State College of Agriculture Qt Cornell Gniversity Dthaca, RN. BD. Librarp TAT PRACTICAL BOTANY STRUCTURAL AND SYSTEMATIC THE LATTER PORTION BEING y An AwatyticaL Key to THE Witp Frowsrine Puants TrEES, SHRUBS, ORDINARY Herss, SEDGES AND GRASSES OF THE 4 NORTHERN AND MIDDLE UNITED STATES EAST OF THE MISSISSIPPI BY AUGUST KOEHLER M.D. Professor of Botany in the College of Pharmacy of the City of New, York, COPIOUSLY ILLUSTRATED. NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1876 W, Coryricut, 1876, BY HENRY HOL T. S. W. GrEEn, PRINTER AND ELECTROTYYSER, New York. PREFACE. Ir ig hoped that this brief volume may supply some new facilities to the student who will meet them with reasonable intelligence and faithfulness, for the rapid acquisition of a practical knowledge of Botany. It is also hoped that to the person already somewhat versed in the science, it will prove a more ready instrument for a large class of his identifications than any heretofore offered. The first part merely summarizes topics that are the com- mon material of the science, in the common way. A glance at the table of contents, and through the headings of the pages, will sufficiently indicate the nature of all the divisions of the work except the “Ky.” In that, the author has good authority for believing that he has intro- duced a method hitherto not applied in American treatises on the science, and also for hoping that the method has (as is not always the case with innovations) enough useful- ness to justify the novelty. For some explanation of the uses of this Key, both as an aid and stimulus to the un- learned, and a labor-saver to those already somewhat acquainted with the science, the reader’s patient attention is requested. The study of Botany can not become truly profitable until a number of plants have been identified by the student, and their i images received intoshis memory. ii PREFACE. To this end, an analytical key, pointing out the orders of the plants apt to claim the student’s attention, is pre- fixed to the American standard manuals of Chapman, Gray, and Wood. These contrivances may be success- fully employed, though with a loss of much time, by more advanced students; but, notwithstanding their indis- putable value, they will usually prove far from answering the wants of beginners. For them I have elaborated the analytical key, which makes the second part of this book. By a limited number of antitheses, it points out the very genus to which any phanogamous species whose name we want to know, belongs. This contrivance is based on what is called the dicho- tomal method, and thus far agrees with the keys indicated above; but by pointing out directly the genera, instead of the orders, it is, of course, fitted for a comparatively rapid identification. The dichotomal method was introduced by De la Marck, a contemporary and friend of De Candolle. He suggested and proved that he who wants to elaborate a most useful botanical key, must not take hold of some one part or organ of the vegetable exclusively, regarding its peculiar state as a sufficient differential character of the plant, when brought contrasted to another; that he must not care whether he always associates plants, which natu- rally seem to be allied, or whether he contrasts them, pro- vided this contrast helps to characterize them beyond all doubt ; and, lastly, that opposite things become more evi- dent by their juxtaposition (contraria juata se posita magis clucescunt). This method has been adopted by many for the purpose 6f making intelligent young people fond of botany. Suppose we have a dozen flowering plants before us, PREFACE. iii We at once notice that they all have perfect flowers, and, therefore, consult § 4 of this key. Directed from there to § 5, we separate our dozen into two heaps, on account of the number of their stamens. Six of them have more than 20 stamens, and six less. Let us attack first the half dozen with over 20 stamens. In §6 we ascertain that four of them have their stamens distinct, while the other two have them united. To learn the names of the four plants with distinct stamens, we con- sult § 7, and there are led to observe that three of them have their stamens inserted on the receptacle, while one has his attached to the calyx. The plant with the stamens inserted into the calyx must be looked for in 48; and from there, as it has 8-12 ovaries, we proceed to 57. The number of the perianth-pieces being definite, namely, only five, we are directed to 58, where, ascertaining that the fruit is a follicle, ete., we establish that the plant un- der consideration is a Spirca. As to the three other plants with their distinct stamens inserted on the receptacle, we are .in § 8 advised to. ascer- tain the number of pistils. We find that two of the plants have one pistil only, while one of them has five pistils. As regards the latter, we are directed to 25, and verifying there that the pistils are distinct, we proceed to 26; and as the pistils are not sunk in hollows of the re- ceptacle, but free on its surface, to 27. The leaves being not peltate (or shield-shaped), we are shown to 28, and from there, as