 34. Rules and Apparatus for Seed 169. 195. 319. 393- 30. 99- 113. I8l. 198. 213. 220: 231. oe 47- 50. 197. 261. 293. Testing. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 30. Improvement of the Oat Crop. Yearbook Reprints Soil Investigations in the United States. Successful Wheat Growing in Semi-arid Districts. The Industry in Oil Seeds. Relation of Irrigation to Dry Farming. 425. Some Recent Studies of the Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. 446. The Art of Seed Selection. 456. Cropping System for Stock Farms. 495. Soil Mulches for Checking Evaporation. HorTICULTURE Farmers’ Bulletins Grape Diseases on the Pacific Coast. Three Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. The Apple and How to Grow It. Pruning. Strawberries. Raspberries. Tomatoes. Spraying for Diseases. and Melon Cucumber . Okra: Its Culture and Uses. Fungicides and Their Uses in preventing Diseases of Fruit. Cucumbers. Celery. Spraying for Apple Diseases. Insect and Fungus Enemies Grape. Sweet Potatoes. 243. 254. 282. 283. 284. of the 324. . How to Control the San José Scale. 62. 54. 60. . Three Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. . A Primer of Forestry. Circulars of the Bureau of Entomology The Peach-tree Borer. The Imported Cabbage Worm. 73: The Cabbage Hair Worm. The Plum Curculio. Yearbook Reprints Small-fruit Culture for Market. 386. Pear Blight. 387. How Birds affect the Orchard. The San José Scale. 388. Cultivation and Fertilization of Peach Orchards. 463. 480. ForRESTRY The Principal Enemies of the Peach. The Handling of Fruit for Transporta- tion. Meadow Mice in Relation to Agriculture and Horticulture. Diseases of Ornamental Trees. Information about Spraying for Orchard Insects. Farmers’ Bulletins 228. 358. Forest Planting and Farm Management. A Primer of Forestry. 2 a. 49- 71. 100. 4I. 97- 98. 456. Si. 64. 200. 236. APPENDIX 219 Circulars of the Forest Service . Forestry and Lumber Supply. 130. Forestry in the Public Schools. . How to Transplant Forest Trees. 157. A Primer of Conservation. Yearbook Reprints . Trees of the United States Important in 381. Insect Enemies of Forest Reproduction. Forestry. 442. Notable Depredations by Forest Insects. . Insect Injuries to Hardwood Trees. . Insect Injuries to Forest Products. . How to Grow Young Trees for Forest Planting. Farm ANIMALS Farmers Bulletins The Feeding of Farm Animals. 152. Scabies of Cattle. Sheep Feeding. 170. Principles of Horse Feeding. Essentials in Beef Production. 205. Pig Management. . Raising Sheep for Mutton. 206. Milk Fever and its Treatment. Hog Raising in the South. 258. Tick Fever and its Prevention. 351. Tuberculin Test of Cattle. 378. Methods of Exterminating the Texas Fever Tick. Circulars of the Bureau of Animal Industry A Form of Hog Cholera. 113. Classification of American Carriage How to Get Rid of Cattle Ticks. Horses. Some Unusual Host Relations of the 137. Preservation of Our Native Types of Texas Fever Tick. Horses. 144. Tuberculosis of Hogs. Yearbook Reprints Cropping System for Stock Farms. PouLTRY Farmers’ Bulletins Standard Varieties of Chickens. 287. Poultry Management. Ducks and Geese. 355. A Successful Poultry and Dairy Farm. Turkeys. 357. Methods of Poultry Management at Incubation and Incubators. the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. I. AND M. AGRIC. —I15 APPENDIX DaiIRYING Farmers’ Bulletins 55. The Dairy Herd. 280. A Profitable Tenant Dairy Farm. 106. Breeds of Dairy Cattle. 337. Cropping Systems for New England 166. Cheese Making on the Farm. Dairy Farms. 201. The Cream Separator on Western 349. The Dairy Industry in the South. Farms. Circulars of the Bureau of Animal Industry 126. A Simple Method for Keeping Creamery 142. Some Important Factors in the Produc- Records. tion of Sanitary Milk. Yearbook Reprints 94. Utilization of By-products of the Dairy. 