thet Deets He i ites th ot seas (ort itietiie) sh ce bis iataiae cf en ipa: AC OP Cornell University Library SF 487.K21 1921 Poultry culture Sanitation and hygiene / INNO 3 1924 000 001 788 vet POULTRY CULTURE SANITATION AND HYGIENE BY B. F. KAUPP, M.S., D. V. M. POULTRY INVESTIGATOR AND PATHOLOGIST, ANIMAL INDUSTRY DIVISION, NORTH CAROLINA EXPERIMENT STATION; PROFESSOR OF POULTRY SCIENCE, NORTH CAROLINA AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, WEST RALEIGH SECOND EDITION, RESET PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY 1921 hy Copyright, r915, by W. B. Saunders Company. Revised, entirely reset, reprinted, and recopyrighted February, 1920 Copyright, 1920, by W. B. Saunders Company Reprinted September, 1921 PRINTEO in AMERICA PRESS OF W. wu. SAUNDERS COMPANY PHILADELPHIA FOREWORD TO SECOND EDITION Tue fact that a new edition has been made necessary in so short a time is a gratifying sign that this book has filled a need. In this second edition the book has been revised and partially rewritten to bring it down to date, for poultry work is constantly progressing. B. F. KAUPP West Ratetray, N. C. ~ FOREWORD Ir is to meet an ever-growing demand for a more accurate knowledge of the underlying fundamental principles which mean success in the poultry work that this volume has been prepared. : It is dedicated to the Poultry Science Courses of our Univer- sities, Agricultural Colleges, Agricultural and other High Schools, to the Lower Grades Teaching Poultry Work, to the Institute workers and lecturers on Agriculture and Poultry Sanitation, to the Boys and Girls Poultry Clubs, to the Poultry Fancier and Poultry Producer, to the business-man who raises poultry on a town lot, and to the farmer who follows Poultry Culture as a side line. The book consists of twenty-eight chapters. After a hurried look into the magnitude of the poultry industry and short study of the names of the various plumage parts, the student is made familiar with the terms used in poultry culture work, that he may be the better prepared to study the following pages. It is deemed necessary for one to know the names, breeds, and varieties of poultry and the fundamental principles underlying the selection, breeding, and fixing of the characters one breeds for. A thorough discussion is given of hygiene and sanitation, tak- ing into account the proper methods of ventilation, poultry- house construction, equipment, and the proper method of car- ing for same. 5 6 FOREWORD The importance of poultry enemies and means of ridding them of same is dwelt on, and includes animal enemies, vermin, and internal parasites, as well as contagious and non-contagious dis- eases. An insight into the gross structure and the normal functions of the digestive organs, followed by a complete discussion of the processes of digestion, assimilation, and nutrition, is given. A complete discussion of feedstuffs used in compounding rations for poultry is given, as well as the method of computing rations and the proper methods of feeding breeding stock, laying stock, broilers, capons, turkeys, geese, ducks, pigeons, and for fat- tening work. A discussion is given of diseases connected with the feeding of spoiled feeds, and a discussion of diseases of plants and seeds that may be injurious to birds consuming such diseased food. Space is devoted to a discussion of the methods of finishing, dressing, refrigeration, packing, and selling of dressed poultry of all kinds, as well as to the proper care of eggs, including collect- ing, handling, grading, storing, packing, and shipping of same. A thorough discussion of the methods of preserving and handling feathers, giving grades, methods of packing and shipping, as well as a discussion of the proper methods of caring for the droppings and their value as a fertilizer, and ways of using same to obtain the best results. Considerable time has been devoted to the careful discussion of selecting eggs for sitting, their proper care, both natural and artificial methods of incubation and brooding. The proper way to sit a hen, the care of the sitting hen and properly housing her with her brood, as well as how to properly feed her and her brood. Space is devoted to telling the boys and girls how they can construct cheaply their poultry club poultry house, and how to care for their flock. Some time is spent in a discussion of the method of caponizing FOREWORD 7 and care of the capon, as well as preparing birds for the show- room. A complete discussion of the anatomy, parasitism, diseases, their symptoms and treatment, forms a volume within itself, and the reader is referred to The Anatomy of the Domestic Fowl, and Poultry Diseases. For a complete discourse on standard breed requirements the student is referred to the American Standard of Perfection. The author wishes to give credit for the article on Line Breed- ing to Mr. I. K. Felch, who has so kindly contributed this illus- trated article; to Mr. Frederic Thayer for his idea of a modern poultry plant; to the Candee Incubator Company who have allowed the use of their material, as well as the Robert Essex Incubator Company, and to the various experiment stations and colleges for the use of their materials. B. F. KAUPP. West Rateiagu, N.C., CONTENTS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY sco oases ana paleo eae a bona Woene Muna LD oa RR eae on The Magnitude of the Poultry Industry................... Outline for Course in College Instruction................... The External Anatomy of the Fowl......................... Classification of Fowls.........0.000000 0000000 c cee vee eee Glossary ‘of Terms: s.ssuak. ei ds cot bed wuhen enone kpeneganes CHAPTER II BRENDES OF POULDRY. 22550, 0 ANG vam A Sadie a's dans Sa hep oe Bréeedsiof PIg@OnS). aces ced yes eesee Ly eee ewes Gaeta als The Cornell Study Outline................. ot) ee uA aes Variety Markings.............. Dre Weaemead sass ogee deccsucehes History of the Breeds............00..0000..0000.000 02 eee ‘Lhe American, Classis: baking detaceesedbewweereeeeeenees ‘The. Plymouth: Rocks, 504 c0¢G 2 4us sore hea Busdsbi adel The Wyandottesy seconded vad cd phos sihpwneedauaadanawy The Rhode Island Reds................0....0 . 0c. c en. WG: VANS oo nau Sateaee Ate eursiceinh: deb demah ad Seats cdyourbdi dep lias 4 Ther Domini Guesiiuc cachsrWemage Gye sek: aqeeea¥ands The Buckéyess 25 4is4s224:48he¢ 40% $e a8dard gaged The Asiatic Class.........00.0.00 000020 fc ccc eee Che, Bra bias: 2 jiad eat aaiw rad paw Hoenn slew eRe asme pass The Cochins.......... 0 ....... Egor ri tesree hated oe The Lane shansecacg desanawe wagon ea pai adons edgy’ ie The Mediterranean Class........ SG: Bas ead tee S ae PENG Lee HORNSS icites sib acatyues Lay dea eee ea ie Ob THE: MinOreasiis:. 2225.00 eh aKeedude haw enndesaw en gs The Spanish. .nciccantaceddasdcne mage at cadugeedeen ged “Phe ANCONA cass sas sopra ha Atha nag agin ee wwe The Blue Andalusians...........0.6..00 0c cee ec ee es eeeee Whe: Bnglish Class wor exe iaw dig: ck as 1Sbad Ase Pig aad wg wr eae The: DOPING Szaciliee ican st ae oi Gdn DNERER DOE ARE R ES The OrpingtoOns cane oy es been eee hk eb aed Sinadd donee 10 CONTENTS’ Pace The Redcaps.... ee Tide. Gaede: GareGe, ROR EAR A 64 RS SUSSOR a aiclin.s dice e ahans BARAEBED Hehe BE ne Ah Dew 64 RRS COmS isnt e cay, «See A ehh aban g Cate Hae Cea 65 DHE CE OUSHMGlASS aye sential a eektod wee Gea areata te mend 66 ‘The-Hamburg -Class.ccs -:4 e040 Ga OY Fe 2EGKE-@E-3> Shee 67 The French Class....... SEs | | eat ta tate 67 THeHGUGANS: ews duscakeehe a. GB BGs, Sahligeeys 67 The Crevecceurs......0.....00.00 50 6 fe ee eee 68 The Continental Class..... 2.0000 °°. 0 we, 68 THE CampineSinnsnguancecere & Pe weg HRD arRpere 68 Games and Bantams Class . 69 Brereps or Pouttry— The Oriental Class.......00000°0° 70 "ERG; MAlGYS iccaanues Ghaawie par maadWaadin 70 The Sumatras......... 2 © ©chmeas 70 The Malay Bantams.... . 71 The Ornamental Bantams Class. a The Sebright Bantams...... 2 wee 71 The Rose Comb Bantams... . Paine Ke she 82 ee ates a The Booted Bantam............... 0.2.0.0 0. eee 71 The Brahma Bantams. ..... oo 73 The Cochin Bantams............ 0 ...00..0 0... vee. 73 The Polish Bantams........ .. 2 0. 1 0. wu... 73 The Japanese Bantams..... . .. «ws wwe ee 74 The Miscellaneous Class.... 2.0.0... 0.0... 0.0 coe eee. 74 Whe Sultanisecs Svea keagus gd? huge Gee Gewecke Rinteee 74 PRC SUIKICR amma El an eiche, be Cedi ch teceun ty hanes 74 THE RRC CSiccaumsecusakieaken- —eamam. wedi dageeh ne 74 Phe Lurk Clas6 acc chy aqane geen gun beep a dic tdeab'e Gable aut ps 74 HENGE: UPC YSi. G22 duane 2 athe lnmecnlein Semilgudes jet pasnche yoke nde et 74 whe Bronze. oddccess ae pe Boeiserd- ase: doe seehes 75 Phe: Whites asta. aot Beek eeeS ai hd ~So ae seas LO: The Nartagansetts.- 2205.2 ueevdueuure hese anvana tess 75 The Blah a5. 20 Gasser Pas ch tds dina eea Se Semel ewe 75 dhies Bitths.2hcbS ace Gace 8. Beak sh eaes Sey Pew ek Bad ow A pedo moinaen doles 75 MENG aCe sash escent cnalay eect Ghe So tatentncees . care dia womne met 75 The Bourbonvsesecwwareseads Wize Sten Sy eRe Gee dees 76 The Dueck: Classe co. coe6 Seek FeO hdd Sua baleee ued 76 FEWE: DiWCKS:., Ganclyccabaeaw gee wad bined RD Ot a am Deke aemede 76 ERGNPERAM cece das Autten eretneeeeud ek cate to ach Gees haya te'g eau 77 hie: Aviles pUr yovsocnc stars aip deals weed ae geese Paseo 77 he ROUCtimaddi net oe vee he Yee baeGA oh Boca ke eee we eee 77 CONTENTS 11 Pace Whe Cayuipdeiaecn5 2 degk aos ha daleeeees ah ageless Bes 77 The Call git gate ach ands oe 5 LIDS motes seBSe d i ieyacma Ae 77 WhecBast Undies sos 2 peesees smciades pavemeGR, ora abraw ein tL The Crested......... SG YS id= ted aes 77 het Mustov yess sevsulor days Geek Gated Gee cbuaenaad: ard The Indian Runner..... ... sani A ctaaseses al The Swedish.......... #e cHe : aor censaeeee us 78 The Orpington....... serach ‘ : oe ee OS The Penciled Runner. ... . .. j e pa AS The Geese Class........... i 78 The Geese Breed........ |. 4 . tens 78 The Toulouse....... 1 12a. 1SA9, The Chinese.......... ... . SD .g.e Hees fe, re. ED The African........ 