the plant is an herb, to 29. The ovary be- ing not one-ovuled, ete., we pass on to 38, and from there, the petals being present, to41. The petals being spurred, we consult § 42, where, the petals proving to be all alike, it becomes evident that our plant is Agudegea Cana- densis, L. iv PREFACE. To identify the plants with one pistil (§8) and regu- lar flowers (§ 9), we must proceed to§10. Here we are made aware that one of them, containing a yellow, milky juice, has a two-sepalled calyx, while the other has more than two sepals. In § 11, being directed to 12 and 13, we find that our plant, having prickly leaves, is Argemone Mexicana, L. As to the other 1-pistiliate, 5-sepalled plant with regular flowers, we first apply to 16, and as it is not a tree, to 17, from where, the plant having simple, pitcher-form leaves, we proceed to 19, to learn that the plant is called Sarracenia. To identify the last two plants of our first half dozen, we return to § 6; and, whereas the stamens are united, we are shown to § 66. The filaments being united in several bundles, we proceed to 74. One of the plants has the leaves opposite—it is Hypericum ; the other one has them alternate, and must be looked for in 75. The plant under consideration has the peduncles of its flower-clusters adnate to the midrib of a leaf-like bract; and is therefore Tilia, the Linden. And now for the second half dozen! In § 5 we are required to consult § 77. Here we as- certain that one of the six plants has a double perianth, while three others, one of them grass-like, have a simple set, and the two last plants, one of them also grass-like, no perianth at all, or only a poor substitute of it in form of bristles. Our plant with a double perianth obliges us to proceed to § 78, from where, as the corollas of our specimen are gamopetalous, we are directed to 820. We ascertain there that, as each flower has the ovary inferior, we must proceed to 507.. As our plant has no tendrils, we consult § 508. We notice that there are three stamens in each PREFACE. v flower with a regular corolla, whereupon we look for further information in 534, where, as the leaves are in whorls of four, etc., we make certain that it is called Ga- lium triftdum, L. Returning to § 77, to learn how to ascertain the names of the three plants with one set of perianth, we are di- rected to 587. Noticing that one of the three plants un- der consideration has three to five fluwers in a calyx-like, funnel-form involucre, and that these flowers have a bell- shaped perianth each, we find in 538 that it is Oxybaphus nyctagineus, Nees. Of the two remaining plants with a simple perianth, we may attack the grass-like one first. Its flowers consist of an ovary, three stamens, and two pales (the perianth of grasses). We must start from § 5387, from where, as there is no involucre to several flowers, we proceed to 539. From here we are directed to 564, where we are informed that we have a true grass before us, and are required to consult § 565. Here, as each spikelet contains a solitary, perfect flower, we are advised to ask for further information in 566. Two glumes being present, we proceed to 568, and, the flower having two pales, to 570. The spikelets being not im- bedded in hollows of the stem, we consult 571. As our grass, with the spikelets of one sort, has four spikes placed digitately on the summit of the culm, we proceed to 573, where we ascertain that it is Cynodon Dactylon, Pers. Resuming § 539 (from where we must start in behalf of the rest of our plants, as they have all incomplete flow- ers), we inquire regarding the last plant with perianth- bearing flowers. As it has a very conspicuous perianth, we proceed to 564. As it is no grass, we must consult 639. The number of stamens not exceeding 12, we pro- ceed to 640, and from there, the perianth being irregular, i PREFACE. o 755. As the ovary is under the perianth, we pass ou o 757. The perianth being tubular, and bent in form of in §, etc., we decide that it is Aristolochia. As the last two plants of our half dozen have no peri- mth at all, or only a few bristles supplying its place, ve are from 539 directed to 540, where we learn that one of them is a sedge. Being directed to 551, and ascertain- ng there that this sedge is not moncecious nor dicecious, we pass on to 552. The glumes being two-rowed, we ipply to 553, where, as our sedge has its spikes on soli- iary, axillary peduncles, etc., we verify that it is Du- ichium spathaceum, Nees. To identify the very last plant, we were directed from 539 to 540. As it is not grass-like, we proceed to 541. [t being not a stemless or scapeless plant, we pass on to 542. [t being further no maritime plant, we apply to 544, where, as it is a leafless, succulent, fleshy plant, with a jointed stem, and closely appressed (or, as it were, im- yedded) flowers, always three together, forming club- shaped spikes, etc., we ascertain that it is Salicornia. The young botanist, after having a few times used the ey, will be aware that it is not always necessary to begin an investigation on the first page. First of all, he must, whenever a phenogamous plant is to be identified, begin with the questions: Are there several flowers in a com- mon involucre, and, if so, are the amhers united? Then: Are the flowers diclinous? These questions answered in the negative, he will continue asking: Are there more or less than 20 stamens in each flower? In most cases he will see fit to start at once from § 77. After having some practice in using the key, the student will be capable of at once attacking one or the other of the chief divisions, namely : « PREFACE. vii A. Corolla polypetalous...............00. (79-319). B. Corolla gamopetalous (monopetalous). . (820-536). C. Incomplete flowers............5..... (537-778). De Diclitous Howertscuw ¢cacanvawse aus (774-908), H..