260. Dairying at Home and Abroad. Farm BuiLpincs Farmers’ Bulletins 2. Silos and Silage. 270. Modern Conveniences for the Farm 126. Practical Suggestions for Farm Build- Home. ings. Circulars of the Bureau of Animal Industry 131. Designs for Dairy Buildings. Farm MEcuanics Farmers’ Bulletins 150. Clearing New Land. 303. Corn-harvesting Machinery. 235. Preparation of Cement Concrete. 347. The Repair of Farm Equipment. Circulars of the Office of Experiment Stations 74. Excavating Machinery Used for Digging Ditches and Building Levees. Roap IMPROVEMENT Farmers’ Bulletins 11. Sand-clay and Burnt-clay Roads. 338. Macadam Roads. 3 321. The Uses of the Split-log Drag. Yearbook Reprints _ Road Building with Convict Labor in 332. Building Sand-clay Roads in Southern the Southern States. States. . Use of Mineral Oil in Road Improve- 412. Object-lesson Roads. ment. ~ wm i ww wo 369. 495. 309. 443. 134. 185. 218. 385. 54- 86. 127. 28. 96. 17. APPENDIX 221 DRAINAGE Farmers’ Bulletins . Drainage of Farm Lands. 371. Drainage of Irrigated Lands. IRRIGATION Farmers’ Bulletins . Irrigation in Field and Garden. 263. Practical Information for Beginners in . How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. Irrigation. Circulars of the Office of Experiment Stations The Uses of Water in Irrigation. Yearbook Reprints Soil Mulches for Checking Evaporation. Economics Farmers’ Bulletins . Marketing Farm Produce. 325. Small Farms in the Corn Belt. Yearbook Reprints The Economic Value of the Bobwhite. 474. The Economic Value of Predacious Birds Does It Pay the Farmer to Protect and Mammals. Birds ? GENERAL AND SPECIAL Topics Farmers’ Bulletins Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds. 248. The Lawn. Beautifying the Home Grounds. 183. Meat on the Farm. The School Garden. 196. Usefulness of the American Toad. Boys’ and Girls’ Agricultural Clubs. 315. Progress in Legume Inoculation. Some Common Birds. 369. How to Destroy Rats. Thirty Poisonous Plants. 260. Seed of Red Clover and its Impurities. Important Insecticides. 278. Leguminous Crops for Green Manuring. Weeds, and How to Kill Them. Circulars of the Forest Service Arbor Day. 130. Forestry in the Public Schools. Bureau of Biological Survey Circular Bird Day in the Schools. Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 255. Educational Contests in Agri- culture and Home Economics. nN to bo APPENDIX SECTION IX REFERENCE BOOKS The following are some of the leading reference books on agriculture. Catalogues of recent agricultural texts will be furnished by all the publishers upon request. AGRONOMY King’s The Soil. King’s Physics of Agriculture. Scott and Morton’s The Soil of the Farm. McCall’s Physical Properties of the Soil. King’s Irrigation and Drainage. Vivian’s First Principles of Soil Fertility. Van Slyke’s Fertilizers and Crops. Snyder’s Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life. Lyon and Montgomery’s Examination and Grading of Grains. Myrick’s The Book of Corn. Voorhees’s Forage Crops. Shaw’s Forage Crops. Fuller’s Propagation of Plants. Bailey’s The Pruning Book. Bailey’s Fruit Growing. Weed’s Insects and Insecticides. Roberts’s The Fertility of the Land. Bailey’s Principles of Agriculture. Warrington’s Chemistry of the Farm. Frendh’s Farm Drainage. Voorhees’s Fertilizers. Johnson’s How Crops Feed. Harris’s Talks on Manure. Lyon and Fippen’s Principles of Soil Manage- ment. Shamel’s Manual of Corn Judging. Johnson’s How Plants Grow. De Vries’s Plant Breeding. Bailey’s The Nursery Book. Waugh’s Beginner's Guide in Fruit Growing. Pammel’s Weeds of the Farm and Garden. Weed’s Stories of Insect Life. ForESTRY Jackson’s Forest Planting. Fuller's Practical Forestry. Roth’s First Book of Forestry. Keeler’s Our Native Trees. Farm ANIMALS Shaw’s The Study of Breeds. Burkett’s Farm Stock. Burkett’s Our Domestic Animals. Allen’s American Cattle. Mayo’s The Diseases of Animals. Henry’s Feeds and Feeding. Robert’s