Massachusetts Agriculture Series, No. 2 December, 1920 ' The Commonwealth of Massarhusetia DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Dr. ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner 136 STATE HOUSE, BOSTON ORCHARDING REVISED FROM THE FIFTH EDITION OF THE BULLETIN ON APPLE GROWING fe BOSTON WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS 32 DERNE STREET 1921 ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY NEW YORK STATE COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Cornell University Library rcharding. “paevyoio ofdde syyasnyoessvyy sunod sursiwmoid Massachusetts Agriculture Series, No. 2 December, £920 Che Commonwealth of Massachusetts DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Dr. ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Commissioner 136 STATE HOUSE, BOSTON ORCHARDING REVISED FROM THE FIFTH EDITION OF THE BULLETIN ON APPLE GROWING BOSTON WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS 32 DERNE STREET 1921 WW can 1 318959 PusiicaTion or THIs DocuMENT APPROVED BY THE SUPERVISOR OF ADMINISTRATION. Introduction, Cuap. I. CuHap. II. Cuap. III. CHap. IV. Cuap. V. Cuap. VI. Cuap. VIL. Cuap. VIII. Cuap. IX. Cuap. X. Cuap. XI. Bibliography, Index, . CONTENTS. ‘Establishing an Apple Orchard. By F. C. Sears, Renovating Old Orchards. By F. C. Sears” The Establishment and Maintenance of Peach Orchards. By J. K. Shaw, Pruning Fruit Trees. By J. H. Gourley, Grafting and Budding. By W. W. Chenoweth, Some Important Apple Insects in Massachusetts. By H. T. Fernald, et Set Aas ‘ Diseases of the Apple in Massachusetts. By A. V. Osmun, 5 £ Insecticides and Fungicides for the Apple. By H. T. Fernald and A. V. Osmun, : Apple Storage on the Farm. By W. R. Cole, Apple Packing for Massachusetts Growers. By Albert R. Jenks, . The Massachusetts Apple Grading Law. By Wilfrid Wheeler and H. Linwood White. Revised by W. A. Munson, PAGE 27 39 51 57 73 90 106 115 127 146 168 169 INTRODUCTION. Increasing interest in apple growing in Massachusetts and the many requests for information applying to Massachusetts conditions have made necessary a new edition of the bulletin on “Apple Growing.” Since the new book includes a chapter on peach growing, and it is planned to have a chapter on pear culture in the next edition, the title has been changed to “Orcharding.” In preparing this book the text of the last (fifth) edition of “Apple Growing” has been carefully revised and brought up to date. The three articles, “Varieties of Apples for Massachusetts Orchards,’ “The Planting of a Commercial Orchard in Massachusetts” and “The New Orchard,” all by Professor F. C. Sears, have been combined into one new article, which appears as Chapter I. The material presented in the article entitled “Three Common Scale Insects” and “Plant Lice or Aphids,” both by H. T. Fernald, have been included in the chapter on “Apple Insects,” and the “Spray Calendar for Apples” by Erwin H. Forbush has been revised and included in the chapter on “Insecticides and Fungicides.” Orcharding is undoubtedly one of the most important branches of Massachusetts farming. Apple growing particu- larly is a well-established part of our agriculture, because Massachusetts produces good fruit and has the advantage of being at the door of large markets, which will take all she “produces as soon as it is properly graded and packed. The soil and climate are among the most advantageous known for the production of apples of the finest quality, and with the adoption of organized marketing methods by the growers there 6 is every reason to believe that the business will be more profit- able and will continue to increase in volume. The Apple Grading Law, which is fully explained in Chapter XI, has proved to be one of the best adopted by any State, and has given good service in establishing a high standard for grading and packing in closed containers. Every effort has been made in this book to present practical information for the guidance of orchardists, and to deal with all the principal points adequately and concisely. Boston, November 26, 1920. CuapTer I. ESTABLISHING AN APPLE ORCHARD. F. C. SEARS, PROFESSOR OF POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. In any country which grows as fine apples as Massachusetts, and in a section where orcharding is as important a branch of farming as it is in this Commonwealth, there is a constant demand for information as to the setting of orchards. The following brief suggestions are offered in the hope that they may, in part, supply the desired information. FUTURE OF THE OrcHarD INDUSTRY. Naturally, any man who contemplates setting an orchard is anxious to know the answer to the above question, and while it cannot, of course, be answered conclusively, it would cer- tainly seem to the writer that with the conditions which obtain here in Massachusetts it is as reasonable to expect suc- cess in the orchard business as in any other branch of farm- ing. We are close to the best markets in the country; our land values are reasonably low; our transportation facilities are excellent; and our conditions as to labor, fertilizers and other factors which go to influence. the result of an orchard enterprise are certainly no worse than in other sections. The writer would therefore be inclined to believe that the future of the orchard business in Massachusetts is as good as it is in any other part of the United States. SELECTING THE ORCHARD SITE. If one is buying a farm with a view of using it as an or- chard proposition and wishes to ascertain how much of the land is useful for that purpose, or if one already owns a farm 8 and wishes to judge of the availability of certain blocks of land on that farm for orchard purposes, the following score card may prove useful: — Score Card for Orchard Site. 1. Soil, . 30 (a) Surface,. ; 15 (b) Subsoil, . 15 2. Water drainage, : . 30 (a) Surface, . 10 (b) Subdrainage, 20 3. Atmospheric drainage, . 15 4, Aspect, m4 : . 15 (a) With reference to the sun, - 8 (b) With reference to winds, 10 5. Windbreaks, . 10 The attempt has been made here to give a list of the im- portant considerations which ought to govern the selection of a site and to attach to each factor a numerical value. Doubt- less these numerical values are not in all cases correct, but at least they are suggestive. Under each particular factor many different things might be considered, but the following are at least some of the important ones: — 1. Soil. (1) In the consideration of the surface soil one ought to take into account first of all the fertility of the land, whether it is rich enough to give a satisfactory growth of tree, which is of course desirable; and, on the other hand, whether by liberal use of barn manure it may by any possibility be too fertile for the best type of growth of the young tree. While the latter is much less likely to occur than the former, there are cases where land is too fertile to give the most satisfactory results. , (2) The second question under surface soil would be adapta- . tion of the particular block to the special type of fruit one - - wishes to grow. This is probably the most important single item in judging an orchard site. We recognize that, as a... class, peaches ought to grow on rather light soil, pears on . . 9 rather heavy soil, while apples do well on various types of soil, running from fairly light to rather heavy. As a matter of fact, in the case of apples, the work of Mr. H. J. Wilder and others has shown fairly definitely the soil preferences of certain varieties of apples, and we recognize that a Hubbard- ston or a Wealthy does well on light soil, while a McIntosh or a Baldwin requires a medium type of soil, and a Rhode Island Greening a rather heavy type of soil. (3) A third item to be considered in the surface soil is the ease with which it can be worked. Very stony land or heavy clay land would be scored down under the head of difficulty in working it, though it might be good enough in other re- spects to more than offset this. (4) A fourth item would be the question of whether the soil is sour or not. While it has not yet been definitely shown that apple trees prefer an alkaline soil, we do know that lime- stone districts are particularly noted for their fine fruit, and that the cover crops which we wish to grow in the orchard will not thrive, at least most of them will not, on an acid soil. This means that in case the soil in our block is sour, it will be necessary to apply lime to correct that condition. (5) A fifth item would be the humus content of the soil. It will be found that young trees will start off much better on soil which is fairly well supplied with humus, and while this deficiency may be made up through the agency of barn manure or cover crops, it will be found that the soils which need humus most are the last ones to grow satisfactory cover crops. One will therefore find it a slow proposition to correct this deficiency. Turning now to the subsoil, we have the question of the fertility of this subsoil, whether it is a pure sand and carries relatively small quantities of plant food, or a gravelly clay which may be decidedly fertile. This point is more impor- tant than is usually recognized, since the great bulk of the root system of our trees is down in the subsoil and not in the surface soil. One ought also to consider the ease with which the roots can penetrate this subsoil. Ledges and stiff clay hardpan would both be objectionable from this standpoint. 10 2. Water Drainage. The second general item in the above score card is water’ drainage, which is certainly extremely important. It is de- sirable to have sufficient surface drainage to carry off the sur- face water, since it is a well-recognized fact that trees will not do well in a wet soil. On the other hand, if the slope is too abrupt we may get washing of the soil, especially in the spring, and loss of water during summer rains when there may be a scarcity of water in the soil. For this reason very abrupt slopes are less desirable, at least in this respect. Un- der subdrainage would be considered the question of whether there was sufficient drainage or whether the water was held in the soil; and, on the other hand, whether there was too much drainage making the-subsoil too dry. 3. Atmospheric Drainage. The third question to be considered is the matter of at- mospheric drainage, and the importance of this varies a good deal with different fruits in different sections. In those sec- tions where frosts are likely to occur in the spring after the trees are in bloom, and with early blossoming classes or vari- eties of fruits, the question of atmospheric drainage may be very important. If one is considering this question there are several points which ought to be looked into. First, is there sufficient slope to carry off the cold air? This does not re- quire much slope, and one which will move the water over the surface will be ample to carry off the cold air also. One ought also to consider whether there is any obstruction at the bottom of the orchard against which the cold air will bank up and so cause a frost to occur in- the orchard. This obstruction might be a very thick block of timber or a rise in the land. 4. Aspect or Slope. The fourth item is the aspect or slope of the land, whether to the north, south, east or west, and the score card con- siders this first with reference to the sun, second with refer- ence to the wind. In the former point, slope with reference to the sun, we have the advantage of southern aspect in the 11 ripening of the fruit which makes it desirable, if this can be secured without subjecting the plantation to danger from frost. As a matter of fact, with apples in this State there is usually little danger of the blossoms being hit by late frosts. Another item which ought to be considered in this question of the aspect with reference to the sun is the danger of sun scald, which is considerably greater on a southwestern slope than on any other. But this is ordinarily not a serious matter in Massachusetts. The other side of the question of slopes, that is, slopes with reference to wind, is much more important, and it is very desirable to secure, if possible, a slope which is away from the prevailing winds of the section. In most sections of the State the northwest wind is the most dangerous, since we are likely to get gales from that quarter in the autumn before the fruit is picked, and this may cause serious damage from windfall fruit. 5. Windbreaks. The last item in the score card is the matter of windbreaks, which, in conjunction with the slope, help to protect the plan- tation from the effect of wind, and which are, in the opinion of the writer, very important. It is often possible to do such labor as spraying, pruning or harvesting in the orchard with entire comfort when it is protected by a good windbreak, while it might not be possible to work at all if exposed to the wind. This is peculiarly true of spraying, where one has to consider not only the discomfort of the wind, but also the difficulty of getting the spray where it is wanted. In this matter of windbreaks several items ought to be con- sidered. First, and most important, is the kind of trees. As a general proposition it may be said that no tree should be set which harbors a fungus or an insect which is likely to be troublesome on the orchard. This would eliminate cedars, oaks and cherries. All things considered, perhaps the best trees for windbreaks are the pines and spruces among: evergreens, and the hard maples among deciduous trees. The second item which ought to be considered in this matter of windbreaks is the question of how far away they ought to be. This depends somewhat on whether the orchard is set 12 down by the side of a windbreak already established or whether the windbreak is planted with the orchard. But in any case it is better to have them too far away than too near. Prob- ably 50 or 60 feet would be the minimum, and 100 to 150 would be more desirable. The land between could be used for grass or utilized in some other way. Where the trees are set too near the orchard there is always a good deal of dam- age and the fruit is much poorer on that side of the orchard. It is also desirable, if it can be arranged, to have both near-by and distant windbreaks; and where the windbreak is at the bottom of the slope (if the orchard is located in a section which is likely to be troubled by frost), care should be taken to keep it open at the bottom so that the cold air may drain through. It may be worth while to close this discussion of wind- breaks by a mere catalogue of the advantages to be secured from them. Some of the important ones would be as follows: — (1) To protect plantations from cold in winter. This de- pends somewhat on the type of winter, but it was shown very definitely in the winter of 1913-14 that those plantations that were out exposed to severe winds were damaged much more severely than similar plantations which were protected. (2) The windbreak reduces the number of windfalls. This needs no discussion, but is often a serious matter. The writer recalls one orchard man whose crop was around 3,000 barrels, and who one season picked up 700 barrels after a severe wind storm. (8) It prevents the breaking of trees when laden with fruit or covered with ice. (4) It reduces the evaporation of moisture from the soil. This might be extremely important during severely dry spells. (5) It facilitates labor. This has already been discussed. (6) It helps to retain snow and leaves in the orchard. This is important in those sections where deep freezing of soil is likely to occur and result in root injury. (7) It prevents injury to the blossoms where severe winds occur during the blossoming period. The California orchard plow. 13 This is a fairly impressive list of benefits and ought to con- vince any one that the windbreak is a useful thing to have in connection with the orchard if it is possible to get it. CHOICE OF VARIETIES. We may next attack the question of the choice of varieties for the plantation, and in the writer’s opinion this is the most critical question which can come up for decision so far as its bearing on the success of the orchard is concerned, One is more likely to succeed if he chooses the right varieties and puts them on the wrong soil than if he chooses the wrong ° varieties and has them on satisfactory soil. It is impossible in a paper of this type to discuss a long list of varieties, and those which have been selected are, in the opinion of the writer, the most useful for our State. Let us begin by considering the advantages of a fairly long list of varieties for the orchard, say the advantages of five or six varieties in the orchard as against one or two. These advantages stated briefly would be as follows: — First, it provides better for cross-pollination. This has been shown to be frequently a very important factor in the success of the orchard; and while most of our varieties are reasonably self-fertile, yet nearly all of them are benefited by cross-pollination with other varieties,—the yields being steadied and made more certain. Second, a longer list of varieties lengthens the season for picking and handling the fruit. In the writer’s opinion this is the strongest argument for a fairly long list of varieties. Let us compare the orchards of two men, both of whom we will say are harvesting 3,000 barrels of apples in the season. One man has Baldwins alone, and if we allow a 15-day picking season (which would probably be a generous estimate count- ing from the time the fruit was in proper condition to pick up to the time when it would begin to drop badly), this would mean that the owner must pick 200 barrels per day during this picking season. On the other hand, suppose the adjoining owner has five varieties beginning with Oldenburg, which is ripe around the 14 middle of August, following this with Wealthy, then MclIn- tosh, then Baldwins, then Wagener. The latter need not be picked before the middle of October or even later. This would give the second man two months in which to do his picking, or an average of around 60 barrels per day. Any one who has ever attempted to manage a picking crew will easily see the great advantage to the second owner. Third, a longer list of varieties insures some fruit each year. If the McIntosh are not bearing the Baldwins will be; if the Baldwins are off the Wageners will be bearing. Fourth, it increases the chances of pleasing customers. This is not an extremely important item but still it is worth considering, since one customer prefers one kind of apple while another prefers some other kind. Fifth, it may utilize the types of soil better. One variety, as already suggested, does well on a light soil, another on a medium soil, and another on a rather heavy soil. Sixth, it enables the owner to hold his markets better. If he has a continuous supply of apples available from the beginning of the season until the end, he can dispose of them much better than if he has one early and one late and loses the market in between. Seventh, it lengthens the period of income. This ought not to be an important matter, but as most men are constituted it is. Looking at the other side of the question, the disadvan- tages from the increase in the number of varieties, we have, first, that it decreases the chances of selling the entire crop to one buyer. This would be an important consideration in those sections where the practice is to sell the crop, either on the trees or in the packing house, to a buyer who takes the entire crop at one sale; and in certain sections the advantages enumerated above might be more than offset by this single disadvantage. Second, it may lower the efficiency of the orchard because it includes less efficient varieties. For example, Wealthy and McIntosh are both extremely efficient varieties, growing large crops of good apples. If one plants some Oldenburgs or some Spies or some Gravensteins, he is likely to reduce the efficiency 15 of the orchard because these latter varieties are not as gen- erally efficient as the former. Third, the soils may not be suitable for the particular varieties one wishes to set. This might or might not be an important consideration. Turning now to a few specific varieties which seem to be well adapted to most of our orchard sections in Massachu- setts, we may suggest the following list: — Oldenburg. This is a Russian variety imported into this country about 1835 and probably more generally grown, take the United States as a whole, than any other variety with the possible exception of the Ben Davis. The tree is very hardy, very productive; comes into bearing early, often yielding fruit the third or fourth year; is a vigorous grower while young, but soon steadies down to a rather scant growth and therefore never makes a large tree. It is a reliable cropper, often yielding annual crops, but likely to be biennial, and is ex- ceptionally healthy in the matter of foliage. The fruit of the Oldenburg is of good and uniform size, a fine light yellow in color, striped more or less with red, but is only fair in quality. Its season is the latter part of August and early September, and it is usually a profitable variety on account of its many other good characteristics and in spite of the fact that it is not high in quality. Wealthy. This variety was originated by Peter Gideon at Excelsior, Minnesota, and is another variety that is very generally suc- cessful. The tree is very hardy; a good grower while young, but slowing down fairly rapidly and never making a large tree. It comes into bearing early, frequently by four or five years, and is extremely prolific. The fruit has a fine color, being well covered with a handsome red, its quality is excel- lent, and the fruit is very even in size and shape. It drops badly, which necessitates picking over the trees at least twice if the best results are to be secured. The fruit is of good size when the trees are young, but is apt to run small as the 16 trees get older, necessitating heavy pruning, good fertilizing: and thinning of the fruit. The season is September and October. At the present time it is doubtful if any other variety is more profitable than the Wealthy for Massachusetts orchards. ; McIntosh. This variety originated in Ontario, but has rapidly come to the front in Massachusetts of late years, and probably no: other variety is more popular or more profitable at the present time. The tree is a strong grower, very hardy, healthy ex- cept for a tendency to be attacked by scab; comes into bear- ing fairly early, say five or six years, and bears regularly and annually thereafter. Some trees in the agricultural college orchard have borne twelve successive crops. Jt makes an excellent tree in shape, being one of the best in that respect. The fruit of the McIntosh is wonderfully fine in color, with beautiful white flesh, juicy and tender, and of the very highest. quality. It is in season in ordinary storage from October to December, but under refrigeration much longer, and in any case keeps extremely well for an apple of its season. The fruit drops badly, necessitating several pickings if the best results are to be secured. Doubts are sometimes expressed as to whether the McIntosh is not being overplanted in this section, but it would seem that with an apple of this quality put on the market at a reasonable figure, there would be a chance to dispose of almost unlimited quantities. Baldwin. This is a Massachusetts variety, having originated at Wil- mington, near Lowell, and is the most generally grown of any variety, and next to the McIntosh is probably the most pop- ular for this State. The tree is a strong grower, long-lived, and bears abundantly in alternate years. It is not especially hardy, though it succeeds well in most parts of this State. It comes into bearing in seven or eight years, and usually bears very abundant crops biennially from that time forward. The fruit is excellent in quality when well grown, of fine color, of good size, and keeps well. In ordinary storage its Baldwin. McIntosh. Palmer Greening. THREE PoPpuLAR VARIETIES. 