5 S$. se ‘ a é j 79 The Embden............ Sp Gake sa oy eieis Sa Geiger ee nae 80 The Egyptian........... ee CS ee eee a . . 80 The Wild or Canadian..........0.0.00.0. 000. 80 CHAPTER III THE PrRoBLeEMS IN MATING AND IN Eaa PropwucTion.......... 82 Selection of Birds for Breeding..............00 0... 20... .. 87 Selection of the Gochins..;:54 34.450. 404466000 08s5¢e4 084 88 THe ProspLeMs IN MatING, Selection of Birds for Lesvos ceecaa Selection of the Brahmas. . os gt Snes Bi. c.ct « dasa saeoran Atehtea 89 Selection of the Barred Gimoat: Bade. Sede desta vaes tne 91 Selection of the Rhode Island Reds..................... 92 Selection of the Wyandottes..........0.....0..5 000005. 93 Selection of the White Leghorns.............0.......... 94 Utility ‘ClssiicatiOliaica< iis enc ania egigraneeatada dena Sikes 95 Fixing and Intensifying of the ae sa Characters. ....... 96 Rhythm in Egg Production. . see io. RE RGSS oe miedo mvatiene 97 Distribution of Egg Production, sssdhot sath id oak battndahsetoa eS aie 98 Results of Breeding from Unselected Stock... ....... .. 100 Physical Indications in Egg Production................. ... 107 Key to Physical Index in Neots for Egg Production. ... . 110 Selection for Meat Quality... sitiviek Pia aeeheer: Khe 113 Judging, for Utility... vw dew eee eee ee edad eeae pag LT Mendelistin sos) 234:2 sy eigny sd Gab s He Sas Meee Res Mes Mies 116 Line Breeding, Outcrossing, and Inbreeding.............. ... 180 Pedigree Breeding......... 000 eee ee tte eee ees 134 12 CONTENTS CHAPTER IV Pace Farm Pouttry PROBLEMS......000.00.0.0.00000 0c cece eee eee 138 PRU CCHS ate chests pect e Le teineyic yal aed eed are au tov diincnd Aare: os PORE 148 DUCKS eve an Geese all nan Ba cemsden dies Aue eel Tha Rha eak ates 149 MCCS steed ccs ahs DALAM ae A oti yay ONO ied 8 bag Do secte in 150 Guinea: Powls'.c2 2 620/02 ¢a'e sh oa = aandeen Hobe uiaee ata any Amedeo LOO) PIZEONS se Suki ease as WERE Eea cee Eee soa yen Aaa Eee ws 151 Racing Homers................. 0.2.0.5. 151 Squab Raising... cece eed eek ee ae 15] Age of Birds Affecting Production... . 153 Housing. . edie Seen 153 Interior Flstimes:. 154 Feeding......... . 3 156 Pen Management......... Saye bee p abe ReS 157 Selecting Breeders................00....0 66 veces vee 157 MACE E Hite aR Ae SARE REN RR ME URRAMALS SAO RR 157 Banding sie cneseatgeea ge maeeoaeeeaes eee oxgaeddw de 158 TRECORGS yeti Gen ee yesamne dus eae Sagnrin dea eee vote Grane 3a 158 Cleaning. . LG ireth eee City ~ thse ee ncwvnuia ease nee 158 Killing, Coulines Packing, Shipping............. 159 CHAPTER V HYGIENE AND SANITATION......0.0..0.0.0.0000 0000 ccc eee eee 161 Wailers ack, soe < dua tad, Rete Sten he B0 a ee Merde Reo G . 161 AUT yest eglatthn Gre ln eM ipin dehak ue canoe "eh tetera Uae ws . 163 Respita tote ss B48 Other RaviGnsiaccovaceteraraa am ances onan od hues 348 Finishing Birds. . . 353 Cornell Fattening Ration. . i : 22 356 Commercial Fattening Establishments Beas. AS Ethers . . . 860 CHAPTER XVIII BRoiters AND Dressinc or Fowu.... ......... 363 Dressed Poultry. . 368 Dressing Poultry. wines aa, tn 368 Poultry Box Meubanemente., 382 MPUSSINGS ne seu-woasen Soles geig oS 2 Bes LE dugte hs Geen: 386 Bonitie-HOwlseccs: sg a Hh BREE A abe bed e e ag 389 CHAPTER XIX THe Care AND MarRKmTING OF FEATHERS..................... 392 CHAPTER XX Tue PrEsERVATION OF PoutTry MANURE.............. ...... 397 CHAPTER XXI SELECTING Ea@cs FOR SITTING...... 0.00000 e cece eee 400 CHAPTER XXII INCUBATION: Oi Se Riids Cae iets dice ash n kee deh eptee eta etn eeteeatin dee ea te out PE 405 The Small Incubator and Brooder.......................... 417 CHAPTER XXIII Disha sent: ate-Sa toh Aces abe Miuts Rihee nce Pa Shes 417 THe Mammotsy INcUBATOR AND BROODER.......... 426 CHAPTER XXIV BROODING inves ta geere Sook 525 S825 RSS SEs Oe oS ed beens 438 CONTENTS Construction of Fireless Brooder............. Brooding on a Large Scale..... .............. Rearing Commercial Chicks................. Shipping the Baby Chicks.................. CHAPTER XXV MarketTina Eacs.. : Swipe rad chan Camas Car Lot Shinmant of Toe, sta Gea eeneeead How to Load Cars of Eggs.............. ... ares Route of the Egg from the Producer to the Consumer..... ... Refrigeration . so. sus cen janngaw eee vapacen Factors Affecting Cost of Marketing.......... Construction of Storage Houses........... Egg Cases and Fillers. . : Sue aad Collecting of Eggs on Cys Ranies SAGs - Cet Co-operative Marketing................. : Organizing an Egg Circle............ 0 ...... How to Candle Eggs............... sk: ye Student’s Laboratory Chart................. Student’s Candling Test.................... JUCBINE HEB os cma sc sete aed eee d a dorks CHAPTER XXVI CASTRATION OF THE BrrD (CAPONIZING)......... Spaying the Het... .ajene ee aag peasenea wees CHAPTER XXVII PREPARING BIRDS FOR THE SHOW-ROOM........ Rearing Show Birds.....................05. CHAPTER XXVIII Pace . 445 450 456 457 . 459 470 _.470 474 . 476 477 479 . 480 THe Construction oF Pouttry Houss EQuipMENT.. The Construction of a Dry Mash Hopper............. The Construction of a Trap-nest.............. The Construction of Storage Feed Bin....... : : The Construction of Dropping Box ....................-. The Construction of Combination Sitting and Brooding Coop Record: Card sis. vss dudes sacuelanes cok d Sence sacs Poultry Accountant Work................... . 481 482 . 483 493 . 494 496 498 504 510 511 514 POULTRY CULTURE, SANITATION, AND HYGIENE CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY THE 1910 census of the United States reports for North Carolina a total egg production in 1909 of 23,556,124 dozen, or an increase of 33.1 per cent. in ten years. These eggs were valued at $4,256,769, or an increase valuation of 67.2 per cent. over 1899 or ten years previous. This ratio has practically been kept up throughout all the states. That this estimate is far too low is shown by the fact that the total number of fowls on 223,808 North Carolina farms on April 15, 1910, was 5,054,000 leaving 25,990 farms not report- ing any poultry raised in that year. This report does not include poultry in cities, towns, or villages, which would greatly swell the amounts. It does not go into sufficient details in that it does not give the number which were chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, guineas, and other birds. Some means should be devised whereby fairly accurate data could be obtained of the entire poultry population, its prod- ucts, its value, as well as the consumption and exports and imports of each state and their values. The 1911 report of the United States Secretary of Agri- culture places the national annual income from poultry prod- ucts at $750,000,000. The state ranking first in poultry products on the farm is Rhode Island, where the average farm income from poultry is $267.70. 2 17 1s POULTRY CULTURE The average state income from poultry products is $5,227,- 403, of which $1,536,194 is credited to poultry carcasses sold, and $3,691,239 is credited to eggs. The average annual farm income from eggs for all the farms in the United States is $60.57, while the income from carcasses is $31.82. Eggs are excellent human food, high in albuminous content and high in digestibility. The demand for eggs is growing faster than the increase in output. In 1899 the average farm price was 11.15 cents per dozen for the whole United States, while in 1909 the average had advanced to 19.7 cents per dozen, and this year, 1919, it is safe to say that it will far exceed this sum. Live and dressed poultry have made a corresponding increase in values. The 1910 United States census report gives over 88 per cent. of all farms in the United States as keeping poultry. At that time there was 295,876,176 head, making an average of 6,038,- 289 birds for each state or 53 birds to each farm, with a value per bird of 52 cents. It is significant that nearly 54 per cent. of the total number is found in ten states. The volume of poultry on farms in the United States has increased over 18 per cent. in the last ten years. Poultry growing is an adjunct of every properly conducted farm and of many back yards of town lots. No class of live- stock is so universally raised as poultry. The flesh of fowl is highly nutritious and palatable and is relished by all. Eggs are very high in point of digestibility and are being used as a meat food more and more since the high price of other meat- food products. The products of poultry rank next to those of the dairy or to the animals slaughtered for food. About one-sixth of the total value of animal products in the United States is credited to poultry. The contribution to the nation’s wealth is more than half a billion dollars. The value of poultry is equal to the total value of barley, rye, buckwheat, broom-corn, rice, kaffir corn, flax, small fruit, grapes, orchard products, sugar-cane, and beets. The value of poultry is three times that of the wool crop. Itisas great as the combined potato and oat crops. INTRODUCTORY 19 OUTLINE FOR COURSE IN COLLEGE INSTRUCTION . History and scope of Poultry Industry. Bibliography. Nomenclature. Origin, history, classification of breeds. Judging for fancy; utility—meat and egg production. Fitting fowls for exhibition. Laboratory. Plant exercises in breed study and judging. Routine plant work. . Hygiene and sanitation. Elementary study of diseases and their control. Poultry house construction and equipment. Designing, building and remodeling houses. Poultry farm management. Distribution of labor, capital, general business manage- ment. . Feeds, feeding and fattening. Care of plant flock, fattening market fowls. Seminar Advanced study of literature, thesis. . Incubation, brooding, rearing, breeding. Laboratory. Incubator practice. Brooding practice. Advanced study of literature on incubation and brood- ing. Thesis. . Study of markets and market conditions. Marketing poultry. Fattening, killing, picking, drawing, trussing, packing, refrigerating, and shipping dressed poultry. Fattening and shipping live poultry. Testing, candling, grading, packing, and shipping eggs. Storage and preservation of poultry products. Advertising and market accounting. Food distribution and market organization. 