The Horse. Kellner’s Scientific Feeding of Animals. Plumb’s Types and Breeds of Farm Animals. Davenport’s Principles of Breeding. Shaw’s Feeding Farm Animals. Jordan’s The Feeding of Animals. Shaw’s Management and Feeding of Cattle. DaIRYING Aikman’s Milk. Van Norman’s First Lessons in Dairying. Wing’s Milk and Its Products. Lane’s The Business of Dairying. Snyder’s Dairy Chemistry. Conn’s Bacteria in Milk. Van Slyke’s Modern Methods of Testing Milk. Sheldon’s The Farm and the Dairy. APPENDIX one PouLtry Watson’s Farm Poultry. Powell’s Making Poultry Pay. Valentine’s Howto Keep Hens for Profit. Myrick’s Turkeys and How to Grow Them. Robinson’s Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture. Salmon’s Diseases of Poultry. Prant DIsEAseEs Duggar’s Fungous Diseases of Plants. Lipman’s Bacteria in Relation to Country Life. Ward’s Diseases of Plants. Lodeman’s The Spraying of Plants. Farm MEeEcuHANIcs Cobleigh’s Handy Farm Devices and How to Davidson and Chase’s Farm Machinery and Make Them. Farm Motors. Stephenson’s Farm Engines. Farm Economics Fairchild’s Rural Wealth and Welfare. Taylor’s Agricultural Economics. Roberts’s The Farmer's Business Handbook. Ogden’s Rural Hygiene. ADVERTISEMENTS MAYNE @ ATC s: ELIGH SCHOOL AGRICULTURE By D. D. MAYNE, Principal of School of Agriculture and Professor of Agricultural Pedagogics, University of Min- nesota; and K. L. HATCH, Professor of Agricul- tural Education, University of Wisconsin. $1.00 HIS course has a double value for pupils in the first years of the high school. On the one hand, it puts the study of agriculture on a serious basis and teaches the young beginner how he can carry on the work of a farm most profitably, On the other hand, it affords an interesting introduction to all the natural sciences, enabling the student to master certain definite principles of chemistry, botany, and zoology, and to understand their applications. A few experi- ments are included, which may be performed by the student or by the teacher before the class. But the subject is not made ultrascientific, forcing the student through the long process of laboratory method to rediscover what scientists have fully established. | The topics are taker up in the text in their logical order. The treatment begins with an elementary agricultural chem- istry, in which are discussed the elements that are of chief importance in plant and animal life. Following in turn are sections on soils and fertilizers; agricultural botany ; economic plants, including field and forage crops, fruits and vege- tables; plant diseases; insect enemies; animal husbandry; and farm management. @ The chapter on plant diseases, by Dr. E. M. Freeman, Professor of Botany and Vegetable Pathology, College of Agriculture, University of Minnesota, describes the various fungus growths that injure crops, and suggests methods of fighting them, The section on farm management treats farm- ing from the modern standpoint as a business proposition. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY (324) PLANT LIFE AND PLANT USES By JOHN GAYLORD COULTER, Ph. D. $1.20 N elementary textbook providing a foundation for the A study of agriculture, domestic science, or college botany, But it is more than a textbook on botany—it is a book about the fundamentals of plant life and about the relations between plants and man. It presents as fully as is desirable for required courses in high schools those large facts about plants which form the present basis of the science of botany. Yet the treatment has in view preparation for life in general, and not preparation for any particular kind of calling. The subject is dealt with from the viewpoint of the pupil rather than from that of the teacher or the scientist. The style is simple, clear, and conversational, yet che method is distinctly scientific, and the book has a cultural as well as a practical object. The text