17 season is from November to February or March, and it is at present and always will be a leader in Massachusetts or- chards. Wagener. This apple originated in New York and is not widely grown in Massachusetts, but in some respects is a most promising variety. The tree is of medium size, a good grower while it is young, but slow as it gets older. It is remarkably early in coming into bearing, sometimes producing apples at the third or fourth year, and bears abundantly, at least biennially, after that. The fruit is of good size, fine color and excellent quality, though somewhat inclined to produce culls where there are few apples on the trees. The season is November to February. The special value of Wagener to orchardists is the fact that it is a late-keeping apple and yet a small tree, and is therefore adapted to use as a filler where that system of growing is adopted. Gravenstein. This variety, originated in Germany, was introduced into the United States about 1825 and has been a very popular variety in many sections. The tree is very vigorous, almost too much so, making a large tree and tending to overgrow and winter-kill as a result of late growth, unless soil conditions and soil management are just right. It is rather slow in coming into bearing, requiring about seven or eight years, and is an uncertain cropper. In some sections it bears very abun- dantly indeed and is extremely popular, and in others it is a shy and uncertain bearer. The fruit is of high quality, hand-, some in color, very popular in the market, and in sections where the Gravenstein succeeds it stands close to the head of the market varieties. Its season is September to November, and barring the fact that the trees are apt to go bad through winter-killing and other troubles, it would stand second or third in many sections. This difficulty could doubtless be overcome to some extent by setting other hardy varieties and topworking Gravenstein on these, Delicious. This is one of the newer apples, but is one of promise and is— being fairly largely set in some sections. It promises to be a good variety of high quality to follow the McIntosh as a dessert apple. It originated in Iowa, but seems to be taking decidedly to New England conditions, and some excellent fruit of this variety is being grown in various parts of the State. The tree is a good grower, comes into bearing fairly early, and is said to bear annually. Conclusive evidence on this last point is lacking as yet for this State. The fruit is handsome in color, of good quality, though apt to lose its quality fairly quickly and become mealy. Its name and advertising make it popular in the market. It is probably not to be recommended for general planting as yet, but cer- tainly is a variety of promise. Yellow Transparent, Red Astrachan and Williams Early. The two former varieties are Russian in origin, while the Williams is a Massachusetts production. All three of these are grown as early apples more or less freely in many sections of the State, the Yellow Transparent, coming in the last of July or the first of August, followed by Red Astrachan and then by Williams. For early varieties there are at present no others which can compete with them, though all of them have their shortcomings, the Yellow Transparent being yellow in color, easily bruised and making rather a poor tree; the Red Astrachan being slow in coming into bearing and not producing freely; and the Williams being a poor, sprawling tree and not prolific. In the writer’s opinion the foregoing list of varieties com- prises the best sorts for Massachusetts orchards. Other varieties which are fairly popular, but of which space will not permit a detailed description, are Rhode Island Greening, Northern Spy, Hubbardston, Palmer Greening, Winter Banana and Opalescent. To sum up the writer’s opinion on the variety question for Massachusetts orchards it would be that for a commercial orchard nothing but a red apple should be set. The five 19 leaders for most sections are, in the order of their ripening, Oldenburg, Wealthy, McIntosh, Baldwin and Wagener, with Gravenstein standing near the head for some sections and Delicious a promising candidate. Buyine oF NursEeRY STOCK. This question brings up many minor details which have to be settled before a satisfactory purchase can be made. A few of these questions would be — First, shall we buy northern or southern grown stock? This probably makes no difference provided the stock can be landed at the orchard in good condition. Second, the advantages of locally grown stock. These are certainly considerable and personally the writer would never go far from his orchard for nursery stock. Locally grown trees arrive at the farm in fresher condition, the transportation charges are less, and any disagreement with the nurseryman can be more easily adjusted. ' Third, shall one set dwarfs or standards? For most com- mercial propositions probably the standard is to be recom- mended. There have been cases where dwarf trees have done remarkably well, but, on the whole, the standard is more satisfactory. Fourth, the best age of trees to buy. This question is largely on one-year versus two-year trees, and in the writer’s opinion the one-year tree is likely to be more satisfactory where soil conditions are ideal, but the two-year trees are to be preferred where soil conditions are not of the best. It is unquestionably wise to buy direct from some reputable nurseryman instead of from an agent, and to get in your order as early as possible. If it can be done in November or December, one is sure to get the varieties he wants and to avoid many other difficulties. PREPARATION OF SOIL. If the land is not too sloping, it is desirable to plow the field the autumn before it is to be set, but on land which « slopes much, it is best to wait until early in the spring. After 20 plowing, the land should be fitted in the best possible manner, using the disc harrow first and following this with any other harrows that may be available, ending with a planker or clod- crusher, which should leave the land in first-class condition to be laid off. LAYING OFF THE ORCHARD. This is a matter which deserves much more care than it usually receives. The operation should be begun by setting a stake in one corner of the orchard block at the point where the corner tree is to grow. This ought to be not less than 25 feet and preferably 50 feet from either edge, and if there V ¥ V V are trees growing along either margin of the field, 75 to 100” feet is better. Next a range stake is set at the opposite end of the field and stakes are then driven every so often, being such a distance apart as it is desired to have the trees stand. The light-drayght orchard harrow. 21 Just what this distance ought to be is a much-discussed ques- tion. In the writer’s opinion it ought seldom to be less than 40 feet for the standard trees, which would make the fillers, if these are used, 20 feet apart. Next a row of stakes is set at right angles to the first row, usually about the middle of the field, these being all the stakes that are set by the sighting method, the balance being best set with what are. called measuring boards. These are two boards of a length equal to the distance between the trees. These boards have notches at the ends, and are laid down the end of one against a stake in one row and the end of the other against a stake in the second row of stakes as shown in the accompanying diagram, and the new stake is driven in the notch where the two boards meet. All this may sound like a good deal of work, but it would surprise any one who has not tried it to see how quickly the stakes may be set. LocaTING THE TREES. For locating the trees a planting board should be used. This is a device which is by no means new but which deserves much wider use than it gets. There are several types of them, but the one shown in the accompanying diagram is a fn G perhaps as good as any. The board should be 4 or 5 feet long by 8 inches wide, with a notch at each end and one in the middle. The middle notch is placed against the stake set for the tree and a short piece of lath is then driven down at each end in the notches, the planting board taken away, and the hole dug for the tree where the center stake stood. Then when it comes time to set the tree, whether it is that afternoon, or the next day, or the next week, the planting board is put in place again with the two ‘small stakes in the end notches and the tree is slipped into the middle notch and planted out, and of course stands exactly where the original stake stood. This is another operation which may sound bungling but which in actual practice works out very satisfactorily. 22 SETTING THE TREE. Where soil conditions are just right, that is, land well pre- pared and well drained, and where the nursery stock can be bought near by so that it is certain to be on hand when wanted, and yet will not have been dug while too immature, autumn setting will succeed. But it is usually best, in our climate, to set orchards in the spring, and the earlier in the spring they can be set the better. The field operations of digging the holes and setting the trees will vary greatly according to the number to be set, and various other factors, but in general would be somewhat as follows. The holes should be dug about 18 inches to 2 feet wide and perhaps 15 inches deep. The top 8 or 10 inches of soil should be put in one pile and the subsoil in another. The tree is prepared for setting by cutting off all large roots. that are broken, and shortening in any long, straggling roots. The actual setting can best be done by two men, one holding the tree and the other shoveling in the soil. The tree is. slipped into the notch in the planting board mentioned above, and is held at the proper height by the man setting it while the other man shovels the soil into the bottom of the hole. If the hole is considerably deeper than necessary for the depth of the tree, some soil may be shoveled in before the tree is put into the hole. The tree ought to be set at about the same depth at which it grew in the nursery; an inch or two deeper is probably all right, but it should not vary greatly from its original depth. The soil should be packed in care- fully under the crown of the tree and the roots brought out into approximately their original position. When the soil has been filled in so that all roots are covered, the man setting the tree should tramp the soil down firmly about the roots so that there will be a good contact between them, and the tree can start off properly. The surface soil should be used first, and subsoil filled in at the top of the hole. Where operations are being conducted on a fairly large scale, it is well to mount a barrel on a stone-boat, fill it half full of water and then put the trees into this barrel to be transported around the orchard. This insures their ar- riving at the holes in first-class condition. 23 PRUNING THE TREE AFTER SETTING. If one-year trees have been set they will usually consist of a straight whip, and the only question with regard to pruning is the height at which this whip should be cut off. Opinions vary on this, but probably most growers would say around 80 inches. Eighteen inches would be considered a very low head, and 40 inches a fairly high one, though many growers head even higher than this. If the tree is a two-year tree, the question of pruning it is considerably more complicated. But, to begin with, all branches ought to be removed except those which are wanted for scaffold branches, and these should not be over five, and preferably three or four. These scaffold branches should be well distributed around the central trunk of the tree so as to give a well-balanced head, and a good deal of time and thought ought to be given to this first problem. When the superfluous branches have been removed, then those remaining ought to be cut back from a third to half their length. CULTIVATING THE ORCHARD. As soon as possible after the trees are set, cultivation ought to be begun in the orchard and kept up from that time until about the first week in July. For this cultivation one of the V-shaped cultivators is perhaps as good as anything, and the land should be worked with it every week or ten days in order to keep up a good dust mulch and to keep down all weeds. Everything possible should be done to protect the trunks of the trees from damage through this cultivation. This means a steady horse, a careful man, and padding the ends of the whiffletree with an old bag in order to prevent the trees from being barked if the whiffletree accidentally touches them. In addition to the cultivating some hoeing may be necessary provided weeds are abundant. But, on the other hand, with good cultivation, upon land not too much infested by weeds, the cultivator may do all the work that is necessary. 24 FERTILIZING THE TREES. The type and quantity of fertilizers used in the orchard will vary a good deal according to soil conditions and according to the cultivation that is maintained. With a reasonably fertile soil and with good cultivation, it may not be necessary to use any fertilizers whatever; while, when the soil is poor and the cultivation not of the best, a considerable quantity of fertilizer may be necessary. For this fertilizing nothing is better than good barn manure, and where this is available it may be the only fertilizer needed. Two or three forkfuls around a tree will bring along a more satisfactory type of growth than can be got in almost any other way. While this may be all that is necessary it frequently is desirable to put on a little nitrate of soda at the start to bring the trees along quickly. Where barn manure is not available some nitrate of soda, say 2 or 3 ounces per tree, and some tankage, say a half pound per tree, will usually result in a very satisfactory growth of the trees. The question of the application of any other types of fer- tilizers to trees the first year is still a matter of debate, but probably in most cases it is not worth while to apply potash; and while the case of phosphoric acid is less certain and a half pound of acid phosphate per tree might be worth using, still, if the soil is handled properly in other respects, the trees will probably make a very satisfactory growth without any other types of fertilizers than some form of nitrogen. CROPPING THE ORCHARD. It is a much debated question whether it will pay to grow other crops among the young trees during the first few years of the orchard, and the answer to this question depends very largely on the type of land and the type of market available. In most cases it is probably wise to attempt to grow some sort of crops in the orchard. If the right crop is selected it will usually help towards carrying the expense of bringing the orchard along, and the cultivation is apt to be more thorough and systematic where there is a crop involved than where there is nothing but the orchard on the land. Barley as a cover crop in a young orchard. This is one of the best cover crops for Massachusetts orchards. 25 The choice of this crop will be largely a personal matter and is frequently a rather difficult question to settle, but it ought to be a cultivated crop without any question, and usually an annual crop. Some of the most generally successful companion crops for young orchards are late potatoes, beans, late cabbage, corn (preferably sweet corn or small-growing flint corn) and squash. Cover Crops FOR THE ORCHARD. Whether the orchard is cropped or not the land along the tree rows should be sowed down about the first week in July to some type of cover crop. If the land is not cropped then the entire orchard should be seeded down. This cover crop is a very important part in the proper management of the orchard. Some of the things which it does to the orchard are to check the growth of the tree toward the latter end of the season, thus insuring that it goes into the winter in a well- ripening condition; to prevent the washing of the soil during winter and spring rains, which of course is extremely important where the land has any great slope; to add humus to the soil, which has already been discussed and which is very im- portant; and if a leguminous crop is used, to add nitrogen to the soil. In sections where the soil is likely to freeze deeply the cover crop also assists in preventing extreme depths of freezing and still more important in preventing alternate freezing and thawing of the soil. Various crops are used for this purpose. One of the best plans is to use a mixture of two crops; and it will be found that a half bushel of barley with either 6 or 8 pounds of crimson clover added, or with a peck of winter vetch added, makes an excellent combination. Another good plan is to substitute buckwheat for barley, using a half bushel of buck- wheat with 6 or 8 pounds of crimson clover or with the peck of winter vetch. These mixtures insure that nearly all of the functions mentioned above will be satisfactorily performed in the orchard. 26 PROTECTING THE TRUNKS OF TREES. The last thing which ought to be done to the orchard in the autumn is to adopt some plan of protecting the trees from damage by mice. If mice are not plentiful in the section and are seldom known to do any damage of this type, then merely clearing away the trash and cover crop from around the trees may be all that is necessary. But if there is any great proba- bility of damage, then it is better to use some sort of protectors; and a strip of good waterproof building paper about 18 inches wide, placed around the tree at its base and tied in one or two places to hold it snugly, will usually insure the tree coming through without damage. Do not use tar paper! 27 Cuapter II. RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS. F. C. SEARS, PROFESSOR OF POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. There are undoubtedly thousands of old apple trees in Massachusetts, some in orchards and others scattered about fields, which would pay good returns if they could be thor- oughly “renovated” and thereafter be given proper treatment. On the other hand, there are just as many, and probably far more, which would be more profitable on the woodpile than anywhere else. The first question, then, for one to decide, if he owns such trees or orchards, is “Will it pay to make the attempt to get them into a thrifty condition again?” In the writer’s opinion this depends on three conditions: (1) the age and vigor of the trees; (2) the stand of trees in the orchard; and (3) the varieties. To discuss each of these briefly : — 1. The Age and Vigor of the Trees. — If the trees are vigorous, with good trunks and main branches, unaffected with canker or other injuries to the bark, it has been my experience that they can be brought into a profitable condition even though the tops are full of dead branches and they have been system- atically neglected for years. This is supposing, of course, that the other factors mentioned above are favorable. It is truly surprising what can be done with an old orchard when it is taken in hand and given modern, up-to-date treatment. On the other hand, if the trunks or main branches are damaged by canker, or have been injured by cold so that the bark has fallen away in patches of any size, as very often happens, or if the trunk and main branches are badly rotted out in the center, then it is very doubtful if the orchard will pay for renovating. It must be remembered that the trunk is the 28 highway by which the results of our improved care are trans- ported back and forth from the roots to the top, and if this highway is in a demoralized condition we are not going to get the best results. 