pat atargee terete
THEI es ane

 
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

Laboratory Copy.
Compliments of the Publishers
‘ornell University Libra

TT
LESSONS WITH PLANTS
LESSONS WITH PLANTS

SUGGESTIONS FOR SEEING AND
INTERPRETING SOME OF THE
COMMON FORMS OF VEGETATION

BY

L. H. BAILEY

With delineations from nature by
W. 8S. HOLDSWORTH
Assistant Professor of Drawing in the Agricultural
College of Michigan

Netw Pork
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltp

1914

All rights reserved

Aske
CorYRieutT, 1897, 1907
By L. H. BAILEY

Set up and electrotyped January, 1898
Reprinted May, 1898, June, 1899, June, 1902, March, 1904, and January, 1906
New edition, July, 1907, September, 1908
January, 1910, April, 1914

AMount Pleasant Press
J. Horace McFarland Company
Harrisburg, Pa.
INTRODUCTION

PuanTs are among the most informal of objects,
but botany is popularly understood to be one of the
most formal of the natural sciences. This- is only
another way of saying that plant-study is not always
taught by a natural method; and this the writer
believes to be true for the secondary schools, and it
is the reason why he was willing to undertake the
preparation of a book about plants for beginners, when
urged to do so by the publishers. It is a common
method to begin the study of plants by means of for-
mal ideals—or definitions,— but the author believes that
the proper way to begin it is by means of plants. The
definition sets a model and tells the pupil what he
shall see; the plant shows him what there is to be
seen, and the definition follows. When one has studied
a number of objects, he begins unconsciously to gen-
eralize and to arrange the impressions which he has
received, and his conclusion is the only true definition
for him.

The ways, then, in which this book may be used
are as follows:

(v)
vl INTRODUCTION

1. By the teacher. It contains merely a few type
lessons. for the double purpose of instructing the
teacher and of suggesting a method of presenting the
subject to pupils; and since the author cannot bring
the plants with him, he brings good pictures, which
are the next best things. If the book should ever fall
into the hands of a teacher who is uninformed in
plants, the author hopes that the teacher will master
one of the observations, then lay the book aside and
collect specimens similar to those discussed and present
them to the scholars. The teacher should remember that
the information which the pupil acquires is of far less
value than the methods of acquiring it and the mental
uplift which comes from the inspiration of the exercise.
The author would be sorry if any teacher should feel that
he must follow the methods or the order in this book,
for every teacher—if he is a teacher—has methods of
his own. The book only suggests; and it may aid him
to overcome prejudice. It is not the object of the book
to teach a science; it only indicates a way in which
plants may be studied and the subject taught. There is
no attempt, therefore, to give codrdinate treatment to
the different phenomena and attributes of vegetation.
The teacher will be constantly foraging beyond the
book, but, on the other hand, it may now and then
supply an exercise when illustrative specimens cannot be
secured. In the hands of a good teacher, therefore,
the book may be used for any of the grades of the
INTRODUCTION vii

secondary schools. There is no objection whatever to the
pupil using the book. It is to be hoped that the book
ean do him no harm. But the teacher is advised to lay
it aside after studying it, simply because a live teacher
and a live plant are worth very much more than a
book and a picture.

2. The pupil may use it in the same way that the
teacher should. Many teachers to whom botany falls in
the secondary schools have too- many subjects on their
hands to enable them to give adequate attention to any
one of them; and some of them have tastes in other
directions. Then give the pupil the book. Tell him to
read a lesson; then let him collect the specimens and
recite from the specimens, not from the book. The book
will awaken his interest, and suggest what there is to
be seen. There is a current notion that the pupil
should be given the specimen and be told to find what
there is to be learned about it, wholly without sug-
gestions. The author does not believe in this method,
particularly not for beginners. Pupils first need the
inspiration of a teacher. They need a start. With
the specimens alone, the great mass of pupils see noth-
ing and become listless. It is not true that only
those things are useful which one finds out for himself,
else we could make little progress. But the pupil
should find out something for himself; and more than
all, he should enjoy the finding of it. In the present
status of the secondary schools, the author expects that
viii INTRODUCTION

if this book is used at all, it will be chiefly employed
by the pupil and in the way here suggested.

8. The pupil may recite from the book, for enough of
formal statement and definition may have crept into the
work to enable it to be used as a simple text-book.

The purpose of the book, in other words, is to sug-
gest methods of nature-study; and in order to still
further explain what the author means by nature-study,
a quotation is made from his recent leaflet, issued by
the College of Agriculture of Cornell University, entitled
“What is Nature-study?”:

“Tt is seeing the things which one looks at, and the
drawing of proper conclusions from what one sees.
Nature-study is not the study of a science, as of botany,
entomology, geology, and the like. That is, it takes the
things at hand and endeavors to understand them, with-
out reference to the systematic order or relationships of
the objects. It is wholly informal and unsystematic, as
the objects are which one sees. It is entirely divorced
from definitions, or from explanations in books. It is
therefore supremely natural. It simply trains the eye
and the mind to see and to comprehend the common
things of life; and the result is not directly the ac-
quirement of science, but the establishing of a living
sympathy with everything that is.

“The proper objects of nature-study are the things
which one oftenest meets. To-day it is a stone; to-
morrow it is twig, a bird, an insect, a leaf, a flower.
INTRODUCTION 1x

The child, or even the high school pupil, is first inter-
ested in things which do not need to be analyzed or
changed into unusual forms or problems. Therefore,
problems of chemistry and of physics are for the most
part unsuited to early lessons in nature-study. Moving
things, as birds, insects and mammals, interest children
most, and seem to be the proper subjects for nature-
study; but it is often difficult to secure specimens
when wanted, especially in liberal quantity, and _ still
more difficult to see the objects in perfectly natural
conditions. Plants are more easily had, and are there-
fore more practicable for the purpose, although animals
and minerals should by no means be excluded.

“Tf the objects to be studied are informal, the meth-
ods of teaching should be the same. If nature-study
were made a stated part of a curriculum, its purpose
might be defeated. The chief difficulty with our
present school methods is the necessary formality of
the courses and the hours. Tasks are set, and tasks
are always hard. The best way to teach nature-study
is, with no course laid out, to bring in whatever ob-
ject may be at hand and to set the pupils at work.
They see the thing, and explain its structure and its
meaning. The exercise should not be long, not to ex-
ceed fifteen minutes at any time, and, above all things,
the pupil should not look upon it as a recitation, and
there should not be an examination. It should come
as a rest exercise, whenever the pupils become list-
xX INTRODUCTION

less. Ten minutes a day for one term, of a short,
sharp and spicy observation upon plants, is worth more
than a whole text-book of botany.

“The teacher should studiously avoid definitions,
and the setting of patterns. The old idea of the
model flower is a pernicious one, because it does not
exist in nature. The model flower, the complete leaf,
and the like, are inferences, and pupils should begin
with things and not with ideas. In other words, the
ideas should be suggested by the things, and not the

things by the ideas. ‘Here is a drawing of a model
flower,’ the old method says; ‘go and find the nearest
approach to it.’ ‘Go and find me a flower,’ is the true

method, ‘and let us see what it is.’

“*Bvery child, and every grown person too, for that
matter, is interested in nature-study, for it is the
natural method of acquiring knowledge. The only dif-
ficulty lies in the teaching, for very few teachers have
had drill or experience in this informal method of
drawing out the observing and reasoning powers of the
pupil wholly without the use of text-books. The
teacher must first of all feel the living interest in
natural objects which it is desired the pupils shall
acquire. If the enthusiasm is not catching, better let
such teaching alone. ‘

“All this means that the teacher will need helps.
He will need to inform himself before he attempts to
inform the pupil. It is not necessary that he become
INTRODUCTION x1

a scientist in order to do this. He goes only as far
as he knows, and then says to the pupils that he can-
not answer the questions which he cannot. This at
once raises the pupil’s estimation of him, for the pupil
is convinced of his truthfulness, and is made to feel
—but how seldom is the sensation!—that knowledge is
not the peculiar property of the teacher, but is the
right of any one who seeks it. It sets the pupil to
investigating for himself. The teacher never needs to
apologize for nature. He is teaching because he is an
older and more experienced pupil than his pupil is.
This is just the spirit. of the teacher in the universities
to-day. The best teacher is the one whose pupils far-
thest outrun him. * * * * Now and then, take the
children for a ramble in the woods or fields, or go to
the brook or lake. Call their attention to the interest-
ing things which are met—whether they are understood
or not—in order to teach them to see, and to find some
point of sympathy; for every one of them will some
day need the solace and the rest which this nature-love
can give. It is not the mere information which is
valuable; that may be had by asking some one wiser
than they, but the inquiring and sympathetic spirit ‘is
one’s own.

“The pupils will find their lessons easier to acquire
for this respite of ten minutes with a leaf or an insect,
and the school-going will come to be less perfunctory.
If drawing must be taught, set a good picture before
xil INTRODUCTION

the pupils for study, and then substitute the object. If
composition is to be taught let the pupils write upon
what they have seen. After a time, give ten min-
utes now and then to asking the children what they
saw on their way to school.”

It is often said that a person may learn a good
deal about plants with only a very ordinary hand lens.
This is true; but he can also learn a good deal with-
out any lens. It is not impossible that in the haste
to give the pupil a microscope, we have forgotten
the training of the natural eye; and it is upon this
natural eye that the great mass of people must de-
pend. These remarks are made simply to emphasize
the fact again that much more depends upon the
teaching power of the teacher than upon the mere
equipment of the school-room. It will not be neces-
sary for the pupil to have a lens in order to take up
the kind of work suggested in this book, but he
ought to have one. There are two essentials in a
pupil’s microscope: a large field (not less than _three-
fourths inch across), and a size which will allow of
its being carried in the pocket. Pupils generally think
of a lens as a_ piece of school-room apparatus, as
slates and pens are, but it should be a constant com-
panion in the field. If it can be used in only one
place, let that place be out of doors. These _ instru-
ments magnify three diameters or less, and the number
of lenses is two or three. For the use of advanced
INTRODUCTION xiii

pupils and specialists, higher powers and a smaller field
are essential, but such expensive magnifiers are not
needed in the common plant-study of the beginner.

It is a common mistake, in instructing beginners, to
teach them too much at one exercise. Enough will be
gained if the pupil’s interest is merely awakened in some
new direction. The younger the pupil, the more impera-
tive is this caution not to overdo the instruction. It
may be sufficient for one day to drop the suggestion that
there are many shapes and sizes of leaves; then let the
pupil observe and refiect.

It is to be feared that much of our nature-teaching
and nature-literature aim at little more than the pre-
sentation of interesting information, or even the telling
of entertaining stories; they are prone to pick out the
most demonstrative and striking objects, and, by filling
the pupil’s mind with wonder for the curious and un-
usual, cause him to overlook the commoner things of
equal interest and of greater educative value. The
purely scientific teaching and literature, on the other
hand, are apt to discourage the pupil by the obtrusion
of set tasks, definitions and terminology. The writer
believes that the language of botany,—the terminology,—
should be picked up by the pupil as he goes along and
as he needs it, in the same way that he acquires his
common speech.

The greater number of persons can never become bota-
nists, but most of them can have a living interest in
xiv INTRODUCTION

plants if properly taught in the beginning. It would
seem, therefore, that the proper way to begin botany in
the secondary schools is by study of the gross features
of plants, not by dissections and microscope work. The
study of type forms and anatomy and physiology is a
subsequent matter, and is best suited to those pupils
who evince a desire and an ability to specialize, or to
pursue a science.

The foregoing remarks may be epitomized as follows:

We must first ask why we desire to teach natural
history subjects in the primary and secondary schools.
There can be but two answers: we teach either for the
sake of imparting the subject itself, or for the sake of
the pupil. When we have the pupil chiefly in mind,
we broaden his sympathies, multiply his points of con-
tact with the world, and thereby deepen his life; a
graded and systematic body of facts is of secondary
importance. In other words, when the teacher thinks
chiefly of his subject, he teaches a science; when he
thinks chiefly of his pupil, he teaches nature-study.
The child always loves nature; but when he becomes a
youth, and has passed the intermediate years in school,
the nature-instinct is generally obscured and sometimes
almost obliterated. The perfunctory teaching of science
may be a responsible factor in this result. There seem
to be four chief requisites in nature-study teaching, if
the pupil is to catch inspiration from it:

1. The subject itself must interest the pupil. This
INTRODUCTION XV

means that the instruction begin with the commonest
things, with those which are actually a part of the
pupil’s life.

2. The pupil must feel that the work is his, and
that he is the investigator.

3. Little should be attempted at a time. One thought
or one suggestion may be enough for one day. The
suggestion that insects have six legs is sufficient for one
lesson. We obscure the importance of common things
by cramming the mind with facts. When the pupil is
taught to take systematic notes upon what the teacher
says, it is doubtful if the lesson is worth the while, as
nature-study. The pupil cannot be pushed into sympa-
thy with nature.

4. The less rigid the system of teaching and the
fewer the set tasks, the more spontaneous and, there-
fore, the better, is the result. A codified system of
examinations will choke the lfe out of nature-study.

In this nature-study, it would seem to be unwise to
rigidly grade the work, particularly as it is presented in a
text-book. The teacher can grade or adapt the mat-
ter,—he can fill out the frame-work—as seems best for
his pupils and conditions. The work must be consecu-
tive, however, if it is to find a definite place in schools.
That is, some general plan or scheme must be laid out;
and in this direction it is hoped that this book of
suggestions may be helpful. The first object of the book
is to suggest methods, not to present facts. The liberal
Xvl INTRODUCTION

use of pictures in the book will suggest to the teacher
the importance of having an abundance of illustrative
material for the exercises, letting the pupils see the
things themselves, as far as practicable, no matter how
common or familiar they may be; and it is an advan-
tage to have the pupils collect the specimens. The
pupil’s living contact with common things will strengthen
the bond between the school and the home.

These Lessons are an extension of the ideas em-
bodied in the nature-study leaflets issued for the use of
teachers by the College of Agriculture of the Cornell
University; and these leaflets are, in turn, the direct
outgrowth of “observation lessons” which were a_ part
of the instruction given in itinerant schools of horticul-
ture in New York state. Observations xiv. and lxi.
are adapted from two of these leaflets. The leafiets
have met with great demand from teachers in all grades
of school work, not only in New York, but elsewhere.
These publications have aimed to awaken an_ interest -
and curiosity on the part of the pupil by suggesting
interesting topics to the teacher, and by indicating
means of presenting the subjects.

The author is under the greatest obligations to
Professor W. 8S. Holdsworth, of the Michigan Agricul-
tural College, whose skilful hand and faithful eye have
wrought most of the illustrations, and without whose
codperation the book would probably not have been
INTRODUCTION XVii

attempted. Professor C. F. Wheeler, of the same insti-
tution, has aided the artist at every point, and has
attended to the selection of much of the material for
the illustrations. He has also read all the proofs, and
has taken the most helpful interest in the progress of
the work. The proofs have also been read by Professor
W. F. Ganong, of Smith College, Northampton, Massa-
chusetts, whose codperation was solicited in order that
the book should not contradict recent studies in mor-
phology. He has given most generous assistance, and
has added greatly to any merit which the book may
possess, but, in justice to him, the author must state
that it has been impossible to incorporate all the useful
suggestions and criticisms which he has made.

The author will be glad of any suggestions upon the
matter or the method of the book.

L. H. BAILEY.

HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT, CORNELL UNIVERSITY,
IrHaca, NEw York, November 1, 1897.
SYNOPSIS

(The figures in parentheses are the numbers of paragraphs)

PART I

STupIES or Twigs AND Buns (pages 1-77)

OBSERVATION

I.

II.
Il.
IV.
V3
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
Xx.
XI.
XIl.
XIII.
XIV.

XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.

The bud and the branch (1-5) ee ee ee ee

The leaf-bud and the fruit-bud (6-9)
The deflected axis of growth (10-15)

The struggle for existence in a tree top (16- 20) bh 4h
Knots and knot-holes (21-23) 2: wo Lagla! temas

The fruit-spur (24-29) iehic, 4 ht ais

Fruit-bearing, concluded (30-34) . ...... ae

Characters in winter twigs (35-40a) .......

The opening of the buds (41-47) = 8 ......

The opening of the buds, continued (48-56)
The opening of the buds, concluded (57-63a)
Arrangement of the buds (64-71) :
Expansion of the bark (72-77)

A bit of history (78-80) Bo he FORE fae aes

PART IT

Stupies oF LEAVES AND FoLtaGe (pages 78-130)

What is a leaf? (81-86) ......... oe ls

The parts of leaves (87-98) ....... elas te

The compound leaf (94-104c) .........-.2..
Disguises of leaves (105-112a). 2... wee ee eee

(xix)

» 73

. 78
80

. 87

96
xx SYNOPSIS

OBSERVATION PAGE
XIX. Disguises of leaves, concluded (113-118d).... . 103
XX. The attachment of the leaf, and the insertion of the

petiole (119-126) 3 ; eis ox af) ALO
XXI. The forms of leaves (127-1332) | ‘ eee «@ 4115
XXII. Variation in leaves on the same plant, and on different
plants of the same kind (134-138) S. ware ow d22
PART IIl

STUDIES OF FLOWERS (pages 131-249)

XXIII. What is a flower? (139-146). . is abla! ee . 131
XXIV. What is a flower? concluded (147-152) ..... . « 135
XXV. The parts of the pistil (153-1590) ete, 9 a We are 139
XXVI. The stamens (160-165) 2 ieee eae . 145
XXVIII. The insertion of the flower (166- 170) . St Bar shehusba Sets es CAD ms 150
XXVIII. Reinforced flowers (171-175) ......2-..-. 152
XXIX. Diclinous flowers (176-183a) oe ~# «  « & 166
XXX. Diclinous flowers, continued (184-188) ......... 163
XXXI. Diclinous flowers, concluded (189-193) ....... 168
XXXII. The dandelion (194-200) ‘ aie woe ae ALE
XXXIII. The compositous tribes (201-208) bom ae 4 ee ET
XXXIV. Forms of the perianth (209-213) , ee 6 188
XXXV. The arrangement of the flowers (214-221a) 188
XXXVI. The arrangement of the flowers, concluded (222-227) . 193
XXXVII. The kinships of the flower (228-235a) . : . . 197
XXXVIII. Particular types of flowers (236-240a) Ao 206
XXXIX. Particular types of flowers, continued (241-247a) .. . 209
XL. Particular types of flowers, continued (248-253) 215

XLI. Particular types of flowers, continued (the orchids)
(254-258¢) ‘ 3 . 222

XLII. Particular types of flowers, continued ( grass-Jike
plants) (259-263a) . 226
XLIII. Particular types of flowers, eonetuded (sedges) (264-268) 230
XLIV. Cross-fertilization (269-276) . 234
XLV. Cross-fertilization, concluded (277-281) . 239

XLVI. The crossing of plants (282-288) : 246
SYNOPSIS XX1

PART IV
STUDIES OF THE FRUCTIFICATION (pages 250-315)
OBSERVATION PAGE
XLVII. The akene (289-296) fics cae SRR . 250
XLVIII. The drupe (297-302) . . . 255
XLIX. Simple pods (303-309) . . a8 . 259
L. Compound pods (310-318) . oS, ee .  . 263
LI. Key-fruits (319-322) 6% . 270
LII. Berries (323-327) . . 273
LIT. Reinforced fruits (328-333 ) . 278
LIV. Reinforced fruits, concluded (334-339) . 284
LV. Apples and their like (340-349) 289
LVI. Pumpkins and squashes (350-356) . 295
LVII. Tomatoes and oranges (357-363a) . 300
LVIII. Mulberries and figs (364-369) . . 303
LIX. Pines and their kin (370-376b) . 306
LX. Influence of pollen upon the fruit (377-381a) ‘ . 311
PART V

STUDIES OF THE PROPAGATION OF PLANTS (pages 316-380)

LXI How the squash plant gets out of the seed (382-392) . 316

LXII. Germination of the onion (393-3984) .. . . 323
LXIII. Germination of beans (399-405a) ..... eons . 827
LXIV. What is a seed? (406-411) ... Wiese. #831
LXV. The dispersion of seeds (412-423d) : . 336
LXVI. Ferns (424-428) . ag ge oe 9 BED
LXVII. Mushrooms and their kind (429- 4370) . so . . 847
LXVIII. Bulbs, bulblets and buds (438-446) ....... . 353
LXIX. Corms and rootstocks (447-453a) ..... anh . 358
LXX. Tuberous parts (454~458a) stl & ee oe 862
LXXI. Runners and layers (459-463) ..... . . 367
LXXII. The mangrove (464-470) . . 5 te che oa

LXXIII. Cuttings and grafts (471-479) . ... j 374
xxii SYNOPSIS

PART VI
STUDIES OF THE BEHAVIORS AND Hasi’s oF PLANTS (pp. 381-424)

OBSERVATION PAGE
LXXIV. The struggle for existence (480-485a) ... as . 381
LXXV. The duration of plants (486-4930) i . . . 886
LXXVI. The stature and habit of plants (494-499a) . . 388
LXXVII. How some plants get up in the world (500-507). . . . 396
LXXVIII. Various movements of plants (508 512) . . 402
LXXIX. Epiphytes, parasites and saprophytes (513-518) 406
LXXX. Plant societies (519-524) 410
LXXXI. Records of the seasons and the years (525-530) 414
LXXXII, The breeding of plants (531-535a) ‘ 418
LXXXIII, Upon what does a plant live? (536-548a)..... . . 421

PART VII

STUDIES OF THE KINDS OF PLANTS (pages 425-444)

LXXXIV. Species (544-549) . : : .. 425

LXXXV. The naming of species (550- 555e) . -  . 427

LXXXVI. The classification of species (556-564) 432

LXXXVII. The preserving of plants (565-570d) ...... » . +» 437
APPENDIX

SUGGESTIONS AND REVIEWS (pages 445-472)

1, Suggestions upon pedagogical methods 445
2. Books 446
3. Classification . . 447
4. Remarks upon evolution and the interpretation of nature . . 448
5. The growing of plants Ke 448
6. Glossary Fo en Oe ech Hh aztnt . . 455

INDEX (pages 473-491)
> of
SEOMNAMNRHO Ne

mwOwwwwow wa nw no
SSRSASRESRSESSNSKTESRRSERSRESES

REGISTER OF ILLUSTRATIONS

2
oO
>
Q
et

Apple twig in winter, showing deflected axis of growth ..........0. 0 cece cece eee 8

 
  

  
 
  

 

 

 

 

 

 
 
 
 

The same twig before the falling of the leaves... 8
Twigs of dogwood, Cornus Baileyi......... 0... cece cence cence ence teenies 9
Twin terminal buds of red elder, Sambucus racemosa ............ 0... e eee ee eee ee 10
Shoots of common lilac..... < 10
Lilac twig, to show deflected axis 11
Twig of haw, Viburnum Lentago 12
Bush of sumac, Rhus typhina gaze snnermjoga a ital a engaue eraacedlhd apa deh ced anualvasna ce Ged arora ener nie dunia 13
Spray of white oak, Quercus alba.................0005 iaveslees 15
Spray of Norway maple, Acer platanoides 16
Sane ss aieissavatecs sisserayaenie ls oyaitsais oncitienaitae ss larsbortiangi a ailadeisiana 17
Young tree of black cherry, Prunus serotina 18
Tree of sweet garden cherry, Prunus Avium 19
Tree of sour garden cherry, Prunus Cerasus 20
19. Knots in Oak LMS jo .caccicceners sae soas. weenie Maus ee sa sees Hee IS Sees. 21
Knotin's RemlOeK VOR was aiiieea desisindec secueseaed aommedis a de acstined fasceenh ee Oe deieis 22
Knot in a white oak treo.......... cee ccc eee eee ee 22
Healing of a wound on an apple tree 23
Twigs of apple, to show spurs ..............2.000 eee 25
Spur on anvapple: twigsce: cocci store de vaxne ny wbeiewew ee he Hacwaesareteae ce oe fs eae 26
Spurs of crab apple, Pyrus baccata........ 0.0.6 ccc ccc cence teen ence teenies 27
Old spur of pear........eeeeeeees 27
Spur of plum......-...secccecsevesceeees aR ubsesa4s Siasaciyseii Was Save sessee acs seeaaeshosegs ale eI 31
Twig of peach 33
380 Twigs of peach.............--.-+ w.. 84
Young fruit of peach 35
Twig of cultivated gooseberry, Ribes oxyacanthoides .............teeee rere eee ees 35
Twig of black currant, Ribes nigrum .......-..-.-.e cee cece eee t eect tee eens 36
Twig of dwarf juneberry, Amelanchier oblongifolta...............00e sees eeee 37
Twig of balm of Gilead, Populus candicans.........+ Sewuiidish ade eles bcnoxcietoaia para 38
Twig of Japan walnut, Juglans Sieboldiana........0..0....6ce sc eee cence neces 39
Leaf-sear of sumac, Rhus glabra ................++ sedis 63 Sx savatencias amanentem ae anes 39
Leaf-scars of dahlia........... ce cece ence eee ee eee Hie pelo eit dp ate eh na nsiaee Rae anatase 40
Leaf attachment in Arundo Donax 40
Green-briar, Smilax rotundifolia...... 41

 

(xxiii)
XXiv REGISTER OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  
   

 

 
  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
  
 
 

 
 
 
 
 

FIG. PAGE
41 Showing leaf-attachment of Sabal Palmetto ..............-0ccee cece eee e eee en ees 41
42 Twigs of three hickories,— Hicoria microcarpa, H. ovata, H. glabra .........-. 42
43 Twigs of willows,— Salix cordata, S. rostrata, S. discolor.......... 43
44 Vernation of crab apple, Pyrus baccata..............- 45
5) (GAIMG sisso Susisssie sidaiwcineiaieavaaeliamiGeipeswoatos 47
46 Flower-cluster of apple... 1.2... cece cece cece tert eee een e nent teens 49
47 Wlowers Of apricot sis jc-ciscacsaminetaaacns ve vaameiniied va eemaeaeeads aeerneeie ne oeSaS DATS 49
48 Section of flower-bud of apricot............... 2 cece cece cee eee eee e tenet eens 50
49) Opening: bud of Pear’ cise ses capeewens sy sagwwnacds ce ve eawianiens yeaa ee reedine eds 50
50 Vernation of Norway maple, Acer platanoides 51
51 Vernation of black currant, Ribes nigrum................6--e0e eee cee 52
52 Bud of Rhododendron Catawbiense....... 53,
58: FIGWSring Of the QWINEO. 5.0.0.5 di. oc. cisuisejanss <padicnandde ta BAERS TE ESET ERAS Saewiene see 54
04s “Dwiet Of -GUINGO. siiraisicioeveuncagnag ta paceaeisina ised aiadincielee NOAA GUPMIOD 23 MRE RENEE 55
55 Branch of hickory, Hicoria microcarpa ................ cece eee e eterno eee 56
56 Vernation of honeysuckle. .......... 0c. cece eee cece etree reece tenet ene ences 58
57 Vernation: of Devel ii55 csacscaws vies scenes sacesme cea sa ar setipeseeenene os wane bes 58
58 Plaited leaf of blue palmetto, Chamerops hystrix .......-.........00 cee ee eee 59
59 Vernation of tulip tree, Liriodendron Tulipifera..... 59
60 Vernation of horse-chestnut ... 60
61 Vernation of a fern............ 61
62 Linnzus’ diagrams of vernation . 62
63 Leaves of Galium Aparine 64
64: Phyllotaxy Of Glee jaiyeicses,e. oie eraiccorayarandds oehdizeademcauais. aes he eidedsese oe ais eee digemmbeae 66
65°. Phylotaxy Of pla meinen ssastisdeveinevateisaeimecckccsvaies tea Mewerheeies diashavaqataiel woaiaent aienasie Bes 66
66 Phyllotaxy of plum................. 67
67 Fasciation of Ailanthus glandulosus 68
68 69 Expansion of bark of elm....... 70
70 Reeord-of an apple twig fess aseccmeinwscvceusteineie se ocemeaeda da daw nae da tae medaes © 74
71 Leaf of dewberry, Rubus trivialis .............. 0c cece eee cece eee ete eect neeeee 78
72 Leaf of Lombardy poplar, Populus nigra var. Italica............-...2.2..05- esegaal 79
18- Waves Of Applets: s zeta ae en el Sees Se SEE AY Shige ae Ae AG Sew ede 79
74 Leaf of wheat sisjaeis 0/6 sev exaust initio a)aiehadcisjovadare aia’ Cusyedeasiobe: by sade Gaehal afesdue eysdebantaanerchars 80
75 Leaves of Lonicera ciliata ............ cece cee cece cence ene e neces nner e ener es 81
76 Leaf of black walnut, Juglans nigra 81
77 Leaves of live oak, Quercus virens 82
78 Leaf of willow, Salix adenophylla ates .-. 82
79 Leaf of Virginia creeper, Ampelopsis quinquefolia.............22. 2.02 ce cece eee 83
80 81 Leaves of wild grape, Vitis bicolor..............2. 2... e cece eee eee cence ees 84
82 Leaves of garden bean, Phaseolus vulgaris.............. 2002 2ece cece cence cece sees 85
83 Leaf of Canada thistle, Cnicus arvensis.... 86
84 Leaf of poison ivy, Rhus Toxicodendron .. 88
85 Leaf of poison sumac, Rhus venenata ..... 89
86 Leaf of Jeffersonia diphylla ........ --. 89
87 Leaf of Dicentra Canadensis .............. 0. cece cece ete e ee cece tee e te teen e ener aes 90
88. Leaf of Acacia Avabies scswems savsveancscdumgewnns 1 HEROT TENG MeeRK ee MARR Sees 91
89 Shoot of Currant tomato, Lycopersicum pimpinellifolium .......................- 92
90 Leaf of Mikado tomate:..jccs sais ai cascecwe c cctsisdies oe 6% actos vasa danies os Fa Hgtvee Seen 93
FIG.

91

92

93

94

96

97

98

99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
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117
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124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
1385
136
137
138
139
140
141

REGISTER OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXV

Lae at Of GAD IIR ees vette cesses sini eidinlacasie za ereiavevs se bn er erdaauadn ds woanhiahesnerauanre wee aucen arena
Sprig of Veronica peregrina ..... 1.6.2... ..cc ccc e eens

Leaf of common pea..........
95 Leaves of Cobma scandens.
Leaf of Sarracenia variolaris .
Leaf of orange
Leaf of Aigle (or Citrus) trifoliata.... 0.00... cece cece cece eee e ee eeeeeeaeenes 100
SAVES OL WAL DOHIT is ae qeinesa cs vetenc yun acapee tend node dnera be ix aumedwnnd ease noes 101
Sprig of Russia thistle, Salsola Kali var. Tragus.................cceceeeeeeuee 101
Common asparagus......... eas Minrevi alate. 0 So she ararnle. web Sore ered dead 10 Veena aniganteasaiaas Wei eieal 102
Spray of florists’ smilax, Asparagus medeoloides.......... wee 104

 

   
 
  

 

  
 

 

    
  

  

 

Phyllodia of Acacia longifolia. 105
Phyllodia of Acacia armata... eee 105
Leavesiof Pints Strobusisccciusscciescesw ses cian sh o4 deterwean x3 Pa amewdits a4 Seen 106
Spray of Lonleera Caprifolinti i rsiecgsuiesvesanes 0s 14 Cememaasaad Mamewsniad vi veee 111
Leaf of mullein, Verbascum Thapsus 111
Amplexicaul leaves of Aster levis ............. 6. cece cece enn ne eee eeeenes 112
Perfoliate leaves of Potamogeton perfoliatus .............. 0 cee e seen eee eneeees 112
Sheath of Phabarb: «ociccanea swine se weieasaaws saeamcac oy artes 112
Leaf of Memispermum Canadense.. 113
Leaf of Tropwolum majus......... 113
Spray of red pepper or CapSicuM............ cece cece cece eet e eee eeenee fot eaeeee 115
Same wo sccscsesre pecan savie cowed verawewies ceweee ean be LMEema NS oasoeeae es Boas eees 116
Leaf of wild chestnut snsa OLLT
Leaf of catnip, Nepeta Cataria .......... 00.06. ccc cece e ce cee cence eee e ne eeeees 118
Lhinnsus’ diagrams Of leaves nc... sce cdieess Seternese Mie ng eed ete signed eebisigiaunie aid 8 Fa essence 120
Leaves of birch, Betula alba ...............0.02. 2. eee ee 121
Leaves of smilax o.i¢c.c.cccses vec eied ceeenaesees ee nan 122
Leaves of Russian mulberry..................0.0e. 005 123
122 Sprigs of red cedar, Juniperus Virginiana 124
Tomato foliage 125
Tomato foliage.. 126
Tomato foliage 127
Tomato: LOMB xe cco eases cies soidieinieiebe slecrsininale Soa pelne ns Sk adcwme nine Soaaneasinde Oe 128
Leaf of common aheyeunthenwm ates ed eaeloninensecat 129
Leaf of feverfew, Chrysanthemum Parthenium 129
Leaf of Chrysanthemum frutescens..............-. 130
Leaf of Chrysanthemum feeniculaceum............. 6 cece eee eee cence enna ne 130
Flower of Hepatica triloba 131
Akenes of Hepatica triloba.. 132
134 Flowers of mustard..... 133
Silique of mustard .............. 134
Pistillate flowers of Salix discolor.........-....c cece cece cece cere nen e ne ee ee neee 136
Staminate flowers of Salix discolor ........... 0... ccc cece eee ee een ce en eens 137

 
 

Tulips
Apple flowers
Pistil of catnip, Nepeta Cataria .
Akene of Hepatica triloba............ cece cess nee erence eee eet en en eeneceetacseee 142

 
XXVi REGISTER OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  
 
 

 

 
  
   
  
 
    
    
 
 
  
      

FIG. PAGE
BD PE OE HN scars ieaed tra adeee ens aeedeanen nes Lanescuia virmsomle Pedecionns A RAS 142
143 Flower of corn-cockle, Lychnis Githago............cc:eeceee vere eeer cee c teen enee 143
Wd: Pla HOw eee cevenascmes cxnvansienis ve 04 oe 144
145 Ovary of Podophyllum peltatum .. «. 144
146 Flower of currant, Ribes rubrum.. 145
147 Stamens of Nympheza reniformis.. -. 146
148 Flower of Lilium Canadense ........ 0... cece eee cece een eee ete e ene neeeeees 146
149 Stamen of Azalea nudiflora........... cece eee eect ee eee cee tet en en eee e es een eens 147
150 Flower and stamens of barberry...... -. 147
151 Flower of Salvia coccinea ............... 148
T52 Carnation vii cscrcesyenes don aceaiain'eins oeaieioen 148
153 Flower of Hepatica triloba................ .. 148
154 Flowering dogwood, Cornus florida «. 154
155 Paper birch, Betula papyrifera .............. «. 155
156 Catkin of Betula Witea, os.csxsccce sas cdascimeis oo ds vas eens eMeaae Ess Heese He oOe 157
157 Blue-beech, Carpinus Caroliniana...........c cece eee e cece cern ec nee ee eaecneenes 158
158 Catkins of filbert, Corylus Avellana - 158
159 Flowers of hazel, Corylus rostrata......... 0. cc eee ce cece eee ee ence eter ee eeee 158
160: Hicoriasmicrocarpaiesias sscievcciscieaced an a0 dieajad wate oe seciatars a4 deaaerediay Ravinder ed mee 159
161 162 Flowers of Hubbard squash . 160
163 Spray of cucumber ............ ceeeeeeeeee . 163
164 Spray of gherkin, Cucumis Anguria . 164
LOS) Carex torte siscceioas sects ccissis ya avons iei’s 94 yotmtee ye oh Fa da Chen se eben Seuafere%s 165
166 166
167 167
168 168
169 172
170 Floret of dandelion. 172
171 Dandelion 173
172 Leaves of dandelion. . 175
Fovtbot hla Witte: nc sccccesas vasa saninn wer udawagaie ds euearemane bo Meets KE dy Some R ede 178

180

181

182

182

183

Flowers of foxglove 188

180 Flower of catnip, Nepeta Cataria . 184
1. Hlower'of Catalpaspoclosiienccccascers oacege cosy renmnnwns evesURS 4 ¥eCuaY oawns 184
182 Flower of lily-of-the-valley.......... 0... cc cascescesenecccctscveecccsssetecsanccs 185
183 Narcissus 186
187

188

189

Sats Sets eeacha waste vein 190

188 Inflorescence of arrow-leaf, Sagittaria variabilis. . 191

189 Panicle of june-grass, Poa pratensis..............0.0cccccecccceucccccececceee ; 192
190. Buckwheat. tcistes sicssancwrie ws oa sistecke praidjgje dial Sisie. MPSS VS Sa Geiesaiys widhecteacduneciare Mievrddie WOE 194
FIG.

191

194

198

206

216

219

228

REGISTER OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXVii

  
 
  
  
 
 
 
 
 
   

    
 
 
 
 
 

 

 

  
 
 
   

 

PAGE
Basswood, Tilia Americana............. 0... c ccc cence ccee scan caceteuceeaeeees 194
Wild crab-apple, Pyrus coronaria............ 00.0. c ccc eeeceeev eens eueeeeeeeeuues 195
Elder, Sambucus Canadensis ...............0000ccccc cece cs eeescseanenueeenenees 198
Bud On pear StOM: vas siscissamienujac va actuwars ob eaciareens earned ais Peeeenrs Yeselee 199
Flower of Nymphza reniformis.. 200
Plowst of Oattias ouanvsa vanqunesy van ween anna inoew ee 4 H8e9S 253 201
Carpels of Sterculia platanifolia........... 0.2... cece eee eee 202
DoWble ARM Ati OM geass losis Sctrcieicheise wel sieiesden'ojess}e sudesucne he ebay sladlogalba amie oh edd 203
Transformations i TWNP 0:5 ioc sees vs osmsiicsmnaesacemenccen sie ob cuhernudon’ damvlareuaniee wine's 204
Double-flowering almond, Prunus Japonica .. 205
SWECl DOA conics ny bis cape diand ceveecieni ne Saree 207
Andrecium and gyneecium of sweet pea .. 207
Viola cueullatal sivcosnaae pristiccnwa aud oactivian 24 vam og bie 210
205'Flowers of Aristolochia Sipho 211
Crape Myrtle, Lage:stroemia Indica 213
AGIWMIS CiPVROSBs seo ee cis wie eased ae Teche Pate DGeoat oe. awakes cea Meine eae 214
Flowers of grape .. 215
Passiflora edulis....... 217
Euphorbia corollata ..... 218
Flowers of Acer rubrum ......... na 78 Fa RRS TERRA TREND BE DEE ROURE 219
Lemna minor.......... wiveaianoinisian areas We emia Wtatad suas BE 220
Cypripedium’ spectabiles....c: sisieseee ok were sane « oiveseiares wigs 26 trauareieiniare dois odiereraneratone eee 221
Column of Cypripeditim :e5sicc escewiwad oelarcinauis 94 vsteses 24 YE emma cee DHES EMS dee 222
Pogonia ophioglossoides. ........ 20.6 cece cee cece eee eee ee 224
Bullrush, Juncus effusus .... 0... cece cece eee een eee 224
RY Gpajacinaiaiateanicind oaalpaiejainiean Aayansiaaseee 225
Flower of June-grass, Poa pratensis. . 227
Flowers of maize 228
Carextribuloides var.eris tates. siiisci seis 22 sacs cers eam gaa as a Was ba Re 229
SAMO ieee. cecssrainainstagimind e carvcieiwtia nmeakitia Bs Malema selnaaen Sie te deldeanans seemed 230
SAG scasestereas va eareaeaeeeeeesd ougie te tt eneuus eee dry ea es ace 231
Carex Hatidass s ccecsus ecneens va pusuing REP aeee os 6a Beeetes oe vee se eA Sete 232
Perigynium of Carex lurida . 233
Racheola of carex . 233
Phlox glaberrima.......... 235
Plower of garden columbine........... 0... cece cece cette eee tee eee e eee ee renee 237
Crowfoot, Ranunculus acris......... 2 ccc ccc ence ence n nen e nent nenes 238
Blowers 6f primulaicss ssee0ss vesicusrconatocga v3 aaaeiwee cassia ere oavemarecicis oe weirs 239
Pollination of ‘sweet: Poa. .2i5 scaceas cvawcns ei ceca tad cannons sa same sates eames 241
Pollination of asclepias 243
Cleistogamous flowers of Dalibarda repens ..... 244
Emasculation of maurandia...........-...- 247
Protecting a crossed floWEY..... 6... cece eee e ene eee een ee cee e tenet teen eens eens 248
Bag for protecting crossed flowers.......---2.:eeen cece cere teen etree eee e eee 249
Akene of Clematis verticillaris......... 0... cece eee e cece eee eee e ence tree een e tae 252
Burs of Cynoglossum officinale ....... 6. cece ce cee teen eee rent e et teen en ee nee eee 252
Strawberry Hower. ........ cece cece cence eee een tetera e eee e ee eeeenesnnne 253
Strawberry ..... aisiscsbiararrdaits een ene ene eee eee ne ene nee nate n an eaes 253
XXVIH REGISTER OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  
 

 
  
 
 
 

 
 
 

 

FIG. PAGE
240 Strawberry “nubbin” ......... 0 ccc eee eect e nee ee ene nen eee n esses eens De essenees 254
241 Frost-injured blackberries... 255
242 Proliferous strawberry.... 256
243 Black raspberry ......... 00. cece ee cee ec e eee rece nese eee e ee sea beeen eneeeneen rene 256
244 245 Young fruits of apricot....2....... 2. cee cee teen eee eee ee ee ee nees 257
246° «Multiple: peach ionic) senor san clatacedannes cated dau cebduele ae Bek -. 258
247 Fruits of columbine ii vi cocscce cess saeslescies Ce mnnaneenns cneelons -. 260
248 Bean pod .......... «- 261
249 Jeffersoniay pod scx sciies s scikacansinsies vanmiesaduine icine Pedant Das eu GAG Bee 262
250 Lilae pod......... ie ciltg ad Soca Bh Seance 263
251. ‘Castor Dea Dds waasesacerssesen ang ap RRR BIRR ONEs Ay tonne ae aes gale ed oa olan 264
252: Azalea DOG. scence ii-ok deeeeas ee eee ke Pies Seis TA haute oh ae CINE REG Ome a Ss 264
253° “Pod of Hibisctis: Syriad@us. erjcees. 23.03 gsanesess cbenkianees seenwae ara aawaanees Ge REA 265
DoP, POO OL CUMBIA 5. ccsccccgaisicwis. vstGereonsien hes SS th daalpeses tub wa N eee engele” lease ae ae sae ads 6eee 265
255 Boll of cotton .... 266
256 Pod of morning-glory ... 266
257 Pod of mignonette ... .. 267
258: Pod Of balsas sie cssieisisissse: siasmvevsrannstdis a sunvaisiescls Be sacle Tees divetvemis oe Raa wae 267
259 Pod of balsand Cxplodin gins sos csciagiisios waiiaeieieis.s sadiarsine oa ve desis ese Hieielaaees oe 268
260 Fruit of Cardiospermum Halicacabum .............c cece eee cece eee eee eens 268
261 Legumes of daubentonia........ 269
262 Samara of Acer saccharinum.... 271
263 Samara of Acer saccharinum var. nigrum.. 271
264 Young fruits of Negundo aceroides......... a» ‘272
265 Samara of Ptelea trifoliata.......... ccc cee eee cece eee ee eee eet e eer eee eteeeeee 278
266 Key of white ash,"Praxinus Americana............ 00. ce cece cece cece ree cen eeee 273
267 Key of black ash, F. sambucifolia

268 Fruit of Ulmus Americana............ 0.60 cece ccc cee eee e ere nec neee

269-272 Fruits of elms,—Ulmus fulva, U. racemosa, U. alata, and U. montana,

 
 
  
 
 

  
 
 
 

respectively 274
273 Scuppernong grape, Vitis rotundifolia . -. 275
274 Fruits of Caulophyllum thalictroides ............0 ccc ccc cece cece eee eucecaees 276
275 Corn-cockle, Lychnis Githago.......... 02... cece cece cece cette eee t ene eeneenes 276
276 Same ......scesecscescsccensvreee 277
277 Husk-tomato, Physalis Peruviana. 278
278 279 Agrimonia Eupatoria............ -» 279
280 Witch-hazel, Hamamelis Virginiana .. 280
281 Young fruits of cocoa-nuts, Cocos nucifera.......... cc cece cece cece cence eeeees 281
282-200 Acorns,—Quercus alba, Q. macrocarpa, Q. Prinus, Q. bicolor, Q. coccinea,

Q. tinetoria, Q. rubra, Q. virens, Q. pedunculata, respectively........... 282-4
291 Hickory-nut, Hicoria laciniosa ............. cece ee cece cece cece cece ne te eeeeeewens 285
292 Butternut, Juglans cinerea............... 286
293 Chestnut, Castanea dentata (Americana) . . 287
294-296 Sections of apple fruit ................. see eee 287-8
297 Bract on an apple fruit 289
298 Medlar, Mespilus Germanica 289

299 Different forms of apples ............ cece cece eee c eee ee cent e ence te eenenens 291
300 Gherkin, Cucumis Anguria ........... 0.0 c cece cece ener ener tenn ee eneenaees 291
REGISTER OF ILLUSTRATIONS Xxix

Fig.
301 May-pop, Passiflora incarnata.............0.ccccccccccccceececcensetensenueneees
302-304 Turban SQUASH: shes sescciseis sopsedsemid evans

305 Peduncle of Cucurbita maxima
306 Peduncle of Cucurbita Pepo ...................
307 Peduncle of Cucurbita moschata
308-310 Tomato fruits ....
311 Turk’s-cap tomato......
312 Flower of navel orange
318- Fraitol Orange 'aigis oseaswnais teetnineG devsiiviancie chemin s be ooayne ve oy wemmenaea peeaM
314 Navel orange
315 316 Flowers and fruit of white mulberry...........
317 Fruit of red mulberry .....-...........0cceeeeeeeeees
318 319 Fruits of common fig..
320 Staminate cone of Pinus rigida
321 Pistillate cone and flowers of Pinus Austriaca
Goce EPIRUS FIGS ces vennyuses caver Mi Pumaweinr DeRbeas Hh LAVERUA IA awd dads oo ca dunodeas

  
 
  
  
  
  
 
  
 
  
 
 
 
 
  
 
 

 

   

223 S24 Cones of Pints (lattes: xs vndes vapmeaughi4 Micaswa pa cewud sacs is Goecee es

325 Imperfectly fertilized fruit of tomato ..

326 Non-fertilized apple ............. ccc eect eee nee ee ee eee e eee

327 Non-fertilized eggplant...............- 0. cece ence ne eee ee ees

328-341 Germination of squash ...

342 Sprouting of onion seed.........

343347 Germination of onion....... ae

348 Germination of béans: .occa0. sce cras vseneeeas sameewdin dee eae ea aged Ge aduoRieaeS d

349 Germination of Scarlet Runner bean, Phaseolus multiflorus................... 327
350 Seed of bean

BDL, COCO TID 5-56 eid scisse ackeslousns gags’ sis: conse eoessaveis imsbatgsibcais ited rayeioad. -Hib Sphoas ie eae Ho stan eN ax daromrareleer

352 Bean laid open............. cece eee ee cee ee ene ee cosa caceaiseccualerane ook wepsauatcee'y ie dares SAD 333
3353 Scarlet Runner bean laid open.. 833
354 Onion seed ........... ec ce eee e ee 334
355 Buckwheat seed .............. 334
896: Petal veiecs ences sy eeianians canara iene BINS RS WARGRTEY SE Maen HS DA DES OURaNS 835
857 Pisee of Adianitani Dédati 4 ines vi vi gesoees vasenin ds heessad G vaewy eA TA REE ONE 342
358 Piece of Aspidium marginatum... 348
359 Portions of fronds of Onoclea sensibilis..............0. cece cece eee teen ees 344
360 Diagram to illustrate a fern frond.............6 2. ccc eee e cece eee ee teen een 344
361 Scouring-rush, Equisetum hyemale. 345
362 Lycopodium complanatum....... 345
363 Lycopodium lucidulum.......... 345
364 Moss, Polytrichum commune.............- cece ce tree ence tence teen ener n erence 346
365 366 Common mushroom, Agaricus campestris...........0e cere cece ee eeneeees 348
367 Amanita phalloides..............0. cece eee e teen eee ee eee

368 369 Bulbs of Easter lily.

 

371 Top onions...........0seeeeee eens
372 House-leek, Sempervivum tectorum........... ccc cece cence eee ee etn en eee eee 354

 
xxx REGISTER OF ILLUSTRATIONS

   

 

 

FIG. PAGE
375 Winter bud of Myriophyllum spicatum ............... 2c cece cece cence eee eeeees 357
378 Corm Of gladioliSyis..2.65,-..0c¢ecndeees eeeeewees ad Sarge se ae De eaRORAS o4 .. 858
377 Rhizome of Agrimonia Eupatoria..............0...e ee ee «. 859
378 Rhizome of Smilacina racemosa............. 360
379 Rhizome of quack-grass, Agropyrum repens.. 361
B80: POCA bOssu-ssis ian sapnsrensinna sac aaiaine 18 Fas Raaiesemea ial seiad Reem ANE Maes Saud ik Danae 362
BS1. Sweet: Potato’ « vcercccizicisis.. gulesinisicicennice wie vioieeeha nisin Se» eakcloneaale Hea a ame AT ORVAG ARE 468
BB2- Sal ShbY> sreiscseesessie sus sc aeneysnisyereys eels oie etsasie ys Srotacererapgmanbreny artiqnobueigns a ceaiadansidia ont Rata Oe aiaeat 364
383 Root of Phaseolus multifiorus -. 364
884 Growth of old potatoss: sscsessages s5 Seeded wa hedoemans MA eee ee ceeae ee Be .. 365
385 Hill of potatoes.............. 366
386 Layer of Carex tribuloides.. 367
387 Runner of strawberry....... -. 368
8388 Stolon of black raspberry........... cece eee e cece rece eee tect een eect eeeeeennes 369
389 Suckers. of red raspberry ws ciecwscis ovece cece ts sama seo ea siune ee vis amie vn penne 370
390-395 Various parts of mangrove, Rhizophora Mangle................... «. 371-3874
396 Leaf-colony of Bryophyllum calycinum,............:.esesee cece eee e eect e eee 375
397 398 Begonia phyllomaniaca..............

399 400 Cuttings of geranium...

401
402
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407
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411
412
413
414
415
416
418
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420
421
422
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425
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428
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430
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434

Leaf-cutting of rex begonia....

 

   
  
 

 
 
 
 
  
  

406. Propagating devices 380
Fruits of Symphoricarpus vulgaris... -» 381
WDM DS ons ois diets acccemraioinked nate aioaeaies -. 382
Mayflower, Epigwa repens..... .. 3889
Tree of Hickoria glabraicccceaciess asscwases se sceen anda va vases as vane -. 3891
Tree of Hickoria microcar pare isis. scccicisisiosiseis vaistersicinis oo oh Haleiiereis Os ar eweue da oa awe 391
Roots of orchard grass, Dactylis glomerata..........-..... cece eee e eens 392
Roots of clover, Trifolium pratense....... -. 892
Trees of various Japanese plums... 395
Japanese hop, Humulus Japonicus..... -. 397
417 Morning-glory, Ipomoea purpurea.......... 6... ccc erent e cence 397
TOW ATU OF COCHIN DOR viejo icsssesdcajersteieisie sis ews ssdeuceatevisace dvadystepin: 21806 Sascgtedtiend! wanbeniphaossass Hpac 398
Tendrils of cassabanana, Sicana odorifera......... 0... .cce cece ee cn eect enereeeees 399
Tendril of Ampelopsis tricuspidata............. cee cece cece eee seen eee ieee 400
Leaf of Clematis Virginiana...... -» 401
423 Leaves of Oxalis Bowieana. 403
Hepatica acutiloba .............. .. 404
Sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica............. cece eee cee ene nee eeneeteennaae 405
427 American mistletoe, Phoradendron flavescens...............0cesceeeeeeee 407
Dodder, Cuscuta Gronovii 408
Indian-pipe, Monotropa uniflora......... ese cece cee ete t ee ence teense eeeeee 409
Dahlia variabilis, wild and improved. -. 420
Girdle: Sten 56:5 scsedsieigssseie 3.00 dinretg cielo es .. 423
Acer saccharinum var. nigrum.. . 429
JAGOr BAEC MATA 2:55.52 dasacste diners Sit iete sind Ad ae Cosmo aa sata aH oa eanceebee he 430
Carols Lin nwOusissc.pis varceine sean svareredetien naga taiaws ba wegen wa patlon d4 aa ceed sd 433
FIG.

442

REGISTER OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXX

Asa Gray ....ccceseesee
Herbarium sheet
Herbarium label ¢. cecj5% eee ie oa cane sas vaeeemens sa neneees é Aladara. xh wie RGNe HANOI
Portable Press: jecios es sacs ns sccwhagse Meese Ne MaRS FEDeeE ase be va tee
Corner in an herbarium
441 Diagrams to show poor and good planting....................eceeeeee 446, 450
A VOEGUTOUS | DOLPAEL = cepciss ncireicae-sd.ere nerainineists s dingenend ta $a Sides, na Leer aam nee ey 451

 
  

 
PART I

StupIES oF Twics AND Bups

I. THE BUD AND THE BRANCH

1. A twig cut from an apple tree in early
spring is shown in Fig. 1. The most hasty ob-
servation shows that it has various parts or mem-
bers. It seems to be divided at the point f into
two parts. It is evident that the portion from f
to h grew last year, and that the portion below
f grew two years ago. The buds upon the two
parts are very unlike, and these differences chal-
lenge investigation.

2. In order to understand this seemingly life-
less twig, it will be necessary to see it as it
looked late last summer (and this condition is
shown in Fig. 2). The portion from f to h,—
which has just completed its growth,—is seen to
have only one leaf in a place. In every axil (or
angle which the leaf makes when it joins the
shoot) is a bud. The leaf starts first, and as
the season advances the bud forms in its axil.

(1)
Lo

 

Fia. 1.
An apple twig.

LESSONS WITH PLANTS

  
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
    

Fig. 2.

Same twig before leaves fell.

When the leaves
have fallen, at the
approach of winter,
the buds remain, as
seen in Fig. 1.
Every bud on _ the
last year’s growth of
a winter twig, there-
fore, marks the po-
sition occupied
by a leaf when
the shoot was
growing.

3. The por-
tion below f, in
Fig. 2, shows a
wholly different
arrangement.
The leaves are two or
more together (aaaa),
and there are buds
without leaves (b b
bb). A year ago
this portion looked
like the present shoot
from f to h,—that is,
the leaves were single,
with a bud in the
THE BUD AND THE BRANCH 3

axil of each. It is now seen that some of
these bud-like parts are longer than _ others,
and that the longest ones are those which have
leaves. It must be because of the leaves that
they have increased in length. The body c_ has
lost its leaves through some accident, and _ its
growth has ceased. In other words, the parts at
a@aaa are like the shoot f h, except that they
are shorter, and they are of the same age. One
grows fein the end or terminal bud of the main
branch, and the others from the side or lateral
buds. Parts or bodies’ which bear leaves are,
therefore, branches.

4. The buds at bbbb have no leaves, and
they remain the same size that they were a year
ago. They are dormant. The only way for a
mature bud to grow is by making leaves for it-
self, for a leaf will never stand below it again.
The twig, therefore, has buds of two ages,—those
at bbbb are two seasons old, and those on the
tips of all the branches (aaaa,h), and in the
axil of every leaf, are one season old. It is only
the terminal buds which are not axillary. Buds
are buds only so long as they remain dormant.
When the bud begins to grow and to put forth
leaves, it gives rise to a branch, which, in its
turn, bears buds.

5. It will now be interesting to determine why
4 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

certain buds gave rise to branches and why others
remained dormant. The strongest shoot or branch
of the year is the terminal one (fh). The next
in strength is the uppermost lateral one, and the
weakest shoot is at the base of the twig. The
dormant buds are on the under side (for the
twig grew in a horizontal position). All this sug-
gests that those buds grew which had the best
chance,—the most sunlight and room. There were
too many buds for the space, and in the struggle
for existence those which had the best oppor-
tunities made the largest growths. This struggle
for existence began a year ago, however, when
the buds upon the shoot below f were forming in
the axils of the leaves, for the buds near the tip
of the shoot grew larger and stronger than those
near its base. The growth of one year, therefore,
is very largely determined by the conditions under
which the buds were formed the previous year.

SvuGGEstTions.—At whatever time of year the pupil takes up the
study of branches, he should look for three things: the ages of the
various parts, the relative positions of the buds and leaves, the
different sizes of similar, or comparable buds. If it is late in
spring ‘or early in summer he should watch the development of
the buds in the axils, and he should determine (as inferred in
5) if the strength or size of the bud is in any way related to
the size and vigor of the subtending (or supporting) leaf. Upon
leafless twigs, the sizes of buds should also be noted, and the sizes
of the former leaves may be inferred from the size of the leaf-
sear (below the bud). The pupil should keep in mind the fact
THE LEAF-BUD AND THE FRUIT-BUD 5

of the struggle for food and light, and its effects upon the
developing buds.

Tl. THE LEAF-BUD AND THE FRUIT-BUD

6. Another apple branch is shown in Fig. 3.
It seems to have no slender last year’s growth,
as Figs. 1 and 2 have at fh. It therefore needs
special attention. It is first seen that the “ring”
marking the termination of a year’s growth is at a.
There are dormant buds at bb. The twig above
a must be more than one year old, however, be-
cause it bears short lateral branches at ee. If
these branchlets are themselves a year old (as
they appear to be), then the portion fg must be a
similar branch, and the twig itself (af) must be
two years old. The ring marking the termination
of the growth of year before last is therefore at /.
In other words, a twig is generally a year older
than its oldest branches.

7. The buds cc are larger than the dormant
buds (bb). That is, they have grown; and if
they have grown, they are really branches, and
leaves were borne upon their little axes in the
season just past. The branchlets ddd are larger
(possibly because the accompanying leaves were
more exposed to light) and ee and g are still
larger. For some reason the growth of this
 

Fie. 3.

Formation of
fruit-buds.

\

LESSONS WITH PLANTS

» twig was checked last year, and all the

branches remained short. We find, in
other words, that there is no necessary
length to which a branch shall grow, but
that its length is dependent upon local or
seasonal conditions.

8. There are other and more impor-
tant differences in this shoot. The buds
terminating the branches (e eg) are larger
and less pointed than the others are.
If they were to be watched as growth
begins in the spring, it would be seen
that they give rise to both flowers and
leaves, while the others give only leaves.
In other words, there are two kinds of
buds, fruit-buds and leaf-buds; and check-
ing the growth induces fruitfulness.

9. If the buds on the ends of the
branchlets eeg produce flowers, the twig
cannot increase in length; for an apple
is invariably borne on the end of a
branch, and therefore no terminal bud
ean form there. If growth takes place
upon the twig next year, therefore, it
must arise from one of the lower or
leaf-buds. The buds upon the branch-
lets ddd will stand the best chance of
continuing the growth of. the twig, for
THE DEFLECTED AXIS OF GROWTH 7

they are largest and strongest, and are most ex-
posed to sunlight. These failing, the opportunity
will fall to one or both of ec; and these fail-
ing, the long-waiting dormant buds may find their
chance to grow. In other words, there are more
buds upon any twig than are needed, but there
is, thereby, a provision against emergencies.

SuGGESTIONS.—The pupil should give himself some practice in
determining or locating the rings marking the annual lengths of
growth. A good way to do this is to choose some tree of known
age (as w fruit tree or shade tree which has been planted but a
few years), and endeavor to account for all the years’ growths.
He should also endeavor to find out how long the dormant buds may
live upon any tree. He should attempt to determine if it is true
that a moderate growth (so long as the tree remains healthy)
tends to make the tree bear. Those persons who have access to
vineyards should determine whether the most prolific canes are those
of medium size and which do not run off to great lengths on the
wires. Examine orchards for this purpose. Many pupils have
heard that driving nails into trees tends to make them bear, and
the result may have been attributed to some influence which the
iron is assumed to exert upon the plant; but if it is true
that such practice induces fruitfulness, the pupil may be able
to suggest an explanation of it. Let the pupil also determine
whether dormant buds ever grow when the branch is_ injured
above them.

lI. THE DEFLECTED AXIS OF GROWTH

10. It is evident, from the foregoing observa-
tions, that the twig in Fig. 3 cannot continue its
growth in a straight or continuous line. Fig. 4
8 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

is a sequel. (The foliage of this twig, as seen
the previous fall, is accurately drawn in Fig. 5.)

 

A forking twig. The leafage of the twig shown in Fig. 4.

The terminations of years’ growths are at ce
and b. Three years ago the terminal bud was at
c, and it was a fruit-bud, for the sears of the
THE DEFLECTED AXIS OF GROWTH 9

old flowers are seen on the squared or truncate

end. While flowers were bear-
ing on this place (two years
ago), the two lateral buds gave
rise to branches. One of these
branches grew to 0b, and was
broken off by some accident;
the other grew to e, and there
made a fruit-bud. Last year a
lateral bud gave rise to the
branch bi, and two lateral buds
gave the branches ef and eh.
When plants bear flowers from
the terminal buds of the grow-
ing shoots, they cease making
a leader or central trunk, but
branch diffusely.

11. Twigs of one of the
bushy dogwoods or osiers are
seen in Fig. 6. These were cut
in early spring, and, therefore,
show what took place the year
before. The one at the right
bore a cluster of flowers last
year, for the remains of the old
bunch still persists. As _ this

 

Fig. 6.

Shoots of a dogwood.

cluster was borne upon the very tip of the twig,
no terminal bud could form to continue the direct
Fia@. 7.

Twin ter-
minal buds
of the red
elder.

flowering age.
If, however, this
terminal bud is
a flower-bud,
the forking of
the branch will

begin
present

In other words,

this
makes

 

LESSONS WITH PLANTS

growth of the twig this year. There-
fore, the uppermost lateral buds become
terminal, and each will compete with the
other when growth begins, and the twig
may become forked. Continuously forking
woody plants are shrubs (or bushes),
because they can have no central axis
or trunk.

12. The shoot on the left, in Fig. 6,
has made a single terminal bud. It is
the end of a long, straight shoot or
twig. It has not yet arrived at the

in the
year.

dogwood
long,

straight shoots
until the flower-
ing stage ar-
rives, at which
time it begins

 

Shoots of lilac.
THE DEFLECTED AXIS UF GROWTH 11

a distinct method of branching.

12a. Can these remarks be made for most
bushes? That is, do they make single ter-
minal buds the first year or two from the
seed, and afterwards begin a new habit of
bud-bearing? If the pupil does not have
access to young plants, he may examine the
sprouts or ‘‘suckers’’ which spring from tne
roots of common bushes, as lilacs, roses,
spireas, osiers, willows, barberries, privets,
and the like. He may also study the horse-
chestnut.

13. Some bushes seldom make
single terminal buds. The red
elder (Fig. 7) is one. In this
ease, therefore, it would seem
as if the forking system of
growth must commence at the
very beginning of the plant’s
history. The lilac is a similar
case. Fig. 8 shows the shoots

 

just pushing out from the ends ia
of “suckers” which spring from 4
the ground. The specimen at
the right shows the twin shoots, |

f
but one is stronger than the \
other. That is, in the struggle 1
for existence one has the start.
The sample at the left shows
only one shoot, but the other
bud, which has lost its opportunity, is seen at

Fie. 9.

A bearing lilac shoot.
12 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

the base of the stronger shoot (a). The lilac,
therefore, gets up in the world by a process
of suppression. This suppression begins the very
year in which the buds are forming, for we
have already seen (Fig. 38) that companion
buds are generally un-
like; sometimes this
early suppression goes
so far that one bud
never has an oppor-
tunity to fully de-
velop.
14. In the fall, the
old seed-pods of the
lilac still persist on the
bush. They are shown
in Fig. 9. That is, both
the terminal buds upon
this shoot gave clusters
of flowers, and it rested
with the lower pairs of
buds to continue the
growth. Two of these
pairs have made the ef-
fort, while the buds be-
low them remain dormant
; _ and will never grow un-
Winter twig of black haw, showing Z.
the side buds at a u. less some injury should

 

Fie. 10.
THE DEFLECTED AXIS OF GROWTH 13

befall the shoots above. Each of these four shoots
has two terminal buds, and each of the shoots is
unlike the other.
It is easy to see
that the shoot a
is to become the
head of the fam- %
ily. Fig. 10 will \\
suggest investiga: \\
tion of the com-
mon black haw or
viburnum. Fig.

ll is a sumac

bush, with its zig-

zag and forking
growths; and the
terminal clusters

of seeds explain

how the forking

has arisen. The onde
forks are most ap- ee
parent at the tips
of the branches ;
this only means
that many of: the older branches have perished; or
perhaps the buds never developed on one side.
Irregular development among branches is the result
of struggle for existence.

   

Y,' AW
inf Utd
; Pi)
EA (Ad
Fig. 11.
The forking growth of a sumac bush.
14 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

15. The pupil should now examine the grape-
vine, and thoroughly master its method of brancn-
ing. He will find that the trunk is not formed
by continuous growth from a terminal bud, but
from lateral buds. That is, the continued progress
in stature is made by successive lateral branches
or secondary leaders, each of which has been a
leader in its turn. This is a type of diffuse
branching, in distinction to that of those plants
which grow constantly onward from the terminal
bud, in a strict or straight fashion, of which the
firs are typical examples. The pupil will now
observe the method of branching of the various
trees and shrubs which he meets, and determine
which ones retain the leader throughout life.
He will also be interested in the dry stalks of
herbs, as mulleins and thistles, which stand in
the waste places all winter. He will find that
most trees are at first strict and afterward diffuse.
Continued growth of the leader results in inde-
terminate or excurrent forms of trees, while the
diffuse method results in determinate or deliques-
cent tree tops, like those of the elms and apple
trees.

Suacestions. — The pupil should now explain why and when
the common trees change from the strict to the diffuse
style of branehing; and he should endeavor to figure out the
exact year in which the terminal bud was lost in certain small
STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE IN A TREE TOP 15

trees which he may meet. The horse chestnut will be found
interesting.

IV. THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE IN A
TREE TOP

16. We have seen, in all the foregoing exam.
ples, that every twig bears more buds than can
hope to find a chance to grow. Fig. 12 is an

 

Fie. 12.

The suppression of interior buds.

oak branch. It is seen that all the leaves are
borne upon the very tips of the branches. That
is, the interior of the space is poorly supplied with
foliage. If the leaves are all borne at the ends
16 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

of the branches, then the branches must all arise
from the ends the following year, for we have
already found (2) that branches normally start only

 

Fia. 13.

The lengthening leaf-stalks on a horizontal shoot of Norway maple.

from leaf axils. The persisting branches, therefore,
may mark the general lengths of the previous an-
nual growths.

17. Following the branches back we notice
that there are regular blank spaces and regular
points of branching. Every space between the
branches is a year’s growth, but these spaces
still show the buds which failed to grow. Even
on the oldest part of the branch, the rough eleva-
STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE IN A TREE TOP 17

tions where the buds were are still prominent; and
these scars may often be found on branches many
years old. The conclusion is that the method of
branching of a tree depends more upon the posi-
tion of the buds with reference to light than it
does upon the position with reference to their
arrangement upon the twig.

18. Let the pupil lie under a dense shade tree
on a summer’s day and look up into the dark
top. He will find that the interior of the top is
poorly supplied
with leaves, and
that the long
branches are leafy
at the ends. The
outside of the top
presents a wall of
foliage, often so
well thatched as
to shed the rain
like a_ roof, but
the inside is com-
paratively bare.
The tree may be
a maple. Fig. 13
is the tip of a side shoot. The lower leaves
have stretched out their stalks in eagerness for
the sunlight, for the newer leaves are constantly

 

Fie. 14.

Tip shoot of Norway maple.

Cc
18 LESSONS WITH PLANS

a

overtopping them; and the blades
of these leaves stand in a_hor-
izontal position. Fig. 14 is a
. shoot from a topmost
bough, where there is

less struggle for light,

and therefore shorter

a leaf-stalks and more
various positions of

leaves. It may be said, then,

™ that even the: leaves on a tree

L— attempt to arrange themselves
ws with reference to sunlight.

19. A black cherry tree two

& years old, taken from the woods,

is shown in Fig. 15. The
ez first year it grew from the
ground to a, and it bore buds
at regular intervals,—about two
dozen of them. The _ second
year, the terminal bud sent out
a shoot to b, and thirteen lat-
eral buds gave rise to branches.
Of these thirteen lateral branches,
obviously only three stand any
chance of living in the dense
pens shade of the forest. In fact,

The curious history of a
wild cherry tree. four or five of the lowest

7, ff

 

 
STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE IN A TREE TOP 19

twigs were dead when the pic-
ture was made; showing that
the struggle. for existence does
not always result from compe-
tition among fellows but may
arise from the crowding of
other plants.

20. These three strong
branches are less than four feet
from the ground, but other -old
cherry trees standing near it
had no branches within fifteen
and twenty feet of the ground.
They no doubt branched low
down, as this one, but the
branches eventually died in the
struggle; and we_ therefore
have reason to conclude that
of all the branches on this
little tree, only the terminal
one, 6, can long survive. The
trunk of a tree, then, is the
remainder in a long problem
of subtraction.

SuUGGESTIONS.—A young tree of the

 

 

 

Indeterminate habit of the
sweet cherry.

sweet garden cherry is

shown in Fig. 16, and one of the Morello or pie cherry in Fig. 17.
In the former, the terminal growths are strong, and the leader, or

eentral trunk, has persisted. The latter

has long since lost its
20 ; LESSONS WITH PLANTS

leader, and the side growths are strong. Let the pupil now figure
out how many buds have perished (or at least failed to make
permanent branches) in each of these trees, if they are supposed
to be seven years old. Any garden cherry tree will give him the

 

Determinate habit of the sour cherry.

probable number of buds to each annual growth. Even without:
the figures, it is evident that there are very many more failures
than successes in any tree top. Let him also explain why the
branches in Fig. 16 are in tiers.
KNOTS AND KNOY-HOLES 21

V. KNOTS AND KNOT-HOLES

21. We have seen that some of the side
branches upon the little cherry tree (Fig. 15) died,
and that all the others will probably perish. Fig. 18

  

Fie. 18. Fig. 19.

A dead branch and the mass of A knot-hole.
healing tissues at its base.

shows a dead limb on an oak tree. The limb
became weak because the shade was too dense,
and because the branches above it took more than
their share of food. Finally, borers and fungi
attacked it, and it died. It rotted slowly away,
year by year its twigs fell, and finally a heavy
22 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

fall of snow broke it off as we now see it. As
soon as it died, it became a menace to the tree,
for the rot in its tissues might extend into the
trunk. The tree made an effort to cover it up.
The tissue piled higher and higher about. its . base,

ye

    

Fie. 21.
Knot in wu hemlock log. Improper cutting of a limb.

reaching for the end of the wound. The limb was
eaten away by decay, and became smaller and
smaller in diameter, leaving a cup-like ring about
its base. Finally it broke off, and a knot-hole
was left. Such a knot-hole is seen in Fig. 19.
Knot-holes on the bodies of trees, then, are the
cavities left by dead and decaying limbs.
KNOTS AND KNOT-HOLES 23

22. A hemlock log, split lengthwise, is drawn
in Fig. 20. A knot extends to the center. This
knot is the remains of a limb, and is nearly as old
as the trunk, because it starts from the very cen-
ter; that is, the limb sprung off when the tree
was a mere sapling. The probability is that it is
just one year younger
than the trunk, for fly 84 (l
we have seen (6) that Ze
branches start only on
the second year’s wood,
unless some stress of cir-
cumstances starts out the
older and dormant buds.
The limb finally died and
broke off, and the stub
was buried. The tissue
has uow grown out to
the end of the stub, and
nothing remains but to
close over the hole. If the limb had rotted away,
a squirrel or a woodpecker might have taken up
his quarters in the cavity. The woodchopper, how-
ever, found only a knot; and a board sawed from
the log would have had a knot whenever the saw
eut across the old stub. If the knot were loose,
it would fall out, and the board would have had a
knot-hole. Knots and knot-holes in boards, therefore,

 
   

I, 1 aN
Hh ©
Ret

     

Proper cutting of a branch.
24 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

represent sections of dead or live branches; and each
one records an event in the history of the tree.