6. Anatomy, physiology, and embryology. 7. Advanced study of diseases and their control. 20 POULTRY CULTURE The External Anatomy of the Fowl.—Before entering into the study of breeds and breeding, the student should be famil- iar with the external anatomy of the fowl, which is illustrated and shown in the accompanying figure. Classification of Fowls.—Fowls are classified from a zodlogi- cal standpoint as follows: Branch, Vertebrata; Class, Aves; and Order, Gallin. In poultry science they are classified as follows: Class, Breed, and Variety. Points. v Comb ‘ Base of combs Blade of com Eye en Beak ta Ear Wattles Lee Hackle Cape Back Saddle renee A —Sickle na Vilas) Wing bow aes Wing bar: Main tail Thigh ™ Tail coverts ee Knee. ~ Saddle feathers coverts Fluff Tibia or Primaries drumstick Hock Shank leg Spwu he Toe or cla » ae Fic. 1.—The external anatomy of the chicken. The locality of the origin of the fowl is the basis upon which the class is named; thus, the Brahma originated in Asia and they are placed in a class called Asiatics. The shape or conformation is the basis upon which the breed is named, as the Wyandottes possess a distinct type or shape. The color and the feather pattern is the principal factor INTRODUCTORY 21 upon which the variety is named. Thus the Silver-spangled Hamburg. GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN THE TEXT It is essential for the student to possess a sufficient knowledge of terminology to intelligently comprehend the text. The following gives a comprehensive glossary: Abdomen. That part of the body between the thorax and the pelvis. Albuminoid. The more complex forms of protein. They are in- soluble in water or may be rendered so by heat. Alfalfa. A leguminous plant used as roughage. Sometimes ground and placed as a part of the mash. Alimentary Tract. The whole digestive tube, including the esophagus, crop, stomach, gizzard and intestines. Antiseptic. An agent which prevents the growth of or destroys bacteria (germs). Artificial Selection. The selection or mating of birds by the breeder to produce certain features which he desires to perpetuate. Ash. The portion of feeds left after they have been burned. It con- tains the mineral matter. Assimilate. The conversion of digested nutrients into fluid or solid substances of the body. Balanced Ration. A combination of farm foods in such proportions and amounts as will nourish an animal or bird for twenty-four hours, with the least waste of food nutrients. Barring. Stripes extending across feathers at right angles to its shaft. Beard. A group of feathers pendent from the throat, as in Polish or Houdans. In male turkeys, a tuft of coarse, bristly hair, 4 to 6 inches long, projecting from the upper part of the breast. Breeding Pen. Is usually made up of from 6 to 14 hens and a male bird. By some 4 hens and a cock is considered a pen. Broiler. A bird weighing 214 pounds or less and from six to twelve weeks old. Brood. All the young birds hatched and brooded by the mother at one time. Calorie. The amount of heat required to raise 1 pound of water 4° F., or 1 kg. of water 1° C. Cape. The short feathers on the back, shaped like a cape and lying underneath the hackle. Capon. A male bird deprived of his generative organs for the purpose of improving the weight and quality of flesh. Capacity. Extent of abdominal room for digestive and reproductive organs. Carbohydrates. A group of nutrients containing hydrogen and oxygen in the proportions that they form water. They do not contain nitrogen. They include starches, sugars, gums, resins, and other similar substances. 22 POULTRY CULTURE Carriage. The attitude of the bird. Caruncles. Small fleshy protuberances, as on the head of a turkey. Carunculated. Having caruncles. Casein. The protein portion of milk which is coagulated by acid or rennit. Cavernous. The hollow protruding nostrils of the crested breeds. Cellulose. The hard, woody portions of the plants and grains. Chickens. The young of the domestic hen prior to the development of the adult plumage. Chicks. Fowls less than one year old. In a restricted sense it is the young of the domestic hen until the sex can be determined. Cock. A male fowl one year or more old. Cockerel. A male fowl less than one year old. Comb. The massive protuberance growing from the top of the fowl’s head. Concentrates. The more nutritious portion of the ration, such as corn, wheat, and oats. A large quantity of nutrients in a small bulk. Condition. The state of a bird as regards health, order of plumage, and cleanliness and flesh. Contagion. That which is contagious. Corn. Indian Corn. A grain used in poultry feeding. Cow-pea. A leguminous plant, the seeds of which may be used in poultry feeding. Crest. A tuft of feathers on the top of a fowl’s head. Crop. An expansion of the esophagus, just below its center. It isa storehouse for food till needed. Crude Fiber. The framework forming the walls of the cells and frame- work of the plant. Cellulose. Cushion. The mass of fluffy feathers at the rear of the bird and partly covering the tail. Diastase. A ferment existing in seeds which makes germination pos- sible by causing the starch to be changed into sugar under certain conditions. Digestible Matter. The part of the food-stuffs that can be brought into solution by the digestive juices. Digestible Nutrients. The portion of the food-stuff that can be digested by the birds. Digestive Tract. Alimentary tract. Disinfection. A complete destruction of all germs. Disinfest. To rid of parasites. Disqualification. A serious defect or deformity which will not allow it to enter competition as a pure-bred exhibition fowl. Down. The first hairy covering of chicks. Sometimes tiny tufts of down develop on the shanks. It is considered a feather if a quill and web can be recognized; otherwise it is down. Drake. A male bird of the duck breed. Dry Matter. The portion of the food-stuff that remains after the water has been driven off by heat, INTRODUCTORY 23 Dubbing. Cutting off the comb is called dubbing and the comb so cut off is dubbed. Duck-footed. When the hind toe points forward the bird is said to be duck-footed. Ducklings. Young ducks prior to the development of feathers. Ear-lobes. The folds of bare skin just below the ears. Emulsion. A fine, mechanical suspension of fat or other substances. Ensilage. Forage preserved in a silo. Epiornithics. An outbreak of contagious disease among birds. Ergot. A fungus parasitic on the seeds of cereals and grasses. Established Points. Certain characteristics of a variety which, through length of time and breeding, have become so fixed that the prog- eny have these points established. Ether Extract. The material that can be dissolved from a water-free feed-stuff, by means of ether. Excrement. ‘The indigestible matter of feeds voided by birds. Eye-ring. The outer edge of the eyelids. Fancy and Exhibition Poultry. Fowls kept and bred for their fancy points or particular qualities mainly to exhibit or keep as a hobby; the utility side may be taken into consideration, but is of a secondary nature. Face. The nude skin on the head, around the eyes. Feather. Consists of a web supported by a quill. Flight Coverts. The short feathers located at the base of the wing primaries. Flights. Primary wing feathers, for the most part folded out of sight during rest. Frizzled. The descriptive term applied to fowls having their feathers turned in the opposite direction to that which is usual. Furnished. In full feather—when the hackle and sickle feathers are developed. Fluff. The soft downy part of the feathers, and is also applied to the soft feathers about the vent. Foot-ton. The amount of work required to raise one ton one foot high. Footings. Term used to describe foot or leg feathering in Cochins, Brahmas and Langshans. Frosting. In spangled or penciled varieties showing an edging of color. Fryer. A young chicken weighing 214 to 4 pounds. Fresh Blood. The introduction into a breeder’s yard of either male or female birds either totally unrelated to or a sub-strain of his own for some special purpose, generally to improve the stamina of a strain where inbreeding is resorted to. Germicide. An agent destroying germs. Gills. The wattles. Glucose. Grape-sugar found in honey, fruit, etc. Glycogen. An animal starch manufactured by the liver from the digested carbohydrates absorbed from the digestive tract. Gram. A metric weight, 15.5 grains. 24 POULTRY CULTURE Green Bone. Bone that is fresh-cut, not cooked. Green Goose. A gosling that is ready to be, or has been, “killed off the grass.” Gullet. The passage in the neck through which food passes to the stomach. Esophagus. ‘The loose part of the lower mandible. Hackle. The neck feathers of either sex. Hatchability. The number of fertile eggs capable of hatching. Hangers. The shorter sickle-like feathers at base of cock’s tail. Hard Feathered. Feathers having a hard, close-fitting appearance— on birds carrying little fluff. Heavy Breeds. The sitting, as distinct from the non-sitting varieties. Hen. A female bird over one year old. Hen Feathered. A male bird without sickle featheres and thus re- sembling a hen. Hock. The first joint above the foot. Intestine. That part of the alimentary tract extending from the gizzard to the cloaca. Jaw. The upper or lower mandibles. Kilogram. Abbreviated Kilo. A metric weight amounting to 2.2 pounds. Knee-joint. A term sometimes applied (though wrongly) to the hock- joint. Laced. A feather in which the body differs from the edge color. Lacteal. Minute tube of the villus for the purpose of absorption of the chylous or milky emulsified fluid fat from the intestines. Lay-Bones. The pubic bones. Lateral Sternal Processes. The thin flat bones projecting backward from the body of the sternum or breast bone. Leaf-comb. Consists of two small single combs serrated at the free borders. Leg. The shank, tibia, and thigh. Leg-feathers. Asin Asiatics, where the feathers grow on the outside of the shank. Legumes. A