2. The Stand of Trees. — This is supposing, of course, that the trees to be treated are in an orchard, and it will be easily seen that if half of the trees are out it is not going to pay to cultivate and fertilize the whole of the land for trees which could be put on half of it. And it is seldom satisfactory to attempt to grow anything else in such vacant spaces in an old orchard, or to plant young trees in the vacancies. If the trees are along fences or odd corners, so that cultivation of the soil will not be attempted, then the question of stand is less important, and may, perhaps, be ignored altogether. But in an orchard there ought to be a three-quarters stand at least to make it worth while to take the matter up, except under the most favorable circumstances. 3. The Varieties in the Orchard. — This is of less importance than the two points already mentioned, yet it is a factor that is decidedly worth considering and that has an important bearing on the cost of the renovating process. It is possible, of course, to graft over the trees, but this is both an expensive and a lengthy operation, and I should condemn to the brush heap an orchard which needed to be grafted far more quickly than one which already had the right varieties in it. Of course the question of varieties is very largely personal, and need not be discussed here, but I should mean by “right” such varieties as suited the grower and the markets for which he was producing, preferably standard sorts, like Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening and Roxbury Russet, The above, as I have said, are the main factors in deciding for or against the renovation of an old orchard, yet perhaps I have omitted the chief factor after all, and that is the man himself. If he has just come into possession of the orchard, and is making an attempt to clean up all along the line, I should have far more faith in the ultimate good results of the matter than if he were author and finisher of the neglect from which the orchard has suffered, even though he might O91} JUIT[IOXS UB OYVUT TIM YI pouUryy do} puv pasoural useq AVY SoyoUTAd peep USy A, “BulyeAoual 10J 9aI} Jo odA4 Bursiwoid WY — ‘T ‘DI or Grafting, as a rule, is practiced only when both stock and scion are in the dormant state. It is limited in its practical application to the apple, pear, quince, plum and grape. There are many methods in use, but those only of most practical value to the fruit grower will be discussed here. Grafting Wax. — Grafting wax may be bought of dealers in hardware or of seedmen, or it may be made in the home by melting together over a slow fire 4 parts by weight of resin, 2 parts beeswax or paraffin, and 1 part linseed oil. When thoroughly melted, pour carefully into a pail of water. As soon as cool enough to handle, pull this wax the same as in making molasses candy. As the wax is pulled it takes on a lighter color and acquires greater elasticity. It should be soft enough to handle on ordinarily warm days, but not soft enough to run under influence of sun’s heat. In pulling the wax it may be kept from sticking to the hands by keeping them wet. When using the wax in the field have 59 a small quantity of linseed oil along. If the hands are oiled before attempting to apply the wax it will be found to facilitate the work and to preserve the good nature of the operator. Top Grafting. Top grafting is resorted to when for any reason one desires to change the variety of an already established tree or to remedy some defect or inherent weakness in the tree itself. If the tree is two or three years set it may be grafted in the stem or trunk, requiring only one operation to change the whole top. However, if the young tree has a well-shaped head it is more satisfactory to graft each of the scaffold branches, since a better shaped tree will be secured. If the tree has long been established the only method of changing it is to graft into the branches. Just how large a branch may be successfully grafted is an open question, but best results will follow if the branches selected for stock are not more than 3 inches in diameter. Branches 1 to 2 inches through make the most successful stocks. In working over large trees it is advisable to graft first the lower or lateral branches and only a few of the more upright or central ones, leaving enough of the central branches to furnish some shade for the trunk and main branches. If the whole top is removed at one season sun scald is likely to occur, seriously injuring or even killing the tree. If the scions set the first season make sufficient growth to supply the necessary shade, the remaining branches may be grafted the second season. ‘Two or even three years are re- quired to change completely the variety of a bearing tree. While young trees up to three or four years old may be com- pletely grafted in the one season, even with young trees it is a good plan to leave one or two of the more central branches for at least the first season. The best time to do top grafting is in late spring after severe freezing is not likely to occur and before growth begins. There are several distinct methods of uniting the stock and scions, but only two will be discussed. Cleft Grajting. —In cleft grafting, the stock, which is either the stem or the branch of a tree, is cut off squarely with a 60 sharp saw. This stock is prepared to receive the scion by splitting it through the heart to a depth of 3 or 4 inches. This split or cleft, as it is called, may be made with a grafting chisel or a strong knife. The wedge on the grafting chisel or a wooden wedge is inserted to open the cleft to receive the scions (see Fig. 1, b). Fig. 1.—Cleft grafting: u, side view of scion; b, the stock ready to receive the scions; cv, the scions in position; d, cross section through the wedge of the scion, showing one edge, the inner one, thinner than the other. The scions are cut from shoots of the previous season’s growth taken from a tree of the desired variety. On the lower end of a piece of scion wood cut a smooth wedge with a taper about 1% inches long, having one side a trifle thinner than the other (see Fig. 1, a and d); cut off the excess length, leaving two or three buds on the finished scion. The wedge of the scion is inserted into the cleft of the stock, the thinner edge inward, being sure that the inner bark lines, 7.¢., the cambium layers, are incontact. To insure this, the scion may be slanted 61 just a trifle, having outer edges even at upper edge of stock (see Fig. 1, ce). The scion must be cut so that it will fit firmly into the cleft. Another scion is prepared and inserted into the opposite side of the stock. Each stock should carry two scions. The weaker must be removed after one or two seasons’ growth (see Fig. 1, c). When the scions are firmly set in position the wedge is re- moved and the wound is carefully waxed. The wax must fit snugly around the scions at the top of the stock, and the cleft must be entirely closed with it. The wax should extend down the side an inch or two below any signs of cracks in the bark. If the wax has been properly made it will require no further attention after being applied. If too soft, it will run when warm days come and must be replaced with a harder wax. If the wax is not properly applied or is too soft, the air gains access to the wound, drying out the wood, and the scions will not grow. The Notch, or Coburn Grafting. — This method is less com- monly used than the preceding, but has some distinct ad- vantages. Instead of splitting the stock a longitudinal cut is made, using a sharp saw with a fairly wide set. This gives a groove or notch the width of the saw cut about one-half inch deep at top of the stock, running down the side of the stock for 3 or 4 inches where it becomes a mere scratch on the bark at the lower end (see Fig. 2, a). The scion is prepared in a slightly different manner from that in the cleft method. Instead of a wedge it is cut in such a way that the two sides of the tongue which is to fit into the saw cut have parallel sides (see Fig. 2, b and c). The edge that is to go toward the center of the stock should be a trifle thinner so that when inserted into the stock the greatest pressure comes on the outer edge. A few taps on the top of the scion will fix it firmly in place. If stock is more than 114 inches in diameter, two scions may be inserted. The same care must be exercised as in cleft grafting to have the growing areas in contact. The wound must be thoroughly waxed as soon as scions are set. In both types of top grafting only one scion should be per- mitted to make a permanent growth. After the first or second season the less desirable one should be removed. This is generally done by making a sloping cut down the stock, be- 62 ginning at the base of scion left and emerging at side of stock 3 or 4 inches below. If the cleft has not closed it should be rewaxed. No rewaxing will be necessary if the notch, or Coburn method, has been used. Fic. 2.— Coburn grafting: a, the prepared stock; b-c, prepared scion, showing method of cutting the tongue; b, viewed from side that goes outward in finished graft; ¢, viewed from side showing the sloping cut necessary to fit the sloping notch. Root Grafting. Root grafting is one of the common methods of propagating apple and pear trees. The stocks used for standard apple trees are one-year seedling trees, or, lacking these, the small roots, one-quarter inch in diameter, of young trees may be used. Pear seedlings are the stock used for propagating standard pear trees. The stocks should be procured in the autumn and stored in moist sand in a frostproof cellar. The scions, also, may be cut in late autumn and early winter, tied in bundles and ‘stored with the stocks, or they may be cut from the trees in early spring at the time the grafting is to be done. 63 The grafting should be done in late winter or early spring, about February and March, although expert grafters are successful if the work is not done until planting-out time. If the work is to be done in a warm room, only a small supply of materials should be brought in at a time or else some means must be employed to prevent drying out of both the materials and the finished grafts. Preparation of the Stock. —In preparing the stock to receive the scion proceed as follows: Cut off the top from the seedling Fia. 3. — Tongue grafting: a, the stock prepared to receive the scion; b, the scion cut to fit the stock; c, the union of the finished graft, showing the interlocking of the tongues of stock and scion and the method of wrap- ping with string. stock, use a sharp knife and begin the cut at the crown, 1.e., soil line. The cut should be an upward sloping one with a smooth, even surface about 14 inches long. Set the knife on the sloping surface about one-fourth inch from the upper end and cut the tongue. The tongue is made by cutting back toward the base of the sloping cut to a distance of about 1 64 inch, dividing the wood between the bark and face of sloping cut into two nearly equal parts (see Fig. 3, a). It will be seen that the tongue is cut, not split. Cut off the lower part of the seedling, leaving the stock about 3 or 4 inches in length. If the remainder of root is large enough, another stock may be made from it. Well-grown seedlings with a straight tap root 10 to 15 inches long will make two to three good stocks. Preparing the Scion. — The uniting surface of the scion is pre- pared in the same manner as described for the stock, the tongue being cut, of course, on the lower end of the scion. The scion should be cut to a length of 6 or 7 inches (see Fig. 3, b). The stock and scion are united by causing their tongues to interlock. In fitting them together it is necessary that the growing areas, 2.¢., inner bark lines of scion and stock, should be in contact on one side of the union. If the stock and scion have been properly prepared the two pieces will fit perfectly without any overlapping of the ends. The stock and scion should be pushed firmly together so that the pieces will form a fairly rigid union. After the stock and scion are fitted together they should be bound with string to prevent mechanical injury in handling and to hold the cut surfaces in more intimate contact, thereby preventing drying out and insuring a callousing over of the wound. Number 20 cotton thread is generally used for this purpose. The operation is as follows: Holding the finished graft by the scion in the left hand, begin to wrap the string around the top of the union. Catch the free end of the string under the first or second wrap of the string, then wind the string around three or four times; pass to the lower end of the union by making one or two spiral turns of the string. Wrap the lower end of the union three or four times, and by slipping the string between the end of the scion and the side of the stock, give the string a sharp jerk. The string will break: near the graft and the end will remain fast, preventing unwinding (see Fig. 3, c). Storing the Grafts. — The finished grafts are tied in bunches of 25 to 50 and are then buried in moist sand stock down to a depth of 5 or 6 inches, or they may be packed in boxes in alternating layers of grafts and moist sand. The grafts must 65 not be permitted to become dry. After a few weeks in storage the wounds will be calloused or practically healed, and the grafts are now ready to set in nursery row as soon as the ground is in condition to receive them. This healing of the wounds in storage, while not absolutely necessary, the ama- teur will yet find very desirable. Setting out the Grafts. — The grafts should be set out as early as the ground can be fitted. Prepare the soil by deep plowing and frequent harrowing to fine it. Lay off the rows 3 to 4 feet apart. Make a dibber by sharpening a round stick. It should be about 1 to 13 inches in diameter by 10 to 12 inches long. Since the finished grafts are 7 to 9 inches long they will require a hole 6 to 8 inches deep. Push the dibber in the soft earth to the required depth, withdraw it and insert the graft, holding it so that one bud only remains above ground level. Again insert the dibber alongside the hole containing the graft and by a sidewise pressure on top firm the soil about the graft. Firm the soil about the top by pressing down with the hands and proceed to set the next graft. The grafts-are set 12 to 15 inches apart in the row. By careful fertilizing and frequent cultivation a large per cent of these grafts will be made large enough to transplant after the first season’s growth, or they may be left to make a second season’s growth in the nursery row. They are now known as two-year-old trees, and should be removed to their permanent position in the orchard. Repairing Girdled Trees. Mice, rabbits and other rodents cause considerable loss each year to the fruit growers of Massachusetts. During periods of deep snow and scarcity of other food these animals resort to the bark of young trees. The work of mice is generally con- fined to the base of the trunk, since they live beneath the snow. Rabbits, however, may do serious injury not only to the trunk but also to the branches of low-headed trees. Sometimes the bark is gnawed off in irregular patches, but more often a partial or complete girdling results. These girdles may be relatively narrow, extending up and down the trunk for a distance of 1 to 3 inches, but frequently they are 66 wide, being 4 to 6 or 8 inches. It often happens that only the outer bark is removed; as 4 rule, however, the wood is completely bared. If the girdle is quite narrow, not exceeding 1 or 2 inches, it may be possible to save the tree by mounding with earth, provided the girdled area has not become thoroughly dried by long exposure. This remedy is recommended by many writers on the subject, and by a few practical growers who say they have tried it. This department has not given it a trial and cannot recommend it from experience. It might be well worth while trying out on a few of the less valuable trees. Where trees are not completely girdled they usually re- cover, particularly if they be young and vigorous. If the bark remains intact over half of the circumference they may be considered safe. If the bark area is reduced to a quarter, then it will be well to set in one or two bridges on the side opposite to the area of sound bark. Where trees are completely girdled one of two methods of repairing may be used, depending upon the age or size of the trunk. If trees are quite small, such as one and two year trees, it is often advisable to cleft graft them. The small size of the tree renders any other method a rather difficult proc- ess, while the cleft graft is relatively easy and perhaps much more satisfactory. Because of the well-established root system, the scion will make a very vigorous growth, and apparently the tree does not suffer any greater setback than if bridged, and besides a more shapely tree will result. Furthermore, it is less expensive in the amount of time required to do the work. Bridge grafting is the most satisfactory recourse for trees older than two years. The purpose of the bridge is to provide a channel for the immediate downward flow of the elaborated plant food, since the removal of the bark has destroyed the natural channels of sap flow to the roots. Eventually, how- ever, as the girdled portion becomes thoroughly dried, the circulation of sap between top and roots is taken care of by the bridges, which soon become a part of the tree, enlarging and finally growing together, until after some years an en- largement or ribbed bulge on the trunk of the tree marks the point of injury. Trees that have been bridged do not present 67 as sightly an appearance as uninjured trees, as eventually the bridges grow together forming an enlargement at the base of the tree. However, if it is a question of losing several years growth on valuable trees, one can afford to disregard a poorly shaped trunk. Cleft Grafting. —If cleft grafting is to be used it will be necessary to remove the earth from around the trunk to a depth of several inches; and since the part of the trunk uncoy- ered will be wet, some time must elapse before grafting opera- tions can be completed. Usually only a few hours will be re- quired to dry the bark enough so that the wax will stick to it. With a sharp saw cut off the trunk just below the surface of the ground. The reason for making the cut this low is to hide any unsightliness that may form at the point of the graft union. Next split the stump to a depth of 2 or 3 inches, using a stout knife or a grafting chisel (see “Cleft Grafting,” page 60). When the job is completed the earth is put in place and a stake set to mark the position of the scions. It will generally be found necessary to give the new growth some support during the first summer. If the union is a good one the scion will make a growth of several feet. It should be tied to a stake to prevent its being broken off by the wind. Only one scion should be permitted to grow. Shoots coming from the other should be removed, and at the following spring’s prun- ing if this scion protrudes above the ground, it should be cut off below the surface of the ground. Bridge Grafting. — Girdled trees that have been set more than two years should be bridge grafted. This process is essentially as follows: — With a sharp knife cut a small notch just above the girdled portion and one directly beneath. it, but below the girdle. The notch should go through the bark and into the wood and is made as follows: Set the knife on the bark above the girdle and force it inward and upward for a distance of a half or three-fourths of an inch. Withdraw the knife and setting it a quarter of an inch below the first incision cut inward and upward allowing the knife to stop when it reaches the point of the first cut. Remove the knife and dislodge the wedge- shaped chip. A similar notch is cut directly beneath this, but 68 below the girdle. In making this cut the knife is directed downward and inward (see Fig. 4, b). Scions may be taken from any variety, but must be of the season’s growth. On the butt end of a piece of scion wood ~ NAVAS Nyy PEW SQ AT NS SS - 4 4 Zs 4 4 4 + 4 Pad 4 ¥ - x 7 £ & , ‘ ¢ s / 7 7 ¢ / ‘ 7 7 MSA SAA Fic, 4. — A diagram of a longitudinal section of a girdled trunk with one bridge in place: a-a, girdled area; b-b, notches to receive bridge; c, bridge in place; d-d, wax over wounds; e, bark; f, wood; g, scion shaped for in- sertion; h, enlarged end of scion, showing manner of cutting the wedge. cut a wedge about 1 inch in length, making the longer cut on the side that is to be placed next the tree. Measure on the scion wood the distance between the two notches and cut off the scion a trifle longer.. Cut a wedge on the upper end the same as directed above. Now insert the wedge at the butt 69 end of the scion into the lower notch, and by slightly bending force the upper end into the upper notch, using some pressure to force wedges in until the scion is firm (see Fig. 4, ¢ and d). The bend in the scion will serve to keep it in place until it has become united to the tree. In same manner insert four or more scions around the trunk at regular intervals. Large trees may require six or eight scions, while smaller ones will do well with four or five. When the scions or bridges are all in place, the wound made by the operation must be thoroughly waxed. Crowd the wax well into the notches and have it meet the scions snugly. If air or water gets into these wounds the scions will not grow and the tree will be lost. All shoots that start from the scions or from below the girdle should be removed not later than at close of first season’s growth. While in a sense the girdled area will determine the length of the bridge or scions, yet it will be found that if the girdled area is short, a scion considerably longer than is really neces- sary to just bridge it can be used to better advantage. Scions less than 5 or 6 inches in length will be very difficult to handle unless they are quite thin and pliable. Trees that have been bridge grafted should receive a more severe pruning than is given uninjured trees. BupDDING. Budding differs from grafting in the amount of wood trans- ferred and in the season of operation. Budding may be de- fined as the insertion of a bud bearing little or no wood be- neath the bark of the stock. Budding may be used for the propagation of all fruit trees. It is more economical of scion wood since single buds only are used. It is, however, more expensive as to stocks in propagating trees since one stock must be used for each tree propagated, while in grafting a well-grown stock may make two or three trees. Budding is used primarily to propagate new trees, and for top working young trees; it is not as useful in top working _old trees as is grafting. The stock for budding should rarely exceed three or four years, and better success will follow the 70 use of one and two year old stocks. It is the only practical method of propagating the peach and cherry varieties, and it may be applied to any of our orchard fruit trees. Because of the very nature of the operation, budding must be.done when the bark slips easily and when there is a supply of buds properly developed. These conditions are met in this section in the late summer and early fall. At that season the buds Fio. 5. — Budding: a, the bud cut from bud stick; 6, showing method of cutting bud; knife is started below the bud in cut; c, the T cut on the stock; d, the finished job, showing the bud in position and the method of wrapping with raffia or string, growing at the bases of the leaves on the shoots of current season’s growth are sufficiently developed to form good scions. In the earlier part of the budding season avoid the buds found near the base and those near the tip of the shoots, taking only those growing in the middle two-thirds of the shoots, since, as a rule, these buds are the best nourished and most matured. During this period, also, the sap is flowing freely through the cambium, or growing area, and the bark therefore slips readily. In Massachusetts budding may be done from the middle of August until well into September. No growth is made by the bud until the following season. 