23. A limb was sawn from a tree. Several years
afterwards a drawing was made of the stub (Fig.
21). The limb had not yet healed in. The reason
is apparent: the stub had been left so long that
the tissue had not yet been able to pile up over
it, and, having no life in itself, the branch could
not make healing tissue of its own. The stub is
now a monument to the man who pruned the tree.
Fig. 22 shows how another limb was cut, and
although the wound is not nearly so old as the
other, it is being rapidly closed in. There are most
important practical lessons, then, to be learned from
the study of knot-holes,—two of which are that
nature is a most heroic pruner, and that limbs must
be sawn off close to the parent branch if the
wounds are to heal well.

SuG@eEstTions.—The pupil should determine whether cross-sections
of large branches (as in Figs. 21 and 22) really ever heal up (as
wounds heal in human flesh), or whether they are simply her-
metically sealed by a covering of tissue which arises from the
sides of the wounds. In other words, does the end of the stub or
wound ever become vitally connected with the healing tissue, or
does this old wood remain lifeless and inert under the healing tissue
as some foreign body (as a nail) might? Let the pupil procure a
healed-over wound and split it lengthwise, and then answer these
questions. The student should also observe the healing of wounds
upon street trees and in orchards as related to the length at which
the stub is left. Examine the knots in the floor and the wood-work.
THE FRUIT-SPUR 25

The pupil should also explore the wood-pile, where he may now
find much to interest him.

VI. THE FRUIT-SPUR

24. We have found (Figs. 3, 4, 5) that there
are two kinds of buds, the leaf-buds, and the
fruit-buds (or flower-buds). Some of these fruit-
buds on the apple tree terminate short branches
(eeg, Fig. 3), but
now and then one
is borne on _ the
end of the axial
shoot of the season
(ce, Figs. 4 and
5). The latter is

 
 
 
 
 
  

The fruit-spur arid leaf-spur.

the exception in apple trees. Fig. 23 is an
apple twig. Several dormant buds are seen on
the lower part. At a and 6 are short branches.
The branch b has made a small and _ pointed
26 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

bud, which is evidently to bear leaves only next
year, while the stronger branch (a) has made a
thick and rounded bud, which is to bear flowers.
This fruit-bud is shown natural size at aa. The
short lateral branches are called spurs, in distinc-
tion from the longer axial growths. We have
already seen (8) that checking growth induces

 

Fia. 24,

Formation of the lateral bud on the fruit-spur

fruitfulness, but on the other hand, starving or
greatly weakening the growth generally gives only
a weak leaf-bud.

25. When fruits or flowers are borne on the
end of a spur, the direction of the growth is de-
flected, as we have seen (Obs. iii.). Fig. 24 is a
bearing spur of apple. While the apple is grow-
THE FRUIT-SPUR 27

ing from the terminal bud, a lateral bud (a) is
forming to continue the spur the next year.

 

Fia. 26

Spurs of w crab apple. Old spur of pear.

This is, therefore, a leaf-bud, for it must be
the means of continuing the growth of the spur,
and it is not likely to get nourishment enough,—
I8 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

seeing that the apple is the chief concern,—to
enable it to develop into a blossom-bud. There is,
therefore, a necessary alternation of fruit-bearing
buds and non-fruit-bearing buds in the spur of
an apple tree.

26. A twig of Siberian crab apple, taken in
spring, is shown in Fig. 25. Year before last,
each of the spurs developed a fruit-bud at its
summit, and last year each of these spurs bore
flowers. The proof of this is seen in the scars
left by the flower stems at aa. None of these
flowers developed into ripe fruits, otherwise some
of the scars would have been much larger than
they are. It was probably for that very reason,—
the failure of the fruit,—that the spurs were able
to throw out leafy shoots nearly or quite an inch
long, to continue the growth. Yet, even then, no
fruit-bud developed on the ends of these spurs,
for the small pointed ends clearly indicate leaf-
buds. It is seen, therefore, that there may be an
alternation in the fruit-spur, even when the spur
does not bear fruit.

27. An old fruit-spur of a pear tree often
looks like that in Fig. 26. One year it grew from
the base to a, and there formed a  fruit-bud.
Let us suppose that this year was 1880. In 1881
a pear matured from this bud, as may be seen
by a large scar at a. In this year, also, a_lat-
THE FRUIT-SPUOR 29

eral bud developed. In 1882, this bud gave rise
to a shoot. The “rings” whence it started are
plainly seen at aa. It is noticeable, also, that
the spur ceased to grow in the direction a. In
this year 1882, the shoot grew to the rings bb,
and there developed a fruit-bud. In 1883, this
fruit-bud opened and produced flowers, one of
which bore fruit, as shown by the large scar (b).
The short growth from bb to b is that which took
place in the elongation from the bud in this spring
of 1883. While this fruit was developing, a leaf-
spur pushed out from just below the fruit (b), and
grew to the next series of rings (cc). A weaker
bud also developed, which in 1884 pushed toward
c. The six years’ growths can be traced on this
side shoot, and it once made a flower-bud, and a
fruit set at c; but the small size of the scar
shows that the fruit never attained maturity. It
probably fell in very early summer. It is ap-
parent that there is an alternation in the fruit-
bearing of the pear, as in that of the apple;
from this we may infer that there is something
like an alternation of effort, or division of labor,
in the successive growths of many plants.

28. The further history of this interesting pear
spur may be summarized as follows: 1884, the
barren shoot grew to ee, and made a fruit-bud;
1885, pear borne and carried to maturity at e,
80 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

two side buds developing, and also two weaker
spurs at d and dd,—giving four chances of con-
tinuing the growth of the main spur; 1886, the
spurs d@ and dd remained small and slender, but,
one of the upper branches grew on to g and
there made a fruit-bud, while its twin bud (upon
the left) did not elongate; 1887, fruit borne at g,
but it did not mature (as shown by the small
size of the scar), and the spur continued to h,
and there made another fruit-bud; the twin bud
now pushed on to f and made a fruit-bud, and
the spurs d and dd are alive but evidently
doomed soon to perish; 1888, fruits were borne
at f and h (the bearing year having been
changed), but neither of them matured, the side
spurs pushed on to ff and hh, and an attempt
was made at fruit-bearing at d; 1889, all shoots
elongated and all end in leaf-buds, showing that
the change in the bearing year had _ interfered
with the normal development, for this should have
been the year of fruit. Our spur, therefore, is ten
years old; it has borne good fruits three times, and
has made five unsuccessful attempts at fruit-bear-
ing; some of the branches are too weak for
further usefulness; and dormant buds still remain
on the old wood near its base. From all of
these observations, we are warranted in concluding
that every crooked and knotty branch has a his-
THE FRUIT-SPUR 31

tory which may be clearly deciphered by the
observer from its own records.

29. A spur from a plum tree
is shown in Fig. 27. Let the
pupil trace its history. If we
begin with the tip of the
shoot, we determine that last
year’s growth began at c, the
previous year’s at b, and the
preceding year’s at a. The
lower side spur has grown to @ a,
then to b b, then to the end.
It will be seen that the buds
and side spurs are borne usually
near the ends of the growths, %
but the many scars show that
buds were once present on the
lower or older parts, but have
perished in the struggle for ex-
istence. The spur differs greatly
from that of the pear, in the
fact that the buds are in twos
or threes rather than single. It
is difficult to distinguish which
are leaf-buds and which fruit-
buds. The character of the buds is to be de-.
termined from their positions rather than from
their shapes. The first point to notice in de-

 

Fig. 27.

Fruit-spur of plum.
32 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

termining which are leaf-buds and which  fruit-
buds is the direction of growth of the entire
spur. The pear spur is crooked and forked be-
cause. the fruit-buds are terminal; if, therefore,
the plum spur is straight or continuous in growth,
it is because the extreme buds are leaf-buds.
The side buds may therefore be inferred to be
fruit-buds. Let the pupil examine a plum tree in
either flower or fruit for further light upon this
point, and from all his observations he will prob-
ably be able to satisfy himself that there are at
least two distinct types of spurs upon fruit trees,—
those of indeterminate growth (or terminal fruit-
buds), and those of determinate growth (or termi-
nal leaf-buds).

SuGeEsTIONS.—The pupils should spend at least one lesson upon
the fruit-spurs of the apple, and others upon those of the pear and
plum. Each pupil should be asked to bring in the oldest and
the youngest spurs which he can find. It may be well to suggest
that there may be characteristic differences in the spurs (and also
in the shapes and sizes of the fruit-buds) in different varieties of
the pear. Then examine the fruit-bearing of any wild tree.

VII. FRUIT-BEARING, CONCLUDED

30. We have now seen how completely the
records of the events in the life of a branch are
preserved in its buds, scars, and method of growth.
Fig. 28 is a twig cut from a peach tree in the
FRUIT-BEARING, CONCLUDED

spring (or winter). It is two seasons old, as \
shown by the ring at a, and by the different —
buds upon the two portions. Upon the
older portions there are dormant buds; there
are also curious angular bodies at eee.
We understand what the dormant buds mean,
but the other bodies demand explanation.
They are not growing branches, because
they have no buds. The truncate ends are
sears. These cannot be leaf-scars, because
no buds are left above them (and we have
found that buds grow in the axils of leaves).
They must, then, be fruit-scars (or flower-
sears). In other words, normal scars with-
out the presence of buds indicate that a
flower was borne at that point.

31. If we could have seen this twig
(below a) in the spring of last year, a
piece of it would have looked like Fig.
29. Three buds are borne together, the two
lateral ones (which are evidently fruit-buds)
being large and thick. If it were the habit
of the peach to bear three leaf-buds_to-

 

gether, the method of branching of the tee ue

peach tree would tend to be by threes, but ® peach

tree.

we know that this is not the fact. We
know that these objects @ a are not spurs (or
branches), because the leaf-scar is visible below

D
34 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

each one or one scar beneath the group. That is,
they are normal buds formed the previous year in
the axils of leaves. If we could go back to this
previous year, we might find the condition shown
in Fig. 30, in which one or more leaves are

  

Fia. 30.

Triple buds of the peach. The formetion of the peach buds.

determining the position of the buds; in some axils
only leaf- buds are borne. From this it is seen
that the method of fruit-bearing of the peach is
very different from that of the apple, pear and
plum.

32. It must now be determined why the fruit-
FRUIT-BEARING, CONCLUDED 35

scars are single in the twig in Fig. 28,
while the fruit-buds are in pairs (with
a leaf-bud between them) in the first
place (Figs. 30, 29). Fig. 31 shows
a half-grown peach which has arisen
from one of the buds. <A flower was
produced from each
bud, but in the strug-
gle for existence one
of them (and also
the leaf-bud)  per-
ished. The twig in
Fig. 28 has no buds
upon the bodies which
bore the peaches;
therefore, these bod-
ies are not leaf-bear-
ing _ branches (or
spurs), and they do not bear again.
We have seen (Figs. 30, 29) that
these fruit-buds are formed upon the
axial growth of the current year, and
bear the next year. It is, plain there-
fore, that the peach-grower should always
aim to so manage his trees as to have
a liberal supply of new growths.

33. A gooseberry shoot is shown in
Fig. 32. It is plain that the portion

 

Fie. 31.

Partly grown peach.

 

Gooseberry
shoot.
36 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

from a to b grew the last season, and the por-
tion below a two seasons ago. The upper portion
has simple buds, while the lower portion has
what appear to be elongated buds, but which are
really fruit-spurs (for we have found that when
buds elongate they become branches). Each of
these spurs, then, bore a cluster of leaves last

 

Fie. 33.
Fruit-bearing of the black currant.

year, as if it had been an apple spur. Let the
pupil examine currant and gooseberry bushes (at
any time of the year), and he will readily con-
clude that they bear fruits usually on spurs, but
that these spurs generally bear only two or three
times. Examine the barberry.

34. The two-year-old twig of a black currant
is drawn in Fig. 33. It was taken in spring, and
yet the remains of the old fruit-stems persist.
FRUIT-BEARING, CONCLUDED 37

The point of attachment of these stems shows the
lengths of the spurs of the ‘year before, and the
crook in the spur at that point shows that the
fruit-bud was terminal (as it must be in Fig. 32,
since the spur contains but a single bud), also
that the subsequent growth of the spur arose from
a side bud. In fact, two
of the spurs developed
two side buds, only one
of which, however, made
a conspicuous growth.
Our conclusion, from
observation suggested by
the pictures, may be that
each kind of plant has
a system of fruit-bearing
peculiar to itself, and
that this system can
usually be made out at
any time of the year,

BNE ee if the plant has arrived
Bearing shoot of dwarf juneberry. at bearing age.

 

SuearEstions.—Let the pupil now examine currant spurs, and
determine whether there is an alternation of fruit-bearing in them,
as there is in the apple and pear. Let him also study the dwarf
juneberry (or else the common juneberry or shad-bush,) for simi-
lar problems of fruit-bearing (Fig. 34). Any fruit-bearing bush
or tree, in the garden or the wild, may now be laid under tribute
to add to the pupil’s knowledge of fruit-spurs. . A special effort
38 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

   

should be made to determine how many years the spur
maintains sufficient vigor to bear good fruit.

VIII. CHARACTERS IN WINTER TWIGS

35. A twig of the balm of Gil-
ead is shown in Fig. 35. There are
several conspicuous features on it: the
great prominence of some buds and the
smallness of others (the result of
struggle for place and light); the strik-
ing shape of the buds; the very
large scars where the leaf-stalks were
attached. The marks or dots on these
scars are places where the woody bun-
dles of the leaf-stalk were attached to
the twig. Some of the axils developed
no buds; and it is interesting to note
that these failures took place at the base
and top of the twig. The pupil should
observe the greater development of buds
in the middle of the twig. We should
expect the variation in the size of the
buds to be an incidental feature,—vary-
ing in different twigs. The size, shape
and color of the buds, the shape of the
bud-seales, and the peculiarities of the

Twig of balm
of Gilead.
CHARACTERS IN WINTER TWIGS 39

leaf-scars are characteristic marks in plants, and

enable us

 

 

 

  

Fig. 36.

Twig of Japan
walnut.

ep fact that there are more

to tell one kind from another, the
same as the characters of leaves and
flowers do.

36. Let the pupil procure twigs
of some of the walnuts (as the black
walnut and butternut), and observe
the curious scars and other charac-
ters. Fig. 36 is a tip of a shoot of
the Japan walnut (now coming to be
cultivated). The scars are
most peculiar. A_ striking

thing about this twig is the

buds than axils; that is,
there are two or three buds
to each axil, and two well-
developed terminal buds.
Perhaps these .accessory or
supernumerary buds explain
some peculiarities in the
branching of the walnut, and
perhaps the extra buds sim-
ply perish in the struggle for re. 37.
existence, and exert no per- Leaf-scar of
manent effect" upon the tree ; ii

 

the pupil must find out. He may also examine
the Tartarian honeysuckle, honey locust, and other
40

LESSONS WITH PLANTS

common plants for accessory buds; he will find

that in

some

plants they are superposed (one

over the other), and in others they are collateral

Fia. 38.

Leaf-scars
of dahlia.

 

Fic. 39.
Leaf attach-

(or side by side). At all
events, it is certain that some
plants produce more buds than
leaves.

37. The leaf-scar of the com-
mon sumac (Fig. 37), the plane
tree (often called sycamore and
buttonwood), the common _lo-
cust, and a few other plants,
encircles the bud. If one were
to examine the twig the previous
season, he would find that the
bud is concealed within the hol-
lowed base of the leaf-stalk.
Such buds may be said to be
ealyptrate (covered with a
hood).

38. A bit of an old dahlia
stalk is shown in Fig. 38.
The leaf-scars are prominent,
in the form of a ring (for the
leaves are borne on _ opposite
sides’ of the stem, and the
bases of the stalks are much

ment of a reed. dilated). Fig. 39 is a stem
CHARACTERS IN WINTER TWIGS 41

of a large reed or grass (arundo). In this case
the leaf has not fallen away at a joint, leaving a
sear, but has been torn in two by the wind. The
point of attachment of the leaf is at the lower
end of the sheath (a). Sometimes the withered
leaf-stalk of the dahlia adheres to the stem all
winter, but this is because the plant was killed by
frost before the leaves had reached
full maturity. These old leaf-stalks
are easily pulled away, when a dis-
tinct scar (as in Fig. 38) is left,

  

Fic. 40.

Leaf attachment of green-briar. Leaf attachment of cabbage palmetto.
37 ,

but the leaves of the reed do not separate so
definitely; they are torn away if one pulls them
from the plant. There are, then, two unlike
methods of casting the foliage,—the clean-cut or
articular way, and the non-articular way.

39. A joint of the common wild smilax or
42 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

‘

green-briar is seen in Fig. 40, and upon this the
base of the old leaf-stalk still remains (a). That
is, the leaf did not fall by separating from the
trunk, but by the breaking of its stalk. This
curious behaviour of the smilax will suggest the
palmetto to those who live in the south. Fig. 41
shows a portion of the crown of one of these
palms. It is seen that the leaves have broken
midway of the stalks,
and the old bases. still
remain. After a time,
these bases split ‘and
the halves spread apart,
giving the tree a pecu-
liar criss-cross appear-
ance; and finally they
loosen and fall, exposing
the smaller cylinder of
the hard trunk.

 

39a. The pupil should now
examine the methods of leaf-
easting in all the plants which
he meets. The articular method
will be found to be the rule in
all common trees and bushes in
the north, and in such herbs as
pigweeds, hollyhocks, the mints
(like catnip), golden-rod, aster, and the like. The non-articular way
will be found, as a rule, in the palms, green-briars, sedges, lilies,
cannas, grasses, Indian corn and cereal grains, and so on. We shall
subsequently find that these plants represent two great groups of the

 

Fie. 42.

Twigs of three hickories.
CHARACTERS IN WINTER TWIGS 43

vegetable kingdom. Examine the oaks and beeches, and other trees
which hold dead leaves during the winter. Is this due to non-articu-
lar leaf-casting, or merely to the firmness of attachment to the plant?
Do these old leaves fall as soon as the twig begins to swell in the
spring, or do they hang
year after year, until
itorn off by the ele-
ments?

40. It has been
said (35) that the
features of winter
twigs are charac-
teristic of the dif-
erent kinds' of
plants. Now let
the pupil collect
the twigs of ap-
ple and _ pear,
different kinds of
maples, currants and gooseberries, various oaks, or
any other ¢losely related plants which grow in his
neighborhood, and then compare the one with the
other. This done, let him collect indiscriminately of
any plants he meets, and then sort the twigs into
similar kinds. He will soon discover that plants
have characteristic marks or features in winter as
well as in summer.

 

Fig. 43.

Twigs of various willows.

40a. Some of the kinds of difference which the pupil may ex-
pect to find are shown in the pictures. In Fig. 42, a is the
44 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

small-fruited hickory, } the common white or shag-bark, and ¢ the
pignut hickory. Even in such similar plants as the different kinds
of bushy willows, there are differences in the leafless twigs. In
Fig. 43, @ is the heart-leaved willow, with long, cylindrical and
pointed buds; Db is one form of another (upland) willow, with flat
and light brown buds; ¢ is a form of the same, with narrower
and more appressed, fuzzy buds and less prominent leaf-sears; d
and ¢ are two forms of the common glaucous willow, the former
having flat buds and the latter smaller and rounder buds. (The
twigs in Fig. 42 are: a, Hicoria microcarpa; 0b, Hicoria ovata, or
Carya alba; c, Hicoria glabra, or Carya porcina. The specimens in
Fig. 43 are: a, Salix cordata, staminate; 0, Salix rostrata, stami-
nate; c¢, Salix rostrata, pistillate; d, Salix discolor, staminate; e,
Salix discolor, pistillate.)

IX. THE OPENING OF THE BUDS

41. We are curious to know how the -buds of
the apple twigs (Figs. 1, 3 and 4) open in the
spring, and how the young growths start out.
Let us look at the trees, and see. Fig. 44 is
from the same Siberian crab-apple tree that Fig.
25 is. The pupil will see where the fruit was
borne last year. He will see at a glance that
the present opening buds are the leaf-buds which
were formed on the side of the spur last year.
The little dry scales which covered the buds in
the winter have been pushed aside, and a new
shoot is coming forth. The leaves are many.
In a few days we shall be able to count them.
Already nine of them are visible on the upper spur,
THE OPENING OF THE BUDS 45

and only eleven were borne all summer long on
the annual growth in Fig. 2. The fact is that
there are as many leaves packed away in the bud
(as a rule) as there will
be leaves on next year’s
shoot.

42. Another most curi-
ous fact about these open-
ing buds is that the low-
est leaves are smaller
than the middle ones.
The full size of the =
enfolded leaves cannot
yet be made out. Let
the pupil see to what
size they will attain. It
is enough to know that
the lowest are smallest
and presumably weakest;
and Fig. 2 shows that
they are borne closer
together. We have also seen, in all our speci-
mens, that very few good buds are borne at
the base of the annual growth (compare Fig. 35).
We suspect, therefore, that not only the number
of leaves, but the character of the forthcom-
ing buds, is very largely determined before-
hand.

 

Fig. 44.

Opening buds of a crab-apple.
46 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

43. These buds open with surprising quickness
when spring comes (particularly at the north). The
buds have been entirely inactive all winter, so far
as we could see; and, moreover, they are just the
same shape and size in the spring as they were
when the leaves dropped in the fall. We must
conclude, then, that these leaves and an embryo
shoot were packed away in the bud during the
growing season of last year; and this is true.

44. The pupil can still further satisfy himself of
the truth of this conclusion by taking into the
house during the winter a twig from a tree or bush,
and keeping it in water in a warm room. In a
few weeks, it will produce leaves, and also flowers,
if it bears flower-buds. This experiment also shows
that the first leaves and flowers which come out
on early spring-flowering trees and bushes are sus-
tained by nourishment which is stored up in the
branch or the bud, not by that taken in at the
time by the roots.

45. Let the pupil examine a_ rapidly-growing
shoot of any plant in spring or very early summer.
He will not find the large buds which he sees in
fall and winter. He concludes, therefore, that the
plant does not need ‘these large buds for purposes
of growth. Plants must have a means of carry-
ing the growing points over winter (or over the
dry or inactive season, in the tropics); and in
THE OPENING OF THE BUDS 47

order that time may be gained, the future branch
is packed away in miniature, ready to leap forth
upon the first awakening of spring.

46. If the leaves—and therefore the number of
buds on the shoot—are determined in the bud,
how does the shoot increase in length? If it grows
from its tip alone, the leaves would be left behind.
We know that this is not the case. Again, we
know that the joints or nodes (the places where
the leaves are borne) are really much closer together
in these opening shoots in Fig. 44 than they are
in the mature shoots in Figs. 1 and 2. In other

 

Fig. 45.

Opening of leaf-buds and flower-buds,

words, it is plain that the shoot increases in length
by elongating the internodes (or spaces between the
leaves). :

47. Another apple twig is shown in Fig. 45.
We are already familiar with the leaf-buds, but the
lowest bud is strange. It is a fruit-bud. The bud-
scales fall away, as before, but there comes forth
48 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

not only a cluster of leaves but a cluster of un-
opened flowers. We know that when an apple is
borne upon a spur, the spur ceases to grow in
that direction (10); that is, the apple fruit is ter-
minal. Then we know that the shoot from this
bud is destined to remain short all summer, and
we infer that the leaves upon this short spur will
exercise an important office in nourishing the fruit.
SuGGEsTIONS.— The pupil should prove the conclusion in 46 ex-
perimentally. Let him lay off spaces at equal distances (say one-
quarter inch) on a young growing twig, and mark them with indelible

ink. If he visits the twig from day to day, and takes exact
measurements, he will make an interesting discovery.

xX. THE OPENING OF THE BUDS, CONTINUED

48. We know that apples are usually borne
singly, and yet the flowers (as seen in Fig. 45)
are in clusters. Two or three weeks after the flow-
ers have gone, we examine the young apples, and
we see something like Fig. 46. One apple has
persisted and all the others have perished. There
is, then, struggle for existence even among fiow-
ers; and in apples, at least, we are to expect many
more flowers than fruits.

49. A bit of apricot branch is shown in
Fig. 47. It has four fruit-buds. The scales of the
buds are seen at the base of each flower,—pushed

Sal
THE OPENING OF THE BUDS, CONTINUED 49

apart by the bursting growth. But in this plant
only one flower comes from a bud, and there are
no leaves. This is like the peach (Figs. 28, 31).
These buds, then, are fruit-buds only. That is,
there are at least two kinds of fruit-buds, the true

 

Struggle for existence among the apple Fruiting branch of
flowers. apricot.

or simple fruit-buds (like those of the apricot and
peach), and the mixed fruit-buds (as in the apple,
pear and cherry)

50. If we were to examine a fruit-bud of the
apricot (or peach) just as it begins to swell in
spring, we could easily see the flower within. If
the bud were cut lengthwise with a sharp knife

E
 

Fruit-bud of apricot
in longitudinal
section,

LESSONS WITH PLANTS

and the section were magnified three
or four times, the internal structure
would come out plainly, as in Fig.
48. The parts are not difficult
to see with the naked eye. These
parts are all present in the bud
before it begins to swell, but they
are rather small for untrained eyes.
We see that the parts are not only
smaller than they are in the full-
blown flower, but that they are

folded or tucked away in an unexpected manner.
51. An opening pear bud is seen in Fig. 49.
It is evident that it is a leaf-bud. It

is wholly unlike the expanding apple
bud (Fig. 44), however. It is long and
slender, and curiously marked. Let the
pupil watch the pear buds as they open.
He will observe that these outer bodies
are the bud-seales, and that they soon
fall off. These scales have actually grown,
for their former dimensions are indicated
by their brown tips. It was these tips
alone which covered the bud in winter,

   

   
 

i
i
,

 

and the scales have elongated from be-

low. Bud-seales, then, are not neces-
sarily lifeless objects.

 

52. The opening shoot of the Norway ae vee
THE OPENING OF THE BUDS, CONTINURD 51

maple (Fig. 50) shows the bud-seales (1, 2, 3, 4)
greatly enlarging, and the arrangement of them
is peculiar. These great green scales suggest
leaves. Fig. 51 is a
sprig of black currant.
Here it is seen that
some of the scales
actually produce small
leaf-blades on _ their
tips. It is also  no-
ticeable that there is a
gradual progression in
size of leaves, as there
is in the apple (Fig.
44). Now let the pu-
pil examine the open-
ing buds of the va-
rious plants which he
meets, and he will
soon come to the con-
clusion that bud-scales
are only modified
leaves. Or, to state
the case more accu-
rately, bud-scales and leaves are only different
forms of one kind of plant member.

53. We have concluded that bud-scales are
homologous with leaves because we have seen

 

Expanding shoot of Norway maple.
52 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

gradations from the one to the other. There is
another method of determining if this conclusion is
sound. We have already found that leaves bear
definite relations to
buds, and,  there-
fore, to the shoots
(whether of leaves
or of flowers) which
spring from the
buds. Fig. 52 is the
well known terminal
bud of the rhodo-
dendron. If the
pupil has the oppor-
tunity, he should ex-
amine the flower
cluster of this plant
or of one of the
' large-bud azaleas.

 

i He will find a flower
springing from the
axil of each  bud-
seale. He will read-
ily guess the significance of this arrangement.
There are two direct methods of determining the
morphology of any part,—by the evidences of its
form, and by its position with reference to
other parts; and to these may be added a third

Opening shoot of black currant.
THE OPENING OF THE BUDS, CONTINUED 53

method,— that of homology, or the comparison with
structures in other plants which give evidence of
having had a similar origin.

 

Fie. 52.
Rhododendron flower-bud.

53a. Morphology (literally the science of forms) is used to denote
the study of the different forms which any part assumes, and the
relationships of parts or members of plants (and of animals) to
each other. It inquires into the origin and method of develop-
ment of a leaf or a root, and endeavors to determine how that
part is related to other parts, and to an assumed ideal type.

53b. Homology is the consideration of the origin of parts with
reference to each other. It implies genealogical relationship. Homol-
ogous parts or organs are those which have similar structural relations
to a given or fundamental type, or those which have evidently had
similar origins in the development of the plant or the animal.

58c. Analogy is similarity in function (or use), or adaptation, of any
two parts, without reference to origin. It relates to superficial resem-
plances, while homology relates to fundamental or genetic relationships.
54 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

54. If the pupil will examine the opening buds

which he meets, he will

observe that the bud-

seales soon fall away in most cases. Let him
examine even the leaf-like scales of the pear and

 

Fig. 53.

Flowering shoot of the quince.

maple with this state-
ment in mind. It will
soon be seen that,
although leaves and
bud-seales are different
forms of one type of
plant member, the bud-
scales are not often
destined to perform the
office of leaves. That

\) is, the same member

may be adapted to dif-
erent uses. The pupil
must now determine for
himself what the bud-
scales are for; and he
will be interested in
discovering the evident
office of the hairs,
wool and gum with

which they are often furnished.

55. The shoot in Fig. 50 has other points of
interest. It bears a cluster of flowers, but this
cluster is borne upon a _ leafy shoot. That
THE OPENING OF THE BUDS, CONTINUED 55

is, the axis has elongated considerably since the
opening of the bud. A quince flower is drawn in
Fig. 53. This, too, is borne upon a leafy shoot
of the season. (The pupil should now explain
why this shoot is said to be of the current sea-
son’s growth.) Now let the pupil examine the
flower-clusters and shoots of grapes, raspberries,

 

Fig. 54.

Twig of quince.

blackberries and walnuts. We have already found
(49) that some fruit-buds are simple and others
mixed. We now find that there is still a third
class, those which may be called co-terminal, be-
cause they terminate the axial growth of the
season, and thereby cause a diffuse or deter-
minate growth of the plant.
56. We can now interpret the winter twigs of
56 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

the quince. Fig. 54 is such a twig. There is a
fruit-scar at d. We know that the shoot grew
the same year in which the fruit was borne;
and this is further proved by the presence of
axillary buds upon the shoot between c and d.
Another fruit was borne at b. While this latter

 

Fie. 55.
Branch of the small-fruited hickory.

fruit was growing, side shoots started off in two
directions, one extending to f and the other to
g. During the following winter the tip of the
branch g died, and in the Spring two shoots
sprung from it, one growing to d and_bear-
ing a fruit, and the other to e and not bearing.
The branch bf made a number of lateral shoots,
THE OPENING OF THE BUDS, CONCLUDED 57

for its tip also had died before the growing

season began. How old, then, is the twig 54?
SueGEsTIons.—Let the pupil also trace out the history of the hick-

ory branch in Fig. 55. Fig. 160, may aid him. Let him explain if

the zigzag and tortuous growth of any of the common trees and shrubs
is in any way associated with this co-terminal type of fruit-bearing.

XI. THE OPENING OF THE BUDS, CONCLUDED

d7. If we look again at the opening apple
shoot in Fig. 45, we may notice the method of
unrolling of the young leaves; for we have
found (50) that the parts in the bud are not
only very small, but curiously folded and
packed away. The leaf a is seen to be un-
rolling outwards from above on _ each edge.
In other words, the leaf was rolled inward on
top from both sides, or was involute in the
bud.

58. The expanding shoot of a common honey-
suckle is seen in Fig. 56. The successive pairs
of leaves are seen at aa, bb, cc. These leaves
are all turned backward, or revolute. Coming to
the very tip of the shoot, however (d), it is seen
that the leaves are really involute at first. They
become revolute soon after they open. In study-
ing the manner in which the leaves are folded in
the bud, therefore, it is important that the speci-
58 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

mens be examined at the very earliest opening of
the buds.

59. If we turn again to the lilac (Fig. 8),
we shall see that the leaves are trough-shaped,
and an examination of the bursting buds will

  

Fic. 56.

Expanding shoot of honeysuckle. Conduplicate leaves of peach.

confirm our observation. Fig. 57 is an open-
ing shoot of the peach. Here the halves of the
leaves are perfectly closed together, and as they
open they become trough-shaped, as in the lilac.
Examine, also, the opening buds of the common
sweet cherry of the gardens. This is a condup-
licate or trough-like method of folding.

60. Turning again to Fig. 50, we observe
that the leaves of the maple (5, 6) are pressed
THH OPENING OF THE BUDS, CONCLUDED 59

 

Leaf of blue
palmetto, un-
folding.

together sidewise, like the folds of: a
fan. The two halves of the leaves
are really folded upon each other, how-
ever, in a conduplicate way, so that
the packing away of
this leaf represents
two methods. Fig.
58 is au opening leaf
of the blue palmetto
of Florida. In this
ease, the- leaf-blade
is folded  sidewise
completely like the
plaits of a _ fan.
This method of fold-
ing is called the
plaited or _plicate
manner.

61. An opening
bud of the tulip tree
(or white wood) is
at Fig. 59. In
this instance, the
leaf-blade is bent over upon the face of
the stalk, or is inflexed (seen at a).
In the horse-chestnut, however (Fig. 60),
the leaf is bent down upon the back of
the petiole, or is reflexed. In this case,

 

Fie. 59.

Inflexed vernation of tulip tree.
60 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

the individual parts of the leaf (or leaflets) are
recurved. (The pupil will also observe the leaf-
like __ bud-scales,
and the  leaf-
sears.) It is not
necessary, there-
fore, that the
‘parts of a leaf
be folded in the
same manner as
the entire leaf is.

62. A fern shoot
is represented in
Fig. 61. A_ side
view of the un-
rolling or uncoil-
ing tip is shown
at a, and a front view—showing some of the
parts expanded—at 6. This is a cireinate or
coiled method of folding, and is not common aside
from the ferns and their allies, although it occurs
in the sundew.

63. We find, then, that there are various ways
in which the miniature members are folded in
the bud. If we were to examine a_ honeysuckle
shoot (Fig. 56), we should observe that the edges
of the leaves alternately overlap. That is, one
edge of each leaf lies in the trough or hollow

 

Vernation of horse-chestnut.
THE OPENING OF THE BUDS, CONCLUDED 61

of the other, so that they may be said to be
astride. If we examine the common white wil-
low, however, we shall find that one leaf com-
pletely enfolds another. There are, then, two ele-
ments in this tucking away in the bud,—the par-
ticular manner in which each leaf is folded, and
the way in which one leaf lies upon another. All
these matters are among the most interesting
phenomena of “spring time, and it has, therefore,
come about that this prefoliation or packing away
of the leaves in the bud is called vernation (in-
directly from the Latin word for spring). In the
same way, the
arrangement of
the parts of the
flower in the bud,
—which follows
the same forms as
the leaves do, —
is known as esti-
vation (indirectly
from the Latin
for summer).

 

Fie. 61.

63a. Both the meth- Vernation of one of the cultivated ferns.

od of folding and the

arrangement of the parts is commonly represented by a diagrammatic
cross-section of the swelling buds. The great Linneus defined the methods
of vernation (or “foliation” ) by the diagrams which are reproduced in
Fig. 62. The key is as follows: No. 1, convolute; 2, involute;
62 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

3, revolute [evidently meant to’represent a leaf bottom side up];
4, conduplicate; 5, equitant [one leaf wholly enfolding another]; 6,

3

   

a

 

Fria. 62.

Diagrams of vernation given by Linnwus. 1751.

imbricate [leaves at right angles in the different series]; 7, obvo-
lute [edges interlapping]; 8, plaited or plicate; 9, two convolute
ARRANGEMENT OF THE BUDS 63

leaves; 10, involute opposite leaves; 11, involute alternate leaves;
12, revolute opposite leaves; 18, equitant two-edged; 14, equitant
three-sided. In writing of flowers, it is the custom of systematic
botanists to describe them as valvate when the edges of the parts
simply meet in the bud, and to eall them imbricate when they dis-
tinetly overlap.

SuGGESTIONS.—The pupil should now examine the bursting buds
of the plants which he meets. He will be interested to discover
the almost infinite variation in method of vernation, and he will
see that this method does not always fall readily into the various
categories which have been named and described. There are all
kinds of intermediate methods. For an ill-defined, crumpled-plicate
vernation, examine the rhubarb. To show the small modifications
in the same general method, examine the leaves (when just appear-
ing) of the lilac and the peach, and observe the position of the
leaf-edges. The general conclusion will be that some one method
is fairly constant in each kind of plant, and is, therefore, character-
istie of the plant.

XII. ARRANGEMENT OF THE BUDS

64. The honeysuckle shoot (Fig. 56) shows at
a glance that the leaves are arranged in a defi-
nite order; and if there is an arrangement of
leaves, there is also an arrangement of buds. In
this case, the leaves are in pairs, one leaf ex-
actly opposite the other upon the stem. More-
over, the pairs alternate in arrangement. That is,
if one pair, aa, stands east and west, the suc-
ceeding pair, b b, stands north and south, and the
third pair, cc, stands east and west again. The
third pair is, therefore, perpendicularly over the
64 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

first pair, in a vertical shoot. A similar arrange-
ment is suggested by the bud-scales of the Nor-
way maple (Fig. 50), and also by the four ex-
panding leaves of horse-chestnut (Fig. 60). The
pupil must now examine all these plants, if he has
access to them, or
their near relatives,
and see if there
is a definite arrange-
ment of buds on the
winter twigs. He
wil] find plants, at
7 all events, in which
the buds are oppo-
site each other. If
the pairs are suc-
cessively in the same
position, or exactly
over each other
(which is rare), the
buds will form two
rows up and down
the stem. If they alternate (as in maple, horse-
chestnut and honeysuckle), they make four rows, or
are decussate.

65. A common galium or bedstraw is shown in
Fig. 68. The plant (a low herb)—or some of its
kin—is common in moist places and in woods.

 

Whorled leaves of galium.
ARRANGEMENT OF THE BUDS 65

Here the leaves are opposite, but there are com-
monly four pairs at each node (see 88 a), and
there are several rows of leaves up and down
the stem. Such leaves are whorled or verticillate
(terms applied to opposite parts of more than one
pair).

66. In most of the other shoots which we have
seen, the buds are not opposite, but alternate. If
all our conclusions in respect to vernation are cor-
rect, however, it must follow that there is some
method of arrangement of the alternate buds, for
the enfolded leaves (in the axils of which buds
are to develop) have definite positions with refer-
ence to each other. The effort of the leaves to
expose themselves to sunlight may have exerted
some influence in bringing about a definite arrange-
ment of leaves, although it is doubtful if this has
been the sole, or even the chief, cause.

67. Let the pupil secure a twig of elm, mul-
berry, basswood, a stalk of grass, or of Indian
eorn. Fig. 64 is an elm twig. The bud 3? is
directly above 1, and 2 is half way between them.
If this arrangement is true of the other buds, each
bud must be 180 degrees from every other. The
buds are therefore 2-ranked, and they are as far
apart, in angular distance, as they can be placed.
The pupil will now want to examine young, branchy
growths of the elm, to see if the leafy sprays

F
LESSONS WITH PLANTS

are flat because of this distichous (or
two-sided) arrangement. This arrange-
ment, then, in which the third
bud is directly over the first,
and in which the buds are
half a circumference apart, may
be represented by the fraction
one-half. If we were to make a
mark from 1 to 3, passing over
2, we should make one revolution
of the stem, and this fact is ex-
pressed by the numerator of the
fraction. We should also pass
over two buds (counting the
first, but not the last), and this
fact is represented by the de-
nominator.

68. All this suggests a new
subject of inquiry. The pupil
will now profit by an examination
of any twig. If he desires to
work out the mathematics of the
eycles, let him secure straight
growths, preferably from  up-
ward-growing branches, where
; light is equally diffused; but if Ze
fe = gi, he wishes to see things exactly as they

Twig of are, let him take the first shoot which
elm.

 
ARRANGEMENT OF THE BUDS 67

comes to his hand, but note the conditions under
which it grew. To begin with, he might try
alders, and birches, and sedges. Here he will
find the fourth leaf normally over
the first. He can easily construct
the numerical cycle.

°69. Let us go back to the ap-
ple, or take up the plum (Fig.
-65). Here 6 is over 1, and the
mark passes twice about the stem.
The angular distance between the |
buds, therefore, must be two-fifths “\i/k
of a circumference. We will cut §
the bark loose in a straight line
from 1 to 6, and peel it off (Fig.
66). If the strip of bark were one
inch wide, then each bud would
be two-fifths of an inch at one
side of the neighbors above and |
below it, if the branch were
straight and symmetrical. Now turn
back and see if the artist has Showing the arrange-
correctly drawn Figs. 1, 3, 28, 85. tn etn ie

70. We have now found arrange-
ments represented by the fractions one-half, one-
third, two-fifths. The last fraction can be made by
adding the numerators and denominators in the first
two. Can we, then, add the last two and prophesy a

 
68 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

three-eighths arrangement? Let the pupil examine
osage orange, live-for-ever, holly, plantain, and find
out. He may also examine the
seales on the house-leek (or old-hen-
and-chickens of the gardens), bud-
scales, pine cones, scaly bulbs, leaves
of palms, and of firs and pines, the
fh seeds in a sunflower head, for other
and more involved cycles. This.
arrangement of the parts is known
as phyllotaxy, literally “ leaf-arrange-
ment,” but it is generally more easily
studied upon winter twigs than upon
foliaceous shoots.

71. The ailanthus (or “tree of
heaven”) has a two-fifths phyllotaxy,
like the apple, cherry, peach, plum,
willow, and many other common
trees (for this is the most frequent
arrangement). Yet Fig. 67 is the -
tip of a branch of this tree.
The pupil will see that the buds
“j have no order. The branch is much

1a. 67. flattened or fasciated. This fascia-
pesinenh ou ef tion or abnormal flattening is not

‘ rare, but is commonest in plants
of comparatively soft tissue, and is usually asso-
ciated with very vigorous growth. The point

 
EXPANSION OF THE BARK 69

is, in this connection, that nature is not always
formal. There is no plant-form so rigid that it
may not be broken or modified upon occasion.
Neither is it true that the buds or leaves of all
plants have a definite method of arrangement,
although such is the rule. The pupil will be
puzzled to work out cycles in the stems of
many lilies, for example.

Sueeestions.—In the study of phyllotaxy, it is not only im-
portant to work out the mathematical cycles, but also to discover
deviations or variations from the rule. In other words, the pupil
should examine any branches upon a tree rather than those only
which best show the mathematical arrangement. He should en-
deavor to discover whether deviations are in any way associated with
the position of the branch with respect to light. He will be in-

terested in an endeavor to find « numerical arrangement of the
eyes of an Irish potato.

XIII. EXPANSION OF THE BARK

72. The fasciated branch in Fig. 67 not only
raises the question as to the cause of fasciation,
but the more pertinent one as to why stems re-
main normally terete (or cylindrical). Consider
for a moment the general make-up of the plant
cylinder. The young shoot is tightly enveloped
with bark. We observe that in many plants the
increase in diameter of the stem comes about by
the formation of rings of new tissue (or new
70 LESSONS WITH vLANTS

wood) under the bark, and we know that in all
plants the growth in thickness takes place upon
the inside of the cylinder, and not upon
the very outside.

73. It is evident, then, that the cover-
ing of bark must expand in order to
allow of the expansion of the woody
eylinder within it. The tissues must,
therefore, be under
constant pressure or
tension. It has been
determined that the
pressure within a
growing trunk is oft-
en as much as fifty
pounds to the square
inch.

74. A piece of an
elm branch ten years
old is drawn in Fig.
68. It is an inch in
diameter, yet the
bark at the top is
smooth and intact. At one time, the shoot was
not more than one-eighth of an inch in diameter at
this point. The pupil may now figure out how
much this bark has expanded by the combined
action of intercalary growth and stretching.

   
     
 

i 4 i
ts
i

MAR Vi

\

    

Cracking of the
bark on an elm Piece of bark from an old
branch. elm trunk.
EXPANSION OF THE BARK ' 71

75. The lower part of the limb shows that the
onter layers of bark (which are long since dead, and
act only as protective tissue) have reached the limit
of their expanding capacity and have begun to split.
The pupil will now be interested in the bark upon
the body of an old elm tree (Fig. 69); and he
should be able to suggest one reason why stems
remain terete, and why the old bark becomes
marked with furrows, scales and plates.

76. If, for any reason, the bark should become
so dense and strong that the trunk cannot expand,
the tree is said to be “bark-bound.* Such condi-
tion is not rare in orchard trees which have been
neglected. When good tillage is given to such
trees, they may not be able to overcome the rigid-
ity of the old bark, and, therefore, do not respond
to the treatment. Sometimes the thinner - barked
limbs may outgrow in diameter the trunk or the
old branches below them. The remedy is to release
the tension. This may be done either by softening
the bark (by washes of soap or lye), or by separa-
ting it. The latter is done by slitting the bark-
bound portion (in spring), thrusting the point of a
knife through the bark to the wood and then draw-
ing the blade down the entire length of the bark-
bound portion. The slit is scarcely discernible at
first, but it opens with the growth of the tree,
filling up with new tissue beneath. Let the pupil
72 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

consider the ridges which he now and then finds
upon trees, and determine whether they have any
significance.

77. The pupil should now turn to Fig. 22, and
consider the ring of tissue which rolls out over the
wound. This tissue in time covers the wound. It
forms most rapidly and uniformly when the wound
is smooth and regular. Observe the healing on
broken and splintered limbs; also the difference in
rapidity of healing between wounds on strong and
weak limbs. There is difference in the rapidity
of the healing process in different kinds of trees.
Compare the apple tree and the pine. This tissue
may in turn become bark-bound, and the healing
may stop. On large wounds it progresses more
rapidly the first few years than it does later. Could
not the point of the knife-blade be used to re-
lieve the pressure upon this callus (as the roll of
healing tissue is called)?

Sueerstions.—Are the trunks of trees ever perfectly cylindrical?
If not, what may cause the irregularities? Do trunks often grow
more on one side than the other? Slit a rapidly-growing limb, in
spring, with a knife blade, and watch the result during the season.
Consult the woodpile again, and observe the variations in thickness
of the annual rings, and especially of the same ring at different
places in the circumference. Cross-sections of horizontal branches
are interesting in this connection. Note the enlargement at the base
of a branch, and determine if this enlargement or bulge is larger on
long, horizontal limbs than on upright ones. Why does this bulge
develop? Does it serve as a brace to the limb, and is it de-
veloped as the result of constant strain ?
A BIT OF HISTORY 73

XIV. <A BIT OF HISTORY

78. The apple shoot in Fig. 70 contains a vol-
ume of history. The illustration shows a single
twig, but the branch is so long that it is broken
several times in order to get it on the page. It
arises at A, and continues, consecutively, at B,
C, D, G, and F. A prominent feature of this shoot,
—as, in fact, of almost any branch or plant,—
is the presence of unlikenesses or dissimilarities.
No two of the members are alike.

79. Let us count the yearly rings, and see how
old the whole limb is. These rings are at 28, E,
D, 12, 1,—five of them; and as the shoot grew
one year before it made any ring, and another
year made no increase in length—as we _ shall
see presently—the whole branch must be seven
years old. That is, the limb presumably started
in 1890.

79a. It is really impossible to tell whether the shoot started
from the limb A in 1889 or 1890, without knowing the age of A;
for the spur may have developed its blossom bud at the end in
either the first or the second year of its life. That is, young fruit-
spurs sometimes make a blossom bud the very year they start, but
they oftener “stand still ” the second year, and delay the formation of
the blossom bud until that time.

We will begin, then, at A, and follow it out:
79d. 1890. Started as‘a spur from the main branch A, and grew

to 1.
 

70.

Fig.

The eventful history of an apple twig.
A BIT OF HISTORY 75

79c. 1891. Apple borne at 1. This apple did not mature, how-
ever, a8 we can readily see by the smallness of the scar. In
this year, two side buds developed to continue the spur the
next year.

79d. 1892. Gave up its desire to be a fruit-spur, and made a strong
growth, to 12. For some reason, it had a good chance to
grow. Perhaps the farmer pruned the tree, and thereby gave
the shoot an opportunity; or perhaps he plowed and fertilized
the land.

In the meantime, one of the side buds grew to 3, and the
other to 7, and each made a fruit-bud at its end.

79e. 1893. Shoot grew lustily,—on to D.

The fruit-bud at 3 bore an apple, which probably matured,
as shown by the scar 2. Two side buds were formed beneath
this apple to continue the spur next year.

The fruit-bud at 7 bloomed, but the apple fell early, as shown
by the small scar. Two side buds were formed.

The buds upon the main shoot—1 to 12—all remained dormant.

79f. 1894. Shoot grew from D to E.

Side bud of 2 grew to 4, and made a fruit-bud on its end; the
other side bud grew to 5, and there made a fruit-bud.

Side bud of 7 grew to 10, and the other one to 8, each ending
in a fruit-bud.

Buds on old shoot—1 to 12—still remained dormant.

Some of the buds on the 1893 growth—12 to D,—remained dor-
mant, but some of them made spurs,—14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21,
22, 23. ,

79g. 1895. Shoot grew from E to 28.

Flowers were borne at 4 and 5, but at 4 the fruit fell early,
for the five or six sears of the flowers can be seen, showing
that no one of them developed more strongly than the other;
that is, none of the flowers “set.” A fairly good fruit was
probably borne at 5. At the base of each, a bud started to
continue the spur next year.

Upon the other spur, flowers were borne both at 8 and 10.
At 10 none of the flowers set fruit, but a side bud developed.
At 8 the fruit evidently partially matured, and a side bud was

also developed.
76

79h.

LESSONS WITH PLANTS

The buds upon the old stem from 1 to 12 still remainee
dormant.

Some of the spurs on the 1893 growth—12 to D— developed
fruit-buds for bearing in 1896.

Some of the buds on the 1894 growth—D to E—remained
dormant, but others developed into small fruit-spurs. One of
these buds, near the top of the 1894 growth, threw out a long
shoot, starting from G; and the bud at 26 also endeavored toe
make a long branch, but failed.

1896. Main shoot grew from 28 to the end.

The side bud below 4 (where the fruit was borne the year
before) barely lived, not elongating, as seen above 3. This
branch of the spur is becoming weak, and will never bear
again. The side bud of 5, however, made a fairly good spur,
and developed a fruit-bud at its end, as seen at 6.

The side bud of 10 grew somewhat, making the very short
spur (11). This branchlet is also getting weak. The bud of
8, however, developed a strong spur at 9. Both 11 and 9 bear
fruit-buds, but that on 11 is probably too weak ever to bear
fruit again. In fact, the entire spurs, from 1 to 6 and 1 to 9,
are too weak to be of much account for fruit-bearing.

This year several of the spurs along the 1893 growth—12 to
D—bore flowers. Flowers were borne from two buds on the
first one (at 138 and 14), but none of the flowers “set.” One
of the little apples that died last June still clings to the spur,
at 14. A side bud, 15, formed to continue the spur in 1897.
Flowers were borne at 16, 20, 21 and 23, but no apples de-
veloped. Upon 16 and 20 the flowers died soon after they
opened, a8 may be seen by the remains. Upon 23, one of
the flowers set an apple, but the apple soon died. The spurs
17 and 18 are so weak that they never have made fruit-buds,
and they are now nearly dead. The spurs 19 and 22 seem to
have behaved differently. Like the others, they grew in 1894, and
would have made terminal fruit-buds in 1895, and borne fruit in
1896; but the terminal buds were broken off in the fall or winter
of 1894, so that two side buds developed in 1895, and each of
these developed a fruit-bud at its end in 1896 in the spur 19,
but only one of them developed such a bud in 22. Upon these
spurs, therefore, the bearing year has been changed.
A BIT OF HISTORY 17

Upon the growth of 1894—D to E-—only three spurs have
developed, Nos. 24, 25, 26. These started out in 1895, and two
of them— 25 and 26—have made large, thick buds, which are
evidently fruit-buds. The shoot at G grew on to E E, and all
the buds on its lower two-year-old portion remained dormant.

On the 1895 growth—from E to 28—all the buds remained
dormant except one, and this one —27—made only a very feeble
attempt to grow into a spur.

The buds upon the 1892 growth—1 to 12—are still dormant
and waiting for an opportunity to grow.

80. What an eventful history this apple twig
has had! And yet in all the seven years of
its life, after having made fifteen efforts to bear
fruit, it has not produced one good apple!
The fault, therefore, does not lie in the shoot.
It has done the best it could. The trouble has
been that the farmer did not give the tree enough
food to enable it to support the fruits, or he
did not prune the tree so as to give the twig
light and room, or he allowed apple-scab or
some other disease to kill the young apples as
they were forming. We may question, therefore,
when trees fail to bear, whether it is not quite
as often the fault of the farmer as the trees.
PART II

StupiES OF LEAVES AND FOLIAGE

XV. WHAT IS A LEAF?

81. Is there one leaf, or three, in the picture
of the dewberry (or blackberry) Fig. 71? We

 
 
   
   
  
  

& Dewberry.

have already found that branches
persist; that is, they do _ not
fall upon the approach of win-
ter. Leaves commonly die and
fall. Here, therefore, is a means
of answering the question. Does
each of the three parts fall away
in the autumn and leave the
common stalk, a, upon the vine,
as a branch? Or
does the entire struc-
ture fall?

82. Buds are formed
in the axils of leaves,
as a rule. Where

are the axillary buds
(78)
WHAT IS A LEAF? 79

in the dewberry,—in the axils of each of the
three parts, or in the axil of the stalk a?
Again, leaves are borne at nodes; and_ the

 

Fia. 72. Fie. 73.
Leat of Lombardy poplar. Spray of young apple leaves.

plant axis upon which they are borne either ex-
tends beyond them or gives evidence that it may

do so.
83. What comprises the leaf in Fig. 72 (the
LESSONS WITH PLANTS

ff Lombardy poplar)? Is the leaf the ex-
y/ panded portion, or is it that portion
plus the stalk? Let the pupil apply
the above tests, and answer.

84. In the young apple foliage (Fig.
73), what comprises the leaf,—the ex-
panded portion, the stalk, the two awl-
like bodies at the base, or all of them
together? How many leaves are there
on the branch?

85. Point out the extremities of the
leaf in the wheat (Fig. 74), or in
any grass. Does it attach to the stem
at 1 or at 6?

86. Designate the leaves in Figs. 75
and 76, and give the proofs.

XVI. THE PARTS OF LEAVES

87. We are now ready to believe that
a leaf may have two or three distinct
parts,—the expanded portion or blade,
the stalk or petiole, and appendages at
the base, or stipules. We also know that
it may have only the blade, as in the
live oak leaves in Fig. 77; and it may
have only the petiole. or the stipules.

 

Leaf of wheat.
THE PARTS OF LEAVES 81

For example, we have seen that the bud-seales of
the black currant (Fig. 51) gradually pass into
leaves: but the leaves are borne on the ends of

   

 

7

QB
Fig. 75. Fie. 76. fy
Honeysuckle. Black walnut.

scales; therefore, the scales must represent trans-
formed petioles, not transformed blades. If the
enlarged and green bud-scales of the Norway maple

G
82 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

(Fig. 50) are petioles, we have an example of
leaf-stalks which perform functions of leaf-blades.

 

Various leaves of live oak. Leaf of « willow.

88. The leaf of a willow is shown in Fig. 78
The stipules are so leaf-like as to indicate that they
THE PARTS OF LEAVES 83

must act the part of foliage (i. e., perform the
functions of green leaves). If, for any reason,
the leaf-blades were to perish, it is conceivable that
the stipules could maintain the plant. This actually

 

Fie. 79.

Virginia creeper.

occurs in some plants (as in some of the vetches), in
which the entire foliage is made up of large stipules.

88a. Some of the members in Fig. 63 are probably leaf-like stipules.

A leaf which has no petiole is said to be sessile (é. ¢., “sitting”), a
term applied to any member which is destitute of a stalk or stem.

89. How shall we define the parts in the leaf of
84 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

the Virginia creeper (Fig. 79)? The petiole is
plain; but shall we say that there are five distinct
blades, or that the blade is divided into five parts?
Figs. 80 and 81 are leaves from one grape vine.

a

 

 

Fig. 90. Fic. 81.
Grape leaf. Deeply-lobed grape leaf.

Each plainly is one leaf. The forme: has three
well marked lobes, and the latter has these lobes
much more deeply cut. In fact, there are strong
indications of five parts. It is not difficult to imag-
ine the clefts extending to the mid-rib, as ‘they
THE PARTS OF LEAVES 85

do in the Virginia creeper (which is a very closely
related plant), and a compound leaf would be the
result (that is, a leaf in which the blade is com-
posed of at least two wholly separated portions).
90. Each part of the Virginia creeper leaf (and
also of the dewberry leaf) is borne upon a distinct

   

Fie. 82.

Bean leaves.

stalklet of its own. These stalklets, then, are
secondary petioles, or petiolules.

91. Bean leaves (Fig. 82) are seen to be com-
pound, with both petiole and petiolules. Moreover,
these petioluies are provided with little stipules, or
stipels. Let the pupil now determine if there is a
86 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

join at any place on the petiolules at which point
the three parts may break off in the fall; and is
the Virginia creeper like the bean in this respect?

92. The leaf of the Canada thistle (Fig. 83),—
and of most other thistles,—is variously cut or
jagged, but is nowhere completely separated, and is
not, therefore, a compound leaf. We have seen,
then, that there are various gradations between the
simple leaf (that is, one in which the blade is one

 

Fia. 83.
.Canada thistle,

more or less continuous piece, as in Figs. 72, 73,
74, 77, 78), and the compound leaf. In the true
compound leaf the parts are generally articulated
(or separated by joints), and are, therefore, usu-
ally provided with petiolules, although these are
sometimes wanting. The different parts may fall
independently of the entire leaf, or they may
not.

93. Inasmuch as there seems to be a_ well
THE COMPOUND LEAF 87

marked difference between the distinct divisions in
the Virginia creeper and the ill-defined ones in
grape and Canada thistle, we may give the two
types different names. Or, the parts of a com-
pound leaf are leaflets; the deep cut parts, like
those in the thistle, are divisions or segments; the
shallower parts (ordinarily not extending more than
half way to the midrib) are lobes, as in Fig.
81.

SvuecEstions.—The pupil will now find himself applying the fore-
going tests to all the leaves which he meets. Let him determine
whether any plant bears both simple and compound leaves. He may
be interested in examining the so-called Boston ivy or Japanese Vir-
ginia creeper which is much planted for covering houses; also, the
horse-radish (examine the very earliest leaves in spring); also, one of
the cultivated forsythias or yellow bells (the so-called climbing one,
Forsythia suspensa).

XVII. THE COMPOUND LEAF

94. The leaflets of the dewberry and Virginia
creeper arise from a common point,—the top of
the petiole. If the blade of the thistle (Fig. 83)
were compound, the leaflets would evidently be
distributed in two rows along a central axis.
Compare Figs. 84 and 85. There are, then,
two distinct types of compound leaves,—the digi-
tate or palmate (in which the leaflets are at-
88 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

tached to a common point, like the bones of the
hand to the wrist, and the petiole shows no ten-
dency to continue beyond the point of their at-
tachment); and the pinnate (in which the leaflets
are arranged on the sides of an axis like the
parts of a feather). The axis is prolonged in
the pinnate leaves,
and the part beyond
the first leaflet is
called a rachis.
95. If, now, the
leaflets in Figs. 71,
79, 84 were grown to-
gether, what would
be the method of
attachment of the
main veins or ribs
in the _ resulting
simple leaf? If the
grape leaf (Figs. 80,
Leaf of poison ivy. 81) were to become
compound, would it
ve palmate or pinnate? Would the oak (Fig. 77)
have palmate or pinnate leaves? Why would the
thistle leaf (Fig. 83) become pinnate rather than
palmate? Let the pupil examine various’ kinds
of leaves, and determine if simple leaves are
either palmate-veined or pinnate-veined.

 
THE COMPOUND LEAF 89

 

Leaf of poison sumac.

96. The Virginia creeper leaf has five leaflets,

or is quinate (parts in fives).

the poison ivy have three
leaflets, or are ternate (part
in threes). The jeffersonia
(Fig. 86) has two leaflets,
or is binate. Is this jef-
fersonia leaf essentially pal-
mate, or essentially pinnate ?

97. A leaf of the squirrel-
corn (or dicentra) is shown,
Fig. 87. It is evidently
ternate and palmate; but
each part is again divi-
ded into three, and _ each
of these is again variously
divided and _ cut. The
leaf, therefore, is biternate
(or twice ternate). The

The dewhberry and

 

Fig. 86.

Binate leaf of jeffersonia.
90 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

entire leaf is said to be decompound (a term ap-
plied to all leaves in which the leaflets are com-
pound; that is, to leaves which are more than
once compound).

98. It is plain that there is no positive or

 

Fie. 87.

Leaf of squirrel-corn.

definite number of ultimate divisions in this
dicentra leaf. (Let the pupil examine the bleed-
ing-heart of the gardens, which is also a di-
centra.) These ultimate parts are, therefore, not
leaflets, but segments or divisions. Is the leaf-
let the portion extending from a to b, or from
THE COMPOUND LEAF 91

c to d? It is the latter; that is, it is custom-
ary, in speaking of decompound leaves, to use
the term leaflet for the last part which is clearly
and completely (and more or less uniformly)
separated from its neighbors.

\

98a. The primary divisions in a palmately decompound leaf (as
ab) are not given a distinct name in general botanical literature.
The botanist would describe this dicentra leaf (Fig. 87) nearly as fol-
lows: Leaf ternately decompound (or sometimes written ternately
compound, if the degree of compounding is afterwards specified), the
main sections bearing palmately — or even pinnately — divided leaflets,
the segments again deeply cut or divided.

99. The leaf in Fig. 88 (a By R
gum arabic tree, a kind of aca- Bay, NS
cia) is decompound, and is pin- “ih, YS
nate. Hach of the numerous son pone y
entire pieces or parts is called “iy iy Ai aa HTN me

a leafiet, and the six primary sil
parts are pinne. The leaf is a a CH Au
pinnately bi-compound (or twice-
compound). If each of the
leaflets was again compound—
which is not very rare in Fig. 88.
plants of this family—the leaf Twice-pinnate leaf of
would be said to be tri-com- asec
pound; the primary parts would still be called
pinne, the secondary parts pinnules, and the last
complete divisions leaflets.

100. This acacia leaf has no terminal leaflets.

  
92 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

Compare the poison sumac (Fig. 85). That
is, one is abruptly-pinnate, like the honey locust
and the peanut (having no terminal leaflet),
and the other is odd-pinnate. The latter is the
more common form. Leaves are fairly constant

 

Fie. 89.

Spray of Currant tomato.

in these characters, but the pupil will be inter-
ested to find exceptions. Let him examine,
among others, the leaves of black walnuts and
butternuts.

101. Leaves of a tomato are shown in the
THE COMPOUND LEAF 93

spray in Fig. 89. All the leaves have two kinds
of leaflets,—certain ones which may be taken as
the normal size, and other small ones interposed.
This kind of leaf is common in the tomato and
potato tribes. On account of the intermediate
leaflets, such a leaf is said to be interrupted.
This one, then, is interruptedly pinnate.

102. Another tomato leaf is shown in Fig. 90.

   

.

Leaf of Mikado tomato.

In this instance there are no interposed leaflets,
but the leaflets vary much in size and shape
In other words, it is an example of an irregu-
larly compound leaf. The leaf looks as if it
94. LESSONS WITH PLANTS

might represent foliage of an
indefinite form; or, in other
words, that there is no abso-
lute and typical form of to-

mato leaves. Let the

pupil examine many
[{2 tomato plants, and see
if this is true.

103. The dahlia leaf
is peculiar (Fig. 91).
In this specimen there
are five well-defined
leaflets, C, O, M, M,
A; but one of these,
A, has given rise to
a strong segment or
division, and two
others have divisions
which are sufficiently
distinct to be called
leaflets. There are va-
rious grades of dividing or
compounding, and the leaf
may be said to be mixed.
It is incompletely bi-com-
pound.

104. From observations on
leaves, we are soon impressed '

 

  
 

Fig. 91.
Leaf of dahlia.
THE COMPOUND LEAF 95

with the multitude of forms. We are also
impressed with the fact that there may be
great variety,—or elasticity,—of forms in the
same kind of plant, showing that nature is really
informal. Definitions, however, are formal; and
it, therefore, follows that definitions should be
compared with the objects, not the objects with
the definitions.

The terminology (or naming) of compound leaves may be further
explained, as follows:

104a. In making compounds to express the number of leaflets, the
Latin for leafiet (foliolum) is used, not the word for leaf (folium); a
trifoliate leaf is, therefore, an impossibility. It is like saying “three-
leaved leaf.” However, usage has sanctioned its employment, although
it is etymologically improper. The better forms are—

Unifoliolate, a compound leaf of one leaflet;
Bifoliolate, of two leaflets;

Trifoliolate, of three leaflets;
Quadrifoliolate, of four leaflets;
Quinquefoliolate, of five leaflets;
Plurifoliolate, of several or many leaflets.

Any of these terms may be applied to either pinnately or palm-
ately compound leaves.

104b. The degree of compounding is often specified as follows:

Compound, once compound,

Bi-compound, twice compound, etc. ; '

De-compound, more than once compound, without specifying the
degree.

Similarly, pinnately compound leaves may be designated as bipin-
nate, tripinnate, etc.; and palmately compound ones as bipalmate, tri-
palmate, ete. As a matter of fact, palmate leaves are rarely decom-
pound if they have more than three primary divisions; so that it is
customary to speak of palmately compound leaves as ternate, biternate,
triternate, multiternate, etc.

104c. Leaves which are strongly lobed or divided receive names of
96 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

similar makeup. Lobed leaves are those in which the divisions are
not more than half the depth of the blade; cleft leaves have the divi-
sions extending deeper than the middle; parted is used for still deeper
sections; and divided for those leaves which are cut nearly or quite
to the midrib, but in which the parts (or divisions or segments) are
not distinct enough to be called leaflets. Lobed and cleft leaves are
designated in botanical phrase as bifid, trifid, quadrifid, multifid,
ete.; parted and divided leaves are designated as bisect, trisect, ete.

: Pinnately-lobed leaves are pinnatifid;. pinnately-di-
vided leaves are pinnatisect (but there are no cor-
responding palmatifid and palmatisect in general use).
Compound leaves which are cut and divided very
much and more or less indefinitely (as in Fig. 87)
are said to be dissected, whether pinnate or pal-
mate.

SuGGESTIONS.—The venation of a leaf (or petal) is
the arrangement and other features of the veins or
ribs. Let the pupil collect abundantly of leaves (and
indiscriminately, if he choose), and match the vena-
tion in them. Possibly he may find his pencil useful
in recording and interpreting the differences.

XVIII. DISGUISES OF LEAVES

105. We have noticed how varied and
disguised the parts of leaves may be,
upon occasion. Fig. 92 is a sprig of
a common weed, the veronica or speed-
well. The normal leaves are shown

Fic. 92. at the base; but they become grad-
sei ed ually smaller as the top is approached,

and finally are little more than scales.
Such gradations are very common, especially in

 
DISGUISES OF LEAVES 97

herbs. These reduced leaves are known as bracts.
Sometimes bracts remain green and leaf-like (as
in this case), when they differ from leaves only
in their greatly reduced size. At other times they
are mere dry or membrane-like scales, and are
then often called dry or scarious bracts.

106. The pupil will now be interested in Fig.
93, the leaf of the common pea. (Examine, also,

 

Leaf of garden pea.

the sweet pea.) How many pairs of leaflets has
it? At the base are two very large and leafy
stipules; then follows a pair of leaflets and,—
what has become of the other leaflets?

107. The cobea is a climbing plant of gardens
and conservatories. Its leaf normally ends in a
tendril (Fig. 94). There are three pairs of leaf-
lets. Fig. 95 is a leaf which is reduced to a

H
98 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

single pair of leaf-
lets, but each leaflet
is curiously lobed,
and tendrils are spring-
ing from the end. We
are now convinced that
tendrils may be modi-
fied parts of leaves.
108. This leaf in
Fig. 95 is interest-
ing, because it shows
also a variation or
change which is
foreign to the normal type or tendency of the
leaf. That is, we know that the terminal leaf-
let in the cobea is
a tendril; if other
tendrils appear, we
should expect them to

 

Fia. 94,

Normal leaf of cobea.

  
 
 
  
     
     
  
  
  

  
  
 

arise from the complete ~ fh
transformation of one NY \

KIWY
of the lateral leaf- ay

  

  
 

lets. Instead of
this normal behav-
ior, however, the
lateral leaflets have
become strangely Pre. 88,

shaped, and tendrils Monstrous leaf of cobea.
DISGUISES OF LEAVES 99

are endeavoring to form in most unu-
sual places.

 
 
 
  
  
 
 
 
 
  

108a. Such strange and abnormal variations or
transformations as these, wherever they occur, are
known as monstrosities (or monstrous forms). The
dahlia leaf (Fig. 91), is not « monstrosity, because it
assumes a form which is habitual to the plant and
which conforms with its general structure.

109. A pitcher plant, or spotted
trumpet leaf, of the South, is drawn
in Fig. 96. There is a similar spe-
cies in northern bogs. The structure
and its position upon the plant both
show that it is a leaf. Here, then,
the leaf is a pitcher or water-holding
receptacle, and the mass of captured
insects and other animals is no doubt
digested and absorbed as plant-food.

109a. It is known that certain plants absorb -
the juices of insects which are caught in traps
and killed, and that others make use of the ac-
cumulated mass of organic matter or humus which
is caught in various kinds of cups or receptacles.
The pupil who desires to pursue this interesting
subject should begin by procuring Darwin’s work

on “Insectivorous Plants.” Geddes’ “Chapters in Fig. 96.
Modern Botany” will be useful. There is a large Leaf of pitcher
special literature. plant.

110. Let us return to the bean, Fig. 82. Is it
pinnate or digitate? It is certainly digitate in form;
100 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

but the petiole (or rachis) extends beyond the
pair of leaflets, as may be seen by the joint

 

Fic. 97.

Leaf of orange.

in the petiolule of the terminal leaflet. The leaf,
then, is evidently pinnate; and if homology will
aid in the inter-
pretation, the pupil
will be interested
in examining the
leaves of peas,
ground-nut or apios,
and other relatives.
111. An orange
leaf is shown in
Fig. 97. There is
a large blade, a
winged petiole, a,
Fie. 98. and a distinct joint

The compound-leaved orange. or articulation be-

 
DISGUISES OF LEAVES

tween the two. This articulation
suggests that the leaf may be the
remnant of a once compound leaf.
A closely related plant—the so-
called trifoliate orange—is shown
in Fig. 98, and here the
leaf is compound, with
the joint be-
low the three
leaflets. It is
generally con-
sidered that the \
orange and the if

  
   
  
     

 

 

Fie. 100.
Fra. 99. Spinescent leaves of
Leaves of the barberry. the Russian thistle.

lemon leaf is a unifoliolate (or one leaflet) com-
pound leaf.
102 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

112. The common barberry is drawn in Fig.
99. The spines bear short, leafy branches or spurs
in their axils, which fact shows that
the spines occupy the position of
leaves, and may be interpreted as

     
  

Fia. 101.

Leaves and branches of asparagus.

such. Moreover, the growing shoot of a bar-
berry generally presents various gradations from
DISGUISES OF LEAVES, CONCLUDED 103

foliar leaves to spines. The spines are mostly
three-branched, as in the illustration, but they
are sometimes forked, and often simple. The
three-parted spines of the Russian thistle (Fig.
100) may also be interpreted as leaves, because
the flowers and branches arise from their axils.
The spines in Fig. 98 are branches, however, be-
cause they are borne in the axils of the leaves;
but a supernumerary bud produces the flowers.

112a. Is the barberry leaf simple or compound? Look for a
joint near the base of the petiole, and compare with the orange
in Fig. 97. Some kinds of barberries have pinnate leaves.

SuGGESTIoNS.—The pupil should give particular attention to spines
and thorns, and endeavor to interpret them as suggested above.
He should visit bushes of the common wild hawthorns (often known
as thorn-apples) soon after growth begins in the spring, and watch
the development of the spines. He should look for any evidence
of leaves. Any thorny tree or bush will repay an _ inquisitive
visitor at any time of the year.