plant that belongs to the family Leguminacea. A pod- bearing plant, as the clover, beans, and peas. Lesser Sickles. Tail coverts or the sickle feathers, except the two central large ones. Levulose. Invert sugar obtained from dextrose. Lopped Comb. The comb falling over to one side. Lymph. The colorless fluid of the lymph-vessels. Lymphatic System. A system of tubes or vessels like blood-vessels, carrying the lymph. Mash. A mixture of ground grains or of by-products fed either dry or wet. Mating. The putting together of birds by selection for breeding purposes so as to accentuate the good points and correct the bad points of such parents mated. INTRODUCTORY 25 Maintenance Ration. An amount of food sufficient for a resting animal, neither loosing or gaining in weight, for twenty-four hours. Mangles. A root crop—the Beta Vulgaris. Masticate. To crush or grind food with teeth. Mealy. In buffs, where the color is broken by specks of lighter color appearing as if meal had been sprinkled on the feather. Metabolism. The processes in the living cells, consisting of anab- olism—building up, and katabolism—tearing down. Meter. A metric measure equaling 3.28 feet. Mineral Matter. The ash of the food. Mossy. Dark irregular penciling appearing in the center of laced feathers. Mottled. Surface of plumage marked with spots of different colors. Muffs. Tufts of feathers on the face below the eyes. Natural Selection. The mating of birds of their own will. Nitrogen-free Extract. The food-stuff remaining after the crude fiber and fat have been removed. It includes starches, sugars, and gums. Nitrogenous Substances. Any food-stuff containing nitrogen. Nutrients. Groups of substances, as protein and carbohydrates, that are capable of nourishing an animal. . Nutritive Ratio. The proper proportion of protein to carbohydrates and hydrocarbons in a feed or ration. The fat is reduced to a carho- hydrate equivalent by multiplying by 2.25. Oil Meal. Linseed-oil cake reduced to fineness by grinding. Organic Matter. That part of the food-stuff destroyed by burning. Parasiticide. An agent killing parasites. Parasitism. Being infested by parasites, as lice and chiggers. Parti-colored. A feather presenting two or more colors. Pea Comb. A triple comb presenting the appearance of three single combs placed parallel to each other and joined at the rear and base and showing serrations at the free margins. : Pen. Four females and a male. Penciling. Small stripe-like markings on a feather. They may follow the outline of the feather or run crosswise. Peppered. A mealy appearance produced by asplattering with black or gray. Pepsin. A digestive ferment found in stomach juices. Pelvic Arch. The arch formed by the overreaching pelvic bones. Plumage. The feathers of a fowl. Poularde. A pullet deprived of the power of producing eggs, with the object of greater size. Poult. A young turkey. After the sexes can be determined they are then called cockerels or pullets. Poultry. Domestic fowls. Poultry Breeder. One who regulates the reproduction of poultry. Poultry Keeper. One who keeps poultry without regard to skill, experience, or success. Poultry Raiser. One who hatches and rears poultry. 26 POULTRY CULTURE Poultryman. A poultry keeper who is an expert. Primaries. The wing-flight feathers, which are nearly hidden when the wing is closed. Protein. The nitrogen, containing food nutrient. Provender. Forage or grain feed of any kind. Progeny. The offspring or young birds of birds mated. Puberty, Age of. The age at which a pullet commences to lay. Pubic Bones, Also Called Lay-bones. The rib-like bones lying at the lower edge of the pelvis, or pelvic arch. Pullet. A female fowl less than one year old. Quill. The stem of the feather. Respiration. The act of breathing. Roaster. A chicken weighing 4 or more pounds. Rooster. A male fowl. Rose Comb. A solid, low, thick comb, terminating posteriorly in a spike. The top is covered with small rounded points. Fig. 2.—Head of a Single Comb White Leghorn Male showing defects: 1, side sprig; 2, fish-tail; 3, crooked beak; 4, uneven serration. Roughage. The coarse portion of a ration. Rutabaga. A Swedish turnip. A root crop used in winter feeding to supply succulent feed. Saddle. The posterior part of the back and that part just anterior to the tail. Saddle Feathers. The feathers covering the saddle. Saddle Hackle. The narrow, long-pointed feathers developing from the saddle. Secondaries. The large feathers that grow on the second joint of the wing. Serrated. Saw-like notching. Serration. The projections of the serrated comb. Shaft. The stem or supporting part of the feather. Shafting. The shaft of the feather, being either darker or lighter than the web of the feather. INTRODUCTORY 27 Shank. The part of the leg extending from the foot to the hoek. The scaly portion of the leg. Sickles. The two central long curved tail feathers of the male. Side Sprigs. Spike-like growths from the side of the comb. Silage. The feed stored in a silo. Silo. An air-tight structure in which green feed is stored for winter feeding. Single Comb. A single leaf-like structure raising from the top of the head which in the male should stand erect. It is provided with spikes at the free border. Solid Color. Of one color—that is, a uniform color unmixed with other colors. Sorghum. A plant possessing a stalk like corn and containing much sugar. The seeds growing on the top are sometimes used in poultry feeding. Fie. 3.—The head of a white Minorca cock, showing at a the so-called thumb mark. Soy Bean. A leguminous plant, the seeds of which are sometimes used in poultry feeding. Spangle. The colored spot at the free extremity of a spangled feather. Spangled. Consisting of spangled feathers. Spring Chicken. A young bird weighing over 2 pounds. Spur. The horn-like rounded or pointed growth from the inferior third of the shank. Squab. A young pigeon. Squab Broiler. A young chicken weighing from 34 to 114 pounds. Squirrel Tail. A tail projecting forward toward the head. Storage Egg. A storage egg is one held in cold storage at a temperature of 45 degrees or lower for a period of thirty days or more. 28 POULTRY CULTURE | sel Mee | i ASSO “qu : )): “yy Pete IN cw . oma 2 fiw en J) ‘ip EN AUS AU Opes Ne PP AU We py V-shaped comb at 1, also showing at 2 the crest; 3 the muffs; 4, the beard. 6b, The strawberry comb. c, The rose comb. d, The pea comb. e, Single comb and white ear-lobes. f, Crest of female. g, Crest of male. h, A white face. INTRODUCTORY 29 Stag. A young male. Applied to game birds. Stewing Chicken. A chicken weighing about 3 pounds. Stipple. Small dotted or speckled appearance of a feather. Strain. Successive breeding of one variety of fowls by one fancier always using the same blood line. Strawberry Comb. One resembling a strawberry. Stock. Usually spoken of in connection with fowls kept for breeding purposes; that is, ‘breeding stock”’ or ‘‘stock birds.” Succulent Feed. A feed containing much water, as sprouted oats, cab- bage, and root crops. Symmetry. The standard shape and harmony of proportions of a fowl. Tail-coverts. The curved feathers to the side and in front of the tail. Tail Feathers. The straight stiff feathers of the tail are known as the main tail feathers. Thighs. The portion of leg above the knee. The femoral region. Thumb Mark. A depression at the side of the comb. It has some- what the appearance of an impression made by the thumb. Throwing Back. THE CORNELL OUTLINE FOR STUDENT PRACTICE Each student is requested to handle the 20 fowls in the coops, observing carefully and recording their judgment of the sex, age, weight, and condition of each. Indicate cock by ¢; hen by h; cockerel by ckl; pullet by plt. 81 THE BREEDS OF POULTRY Remarks Variety Condition Age | Weight Sex Band No. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 CHAPTER III THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION In poultry breeding the foundation of success is the correct mating of the breeding pens. The cock should possess the characteristics of his breéd and variety and an abundance of vitality. His crow should be strong and clear, his movements active, his attention to the hens marked, his comb and wattles ruddy, which indicates health. He should not show any effeminancy, not look like a hen with sickle feathers, but show masculine all over. The breeding hens should show the characteristics of their sex, a refinement of head and body lacking in the cock. They should not suggest hen-feathered cocks, but look feminine all over. They should be active, industrious in scratching and foraging, and sing considerable, showing health, vigor, and happiness. As perfect breeders cannot be expected, some provision must be made to correct excesses and deficiencies. This is done by exposing an excess in one sex to deficiency in the oppo- site sex. If a cock is too long legged, correct this excess of length by mating to hens that are short legged. The re- sulting progeny will consist of chickens, some of which, like the cock, are too long legged, some like the hen are too short legged, and some with the uniting characteristics of the sexes are correct in the length of leg. The last are the ones which it was desired to produce, and while in subsequent breeding these will show reversion to both the long-legged and short- legged ancestors, according to Mendel’s law, one-half of their progeny will be like the parents, with legs of medium length. This rule will hold good of all excesses and deficiencies, except as it may be modified by prepotency, reversion, and sudden variations in either sex. By prepotency is meant the power 82 THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 83 that enables the male to beget progeny like himself, irrespec- tive of the characteristics of the females he may be mated with, or a female to produce progeny like herself, regardless of the properties of the male with which she is mated. The fe- male may be equally prepotent with the male. Birds for the breeding pens should have the right kind of ancestry, for unless they have been bred true to standard for many generations