71 In the actual operation of budding the operator first pre- pares his bud sticks. These are the terminal shoots of the current season’s growth. The leaves are cut off, leaving about one-half inch of the petiole or leaf stem. This will serve as a sort of handle and will facilitate the setting of the buds. The bud sticks must be kept from drying out by wrapping in paper, moist burlap or other material. The buds, as needed, are cut from the bud stick as follows: With a sharp knife begin the cut about a half inch below the bud and, by cutting into the wood a little, force the knife underneath the bud, cutting up to the surface about a half inch above the bud (see Fig. 5,a and b). The bud with its small piece of attached wood is ready to insert into the stock. The stock is prepared by making a longitudinal cut through the bark for a distance of 13 inches; at the top of this cut a transverse cut is made forming a letter T. If the transverse cut is made with a rolling motion of the knife, the flaps of bark at the angle of the two cuts will be loosened from the wood; otherwise, these flaps must be lifted with point of knife or with the ivory heel of a regular budding knife. The bud is next grasped by the leaf stem as a handle and gently pushed into place until its cut surface lies in contact with the peeled body of the stock with the bud pointing upward. A string of some sort, raffia or No. 20 knitting cotton is then drawn tightly around the stock both above and below the bud in order to hold it firmly against the stock and to prevent the wound drying out (see Fig. 5, c and d). As soon as the bud has united with the stock, which should be within a week or ten days, the string is cut and the bud receives no further attention until next spring, at which time the stock is cut off an inch or two above the bud in order to force the bud into growth. No buds on the stock beyond the one set should be permitted to grow. In propagating trees the seedlings in the nursery row are budded, the buds being set as near the ground as convenient. The following spring the tops of the seedlings are cut off just above the buds. In top working trees by budding the buds should be set in wood not more than two or three years old. Hence this method for top working old trees is not as valuable as grafting, ‘ 72 since in budding the desired variety must be set so far from the trunk and scaffold branches as to carry the tree too high. GROWING Stock FoR BupDING AND GRAFTING. If one is to propagate new trees seedling stock is necessary. This may be purchased from nursery firms or may be grown by the fruit grower. The first requisite is to secure a supply of seeds. Apple seeds are most easily secured from a cider mill. A small quantity of pomace is placed in a vat or barrel and water is added. Fermentation will start within a few days, causing the pomace to break up and float to the surface while the seeds fall to the bottom. By adding more pomace the desired amount of seed is secured. $ Peach and plum seed may be secured from sources where these fruits are grown in quantity or where they are canned or. manufactured. All these seeds sprout more freely if not allowed to become thoroughly dried out. Consequently they require special treatment. ‘Two courses are open, as follows: The seeds are placed in a shallow box and covered with sand. The box is then buried in the earth a few inches below the surface. The following spring the seeds are dug up and sowed in nursery rows. The second course is to plant the seeds immediately after they are removed from the fruits. Peach, and plum seedlings if well cared for should be large enough to bud the fall of their first season’s growth. Apple and pear seedlings are large enough for root grafting after one season’s growth, but generally require two seasons’ growth before budding. DwarrF TREES. The apple and pear are the commonest dwarf trees and their small size is due to the slow-growing stock upon which they have been worked. The apple is dwarfed by grafting or budding on Paradise apple stock. Doucin apple stock produces a dwarf tree which is intermediate between the Paradise stock dwarf and the standard tree. The pear is dwarfed by working it on quince stock. All these stocks may be purchased from nursery firms. 73 CuapTer VI. SOME IMPORTANT APPLE INSECTS IN MASSACHUSETTS. H. T. FERNALD, PROFESSOR OF ENTOMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICUL- TURAL COLLEGE. During the last decade, apple growing in Massachusetts has developed greatly. With this growth of the industry has also developed an increased interest in the insect pests of the apple and in the methods for their control. Many persons spray their trees regularly, finding this the only way by which crops of good fruit can be obtained; and while this is only one factor in making a success of fruit growing, it is at least an important one. : Fifteen or twenty insect enemies of the apple are abundant in Massachusetts, and to obtain control over them no one treatment is sufficient, for while several can be handled suc- cessfully in the same way, others will entirely escape. In fact, in controlling insects the only rule is to “ make the punish- ment fit the crime.” Some apple insects attack the roots; others the trunk and branches; others the buds and leaves; and others the fruit itself. Fortunately, root-attacking forms are seldom or never abundant enough in this State to become serious pests, and only a few are of importance on the trunk and limbs. INSECTS ATTACKING THE TRUNK AND BRANCHES. The Round-headed Apple-tree Borer. The adult of this insect is a beetle not often, seen, but nevertheless quite abundant. It attacks the pear, quince, thorns, mountain ash and a few other trees as well as the apple, these often serving as a source of supply of the insect from which the apple is kept stocked. Such trees therefore should either be cared for like the apple or not be allowed to grow near the apple orchard. 74 The beetle, which is about an inch long, pale brown above, with two white stripes along its back, «appears in late spring and summer, and lays its twenty-five or thirty eggs singly, here and there, in slits it cuts in the bark of the trees near the ground. The tiny grub, or borer, on hatching from the egg, burrows through the bark to the sapwood and there digs out shallow but broad galleries. The bark over these often dries and cracks, letting out “sawdust” which aids in locating the galleries. After resting during the winter, the borer re- sumes its work, still feeding on the sapwood, and if the tree is small, or there are several borers present, girdling may result. After a second winter in the tree the borer works into the heartwood and finally turns outward toward the surface. After a third winter of rest it tunnels to the bark, then trans- forms into the adult beetle, which during the spring or sum- mer escapes from the tree. Eggs are then laid for the next generation. The life of an individual from egg to adult is three years, but beginning so late in the year that the fourth calendar year thereafter is the year the adult appears. Small, or weak, unhealthy trees suffer most from the attacks of this pest. Methods for controlling this insect have been experimented with for years, but no entirely successful single way has been found. ‘‘Worming” the trees in the fall is perhaps as good as any, so far as results go. To do this, clear away any grass or litter from the base of the trunk and look for “sawdust,” tracing this up to cracks in the bark and cutting open the dead bark at these places to find and destroy the borers. If *the borers have tunneled deeper into the tree, a flexible, pointed wire can be run into the tunnels to kill them there. Thick paints are often applied to the trunks to keep the beetles from laying their eggs there. To do this, remove the earth a few inches down around the trunk and paint to about a foot above the ground with pure white lead in raw linseed oil, making it thick and putting on a good coat. Several layers of newspaper, building paper or cloth can be used also, wrapped around the lower foot or two of the trunk, to act as protectors, but the bottom of the material must go below ground and the top be tightly fitted to the tree so the 75 beetles cannot get inside and-crawl down to where they desire to lay their eggs. The paint or protectors should be put on by the first of- June and kept in good condition until the end of August at least. The Oyster-shell Scale. This common pest is found on the trunk where the bark is thin, and also on the branches and twigs. The animal itself is concealed during most of the year under a scale it forms, and it is the scale rather than the insect which is therefore Ae Oyster-shell scale: a, under side of female scale, showing eggs; b, upper side of same, both much enlarged; cv, female scales on a branch, natural size; d, male scale much enlarged; ¢, male scales on branch, natural size. The fine lines to the right of a, b and d show the real length of the scales. (Howard, United States Department Agriculture, Yearbook, 1894.) familiar to most people. The scale is generally about a six- teenth of an inch long, narrow at one end and rather broadly rounded at the other. It may be quite straight, but is more often somewhat curved, and resembles a tiny oyster shell in form, whence its name. It may be brown or gray in color. During the winter the dead insect may be found under the 76 narrow end of the scale, and in the space between it and the other end will be found from fifteen to one hundred very small whitish eggs. These hatch during the latter part of May or early in June, according to the progress of the season, into very tiny whitish animals just visible to the eye, and generally called ‘‘crawling young.” They crawl about for a few hours to a day or so, then locate at some spot and force their long sucking beaks through the bark until they reach the sap. On this they feed, sucking it into their bodies. Scale soon begins to form over and cover them, and by the end of August these arc complete and the insects have become full grown. Eggs are now laid under the scales and the parents die, there being in Massachusetts only one generation a year. Control for this insect is the same as for the scurfy scale and is given below. The Scurfy Scale. This scale in many ways resembles thé oyster-shell scale. It differs from it, however, as follows: The scale is shorter and broader, being rather pear-shaped; its color is white instead of brown or gray; and the eggs and crawling young are purple instead of nearly white. In other regards the facts given above for the oyster-shell scale are true for this insect also. Control for the oyster- shell and scurfy scales can to some extent be obtained by spraying infested trees with the lime-sulfur wash as Seurfy scale: a, female, b, male scales, natural given under the San José size, on twigs; c, female scale, much en- scale below. In most cases, larged; d, male scale, much enlarged. i tees (Howard, United States Department As- however, this is not sufi- riculture, Yearbook, 1894.) cient, and spraying with nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent, using 1 part of this in about 600 parts of water as soon as the crawling young are seen, followed by a second treatment about ten days later, is desirable. Kero- sene emulsion (see directions for making on page 108) may be used instead of the nicotine sulfate, but is not as effective. La The scurfy scale. The San José scale. The oyster-shell scale. Turee Common Orcuarp Scates (Twiczk Natura Size). Te It should be noted that scales remain on the tree a long time after the insects which produce them are dead, before weathering off, so that a tree largely freed from these pests may appear badly infested when this is really not the case. The San José Scale. The San José scale has been present for nearly thirty years in this State, and has caused much loss in apple orchards, as when abundant it is a very serious pest. Fortunately, most apple growers are now able to recognize this insect and know how to treat it. The fully formed scale is nearly circular, quite flat, but rising gradually from its edge toward the center where there is a hump or nipple, usually surrounded by a slight depression. Its color at this time is generally brown or dark gray. At the beginning of winter, scales of various ages may be present on a tree, but the younger and the oldest ones die during this period, leaving only those from one-third to two-thirds grown to continue the race the following season. These insects under their scales resume their sucking of the sap from the tree in the spring and become adult in June. The production of young now begins, and here there is an important difference in the life of this insect from that of the oyster-shell and scurfy scales, whose eggs all hatch at about the same time. With the San José scale no eggs are laid. Instead, this insect produces living young, a few every few days for a period of about a month, the total number per female being about a hundred. These crawling young resemble those of the other scales in size and structure, but are bright lemon yellow in color and can be recognized in this way. Their habits at: first are like those of the other kinds, but, after settling down to feed, they form a pure white waxy scale over themselves, circular in outline, so that in this stage they look like very tiny dots of white wax on the bark. Later, as they grow, this scale becomes larger and changes color, being black, gray or either of these colors, more or less mixed with white. By the time the insect beneath has become adult, however, the scale is quite uniformly gray or brown and about the size of a pinhead. About a month is required for the in- 78 sects to reach maturity and begin reproduction in their turn, and as their parent may only be ceasing the production of young by this time, there is, in consequence, an almost con- stant appearance of young from about the middle of June until cold weather puts an end to the process, at which time there will probably be all stages of the insect present at once. There are usually only three generations a year in Massa- chusetts, though, with the longer seasons, four or even more may occur in the South. Increase from the scales coming to ma- turity in the spring is usually about 100 per female. In the later generations it is nearer 500, so that a tree having only a_ few scales on it in the spring can easily have millions on it by the following winter, and be in very bad con- dition or even dying from the lack of the sap these insects have Different stages of the San José scale, enlarged five times. (From Virginia State Crop Pest Commis- sion Bulletin, 1904.) abstracted from it. Control of this pest cannot be like that for the oyster-shell and scurfy scales, which was based upon the appearance of all the delicate, unprotected, crawling young at about the same time. Here a treatment aimed at the destruction of these young would have to be repeated every ten days or two weeks from the end of June until into October, — evidently a costly and impracticable method. Accordingly, the plan adopted is to treat this scale, during the winter months or in spring be- fore the buds open, with a material strong enough to get at the insect under its protecting scale and kill it there. At this time there are no leaves to interfere with the thorough appli- 79 cation of a spray, and the tree being dormant is less liable to injury by strong sprays than during the growing season. A number of materials have been used in spraying for the San José scale, but at the present time only three or four ap- pear to have any great value. These are the lime-sulfur wash, miscible oils, and dry sulfur compounds. The lime- sulfur wash is now usually purchased in concentrated liquid form and diluted with water for use, the amount of dilution being generally about one of the wash to eight or nine of water, according to directions sent with it. For best results though, its density should be determined with a Beaumé hy- drometer, and the amount of water to add will vary with the density of the wash. Tables giving the amount for the different densities can be obtained from the Agricultural Ex- periment Station at Amherst, and almost any drug store can obtain a Beaumé hydrometer for liquids denser than water at a cost of not more than a dollar or two, Spraying with the properly diluted material can be made at any time during the winter or spring until the buds begin to open, but somewhat better results are obtained by spraying as late as possible. The miscible oils are also nearly always purchased ready made, needing only dilution with water. They have one ad- “vantage over the lime-sulfur wash in that they spread over the surface of the bark more from where they strike it. On the other hand, many cases of injury to trees have been re- ported following the use of these materials, particularly where they are used spring after spring for several years. How serious this injury is cannot be said to have been fully deter- mined as yet, but there is certainly some liability to it, and many fruit growers now follow the practice of spraying with lime-sulfur for two years and use the oil every third year only. The inconvenience of shipping liquid materials, and other difficulties involved, has led to the recent appearance on the market of dry sulfur compounds, these being for the most part combinations of sulfur with lime, barium, magnesium or sodium. From the standpoint of convenience these are much better than the liquid lime-sulfur concentrate, but chemical 80 analysis would indicate that they should be less effective than the other. Still, many reports of success with them have ap- peared, and while sufficient time since their being put on the market has not yet elapsed to permit a final verdict as to their actual value, it would at the present time seem probable that some of them at least may have come to stay. The writer does not care to advise either in favor of or against their use as yet, believing that they are still in more or less of an experimental stage. Whatever the material used, the spraying should be done with a nozzle throwing the spray in the form of a very fine mist, and the purpose be to reach every part of each limb, branch and twig, but stopping the treatment of each part just before it would begin to drip, as every drop thus lost means so much less to do its work on the tree. If spraying must be done on windy days, it may be impossible to reach the lee- ward side of the trees. In that case, the trees can be “‘ patched up” on their unsprayed sides when the