XIX. DISGUISES OF LEAVES, CONCLUDED

118. The common asparagus is shown in Fig.
101. The specimen at the left represents the tender
shoot, which we eat. The scales should be called
leaves or bracts, as may be seen by their phyllo-
taxy and by the fact that branches later spring
from their axils (a, a). Let the pupil examine
an asparagus plant in “full leaf,” and notice that
104 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

the “leaves” arise in clusters from the axils of
the scales, bb. The scales, then, are the leaves,
and the leafy bodies—which perform the functions
of leaves—are branches. The asparagus plant,
therefore, has no green leaves.

114. The so-called smilax of florists (much used
for decoration) is closely allied to the asparagus.

Fig. 102.

 

Spray of florists’ smilax.

(Fig. 102.) The leaves are seen to be minute dry
scales, while the branches have developed into ex-
panded leaf-like bodies, and the flowers are borne
from supernumerary buds (recall the orange, Fig.
98). A further proof that these foliaceous bodies
are branches occurs in the closely allied butcher’s
broom of the Old World, in which flowers arise
from the axil of a little scale borne upon the
midrib of this leaf-like branch.. Branches may not
only perform the functions of leaves, therefore,
but may have all the appearance of leaves.
DISGUISES OF LEAVES, CONCLUDED 105

1i4a. Branches which imitate leaves are called cladophylla (word
meaning “branch-leaves;” singular, cladophyllum).

  

Fic, 103. Fic. 104.

Foliage of an acacia. Foliage of another acacia.

115. A leaf of the long-leaf acacia (from Au-
stralia, now sometimes grown in glass houses) is
shown in Fig. 103. It is typical of a class of
acacias. This leaf has a peculiar, rigid structure.
and it stands edgewise to the branch; these facts,
106 _LESSONS WITH PLANTS

together with certain morphological considerations,
cause it to be regarded as a leaf-like petiole.

115a. This particular type of leaf—one which is interpreted to
be a modified petiole—is called a phyllodium.

116. Another acacia is shown in Fig.

104. Here the phyllodia are present,
standing edgewise. But there are also
spines beneath them. If the criterion
of mere position is to be followed, we
should consider these phyllodia to be clad-
ophylla; but the leaves of young seed-
lings and evidences of morphology show
that the spines are probably stipules of
the phyllodia. If, now, we return to the
phyllodia in Fig. 103, we notice a minute
scar at the base of each (indicated by
the spot at the. base in the picture). This
mark is not uncommon in these acacias,
and it suggests a remnant, perhaps, of
» stipules. It is seen, therefore, how great
Fis. 105. the importance of very obscure characters
Leaves of may be when one studies the changes, or
mE re evolution, which plants have undergone.
117. Leaves of the common white pine of the
North are shown in Fig. 105. It is seen that
there are five of them together. (The pupil
should examine the different kinds of pines, and

 
DISGUISES OF LEAVES, CONCLUDED 107

determine whether the number of leaves in a cluster
is characteristic of each.) Are these five bodies
leaves, or branches? If the evidence of mere po-
sition is proof, however, they are cladophylla, for
they are borne in the axils of scales. Each bundle
is enveloped at its base in a sheath, and this
sheath, with its leaves, is sometimes plainly’ axil-
lary; but the sheath is probably homologous with
bud-scales. There are morphological reasons, also,
for calling them leaves. The point is, that it is
often difficult to interpret a given form correctly
by the application of an arbitrary rule.

117a. Let the pupil examine a growing shoot of pine (in spring),
and observe the position of the dry scales, which sometimes fall
away and leave only the scar-like evidence of their presence. See
Obs. lviii. (In Fig. 105, the sheath has been worn away by the
elements.) Let him notice, if, at the base of the new growth,
there ‘are seales from which no leaves arise, as there are leaves
in similar positions upon other trees from which no branches arise
(42). For further light upon the subject, he will be interested to ex-
amine the fascicled (or clustered) leaves of the larch or tamarack.

117b. The pupil will now examine the leaves of spruces and firs.
These leaves are placed singly, and it is difficult to make them
out to be axillary to scales; and this may throw some light
upon the nature of the leaves of the pine.

117c. The pines and spruces are commonly known as “ ever-
greens,” because they never lose their foliage. This does not
necessarily mean, however, that their leaves never fall. In fact,
we know that the leaves do fall, for we remember seeing the
ground under old pine trees covered with needles; and we
know, too, that the interior of the top of a pine tree is brown
and dull, not lively green, as it would be if the leaves were still
intact. We should not expect the leaves to persist inside the
108 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

tops of pines and spruces, any more than in maples or oaks
(Figs. 12, 13, 14). The pupil can determine how long they persist
by simply looking. He knows how to distinguish the age of any
branch by tbe yearly “rings” and by its method of branching. Let
him follow a limb back, and see for how many years the leaves
persist.

118. From all these observations, it is apparent
that the leaf-idea is a most variable one in the
plant structure. The leaf normally serves as foli-
age: that is, it performs certain functions in pro-
moting the life and growth of the plant; but
branches may perform this function just as well.
The leaf may be modified endlessly, and may cease
to be a functional part (that is, cease to play any
part in the life-processes of the plant). If it is
impossible to determine what are leaves and what
are not, in certain cases, then it is likewise im-
possible to define a leaf; but practice in making
a definition may be useful in fixing the modifi-
cation of the leaf-idea in the pupil’s mind. It
is more important to dwell upon differences or
modifications than upon uniformities; for, as al-
ready said, variations are among the greatest
facts in nature.

118a. Leaves, then, may have two types of offices,—the physio-
logical type and the morphological type. By one office they aid the
plant to live and grow. By the other they afford tendrils, fly-traps,
and other devices, and they sometimes appear to be useless, as if they
were either remnants or incidental variations. In the former eapa-
city, they are organs; in the latter, they are members. In other
DISGUISES OF LEAVES, CONCLUDED 109

words, an organ is a part of an organized (living) body directly asso-
ciated with the vital functions, as are the heart and lungs of ani-
mals. A member is a distinct or integral external part, as a wing
or a stamen, especially one which is not directly concerned in the
maintenance of the vital functions. In plants, many parts are at
once both organs and members, as the leaves; when ene is consider-
ing these parts from the standpoint of morphology or form, it is
well to speak of them as members, but in a book upon physioogy
they might be spoken of as organs.

1186. We are now prepared to understand that the old idea of
the “complete” leaf—one which comprises blade, petiole and stip-
ules—is simply an inference. It is not a type or unit in nature,
of which the “incomplete” leaves are modifications. The “com-
plete” leaf is itself the exception, perhaps, and is only one of the
many types of variation which occur in the leaf-member.

118c. The idea of leaf, as defined by an arbitrary position as-
signed to it upon the stem, comprises a most heterogeneous set
of members, as we have seen. When we say that spines are modi-
fied leaves merely because they occupy the position of leaves, we are
going beyond our knowledge. It is only now and then (as in the
case of the barberry) that we have the evidence _of intergradient
forms. For purposes of definition, it is well to say that such and
such spines occupy positions which leaves normally occupy; but be
yond this it is not often safe for the beginner to go.

118d. Advanced study of morphology and embryology may show
the true nature of any member, and it is generally able to dis-
tinguish clearly between leaves and stems; and may be the only
conelusive resource in cases which are very difficult of interpreta-
tion.

SueGeEstTions.—The pupil should now challenge every leaf, spine,
tendril and scale he meets, for each one means something. He should
make observations to determine how many of the plants which he
commonly sees have stipules, petioles and blades, and how many
lack one or more of these parts.
110 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

XX. THE ATTACHMENT OF THE LEAF, AND
THE INSERTION OF THE PETIOLE

119. Compare the manner in which the petiole
joins the stem (or shoot) in the apple (Fig. 2),
lilac (Fig. 8), maple (Figs. 13, 14), rhododendron
(Fig. 52), and quince (Fig. 53). It is  essen-
tially the same in all of them. The end of the
petiole is slightly expanded, but the insertion (as
the mode of attachment is called) may be said
to be ordinary.

120. Now compare the dahlia (Fig. 91). Here
the base of the petiole is dilated; and it will
be observed that in this particular case the bases
of the two opposite petioles cohere, and _ this
may explain the ring-like leaf-scar of the dahlia
shown in Fig. 38. When two sessile , opposite
leaves cohere, they are said to be connate (Fig.
106).

121. Sessile leaves have various methods of
attachment. Fig. 107 is the common mullein. The
edges of the leaf run down the stem, and such
leaves seldom fall away with a distinct and clean-
cut fracture or scar. This is a decurrent leaf.
The leaf may be clasping or amplexicaul (Fig.
108), the length of the basal lobes varying greatly.
Sometimes these lobes are long and ear-like, and
ATTACHMENT OF LEAF AND PETIOLE 111

are said to be auriculate. If the blade completely
surrounds the stem (Fig. 109), the leaf is perfoliate.

 

Fie. 106. Fig. 107.

Connate leaves of honeysuckle. Decurrent leaf of mullein.

122. The question was raised (85) as to the
point of attachment of the wheat leaf. It was
probably decided that it is attached at 6. (See
112 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

Fig. 74.) The leaf has no petiole, then, but it
has two distinct parts. The upper part may be
called the blade, as in other leaves, and the part

    

Fie. 108.
Fic. 109.
Clasping or amplexi-

caul leaf. Perfoliate leaf.

from 1 to 6 is the sheath. It is a

sheathing or vagi- re ite nate leaf; and the
pupil should de- ogres of rhubard. termine if this is
a common or a general feature of

grass-like plants.

123. A rhubarb (pie-plant) stem is at Fig. 110.
The petiole is at a, and the stem is completely
encircled with a sheath. This sheath of the xhu-
barb and its allies, as smartweed, buckwheat,
ATTACHMENT OF LEAF AND PETIOLE 113

docks, and sorrels, is technically known as an
ocrea (that is, a “boot”). It is considered to be
formed of the union of two stipules.

124. Observe the manner in which the petiole
is attached to the blade of the leaf. In the bar-
berry (Fig. 99) it is gradually merged into the
blade. Such a leaf is described in terms of the

 

Fig. 111. Fie. 112.

Peltate leaf of moonseed. Peltate leaf of nasturtium.

blade; that is, the blade is said to be narrowed
into the petiole. Observe the attachment in the
maple, grape, and apple leaves. In them—and per-
haps in the greater number of leaves—the attach-
ment of the petiole is more or less definite, and
is made to the edge of the blade.

I
114 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

125. The leaf of the common moonseed is
shown in Fig. 111. This shows a different ar-
rangement. The petiole is attached just inside the
border or edge of the blade. In the common
nasturtium (or tropwolum) of the gardens (Fig.
112), the petiole is inserted almost centrally.
Leaves in which the petiole is inserted inside the
edge of the blade are said to be peltate (that is,
“shield-like”). This mode of attachment may
occur even in much-divided leaves. The pupil will
recall the may-apple or mandrake. Compare the
leaves of water-lilies, and of other plants which
have floating leaves. If the leaflets of a digi-
tately-compound leaf were to grow together, the
leaf would be peitate; but the pupil must
determine if true digitate leaves are ever pel-
tate.

126. The petiole, then, has no necessary rela-
tion with the leaf in size or in method of at-
tachment to the blade; and many leaves are
wholly sessile. A consideration of tapering leaves
(as the barberry) suggests that the petiole may
have arisen originally as a prolongation and modifi-
cation of the midrib, or as the result of an elimi-
nation of a part of the blade. The pupil may
now inquire what purpose, if any, the petiole
serves; and he should be able to suggest an
answer to the question.
THE FORMS OF LEAVES 115

SueGEstTions.—The pupil should determine why some leaves are
rigid (or seem to stand stiff on the plant), and why others droop and
hang. Is it ever because of the positions in which the leaves are borne,
or of some peculiarity of the petiole, or method of attachment ? Why do
poplar leaves shake in the slightest breeze? Observe the lengths of
petioles in sunlight and in shade; also of leaves floating upon deep
water. Are floating leaves often peltate?

   

XXI. THE FORMS OF LEAVES

127. The forms of leaves
(and of leaflets) interest us
in two directions, — in respect
to the relation which they
bear to the welfare and
history of the plant (or to
adaptation to particular pur-
poses of the plant), and
in respect to their use in
enabling us to recognize and
describe plants. The former
subject cannot be considered here.
We shall, therefore, define the forms
for purposes of description; but in
doing this we must remember that
there is every grade of intermediate
form. Certain geometrical figures or
arbitrary ideals are taken as the
standards of comparison, and it must Fie. 113.

Lanceolate leaves of
red pepper.
116 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

not be expected, therefore, that typical examples of
the various forms are necessarily to be found in
nature.

128. One of the first conceptions of forms of
leaves which it is necessary to apprehend is that of
the lanceolate (or lance-shaped) leaf. Lances were of

 

Fig. 114.

Ovate leaves of red pepper.

various shapes, but the botanical conception is a
form four to six times longer than wide, and
tapering at both ends, but the widest part is usu-
ally conceived to be below the middle. The
leaves of the red pepper (Fig. 113) are examples.

129. Perhaps the next conception in importance
THE FORMS OF LEAVES 117

is that of the ovate leaf. This
is about twice as long as broad,
tapering from near the base to
a narrow or pointed apex. The
leaf at a in Fig. 114 (another
form of red pepper) is an example.

130. A third type form is
the oblong leaf. This is about
twice as long as broad, with
the sides nearly parallel from
top to bottom. Typical oblong
leaves are rare, but the form
is freely used in combination
with the lanceolate and ovate
types. Thus the chestnut leaf
(Fig. 115) is oblong-lanceolate.
The orange leaf (Fig. 97) is
ovate-oblong ; so are the clado-
phylla of Fig. 102. In these
combinations, the second word
is the one which is to be chiefly
emphasized; that is, an oblong- —
ovate leaf is one which is more
ovate than oblong, whereas an ovate-
oblong leaf is one more oblong
than ovate. The narrower leaves
in Fig. 114 are lance-ovate (1. e.,
lanceolate-ovate) .

 

 

Fie. 115.

Oblong-lanceolate leaf of
chestnut,
118 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

131. Other type forms are the elliptical, which
is like the oblong, except that it tapers equally
both ways from the middle; spatulate, which
is oblong with the lower end narrow; oval, which
is broadly elliptical; orbicular, circular in outline;
deltoid, or triangular; cuneate, or wedge-shaped ;
linear, or several times longer
than broad, and the same width
throughout; needle-shaped, as in
pines and spruces. If any of
the type forms are reversed,
or inverted, the fact is ex-
pressed by the prefix ob; as
oblanceolate, obovate. Combi-
nations of these terms, together
with the use of familiar adjec-
tives (as short-ovate, long-lan-

Fig. 116. ceolate, round-obovate,  etc.),
a jeaf express most of the common
outlines of leaves.

132. Aside from the general outline, the form
of the leaf is determined by the shape of its
apex and base. The apex may be acute or end-
ing in a sharp angle (Figs. 108, 114); acuminate,
ending in a long point (Figs. 82, 115); obtuse, or
blunt (Fig. 98); truncate, or squared (S, Fig. 59);
retuse, or indented (as in the upper leaves in
Fig. 106). The base may be cordate, or heart-

 
THE FORMS OF LEAVES 119

shaped (as in Fig. 116, which is a cordate-ovate
leaf); yreniform, or kidney-shaped; auriculate, or
eared ; sagittate, or arrow-shaped; abrupt, or sud-
denly narrowed to the petiole (as in the broader
leaves in Fig. 114); gradually narrowed (as in
Figs. 97, 99). The cavity or recess in the base
of a leaf, like the grape or moonseed, (Figs. 80,
81, 111) is a sinus.

133. The features of the margins of leaves,
like their forms, are interesting because they are
intimately related to the origin or: evolution of the
particular leaf (and, therefore, of the plant), and
also as a means of affording descriptive char-
acters. The simple straight margin is said to be
entire (Figs. 85, 102, 113, 114). Departures from
this form are the serrate, or saw-toothed (Fig. 91);
dentate, or toothed (Figs. 79, 80, 115, the last
being, perhaps, intermediate between serrate and
dentate); crenate, or scalloped (Fig. 116); repand,
or wavy, or undulate (Fig. 112 is obscurely so);
sinuate, which is a deep undulation; and then
follow the deep margins, as cut, jagged, lobed,
cleft, and the like, to which we have already
given attention (104c).

133a. The diagrams of forms and margins of leaves given by
Linneus are reproduced in exact form and size in Fig. 117: 1,
orbiculate; 2, sub-orbiculate (or subrotundate); 3, ovate; 4, oval,
or elliptical; 5, oblong; 6, lanceolate [narrower than present bot-
 

Fic. ‘117.

Linneus’ diagrams of leaves, 1751.
THE FORMS OF LEAVES 121

anists define lanceolate to be]; 7, linear; 8, subulate [awl-like];
9, reniform; 10, cordate; 11, lunulate [or crescent-shaped]; 12, tri-
angular; 13, sagittate; 14, cordate-sagittate; 15, hastate; 16, cleft
[“fissum,” now called ohcordate]; 17, three-lobed, or trilobate; 18,
premorse [irregularly notched at the end]; 19, lobed, or lobate; 20,
five-angled; 21, erose [jagged or bitten]; 22, palmate; 23, pinnati-
fid; 24, laciniate; 25, sinuate; 26,
dentate-sinuate; 27, retrorse-sinu-
ate; 28, parted; 29, repand; 30,
dentate; 31, serrate; 32, doubly-

      

Fie, 118.

Variation in birch leaves.

serrate; 33, doubly-crenate; 34, cartilaginous; 35, acutely-crenate;
36, obtusely-crenate; 37, plicate; 38, crenate; 39, crisped; 40, ob-
tuse; 41, acute; 42, acuminate; 43, obtusely-acuminate; 44, emar-
‘ginate acute.

SuaeEsTions.—We have said (127) that the forms of leaves are
described by comparing them with purely arbitrary measures. We
should not expect them always to match these measures; in illus-
tration of which, let the pupil cut the form of any leaf in paper,
122 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

and then endeavor to match it in other leaves. He will soon
discover how difficult it is to describe a leaf with accuracy, and
he will also apprehend the greater truth that there are probably
not two leaves alike.

XXII. VARIATION IN LEAVES ON THE SAME
PLANT, AND ON DIFFERENT PLANTS OF
THE SAME KIND
134. The two birch

leaves (Fig. 118) are from

the same tree. They differ
in size, shape, and denta-
tion (or toothing). There
was also a difference in
color and in season of
maturity. Now, let the
pupil gather many leaves
from one plant, and deter-
mine if he can find any
two of them alike. He
will recall our studies of
the buds and_ branches,
and will be inclined to
conclude that there is uni-
versal difference in the
members of plants.
1385. The live oak
branch in Fig. 77 will now

 

Fie. 119

Variable leaves of smilax.
VARIATION IN LEAVES 123

have new interest. The leaves upon the older (or
lower parts) are normally entire, but the upper-
most ones are distinctly sinuate. A different type

ae,

Say

   

Fie. 120.

Different forms of leaves on a mulberry branch.

of variation may be found in the leaves of some
kinds of smilax or greenbrier (Fig. 119). The
illustration is of a southern species. The pupil
should now study the leaves of grape (Figs. 80,
124 LaSSONS WITH PLANTS

81), sassafras, tulip tree, mulberry (Fig. 120), and
other plants, with respect to variations. He prob-
ably will find that variations in lobing are com-
monest upon the strongest or most verdurous shoots,
and that variations in size are often associated
with position in reference to sunlight.

  

Fie. 121, Fig, 122

Primary foliage Primary and secondary leaves
of red cedar. of red cedar.

135a. The pupil who has access to greenbriers (they are common
North and South) should endeavor to determine the significance of the
scales aaa, Fig. 119.

135b. Do the abnormally—lobed leaves on the young shoots of
grape, mulberry, and the like, remain the same in form throughout
the season? Or, are these variously-lobed leaves more abundant early
in the season than late? Do they occur chiefly upon the tip of the
shoot, or along its entire length? Suggestions as to the significance
VARIATION IN LEAVES 125

of these variant leaves may be found in “The Survival of the Unlike,”
Essay ITI.

136. Red cedar (or savin) foliage is peculiar.
If the pupil examines young trees and vigorous
shoots, he will find
the type of foliage
shown in Fig. 121.
These leaves suggest
the foliage of the
spruces and firs.
Fig. 122 is from
the same tree, and
represents a bit of
a short  branchy
growth, such as oc-
curs when the tree
begins to bear seeds.
The main stem, in
the figure, bears the
awl-shaped leaves,
from the axils of
which branches arise
which bear appressed scale-like leaves. The pu-
pil may now examine the common retinosporas,
or Japanese arbor vite, of gardens; also the
common arbor vite, or so-called white cedar. He
will come to the conclusion that these differences
are not incidental variations (that is, not due to

   

Fie. 123.

Foliage of the old-fashioned tomatoes.
126 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

local or transient conditions), but are a distinct
and habitual feature of the tree. In other words,
some plants normally bear two kinds of leaves.

 

Fig. 124.

Foliage of ordinary tomatoes.

137. The pupil has already been directed (Obs.
xvii.) to a study of the leaves of tomatoes.
The accompanying illustrations (Figs. 123-126) will
VARIATION IN LEAVES 127

aid him. Notice the small and curled involute
foliage in Fig. 123, which may be found in some
of the old-fashioned cornered or “rough” tomatoes
like General Grant and Tom Thumb; the large
and plane foliage of Fig. 124, which is that of
the commonest va-
rieties; the very
large foliage, with
fewer and nearly en-
tire leaflets, of the

Mikado and Potato-

leaf varieties (Fig.

125; also, shown

in Fig. 90); and

the short, stiff and

curly foliage of the

French Upright to-
mato (Fig. 126).
These types of foli-
age are characteris-
tic of certain types
or varieties of  to-
matoes, just as the
forms of leaves are characteristic of the apple
tree and the pear tree; but, as a matter of history,
all these varieties are known to have come from
one type of tomato within a hundred years. Thus
we have another proof that the forms and sizes

 

Fig. 125.

Foliage of Mikado tomato.
128 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

of leaves are not necessarily fixed or invariable.
(See Obs. lvii.)
138. The leaves of various chrysanthemum-like

 

Fie. 126.

Foliage of French Upright or Tree tomato.

plants are shown in Figs. 127-130. Fig. 127 is
the common chrysanthemum of the florists (from
Japan). The leaf is strongly lobed. Fig. 128 is
a closely related plant, the feverfew of old gardens
VARIATION IN LEAVES 129

(from Europe). Here the same kind of division
has proceded further, so that the leaf is divided;
and the divisions are cut and lobed. Fig. 129 is
a leaf of the marguerite or Paris daisy of the
greenhouses (from the Canaries). Here the same

 

Fig. 127. Fig. 128.

Leaf of common chrysanthemum. Leaf of feverfew.

type of division has taken place, but the blade
has become reduced in area. Finally, Fig. 130 is
a leaf of the blue-leaved marguerite (also from
the Canaries), in which the division has gone still
further, and the blade has been reduced to little
more than expanded leaf-ribs. If all the tomatoes

J
130 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

(Figs. 123-126) are known to have come from one
type of ancestor, is there not reason for inquiring
if the ancestors of these very unlike plants may
not have been more closely related than the

 

Fie. 129. Fie. 130.

Leaf of common marguerite. Leaf of blue-leaved marguerite.

present forms are? Or, similar types or directions
of variation suggest community of origin.

SueeeEstions.—Is there variation in the veining and serration, or
dentation, of leaves on the same plant? How great may be the varia-
tion in size? Do all the leaves on any plant mature at the same
time? Is there always the same number of leaflets in the same kind
of compound leaves? The pupil should examine the honey locust
and Kentucky coffee-tree; and he may have searched for “four-leaved
elover.”
XXII.

PART III

STUDIES OF FLOWERS

WHAT IS A FLOWER?

139. A flower of the hepatica, or liverwort,

which springs

 

Fie. 131.

Flower of hepatica.

from the mold with the first
warmth of spring, is drawn in
Fig. 131. The most hasty ob-
servation shows that it has sev-
eral parts. Let us pull them
away. We first find three green
leaf-like members. Above these
are several (seven in this case) pink
or blue members. On the inside
are about twenty hair-like bodies
with pinkish enlargements on their
ends, and each of these knobs
seems to have two parts. Still
inside, is a head of many green-
ish and pointed bodies. We know
that the whole thing is a flower,
but we are uncertain as to what

(131)
132 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

parts are most essential to it. A flower is obvi-
ously a more complex structure than a leaf.

140. A week or two later the flower has gone,
and a_ structure like that in Fig. 1382 has ap-
peared in its place. We know that in the center
of this structure are the seeds. We know, also, that
the three green leaves will soon perish, as the
other parts have perished, and only
“gy the little plants which spring from
y the seeds will bear testimony that
there has been a flower. In other
words, the purpose of a flower is
to produce seeds, by which the
plant is perpetuated.

141. If the above conclusion is

Fra. 132. true, it follows that the most es-
After the flower is sential or necessary parts of the

te flower are those which are directly
concerned in the production of seeds. These parts,
in the hepatica at least, are the very central
organs. It is evident, therefore, that if we are
properly to understand the flower, we must begin
at the center, not at the outside.

142. A flower of the common mustard is shown
in Fig. 1383. Secure a flower, and count the parts.
The details (less half of the enveloping leaf-like
parts) are displayed in Fig. 134. The central
part, 0, is to make the seed-pod. The minia-

 
WHAT IS A FLOWER? 133

ture seeds can be plainly distinguished if the part
is held to the light. The mature seed-pod is
shown in Fig. 135. This has grown to be so
unlike the part o, that it is scarcely recognizable
as the same member. It is necessary, therefore,
for purposes of definition, to give the part, as it

 

Fie. 133. Fig. 134.

Flower of mustard. Details of mustard flower.

stands in the flower, a designative name. It is
called the pistil.

143. This pistil is plainly of three parts,—the
lowest and largest part, which bears the seeds,
and which, therefore, we will call the ovary (or
“ego-case”); the globular portion at the top, or the
stigma (that is, a “mark” or “brand,” in reference
to its shape); the connecting portion, or style
(in reference to its slender form).

144. Surrounding the pistil are six slender
134 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

bodies with enlargements at the top. Four are
shown at 11, 44, in Fig. 134. The enlargements
are seen to have two parts, and
each part seems to have split along
its edge. If the pupil were to
rub one of these enlargements upon
a bit of black paper, he would
probably discover a yellow dust.
These slender bodies are the sta-
mens. They are plainly of two
parts, the stalk, or filament, and
the enlargement, or anther; and
the anther contains the yellow pow-
der, or pollen, of which we have
spoken.

145. There are two rows of
leaf-like parts surrounding the
pistil and stamens. These are the
j floral envelopes, or, collectively,

Fia@. 135. the perianth. The inner row is

The a the the colored or showy portion, or

‘ corolla. It has four parts, and
‘these we may call the petals. It is suggestive
to note the similar forms of the petals and sta-
mens. Both have long stalks (technically called
claws in the petals) and a more or less expan-
ded or enlarged portion at the top (the limb, in
the petals).

 
WHAT IS A FLOWER? CONCLUDED 135

146. The outer row of the floral envelope or
perianth comprises four smaller and greenish parts,
which, individually, are known as sepals, and col-
lectively as calyx. The calyx, corolla and stamens
fall away and perish; and only the pistil matures
into another member.

XXIV. WHAT IS A FLOWER? CONCLUDED

147. If the pupil were to cut off the anthers
before they open and discharge the pollen, and
were then to cover the flower with a paper bag,
or were to remove all other mustard flowers from
the neighborhood, the pistil would soon die and
fall. No seeds would be borne. It is, therefore,
certain that the pollen is in some intimate way
associated with the production of the seed.

148. If, however, having done this, the pupil
were to bring pollen from another mustard flower
and deposit it upon the stigma, he would find
the pistil maturing and the seeds forming, as if
he had not interfered with the flower. It is evi-
dent, therefore, that the office of the pollen is to
cause production of seed by some action which it
exerts after it is applied to the pistil. This action
upon the forming seed is known as fertilization; and
the transfer of the pollen to the stigma (whether
136 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

by the wind, insects, or by man) is pollination.
There is a certain time when the stigma is recep-
tive, or ready to receive pollen, and this condi-
tion comes when
the pistil is full
grown: the stigma
then becomes vis-
eid, or sticky, or
much roughened,
as if to hold the
pollen. We now
see that the sta-
mens fall because
they have  per-
formed their office;
and the pistil per-
sists that it may
mature the seeds. Since no seeds could be pro-
duced without the joint action of pistil and_ sta-
mens, these members are known as the essential
organs of the flower.

149. If the pupil were carefully to remove the
petals and sepals, and were then to apply the
pollen to the stigma, the pistil might mature and
good seeds form. It is evident, then, that the
floral envelopes do not hold the most vital rela-
tion to the office or purpose of the flower. They
are not necessarily essential to it.

 

Fig. 136.

Pistillate flowers of willow.
WHAT IS A FLOWER? CONCLUDED 137

150. It so happens that in the greater number
of plants the pistils and stamens in any flower
mature at different times. That is, the pollen may
all be discharged before the stigma is receptive,
or the stigma may shrivel and die before the
anthers open. In other words, there is frequently
only a small chance of a flower fertilizing itself.
There must be some means, then, of assuring the
transfer of pollen. The commonest means are
wind and insects. The flower does not need to
attract the wind, but it must have some means
of letting the insects know where it is. The
showy petals are perhaps the sign-boards. At all
events, insects may
not visit some
flowers when the
petals are re-
moved, although
they are attracted
by them when the
petals are undis-
turbed (see 273b).

150a. This non-con-
currence in maturity of

the essential organs is .
known as dichogamy. Staminate flowers of willow.

 

Fig. 137.

151. If the pollen may be carried from flower
to flower, it is not essential that every flower
138 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

have stamens. Figs. 136 and 137 are the soft
bodies which push out from the “pussy willows”
in spring. They are really masses of flowers.
They are branches, since they are borne in the
axil of a bract or scale. The cluster in Fig. 136
has members of a single kind, a; and these are
clearly pistils, since they bear an ovary and have
no pollen (no anthers). The cluster in Fig. 137
also has members of a single kind, b, but they
are unlike the members of Fig. 136. They are
stamens, as may be determined by the pollen and
the filaments, and the absence of ovary. In both
cases, the parts have no envelopes, but are borne
in the axil of a hairy or woolly scale; and _ it
is this silky wool which gives the name of “pussy
willow” to the plant. Such flowers are said to be
imperfect, because they have only stamens or pis-
tils, in distinction to the perfect flowers, which
have both stamens and pistils.

152. What, then, is a flower? In its lowest terms,
it is only a pistil or a stamen.

152a. Since the flower may have two kinds of envelopes—and two
kinds of essential organs—it is commonly said that the complete flower
is one which has all of these parts, and an incomplete flower is one
in which one or more of the series is missing; but this is only a
method of stating one’s habit of thinking about a flower, and it may
lead the beginner to think that there is some necessary or typical
plan of flower from which most flowers are deviations. It would be
better to drop the terms complete and incomplete, and to say that
THE PARTS OF TRE PISTIL 189

flowers which have all the four parts are quadriserial; those lacking
only the calyx are triserial; those lacking the floral envelopes are bi-
serial; and those which contain only the pistil are uniserial.

152b. It is customary, however, to speak of flowers which lack the
ealyx as asepalous; and of those which lack the corolla as apetalous.
When flowers lack both the calyx and corolla (as the willows), they
are said to be naked, or achlamydeous.

152c. Flowers which contain pistils and no stamens are said to be
pistillate, or fertile. Those which have stamens and no pistils are
staminate, or sterile. In common language they are sometimes said to
be female and male, respectively, but the former terms are better
when speaking of the parts as facts (or as members), without refer-
ence to sexuality. When pistillate or staminate flowers are spoken of
without designating which they are, they are properly said to be di-
clinous; which is essentially the same as to say that they are imper-
fect, as this term is generally used. They are sometimes said, also,
to be unisexual, in distinction to bisexual or hermaphrodite fiowers
(which have both stamens and pistils).

152d. When speaking of the staminate portion alone, it is custom-
ary to call it the andrecium; and to call the pistillate portion the
gynecium.

Suee@rstion.—The pupil should now haye practice in distinguishing
the members or parts of flowers, and in interpreting the unusual or
disguised parts.

XXV. THE PARTS OF THE PISTIL

153. The pistils of hepatica, mustard, tulip
(Fig. 188), and willows are composed of a
single straight column. The mustard and _ wil-
low have a distinct style, but the hepatica and
tulip differ in having none. That is, the stigma
is often sessile on the ovary, from which we
140 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

conclude that while the ovary and stigma are
essential to a pistil, the style is not.
154. In all the flowers which we have so far

 

Fig. 138.

Flowers of tulip.

examined the style
is single; that is,
there is only one
straight style on each
ovary. In the apple,
however (Fig. 189),
the styles are five,
while the ovary is
but one. The pupil
should now examine
any flowers which he
meets, with respect
to the absence or
presence of styles
and to their number ;
and he will find va-
riations from none
whatever to several,
or even many, to a
single ovary.

155. In the hepatica, mustard and apple, the
stigma is one for each style; in the tulip there
are three stigmas (or at least three parts to one
stigma); in the willow there are two stigmas, and
each is again two-parted, and in the catnip (Fig.
THE PARTS OF THE

140) there are two.

PISTIL 141

These stigmas differ not only
in number, but in size and shape.

We conclude,

 

Fie. 139.

Flowers of the apple.

therefore, that stigmas
acteristic forms, as

156. If we examine
tard (0, Fig, 184), we
comprises two distinct
seeds in each. The
enlarged in the ma-
show their character
are borne inside the
true of most plants),
compartments which we

156a. The compartments of
cells, but this is ® common-
has prior use in general lit-
in botanical writings, it should,
ignate the ultimate structural

Fie. 140.

Pistil of
catnip,

have peculiar and char-
styles do.

the pistil of the mus-
observe that the ovary
compartments, with
parts are sufficiently
ture pod (Fig. 1385) to
well. The seeds, then,
ovary (and this is
in distinct cavities or
may call locules.

ovaries are commonly called
language word, and therefore
erature. If it is used at all
perhaps, be restricted to des-
elements or units of the plant,
142 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

as employed by anatomists and physiologists. Locule is an-
glicized from loculus, diminutive of Latin locus, “a place.”

157. In the hepatica (Figs.
131, 132), there are several dis-
tinct pistils in a head. Each
one contains but a single locule,
and ripens but a single seed Fig. 142.
(Fig. 141), The pistil of the Cross-section of
Ripenea tulip, however (Fig. 142), has eae
pstties, three locules, corresponding to as many sides

or angles. Pistils contain different num-
bers of locules, according to the kind of plant of
which they are a part.

   

Fig, 141.

157a. Pistils with one locule are unilocular or 1-loculed; those
with two are bilocular or 2-loculed; those with three, trilocular or
3-loculed; those with four, quadrilocular or 4-loculed; those with
five, quinquelocular, or 5-loculed; those with several or many, mul-
tilocular, or oo-loculed.

158. The ovary is not only variously divided
into compartments, but the ovules (or bodies which
mature into seeds) are attached to different parts
of the locule. In the mustard they are attached
to the central partition of the ovary, in the tulip
to the interior walls of the locules, in the corn-
cockle (Fig. 143) to a columnar central portion,
and in the plum (Fig. 144, 0) to the outward side
of the locule. In general, there is a more or less
distinct elevation or thickening of tissue at. the
THE PARTS OF THE PISTIL 143

place where the ovules are attached. This is em-
phatically shown in the fruit of the May-apple or

mandrake (shown in
cross-section in Fig.
145). This point of
attachment is known
as the placenta (plu-
ral, placente).

158a. The placenta is de-
fined with reference to its po-
sition. It is evident that
there are two general types
of placentse,—those which are
borne upon the outward walls
of the ovary, and are called
parietal, and those that are
borne in the center, and are
ealled axile. Of the axile
placentw, there are two kinds,
those which are attached to
the partitions or dissepiments
of the ovary (as in the tulip,
Fig. 142), and those which
are borne upon a_ separate
central column, and are, there-
fore, called free axile placents
(as in the cockle, Fig. 143,
and in all the pink tribe, as
the pinks, carnations, chick-
weeds, catchflies; and also in
the primroses).

159. It is now seen
that the pistil is not

 

Fig. 143.

Free axile placenta of corn-cockle.
144 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

always the simple structure which it looks to be
from the outside. That is, it may be either simple

  

Fie. 144,

Flowers of plum.

or compound. A compound pistil is one which
bears evidence of containing two or more united
parts or units. The common test of a compound
pistil is the presence of more than one locule,
but this is not always des-
ignative, for in some cases
false partitions grow out
from the walls into the cav-
ity of the ovary. The pres-
ence of more than one
style to a single ovary also
indicates a compound pistil;
and, more especially, the
occurrence of more than
one placenta. The separable
units or parts in a compound pistil are known as
earpels. The theory of a compound pistil is that

 

Fig. 145.

Large parietal placenta of
may-apple.
THA STAMENS 145

it is made up of the union of two or more simple
pistils.

159a. Thus the hepatica has one carpel, the tulip has three, the
mustard has two, the catnip has two 2-lobed carpels, the apple has
five, and even the unilocular cockle (Fig. 143) is thought to be
5-carpelled because of the five styles (two being cut away in the
figure) and of certain peculiarities in related plants;—that is, there
is evidence that some plants which were once 5-loculed are now
1-loeuled because of the loss of partitions; and sometimes this
elision can be traced in the different ovaries of a single plant.

159b. A flower, therefore, may contain one simple pistil, several
simple pistils, or one compound pistil; and there are instances in
which it contains more than one compound pistil.

Sueeestions.—When taking up any unfamiliar flower, look first
for the pistil. The ovary is the best distinguishing mark, for the
pistil*is often much disguised. Determine what relation exists
between the numbers of stigmas, styles, or locules in any pistil.
Also observe the number of ovules, and the placente.

XXVI. THE STAMENS

160. The most striking feature of the stamens
in the flowers which we have seen
is the great difference in length and
shape. Most of the stamens are slen-
der, and have prominent stalks or
filaments; but the anthers of the
currant (Fig. 146) are nearly sessile,
and in some flowers they are com-

2 : Flower of garden
pletely sessile. It is, therefore, eaten.

 

Fia. 146.

K
146 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

apparent that a filament is not essential to a stamen
any more than a petiole is essential to a leaf.

161. All these an-
thers appear (so far
as we can see) to con-
tain more than one
cavity. Most of them
apparently have two
compartments; and
this is the general
rule. It is easy to
ascertain that these
compartments (which

Fie. 147.

Stamens of water lily.

   
 
 
 
 
 
 
   
 
 
   

Fig. 148.
Flower of wild lily.

we shall call  lo-
cules) contain the
pollen (144).

16la. It is the custom
to call the anther com-
partment a cell, but this
word should be other-

wise employed (156a). As no confusion has arisen from the appli-
cation of the word cell to both pistils and stamens, none may

be anticipated from a like use of locule.

It has been suggested
‘

THE STAMENS 147

to use locellus (diminutive of loculus) for the anther compartment,
but it seems to be unnecessary to introduce another word, and,
moreover, locellus has no accepted anglicized form (although it might
be shortened to locel).

162. The anther of the tulip and willow
is attached by the base to the very top
of the filament, but that of the water-lily
(Fig. 147) seems to be joined to the fila-
ment in its entire length. The mustard and
the lily (Fig. 148) show still a third method,
the anther being poised by attachment to
its back, and standing cross-wise the fila- 5... in
ment. These three methods, with numerous  azalea
intergradations, will impress the pupil, if eae
he were to examine numbers of flowers, as being
the types of the ways in which the anther is
borne upon the filament.

 

Fig. 149.

162a. These modes may be
called, respectively, the innate
(attached at base), adnate (at-
tached throughout its length), and
versatile (attached near the mid-
dle, or at least at some distance
from the ends).

163. The exposure of
the anthers in the mus-
. tard and the lily is in
Sensitive stamens of barberry, show- opposite directions. The

ing a single flower, and the dehis-
cence of the anthers at a and d. anthers of the mustard

 
148 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

look inward (towards the pistil), or are said to
be introrse; those of the lily look outwards, or
are extrorse. The pupil should determine if innate

 

Fig. 151. Fic. 152. Fie. 153.
Flower of scarlet sage. Carnation flower. Tell-tale flower of hepatica,

164. The anthers of the mustard and the tulip
seem to open along the side of each locule. The
azalea, however (Fig. 149), opens by a hole or
pore in the tip of the locule. Heaths and huckle-
berries open in the same way. We should examine
THE STAMENS 149

the barberry (Fig. 150), in which the anther opens
by means of a lid.

164a. The barberry flowers are honey-sweet, and attract the bees;
and the plant seems to make the most of its opportunity. When the
flowers are just expanded, and the sun is warm, touch the filaments
upon their inner side with a pin or point of a pencil. See what
happens. Observe, also, the curious way in which the anthers open.
The pupil will now be interested in the anthers of other plants of
this family, such as may-appie, jeffersonia, and blue cohosh.

164b. The opening of any closed organ is known as its de-
hiscence. We have found, then, that the dehiscence of the anther
locules is various, and that it follows at least three types or methods.

165. We have seen that there are commonly
two locules, and in the water-lily (Fig. 147) they
are separated by the width of the filament. A
flower of the scarlet sage of gardens and green-
houses is laid open in Fig. 151. The anthers are
at 1 and 2; but a closer examination of the
anther shows that it has but a single locule, and
as other mints have two, we are suspicious that
the other compartment has been lost. The truth
is that in some kinds of sage (as the common
garden sage) the two locules are separated by a
stalk or bar, which runs crosswise the top of the
filament. This bar, separating the two locules of
an anther, is called a connective. In the flower
before us, the other locule has apparently van-
ished in the process of time, and the places where
we should expect to find it are at 3 and 4, on
150 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

the other end of the connective. We have, then,
still a fourth kind of anther-bearing, but it is
clearly a special case of versatile arrangement; that
is, it is not a general type or mode.

Suaa@Estions.—The presence of pollen is the one infallible proof
of stamens. The pollen is commonly in the form of yellow grains,
and is easily recognized even by the naked eye. In identifying
stamens, note first the form and dehiscence of the anther, then the
position of the stamen with reference to other parts of the flower.
Find the stamens of the apple, rose, strawberry, carnation, lily,
crocus, lilac, honeysuckle, verbena, orange, fuchsia, geranium.

XXVII. THE INSERTION OF THE FLOWER

166. We have discovered (Obs. xx.) that there
are several ways in which the petiole is attached
to its support. In the mustard (Fig. 134), all the
parts of the flower are inserted at or near a
“eommon point, which is really the end of the
flower-stalk. Since so many parts are attached at
this place, the area becomes enlarged, and it pro-
jects laterally beyond the base of the ovary.
This expanded end of the flower-stalk, or the
flower-seat, is known as the receptacle or torus.

167. It is further observable that all the parts
of the mustard flower are separate; or, in botani-
cal language, the members are “free and distinct,”—
free when they are not combined with (or joined
THE INSERTION OF THE FLOWER 151

to) parts of another set, and distinct when the mem-.
bers of any series are not united with each other.

168. The apple is not so (Fig. 139). There is
no obvious receptacle, but the stalk seems to grow
directly into the flower. More than that, the parts
of the flower are not free and distinct, for the
five carpels (as indicated by the five styles) are
grown into one compound ovary, the sepals seem
to be attached to this ovary, and the stamens to be
borne on the very lowermost part of the sepals.
(See Obs. lv.) It is evident, then, that the parts of
flowers may be variously consolidated; and it is ap-
parent, also, that the insertion of the flower may
be simple, as in the mustard (the parts all borne
upon a distinct receptacle), or it may be complex
(the parts variously superposed upon each other).

169. There are, then, two more or less distinct
positions of the ovary with reference to the inser-
tion of the other parts,—either the ovary may be
superior (free from the other parts, and, therefore,
inserted above them, or wholly inside the flower),
as in the mustard, or it may be inferior, as in
the apple (the other parts, or some of them, borne
upon it).

170. The insertion of the flower may also be
expressed in terms of the other series, as well as
in terms of the pistil. Instead of saying that the
ovary is inferior in the apple, we might say that
152 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

the other parts are superior. It is better, how-
ever, to speak in terms of the ovary; and _ there
are three grades of insertion of the parts recog-
nized in botanical writings. When all the parts
are free, the flower is said to be hypogynous
(parts inserted below the pistil), as in the mus-
tard and hepatica. When the stamens and petals
are borne on the calyx, and the calyx is wholly
or partly free from the pistil, the flower is perigy-
nous (parts inserted around the pistil, but not upon
it nor upon the receptacle.) The plum and cherry
(Fig. 144) have. been considered to be typical exam-
ples of perigynous flowers, but many botanists now
hold that the cup of the flower is a hollow recep-
tacle and not a calyx-tube, and that the sepals,
petals and stamens are borne upon the receptacle-
rim. When all the parts seem to rise from the
top of the ovary itself, the flower is epigynous
(parts on the pistil).

SuacEsTions.—Notice begonias, fuchsias, carnations, buttercups,
potatoes, currants, pinks, lilies, blue-flags or irises, narcissuses, and
pumpkins or squashes.

XXVIII. REINFORCED FLOWERS

171. A section of a carnation flower is shown in
Fig. 152. The notched corolla is prominent at the
top, and the calyx is at 6b, but there are other
REINFORCED FLOWERS 153

series of green calyx-like parts at c and d. There
is no precedent for calling these last a part of
the calyx; moreover, they seem to grade off into
bracts and normal leaves. They (c and d) really
are bracts or reduced leaves. Let the pupil
examine the flower of the strawberry, and answer
what is calyx and what is bract; or he may look
at the “hull” of the ripe strawberry. It is often
difficult to determine where leaves end and where
flowers begin.

172. We saw the hepatica in Fig. 131, and
probably counted a row of petals and a row of
sepals. Now and then we come upon a flower
like that in Fig. 153, in which this supposed calyx
is distinctly separated from the rest of the flower.
We are suspicious that this may not be a calyx
after all. We then examine the near relatives of
the hepatica—like the anemones, or wind-flowers—
and find that they have only one series of floral
envelopes, and some of them have three distinct
bracts or leaves upon the stem. Furthermore,
these supposed sepals are only three, while the
supposed petals are five or more. This also raises
a doubt as to whether both series are parts of
the flower, for the calyx and corolla are usually
of thesame number of parts, or one a multiple of
the other. We must conclude, therefore, that these
three leaves are only bracts, not sepals.
154 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

173. Having disposed of the three bracts, we
now ask if the colored parts above them are
sepals or petals. There is nothing in the flower

 

Fie, 154.

Flowers of the flowering-dogwood.

to help us in answering the question; we there-
fore follow the custom of botanists, and say that
when either floral envelope is wanting, it is the
corolla (unless there is some special reason to the
contrary). This is, generally, an arbitrary definition,
REINFORCED FLOWERS 155

but it would be just as arbitrary to say that the
sepals are missing.

174. Most persons are familiar with the flow-
ering-dogwood, the small twisted-grained tree which
hangs its pink-white
sprays against the
woodlands in early
spring. Fig. 154 will
identify it at once.
It appears to have
four great petals, and
a cluster of essential
organs in the center.
If one of these cen-
tral parts is exam-
ined, however, it is
seen to have a co-
rolla of its;own, with
stamens and a pis-
til, and each pro-
duces a seed. The
great “flower,” then, is a cluster of inconspicuous
flowers and a circle of petal-like bracts. These
encircling bracts, whether of the dogwood, hepat-
ica, or strawberry, constitute an involucre. This
involucre may reinforce either a single flower or a
flower-cluster.

175. If the flower is borne upon the end of an

 

Fia. 155.

Staminate catkin of paper birch.
156 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

ordinary stem, and if it is sometimes a matter of
definition to determine what are bracts and what
are floral envelopes, we begin to wonder if flowers
are so very much different from other parts of
the plant, after all. The lesson to be derived from
this discussion is not what particular interpreta-
tion has been placed upon certain facts, but that
there is endless variety, and that every fact and
phenomenon must be investigated for itself; and
there is sometimes a gradation from leaves to flowers.

Svua@GEsTions.—Involucres and bracts may answer the purpose of
petals. It would interest the student to find colored leaves upon
flower stems. Let him ask a florist for a plant of the scarlet
sage or the poinsettia; or he may grow the sclarea, seeds of which
can be obtained of seedsmen. The wild flowers known as
painted-cup (castilleia) have very conspicuous, colored bracts or

leaves. The pupil will now be interested in tracing resemblances
between leaves and the parts of the perianth.

XXIX. DICLINOUS FLOWERS

176. We have seen that many flowers have not
both stamens and pistils. The willow is such a
ease (Figs. 136, 137). The willow is also peculiar
in the fact that the flowers are borne in a dense
elongated scaly cluster. Such clusters of flowers
are called aments or catkins.

176a. It is customary to speak of staminate and pistillate plants as
two sexes; but sex in plants may not be comparable with sex in animals.
DICLINOUS FLOWERS 157

177. The staminate catkin of one of the birches
is shown in Fig. 155. This is a drooping body,
and recalls the similar tassels of the poplars,
oaks, and hazels. In
this instance, however,
there is more than a
single flower beneath
each scale of the cat-
kin. In other words,
a catkin may be either
simple (comprising a
single flower at each -
joint or under each...
scale) or compound.

177a. There are commonly
three beneath each external
seale in the birch, each flower
comprising two stamens, but
the anther locules are separated
and the filaments divided so
as to imitate four stamens.
These flowers are separately

 

Fie. 156.
subtended by bractlets. Pistillate catkin of a birch.

178. The pistillate catkin of another kind of
birch is shown in Fig. 156. It is a rigid or erect
structure, and, of course, persists until the seeds
are ripe, whereas the entire staminate catkin very
soon dies and falls. One of the three-parted bracts
or scales is removed and reversed at a. It sub-
158 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

tends three naked pistils, each having two styles
and being provided with a broad wing. It is
seen, therefore, that staminate and pistillate catkins

 

Fia. 157. Fig. 158. Fia. 159.

Pistillate catkin of Winter catkins of Pistillate flowers
blue-beech. filbert. of hazel.

may be very unlike in form and appearance; and
this may be true in the catkins of the same kind of
plant.

_ 178a. The pupil will now be interested in the structure of the
flower-clusters of the blue-beech or hornbeam. A pistillate catkin
is shown in Fig. 157. The three-lobed bracts suggest the birch,
but the catkin is so loose and open, and the bracts become so
green and leaf-like, that the part would scarcely pass for a cat-
kin,—affording another illustration of the endless variety and in-
 

Fie. 160.

Inflorescence of the small-fruited hickory.
160 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

  
  
  
 
 
  
  
  

formality in plants, and also of
the essentially leaf-like nature of
bracts and scales.

179. If one were to
examine the bushes of
hazel (or the cultivated

Fie. 161.

Staminate flower of Hubbard
squash.

filbert), in the winter,
he would probably find
objects like those in
Fig. 158. These are
the staminate catkins
in bud, so to speak.
That is, they are formed
in the fall (as buds are; see 45), but remain
short, compact and rigid. With the first warmth of

Fia. 162.

    

" Pistillate flower of Hubbard squash.
DICLINOUS FLOWERS 161

spring they lengthen and dangle in the wind, dis-
charging showers of pollen. The resemblance be-
tween catkins and ordinary branches is, therefore,
very close, since each of them may constitute a
winter bud and each bears scales (or reduced leaf-
like bodies), from the axils of which flowers arise.

180. When the staminate catkins of the hazel
are hanging on the twigs, the pupil may be look-
ing in vain for the pistillate flowers. He may
discover them by means of the red stigmas which
are thrust from the buds, waiting for the wind to
bring the pollen their way. These stigmas are seen
protruding from the two lower buds in Fig. 159.
Each flower has a single ovary and two styles;
the pupil may count how many flowers there are
in the bud. If one of the sexes is in a catkin,
it is not necessary that the other shall be.

180a. The pupil will now examine the oaks, in which the stami-
nate flowers are in catkins, but the pistillate flowers (which pro-
duce the acorns) are not. In the beech the staminate flowers are
in pendulous heads (which are a kind of catkin), but the pistil-
late flowers are mostly in pairs upon a short stalk. The student

should determine how the flowers of the chestnuts are borne.
Examine the plane-tree (buttonwood or sycamore).

181. A spray of hickory (sometimes called “white
walnut” in the Hast) is shown in Fig. 160. The
staminate catkins are borne about three together
from a single stem (at A), and they arise directly
from the terminal winter bud. When these catkins

L
162 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

are pushing out, the young shoot is growing
rapidly, and it makes a little cluster of pistillate
flowers at its end (S); and these pistillate flowers
appear in season to receive the benefits of the
pollen. In the hickory, then, the fruit-buds are
both terminal and co-terminal (55).

1

181la. Is not the birch catkin, Fig. 156, co-terminal? The pupil
may now revert to the discussion of Fig. 55, and to an examina-
tion of the fruit-bearing of hickories and walnuts.

181b. We have seen, then, that those flowers which are borne
in catkins or aments are diclinous (152c); and this is usually
the ease. The true catkin-bearers or amentaceous plants, in fact,
are always diclinous. These comprise all the oaks, chestnuts, hazels,
willows, poplars, birches, alders, beeches, hornbeams, walnuts and
hickories; and these are for the most part very early-flowering trees
or bushes. The fruits of many of them are nut-like.

182. It is evident that the catkin is only one
kind of a flower-cluster; and as we shall so often
need a comprehensive term to designate the mode
of flower arrangement, we shall hereafter use the
word inflorescence. (See Obs. xxxv. and xxxvi.)

183. Since flower-clusters often branch, we
cannot use the word peduncle (or flower-stalk)
indiscriminately. We use it for the flower-stem,
when the cluster is simple or unbranched; but
when the cluster is branched, we use it for the
stem of the entire cluster, while the particular
stalklet upon which the flower is borne is called
the pedice).
DICLINOUS FLOWERS, CONTINUED 163

183a. Thus, the stem of the hepatica (Fig, 131) is a peduncle;
the main stem of the so-called flower of the dogwood (Fig. 154) is

 

Fie. 163.

Diclinous flowers of the cucumber.

a peduncle, and the real flowers are sessile; the staminate catkins
of the hickory (Fig. 160) are upon very short pedicels, three catkins
springing from one peduncle.

SuecEstions.—Let the pupil determine whether the poplars, cot-
tonwoods and willows which he passes on the streets are staminate
or pistillate, and if there is any difference in habit between the-
sexes. Of the weeping willow and Lombardy poplar (which are
foreign trees), only one sex has been introduced into this country.
Which one is it? Why do strawberry-growers plant different varie-
ties together?

XXX. DICLINOUS FLOWERS, CONTINUED

184. The squashes and pumpkins send up yel-
low, bell-like flowers on long, slender stalks all
during the summer months, but these flowers soon
164 LESSONS WITH PLANTS 4

wither. One of them is seen in Fig. 161. It is
a staminate flower, and its normal course is to
live for a day and perish. Hidden under the
foliage, on short stems, are flowers like that shown
in Fig. 162. The ovary (or young squash) is seen
below the flower-cup. It is, therefore, a pistillate
flower, and the ovary is inferior.

184a. The pupil should now examine flowers of any cucurbitous
plants,—those of pumpkins, squashes, gourds, cucumbers, melons, and
the like. Figs. 163 and 164 show other members of this family
or tribe. Let the pupil designate the staminate and pistillate
flowers in these pictures. It is seen that the staminate flowers are
not long-peduncled in all of them. Now count the number of
staminate and pistillate flowers produced on any vine, and deter-

 

Fie. 164.

Flowers of the bur-cucumber or gherkin.

mine if they maintain the same proportion to each other through-
out the season. Note the hour of the day at which they open.
Determine if the flowers close, and if they ever open again.

185. The sedges or carices are grass-like plants
which grow in low places (although some of them
DICLINOUS FLOWERS, CONTINUED 165

are dry-soil plants). ‘They are
very common, and generally com-
prise a large bulk of “bog hay.”
They blossom in early spring.
One of them is shown in Fig.
165. The sfamens are at a,
for the anthers can be plainly
distinguished, and the pollen
discharges freely. A dense,
simple (that is, -unbranched)
inflorescence, in which the in-
dividual flowers are sessile, or
very nearly so, and which |
is more or less elongated, like
these flower-clusters in the

sedge, is known as a spike.
185a. Spike is a generic or general

term. Catkin is a particular kind of spike.

If a spike-like inflorescence were shortened

to be about as broad as long, it would
be called a head, or eapitulum.

186. The three spikes at
bbb, in Fig. 165, are pistil-
late. The two stigmas pro-
truding from under each scale
show the location of the flowers
(but the flowers of some sedges Fig. 165.
have three stigmas). The il- Flowers of carex or sedge.

 
166 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

lustration at Fig. 166 represents another common
sedge. In this case, however, the two kinds of
flowers are not in separate spikes. The spikes
are all short and head-like, and the stamens are
hanging at the base of each spike (a), and the

2 pistils occupy the upper portion of
the same spike. The lower spikes
are subtended by long, leaf-like
bracts, b b, showing a gradation
into the normal foliage of the
plant. Since we cannot speak of
each spike in Fig. 166 as_ either
staminate or pistillate, we must use
a special term for it; we shall,
therefore, call the spike androgynous
(containing both staminate and pis-
tillate flowers).

187. An ear of corn is shown in
Fig. 167. The husks are stripped
back to show the kernels. If the
pupil were to search ever so dili-
gently he could not find stamens.
Are there any flowers whatever
on the ear? The ear produces
seeds; therefore there must be
flowers.

sick: Tee 188. Is the entire ear a single
Flowers of acarex. flower with many pistils (we have

 

 

 

 
DICLINOUS FLOWERS, CONTINUED 167

seen that a single he-
patica flower has several
pistils), or are there many
flowers in a dense spike?
This question is really
very difficult for a _ be-
ginner to answer. We

it is—must be diclinous, ¥

for we can find no evi-
dence of stamens. We
know, too, that each
young kernel of corn is
part of a pistil, because
it ripens a seed. If it
is a pistil, then the “silk”
is the style. The husk
is very unlike a peri-
anth. We must conclude
that an ear of corn is a
spike of flowers, the cob
is the rachis of the spike,

 

Fig. 167.

Pistillate flowers of Indian corn.

the silks are the styles, and the husks are the

involucre of the spike.

SvueGeEstions.—The pupil will now have a dozen questions to
ask about corn; and he should go to the corn plant for answers.
Where are the staminate flowers? What are the “tassels”? What
168 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

is the dust which irritates the eyes of the workman when the corn
is in full tassel? Is there one silk, and only one, to each ker-
nel? Are there always a definite number of rows of kernels on
each cob? Are the rows in even or odd numbers? Do different ears
on the same stalk always have the same number of rows? Having
found the staminate flowers, determine if the plant is dichogamous.

XXXI. DICLINOUS FLOWERS, CONCLUDED

189. A calla is shown
in Fig. 168. At first
glance, it appears like
a flower with a single
great petal and one
pistil; but we have not
thus far discovered flow-
ers of one petal, and
the form of the part
makes us suspicious
that the structure must
have some special in-
terpretation. We have
already found that the
proper way in which to
understand a flower is
to begin at the inside.
Fie. 168. 190. Tearing away the
The calla. wax-white part, we have

 
DICLINOUS FLOWERS, CONCLUDED 169

the central column shown at the left. It has two
parts. In the condition in which it is seen in
the picture, the lower part is developed, but the
upper part is not. Each of the numerous objects
on the lower part is found, upon being sectioned,
to contain three cavities, which contain ovules.
These objects, therefore, are pistils. If the same
calla were seen a few days later, the upper part
of the spike would be found to be in bloom, but
the flowers would comprise only stamens. In other
words, the central column in a calla is an androgy-
nous spike, comprising very many flowers.

190a. A noticeable feature of this spike is the great difference
in time of maturity of the two kinds of flowers. The spike is
strongly dichogamous. In this case, the pistils mature first, whence
the plant is said to be proterogynous (“pistils earliest”), but in
many other plants the stamens mature first, plant proterandrous
("stamens earliest”), although this condition is less frequent than
the other.

191. The flowers of the calla, then, are naked
or achlamydeous (152b). The great white portion,
which we commonly call the “flower,” is only a
reinforcement of the spike, the same as the four
great bracts reinforce the flower-head of the dog-
wood (Fig. 154). This particular kind of one-leaved
involucre is known as a spathe, and the spike
which is inclosed in it is a spadix.

191a. The pupil should now examine the jack-in-the-pulpit (or
Indian turnip), the skunk cabbage, and various spadiceous flowers
(like the anthuriums) of the greenhouses. Observe the great differ-
170 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

ences in the forms of spathes, and that some of them do not en-
circle the spadix. Explain, also, the great head of red berries which
is borne by the jack-in-the-pulpit.

191b. Observe that flowers which are enclosed in corolla-like
spathes are usually achlamydeous.

192. In all these studies of diclinous or sepa-
rated flowers, we have been impressed with the
great variety in forms of flowers and in their ar-
rangement. In most of the plants which we have
examined the two kinds of flowers are upon the
same plant; but in the willows and the poplars
and some other plants, the two kinds or sexes are
upon different plants, so that one plant is wholly
staminate and one wholly pistillate.

192a. When staminate and pistillate flowers are borne on the
same plant, the plant is monecious (word meaning “in one house”).
When they are on separate plants the plants are diwcious (“in two
houses”).

193. In respect to the relative locations of the
essential organs, we can now construct a grada-
tion: both kinds of organs in the same flower and
maturing simultaneously, or synanthous (uncommon) ;
both in the same flower, but dichogamous (very
common); in separate flowers in the same flower-
cluster, or androgynous (occasional); in separate
clusters on the same plant, or plant moncecious
(frequent); upon different plants, plants dicecious
(occasional); variously mixed upon the same
THE DANDELION 171

plant, flowers polygamous (infrequent; some maples
are examples).

Svuegsstions.—It is excellent practice to endeavor to find the
sexes in dicwcious plauts. “Pussy” willows are attractive, and they
take the pupil into places where he is certain to find interesting
things. When the willow catkins are in full bloom (they are not
yet fully out when in their “pussy” stage), select as many appar-
ent mates—that is, staminate plants and pistillate plants of the same
kind—as possible, mark them with tags, and then visit them when
in full leaf, and see how closely you have matched them. In all
diclinous plants the pupil should determine if the staminate and
pistillate flowers are approximately equal in number.

XXXII. THE DANDELION

194. The first warmth of spring brought the
dandelions out of the banks and knolls. They
were the first proofs that winter was really going,
and we began to listen for the blackbirds and
the robins. We loved the bright flowers, for they
were so many reflections of the warming sun.
They soon became more familiar, and invaded the
yards. Then they overran the lawns, and we
began to despise them. We hated them because
we had made up our minds not to have them, not
because they were unlovable. In spite of every
effort, we could not get rid of them. Then if we
must have them, we decided to love them. Where
once were weeds are now golden coins scattered
172 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

 

Fig. 169, Fig. 170.

Dandelion. Floret of dandelion.

in the sun, and bees revelling in color; and we
are happy!

195. A dandelion is shown in Fig. 169. It is
a strange flower, as measured by those which
we have already studied. It appears to have a
THE DANDELION 173

 
 
 
 
 
 
  
  

calyx in two parts or series, and
a great number of petals. If
we look for the pistils and sta-
mens, however, we find
that the supposed simple SS
flower is really complex. A
Let us pull the flower
apart and search for
the ovary or seed.
We find numerous ob-
jects like that in Fig.
170. The young seed
‘is evidently ate. There
are two stigmas at d, ~
and a ring of five
anthers at 6. The
dandelion, therefore,
must be composed of :
very many small and
perfect flowers. ;

196. Looking for &
the floral envelopes,
we find a tube, and-
a long strap-like part
running off to c. This
must be corolla, for
the calyx is repre-
sented by a ring of soft

Fia. 171.
The dandelion.
174 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

bristles, a. We have, then, a head made up of
quadriserial flowers, or florets, as the individual
flowers may .be called. The entire head is rein-
foreed by an involucre, in much the method in
which the dogwood is subtended by four petal-like
bracts and the calla spadix by a corolla-like
spathe.

197. One cloudy morning the dandelions had
vanished. A search in the grass revealed num-
bers of buds, but no blossoms. Then an hour
or two of sunshine brought them out, and we
learned that flowers often behave differently at
different times of the day and in various kinds
of weather.

198. In spite of the most persistent work with
the lawn mower, the dandelions went to seed pro-
fusely. At first, we cut off many of the flower-
heads, but as the season advanced they seemed to
escape us. They bent their stems upon the ground
and raised their heads as high as possible and
yet not fall victims to the machine; and presently
they shot up their long soft stems and _ scattered
their tiny balloons to the wind, and when the
lawn-mower next passed, they were either ripe or
too high to be caught by the machine.

199. This seed has behaved strangely in the
meantime. The fringe of pappus (as the bristle-
like calyx is called) is raised above the seed by
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fie. 172.

Variation in dandelion leaves. All drawn natural size and then
reduced one-half.
176 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

a short, narrow neck (e, Fig. 170), when the plant
is in flower; but at seed-time this neck has
grown an inch long (Fig. 171), the anthers, styles
and corolla have perished, the pappus has grown
into a spreading parachute, and the ovary has
elongated into a hard, seed-like body. Hach one
of us has blown the tiny balloons from the white
receptacle, and has watched them float away to
settle point downwards in the cool grass; but per-
haps we had not always associated these balloon
voyages with the planting of the dandelion.

200. The dandelion, then, has many curious
habits. It belongs to the great class of composi-
tous (or compound) flowers, which, with various
forms, comprises about one-tenth of all the flow-
ering plants of the earth. The structure of these
plants is so peculiar that a few technical terms
must be used to describe them. The _ entire
“flower” is really a head, composed of florets, and
surrounded by an involucre. These florets are borne
upon a so-called receptacle. The plume-like down
upon the seeds is the pappus. The anthers are
said to be syngenesious (“in a ring”), because
united in a tube about the style; and this struc-
ture is the most characteristic feature of composi-
tous flowers,—more designative of them, in fact,
than the involucrate head, for in some other kinds
of plants the flowers are in such heads, and in
THE COMPOSITOUS TRIBES 177

some compositous flowers the florets are reduced
to two or three, or even to one!

Svuecestions.—Is the bud at the right in Fig. 171 a flower
closed up, or one which has not yet opened? Are the stems of
the dandelions which bloom first in the spring shorter than those
which bloom later? Do the flowers close at night and in dull weather?
How long a period of sunshine is necessary to open the flowers?
Does a flower open more than once? Does the head (or involuere)
ever close up after it has gone to seed? What time is required
for the flower stem to straighten up and to reach its full height ?
How many rows of bracts or scales are in the involucre? Do the
positions of these bracts change from flowering-time to seeding-
time? How far may a dandelion seed travel in the wind? Do
dandelion plants vary much in size and shape of leaves (compare
Fig. 172)? Is the variation associated with vigor of plant, richness
and moisture of soil, or other conditions? At what seasons are
dandelions most abundant? Do they ever bloom in fall or winter?
How long does a dandelion plant live? Upon what kind of soil
does it thrive best ?

XXXIII. THE COMPOSITOUS TRIBES

201. A rudbeckia, or yellow ox-eye daisy, is a
common plant in pastures and meadows. It has
rough and hairy stems and leaves. <A flower of
it is shown in Fig. 173. The central part of the
flower is high and cone-shaped, and a cross-section
of it shows that the receptacle, e, is really a
much-shortened stem, with flowers along its side.
In other words, the receptacle in compositous
flowers is the rachis of a condensed spike, and

M
178 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

is, therefore, unlike the receptacle of single flowers.
202. This flower-head also differs greatly from
that of the dandelion, because it has a_ black-

 

Fia. 173,

Yellow ox-eye or rudbeckia.

brown center and a yellow corolla-like rim, h.
The green and hairy involucre is readily distin-
guished below, at 7. Dissecting the flower, these
outer yellow petal-like bodies are found to be like
the figure at A. This suggests one of tne florets
of the dandelion, except that it has no essential
THE COMPOSITOUS TRIBES 179

organs. The ftube-like base, and especially the
abortive ovary or seed, show that it is morpho-
logically a flower, but it is neutral! That is, there
are some members which bear every evidence of
being modified flowers which have no stamens or
pistils and which, therefore, are functionally not
flowers at all; but they may answer the purpose
of the petals of simple flowers in altracting insects.

202a. Neutral flowers are frequent in the composites. Examine
the sunflowers, cosmos, and coreopsis (or ealliopsis of gardens). In
other kinds of plants, neutral flowers may be found in the snow-
balls and hydrangeas.

203. These showy florets make a corolla-like rim
about the head, like the rays about the sun. In
all composites, therefore, these marginal flowers,
when present, are known as rays or ray flowers.

204. One of the interior brown flowers is shown
at B. This has no ray, but, instead, the corolla
is symmetrically five-toothed (b), and the stamens
(c) and styles (d) are present. These rayless florets
are known as the disc florets, and a head which
has no ray flowers is said to be discoid. But
plants like the dandelion have no dise florets, for
we have seen that all the florets in the head are
ray-form or strap-shaped.

204a. In some composites, the ray florets are perfect and in
some pistillate; and in a number of kinds the rays are the only
perfect-flowered and seed-bearing florets in the head. It is seen,
therefore, that even compositous heads may be androgynous.
180 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

205. The fact that the corolla of the disc
florets is five-toothed may help us to understand
what the’ single ray or strap of the ray florets is.

a hice- These rays in both the

\ dandelion and _ rud-
beckia are minutely
five-toothed at the end.
This suggests that the
ray represents the five
parts of the corolla,
and this is the cus-
tomary interpretation.
It is evident that if
the corolla of a floret
were to develop to such
a length, it could not
“, spread equal-
ma ly in all di-
na rections, as

Fig. 174. i a mathematical caleulation will
Fuller's teasel. The dry, | | prove; it therefore develops in
ee ee eee | one direction, as a leaf does.
Me 206. Another peculiarity of

the rudbeckia, as compared with the dandelion, is
the absence of pappus. The pupil should now ex-
amine the sunflowers; and he has probably already
had experience with the barb-like bristles of the

“pitch-forks” or “stick-tights,” which collect on the

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  

teasing cloth. |
THE COMPOSITOUS TRIBES 181

clothing in a walk through a weedy field. He
will soon be prepared to say that the pappus may
be either absent or very abundant, and may vary
in character from a narrow rim on the top of the
seed-like body to scales, barbs, bristles and plumes.

207. The disc floret in Fig. 173 has another
peculiarity in the presence of a scale (a). This is
present in many compositous flowers,
and, like nearly all scales, is homol-
ogous with a leaf; one of these
scales subtends each floret, and thereby\
we have another proof that the re-
ceptacle of a composite head is really
a shortened branch, or a rachis.

207a. The pupil will now appreciate the teasel.
One form of it is common along roadsides in the
Eastern states. The flower-head would pass at
once for a composite, but the anthers are not
syngenesious, and there are other technical differ- Floret of aster.
ences; so that the teasels are not classed with
compositous plants, although closely allied to them. The fuller’s
teasel (Fig. 174) is remarkable for the enormous development of the
scales; and after the flowers have perished, the dry head is used
for raising the nap on woolen cloth. The plant is cultivated
in central New York for this purpose.

 

Fie. 175.

208. Another important contrast of the rudbeckia
and the dandelion is to be found in the invo-
luere. In each ease the scales or bracts of the
involucre are approximately in two rows, but in the
rudbeckia the two rows occupy the same position,
182 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

whereas in the dandelion the outer row is reflexed.
The pupil should now explore the involucres of
compositous flowers, noting espe-
cially the spiny seales of the this-
tles, the hooked scales
of the burdock and the
great leafy scales of the
common sunflower. In
other words, there is as

  
 
 
 
 
   

Fia. 176. Fic. 177.

Bell-shaped and proterandrous Salver-shaped corolla and con-
flowers of common bell-wort. volute mstivation of phlox.

great variation in the involucre as in other mem-
bers of plants.

SuecEstions.—The pupil should designate the parts in the floret
of the wild aster (Fig. 175); and the same exercise should be
FORMS OF THE PERIANTH 183

exteuded to golden-rod, daisies, thistles, burdock, wormwood, bone-
set, tansy, dahlia, zinnia, chrysanthemum, lettuce, salsify, chicory,
ragweed, sunflowers, marigold, and other common composites.

XXXIV. FORMS OF THE PERIANTH

209. The petals of the
hepatica (Fig. 131), mus-
tard (Fig. 133), and vari-
ous other flowers which
we have seen, ure all dis-
tinct or separate. The
corolla, then, may be com-
posed of several or many
parts, and is then polype-
talous.