and their various desirable points thoroughly fixed reversion to undesirable points are more likely to occur. In this instance, if reversion takes place, it is more likely to be of the desirable qualities, and if variations take place it is more likely to be a favorable variation. Qualities, good or bad, can be intensified by mating together fowls possessing such qualities. If one desires to produce good length of body he should mate together both males and females with good length of bodies. In this instance not only will the quality be likely to be inherited, but inherited in an increased and intensified degree. If fowls closely related in blood have some constitutional weakness and are mated to- gether, it is reasonable to suppose that such weakness will be inherited in an intensified form and that such inbreeding will be disastrous; if both fowls are vigorous and healthy, even though nearly related in blood, there is no reason to believe that their progeny will be conscitutionally weak. The great- est factor in inbreeding is the intensifying of the qualities common to both parents, either good or bad, which if bad produces an impairment of vigor and a decline in health. Two-year-old hens are preferable to pullets, they lay a larger egg, hatch a larger chick, and the chicks develop into larger fowls. If pullets are used they must be full grown. The first batch of eggs a pullet lays should never under any considera- tion be set. Cockerels should be mated with hens and not pullets. Pullets should be mated with cocks and not cockerels. The number of females to be mated with one male depends upon the breed, age, and activity of the male. This is, in part, determined by observation. In mating see that the birds conform to the American Stand- ard of Perfection in shape, height, length of body, neck, 84 POULTRY CULTURE length of back and breast, and length of legs. The eyes must be of proper color and the comb of proper size and shape. They must stand squarely on the legs and the legs wide apart. The plumage should be of proper shade or color. The birds in one pen should all be of the same type and color. See that the tails are carried at the right angle. Do not have quarrelsome hens in the pen. Such a hen should not be used for breeding purposes, of if her good qualities overshadow this defect then it is better to mate her alone. The color problem is one of the difficult items in breeding. The three primary colors in the poultry-breeders spectrum are white, black, and red; and when a breeder understands the relative values of these to one another he has mastered the first principle of color breeding, and can, with practice, pro- duce almost any desired shade of color in the plumage of the fowl. Physical science teaches us that black is not, strictly speaking, a color, but that the word is applied to the absence of all color; also that white is not a color, but is the result of a combination of seven primary colors; for the poultry breeder it is convenient to consider both black and white as actual colors, and to place them alongside of red. Working with these three as primary colors, the breeder has produced the many beautiful shades and markings which characterize our numerous varieties of domestic fowl. Red is the most persistent of the three colors. Accepting the view that all domestic fowls are descended from the common ancestor, Gallus Bankiva, it is not surprising that this should be so, for in the male of this wild ancestor of our domestic races red is the predominating color and completely overshadows black, the only other color in his plumage. Thus we get at the reason why red should be the most permanent of all colors in the plumage of fowls, and we also see why black should be more permanent than other hues, it being the color of secondary importance in the wild ancestor. White plumage is probably produced in one of three ways: There can be but little doubt that the true source of white as a fowl color is albinoism, and the proof of this is that fowls coming as “sports” or albinos from parents which are black, or of some other color, are much more permanent in shade ‘THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 85 of their plumage than white fowls which are produced by crossing or selection. Albinos almost invariably reproduce themselves in the progeny and seldom revert to the colors of the parents from which they came; white fowls produced in other ways have a decided tendency to reversion. White plumage fowls may be produced by selecting speci- mens of a breed which show the most white in their plumage, and by continuous mating along these lines finally produce some pure white. The third way of producing white plumage fowl is by crossing with a white fowl of different breeds which, rea rk coe mee o Fig. 35.—Feathers from Hackle of Prince Ree Ur Baned Plymouth Rock). This is wonderful neck barring. (Holterman.) in appearance, does not differ greatly from the variety which it is the desire to produce. It has been seen that the male ancestor of the domestic fowl possessed considerable black in his plumage, and it may be surmised that the black plumage varieties were originally produced by selection of the darkest red and black of certain varieties through their evolutionary stages. The present method of producing black is by introducing a cross of a black variety, care being taken to select one which it is desired to produce. 86 POULTRY CULTURE When white and black fowls are crossed the general tend- ency is the production of white fowls, yet by careful selection other colors may be produced. The Barred Plymouth Rock is one of these examples; another is the Mottled Ancona, also the Houdan. Red fowls crossed with fowls of other colors will invariably produce progeny having more or less red in their plumage, SS es -- - 4 7 1 \ ' : Fig. 36.—Feathers from a Barred Plymouth Rock cockbird and two hens, showing a perfect cockerel mating in color. Wh SR aera pe eed ne a though the exact shade may be variable, and may be lighter or darker than the red in the plumage of the parent, or a shade may be produced that cannot be called red, but which is closely allied to that color. When red and white birds are crossed the shades produced are straw, lemon, cinnamon, and orange. There will also be noted in breeding this progeny that there is a tendency to revert to the original red, thus red mixed with white producing some shade of color in between. THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 87 When red fowls are crossed on blacks, black-breasted red males are usually produced. White-breasted red cocks are known as “‘piles”’ and are produced by crossing white with black-breasted red. If we cross a White Leghorn with a Brown Leghorn the progeny will be a Pile Leghorn, because the Brown Leghorn cock is really a Black-breasted Red. THE SELECTION OF BIRDS FOR BREEDING Select only mature birds for breeders. Do not select birds under standard weight. It is much to be desired to keep the weight up to standard. In selecting breeders avoid crooked breasts, crooked backs, wry tails. The birds must be free from disease or from any indication of having been affected by disease. Strong consti- tution and great vigor are essential. These points are indi- cated by the bright red comb and wattles and by the full prominent bright eyes and general alertness and also by its lustrous plumage. Males should be decidedly masculine and females should not show masculine appearance. Breeding stock should be selected in December, and the matings should be made three weeks before it is the desire to save eggs from them for sitting. Card says, ‘‘The type of a bird can be changed in three years, but ten years are required to change feather pattern.” Brown says, ‘‘The male primarily influences the external characteristics—namely, breed, type, plumage, and action. The female primarily influences size of body, color of skin, and legs, constitution, temperament, and habits. . It has been the observation of many poultrymen that there 1s a tendency of light dry sandy soils to bleach the legs and also to have an influence on the color of the flesh. MceCon- nel says, ‘Heavy soils have a tendency to deepen the color of the legs. Heavy clay lands are most suited for egg produc- tion, and medium and light soils for the production of broil- ers.” Brown of England recommends that three fowls per acre be kept on farms, using portable houses and the fowls in flocks of 10 to 25. It is necessary to divide the birds into 88 POULTRY CULTURE flocks of 10 to 25. The houses should be widely separated. Too many birds in one lot will damage the crops. It is well to always reject, as breeders, undersize and stunted birds. Likewise reject all immature birds. Cochins.