- Composites : ais s.i5 nese sane cue cae (904-1000). In the divisions, “Corolla polypetalous” and “Incom- plete flowers,” plants with polyandrous flowers: will be generally missed, as they were done with in §§ 6-76; but when they are met with again, it is for good reasons. Whenever a genus is represented by one species only (in our Flora), the specific name is given—for example, Syniplocos tinctoria ; and whenever the generic name alone —for example, Liysirndolia 4s found, it is to be under- stood that the genus is represented by more species than one. When species of a genus differ so widely as to be equivalent to sub-genera, they will be met with in the same or in separate paragraphs, as Stylisma evolwulsides, Choisy, and Stylisma Pickeringit, Gray, or Phalaris arundi- nacea, and Phalaris Canariensis, L. Sometimes a genus (or a species) will be met with twice, or oftener, in distant divisions. Thus, we have Penthorum sedoides in the division “ Corolla polypetalous,” as well as in that of the “Incomplete flowers ;” for the flowers of this species have sometimes a corolla, and oftenernone. Again, the calyx is sometimes furnished with an obscurely toothed . or obsolete limb, and the student may, therefore, look for the plant among those with incomplete flowers, and he will not miss it, as the case is provided for; still he finds the plant a second time among those with complete flowers. Finally, a genus may be identified, although the investiga- tion may be made from the apparent relations of the floral parts, not from the true ones, as in Luphorbia. viii PREFACE. The twelve plants we have analyzed and identified above, are either exogenous or endogenous. Thus it appears that the student may identify plants of both classes without understanding what the terms Exogens and Endogens sig- nify. No one, however, is expected to consider the dis- tinction between them of small importance. In counting the parts of the floral circles, it is absolutely necessary to ascertain their habztwal number. Thus, in Acer (Maple) the calyx-lobes (and the petals, if present) are usually 5, though sometimes anywhere between 4 and 12. We must always examine several flowers before we can be safely guided by the key. Looking in it for Acer, we shall miss it if we have not previously known that the calyx-lobes are usually five in number. In the first part of the book, treating of Structural Botany, the plan has been to exclude all detail which is not absolutely necessary to the beginner. When in the second part a figure in parenthesis is found at the right of a paragraphic figure, it indicates the paragraph giving the next previous step in the identifica- tion; see, for instance, 189 (175). When the name of a plant found in a paragraph has in parenthesis a figure at the left, this figure denotes a previous paragraph, in which it was met with already; and, again, a figure standing at the right gives reference to one of the subsequent para- graphs, in which, for some reason, the plant’s name will again be found. Terms and symbols, the meaning of which some readers are likely not to know, are explained in the Glossary. In the sections of the key which treat of sedges and grasses, the student will find references to plates, crowded with engravings, appended to Gray’s and Wood’s - manuals. Thus, in §565, the notations, Gr. VIIL., 62, PREFACE. ix and W. V., 63, refer to the 8th table of illustrations and the 62d genus of the order in Gray’s, and 5th table and 63d genus in Wood’s manual. In preparing this work, I have freely availed myself of the labors of my predecessors—Chapman, Gray, the Hookers, Torrey, Wood, and others. Much of what they have laid down is stored up in my memory, or converted, as it were, into my own mind; so I may have used, here and there, their very words, without realizing the fact. Again, in botany, the descriptive part particularly, certain modes of writing have become so general that originality would be deemed absurd. Having said thus much, I may be permitted to state, that of the 800 genera laid down in the key, I had myself analyzed and represented by drawings over 500 before I ventured to prepare this book; and most of the rest I have examined also, either in the fresh or dry state. To any professional botanist who may suggest improve- ments and corrections, I shall be indebted. In calling the book “ Practical Botany,” I hoped to in- dicate that it is planned to gratify practical needs. May this book lead the young botanist through the in- tricacies of our flowery wildernesses, as Ariadne’s ball of twine led Theseus through Deedalus’s labyrinth! PART 1 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. CONTENTS OF PART L I. Inrropuction, ‘ : 5 s ; ‘ ; §$ 1-63 TI. Genzran Vecreraste Morpnocraray, BY ig . §§ 64-68 TIL OrganocRaPHy, . . 