has a unity of organization. So far as practicable the familiar always precedes the unfamiliar in the sequence of topics, and the facts are made to hang together in order that the pupil may see relationships. Such topics as forestry, plant breeding, weeds, plant enemies and diseases, plant culture, decorative plants, and economic bacteria are discussed where most pertinent to the general theme rather than in separate chapters which destroy the continuity. Tne questions and suggestions which follow the chapters are of two kinds; some are designed merely to serve as an aid in the study of the text, while others suggest outside study and inquiry, The classified tables of terms which precede the index are intended to serve the student in review, and to be a general guide to the relative values of the facts presented. More than 200 attractive illus- trations, many of them original, are included in the book. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY (165) BES I BOO Ks NATURE STUDY ON Carter’s Nature Study with Common Things (years 6) . : Cee Hoe of Wild Flowers Which Bloasam in April and May (years 3-5) . . . Cummings’s Nature Study for Primary Grades . Nature Study for Lower Grammar Grades Nature Study for Higher Grammar Grades Overton and Hill’s Nature Study (years 3-6) . . Abbott’s Boy on a Farm (Johnson) (years 3-4) . Bartlett’s Animals at Home (years 3-4) . Beebe and Kingsley’s First Year Nature Reser (years 1-2) . . 3 Bradish’s Stories of Country Lie eae 3 Li Dana’s Plants and Their Children (years 4-6) . Gilmore’s Birds Through the Year (years 7-8) Hawkes’s Trail to the Woods (years 4-7) . . . Holder’s Half Hours with the Lower Animals (years 5-8) . . Half Hours with Fishes, Reptil es, sath Birds (years 5-8) . ‘ Halt Hours with Matmal s (years es 8) . Stories of Animal Life (years 4-6) . Kelly’s Short Stories of our Shy ee (yes 3-6) . Monteith’s laa Usefit ‘Aualmvals ‘(years 3 ae Needham’s Outdoor Studies (years 5-8) . Patri’s White Patch (years 4-5). . Pyle’s Stories of Humble Friends (years re 1) : Riggs’s Stories from Lands of Sunshine (years 4-5) Stokes’s Ten Common Trees (year. 4-6) Turner’s Our Common Friends and Foes (years BAN Teele the avnewenig haya n vee Relunes Lele Walker’s Our Birds and Their Nestlings(years 4—7) $0.60 325 9° .60 75 40 “45 45 35 «40 65 50 «40 .60 .60 .60 .60 .50 50 40 -40 50 40 40 390 .60 AMERICAN BOOK COMP NY (24) OVERTON’S HYGIENE SERIES By FRANK OVERTON, A. M., M. D., Author of «sApplied Physiology.”’ Personal Hygiene (For the lower grades) . . . $0.40 General Hygiene (For the upper grammar grades) . 60 HE thousands of users of Dr. Overton’s «Applied Physiology’? will be glad to learn that he has prepared a new series which treats of hygiene and sanitation in accordance with the most progressive modern views. | The earlier series was the first to teach the subject from the practical standpoint of health preservation, and his new series marks another important step forward. €| In his capacity as Health Officer, as well as a general practising physician, Dr. Overton has had exceptional opportunity to gain his knowledge at first hand, to form sound judgments, and to view the whole subject in a broad, practical way. | This two book course emphasizes hygiene in every chapter, but it gives enough physiology and anatomy for the pupil to understand the hygiene and sanitation. | These books have the same fundamental qualities which contributed so largely to the great success of Dr. Overton’s former books—clear, concise language, a generous collection of vital facts, truthful and scientifically accurate statements, well-balanced choice of topics, and a rare pedagogical adaptation to the classroom, with questions at the end of the chapters. {| No boy or girl who studies these books can fail to live more healthfully or to promote the cause of public health. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY (154) CARPENTER’S READERS By FRANK G. CARPENTER GEOGRAPHICAL READERS North America . $0.60 Africa . e ; . $0.60 South America ‘i : -60 Australia, Our Colonies, Europe . : . x 9G and Other Islands of the Asia. 2 : -60 Sea . és ‘ : 60 READERS ON COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY How the World is Fed . $0.60 | How the World is Clothed, $0.60 How the World is Housed, $0.60 ARPENTER’S Geographical Readers supplement the regular textbooks on the subject, giving life and interest to the study. They are intensely absorbing, being written by the author on the spots described, and presenting accurate pen-pictures of places and peoples. ‘The style is simple and easy, and throughout each volume there runs a strong personal note which makes the reader feel that he is actually seeing everything with his own eyes. 4] The books give a good idea of the various peoples, their strange customs and ways ofliving, and to some extent of their economic conditions. At the same time, there are included graphic descriptions of the curious animals, rare birds, wonder- ful physical features, natural resources, and great industries of each country. ‘The illustrations for the most part are repro- ductions of photographs taken by the author, The maps show the route taken over each continent. “| The Readers on Commerce and Industry take up the three great essentials of human existence, food, clothing, and shelter. The children visit the great food centers and see for themselves how the chief food staples are produced and prepared for use, they travel over the globe investigating the sources of their clothing, and they learn how the different races are housed, and of what their dwellings are composed. The journeys are along geographical lines. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY (16) SUPPLEMENTARY READING FAMOUS STORIES AND LITERATURE “| This grading, which is simply suggestive, represents the earliest years in which these books can be read to advantage. YEAR Arnold’s Sohrab and Rustum ‘ fie oe eee Baldwin’s Fifty Famous Stories Retold . Seles oe. Le WTS Golden Flecce, 5 cg ow we © ee ee wm Re Oe 50 Nine Choice, Poeitis: a ik es) ce ao es me 8G Old*Greéle Stories.) 4) ine sk ee RES Old Stories of the. East 60 5 2 @ 4 8 oe ee HGS Robinson Crusoe for Children . . 1... < = 49S Thirty More Famous Stories Retold . . : ¥ 50 Bradish’s Old Norse Stories seer a A ees 645 Clarke’s Arabian Nights . . . . 2. « e docege® 60 Rie iE aap G02 es, ree a, tee ee he Story of Ulysses. 2. 6 1 6 2 ee ew ew ee 60 Story of Aeneas. . ae ton, bear Ural Sa ve see SAS) Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe (Stephens) é » +50 Dickens’s Child’s OliverTwist and David Copper (Severance), +40 Story of Little Nell (Gordon) . s 2 «50 Tale of Two Cities (Kirk) . . 6 ee eee) O50 Twelve Christmas Stories (Gordon) . oe we ce we GshO Franklin’s Autobiography . . oa Ree ee eer oe 995 Guerber’s Myths of Greece and Rome sorte at pier re nee et ESO. Myths of Northern Lands. . . . 2. e 6 © «© © 2450 Legends of the Middle Ages . . . «© © © «© © © 43.50 Hall’s Homeric Stories. . . « © © © © © «© «© «© «© 40 Irving’s Sketch Book. Selections . . . . « + « © + 420 Tales ofa Traveler. . . ek et cee ae a eee Johnson’s Waste Not, Want Not Storics rae ee ee ee ee Kupfer’s Lives and Stories Worth Remembering . 2. ee) 645 Lambs’ Tales from Shakespeare. Comedies (Rolfe) . . « 50 Tales from Shakespeare. Tragedies (Rolfe). . . . .50 Macaulay’s Lays of Ancient Rome ere siden ste Fen tel te50 HH 00 00 09 DD COD 00 00 C0 COW WB TOP UNNN DANHD HL DAHHDPWHY YPWwW Of DN Scott’s Ivanhoe. . eek es Wwolere 50 Kenilworth (Norris) ‘ io 6 ae ee we co ahD Lady of the Lake (Gateway) | oh er ww Nie sae 1440 Quentin Durward (Norris) . «6 6 ee we © e450 Talisman (Dewey). 2. - 6 6 6 © ee © 2 650 Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar 5 6. ee ee ee ee 20 Merchant of Venice . . 