—In the selection of the Cochin, Mr. Hanchett says: ‘‘size comes more from the female side than the male side. So does type. Color and head points depend more on the male.” The progeny of any parent up to standard size will deterio- rate unless given proper food for the upbuilding of the body bone and muscle, etc.). The parent at time of production of eggs must likewise be in proper condition and receive proper feed. The male Cochin should have short legs. The body should be short and blocky, the breast must be full and round, the back full and as short as possible. A big full-cushioned back in males is desirable. Look to the hens to assist along this line in production of the proper males. The tail should be carried rather low and should be short. He should lean slightly forward, that is, well down in front with cushion well up. The male should be of good deep shade, and in the buff the color must be even with rich undercolor. The tail and wings must be of solid desirable color. The females should be blocky in type and full in feathering. The breast should be deep and rounded, the tail should be short and carried low, the back should be broad and full. In buffs select females whose feather color corresponds to the color of the breast of the male, provided you have been fortunate enough to secure a proper buff-colored male. The females should be of even color and strong in undercolor. They should be a solid buff in tail and wings. An injury to a new feather just coming in, or one which has been pulled while developing, may cause a white feather to develop in its place. This should not be considered sufficient cause to reject the bird from breeding, as that would not be an inherited factor, but an accident as a result of environment (postnatal). Buffs fade with age if allowed in the sunlight. White birds tend to sunburn and show brassiness of the wing-bows, THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 89 In selecting for breeding, for instance, in whites or blacks, it is well. to breed from birds who are known not to show off colors, but that breed true to color. It is well to keep in mind in purchasing birds for standard breeding to secure them from reliable breeders who will furnish birds from the proper ancestry or blood lines. This is desirable to the utmost ex- treme in those whose color factors have not been firmly estab- lished, as in buffs and some others where there seems to be a fight for an equilibrium between black and white. Thus it may be said, in general, using the buff again as an illustration, a too light undercolor is likely to throw white in the progeny unless the bird be of sound ancestry, and too dark in under- color in birds of dark shade have a tendency to throw black in wings and tails of the progeny. “It is not advisable to select pullets that show white in the undercolor of the neck, or a cockerel that shows red on his wing-bows. It is to the best interest of the breeder to select those birds that feather fastest and develop quickest and reach the full standard weight. Brahmas.—In the selection of Brahmas do not select a short-limbed male as a breeder. The males contribute as much to the size of the progeny as do the females. The male must be bright, active, and vigorous. The male must be strong, ready to banter, and to crow. Do not select a male that is always looking for a place to sit down. He will be adisappointment. The male should be strong in color. In the Brahma the chicks are apt to run a shade or two lighter than the male. A bird strong in color has the best chance in the show room. The male Brahma must be reasonably tall, large, long bodied, legs and toes well feathered, and strong in color. In selecting the female Brahma it will be well to keep in mind that small hens mean small progeny. The hens should have good length of body. The hens must be active, alert, on the go, and with fairly long legs. The best female breeders are those that have gone through one adult molt and who have retained their color, 90 POULTRY CULTURE Fic. 37. THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 91] See that your birds for breeding have the proper colored eyes. Too often this point is overlooked. In selecting males of laced varieties for illustration, the Silver Laced Wyandotte do not breed from a male showing white in the back or secondary white edging on the breast or thigh feathers. Barred Plymouth Rocks.—Proper mating of Barred Ply- mouth Rocks is of the more difficult problems. It appears impossible to produce males and females all the same shade of color from any one mating. The males may be lighter than the females. If the females from the mating are of standard color, the males are likely to be too light for exhi- bition purposes, or if the males are of standard shade of color feather pattern, the females may be too dark. Therefore, mating of dark birds is essential to produce cockerels of the right color and character of barring, and lighter matings to produce females of proper barring. Female birds showing white undercolor should not be bred from. The barring should extend to the skin. Owing to the origin of the Barred Plymouth Rocks, the natural tendency is for the females to come darker in color than the males. This is true if you breed just one male and one female together. Double mating then in Barred Ply- mouth Rocks means a. that you must mate a dark colored male bird with dark colored females for one mating; 6b. that you must mate a light colored male with light colored females for the other mating. In other words, to-day there are two kinds of Barred Plymouth Rocks—a light one and a dark one. It may be considered that these are two strains separate and distinct from each other. These two strains should never be crossed on each other. If light male and dark females are bred together or vice-versa the result will be very disappointing. So long as light birds are bred together their progeny will be Fic, 37.—Plate showing feather patterns: a, A wry-tail hen. Do not breed from wry-tailed birds; 6, showing the fifth toe, which is character- istic of the Dorking; c, lacing as required of the Dark Cornish; d, a double- laced feather; e, a silver spangle; f, a stippled feather; g, a ticked feather; h, a barred feather, as noted in the Barred Plymouth Rocks;’, a feather marking characteristic of the Partridge variety, as the Partridge Rocks; j, a fully penciled feather. 92 POULTRY CULTURE light, and if dark birds are bred together their progeny will be dark. That is, in this case like begets like, but when you cross the shades the results will be disastrous as you will have neither, but a mixture. Three points are then to be remem- bered. These are as follows: There are two varieties of Barred Plymouth Rocks, the dark colored and the light colored. To breed them right, you must keep them absolutely separate. You must mate dark colored males to dark colored females and light colored males to light colored females. In the selection of the Rocks it is essential to pay particular attention to conformation. The Rocks are required to havea long back, deep breast, and a large body. The male White Plymouth Rock must possess plumage pure white and free from brassiness. He must be strong, vigorous, and active, and his comb should be rather low and he should possess a full hackle. The back should be rather long and broad with a concave sweep toward the tail. The tail should be fairly well spread, carried rather low, and should be short. The breast should be broad and full. His legs should be yellow in color, wide apart, and he should stand squarely on his feet. In all matings type is of first importance. The Rhode Island Reds should possess proper length of body, possess an even red, not a buff, and a rich undercolor free from sooty or slatiness. The greatest difficulty in breeding reds is in color. There aremany color factors not yet fixed, though careful selection and breeding has been in progress a long time. Card says, ‘the darker or blood-red variety produces birds of almost an exact even shade, very rich and brilliant and red. Light-colored males are likely to throw buff and even white; on the other hand, very dark males may produce smut in the undercolor or black on the surface. Some breeders maintain it is best to select a male of medium red color. Another serious tendency in male defects is white in undercolor of hackle and saddle. Such a male should not be bred from. The quill of the feather should always be red, not white or THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 93 black. The undercolor should be of about the same shade as the surface color. In mating reds the birds should be of uniform brillianey— cherry red in both surface and under color. It is maintained by some of the leading breeders that a small amount of smut in either sire or dam is practically essential to obtain the best surface and undercolors for exhibition purposes. The neck hackle, wing bow, and saddle should be a uniform dark bril- lant cherry red and the balance of the surface an even uniform rich red color. In mating pluck a feather from the breast of the cock or cockerel and compare it with the back feathers of the hen. To obtain the best results with the mating these colors should blend. The hen gives type and size to the progeny. The male gives the color. These two points should be kept in mind in mating Reds. If you do not make proper matings to produce proper color, you lose variety characteristics. If you do not make proper matings to produce the proper shape in the progeny, you are losing the principal breed characteristics. Wyandottes.—In selecting Wyandottes it is well to keep in mind that the breed characteristics call for a broad, deep, well- rounded breast, with full saddle and hackle, raising with con- cave sweep to the tail. Breed from cockerels and pullets that are slow in developing tails. In selecting the male it will be well to keep in mind the fact that a male that is ugly and crabbed to his hens, driving them away from their food, is not likely to make a good breeder. An old experienced breeder of Partridge Cochins, in dis- cussing the mating of this breed, says, ‘‘If you will take a standard female and a male with rich dark standard surface color, but white undercolor, you will get half of the pullets show birds.” Proper attention to undercolor is of the most vital impor- tance in breeding parti-colored fowls. In selecting breeding birds in the Golden and Silver varie- ties, see that the lacing is well marked on the thighs. In mating Silver Penciled Wyandottes for the production of pullets, the cockerel should have some frosting on his breast 94 POULTRY CULTURE which, of course, would debar him from the show ring but will have a tendency to produce the proper colored females, provided all other markings in both sire and dam are correct. In buffs the birds selected for mating should have proper undercolor. That is, not too light; though too dark may have a tendency to produce too much objectionable black, notice- able particularly in the tail of the progeny; and too light may cause white, particularly in the wing flight feathers. Buff pullets are likely to lose their even buff color as soon as they begin to lay. To get the proper color markings, proper slaty undercolor is essential in Silver Spangled, as the 8. 