2 ‘ ~ 2 . §§ 69-153 IV, Arrancement or Leaves anp FLowsrrs on THE ‘Stem anp BRANCHES, . . . oo. 6.) 88 154-179 V. Guossary or Boranican Terms, . ‘ ‘ é Page 95 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. I, ey” INTRODUCTION. A. DEFINITION OF BOTANY. 1. Borany is the science which treats of the structure of plants, the functions of their organs, their places of rrowth, their classification, and the terms which are em- sloyed j in their description and denomination. B. BRANCHES OF BOTANY. 2. Borany is divided in two cardinal branches—Tuxo- ‘ETICAL and PRacticat. 3. Taroretica, Borany treats of plants without re- ard to their utility or hurtfulness. It is divided into, 1 Vegetable Organography ; 2. Vegetable Physiology ; and, . Special or Systematic Botany. 4, Orcanograpnxy, also called Termrmnotocy, or GENE- AL Borany, treats of the terms employed by the botanist > designate the several parts of plants, or to describe their orm. oF 2 PRACTICAL BOTANY. Organography may be preceded by General Morpho- graphy, which considers the forms of plants, without taking into account the particular organs.. While Organography proper tells what ovate leaves, pods, seeds are, General Morphography states what the term ovate, etc., means. &. VecrtasLe Puystotogy and Anatomy treat of the life of plants and the structure of their parts. It is super- fluous to mention Vegetable Anatomy as a particular branch of Botany, since Physiology can not be studied without anatomizing the parts of a plant. A special de- partment of vegetable physiology is Jorphology, which must not be confounded with Morphography, and relates to the typical transformations undergone by 1 the organs in the course of their development. G. Spxcrat or Systematic Borany teaches how the dif- ferent plants are to be identified according to certain rules, derived from Special Organography ; it gives the method of analyzing a plant—that is, of noting its constituent parts, all or some, in order to ascertain its name and place in a botanical system, or to identify it. Analysis of a plant is a methodical operation, by which we separate a whole plant, or parts of it, into its components, for the purpose of an exact inspection of each. Identification or Diagnosis of a plant means the result of this analysis. To determine or identify is to make the diagnosis of a plant. 7. Practica, Borany considers plants with respect to their utility and hurtfulness. It has different branches, such as Agricultural, Technical, Towicological, Medicinal, ete., Botany. (But as Practical Botany can not exist without the study of Systematic Botany, the latter may also be called Practi- cal Botany.) STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 3 C. METHOD OF STUDY. 8. The best method of becoming speedily interested in the study of Botany is to consider plants in their natural relations to each other. This is assisted by classifying vegetable inprvipuats into a combination, which we call a SPECIES ; again a number of such species into a higher combination, called cxenus ; and, finally, an assemblage of genera into a still more comprehensive assemblage or ca- tegory—namely, an orpEr. The orders are finally distri- buted into cLassEs. 9%. Nature offers a great many facilities for such metho- dical study. In the nearest bit of country, wherever we may turn our eyes, we notice VEGETABLE INDIVIDUALS, of which many agree in general aspect, or in having a certain number of properties in common. 3 10, Any cornfield, any tract of land covered with buckwheat, clover, cauliflower, etc., will answer the ques- tion, What ts a vegetable indiwidual ? 41. The several individuals of the cornfield—the straws with their parts—may differ in size and color; still, at a glance, we conclude that they all belong to the same stock. The formation of root, culm, leaves, spikes, flowers, and fruits presents everywhere the same characters. All these straws or individuals are, therefore, numbers of the same community, which we call @ SPECIES. A SPECIES IS A COLLECTION OF INDIVIDUALS PRESENTING THE SAME PECULIARITIES. 12, Viewing another field, bearing what one, who is not a botanist, would briefly call Clover, we, on closer ex- amination, ascertain that one part of the ground is covered with stone-clover, another with red-clover, and a third 4 PRACTICAL BOTANY. with white-clover. These different sorts are allied mem- bers of a community, which we call Genus (kind). Clover (Trifolium) is the Genus, which is represented by several species—namely, Stone-clover, Ied-clover, AGO ete. A GENUS IS A COLLECTION OF SIMILAR SPECIES. 13. Perchance not far away from the clover-field there are two pieces of ground, one covered with Mrrinor, the other with Mrpicx. Seen from afar, these sorts of vege- tables may be taken for clover; but, examined closely, they prove to be distinct, but similar kinds or genera— that is, Mexior and Mepicx represent a genus each, just as & genus was represented by CLovER. 