1. 1 2 © © © 6 ee e2O As Vou Likelt. 2. 6 6 3 2 # a © * @ # © 580 Smythe’s Reynard the Fox «2 1 ee ee ee ee 39 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY Go) BALDWIN AND BENDER’S EXPRESSIVE READERS By JAMES BALDWIN, Author of Baldwin’s School Read- ers, Harper’s Readers, etc. and IDA C. BENDER, Supervisor of Primary Grades, Buffalo, New York. AN EIGHT BOOK SERIES or A FIVE BOOK SERIES WITH TEACHERS’ MANUAL HE authorship of this series is conclusive evidence of its rare worth, of its happy union of the ideal and the practical. The chief design of the books is to help pupils to acquire the art and habit of reading so well as to give pleas- ure both to themselves and to those who listen to them. ‘They teach reading with expression, and the selections have, toa large extent, been chosen for this purpose. “| These readers are very teachable and readable, and are un- usually interesting both in selections and in illustrations. The selections are of a very high literary quality. Besides the choicest schoolbook classics, there are a large number which have never before appeared in school readers. The contents are well balanced between prose and poetry, and the subject matter is unusually varied. Beginning with the Third Reader, selections relating to similar subjects or requiring similar methods of study or recitation, are grouped together. Many selections are in dialogue form and suitable for dramatization. 4| The First Reader may be used with any method of teach- ing reading, for it combines the best ideas of each. A number of helpful new features are also included. Each reading lesson is on a right-hand page, and is approached by a series of pre- paratory exercises on the preceding left-hand page. 4| The illustrations constitute the finest and most attractive collection ever brought together in a series of readers. * There are over 600 in all, every one made especially for these books by an artist of national reputation. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY (s) HAMILTON’S ARITHMETICS By SAMUEL HAMILTON, Ph. D., Superintendent of Schools, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. THREE-BOOK SERIES TWO-BOOK SERIES Primary Arithmetic . . . . $0.25 Elementary Arithmetic . . $0.35 Intermediate Arithmetic. . .49 Complete Arithmetic . .. .60 School Arithmetic .. 2... 45 LTHOUGH these arithmetics are intended to be placed in the pupil’s hands beginning with the third year, the oral work of the first two years is carefully developed in each series as a guide to the teacher. The plan agrees with present pedagogical ideas of teaching arithmetic, an easy treatment of each subject in the earlier years being provided before the complete treatment. @ In the earlier books, the subject-matter has been separated into two parts, and treated topically. In the later books the year has been made the unit of division, and here the treatment is also topical. Besides the two treatments of topics, the work is distinguished by the emphasis on oral drill, the number and variety of problems, the emphasis on business arithmetic, the systematic reviews, and the easy steps in gradation. @ These books possess an unusual adaptability to the varying conditions in schools. The three-book series enables bright pupils to be promoted from the fourth year’s work to the sixth year’s work, or from the fifth year’s work to the seventh year’s work without omitting the study of any im- portant topic, and thus complete an eight years’ course in seven years. The two-book series permit bright pupils to finish the first five years’ work in four years, and be promoted from the fourth year’s work to the sixth year’s work, and thus complete an eight years’ course in seven years. ; AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY GD a Pay ae iin ne ou fl Hai ante Hee a ao et i a He i bai coe a i inn ae a a a : a . I i a ie f i s