8. Hamburg, and in Columbian varieties, as the Columbian Wyandotte. Care need be exercised in selecting parti-colored birds for breeding. In the Columbian varieties the black of the hackle, wing, and saddle also of the proper portion of wing and tail should be dark as the tendency of the progeny, especially in the cockerels, is to be lighter than the parents. In most parti-colored birds, to obtain the best show birds it is necessary to make a mating for the production of exhibi- tion cockerels and another for exhibition pullets. In Mottled Houdan the male should be rather dark for pullet production, as here white has a tendency to dominancy over black and the pullets have a tendency to be lighter than their parents. It is impossible to tell just what kind of plumage a bird will have until it has its last coat. Black chicks may have white baby feathers which come in black after these are shed. This is also the case with Reds and many other breeds. The baby feathers do not have that correctness of marking that the same bird will in its mature plumage. We should there- fore not be too hasty in discarding our promising youngsters until we have had time to see the adult plumage. White Leghorns.—In selecting the Single Comb White Leg- horn attention should be given to the proper weight. Too often in selecting for the fixing of the laying character and other important items the subject of weight is entirely over- looked. A bird should possess proper weight and not allow of the tendency toward a bantam type. The cockerel should THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 95 be of proper proportions, head up, active and alert, ready to banter and to crow. His plumage should be pure white and free from brassiness. Utility Classification.—Birds are classified as being of egg type, meat type, or dual purpose. Brown’s method of determining whether a bird is of any certain one of these Le, Fie. 38.—A Single Comb White Leghorn hen of laying type. Note the wedge-shaped body as indicated by the lines, also long back and keel, head erect, eyes alert, legs wide apart, of medium size, free from coarseness, and of fine texture. (Rancos.) types is to draw a perpendicular line transversely through the body of the fowl on a line with the legs. If the greater bulk of the body lies in front of the line the fowl may be classed as among the meat type. If the greater bulk of the body lies behind this imaginary line it is classified as belonging to the ege-producing type. If the bulk on either side the line is equal then it is classed as a dual purpose fowl. 96 POULTRY CULTURE The fixing and intensifying of the egg-laying characters is beyond the experimental stage. While the jungle fowl Ban- kiva only layed one or two clutches of 12 or 15 eggs each year, the present Leghorn, as well as some carefully selected and bred fowls of other breeds, lay close to 300 eggs a year and close to 1000 eggs in their lifetime. After weight, constitu- tional vigor, and conformation comes their egg-laying faculties. It is well, in building up an egg-laying strain, to hatch the birds the first week in April, as then by proper care and feed these birds will be mature and begin laying by the time the high price of eggs is on, and will probably not molt till the second fall. Whereas, if hatched earlier, they may commence to lay while eggs are still a low price, and by the time the high prices come the birds go into a molt and cease laying for a while and thus interfere with their egg production at a time when eggs are most desired from a commercial standpoint. In making the selections one should select for longevity, use carefully selected early producing pullets, use fall and winter layers, select heavy eaters, select early risers and late retirers, and select mature birds. The pubic bones should be wide apart and straight; the bird should possess capacity, that is, at least four finger’s-breadth from the posterior point of the sternum or breast-bone to the pelvis; the ischium should be thin, as a thick, meaty ischium means a meat type. The market prefers a white egg and the number ones are required to weigh at least 24 ounces to the dozen eggs. In selecting the hen the skull should not be too broad; the eyes should be prominent; the comb, face, and wattles fine in texture; the eyes snappy and the bird alert; they must stand square on their feet, legs wide apart, front end of body slightly higher than the posterior end; they should be wedge shaped (Fig. 38); the back should be long and a long breast-bone or keel; they should be of happy disposition; the breast should be full; the legs not too coarse and of fine texture and not too long. The body medium size with no coarseness, tail carried rather high. It is noted that the legs should be yellow, but in heavy layers as laying season progresses the legs become bleached out. THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 97 The first or earliest cockerels to crow are the most vigorous and make the best breeders. High egg production is transmitted by both sire and dam. REMOVAL OF G00D BROODING GOOD PROPER HOUSING PROPER RIGID CARE OF EGGS EGGS STOCK BREEDERS LAYERS WITH WITH VIGOROUS BUSINESS METHODS wicORCUS THE MAN AND THE LAND Fre. 39.—Rice’s arch of poultry success. It will be noted from this illustration that constitutional vigor is the keystone, the summit and prin- cipal stone to the arch of success. Pullets should be selected at eight weeks of age. Select at this time those with best developed head, eyes, comb, and body. Those well feathered over the back. The term rhythm of egg production is used rather than rate, q 98 POULTRY CULTURE in order to emphasize the rhythmical character of egg extrusion. Most hens lay for a period of several days and then skip one or more. ‘The first day of the series the hen lays early in the morning. The time she lays the next day depends largely on the character of her particular rhythm. If the rhythm is such that she lays only every other day, she usually lays about the same time each day—that is, 10, 0, 11, 0, 10, 0, 11. If she lays two days out of three, the first egg is laid during the morning and the second during the afternoon—that is, 10, 3, 0, 10, 2, 0, 9, 1, 5, 0. As the period lengthens, the number laid in the morning increases until the larger proportion are laid before noon, thus: 8, 9, 10, 10, 10, 10, 9, 10, 9, 5, 11, 11, 5, 11, 11, 2, 2,4, 0. There is however much variation. Pearl found on the basis of winter egg production that his birds fell into three classes, as follows: high, mediocre, and zero producers. The dividing line between the high and mediocre producers came at about 30 eggs. Goodale has confirmed this work. It has been found that broodiness, age, and the time at which laying commences in the fall all influence the number of eggs laid. Various causes interfere with the nor- mal egg rhythm, as environment, season, method of manage- ment, and such internal factors as broodiness. Distribution of Egg Production.—From 52 to 55 per cent. of the eggs are produced during four months—March, April, May, and June. The remaining 45 to 48 per cent. are dis- tributed over the remaining months of the year. The follow- ing data illustrate the distribution of egg production. This pen averaged 152 eggs per hen a year, distributing their pro- duction as follows: January, 4 per cent.; February, 10 per cent.; March, 14 per cent.; April, 14 per cent.; May, 13 per cent.; June, 10 per cent.; October, 4 per cent.; November, 3 per cent.; December, 3 per cent. The report of the Storrs laying competition ending in Novem- ber shows a very unusual distribution of egg production, as heavy in July as in March—the latter month being abnormally low. That competition is therefore not suitable to use in a general average of figures from a small number of cases. For that reason the distribution of production in the preceding Storrs contest is taken, the average egg production in this case being THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 99 145 eggs per hen per year. For comparison and tabulation with these carefully kept and accurate records the percentages of general egg production as indicated by the receipts at New York are taken—setting the figures back one month to allow for the time required to get the eggs to market. To show the annual variations as they occur on a large scale the following table is given. The figures for the months are the percentages of the receipts for the year which arrived in each month. Year Jan. | Feb. |Mar.| Apr. | May | June| July | Aug. |Sept.) Oct. Nov.) Dec 1911..... 4} 6118,)15/19/11]/ 7/8 | 6] 5 | 3513 1912..... 3 | 4 9}/16/19/12}/9) sg |]7]5)44) 4 1913. 4/6 /10/15/16)/12)/ 9] 8 }]7/5 4) 4 | 4 1914..... 4/6 /10)/15/17]/12)/8]/s8}]716]4! 3 1915..... 4/5 )12)/17/14/11/} 9] 8]7)54]4 | 4 1916..... 4/5 |]11/16/16/12/}9]8 | 6|]6]4 3 1917..... 3 | 3 S| ar | i? | is} oi] 8) 3) 6 | 4] 3 Average.| 4 | 5 |10/ 16/17/12) 9] 8|]7/]/5|4 3 In the average percentages fractions are adjusted to give the percentages in the whole numbers that will express the situation most satisfactorily. Thus a number of small frac- tions omitted in figures for the reason of heavy production are added to the figure for one or more months of light pro- duction where the error is of less effect when the percentages are applied to show the actual egg production month by month. In the next table the Beltsville and Storrs distributions are given first, then the averages from the first table—adjusting | Jan. | Feb. ;|Mar.) Apr. | May | June | July | Aug. |Sept.} Oct. ; Nov | Dec. Beltsville..| 4 10 14 14 13 10 10 9 6 4 3 Storrs. . .| 3 i 12 13 13 12 12 1l 7 4 2 4 New York Average...| 4 9 14 15 13 10 10 9 Rees ceil 5 10 16 17 12 9 8 7 | 5 4 3 4 100 POULTRY CULTURE them to the production situation by setting them back a month—and the average of these three sets of percentages is given as a general average of the percentage distribution of egg production. In the next table is given the actual egg production month by month when different amounts of yearly production are distributed according to the percentages established. Lay Jan. | Feb. |Mar.| Apr. | May | June| July | Aug. |Sept.| Oct. |Nov.