wind is blowing in the opposite direction, or on calm days or mornings before the wind starts blowing. The scales are so small that only the most thorough work will reach them all, and only those reached by the spray will be killed, for after once settling down and forming its scale the insect never moves again. * All of the scale insects considered above are sometimes found on the leaves and also on the fruit of trees, particularly when the trees are heavily infested. INSECTS ATTACKING THE Bups AND LEAVES. «Lpple Plant Lice or Aphids. There are three kinds of aphids which attack the apple in the Eastern States, but only two of them appear to be of much importance in Massachusetts. These are the green apple aphid and the rosy apple aphid. The green apple aphid lays tiny shining black eggs on the smaller twigs of the tree in the fall. These hatch about the time the buds begin to open in the spring, and the young aphids suck the sap from these buds and check their growth, often seriously. As the leaves develop the insects feed on 81 oe them also, causing them to curl somewhat, and this also inter- feres with the proper growth of the tree. In a short time these aphids become full grown and begin to produce living young which feed on the leaves, like their parents. Gener- ation after generation is quickly produced, and as a dozen or more generations are produced during the summer, and as each adult produces fifty or more young, favorable seasons result in an enormous abundance of these in- sects, all of which are removing from the tree the sap it needs. Thus growth is checked, the apples are stunted, or at least undersized, and the loss to the fruit grower is large. es a When cold weather [RRem comes in the fallachange | of life takes place. Eggs are laid on the twigs and these hatch the following spring, the aphids on the tree dying. The rosy apple aphid - Ps hasa rather different life. Twig of apple, showing plant lice. (About Its eggs are laid on apple Paced twigs in the fall and hatch at about the same time in the spring as those of the green apple aphid. The aphids work on the buds and leaves also, but on the latter much more curling is caused by the feeding than in the case of the other kind. ) After a few generations on the apple in the spring, however, the rosy apple aphids leave the apple trees and go to plantains, particularly the narrow-leaved plantain, and here they feed and reproduce during the summer. In the fall these insects migrate back to the apple, where as cold weather comes on they lay their eggs. The average number of young produced by an individual of this species is about 175, and the number 82 = of generations is probably from 15 to 20, so that here, too, these insects may become extremely abundant and do much injury. They frequently suck the sap from the blossom buds, sometimes preventing some of the fruit from setting, and stunting and deforming many which do set. Plant lice are best controlled by spraying the trees thor- oughly, just as the buds are opening, with nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent, 1 part, water, 800 parts. Two or 3 pounds of common laundry soap can advantageously be added to each 50 gallons of this spray. If it is desired for any reason to apply Bordeaux mixture or lime-sulfur at the same time, the soap must not be put in. Spray through a very fine nozzle and repeat ten days or two weeks later if aphids are still present. The Leaf Hopper. The leaf hopper, a tiny greenish insect not very much larger than a plant louse, has been very injurious in apple orchards during the last two or three years. It is found during the spring months and again in the early fall mainly on the under side of the leaves, sucking the sap and giving them a speckled appearance, and in some cases drying them up and causing them to turn yellow and fall off. In the particular cases observed in this State, it does not seem to be the true apple leaf hopper but an allied species, which does not cause a curl- ing of the leaves to any such extent as the apple leaf hopper. Lacking more complete, detailed knowledge of this insect, we must rely on the general facts about the life histories of mem- bers of this group to aid in determining when and how to at- tempt control. In general, all the leaf hoppers for a time suck sap from the plants on which they feed, growing and by degrees developing wings. After a month, more or less, of this, the wings become full sized, the insects mature and they can then fly about. At this time they are much harder to reach by spraying than earlier, so spraying should be done when these insects first appear in the spring — while they are young — and again in the fall under similar condi- tions, taking them before they can fly, in each case. Nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent, is known to be a good killing material for 83 leaf hoppers in general, and should prove effective here also, the difficulties in its use being the same as with plant lice, viz., that the insects must be actually touched by the spray if they are to be killed, and that they are very small. Only thorough spraying, using every effort to reach the under side of the leaves where most of the hoppers are found, will give satis- factory results. The strength of spray to use is the same as that advised for plant lice above. Caterpillars. Numerous caterpillars are found feeding on apple leaves, but in the majority of cases spraying with arsenate of lead as soon as they are noticed will quickly kill them. Among the common kinds noticed is the tent caterpillar, which goes out each morning from white webs or tents spun in the forks of branches ‘during the spring. Spraying with arsenate of lead will easily control this pest, and a special treatment for it is usually unnecessary if the codling moth treatment given below is carried out: The gypsy moth and brown-tail moth cater- Yellow-necked apple-tree caterpillar: a, caterpillar, showing char- acteristic position when disturbed; b, adult moth; c, cluster of eggs, natural size; d, side view of one egg much enlarged. pillars are also often abundant on the trees during the spring months, at least in Eastern Massachusetts. All of these spring-feeding caterpillars can be kept under control by spray- ing once or twice. If the fruit grower is on the alert to dis- cover them as soon as they begin work, and treat them before they have had time to do much harm, he' need not fear much injury to the trees by them. In August or even early September other caterpillars are liable to appear on the trees. Some, such as the yellow-necked 84 apple-tree caterpillar and the red-humped caterpillar, feed in groups and may completely strip a limb of its leaves. Where such a limb can be reached easily, removing the caterpillars by hand — as they are all close together — and killing them may be easier than spraying the tree, though if handwork for any reason is undesirable, spraying will be effective. Sometimes in early fall small thin webs appear on some of the limbs, increasing in size as time passes, until in September they may be nearly as large as a bushel basket. These are the webs of the fall webworm, and may be distinguished from those of the tent caterpillar by the facts that they occur in late summer instead of May and June and that they are not placed in forks, but cover the branch. The caterpillars of this. Red-humped apple-tree caterpillar. Moth of red-humped apple-tree- caterpillar, insect feed on leaves under the web, and when these are all “eaten, extend the web over more before eating them. When these webs are small they can be removed, limb and all, with the caterpillars inside and be destroyed. If they cannot be reached easily, or too much of the tree would be removed by doing this, spray all around the nest with arsenate of lead so that the next leaves to be covered by the web shall be well poisoned. With all the leaf-feeding caterpillars, success in control is obtained by attention to two points: watch the trees so that the caterpillars may be treated before they get too much, of a start; and spray thoroughly, leaving no unsprayed leaves for them to feed on. INSECTS ATTACKING THE FRUIT. Four insects are quite serious enemies of the fruit of the apple in Massachusetts. These are the codling moth, or apple worm, the apple maggot, or railroad worm, red bugs,’ and ,the plum curculio. 85 The Codling Moth. This is one of the most important pests of the apple in this country. The writer has been accustomed to spray his trees for this pest in the approved way, and in 1919 a count of the apples gathered from: one tree, which had been sprayed regu- larly for several years, showed that only about 10 per cent of the fruit was wormy. In 1920 this tree was not sprayed, and a similar examination of the fruit gathered showed over 90 per cent wormy. The average cost of spraying an apple tree, even when the work is hired, is less than $2, so that it pays well to spray, as has been repeatedly shown for large orchards as well as in the case of the single tree referred to. The codling moth caterpillar winters near the apple tree and nearly always under some loose piece of bark on the trunk or one of the limbs. In the spring it changes to a small dark- colored moth which flies at night, is not attracted to lights, and is therefore seldom seen. It comes out a week or two after the apple blossoms fall, and lays its eggs singly, here and there, on the young leaves, twigs and on the fruit which is now beginning to form. About a week later the eggs hatch, and the tiny cater- pillars feed a little on. the leaves but soon crawl to the fruit, where from sixty to eighty of every hundred go to the blossom end and bore inward to the core. The others appear to bore in through the side of the fruit. Around the core the cater- pillars now feed for about a : Codling moth: a, work of caterpillar; 4 month until full grown. b, point of entrance; d, pupa; e, full- They then bore out, gener- grown caterpillar; f, 9, moth; h, head of caterpillar; 7, cocoon. ally through the side of the fruit, and crawl down the tree until they find pieces of loose bark where they can go. Each now, under a piece of bark, gnaws out a little oval cavity which it lines with silk, and in this the caterpillar changes over into the moth. 86 In most cases this last change does not occur in Massa- chusetts until the following spring, there being but one gen- eration a year. A few of the caterpillars which finish feeding early, however, may undergo this change and produce moths which appear in August, and at once lay eggs for a second generation the same season. The caterpillars which hatch from these eggs enter the fruit at any point and are usually the ones found in late apples when these are gathered, though they may be the very latest members of the first generation. The usual method of control for this pest is to spray the trees with arsenate of lead just after the blossoms fall. At this time there is a little depression or cup at the blossom end of the apple, with five green projecting lobes (sepals of the blossom) surrounding it. After about ten days these bend inward and close up the opening of the cup. The caterpillars which enter at the blossom end of the fruit either push their way between or bore through these lobes, enter the cup and start boring their way toward the core from its bottom. If, therefore, poison. can be placed in this calyx cup, as it is called, while its top is still open, the caterpillars entering later must feed upon that on their way into the fruit. In spraying to accomplish this, therefore, the purpose should be as far as possible to direct the spray against the blossom ends of the little apples and place the poison in the calyx cup. When the lobes close together later, they will aid in preventing rains from washing out the poison before the caterpillars arrive. A later spraying with arsenate of lead, usually about the 15th or 20th of June, is also frequently given. The purpose of this is to poison the leaves on which the caterpillars feed somewhat before going to the fruit. As some of the insects do not enter the fruit at its blossom end but elsewhere, this second spraying is largely for the purpose of killing those which would not be reached by the poison in the calyx cup. In spraying, use a rather fine nozzle giving small droplets of spray, and considerable pressure at the pump to force the droplets into the calyx cups as much as possible. Three pounds of the paste arsenate of lead (or 13 pounds of the pow- der) in 50 gallons of water is the usual mixture for both appli- 87 cations. If a combination either with Bordeaux mixture, lime- sulfur or nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent, is desired, this is perfectly possible, provided certain precautions in the mixing of the materials are followed. These precautions are dis- cussed on page 112. The Apple Maggot. The apple maggot, often also called the railroad worm, is frequently a serious pest in Massachusetts. The adult insect is a fly smaller than the house fly, with black or dark bands across its wings, which appears about the middle of July. It lays its eggs singly in holes it makes in the skin of the apple, and the little white maggots which hatch from these eggs tunnel through the pulp in all directions. While the maggots are very small the tunnels close up and make rather tough, Apple maggot: a, adult male fly; 6, adult female fly; c, maggot; all much enlarged. fibrous lines, but after the maggots get larger the tunnels re- main open and the pulp around them turns brown and decay follows, often making the fruit entirely soft and worthless. When the maggot has completed its feeding it leaves the fruit and enters the ground, where it changes into the adult fly. A few of the maggots which finish feeding early may change into flies the same fall, and in these cases eggs are laid on late apples, which are therefore liable to be infested without showing it when they are picked. Most of the late ; 88 fall apples, however, are attacked by flies of the first genera- tion, for these do not all appear at the same time, some coming several weeks later than the first ones. The flies have the habit of feeding somewhat at the intervals between laving their eggs, and this habit is taken advantage of in controlling the insects. Spraying the trees with arsenate of lead, 3 pounds of paste (or 14 pounds of the powder) in 50 gallons of water, applied just about the time the first flies appear, and a second time about two weeks later, seems to keep this pest in check. At first molasses was added to this to attract the flies, but recent tests do not indicate any better results from this than from the arsenate of lead alone. Gathering and destroying fallen fruit promptly is also a good control method, but it requires so much labor that this method is not often made use of. Red Bugs. These are rather recent apple pests in Massachusetts, or, at least, they have only attracted attention during the last eight ‘or ten years. The injury is undoubtedly caused by several kinds of insects which are closely related, but those first ob- served were partly “red, thus giving the name to all, whether red or not, which affect apples by puncturing the skin and sucking the juices. The damage to the apples is done mainly late in May and in June. The tiny young, which in size and general appear- ance somewhat resemble plant lice, crawl over the small apples and plunge their beaks into the flesh. The effect of this is that the parts there become hardened or woody and discolored. The apple will continue to grow after this, but at the places where the punctures were made it will be less developed than elsewhere, forming hollows or pits on the surface and making the apple, as a whole, malformed, irregular, and greatly reducing its value. Such apples often remain quite small, also, and are very noticeable when the crop is being gathered. Nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent, 1 part, water, 800 parts, with the addition of about 3 pounds of any common laundry soap to each 50 gallons of the water, has thus far proved the most 89 effective method for controlling this insect. This is very thoroughly sprayed over the tree through a fine nozzle, just before the blossoms open. In some cases repeating this treat- ment just after the blossoms fall has also been advisable. Where this is the case, the nicotine sulfate can be combined with the arsenate of lead “calyx cup” spray to advantage. The Plum Curculio. This well-known pest of plums, peaches and cherries injures the apples also, and sometimes quite seriously. In the spring while the apples are small the adult beetle, or curculio, makes holes in the skin of the fruit here and there, and in each places an egg. It then cuts a crescent- shaped slit in the skin so as to partially enclose the hole containing the egg. It is not probable that many, if any, of the young which hatch from these eggs are able to develop in the apple. The effect of the puncturing and slitting, however, upon the fruit is to produce unsightly scars and blemishes, besides injuring the pulp of the fruit near these places, making it hard. In late summer and fall the curculio also injures the apple, but in a different way. At this time it eats into the apples, making small holes an eighth of an inch or more deep and about an eighth of an inch across. The skin and flesh around the edge of this hole turn black, and the value of the apple is greatly reduced. To prevent or at least check the work of this insect on apples, the two sprays recommended for the codling moth are of value. If the curculios are abundant though, an additional treatment with arsenate of lead, nine or ten weeks after the blossoms fall, is of advantage. Measures for controlling this pest on the other fruits it attacks will of course reduce the number of these insects, leaving fewer to cause trouble with Plum curculio. the apples. 90 Cuapter VII. DISEASES OF THE APPLE IN MASSACHUSETTS. A. VINCENT OSMUN, PROFESSOR OF BOTANY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICUL- TURAL COLLEGE. The enormous development of the apple-growing industry in this country during the last two decades has brought in- creasing competition, and growers have come to realize that their business must stand or fall on the quality of the fruit they produce. Only clean fruit, that is, fruit free from blem- ishes caused by insects or diseases, can meet the competition and market demands. An added incentive to the production of clean fruit is furnished by the new State law to regulate the grading and packing of apples. And surely every real wide- awake apple grower takes pride in producing clean, high-class fruit, regardless of regulatory laws. Naturally, the grower who is interested in the quality of fruit which he grows wishes to know something about the diseases which he is forced to combat. Diseases of the apple are of two sorts: (1) those caused by microscopic organisms (fungi and bacteria); and (2) those due to unfavorable weather, or cultural conditions, or functional disorders. The first group are known as parasitic diseases and the second group are called nonparasitic or physiological diseases. Parasitic diseases are caused by bacteria or fungi growing and feeding on the surface or in the tissues of the host, and specific organisms may attack root, trunk, twigs, leaves or fruit, thus bringing about a diseased condition. Where the causal organism of a disease is known, a remedy for the disease, based on control of the organism, can usually be worked out. In fact, every grower should understand that intelligent attack on any parasitic disease must have back of Fig. 1. — Scab on apple leaves. Fre. 2s Scab on apple fruit, showing cracking (right). 