14, Finally, the genera CLrover, Metizor, and Mxpicx are members of a higher community—namely, of an Orpver (or Family) ; and this particular order is called that of the Lzcuminovus prants. It happens that, during our botanical excursion, we soon meet with other members of the order. We stop short in front of a copse of plants, which bear a striking resemblance to those we have just examined. There is a plant climbing over bushes, the Wild Bean or Groundnut, bearing short racemes of but- terfly-like flowers, similar to those of Clover, Melilot, and Medick. And not far off, on the very border of a wood, . there are some trees with flowers of the same sort—name- ly, some specimens of the beautiful Locust-tree. . Reviewing the members of the order we have thus be- 2ome acquainted with, we learn that their affinity is found- 2d on peculiarities which they all have in common— 1amely, the compound leaves, the butterfly-like flowers, ind the form of the fruit, resembling a pea-shell. AN ORDER IS A COLLECTION OF SIMILAR GENERA. 15. In the Northern and Middle States, we have 184 eee STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 5 orders of flowering plants, which comprchend 800 genera; and these genera are répresented by 2350 species. 16, The classified plants have been designated by ap- propriate names and distinguished by concise descriptions in scientific language. 17. But this language can not be understood before one is somewhat acquainted with Structural or Physiolo- gical Botany. % D. VEGETABLE LIFE IN GENERAL. - 18, Physiological Botany is a science which treats of the structure of plants, or of the organs, which enable them to live and reproduce themselves. The successive phases of vegetable life are GERMINATION, GrowT#, and Reprovverson. 19, Plants are organized or living beings, possessing the following attributes: 1st.. The powER oF SELF-stUrPoRT OR ASSIMILATION—namely, the capacity to nourish them- selves, by taking in surrounding mineral matter and con- verting it into their own substance; 2d. Tue rowrr or SELF-DIVISION OR REPRODUCTION, by which they multiply themselves and perpetuate the species. Plants alone are fitted to convert mineral into organic matter, while animals subsist solely on the organic matter, elaborated in vegetables. 20. There are only three chemical elements, which en- ter into the permanent structure of plants—Carbon, Hy- ' drogen, and Oxygen, while the tissues of an animal contain an additional element—namely, Vetrogen. 6 PRACTICAL BOTANY. 21. The anatomicaL ELEMENTS of the vegetable organ- ism are the CELLs. When we properly examine by the microscope delicate slices of any of the parts of a plant, they will present a network, the meshes of which circumscribe little sacs or bladders, primarily of a spherical shape, but in time be- coming very various, as polyhedral, oblong, cylindrical, or even tubular. The ordinary diameter of the cells is be- tween +1, to 74, of a line. 22. A young and vitally active cell consists of the fol- lowing parts: a, a thin, colorless, transparent membrane, which incloses and forms a cavity, and is lined by a soft and mucilaginous film, called the primordial utricle ; b, a jelly-like kernel (nucleus) in the centre of the cavity ; and, finally, ¢, a quid, known under the name of protoplasm, which fills the rest of the cavity. 2B. Ali the cells of a plant constitute the elementary Sabric,in which the products sustaining life are prepared. The combined vital action of all the cells of the vegetable composes what we call vegetable life. The cell is the fac- totum, without which the existence of plants would be im- ~ possible. It manages the affairs of the whole economy of any vegetable individual. 24. Each cell is a chemieal laboratory, which supports vegetable life. The cell is the true propagator of plants ; it chains vegetable individuals to one another, thus estab- lishing the constancy of the several species. It is also the Proteus, which creates genera, orders, and classes, and, finally, the parent of the whole vegetable kingdom. 25. The lowest plants are single cells. Such a plant is destitute of any external organs. It imbibes its food through its membrane, to assimilate it in its cavity, and STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 7 produce new cellsin the same. These (the progeny) cs- cape by the decay of the mother-cell (or mother plant), ved Snow is an instance of this. It occurs on damp rocks, in the form of dull crimson patches, which resemble blood-stains. These patches consist of numerous indivi- duals of the species Protococcus nivalis, which can not be seen without the microscope. E. PHANOGAMS. How trey Dirrer rrom OryprocamMs—GEnerat Con- SIDERATION OF THE FLowER—Sorts oF FLowErs—Tax Purznocamous Orpvers or THE Norrurrn And Minories Srates East or THE Mississiprl, ARRANGED ACCORDING ro A Narurat Sysrem—Tue Artiricta, System oF Luvs. 26. The entire vegetable kingdom has two principal divisions: FLowrriess Pants or Cryrtoaas, and Frow- ERING Puants or Px£NoGams. 