 
 
 
  
 
  
 
 
 
  

Fig. 178. Fia. 179.

Rotate corolla of eggplant. Stamens Inflated flowers of foxglove, show-
connivent (loosely joined together). ing peculiar valvate mstivation.
184 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

210. We have observed that the corolla of the
squash (Figs. 161, 162) and of the florets of the
composites is composed of a single
piece, with the margin (or limb) vari-
ously toothed or parted. Such flowers
are gamopetalous. In the same way,
we may say that calices are polysep-
alous or gamosepalous.

  
    

210a. Gamopetalous means “petals united,” but
F the term should be understood to refer only to the
fact that the corolla is in one piece, and not to ex-
press any opinion as to

APTN §
whether it is really com- SEAL, NA

\

e HAN
posed of united parts. iy Wp Nf
Monopetalous is often ( a ZZ NED
used in the same way \\ i "BD

   
    

as gamopetalous, but
etymologically
it means “ one-

: petaled,” and
Labiate corolla is, therefore,
of catnip.

Fie 180.

falling into
disuse ; al-
though one term is not
much better than the
satis in w striet etymo- Wag: LLY.
gical sense. Words QR. i
soon outgrow their ety- .
mologies or histories,
and are defined by usage. Irregular lipped flower of catalpa.

 

Fig. 181.

211. For purposes of description, the form of
the corolla is designated by technical terms. It
is likened to a bell, a trumpet, a wheel, or a sal-
FORMS OF THE PERIANTH 185

‘

ver; and many corollas are exceedingly irregular.
The form of the corolla is most striking and defi-
nite in gamopetalous flowers. The important thing
to remeinber, however, is not the name of the
form, but the fact that there are multitudinous
forms.

2lla. Some of the characteristic forms of corollas are shown in
the engravings. Fig. 176, bell-shaped, or campanulate; Fig. 177,
salver-shaped (limb flaring at right angles to the tube); Fig. 178,
rotate, or wheel-shaped, the limb being
nearly circular and the perianth having
practically no tube; Fig. 179, tubular-
trumpet-shaped, or tubular-inflated (the
morning glory is a typical example of a
trumpet-shaped flower); Fig. 180, labi-
ate, or two-lipped (characteristic of the
mints); Fig. 181, lipped, or lobed, and
therefore irregular flower. Flowers in
which the parts or lobes of the calyx
and corolla are all alike in shape and
size, in the same series, are said to be

i regular (like Figs. 131, 133, 138, 139,
Fig. 182. 148, 144, 146, 148, 161, 162, 173B, 175,
176, 177, 178, ete.); others are irregu-
lar (as in Figs. 170, 179, 180, 181).

211b. When the parts in all the
four series are of the same number, the flower is said to be isom-
erous. “Symmetrical” is generally regarded as synonymous with
“isomerous,” but symmetrical should be used to designate the fact
that the parts of the four series are of the same number, or in
multiples of the lowest number. That is, the petals may be five,
but the stamens ten; in which case it is assumed that the stamens
are in two rows of fives.

212. In the tulip (Fig. 188) and the lily (Fig.
148) there is no distinction between calyx and

 

Lily-of-the-valley flower,
laid open.
‘

186

LESSONS WITH PLANTS

corolla, except that three of the parts are exterior

to the others.

Fia, 183.

The narcissus.

 

Such a series is called merely a

perianth, and the parts,
when distinct, are usually
called sepals (173). It is
found in all lilies, and, in
fact, in most of the flow-
ers which are built upon
the plan of three (most
of the parts in threes
or multiples of three).

212a. The perianth may be
gamosepalous, as in the lily-of-
the-valley, Fig. 182. This peri-
anth has six lobes, and there are
six stamens. Compare the flow-
ers of the common asparagus and
the hyacinth.

213. The narcissus
(Fig. 183) is peculiar.
The sheath b cannot be a
calyx, because the ovary
is at c, and is borne
upon a distinct stalk or
peduncle. The part 0b
must be a spathe, com-
parable with that in the
ealla (Fig. 168). It is
seen that. the flower is
FORMS OF THE PERIANTH 187

allied to the lilies because it is on
the plan of three, and we should
not, therefore, expect a distinct
calyx and corolla. If one of the
petal-like bodies is torn away, it
is seen that the part a comes
with it and is an integral part
of it. This structure, a, is really
an outgrowth of the perianth, and
is known as a crown. The nar-
cissus is, therefore, six-sepaled, as
the lily is. The flower arises from
a dry, papery spathe (compare the
irises or blue flags, crocuses, gla-
diolus, and the like). It is seen,
therefore, how we trace kinships
in plants,—by means of similar-
ities of origin and resemblances in Fic 184.

structure rather than in looks. Raceme of lily-of-
the-valley.

   

Suc@eEstTions.—The pupil has found that the shapes of leaves
are designated by comparing them with some plane geometrical
figure. Forms of perianths are designated chiefly by compari-
son with various receptacles or spherical geometrical figures (211),
as cups, salvers, trumpets, bells, saucers, urns. Let the pupil
select a flower which he may consider to be typical of any form,
and then compare similar flowers with it in regard to form and size.
He will soon find that probably no two flowers, as well as no
two leaves, are exactly alike. It is excellent practice to make
lists of the plants which one commonly meets, with reference to
the make-up of the perianth. The pupil should observe whether
188 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

the perianth is polypetalous or gamopetalous, flower gamosepalous and
polypetalous, flower gamopetalous and polysepalous, end the like.

XXXV. THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE FLOWERS

214. The hepatica flower (Figs. 131, 153) is soli-
tary, and terminates the peduncle. The same is
true of the tulip (Fig. 138). The
flowers of the pepper (Figs. 113,
114), of the smilax (Fig.

   
   

ai f

AN eo 102) and of the apricot (Fig.
A ee 47) are solitary and lateral.
far \y : “1 ys These are evidently the sim-

| a oo es plest ways in which flowers
| can be borne,—only one in
a place. The two methods are
distinct, however, for we have al-
ready discussed (Obs. iii., vi., x.)
the significance of terminal and
lateral flower-buds.

214a. A peduncle which rises from the
ground, and is simple or nearly so, and is
usually devoid of foliage leaves and without
nodes or joints, is called a scape. The he-
patica, tulip and violet produce scapes.

215. Plants which bear lateral
Fa. 185. flowers may still grow from the
Raceme of currant. terminal bud; and since new flowers

 
THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE FLOWERS

may arise as the plant grows, the oldest
flowers may be .constantly left farther and
farther behind on the axis. That is, the
flowers which first open are nearest the
base of the plant. This type of branch-
ing is, as we have already seen (Obs. iii.),
indeterminate in type. Plants which have
terminal flowers must cease to grow from
the ends of the axes, and lateral branches
must continue the growth in length. Such
type of branching is determinate, or diffuse.
216. If the lateral flowers of an in-
determinate branch are close together, a
flower-cluster results; and it opens from
below (that is, from the base) upwards.
Such a simple inflorescence is a raceme.

216a. The lily-of-the-valley (Fig. 184) is a typical
example of a raceme. The leaves are reduced to mere
bracts. The currant (Fig. 185) is also a good example.

217. If the pedicels in a raceme were
obsolete, and if the flowers were close to-
gether, we should have a typical spike.

217a. The common plantain of door-yards (Fig.
186) bears its flowers in a spike. In such long spikes
there is usually a gradual progression in anthesis (in
the opening of the flowers) from below upwards, so that
the spike is not in bloom simultaneously throughout
its length. The lowest flowers often wither and die, as

 

 

lit
Fie. 186.

Spike of
plantain.
190 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

in the plantain, while the middle flowers are still in bloom. Special
kinds of spikes, as we have found, are the spadix and the catkin.
A much-condensed — much-shortened — spike is called a head.

218. If the lowest pedicels of the raceme were
elongated (or the upper ones remained shortened)

 

Fig. 187.

Remains of a last year’s umbel of wild carrot.

so that the cluster were convex or nearly flat
on top, we should have a corymb. That is, a
corymb is an expanded cluster, in which the
outermost flowers open first.

219. If the axis of the corymb were so very
much shortened that all the pedicels seem to start
from the same point, like the rays of an inverted
umbrella, we should have an umbel.

219a. Umbels are characteristic of the plants of the parsley
tribe, as parsnip, caraway, dill, celery, carrot and coriander. Often
THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE FLOWERS 191

the umbel is compound; that is, secondary umbels, or umbellets,
are borne on the ends of the rays (as the pedicels of an umbel are
often called). The bracts which subtend the pedicels in the raceme
and corymb become verticillate under the umbel, or form an in-
volucre; and the umbellets may be pro-
vided with involucels. A last year’s umbel
of the carrot (Fig. 187) is seen to bear the
remains of umbellets.

220. The inflorescence of the
common arrow-leaf is seen in Fig.
188. It is somewhat corymbose,
for the lowest flowers open first.
The axis elongates after flower-
ing begins, so that the individ-
ual clusters are widely separated.
The inflorescence appeals to one,
therefore, as a series of whorled
clusters. In other words, when
the parts of an _ inflorescence
are widely separated, particularly
by subsequent growth of the axis,
the inflorescence is described in
terms of its parts, and not as a
whole. Such a method cf flow-

 

ermg may be called a progressive I Gam cane
inflorescence. Three-flowered whorls of
arrow-leaf.

220a. The arrow-leaf or sagittaria is inter-
esting because the flowers (as also the parts of the perianth) are
in threes, the significance of which may be suggested later. The
lower flowers are commonly pistillate and the upper ones staminate.
 

 

Fig. 189,

Panicle of June-grass.
THER ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS, CONCLUDED 193

221. The inflorescence of June-grass (Fig. 189)
is seen to be indeterminate, and yet it is not
clearly racemose, spicate, corymbose, or umbellate.
The fact is that the anthesis of the individual
parts of such a flower-cluster may be mixed, al-
though it is usually centripetal, or from below up-
ward (outside to inward). This type of branching
inflorescence is known as a panicle.

22la. Racemes are sometimes borne close together, in such a way
as to suggest a panicle. The buckwheat (Fig. 190) is such a case.

XXXVI. THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE
FLOWERS, CONCLUDED

222. In the basswood (Fig. 191) the central or
terminal flower opens first. The branching is,
therefore, determinate. This type of flower-cluster
is called a cyme.

222a. The pupil should determine the morphology or signifi-
eance of the singular leaf-like body a, Fig, 191, from which the
peduncle springs; and he should discover if this member is char-
acteristic of the lindens or basswoods.

223. The apple (Fig. 192) also bears its flowers
in cymes, but the clusters are often only indefi-
nitely determinate. That is, there is not always a
definite progression in anthesis from inside out-
wards. Sometimes several of the flowers open

N
  
   
   
 

194 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

nearly simultaneously, and.
sometimes the central flower
is late; but the delay of
the central flower is prob-
ably the result of the
struggle for existence,

Fic. 190.

Racemose panicle of buckwheat.

topped clusters the out-
ermost flowers must
have the greatest ad-
vantage. This suppres-
sion or delay of the
inside flowers often
goes so far that the cluster is said to be cor-
ymbose-cymose.

224. If the cymes were much _ branched, or
compound, then the outermost cymules (or second-

Fia. 191.

Cyme of basswood.
THE ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS, CONCLUDED 195

ary cymes) might open first, and the cluster as a
whole would have every appearance of being a
corymb. Such compound corymbose cymes are
common. The pupil may compare the hydrangea
and the elder.

225. If one were to
conceive of a cyme
from which one _ of
the halves were cut
away, he would have a
one-sided cluster which
might strongly imitate
a cluster of racemes.
If the branches of this
one-sided cyme were
all removed except one,
that one branch would
imitate closely what
is called a _ scorpioid
or helicoid cyme; that
is, a cluster which is
one-sided and _ curled
or cireinate at the end, with the oldest flowers
at or near the base. This type of inflorescence
is common in the borage tribes, like forget-me-
not, heliotrope and comfrey.

 

Fig. 192.

Imperfect cyme of wild crab-apple.

225a. Other forms of cymose inflorescence are those in whick
the pedicels are so much shortened that the cluster is dense and
196 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

imitates » head. A true head, however, is corymbose (or opens
from the outside, 185a). Cymose heads are .known as fascicles
and glomerules.

225b. The teacher and pupil will now see that there are two ideas
concerned in the study of the arrangement of flowers,—the general
mode, method, or type of arrangement, and the particular kinds of
clusters to which designative names have been given. To the mode of
arrangement (whether cymose, corymbose, racemose, Solitary, and
the like) the name inflorescence is given. The word anthotaxy (liter-
ally “flower arrangement”) has the same signification, and is now in
frequent use, and etymologically it is preferable. Anthesis is prac-
tically equivalent to “flowering.” It would be improper, therefore, to
speak of a cyme as an inflorescence: it is a flower-cluster; but one
could say that the inflorescence of the basswood is cymose or deter-
minate.

226. If one were to examine the inflorescence
of the Norway maple (Fig. 50), or of the  horse-
chestnut or lilac, he would observe that the an-
thesis is mixed. In the horse-chestnut and lilac,
the general branching is of the indeterminate
kind, as indicated by the pointed form of the
cluster; but the side branches are more or less
determinate. Heavy clusters like these are described
under the general name of thyrse. They are really
dense panicles, and it is impossible to draw any
hard and fast line between the one and the other.

227. We have now learned the names which
are currently given to the different forms of flower-
clusters; but the most important lesson to be de-
rived from the study is the fact that the excep-
tions may be the rule. That is, there are no forms
so rigid that they may not be variously modified
THE KINSHIPS OF THER FLOWER 197

or broken, and we must not infer that those
forms to which we have given designative names
are type-forms from which the others have been
derived; but that they have been named simply
because they are regular, and are, therefore, capa-
ble of definition. It is quite as probable that the
mixed inflorescences are more nearly type-forms,
in the sense of being original forms, than that
the definite and regular ones are.

SuGcEsTions.—The pupil should now examine any fiower-cluster
whieh he meets. Look especially at the heads of composites,
the clusters of strawberries, grapes, blackberries, snowballs and
elders (Fig. 193). Endeavor to find a spike which begins to
flower at the top. Determine if the method of branching of
the cluster is in any way related to the branching of the plant
which bears it.

XXXVII. THE KINSHIPS OF THE FLOWER

228. We have already discovered (Obs. xxviii.)
that it is often difficult to determine just where
the leaves end and the flowers begin. That is,
there may be a gradation from foliaceous leaves
to bracts, to involucre or to calyx. The sepals
and petals bear so much resemblance to leaves
that they are popularly called the “leaves of the
flower,” and their arrangement, particularly in the
bud, can often be expressed in definite phyllotaxy.
 

Fig, 193.

Compound corymbose cyme of elder.
THE KINSHIPS OF THE FLOWER 199

Flowers occupy positions similar to branches: they
spring from the axils of leaves (or bracts), and
the method of branching of the flower-cluster sug-
gests that the parts of the in-
florescence occupy the position of
normal branches. Moreover, the
peduncles may bear bractlets, as
branches bear leaves; and now
and then a peduncle is jointed, or
has nodes. Even well-developed
buds may sometimes appear upon
flower-stalks, as in the case of
the pear in Fig. 194. These va-
rious facts suggest that peduncles
(and pedicels) may be likened to
branches, and that the parts of
flowers are akin to leaves.

 

Fic. 194.

Bud upon the stem of
a pear, suggesting that
228a. The bud upon the pear stem is the pedicel is really a
really a monstrosity (108a). The science kind of branch.
which treats of monstrosities is known as
teratology. These monstrosities are interesting because they are
unusual or abnormal, but chiefly because they sometimes throw much
light upon the morphology of the parts. That is, parts which now
and then behave similarly, or which give rise to similar structures,
may be expected to have somewhat close homological relationships.
The student of plant morphology should consult Masters’ “ Vegetable
Teratology.”

229. The common water lily is seen in Fig.

195. Those who are familiar with the flower know
that there is a regular gradation from the green
200 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

sepals to the white petals; and even a _ casual
observation shows that the stamens grade off from

 

Fig. 195.

Water lily flower, showing gradations of parts.

the petals in the same way. This can be well
made out in the picture; and the gradation is
THE KINSHIPS OF THE FLOWER 201

also shown (from 3 to 1) in Fig. 147. The water
lily is not the only plant which shows similar
gradations; from which we may conclude that
leaves, sepals, petals and stamens
appear to be derived from the same
type of plant member, or are seri-
ally related to each
other.

230. The canna ;
flower should be @
studied in this con-
nection (Fig. 196). The
ovary is at p, the sepals
at s, three pointed petals
at ccc, and the style at
e. An anther locule is
plainly shown at f, and in
the live plant this is very

conspicuous. The organ
which bears it, therefore,
must be a stamen. But

this stamen is a leaf-like
body, and extends beyond
the anther into a more or less curled, petal-like
colored part. This extension of the stamen is
thought by some botanists to be a_ transformed
anther locule, and by others to be an outgrowth
of the filament; but whatever its morphology,

Canna flower.

    
 
202 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

it plainly shows the close
to the petal and the leaf.

XS . \
IN

Men

Z
PM Ip
ereoogys og °

Fia. 197.

Leaf-like carpels of the platanus-
leaved sterculia.

The carpels separate, even

 

kinship of the anther

There are no other
stamens in the flower.
From their positions,
and from homology
with related flowers,
the showy parts of
the flower, a aa a,
are held to represent
stamens.

230a. In common with all
sterile or antherless stamens,
and bodies which stand in the
place of stamens, these petal-
like bodies are called stamino-
dia. The pupil will find two
staminodia, in the shape of
rudimentary bodies, in Fig.
151, standing just below the
connectives.

231. The sterculia,
or so-called Japanese
varnish tree, which is
now uch cultivated
in the South, has a
most curious method
of bearing its seeds,
as shown in Fig. 197.
before maturity, into

leaf-like bodies, upon which the seeds are borne.
THE KINSHIPS OF THE FLOWER 203

(The carpels are usually five, but the number
varies to four.) Although the foliaceous carpels
of this sterculia are an uncommon type, they are
not unique. Moreover,
the pods of many
plants split at ma-
turity into more or
less leaf-like portions.
These facts suggest
that even the pistil
may be akin to a leaf.
232. The very best proof
that the essential organs and
the leaf are derived from
similar sources is afforded
by “double flowers.” Fig.
198 is a double carnation
flower. The extra petals
(which make the flower full,
or double) are plainly trans-
formed stamens. They not Coe
only occupy the places of flower.
the ten stamens, but al-
most any bouquet of carnations will show various
intermediate forms. In the picture there are anther
locules transformed into petal-like bodies. This
picture should be compared with the normal or
single carnation in Fig. 152. The common double

  
 

Fic. 198.
204 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

geraniums and tulips show most excellent gradations
from stamens to petals, and often from pistils to
petals. Fig. 199 shows the transformations in a dou-
ble tulip. Ata is a petal-like body with a portion
of an anther upon its side, and at ¢ the malformed

  

Transformations in a tulip flower.

anther is between two wings of the petal. At d
is a body which stood in the place of a stamen,
but upon which there is no rudiment of an anther.
At e the single pistil of the tulip is seen to be
broken up into a number of petal-like bodies. In
roses and many other double flowers, not only the
stamens but the pistils may directly change tc
petals, showing, therefore, that the kinship of the
essential organs to the floral envelopes is actually
very close and direct.

233. A blossom of the common double-flower-
ing almond is shown in Fig. 200. Here the pistil
and stamens are normal, showing that the extra
THE KINSHIPS OF THE FLOWER 205

petals are adventitious growths (that is, appear-
ing in unaccustomed places, neither from _pre-
viously formed buds nor as_ transformations of
other parts). This method of doubling is common;
and even those plants in which the stamens and
pistils are transformed, may develop many more
petals than there are essential organs in the normal
flower. This shows again, therefore, that the flower,
like the leaf and the branch, is
a plastic structure, capable of be-
ing greatly modified.

234. Plants which are kept
in a very vigorous condition of
growth generally bloom compara-
tively less than those which are
making small growth. We have
already seen (8) that checking
growth may induce fruitfulness.
The gardener knows that if he would make his
plants bloom profusely he must be careful not
to grow them in too large pots, else the growth
will be very great and at the expense of bloom.
There is thus seen to be a most intimate rela-
tionship between vegetative growth and _ floral
growth.

235. All these considerations lead us to believe
that the parts of flowers and leayes are modified
forms of one type or kind of plant structure.

 

Fig. 200.

Double-flowering almond.
206 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

235a. It is commonly taught that the parts of flowers are modi-
fied leaves. This idea seems to have originated with the poet Goethe
(‘Metamorphoses of Plants,” 1790), who supposed that all the struc-
tures or members of flowers may have been derived from the leaf.
It has recently been suggested, however, that the evolution may
have been in the reverse direction,—that leaves ‘may have been de-
rived from floral members. It is not necessary to accept either
hypothesis, for both foliar leaves and floral members may have arisen
independently from a common structure, as from stems; nor is it
necessary to assume that all leaves or all flowers have arisen in
the same sequence. The important lesson for the beginner is the
fact that floral members and leaves are essentially alike in origin
and that, upon occasion, one may pass into the other.

SuceEstions.—In illustration of all these remarks the pupil should
examine the double flowers of the gardens. Every one of these
flowers has a story to tell of transformation or evolution; and every
one is a witness that plants may be most profoundly modified by
_ any treatment or condition which is strange to them. In particular,
we may suggest a study of the common geraniums, carnations, roses,
fuchsias, petunias, balsams, datura or brugmansia, violets, and tulips
and hyacinths. The double aquilegias (or columbines) are very inter-
esting; also the double larkspurs.

XXXVITI. PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS

236. The one thing which must have been most
strongly impressed upon the pupil in these obser-
vations upon the flower is the fact of the great
and wide variation in forms. We have already
found many obscure or disguised parts. There are
still other disguises, which will be sure to puzzle
the pupil, to a very few of which we may give atten-
PARYVICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS 207

tion, by way of illustration. We shall be still fur-
ther impressed with the fact that, while there are
certain fundamental resemblances
in flowers, there are endless dif-
ferences in details.

237. An outline of the sweet
pea flower is shown in Fig.
201. The calyx plainly has five
parts, but the corolla evidently
has but four. The prominent

 

part is the standard or banner Fig. 201.
(also called the vexillum), shown The sweet pea flower.
at s. In front of it are two

wings, ww. In the very front of the flower is a
part which, because of its shape, is known as the
keel, &. This pea-like type of corolla (which the
pupil will recall in the
beans, clover, locusts,
and the like) has been
likened to a butterfly in
shape; and such flow-
ers are therefore said to
be papilionaceous (Latin
Brees ‘papilio,” a butterfly).

Essential organs of sweet pea. 938. Searching, now,
Calyx at c, but corolla removed. .

for the essential organs,
we find a structure like Fig. 202. There are ten
stamens, nine of them united by their filaments

 
208 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

into a tube which encloses the single pistil, one
of them, A, remaining free along the upper side
of the tube. The stamens in the pea-like flowers
affect some such arrangement as this.

238a. In some plants the stamens are united in a single
tube, and are then said to be monadelphous (“one brotherhood”);
in other eases, as in the one before us, they are in two groups
or companies, or are diadelphous.

239. If the parts of the calyx are five and the
stamens ten, we are surprised that the petals should
be only four, for we have found (172) that there
is a strong tendency for the envelopes and the
stamens to be represented by similar numbers or
by multiples of the lowest number. We are to
determine, then, if one of the parts of the corolla
represents the union of two petals. In certain
pea-like flowers the keel is represented by two
petals, whence we conclude that in the sweet pea,
garden pea, and other typical papilionaceous flow-
ers, the keel represents two parts. The corolla
of the pea, therefore, may be said to be built
upon the plan of five.

240. Plants which bear papilionaceous corollas,
ten monadelphous or diadelphous stamens and the
particular kind of pod (called a legume) which is
characteristic of the pea, are associated in a group
or family known as the pulse family, or Legumi-
nose. (Pulse is the generic name of seeds of
peas, beans and the like.)
PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS, CONTINUED 209

240a. A family is a more or less natural assemblage of plants
which have « few bold or general resemblances. Nearly every
family grades off into one or more other families, so that it is
impossible to define it rigidly. The name of the family is a Latin-
ized plural of some representative plant, or of some characteristic
feature of the family as a whole. Families which are named from
a representative plant are Rosacee, or rose family (from Rosa, the
rose); Cucurbitaces, or gourd family (from Cucurbita, the gourd,
pumpkin and squash); Solanacew, or night-shade family (from
Solanum, the potato and its kin). Families named from some
characteristic feature are Composite (compound or composite flow-
ers), Crucifere, or mustard family (“eross-bearing,” alluding to the
four petals, whose limbs are often arranged at right angles to each
other); Graminew, or grass family; Conifere, or cone-bearers.
There are somewhat over 200 recognized families of flowering -
plants. The word order is often used in the same sense, but
family is to be preferred.

SuaGGEsTions.—There are monadelphous and diadelphous stamens
in other families than the Leguminose, but there are no other
plants which have typically characteristic papilionaceous flowers.
There are some Leguminose, however, which have regular flowers,
put they are placed in the family because of their legumes and
certain other features. The pupil should examine any of the mal-
low family for monadelphous stamens,—as cotton, abutilons, holly-
hocks, hibiscuses, and mallows (the common round-leaved little
weed known as “cheeses ” is a mallow); also the passion flowers.

\

XXXIX. PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS,
CONTINUED

241. The flower of the common blue violet is
displayed in Fig. 203. In general form it sug-
gests a papilionaceous flower. It differs radically,

Oo
210 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

however, in having two petals on the upper side
instead of one, and the lowest petal is morpho-
logically only one (since the flower
throughout is in fives). This
lower petal is produced into a dis-
tinct sac or spur, which is char-
acteristic of the violets. The sta-
mens are five, with free filaments
but connivent anthers, and _ the
pod, which is 1-loculed, with three
placentz, is much unlike
that of the pea_ tribes.
The violets, therefore, can
claim no close kinship
with the Leguminose.

 

 

241a. The violet is the type
of a small family known as the
Violacese, which comprises some-
thing like two hundred and fifty
kinds of plants in various parts of the
world, some of which are small trees.
There. are about sixty kinds of violets
in North America, At this point the
-pupil may take up a study of the pansy.

  
 

Be 0 242. The dutchman’s pipe,

Violet flower or pipe-vine (a kind of aristo-
lochia), is so-called from the

curious pipe-like flowers (Figs. 204, 205). The
plant grows wild from Pennsylvania southward
PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS, CONTINUFD 211

and westward, and is often cultivated upon porches
and arbors for the shade of its great, dense

 

aw

Fia. 204. Fia. 205.

Flower of dutchman’s Dutchman’s pipe. Longi-
pipe. Exterior view. tudinal section.

leaves. The flower is most peculiar. The ovary
is at a, and in this respect it differs radically
from both the pea and the violet, in which the
ovary is superior. The placentze are axile. These
are most important points in respect to the kinship
of plants, and at once suggest a wide separation
212 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

of this dutchman’s pipe from the Leguminose and
from the Violacee.

243. It is next observed that the floral enve-
lope is single; that is, there is only one series,
and, following the botanist’s rule, we call the
flower apetalous. The calyx, however, is gamosep-
alous,—of one piece. This calyx has a curious en-
largement at its base, c, and a constricted orifice
(technically called a throat) where it joins the limb.
The limb is 3-lobed. The essential organs (q,
Fig. 205) consist of six short stamens, which
are joined to a short style. The style bears a
3-lobed stigma. The plan of this flower is in
threes, and the entire make-up is very unlike any-
thing which we have seen.

248a. The aristolochias are either vines or upright plants, and
they give the name (Aristolochiacee) to a small tribe known as
the birthwort family, to which the wild ginger or asarum belongs.
Several odd and showy tropical aristolochias are grown in fine
conservatories.

244. The crape myrtle (Fig. 206) is one of the
most common of cultivated bushes or small trees
from Washington south. It is native of the East
Indies, but is planted for the profusion of its
rose-red or flesh-color, and rarely white, crispy
flowers. The first thing to observe about, this
flower, as of any other flower, is the position of
the ovary. This is superior. Its kinship is pre-
PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS, CONTINUED 213

sumably, therefore (though not necessarily), nearer

the peas and violets than the birthworts (247a).
245. The calyx is 6-lobed. Upon the calyx

are borne the petals and the numerous stamens,

 

Fig. 206.

Flower of crape myrtle.

of. which the six outermost are long and promi-
nent. The style is single and slender, but the
ovary is 3- to 6-loculed. The striking feature of
this flower is the wide-spreading crimped petals,
which are borne upon distinct stalks or claws;
but the essential features of it are the characters
associated with the relative numbers and positions

of the parts.
214 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

246. We have now seen flowers in which the
parts are arranged in threes, fours, fives and sixes.
This numerical order is very important in deter-
mining the kinships of plants. It is most apparent
in the floral envelopes and in the andreecium, but
it is very apt to appear in the pistil in the number
of locules or placentz, or in the styles or stigmas.

246a. To indicate the numerical plan, the number is prefixed
to the Greek word “merous,” denoting member: as 2-merous,
3-merous, 4-merous, 5-merous, 6-merous, and the like,—written in
full respectively, dimerous, trimerous, tetramerous, pentamerous, hexa-
merous.

246d. The pupil will now see that (except in the 6-merous
plan) the crape myrtle is really very suggestive of the plum flower
(Fig. 144), for each is apparently perigy-
nous, polypetalous and unipistillate.

247. The bleeding-heart of
the garden is familiar. It has
a characteristic pattern of flower.
The squirrel-corn and _ dutch-
man’s breeches of the spring
copses are close of kin. So
is the Alleghany vine or smoke
vine (or adlumia) of moist
woods, flowers of which are
shown in Fig. 207. The ovary is superior and
has two placente; stigmas two. The sepals are
two, minute and scale-like—well shown in the pic-
ture. The petals are four, and united into a

 

Fia. 207.

Alleghany vine, or adlumia.
PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS, CONTINUED 215

curious heart-shaped corolla. The stamens are six.
This flower, therefore, is dimerous; but because
of its hypogynous
character and _ the
presence of all four
of the floral series
(and the character of
its fruit), it is evi-
dently closer kin to the
peas and violets than Fic. 208.

it is to the birthworts. Flowers of the grape.

 

247a. We must not think of these resemblances in plants as
necessarily expressing close genealogical relationships, but rather as
similarities in structure or conformation which allow them to be
classified. The adlumia and bleeding-heart would seem to be closely
allied to the families which have gamopetalous corollas, but most of
the closely associated plants are polypetalous, and it is held, there-
fore, to be a departure among polypetalous plants. The mere fact
of polypetaly, gamopetaly or apetaly is held to be less significant
in classification than formerly.

XL. PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS,
CONTINUED

248. Grape flowers are shown in Fig. 208. An
unopened flower is at 1. The balloon-shaped por-
tion is the corolla. The calyx is merely a rim
or disc at the base. The petals break apart from
216 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

below, cohering at the top, and are cast off in
one piece by the expanding stamens, 2. The flower,
therefore, is said to be calyptrate, or hooded.
This is the “shedding of the caps” of which grape-
growers speak. At blooming time, these flattened
star-like caps may be seen upon the ground.
The fully expanded flower is seen at 3; it is
naked, and might be mistaken for a true achla-
mydeous flower.

249. In most of the flowers which we have
studied, the stamens are alternate with the petals
when they are of the same number; and this is
the prevalent arrangement (an exception in Fig.
146). In the grape, however, the stamens are op-
posite the petals (2); and it is no doubt for this
reason that they are able to raise the cap. Alter-
nating with these stamens are five glands, or
slight elevations, well shown in 2 and 3. These
may be supposed, therefore, to represent stamens,
since they occupy the position of stamens. This
suggests that when stamens are opposite the petals
or the lobes of the corolla, the pupil should look
for other or rudimentary bodies which may be
considered to represent missing stamens.

249a. A gland is a secreting body, as one which secretes nec-
tar or honey, as these glands of the grape do; but the word is
also applied to various small or supposedly rudimentary bodies
which may not secrete.
PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS, CONTINUED 217

250. One of the passion fiowers is shown in
Fig. 209. It is one-of the oddest of flowers, and

 

Fig. 209

A passion flower.

needs a special interpretation. The ovary (not
shown in the picture) is superior. Below the
flower are three bracts (not shown); then follows
the calyx with five petal-like divisions; and alter-
218 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

nating with the divisions and borne upon the calyx,
are five petals. The central part of the flower
is occupied by five monadelphous stamens with
versatile anthers, and out of the
tube formed by the filaments
project the three styles, with
their capitate or ball-like stig-
mas. It now remains to in-
terpret the hair-like fringe which
stands above the petals. This
arises from the petals, and,
therefore, is of different origin
from the stamens, and cannot
be interpreted as stamens. We
have found a comparable struc-
ture in the narcissus (Fig. 183). It is a crown or
corona. The passion flower, therefore, is described
as a perigynous, polypetalous, quadriserial flower,
and presumably is not far removed, in classification,
from the crape myrtle (247a).

251. A picture of the flowering spurge (euphor-
bia) is at Fig. 210. It appears to be a simple
flower with five white petals, five or six stamens,
and a curious 3-merous pistil; but this supposi-
tion is wholly wrong. The five petal-like bodies
are expansions of an involucre; the apparent
stamens are each a staminate flower arising from
the axil of a bractlet and standing upon a jointed

 

Fis. 210.

Flowering spurge.
PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS, CONTINUED 219

pedicel, and the central object, 8, is a solitary
3-merous pistillate flower. The entire structure or
supposed flower, therefore, is a moncecious rein-
forced head.

251a. This euphorbia is a common weed in many parts of the
country. It is an herb, growing two or three feet high in dry
soil. If this plant cannot be had, the pupil may find other spurges,
for they are common; or he may ask a gardener for a plant of
poinsettia or for one of the thorny euphorbias of greenhouses; or
he may easily grow the variegated spurge, seeds of which are sold
under the name of “snow-on the-mountain.” All the spurges have
milky juice. The pupil should
make an earnest effort to ob-
tain some euphorbiaceous flower
for dissection. The flowers of
the castor bean, although not in
involuecrate heads, will be use-
ful in this connection, for this
plant is one of the Euphorbia-
cer.

251b. The pupil may be asked
to explain the flowers of the
red or swamp maple in Fig. 211.
The picture may suggest an
euphorbiaceous type of flower,
but the pupil must not be misled
by appearances. These red flow-
ers of the maple are among the
very earliest flowers of spring,
appearing while the branches are
Flowers of red maple. still bare of leaves.

 

252. One of the most reduced of flowers, in
point of size, is that of the duckmeats, or lemnas.
These are minute plants (Fig. 212), comprising
220 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

only a floating leaf (or frond) and one or more
hanging roots. They are common upon stagnant
pools, often covering the water with
a blanket of green. Three plants
of one of the common kinds are
shown, about six times
enlarged, in the picture.
The flowers (shown at
the right) spring from the
margin of the frond, and
consist of two flowers of
a single stamen each and
a single pistillate flower,
the three borne in a co-
rolla-like spathe (determined to be a
spathe by the manner in which it
| arises from the frond and by homol-
| ogy with related plants). The two
locules of the anthers are more or
\ less separated, as if the anther were
Rie, ON: 4-loculed. The presence of the spathe
‘Duekmests at once removes this plant from those
groups which we have chiefly studied,
and associates it rather with such types as the
calla and narcissus.
253. In all these various types of flowers we
have been able to go beyond the mere external
resemblances and to discover some relatively funda-

 
   
 

 
PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS, CONTINUED 9291

mental points of comparison; and
by means of these points we are
able to  con-
struct classifi-
cations. Some
of the points
of most impor-
tance in com-
parative stud-
ies of flowers
are: the numer-
ical plan; the
relation of the x
parts with reference to
the ovary; the coales-
cence of parts or series;
the reinforcement of
the flower.

    
 

SUGGESTIONS. — With the sug-
gestion of the last paragraph
in mind, the pupil should com-
pare the various flowers which
he commonly meets. If a
dozen or more flowers of dif-
ferent kinds can be had at
onee, it is excellent practice
to construct a method of ar-
ranging or classifying them
into groups or series. If the
teacher were to consult a
gardener sometime in advance,

Fig. 218.

Wild lady’s-slipper.
222 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

a collection of flowers for this study could be easily secured
in winter time. Even without previous notice, he might be able
to supply carnations, violets, fuchsias, heliotropes, geraniums,
begonias, alyssum, hyacinths, roses, freesias, oxalises, bouvardias,
lilies-of-the-valley, mignonette, pansies, chrysanthemums, cinerarias.

XLI. PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS,
CONTINUED. (THE ORCHIDS)

254. A lady’s-slipper, or cypripedium, is shown
in Fig. 213. The flower is exceedingly irregular.
There are four obvious petal-
like parts, aa bd, and a sac
(or “slipper”) c, which is no
doubt a part of the peri-
anth. This makes only five
parts. A study of homolo-
gies in other cypripediums,
however, shows that the lower
member, d, represents two
united parts, and we. must
believe that the flower is

enc ee trimerous. The three parts

cypripedium. standing for the calyx are

the outermost ones, repre-

sented by the united parts, d, and the upper one

at a. The parts representing petals, then, are the
side pieces a and b, and the sac c.

    
 

Fie, 214.
PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS (ORCHIDS) 223

255. The essential organs of a _ cultivated
cypripedium are shown in Fig. 214. Two anthers
are at aa. A petaloid body representing a third
stamen stands above them at b. This is known
to represent a stamen, because in most orchids
this uppermost body is a’ fertile anther and the
lateral bodies are rudimentary. The lip-like body,
c, is the stigma. In Fig. 213 this staminodium
(280a) is represented by the ladle-like body pro-
jecting into the sac at b.

256. The most important thing to note about
these essential organs is the fact that they are
united into one body. That is, the stamens and
pistil are grown together, or are said to be gy-
nandrous. The body formed by this union is tech-
nically known as a column; and it is the chief
distinguishing mark of orchids.

256a. Orchids are plants with irregular trimerous flowers, usu-
ally one-loculed inferior ovary and three parietal placentse, and gy-
nandrous stamens, of which one or more is sterile. One of thd
petals, or inner divisions of the perianth, is often sac-form. There
are about five thousand kinds of orchids known, most of which are
herbs. They chiefly inhabit the tropics, but there are many humble
and local species in the northern United States and Canada, grow-
ing in woods and bogs. In the tropics many of them are epiphytes
(growing upon trees), and in the North some of the species are
saprophytic on the roots of trees, and are destitute of foliaceous
leaves. Numbers of tropical species are cultivated in glass houses.
Among the better known plants which are members of the Orchi-
dacew are the lady’s-slippers or cypripediums, rattlesnake plantain,
putty-root and vanilla.
224 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

257. One of the pogonias (a rose-colored orchid
which inhabits bogs in the northern states and

 

Fia. 215.

Flower of pogonia,

Canada) is shown in Fig.
215. The ribbed ovary is
seen below the flower. The
lip, which is a sae in the
lady’s-slipper, is an enlarged
fringed member, but the other
parts of the perianth are
much alike. The column is a club-shaped body lying
just above the lip, and the end of it is covered

 

Fig. 216.

Bullrush.
PARTICULAR TYPES 0F FLOWERS (ORCHIDS) 225

by the single lid-like
anther. This flower is
very unlike the lady’s-
slipper in general ap-
pearance, but the fun-
damental characters of
the flower clearly show
the kinship of the two.
258. The orchids
are exceedingly various
among themselves;
that is, they run
into many forms.
This means _ that
they are highly spe-
cialized, or adap-
ted to special or
particular conditions.

258a. Specialization is a
term employed to denote
modification by means of evo-
lution, which adapts a plant
(or animal), or any part of
it, to particular environments
or functions.

258b. Generalization de-
notes the absence of such
special adaptations. The word
is used in connection with
organisms (that is, plants or
animals), or their parts, which

P

 

 

Fia. 217.

Spike and flower of rye.
226 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

have attributes that fit them for a wide or common range of
conditions. Generalized organisms are usually relatively simple,
or undifferentiated in structure the one from the other; they are
conceived to be fundamental or stem types, from which specialized
ascendants may arise in the long courses of time. The orchids
are highly specialized plants.

258c. The environment is the sum of all the conditions or cir-
eumstances in which a plant or an animal lives. Literally, it means
the surroundings. The climate, soil, elevation and the like comprise
the environment.

SueeestTions.—Inasmuch as orchids are local or rare in most
parts of the country, the pupil may be obliged to resort to the
florist for specimens, although cypripediums are frequent in many
places. The larger greenhouse establishments usually grow such
orchids as East Indian cypripediums, lycaste, phalenopsis, cattleya
and calanthe.

XLIT. PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS,
CONTINUED. (GRASS-LIKE PLANTS)

259. Portions of the common bullrush, which
grows in clumps in low grounds, are shown in
Fig. 216. The panicled inflorescence is at a, and
an enlarged ‘flower at 6b. The perianth is com-
posed of six pointed greenish sepals. (The pupil
should determine the significance of the scales
which are shown beneath the perianth in the pic-
ture.) The stamens are three, and stand against
the outer sepals. The pistil is 3-loculed, with
three feather-like styles. The flower is, therefore,
regular and simple in structure, and this suggests
that it is not highly specialized.
PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS (GRASSES) 227

260. Rye is drawn in Fig. 217. The spike
(called a “head” by farmers) is at the left, and
a flower is enlarged at the right. The pistil, with
two feathery styles, is seen in the center at a,
and there are three stamens with versatile anthers,
bbb. There are two parts, cc, which might be
taken for petals. The flower is, therefore, wholly
unlike the rush in its plan, and suggests that the
two plants are not close of kin.

260a. Similar structure can be made out for the flower of June
grass in Fig. 218, which is a flower taken from the panicle in
Fig. 189.

261. If the flowers of grasses were examined
with care, however, two or three minute scales
would be found at the base of the
ovary; these (known as_lodicules)
are held to represent the perianth. {\
The two petal-like bodies, then,
must be reinforcements of the flower,
and they are now considered to be
specialized bracts (or glumes). The
outer bract (seen on the right in
the picture of rye and on the left
in Fig. 218) is called the flower- _.

¥ Reinforced flower of
ing-glume, and the inner and smaller —_june-grass.
one the palet. They were formerly
called the outer and inner—or lower and upper—
palets. These are characteristic features of the

 

Fig. 218.
2928 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

grass flower, and the rush, which, to casual obser-
vers is a grass, really belongs to another family.
262. In Obs. xxx. we became acquainted with
the pistillate spike of Indian corn (Fig. 167), and
the pupil was asked to find the stam-
inate flowers. Some of these stami-
nate flowers are shown enlarged in
Fig. 219. It will be
seen that there are
two flowers in the little
cluster, each compris-
ing three stamens, and
the flowering glumes
are at 1,1, and the
palets at 2,2. The
flower at the right is
not yet in bloom. In other
words, Fig. 219 shows a flower-
cluster, or a part of one.
This is called a spikelet, a term
applied, in the grasses, to the
closely associated flowers upon the ultimate branches
of the cluster. The pupil will at once catch
the resemblance of these flowers to those of the
rye and June-grass, and will be prepared to be
told that Indian corn belongs to the grass family,
although it looks much less like grass than the
rush does.

     
  
 

Fig. 219.

Staminate spikelet of maize.
‘

PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS (GRASSES) 229

262a. The pupil will now be interested in an attempt to make
out the bracts or glumes in the pistillate inflorescence of corn (the
ear), and he will find that. the kernel or grain very soon outgrows

the bracts. Do these bracts remain upon the cob?

It would in-

terest the pupil if he were to grow a few hills of the “husk corn”

(seed of which is often sold by seedsmen),
in which each kernel is still enclosed in
the glumes at maturity.

263. If, now, we return to
- the spike of rye (Fig. 217), and
examine the lowest spikelet on
the front, we observe that the
lowest glumes are not so long-
awned as the flowering-glume is
in the single flower at the right.
They are empty glumes; that is,
there are no flowers above them.
This shows that each _ spike-
let is really a shortened branch,
and the lowest bracts usually
remain empty, as we have found
(42) the lowest leaves upon a
shoot to remain devoid of good
axillary buds. The _ spikelet of
rye is said to be 2- to 3-flowered,
but only one or two of the flow-
ers develop. A knowledge of a
common branch, therefore, aids

 

Fig. 220.

Compound spike of carex.

us to interpret even such complex structures as the

inflorescence and flower of a grass.
230

LESSONS WITH PLANTS

263a. The grass family comprises not only the plants which we
commonly know as grasses, but also all the cereal grains, as wheat,

maize, rice, barley,

 

Fig. 221.

Staminate flower
of carex.

rye, oats and also sorghum and sugar cane.
The bamboos are grasses. The group is proba-
bly most abundant in actual number of plants
of any family of flowering plants, but the num-
ber of distinct kinds is less than in several other
families, numbering about two thousand five
hundred. There are two recent monographs
upon grasses which the pupil may easily procure:
Hackel’s “True Grasses” (translated by Lamson-
Seribner and Southworth), and Beal’s “Grasses
of North America.” The latter is in two vol-
umes, the first comprising a general discussion
and an aceount of the agricultural status of
the grass tribes, the second containing a de-
seription of the North American grasses. De-
scriptions of the different kinds of grasses, with
special reference to their agricultural uses, may
also be found in various publications issued by

the United States Department of Agriculture.

SuGGESTIONS.—The grasses are too critical (the floral parts too

minute, too similar

and too much disguised) to be profitable sub-

jects of study for the beginner, but the pupil should observe the
manner of inflorescence of the different kinds, and he should espe-
cially be able to determine the blooming time of the grains and

meadow grasses.

XLII. PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS,
CONCLUDED. (SEDGES)

264. We have already been introduced to the
sedges (Obs. xxx., Figs. 165, 166). The same sedge
which is seen in flower in Fig. 166 is seen fully ripe
PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS (SEDGES} 231

in Fig. 220. The entire flower-cluster is a compound
spike. Two of the spikelets are subtended by
bracts, bb. If the staminate portion of the spike-
lets were examined, two bare stamens would be
seen arising from behind a scale (Fig. 221). The
pistillate flower (Fig. 222) has two styles which

   

   

Fie. 222.

Pistillate flowers
of carex.

project from a flask-like body, and this body, like
the staminate flower, is borne in the axil of a
bract. Where is the perianth ?

265. A sedge of the type shown in Fig. 165
would ripen into a form something like that in
Fig. 223. (The two are not the same kind, how-
ever.) Leaf-like bracts subtend each spike. A
pistillate flower of Fig. 223 is enlarged in Fig.
224. It is in the axil of a seale. The side of
the flask-like body is torn away, and the 3-an-
232 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

\ gled ovary is seen within, from which

’

) arises a single style which is 3-lobed

   
   
 
 
  
  
  
 

aN at its summit. There seems
to be reason, therefore, for

ealling this flask-like body a
perianth; but the staminate
flower is naked.

266. The flower at a in
Fig. 225 contains a new mem-
ber in the form of a branch
(or racheola) which arises be-
neath the ovary. This

re racheola not infrequently
WW projects beyond the flower

and bears other flowers

(b); and in some kinds

of carex a similar struc-
ture is the rule. If this
branch is inside the flask-
like body, then that bodv
cannot be a perianth, but
must be a reinforcement of
the flower.

267. This enclosing or flask-
like body in the carices or
sedges is technically known
\

aS a perigynium (“around the
a pistil”), and it probably rep-
teil

Fu
Fig. 293

Spikes of a carex.
PARTICULAR TYPES OF FLOWERS (SEDGES) 233

resents a bractlet which has rolled itself into a
flask (or possibly two conjoined bracts). The scale
which subtends the perigynium, therefore, must be
a bract at the base of a very short branch, and
this branch bears the perigynium and the flower.
The flowers of carex
are interpreted to be
achlamydeous; and if
the ultimate branchlet
in the inflorescence of
a grass is called a
spikelet, a similar term
should be applied to
the perigynium and its
flower if we follow
strict homologies.
968. Wa ‘ava again Racheola of carex.
impressed with the fact that the mor-
phology of a flower or a part cannot
Se be inferred from mere external conform-
ation, for appearances are apt to be
deceitful; and we see how important it is to
give careful attention to every secondary and in-
cidental part or structure.

 

Fig. 225.

 

Fie. 224.

SuGeEstTions.—The sedges are even more critical than the grasses,
but they are so abundant that the pupil should take pains to ob-
serve them. He should at least be able to distinguish them from
grasses They may be readily distinguished by the phyllotaxy (68).
The stems or culms are generally 3-angled, particularly in the
234 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

larger kinds, and the foliage is usually harsh or rough. There are
many types of sedge-like plants, but the term sedge is commonly
restricted to the plants of the group or genus carex, which is con-
sidered here. Carices are very common and abundant. Observe
the variation in the number of styles in the various kinds of
earex, and determine if the number of stamens varies at the same
time.

XLIV. CROSS-FERTILIZATION

269. We have found (140) that the purpose of
the flower is to produce seeds; these seeds can-
not be formed without the aid of pollen; compara-
tively few flowers are perfect and also synanthous
(or simultaneous) in the maturation of pistils and
stamens, and very many flowers are imperfect.
It would seem to follow, therefore, that cross-fer-
tilization is the rule, and we infer that it must
result in some decided benefit.

269a. Fertilization or fecundation is the action of the pollen
(or generative cells) upon the body which develops into the seed.

269b. Close-fertilization or self-fertilization is the action of the
pollen on the egg-cell of the same flower.

269c. Cross-fertilization is the action of pollen upon the pistils
of another flower. The term is often restricted to fertilization be-
tween flowers upon different plants, although this is unwarranted.

269d. Pollination is the act or fact of conveying the pollen,
whether by bees, wind, man, or other means.

270. The simplest means by which cross-fertili-
zation is enforced is by dichogamy, or the different
CROSS-FERTILIZATION 235

times of maturing of the organs of the same
flower (150a). Certain simple movements or habits
of the pistils or stamens are often associated with
dichogamy. Fig. 226 is a flower
of one of the wild phloxes. The
stigmas are seen to be three, but
these are closed until the stig-
matic surfaces are receptive, which
commonly oceurs after the pollen
is discharged. A similar behavior
may be detected in the blue-bells
in Fig. 176. In the middle flower.
the style is merely club-shaped ; in
the lowest flower, the style has
opened to three branches, but the Fra. 226.
anthers are shrivelled. Inasmuch Dichogamous flower of
as the period of blooming of any een

plant usually extends over several days at least,
the dichogamous flower is likely to receive pollen
from various flowers which are borne either upon
the same or another plant.

   

270a. Pistils of dichogamous flowers may accidentally receive
pollen from the same flower; but Darwin and others have found
that pollen is often impotent, or sterile, upon the associated stigmas.
That is, if pollen from the same and from another flower were
to fall upon a stigma, the foreign pollen is the more likely to be
fecund. Foreign pollen is commonly prepotent. If, however, no
pollen is received from another flower, the stigma may accept the
pollen from the associated anthers.
236 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

271. It is evident that if self-fertilization is so
often excluded, the plant must frequently depend
upon extraneous agents for the transfer of pollen
and the perpetuation of its kind.

272. If the pupil were to shake the staminate
catkins of the hazel, birch or walnut when they
are mature, he would be surprised at the showers of
pollen which are discharged; and if he should
watch the destination of this pollen he would
probably see that some of it chances to drop upon
the pistillate flowers. He may make similar ob-
servations with Indian corn and staminate pine
cones. A common agent in distributing pollen is
the wind. Plants which bear protruding feathery
stigmas and protruding stamens (as the grasses)
are generally wind-pollinated. So are many or
most dicecious or monececious plants.

273. We have already referred to the fact (150)
that the showy petals sometimes attract insects.
The insects are also attracted by odors, as one may
infer by watching the visits of moths to the pe-
tunias at nightfall, at which time the flowers give
forth their odor. We would infer, therefore, that
those flowers which have neither showy colors nor
odors must be pollinated by the wind; and _ this
is true, a3 a general statement.

273a. Plants habitually pollinated by the wind are said to be
anemophilous (“wind-loving”), and those pollinated by inseets en-
tomophilous (“insect-loving”).
CROSS-FERTILIZATION 237

2736. Since the publication of Darwin’s remarkable investigations
upon the inter-relations of flowers and insects, it has been com-
monly supposed that the showy colors of flowers have been de-
veloped, or have originated, as « means of attracting insects, but
this explanation of the origin of colored parts is open to doubt.
But whatever the evolution of the corolla may have been, it is known
that color and perfume often attract insects.

274. It is evident that
the insect would not visit
the flower for the flower’s
sake, but for its own sake.
There must be something
in the flower which it wants,
for color and odor are only
attractions, not substantial
rewards. The things which
the insect wants are nec-
tar (or honey) and pollen,
chiefly the former. Fie. 227.

275. A flower of the Flower of columbine.
columbine (often erroneously
called honeysuckle) is shown in Fig. 227. The
petals are produced into long spurs. If one of
these spurs were opened when the flower is in
full bloom, the bottom of it would be found to
contain a glistening secretion. This is the nec-
tar; and the spurs are, therefore, nectaries.

 

275a. Humming-birds are fond of visiting the tubes of the
columbine, for which their long bills are eminently fitted. Bees
238 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

also crowd into the tubes. Bumble-bees often bite open the nec-
taries and steal the honey from the outside; this kind of theft is
not infrequent in other flowers.

276. The pupil should
now examine any of
the buttercups, or
crowfoots. The com-
mon one in the East
is shown in Fig. 228,
If the petals are pulled
away, each one is seen to
bear a minute gland or lip
(b) at its base. This is
the nectary. The disk-like
base of the grape flower
(Fig. 208) is also a_ nec-
tary. As a_ rule, _ ento-
mophilous flowers bear nec-
taries, and they are usually
located in the very base or
bottom of the flower.

   
 

bias SuGGESTIONS.—The pupil should now
Flowers of common look for the nectaries in all flowers
buttercup. which he suspects to be insect-polli-

nated. The presence of spurs and
sacs, and also of glands, is presumptive evidence of nectaries.
The presence of insects about flowers always raises the presump-
tion that those flowers are entomophilous ; the pupil should, there-
fore, determine what visitors the common flowers may have.
CROSS-FERTILIZATION, CONCLUDED 239

XLV. CROSS-FERTILIZATION, CONCLUDED

277. If the flower is to be pollinated by the
visit of insects, there must be some special con-
trivances or adaptations in the flower by which that
end is accomplished. Fig. 229 shows two flowers,

 

Fie, 229.

Dimorphic flowers.

in longitudinal section, of the polyanthus, or prim-
rose, of old gardens. The relative positions and
lengths of the essential organs are unlike in the two.
When an insect comes to a, it leaves upon the
protruding stigma some of the pollen which was
caught upon its body when it backed out of the
flower 6; but when in a, it got its head dusted
240 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

ith pollen from the short anthers. If, now, it

goes to b, its head strikes the stigma of the short
style and pollen is left there. In all this opera-
tion, the insect is no doubt wholly unconscious of
its work in carrying the pollen; it is only intent
upon the honey in the bottom of the flower-cup.
No doubt the pollen from the different kinds of
flowers becomes more or less mixed upon some
of the stigmas, but the foreign pollen only, as we
have seen (270a), is likely to be effective.

277a. This difference in relative lengths of stamens and pistils
is characteristic of many kinds of plants. Flowers like the poly-
anthus are said to be dimorphic (“two forms”). Other flowers
have, in addition, an intermediate length of organs, and are said to
be trimorphic. Dimorphie and trimorphic flowers are also said to
be short-styled, long-styled and mid-styled. Such flowers, as a
elass, are said to be heterostyled; but Gray has proposed that
they be called heterogonous, since the polymorphism applies to the
stamens as well as the pistils. The pupil may examine such
plants as mayflower (epigza), pickerel-weed or pontederia, oxalis,
partridge berry or mitchella, large-flowered flax or linum of the
gardens, buckwheat, and some of the loose-strifes or lythrums. The
whole subject is presented in Darwin’s book, “Different Forms of
Flowers on Plants of the Same Species.”

278. We have already made out the structure
of the sweet pea (Obs. xxxviil., Figs. 201, 202).
We shall now watch how the bees visit the flower
(Fig. 230). The insect is after the nectar at the
base of the flower, and in order to secure it, the
bee alights upon the keel and forces its way in
 

Pollination of the sweet pea.
the bee stands on the wings of the flower.

In some instances,

@
242 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

between the wings. In crowding itself in, the bee
pushes down upon the keel, and its body is struck
by the shaft of pistil and stamens (Fig. 202).
Pollen is left upon its abdomen, and the next
flower visited may receive some of it.

278a. This is only one example of the almost innumerable ways
jn which flowers are pollinated by insects. Some of the special
contrivances for effecting pollination are remarkably beautiful and
exact. We have found that the orchids are highly specialized.
Much of this specializatlon is a direct adaptation to cross-polli-
nation by insects; and the pupil who desires to pursue the subject
of cross-pollination should begin with Darwin’s epoch-making work,
“The Various Contrivances by which Orchids are Fertilized by In-
sects.” He should also have Mueller’s “Cross-fertilization of Flowers.”

278b. <A special literature has sprung up respecting the cross-
fertilization of flowers. The subject is a favorite, because it often
shows such marvellous adaptations to particular ends. There is
great danger, however, that study of the subject by beginners will
lead the pupil to feel that perfect and complete adaptation is a
universal fact in nature, and will cause him to overlook the non-
adaptations and the misfits, of which there are many. It is usually
better for the beginner to obtain a somewhat general view of
plants before going far into such special subjects; but the above
observations suggest to him a rich field which awaits still furtber
exploration.

278c. We are apt to assume that all structures and attributes of
plants are for some distinct purpose or use, and we then set out
to discover what those uses are. The inevitable result is that
we find adaptations when there may be none. Every feature of a
plant needs to be investigated for itself, in the light of its his-
tory or evolution. Some features may be found to be in process
of adaptation, others in process of obliteration, and others are at
the present time perfected; and it is likely that some others may
be merely concomitants or correlatives of other characters, having
been carried along with them and having no special significance.
CROSS-FERTILIZATION, CONCLUDED 243

279. A flower of one of the common milkweeds
(aselepias) is shown in Fig. 231. An insect has
alighted upon it. If this insect were examined
after his visit he would
probably be found to be
carrying saddlebags (like
b) upon his legs or tongue.
The bags constitute the
pollen, and each bag com-
prises the entire content of
an anther locule. The han-
dle or caudicle of these
bags is attached in the
chink or slit of a gland
on the side of the stigma,
and the insect, by catch-
ing its legs in this chink, BiG: 2a1s
drags out the bags and Pollination of milkweed.
carries them, with the gland, to other flowers.

 

279a. Such masses of pollen (which occupy the entire locule) are
known as pollinia. Pollinia are characteristic of orchids and milk-
weeds, highly specialized plants of widely different families.

280. The dalibarda is a low dewberry-like plant
(but resembling a violet) growing in woods in the
northernmost states. It is° shown in Fig. 232. A
normal showy flower is at a. At 6b and c, how-
ever, there are clusters of seeds upon _ shorter
244 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

scapes, and if the plant had been examined two
or three weeks earlier the flowers from which these
seeds came would have been
seen to be apetalous and closed
up tight in the calyx. They
must, therefore, be  self-fer-
tilized. That is, some kinds
; of plants bear two kinds of
‘Sy, flowers,—the normal, showy
» ’ kind, fitted to attract
* insects, and the closed,
inconspicuous kind,
which are self-fertile.

  
 
  
  
 
 
 

280a. These reduced
and simplified flowers
are said to be cleis-
togamous. The pupil
will find similar ones
in the common blue
violet after the showy
flowers have passed,
in the fringed polyg-
ala, and in a com-
mon bean-like vine
Fie. 232. of woods, known as

Normal and cleistogamous flowers of dalibarda. amphicarpra.

281. The most conspicuous thing about these
cleistogamous flowers is their simplicity,—the short
peduncles or scapes, the absence of petals, the
dwarfed and closed calyx, and the small amount
CROSS-FERTILIZATION, CONCLUDED 245

of pollen. That is, there is most rigid economy
in their make-up. It is an expensive business to
advertise for insects: there must be a high de-
velopment of color or odor (sometimes of both),
large quantities of pollen, long peduncles, and the
like. It is also wasteful of pollen to trust to the
wind, as one may prove by shaking the staminate
cones of pines or the catkins of the birches or
walnuts and observing the showers of pollen which
are discharged. All these expenditures tax the
energy of the plant. The cleistogamous flowers
are very fruitful. It is now generally held that
they have been developed as a matter of economy,
while the seeds of the showy cross-fertilized fiow-
ers impart sufficient vigor to the race, from time
to time, to prevent it from running out. This
explanation seems to account for the facts, and it
is probably correct; but a hypothesis which merely
accounts for the facts is not necessarily true.
There may be other reasons why cleistogamous
flowers have been developed. At all events, we
must be careful not to explain everything upon the
theory of adaptation.

Sue@EsTions.—There is scarcely a flower which will not yield
some unexpected interest if one watches it when insects are work-
ing upon it. Flowers of very irregular and striking shape, and with
oddly constructed stamens and pistils, are usually specialized appar-
ently for insuring cross-pollination by insects. Some aquatic plants

east their pollen upon the water, and it is thus earried to the pistils
of other flowers. Birds and snails sometimes aid in transferring pollen.
246 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

XLVI. THE CROSSING OF PLANTS

282. If the means for insuring cross-fertiliza-
tion are so general, it must follow that the cross-
ing of plants serves the plant some useful end.
It is known, as the result of much experiment,
that crossing results in strengthening or invigorat-
ing the offspring which grow from the seeds of
the cross-fertilized flowers.

282a. The best results are usually obtained when the cross is
made between two distinct plants of the same kind,—not, on the
one hand, when made between flowers upon the same plant, nor,
upon the other, when made between wholly different kinds of plants.
The fullest information upon this subject will be found in Darwin’s
“Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom.”

283. If marked benefits follow normal cross-
fertilization in wild plants, similar results should
follow in cultivated plants; and there would seem,
therefore, to be reason to perform the pollination
by artificial means.

283a. As w matter of fact, crossing is rarely done by man for
the purpose of improving the variety or kind, but rather —by ecross-
ing plants of different kinds—to produce new varieties or kinds.
To this latter subject we shall revert at another time (534).

284. Plants naturally cross under cultivation as
well as when growing in the wild, however, so that
THE CROSSING OF PLANTS i 247,

nothing is lost in this regard by transferring them
to the farm or garden; but in special cases it may
be desired to perform the operation of pollination by
hand, and instructions may therefore be useful. In
order to insure the most definite results, every
effort should be made to rightly apply the pollen
which it is desired shall be used, and to rigidly
exclude all other pollen.

285. The first requisite is to remove the an-
thers from the flower which it is proposed to
cross, and they must be
removed before the pollen
has been shed. The flower
bud is therefore opened and
the anthers taken out. It
is frequently most expedi-
tious to cut off the floral
envelopes with small, sharp-
pointed scissors, then cut Fig. 233.
out or pull out the anthers, Emasculation of maurandia bud.
leaving only the pistil untouched. Some opera-
tors prefer to simply open the corolla at the
end and pull out the anthers with a hook or
tweezers; and this method is often the best one.
The method is not important, so long as the pollen
is all removed and the pistil is not injured. The
operation of removing the stamens or anthers is
known as emasculation.

 
248 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

285a. In Fig. 233 the bud at the right has been emasculated.
The other shows the size of the bud at the time of the opera-
tion. It is best to delay the operation as long as possible and
yet not allow the bud to open (and thereby expose the flower to
foreign pollen) nor the anthers to discharge the pollen.

286. The emasculated flower
must be covered with a bag to
prevent the access of pollen.
If the stigma is not receptive
at the time (as it usually is
not), the desired pollen is not
applied at once. The bag may
be removed from time to time
to allow of examination of the
pistil, and when the stigma is
mature, which is told by its
glutinous or roughened appear-
ance (148), the time for polli-
nation has come.

 

Hig. 234. 286a. The flower may be covered with a
Flower covered with a grocer’s common manilla bag, as in Fig. 234.
paper bag. The bag may be handily prepared by thrust-

ing a string through the two flaps (as in
Fig. 235) and tying it at one of the edges. If the bag is
slightly moistened, it can be puckered more tightly about the
stem of the plant. The time required for the stigma to mature
varies from several hours to a few days.

287. When the stigma is ready, an unopened
anther from the desired flower is crushed upon
the finger-nail or a knife-blade and the pollen is
THE CROSSING OF PLANTS 249

rubbed on the stigma by means of a tiny brush,
the point of a knife-blade or a sliver of wood.
The flower is again covered with the bag, which
is allowed to remain for several days until all
danger of other pollination is past.

287a. Care must be taken to completely cover the stigmatic sur-
face with pollen, if possible. If one is making scientific experi-
ments, it is well to cover the flowers which are to furnish the pollen
from the time they are in bud, to make sure that no foreign pollen
has been deposited on the anthers (and thereby
become mixed with the desired pollen) by wind
or insects.

288. When flowers are in dense
clusters it is impossible to cover
one of them with a bag, and the
operator may not care to pollinate
the entire lot; and, moreover, only
a part of the flowers in most plants
may be expected to mature perfect
seeds. (See, for example, the
apple cluster in Fig. 46.) In such
cases, a few of the flowers should
be prepared for crossing, and all
the remaining buds should be re-
moved. In composites, all the flowers but half a
dozen or dozen may be removed from the head.
The crossing of flowers is generally not difficult
if one has patience and deft fingers, but every

SS

SSS

ff
I
]

 

Fig. 235.

Bag prepared for use.
250 | LESSONS WITH PLANTS

care should be taken that no foreign pollen reaches
the stigma.

SueGEstTions.—Each pupil should cross a few plants and save
the seeds and sow them, keeping records of the relative heights,
productiveness (number of flowers or fruits), color and other features
of the parents and offspring. He should not be discouraged if many
of the crossings fail, for the best operators often fail to “set” more
than half of the flowers. Fuller directions for this operation, and
also discussions of the philosophy of crossing, may be found in
Bailey’s “Plant-Breeding.”
PART IV

STUDIES OF THE FRUCTIFICATION

XLVI]. THE AKENE

289. We know that the office of the flower is
to produce seeds with which to perpetuate the plant.
The seeds are borne in various numbers and modes.
In the hepatica (Fig. 1382) there is a head or
bunch of pistils; in the tulip there is only one
pistil, but it is a compound of three carpels. We
know that a flower may contain one simple pistil,
one variously compounded pistil, or a number of
simple pistils; and these pistils or carpels may
contain one or many seeds.

290. One of the pistils of the hepatica, cut in
two lengthwise, is shown in Fig. 141. The pistil
is not only simple (comprising but a single carpel),
but it is 1-seeded. Furthermore, it does not
dehisce, or split open, but the ovary and the ovule
grow into a single seed-like body. Such a single-
seeded, dry, indehiscent structure is known as an
akene (or achenium). ‘

(251)
252 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

291. The seed is the ripened ovule. The seed
is enclosed within the walls of the ripened ovary,
and the ripened ovary or seed-
vessel is the pericarp. The entire
structure, comprising seed, peri-
carp, and the parts which may
be inseparably grown to them,
is the fruit.

29la. The term fruit is in common use
in botanical writings. It is sometimes used
to designate only the ripened pistil (the peri-
carp and seeds), but better usage allows it
to stand for the pericarp and whatever other
Tailed akene of structure (as calyx or receptacle) may be
clematis. organically united with it. The horticulturist
uses it more loosely, for any edible product
which is more or less intimately associated in its development with
the flower. Confusion, therefore, arises; and since the word be-
longed first to general literature and to horti-
eulture, which, therefore, have prior rights, it is
a pity that it was ever given a technical botan-
ical meaning. But there is no good technical
word which can be substituted for it.

    

Fig. 236.

292. In the hepatica akene, the
growth since flowering time has
been confined to the pericarp and Fic. 237.
seed. Fig. 236 is the akene of a Burs of hound’s-
clematis, which, like the hepatica, DeLee palsk a:
is one of the crowfoot family or
Ranunculacee. The tail-like part is the enlarged
and elongated style. It is seen, therefore, that

 
THE AKENE 253

even the style may persist and enter into the
make-up of the fruit.

293. In these instances, the akene
is a ripened superior ovary. If
one turns again to the dandelion,
however (Fig. 171), he finds a 1-
seeded dry ovary, with the calyx (or
pappus) springing from its top.
This kind of fruit is characteristic
of the composite family, and we have
already observed several forms of it (Obs. xxxili.).

 

Fic. 238.

Flower of strawberry.

293a. This particular type of akene-fruit is known as a cyp-
sela, but the term is little used. The fruit of the grasses and
cereal grains is also an akene-like body which (as a grain of wheat
or the “meat” of an oat) is technically known as a caryopsis ;
here the seed is covered by the adherent walls of the ovary.
What is the structure of the “stick-tight” or
bur, in Fig. 237? The plant is «a common and
familiar weed. The pistil of the mint (Fig.
140) may aid in the solution.

294. Let the pupil examine a
flower of the strawberry (Fig. 288).
It is quadriserial and polypetalous.

As in the hepatica, the pistils are
many and 1l-ovuled, and they form a
Normal fruit of Cluster or head in the center of the
strawberry. flower, aS akenes are very apt to do.

 

Fig. 239.

294a. In the plan of the flower, the hepatica and strawberry
are much alike, and yet they belong to different families. The
254 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

strawberry is one of the rose family. We have already seen (172,
173) that the hepatica is held to be apetalous, and the strawberry
flower is reinforced (171). A most important gross difference between
the two, however, is the fact that the hepatica is hypogynous,
while the strawberry is essentially perigynous (170).

295. In a short time (let the pupil determine
how long), a strawberry (Fig. 239) stands where the
flower was. There was no obvious promise of such
a structure in the flower. If we cut the straw-
berry across, we find no seeds in it, and it can-
not, therefore, be a’ pistil, The numerous pistils
which we saw in the flower are borne upon the
outside of the strawberry, and are akenes. The
edible part, therefore, must be a receptacle.

296. The pupil sees that the straw-
berry in Fig. 239 is symmetrically
developed, both as to form and as
to number and arrangement of akenes.

Pia. 240. Fig. 240 is a malformed or “nubbin”
pe pate strawberry. If the pupil were to

examine such berries, he would find
that a deformity in any portion of the edible re-
ceptacle is generally associated with non-develop-
ment of the akenes.

 

SuGcEestions.—Now determine whether failure of the akenes in
the strawberry is the cause of the malformation, or whether an
injury to the receptacle is the cause of both the malformation and
the failure of the akenes. Before fertilization takes place, cut the
styles from several of the pistils at one point, and see if the
THE DRUPE 955

strawberry does not become a “nubbin”; or watch the effect of frost
when the plants are in flower. The pupil will be interested in
Fig. 241, which shows a cluster of blackberries which was nipped
by frost when in flower. Most of the pistils were killed (for pis-
tils are very susceptible to frost), but two of them, NN, developed
fruits. Perhaps “nubbin” strawberries, blackberries and raspberries
ean be produced also by withholding pollen from some of the pistils.
It is not unusual. to find curious monstrosities of the strawberry.
Fig. 242 is one, showing a cluster of leaves springing from the apex,
thus suggesting the stem character of the strawberry fruit. The
berry is cut in two lengthwise.

XLVIIIl. THE DRUPE

   

297. A raspberry is shown in
Fig. 243. Each of the little
fleshy parts in the berry is found
to contain a seed, and each one
bears the remains of a style.
Each one; therefore, must be a
simple pistil. The parts are in-
dehiscent, and they differ from
an akene chiefly in the fact that
the outer part is fleshy, rather
than dry and thin. Such fleshy

little akene-like fruits are called Bet
. Frost-injured black-
drupelets “ berries..

298. The edible part of the
raspberry, then, is homologous with the akenes
of the strawberry; and the core, s, which remains
256 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

upon the bush when the raspberry is_ picked, is
the receptacle. The pupil should now explain the
morphology of the blackberry.

299. The pupil will now be in-
terested in peaches, apricots, plums
and cherries. He has seen the
structure of the flower in Figs. 47,
48, 144. There is a single superior
pistil. The petals and _ stamens
are perigynous, and both fall soon

Bigs 232: after fertilization has taken place.