91 it a knowledge of the life history and habits of the organism which is the primary cause of that disease. The nature of nonparasitic or physiological diseases often is obscure, but where the underlying cause can be determined the remedy usually lies in changing or avoiding conditions which produce it. In addition to the diseases which occur primarily in the orchard, there are a number which commonly affect the fruit only in transit and storage. Some of the diseases which at- tack fruit in the orchard continue to develop after it is har- vested and placed in storage. The economic importance of controlling apple diseases is in- ‘dicated by the total loss due to diseases in the United States for 1918 which was estimated at about 20,000,000 bushels. In Massachusetts alone, the loss has been estimated at over 150,000 bushels. In 1920, in one small section of the State, the value of the crop was reduced fully $200,000 by diseases. Descriptions of the more common diseases of Massachusetts apples follow. ScaB. This disease probably causes more loss to the apple crop of the State than any other, though relatively few varieties are seriously affected by it. Among the more susceptible of the varieties commonly grown in Massachusetts are McIntosh, Fameuse (Snow), Fall Pippin and Rhode Island Greening. Scab is not ordinarily a serious disease in Western Massachu- setts, but in the eastern part of the State, especially on the McIntosh, it assumes great importance. Seab is caused by a fungus, Venturia inequalis, which at- tacks young twigs, leaves, blossoms and fruit. Its occurrence on twigs is rare. On the blossoms, it infects chiefly the pedi- cels and calyx, and may sometimes cause severe blossom drop. The disease is most in evidence on the leaves and fruit. The first appearance on the leaves is in the spring. It then occurs on the lower surface as a web-like growth, brownish or olive- brown in color. Later, velvety spots of the same color form’ on the upper surface. Scab spots exhibit considerable vari- ation in shape (Fig. 1), but the most common are approxi- mately round, with a finely fringed margin. On both upper 92 and lower surfaces of the leaf, the growth of the scab fungus has a tendency to follow the veins. The round spots often become raised on the upper surface, causing a corresponding depression on the lower side. Similar spots, but darker in color, form on the fruit just beneath the waxy outer laver or cuticle. (Fig. 2.) This cuticle soon becomes ruptured over the spots, giving them a scab-like appearance, which suggests the common name of the disease. Cracking of the fruit often accompanies severe infection. (Fig. 2.) Scab does not in itself cause rotting of the fruit, but in storage other fungi may gain entrance to the flesh of the fruit through the scab lesions and set up decay. These are discussed under “Storage Rots.” Buack-Ror. Authorities differ as to the importance of black-rot. With- out question, however, this disease is the cause of considerable loss in Massachusetts, and in the eastern part of the State it is second only to scab in importance. The cause of black-rot is a fungus, Physalospora cydonie. This fungus gains entrance to the flesh, causing it to decay. Usually a single decayed area is produced which spreads until the entire apple is involved. In the early stages of decay the spot is brown, often marked by zones or rings, and after a time the surface of the spot becomes dotted with minute black pimples under which are the fruiting bodies of the fungus. The rotted area eventually turns black, whence the name. In the later stages of decay, fruit affected with this disease be- comes wrinkled and finally shrinks into dry, hard mummies, (Fig. 3.) Any part of the fruit may be attacked by black-rot, but it most often starts at a wormhole or at the calyx end. In the latter case, it is sometimes called blossom-end rot. (Fig. 4.) Blossom-end rot frequently may be traced to spray injury in- curred at the time of the so-called calyx spray, when the -nectaries of the blossoms are exposed and easily burned by the spray materials. Characteristic brown spots are produced on the leaves by the black-rot fungus. (Fig. 5.) Fic. 3. — Black-rot, advanced stage, showing black fruit dots. Fic. 6. — Bitter-rot, pink spore stage. (After Illinois Experiment Station, Bulletin 118.) Fic. 4. — Showing result of spray injury at blossom-end of fruit and black-rot following (right). Fig. 5.— Leaf-spot caused by black-rot fungus. (From U.S. D. A., B. P. I., Bulletin 121.) 93 Birrer-Ror. In Massachusetts, bitter-rot is of comparatively little im- portance. In other parts of the United States, notably the middle Atlantic and middle western States, it is in some years the most destructive disease in the orchard. The causal fungus, Glomerella cingulata, produces a dry, bit- ter rot of the apple flesh. The disease usually begins in July or August as small, round spots, brown in color. These spots soon become sunken and increase in size, usually exhibiting a series of raised concentric rings. (Fig. 6.) Minute black fruiting bodies develop in the rotted area either in concentric rings or scattered. These bodies eventually discharge small masses of pink spores which disseminate the disease. In the final stages of the disease the fruit becomes shriveled into a hard,-dry mummy. Brown-Ror. Brown-rot is important chiefly as it affects some early vari- eties, such as Red Astrachan and Yellow Transparent. The amount of loss which it causes is not large. It is caused by the same fungus, Sclerotinia cinerea, which produces brown- rot of peach, plum and cherry. The fungus usually gains en- trance to the fruit through a wormhole or other injury. The disease starts as a small brown spot, which rapidly spreads through the entire fruit as a soft rot. Often the rotted fruit turns black, and the disease may be mistaken for black- rot. It remains more or less smooth on the surface and does not shrivel and wrinkle as in the case of black-rot. In warm, moist weather small grey tufts of spore masses form on the surface of the rotted area. Soory-BLoTCH AND FLy-SPECK. The name, sooty-blotch and fly-speck, is indicative of the appearance of this disease. (Fig.7.) The causal fungus, Lepto- thyriwm pomi, is entirely superficial in its attack on the fruit, and its effect is merely to form surface blemishes; however, the disease must be considered of considerable importance because of the greatly reduced market value of fruit disfigured by it. 94 Sooty-blotch and fly-speck is usually at its worst in old orchards which have not been kept properly pruned to admit light and air. It is common, also, on trees shaded by buildings and on roadside trees exposed to dust. Fruit-Spot. This disease is also known as Brooks-spot and brown-spot of Baldwin. It is not, however, confined to the Baldwin, and, in fact, other varieties, such as Yellow Transparent, Yellow Bellflower and Tolman Sweet, are often more seriously affected by it. Fruit-spot is more serious in New England than in other sections, and in some years it has very greatly reduced the value of the apple crop in this State. The cause of fruit-spot is a fungus, Phoma pomt. The dis- ease first manifests itself in August. On red-skinned fruit, the small, round spots are deeper red, and on green skin they are darker green. The spots are usually most numerous about the blossom end of the fruit. At first the spots are but slightly sunken and each centers about a lenticel or breathing pore. Later, the spots deepen in color or turn brown and become more sunken. They do not become large. (Fig. 8.) Im- mediately beneath the surface of the spots the flesh of the fruit becomes discolored, but this never extends deeply. Mi- nute black fruiting bodies of the causal fungus appear in the spots in their later stages of development. - Brrrer-Pit or STIPPEN. Baldwin fruit-spot is perhaps a more common name for this disease. It is, however, misleading, because the King, Rhode Island Greening, Northern Spy and other varieties are com- monly affected, though the Baldwin is, perhaps, the most sus- ceptible. Bitter-pit is among the important apple diseases of the State, and in some years it may be ranked as the most serious. It does not destroy the fruit through decay, but so reduces the quality as to render it unfit for market. The cause of bitter-pit is obscure. It is not due to attack by a parasitic organism, and is therefore classified as a physio- Fie. 8. — Fruit-spot. (From Maine Experiment Station, Bulletin 185.) Fie. 9. — Bitter-pit or Stippen. 95 logical disease. The prevailing opinion of those who have studied the disease is that it is caused by disturbed water re- lations. Seasonal conditions, such as frequent winds accom- panying low humidity, high temperatures and bright sunlight, which promote loss of water by transpiration, may be factors. Sudden or fluctuating changes in temperature and alternating wet and dry periods during the latter part of the growing season seem to favor development of the disease. Bitter-pit may appear on the fruit after it is half grown, but it is seldom noticed by the orchardist until the fruit is nearly mature. The first outward sign of the disease is when slightly sunken spots appear scattered over the surface of the fruit, usually most numerous near the calyx end. They are nearly round, seldom over an eighth to a quarter of an inch in diameter, and might be taken for hail bruises. (Fig. 9.) They increase in number as the fruit matures. With age, they become brown in color and deeper, but the skin covering them does not rupture. The flesh beneath each spot is brown, dry and corky. Brown streaks or spots of corky tissue, not con- nected with surface spots, extend through the flesh. Affected fruit is usually somewhat bitter to the taste. Bitter-pit is often mistaken for fruit-spot. The spots of this disease are, however, usually larger, more uniformly round and deeper than those of fruit-spot and the discolored, corky streaks extend deeper into the flesh. The disease may continue to develop in storage, but this is preventable through control of temperature and ventilation. Fruit affected with bitter-pit should be stored at a uniform temperature between 30 and 33 degrees F. Higher temperatures permit development of the spots. Bitter-pit cannot be controlled by spraying, although the maintenance of a healthy leaf growth by keeping other dis- eases in check is probably beneficial in reducing the amount of this trouble. There is, in fact, no definitely known method of control for the disease. Certain orchard practices, however, tend to reduce it to a minimum. Judicious pruning, to keep the set of fruit evenly distributed on laterals, and good soil drainage are among the most important things to consider. Usually there is less of the disease on apples borne on laterals 96 than on those on main branches. The practice of thinning fruit to keep the vield regular tends to reduce the disease, but in cases of severe thinning to produce very large fruit, the disease is likely to occur in great severity. Bitter-pit may occur in the best-managed orchards. and probably few varieties are immune. | Sroney Dry-Ror. But little importance attaches to this disease in the orchard, but in storage it may sometimes cause considerable loss. We have never observed it on fruit still clinging to the tree except where a branch had bent down and the fruit rested on the grass or ground beneath. It is, however, commonly found on windfalls beneath the tree, and it is likely that the causal fungus, Volutella fructt, is normally a wound parasite. In storage, the trouble spreads through contact, but is held in check by low temperatures. Avoidance of bruised or scarred fruit will do much toward keeping this rot out of the storage package. The appearance of Volutella-rot is somewhat like that of black-rot, for which it is often mistaken in storage. The rotted area is, however, more sunken and the decayed tissue is dry and spongy. The surface of the spot is black, and the skin becomes roughened when the fruiting bodies of the fungus, which are more closely clustered than in black- rot, break through it. APPLE Rwst. Apple rust is important in Massachusetts, as a rule, only to the growers of Wealthy and Jonathan. Other varieties com- monly grown in the State are little affected by it. In the middle Atlantic States, the York Imperial is very susceptible. Rust is much more destructive on quince than on apple in this State. Apple rust is caused by a fungus, Gymnosporangium, which not only lives on two radically different hosts — the apple and the red cedar — but is absolutely dependent on both of these hosts for the completion of its life cycle, and, in fact, for reproduction and dissemination. In regions where red cedars abound the galls or “cedar apples,” -which are the winter stage of this disease produced Fia. 10. — ‘‘Cedar apples’”’ on red cedar, with ‘“‘horns’’ par- tially extended (winter stage of apple rust). 97 on the cedar, are a familiar sight. (Fig. 10.) These galls are dull reddish brown in color and vary from the size of a pea up to nearly 2 inches in diameter. On the surface are scat- tered small circular depressions. In the spring, brown horns about an inch long protrude from these depressions, and in rainy weather these horns become gelatinous and bright orange” in color. At such times, when there are many “cedar apples” on a cedar tree, the tree appears at a distance to be in blossom. It is from these gelatinous horns that the spores of the causal fungus spread in the spring to the apple. On infected apple leaves small yellow spots_develop, and these soon become larger and orange-colored. Clustered in these spots, on the lower side of the leaf, are minute cuplike bodies in which the spores of the fungus are formed. These give the name “clus- ter-cup” stage to the summer form of apple rust. (Fig. 11.) The fruit may be similarly affected, usually at the calyx end. From this stage the spores are blown to the cedars, which thus become infected to produce the “cedar apple” stage. Apple rust cannot be spread from one apple tree to another, nor from cedar to cedar; hence, if either host is absent from a region, the fungus cannot complete its life cycle and therefore becomes exterminated in that area. The obvious line of attack on apple rust in the orchard is therefore through destruction of all the cedars within infection distance of the orchard. In regions where the disease is most serious it has been determined that the cleaning up of cedars within a radius of 1 mile of the orchard will reduce infection to a very small amount and that 2 miles’ clearance will prac- tically free the orchard of rust. In Massachusetts, where in- fection is seldom very heavy, a clear radius of half a mile should be sufficient to keep the orchard relatively free of rust. It is not, of course, always possible for one man to control the land over such a wide area, but co-operation among neigh- bors will accomplish much and is worthy of a trial. In some States there are laws which require the destruction of all cedars which menace an orchard. 98 Frre-Biicut. This disease is not of great importance in the apple orchard. A large amount of twig blight, one form of the disease, often occurs, but this seldom is extensive enough to reduce a crop ‘materially or menace the trees attacked. When the disease takes the form known as “‘collar-blight,” it is likely to result fatally, but seldom are many trees in an orchard affected. The disease is much more destructive to the quince and pear, and may spread from these hosts to the apple. Fire-blight is caused by a bacterium, Bacillus amylovorus. It attacks blossoms, fruit, twigs and bark of limbs and trunk. The disease first appears in the spring on full-blown blossoms. These suddenly turn brown and wilt. In this stage the dis- ease is commonly called “blossom-blight.” From the blighted blossoms the disease spreads downward to the spur on’ which the leaves die. At the same time, the stage called “twig- blight”? may develop. On young twigs the leaves turn brown from the tip downward. The dead leaves droop and cling tenaciously to the dead twig, and have the appearance of having been scorched. (Fig. 12.) Cankers often form on the limbs, and these are usually traceable to blighted twigs which may frequently be found rising from the cankered area. (Fig. 13.) Such cankers may spread until a limb is girdled, but more often their development is checked by dry, warm weather conditions. The most serious form of fire-blight on the apple is the so- called “collar-blight” or “crown-rot.”’ This occurs as a dead area or canker in the bark near the base of the trunk. (Fig. 14.) Infection in such cases is usually through water sprouts. These cankers have a sunken, smooth surface and may increase in size until midsummer. They are likely to continue develop- ment the following year, and, unless permanently checked, usually completely girdle the trunk, causing death of the tree. Usually, the first sign of collar-blight is a yellowing and reduc- tion in size of the leaves on one or more large branches. Successful control measures have not been worked out. In a young orchard or in the nursery, it is easy to cut out and burn all blighted twigs as they appear, but in older orchards Fic. 11. — Rust on apple leaves: (a) on under surface (summer or cluster-cup stage), (b) on upper surface. (After Illinois Experiment Station, Circular 241.) Fic. 12.— Fire-blight (twig-blight phase). (After Illinois Experiment Station, Circular 241.) COST uljpyng ‘uoNnejg yuewtiedxy vruvalAsuusg WoOIg) ‘“(aseyd yOd-re]]OO) YYSITG-e11g — "FI “OY COL TEND ‘aotAIag UISUODSTAA Jo Ayisq9atuy Joyyy) *(seseyd reyxuvo pue yysTq-31M9) ySITqQ-e1Ly — “eT “OMT 99 it is doubtful if the results pay for the labor of the operation. In cases of severe infection it is worth while to clean up the cankers on the limbs. Cases of collar-blight should be treated as cankers. (See general treatment under “Cankers,” page 100.) It is seldom, however, that such treatment is entirely successful, especially if the canker has gained much headway. Sometimes bridge grafting is resorted to, but in most instances replacement of the affected tree is advisable. CANKERS. The term “canker” is applied to a diseased area or lesion in the bark. Cankers are usually common in-old and neglected orchards. In young and well-managed orchards they are rela- tively unimportant as a rule. When renovation of an old or- chard is undertaken, cankers are likely to present one of the chief problems, for often, when long neglected, they may in- volve considerable areas on main limbs and trunks, and in such cases heroic measures often are necessary to save a tree. Several kinds of cankers occur on apple trees in Massachu- setts, and these are caused by different organisms. Black-Rot Canker. This is caused by the same fungus that produces black-rot of the fruit and spotting of leaves. Cankers commonly form on older limbs, but this is by no means always the case, and younger branches and even new twigs may be attacked. On limbs, the cankers usually start on the upper side. A dis- colored, sunken patch forms in the bark and this later becomes dark brown or nearly black. A distinct crack or crevice soon divides the diseased from the healthy bark, and late in the season small black fruiting bodies of the causal fungus may appear scattered over the diseased surface. A roll of corky tissue develops along the limiting crevice, usually on one side. This is evidence of the effort of the tree to heal the injury by the formation of new tissue. The following year, however, the canker may spread through and beyond this corky barrier and finally girdle the limb. At first the diseased bark remains closely pressed against the underlying wood (Fig. 15), but 100 later it cracks away, exposing the wood. (Fig. 16.) A badly cankered limb bears other evidence in the form of yellow leaves, and where the limb is completely girdled the leaves above become vellow, then brown and the bark and fruit shrivel. Bitter-Rot Canker. This canker is caused by the same ftingus as bitter-rot of the fruit. It is similar to the black-rot canker, but usually the diseased bark becomes much cracked and remains clinging to the wood. It is much less common in this State than black- rot canker. European Canker. This is probably the most destructive of fruit diseases in Europe. In Massachusetts, however, it cannot be considered serious. The causal fungus, Nectria ditissima, probably in most cases gains entrance to the host tissues through wounds. Both young and old limbs are attacked, and frequently these cankers follow hail injury. Nectria-canker usually takes the form of an open wound, which is accompanied by swelling of the surrounding live tissue. Zones or folds of tissue border the wound, and these distinguish this canker from all others. Crotch infections are not unusual. Types of Nectria-canker are shown in Fig. 17. Nail-Head Canker. This is the least important of the cankers occurring in the State, and it has only recently been found within our borders. It is a serious disease in the Mississippi Valley, but is not likely to become common here. The cause is a fungus, Num- mularia discreta. In a general way, the treatment for all cankers is the same. It consists chiefly in cutting out and disinfecting wounds. Infected twigs and small branches should be pruned off where this will not materially injure the tree. On large branches and trunks, cankers should be cut out, using the utmost care to remove all diseased tissue down to the healthy wood and back into the healthy, living bark. Where possible, the wound thus made should be shaped with a sharp point at each end and ‘ ‘(193099 UI poo pasodxa SuLmMoys ‘e3ejs poouvapr) IayUvO 4OI-yovpg — “OT “PL ‘ea1B pesvasip Wor} SuUIPusyxe BIM) prop YIM ‘Yyourrq yeus uo Jeyuvo 4oI-youlg — ‘GT ‘DI Fie. 17. — European cankers. 101 curved sides, the long diameter extending lengthwise of the limb or trunk. A wound shaped in this manner will heal much more readily and completely than one with rounded or square ends or one extending crosswise of the limb or trunk. After. the cutting-out process is completed, the surface of the exposed wood should be disinfected with a 1-1,000 solu- tion of corrosive sublimate, and as soon as this dries a coat of good lead paint should be applied, using great care to cover every bit of the surface. Painting over should be repeated every year until the wound is entirely healed. Coal tar and asphaltum are often used for coating wounds. The former is apt to cause injury, and the latter is difficult to prepare. Paint, if of good quality and applied each year, has been found as satisfactory as any substance used. Tools used in cutting out cankers should be wiped frequently with a cloth or sponge wet in the disinfecting solution in order to avoid carrying infection from one cut to another. It is also im- portant that the operator wear rubber boots or overshoes, as any wounds made in the bark are easily infected by canker parasites. In cleaning up an orchard infected with cankers, one must use judgment as to what limbs to remove and what cankers to treat by cutting out. It is sometimes better to sacrifice a large bearing limb if the canker has so far advanced as to weaken or nearly girdle it. But where cankers on such limbs are small enough to respond to treatment, the limbs should be retained. Burning of diseased twigs, branches and bark, removed in the cleaning up of an orchard, is an important part of the operation, as these remain a serious source of further infection if left lying about. Spraying probably is only indirectly beneficial in the control of cankers. Keeping fruit-rots and leaf-spots in check by this means undoubtedly reduces the amount of canker infection. On the other hand, by keeping an orchard clear of cankers, the amount of fruit-rots and leaf-spots caused by the same fungi may be greatly reduced, for the cankers are constant sources of infection. 