27. The Flower is a system of organs which performs the reproduction of the Phenogams. The Cryptogams have no flowers. 28, In Cryrtocams, the organs of reproduction are apparatus, more or less analogous to flowers, which pro- duce, instead of seeds, minute bodies called Spores, that do not contain any embryo prior to germination. The cryptogams are lower in grade than the phenogams. They are variously classified. We may distinguish Vascular and Cellular Cryptogams. Vascular eryptogams, also called Acrogens,are flowerless plants with a distinct axis, a branched stem, which grows from the summit only, containing woody fibres and vascu- 8 PRACTICAL BOTANY. lar ducts, and commonly furnished with distinct foliage. The Orders of this class are: the Horse-tails (Equisetacez) ; the Ferns (Filices); the Club-mosses (Lycopodiacez) ; Adder-tongues (Ophioglossex), and Quillworts (Rhizocar- pes or Hydropterides). Cellular Cryptogams are flowerless plants, destitute of vascular ducts. We divide them into leafy and leafless cellular cryptogams. The Leafy division comprises the Chara family (Cha- racer), the Liverworts (Hepaticee), and the Mosses (Musci frondosi). _ The leafless division, that of the Thallophytes, consists of the Lichens (Lichenes); the Mushrooms and Moulds (Fungi), and the Seaweeds (Algz). 29, Prxnocams, to which our ordinary herbs, shrubs, and trees belong, are the higher grade of plants. Their flowers produce seed. The seed contains a ready-formed embryo, or rudimentary plantlet. (Pl. III. 1d.) 30. The Lmbryo consists of the Radicle (stemlet, axis), 1 or 2, rarely more, Cotyledons (leaves), and the Plumule. The Piameule (a little bud) contains, in a rudimentary state, the future stem and leaves. 31. The-organs of the flowers are, some of them, in: dispensable to the production of seeds, while others scrve merely to protect and support them. 32. Thus we distinguish two kinds of floral organs: a, the ESsENTIAL orGANS, which are the Pistils and Stamens, and 6, the rrorrctine organs, which are the floral leaves, also called Perianth or Perigone. 33. A Pistil is the seed-bearing organ of the flower, and distinguished into three parts—namely, beginning ‘from below, the ovary, the style, and the stigma. (Plate IV., 6c.) STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 9 The Ovary is the hollow case, or initial fruit, which contains rudimentary seeds, called ovules. (Plate IV., 38, 4b, 4c; Plate V., 7a, 80.) The Style is the tapering summit of the pistil, some- times long and slender, sometimes short, and, not unfre- quently, altogether wanting, it being not an essential part _like the two other parts of the pistil. (PI. IV., 1a, 6c.) The Stigma is always that portion of the surface of the pistil which is not covered, like the rest of the plant, by a pellicle or epidermis, but a portion which. consists of loose, projecting filaments or warts, destined to receive the fertilizing, powdery substance, shed by the anthers of the stamens. It is either a portion of the surface of the style, generally the tip, or, when there is no distinct style, of the top of the ovary. (Pl. IIT, 2e, 8d.) The Stamens are the fertilizing organs of the flower. A stamen consists of two parts—namely, the filament, or stalk, and the anther. The Anther is a capsule or case, filled with a powdery substance, called Pollen. This powder, consisting of granules, is discharged through one or more openings of the anther. (PI. III., 7c, 110.) 34. The Perianth consists of one or two (rarely more) whorls of floral leaves. Most of the flowers have the perianth double—that is, two sets or whorls of it. The outer set or circle is called Calyx, and usually green; the inner is the Corolla, and commonly of some other color than green. The leaves of the calyx, if distinct, are named sepals ; those of the corolla, if not united into one body, petals, (Pl. IIL, 1, 1,10; Pl. V., 2.) 35. All the organs of the flower, both essential and un- essential, are situated on the top of the flower-stalk, into which they are said, in botanical language, to be inserted, and which is called Zorus or Receptacle. (P1. III., 2a.) 10 PRACTICAL BOTANY. 36. The Receptacle is the axis of the flower, to which the floral organs are attached in a constant succession— namely, the calyz at its very. base, forming the outermost set; the corolla just within (or above) the calyx ; the sta- mens just within the corolla, and the (one or several) pis- tils within (or above) the stamens, oceupying the centre of the flower. The receptacle, usually short and inconspicuons, is some- times considerably enlarged or elongated. "Whenever the pistils are very numerous, the receptacle increases in size or modifies its shape, to give room for their insertion. In the Strawberry it assumes a conical form, bearing the pistils on its surface, and becoming at length the eatable part of the fruit, botanically considered a spurious fruit. In the flower of the J’ose the receptacle is deeply excavated or urn-shaped, and invested by the adnate calyx-tube, while its cavity is lined by the pistils. (PI. V., 5.) 