¥ sarier sc ’ The gamosepalous calyx (or re-
ceptacle-tube, 170) persists for a

time, but finally breaks away at the base, and
the ring gradually works off over the top of the
swelling fruit (Fig.
244). In these fruits,
therefore, only the
ovary and its con-
tents persist and
ripen into the fruit.

 

    

Fig. 243.

Fruit of raspberry.
299a. Why does the ring 1

slip off, rather than break in two? Do _ peaches, cherries and

plums behave in the same way? Are there similar rings on young
apple and pear fruits?

300. As the fruit continues to grow (Figs. 31,
THE DRUPE 257

245), it becomes greatly thickened and fleshy; but
the interior develops a hard stone or pit. This
pit (or putamen, as it is sometimes called in
botanical writings) contains a distinct and separate
seed, so that it is clear that the walls of the pit
could not have developed from the ovule. ‘The
entire integument, then, must be pericarp. In such
kinds of differentiation of the walls of the peri-
carp, the outer soft
g portion is commonly
called the exocarp
(or sarecocarp), and
the inner firm por- Fra, 245.
tion (the pit) ig Cross-section of young
called the endocarp. ener
An entire fruit of this character,—
with a pit or stone and a fleshy
covering,—is a drupe or stone fruit;
and it differs from the drupelet only in the fact
that it is larger and is borne singly.

301. If one were to cut across young apricots,
peaches or plums, he would find that the stone
is for a long time thin and soft. He would also
find, as a rule, only one seed, as at a, Fig. 245,
and we know that a peach pit or plum pit gen-
erally has but one “meat.” Now and then he may
find two seeds (b), either one or both of which
may develop. Very often one of these seeds is

    

Fig. 244.

Young apricot fruits
shedding the ring.

R
258 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

seen to be smaller than the other, and the pupil
may infer that it will be crowded out. The fact
is that the ovary of peaches,
apricots, plums and_ cherries
contains two ovules, but one of
them commonly aborts; that
is, it is crowded out, and no
remains of it may be seen in
the ripened fruit. When both
ovules get an equal start, both
may persist, and the fruit is
*double-meated.” We may
wonder if, in the process of
time, one ovule will be entirely
lost.

302. While some plants bear
many pistils in each flower and
others only one, we must not
conclude therefrom that these features are invari-
able. We have already learned that any structure
or habit may be broken or changed upon occa-
sion. Fig. 246 shows a monstrosity of the peach,
five good pistils having formed in one flower. The.
probability is that only one or two of them would
have ripened. If two or more should have per-
sisted, they probably would have coalesced, and a
double or triple peach would have been the result.
This duplication of pistils is not very rare in the

 

Fig, 246.

Monstrous pistils of peach.
SIMPLE PODS 959

peach. It is no doubt a doubling by increase of
parts, as we have seen to take place in some
perianths (233). We might speculate as_ to
whether this doubling may be a reversion to some
ancestral form, or an indication that multiple
pistils might become an established character of
the peach upon occasion; or it may be an _ inci-
dental variation of no significance in the evolution
of the plant. It is certainly evidence, however,
that the peach is capable of wide variation in
its essential organ.

2]

Suecestions.—The pupil should endeavor to make collections of
drupaceous fruits, and should study their sizes, colors and shapes,
and especially should notice their number as compared with the flow-
ers which bore them. He may be interested to cut them in two
at various stages of growth, to determine at what epoch the most
rapid thickening of the exocarp takes place. The fruit-grower
thinks that the pit grows early in the season and the flesh late
in the season: is this true?

XLIX. SIMPLE PODS

303. The columbine (which we saw in Fig. 227)
has five pistils, and the fruit is like that shown
in Fig. 247. One of them has opened at b, and
several seeds have been discharged. In _ other
words, this fruit is dehiscent, whereas the akene
is indehiscent. It is approximately correct to say
260 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

that one-seeded fruits are indehiscent, but many-
seeded fruits are usually dehiscent. That is, the
seed of the akene and drupe is lib-
erated from the outer covering by
rupture or decay of the pericarp.

304. The dehiscence, or open-
ing, of the fruits of the colum-
bine takes place along the inner
edge, as in b. We have seen that
carpels are akin to leaves. It
requires little imagination to sug-
gest that the carpel of the col-
umbine may represent a_ leaf
rolled inward, and that it splits
along the union of the two
edges; and this supposition is borne out by much
direct evidence. The front or upper side of the
leaf-carpel faces inward and the back or under
side, or mid-rib, faces outward. The front is
known as the ventral side, and the back as the
dorsal side.

 

Fig. 247.

Follicles of columbine.

304a. The beginner cannot expect to prove that the carpel has
actually been developed from a leaf, although he has seen much
evidence to show that the parts of the flower may be transformed
foliage leaves (recall Obs. xxxvii). The important point to remem-
ber here is that floral members and leaves are comparable, and
that the best way in which to define and to understand the carpel
is to liken it to a transformed leaf.
SIMPLE PODS 261

305. The carpels of the columbine open by the
ventral side or suture. The different carpels are
not united, so that the plant produces five fruits
from each flower. The columbine
is, therefore, said to be apocarpous
(the carpels not organically united),
whereas pistils made up of several
earpels—that is, compound pistils—
are said to be syncarpous

 
  
 
 
 
 
   
 
 
   
   
   

305a. A suture is a juncture, seam, or
place of union. Does the columbine always
produce five pods, or may some of the pistils
perish in the struggle for existence ?

305b. Dry dehiscent fruits or pericarps
are known under the general name of
pods. A pod which opens by the
ventral suture alone, as the columbine
does, is a follicle.

306. A bean pod is
shown in Fig. 248. It
differs from the columbine
pod in the fact that it
opens on both edges,—on
both the ventral and dorsal abies, This kind of
a pod is a legume.

Fia. 248.

Legume of bean.

306a. Do all pods of peas and beans open by both sutures ?
Examine the garden peas. In order to determine the manner of
dehiscence of any pod, examine it when fully ripe and dry.

3060. When a fruit dehisces into two or more parts, the sepa-
262 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

rable portions are known as valves. The legume is, therefore,
2-valved.

307. The pupil has seen the flower
and pistil of the mustard (Figs. 133,
134). Inasmuch as this pod is 2-
earpelled, with a partition extending
from side to side, we should look for
a different type of dehiscence from that

 

Fic. 249. oceurring in the simple follicle and the
ae a legume. The mature pod in Fig. 135

shows the method of dehiscence, the
valves breaking away at the base and _ leaving
the placente and partition.

307a. This mustard fruit is characteristic of the family,— the
cabbages, turnips, radishes, wallflowers, stocks, alyssum, and the
like. When the pod is prominently longer than broad, as in the
mustard, it is known as a silique, but when broader than long, as
in the shepherd’s purse, it is called uw silicle. The mustard fruit
is 2-loculed by a false partition which stretches across it,— that
is, by a partition which is not a part of the structure of the
young ovary; but the pod is 2-carpelled, as may be seen by the
two marginal placentes (which are joined by the partition). While
the mustard fruit is compound, it might be mistaken, therefore,
for a simple pod.

308. It is not necessary that all pods open
longitudinally. There are many kinds of de-
hiscence, and some of them follow no definite
method. An occasional type is such as one finds

in the purslane (or “pussley”), door-yard plantain,
henbane, and one of the pigweeds or red-root, in
COMPOUND PODS 263

which the top of the pod comes off, sometimes
like a cover and sometimes like a hinged lid.
This type of dehiscence is described as cir-
cumcissile, and such a pod is a pyxis.

309. A modification of this type of de-
hiscence is seen in the jeffersonia or rheu-
matism-root (Fig. 249), in which the pod
breaks half around near its apex, and the
upper portion or valve forms a lid. Some
pods open by holes or pores in the top,
as those of the poppy and _ water lilies.
All these types are examples of apical
dehiscence. Not all the pods mentioned fre. 250.
in these two paragraphs are simple. Pod of lilac.

 

L. COMPOUND PODS

310. If the earpels or follicles of the columbine
(Fig. 247) were united more or less completely, we
should have a compound pod, or a capsule.

311. If these carpels were united to their tops,
the primary dehiscence could not well take place
along the ventral sutures. The probability is that
the carpels would open on the back or outward
sides, or by first separating from each other.

312. The seed-pod or capsule of the _lilae
(which remains on the bush all winter) is shown in
264 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

Fig. 250. It is obviously 2-loculed, but the cap-
sule has split down each side midway between the
partitions or  dissepi-
ments. That is, each
valve contains half of
two carpels.

313. In the capsule
Ws" of the castor-oil bean
Fre. 251. (Fig. 251), the three
Pod of castor-oil carpels have separated
oo debis- from each other, and Big, 262.
each carpel must dehisce . Petuscence of
before the seed is liberated. The
outer prickly coat breaks away, usually in six
pieces. The large lobed carpels are then dis-
closed. A similar dehiscence has taken place in
the azalea (Fig. 252), but here the seeds are lib-
erated by the primary splitting of the pod, and the
central shaft, with which the carpels were united,
remains. The dissepiments are seen on the very
edges of the five valves. Each valve in the castor-
bean and azalea represents a complete carpel.

  
 

  

313a. These two methods of dehiscence of compound pods (or
capsules) are characteristic types. The former (312) is known as
loculicidal dehiscence,—the splitting of the walls between the car-
pellar dissepiments, and directly opening up the locules. The latter
method (313) is septicidal,—the’ breaking up of the capsule into
its component carpels, or at least into parts which represent these
carpels ; and, in some cases, each carpel again dehisces before the
seeds can be discharged.
COMPOUND\ PODS 265

3136. The pupil can now determine the dehiscense in Figs. 253 and
254, and of other pods which he may find attached to plants in winter
or early spring. The characters of the dehiscence usually are not
obscured by this long period of weathering. He will be interested
in examining the pods of blue-flags, tulips, lilies, mulleins, toad-
flax, phlox, datura or jimson-weed, canna, St. John’s-wort, and many
other common things.

313c. Those living in the South will be interested in studying
the cotton (Fig. 255). The fruit is a capsule, splitting loculicidally,
and the seeds are covered with the fiber, which is woven into
fabrics. The picture shows that the pod is furnished with an
involucel. How and where are the seeds attached? How many
seeds are there in each fruit? How is the cotton packed away?
How many carpels are there, and does the number vary in differ-
ent fruits ?

314. A pod of the morning-glory is shown in
Fig. 256. The dehiscence is essentially septicidal,
but the outside
wall of the cap-
sule breaks away
from the dissepi-
ment. The fall-
ing seeds (two in
each locule) are at
aa, and a valve
atv. This is sep-

tifragal dehiscence.

ee Septifragal dehis-
cence (the separa-

tion of the valves from the partitions) may occur
in either loculicidal or septicidal pods. The im-

 

Fie. 253.

 

Fig. 254.

Pod of day-lily or funkia.
266 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

portant point is, that while there are many cap-
sules in which the dehiscence is so undisguised
that we can express it
accurately by a single
word, there are many
others in which the
mode is intermediate

or even ill-defined.
315. The pod of the
mignonette (Fig. 257)
is familiar. It is a
pouch with a single
cavity, and is open at
the top. If a pod is
examined, the seeds will
a ae be found attached to
Ban ae wickiad the walls in several
more or
less definite placente. We suspect,
therefore, that the fruit is really made
up of more than one carpel, notwith-
standing its apparent simplicity. If,
now, we go back to the flower, we
find the pistil closed, and as many
sessile stigmas as there are to be
lobes or angles on the mouth of the

pod. The dissepiments are wanting,

eo Capsule of morn-

but there are homological reasons, ine glory.

 
 
 
  
 

 

Fig. 266.
COMPOUND PODS 267

other than the several stigmas and the well-marked
placente, for believing that the pistil is com-
pound. We are again impressed with the infinite
variety in details, and with the importance of con-
sidering the meaning of even obscure features when
attempting to interpret any structure.

315a. The pupil will find much to interest him in the incon-
spicuous flowers of the mignonette; and the plant is one of the
easiest to grow.

316. A pod of the common garden balsam is
seen in Fig. 258. It is 5-carpelled, but the par-
titions remain very thin, and
are often nearly obsolete in
the mature fruit. The large
black seeds are borne upon
axile placentz. When the pod
is fully ripe, the five valves
break apart and curl up elas-
_ tically, the central column be-
Fie. 257. ing torn away at the same
Pod of mig- time and the seeds scattered.

are pod which has been thus
shattered is seen in Fig. 259. The dehis-
cence of the fruit, therefore, may be the Fie. 258.
means of forcefully disseminating the seeds. Pod of balsam.

  

316a. The balsam is very easily grown from seeds. The cap-
sules mature in abundance in the fall. If one desires to see them
explode, he may pinch the noses of the fully ripe ones as they
268 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

hang on the plant; or he may lay them on a table and apply a
light pressure with the fingers. Ripe pods dropped upon the walk
are shattered the instant they strike. Two wild plants inhabiting
low places, closely allied to the balsam, are known as jewel-weeds,
and bear curiously sensitive pods.

316d. The fruits of many plants cast their seeds forcibly, often
throwing them a distance of several feet. The oxalis and violet
may be observed; also wistaria, jack bean (now grown in the South),

 

Fig. 259. Fie. 260.
Explosion of the Fruit of ballodn-vine,
balsam pod. or cardiospermum.

and some dry-podded garden peas and beans. Ripe pods of Japanese
wistaria (a leguminous climber much used for porches and arbors)
explode with great force when laid upon a table in a warm room.
(See 331.)

317. The curious papery-inflated fruit of the
balloon vine, or heartseed of the gardens (and
native in the southwestern states), is shown in
Fig. 260. It is 3-loculed, with a single globular
COMPOUND PODS 269

seed borne midway up the placenta of each locule.
It is indehiscent, the seed being liberated by the
decay of the walls of the fruit. It would appear,
therefore, that this fruit could not be called a
pod or a capsule, since the definition of those
fruits includes dehiscence; but this fruit. is so like
a pod in its general structure and in being dry,

     
  

; —.

h Ke an Na
a) a as My De

 

tH

“B24

Fig. 261.

Four-sided and tardily-dehiscent legumes of daubentonia.

that it is commonly called a pod. There is no
distinctive technical name for this type of fruit.

317a. Even in the Leguminose, or pea family (240), which pro-
duces the fruit taken as the type of the simple pod or legume,

there are plants which produce practically indehiscent pods. Observe
the honey locust, clover, peanut; also the daubentonia, in Fig. 261.

318. We have now seen (307) that the compound
ovary of the mustard imitates a simple ovary (the
partition being a false one), and the compound pod
270 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

of the mignonette is perfectly 1-loculed. We have
also observed the various and sometimes undefina-
ble dehiscence of pods, and have found that some
fruits which are so much like pods that they are
called pods by botanists are wholly indehiscent, and
that even.legumes may be indehiscent. We are
thus impressed with the fact that names and
definitions are merely convenient means of designat-
ing a few of the most pronounced features of
plants, and do not necessarily represent structures
which are typical or fundamental in the plant
kingdom.

SUGGESTIONS.—We will now be interested in finding non-typical,
or, rather, undefined, methods of dehiscence. We should also look
for gradations between simple and compound capsular fruits. One
of the best examples is to compare the simple follicles of colum-
bine (Fig. 247) or larkspur with the loosely compound pods or
capsules of the closely related nigella, or love-in-a-mist. The
nigella is an easily grown annual, and seeds may be secured from
any seedsman. It is an anomaly in the crowfoot family, because

its follicles are grown together for the greater part of their length,
making a true capsule.

LI. KEY-FRUITS

319. The pupil’s attention has been directed to
the flowers of the maple (Fig. 211). If he were
to examine the ovary in a maple flower, he would
find it to be 2-lobed and 2-loculed, with two ovules
KEY-FRUITS 271

in each locule. Mature fruits of maples are seen in
Figs. 262 and 263. Hach lobe has grown into a
long, winged body, with only
one seed, and the twin fruit
suggests a pair of saddle-bags.
Dry indehiscent winged fruits are
known under the general name
of key-fruit or samara.

   

   
 
  

319a. The pupil should deter-
Fig. 262. mine if the wings of the maple
Key of fruit serve any purpose in dis-
sugar maple. tributing and planting the seed.
How do the fruits behave when
torn from the tree by wind? In what position
do the fruits strike the ground? If the pupil has
access to a large sugar maple tree which produced
a good crop of fruit, let him examine the ground
about the tree very early in the spring, in the
endeavor to find the seeds. If the ground is loose or cultivated,
the planting operations will be more conspicuous and interesting.
319d. The pupil can train his eye in the attempt to distin-
guish the different kinds of maples by means of their fruits. The
fruits of two kinds are shown in the pictures; and a raceme of
the forming fruits of negundo or box-elder (which is very closely
allied to the maples) is shown in Fig. 264. Is the inflorescence
of the negundo terminal or co-terminal (55) ?

Black maple.

320. Another type of samara is that of the
hop-tree or shrub-trefoil (Fig. 265), a large bush
or very small tree, with trifoliolate leaves, which
is widely distributed over the country In this
ease, the fruit is also 2-loculed, but it is winged
272 LESSONS WITH’ PLANTS

all around. In other words, there is no_particu-
lar form of fruit which is typical of the samara.
321. Samaras of two of the
common ashes are shown in
Figs. 266 and 267. In _ these
trees, the fruit is a cylindrical
shaft provided with a wing,
and the extent of this wing is
one of the distinguishing marks
of the different kinds of ash.
The ovary is 2-carpelled. Are
the fruits always or ever 2-
seeded ?
322. The fruits of various
kinds of elms are shown, natural
size, in Figs. 268-272. They re-
semble the fruit of the hop-tree,
but differ in being 1-loculed and
in other more technical characters.
The pictures represent all the
kinds of elms which the pupil
will find in the United States

   
  
  
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
  
  
  

SUEDE, outside of the Rio Grande region
Sar SLGES (except a few introduced species
in gardens). Now let him determine the kinds

which he may meet, and match with them the
leaves and buds. The elm fruits mature in very
early spring.
BERRIES 273

SueeeEstTions.—In making such studies as those recommended in
the last paragraph, both teacher and pupil should consider that
mere identification is not the end to be ‘'
sought. It is always a satisfaction to know
the names of plants, but the important re-
sults, from the educational point of view,
are the awakening of sympathy with natural
objects, the sharpening of the powers of ob-
servation, and the strengthening of the fac-
ulty of reasoning from the object to laws
and principles. These results are obtained
most readily by studies of contrasts and
Samara of hop- comparisons. With very young pupils, the

tree, objects should be few, perhaps not more

than two or three; but the numbers and
range of objects selected for comparison may increase
rapidly with the progress of the scholar.

  

Lil. BERRIES

323. We have seen the grape
flower in Fig. 208. The calyx is
almost obsolete, and the petals
and stamens soon fall away. The
pistil alone remains, and this ripens é
pre-267, Ito a berry, as seen in Fig. 273. ah ose
Keyot Lhe ovary is 2-loculed, and the key o¢ com.
ie locules are 2-ovuled. Is the grape 5 eetting

’ always 4-seeded? There is noth- f
ing about the pistil of the grape to show that it

will become a berry and not a capsule. That is,

  

8
274 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

the nature of the fruit as to substance, size or
dehiscence cannot be determined from an exami-
nation of the pistil.

323a. <A berry, in botanical language, is any several- or many-
seeded fruit which is more or less soft and juicy throughout. As
commonly, and likewise properly, used, the word designates any

   

Fia. 269. Fia. 270. Fia. 271. Fia, 272.

Fruit of slippery Cork elm. Fruit of wahoo Scotch elm.
elm. elm. Cultivated.

small, pulpy seed-fruit (using the word fruit in its horticultural sig-
nificance). In the horticultural or common-language sense, straw-
berries and blackberries are berries, but in the botanical sense
grapes, currants, gooseberries, tomatoes and oranges are berries.
The word is commonly used in these two meanings without much
‘confusion arising, but if it should be necessary to choose between
the two, it must be remembered that the botanist borrowed the
word from common language, and that the latter, therefore, has
prior rights.

324. If there are no constant differences in the
pistils of baccate (or berry-bearing) and capsular
fruits, then we should expect to find closely related
plants upon which the two kinds of fruits are borne.
The Solanacee, or nightshade family, may be selected
BERRIES 275

as an example. In the solanums proper, as the
nightshade, potato, egg-plant, and also in the toma-
toes, the fruits are berries; in the petunias, to-
bacco, and datura or jimson-weed (some kinds cul-
tivated under the name of brugmansia), the fruits
are capsular and dehiscent. In fact, in some of

 

Fria. 273.

Berries of Scuppernong grape.

the solanums, the berry is so hard and dry as to
suggest a capsule. Berries and capsules are fun-
damentally not greatly unlike.
276 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

325. The red peppers or capsicums are mem-
bers of the Solanacew, as determined by the char-
acters of the flowers and by
other features. The fruits are
long in the Cayenne or Chili
sorts (Fig. 113), but heart-like
in the sweet peppers (Fig. 114),
and tomato-shaped in other va-
rieties. They are all more or

Diets: less dry and firm in texture,
ois eu epic especially the long forms. The
Chili peppers would pass for

capsules except that they are indehiscent; and they
are commonly described as dry
berries. There is reason to
believe that the dryness or
the fleshiness of these fruits
can be much intensified by
the plant-breeder (Obs. lxxxi).

326. The hepatica is one of
the Ranunculacee. So is the clem-
atis. These are akene-bearing
plants. The columbine, larkspur,
marsh-marigold and peony are
of the same family, but are fol-
licle-bearing plants. The nigella
(Obs. 1.) has the carpels united, Fic. 275.
or is capsular. The baneberry or — Corn-cockle.

 

  
 
BERRIES 277

cohosh (common in woods) and the golden-seal,
or hydrastis, have berries or drupelets. All these
are ranunculaceous plants. A still greater range
is found in the rose family, of
which one interesting case may
be mentioned. The peach is
esteemed for the pulp of the
thickened pericarp, but the seed
is inedible. The almond, which
is so closely akin that there has
been serious discussion as_ to
whether it may not be the
original form of the peach, is
prized for its sweet seed, but the
pericarp is hard and woody, and
often dehisces like a pod! From
all these examples it would seem
that the nature or character of
the fruit is a very specialized
feature of the particular plant.
327. Berries are usually ripened
pistils, or at least ovaries, but other parts of
the flora] structure may be inseparably united
with the ovary in baccate fruits, or the berry may
be even a ripened seed. An example of the
latter is afforded by the blue cohosh, a_ small
perennial herb growing in woods. The ovary is
2-ovuled, but the enlargement of these ovules,

 

Fic. 276.

Corn-cockle.
278 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

which grow upon stalks, soon ruptures the ovary
(as at a, Fig. 274), and each seed becomes a
blue drupe-like berry (s, Fig. 274)! The
blue cohosh, or caulophyllum, is closely
allied to the jeffersonia (Fig. 249),

and the pupil may be able to
trace resemblances in the de-
hiscence.

 
 
 
 
 
  

LIT.
REINFORCED FRUITS

328. We know _ that
flowers are often reinforced
by bracts and the like.
(Obs. xxviii.) Fig. 275 is
the flower of the common
and handsome corn-cockle
(see, also, Fig. 143). The
corolla is convolute. The
calyx, with its long sepal-
like lobes, persists about

eet Vel the young pod (Fig. 276),
iruits of husk-tomato. but the lobes soon fall

away, leaving the ripe cap-
sule enwrapped in the calyx-tube.

  

Fia. 277.

328a. If the pupil has access to the corn-cockle (it is a com-
mon weed in wheat-fields), he should determine the make-up and
4

REINFORCED FRUITS 279

dehiscence of the pod, and observe whether the valves bear any
relation to the number of styles.

329. The husk-tomato or ground-cherry (one
kind is known as strawberry-tomato) is shown in
Fig. 277. The flower, with its
calyx a half smaller than the
corolla, is at 8. The pistil is
2-loculed, and ripens into a
true berry, very like a_ small
tomato. The
calyx, however,

  

grows enor-
mously (Nos.
9, 10). It is
evident that
Fie. 278. the part which Fig. 279.

Flower of agrimony. Bur of agrimony.

chiefly enlarges
is the tube and not the lobes. In the cockle and
the husk-tomato, the calyx is not considered to
be part of the fruit, because it is not organ-
ically united with the capsule or the berry, but
merely encloses it.

329a. Seeds of three or four kinds of husk-tomato (or physalis)
are sold by seedsmen, and the plants are easy to grow. Some of

them are grown for the brilliant color of the great inflated calyx,
and others for the edible berries.

330. The agrimony is a rather small herb of
rich woods and tangles, bearing small yellow flow-
280 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

ers, one of which is shown (thrice natural size)
in Fig. 278. The calyx is tubular or top-shaped,

with five spreading lobes,
S$ and it is beset with hooked
] bristles. After
flowering, the ca-
lyx-lobes close up
aye) and enclose the
3 i a, ovary with its two
¢ akenes; and the whole
structure is carried as
a bur upon the cloth-
ing and upon the fleeces
of animals (Fig. 279).

   
   
 

330a. Comparable structures may be
found in the burdock and ecockle-bur, ex-
cept that it is the involucre (the flowers are
compositous) which bears the bristles. A
wholly different type of bur is the
Fig. 280. “stick-tight,” shown in Fig. 237.

The witch-hazel.

331. When October has come
and the leaves are fallen, and the last golden-
rods have faded, the witch-hazel (Fig. 280) un-
curls its yellow ribbon-like petals, as if forget-
ful of the season. There are four of these
petals and as many stamens, but four alternating
scales suggest that other stamens are wanting. <A
brown calyx-cup, with four sepal-like lobes, hugs
REINFORCED FRUITS 281

the flower closely. The flowers are no sooner
fertilized than the cold weather closes in. The
petals wither,
and the flower
enters upon a
long hiberna-
tion. In spring
these flowers
look as if the
petals had just died, the lobes
still persisting upon the calyx-
cup and the two styles remain
green and fresh on the downy Fig. 281.
ovary. The capsule slowly en-
larges into a 2-loculed and 2-
seeded nut-like fruit, the calyx-cup adhering firmly
to its base. It splits loculicidally, and elastic
tissues, probably released by hygroscopic action,
throw the seeds a distance of several feet.

   

Young cocoa-nuts.

33la. Very hard fruits, like that of the witch-hazel, are popu-
larly called nuts. In botanical usage, however, a nut is a hard
and dry indehiscent 1-seeded fruit, which arises from «a compound
ovary by the suppression of all the ovules except one. By this defi-
nition acorns, beech-nuts, hickory-nuts, hazels and filberts are nuts.

331b. It is often asked why the witch-hazel blossoms in the
fall. We do not know; but if a search were made of its gene-
alogy, we might find some clew. If some plants are large and
others small, and if some are trees and some are vines, to enable
each to find a place and a way to live in the ever-increasing
conflict of numbers, then it is not too much to suppose that some
282 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

’

bloom early and others bloom late in order to escape compe-
tition. This is only a generalization. The witch-hazel, like every
" other plant, must be patiently
investigated for itself. It is
not unique in its habit of
autumn blooming. Residents
in the Gulf states and Cali-
fornia will recall the loquat
(often wrongly called Japan
plum), one of the rose family,
Fic. 282. which blooms from November
White oak, until Christmas, and ripens its
pleasant acid fruits in the
spring. The teacher may be interested in
discussions on the philosophy of the flower
seasons in American Naturalist, September, i A
1893, by Henry L. Clarke, and in Essay & Fia. 283.
XVII., in “The Survival of the Unlike.” Bur oak.

  

332. The edible part of the cocoa-nut is a seed.
As it generally arrives in the market
it is closely enveloped in a husk, which
is formed from the pericarp. Fig.
281 shows young nuts, shortly after
the flowers have fallen.
The nut, a, is enveloped
with three petals and three
sepals. These parts have
enlarged somewhat in J,
but the pericarp has ee
elongated. The floral en-

velopes are enlarged and _ Fis 285.
Swamp white

  

Fie. 284.
Chestnut oak. Spread by the growth of gully
REINFORCED FRUITS 283

the fruit, but they continue to be comparatively
small, and remain upon the tree when the fruit is
picked.

332a. Sinee the cocoa-nut is a dry indehiscent 1-seeded fruit,
it might be likened to a gigantic akene. Structurally, however, it is
more like a drupe, for the fibrous husk is formed from the outer
part of the pericarp (or exocarp, 300), and
the hard shell enclosing the meat is the
inner part of the pericarp, or endocarp. Palm
pistils are 3-carpelled, and in the cocoa-

   

Fig. 286. Fig. 287. Fie. 288. Fia. 289.
Scarlet oak. Black oak. Red oak. Live oak.
nut tribe each carpel is 1-ovuled. The marks of the three

carpels may be seen on the ripe nut, but only one ovule de-
velops into a seed (408a).

333. In all the above instances, it is plain that
the reinforcing structure is the perianth, usually
a calyx. If the pupil will diligently examine the
fruits of common herbs and bushes and _ trees,
he will soon find that a persistent calyx is fre-
quent.
284 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

LIV. REINFORCED FRUITS, CONCLUDED

334. Acorns are shown, about natural size, in
Figs. 282-290. The nut itself is a pericarp contain-
inga single seed. The ovary
is really 6-ovuled, but only
one ovule ripens into a seed.
About the base of the peri-
carp is a sealy structure which
is interpreted to be an in-
volucre. The leaf-like struc-
ture of this cup (or cupule,
whence the name of the oak
and chestnut family, the Cu-
pulifere) is apparent in some

Fre. 290. of the oaks like the bur

An English oak, often oak (Fig. 283), in which the

ras ree scales are much developed ;
and it is especially demonstrated by the 2-leaved
husks of the hazel and filbert, which are related
plants.

 

334a. The pupil should determine what time elapses from bloom-
ing-time to the ripening of the acorn. This can be discovered by
observing the ages of the wood (or twigs) upon which the flowers and
the acorns are borne. He should compare, in this respect, the
white oak tribes (including the live oak, chestnut oak and bur oak)
and the black oak tribes (including the scarlet, red and black oak).
The same oaks should be contrasted as to the position of the
REINFORCED FRUITS, CONCLUDED 285

abortive ovules. In some oaks, the abortive ovules are near the
apex of the seed and in others near the base of it.

334b. In studying the oak the collector will often find peculiar
swellings on the twigs and leaves. These are usually globular, and
the largest of them, which are sometimes called “oak apples,” are
an inch in diameter. A cross-section shows a fibrous or rayed
structure. These objects are galls, and are produced by insects,
the grubs or larve of which live in them.

335. A hickory-nut is drawn, natural size, in
Fig. 291. The nut is enclosed in a husk, which
splits into four valves. We know that the edible
meat of the hickory-nut is the seed, and the bony
walls of the nut must be the pericarp, for the
hardened remains of the style are persistent at its
top. The fruit of the hickory is, therefore, dehis-
cent only to the pericarp. What
is the morphology of the husk?

336. The black walnut and
the butternut are closely allied
to the hickory-nut, but the husk
is indehiscent. The  pistillate
flowers of the butternut are
shown in Fig. 292. There are two
long stigmas exserted from a flask-
shaped body. There are eight
petal-like members upon _ this
body, constituting a perianth, four of which, from
their inside position, we may call petals and the
outer four sepals. It is the flask-like body
which ripens into the husk of the butternut, and

 

Fig. 291.

Hickory-nut.
286 ' LESSONS WITH PLANTS

there is difference of opinion as to its morphol-
ogy. The walnuts and hickories are somewhat
closely allied to the oaks, and it is held by
some that this husk is
an involucre, although it
has none of the obvi-
ous features (as scales)
of an involucre. Others
regard the flask-like body
as a calyx-tube, and
the four sepal-like parts
as calyx lobes. In the
hickory, the petals are
wanting (Fig. 160), but
the characteristics of the
calyx-cup are very simi-
lar. These two fruits show what a_ specialized
feature dehiscence or indehiscence is; and they
are particularly interesting as showing how much
our interpretation of particular structures depends
upon comparatively minor features.

337. The chestnut will now interest us. A
mature bur is at Fig. 293. In this case there are
two. or more pistillate flowers (each with a well
marked calyx) aggregated in a scaly and _ prickly
involucre. Does one chestnut develop from each
single flower? This involucre grows with the nuts,
and becomes the 4-valved bur shown in the picture.

 

Fie. 292.

Pistillate flowers of butternut.
REINFORCED FRUITS 287

338. It is commonly assumed that these rein-

forcing structures are the result of adaptation,—-

that is, that they afford

\ Me Uy, protection to the seed.

S g It is no doubt true that

they protect the seed,

but it is by no means

evident that this protec-

tion has been developed

. for the purpose of pro-

H i ASS. tection, or that it is
i ~

    
         

Wi, TAA ANS primarily useful to the
NAAN plant. The walnut fruits ~
Fie. 298. are so impervious that
Chestnut ‘bur. the seeds cannot grow

unless under the most

favorable conditions. That is, there can be evi-
dence adduced to show that
these indehiscent husks and
hard nuts are a detriment to
the plant, as well as a _bene-
fit. Again, it is difficult to
explain, upon the adaptation
hypothesis, why the husks of
hickories are dehiscent and
those of walnuts are not, or, in
fact, why these nuts have husks at all, whereas
the many other fruits do not. Nor is it easy to

 

Fig. 294,

Section of an apple.
288 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

suppose that the cup of the acorn or the easily-
dehiscent bur of the beech-nut was developed as
a protection. The explanation lies farther back

 

Fia. 295. Fie. 296.

Section of an apple. Section of an apple.

than any mere assumption of present needs or
functions. Therefore,

339. The lesson is, that the pupil should first
discover facts without reference to any preconceived
explanation of them, and each fact should be in-
terpreted chiefly upon its own evidence. (See 423.)

Sueeerstions.—The fruits of most of our forest trees belong to
the various types or classes of fruits which we have now discussed.
The teacher may think it worth the while to interest the pupils in
making a complete collection of the fruits and seeds of the forest
trees of the neighborhood, with the expectation, however, that the
samples are to be of less value as a mere collection than as a
means of awakening the pupils’ interest in the collecting and in
the subject (see “Suggestions,” Obs. li.). They will also be useful in
the school-room teaching, particularly in stormy weather, when fresh
APPLES AND THEIR LIKE 289

collections cannot be made. The dry fruits may be preserved in
glass jars, and the soft ones in alcohol diluted two to three times
with water. Acorns are among the best fruits to study in a com-
parative way, because the kinds of oaks are many, the acorns them-
selves are variable, they keep indefinitely (if kept away from
insects), and are pleasant to handle. Good hand-books to aid in
the study of forest trees are, Apgar’s “Trees of the Northern United
States,” Mathews’ “Familiar Trees and Their Leaves,” and Newhall’s
“Trees of Northeastern America,” all profusely illustrated.

LV. APPLES AND THEIR LIKE

340. Consider the pictures of the apple flower,
Fig. 139. The styles are five, showing that the
pistil is compound. The ovules are attached near
the base of the locules. The petals and stamens
are apparently attached to the
ealyx-cup. The ovary seems to
be wholly inferior.

341. Look at the developing
apples, in Fig.
46. The styles
and stamens
persist at the
top of the fruit;
and so do the

  
        

sepals.
Fic. 297. 342. A ma- Fig. 298.
The leaf on the apple. ture apple 1S Medlar.

T
290 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

shown in longitudinal section in Fig. 294, and
in crosswise section in Fig. 295. One of the
enlarged locules is shown in the former, and the
five (making the “core”) are shown in the latter.
In both of them there is a well-marked line sepa-
rating the core from the flesh of the apple.

342a. Has the artist drawn these cores correctly? Perhaps Fig.
296 is liked better. Which way do the seeds point in an apple?

343. In Fig. 294, the bounding lines of the
core join the stem below and meet the external
apex above. At the top of the apple are still
the remains of the sepals and the stamens.

344. This core must be the pistil, for it bears
the seeds and has the five carpels answering to
the five styles. We thought that in the flower the
stamens were attached to the calyx. Their re-
mains we have seen in the top of the mature
apple (as hair-like bodies just below the sepals).
Are they, attached to the core portion or to the .
flesh portion?

345. If the remains of the stamens are attached
to the flesh portion, it would seem to indicate
that the flesh of the apple is derived from the
ealyx-tube; and this supposition is strengthened
by the fact that only the core sits upon the
stem (or upon what was the receptacle of the
flower). From these considerations, it might seem
APPLES AND THEIR LIKE

that the edible portion
of the apple is thickened
calyx-tube, with the
spaces between the car-
pels filled up by the
thickening walls of the
pistil, and the line of
demarcation between the
pistil and calyx marked
by the fibrous bundles
and connecting tissue
shown in the cross-sec-
tions (Figs. 295, 296).

346. The interpretation
of the architecture of
the apple is not so
simple as it looks, how-
ever. Some botanists
believe that the outer
and fleshy portion rep-
resents calyx, but that
the receptacle extends
upwards and lines this
ealyx-tube (and thereby
immediately invests the
core), and bears the
stamens on its summit.
That is, the flower may

 

  
   
 
   

 

  

WS
of Pea

Vg
\

Aa

   

\ al
Fig. 299.

Variations in the apple

~~
SA
>

     
 
   
   
 

«

   
   
 
292 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

be essentially hypogynous, rather than  perigy-
nous. But there is no really good reason for
supposing that there is a receptacle-lining on the
calyx-tube; and since many related plants are
clearly perigynous, it might be inferred that the
apple flower is also perigynous. This conception
of the upward extension of the receptacle inside
the calyx-tube has been the dominant interpreta-
tion of the apple, in this country.

347. If the receptacle extends upwards at all,
beyond the base of the ovary, why not suppose
that the entire flesh of the apple is thickened
receptacle, and that the calyx and stamens are
borne upon its rim? If the outer portion of the
apple is receptacle, then it is essentially a stem
structure. Fig. 297 shows a bract or minute leaf
on the side of an apple (at A). This monstrosity
is common. Since leaves are outgrowths of stems,
it would seem to follow that this tell-tale leaf
proves that the apple is receptacle, not calyx.
But leaves are often outgrowths of leaves, as every
observant gardener knows, for he has seen these
little bract-like structures push out from the petals
of flowers, from buds on the leaves of begonias
and other plants (see Fig. 398). While the apple-
bract raises a presumption that the flesh of the
apple is derived from the stem (or receptacle),
it really proves nothing. However, from all the
APPLES AND THEIR LIKE 293

evidence to be obtained, the hypothesis that the
flesh of the apple is receptacle is now gaining
favor; but there is little evidence which can be
called proof for any of the explanations. One of
the best obvious evidences in support of this view
is the fact that the lower part of the pear fruit
often seems to be clearly pedicel.

347a. It is of little consequence to the beginner which, if any,
of the three hypotheses is correct, but the discussion of them is of
great value in awakening observation, and in suggesting the means
of interpreting obscure structures. The pupil will also be impressed
with the absorbing interest which may attach to the commonest
objects when once his attention is called seriously to them.

348. Apples are known as pomes, and from
this word is derived pomology, which is extended
to mean the art and science of fruit-growing in
general. Other pomes are pears, quinces, medlars,
hawthorns, mountain ash, juneberries or shadberries.
The medlar is a common apple-like or quince-
like fruit of Europe, and it is frequently cultivated
here. The picture in Fig. 298 was made from a
specimen grown in New York. The long calyx-
lobes still persist; so do the stamens, a. But the
flesh does not cover the entire fruit, but leaves
the five carpels bare at the top.

349. In pomological writings, the five leaf-like
bodies on the apex of the apple are known as
ealyx. If the third hypothesis of the architecture
294 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

of the apple (347) is correct, then this horticul-
tural terminology is also correct from the botanical
standpoint; but if the apple is
thickened calyx, then these bodies
represent only a part of the
calyx, and are really calyx-lobes.
The character of this calyx is
used in describing varieties of
apples and pears. In D, Fig.
299, the calyx is said to be
“closed”; in E it is “open.”
The calyx sits in a _ depression
called a “basin.” The basin is
“shallow” in D, “deep” and
“narrow” in F, and “broad” in
Bip janes E. The pedicel is known as
pee the “stalk.” The stalk is “long
and slender” in C, and “short” in A and B.
The stalk sits in a “cavity,” which is described in
essentially the same terms which are used for the
basin.

 

 

SueG@EstTions.—Compare the fruits of the apple, pear and quince,
having all the above discussions in mind. Make comparisons of
various kinds of apples, and attempt to designate the points of
differences, giving attention to size, shape, color, basin, calyx, cavity,
stalk, season of ripening, texture and flavor.
PUMPKINS AND SQUASHES 295

LVI. PUMPKINS AND SQUASHES

350. Squash flowers are shown in Figs. 161 and
162. The flowers are moncecious. The ovary is
inferior to the calyx-lobes. The cucumber and
gherkin (Figs. 163 and 164) belong to the same
family; and so do_ the
melons° and gourds. The
passion-flowers are close
of kin.

* 351. When the fruits
of squashes, melons and |f
the like, are very small,
the seeds are seen to be
borne upon three parietal \\
placénte; but these pla \
cente sometimes merge, or,
in the watermelon, they
may break away from the
wall and appear as if axile.
The pupil will surely recall
the “core” of the water-
melon. In some of the
eucurbitous plants, these
placentee may be discerned
when the fruits are ripe. Fra. 301.
They can be seen at NN N Fruit of the may-pop.

 
296 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

in Fig. 300; and still more plainly in the fruit
of the may-pop (or passiflora) in Fig. 301.
351la. Do the ribs on the cucumber, gherkin and muskmelon

bear any relation to the number and position of the placente ?
Does the same law hold in the may-pop?

352. Most persons know the turban squashes.
Immature ones are shown in Figs. 802 and 308.

  

Fra. 302.

Young turban squash. Young turban squash.

Persons are always asking why they grow so odd,—
one squash inside another. We shall look, and
try to find out.

353. A pistillate flower of a turban squash, cut
lengthwise, is shown in Fig. 304. The corolla is
eut off from c to d. This corolla is attached to

 
PUMPKINS AND SQUASHES 297

the outside of the forming fruit, while the pistil
(with its six stigmatic surfaces) is the central
structure.

354. Three or four weeks later, the squash has
grown to the form shown in Fig. 303. The pistil
still occupies the center, and the scar-like rim
marks the insertion of the corolla
and calyx-lobes. The corolla was
not shed, but withered and per-
sisted, perhaps being torn by the
wind, and the widening pistil
tore it asunder in shreds across
the top of the fruit. Parts of
the corolla, held in the crevice,
are shown at aa. In Fig. 362,
there has been a different re-
sult. The corolla withered and
shrunk into a twisted mass (e),
and became detached; but it was caught upon
the protruding stigmas, and there it still hangs.

355. It still remains to determine what this
outer portion is, which forms the shell and meat
of the squash. We know that the inner part, or
“inside squash,” is pistil, because it bears the
stigmas and because the corolla is attached be-
yond it. There is little evidence in the fruit
itself to enable us to interpret its structure; but
embryology shows that the squash is a_ hollow

   

Fie. 304.

Portion of flower of
turban squash.
298 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

receptacle which, probably, is ordinarily closed at
the top, but in the turban squashes it does not

2

i hy

   

Fie. 305. Fie. 306.
Stem of Hubbard squash. Stem of Early Sugar pumpkin.

close up, and the carpels roof over the cavity.
The squash, therefore, throws some light upon the
structure of the pome.

356. The squash fruit is known as a_ pepo.
Other pepo fruits, belonging to the Cucurbitacex,
are pumpkins, gourds, cucumbers and melons.

SuGGESTIONS.—There are probably no fruits which are so end-
lessly variable as the pumpkins and squashes, and none, there-
PUMPKINS AND SQUASHES 299

v

fore, which are better adapted to a gross comparative study of
forms, sizes and other characters. Persons are always asking how
to tell a pumpkin from a squash. There is no well-defined usage
of the words, but there are three types of fruits to which the
names may be variously applied. These are well distinguished by
means of foliage or other characters, but the most obvious differ-
ences to the inexperienced lie in the peduncles or fruit-stems.
The fruits with cylindrical, spongy stems, which do not enlarge at
the junction with the fruit, are squashes (Fig. 305). The Hub-
bard, turbans, Boston Marrow and Essex are of this type; also
the mammoth fruits known as Chili pumpkins. Fig. 306 shows the
hard angled stem of the pumpkin, as this term is understood in
America. It ineludes the common field or pie pumpkin, and also

 

Stem of Large Cheese pumpkin.

the summer crookneck and patty-pan squashes. The types in Figs.
305 and 306 do not inter-cross. Fig. 307 shows another type of
pumpkin, in which the angled stem enlarges as it joins the fruit.
The so-called Japanese pumpkins, Cushaw pumpkins or squashes,
and-the winter or Canada crookneck, belong here.
300 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

LVII. TOMATOES AND ORANGES

397. The tomato was originally a  2-loculed
fruit. Something very like the aboriginal type
may be seen at the present day in the little
Cherry tomato of the gardens.

358. Cultivation is high feeding. We _ supply
the plant with more food by making the land

 

Fia, 308.

Sections of tomatoes.

richer and giving the plant more room; and we
keep its enemies away. The plant must change.
This change may be mere increase in bulk, or
it may be that, plus other variation.

359. The tomato plant is much bigger than it
used to be. The fruit is also bigger. Does the
TOMATOES AND ORANGES 301

increase in size of fruit come about by the mere
expansion of the walls of the berry? If so, the
fruit would be hollow, and
useless. :

360. Sections of common
large tomatoes are seen in
Fig. 308. There are many
locules, and the partitions
have become thick and firm.

361. The first great in-
crease in size was accom-
pauied by divsion of the OO"
two locules, and the fruit be-
came angled or furrowed (or “rough,” as gar-
deners say). These tomatoes are now unpopu-
lar, and “smooth” ones have been produced by

   

Fig. 309.

      

 
            
       

U
MF

i
i
The mark showing the interposition of axile locules.

Z
302 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

keeping the smoothest and saving seeds from them.
The two forms are shown in Fig. 309.

362. With this elimination of the angled type
of berry came the multiplication of the number of
carpels and a relative diminution
in their size. Some of these new
carpels, not finding place near the

   
        

Fig. 311. Fig. 312. Fie. 313.

Turk’s cap tomato. Flower of navel orange. Common orange.

outside, thrust themselves into the middle of the
berry. The fruit stretched and split on top much
as the bark of a tree does (Fig. 310).

362a. The fruit-rot disease affects the high-bred tomatoes, but
not the little Cherry types.

362b. The pupil will now be interested in tracing correlations
between changes in fruit and foliage, in this evolution of the
tomato; and the discussion in paragraph 137 may help him. The
subject is presented in some detail in Bailey’s “Survival of the
Unlike.”

363. A step farther, and some of these carpels
may thrust themselves out of the top of the to-
MULBERRIES AND FIGS 303

mato; and then we have the Turk’s Cap tomato
(Fig. 311), which is sometimes grown as a curi-
osity.

363a. These many-loculed tomatoes may be comparatively seed-
less, and now and then a tomato is wholly so; but this seedless-

ness is not necessarily a result of the multiplication of the lo-
cules. :

Suec@EsTIONS.—The pupil should now explain the navel orange.
The blossom is a normal orange flower, as shown in Fig. 312,
producing members as other flowers do. Oranges are_ illustrated
in Figs. 313 and 314; but the pupil will find better ones at the
grocer’s.

LVIII. MULBERRIES AND FIGS

   
  
  
  

364. Mulberries are monecious,
and the flowers are in catkins.

Fie. 315. Pistillate catkin
Navel orange. Staminate catkin of mulberry. of mulberry.

Fig. 315 is a staminate catkin. One of the flowers
is enlarged. It has four sepals (for the flowers
are apetalous), which are involute about the fila-
304

 

Fig. 317.
Mulberry fruit.

LESSONS WITH PLANTS

ments. A gland-like body in the center
suggests a rudiment of a pistil.

365. The pistillate catkin is shown
in Fig. 316. The flower has two styles,
and four sepals which adhere closely
to the ovary.

366. A mulberry fruit is shown in
Fig. 317. It is composed of as many
parts as -there were pistils in the pis-
tillate catkin. The stigmas seem to

have disappeared, but the sepals have persisted;

in fact, it

is the thickened and fleshy sepals which

comprise most of the edible part of the fruit.

Fie. 318.

Fruits of fig.

 

The mulberry fruit, therefore, is an
entire flower-cluster.

366a. The mulberry is
an example of what is
called a multiple or col-
lective fruit. Look at the
pineapple.

366). A mulberry looks
like a blackberry. How do
they differ ?

367. Figs are
shown in Fig. 318.
They arise from the
axils of leaves, as
normal branches do. Fig. 319.
Each fig is an obo- Fruit of fig in section.

 
MULBERRIES AND PIGS 305

void body with a hole in the top. The pupil
will be puzzled by it, for the fig seems to be
neither perianth nor pistil. :

368. If a young fig were cut across (Fig. 319),
it would be seen to contain numerous flowers
(both staminate and pistillate) upon the inside.
Each of the pistillate flowers ripens a little akene.
The fig is, therefore, a receptacle lined with flow-
ers, and the receptacle comprises most of the
edible portion.

369. The fig and mulberry are closely allied.
They belong to the same natural family. The
plan and structure of the flowers are very similar.
They both produce multiple or collective fruits, the
entire flower becoming more or less thickened and
fleshy; but in the one the flowers are borne
upon the inside of an enormously-developed recep-
tacle, and in the other they are borne upon a
slender stem-like axis. The fig fruit is’ called a
syconium. We thus have another illustration of
the fact that the plan of the flower is more im-
portant in determining kinships than the ap-
pearance of the flowers or the plant (253).

SuacEsTions.—Compare the fig with the strawberry and rasp-
berry; also with the burdock. All of these plants are very unlike
the fig in morphology, but the contrast will bring out the differ-
ences and resemblances. Is the fig w receptacle in the sense in
which that term is used with the mustard (166), or as it is used
with the suntlower (201)?

U
306 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

LIX. PINES AND THEIR KIN

370. The pines are monecious. Both kinds of
flowers are in catkins. If one examines the
Austrian or the Scotch pine just after growth has
begun in the spring, he
will find a cluster of
light yellow pollen-bear-
ing catkins at the base
of the new growth,
’ and a reddish fertile or

seed-bearing catkin, or
sometimes two of them (Fig. 321 B), .
on the tip of the shoot,—but not
from a terminal bud,—and elevated
two to six inches above the others.

 

370a. This arrangement of the two kinds
of flowers may suggest that of the hickory, in

 

Fie. 320. Fig. 160. The pupil should determine the rela-

Staminate catkin tive numbers of sterile and fertile catkins,

and seale of and should observe the profusion of pollen.
pitch pine.

Examine the common white pine, and others,
to see if these relative positions of the two
kinds of catkins obtain in all of them. Also examine the firs
and spruces,

371. The pollen-bearing catkins soon fall. The
scales, in most pines, are conspicuously widened at
the outward end, and are attached to the axis by
PINES AND THEIR KIN 307

a tapering base (Fig. 320, a). Beneath some
of these scales are clusters of stamens which are
wholly devoid of a perianth.

372. The fruit-bearing
catkins persist, and _ be- BG
come cones (or strobiles). EZ
Above each of the per-
sistent cone-scales may be
found two inverted ovules
(a c, Fig. 321), wholly
destitute of ovary. These
ovules develop into winged
seeds. The cone-scale is
in the axil of a minute |
seale-like body. Soe

373. The pines, then, Pe cone
are radically unlike the
other plants which we have studied, because they
have no pericarps. The ovules are naked, and
the pollen is therefore applied directly to the
ovule. The flowers are also destitute of perianth.

374. The cones of pines arise on the growth
of the season, but when they open and discharge
the seeds, they are upon two-year-old wood. That
is, the cones mature the second year. Is. this
true of the spruces and larches?

375. The cone does not necessarily open or dis-
charge its seeds when it reaches maturity. The

 
308 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

pitch pine (Fig. 322), white pine, Scotch pine,
and many others, open the second year; but the

 

Fie. 322.

Foliage and cone of pitch pine.

Jack pine and others may not open for several
years, and sometimes cones never open. Figs. 323
and 324 are cones of the Florida spruce pine. In
the latter picture, the cone has persisted until it
PINES AND THEIR KIN 309

has become imbedded in the wood of the branch,
and it evidently cannot plant its seeds until the
limb decays. It is a question if the seeds will
then be viable.

375a. Do cones which, like Figs. 323 and 324, never open,
contain good seeds, the same as other cones do? Let the pupil
watch the effect of scorching by fire in opening cones.

 

Fie. 323.

Cone of spruce pine.

376. We have now discerned two most impor-
tant characters in plants,—the fact that some plants
bear their ovules (and seeds) in a closed receptacle
or ovary, whereas others bear naked seeds. These
characters enable us to divide all flowering plants
into two great classes, the angiosperms and the
gymnosperms. The angiosperms, or those having a
pericarp, comprise the greater part of our com-
mon plants, nearly all those, in fact, which we
have studied up to this point. The gymnosperms,
310 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

bearing naked ovules, comprise the pines, spruces,
firs, cedars, yews, junipers, cypresses, ginkgos,
and the like.

376a. Far the larger part of flowering or seed-bearing plants
(or the spermatophyta) are angiosperms. The gymnosperms are very
old types, geologically con-
sidered. They comprise
such plants as the pines,
spruces (and all the Conif-
ere or cone-bearing plants),
cedars, yews, cypresses and
ginkgo,—the last cultivated
as an ornamental tree from
China and Japan. There
are various fundamental
differences between the an-
giosperms and the gymno-
sperms, but they are chiefly
such as the pupil can un-
derstand only when he
takes up the study of com-
parative anatomy and morphology; we cannot, therefore, give this
type of plants adequate treatment in this book.

 

Cone overgrown by the branch.

376). Botanists are not agreed as to the morphology of the
eone of the gymnosperms. Some consider that the ovule-scale
represents an open carpel. Others think that this scale represents
a placenta, and that the subtending bract is homologous with a ecar-
pel. Others accept neither view.

SuaGEstions.—The pupil knows that the lowermost and upper-
most leaves and buds on any branch (not counting the terminal
bud) are commonly smallest and apparently least efficient (42). Let
him examine pine cones, to se@ in what part of the cone the most
and best seeds are borne. He \should also determine the position
of the cones of the different pines and spruces: upon what part
of the tree they are borne, how many together, and how long
they persist.
INFLUENCE OF POLLEN UPON THE FRUIT 311

LX. INFLUENCE OF POLLEN UPON THE
FRUIT

377. We have found (147, 148) that fertiliza-
tion by pollen is essential to the development of
perfect seeds. One pollen grain is sufficient to
impregnate an ovule; yet very many grains may
fall upon a stigma. and the ovary may contain
but a single ovule. The question is raised, there-
fore, as to what becomes of the extra or redun-
dant pollen. We may suppose (from an analogy
with buds) that many of the grains may fail out-
right; and this is true. Does the pollen exercise
any other function than to impregnate the ovule?

377a. The body or structure which is impregnated is, strictly
speaking, not the ovule but the egg-cell of the embryo-sac; but an
explanation of the process of fecundation is not intended here. The
pollen grain sends out a tube (the process is generally called germi-
nation), which penetrates the stigma and style and reaches the
embryo-sac, where a sperm cell is discharged. As a rule, one pollen
grain fecundates one egg-cell, but the pollen-tube may branch and
fecundate more than one egg-cell. There are certain instances in which
seeds have been produced without fertilization, but they are exceptions,
and do not require discussion here.

377b. In recent writings the ovule is often denominated the
macrosporangium. The pollen grain is called a microspore. These
are terms of comparative morphology and physiology, and need not
be used here.

378. We have seen that the pulp of the straw-
berry fails to develop at points where the akenes
312 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

fail (296). There are five styles and stigmas in
the apple flower. If pollen is applied to two or
three of them only, the corresponding ecarpels will
develop and the remaining carpels will develop no
seeds. The part of the apple in which the seeds
are borne grows most rapidly and the apple be-
comes one-sided. If there are fewer pollen grains
applied to the stigma of any flower
than there are ovules in the ovary,
the normal number of seeds may
not form, and the fruit remains
comparatively small. If it happens
that the impregnated ovules are
mostly upon one side of the

 

One-sided tomato,
resulting from in- ovary the fruit becomes one-sided,

sufficient pollen.

as in the tomato (Fig. 325). All
this shows that the development of the seed exerts
a great influence upon the development of the
fruit; and since the development of the seed is
dependent directly upon the pollen, it follows that
the pollen supply is a most important factor in
the production of large and symmetrical fruits.
379. Plants of very unlike kinds will not often
inter-cross; yet it sometimes happens that after
inter-pollination between such plants, the fruit will
develop to considerable size, even though no seeds
form. It is also found, by experiment, that the
application of more pollen than is necessary for
INFLUENCE OF POLLEN UPON THE FRUIT 313

complete impregnation often results in the produc-
tion of extra large fruits. It is now believed, in
other words, that pollen often
exerts a secondary influence
in stimulating the develop-
ment of the pericarp.

379a. There is much discussion as
to the “immediate influence of pollen,”
by which is meant the influence of
the pollen in impressing the character-
isties of its parent upon the identical
fruit to which it is applied. In gen-
eral, there seems to be no such in-
fluence, but there are well-determined Non-pollinated apple.
exceptions.

 

Fig. 326.

380. If one were to examine the fruits which
are dropped by any plant shortly after flowering-
time, he would likely find many of them to be
hollow or devoid of good seeds. This is readily
observed in cultivated fruits, as apples and plums.
Fig. 326 is a cross-section of such an apple, one-
fourth larger than life. It turned yellow and fell.
The aborted seeds indicate that it was not fer-
tilized; and experiments give similar results. In
other words, many ovaries will grow to consider-
able size without pollination, and then perish.

380a. Unfertilized plums sometimes reach a fourth their normai
size before falling, especially those of the Wild Goose type. Per-
sons who live in the extreme South should observe the cocoanuts.
314 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

(The specimens in Fig. 281 were probably not pollinated.) Observe
any specimens of fruits which may be found upon the ground early
in the season.

381. There are some fruits which may mature
to normal size and appearance wholly without the
aid of pollen, but they are
seedless. Some of the _hot-
house cucumbers do this. Fig.
327 is an  egg-plant fruit
which has received no _ pollen,
but which, although it persists
upon the plant, refuses to grow
® to full size, as may be seen
by the relative sizes of fruit
and enlarging calyx. We may
conclude by saying that im-
pregnation is necessary to the
development of seeds, that pol-
len may have a powerful sec-
ondary influence in developing
the pericarp and fruit, that
very many ovaries enlarge for a time in the ab-
sence of pollination, and that some pericarps are
known to develop normally wholly without the
aid of either seeds or pollen.

 

Fig. 327.

Non-pollinated egg-plant
fruit.

38la. A somewhat full discussion of seedless forcing-house fruits
and of the influence of pollen in developing size of fruit, may be
found in Bailey’s “Forcing-Book.”
INFLUENCE OF POLLEN UPON THE FRUIT 315

SueGeEstions.—These facts are most suggestive. The pupil will
now want to cut every one-sided apple to see if its unsymmetry
may be due to lack of pollination. When he is crossing plants
(Obs. xlvi.), he will want to experiment with much and little pollen
and by putting pollen upon only a part of the stigmas. He will
wonder whether one reason why cultivated apples grow so much
larger than wild ones is because only one fruit commonly develops
in each cluster (Fig. 46), and whether this is the one which chanced
to receive the most pollen. He may even question if the reason
why only one develops is because there is insufficient pollen for
the fertilization and stimulation of more than one.
PART V

STUDIES OF THE PROPAGATION OF PLANTS

LXI. HOW A SQUASH PLANT GETS OUT OF

THE SEED

382. The culmination of the activities
of the plant is the propagation of  it-
self, To this end the devious _life-

 

Fia. 328.

Squash plant
a week old.

history, the mechanisms of ‘the
flowers, the varieties and pecu-
liarities of the fruits, are sub-
ordinate. The supreme effort
of the plant—if one may so
speak —is its perpetuation. The
most important vehicle of this
perpetuation, in most higher
plants, is the seed.

383. If one were to plant
seeds of a Hubbard or Boston
Marrow squash in loose, warm
earth in a pan or box, and

‘were then to care for the par-

cel for a week or ten days,
(316)

 

Fie. 329.

Squash plant
which has
brought the
seed - coats
out of the
ground.
HOW A SQUASH PLANT GETS OUT OF THE SEED 317

he would be rewarded by a colony of plants like
that shown in Fig. 328. If he had not planted

the seeds himself, or had
=> not seen such plants before,

Hie: Bath he would not believe that
ee ee ae these curious plants would

ever grow into squash vines,
so different are they from the vines which we
know in the garden. This, itself, is a most
interesting fact,—this wonderful difference between
the first and the later stages of all plants, and it
is only because we know it so well that we do
not wonder at it.

384. It may happen, however, that one or two
of the plants may look
like that shown in Fig.
329. Here the seed
Third day of seems to have come up

     

‘(a
Fie. 331.

The root
and peg.

  

Fig. 332.

    
   

root growth.
on top of the plant, Fie. 333.
and one is reminded of the curious The
x s plant
way in which beans come up on breaking
out of

the stalk of the young plant.
We are desirous to know why one
of these squash plants brings its
seed up out of the ground while
all the others do not. We shall ask the plant.
We may first pull up the two plants. The first
one (Fig. 328) will be seen to have the seed-coats

the
seed.
318 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

still attached to the very lowest part of the stalk,
below the soil, but the other plant has no seed
at that point.

385. We will now plant more
seeds—a dozen or more of them—
so that we shall have enough for
Fie. 334,  ©Xamination two or three times
The opera- a day for several days. A day
vorereased, OF two after the seeds are planted,

we shall find a little point or root-
like portion breaking out of the sharp end
of the seed, as shown in Fig. 330. A day
later, this portion has grown to be as long
as the seed itself (Fig. 331), and it has
turned directly downward into the soil.

386. There is another most curious thing
about this germinating seed. Just where the
root is breaking out of the seed (shown
at a in Fig. 331), there is a little peg
or projection. In Fig. 332, about a
day later, the root has grown stil] = 6-95.
longer, and this peg seems to be forc- ae
ing the seed-coats apart. In Fig. 333,
however, it will be seen that the  seed-coats
are really being forced apart by the stem or
stalk above the peg, for this stem is now grow-
ing longer. The lower lobe of the seed has at-
tached to the peg (seen at a, Fig. 333), and the

    
 

 
HOW A SQUASH PLANT GETS OUT OF THE SEED 319

seed-leaves are backing out of the seed. Fig. 334
shows the seed a day later. The root has now

   

Fie. 336.

produced many branches, and has thor-
oughly established itself in the soil.
The top is also growing rapidly, and
is still backing out of the seed, and
the seed-coats are still firmly held by

The plant lib- the obstinate peg.
erated from the
seed-coats.

387. In the meantime, the plant-

lets which we have not disturbed have
been coming through the soil. If we were to see
the plant in Fig. 334 as it was “coming up,” it
would look like Fig. 335. It is tugging away try-
ing to get its head out of the bonnet which is

pegged down underneath the soil. In
Fig. 336 it has escaped from its trap.
It must now straighten itself up, as it
is doing in Fig. 337, and it is soon
standing stiff and straight, as in Fig.
328. We now see that the reason why
the seed came up on the plantlet in Fig.
329, is because in some way the peg
did not hold the seed-coats down (see
Fig. 340), and the expanding leaves are

   

Fie. 337.
The plant

pinched together, and they must get straightening

themselves loose as best they can.

up.

388. There is another thing about this squash
plant which we must not fail to notice, and this
320 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

is the fact that these first two leaves came out

of the seed, and did not grow out of the plantlet
Ces, itself. We must notice, too, that
these leaves are much smaller
when they are first drawn out
“\ of the seed than they are when
“\ the plantlet has straightened it-
self up. That is, these leaves increase
in size after they reach the light and air.
389. The roots are now established

| in the soil, and are taking in food which
ae 333, enables the plantlet to grow. The next
The true leaves which appear (Fig. 338) are very
oe different from these first or seed leaves.
They -grow out of the little plant itself.

The picture shows these true leaves as they appear
on a young Crookneck squash plant, and the plant
now begins to look much like a

    
   

     

Sg

<=> squash vine.
tas

Fig. 339. 389a. The leaves which are borne in the

Marking seed are the cotyledons or seed-leaves. Their
the root. enlargement, after sprouting, is largely or wholly
at the expense of the nutriment which is stored
up in the seed. The true leaves (Fig. 338) appear as
soon as the plantlet begins to gather materials for itself.
| Germination is not complete until the plantlet has thoroughly
p-4-\,---p established itself in the soil, and the true leaves have
begun to appear. The plantlet then becomes a plant.

The earlier part of the germinating process may be called sprouting.
389b. The incipient shoot which gives rise to the growth
HOW A SQUASH PLANT GETS OUT OF THE SEED 32]

above the cotyledons (and which, aus we shall see, is present in
the seed) is the plumule. The plumule is really a bud.

390. We are now curious to know how the
stem grows when it backs out of the seed and
pulls the little seed-leaves with
it, and how the root grows down-
wards into the soil. Pull up
another seed when it has sent a
single root about two inches deep
into the earth. Wash it very
carefully and lay it upon a piece
of paper. Then lay a rule along-
side of it, and make an ink mark
one-quarter of an inch, or less,
from the tip, and two or three ‘
other marks at equal distances
above (Fig. 339}. Now carefully
replant the seed. Two days later,
dig it up; we shall most likely
find a condition something like *°* ae aS
that in Fig. 340. It will be seen
that the marks EH, ©, B, are practically the same
distance apart as before, and they are also the
same distance from the peg, AA. The point of
the root is no longer at D D, however, but has
moved on to F. The root, therefore, has grown
almost wholly in the end portion.

 

Fig. 340.

Vv
B22 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

390a. Common ink will not answer for this purpose because it
“runs” when the root is wet, but indelible ink, used for marking
linen or for drawing, should be used. It should also be said that
the roots of the common pumpkin and of the summer bush squashes
are too fibrous and branchy for this test.

390b. It should be stated that the root does not grow at its
very tip, but chiefly in a narrow zone just back of the tip; but
the determination of this point is rather too difficult for the be-
ginner, and, moreover, it is foreign to the purpose of this lesson.

391. Now let us make a similar experiment
with the stem or stalk. Mark a young stem, as
at A in Fig. 341; but the
next day we shall find that
these marks are farther
apart than when we made
them (B, Fig. 341). The
marks have all raised them-
selves above the ground as
the plant has grown. The
stem, therefore, has grown
throughout its length rather
than from the end. The
stem usually grows most
rapidly, at any given time,
in the upper or younger
portion; but the part soon
reaches the limit of its
growth and becomes sta-
tionary, and the growth continues beyond it. (See
“Suggestions,” p. 48.)

   

A Fig, 341, B

The marking of the stem and the
spreading apart of the marks.
GERMINATION OF THE ONION 323

392. All this behavior of the germinating squash
results in raising the foliage above the soil and
in keeping the seed-coats beneath it. But suppose
that the seed is not buried, but lies on the sur-
face of the moist earth or is covered only with
loose leaves or litter: then what happens? Fill a
pot or box with earth up to half an inch below
the rim, lay fresh squash seeds upon it, cover the
pot with cardboard, and keep the seeds moist and
warm. Watch the result.

SuGG@EstTions.—This experiment of germinating seeds upon the
surface is always an interesting one. Peas germinate in this way
very readily. .Whenever this experiment is tried, other seeds of
the same kind should be planted in the normal way, for compara-
tive study.

LXII. GERMINATION OF THE ONION

393. A sprouting onion seed is seen in Fig.
342. The process further developed is shown in
Fig. 343. The root is elongating from the
point a, and a stem-like part is growing
above that point and is pushing the seed ;
upward towards the surface of the ground. Rs

394. The loop which is beginning to ee
form in Fig. 343 has greatly developed Fs. 342.
in Fig. 344, and the tip of it has reached Sprout:

ing onion

the surface of the ground. In other words, - seea.

 
  
824 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

the plantlet is “coming up.” This loop soon be-
comes conspicuous, as in Fig. 345. The gardener
is now able “to see the row,” and tillage agg
is begun.

395. The loop elongates, but the tip
of it is held firmly in the soil, and the
whip-lash performance, shown in
Fig. 346, is the result. The lash
finally breaks loose, and the plant-
let straightens up, as in Fig. 347.
If the plant is watched for a few
days, the observer will discover
that the subsequent growth does
not take place from the large «
part, d, but from a new mem- Fig. 344.
ber, e, which arises from a chink ae
pega in the base of the plantlet through the

(near « in Figs. 343, 344). The pane

loop is not a stem, therefore. It is, in
fact, a cotyledon ; and in mellow soil
the seed-coats are -. usually pulled out
of the ground, and , <a are held for some
days on the tip of <3 the cotyledon. The
part, e, then is Fie. 345. the plumule.

    

Fie. 343.

   

The onion
395a. There are sev- “CO™Mg UP.” oral points in the germi-
nation of the onion, some of which are suggested in
the engravings, which the pupil should discover and interpret for
himself. At what point, for example, are the seed-coats attached ?
GERMINATION OF THE ONION 825

SC

And where is the slit from which the plumulc emerges ? Onion seeds
germinate slowly, but the process may be hastened by soaking them
in warm water for a few hours. Be sure that the seeds are fresh.
Perhaps the pupil can have access to an onion patch in very early
spring. In a warm room and with fresh seeds, the entire process
of germination may be completed in two weeks.

396. In the squash we found two cotyledons,
but in the onion there is. only one. This fact is
of great significance, because it affords a natural
character for the classification of. plants.
We have already (3876) divided all
flower-bearing plants into two cate-
gories, the angiosperm, with distinct
ovary, and the gymnosperme, without
distinct ovary. We may again divide
the angiosperms into two classes or
groups,—the dicotyledons (two seed- _-t=dis-=
leaves) and the monocotyledons (one eee

The whip-lash.
seed-leaf) .

397. These characters derived from the number
of cotyledons, are not mere arbitrary or conven-
tional standards for the classification of plants, but
they are correlated with other features. For ex-
ample, the dicotyledonous plants are more or less
clearly characterized by making their increase in
diameter of stem by means of rings or layers of
growth upon the outside of the woody cylinder and
underneath the bark; they are, therefore, some-
times called exogens (“outside growers”). They

 
326 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

often have a distinct central pith, which some-
times disappears, leaving the stem hollow. The
parts of the flowers are most com-
monly in fives or-fours, and the leaves
are, for the most part, distinctly
netted-veined.

397a. Dicotyledonous plants comprise all the
trees of northern countries, and such tribes as
the mustards, legumes, roses, composites, cacti,
pigweeds, honeysuckles, and the orchard fruits of
the North. In some cases there are more than
two cotyledons.

398. The monocotyledonous plants,
on the other hand, increase in diam-
eter by means of new woody  bun-
dles scattered in the stem, and there
may be no distinct and separable bark,
as there is in the dicotyledons; they
are, therefore, sometimes called endo-

gens (“inside growers”). The flowers
Germination com- ‘
pints’. are built mostly upon the plan of
three (220a), and the main veins of
the leaves are generally essentially parallel to each
other (but the secondary veins are usually inter-
woven or netted). As a _ rule, the leaves do
not fall away with a clean scar, as they do in
the dicotyledons, a point which we have already
discovered (39a).

 
GERMINATION OF BEANS 327

398a. Monocotyledonous plants are less numerous, as to kinds,
than the dicotyledons. Here belong all the palms, lilies, grasses
and cereal grains, rushes, sedges, orchids, cannas, bananas, arums
and duckmeats. Most bulbous plants are monocotyledons. Some
of these plants are illustrated in Figs. 39, 40, 41, 58, 74, 101, 102,
119, 188, 142, 148, 165, 166, 167, 168, 183, 184, 188, 189, 196, 199,
212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225,
254, 281.

LXIIIl. GERMINATION OF BEANS

399. Plant a few common beans and watch the
germination. The plantlets back out of the soil
much as the squash
does, and the coty-
ledons, a, Fig. 348,
are elevated into the
air. These cotyledons
remain practically the
same size as they were
in the seed, however,
and do not become
conspicously green
and leaf-like.

  

BiG, Se 400. At the same
Germination of Germination of .
common bean. Scarlet Runner bean. time, plant seeds of

the Searlet Runner or
White Dutch Runner bean. The first foliar parts
to appear are true leaves (Fig. 349), and if the
328 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

plant be dug up, the cotyledons will be found to
have remained under the ground. Observe care-
fully at what point the roots start out from the
seed.