102 Crown-GALL. Crown-gall is of importance chiefly in the nursery. It is not unusual to find whole blocks of nursery trees affected by this disease. Affected trees, when set in the orchard, some- times grow out of the disease, but they are more likely to show retardation in growth and stunted development. Crown- gall is not confined to the apple but attacks many kinds of plants and trees. The disease also is known as crown-knot, root-gall and, in one form, as hairy-root. The causal organism of crown-gall is Bactertwm tumefaciens. It infests cultivated soils and lives in old galls of a great variety of plants. It is doubtless true that some soils become more badly contaminated with the organism than others. The most familiar and common form of the disease occurs _as galls at the base of the trunk or on the branches. In the nursery, a large proportion of these galls form just above the union of scion and stock. They are usually an inch or two in diameter, but may be larger, and, when developed, hard and rough. (Fig. 18.) A second form of the disease, less common than the galls, takes the form of an excessive devel- opment of fibrous roots, which grow in dense clusters, sug- gesting the name, hairy-root. (Fig. 19.) Control of crown-gall is largely a matter of sanitation and avoidance. The nurseryman should use the utmost care in preparing his stock. Grafting instruments should be fre- quently disinfected in a 1-1,000 solution of corrosive subii- mate; the graft union should be carefully made and wrapped. Where the disease is discovered in the nursery, affected trees should be promptly removed and burned. If a large number of nursery trees are diseased, they should be cleaned out and the land planted to other crops for several years. No method of disinfecting the soil for this trouble is known. Orchardists should insist on clean nursery stock when se- lecting trees for new orchards, and every tree should be care- fully inspected before setting. All that show any evidence of crown-gall or hairy-root should be rejected. ‘9013 AIVSINU 901} uo 4004s puv OIDs Jo uOTOUN! 4e ][VB-UMOID — ‘ST ‘OTT AIOsSINU WO ([[e3-WMOIO Jo asvyd ev) yoor-Arrey — "6T “OL 103 SroraGe Rots. As every orchardist can testify, the loss from disease does not end with the placing of fruit in storage. Most of the diseases which occur on the fruit in the orchard may continue to develop after harvest, and sometimes-the shrinkage of the crop due to this is greater than on the tree. Scab, black-rot, bitter-rot, brown-rot, spongy dry-rot, fruit-spot and_bitter- pit, all of which develop more or less on stored fruit, already have been described. In addition, there are several rots which occur only after the fruit has left the tree. Blue Mold. The rot caused by this fungus, Penicillium expansum, is the most common and destructive of all storage troubles. It is frequently called soft-rot, and this name is descriptive of the disease. The rotted tissue is light brown and watery and has a musty odor and taste. On the surface of the rotted fruit there develop white tufts of the mold, which soon turn blue- green in color. From these tufts myriads of minute spores are given off and each is capable of starting a new rotten spot. (Fig. 20.) Apparently the fungus is unable to penetrate the sound skin of the fruit. Bruises, wormholes, scab or other disease spots, stem punctures or any other wounds offer easy access, and once the fungus gets into the flesh it causes rapid decay of the fruit. The disease spreads from one fruit to another, either through contact or by scattering of the spores. Soft- rot is primarily a disease of overripe or injured fruit. Cold retards development of the fungus, but apples which have become overheated may continue to rot when affected by it, even after being cooled to cold-storage temperatures. Fruit that is carefully picked, sorted and packed and placed in storage at 32 degrees F. within forty-eight hours after picking will escape much of the trouble from this source. Wrapping with paper to prevent contact will do much to reduce the amount of soft rot. 104 Pink-Mold. This fungus, Cephalothectum roseum, occurs only on stored fruit. It occasionally follows scab, growing on the scab spots through which it enters the flesh of the apple, causing it to decay. The decayed flesh is firm, corky and bitter to the taste. The presence of the mold is evidenced by pink tufts on. the surface of the fruit. Jt develops slowly in cold storage. This trouble is of little importance in Massachusetts. Scald. This trouble is often very disastrous to apples which have been improperly handled and stored. It is not caused by an organism, but by gases given off by the fruit itself. It is usually evident as an irregular, spreading area on the green side of the fruit. The brown discoloration extends but little beneath the skin, and only after other rot-producing organisms have entered through the injured area does the flesh become decayed. Scald is usually the result of storing under poor ventilation, which allows the gases to accumulate. It is more apt to occur on fruit that is picked green than that which is well ripened on the tree. Large quantities of warm fruit placed in a poorly ventilated room are likely to develop scald. High temperatures promote scalding. Stored in ventilated containers in well-ventilated rooms at low temperatures, ap- ples will not become badly scalded. By wrapping the fruit in oiled paper, scald may be entirely prevented. Oils absorb the gases which cause scald. MISCELLANEOUS INJURIES. All the aforementioned troubles of the apple have definite, distinctive characteristics which stamp them as definite dis- eases. Most of them are due to the parasitic attack of specific organisms, but a few are brought about by purely physical agencies which interfere with normal functions and life proc- esses of the host. Among these latter may also be classed such injuries, and their effects on, the tree or fruit, as sun-scald, frost-cracks, winter-injury, spray-injury and a variety of other mechanical Fic. 20. — Blue-mold or soft-rot of apple fruit, showing white tufts of mold on surface. 105 injuries. These, though not perhaps distinctive diseases, are, nevertheless, troubles which every orchardist is forced to deal with more or less. It is not, however, the purpose of this chapter to discuss these troubles. They are, for the most part, closely associated with orchard management or mismanage- ment, and through proper attention to all of the many details of orchard management their occurrence may be reduced to an inconsequential minimum. GENERAL ConTROL MEASURES. Spraying the apple orchard with fungicides or with fungi- cides and insecticides combined is absolutely necessary for the production of clean, sound fruit. Spraying, however, is not a panacea for all the diseases to which the apple is heir. Neither will spraying’ cure a disease. The object of applying a fungi- cide is, rather, to prevent or control disease by killing or in- hibiting the development of parasitic fungi. To be effective, therefore, the spraying schedule must be based on knowledge of the life histories of the fungi to be combated. It is an important function of the plant pathologist to work out life histories of these parasitic organisms, and find out, if he can, the vulnerable points in the different stages of their develop- ment. With this accomplished for any disease, it is then usually possible to work out an effective spray schedule. On such knowledge are all control measures based, and the spray schedule given in another section of this publication is the result. ‘of such fundamental work by the scientist. Obviously, physi- ological diseases are not much affected by spraying. In addition to spraying, general orchard and storage sani- tation, regulation of conditions and approved cultural and other management details must be practiced in order to as- sure a satisfactory product. Where combative measures other than spraying are necessary, they are discussed in connection with specific diseases. Directions for spraying are given in the “Spray Schedule for the Apple” (page 113) and for preparing fungicides in the chapter on “Insecticides and Fungicides for the Apple” (page 106). 106 Cuaptrer VIII. INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES FOR THE APPLE, H. T. FERNALD AND A. V. OSMUN. Insecticides and fungicides for use by apple growers are few in number, many which were formerly on the list having now been discarded. Insecticides are of two classes, viz., the stomach poisons and the contact insecticides. Where the in- sect bites off and swallows solid food, such as leaves, the best material to use is a stomach poison sprayed or dusted onto the tree. The insect eating this substance on its food is poisoned and dies. If, on the other hand, the insect sucks the sap from the tree, no stomach poison put on will reach it, and materials applied so as to actually hit it must be re- sorted to. These contact insecticides, as they are called, kill the insects they touch, and only those. As many of the sucking insect pests of the apple are extremely small, it is dificult to reach them all by the spray, so very thorough spraying must be done with these materials if all the insects are to be reached and destroyed. Fungicides are applied only for the control of diseases known to be caused by fungi which at some stage in their life cycles grow on the surface of the host where the spray or dust can come in contact with them. Fungicides are toxic to the fungi for which they are applied. INSECTICIDES. Stomach Poisons. Arsenate of Lead. — This is the standard stomach poison for orchard use. It comes both as a paste and as a powder. The latter is for spraying and also for dusting the trees, using an air gun or bellows, a number of forms of which are on the market. In dusting, the powder should be thoroughly mixed 107 with sulfur or gypsum, and this mixing is difficult without special machinery. Dust mixtures are now on sale, however, the more usual proportions of the materials being 85 per cent of sulfur or gypsum and 15 per cent of arsenate of lead. The sulfur is of some insecticidal value and is therefore probably the better mixture to use. As a spray the usual formula is — Arsenate of lead, paste (pounds), 3 Water (gallons), . 50 If the powder is used instead of the paste, take 14 pounds instead of 3 pounds. Its price is higher, but there is about twice as much poison in a pound of powder as in the paste. In preparing the paste, stir it up thoroughly in a little of the water, to get a uniform mixture before adding the rest of the water. The paste will be of little value after it has once been al- lowed to dry, and it is also injured by freezing. Arsenate of Lime. — This is a rather recent spray material, which like arsenate of lead can be obtained either as a paste or a powder. There is more arsenic in the latter, but as the price is correspondingly higher there is little difference between the two forms from this standpoint. This material cannot be used with safety on leaves unless an excess of lime is present. Accordingly, the usual formula is — Arsenate of lime, paste (pounds), : 2 Quicklime (pounds), 2 to3 Water (gallons), ; : 50 For the powder take — Arsenate of lime, powder (pound), 2 Quicklime (pound), 1 Water (gallons), . ‘ . 50 In either case slake the quicklime in some of the water; strain it into the rest of the water and then mix in the arsenate of lime. 108 This substance is cheaper than arsenate of lead, but has not been used long enough so that one is always sure of the results which will be obtained. At the present time it seems to be a promising insecticide, provided care is taken in mixing to add lime enough to prevent burning the leaves. ; Contact Insecticides. Nicotine Sulfate, 40 Per Cent.— This material is on sale under various trade names selected by different manufac- turers. It is rather expensive, but is so much diluted for use that a little of it goes a long way as a spray. One part of the nicotine sulfate is usually mixed with about 800 parts of water. For a barrel pump, which holds about 50 gallons, the proportions are — a Nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent (pint), : 4 Soap (pounds), ‘ 2 to 3 Water (gallons), 50 Sometimes it can be used stronger than this for particu- larly resistant insects, and in a few cases 1 part in 1,000 parts of water (three-eighths of a pint in 50 gallons of water) is strong enough, but 1 in 800 is the standard dilution. This is the best contact insecticide for plant lice, crawling young of scale insects, etc., but if it cannot be obtained, kero- sene emulsion, though not quite as effective, and troublesome to prepare, may be used instead. Kerosene Emulsion. — This is prepared as follows: — iH Common laundry soap (pound), Soft water (gallon), 1 Kerosene (gallons), 2 Dissolve the soap in the water (most quickly done by heat- ing the water), remove from the fire, and add the kerosene. Now, with a small hand spray pump and fine nozzle, spray this mixture out of the pail or whatever it is in back into the pail again through the pump, thus thoroughly mixing or “churning” the materials. If this is properly done the mix- ture should soon become milky, then gradually thicken until it goes hard through the pump. This thickened material is 109 the stock mixture and should keep for a month. In time it will break up again and the oil, separating out, will appear on the surface. It is then no longer fit to use. For use against plant lice, crawling scale insects, etc., take 1 gallon of this stock mixture, mix thoroughly with about 9 gal- lons of water, and spray. For more resistant insects; mix 1 gal- lon of the stock with 4 or 5 gallons of water. If the materials fail to thicken while being “churned,”’ it is probably because hard water has been used. In that case add a little borax or soda to soften it. Lime-sulfur Wash. — This wash was first developed as a scale killer and this is still its chief use as an insecticide. It has been found, however, that it is also a valuable fungicide, and is therefore of greater value than was at first thought. It was originally made by boiling together varying amounts of lime and sulfur (usually 15 pounds of each) in 50 gallons of water for about an hour, but the time and labor involved has led to its being produced and put on sale in concentrated form, requiring only dilution with the proper amount of water to make it ready to spray. The usual directions for dilution to use during the winter months, while the trees are dormant, are to mix 1 gallon of the concentrate with 8 or 9 gallons of water, but different brands vary somewhat in this. Further suggestions for using it are given in Chapter VI under the head- ing “San José Scale.” However diluted, the results obtained will depend to a great extent on the thoroughness with which it is applied. Careless spraying will fail to reach many of the scales, and those left will reproduce rapidly enough to injure the tree seriously in such cases. For summer use on badly infested trees the concentrate must be diluted much more than for winter spraying. Treat- ment for scales during the summer is always made under such disadvantages that only trees so heavily infested as to make it doubtful whether they will live through the season are given this spray. If it seems necessary, however, 1 gallon of the concentrate is usually diluted with about 30 to 40 gallons of water. The exact amount to dilute for summer as well as for winter work is best learned by getting the reading of the 110 concentrate by a Beaumé hydrometer and consulting the dilu- tion table referred to under the heading ‘‘ San José Scale.” Miscible Oils. — There are a number of these oils on the market under trade names. As their composition is more or less secret and probably differs with the different brands, dilu- tion should be according to directions given by the manu- facturers. Dry Sulfur Compounds. — So little is known of these as yet that all which can be said of them is to follow the directions accompanying them as to mixing with water. Their possible merits and other points about them are considered under the heading “‘ San José Scale.’’ FUNGICIDES. Lime-sulfur Solution. — Lime-sulfur has proved to be an efficient and effective apple fungicide in western Massachusetts and for that section it is at present recommended above all others. It is usually more convenient to buy the concentrated solu- tion than to prepare it. A number of reliable brands are on the market. Those sold under a guarantee of 32 to 34 degrees Beaumé test may safely be used for spraying fruit trees. The directions furnished by manufacturers for the dilution of their own products can usually be relied upon. The usual dilutions are 1 gallon to 8 or 9 gallons of water for winter spraying, and 1 or 1} gallons to 50 gallons of water for summer treatment. It should be used as soon as possible after diluting and not be allowed to stand over night, if this can be avoided. If this, or the concentrate, must be left open, pour a very little kerosene on the surface to keep air away from it as much as possible. Bordeaux Mixture. — Bordeaux mixture is sometimes used for spraying fruit trees, but it is not recommended for this purpose by the writers because of the severe burning of fruit and foliage which it is likely to produce. In a dry May it may not cause serious injury, but one cannot predict what the weather conditions will be, and the risk incurred in applying copper mixtures to the apple is too great to be worth trying. It is probably true that this material is the most effective 111 fungicide known for certain apple diseases. However, the injury which may result from its use is often much more serious than the diseases which it is meant to control. It is better, therefore, to use some other substance which is known to be effective, for the most part, in controlling these diseases. For the present, concentrated lime-sulfur is recommended as a substitute for Bordeaux mixture. It seldom causes serious injury and usually gives very satisfactory control. It is fair to state, however, that in certain sections of the State, notably in the eastern part, control of scab and black- rot often is not obtained with the use of lime-sulfur when applied according to the schedule used in other sections. In fact, so many disastrous failures to get control have followed the use of this mixture that great need of investigation to es- tablish better control measures in eastern Massachusetts is indicated. Until such work is carried out, definite directions for the control of scab and black-rot in the orchards of that section cannot be given with any degree of confidence. Sulfur Dust. — Sulfur dust has been used with considerable success in New York, Illinois, Michigan and Nova Scotia, but it has not been given sufficient trial in this State to warrant the recommendation of its use at this time. Copper Sulfate-lime Dust.