37. As regards the essential (absolutely necessary) or- gans, we divide the flowers into Perfect and Imperfect. But each of these sorts presents important differences in reference to the unessential organs also. a. Flowers, which have both kinds of essential organs, stamens and pistils, are called Perfect or Hermaphrodite flowers, whether they are furnished with a perianth or not. (Pl. XIL., 2a, 5.) _6. Flowers, in which one set (the corolla) of the perianth is wanting, are Jncomplete flowers ; such flowers may be perfect. (PL. XIL., 5.) ¢c. Flowers which have both essential and unessential organs—namely, a complete perianth (calyx and corolla) and stamens, as well as pistils—are not only perfect, but also complete; we call them, therefore, Complete flowers. (PI. IIL, 1, 1, 4, 6.) STRUCTURAL BOTANY. il d. Flowers which are barely furnished with the essen- tial organs (stamens and pistils) are denominated Achla- mydeous or Naked flowers. They are destitute of a gar- mont (xAapvs), perianthless. (Pl. XII., 2a.) e. There are flowers designated as Imperfect, Separate, or Diclinous flowers—that is, flowers of two sorts, occur- ring either on the same specimen or on separate specimens of a species. One sort we call Staminate or Sterile flow- ers, because they have stamens, but no true pistils; the other sort Pistillate or Fertile flowers, since they are fur- nished with pistils, but not any (or at least no fertile) sta- mens. (P]. XIII, 11, 11); Pl. IIL, 80, 8¢.) Diclinous flowers may be complete, incomplete, or naked, as the perfect flowers in their turn. $8. When sterile and fertile flowers grow on the same specimen or stem of a species, we call them J/onacious flowers (monacious: in one household). When, on the other hand, some specimens of a species have sterile flow- ers, and others fertile ones exclusively, we say that they are furnished with Diacious flowers (diwcious: in two households). Therefore, we divide the plants with diclinous flowers into monecious and diwcious plants. 39. Not unfrequently we meet with diclinous flowers, intermixed with perfect ones, both on monecious and di- cecious plants. In such a case, we speak of polygamous, or rather of moneeciously and diceciously polygamous plants. 40. The leaves of the Perianth, both sepals and petals, are either separate or united. If. the Sepals are united so as to form a cup or tube, 12 PRACTICAL BOTANY. having their tips distinct. or obsolete, the calyx is said to be gamosepalous or monosepalous (one-sepalled). (Pl. V., 7.) If, on the other hand, they are not in any way united into one piece, the calyx is called polysepalous (many-sepalled.) (Pl. IV., 6.) If the Petals are united into one body in the same manner, we call the corolla monopetalows (one-petalled) or gamopetalous (P1. VIIL., 2); and if the flower has its pe- tals distinct, the corolla is said to be polypetalous. ‘(P1. IV., 4.) 41. The Puanocamovs Series divides into Two Classes. , 42, The First Class of the Phanogams (the class of the higher grade) comprises the Plants-with wood in a zone, or circle, or in concentric annual rings (Pl. IL, 29) around a central pith ; netted-veined leaves, parts of the flower mostly in fives or fours, and a dicotyledonous (two-leaved) embryo. This is the Class of the Exogenous or Dicotyledonous plants, which we briefly call Exocrns. 43, The Second Class of the Phenogams comprises those plants, which have their wood disposed in separate threads, scattered through the diameter of the stem, not in a circle (Pl. II., 28); the floral parts usually in threes, never in fives; the leaves nearly always longitudinally veined ; and a monocotyledonous (one-leaved) “embryo. This is the class of the endogenous or monocotyledonous plants, which we briefly call Expocens. ° 44, The CLASS EXOGENS is divided into two sud- classes—the Angiosperms and the Gymnosperms. 45. The Gymnosperms are characterized by having their ovules (and seeds) naked—that is, not hidden in a STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 13 closed pistil, but either attached to the base of am open . pistil (an open scale, as in Pine, or a more evident leaf, as in Cyeas), or, in the Yew, encircled at the base by an an- nular disk. The Cycas does not belong to our Flora. The number of cotyledons in Gymnosperms is often more than 2, in Pinus from 3 to 12. The Gymnosperms are represented in the Northern and Middle States by Coni- Jers only, of the following genera: Pinus, Abies, Laria, Thuja, le Tasodinm, Juniperus, and Taxus. (See Pl. XIII, 1, 2, 3, and the desapion of the plate.) Gym- nosperm an the Greek yupvdg, naked, and onépya, seed. 46. The Anaiosrrrms have closed pistils, which con- ceal the ovules in their cavity (Angiosperm; from Gr. dyyetov, a vessel, and onépya). _ 47, The metamorphosing power of the plant is not exhausted by the production of a simple axis, but produces also secondary axes. In the lower orders of plants these secondary axes are not much different from the primary axis, but in plants of higher organization the difference is very great. The variety of forms displayed by these plants is astonishing. The primarily cylindrical