‘401. There are, then, two types of germination
as respects the position of the cotyledons. In one
type, the seed-leaves rise above ground, or the
germination is epigeal (“above the earth”); in the
other, they remain where the seed was planted, or
the germination is hypogeal (“below the earth”).

40la. The pupil should make a careful comparison of the dif-
ferences in germination between the two types of beans mentioned
above. He may profitably add a third factor to the experiment
by including the garden pea. If he has access to oak trees, he
may watch the germination of the acorns as they lie upon the
ground in very early spring. Examine horse-chestnuts.

402. Measure the beans before they are planted,
taking the length, width and thickness. If delicate
balances or scales are at hand, it may be well to
weigh them, also. Then observe the increase in
size of the beans. Is this swelling associated
with heat or moisture, or both? The pupil can
answer this question by planting some seeds in
dry, warm earth and others in moist, cool earth
(which is kept little above freezing), and by
otherwise varying the experiment. Do dead seeds—
those which are very old or which have been
baked — swell when planted? The pupil will find
GERMINATION OF BEANS 329

that the swelling of the seed is the first obvious
stage in germination.

403. Plant beans in moist cotton or sawdust,
or lay them in folds of heavy, damp cloth. How
far will the sprouting progress? Will the first
true leaves develop? In other words, for how long
can the plantlet grow upon the nutriment which
is stored in the seed?

404. When the true leaves have begun to de-
velop (as in Figs. 348 and 349), carefully lift: the
plant, with the soil which is attached, and then,
in a basin, wash away the earth until the roots
are white and clean. Then, by the aid of a lens
or by holding the roots to the light, see the cov-
ering of very fine hairs upon the roots. It is
these little organs which hold most of the earth
on the roots when the plant is carefully pulled
up. They are the root-hairs, and they are active
agents in absorbing food.

404a. Several profitable lessons may be made in the study of
the root-hairs of whatever seedling plants may be at hand in
gardens or elsewhere. How soon after germination do they appear?
Do they persist as the root becomes old, or are they shed upon
the older parts? Do full-grown or large plants have root-hairs?
Look for them on the very youngest parts of the roots. When
seeds are germinated as recommended in 392 and 403, the root-
hairs are much more readily seen.

405. We know that roots go downwards and
stems go upwards. How soon is this difference
330 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

manifested in the germinating bean? Do the two
parts take these opposite directions even when the
beans germinate in a dark place? We shall find
that there is an inherent, or inborn, tendency for
the root to grow down and the stem to grow up.

405a. The discussion of the physiological causes which have
determined this differentiation between the root and stem is not
germane to this book; although it may be said that gravitation
plays an important part in the movements. For the purpose of
designating some of these facts or phenomena, the words geotropism
and heliotropism have been used,—the former designating move-
ment into or towards the earth, and the latter movement towards
the light.

SvueeesTions.—The pupil should make these tests with beans.
He will find other interesting points, if he watches the process of
germination closely. When some of the seeds have produced straight
roots an inch or so long, remove them earefully and hang them
with the root uppermost in a moist and warm atmosphere, as under
a bell-jar or inverted glass bowl which is set in water. Observe
how the roots tend to turn downwards and the plumule to turn
upwards. Or, sprouting seeds may be placed in a horizontal posi-
tion. It is interesting to observe how the root gets around stones
and other hard objects in the soil. The roots of any plant which
grows in very stony or hard, gravelly soil are good subjects for
observation. Radishes are also interesting for germinating studies;
and they show heliotropism quickly and emphatically when growing
where the light all comes from one direction, as from a side
window.

The beans may be planted in pans or boxes which are set in
the windows of the school-room, although care should be taken
that the soil does not become too dry if it is exposed directly
to the sun. The handframes mentioned in Obs. ]xxiii. will be found
to be useful with which to make germination studies. The pupil
usually takes more interest in the experiments, however, if he has
them constantly under his eye. Perhaps each pupil can be pro-
WHAT IS A SBED? 331

vided with a small flower-pot, or other dish, or even with a
cigar-box, and be allowed to have it upon his desk. If the elon-
gation of the parts is to be watched very closely, and especially
if the root is to be marked in order to observe its method of
growth (390, 390a), the seeds may be germinated between damp
blotting papers. If a dozen or more seeds are started, a record
may be kept of the various stages in germination by pressing the
plants, as well as by drawing them.

LXIV. WHAT IS A SEED?

406. The two most important characteristics of
seeds we have already learned,—the facts that
they are the result of the fertilization of the
ovule by a _ pollen-grain (3877a), and that they
contain a miniature plant. This
condensed and miniature plant
in the seed is called the embryo.
The phenomena of fertilization
are too obscure to be clearly
understood, much less to be
seen, by the beginner; but it may be said that
the nucleus of the. pollen-grain unites with the
nucleus of the egg-cell in the embryo-sac, and
the result of this union is the embryo.

407. Let us return to the bean. In the pod
(Fig. 248), the beans are seen to be attached by
short stalks to the edge of each valve. The

Fia. 350.

  

The parts of a bean seed.
332 LESSONS WIV’H PLANTS

stalk is called, in all seeds, the funieulus. When
the funiculus breaks away from the seed, it
leaves a sear (D,
Fig. 350). This sear
is the hilum.

408. If we split
the bean  length-
wise (preferably
after it has been
soaked in water
for a few hours),
we find that the
seed is composed of
two thick cotyledons;
and these are the
parts which are
afterwards elevated
into the air (a, Fig. 348). One-half of a bean
(that is, one cotyledon) is shown in Fig. 350. The
other cotyledon was attached at C. The plumule
is at S, and the incipient stem, or caulicle, at
O. All these parts — cotyledons, caulicle, plumule,
—constitute the embryo.

   
  

Pie. 51.

Micropylar scars of cocoa-nut.

408a. Over the point of the ecaulicle, the close observer will
find*a minute depression and a hole leading into the bean. This
is the micropyle, and is the point at which the pollen-tube en-
tered, and the place through which the root breaks in germination.
In the cocoa-nut the positions of the three micropyles are shown
by the scars (Fig. 351) but since only one of the loeules develops a
seed (332a), germination takes place through only one sear,
WHAT IS A SHED? 333

409. We are now curious to know if there is
anything in the structure of the embryos to
suggest the different behaviors of
the two beans in Figs. 348 and
349. Fig. 352 shows the coty-
ledons of a common bean laid
open; and Fig. 353 is a simi-
lar picture of the Searlet Run-
ner bean. The node, or place
of attachment of the cotyledons,
is at C (one cotyledon, of course,
having been broken away). The
caulicles are the parts pointing
Aowiasnands, and the two leaves of the plumule’ lie
at the left. The observer will see that the space
between C and the plumule Sr
is very different in the two
beans. These different
lengths are suggestive of
what takes place in germi-
nation,—the greatest elon-
gation of the stem in the
common bean takes place
beneath the cotyledons,
whereas the greatest elon-
gation in the Scarlet Run-
ner takes place above the cotyledons: in one case
the caulicle elongates, in the other it does not.

 

NN
Fig. 352.

Parts of common bean.

 

Fie. 353.

Parts of Scarlet Runner bean.
4

334 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

409a. The internode lying above the point of attachment of
the cotyledons—between the cotyledons and the plumule—is called
the epicotyl; that below the cotyledons is the hypocotyl. The
hypocotyl was formerly called the radicle, upon the supposition
that it is an incipient root; but it is a stem (except, perhaps,
the very tip), and the root develops from its end.

410. The embryos of the squash and bean oc-
cupy the whole interior of the seed, and the
nutriment which sustains the sprouting
plantlet is stored in the cotyledons. In
the onion it is not so. Fig. 354 is a
as section of an onion seed. The monocoty-
onion seed. ledonous embryo is coiled up in a mass
of starchy matter; and a similar condition
is seen in the buckwheat (Fig. 355).
Nutritive material stored outside the em-
bryo is called the endosperm.

 

Fig. 354.

 

410a. The endosperm varies greatly in quantity and

Section of in physical and chemical character. In many plants, as

buckwheat the cereal grains, it affords most of the material which

seed. is utilized for human food. In the cocoa-nut only a part

of the liquid matter solidifies into endosperm, leaving

the “milk” in the center; the embryo is comparatively very small,
and can be found, of course, near the micropyle.

411. A seed, then, is a body which is the
direct product of a flower and a result of a
sexual process, and. which contains a miniature
plant or embryo; and its office is to produce a
new plant. In nearly all cases the embryo is
WHAT IS A SEED? 335

enclosed in seed-coats, and it is often imbedded
in endosperm.

‘

SueGEstions.—Only the most obvious parts and features of
seeds have been mentioned here, but these characters are sufficient
to enable the pupil to make profitable comparisons between any
seeds which may come to his hand. It is good practice to set
beginners searching for the cotyledons in large seeds. Where, for
example, are the cotyledons in the pecan (Fig. 356), acorn, maize,

 

Fig. 356.

Showing the edible
cotyledons of
pecan.

  

wheat, castor bean, sweet pea, apple, peach, morning-glory, garden
balsam, cucumber, orange, canna, cocoa-nut, and other large seeds ?
The parts can generally be made out more easily if the seeds
are soaked in tepid water for a few hours. It is more important,
however, if facilities are at hand, to set the pupil to the study of
the behavior of seeds and plantlets in germination. An interesting
series of studies can be made from a comparison of the form of
the cotyledons with that of the first true-leaves, and of the grada-
tion from the character of the first leaves to those which are
characteristic of the mature plant. Are there differences in coty-
ledons and first leaves between the different horticultural varieties
of the same plant, as between the different kinds of tomatoes and
336 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

red peppers? There is a wealth of information respecting germi-
nation in the two thick volumes of Sir John Lubbock’s “Contri-
bution to Our Knowledge of Seedlings.”

LXV. THE DISPERSION OF SEEDS

412. It must be an advantage to any kind of
plant if its seeds are widely dispersed, thereby af-
fording it more chances to find a place in which to
live and thrive. The earth is now covered with
plants, and there is, therefore, great competition, or
struggle for existence. Only a few seeds can pro-
duce mature plants, for the earth could not contain
the possible offspring of all plants. Even one kind
of plant, if allowed to multiply to its full capacity,
would soon cover the earth. (See Obs. lxxiv.)

413. Most seeds fall and remain near the
parent plant, and the colony of parents and _ off-
spring tends gradually to enlarge. In plants which
mature very slowly, however, as the forest trees, and
which are, therefore, exposed for a long time to
the struggle for existence, the colony is likely to
become broken and scattered, so that the trees oc-
eur singly here and there; but under certain condi-
tions, the colony may dominate the area, and a con-
tinuous and homogeneous forest is the result. The
seeds of the greater number of plants merely drop
THH DISPERSION OF SEEDS 337

to the ground when the fruits are ripe, and have
no special means of becoming widely disseminated.

414. There are certain structures and append-
ages of seeds and fruits, however, which favor
their dispersion. The most numerous types are
those which are carried by the wind. The thistle-
down and dandelion-balloons are familiar and per-
fect examples of wind-disseminated seeds. The
key-fruits (Obs. li.), and all the tribes of winged
seeds, are scattered by winds.

415. In some eases entire plants, or large parts
of them, are carried long distances by the wind,
dropping their seeds by the way.’ A perfect ex-
ample of this mode of dissemination is the Russian
thistle, which is now invading great areas in the
West. The plant is easily detached from the earth
in the fall, and the dense, globular top— often
larger than a bushel basket—is caught up by the
winds and rolled mile after mile across the prairie.

415a. The various “tumble-weeds” are dispersed in the same
way, of which familiar examples are the hair-grass (Panicum eapil-
lare), white pigweed (Amarantus albus), and the cyclone plant or
eycloloma of the West.

416. Many seeds are carried upon the coats or
feet of animals. The farmer knows how full of
seeds and “stick-tights” the sheeps’ fleeces are if
the animals run in wild or weedy pastures. Many
strange plants spring up near carding factories,

WwW
338 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

where wool is cleaned. All the types of hooks
and spines fit the seed or fruit to be carried by
animals, or even upon garments of men. The
reader will recall the sand-bur, clot-bur, burdock,
pitchforks, beggar’s-ticks, and the like. Some
sticky seeds, as those of the mistletoe, are carried
on the feet of birds; and the mud upon the
hoofs of horses and cows and the feet of birds
often contains seeds of various plants.

417. The seeds of fleshy fruits are usually
bony, and although the fruits are eaten by birds,
or even by mammals, the seeds may not be injured.
Cherries, raspberries, blackberries, juneberries, are
widely spread in this manner by birds. In like
way, oats, maize and grasses may be disseminated
by herbivorous animals. One will often find such
plants springing up in woods along horse-trails.

418. Many plants become the companions of
cultivated plants because their seeds cannot be
separated readily by the machines used for cleaning
seed. Thus the cockle (Figs. 143, 275, 276) lives
with the wheat because its seeds are about the same
diameter as the wheat seeds, and pass through the
sereens; and the plant also has habits similar to
those of the wheat, whereby it is able to live
under the same conditions. Many weeds of lawns
and meadows are plants whose seeds cannot be
separated easily from the grass seeds.
THE DISPERSION OF SEEDS 339

419. Some seeds may be carried long distances
by water. If wild rice is sown near the source
of a stream, it will gradually work down stream,
partly, perhaps, through the agency of birds, but
more directly by means of the water. The
“sea-beans” which are often so plenty on certain
coasts of Florida are leguminous seeds carried up
from the West Indies by ocean currents. The
cocoa-nut is the example most commonly cited of
dispersion by water. Its buoyancy and impervious
husk fit it to be carried very long distances on
the sea.

420. A few plants have explosive fruits, by
means of which the seeds are dispersed for a
short distance. We have already seen some of
them (316, 316a, 316), 331).

421. The seeds of some plants germinate irregu-
larly, part of them coming up the first year and
others, from the same tree, not until the second
or third year. Many hard and bony seeds, like
those of the haws and hawthorns, are of this cate-
gory. By extending the germination over two or
three years, the plant may have more chances of
finding a condition in which it can thrive.

422, The dispersion of plants depends, therefore,
upon two sets of factors: the structure of the
seed itself, which allows it to be disseminated by
wind or other means; and the physical conditions
340 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

or environments, which determine whether the seed
can germinate and the plant thrive after dissemi-
nation has taken place. The pupil can readily ob-
serve how important the factor of environment is by
noticing how readily weeds spring up along road-
sides, railways, lake shores, and in newly cleared
land. If the pupil is fortunate enough to know
of a meadow which has been plowed and _ the
land then neglected, let him watch what takes
place; or, he may consider why it is that weeds
spread more rapidly in gardens than in meadows.

423. While there are evident means by which
the seeds of plants are disseminated, as we have
now indicated, the pupil must nevertheless be
warned that it is easy to overstate the impor-
tance of such features. There is too great tendency
to endeavor to find a specific use or adaptation
for every attribute or structure of a plant, and
then to explain its origin by supposing that it
came about in order to fulfil such an adaptation. .
But we really cannot understand plants by inter-
preting them solely upon their present or obvious
characters: the reasons for the appearing of given
attributes should be sought in the genealogy, not
in the present-time characteristics. It is possible
that many of these structures which seem to us
to have arisen for the purpose of dispersing the
seeds may have originated as incidental or cor-
THE DISPERSION OF SEEDS 341

relative structures, and that it merely so happens
that they serve a special but incidental purpose
in disseminating the plant. If we once assume
that every feature of a plant is adapted to some
specific purpose, and that it has arisen by means
of the effort of the plant to adapt itself to such
purpose, we are apt to find adaptations where there
are none. We are really throwing our own
thoughts and feelings into the phenomena; and we
are developing a superficial method of looking at
nature. (Compare 338, 339.)

423a. The word adaptation is used technically, in evolution writ-
ings, to designate the fitness of an organism, or any part of an or-
ganism, to perform certain functions or to live in certain environ-
ments. Thus, a flower is adapted to cross-pollination, or a plant
to dry soil, or to a cold climate. Adaptive modifications are such
as obviously prepare the organism to live in given environments.
~  423b. Correlative or correlated characters are concomitants of
the main or type characters. They are incidental features, which
have been carried along by the main line of ascent, and which
are of little significance to the present well-being of the organism.

423c. The genealogy of an organism is called its phylogeny.
The life-history of a single or individual organism is its ontogeny.
That is, phylogeny is the natural history of the race, whereas
ontogeny is the natural history of a single individual. Phylogenetic
characters, therefore, are those which have come down from the
ancestry; ontogenetic characters are those which have originated
within the life-time of a given individual.

423d. An acquired character is an ontogenetic character which
is obviously the result of some environmental circumstance, as of
soil, light, or temperature.

SueGestTion.—Let the teacher assign one kind of plant to each
pupil, asking him to discover how the seeds are dispersed.
342 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

LXVI FERNS

424. Maidenhair ferns are frequent in woods,
and are common in cultivation. The leaves of
large or mature plants often
have a stiffish and angular
look, and if such leaves are
examined it will be found
that the edges are turned
under (as in Fig. 357). =f
these flaps are raised, many
minute brownish bodies will
Sesnions be discovered, adhering to
their surface. These bodies,
which are called sporangia
or spore-cases, contain numerous spores, which are
barely visible to the naked eye; and these spores
germinate and produce new plants.

 

Fruiting pinnules of maiden-
hair fern.

424a. The leaf-blade of a fern is known as a frond, a term
which is also applied to the leaf-like bodies of -duckmeats (252)
and io the leaf-like parts of certain other plants, where there is
little distinction of ribs or veins and no well-differentiated blade.
The stem of the frond is called a stipe.

425. A bit of an aspidium, one of the com-
mon pinnate ferns of woods, is shown in Fig.
358. Four lobes of the frond are drawn, showing
a row of dots upon either margin. One of these
FERNS 343

dots is enlarged at ¢. It is made up of a shield-
shaped scale covering a colony of sporangia. One
of the sporangia is much enlarged at e, and it
contains many spores. The dot ¢ is known as a
fruit-dot or sorus (plural sori), and the shield-
like seale is an indusium. In the maidenhair, the
sori are marginal, and the reflexed edge of the
frond forms the indusium.

426. The so-called sensitive fern, which is very
common in low grounds, is illustrated in Fig. 359.
At the right is a leafy or sterile frond, and at
A a fertile frond. This fertile frond has the same
fundamental plan or structure as
the other one has, but the edges
of the lobes or divisions are
rolled backwards and form a
covering for the indusia and sori.
Here, then, are three general types
of fruit-bearing,—those in which '
the edge of the frond serves as Fig, 358.
indusium, those having a scale-like Fruetification of a shield-
indusium, and those having a ps
seale-like indusium but the sori covered by the
revolute margins of the contracted frond. In
many ferns the sori are naked; that is, there
are no indusia. There are other types, but they
need not be discussed here. The best way to see
the spores of ferns is to press a ripe fruiting

 
344 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

frond between sheets of white paper. When the
frond is perfectly dry, the spores will be found
as a dust-like covering upon the paper.

426a. The primary complete divisions of a frond are called
pinne, no matter whether the frond is pinnate or not. In ferns
the word pinna is used in essentially the same way that leaflet is

    

d
Fig. 359. Fie. 360.

Fronds of the sensitive Diagram to explain the termi-
fern. nology of the frond.

in the once-compound leaves of other plants. The secondary leaf-
lets are called pinnules, and in thrice, or more, compound fronds
the last complete parts or leaflets are ultimate pinnules. The dia-
gram (Fig. 360) will aid in making the subject clear. If the frond
were not divided to the midrib, it would be simple, but this dia-
gram represents a compound frond. The general outline of the frond,
us bounded by the dotted line, is ovate. The stipe is very short.
FERNS 345

The midrib of a compound frond is known as the rachis. In a
decompound frond, this main rachis is called the primary rachis.
Segments (not divided to the rachis) are seen at the tip,
and down to hk on one side and to m on the other.
Pinne are shown at i, k, 1, 0, n. The pinna o is entire;
« is erenate-dentate; 7 is sinnate or wavy, with an auricle
at the base; & and 7 are compound. The pinna k has
twelve entire pinnules. (Is there ever an even number
of pinnules on any pinna?) Pinna 7? has nine compound
pinnules, each bearing several entire ultimate pinnules.
Four pinne of the common wild
i maidenhair fern are shown in Fig.

a 358; but is the maidenhair frond
pinnate ?

  
 
  
 
  

427. We have now seen
that the spores, or “seeds,”

  

Fig. 361. Fie. 362. Fig. 363.
Scouring- Ground-pine, a A lycopodium with
rush. club-moss. sporangia in the axils of

the foilage leaves.
346 _ LESSONS WITH PLANTS

of ferns are borne upon the leaves, and that they

are not preceded by flowers. The ferns are mem-
bers of that numerous. class known
as flowerless plants or cryptogams.
We have thus far studied the flow-
ering plants or phanerogams.

428. Although the spore performs
the office of “seed” in propagating
the plant, it is structurally very un-
like a seed. It is not the product of
a sexual process, and it contains no
embryo. It is a comparatively simple
cellular body (very often only a single
cell), and is commonly much more mi-
nute than any seed. Its formation
and germination, therefore, are not
comparable with those processes in
the seed, and since the begimner can-
sae not see the phenomena for himself,

ural siz. it is useless to describe them here.

 

Fie 364.

428a. The ferns and their allies comprise the class known as
pteridophytes or vascular eryptogams, which are green and leaf-
bearing flowerless plants having woody bundles or fiber, and vessels,
in their stems. Aside from the ferns, the class includes the equi-
setums or scouring-rushes (Fig. 361), club-mosses (but not the true
mosses) and selaginellas. There are nearly three thousand kinds
of ferns known. Those who desire to pursue the subject should
begin with Underwood’s little book, “Our Native Ferns and their
Allies,” or Dodge’s “Ferns and Fern Allies of New England.” Per-
sons who desire to study the subject in detail should also have
MUSHROOMS AND THEIR KIND 347

Eaton’s “Ferns of North America,” in two quarto velumes, with
eolored plates. If it is desired to cultivate ferns, Robinson’s
“Ferns in Their Homes and Ours” should be consulted.

428b. The lycopodiums or club-mosses are common in dark woods,
and some of them are much used as “green” for Christmas decora-
tions. Two common types are shown in Figs. 362 and 363. The spo-
rangia are in the axils of leaves, or of scales in a spike. Many
kinds of exotic club-mosses and related plants are cultivatéd in con-
servatories. A true moss is shown in Fig. 364. Here the spore-case
(or capsule) is solitary and stalked. Before maturity, the capsule is
covered with a thin or hairy cap or calyptra (c). The capsule opens
by means of a lid or opereulum (0), disclosing « row of teeth or
peristome. The minute spores are borne inside this capsule.

SuGGEsTIoNs.—The teacher may interest the. pupils by asking
them, upon a certain day, to collect one specimen of each of the
kinds of ferns of a given neighborhood. The fronds of some kinds
hold their form and color all winter, even under the snow. In
fact, ferns are among the treasures of winter woods. In the spring,
young people are always interested in the uncoiling heads of ferns
(Fig. 61). The shaggy stipes and hard, strong rootstocks are worth
attention.

LXVII. MUSHROOMS AND THEIR KIND

429. The cultivated mushroom, which is also
common in fields in late summer and fall, is
shown in Fig. 365. It is a_ soft, fleshy body
destitute of woody fiber, and white or brownish in
color. It has no parts which can be likened to
leaves. It has, however, a distinct stem or stipe,
and a spreading cap or pileus. Midway of the
stipe, a, is a ring-like growth, or annulus.

430. If younger plants are examined (Fig. 366),
  
  
    

8348 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

it is seen that the pileus is more nearly spheri-
cal, and in very young ones, as b, Fig. 365, the
annulus is not present. The margin of the pileus
is tied to the stipe by a very thin and delicate
veil, and as the pileus expands this veil is rup-
tured, a part of it persisting as a ragged fringe

% “SiN =

ANNI

    

   

Chee.

Fig. 365. Fia. 366.

Cultivated mushroom. Clump of mushrooms.

(observe the margin of the large cap in Fig. 365)
on the edge of the pileus and the remainder
forming the annulus upon the stipe.

431. Upon the under side of the pileus (Fig.
365) are numerous hanging flaps or gills. Let
the pupil determine if these gills, or lamelle, are
all of equal length, and if they are joined to the
stipe. He should also observe the color of the
gills, and determine if it changes with the age of
the plant. Now let the pupil secure a pileus of
MUSHROOMS AND THEIR KIND 349

a full-grown and fresh mushroom, cut off the
stipe even with the lower edges of the gills, and
then lay the cap, bottom down, on a piece of
white paper in a dry room, and cover it with a
bowl or bell-jar to protect it from currents of
air. In a few hours, or a day, carefully lift the
cap. The pupil will find a copious deposit of
“dust,” in the form of a reverse pattern of the
gills. This dust is made up of spores: and such
a diagram is called a “spore-print.” We conclude,
then, that the gills are fruiting parts, bearing
spores in countless numbers.

432. When the pupil finds a clump of mush-
rooms, let him carefully remove the earth and
observe the soft white threads in the ground.
These tangled threads are commonly likened to
roots, but structurally they are not like the roots of
flowering plants. This mass of threads and cords is
the “spawn” or mycelium, and from it arises the
fruiting body which we call the mushroom or the
toadstool.

432a. The tissue of this underground mycelium is not differ-
ent in kind from that of the stipe and pileus, and the botanist
calls all the vegetative tissue of the mushroom mycelium. The
pupil may be fortunate enough, in digging up mushrooms, to find
little knobs or “buttons” on the underground mycelium, showing
the mushrooms in their young state.

432b. In popular usage, the word mushroom is applied to the
fleshy and soft plants of this class, and toadstool to the very thin
350 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

and fragile ones, but botanists make no distinction in the use of
the two terms.

432c. The “spawn” or “brick” used by gardeners in mushroom-
growing is simply dried mycelium contained in a mass of more or
less decomposed vegetable matter, as manure.

433. A plant of a common poisonous mushroom
is shown in Fig. 367. Here there is another
structure upon the bulb-like base, suggesting a leg
of a boot. This is called a volva. The annulus
is shown just underneath the pileus.

433a. This volva, which is sometimes beneath the ground, af-
fords the best means of distinguishing the deadly amanita from
edible mushrooms. There are volvate mushrooms which are whole-
some, but one should never incur risk in eating them unless he is
perfectly certain as to the identification of the different kinds. In
fact, this caution may be applied to all wild mushrooms. Persons
who desire to be able to distinguish the edible mushrooms should
consult the writings of C. H. Peck, State Botanist of New York,
and those of Atkinson in bulletins of the Cornell University Experi-
ment Station; also Gibson’s “Our Edible Toadstools and Mush-
rooms,” and Palmer’s “Mushrooms of America, Edible and Poisonous.”
Those who want to cultivate mushrooms should secure Falconer’s
“Mushrooms: How to Grow Them.”

434. All the plants which we have thus far
studied have green leaves and twigs. They take
in crude food from the soil and also from the
air and work them over into complex organic
compounds. Usually, only those plants which have
green parts (that is, which contain chlorophyll) can
do this. The mushroom has no green parts. It,
therefore, generally absorbs food which already has
been elaborated or organized. That is, plants ‘des-
MUSHROOMS AND THEIR KIND 351

titute of green parts generally live upon materials
which have been elaborated by other organisms.

435. There are two general
ways in which this organized
food is obtained,—from a
living plant, in which case
the plant obtaining it is a
parasite; from decaying mat-
ter, in which case the plant
is a saprophyte. Mushrooms
live upon decaying materials
in the soil, and they are,
therefore, saprophytes.

436. Let the pupil place
a piece of bread or cheese
under a bowl or in a closed
dish in a warm, moist place.
In a week or two the sample
will become moldy. If one
has a lens, he can find the
sporangia on the ends of deli- Fig. 367.
eate branches of the stalks eRe een ie
or hyphe; or they may sometimes be _ distin-
guished by the naked eye. This mold is a sap-
-rophytic plant.

437. These colorless (or, at least, non-chlorophy]l-
lous) plants of the mushroom, mold, and mildew
type are fungi. They are exceedingly numerous,

 
352 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

both as to kinds and individuals. Some of them,
as the potato-blight, black-rot of grape, and apple-
scab, are true parasites, deriving
their sustenance from the juices of
the living host; and some of them

     

Fie, 368. Fra. 369.

Bulb of Easter lily. Section showing the formation
of the bulbels.

are parasitic upon animals and even upon other
fungi.

437a. The vegetable kingdom, aside from the bacteria, may be
conveniently ranged under four general heads:
Thallophytes — alges (sea-weeds), lichens, fungi.
Bryophytes — mosses and their allies.
Pteridophytes — ferns, club-mosses, equisetums, and their allies.
Spermatophytes — seed-bearing or flowering plants. Phaner
ogamous plants is a synonymous term.
BULBS, BULBLETS AND BUDS 353

437b. The first three divisions comprise the flowerless plants
or eryptogams. They may outnumber the flowering plants, both in
kinds and in individual plants. Because of their immense numbers,
and especially because their structure and life-histories are capable
of throwing so much light upon the structure and evolution of
plants, the study of the cryptogamous tribes is of the greatest im-
portance to the science of botany.

LXVIII. BULBS, BULBLETS, AND BUDS

438. We have now found
that plants propagate them-
selves by both sexual and sex-
less means, for seeds are the
product of a sexual process,
whereas most spores are not:

439. A bulb of an Easter
lily, taken after the flowering
period is past, is shown in Fig.
368. It is breaking up into
several parts; and the gar-
dener knows that each of these
parts is a new bulb, and
is capable of multiplying the |
plant. |

440. If we cut the bulb
in two lengthwise, we find a
structure like that shown in ” Bra. 370.
Fig. 369. There is a main Onion bulbs.

      

j Yon

fh if

fil
fh .

Pei PINS,
, Hh Ni NY ‘

x
354 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

axis, and separate bulbs (or
bulbels) are forming at a,
b,c, d. Each of these bulb- {
els, as well as the mother-
bulb, is seen to be only a
mass of thickened scales,
and these scales are
transformed leaves. A
bulb, then, is only a
special kind of bud.
441. Onion bulbs are
shown in Fig.
370. They are
of a different
make-up from
the lily bulb,

    
 
     
 
 
 
 
 
  
  
 
 
 
   
 
  

Fie. 371.

Top onions.

for the parts,
instead of being
narrow and over-
lapping longitu-
. dinally, are thin

Fie. 372. plates which in-
Rosette and offsets of house-leek. close the interior
BULBS, BULBLETS AND BUDS 355

plates. That is, the lily bulb is a type of a
scaly bulb, and the onion of a laminate or tuni-
cated bulb.

441a. One of these onions has a very thick neck or stalk and
a comparatively small bulb. The top has grown at the expense of
the bottom, and the bulb is worthless for market. Such onions
are known as scullions.

442. The onion produces flowers in umbels.
Fig. 371 is a bunch of “top onions,” in which
bulbs (or bulblets) are borne in the flower-cluster.
If the pupil examines such a cluster he may find,
as in this picture, an umbel bearing flowers, well-
formed bulblets, and leaves springing from imper-
fect or scullion-like bulblets. In other words,
flowers have been transformed into purely vegeta-
tive parts. (Compare Obs. xxxvii.)

442a. The pupil may have access to the tiger lily, which bears
bulblets in the axils of the leaves. Top onions may be had of any
seedsman.

443. If bulbs are buds, then we should expect
to find various intermediate forms. The house-leek
(better known as hen-and-chickens, old-man-and-
woman) produces dense rosettes of leaves on the
ground (Fig. 372). This rosette is structurally a
loose, open-topped bulb. The young rosettes, or
offsets, are produced upon short stems from the
under side of the rosette, rather than by the
356 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

growth of interior parts, as in the lily; but there
are some true bulbs which propagate in a similar
way.

443a. Let the pupil examine the bulbs of the dog’s-tooth violet
or “adder’s-tongue,”—which gladdens the copses with its nodding

bell-like flowers in earliest spring,—for « method of propagation
comparable with that of the house-leek.

444. A head of cabbage is cut in two in Fig.
373. It is made up of overlapping and _thick-

 

Fia. 373,

Section of cabbage.

ened leaves, and is really a gigantic bud. There
is this important difference between the cabbage
and a lily bulb and house-leek rosette, however,
that the cabbage bud is not a means of propa-
gating the plant, and one head or bud does not
give rise directly to another. It is simply a store-
BULBS, BULBLETS AND BUDS 357

house; and in this case, the bud has been de-
veloped by man through the process of continually
selecting for seed plants which have the densest
or most coveted buds or heads.

445. We can distinguish bulbs from normal
buds, then, by saying that bulbs directly give rise
to other bulbs which produce plants; and these
plants may produce bulbs directly, or may bear

 

Fig. 374, Fie. 375.

Winter bud of anacharis. Winter bud of myriophyllum.

seeds which produce plants which produce bulbs.
Buds give rise to growing shoots which may pro-
duce flowers and seeds, and these seeds produce
plants which produce buds. We cannot carry this
distinction far, however, because bulbs not only
produce other bulbs by lateral growth, but at the
same time produce a growing vertical shoot or
axis; and we shall find, also, that buds may
separate from the parent in essentially the same
way that the bulblets of the tiger lily do. The
point is that plants may propagate by either sex-
ual or asexual means, or by both means.
358 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

446. If one were to pull the water-weeds from
the drift on the margins of lakes and ponds in
late fall, he would find many of the strands with
large bud-like bodies at the ends (Figs. 374, 375).
These buds drop to the bottom of the pond, and
in spring vegetate and give rise to new plants.

Sueeerstions.—Horticulturists raise onions in four ways: by
sowing the seed; by planting bulblets (Fig. 371); by “multipliers,”
which are bulbs that break up into several bulbs during the pro-
cess of growth; by sets, which are small bulbs that have been pur-
posely arrested in their growth the previous year (by sowing seed
in dry ground and allowing the plants to stand very close together)
and which, when planted, complete their growth and become mer-
chantable bulbs.

LXIX. CORMS AND ROOTSTOCKS

,

447. True bulbs are made
up of scales. But there are
certain bulb-like bodies which
are solid throughout. The
gladiolus has them (Fig. 376).
These are corms.

448. The corm which was

Z planted in the spring is shown
ines, See at the bottom (C). It has
Corm of gladiolus. become hard and lifeless, and
a new large corm has formed
above it, with roots of its own.

 
CORMS AND ROOTSTOCKS 359

448a. Gardeners say that crocuses “lift out of the ground,”
and they advise that the “bulbs” be taken up every two or three
years and replanted. Can the pupil suggest an explanation?

449. If there were only one new corm formed
for every old one, the plant would not increase
itself. The picture shows cormels, or “spawn”
as the gardeners say, arising from the base
of the mother-corm, much as offsets arise
from the house-leek (a, Fig. 376). If these
are removed and cared for, full-grown or
flowering corms may be obtained in one or Af De

 
 
 
  
  
 
  

two years.
. 450. We have found
(483, 44, 45) that the

  

early flower-
ing of trees
is made pos-
sible by the
maturation
of the bud
in the pre-
vious season; and the twig stores up sufficient
nutriment to push out the flowers, and, in most
cases, even to start off the leafy growth. The
same is true of much of the early herb growth
of spring. In fall or winter, examine the roots
of any very early-starting plant and see if great
buds are not formed, ready to leap forth with the

Fia. 377.

Short rhizome of agrimony.
360 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

first warmth of spring. Fig. 377 is the root and
crown of the agrimony, as it was dug up one
November day. (See Figs. 278, 279).

451. There is a short corm-like crown, from
‘the bottom of which roots arise, and upon the
top of which several strong buds are developed.
The old stalk of last year is at K. This will
not grow again, but new stalks will take its

 

Fre. 378.

Rhizome of a smilacina.

place; and as new stalks develop the clump or
plant becomes larger.

452. The underground parts of the false spike-
nard or smilacina are shown in Fig. 378. The
specimen was dug in the fall. The stalk which
grew during the season of 1897 is at 2. This.
stalk is now dead, and no other stalk will arise
from the same place. The stalk of 1898 is to
CORMS AND ROOTSTOCKS 361

arise from the large terminal bud 1; and while
that stalk is growing, another terminal bud will
form beyond it to provide for the stalk of 1899.
We can also trace the history of the plant. The
position of the stalk of 1896 is marked by the
sear 3; that of 1895 by 4; that of 1894 by 5;
and that of 1893 by 6. Beyond that point the
parts have died away. There is, then, a progres-

 

Fig. 379.

Rhizome of quack-grass.

sive movement in this plant. Side branches have
started now and then, but they have not made
headway.

453. Is this strong underground part of the:
smilacina a root or stem? It produces definite
buds, which roots do not; and it also has nodes.
It is a subterranean stem, but roots arise from it.

453a. This subterranean part is a rhizome or rootstock, terms
which are applied to creeping underground stems, as distinguished
from roots. ‘Some rhizomes bear rudimentary leaves, as that of the
quack-grass (Fig. 379), upon which the fibrous leaf-sheaths are promi-
nent. Many rhizomes bear scales at the nodes. Each joint of the
rhizome of quack-grass or Canada thistle may grow when broken
apart, as the farmer knows to his sorrow.
362 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

SuGGESTIONS.—The pupils should have the opportunity to ex-
amine rootstocks of various kinds. Good examples are may-apple
or mandrake, lily-of-the-valley, canna, peppermint, yellow day-lily
or hemerocallis, some of the blue-flags or irises, bloodroot, water-
lily, and many sedges; also ginger-root, which may be bought in
drug stores.

LXX. TUBEROUS PARTS

454. What is a potato? One is shown in Fig.
380. It has “eyes,” or buds, and over each bud
is a minute scale which answers to a leaf. The
potato tuber does not give rise to roots. It is a
stem.

455. What are potatoes for? They are store-
houses of food. They carry the plant over the
‘dry or inactive season
(in their native home),
and also multiply it by
sending forth shoots
from every bud. This
stored food happens to
be nutritious to man,
and by cultivation and
long-continued selection
he has greatly increased
the size of the tuber
and refined its contents. But to the plant, the
tuber, like a bulb or corm, serves the two pur-

 

Fie. 380.
Potato.
TUBEROUS PARTS 363

poses of maintaining life during unpropitious sea-
sons and of multiplying the number of individ-
uals.

456. What is a sweet potato? One is shown
in Fig. 381. It has no “eyes” or scales. It pro-
duces roots. It is a thickened root.

 

Fia. 381.

Sweet potato.

456a. In botanical writings, a much-thickened and shortened
stem is called a tuber; a much thickened root is called a tuberous
root. It would probably be better if both were called tubers, one
being designated as stem-tuber and the other as root-tuber. Stem-
tubers may produce roots from their surface, but they usually do
not.

456b. A tuber, then, may be defined as a prominently thickened
and homogeneous portion of a root or stem, usually subterranean,
and which does not increase or perpetuate itself (as bulbs and
corms do) by direct offshoots or accessions.

457. There is a third class of tubers which
partakes of the nature of both root and stem.
These are sometimes called tubercles, although the
name is unfortunate. Dahlia roots, turnip, beet,
364 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

radish, carrot, parsnip, salsify (Fig. 382) are such.
The top or crown is stem, and stands at the sur-
, face of the ground; and from
/ “ . this portion only are young
plants or flower-stalks produced.
It is strange that while both
root-tubers and stem-tubers usu-
‘ \* ally produce sprouts or young
4 plants throughout their length,
these crown-tubers do not pro-
duce sprouts from the _ root
‘«< portion.
4 ps 458. Tubers do not always
directly serve
the purpose of
4 propagation, but
‘ may merely
‘ earry the plant
Fra. 382. over an unpro-
Crown-tuber of salsify or pitious season,
“vegetable-oyster.” aval alice tf £6 :
continue its growth and to resume
its normal functions upon the ap-
proach of congenial conditions.
In fact, beets, turnips, radishes,
and other simple crown-tubers are
of this class. So are great tribes
of cacti, in which the plant-body

   
  

Fia. 383.

Root-tuber of multi-
florus bean,
TUBHEROUS PARTS 365

is so much condensed that it may almost be said
to be a tuber. A _ root-tuber of this kind is
shown in Fig. 383, which is a picture of a bean
of the Scarlet Runner type. (See, also, Figs. 349,
303.) Most beans are fibrous-rooted, and die at
the close of one season; but this bean lives
two or more years in warm climates, and carries
itself over the inactive seasons by means of its

 

Fig. 384.

Old potato tuber giving rise to new tubers.

thickened root. Even in the North, this thick
root develops. It would appear that these thick-
ened parts develop in plants because of the en-
vironments in which the plants grow; that is,
they seem to he adaptations.

458a. A forcible illustration of the fact that bulbs, corms,
tubers, and the like are storehouses of plant-food is suggested by
Fig. 384. This represents an old potato tuber (a), from which
new tubers have grown, while it was still in the bin. This is a
366 LESSONS WITH PLANTS™

frequent occurrence in potato bins in which there are tubers a year
or so old. The tuber endeavors to grow, but finding neither light
nor soil, it makes new tubers out of its own substance.

  

\

     

Ww
S
‘

   

Fic. 385.

Section of a hill of potatoes growing in clay soil, drawn from life.
The old or “seed” tuber is at A.

SuGGESTIONS.—Let the pupil answer some or all of the follow-
ing questions concerning a hill of potatoes. The queries may all
be answered easily by appealing to the growing plants, and some
of them may be answered from potatoes in the bin. How early
in the life of the plant do the tubers begin to form? Do the
tubers grow above the roots or below them? Does the position
vary between hard and mellow soils? Are potatoes produced on
rhizomes or roots? Do they form on the very end of the under-
ground stalk? Does one stalk ever bear more than one tuber,—do
tubers form successively on a stalk, or does a stalk ever branch?
RUNNERS AND LAYERS 367

Do these stalks increase in length or diameter after the tuber be-
gins to form? From what part of the plant do these stalks spring?
Is there ever a stem on both ends of a potato? From what point
do the roots of a potato plant first spring,—from the old “seed”
tuber, or from other parts? If an entire tuber is planted, do all
the eyes grow?

LXXI. RUNNERS AND LAYERS

459. A stalk or culm of a sedge or carex has
fallen to the ground in Fig. 386, and from four
of the nodes branches have arisen and from two
of them roots have started. These new branches

 

Fia. 386.

Layer of a sedge.
368 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

are at first sustained by the parent plant, but as
the roots develop from the nodes, the branches
become more and more self-sustaining, and finally
the old culm rots away and the plants are inde-
pendent. Such ,a prostrate rooting shoot is a
layer. °

460. The strawberry propagates both by seeds
and by runners (Fig. 387). In most cultivated

   

Fie. 387.

Runner of strawberry.

strawberries the runners begin to form after the
fruit is off, and a new plant arises from each
joint, if the soil is not too hard or the runner is
not disturbed. A runner differs from a layer in
the fact that it is prostrate from the beginning,*
and makes new plants while it is increasing in
length.

461. Some of the osiers, dewberries, and all the
black-cap raspberries propagate by stolons, which are
layers that root only or chiefly at or near the tip.
Raspberry “tips,” with which fruit-growers set a
berry plantation, are masses of roots, crowned by
a heavy bud, and which have arisen by the end of
RUNNERS AND LAYERS 369

the cane striking the ground and taking root, as
shown in Fig. 388. A _ stolon is not prostrate
throughout its length, but makes a high loop be-
tween the parent plant and its contact with the

 

Fig. 388.

Stolon of black raspberry.

earth. The shoots which become stolons are at
first upright, but the weight of the branch forces
the end to the ground.

46la. The practice of layering consists in bending down branches
and covering them with earth at the points from which it is de-
sired that new plants arise. Horticulturists make no distinction in
terminology between prostrate layers, like that in Fig. 386, and
stolons. In plants which root with difficulty, the horticulturist cuts

through the bark, or breaks it, at the covered points, for roots
usually start more readily from wounded surfaces.

462 We have already studied the house-leek
(Fig. 372), and have observed that it propagates
by offsets. An offset differs from a layer in the

fact that it is prostrate from the beginning, and
from a runner because it usually makes but one

Y
370 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

plant. It is essentially, however, a special kind
of runner. This type of propagation is common.

463. Roots may act as runners. The red rasp-
berry (Fig. 389) and the blackberry are typical
examples. Such plants propagate by means of
suckers, which are sprouts or shoots arising about

 

Suckers of red raspberry.

the base of the plant from subterranean roots.
In common usage, however, any sprout arising
through the soil from near the base of a plant
is called a sucker, whether it springs from a root
or a rootstock. Suckering is one of the com-
monest means of extending the plant colony; the
teacher will recall the lilac, sour or pie cherry,
witch-hazel, some varieties of Indian corn, elders,
and, in fact, most common bushes.

Suceestions.—Let the teacher assign each pupil some familiar
bush or other plant, asking him to determine if it has any other

means of propagation than by seeds. If the plant has suckers, he
should determine if they arise from true roots or from rhizomes,
THE MANGROVE 371

LXXII. THE MANGROVE

464. The mangrove grows on the low shores
of tropical lands. It extends as far north as
the twenty-ninth parallel in Flor-
ida, and occurs at the mouth of
the Mississippi and on the coast
of Texas. It is a spreading bush,
reaching a height of 15 to 25 feet
upon the shores, but becoming a
tall tree in interior places. It is
an important agent in the extension
of land into the sea. The means
by which this result is accomplished 1, peginning of

are two. germination in the
mangrove.

 

Fia. 390.

465. The fruit: is
~ small and capsule-like, but does not
\ fall from the tree at maturity. <A
SQ fruit is shown natural size in Fig.
is Bai. 390. The seed is germinating, send-
The hypo. 10g its caulicle out through the apex
cotylenlarg- of the fruit. In Fig. 391 the

ag germination is further progressed.

466. In Fig. 392, germination is nearly
completed. The seed has endosperm. The
cotyledons do not unfold in germination, but a
woody tube grows from them and projects from

 
  
 

  

\

    
372 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

the fruit to the point

a. Inside this tube

is the plumule. The
“hypocotyl continues
y to elongate, becoming
thick and heavy at its lower end.
When six inches or a foot long, it
breaks away from the joint a, carry-
ing the liberated plumule with it, and
strikes root-end down in the mud.
Roots push out from the lower end,
and the epicotyl rapidly elongates and
rears itself above the water.

467. A piece of a mangrove branch
is shown natural size in Fig. 393. An
aérial root is pushing through the
thick bark.

468. The root makes a strong
eurve when it strikes off the
branch, and then grows directly -
downward towards the water.
The braneh from which it springs
may be only a few inches above
the water, or it may be ten
feet; but the root pushes
on until it inserts itself in

ei on, “> the mud, and there makes
The hypocotyl nearly full grown. & root system of its own.

   
 
   
 
 
 
 
 
   
  
   
 

Fig, 394.

The descending root.

THE MANGROVE 373

These long, lithe descending roots
(Fig. 394), swaying in the wind,
are characteristic features of the
mangrove swamp. Usually the hang-
ing roots are unbranched, but now
and then the tip

breaks up into fy =
short forks (Fig. / ‘t SSS
395) before it fit, i 37, SS
reaches the ws | Aik

  
   
    
 

     
  

water. ‘
469. These

long roots re-

main attached es

at the upper me 3

end, and become Aérial root of mangrove.

trunks. The

mangrove plantation, therefore, be-
comes an interwoven mass, and thus
marches on into the tidal rivers
and the ocean, catching the flotsam
and jetsam of the sea; and there-
by it builds land and extends the
shores. In the quiet recesses of
the mangrove swamp aquatic and
amphibious life finds refuge. The
shell-fish cling to the trunks and
at low tide they are exposed, thus
374 LESSONS WITH PLAN'S

giving rise to the stories of the early explorers
that oysters grow on trees.

470. All this will recall the accounts of the
banyan tree, and there are wild fig trees (the ban-
yan is a fig) in Florida and southwards which
behave in a similar way. It seems strange that
roots should strike out into the air, but the pupil
may have observed the “brace roots”
near the ground on Indian corn; and
many plants, as the ivy and trumpet-
creeper, climb by means of roots.

LXXII. CUTTINGS AND GRAFTS

471. A plant multiplies itself by
means of various sexual and asexual
parts which normally detach from it.
But it may also spread by means of
parts which are torn off by winds
and animals, and thus make use of
Multiple tips of a @ccidents. The branches of willows
sia Ai are broken off by ice and storm,

; and take root and grow. They are
often carried down the streams and drifted upon
the shores of lakes, and the branches often take
root as readily from the top end as from the
bottom end.

 

Fig. 395.
CUTTINGS AND GRAFTS 375

472. The leaves of the Mexican bryophyllum
(which is often seen in greenhouses) send up
plants from their edges when they fall in moist
places (Fig. 396). Even the scales of bulbs some-

 

Fie. 396.

Leaf-colony of bryophyllum.

times produce buds at the base and give rise to
new plants; and the horticulturist often utilizes
this capacity to increase his stock of new or rare
varieties.

473. The stems and even the leaves of some
plants produce numerous adventitious plantlets
(Figs. 397, 398) while they are still growing on
the parent plant, so impatient are they to multi-
ply. It seems as if the vegetable kingdom were
redundant with procreative vigor.
376 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

474. As reproduction by asexual or vegetative
means increases, seed-production tends to decrease.
There are many kinds of plants
which are normally nearly or quite
seedless, but such plants are al-
ways provided with vegetative means
of propagation. Many of the pond-
weeds are of this class; so are the
horse-radish, banana, pineapple and
pepino. Even the Canada thistle
bears comparatively few seeds, al-
though it blossoms profusely; but
it propagates rapidly by underground
parts.

475. If nature is so free and
undogmatic in her methods of propa-
gation, surely man can devise al-
most numberless ways in which to
multiply his plants. Every plant
which propagates from seeds slowly
or with difficulty and which is de-

Fia. 397. sired to be cultivated man propa-

Plantlets on begonia gates in some manner by asexual
stem. , ‘ .

parts; and it is probable that

every plant can be so multiplied, upon occasion.

476. Of most plants, a bit of soft stem with
one or two joints and a leaf or two will grow
when severed and placed in the ground under

 
CUTTINGS AND GRAFTS 377

proper conditions of temperature and moisture.
These parts are cuttings (Figs. 399, 400). Nor is
it always necessary that the cuttings should be
made of stems. They are often made of roots
and frequently of leaves. Fig. 401 shows a_ plant

      
 
 
    
 
  
  
 
    

Fou mle il Uy
Ay util PON HERM
UTR SN Son
tance! BA Ant Ne
ST _SS
Si Zz i
Sil ae Z
" cA fi]
4 f! starting and roots forming
Fic. 398. fff from the apex of a triangular
Adventitious portion of a begonia leaf

lantlets on . . : :
pena teat. Which had been inserted in the soil.

When the farmer plants potatoes, he
makes cuttings of tubers.

477. While many stems will grow when planted
bottom end up (as the willow often does), mak-
ing roots indifferently from either end, most root-
cuttings persist in making stems only from the
end which was uppermost on the plant. Fig. 402
is a picture, from life, of a root-cutting (0, N)
of horse-radish, which was planted bottom end up.
378 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

 

Fia. 399.

Cutting of geranium.

 

Root-cutting of horse-radish
planted bottom end up,

 

Cutting of geranium so short
that a toothpick is tied to it to
hold it erect in the soil.

 

Fra. 401.

Leaf-cutting of begonia.
CUTTINGS AND GRAFTS 379

If the cuttings are allowed to remain in that
position, a crooked horse-radish is the result (Fig.
403), although the orig-
inal cutting will tend
to become more or
less horizontal. How?
478. Nor is it nec-
essary that the cuttings
be set in soil. They
may be planted in saw-
dust or moss; and our
mothers root oleander
cuttings by placing a
them in bottles of ing two
water. Or they may (1, oo
Bree be inserted or planted of a limp.
sat ao in another plant, in cae oe
which case they be- faces are
come grafts (Fig. 404) or “buds.” Nor 27°"
yet is it always ‘necessary that the graft was.
shall be set upon another plant of the same gen-
eral kind. Horticulturists often graft the pear
upon the quince, thereby securing a dwarfer tree be-
cause of the slow growth and small stature of the
quince; and the plum is often grown upon the
peach because of the ease and cheapness of such
propagation.
479. The unit in sexual propagation of plants

  
380 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

is the seed. The propagation-unit in vegetative
multiplication is the smallest part of root, stem
or leaf which will grow when severed from the

 

Fia, 405, Fia. 406.
An ideal hand-glass for A simple and good propagating
cuttings. box made of five panes of glass and

a shallow wooden or zine pan.

parent (although this is not a morphological or
structural unit in the plant-body); and, for the
purpose of terminology, this part may be called

a phyton.

SUGGESTIONS.—Many plants are propagated with the greatest
ease by means of cuttings, sometimes even in the school-room
window. A miniature greenhouse may be made by laying a pane
of glass over a wooden box, and the cutting-bed is made by put-
ting three or four inches of gravelly or sandy soil in the bottom
of the box. The sides of the box should not be more than four
or five inches high above the top of the soil. The glass cover
(which must be raised occasionally for ventilation) will maintain
an even temperature and moisture in the box. Better results will
be got under bell-jars, or simple glass frames like those in Figs.
405 and 406. Common geraniums are probably the best plants for
the learner to begin on. Full directions for the propagation of plants,
by all methods, may be found in Bailey’s “Nursery-Book.”
PART VI

STUDIES OF THE BEHAVIORS AND HABITS OF
PLANTS

LXXIV. THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE

480. We have found that there is struggle for
existence, or competition, among
the branches of a tree (Obs.
iv.), and between the different
flowers in a cluster (48); and
we have found the same to be
true with plants themselves
(Obs. Ixv.). It will be profit-
able to give the subject still
further attention. Even with-
out observation, we know that
there must be competition in
the tree-top, because there
would not be room for all Competition among the
the branches if one should
arise from every bud; and when the plant is
cultivated and the branches made to grow larger,

(381)

 
382 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

because they have more food, the struggle must
be still more intense. There is likewise room for
many small apples from a cluster, but for only
one very large apple. Observe the different sizes
of fruits in dense clusters (Fig. 407). If a farmer
sows one hundred turnip seeds in a row a foot
long, there must be similar competition (Fig. 408).

   

= SESS
Fie. 408.
A battle for life.

The weakest, and those which get a poor start, die
or subsist on crumbs; but the farmer might have
prevented the slaughter by thinner sowing, or he
could have cut short the mischief by timely thin-
ning of the plants.

481. If the surface of the earth is now full of
plants (412), and if every plant endeavors to mul-
tiply itself a hundred fold or a thousand fold, it
must result that plants are living under tension.
THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE 383

Whenever plants are destroyed and ground is thereby
unoccupied, there is a rush for the place which
may be likened to the rush of men to a newly
opened and fertile territory.

482. There results a most confused and conglom-
erate population; but in time certain elements
have persisted, and a few kinds of plants occupy
the area. A clearing is occupied by the wildest
confusion of growths, but, if fire and cattle do not
enter, a more or less uniform forest is the outcome.
If fire devastates the area, the battle is renewed.
If cattle invade, a pasture is the result; and, in
the North, the plant which finally gains the vic-
tory,— because the one which can withstand the
grazing,—is June-grass. The farmer plows his
land and kills the plants. A horde of weeds is
waiting. If he sows grain, the land is soon occu-
pied and the weeds have little chance; but if his
crops occupy only half the ground,—as with beets,
potatoes, and melons,—the battle wages the entire
season. If he were to leave his well-subdued
plowed land to care for itself, the battle would
wage most fiercely for a year or two, but the ob-
server would see that the fortunes change, for
while ragweed might hold the field one year, mul-
lein might hold it the next, and june-grass might
again win the final victory. If his plowed land
were full of the roots of briars and other wild
384 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

growths, his field might work into a copse and
then into a forest, rather than into a meadow. It
is the general tendency in all untilled, unburned,
and ungrazed lands to run into forests.

483. So there is alternation, or rotation. The
land tires of unvaried cropping. The longer any
plant occupies an area to the comparative exclusion
of others, the greater are the chances that another
plant will win the victory if the place is again
thrown open to settlement. A poplar forest may
succeed the pine.

484. More plants can grow upon any area if
they are of diverse kinds than if they are of one
kind. An orchard which cannot grow more trees
can (and usually does) grow ragweed and docks in
abundance. After the land is completely planted
to corn, the farmer plants pumpkins between.
Meadows of mixed grasses, or grasses and clovers,
may give more pounds of hay than those in which
there is but a single kind of grass. The intro-
duced weeds and insects which work most havoe
are those which are unlike our own plants and in-
sects; they thereby find the field open, as men
find a “business opening” where there are fewest
competitors. That is, by “divergence of character,”
as Darwin expressed it, plants are able to live to-
gether without demanding space in proportion to
their numbers.
THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE 385

485. In other words, struggle for existence does
not result in death to all but the strongest: it
may result in variation. A plant adapts itself to
competition as it does to physical environment.
Given struggle for existence,—which is inevitable
so long as there is propagation,—and physical
changes in the earth,—which we know to have
taken place,—and it is impossible to conceive of a
perfectly stable and immutable creation. There must
be evolution.

485a. The reader must not infer that struggle for existence it-
self is here specified as a cause of variation. The subject of the
causes Of variations or differences is the most important one now
before naturalists, and it is not the purpose of this book to dis-
cuss it. There are some persons who believe that struggle for
existence is itself « cause, but others think that it only preserves
the most useful of the variations which are already present or po-
tentially present. It is enough for the beginner to know that the
struggle for existence results in the perpetuation of differences.

SuaceEsTions.—The pupil should see the struggle for existence.
He should count the dead, and should see what divergencies of
characters arise. He has already been instructed (Obs. iv.) how to
see it in a tree-top,—by looking. If he wants to see it in separate
plants, let him stake off « bit of ground,—say two feet square,—
in rich garden soil, allowing the area to remain untouched, and see
what happens. He should count the number of plants which come
up; observe if they are of uniform strength and vigor; and deter-
mine how many kinds there are. He need not know “botany” to
be able to designate the kinds; that is, he need not know the
names. He may call one kind A and another B. As the season
progresses, count at intervals, and observe if some plants are
stronger and bigger than others. The teacher may find statistics of
such a weed-world in Essay XIV., “Survival of the Unlike.”

Z
386 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

LXXV. THE DURATION OF PLANTS

486. Beans which are planted in spring complete
their span of life and die before the close of the
growing season. The plant is an annual.

487. The mullein, bull-thistle and teasel produce
spreading rosettes of leaves the first year from seed,
the leaves lying nearly flat upon the ground. The
next year the seed-stalk, or bushy plant, is thrown
up from this crown of leaves; the plant blossoms,
produces seeds, and dies. The plant lives two
years. It is a biennial.

488. Quack-grass, golden-rods, bleeding-heart,
roses, lilac bushes, trees, live on from year to year.
They are perennials,—living more than two years.

489. When castor-oil beans, red peppers, cotton
and other warm-country plants, are grown at the
North, they are killed by the frost. In other
words, they do not mature normally in the short
seasons ; and in their native homes they may be
perennials. These are plur-annuals.

489a. A plur-annual, then, is an annual only because it is killed
by the closing of the season, as by frost, in distinction to the true

annual, which dies at the close of the season, or before, because of
natural ripeness or maturity.

490. The annual preserves or perpetuates its
kind by means of seeds. Crocuses, potatoes, lilies,
THE DURATION OF PLANTS 387

perpetuate themselves by means of tubers or other
thickened parts, but both root and stem die upon
the approach of the inactive season, or of winter.
These are pseud-annuals.

490a. Pseud-annuals (‘ false-annuals”) are those which normally
die at the approach of winter, except that the kind is perpetuated by
means of bulbs, corms, tubers, and the like.

491. Parsnips and salsify remain in the ground
all winter and flower the second season, and die.
Turnips and carrots may do the same where the
climate is not too severe. But parsnips, turnips,
carrots and radishes may “run wild,” in which case
they may produce no crown-tubers, and may produce
seed and die the first year. They are only poten-
tial biennials, the biennial character seeming to be
largely the result of domestication.

492. We have already learned that bulbs and
other thickened parts are storehouses of plant-
food, and that they are means, or adaptations, for
carrying the plant over an uncongenial season.
We have seen, too (489), that plants may be an-
nuals in one climate and perennials in another;
or annuals under one set of conditions and bien-
nials under another. It is now believed that the
duration of the plant is generally the result of ad-
justment to the circumstances in which it lives or
has lived.
388 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

492a. Plants which are widely cultivated generally develop varie-
ties of different durations; and some perennial plants, as tomato and
red pepper, have varieties which are almost true annuals in northern
countries. Plants which were originally presumably annuals have been
developed into potential biennials, as radish and turnip ; and on the
other hand, the perennial sea-beet is considered to be the parent
of the potentially biennial garden beet.

493. Both bleeding-hearts and lilacs are peren-
nials, but one dies to the ground every fall and
the other does not. Moreover, the bleeding-heart
becomes weak in a few years and dies out, but
the lilac retains its vigor year after year. Even
perennials, then, may not live always; and there
are characteristic differences in their duration.
Plants which remain soft and non-woody are herbs.
The bleeding -heart,—and every perennial which
dies to the ground in the fall,—is an herbaceous
perennial.

493a. The horticulturist is well aware that perennial plants may
have only a short span of life; else why does he “renew” his beds
of grass- pinks, columbines, bluebells, hoflyhocks, hardy chrysanthe-
mums, and the like, after they have flowered two or three years?

493b. Flowers which are technically known as annuals among
gardeners may be annuals or plur-annuals, or biennials, or even per-
ennials which bloom freely the first year from seed.

LXXVI. THE STATURE AND HABIT OF PLANTS

494. The cherry (Figs. 16, 17), oak, maple,
have a single trunk or stem, and we have seen
THE STATURE AND HABIT OF PLANTS 389

(Obs. iv.) that the side branches are lopped off or
suppressed by competition among themselves and

 

Fia. 409.

The prostrate habit of mayflower.

with other plants. Plants with a central shaft or
trunk, and a more or less elevated head, are trees.

494a. Is it necessary that a cherry or basswood, or other tree,
shall grow to a single trunk? If a cherry or peach tree were to

grow in the garden wholly without ‘pruning from the first, might
it have more than one trunk?

495. In the sumac (Fig. 11) the shaft or leader
soon disappears. Compare the lilac and snowball.
390 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

These are diffuse and low growers, with no elevated
head. They are bushes or shrubs.

496. The mayflower or epigea (Fig. 409) lies
upon the ground from the first, making no effort
to grow upright. It is prostrate or procumbent.
There are, then, two general types of stature,—the
vertical and the horizontal; but there is every inter-
mediate gradation.

496a. The general appearance of a plant is called its habit.

It may have a prostrate or upright habit, a weak or strong habit,
a graceful or rugged habit, and the like.

497. The pupil should determine upon what
part of a plant the fruit is borne in raspberries
and blackberries. He will find that the stems die,
or at least become very weak, and therefore prac-
tically useless, as soon as they have borne; and he
will see that these stems are only two seasons old.
For example, sprouts or shoots spring from the root,
in 1896; they bear in 1897. Other shoots arise in
1897; they bear in 1898. The horticulturist knows:
such shoots—which arise directly from the root,
and bear but one or two crops before becoming
weak,—as canes.

497a. The raspberries, blackberries, dewberries, are true cane-
fruits, but the term is also applied to currants and gooseberries, in
which the canes bear several years, although the most profitable
erops are obtained the first two or three. The ripened shoots of

the grape are also called canes. The pupil will now understand
the philosophy of cutting out the canes in raspberry patches.
THE STATURE AND HABIT OF PLANTS 391

498. The winter habits of two hickory trees are
shown in Figs. 410, 411. The pupil should detect
the characteristic differences,—the horizontal growths

 

Fie. 410. = Fie. 411.

Pig-nut hickory. Small-fruited shagbark hickory.

of one and the upright growths of the other, and
the tortuous, crooked spray as compared with the
straighter spray. Every kind of tree and bush has
 

LESSONS WITH PLANTS

Fia. 412.

Roots of orchard-grass.

Fig. 413.

Roots of red clover.
THE STATURE AND HABIT OF PLANTS 393

a characteristic frame-work or habit of branching.
There are great differences between trees in winter
as well as in summer, and if the pupil once be-
gins to detect them he will enjoy trees even when
they are leafless.

499. The root system of the orchard-grass is
shown in Fig. 412. It is fibrous and spreading,
not reaching deep into the ground. The root sys-
tem of clover (Fig. 413) is essentially vertical. The
plant has a tap-root or leader, which strikes deep
into the soil. Salsify (Fig. 382), turnip, carrot,
horse-radish, beet, also have tap-roots, but they
are tuberous or fleshy. We have seen (493) that
the perennial part in herbaceous plants is subter-
ranean. This part is sometimes stem,—as in bulbs
and rhizomes,—and sometimes root; and this root
may be tuberous (horse-radish), fibrous and spread-
ing (Fig. 412), or fibrous and tap-rooted (Fig. 413).
We have learned, then, that the roots of plants, as
well as their tops, have characteristic habits.

499a. In these two Observations we have classified plants in
respect to the texture of the plant-body, and to duration and habit.
We may fill out the synopsis as follows: :

In respect to texture of the plant-body—
Herbs, sometimes
suffrutescent, or slightly woody near the ground.
Woody plants, sometimes
frutescent (or suffruticose), herbaceous above, but deci-
dedly woody below.
394 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

In respect to duration—

Annual,
plur-annual ;
pseud-annual.
Biennial,
potentially biennial.
Perennial,
only part of the plant perennial (herbs) ;
entire plant perennial (woody plants) ;
various differences in the span of life, the herbs, as a
rule, being shorter-lived.

In respect to habit—

Stem horizontal,
creeping or repent (Fig. 386) ;
prostrate or procumbent (Fig. 409) ;
ascending, or rising obliquely upwards, generally from a
more or less prostrate base ;
decumbent or bent over (Fig. 387).

Stem vertical,
shrubby or fruticose ;
tree-like or arborescent.
Root tuberous,
tap-rooted (Fig. 382) ;
fascicle-rooted, as in dahlia.
Root fibrous,
spreading (Fig. 412);
tap-rooted (Fig. 413).

Suecestions.—There is no better subject than the winter aspects
of trees to train the pupil’s powers of observation. Ask him to
look at the different kinds of oaks or maples, or to compare the
oaks with the maples, looking at the tree-tops against a winter sky.
He will soon begin to catch the differences in outlines and details,
and trees will mean more to him ever after. The two hickories in
Figs. 410, 411 show minor and unimportant differences as compared
with some other trees. Let the pupil put his own emotions into
the trees, noting which ones appeal to him as strong, rugged, weep-
 

s of different varieties of plum.

Various habit
396 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

ing, graceful, bold, and the like. A pear orchard of several varie-
ties is a capital place in which to study differences in aspects of
trees. Japanese plums, now considerably cultivated, show marked
differences. (The varieties illustrated in Fig. 414 are: 1, Burbank;
2, Wickson; 3, Georgeson; 4, Hale; 5, Abundance; 6, Red June.)
In connection with these observations, the pupil may take up the
studies suggested in Obs. viii. Suggest to the pupil that he observe
the row of shade trees nearest to his home, noting: the compara-
tive vigor or rate of growth of the various trees; the general
outline of the tops; the general mode of branching; the char-
acter of the twig-growth or spray; and in the summer, whether
the trees are equally leafy, and. whether the leaves come out and
drop at the same time in all of them.

LXXVI. HOW SOME PLANTS GET UP IN
THE WORLD

500. The hop reaches light and air by coiling
around some support (Vig. 415). If the pupil
has access to a hop-field (hops often grow on old
fences) or to the Japanese hop of gardens, let
him observe the direction in which the stems
twine. He will find the tips coiling from his right
to his left, or in the direction of the movement
of the sun.

501. The morning-glory (Fig. 416) twines in the
opposite direction,—from the observer’s left to
right. Fig. 417 is a morning-glory shoot which
was taken from its support, and the free end,—
above the string,—coiled about the stake in the
HOW SOME PLANTS GET UP IN THE WORLD 397

opposite direction. Two hours thereafter, the shoot
had uncoiled itself and the tip, as seen in the
picture, was again resuming its natural direction.

 

Fie. 415. Fie. 416. Fia. 417.

Japanese hop,—with Morning-glory,—against Morning-glory refus-
the sun. the sun. ing to twine with

the sun.
398 LESSONS WITH PLANTS
We shall expect to find that most kinds of twin-
ing plants coil in only one direction.

50la. Plants which coil with the sun, or from the observer’s
right to left, are known as sinistrorse or eutropic ; those which coil

 

Fig. 418.

IH Tendril
i of cucumber.
My

against the sun, or left to right, are dextrorse or antitropic. The lat-
ter direction is the more common.

502. Let the pupil watch the free end of a
twiner, —as on a young plant which has not yet
found a support, or a long tip projecting above.
a support—and take note of the position or di-
rection of the tip at different times of the day.
He will find that the tip revolves in a plane, as
if seeking a support.

503. The cucumber climbs by means of ten-
drils (Fig. 418). Notice that the tendril is hooked,
in readiness to catch a support. Does the point
of the tendril revolve? Watch it closely; or draw
HOW SOME PLANTS GET UP IN THE WORLD 399

a mark along one side of it, from base to tip,
with indelible ink, and observe if the line be-

 

Pig. 419.

Tendrils of cassabanana, a melon like plant.

comes twisted, or if it is now seen on the con-
eave side of the tendril and then on the con-
vex side.

504. The tendril finally strikes a support.
What then? ‘It coils; but if it coils much, why
does it not twist in two, since both base and
tip are fixed? Study Fig. 419. At a the branches
of the tendril are searching for a support. At b
400 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

two of the branches have found support, and
have coiled spirally, thereby drawing the plant
near the support;
but notice that
there are places in
each where one coil
! is missing. At
une! these places, the di-
rection .of the coil
was changed. The
middle branch failed
Tendril of Boston to find a_ support,

ivy. and has twisted up
into a querl; and the same thing has occurred
in ¢.

      

  
      
 
 

 

S

Was

TSS
SSS

SSS

ASRS

504a. Farmers’ boys say that a watermelon is ripe when the
querl is dead (which, however, may not be true). What is this
quer! ?

504b. The tendrils of some plants are provided with dises at the
ends, rather than hooks, by means of which they attach to a support.,
Compare the common Virginia creeper ; also the root-like tendrils of
the Japanese ampelopsis or Boston ivy (Fig. 420). Can the pupil show
that the tendril in Fig. 420 is stem, not root?

505. A clematis is shown in Fig. 421. Here
the petiolule of the terminal leaflet is acting as a
tendril, although all of the petiolules and the pet-
iole have the same habit. Leaves, then, may act
both as tendrils and foliage.
HOW SOME PLANTS GET UP IN THE WORLD 401

505a. This recalls our discussion (Obs. xviii.) of the disguises of
leaves, for we then found that leaflets may be represented by tendrils.
lf the pupil will study the position of tendrils of the grape, he will find
that they oceupy the places of flower-clusters. (Has he not seen a
bunch of grapes with one or two ten-
drils protruding?) Let him determine
the morphology of the tendrils of cu-
cumbers and melons. Observe, also,
how the garden nasturtium, or tropso-
lum, climbs.

  
    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
   

506. The trumpet creeper,
poison ivy, true ,
or English ivy, \
and some other
plants, climb ~.
by roots
which attach
themselves to
the support. #

Observe that such roots prefer to
occupy the dark places or chinks
on the building or bark upon
which they climb.

507. Many plants are mere scramblers, as some
tall forms of blackberries, galiums (Fig. 63), some
of the smart-weed tribe or polygonums. Such
plants are often provided with various hooks or
prickles by means of which they are secured to
the support as’ they grow; but it by no means
follows that all hooks or prickles on plants serve

    

Fia. 421.

  
  

Clematis
climbing by
leaf-tendril.

 
   

   
 

\
a
WES
SSS 3S
ARES

SS

     

SSS

—

        

   
   

LSS

   

=
San

AA
402 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

such a purpose, or, in fact, that they were devel-
oped primarily as a means of enabling the plant
to climb.