— The use of a copper sulfate- lime dust in Nova Scotia has met with some success, but this has not been tried in Massachusetts. Corrosive Sublimate. — This substance is used for disinfect- ing pruning and renovating tools and the surface of wounds before painting. (Corrosive sublimate, 1 part; water, 1,000 parts.) .Corrosive sublimate may be purchased in tablet form at drug stores. One tablet dissolved in 1 pint of hot water makes a 1-1,000 solution. Corrosive sublimate is very poisonous. It should be plainly labeled and kept out of reach of children and farm animals. The solution should not be made in metal containers as most metals are corroded by it. 112 CoMBINED INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES. Where control of insects and diseases is needed at about the same time, a combination of an insecticide and a fungicide is desirable to save time and labor by putting on the two together as a mixture. To combine the desired insecticide and fungicide, however, is not always a simple task, as the two materials may change on mixing and produce substances which would be injurious. Precautions in making such mixtures must therefore be taken. Lime-sulfur, Lead Arsenate and Nicotine Sulfate (Winter Strength). Commercial lime-sulfur (gallons), ‘ ; 6 Lead arsenate, powder (pounds), 13, or paste frowns, 3 Nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent (pint), : Water, to make (gallons) bf 50 This is the mixture to use for the first spraying (see “Spray Schedule,” page 113). Lime-sulfur, Lead Arsenate and Nicotine Sulfate (Summer Strength). Commercial lime-sulfur (quarts), ‘ » § Lead arsenate, powder (pounds), 13, or paste (pounds), 4 3 Nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent (pint), 3 Water, to make (gallons) 50 This is for the second and third sprayings (see “Spray Schedule,” page 113). Lime-sulfur and Lead Arsenate (Summer Strength). Commercial lime-sulfur (quarts), 5 Lead arsenate, powder (pounds), 13, or paste (pounds), 3 Water, to make (gallons) . : er, 50 This is the mixture to use for the fourth spraying (see “Spray Schedule,” page 113). COMBINATION INSECTICIDES. Arsenate of Lead and Nicotine Sulfate. —In cases where chewing and sucking insects are present but no treatment for fungous diseases is necessary, arsenate of lead may be pre- 113 pared as usual and nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent, can be added, the 50 gallons of arsenate of lead spray taking the place of the 50 gallons of water given under the directions for pre- paring the nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent. Lime-sulfur Wash and Nicotine Sulfate. — This combination is rarely used, but can be prepared, if desired, by adding one- half pint of nicotine sulfate, 40 per cent, to the 50 gallons of lime-sulfur. The soap usually added to the nicotine sulfate must not be added in this case. SPRAY SCHEDULE FOR THE APPLE. First Application. — Time: Just as the buds are opening. This is known as the “delayed-dormant spray,” and now takes the place of the application formerly made when the tree was wholly dormant. What to use: Lime-sulfur, lead arsenate and nicotine sulfate (winter strength) as given under the heading “Combined ‘Insecticides and Fungicides,” page 112. For: San José scale, aphids, bud moth; scab, and possibly effective against some other diseases. Second Application. — Time: When the buds first show pink but before they open (the “cluster-bud spray”’). What to use: Lime-sulfur, lead arsenate and nicotine sulfate (summer strength) as given under the heading “Combined Insecticides and Fungicides,” page 112. For: Aphids, bud moth, tent cat- erpillar, red bug, brown-tail moth, gypsy moth, curculio; scab, and possibly other diseases. Third Application. — Time: As the petals fall-or within a week after falling begins; never when the tree is in actual blossom. This is called the “calyx spray” because at this time the petals are gone and the calyx is wide open. What to use: The same as for the second application. For: Codling moth, curculio, red bug, aphids, brown-tail moth, gypsy moth; scab (this and the second applications are probably the most important in the control of scab), fruit-spot, black- rot and leaf-spot. Fourth Application. — Time: Plan to complete this spraying 114 within two weeks after the third. Possibly it may be delayed until three weeks after the third, but this will depend on the season and perhaps the section of the State. What to use: Lime-sulfur and lead arsenate (summer strength) as given under the heading “Combined Insecticides and Fungicides,” page 112. For: Codling moth, curculio, lesser apple worm and any other chewing insects which may be present; scab, bitter- rot, black-rot, sooty-mold and fly-speck, brown-rot, fruit-spot. The above schedule is recommended for all parts of the State except the extreme eastern section. It is probable that there should be some modifications of it for that region, but a definite program cannot be offered until investigational \work has been done on which a new schedule may be based. It is possible that a greater number and more frequent appli- cations of fungicides may prove necessary for eastern Massa- chusetts. On the other hand, certain of the applications in the schedule might be omitted in some orchards without material reduction of control. At present, experience and judgment must govern one in determining whether this may safely be done. In a wet or cloudy summer season, where sooty-blotch and fly-speck have been prevalent in previous years, an application of lime-sulfur in August will be beneficial in checking this disease. No apple grower can afford to omit the second and third applications, — the so-called cluster-bud and calyx sprays. 115 CHAPTER IX. APPLE STORAGE ON THE FARM. WM. R. COLE, EXTENSION SPECIALIST IN HORTICULTURAL MANUFACTURES, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, The problem of storage for the apple crop probably comes at some time or other to every grower. There can be little doubt that in some form storage is essential to successful or- charding. Many should think of it for themselves on their own farms, while others should look at the question as one of co-operation and think of it in the form of a central storage house for a group of growers. Some are apt to be satisfied with the commercial warehouse, but very frequently the grower in this latter class is at the mercy of the speculator. Common storage is a successful way to handle the crop of the grower with an average acreage. This is the type which is sometimes known as frostproof storage and can be very suc- cessfully operated in Massachusetts. Much more can be ac- complished with this type of storage than is generally realized if proper use be made of low night temperatures of the fall. It is a good business proposition for our growers to own either individually or collectively a common storage cellar. Of course it is necessary that those holding fruit be able to wait for their money, which is one of the objections to storage. There is a good deal of misapprehension as to the function of a storage house in the preservation of fruit. A fruit is a living organism in which the life processes go forward slowly in low temperatures, but do not cease in the lowest temper- ature in which the fruit may be safely stored. When the fruit actually reaches the end of its life it dies of old age. The storage house is designed to arrest these ripening proc- esses in a temperature that will not injure the fruit in other respects, and thereby to prolong its life history. It follows 116 that the behavior of different apples or different varieties of apples in a storage room is largely dependent on their condi- tion when they enter the room. In general it is the function of the storage house to furnish a uniform temperature of the desired degree of cold throughout the storage season. There are various conditions that affect the keeping quality of apples in storage of which the following are most impor- tant: — (a) The Condition of the Fruit.— The behavior of apples in storage depends upon their condition when they enter the room. No two lots should be expected to act alike unless they are in a similar condition when stored. If one lot ripens more than another after being picked and before being placed in stor- age, it will deteriorate more quickly in the storage house. In other words, it is nearer the end of the life cvcle when it is stored. (b) Temperature for Keeping the Apples. — The commercial practice of 31 to 32 degrees Fahrenheit in the warehouse will hold back the ripening of the fruit more than a higher tem- perature. It also checks the development of diseases if dis- ease germs are present. When the fruit is removed from the warehouse to a warmer temperature it remains in good con- dition longer when taken from a temperature of 31 or 32 de- grees Fahrenheit than when removed from a higher storage temperature. Under favorable conditions winter varieties of apples may be stored satisfactorily throughout the season in a temperature of 34 to 36 degrees. This higher temperature is adapted to farm storage houses and warehouses in which the fruit can be placed soon after picking. (c) The Time to pick :pples for Storage. — The ideal apple for keeping in cold storage is fully grown, highly colored and still hard when picked from the tree. The scarcity of labor, the difficulty that is experienced in getting cars for the trans- portation of apples, and the frequent congestions in the freight traffic and the railway terminals often make it necessary to begin picking the crop relatively early in the season, so that many apples which are not in first-class condition for long keeping go into storage. These difficulties are an argument in favor of having the storage cellar located on the farm. (d) Effect of Color. — Weeping quality is often correlated 117 with the degree of coloring up of the fruit. Colored varieties of apples should, if possible, be picked only after they are well colored but while they are still firm and solid. _(e) Storage promptly after picking. —,A large proportion of the difficulties in the storage of apples are the results of de- laying the storage after the fruit is picked. The apple ripens more rapidly after being picked than when hanging on the tree and maturing in the same temperature. The ripening that occurs between picking and storage shortens to that extent the life of the fruit in the storage house. This makes it extremely important to get the fruit from tree to storage as soon as is possible after picking. (f) Influence of the Type of Package. — There is a wide dif- ference of opinion concerning the comparative value of ven- tilated and closed packages for apple storage. One of the largest growers of apples in Massachusetts, with a total at the present time of nearly 7,000 trees in all stages of growth from two vears up to fifty years, is using discarded orange boxes most successfully as the means of storing his fruit. The fruit is placed in these orange boxes immediately on picking and then carried to the storage house. Bushel boxes as storage containers are used by many farmers who are successful in holding their fruit. These boxes are filled in the orchard and either hauled directly to the storage and placed therein or are stacked up outside over night for cooling and then placed in the storage in the early morning. Apples should never be piled in the orchard. In handling apples for storage, the ideal is reached when the fruit can be taken directly from the trees to the warehouse. This should, however, be done only when the weather is cool; if the weather is hot they should be precooled as noted above. If shipped distances, of course the same effect on the fruit is obtained when the fruit is placed in refrigerator cars for trans- portation. So far as the keeping quality of the fruit is con- cerned it is undoubtedly true that the warehouse near the orchard is the most satisfactory. Storage has also undoubtedly had a good effect in raising the standard of production by the growers. They must have good fruit for storage; and since storage gives better prices, it is an argument for raising better fruit. 118 No fruit should-ever be placed in storage that has not been thoroughly sprayed. In rare instances unsprayed fruit may look as well as the sprayed product, but experience has shown that it never keeps as well. Proper spraying affects the fruit so thoroughly that it has great resistance to external bacteria. Storage in bulk should not be attempted if it is possible to avoid it. Hf conditions make-it necessary to store in bulk just care must be exercised to get the bins of not too large a size and separated by spaces for air circulation. It is possible to keep good hard fruit of some winter varieties in bins if these receptacles be not over 2 by 3 feet high and as long as may be convenient. A dark storage is very necessary. The presence of light hastens the ripening even if the temperature is kept low, and in some cases impairs the flavor of the fruit. The chief advantages of good storage facilities, looking at the problem from the standpoint of the grower, are, first, that it makes him independent of the commercial buyer. If, the buyer knows the grower has no satisfactory place to store. his apples he will naturally lower the price that he offers for the fruit. On the other hand, if the fruit buyer realizes that the apples are safe and can be held successfully he will be more inclined to pay the grower a fair price for his crop. Good storage facilities in fact put the transaction on a plane of equality for both the grower and the buyer. This comfort- able feeling of independence on the part of the grower is often worth to him all that a storage cellar will cost. Second, good storage facilities will keep the fruit in better condition, and in consequence make it sell for more when it is disposed of. Third, the ultimate consumer, who is the final judge, will be much better pleased with fruit coming from good storage and will be more apt to want another barrel. It is a well-known fact in the business world that the profit in merchandizing comes from the repeat orders. Fourth, good storage delays the marketing of the fruit and in this way improves the price. Baldwins, for example, sell for more in December than they do at picking time in October. They also sell for more in March or April than they do in De- ‘TB][9O eBV10}s [OPOU Jo ueTg — ‘TI ‘S1g sqsed. KA bX pb (sebRyorg ok bX Sadttn ut Buyand sof. agony SEXY] SANZ Jano = q 2X1 "SOME guy = R ot a P a 2 rey rey Pe p=====5 (C237 bea dayanyc! ae r = * daquieg 7 ' by I i oa r ni if LJ 9° ie L | a P P p N La] a) CaaEy sae 496 914°C. f Fy ° ° : Moonje’ sera Biden Y He | P P P ri T 74 L f i] f Hl hl =a = Hse i Lea LR Led pois eae ad RG "THATI ONTO LK NW Le cember. Nothing is more demoralizing to the apple market than that first-class fruit be forced into competition with wind- falls and fruit from unsprayed orchards. A study of the prices for Baldwin apples covering a period of six years, 1912 to 1917, inclusive, showed average price at harvest time, September 15 to November 15, was $2.45 per barrel. During the same period of years the market price over what makes up the common storage period, December 1 to April 1, was $3.75 per barrel. As an illustration, assume that a farmer had a crop of 500 barrels and that he possessed a good storage cellar, an allow- ance of 10 per cent being made for shrinkage: — Value of 500 barrels at harvest price, ; . . $1,225 00 Value of 450 barrels out of common storage, . . $1,687 50 Gain, a ee ee ee ee ee ee $462 50 Per cent of gainon 500 barrels, . «ww wt, 37 If this comparison were made inclusive of the 1918-19 and 1919-20 crops, the percentage of gain would be much higher. Fifth, another advantage of storage is the fact that it is a food saver. During the war we were continually urged to save food. It is now necessary to practice the same conser- vation though perhaps a better name for the principle would be thrift. A great many thousands of bushels of apples are annually allowed to go to waste in Massachusetts because the grower has no facilities for storing his crop. This is food waste and could be saved by having proper storage facilities. Sixth, good storage facilities help the labor market. When help is scarce at harvest time it is worth while having a storage building or cellar close by the orchard so that the time con- sumed by hauling to the railroad station, if one is shipping to commercial storage, may be saved and these men put to work picking apples. Seventh, storage has a large influence in extending the ap- ple market. Many of the summer and fall varieties may now be shipped to distant domestic and foreign markets in re- frigerator cars or even in refrigerator compartments on ship- board. If the fruit has been properly handled between the orchard and the warehouse as well as in the warehouse, the 120 late-keeping varieties can be withdrawn from common storage in the winter and shipped to Europe and arrive in satisfactory condition. This export may be carried out in common holds in vessels, providing they have good ventilation. These late- keeping varieties stored in cold storage may be exported in refrigerated shipping compartments as late as the middle or last of May and give satisfactory returns on the foreign market. Eighth, storage is one of the most important influences in raising the standard of American orcharding. There is an increasing demand on the part of the consumer for fruit of a higher- quality, of better appearance, and of better physical condition. The old-fashioned method of handling the apple crop when the fruit was roughly handled, poorly packed and improperly preserved will not satisfy the present-day con- sumer. Poorly grown fruit or improperly handled fruit does not keep well in storage and therefore is not profitable. There are two main types of fruit storage, — those using some mechanical means of lowering the temperature below that of the outside air, called cold storage, and those depend- ing upon temperatures secured from atmospheric changes and called cool or common storage. The first class ‘may be sub- divided into those using ammonia refrigeration and those using ice. The second class embraces many different types of building, and there are also pits and trenches which embody the same general principles and are constructed to suit given conditions. Few producers in Massachusetts are handling sufficient quantities to warrant the ownership of mechanically cooled storages. There are some districts where large production by closely grouped farms offers a field for the promotion of co- operatively owned cold-storage plants, but this chapter is in- tended for those interested in common storage and no attempt will be made to discuss refrigerated storage. Six fundamentals must be kept in mind in constructing an apple storage: — . Maintenance of low temperatures. . Protection from frost. . Protection from heating. . Protection from changes in temperature. . Provision for sufficient moisture. . Avoidance of a wet and stagnant atmosphere. awk wWhW “OZ6T ‘YsnsnVy -006$ jogs 4sodQ ‘ART[eE0 asNoY pouopuvqe ue Zuryonsysuoosr Aq epey, ‘uUMOWOYO[EgG ‘AeMuNYS ‘q “| Jo esnoy ssv10}g — °F “HIT 121 Air-cooled storages are usually built partly or entirely under ground because the earth acts as an insulator. The depth of the earth depends on the location of the cellar. It should be covered deep enough so that frost cannot enter the storage room in the coldest weather. A deep covering gives better satisfaction the year round because it keeps out the extreme cold in the winter and keeps out the heat of the summer. The ventilation system of an air-cooled storage must be correctly designed and very carefully operated. Intakes and outlets must be carefully constructed and placed to give a good circulation. No ventilating system, however carefully installed, will give satisfaction unless properly operated. On cold nights during the fall the system must be working at its maximum. The ventilators should be kept open during the nighttime as long as the cold fall weather lasts. Since storage cellars are usually built under ground, they should be constructed of some material which will easily withstand the action of moisture. Concrete is a first-class material for storage cellar construction. Concrete construc- tion is not overexpensive, is easy to build, is waterproof, rat- proof and permanent. The construction of a storage especially for apples is often advisable for the grower who has a large production of winter varieties. Its size is of course dependent on the quantity of fruit it is desired to store, but if one keeps in mind the fact that a bushel of fruit plus air space and alleys will occupy about 23 cubic feet of space, it will be comparatively easy to figure the size necessary. The type of building and its size are dependent on local conditions. An average 10-acre orchard will produce 2,500 to 3,000 bushels in a good crop. The grower with a crop of this size will need a cellar of approximately 7,500 cubic feet capacity since an allowance per bushel of 23 cubic feet is needed to pro- vide storage space with necessary air spaces and alleys. The location should be carefully selected. It should, if pos- sible, be located on a side hill of slight slope but with suf- ficient rise to assure good drainage and to make the excava- tion work as easy as possible. It is best if one side and one end may be below the ground level. The shape of the cellar 122 will largely depend on the “lay of the land,” but, as a general rule, if the length be twice the width it will work out well. The storage should be located as near the center of production as possible, keeping in mind ease of reaching it and ease of getting out with fruit for market. As a general proposition it is best not to make the cellar more than 8 feet deep in the clear, that is between floor and ceiling. If the grower is using bushel boxes with 1 inch risers, this will permit of stacking eight or nine high, which is as much as is easy to handle. The walls may be of concrete, masonry, brick or hollow tile. For most localities, however, it is probably best to use con- crete. In the greater part of Massachusetts it is possible to obtain easily the necessary sand and gravel. In making the excavation a little care in keeping the banks as nearly per- pendicular as possible will make it necessary to build but one form for the concrete. The face of the bank can be used for the other side of the form. The walls should be at least a foot thick at the top and should be more than that at the bottom, especially if one contemplates the erection of a build- ing over the cellar. The walls should go at least 18 inches below the floor level of the cellar so that rats will not burrow under. In building a wall of this thickness heavy rocks can be used, being careful to get the concrete well down around them. In building the wall of course gaps will be left wherever ventilators, windows and doors are to be placed. The floor of the cellar should be dirt except in special cases when the soil is very wet or where an easily applied supply of water is available. This dirt floor will supply the necessary moisture. In cases where a water supply can be easily utilized a concrete floor may be laid, provision for conducting the water being made as circumstances may demand. Successful methods have been used which included a shallow trench around the edge of the floor into which the water could be turned as occasion demanded. Another method has been to dig a series of shallow blind wells which were connected by pipes from well to well and drained outside the cellar. If the water from a spring can be carried into the cellar and a stream kept constantly running, it will not only provide moisture but will help in equalizing the temperatures. +1848 é 480010 M Jo Auvduloy yin1g uIMqny ey} Aq peuAo ‘uInqny ur esnoy eF#e10jg — ‘e ‘DIT af z eee ce S ca i a “Po 7