shape of the leaf undergoes a variety of changes. The simple conico-cylindric axis usually develops leaves; and the leaf appearing first in the lower, then in the upper parts of the axis, and finally at its very top, there undergoes a series of protean transformations into sepal, petal, stamen, pistil, and fruit. The parts of the flower, and so of the fruit, are nothing but whorls of leaves. A true simple pistil is a floral leaf, with its edges curved inward and united, forming a closed case, which is the ovary; and the ovules are borne on what answers to the united margins of the leaf. Several simple 14 PRACTICAL BOTANY. pistils may coalesce and @onsolidate into a compound pistil (as in Rose-Mallow, Flax, St. John’s-wort, etc.) And now, whether we have to do with simple or com- pound pistils, every leaf employed for the formation of a closed pistil is called a pistil-leaf. But it is more con- venient to use the term carpellary leaf’ instead of pistil- leaf, since this term can also be applied to open pistils. While the carpels of Angiosperms form closed pistils, those of Gymnosperms remain flat and open, not pos- sessing the power to curve in and unite their edges. Car- pel is a closed carpellary leaf. As stated above, the several whorls of floral leaves— namely, calyx, corolla, stamens, and pistils—are inserted on the receptacle (the uppermost part of the axis) successively, beginning with the calyx, from below upward. It some- times happens that the centre of the receptacle ceases to grow vertically, while the circumference rises higher; in such case the pistils (or the pistil) will be placed deeper than the other floral circles, or even in an excavation of the receptacle, as in the Z2ose. In theory, the pistils occupy the top, but the top is, as it were, depressed ; in reality it is surpassed by parts of the receptacle, which stood. deeper before. 48. The ANGIOSPERMS form three Divisions: the Polypetalous, the Gamopetalous, and the Apetalous. We here enumerate such of the orders belonging to these divisions, as occur in the Northern and Middle States. I. Porypretarous Dryvision. 49, This division has, as a rule, both calyx and corolla, the latter consisting of separate petals. SINUCTURAL BOTANY. 15 Oxprrs: 1. Crowfoots, Tetanunculacee ; 2. Magnotiads, Magno- liacew ; 3. Custard-apples, Anonacee ; 4. Moonseeds, Me- nispermacee; 5. Barberries, Berberidacee ; 6. Water- beans, Nelumbiacew ; 7. Water-shields, Cabombaceee ; 8. Water-lilies, Nymphacce ; 9. Water-pitchers, Sarracenia cee ; 10. Poppyworts, Papaveracee ; 11. Fumitories, Fu- mariacee ; 12. Crucifers, Crucifere ; 18. Capparids, Cap- paridacee ; 14. Mignonettes, Resedacew; 15. Violets, Viola- cee; 16. Leockroses, Cistacee; 17. Sundews, Drosera- cee; 18. Parnassiads, Parnassiacea ; 19. St. John’s-worts, LHHypericacee ; 20. Water-peppers, Elatinacea ; 21. Pinks, Caryophyllacee ; 22. Purslanes, Portulaccacee; 23. Mallows, Malvacew ; 24. Lindenblooms, Tiliacee; 23. Tea-worts, Camelliacee ; 26. Flax-worts, Linaceew; 27. ' Wood-sorrels, Oxalidacew ; 28. Crane’s-bills, Geraniaceee ; 29. Jewel-weeds, Balsaminacea; 30. Limnanths, Lam- nanthacee; 31. ueworts, Lutacew; 32. Sumtchs, Anacardiacee ; 83. Vines, Vitacew; 84. Buckthorns, Rhamnacee ; 85. Staff-trees, Celastracew ; 36. Indian Soapworts, Sapindacew, comprising the sub-orders, Sta- phyllaceew, Hippocastanacee, and Acerinee; 37. Milk- worts, Polygalacee ; 88. Leguminous plants, the Pulse family, Leguminose ; 39. Roseworts, Rosacew ; 40. Caly- canths, Calycanthaceew ; 41. Melastomes, Melastomacee ; 42. Loosestrifes, Lythraceew; 43. Onagrads, or Evening Primroses, Onagracee ; 44. Loasads, Loasacee ; 45. In- dian Figs, Cactacee; 46. Currants, Grossulariacee ; 47. Passionworts, Passifloracee ; 48. Cucurbits, Cucur- bitacew ; 49. TTouse-lecks, Crassulariacee ; 50. Saxifrages, Sauifragacee; 51. Witch-hazelworts, Hamamelacee ; 52. Umbelworts, or Parsleys, Umbellifere; 53. Ara- liads, Araliacee ; 54. Cornels, or Dogwoods, Cornacew. 16 PRACTICAL BOTANY. II. Gamorrratovs D1viston. 5, This division has both calyx and corolla, the latter more or less united; in exceptional cases not united. Onrpers: 55. Honeysuckles, Caprifoliacee; 56. Maddervorts, Rubiacee (Stellate, Cinchonew, and Loganiacee); 57. Valerians, Valerianacew ; 58. Teaselworts, Dipsacee ; 59. Composites, or Asterworts, Composite; 60. Lobe- liads, Lobeliacew; 61. Bellworts, Campanulacee; 62. Heathworts, Ericacew; 68. Beetle-weeds, Galacinee ; 64. LDollyworts, Aquifoliacee ; 65. Storax-plants, Styra- cacee ; 66. Ebonads, Lbenacee ; 67. Soapworts, Sapota- cee; 68. Libworts, Plantaginacee; 69. Leadworts, Plumbaginacee ; 10. Primroses, Primulacee ; 71. But- terworts, or Bladderworts, Lentibulacee ; 72. Trumpet- flowers, Bignoniacee ; %3. Broomrapes, Orobanchacee ; [4 Higworts, Scrophulariacee ; 75. Acanthads, Acan- thaceew ; 76. Vervains, Verbenacea ; TT. Labiates, Labi- ate; %8. Borrageworts, Borraginacee ; 79. EHydro- phylls, or Water-leaves, Hydrophyllacee ; 80. Phlow- worts, Polemoniacee ; 81. Bindweeds, Convolvulacee ; 82. Wightshades, Solanacee; 83. Gentianworts, Genti- anacee ; 84. Dogbanes, Apocynacee; 85.