SuaGEsTions.—We have thus seen how some plants are able to
maintain themselves in the fierce struggle for existence. Let the
pupil observe if climbing plants naturally grow with other and tall
plants, or do they frequent places of less competition and run their
chances of finding support on other things than growing plants. Does
the climbing habit impress the pupil as being a means of enabling the
plant to reach light and air? In respect to the methods by which
plants climb, any climber will afford interesting study, but the teacher
will find young morning-glory, pea, pole bean, Japanese hop, cucum-
ber, and nasturtium plants to be easily grown from seeds and useful
in demonstration. Darwin’s “Movements and Habits of Climbing
Plants” should be consulted.

LXXVIII. VARIOUS MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS

508. With Fig. 82 we studied the form of the
leaf of bean, but there is more to be seen in
the picture. The leaf at the left was drawn in
the day-time, that at the right in the night-time.
There are similar differences in the positions of
leaflets of oxalis (Figs. 422, 423) or wood-sorrel.
Observe, also, at day and night, the leaves of
clovers, lupines, locusts and acacias. In other
words, the leaflets and leaves of many plants,
notably of the Leguminose, take different positions
at day and at night. The leaves of some plants
close up during very hot hours of the day. The

.
VARIOUS MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS 403

leaves of purslane, and even of Indian corn and
grasses, seem to wilt or to roll up when the
weather is hot, and
loss of moisture is
thereby prevented.

509. The flower of
the California poppy,
or eschscholtzia, which
is common in gardens,
opens at day and closes
at night. Observe,
also, the flower of
“pussley”, the garden
portulaca or rose-moss, oxalis, and some of the
mallows. Other flowers open at night and close
at day. This diurnal move-
ment of the parts of plants
is known as the “sleep of
plants.”

 

Fic. 422.

Day position of oxalis leaflets.

509a. It is not a sleep, however, in
the sense of being a rest or period of
recuperation for the plant. How these
movements are produced is not definitely
known, but they are associated intimately
with the stimuli exerted by light and
darkness, heat and cold. The utility of
the movement is also in dispute. Darwin
found that the position of sleeping leaves
Fig. 423. at night is such as to conserve the vital

Night position of oxalis heat of the plant, and it is possible that
leaflets. some of this leaf-movement has arisen as

 
404. LESSONS WITH PLANTS

a direct means of adaptation to circumstances or as a protection
to the plant; but in the present state of our knowledge, this is

largely assumption. 510. The flowers of
hepatica have been
studied in Figs. 131 and
153. If, however, the
artist were to draw the
plant at night or in
early morning, he would
AN make a_ picture like
iS

 
 
 
 
 
    
 
   
  
   

  
   
  

‘
AN
ie Fig. 424. The entire
flower droops by
the bending of
=the scape, and
Ze it straightens up
~~ and expands in
the day-time.
The sleep of
plants, then,
may be more than a_
simple closing of the
flowers.

510a. Is it common for early

spring flowers to close or to droop

at night? The-pupil may now be

L7 Sleep of the interested to explore the garden
hepatica. with a lantern.

511. One of the most remarkable movements
in plants is that of the leaf and leaflets of the
VARIOUS MOVEMENTS OF PLANTS 405

sensitive plant (Fig. 425). The normal position of
the leaf is shown at the right. A slight touch
or shock causes the petiole to drop and the leaf-
lets to shut up, as shown on the left. The move-
ments are rapid and striking.

5lla. The sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) is easily grown
from seeds, which may be obtained of seedsmen. It thrives wher-

 

Fic. 425.

The curious behavior of the sensitive plant.

ever beans will grow. The young plants, which grow rapidly, are
more sensitive than old ones. The sensitive plant is one of the
Leguminosa.

512. We have now seen movements in stamens
(Fig. 150), in leaves, the opening and closing of
flowers, the shoots of twining plants and of ten-
drils, the fly-catchers of insectivorous plants (109a),
of stems towards light, and roots towards the
earth (405a) and darkness (506), the bursting
of pods (316, 316a, 316), 331); and there are
other movements which we have not considered.
Plants are not as fixed and as unresponsive to
external conditions as we have thought them to be.

@
406 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

SuGe@EsTions.—Darwin’s “Power of Movements in Plants” is
the first literature to be consulted in connection with the forego-
ing subjects. Geddes’ “Chapters in Modern Botany” will also be
useful. Let the pupil grow beans in pots or boxes and watch the
positions of the young leaves at midday, at dusk, in darkness, in
early morning. The flowers of the common yellow and violet
oxalises of window gardens, or the ice-plant, are useful for obser-
vation. So are some of the cacti, if the pupil has access to them
in bloom. On a hot day the pupil should disturb the stamens in
the little yellow flowers of the purslane, and watch the movements.

LXXIX. EPIPHYTES, PARASITES AND
SAPROPHYTES

513. Our attention has already been called to
the fact (Obs. Ixvii.) that some plants are para-
sitic, obtaining their nourishment from living
plants or animals, and that others are  sapro-
phytic, obtaining their food from decaying organic
matter. These are the robbers and beggars of the
vegetable world.

514. The American mistletoe (Fig. 426) is
common upon walnuts and other deciduous trees
from the Ohio river southwards. It is a spread-
ing evergreen bush, bearing flowers and_ berries
freely. The sticky berries are carried by birds,
and the seeds, dropping in the crevices of bark,
germinate and send a root-like portion through
the bark and into the live tissue beneath. From
this live tissue food (see 542a) is abstracted; and
EPIPHYTES, PARASITES AND SAPROPHYTES 407

as the branch of the host increases in diameter,
the woody tissue is piled up about the imbedded
stem (S) of oe mistletoe (Fig. 427). The para-
site is not entirely helpless,
however, for it has green
leaves and twigs, and is there-
by able to elaborate materials
taken from the air.

515. The dodder (Fig. 428)
spreads its blanched orange and
yellow threads over a>
the weeds in low
places, often cov-
ering them al-
most completely
by August or
September; and

certain kinds Ses
smother the clover Bie Ete

and flax. They the mistletoe to
are complete par ae ees

asites, having no leaf-green with which to help
themselves. The dodders are closely allied to the
morning-glories (and to the sweet potato!) and
are twiners. The seeds fall to the ground and
germinate tardily in the spring, a_ slender root
enters the ground, and a _ very slender top,
supported chiefly by the nourishment in the seed,

  

Fig. 426.

American mistletoe growing
on a walnut branch.
408 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

reaches from side to side for a host. Finding
none, it finally dies; but rank weeds and bushes

   

Fie. 428.

A plant in the grasp
of dodder.

are usually abundant in the moist places in which
it grows.

516. The Indian pipe or corpse-plant (Fig.
429) is frequent in woods. It is wholly destitute
of ieaf-green and must, therefore, be either a para-
EPIPHYTES, PARASITES AND SAPROPHYTES 409

site or saprophyte. It is probable that it is
both, deriving some of its nourishment from the
roots of living trees, and
also some of it from
the decaying leaf-mold.
There are several leaf-
less and non-chlorophyl-
lous plants growing upon
the ground in woods in
this country, living much \
as the Indian pipe does.
Some of them are or-
chids; others are known
as beech-drops, because
occurring in beech woods;
another is the remark-
able snow-plant or sar-
codes of the Sierras.
There are, also, quite a
number of green and Z /
leafy herbs which are ase77f/H/

 

i
partially parasitic upon VR” ony, 429,
roots, and which the The Indian pipe.
uninformed observer

would never suspect of such habits.

517. The lichen, or “moss,” which grows upon
trees derives its nourishment from the air and
rain, and possibly somewhat from the decaying
410 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

bark of the host. There is, then, a third class of
these dependent plants,—the epiphytes, or those
which perch or grow upon other plants, without
obtaining food from their juices. They are only
squatters, not robbers. The “Spanish moss” of
the South,—which is really a flowering plant,—is
an epiphyte or air-plant, and so are many flower-
ing plants in southern Florida and the _ tropics.
The pupil may see epiphytes in the better green-
houses, where many kinds of epiphytic orchids are
grown upon pieces of bark or in hanging baskets
without soil; he may also find stag’s-horn fern
in some of these houses.

518. We have been impressed with the fact of
the struggle for existence from a mere mathe-
matical calculation of the rate of propagation;
we have seen some of the ways in which plants
are able to live together because of differences or
divergencies in character; and we are now again
impressed with the stress under which plants must -
live, when we see the unusual places and _ habits
into which they are forced.

LXXX. PLANT SOCIETIES

519. The pupil knows that every different
piace, —as swamp, hill, ravine, shore,—has_ its
PLANT SOCIETIES 41]

peculiar kinds of plants. He may not know the.
plants, but he knows that they look different in the
different places. That is, the physiognomy of any
place is determined not alone by its physical fea-
tures, —as elevation, soil, rock, water, —but in large
part by its vegetation.

5194. The plants of any region are known, collectively, as its
flora. Thus, we speak of the flora of America, or the flora of a
meadow.

520. This means that plants live together in
communities, those which are suited to the same
physical environments and to each other being
driven together by the force of circumstances.
Local gardens have the same kind of weeds
salt marshes the same grasses and weeds, mill-
ponds the same herbs. Pigweeds do not grow
in woods, nor dandelions in marshes, nor skunk-
cabbage on lawns. There are, then, two things
to be considered in the plant societies,—the fact
that certain plants associate, and the fact that any
one plant is not equally distributed everywhere.

521. Let the pupil observe any plant society
with which he often comes in contact, for the
purpose of determining what plants give it its
particular tone or character. The society may be
the flora of a familiar roadside or of a fence-row.
In some societies, he will find the physiognomy
to be the result of an approximately equal blend-
412 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

ing of several or even many kinds of plants. In
others, he will find that one kind strongly pre-
dominates and gives character to the flora; and
this is especially true of roadside floras, where
migration is unimpeded.

522. If he watch this society throughout the
season, he will observe that its physiognomy, or
appearance, changes from month to month; and
this change is not always such as comes from
the greater age and maturity of the plants, but
it is: often the result of a progression or rotation
in the kinds of plants. If the September physi-
ognomy is normally one of aster or goldenrod,
what are the May and July characters? And are
the asters usually preceded by the same types of
plants year by year and in various localities, or
are they preceded by any early-flowering plant, in-
discriminately ?

523. If any society of plants is under tension,
it must follow that the withdrawal or modification -
of any environmental factor will be followed by
changes in the flora and, consequently, in the
physiognomy. Let the pupil observe how a drain
put through a swale affects the flora, or how the
felling of the timber affects the undergrowth. The
farmer knows that sheep keep down bushes, from
their fondness for browsing; when sheep are re-
moved from a copse or thicket, notice how soon
PLANT SOCIETIES 413

it fills up with strange growths. Pastured wood-
lands are usually destitute of underbrush.

523a. The observation of these little and local plant societies
will prepare the pupil to understand the problems involved in the
greater societies which comprise the world-floras. Four great types
of societies are, —
Hydrophytic, comprising aquatie floras or those of very humid
regions ;
Mesophytic, comprising mid-condition floras;
Halophytic, salt-area floras ;
Xerophytic, desert or dry-country floras.

The best literature upon this subject is Warming’s “(£kolo-
gischen Pflanzengeographie,” which is now being rendered ‘into
English.

524. The study or science which treats of all
these inter-relationships of organisms and their re-
lations to environment is known as ecology (writ-
ten cecology in lexicons). It is the study of the
modes of life and habits of animals and plants.

SuccEstTions.—Older pupils may be assigned certain local floras
to investigate. One may be asked to report what kinds of plants
lend the peculiar appearance to an adjacent field, and another may
report upon a certain piece of roadside, or upon a lawn, meadow,
or garden. Ask a pupil to discover what kinds of plants grow
where dandelions, docks, or sorrel do; or what trees grow in woods
where basswoods or beeches or oaks or pines predominate. What
kinds of plants usually grow in fence-corners? Are they the same
kinds that grow in woods? Are the weeds that grow in meadows
or in wheat-fields of the same kind as those in gardens? It is
not necessary that the pupils or the teacher know the names of
all the plants. Let the pupils bring specimens. Pupils will en-
joy readings from Gaye’s “The Great World’s Farm.” More gen-
eral discussions of some of the phases of ecology may be found
414 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

in Marsh’s * The Earth as Modified by Human Action.” Teachers
who desire to acquaint themselves with the scientific methods of
working out the details of plant societies, should consult MacMil-
lan’s “Observations on the Distribution of Plants Along Shore at
Lake of the Woods,” in Minnesota Botanical Studies, Bulletin 9,
Parts x. and xi. ;

Pupils often hesitate to collect plants for fear of being poisoned,
but there are only two plants, at least in the Northern States, which
are poisonous to the touch. These are the poison ivy (Fig. 84),
which climbs on fences, stumps and trees by means of roots, and
the poison sumac or poison oak (Fig. 85), a low bush inhabiting
swales. The Virginia creeper (Fig. 79) is often confounded with
the poison ivy, but it has five, and sometimes more, leaflets
whereas the ivy has but three. The Virginia creeper is harmless.
Of course, the pupil should never eat of wild fruits or roots with-
out knowing the plant.

LXXXI. RECORDS OF THE SEASONS AND
THE YEARS

525. The blooming of certain plants is asso-
ciated with the coming of spring. The dandelions,
the red maple, red-bud, hepaticas, and _ their -
train of woods flowers, the fruit-trees, the peeping
of the frogs and the return of the birds, all mark
the opening of a new season. No one goes to a
thermometer or barometer to see when spring has
come. In other words, plants and animals move
with the seasons, and afford, therefore, the best
records of the seasons.

526. The keeping of the dates of blooming,
RECORDS OF THE SEASONS AND THE YEARS 415

leafing, and falling of the leaves of certain plants
is, therefore, of interest, not only from the side of
plant-study, but from the side of climate-study.
Plants record all the features of the passing cli-
mate, as warmth, moisture, sunshine, and the vari-
ous inter-relations of them. The science or study
which considers the relationship of local climate
to the periodical phenomena of animals and plants
is phenology.

526a. Phenology is a contraction of phenomenology. It is to be
noted that its proper subject is climate, as expressed in terms of

plant and animal periodicities, not plants and animals as influenced
by climate.

527. If data are to have any value in recording
the changes of the seasons, and the climates of the
years, they must be made with a definite purpose,
and be continued for a series of years; and, so
far as possible, records should be taken from the
same plants year by year, if these plants represent
average conditions.

528. The subjects of phenological inquiry may be
classified as follows: to determine the general oncom-
ing of spring; to determine the fitful or variable fea-
tures of spring; to determine the epoch of the full
activity of the advancing season; to determine the
active physiological epoch of the year; to deter-
mine the maturation of the season; to determine the
oncoming of the decline of fall; to determine the
416 LESSONS WITH PLANS

approach of winter; to determine the features of the
winter epoch; to determine the fleeting or fugitive
epochs of the year.

528a. It is evident that any miscellaneous set of notes will satisfy
none of these purposes, unless, possibly, the last. Such plants must be
selected as will give unequivocal periods, and which are convenient for
observation year by year. The observer must feel that records are
valuable in proportion to the number of years over which they extend.
Except in determining fugitive epochs, observations of a single
season alone have little value. For full instructions upon the taking of
phenological observations, seé Bailey in Monthly Weather Review of
the United States Weather Bureau, September, 1896.

528). Five tests of good phenological observations are as follows :

1. As broad a distribution as possible of the plant selected
for observation.

2. Ease and certainty of identifying the definite phases which are
to be observed.

3. The utility of the observations as regards biological questions,
such as the vegetative periods, time of ripening, etc.

4. Representation of the entire period of vegetation.

5. Consideration of those species which are found in almost all
published observations, and especially of those whose development is
not influenced by momentary or accidental circumstances, as the
dandelion is.

529. There are four epochs which are most im-
portant in taking phenological notes; upper surface
of leaf first showing; first flower open; first fruit
ripe or full colored; half or more of the leaves ful!
colored. If, however, one desires to record only
the opening of spring in the various years, only the
first two events may be noted. In rural communi-
ties, the dates of planting and harvesting of the
RECORDS OF THE SEASONS AND THE YEARS 417

leading crops may afford most valuable records. In
making notes, it is best to choose common and
easily recognized plants, so that the records can
be compared and duplicated in other places.

529a. Plants which appear to be most valuable for the main pheno-
logical observations and for the greater number of observers in New
York and New England are as follows, it being understood that the
observer shall designate, as far as possible, the particular variety which
he has recorded in the case of cultivated plants:

Apple, pear, quince, plum, sweet cherry, sour cherry, peach, choke
cherry (Prunus Virginiana), wild black cherry (Prunus serotina), Japan-
ese or flowering quince (Pyrus Japonica), cultivated raspberry, culti-
vated blackberry, cultivated strawberry, lilac, mock-orange or syringa
(Philadelphus coronarius), horse-chestnut, red-pith elder (Sambucus
racemosa), common elder (Sambucus Canadensis), flowering dogwood
(Cornus florida), native basswood, native chestnut, privet or prim
(Ligustrum vulgare), red currant, cultivated grape.

529d. -For the fugitive or abnormal epochs of the year, as
“warm spells” in winter or spring, or “late falls,” and the killing
frosts of fall and late spring, the observer must consider whatever
plants come in his way. Here is the chief value of the dandelion
in phenological records ;—it should not be included in any general
scheme of notes. There is the greatest temptation to record the
blooming of the very earliest spring flowers, as mayflower or epigea,
hepatica, erigenia, dandelion, willows, crocus, and the like. This is
well, and the records should be made, as showing the first burst of
spring; but these records should not be mixed in with those de-
signed to show the general onward course of the seasons.

SucGEsSTIONS.—There is a common passion to make dates of the
opening of the spring flowers and the leafing of the trees, and in order
that this desire may be guided and directed into useful channels,
this chapter has been inserted. Suppose that dates were kept of the
blooming, or leafing, or falling of the leaves, of certain trees or other
plants in the school premises, or of the appearing of the dandelions.
The habit might soon become a tradition in the school, and the records
be continued from teacher to teacher. Or, the pupil might be asked

BB
418 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

to choose some plant at his own home of which he would take
records from year to year. Wholly aside from the possible value
of such notes as records of climate, the note-taking would define
and direct the pupil’s observation.

LXXXII. THE BREEDING OF PLANTS

530. We have been inipressed with the fact that
plants are adapted or fitted to the conditions in
which they grow, and we believe that much of this
adaptation has come to pass because those variations
which were best fitted to live in the given conditions
did live and perpetuated their kind, and the others
perished. If we personify nature, we may say that
she selects the fit and discards the unfit. This is
the hypothesis of natural selection, or Darwinism.

531. The gardener sows a row of lettuce. He
sows more seeds than he desires plants, knowing
that some seeds may not grow and some of the
young plants may die or be injured. When the*
plants are well up, he thins them, taking out, per-
haps, two-thirds of them; but he always leaves the
largest and best, and it is from these best plants
that seeds are saved. This is a process of selection,
and is comparable with natural selection.

532. The original parents of domestic plants
were wild plants; but the domestic plants finally
became very unlike the plants from which they

|
i
THE BREEDING OF PLANTS 419

sprung. The process which has caused them to be
more and more unlike the parents is continued se-
lection,—the choosing of the best or most coveted,
generation after generation. Sometimes this selec-
tion has been intended, the person desiring to im-
prove the breed. For the most part, however, it
has been unintended and generally unconscious, the
person thinking only of the excellence of the present
crop; but the result, nevertheless, has been the im-
provement of the race.

533. The kind of lettuce plants which are left
‘is determined by the person who thins the row.
One person may like broad-leaved lettuce and an-
other may want long-leaved lettuce. As no two
persons have the same likes and dislikes, so no two
would thin the row in exactly the same way. The
result is that, in time, two persons would obtain
' different types or strains of lettuce, if they contin-
ually raised their own seed. That is, the evolution
or amelioration of domestic plants is directed by
personal ideals. The plant-breeder must first con-
ceive of his variety, then produce it.

534. Neither natural selection nor human selec-
tion can operate until variations have occurred. We
have said (485a) that naturalists are disputing as to
the original causes of variation, but the horticul-
turist knows how to start off variations. Any
change in the conditions in which the plant grows
420 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

will do it. More heat, less heat, more food, less
food, more water, training, growing under glass or
in the shade or in the sun,—these and other factors
which the horticultur-
ist has at his control
cause, or at least
bring out, differences
in plants; or he can
produce differences by
crossing (Obs. xlvi).
The variation is the
start; selection does
the rest. —

535. The wild dah-
lia and a cultivated
variety are shown in
Fig. 430. How was
it done? The wild
kind was cultivated.
It got better care and
Forms of the wild and cultivated dahlia. ae food than 7 ut

Half natural size. had in its native
Mexican home, and

all the conditions of its life were changed. It
began to vary. Just what factor or set of factors
caused these variations we shall never know; but
one variation produced an abnormal number of
rays (probably because of more food supply and

 

Fic. 430.
UPON WHAT DOES A PLANT LIVE? 421

redundant vigor), and the gardener liked it. He
sowed the seed, and from the plant bearing the
most doubled flowers again sowed the seed. It was
only a question of perseverance, a uniform ideal,
and time.

535a. The teacher who desires to enquire further into these sub-
jects may consult “Plant-Breeding” and “Survival of the Unlike.”

LXXXIT. UPON WHAT DOES A PLANT LIVE?

536. The plantlet at first lives upon the unutri-
ment stored in the seed, or in the tuber or bulb.
But it soon must shift for itself. Plant it in a
small pot which has been filled with firmly com-
pacted earth. In a short time the pot will be
filled with roots, and the plant is pot-bound. Se-
eure a large pot-bound plant from a_ greenhouse.
Turn it upside down and knock off the pot, as a
gardener does. How could such a_ root-growth
take place in a space already full? Shake out
the earth from the roots, and add it to that
-which remains in the pot. Is there as much
earth as there was before the plant was set in
it? Will the earth now fill the pot as full as
it was when the plant was set?

537. Secure a large topped, pot-bound plant.
When the earth is fairly dry, remove the pot
422 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

and place the plant with its ball of remaining
earth (which is probably larger in amount than
that extracted by the plant) in a horizontal posi-
tion, and balance it upon the finger. Are the stem
and top heavier than the root and earth com-
bined? The plant has not only consumed some
of the earth, but it has derived food from other
sources.

538. There are but two sources from which
this extra food can be obtained, —from the water

applied to the roots, and from the atmosphere. |

The pupil cannot determine if the plant lives
from these two sources of nourishment, except that
he knows that the plant dies in the absence of
either water or air.

539. He must be told, then, how the plant
lives. It absorbs substances in solution by means
of its roots. (Consider the root-hairs.) Water
must be present, or the soil materials cannot
be dissolved. The water, therefore, acts as a car-*
vier of food; but the plant also uses the ele-
ments of water itself as foods. The elements
which the plant takes in through its roots are
many, but those required in large quantity are
potassium, sodium, calcium, phosphorus, silicon ;
others are necessary.

540. The plant absorbs gases by its leaves,
chiefly carbon dioxid, which consists of carbon

I
UPON WHAT DOES A PLANT LIVE? 423

and oxygen; and from this invisible source the
plant derives its carbon, which makes up nearly
half its entire weight, aside from the water.

541. The materials taken in by the roots and
leaves cannot be used directly in the making of
plant tissue and in contributing
to growth. They must be
worked over, or formed into
organic compounds. This _pro-
cess of elaboration takes place
in the green parts, chiefly in
the leaves, and in the presence
of sunlight. Plants destitute of
green, or chlorophyll, mostly use
food which is already organized :
they are parasites and sapro-
phytes. The withdrawal of sun-
light, as in the  banking-up
of celery, destroys the chloro-
phyll.

542. When the food has been elaborated, it can
be utilized, through further changes, for the build-
ing of tissue, and it is distributed throughout all
living parts of the plant, even to the roots whence
part of it came. The first process of changing in-
organic materials into organic materials—or pho-
tosynthesis, takes place only in light; but the
transfer and subsequent use of the elaborated food

 

Fia. 431.
Trunk girdled by a wire.
424 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

may take place more freely in darkness. So it
comes that most of the growth in plants is made
at night.

542a. Since the plant cannot directly use, in the making of tis-
sue, the materials which are taken in from the soil and air, it has
been proposed that the term food be not applied to them; but the
application of the terms food and plant-food to these raw materials

is so thoroughly established in scientific literature that it seems to be
unwise to attempt to change it.

543.’ The trunk of a young tree girdled by a
label wire is shown in Fig. 431. It is larger
above the girdle. There has been more rapid
growth at that point, and we suspect that the
cutting of the bark by the wire prevented the
distribution of the elaborated food to the part
below the girdle. In time, then, the root must
starve, even though it collects food. The crude
materials taken in by the root pass upwards in
the young wood,—the sap-wood,—by a_ process
which is not yet well understood. The elaborated
materials are redistributed through parts of the
inner bark. There is no circulation in plants in
the sense in which there is in animals, — through
definite tubes or openings.

543a. There are many good and recent books upon the physi-
ology of plants, treating the subject from various points of view.
PART VII

StTuDIES oF THE KiInps oF PLANTS

LXXXIV. SPECIES

544. Plants live where and how they must.
They adapt themselves to conditions by varying.
It must generally happen that the most marked
variations tend to persist, because most unlike
others, and therefore better able to find places of
least competition. The intermediates must tend
to die out. In time there come to be wide diver-
gencies or differences; or, different kinds have
originated.

545. It was once supposed that these kinds
were created as they are in the beginning. These
kinds were conceived, therefore, to be original units
or entities in nature; and if they are real things,
remaining forever essentially the same, they must
have a name. They were called species.

546. But there are various kinds and degrees of
differences, and there early arose dispute as_ to
what kinds are the real original species and what

(425)
426 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

are merely incidental variations of them. So those
kinds which an author thought to be the originally
created things were called the species, and the
lesser kinds were called varieties.

547. It was soon apparent, however, that
authors differed widely as to what were species and
what varieties. The species of one writer became
the varieties of another. The very fact that the
kinds varied so widely that they could not be
uniformly named, is evidence that they are not
real and original things in the creation. but are the
outcomes or results of modification. As a matter
of practice, while authors define species to be enti-
ties in the creation, they apply names and descrip-
tions to forms because they are distinct enough to
be easily recognized, without enquiring as to whether
these forms answer a definition or not. In other
words, species have always been regarded, in prac-
tice, merely as assemblages of similar individuals.

548. We now believe that plants have been
changing throughout all time, and that some kinds
have been widely separated and are distinct (that
is, not connected to others by intermediate forms),
and that others are not yet clearly differentiated
from their kin. In other words, species are results
of evolution, not original parts of the creation; and
just what degree of difference shall constitute a
species is a matter of individual judgment. Species
THE NAMING OF SPECIES 427

are human conceptions,—the names of groups of
similar individuals,—enabling us to write and
speak of the forms of life. A species may be de-
fined as the unit in classification, designating an
assemblage of organisms which, in the judgment
of any person, is so marked and homogeneous
that it can be conveniently spoken of as one
thing.

549. It does not matter, therefore, whether dif-
ferent botanists agree or not as to what are species
and what varieties of species, so long as one is
able to understand what the other means. By
giving names to the objects which we see, we are
able to classify and to put on record our knowl-
edge of them. _

LXXXV. THE NAMING OF SPECIES

550. It is necessary that we have names for
the kinds of plants. We must have a language.
Plants were first known by common-language
names, but obviously only common and conspicu-
ous plants can receive such names; and since
most people do not distinguish the kinds of plants
closely, it follows that common names cannot be
applied with precision. Most early authors de-
scribed plants in Latin phrases, referring similar
428 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

kinds to a common group or genus; and the name
of this genus was made the first word in the
description.

551. Linneus, who attempted to name and de-
seribe all plants and animals, used a single word,
which, when joined to the genus name, should
designate the species. This word was placed in
the margin of his book, and the Latin descrip-
tion, headed by the genus name, ran as before.
There thus arose a binomial system of nomencla-
ture.

551a. A fac-simile reproduction of Linneus’ description of the
Fox-grape is here inserted (from “Species Plantarum,” second edi-
tion):

3. VITIS foliis cordatis fubtrilobis dentatis fubtus to- Labrufca,

mentofis.

Vitis hedere folio ferrato. Plum. fpec. 18. ic. 259. f. 1.

Vitis fylveftris virginiana. Baub. pin. 299.

Vitis vinifera fylveftris americana, foliis averfa parte
denfa-lanugine rectis, Pluk. phyt. 240. f. 3.

Vitis fru@u minore rubro acerbo, folio fubrotundo
minus laciniato, fubtus alba lanugine te&to. Sloan,
bift. 2.p. 104. £.210. f. 4.

Habitat in America feptentrionali. .

Vitis is the genus name, and Labrusca the species name. The
combination, Vitis Labrusca, is the name of the plant.

551b. It is probable that Linneus did not foresee the com-
manding place which his system of nomenclature was destined to
fill. The specific name was apparently intended for little more
than a marginal index to the descriptions. It was Linneus’ suc-
cessors and editors who made the combination of the generic and
specific names take precedence of the description, and who thereby
stereotyped it into an arbitrary and irrevocable name of the plant.
THE NAMING OF SPECIES 429

552. Kinds of plants which, in the juagment
of any author, are not distinct enough to be
called species, are called varieties; and the full
designation of the variety is rendered in three
words, —the generic, specific and varietal names.

§52a. Thus, the name of the black maple is commonly written

Acer saccharinum, var. nigrum; but there are some botanists who
prefer to regard it as a species and to eall it Acer nigrum. This

 

Fig. 432.

Spray of black maple.

maple affords a good illustration of the different views which may
be held as to the name and classification of any plant. The
black maple is shown in Figs. 432 and 263; the sugar maple, in
Figs. 483 and 262. They are distinct enough; but in some re-
gions they are so much alike (they “run into each other”) that
botanists prefer to regard them as one species.

553. It often happens that two authors inad-
vertently give the same name to different plants.
It is, therefore, customary to cite the author of
the name, or an abbreviation of his name, with.
430 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

the name of the plant. The author’s name, there-
fore, identifies the plant name, and facilitates the
tracing of it to the place of original description.
We therefore write the name of the Fox-grape,
Vitis Labrusca L. (the L standing for Linneus).

553a. With the multiplication of writings describing plants, it
becomes more and more important that names be easily identified,

 

Fie. 433.

Spray of sugar maple.

and that authors use more care in referring to other writers who
may have mentioned or described the plant. The quotation in 55la
shows how earefully Linnzus cited the places in which that par-
ticular vitis had been described.

554. By common consent, no two plants are
allowed to have the same name. Therefore, when
-@ person names a plant, he must be sure that
THE NAMING OF SPECIES 431

that particular combination of generic and _ specific
name was never used before.

505. By common consent, also, the name first
given to a plant must always be used to desig-
nate it; and all subsequent names are cited as
synonyms. While this rule of priority is a most
important one in the naming of plants, there are
exceptions to it. For example, the rule that the
same name shall not be used for two plants,
takes precedence. If an author should inadver-
tently make a name which had been used before,
his name may be set aside and a new one sub-
stituted. If an author considers that any species
is in the wrong genus, he may transfer it to an-
other, and a new combination of names is_ the
result; but, by custom, he must use the same
specific name in the new genus unless that name
is already in use in that genus.

555a. Thus, the wild crab-apple is generally referred to the
genus Pyrus, and it is known as Pyrus coronaria. But there are
some authors who would divide Pyrus into several genera, one of
which is Malus, the apples. The crab then becomes Malus coro-
naria.

555b. The specific names may be common adjectives, as coro-
naria, agreeing in gender with the name of the genus; proper ad-
jectives, as Americana, Smithiana, also agreeing with the genus;
proper names in the genitive, as Smithii; or substantives, as La-
brusea, used in apposition to the generic name. Some botanisis
write the proper names and substantives with « capital initial,
but others use no capital for specific names.

555c. Binomial nomenclature, as now used and understood, be-
432 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

gins with Linnewus. The first edition of his “Species Plantarum,”
1753, is now commonly taken as the starting point. Linneus lived
and taught in Upsala, Sweden.

LXXXVI. THE CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIES

556. More than 100,000 species of flowering
plants are known, and it is probable that nearly
as many more await discovery. It is evident that
if this vast number of facts is to be studied,
the facts must be arranged or classified.

557. <A classification may serve merely as a con-
venience in arranging and systematizing knowledge
of objects; or it may also attempt to express some
hypothesis of the kinships of the objects themselves.
In other words, it may be an artificial system, or a
natural system.

508. The first great system of classification
of plants was that of Linneus, who has _ been
called “the father of botany.” It was wholly arti- ©
ficial, in the sense that it made no attempt to
classify plants according to their relationships. The
vegetable world was first divided into classes
founded upon the numbers and positions of  sta-
mens. These classes were divided into orders
founded upon the numbers of styles or stigmas.
The Linnean system comprised twenty-four classes;
and each of the first thirteen classes was divided
THE CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIES 433

into twelve orders. Thus a plant with four sta-
mens and six pistils was referable to Class Te-

 

Fig. 434,

Linneus (1707-1778). Reproduced and adapted from “Species Plantarum,”
second edition, 1762.

trandria (“four stamens”), Order Hexagynia ("six
styles”).

509. But there are certain great resemblances
in plants which allow them to be grouped into
natural assemblages. These assemblages we now
eall families (240a).  Linneus recognized such
groups, as had others before him; but Jussieu

cc
434 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

was the first to clearly outline them (in 1789),
and to arrange the known genera in their proper
families. From this time, the family, rather than
the species, became the unit in the natural sys-
tems of classification.

560. There are two methods or schemes of ar-
ranging the families of plants, of which, among
the flowering plants, there are over two hundred.
One method conceives of an ideal type of plant,
and places that family first which most nearly
satisfies this ideal. De Candolle conceived the ideal
or pattern flower to be one with all the parts
present, free and distinct. The crowfoot family, or
Ranunculacee, contains such plants as its types,
and this family was placed first in the classifica-
tion. Our familiar systematic botanies are arranged
upon the De Candollean plan, or modifications of it.

561. The other method tries to make a classifi-
cation which shall represent the course of evolu-
tion of the vegetable creation. It places first those’
plants which are simplest and most generalized in
structure, or which we have reason to believe ap-
peared first in time. These systems begin with
the flowerless plants; and they generally end with
the composites.

561a. The De Candollean sequence of families is the most famil-
iar system, particularly in English-speaking countries. It is essen-
tially the method of Bentham and Hooker’s great “Genera Planta-
THE CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIES 435

rum” (London, 1862—1883). In this country it has been followed,
with only minor variations, in all the taxonomic works of Asa Gray,
the greatest American systematist. The general acceptance of the

 

Fic. 435.
Asa Gray. 1810-1888.

evolution-method of creation, however, is causing systematists to
break away from the older systems. At present the sequence of
Engler & Prantl’s “Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien” is probably
most favorably received.
436 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

562. The evolution systems must be the systems
of the future, for they afford the convenience of a
classification at the same time that they suggest
genealogical relationships. The teacher must be
warned, however, that it is impossible to represent
a perfectly true classification,—that is, a naturai
one,—in a book, from the fact that the classifica-
tion must be lineal or successive, whereas we know
evolution to have been a series of divergencies.

563. In other words, evolution has not  pro-
gressed in a line, but in the form of a tree.
Branch after branch has been given off. Some
branches have long since reached their develop-
ment and are dying out; others are still growing.
We must not expect, therefore, that present types
of flowering plants came from present types of
flowerless plants, merely because the latter are
placed first or lowest in the scale of classification.
Probably both came from a common ancestor in
remote time; and this ancestor may be lost.

564. The present forms of vegetation, then,
are the tips of the branches of the tree of life.
Therefore, the “missing links” are to be sought be-
hind, not between: they are ancestors, not inter-
mediates.

SueeEsTions.—When the pupil has acquired a good knowledge
of the parts of the plant, he will be interested in the bolder strokes
in schemes of classification. Let the teacher take any systematic
THE PRESERVING OF PLANTS 437

botany which may be at hand, and place the outlines or skeleton of
the classification on the blackboard. This outline may usually be
obtained from the table of contents or the introductory key. Under
each heading or group, write the names of one or more familiar
plants, in order to fix the system in the mind. The pupil should
be impressed with the fact that all systems of classification yet
devised are imperfect and more or less tentative, but that they
serve @ purpose, nevertheless, in arranging and classifying our
knowledge. As more knowledge is obtained respecting the kinships
of plants, new arrangements of the species and other groups must
be made.

LXXXVI. THE PRESERVING OF PLANTS

565. If the kinds of plants are to be carefully
studied, specimens must be preserved. The plants.
of an entire region can then be seen, and, what
is more important, they can be seen side by side,
for comparative study is the only productive method
in systematic or descriptive botany.

566. The plants are preserved by drying them
under pressure. These dried and pressed plants
are then secured to sheets of large white, stiff
paper (Fig. 436), and the sheets are filed away
in covers, as leaves of music are placed in a port-
folio. The covers are laid flat in a cupboard or
cabinet. Such a collection of plants is an herba-
rium.

567. Although the specimens shrink some in
drying and flowers often lose their color, these
438 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

dried plants preserve their distinctive characters
remarkably well. It is from such specimens that

 

fee 7 \
t mt dit fe ‘ LAY pap
; (FF i /

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fia. 436.

An herbarium sheet.

most descriptions of plants are made; and a per-
son who proposes a new species always preserves
THE PRESERVING OF PLANTS 439

a specimen of it as a record. In case of doubt
as to what the species is, the specimen, rather
than the description, is consulted.

568. A label (Fig. 437) should always accom-
pany the specimen, and be securely glued to the
sheet. The size, form and style of label are

 

ol by rand. Ua
Fea fit jhe OF

Fig. 437.

 

 

 

An herbarium label.

governed by the wishes of the maker of the herba-
rium; but the label should give the name of the
plant, where and when collected, and any inci-
dental information, as to soil, location, color of
flowers, height of plant, which is likely to be
useful.
440 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

569. The collecting of the plants is botanizing.
The first requisite is a tin case or vasculum (Fig.
438), in which the plants are placed, as collected.
The specimens are pressed when the collector
arrives home. If the vasculum closes tight, the
specimens will remain in
good condition for sev-
eral hours. If they wilt
xf too rapidly they may

be lightly sprinkled with

water. Upon journeys

or long tramps, a_ por-
v?’ table press is sometimes
used (shown in Fig.
438), the pressure being
applied by means of
straps. The most im-
portant point to be con-
sidered in _ collecting
plants is to make sure
that the specimen is
large enough and good
enough to fairly repre-
sent the plant from which it is taken. A good
specimen is one which is well pressed and which
comprises leaves, flowers and fruit; and a com-
plete specimen is one which represents every part
of the plant, including the root.

   

   
   
   

HO a |
LT es

   

Fia. 438.
Collecting outfit.
THE PRESERVING OF PLANTS 441

570. It is important to remember that common
plants are most useful for study, and several speci-
mens should be taken, representing different soils
and conditions. If one begins with the thought
of securing only the rare, curious or beautiful
things, he will probably have an herbarium which is
of no particular value. He will have only a col-
lection of detached plants. Some theme or mo-
tive should run through a collection,—to exhibit
the flora of a neighborhood or a roadside, to
illustrate the plants of a forest or a garden, to
show the effects of different environments, and
the like.

570a. In eollecting plants, always set out with the ambition to
make good specimens. Collect samples of all parts of the plant,—
lower and upper leaves, stem, flowers, fruit, and, wherever practi-
eable, roots. In small species, those two feet high or less, the
whole plant should be taken. Of larger plants, take portions about
w foot long. Press the plants between papers or “driers.” These
driers may be any thick porous paper, as blotting-paper or carpet-
paper, or, for plants that are not succulent or very juicy, news-
papers in several thicknesses may be used. It is best to place
the specimens in sheets of thin paper—grocer’s tea-paper is good
—and place these sheets between the driers. Many specimens can
be placed in a pile. On top of the pile place a short board and
a weight of thirty or forty pounds, or a lighter weight if the pile
is small and the plants are soft. Change the driers every day.
The plants are dry when they become brittle, and when no mois-
ture can be felt by the fingers. Some plants will dry in two or
three days, while others require as many weeks. If the pressing
is properly done, the specimens will come out smooth and flat,
and the leaves will usually be green, although some plants always
turn black in drying.
442 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

570b. Specimens are usually mounted on single sheets of white
paper of the stiffness of very heavy writing-paper or thin Bristol.
board. The standard size of sheet is 1124 x162¢ inches. The plants
may be pasted down permanently and entirely to the sheet, or they
may be held on by strips of gummed paper (as in Fig. 436). In the
former ease, Dennison’s fish-glue is a good material to use. Only
one species or variety should be placed on a sheet. Specimens
which are taller than the length of a sheet should be doubled over
when they are pressed. The species of a genus are collected into
a genus cover. This cover is a folded sheet of heavy manila or
other firm paper, and the standard size, when folded, is 12 x 164%
inches. On the lower left-hand corner of this cover the name of
the genus is written. The specimens are now ready to be filed
away. If insects attack the specimens, they may be destroyed by
fumes of bisulphide of carbon (which is very inflammable) or ehloro-
form. In this case it is necessary to place the specimens in a
tight box and then insert the liquid. Lumps of camphor placed
in the cabinet are useful in keeping away insects. Those who
wish detailed information on the collecting of plants should con-
sult W. W. Bailey’s “Botanical Collector’s Handbook.” For
methods of making leaf prints and of preserving flowers in nat-
ural colors (and of collecting and preserving insects), consult
Chap. XV. of Bailey’s “Horticulturist’s Rule-Book,” 4th edition.

570c. The naming of the specimens must be accomplished with
the aid of some manual of the plants of the region. There are
several books to aid in this work; but the teacher should bear in
mind the important fact that the name of a plant is less impor-
tant than the plant itself, and effort should not be expended in this
direction at the expense of the study of the specimens. By mak-
ing herbaria of the various forms of common species of plants,
much of the labor of mere identification is avoided. The name of
a plant serves two purposes: it affords language which we can use
in speaking or writing of the plant, and it serves as an index
to whatever may have been written about the plant.

570d. The standard systematic work upon the plants of North
America is Gray’s “Synoptical Flora,” which, however, is not yet
completed. For that part of the United States east of the Mis-
sissippi and north of Tennessee, and practically including adjacent
Canada, Gray’s “Manual,” now in its sixth edition, is the standard
THH PRESERVING OF PLANTS 443

authority. Britton and Brown’s new “Illustrated Flora,” in three
volumes and with an illustration of every species, covers essentially
the same territory as the manual, with the addition of the British
Possessions as far north as Newfoundland. Macoun’s “Catalogue of
Canadian Plants,” in several parts, and published by the Geologi-
eal and Natural History Survey of Canada, may be consulted for
the British Possessions. For the southern states east of the Mis-
sissippi, the third edition of Chapman’s “Flora of the Southern
States” is the standard reference. For the territory west of the
Mississippi there is no single manual. The floras covering parts of
this region are: Coulter’s “ Manual of the Botany of the Rocky
Mountain Region,” and “Flora of Western Texas,” the latter pub-
lished by the United States Department of Agriculture; Greene’s
“Manual of the Botany of the Region of San Francisco Bay,” for
central California; Howell’s “Flora of Northwest America, for
Oregon, Washington and Idaho. For the common wild and culti-
vated plants of the United States east of the Mississippi, the
revision of Gray’s “Field, Forest and Garden Botany” should be
consulted. Books of a more popular nature may often be used by
teacher or pupils, as Mrs. Dana’s “How to Know the Wild Flow-
ers,” Mathews’ “Familiar Flowers of Field and Garden,” W. W.
Bailey’s “Among Rhode Island Wild Flowers,” Baldwin’s “Orchids
of New England,” Newhall’s books upon “Trees,” “Shrubs,” and
“Vines,” Knobel’s Guides (“Trees and Shrubs,’? “Ferns and Ever-
greens” of New England), and others. There are many excellent
loeal floras, — books devoted to the plants of a state, county, or
small cireumseribed geographical area. Other systematic books are
mentioned in paragraphs 263a, 428a, 433a; Suggestions, p. 289.
SuaceEstions.—The collecting of natural objects is one of the de-
lights of youth. Its interest lies not only in the securing of the objects
themselves, but it appeals to the desire for adventure and exploration.
Botanizing should be encouraged; yet there are cautions to be observed.
The herbarium should be a means, not an end. To have collected and
mounted a hundred plants is no merit; but to have collected ten plants
which represent some theme or problem is eminently useful. Schools
usually require that the pupils make an herbarium of a given number of
specimens, but this is searcely worth the effort. Let the teacher set each
collector a problem. One pupil may make an herbarium representing all
the plants of a given swale, or fence-row, or garden; another may en-
444 LESSONS WITH PLANTS

deavor to show all the forms or variations of the dandelion, pigweed,
apple tree, timothy, or red clover; another may collect all the plants on
his father’s farm, or all the weeds in a given field; another may present
an herbarium showing all the forest trees or all the kinds of fruit trees of
the neighborhood; and soon. The collector should be asked to display
his herbarium to the school, explaining the problem in hand; and the
teacher and others may then criticise the making of the specimens. The
teacher should discourage the collection of plants simply because they
are rare; and an effort should be made to preserve in their natural
locations the interesting and showy wild fiowers, rather than to
destroy them by over-zealous collecting.

 

 

Fia. 439.

The botanist’s resort on » rainy day.
APPENDIX

SUGGESTIONS AND REVIEWS

As a consequence of the informal nature of this book, remarks
upon related topics are often widely separated. It may facilitate the
teacher’s work if some of these topics are epitomized.

1. SUGGESTIONS UPON PEDAGOGICAL METHODS

A somewhat full discussion of the author’s opinions respecting
the methods of presenting nature-study by means of plant-subjects,
is given in the Introduction. It is desired to emphasize the im-
portance of making nature-study objects the subjects of writing and
drawing in schools in which composition and drawing are taught.
The first essential to the writing of compositions is that the pupil
have something to say which is drawn from experience and observa-
tion. Live and emphatic ideas are more important than drill in
modes of expression. Fill the pupil with his subject, and writing
comes easy, particularly if he is taught that good English demands
that he go no farther with his subject than to express what he
himself feels. The writing and the drawing should not be intended,
primarily, as examinations in the nature-study, but as regular exer-
cises in the customary work of composition and drawing.

Teachers sometimes like to take up the plant as an entirety,
before discussing its parts. Familiar plants may be brought before
the class, and the different parts pointed out,—as stems, roots, leaves,
flowers. This is desirable with children, but its usefulness is com-
monly not great, except as a brief introduction to more serious ob-
servation. The pupil should be taught to see accurately and in
detail; and it is always well to lead him to make suggestions as
to the meaning and uses of the features which he has seen. When
the pupil has obtained «a clear idea of any part or member,—as of

(445)
446 APPENDIX

the simple leaf, pinnate leaf, tap-root, stamen, petal,—let him com-
pare this member in many kinds of common plants. For example,
let him study and draw the leaves of all the maples of the region,
the stamens in the blossoms of orchard fruits, the acorns of all the
obtainable oaks, the roots of the root-crops of gardens and fields,
the pappus of the common composites, and the like.

Some of the pedagogical remarks which have been dropped from
time to time may be found in the following paragraphs: 104, 118,
152a, 278b, 278c, 281, 318, Suggestions page 273, 339, Suggestions
page 288, 347a, 423, Suggestions page 380, 570, 570a, Suggestions
page 443.

The author wishes again to emphasize the fact that this volume
is not intended as a text-book from which recitations are to be
made, but as a bundle of suggestions for teacher and pupil. He
does not expect that the conditions will ever occur in which all the
subjects can be taken up in the order and method here set forth.

2. BOOKS

Every school, however humble, should own a few books to which
the pupils may have access. There are many good books about plants
which will be helpful to both teacher and pupil in pursuing the
suggestions contained in this volume; but the teacher should bear
in mind the important principle that the pupil should have the
plant before he has the book. Having seen the object and derived
a concrete impression from it, he may go to books to verify his
observation and to widen his knowledge. Various books upon specific
subjects have been mentioned in the text, in paragraphs:

Books upon special subjects —109a, 135b, 228a, 235a, 263a, 277a, 278a»
282a, Suggestions page 250, 331b, Suggestions page 289, 362,
381la, Suggestions page 336, Suggestions page 380, Suggestions
page 385, Suggestions page 402, Suggestions page 406, 528a,
535a, 543a, 5700, page 452.

Floras and systemic monographs — 263a, Suggestions page 289, 428d,
433a, 56la, 570d.

Other inexpensive books, which may be recommended to the
teacher who desires to take up the kind of work suggested in this
volume, are:
APPENDIX 447

Gray’s Lessons in Botany for Beginners and for Schools. Revised.

Gray’s Structural Botany. Sixth edition. A most complete presen-
tation of the subject in its formal aspects.

Setchell’s Laboratory Practice for Beginners in Botany.

Lubbock’s Flowers, Fruits and Leaves.

Weed’s Ten New England Blossoms and their Insect Visitors.

Willis’ Flowering Plants and Ferns. An excellent small cyclopedic
work,

Newell’s Outlines of Lessons in Botany. In two parts (or volumes).
Excellent for teachers.

Coulter’s Plant Relations.

Goodale’s Concerning a Few Common Plants.

Spalding’s Guide to the Study of Common Plants.

Darwin’s Elements of Botany.

Youmans’ Descriptive Botany.

De Candolle’s Origin of Cultivated Plants.

Dana’s Plants and their Children.

Master’s Plant-Life on the Farm.

Goff’s Principles of Plant Culture.

Darwin’s Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.

Allen’s Flowers and their Pedigrees.

Newell’s Reader in Botany.

Kerner’s Natural History of Plants, translated by Oliver. 2 vols.
More expensive than the other works here mentioned, but ex-
eellent, particularly for high schools and academies.

3. CLASSIFICATION

We have divided the vegetable creation into two great classes,
the flowering plants and the flowerless plants (427, 4376). The former
are known also as phanerogams and spermatophytes (seed-bearing
plants). The latter are eryptogams.

The eryptogams, exclusive of bacteria, have been thrown into
three groups (437a): Thallophytes; Bryophytes : Pteridophytes or
vascular eryptogams (427).

The phanerogams or spermatophytes are divided into gymno-
sperms and angiosperms (376, 876a).
448 APPENDIX

The angiosperms are divided into monocotyledons and dicotyle-
dons (396-3982).

We have seen that certain great assemblages of plants are

_ called families (240a); and some remarks concerning the methods of

arranging or classifying these families are made in Obs. lxxxvi.
Various observations touching classification and relationships are
made in paragraphs: 187, 241, 242, 244, 246, 247, 247a, 250, 253,
260, 261, 262, 268, 324, 350, 369, 376, 376a, 396-398a, 427, 428a, 428),
437a, 437b, Obs. Ixxxiv., lxxxv., ]xxxvi.

4. REMARKS UPON EVOLUTION AND THE INTER-
PRETATION OF NATURE

While it is no part of the purpose of this book to teach or to
explain any of the hypotheses which attempt to account for the
ways in which the present forms of life have originated, the book
nevertheless assumes that there is evolution and that creation is
continuing. This attitude is positively essential to any clear com-
prehension of the attributes and meaning of the vegetable creation.
The reader who wishes to put together the suggestions of this char-
acter may consult paragraphs:

Struggle for existence—5, 11, 13, 14, Obs. iv., 48, 80, 223, 305a, 412,
518, Obs. Ixxiv., Suggestions page 402.

Variation and selection—35, 71, 118, 118a, 134, 135, 137, 138, 175, 178a,
Fig. 172, 208, 227, 233, 302, 315, 331b, 358, 444, 458, 484, 485,
485a, 492, 492a, 518, Obs. Ixxxii.

Definitions—53a, 53b, 53c, 258a, 258b, 258c, 423a, 423b, 423c, 548.

Interpretation of nature—116, 117, 118, 1180, 118¢, 118d, 138, 152a,
175, 187, 227, 235a, 258, 268, 278b, 278c, 281, 315, 318, 331b, 336,
338, 339, Obs. Ixv., 485, 507, 509a, 518, Obs. lxxxiv., 561-564.

Ecology—Obs. Ixxx., 422.

5. THE GROWING OF PLANTS

In the Suggestions on page 330 and in Observation Ixxiii. (page
374), brief directions have been given for the growing of plants.
Wherever there is sunlight and absence of frost, plants may be
APPENDIX 449

grown in the school-house. Even though the plants are not vig-
orous and do not reach their full development, they add greatly
to the interest and efficiency of plant-study. The desire of pu-
pils to see growing plants in the school-house and about the
premises has been forced

anew upon the author’s at- Ke
tention by responses to u ‘ff wD
humble leaflet upon garden- & Sp oy
making which was distrib- op

uted to public school teachers

iP
a
by the College of Agriculture a ® ah Se ce
of the Cornell University. i Se
Even in crowded city schools cy oS

the leaflet bore fruit. The be
following extracts from let-
ters from Miss Lilian M. A meaningless plantation.
Elliot, Pd.M., of New York

City, illustrate how plants may be grown under great difficulties
(see also, “School Journal” for May 29, 1897):

 

 

 

 

Fig, 440.

“TI received your Nature-Study Leaflets. One of them, ‘A Children’s Garden,
especially interested me. Of course the paper had a twofold object, the cultivation
of the love of nature in the child, and the beautifying of the rural districts. The
pleasure that the child can get from this unconscious instruction is limitless, to say
nothing of the latent ssthetic side which is awakened. My first feeling was one of
disappointment that my poor boys—the majority of whom hail from the poorest and
most crowded of our city tenements—should be deprived of another birthright.
This idea of yours was so fascinating that I began to think and ponder, until gradually
my thoughts took material shape. This is the result:

Every boy was asked to bring a cigar box. This they could easily do, since both
parents of many of them are employed in cigar factories. The covers of the boxes were
useless. The boxes were about five inches wide. We took off one side and cut the
width to three inches, and then nailed the side on again. We now had a box 8x3x2
inches. The reason we had to make the box narrower was because our desks are so
constructed that the firm part which holds the pencils is only three inches wide.
It is upon this firm place that we put our boxes. The boys did all the measuring
and cutting. The wood is soft, and a pen-knife is a sufficiently strong tool. They
then painted the boxes a uniform dark red, and filled them with earth. I bought
seeds of aster and sweet peas, as recommended, and allowed the boys to take
their choice. We soaked the seeds in warm water over night, and planted them
on Arbor Day! They have so far succeeded beyond our most sanguine expecta-
tions, and although they are neglected from Fridays until Mondays, most of the
plants have thrived remarkably well.

“There are fifty-five boys in the class; I have forty desks in the school. The

DD
450 APPENDIX

boys range in age from ten to fifteen years, and each one is more than interested,—-he is
wildly enthusiastic. The delicate green on every desk is an effective decoration in
the class-room. No time for this work has been taken from the school program, In
spite of our overcrowded room, with its more or less unhealthy atmosphere, we have
risen triumphant over adverse circumstances, and are in delighted possesion of our
‘Childrens’ Gardens’.

“ At the close of school in June, the effect of those forty thriving boxes of green
was beautiful! Every visitor admired them. The plants made the room look artistie
and refreshingly cool on even the warmest day. These were the first impressions
made upon the visitor, but the simple little nature stories that those plants tdld
their rough and neglected owners will last, 1 am sure, as long as the memory of
school days.” -

Other teachers grew plants in smaller boxes, in pots, and even
in egg-shells upon the ledges of the desks.

The out-door garden, however, will always be the chief delight
of young and old. If there is any land whatever about the building,

 

 

Fig. 441,

 

‘ The elements of uw picture.

many plants can be grown, and with great effect. There are two ob-
jects to be attained in the planting of a school-ground,—the making
of a picture, and the raising of plants for study. Happily, the two
purposes are not contradictory, although the idea of the picture
should come first and is more important. If the school-ground is to
be a picture, it must appeal to the observer as a unit. Scattered and
isolated trees, bushes and flower-beds divide and distract the attention,
and fix it upon the details, rather than upon the yard as a whole.
The picture is to be attained by accenting the importance of one
central and dominating object. This central and supreme object is
the school-house. Keep the center of the place open, carpet it
with a verdurous lawn, and flank it with irregular groups of trees
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452 APPENDIX

and shrubs about the borders. On the devious inner edges of these
border-groups, against the back-ground of foliage, is the place for
the flowers. The flowers are then a part of the structural design
of the picture, and their forms and colors are shown to the best
advantage. The sketches illustrate these remarks. Fig. 440 shows
a front yard set full of meaningless plants: it is a nursery. Fig.
441 shows the same yard with a dominating central idea and an
expanse of canvas or greensward: it is a picture. Fig. 442 shows
a planted flank, with its bold edgings of flowers.

If there is only six feet between the school-house and the fence,
there is still room for a border of shrubs. This border should be
between the walk and the fence,—on the very boundary,—not be-
tween the walk and the building, for in the latter case the planting
divides the premises and weakens the effect. A space two feet wide
will allow of an irregular wall of bushes; and if the area is one
hundred feet long, thirty to fifty kinds of shrubs and flowers can be
grown to perfection, and the school-grounds will be practically no
smaller for the plantation. In country districts and large grounds,
effects like that in Fig. 442 can be obtained with little trouble. If
there is no money with which to buy shrubs, they can be got from
adjacent woods and fields and gardens; and such plants usually
thrive best, because they are hardy and well adapted to the region.
One week’s well-directed work in each year, by one man, coupled
with donations of plants from private yards, could make every school-
yard in the land a little paradise.

It is an easy matter to make the school premises shown in Fig.
443 to look like Fig. 444. The plan, Fig. 445, suggests the design
and method. The place could be still further improved by heavier
mass-plantings on the borders. Fig. 446 suggests a plan for a school-
yard upon a four-corners, which the pupils enter from three direc-
tions. The two playgrounds are separated by a broken group of
bushes extending from the building to the rear boundary; but in
general, the spaces are kept open, and the heavy border-masses
clothe the place and make it home-like. The lineal extent of the
group-margins is astonishingly large, and along all these margins
flowers may be planted, if desired. A greater amount of effective
ornamentation can be secured by planting in narrow belts on these
margins than by covering half the entire area of the premises with
flowers. More detailed instructions for the planting of gardens may be
found in “ Garden-Making”, and in other horticultural books.
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 444.—Suggestion for the improvement of the above premises.
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fie. 445.— Ground plan of the improvement.

Road

 

 

 

Fia. 446.— Suggestions for the planting of a school-yard upon four corners.
APPENDIX 455

6. GLOSSARY
(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)

Abrupt. Suddenly narrowed, as a leaf-blade to the petiole. 132.

Abruptly pinnate. Said of a pinnately compound leaf which has all its leaf-
lets in pairs: no extra leaflet at the end. 100.

Acaulescent. Stemless, or very nearly so: said of the entire plant.

Achlamydeous. Lacking the perianth: naked. 152b.

Acquired characters. Those characters or features which arise in any gen-
eration as the result of environment or of external stimuli. 423d.

Acuminate. Long-pointed. 132.

Acute. Sharp or pointed. 132.

Adaptation. The fitness of any organ or organism to perform certain func-
tions or to live in certain conditions. 423a.

Adnate. Said of an anther attached throughout its length to the filament
(162a); also applied to the union of the calyx-tube with the ovary.

Adventitious. Said of buds, or of shoots, which appear in abnormal or unac-
customed places or numbers, rather than at nodes and in definite number,
233.

Adventive. Said of introduced plants which grow spontaneously, but which
are not thoroughly naturalized.

Zstivation. The folding of the perianth in the bud. 63.

Air-plant. Epiphyte, which see.

Akene, achenium. A hard, dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, especially one in
which the pericarp very closely envelops the seed. 290.

Ament. Catkin. 176.

Amplexicaul. Clasping. 121, Fig. 108.

Analogy. Similarity of function or use. 53c.

Andrecium. Collective name for the stamens, 152d.

Androgynous. Staminate and pistillate flowers borne in the same flower-
cluster. 186.

Anemophilous. Pollinated by wind. 273a.

Annual. A plant which completes its entire life cycle in a single year. 486.

Annulus. The ring upon the stipe of mushroom-like fungi, being the remains
of the veil.

Anther. The enlarged part of a stamen, which bears the pollen. 144.

Anthesis. Flowering. 225b.

Anthotazy. Inflorescence. 2250.

Antitropic. Dextrorse. 501a.

Apetalous. Lacking the corolla, 1520.

Apical. Pertaining to the apex or top: in this book, said of pods which open
at the top. 309.

Apocarpous. Carpels, or simple pistils, not united. 305.
456 APPENDIX

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)

Angiosperm. One of that great class of plants in which the ovules are borne
in ovaries. 376.

Arboreous. Tree-like.

Articulated. Jointed.

Ascending. Rising from a more or less prostrate base. 499a.

Asepalous. Lacking the calyx. 1520.

Attenuated. Tapering.

Auriculate. Eared: most commonly used with leaves which have large,
narrow basal lobes. 121, 132.

Axil. Angle above the junction of a leaf-blade, petiole, peduncle or pedicel
with the branch or stalk from which it springs. 2.

Axile placenta. A placenta in the center, or on the axis, of an ovary. 158a.

Banner. Standard, which see.

Basin. In pomological writings, the depression in the apex of a pome. 349.

Berry. A fleshy or pulpy fruit, especially if it has small seeds. Lii.

Bicompound. Twice compound. 99.

Biennial. A plant which lives two years, particularly if it does not fruit
until the second year. 487. :

Bigener, bigeneric-hybrid. A hybrid between species of different genera.

Bigeneric half-breed. The product of a cross between varieties of species of
different genera.

Bifid. With two clefts or parts. 104c.

Bifoliolate. With two leaflets. 104a.

Bilocular, 2-loculed: 2-celled. 157a.

Binate. With two leaflets. 96, Fig. 86.

Bipaimate. Twice palmate. 1040.

Bipinnate. Twice pinnate. 1040.

Bisect. With two segments. 104c.

Biserial. A term proposed in this book to designate flowers which have both
gynecium and andrecium, but no perianth. 152a.

Bisexual. Of two sexes: containing both stamens and pistils. 152c.

Biternate. Twice ternate: bi-compound, with parts in threes. 97.

Blade. The expanded part of 3 leaf. 87.

Bracts. Reduced leaves. 105.

Bryophyte. Term designating the moss-like plants. 437a.

Bulb. A large and more or less permanent and fleshy leaf-bud, usually
occupying the base of the stem and emitting roots from its under side, and
the function of which is to propagate the plant or to carry it over an
unpropitious season, Lxviii.

Bulbel. A small or secondary bulb borne about w large or mother-bulb.

Bulblet. A small bulb borne wholly above ground, as in the inflorescence or
in the axil of a leaf. 442.
APPENDIX 457

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)

Caducous. Falling very early, as petals or sepals: not persisting.

Calyptra. Hood: technically applied to the covering of the capsule of
mosses. 428).

Calyptrate. Covered with a hood: as buds borne beneath the hollow end of
a petiole. 37.

Calyx. The outer series of the perianth: the sepals. 146.

Campanulate. Bell-shaped. 21la, Fig. 176.

Cane. A shoot which bears but once, particularly one which arises from the
crown or root. 497.

Capitulum. Head. 185a.

Capsule. A compound pod (310); also the spore-case of a moss. 428).

Carpel. One of the separable or integral parts of a compound pistil. 159

Caryopsis. The akene-like fruit of the grasses and cereal grains. 293a.

Catkin. A more or less dense, scaly flower-cluster, particularly of certain
trees and shrubs: ament. 176.

Caudicle. Stemlet: applied technically to the stalk of a pollinium. 279.

Caulescent. Having a stem: said of the entire plant.

Caulicle. Stem of the embryo. 408.

Cavity. In pomological writings,.the depression in the stem end of 4 pome.
349.

Cell. See locule.

Character. In natural history writings, 4 feature or attribute which is diag-
nostic,—which is peculiar to the part or the organism, and distinguishes
it from its kin. viii.

Chlorophyll. WLeaf-green: the green substance in protoplasm in plants.

Choripetalous. Polypetalous.

Cion. A cutting set into a plant rather than in soil: graft. 478.

Circinate. Coiled from the tip. 62.

Circumcissile. The mode of dehiscence of the pyxis. 308. Spelled also
circumscissile.

Cladophyllum. <A branch which imitates a leaf in appearance and structure,
and which performs the function of foliage. 114a.

Claw. The stalk of «# petal. 145.

Cleft. In a leaf-blade, a division somewhat more than half the depth of the
blade. 104c.

Cleistogamous. Said of reduced and closed flowers which are self-fertilized in
the bud. 280a.

Close-fertilization. Self-fertilization.

Colored. Said of parts having any color but green.

Column. The body formed by the union of gynecium and andrecium. 256.

Complete flower. One having gynecium, andrecium, corolla and calyx. 152a.
458 APPENDIX

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)

Complete leaf. One which has blade, petiole and stipules. 118.

Compound leaf. A leaf of which the blade is composed of more than one
portion (89); exceptions in 111, 112a.

Compound pistil. One which has more than one carpel. 159.

Conduplicate. Trough-shaped: in cross-section, V-shaped. 59, Fig. 62.

Cone. A spicate flower-cluster, in which the flowers or seeds are obscured by
scales: strobile: generally applied more particularly to the coniferous
gymnosperms. Lix.

Connate. Said of two opposite conjoined sessile leaves. 120, Fig. 106.

Connective. The stalk or bar connecting the separated lobes of an anther. 165.

Convolute. Rolled up, as the corolla in Fig. 275.

Cordate. Heart-shaped. 132.

Corm. <A solid bulb-like tuber. 447.

Cormel. A small or secondary corm borne about a large or mother-corm. 449,

Corolla. The inner series ina biserial perianth: the petals. 145.

Corona. Crown.

Correlative characters. Those attributes which have been carried along as
secondary or incidental features, and which may have little significance to
the present life of the organism. 423b.

Cortex. Bark.

Corymb. A flat-topped or convex-topped flower-cluster in which the outer-
most flowers open first. 218.

Corymbose cyme. A compound cyme, which appears to be corymbose because
the outermost cymules open first. 224. .
Corymbose-cymose. Determinate inflorescence in which, because of suppres-

sion of the interior flowers, the outer flowers open first. 223.

Co-terminal. Applied, in this book, to flowers (and fruits) which terminate a
growth made the same season. 55.

Cotyledon. A seed-leaf: one of the leaves of the embryo. 389a.

Crenate. Scalloped. 133.

Cross. The offspring of any two flowers which have been cross-fertilized.

Cross-breed, half-breed, mongrel, variety-hybrid. A cross between varieties
of the same species.

Cross-pollination. Transfer of pollen to pistil of another flower. 269c.

Crossing. The operation or practice of cross-pollinating.

Crown. An outgrowth from the throat of the perianth: corona (213, 250);
also the top of a bulb or corm, or of an upright rootstock: also that
portion of « plant at the surface of the ground.

Crown-tuber. A tuber of which the top is stem and the lower part root. 457.

Cryptogam. A flowerless plant: one of the class which does not produce
seeds. 427,
APPENDIX 459

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)

Culm. The stem of grasses, sedges, and related plants.

Cuneate. Wedge-shaped. 131.

Cutting. A severed portion of a plant, set in soil or water, with the intention
that it shall grow. 476.

Cyme. A flower-cluster of the determinate type,—the central or uppermost
flower opening first. 222.

Cymule. Secondary cyme: a small cyme in « compound cyme. 224.

Cypsela. The akene-like fruit of compositous plants. 293a.

Decompound. More than once compound. 97.

Decurrent. Said when a sessile leaf-blade is extended down the stem upon
which it is attached. 121, Fig. 107.

Decussate. Said of four-ranked leaves which are in alternating pairs. 64.

Dehiscence. The mode of opening: applied especially to fruits and anthers.
1640.

Deliquescent. Said of trees which are diffuse in form of top: the “leader”
does not continue. 15.

Deitoid. Triangular. 131.

Dentate. Toothed: very strongly or coarsely serrate. 133.

Determinate. Said of plants in which the upward growth does not take place
from the terminal bud. 15, 29.

Dextrorse. From left to right. 50la.

Diadelphous. Said of stamens which are disposed or united so as to form
two groups or companies. 238a.

Dichogamy. Term used to express the non-concurrence in maturity of stamens
and pistils: the two essential organs maturing at different times in any
flower. 150a.

Diclinous. Flowers which lack either gynecium or andrecium: imperfect.
152a.

Dicotyledon. One of the great class of plants characterized by having two
(or more) cotyledons. 396.

Digitate. Arrangement in which the parts radiate from a common point:
palmate. 94.

Dimerous. Parts in twos. 246a.

Dimorphic, dimorphous. “Two-formed”: used to designate the fact of two
different relative lengths of stamens and pistils in different flowers of the
same kind. 277a.

Diecious. Staminate and pistillate flowers borne upon different plants. 192d.

Discoid. In compositous flowers used to designate heads which are destitute
of rays. 204.

Dissected. Deeply cut, as the leaf in Fig. 87.

Dissepiment. Partition in a capsule. 312.
460 APPENDIX

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)

Distichous. Two-sided: generally used for branches or flower-clusters, upon
which the leaves or flowers are in two opposite longitudinal rows, 67.

Distinct. Parts of the flower not joined to other parts in the same series or
set. 167.

Domestication. The state or condition of being adapted or inured to cultiva-
tion, or the act of adapting or inuring to cultivation.

Dorsal. Back. 304.

Drupe. <A stone fruit: having « hard pit and a soft exterior. 300.

Drupelet. A very small drupe, especially one which is a part of a head or
cluster of fruits. 297.

Ecology. The science or study which treats of the relationships of organisms
to each other and to their environments. 524.

Elliptical. Applied to oblong leaves which gradually taper both ways from
the middle. 131.

Hmasculation. Removal of stamens or anthers. 285.

Embryo. The miniature plant in the seed. 406.

Embryology. The science which treats of the embryo: in botany, the study of
the first or formative stages of any part, either in the seed or the bud.

Embryo-sac. A cell in the ovule in which the embryo is developed. 377, 377a.

Endemic. Peculiar to a nation, people, or isolated country.

indocarp. The inner layer of a pericarp, especially the hard stone of a drupe.
300.

Hndogen. Old name for the plants now more generally called monocotyledons;
name refers to the manner of lateral growth of the stem. 398.

LEndosperm. Nutritive matter stored around the embryo in the seed. 410, 410a.

Entomophilous. Pollinated by insects. 273a.

Environment. The sum of the physical conditions in which an organism lives,
often including, also, the condition of struggle for existence. 258c.

Epicotyl. Upper internode of the embryo, but not always present: first
internode of the plumule. 409a.

Epigeal. Said of germination when the cotyledons rise into the air. 401.

Epigynous. Parts of the flower borne upon the ovary. 170.

Epiphyte. Plant growing upon another plant as a support, but not taking
food from the support: air-plant. 517.

Hquitant. Astride: said of conduplicate leaves of which the edges alternately
overlap. 63a.

Eutropic. Sinistrorse. 510a.

Hvolution. The hypothesis which supposes that the forms of life are mutable
or changeable, and that one form may, upon occasion, pass into another
form.

Hxcurrent. Indeterminate growth: applied to forms of trees in which the
“leader” persists. lo.
APPENDIX 461

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)

Exocarp. Outer layer of a pericarp.

Exogen. An old name for plants now generally called dicotyledons: name
refers to the annual lateral growth of. the stem being in rings. 397.
Extrorse. Said of anthers with face outwards, or towards the perianth. 163.
Family. A more or less natural assemblage or association of plants, thrown

together because of a few common bold resemblances. 240a, 559.

Fasciation. Abnormal flattening of stems or roots. 71, Fig. 67.

Fascicle. A very condensed cymose flower-cluster. 225a.

Fecundation. Fertilization.

Female. Fertile: pistillate. 152c.

Fertilization. Action of the pollen upon the egg-cell of the embryo-sac,
resulting in the formation of the embryo: impregnation: fecundation.
269a, 148, 377a, 406.

Filament. The stalk of a stamen. 144.

Filiform. Thread-like.

Fimbriate. Fringed.

Flora. ; The plants of a region (519a): also a book treating of the plants of a
region.

Floret. An individual flower in «4 compositous head. 196.

Follicle. A simple pod which opens along the ventral suture. 3050.

Free. Parts of the flower not joined to parts of another set or series. 167.

Frond. An indefinite term, applied to leaves of ferns and palms, and to
Jeaves which have no differentiation of blade and petiole, and which bear
the fructification. 424a, 252.

Fruit. In botanical writings, the pericarp and its contents, and the parts
which are organically united thereto. 291, 291la.

Frutescent. Shrubby.

Fungous. Fungus-like: of or pertaining to fungi, as « fungous disease.

Funiculus. Stalk of a seed. 407.

Gamopetalous. Corolla tubular, at least at the base. 210.

Gamosepalous. Calyx tubular, at least at the base. 210.

Generalization. In natural history writings, used to designate the absence of
adaptation to special or particular conditions: not differentiated. 258b.
Genus. A group or kind comprising a greater or less number of closely

related species. 550.

Geotropism. Movement by growth towards the earth. 405a.

Gill. A thin and spore-bearing membrane on the pileus of mushroom-like
fungi: lamellus. 431.

Glabrous. Not pubescent, hairy or downy.

Gland. A secreting body. 249a.

Glomerule. A small and very condensed cymose flower-cluster. 225a.

Glume. A dry or chaff-like bract in the inflorescence of grasses and grass-
like plants. 261.
462 APPENDIX

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)
Glutinous. Sticky.

Graft. A cutting set into a plant: cion. 478.

Gymnosperm. A plant of the class in which the ovules are not in an ovary. 376.

Gynandrous. Gynocium and andrecium grown together, forming a column.
6.

Gynecium. Collective name for the pistils. 152d.

Habit. General appearance or looks. 496a.

Habitat. The place in which an organism lives: the habitat of a plant may be a
swamp, a Jake-shore, or a roadside.

Haif-hybrid. The product of a cross between a species and a variety of
another species.

Head. A much condensed spike, usually not much higher than broad. 21a,
185a, 225a.

Helicoid cyme. Scorpioid. 225.

Heliotropism. Movement by growth towards tha light. 405a.

Herb. A non-woody plant. 493.

Herbarium. <A collection of dried plants. 566.

Hermaphrodite. Bi-sexual. 152c.

Heterogonous. Heterostyled. 277a.

Heterostyled. Stamens and pistils of different relative lengths in flowers of
the same kind. 277a.

Hexamerous. Parts in sixes. 246a.

Hilum. Scar upon the seed, where it was attached. 407.

Hirsute. Hairy, with rather long loose hairs.

Homology. Similarity of origins. 53b.

Host. Plant (or animal) upon which a parasite or epiphyte lives or grows. 517.

Hybrid. The offspring of plants of different species.

Hybridism, hybridity. The state, quality or condition of being a hybrid.

Hybridization. The state or condition of being hybridized, or the process or
act of hybridizing.

Hybridizing. The operation or practice of crossing between species.

Hypha. A thread or stalk of fungi. 436,

Hypocotyl. Lower internode of the embryo: caulicle. 409a.

Hypogeal. Said of germination when the cotyledons remain in the seed or
under the ground. 401.

Hypogynous. Said of flowers in which the parts are free 170.

Imbricate. Overlapping.

Imperfect. Lacking either gynceecium or andrecium. 152c.

Impregnation. Fertilization.

Incomplete flower. One from which any of the four series is missing. 152a.

Indehiscent. Not breaking open.

Indeterminate. Said of plants which continue to grow from the terminal bud:
such plants have “leaders.” 15, 29.
APPENDIX 463

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)

Indigenous. Native: that is, growing in a given region naturally, without the
agency, direct or indirect, of man: the term refers to distribution.

Indusium. The scale-like covering of the fruit-dot of ferns. 425.

Inferior, Said of the ovary when it is not free: below, in position. 169.

Infleced. Bent abruptly forwards or inwards longitudinally: opposite direc-
tion to reflexed. 61.

Inflorescence. Mode of arrangement of flowers. 225b, 182.

Innate, Said of an anther attached by its base to the filament. 162a.

Insertion, Method of attachment. xx. :

Inter. Between.

Internode. The stem between the nodes. 46.

Interrupted leaf. One which has small leaflets interposed. 101.

Introrse. Said of anthers which face inwards, or towards the center of the
flower. 163.

Involucel. A secondary involuere: a small involucre in a compound involu-
crate flower-cluster. 219a.

Involucre. <A bract, or a whorl of bracts, subtending a flower-cluster or fruit.
174. ;

Inovlute. Rolled inwards above, as the edges of a leaf or petal. 57, Fig. 62.

Irregular. Said of flowers in which the parts or lobes of the perianth are of
more than one form or shape in the same series. 21la.

Irregularly compound leaf. One which has leaflets of various and more or
less indefinite shapes and sizes. 102.

Isomerous. All the parts in each of the four series in the flower of the same
number. 211d.

Keel. The two connivent lower petals of a papilionaceous flower. 237.

Key-fruit. A dry indehiscent winged fruit: samara. 319.

Labiate. Lipped. 211, Figs. 180, 181.

Lamellus. Gill. 431.

Lanceolate, lance-shaped. A leaf, or other expanded member, four to six times
as long as wide, with the widest part below the middle, and tapering both
ways. 128.

Latent. Undeveloped: remaining dormant.

Layer. A shoot or root, which, while attached to the parent plant, takes root
at one or more places, giving rise to new plants there. 459.

Leaflet. One integral part of a» compound leaf. 93, 98, 99.

Legume. A simple pod which opens by both ventral and dorsal sutures. 306.

Ligneous. Woody.

Limb. The expanded part of a petal or sepal. 210.

Linear. Very narrow: several times longer than broad, with the siaes par-
allel, 131.
464 APPENDIX

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)

Lobe. mn a leaf-blade, a division not more than half the depth of the blade.
104c.

Locule. A compartment of an ovary (156, 156a), or of an anther (161, 16la):
cell.

Doculicidal. Said of capsules which dehisce at or near the middle of the back
of the carpels. 313a.

Lodicule. A rudimentary or small body in the flower of grasses, held to rep-
resent the perianth. 261.

Male. Sterile: staminate. 152c.

Member. An external part of an organism, especially one which is not directly
concerned in the vital functioning. 118a.

Micropyle. The opening in the ovule through which the pollen-tube entered:
generally at this place the caulicle of the germinating seed breaks through.
408a.

Mized leaf. A compound leaf which contains divisions of various grades or
degrees. 103.

Monadelphous. Said of stamens which are united into a single tube or group.
238a.

Monoctyledon. One of the class of plants characterized by having only one
cotyledon. 396.

Monecious. Staminate and pistillate flowers borne upon the same plant.
192a.

Monograph. A systematic or complete account or elaboration of any topic.

Monopetalous. Gamopetalous. 210.

Monstrosity. An abnormal form or variation. 108a.

Morphology. Study of forms, particularly in respect to their origin. 53a.

Mule. A sterile (seedless) hybrid.

Multifid. Much cleft or cut. 104c.

Multiternate. Many, or several times, ternate. 104b.

Multilocular. Many-loculed: many-celled. 157a.

Mycelium. Vegetative tissue of fungi. 432, 432a.

Nectary. A part or place which secretes honey or nectar. 276.

Neutral flowers. Those having no essential organs. 202, 202a.

Node. A joint on a stem, at which a leaf is normally borne. 46.

Nut. In botanical writings, a hard and dry 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, but in
which other ovules have been suppressed. 331a.

Ob. Reversed: used only in combinations.

Oblanceolate. Reversed lanceolate: the widest part near the top. 131.

Oblong. A flat body twice as long as broad, with sides nearly paraliel. 130.

Obovate. Reversed ovate: the widest part near the top. 131.

Obdtuse. Blunt: not acute. 132.

Ocrea. Sheath formed of united stipules. 123, Fig. 110.
APPENDIX 465

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)

Odd-pinnate. Having a terminal leaflet: applied to compound pinnate leaves.
100.

Geology, ekology. See Ecology.

Offset. A rosette, especially a young rosette which is continuing the propaga-
tion of the plant. 443.

Ontogeny. Life-history of an organism. 423c.

Operculum. Mid of a mcss capsule (4280): a lid of any organ, as of a pod or
anther,

Orbicular. Circular. 131.

Order. Family.

Organ. A part of a living body directly associated with the vital functioning.
118a.

Organism. A body exhibiting life: an animal or plant.

Oval. Broadly elliptical. 131.

Ovary. That part of u pistil which bears the ovules (or seeds). 143.

Ovate. A flat body about twice as long as broad, and tapering from near the
base to a very narrow or pointed apex. 129.

Palet. Inner glume in the flower of grasses, 261.

Palmate. Parts attached to or radiating from a common point: digitate. 94.

Panicle. An open or loose flower-cluster of the indeterminate type, but the
anthesis often more or less mixed, and which is generally widest towards
the base. 221.

Papilionaceous. Applied to the typical flowers of the pea family. 237.

Pappus. The bristle-like, plume-like, barb-like, or otherwise disguised calyx
of compositous flowers. 199.

Parasite. A plant which lives and subsists upon another living organism.
435, Lxxix.

Parietal placenta. A placenta upon a wall of the locule. 1584.

.Parted. Said of leaf-blades which are divided about three-fourths the depth
of the blade. 104c.

Pedicel. A secondary flower-stalk: a stalk of a single flower in a pedunculate
cluster: see peduncle. 183, 183a.

Peduncle. Flower-stalk: used to designate the single stem of solitary flowers,
or of flowers in a simple or unbranched sessile cluster, and also for the
common stalk of a cluster: see pedicel. 183, 183a.

Peltate. Attached to the expanded surface, rather than to the edge or margin:
said chiefly of leaves in which the petiole is attached inside or beyond the
edge. 125, Fig. 111.

Pentamerous. Parts in fives. 246a.

Pepo. Fruit of the kind represented by the pumpkin, squash, melon and
cucumber. 356.

Perennial. A plant which lives more than two years. 488.

EE
466 APPENDIX

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)

Perfect. Flowers having both gynecium and andrecium.

Perfoliate. Leaf-blade enclosing the stem. 121, Fig. 109.

Perianth. The floral envelopes: the “leaves of the flower.” 145.

Pericarp. The ripened ovary: seed-vessel. 291.

Perigynium. The perianth-like body enclosing the akene in the carices. 267.

Perigynous. Said of flowers in which the gynecium sits in the calyx-tube,
upon which tube other parts of the flower are borne. 170.

Peristome. The margin of fringe or teeth about the orifice of the capsule o.
mosses. 4280.

Petal. One of the parts of a corolla: one of the inner (and usually coloredf
members of a biserial perianth. 145.

Petaloid. Resembling a petal. 255.

Petiole. The stalk or stem of a leaf. 87.

Petiolule. The stalk of a leaflet. 90.

Phanerogam. One of the class of flowering or seed-bearing plants. 427.

Phenology. The study of the relationship of local climate to the annual periods
of animals and plants. 526, 526a.

Plurifoliolate. With many leaflets. 104a.

Phyllodium. A petiole which resembles a leaf-blade, and performs the func-
tions of foliage. 115a.

Phyllotazy. The arrangement of leaves, branches, or flowers upon the
stem. 70.

Phylogeny. Genealogy: natural history of a race. 423c.

Phyton. As conceived by the writer, the smallest part of root, stem or leaf,
which, when severed, may grow into a new plant: a potential cutting. 479.

Pileus. The cap or top of mushroom-like fungi. 429.

Pinna. A primary leaflet in pinnately compound leaves. 99.

Pinnate. Parts arranged on opposite sides of a rachis. 94.

Pinnatifid. Pinnately lobed. 104c.

Pinnatisect. Said of pinnate leaves divided into segments. 104c.

Pinnule. Secondary leaflet of a fern frond (426a): a secondary leaflet in
pinnately compound leaves. 99.

Pistil. That part of the flower which bears the ovules: it ripens into a fruit.
142.

Pistillate. Said of flowers which have gynecium, but no andrecium. 152c.

Placenta. Place of attachment of ovules in the ovary. 158.

Plaited. Folded together sidewise into parallel folds: plicate. 60, Fig. 62.

Plane. Flat: said of leaves and other expanded bodies which do not curl or
twist.

Plicate. Plaited: folded together sidewise into parallel folds. 60, Fig. 62.

Plumose. Feather-like.

Plumule. The bud of the embryo, usually lying between the cotyledons. 389d,
APPENDIX 467

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)

Plur-annual. A plant which is an annual only because it is killed by the
closing of the growing season. 489a.

Pod. A dry, dehiscent pericarp. 305a.

Pollen. The contents of the anther, and which fecundates the ovules when
applied to the pistil: it is usually in the form of grains. 144, 147.

Pollination. The act or fact of conveying pollen from anther to stigma.
148, 269d.

Polltinium. A mass of coherent pollen, occupying nearly or quite the entire
locule. 279a.

Poly. Many or numerous: used only in combinations.

Polygamous. Hermaphrodite and diclinous flowers variously mixed upon the
plant. 193.

Polypetalous. Parts of the corolla distinct. 209.

Polysepalous. Parts of the calyx distinct. 210.

Pome. Fruit of the kind represented by the apple, pear, quince and haw-
thorn, 348.

Progressive inflorescence. An indeterminate inflorescence in which the whorls
are widely separated. 220.

Prostrate. Lying upon the ground. 406.

Proterandrous. Stamens maturing before the pistils in the same flower. 190a.

Proterogynous. Pistils maturing before the stamens in the same flower. 190a,

Pseud-annual. Plants which are practically annuals, but which carry them-
selves over to the next season by means of bulbs, corms, and the like,
rather than by seeds. 490a.

Pteridophyte. Term used to designate the cryptogamous plants which have
distinct vascular bundles or woody fiber: includes ferns, equisetums,
isodtes, club-mosses, etc. 437a.

Pubescent. Covered with fine short hairs.

Putamen. The pit or stone of a drupe (300); also the shell of a nut.

Pyzis. A pod which opens on or near the top by a lid or cover. 308.

Quadrifid. With four clefts or parts. 104c.

Quadrifoliolate. With four leaflets. 104a.

Quadrilocular. 4-loculed: 4-celled. 157a.

Quadriserial. A term proposed in th‘s book to designate flowers having all of
the four series,—gynecium, andrecium, corolla, calyx. 152a.

Quinquefoliolate. With five leaflets. 104a.

Quinquelocular. 5-loculed: 5-celled. 157a.

Raceme. A simple open inflorescence, in which the flowers are on pedicels
and the lowest ones opening first. 216.

Rachis. The axis of a compound leaf or of a dense elongated flower-cluster
(as of a spike). (94): mid-rib of a compound leaf (88) or frond (426a).

Radicle. Old name for the caulicle. 409a.
468 APPENDIX

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)

Ray. Among other uses, used to designate the much-prolonged one-sided limt
of the corolla in compositous flowers. 203.

Receptacle. The expanded end of the stem upon which the flower is borne:
torus: flower-seat. 166, 201, 207.

Reflexed. Bent abruptly backwards or outwards longitudinally: opposite
direction to inflexed. 61.

Regular. Said of flowers in which the parts or lobes of the perianth are alike
in each series. 21la.

Reinforced. In this book, used to designate flowers and fruits with which
various petal-like or calyx-like bracts or leaves are organically associated.
xxviii., liii., liv.

Reniform. Kidney-shaped. 132.

Repand. Slightly wavy, as the margin of a leaf. 133.

Retuse. Indented at the end. 132.

Revolute. Rolled under at the edges. 58, Fig. 62.

Rhizome. Rootstock. 453a.

Root-hair. The minute projection upon roots, through which the most active
absorption takes place. 404.

Rootstock. An underground stem, by means of which the plant propagates or
carries itself over an unpropitious season: rhizome. 453a.

Rosette. A much-shortened stem bearing a dense cluster of leaves, especially
if it is formed upon the ground and assists in the propagation of the
plant: see offset. 443.

Rotate. Wheel-shaped. 21la, Fig. 178.

Runner. A special kind of prostrate layer, taking root and forming new plants
as it grows. 460.

Sagittate. Arrow-shaped. 132.

Salver-shaped. Limb of perianth standing at right angles to a narrow tube or
base. 211a, Fig. 177.

Samara. A dry and indehiscent winged fruit: key-fruit. 319.

Saprophyte. A plant which lives upon dead or decaying organic matter. 435,
xxix.

Sarcocarp. The fleshy part of a drupe: soft exocarp. 300,

Scabrous. Roughened: covered with rough elevations.

Scape. A peduncle which arises from the ground, is simple, or nearly so, not
jointed, and destitute of foliage, 214a.

Scarious. Dry: not fresh and soft. 105.

Scorpioid cyme. A one-sided coiled inflorescence, with the oldest flower at
the base (but this flower conceived to represent the termination of
the axis). 225.

Seed. The direct product of the fertilization of the flower, a body which con-
APPENDIX 469

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)
tains an embryo plant and the office of which is to perpetuate the kind:
the ripened ovule. 411, 291.

Seedling. A plant growing directly from seed, without the intervention of
grafts, layers or cuttings.

Segment. In a leaf-blade, a division extending practically to the midrib. 104c.

Self-fertilization. Action of pollen upon a pistil of the same flower: clos-
fertilization. 2690.

Sepal. One of the parts of a calyx: an outer (and usually green) member of
a biserial perianth. 146.

Sepaloid. Resembling a sepal.

Septicidal. Said of capsules which dehisce into parts representing the com-
ponent carpels. 313a.

Septifragal. Said of capsules which dehisce septicidally and the outer sides
or walls of the carpels break away from the dissepiments. 314.

Serrate. Saw-toothed. 133. ‘

Sessile. Without a stalk or stem. 88a.

Sheath. A hollow or tubular part, as of a leaf, enclosing a stem or root. 122,

Shrub. Ligneous perennial plant with no trunk: bush. 495.

Silicle. A short and very broad pod of the mustard family. 307a.

Silique. Along pod of the mustard family. 307a.

Sinistrorse. From right to left. 501la.

Sinuate. Strongly wavy. 133.

Sinus. The recess or notch in the base of a leaf. 132.

Smooth. Not scabrous.

Sorus. <A collection or colony of sporangia in ferns: fruit-dot. 425.

Spadiz. A spike enclosed or subtended by a'spathe: the axis usually more or
less fleshy. 191.

Spathe. A 1-leaved or 2-leaved involucre enclosing a flower or flower-cluster’
191, 213.

Spatulate. Oblong in general outline, but the upper end broadened. 131.

Spawn. Subterranean mycelium of mushroom-like fungi (432, 432a): also
cormels (449).

Specialization. In natural history writings, used’ to designate modification of
structure or habits enabling an organism to live in particular condi-
tions or to perform particular functions. 258d.

Species. The unit in classification. 548.

Spermatophyte. One of the class of seed-bearing plants. 4374.

Spike. A simple and dense elongated flower-cluster in which the individual
flowers are sessile, or very nearly so, and the lowest flowers open first.
217, 1854.

Spikelet. The ultimate flower-cluster in the inflorescence of grasses. 262.

Sporangium. Case or body containing the spores. 424.
470 APPENDIX

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)

Spore. The reproductive body of cryptogams, containing no embryo, and not
always the direct result of a sexual process: analogous to a seed. 428.

Stamen. That part of the flower which bears the pollen. 144.

Staminate. Said of flowers which have andrecium but no gynecium. 152c.

Staminoid. Resembling a stamen.

Staminodium. A sterile, or antherless, stamen: a body standing in the place
of a stamen and presumably representing a stamen. 230a.

Standard. The large upper expanded petal of a papilionaceous flower: vex-
illum: banner. 237.

Stem. The ascending or aérial axis of uw plant, in distinction to the root,
leaves, etc.: trunk.

Stigma. The expanded end of a pistil, upon which the pollen falls and
germinates. 143.

Stipe. The stem of a fern frond (424a), or of « mushroom (429).

Stipel. Secondary stipules: appendages of leaflets. 91.

Stipule. An appendage of a leaf or leaf-blade at the base of the blade or
on the petiole. 87.

Stolon. A layer which bends over, or is not prostrate, taking root at the tip,
or near it. 461.

Strict. Straight: said of very erect-growing plants, particularly if the head
is narrow and the growth is indeterminate.

Strovile. Cone.

Style. The more or less elongated portion which, in many pistils, joins the
ovary and stigma. 143.

Subtend. To stand under or at the side of, forming an axil, as a scale sub-
tending a flower. Figs. 173B, 222.

Sucker. A sprout or shoot arising from an underground root or stem (463):
also, an adventitious shoot in the top of a plant, especially 4 vigorous
shoot.

Superior. Said of the ovary when it is free: above, in position. 169,

Suture, Juncture or place of union. 305a.

Syconium. Fruit of the kind represented by the fig. 369.

Symmetrical. Parts in each of the four series in the flower of the same
number, or in multiples of the lowest number. 2110.

Syn. United or simultaneous; used only in combinations.

Synanthous. Stamens and pistils maturing simultaneously in any flower. 193.

Syncarpous. Carpels, or simple pistils, united. 305.

Syngenesious. In a ring: applied to the anthers of compositous flowers,
because they are united in a ring around the styles. 200.

Tap-root. A central or leading root, running deep into the soil. 499.

Teratology. The science or study of monstrosities. 228a.

Terete. Cylindrical,
APPENDIX 471

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)

Terminology. The subject or study of terms or names.

Ternate. Parts in threes: said chiefly of leaves. 96.

Tetramerous. Parts in fours. 246a.

Thallophyte. Name applied to the low orders of flowerless plants, designating
those which, as a class, have no proper differention of axis (and therefore
no detaching leaves), or of vascular tissue, includes alga, lichens and
fungi. 437a.

Thyrse. A dense or contracted panicle. 226.

Torus. Receptacle. 166. :

Tree. Aligneous perennial plant with a central shaft or trunk, and a more
or less elevated head. 494.

Trifid. With three clefts or parts. 104c.

Trifoliolate. With three leaflets. 104a.

Trilocular. 3-loculed: 3-celled. 157a.

Trimerous. Parts in threes. 246a.

Lrimorphic, trimorphous. “Three-formed”; used to designate the fact of
three different relative lengths of stamens and pistils in different flowers
of the same kind. 277a.

Tripalmate. Thrice palmate. 104).

Tripinnate. Thrice pinnate. 1046.

Trisect. With three segments. 104c.

Triserial. A term proposed in this book to designate flowers which contain
all the series except calyx,—gynecium, andrecium, corolla. 152a.

Triternate. Thrice ternate. 1046.

Truncate. The end squared, as if cut off. 132.

Tuber. In this nook, a prominently thickened and homogeneous, and usually
subterranean, portion of a root or stem which does not increase itself and
the plant by means of direct offshoots or accessions. 456d.

Tubercle. Crown-tuber. 457.

Tunicated. Covered with enclosing or concentrie plates. 441.

Umbel. A corymbose flower-cluster in which the pedicels start from the
same point, or approximately the same point. 219.

Umbellet. A secondary umbel: a small umbel in a compound umbel. 219¢.

Unifoliolate. With one leaflet. 104a.

Unilocular. 1-loculed: 1-celled. 157a.

Uniserial. A term proposed in this book to designate flowers which have only
the gynecium. 152a.

Unisexual. Of one sex: containing only stamens or pistils. 152c.

Vaginate. Sheathing. 122.

Valvate. Edges meeting (63a): also opening by lids or doors or valves

Valve. One of the parts or pieces of a dehisced pod,
472, APPENDIX

(Numbers refer to paragraphs.)

Variety. A form, which, in the judgment of any writer, is considered to be
subordinate to the species in classificatory importance. 552.

Veil. The membrane joining the edge of the pileus to the stipe, in mush-
room-like plants. 431.

Venation. Veining. Page 96.

Ventral. Front. 304.

Vernation. The folding of the leaves in the bud. 63.

Versatile. Said of an anther which is attached near its middle. 162a.

Verticillate. Leaves, or other members, which are more than one pair at a
node: whorled. 65.

Veritlum. Standard. :

Volva. A sheath about the base of the stipe in certain mushroom-like
plants. 433.

Whorled. Verticillate: more than one pair (as of leaves) at a node. 65.
INDEX

(Numbers refer to pages.)

Abutilon flower, 209.
Acacia leaves, 91, 105, 106; movement
in, 402.
Accessory buds, 39.
Acer nigrum, 429; saccharinum, 429.
Achenium, 251.
Achlamydeous, 139.
Acorns, 281, 284.
Acquired character, 341.
Acuminate, 118.
Acute leaf, 118.
Adaptation, 287, 340.
Adder’s-tongue, 356.
Adlumia flower, 214.
Adnate anther, 147.
Adventitious growths, 205.
#stivation, 61.
Agrimony, fruit, 279; rootstock, 360.
Ailanthus, phyllotaxy, 68.
Air-plant, 410.
Akene, 251.
Alge, 352.
Alleghany vine, 214.
Allen, book by, 447.
Almond, double, 204.
Almond, fruit, 277.
Alyssum, 222; fruit, 262.
Amarantus albus, 337.
Amelioration, 418.
Ament, 156.
Ampelopsis, 400.

 

 

Amphicarpma, 244.

Amplexicaul leaf, 110.

Anacharis, 357.

Analogy, 53.

Andrecium, 139.

Androgynous, 166.

Anemone, flower of, 153.

Anemophilous, 236.

Angiosperms, 309.

Annual, 386.

Annulus, 347.

Anther, 134.

Anthesis, 196.

Anthotaxy, 196.

Anthuriums, 169.

Antitropic, 398.

Apetalous, 139.

Apetaly, 215.

Apgar, book by, 289.

Apical dehiscence, 263.

Apios, leaves, 100.

Apocarpous, 261.

Apple, fertilization, 312; flower, 140;
flower-cluster, 48, 249, 382; form of
top, 14; fruit, 256, 289; healing of
wounds, 72; inflorescence, 193;
leaves, 80, 110, 113; phenology, 417;
phyllotaxy, 67; receptacle, 151; seed
of, 335; stamen, 150; twigs, 1 et
seq., 25 et seq.,* 43, 44, 57, 73.

Apple-seab, 77, 352.

* Et sequentes; the pages which immediately follow.’

(473)
474

INDEX

(Numbers refer to pages.)

Apricot, branch, 48; flower, 188; fruit,
256, 257.

Aquilegia, double, 206.

Arborvitew, leaves, 125.

Aristolochia, 210.

Aristolochiacee, 212.

Arrangement of flowers, 188, 193.

Arrow-leaf, 191.

Arthur, book by, 424.

Arums, classification, 327.

Arundo, 41.

Asarum, 212,

Asclepias, pollination, 243.

Asepalous, 139.

Ash, fruit, 272.

Asparagus, flower, 186; leaves, 103.

Aspidium, 342.

Assimilation, 423.

Aster, floret of, 182; leaf-scars, 42.

Asters, associates of, 412.

Atkinson, writings of, 350.

Attachment of leaf, 110.

Auriculate leaf, 111, 119.

Axil, 1.

Axile placenta, 143.

Axis, deflected, 7.

Azalea, anther, 148; bud, 52; fruit, 264.

Bacteria, 352.

Bags for flowers, 248.

Bailey, books by, 125, 250, 282, 302,
314, 380, 385, 416, 421, 442, 452.

Bailey, W. W., books by, 442, 443.

Baldwin, book by, 443.

Balloon-vine, 268.

Balm of Gilead, twig, 38.

Balsam, double, 206; fruit, 267; seed
of, 335.

Bamboo, 230.

Banana, seedless, 376.

Bananas, classification, 327.

Baneberry, fruit, 277.

 

Banner, 207.

Barberries, shoots of, 11, 36.

Barberry, anther of, 149; leaf, 113;
leaves, 102, 103.

Bark-bound, 71.

Bark, expansion of, 69.

Barley, 230.

Barometer, 414.

y

Basin, 294.

Basswood, inflorescence, 193; phe-
nology, 417; phyllotaxy, 65; stat-
ure, 389.

Basswoods, associates of, 413.

Beal, book by, 230.

Bean, climbing, 402; flower, 207; fruit,
°261, 268; germination of, 327-331;
jack, 268; leaf, 85, 99; movement
in, 402; tuberous, 364.

Bedstraw, 64.

Beech, catkins, 161.

Beecb-drop, 409.

Beeches, associates of, 413; leaf-cast-
ing, 43.

Beechnut, 281.

Bees, 234, 237.

Beet, evolution of, 388; roots of, 393;
tubers, 363.

Beggars, 406.

Beggar’s-ticks, 338.

Begonia, adventitious buds, 292, 376;
cutting, 378; flower, 152.

Begonias, 222.

Bell-jar, 380.

Bell-shaped corolla, 185.

Bentham & Hooker, book by, 434.

Bergen, book by, 447.

Berries, 273.

Bi-compound, 91, 95.

Biennial, 386.

Bifoliolate, 95.

Bilocular, 142,

Binomial nomenclature, 428,
INDEX

475

(Numbers refer to pages.)

Bipalmate, 95.

Bipinnate, 95.

Birch, catkins of, 157, 3 leaves, 121.

Birds, carry seeds, 338; pollination
by, 245.

Birthwort family, 212.

Biserial flower, 139.

Biternate, 89, 95.

Blackberries, dispersion, 338; habits,
390; fruit, 255, 274, 304; inflores-

cence, 197; leaf, 78; phenology, 417; '

serambling, 401; shoots, 55.

Blackbirds, 171.

Black currant, twigs, 365, 181.

Black-rot, 352. .

Black walnut, fruit, 285; twigs, 39.

Blade of leaf, 80.

Bleeding-heart, 90; duration of, 386
388; flower, 214.

Blight, 352...

Blood-root, rhizome, 362.

Blooming, dates of, 414.

Blue-beech, catkin, 158.

Bluebells, renewing, 388.

Blue cohosh, 278.

Blue-flag, flower, 152, 187; fruit, 265;
rhizome, 362.

Boards, knots in, 23.

Boll of cotton, 265.

Boneset, 183.

Borage, inflorescence, 195.

Borers, 21.

Boston ivy, 87, 400.

Botanizing, 440, 443.

Bouvardias, 222.

Box-elder, fruit, 271.

Boxes for seeds, 330.

Books, 446.

Brace roots, 374.

Bracts, 97.

Branch, 3.

Bread mold, 351.

 

Breeding of plants, 418.

Brick or spawn, 350.

Britton, book by, 443.

Brugmansia, double, 206; fruit, 275.

Bryophyllum, 375.

Bryophytes, 352.

Buckwheat, 240; inflorescence, 193;
leaf, 112; seed, 334.

Bud-scales, 50.

Buds and bulbs, 353, 357.

Bulblets, 353.

Bulbous plants, 327, 353.

Bulbs, 353; perpetuation by,
scales growing, 375.

Bulbs vs. buds, 357.

Bullrush, 226.

Bull-thistle, duration of, 386.

Bumble-bees, 238.

Burdock, 182,183; dissemination, 338;
fruit, 280, 305.

Bushes, 10, 390.

Butcher’s broom, 104.

Buttercup, flower, 152, 238. [39

Butternut, fruit, 285; leaf, 92; twigs,

Buttons of mushroom, 349.

Buttonwood, 40, 161.

387;

Cabbage, head, 356; fruit, 262.

Cacti, 364; classification, 326; move-
ment in, 406.

Calanthe, 226.

Calcium, 422.

California poppy, 403.

Calla, flower, 168.

Calliopsis, 179.

Calyptra, 347.

Calyptrate buds, 40.

Calyx, 135.

Campanulate corolla, 185.

Canada thistle, leaf, 86; spread of,
361, 367.

Canes, 390.
476

INDEX

(Numbers refer to pages.)

Canna, flower, 201; fruit, 265; rhi-
zome, 360; seed of, 335.

Cannas, classification, 327; leaf-scars,
42.

Capitulum, 165, 190, 196.

Cap of mushroom, 347.

Capsicum, fruit, 276.

Capsule, 263.

Caraway, inflorescence, 190.

Carbon dioxid, 422.

Carding factories, 337.

Cardiospermum, 268.

Carex (earices), 164, 230;
367.

Carnation, double, 203, 206; flower,
152; placenta, 143; stamen, 150.

Carnations, 222.

Carrot, duration of, 387; inflorescence,
190; roots of, 393; tubers, 364.

Carya alba, 44; porcina, 44.

Caryopsis, 253.

Cassabanana, 399.

Castilleia, 156.

Castor bean, duration of, 386; flower,
219; fruit, 264; seed of, 335.

Catalpa flower, 184.

Catchfly, placenta, 143.

Catkin, 156,

Catnip, flower, 140, 184, 253: leaf-scars,
42,

Cattle and plants, 383.

Cattleya, 226.

Caudicle, 243.

Caulicle, 332.

Caulophyllum, fruit, 278.

Cavity, 294.

Cayenne pepper, 276.

Cedar, 310; leaves, 125.

Celery, blanching; 423; inflorescence,
190.

Cell of anther, 146,

Cell of ovary, 141.

layer of,

 

Centripetal inflorescence, 193.

Cereal grains, leaf-scars, 42.

Cereals, 230; classification, 327; endo-
sperm, 334.

Chapman, book by, 443.

Checking growth, 6, 205.

Cherries, dispersion, 338.

Cherry, black, 18; flower, 152; fruit,
256, 258; morello, 19; phenology,
417; stature, 388, 389; suckering,
370; sweet, 19; vernation, 58.

Cheese mold, 351.

Chestnut, family, 284; flowers, 161;

fruit, 286; leaf, 117; phenology,
417.
Chicory, 183.

Chickweed. placenta, 143.

Chili pepper, 276.

Chlorophyll, 350, 407 et seq., 423.

Chrysanthemum, florets, 183; leaves,
128.

Chrysanthemums, 222; renewing, 388.

Cinerarias, 222.

Circulation in plants, 424.

Circumcissile, 263.

Cladophyllum, 105.

Clarke, essay by, 282.

Clasping leaf, 110.

Classification, 432, 447.

Claw, 134.

Clearings, 383.

Cleistogamous, 244,

Clematis, climbing of, 400; fruit, 276.

Climate, study of, 415.

Climbing plants, 396.

Close-fertilization, 234.

Clot-bur, 338.

Clover, dodder on, 407; flower, 207;
four-leaved, 130; fruit, 269; move-
ment in, 402; roots of, 393.

Club-moss, 346, 352.

Cobea leaf, 97.
INDEX

477

(Numbers refer to pages.)

Cockle-bur, 280.
Cockle, dispersion, 338.
Cocoanut, dispersion, 339; fertiliza-

tion, 313; fruit 287. germination,
332, 335; milk in, 334.
Cohosh, anther of, 149; fruit, 277,

278,

Collateral buds, 40.

Collecting, 440, 443.

Collective fruits, 305.

Columbine, double, 206; flower, 237;
fruit, 259, 263, 270, 276.

Columbines, renewing, 388.

Column of orchids, 223.

Comfrey, inflorescence, 195.

Complete flower, 138; leaf, 109.

Compositz, 209.

Composites, classification, 326; inflo-
rescence, 197.

Compositous flowers, 176, 177.

Compound leaf, 86; pistil, 144; pod,
263.

Conduplicate, 58.

Cone family, 209, 310.

Cones, discussion of, 306; phyllotaxy,
68; pollination of, 236.

Coniferx, 209, 310.

Connective, 149.

Connivent stamens, 183.

Cordate, 118.

Coreopsis, 179.

Coriander, inflorescence, 190.

Corm, 358.

Cormel, 359.

Corms, perpetuation by, 387.

Corn and pumpkins, 384.

Corn, 230; ear ef, 166; flower, 228;
leaf-scars, 42; movement in, 403;
phyllotaxy. 65; pollination of, 236;
roots of, 374; study of, 166; suck-
ering, 370; (maize) dispersion, 338;
(maize) seed of, 335.

 

Corn, cockle fruit, 278; placenta,
143, 145.

Cornus florida, 417.

Corolla, 134.

Corpse-plant, 408.

Correlative characters, 341.

Corymb, 190.

Corymbose-cymose, 194.

Cosmos, 179.

Co-terminal buds, 55, 162.

Cotton, duration of, 386; flower, 20%:
fruit, 265.

Cottonwood, sex of, 163.

Cotyledons, 320.

Coulter, books by, 443.

Cows, carry seeds, 334.

Crab apple, 28, 44.

Crape myrtle, 212.

Crenate, 119.

Crocus, 359; duration of, 386; flower,
187; phenology, 417; stamen, 150.

Cross-fertilization, 234, 239.

Crossing, 246.

Crowfoot, family, 252, 270; flower, 238.

Crucifers, 209.

Cryptogams, 346.

Cucumber, climbing of,
flowers, 164; fruit, 295;
314; seed of, 335.

Cucurbitacesx, 209, 298.

Cultivating plants, 448.

Cultivation, 300.

Cuneate, 118.

Cupulifere, 284.

Currant, flower, 145, 152; fruit, 274;
Indian, 381; phenology, 417; ra-
ceme, 189; twigs, 36, 37, 42, 51, 81;
habit, 390.

Cushaw pumpkin, 299.

Cut leaves, 119.

Cutting-bed, 380.

Cuttings, 374.

398, 402;
seedless,
478

INDEX

(Numbers refer to pages.)

Cycloloma, 337.
Cyclone plant, 337.
Cyme, 193.

Cymule, 194.

Cypress, 310. :
Cypripedium, 222, 226.
Cypsela, 253.

Dahlia, amelioration of, 420; florets,
183; leaf, 94, 110; leaf-scars, 40;
tubers, 363.

Daisies, 183.

Daisy, ox-eye, 177; Paris, leaves of,
129.

Dalibarda, 243.

Dana, book by, 443, book by, 447.

Dandelion, 171 et seq.; dispersion,
337; fruit, 253; phenology, 416, 417;
associates of, 411, 413.

Darkness, roots towards, 405.

Darwin, books by, 99, 240, 242, 246,
402, 406, 447; mentioned, 235, 237,
384, 403.

Darwinism, 418.

Dates, 414.

Datura, double, 206; fruit, 265, 275.

Daubentonia, 269.

Day-lily, fruit, 265; rhizome, 362.

DeCandolle, 434; book by, 447.

Decompound, 91, 95.

Decurrent leaf, 110.

Decussate, 64.

Definitions, 95.

Dehiscence, 149.

Deliquescent tops, 14.

Deltoid, 118.

Dentate, 119.

Determinate growth, 14, 189.

Dewberry, habit, 390; leaf, 78; prepa-
ration, 368.

Dextrorse, 398.

Diadelphous, 208.

 

Diagrams of leaves, 120, 344.

Dicentra, leaf, 89.

Dichogamy, 137, 224.

Diclinous, 139; flowers, 156, 163, 168,

Dicotyledons, 325.

Digitate, 87.

Dilated petiole, 110.

Dill, inflorescence, 190.

Dimerous, 214.

Dimorphic, 240.

Dicecious, 170.

Disc flowers, 179.

Discoid, 179.

Dises on tendrils, 400.

Disguises of leaves, 96.

Dispersion of seeds, 336.

Dissemination of seeds, 336.

Distichous, 66.

Divergence of character, 384.

Dock leaf, 113.

Docks, associates of, 413; in orchards,
384.

Dodder, 407.

Dodge, book by, 346.

Dog’s-tooth violet, 356.

Dog-wood, flowering, 155, 163; phe-
nology, 417; twigs, 9.

Domestic plants, 418.

Dormant buds, 3.

Dorsal, 260.

Double flowers, 203.

Drupe, 255.

Drupelet, 255.

Drying plants, 441._

Dutchman's breeches, 214.

Dutchman’s pipe, 210.

Duckmeat, 219; frond of, 342; classi-
fication, 327.

Duration of plants, 386.

Ear of corn, 166.
Earth, roots towards, 330, 405.
INDEX

479

(Numbers refer to pages)

Easter lily, 353.

Eaton, book by, 346.

Ecology, 413.

Egg-cell, 311, 331.

Egg-plant, flower,
seedless, 314.

Elder, buds, 10, 11; inflorescence, 195,
197, 198; phenology, 417; suckering,
370.

Elliot, Miss, quoted 449.

Elliptical, 118.

Elm, ‘bark, 70; form of top, 14; fruit,
272; phyllotaxy , 65.

Emasculation, 247.

Embryo, 332.

Embryo-sac, 311,331.

Endocarp, 257.

Endogens, 326.

Endosperm, 334.

Engler & Prantl, book by, 435.

Entire leaf, 119.

Entomophilous, 236.

Environment, 226.

Epicotyl, 334.

Epigwa, 240, 390; phenology, 417.

Epigeal, 328.

Epigynous, 152.

Epiphytes, 223, 406.

Equisetum, 346, 352.

Erigenia, 417.

Eschscholtzia, 403.

Essential organs, 136.

Euphorbia flower, 218.

Eutropic, 398.

Evolution, 448.

Excurrent tops, 14.

Exocarp, 257.

Exogens, 325.

Explosive fruits, 339.

Extrorse. anther, 148.

183; fruit, 275;

Falconer, book by, 350.

 

False spikenard, 360.

Family, 209.

Fasciation, 68, 69.

Fascicle, 196.

Female flowers, 139,

Fence-row, flora of, 411.

Fern, stag’s-horn, 410; vernation, 60.

Ferns, 342, 352.

Fertile flowers, 139.

Fertilization, 135, 234; of strawberry,
254, 311.

Feverfew, leaves, 128.

Fig, fruit, 304.

Filament, 134,

Filberts, 281, 284.

Fire and plants, 383.

Fire, scorching of cones, 309.

Fir leaves, 107, 125.

Firs, catkins, 306; phyllotaxy, 68.

Flax, 240; dodder on, 407.

Fleeces, seeds in, 337.

Flora, 411.

Floral envelope, 134.

Floras of given regions, 442.

Flower-pot, 331.

Flower-seat, 150.

Flower, what is a? 131.

Fly-catchers, 405.

Foliation, 61.

Follicle, 261.

Food of plants, 421.

Forcing fruits, 314.

Forest, 336, 384.

Forest trees, 289.

Forget-me-not, inflorescence, 195.

Forms of leaves, 115.

Forsythia, leaves, 87; suspensa, 87.

Foxglove, flower, 183.

Frames for seeds and plants, 330, 380.

Free and distinct, 150.

Freesias, 222.

Frond, 220, 342.
480

INDEX

(Numbers refer to pages.)

Fruit, 252; bud, 5; dot, 343; spur, 25.

Frutescent, 393.

Fuchsia, double, 206;
stamen, 150.

Fuchsias, 222.

Fuller’s teasel, 181.

Full flowers, 203.

Fungi, 351, 352; in wood, 21.

Funiculus, 332.

Funkia, fruit, 265.

flower, 152;

Galium, 64; scrambling, 401.

Galls on oak, 285.

Gamopetalous, 184.

Gamopetaly, 215.

Gamosepalous, 184.

Gardener and plant-breeding, 418.

Gases, 422.

Gaye, book by, 413.

Geddes, book by, 99, 406.

Generalization, 225.

Genealogy, 341.

Geotropism, 330.

Geranium, cutting, 378, 380; double,
204, 206; stamen, 150.

Geraniums, 222.

Germination, 316 et seq.; of pollen
3.1.

Gherkin, flowers, 164; fruit, 294,

Gibson, book by, 350.

Gills, 348.

Ginger, root, 362; wild, 212.

Ginkgo, 310.

Girdling, 424.

Gladiolus, corm, 358; flower, 187.

Gland, 216.

Glomerule, 196.

Glossary, 455.

Glue for mounting plants, 442.

Glumes, 227.

Goethe, views of, 206.

Goff, book by, 447.

 

Golden-rod, duration of, 386; florets,
183; leaf-scars, 42.

Goodale, book by, 447.

Gooseberry, habit, 390;
twigs, 35, 43.

Gourd, family, 209, 295;; flowers, 164;
fruit, 295.

Grafts, 374.

Grains, leaf-scars, 42.

Graming, 209, 230.

Grape, canes, 390; description of,
428; flowers, 215; fruit, 273; growth
of, 14; inflorescence, 197; leaves,
84, 113, 123; phenology, 417; shoots,
55; tendrils, 401.

Grasses, classification, 327; leaf-scars,
42; movement in, 403.

Grass, family, 209, 230; flower, 227;
phyllotaxy, 65; seeds and weeds,
338.

Greenbrier, 41, 42; leaves, 122, 124.

Greene, book by, 443.

Greenhouse, miniature, 380.

Ground-cherry, fruit, 279.

Ground-nut, leaves, 100.

Growing of plants, 448.

Gray, Asa, mentioned, 240, 435; books
by, 442, 443, 447,

Gum on buds, 54.

Gynecium, 139.

Gymnosperms, 309.

fruit, 274;

Habit, 388.

Hackel, book by, 230.

Hair-grass, 337.

Hair on buds, 54.

Halophytic, 413.

Haw, 12, 13.

Haws, germination, 339,

Hawthorn, fruit, 293; germination,
339.

Hazel, catkins, 157, 160.
INDEX

481

(Numbers refer lo pages)

Hazels, 281, 284. “
Head, 165, 190, 196; of rye, 227.
Heeths, anthers of, 148.

Heartseed, 268.

Heart-shaped, 118.

Helicoid cyme, 195.

Heliotrope, inflorescence, 195.

Heliotropes, 222.

Heliotropism, 330.

Hemerocallis, 362.

Hemlock knot, 22.

Hen-and-chickens, 355.

Henbane, fruit, 262.

Hepatica, akene, 251, 276; blooming
of, 414; flower, 131, 139, 145, 153,
183, 188; peduncle of, 163; phenol-
ogy, 417; sleep of, 404.

Herbarium, 437, 443.

Herbs, 388, 393.

Hermaphroiite, 139.

Heterogonous, 240.

Heterostyled, 240.

Hexagynia, 433.

Hexamerous, 214.

Hibiscus, flower, 209; fruit, 265.

Hickory, habit, 391; inflorescence,
161, 163, 306; nuts, 281, 285; twigs,
42, 57.

Hicoria glabra, 44; microcarpa, 44;
ovata, 44.

Hilum, 332.

Holly, phyllotaxy, 68.

Hollyhock, flower, 209.

Hollyhocks, leaf-scars, 42; renewing,
388.

Homology, 53.

Honey, 237.

Honey locust, 39; fruit, 269; leaves,
130.

Honeysuckle, 57, 60, 63, 64; flower,
237; stamen, 150; Tartarian, 39;
classification, 326.

FF

 

Hoofs, seeds on, 338.

Hooks for climbing, 401; on seeds,
338.

Hop, climbing of, 396, 402.

Hop-tree, fruit, 271.

Hornbeam, catkin, 158.

Horse-chestnut, 11, 15, 59, 64; germi-

nation, 328; inflorescence, 196;
phenology, 417.
Horse-radish, 376, 377; leaves, 87;

roots of, 393.
Horses, carry seeds, 338.
Host, 407.
House-leek, 325, 369; phyllotaxy, 68.
Howell, book by, 443.
Huckleberry, anther of, 148.
Humming-birds, 237.
Husk-tomato, fruit, 279.
Hyacinth, double, 206; flower, 186.
Hydrangea, inflorescence. 195; neu-
tral flowers, 179.
Hydrophytic, 413.
Hyphe, 351.
Hypocotyl, 334.
Hypogeal, 328.
Hypogynous, 152.

Ice-plant, 406.

Impotent pollen, 235.
Indeterminate growth, 14, 189. '
Indian corn: see Corn.
Indian currant, 381.

Indian pipe, 408.

Indian turnip, 169.
Indusium, 343.

Inferior ovary, 151.

Inflexed vernation, 59.
Inflorescence, 162, 196.

Ink, for marking roots, 322.
Innate anther, 147.
Insectivorous plants, 99, 405.
Insect-pollination, 234, 236.
482

INDEX

(Numbers refer to pages.)

Insects and flowers, 137, 237.

Interpretation of nature, 448.

Introrse anther, 148.

Involucel, 191.

Involucre, 155.

Involute, 57.

Iris, flower, 152, 187; rhizome, 362.

Isomerous flowers, 185.

Ivy, 87, 400, 401; poison, 88, 414; roots,
of, 374.

Jack bean, 268.

Jack-in-the-pulpit, 169.

Jagged leaves, 119.

Japanese ampelopsis, 400.

Japan plum, 282, 396.

Japan walnut, 39.

Jeffersonia, anther of, 149; fruit, 263,
278; leaf, 89.

Jewel-weed, 268.

Jimson-weed, fruit, 265, 275.

Juneberry, dispersion, 338; fruit, 293;
twigs, 37.

June-grass, conquest by, 383; flower,
227; panicle, 192, 193.

Juniper, 310.

Jussieu, 433.

Kerner, book by, 447.
Key-fruits, 270, 337.
Kinds of plants, 425.
Kinships of flower, 197.
Knobel, books by, 443.
Knot-holes, 21,

Knots, 21.

Label, 439.

Labiato flowers, 184.
Lady’s-slipper, 222.

Lamelle, 348.

Laminate, 355.
Lamson-Scribner, book by, 230.
Lantern, in garden, 404.

 

Larch, catkins, 307; leaves, 107.
Larkspur, double, 206; fruit, 270, 276
Lawns, weeds in, 338, 411.

Layers, 367.

Leaf-bud, 5.

Leaf-cutting, 377.

Leaf-idea, 108.

Leaflet, 87.

Leaf-prints, 442.

Leaf-scars, 38, et seq.

Legume, 208, 261.

Legumes, classification, 326.

Leguminose, 208, 269, 402, 405.

Lemna, 219.

Lettuce, breeding of, 418; florets, 183.

Lanceolate, 116.

Lichen, 409.

Lichens, 352.

Ligustrum vulgare, 417.

Lilac, duration of, 386, 388; fruit,
263; inflorescence, 196; phenology,
417; stamen, 150; stature, 389; suck-
ering, 370; vernation, 58.

Lilacs, shoots of, 11, 12.

Lilies, classification, 327; duration of,
386; leaf-scars, 42; phyllotaxy, 69.
Lily, anther, 147; Easter, 353; flower,
152, 185; fruit, 265; stamen, 150;

tiger, 355.

Lily-of-the-valley, 222; flower,
raceme, 189; rhizome, 362.

Limb, 134.

Linden, inflorescence, 193.

Linear, 118.

Linnzus, 428, 430, 432, 433; leaves,
119; vernation, 61.

Linum, 240.

Live-for-ever, phyllotaxy, 68.

Live-oak, leaves, 122.

Liverwort, flower, 131.

Lobes, 87.

Locel, 147.

186;
INDEX

483

(Numbers refer to pages.)

Locellus, 147.

Locule, 141, 146.

Loculicidal, 264.

Locust, flower, 207; fruit, 269; honey,
39; honey, leaves, 130; movement
in, 402.

Lodicule, 227.

Lombardy poplar leaf, 79.

Long-styled, 240.

Loquat, 282.

Love-in-a-mist, 270.

Lubbock, books by, 336, 447.

Lupine, movement in, 402.

Lycaste, 226.

Lycopodium, 347.

Lythrum, 240.

MacMillan, essay by, 414.

Macrosporanguim, 311.

Macrospore, 311.

Macoun, book by, 443.

Maidenhair fern, 342.

Maize: see Corn.

Male flowers, 139.

Mallow family, 209.

Mallows, 209; movement in, 403.

Malus coronaria, 431.

Mammals, carry seeds, 338.

Mandrake, leaf, 114; ovary, 143; rhi-
zome, 362.

Mangrove, 371.

Manuals, 442.

Maple, blooming of, 414; branches,
17, 43; flowers, 219; fruit, 270; in-
florescence, 196; leaf, 110, 113;
leaves, 81; shoot, 51, 54, 58, 64;
stature, 388, 394.

Maplés, species of, 429.

Marguerite, leaves, 129.

Marigold, 183.

Marsh, book by, 414.

Marsh-marigold, fruit, 276.

 

Masters, books by, 199, 447.

Matthews, books by, 289, 443.

Maurandia, 247.

May-apple, anther of, 149; leaf, 114,
ovary, 143; rhizome, 362.

Mayflower, 240, 390; phenology, 417;
stature, 390.

May-pop, 296.

Meadows, weeds in, 338, 384, 413.

Medlar fruit, 293.

Melon, flowers, 164; fruit, 295.

Member, 109.

Merous, 214.

Mesophytic, 413.

Micropyle, 332.

Microspore, 311.

Mid-styled, 240.

Mignonette, 222; fruit, 266, 270.

Mildew, 351.

Milk in cocoa-nut, 334.

Milkweed, flower, 243.

Mimosa pudica, 405.

Mint, fruit, 253.

Mints, leaf-scars, 42.

Missing links, 436.

Mistletoe, 406; seeds of, 338.

Mitchella, 240.

Mock-orange, 417.

Mold, 351.

Monadelphous, 208.

Monocotyledou, 325.

Moneecious, 170.

Monopetalous, 184.

Monstrosity, 99.

Moonseed, leaf, 114.

Morello cherry, 19.

Morning-glory, and dodder. 407; climb-
ing of, 396, 402; fruit, 265; seed of,
335.

Morphology, 52, 53.

Mosses, 346, 347, 352.

Moss, on trees, 409; Spanish, 410,
484

INDEX

(Numbers refer to pages.)

Moths, 236.

Mountain ash, fruit, 293.

Mounting plants, 442.

Movements of plants, 402.

Mueller, book by, 242.

Mulberry, fruit, 303; leaves, 124; phyl-
lotaxy, 65.

Mullein, duration of, 386; fruit, 265;
growth of, 14; leaf, 110.

Multilocular, 142.

Multiple fruits, 305.

Multiternate, 95.

Mushrooms, 347.

Muskmelon, fruit, 296.

Mustard, anther, 147; classification,
326; family, 209, 262; flower, 132,
139, 145, 183; fruit, 262, 269; ovary,
142; receptacle, 150, 305.

Mycelium, 349.

Myriophyllum, 357.

Myrtle, crape, 212.

Nails in trees, 7, 24.

Naked flowers, 139.

Names of plants, 427.

Narcissus, flower, 152, 186.

Nasturtium, climbing, 401, 402; leaf,
114.

Natural selection, 418. ,

Nature, interpretation of, 448.

Navel orange, 303.

Nectar, 237.

Nectary, 237.

Necdle-shaped, 118.

Negundo, fruit, 271.

Neutral flowers, 179.

Newell, books by, 447. “

Newhall, books by, 289, 443.

Nigella, fruit, 270.

Nightshade, family, 209, 274;
275.

Node, 47.

fruit,

 

Nomenclature, 427.
Nubbins, 254, 255, 311.
Nut, 281.

Oak, apples, 285; branches, 15, 43; cat-
kins, 157, 161; family, 284; knot,
21; leaves, 80, 88, 122; stature, 388,
394,

Oaks, acorns, 281, 284; associates of,
413; leaf-casting, 43.

Oats, 230; dispersion, 338.

Oblanceolate, 118.

Oblong, 117.

Oblong-lanceolate, 117.

Obovate, 118.

Obtuse, 118.

Ocrea, 113.

Odors and insects, 236.

cology, 413.

Offset, 355, 369.

Old-man-and-woman, 355.

Oliver, book by, 447.

Onion, bulbs, 354; germination, 323;
seed, 334.

Onions, propagation of, 358.

Ontogeny, 341.

Operculum, 347.

Orange, fruit, 274, 303; leaf, 100; seed
of, 335; stamen, 150.

Orbieular, 118.

Orchard fruits, 326; plants in, 384.

Orchard grass, roots of, 393.

Orchids, 222, 242; classification, 327;
parasites, 409.

Order, 209.

Organ, 109.

Organic compounds, 423.

Osage orange, phyllotaxy, 68.

Osiers, propagation, 368; twigs, 9.

Oval, 118.

Ovary, 133.

Ovate, 117.
INDEX

485

(Numbers refer to pages.)

Ovule, 311.

Oxalis, 240; dehiscence, 268; move-
ment in, 402, 403, 406.

Oxalises, 222.

Ox-eye daisy, 177.

Oxygen, 423.

Oysters on trees, 374.

Peony, fruit, 276.

Painted-cup, 156.

Palmate, 87.

Palmer, book by, 350.

Palmetto, 42; vernation, 59.

Palms, classification, 327; leaf-scars,
42; phyllotaxy, 68.

Panicum ecapillare, 337.

Pans for seeds, 330.

Pansy, 210, 222.

Paper model of leaves, 121.

Papilionaceous, 207.

. Pappus, 174.

Parasite, 351, 406.

Parietal placenta, 143.

Paris daisy, leaves of, 129.

Parsley tribe, 190.

Parsnip, duration of, 387;
cence, 190; tubers, 364.
Passion-flower, 209, 217, 295.

Partridge-berry, 240.

Pea, climbing, 402; family, 208, 269;
flower, 207; fruit, 261, 268; germi-
nation, 323, 328; leaf, 97.

Pea, sweet, flower, 207, 240.

Peach, fruit, 256, 257, 277; phenology’
417; plum on, 379; seed of, 335;
stature, 389; twigs, 32 et seq., 49;
vernation, 58.

Peanut, fruit, 269.

Pear, bud on pedicel, 199; fruit, 256,
293; leaf-scales, 54; on quince, 379;
phenology, 417; spur, 28; twigs, 43.

Pecan, seed of, 335.

inflores

 

Peck, writings of, 350.

Pedagogies, 445.

Pedicel, 162.

Peduncle, 162.

Peltate, 114.

Pentamerous, 214.

Pepino, seedless, 376,

Pepo, 298.

Pepper, flower, 188; fruit, 276.

Peppermint, rhizome, 362.

Pepper, red, duration of, 386

Peppers, cotyledons, 336.

Perennial, 386.

Perfoliate leaf, 111.

Perianth, 134; forms of, 183.

Pericarp, 252.

Perigynium, 232.

Perigynous, 152.

Peristome, 347.

Petal, 134.

Petiole, 80; as tendril, 400.

Petiolule, 85; as tendril, 400.

Petunia, double, 206; fruit, 275.

Phalenopsis, 226,

Phanerogams, 346, 352.

Phenology, 415.

Philadelphus, 417.

Phlox, dichogamy in, 235; fruit, 265.

Phosphorus, 422.

Phyllodium, 106.

Phylogeny, 341.

Phyllotaxy, 68; of flower, 197.

Physalis, fruit, 279.

Physiognomy, 411.

Phyton, 380.

Pickerel-weed, 240.

Pie, cherry, 19.

Pie-plant, leaf, 112.

Pigweed, dissemination, 337; fruit,
262; associates of, 411; classifica-
tion, 326; leaf-scars, 42.

Pileus, 347.
486

INDEX

(Numbers refer to pages.)

Pine and poplar, 384.

Pineapple, fruit, 304; seedless, 376.

Pine, healing of wounds, 72; leaves,
106, 107, 118; pollination of, 236.

Pines, associates of, 413; discussion
of, 306; phyllotaxy, 68.

Pink, flower, 152; tribe, 143; placenta,
143,

Pinks, renewing, 388.

Pinney, 91, 344.

Pinnate, 88.

Pinnule, 91, 344.

Pipe-vine, 210.

Pistil, 133; compound, 144,

Pistillate, 139.

Pit, 257.

Pitcher plant, 99.

Pitch-forks, 180, 338.

Placenta, 143.

Plaited, 59.

Plane tree, 40, 161.

Planting school grounds, 448.

Plants, growing of, 448.

Plantain, fruit, 262; phyllotaxy, 68;
rattlesnake, 223; spike, 189.

Plant-food, 424.

Plicate, 59.

Plum, fertilization, 313; flower, 144,
152, 214; fruit, 256, 257; habit, 396;
on peach, 379; ovary, 142, phenol-
ogy, 407; phyllotaxy, 67; spur, 31.

Plumule, 321.

Plur-annual, 386.

Plurifoliolate, 95.

Pod, compound, 263.

Pods, 259.

Pogonia, 224.

Poinsettia, 156.

Poison ivy, 88, 414;
plants, 350, 414.

Poison sumac, 88, 414.

Pollen, 134; influence on fruit, 311.

climbing, 401;

 

Pollinating, 246.

Pollination, 136, 234.

Pollinium, 243.

Polyanthus, 239,

Polygala, 244.

Polygamous, 170.

Polygonum, 401.

Polymorphism, 240.

Polypetalous, 183.

Polypetaly, 215.

Polysepalous, 184.

Pome, 293.

Pondweeds, 376.

Pontederia, 240.

Poplar, leaf, 79.

Poplars, sex of, 163.

Poplar succeeds pine, 384.

Poppy, California, 403; fruit, 263.

Portulaca, movement in, 403:
Purslane and Pursley.

Potassium, 422.

Potato-blight, 352.

Potato, cuttings of, 377; duration of,
386; flower, 152; fruit, 275; phylio-
taxy, 69; sweet, 363; tuber, 362.

Potatoes, hill of, 366.

Prepotent pollen, 235.

Preserving of plants, 437.

Pressing plants, 441.

Prickles for climbing, 401.

Prim, phenology, 417.

Primrose, fertilization, 239: placenta,
143.

Privet, phenology, 417.

Privets, shoots of, 11.

Procumbent, 390.

Progressive inflorescence, 191,

Propagating-box, 380.

Propagation of plants, 316 et seq

Prostrate, 390.

Proterandrous, 169.

Proterogynous, 169.

see
INDEX

487

(Numbers refer to pages.)

Prunus serotina; 417; Virginiana, 417.

Pseud-annual, 387.

Pteridophytes, 346, 352.

Pulse, 208.

Pumpkin, family, 209, 295;
152; fruit, 295.

Pumpkins and corn, 384.

Purslane, fruit, 262; movement in,
403, 406.

Pussley, fruit, 262; movement in, 403,
406.

Pussy willows, 138, 171.

Putamen, 257.

Putty-root, 223.

Pyrus coronaria, 431; Japonica, 417.

Pyxis, 263.

flower,

Quack-grass, duration of, 386; rhi-.
zome, 361.

Quadrifoliolate, 95.

Quadrilocular, 142.

Quadriserial flower, 139.

Querl, 400.

Quinate, 89.

Quince, fruit, 293; leaf, 110; phenol-
ogy, 417; pear on, 379; shoot, 55.

Quinquefoliolate, 95.

Quinquelocular, 142.

Raceme, 189.

Racheola, 232.

Rachis, 88, 345.

Radicle, 334.

Radish, duration of, 387; fruit, 262;
germination, 330; tubers, 364.

Ragweed, florets, 183; in orchards,
384.

Ranunculacesx, 252, 276. [390.

Raspberries, dispersion, 338; habit,

Raspberry, fruit, 255, 305; phenology,
417; propagation, 368; shoots, 55.

Rattlesnake plantain, 223.

 

Ray flowers, 179.

Receptacle, 150.

Red-bud, blooming of, 414.

Red cedar, leaves, 125.

Red pepper: see Pepper;
leaves, 116, 117.

Red-root, fruit, 262.

Reed, leaf-scars, 40.

Refiexed vernation, 59.

Reinforced flowers, 152, 163; fruits,
278, 284.

Reniform, 119.

Repand, 119.

Retinospora, leaves, 125.

Retuse, 118.

Rheumatism-root, 263.

Rhizome, 361.

Rhododendron, bud, 52; leaf, 110.

Rhubarb, leaf, 112; vernation, 63.

Rice, 230; wild, 339.

Rings of growth, 7.

Roadside, flora of, 411.

Robbers, 406.

Robinson, book by, 347.

Root-climbers, 401.

Root, growth of, 321.

Root-hairs, 329.

Root systems, 393.

Roots as runners, 370.

Rootstocks, 358.

Rosacesx, 209.

Rose, double, 206; family, 209. 254,
277.

Rose, moss, 403.

Rose, stamen, 150.

Roses, 222; classification, 326; dura-
tion of, 386; shoots of, 11.

Rosette, 355.

Rotate corolla, 185.

Rudbeckia, 177.

Runners, 367.

Rushes, classification, 327.

fruit, 276;
488

INDEX

(Nwmbers refer to pages.)

Russian thistle, leaf, 103; spread of,
337.
Rye, 227, 230.

Sage, anther of, 149; scarlet, 156.

Sagittaria, 191.

Sagittate, 119.

Salix, discolor, 44; rostrata, 44.

Salsify, duration of, 387; florets, 183;
roots of, 393; tubers, 364.

Samara, 271.

Sambucus, 417.

Sand-bur, 338.

Saprophyte, 351, 406.

Sap-wood, 424.

Sarcocarp, 257.

Sarcodes, 409.

Sassafras, leaves, 124.

Savin leaves, 125.

Seape, 188.

School grounds, 448.

Scirpioid cyme, 195.

Sclarea, 156.

Scouring-rush, 346.

Secramblers, 401.

Scullion, 355.

Sea-beans, 339.

Sea-weeds, 352.

Sedge, layer of, 367.

Sedges, 164, 230; classification, 327;
leaf-scars, 42; rhizcme, 362.

Seed, 252, 334; leaves, 320.

Seed-pod, 132, 133.

Seedlings, 336.

Seeds, dispersion of, 336.

Segments, 87.

Selaginella, 346.

Sensitive fern, 343.

Sensitive plant, 405.

Sepal, 135.

Septicidal, 264.

Septifragal, 265.

 

Serrate, 119.

Sessile, 83.

Setchell, book by, 447.

Sexes in plants, 139, 156.

Shadberry, fruit, 293.

Shad-bush, twigs, 37.

Sheath, 112.

Sheep, browsing by, 412; carry seeds,
337.

Shield-fern, 343.

Short-styled,}240.

Shrubs, 10, 390.

Shrub-trefoil, fruit, 271.

Silicle, 262.

Silicon, 422.

Silique, 262

Simple leaf, 86.

Sinistrorse, 398.

Sinuate, 119.

Sinus, 119.

Skunk-cabbage, 169, 411.

Sleep of plants, 403.

Smartweed, leaf, 112; scrambling, 401.

Smilacina, 360.

Smilax, flower, 188; leaves, 122, 124;
of florists, 104; wild, 41.

Smoke vine, 214.

Snails, pollination by, 245.

Snowball, inflorescence, 197; ventral
flowers, 179; stature, 389.

Snow-on-the-mountain, 219.

Snow-plant, 409.

Societies of plants, 410.

Sodium, 422.

Solanaces, 209, 274.

Solanum, fruit, 275.

Sorghum, 230.

Sorrel, associates of, 413; leaf, 113.

Sorus, 343.

Southworth, book by, 230.

Spadix, 169.

Spalding, book by, 447.
INDEX

489

(Nwmbers refer to pages.)

Spanish moss, 410.
Spathe, 169.

Spatulate, 118.

Spawn, 349, 359.
Specialization, 225.
Species, 425.
Specimens, making, 437.
Speedwell, 96.
Spermatophyte, 310, 352.
Spike, 165, 189.
Spikelet, 228, 233.
Spines on seeds, 338,
Spireas, shoots of, 11.
Spore, 342, 345, 346.
Sporangium, 342.
Spore-case, 342.
Spore-print, 349.
Spring, coming of, 414.
Spruce, leaves, 107, 118, 125.
Spruces, catkins, 306.
Spurge, 218.

Spurs, 25.

Squash, family, 209, 295; flower, 152,
163, 184; fruit, 295; germination,
316.

Squirrel-corn, 89; flower, 214.
Squirrel in knot-hole, 23.
Stag’s-horn fern, 410.
Stamen, 134.

Staminate, 139.

Staminodium, 202.

Standard, 207.

Stature of plants, 388.
Sterculia, carpels, 202.

Sterile flowers, 139.
Stick-tights, 180, 253, 280, 337.
Stigma, 133.

Stipel, 85.

Stipules, 80.

Stock, fruit of, 262.

Stolon, 368.

Stone-fruit, 257.

 

Stipe, 342, 347.

St. John’s-wort fruit, 265.

Strawberry, fruit, 253, 274, 305; bull
of, 153, 155; inflorescence, 197; phe-
nology, 417; runner, 368; sex of,
163; stamen, 150.

Strawberry tomato, fruit, 279.

Struggle for existence, 15, 381, 410.

Style, 132.

Sucker, 11, 370.

Suffrutescent, 393.

Suffruticose, 393.

Sugar cane, 230.

Sumac, 13; leaf-scar, 40; poison, 88,

- 414; stature, 389.

Sunflower, 179, 182, 183; phyllotaxy,
68; receptacle, 305. :

Superior ovary, 151.

Supernumerary buds, 39.

Suture, 261.

Swallows, 171.

Sweet pea, flower, 207, 240; seed of,
335.

Sweet potato, 363; and dodder, 407

Sycamore, 40, 161.

Syconium, 305.

Symmetrical flowers, 188.

Synanthous, 170.

Syncarpous, 251.

Syringa. 417.

Tamarack, leaves, 107.

Tansy, 183.

Tap-root, 393.

Tartarian honeysuckle, 39.
Tassels of corn, 166.

Teachers, suggestions for, 445.
Teasel, 181; duration of, 386.
Tendrils, 398; on leaves, 97, 108.
Tension, plants live under, 382.
Teratology, 199.

Terminology, 95.
490

INDEX

(Numbers refer to pages.)

Ternate, 89, 95.

Tetramerous, 214.

Tetrandria, 433.

Thallophytes, 352.

Thermometer, 414.

Thistle, dispersion, 337; leaves, 86.

Thistles, florets, 183; growth of, 14.

Thyrse, 196.

Tiger lily, bulblets, 357.

Tips of raspberry, 368.

Toad-flax, fruit, 265.

Toadstool, 349.

Tobacco, fruit, 275.

Tomato, fruit, 274, 300; leaves, 92, 126;
pollination of, 312.

Tomatoes, cotyledons, 335.

Torus, 150.

Trees, duration of, 386; what are, 389.

Trefoil, shrub, 271.

Tri-compound, 91.

Trifoliolate, 95.

Trilocular, 142.

Trimerous, 214.

Trimorphie, 240.

Tripalmate, 95.

Tripinnate, 95. (114.

Tropxolum, climbing, 401, 402; leaf,

Triserial flower, 139.

Triternate, 95.

Trumpet-creeper, 374, 401.

Trumpet-shaped corolla, 185,

Truncate, 118.

Trunks, why cylindrical, 69.

Tubercle, 363.

Tubers, 362; perpetuation by, 387.

Tubular corolla, 185.

Tulip, anther, 147; double, 204, 206;
flower, 139, 185, 188; fruit, 265;
ovary, 142, 145.

Tulip tree, leaves, 124; vernation, 59°

Tumble-weeds, 337,

Tunicate, 355.

 

Turban squash, 296.

Turnip, battle for life, 382; duration
of, 287; fruit, 262; roots of, 393;
tubers, 363.

Twiners, 398.

Umbel, 190.

Umbellet, 191.
Underwood, book by, 346.
Undulate, 119.
Unifoliolate, 95.
Unilocular, 142.
Uniserial flower, 139.

Vaginate, 112.

Valvate mstivation, 183.

Valve, 262.

Vanilla, 223.

Variation, starting of, 419.

Varieties, 426.

Varnish tree, 202.

Vascular cryptogams, 346.

Vasculum, 440.

Veil of mushroom, 348.

Venation, 96.

Ventral, 260.

Verbena, ‘stamen, 150.

Vernation, 61.

Veronica, 96.

Versatile anther, 147.

Verticillate, 65.

Vexillum, 207.

Violaces, 210.

Violet, dehiscence, 268; double, 206;
flowers, 209, 222.

Virginia creeper, 84, 400, 414.

Vitis, description of, 428; Labrusca
428,

Volva, 350.

Wallflower, fruit, 262.
Walnut, catkins, 162; fruit, 285; leaf,
92; twigs, 39, 55.
INDEX

491

(Numbers refer to pages.)

Warming, book by, 413.

Water, carries seeds, 339.

Water-lily, anther, 147, 149; flower,
199; fruit, 263; leaf, 114; rhizome:
362.

Watermelon, fruit, 295; querl, 400.

Weather Bureau, quoted, 415.

Weed, book by, 447.

Weeds, 338, 383.

Wheat, 230; cockle in, 338; leaf, 80
111; seed of, 335; weeds in, 278.

Wheel-shaped corolla, 185.

White cedar, leaves, 125.

White-wood, 59.

Whorl, 65.

Wild Goose plum, 313.

Wild rice, 339.

Willis, book by, 447.

Willow, anther, 147; flower, 138, 139;
leaves, 82; phenology, 417; twigs,
44; vernation, 61. ;

 

Willows, cuttings of, 374; pussy, 138,
171; sex of, 163; shoots of, 11.

Wilting, 403.

Wind-flower, 153.

Wind-pollination, 234, 236.

Wings of flower, 207.

Wistaria, dehiscence, 268.

Witch-hazel, 280; suckering, 570.

Woodpecker in knot-hole, 23.

Wood-pile, 25.

Wood-sorrel, movement in, 402.

Woods, plants in, 413.

Wool on buds, 54.

Wormwood, 183.

Xerophytic, 413.

Yellow bell, 87.
Yew, 310.
Youmans, book by, 447.

Zigzag growth, 13.
Zinnia, 182.
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