| Dec. 72 eggs 3 6 10 11 9 7 7 6 4 3 3 3 100 ” 4 9 14 15 13 10 10 9 6 4 3 3 120’ 5 11 16 18 15 12 12 11 7 5 4 4 150 ’ 6 13 21 23 19 15 15 13 9 6 5 5 180’ 7 16 25 27 23 18 18 16 i 7 6 6 200 ” 8 18 28 30 26 20 20 18 12 8 6 6 In the examination of records of pens and flocks making high averages it is found that as a rule production is more evenly distributed through the year than in the general average, and especially that egg production is heavy through the sum- mer and early fall. In no case either in this or in the next competition at Storrs did a pen approximating an averge of 200 eggs per hen to as high as 28 and 30 eggs amonth. Indi- vidual hens may do so; some must when averages for 10 hens go to 25 and 26. In the extremely high averages good laying— far better than usual for the season—is the rule at all times, except the short period in spring when nearly all hens lay well; but where egg production runs at averages of 120 to 150 or 160 per hen per year the result is usually due more to good laying in summer than to good laying in early winter. RESULTS IN BREEDING FROM UNSELECTED BIRDS The production of unselected White Leghorns varies widely in different years as influenced by the environment; but from all available records it averages about 130 for the first year, 120 for the second and less than 110 for the third, drops to about 85 in the fourth, and falls about 10 eggs a year after this up to the eighth year. Selected flocks have averaged THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 101 160 in America and 190 in Australia. The American record corresponds closely to the average of the upper one-half of the unselected flocks and indicates that the selection has been able to eliminate the lower half. The first year production of a flock of White Leghorns is no indication of their total production. If the first year is high the second may be low, if the first is low the second may be high; but the total production in three years will in all cases be about the same. If the first year record of a flock is high, selection of the high layers will materially improve the later production of the flock. If the first record is low there will be little value in selection as even the lowest producer will make a second year record above the general average. The three-year average is in all cases a much more reliable indication of productivity. The average life of a White Leghorn appears to be about six years. The average production of the fourth year is equal to the average production given for the United States. The average total production is above 500 eggs and the maximum possible production above 1000. The White Leghorn is the most important egg producing breed at the present time, over one-half of all contest entries being Leghorns. Their average production has been decidedly above the average of the general purpose breeds. Three- fourths of all contest entries have been white. In the pullet year, as a rule, the bird lays the bulk of the eggs from November to February inclusive. A hen commences to lay later in the second year but in the more favorable time of the year, which is the latter part of February. From this time on she may lay as many eggs in the favorable months as in the first year. She will be slightly slower commencing to lay in her third year but will produce approximately as many eggs as in either of the other two years, possibly laying into the late fall. Dryden has found that from different matings where the son was bred to the mother, the pullet offspring showed a lower average egg yield than others not inbred. There was greater variability in production from the inbred pullets; that is, there was a wider range between the highest and lowest CULTURE POULTRY 102 OTT 2G | If | $9 | $2 | 8 VOL, GIT | FUT (PIGI SUIZIWO) BseIBAY SI6I e9 | e9 OZL | OTT | 9ST | OTT ITT ee cg | 26 |Z G8 | 26 | ost LI ‘- |g, | POL| EST) FIT) 2 | POT) SET | FIT OZT €¢ 92 | 9ST) LET) 98 | eS | 92 | 9ET | LET 98 eZ 1p | 99 | SOT] SIT | TOL Sst | 24h | G9 | SOL | STL) TOT | ST 801 gg | g¢ | 68 106 |Z8 | Sot] 9eT Se | 8 |} 68 |06 | SS | GOT 9ET | S061 al zo | be | G6 | 28 | SL | LIT] Sst i py |e6 | 48 |SL | LIL) Set) Lot) 2061 oe ws | uy | 19 | me | ay] pe | pe | IT | ST6T FI6r £161 ZIGI | LI6L O16t 606t s061 Iva 9dIY J, ButAvy jo vad ay} 1Oj syooH jo osvi9aAy IBV IO} SYDOH Jo oBvVIOAV ‘YE ‘dXa] HYLG +(SCUOOTY SUVA AUOJY YO ANC DNILATAWOD SNAP TIY ONIGATIONT) SHOOTY JO NOILOAGOUd ATUVAA ADVATAV THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 103 individual records than was the case with those not inbred. The vigor of the laying stock as shown by the mortality rec- ords was lowest in the inbred stock. The vigor of the off- spring as shown by the mortality records of the chicks was lowest in the inbred stock. There was a lower fertility of eggs in the inbred stock. Sterility of hens is often due to a closure of the anterior or funnel portion of the oviduct, or to an adhesion of the lips of the funnel. In all such cases the sex organs pass through the same changes from non-laying to laying condition as in the birds which actually produce eggs. When the eggs cannot enter the egg canal they are discharged into the body cavity and absorbed. If they enter the duct and the duct be obstructed they may be returned and fall into the body cavity. If the duct is ruptured, the eggs pass along the canal, developing normally till they reach the rupture, then pass into the body cavity. A large number of eggs may be absorbed from the abdominal cavity without causing any inconvenience to the bird. One abdominal cavity examined showed all stages of absorption of such eggs, and a large mass of shell membranes were found in the cavity. The ovary of this bird was the same as the ovary of any laying bird, containing a normal series of developing yolks. Prepotency is the ability of the parent to fix his characteris- tics in the offspring. The male should not only be pure bred, but have the purity of breeding that extends to a high degree of egg laying. Prepotency does not always follow blood lines. One in- dividual may be prepotent and another of the same blood line or of the same parentage may not. But an individual bred pure to a certain type and other essential characteristics for many generations is more likely to transmit his character- istics than one that is not or is simply a “grade.” The reasons of the above are explained by the Mendelian law. Some characters segregate, others unite or blend. The eggs produced by a cross bred hen, for example the progeny of a Barred Plymouth Rock and a White Leghorn cross, usually show the influence of both parents. That is, they have neither 104 POULTRY CULTURE the pure white which is characteristic of the Leghorn entity nor pure black and white barred characteristic of the Rock. There is noted a blending of the two factors. The high egg laying character is transmitted, and it is also necessary that the bird possess excellent vigor. Some sires from high fecundity dams will transmit this character and some will not. It has been definitely shown that there is a progressive increase each year when the parents have been selected among individuals that have production records higher than the average of the flock This is in keeping with the law of progression. There is sure to be regression or decrease in production unless the breeding stock be selected from among the individuals of high producers. When no selection is practised the tendency is downward. The Oregon Experiment Station states that by trap-nesting in the pullet year during November, December, and January one can tell the high producers; that those who lay 30 eggs or more during these three months will lay during the year ap- proximately 200 eggs. These should be kept for breeders. Those that lay 10 to 12 or less will prove unprofitable, and those that lay 20 may make a profit. The pullets that lay before six months of age will lay about 200 eggs. Egg Expectancy.—Philips has given the following as a fair estimate of percentage egg production expectations: Expected egg production by per cents.—White Leghorns. Month Pullets| Hens Month Pullets| Hens Month = _|Pullets) Hens November....} 20 7 December..| °15 & January....| 25 15 February..... 32 25 Nlarehtseus 4 50 45 Aprils <3 ssc 65 60 May.........| 62 60 June....... 50 50 July... 40 40 August.......{| 30 30 September..| 20 15 October.... 10 5 No. eggs...... | 127.1] 108.7 Per cent. Per cent. broken and cull eggs each month......... 4 These would be sold at half price making the totalloss 2 Per cent. mortality, pullets....................00, 12 Per cent. mortality, hens............... paraaen¢ 10 THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN £GG PRODUCTION 105 Time of Laying.—In the study of egg production we note that the season of the year and time in the bird’s life are factors. Some birds lay in the late fall, winter, and spring; others lay in the spring and early summer. On account of the fact that eggs command the highest price in the fall and winter, we should select for breeders those that lay in the fall and winter. In culling the offspring will probably not produce as high as the culled flock. Hatching quality may be taken as an index to good vitality. The following relative terms have been proposed for degrees of productiveness of birds. (Average opinion of 13 persons.) The figures indicate number of eggs per year. Phenomenally low................ .... .. .. 82.8 Exceptionally low. ..... ........... .. 48.0 Wety LOW cess cov enh inte Ghd) a So hak aed seas “G2. TOW epetoser ks O44 nese Ree) e Goer ede Gans 84.2 CEBU te et ener t Pasa gscien, cecsuae rade eames tthe Mees 103.8 MCA is ike eh aee Raa TARR E coe Rinse E 119.6 CGO siseccesGiwds BRoeuk, ule aS Raw tS 137.7 Pa baie eed exact gh See wen Ba Cae k So eis ee 156.9 Very High o 2 chicane (du hersen pace newey eds 24 176.9 Exceptionally high... 2 ............. . 195.4 Phenomenally highs 222048 es Gaede io G23-8ec5H 213.8 Inheritance and environment influence a hen as to her performance. The quicker we can determine a hen’s productive possi- bilities the better from a commercial viewpoint. In arriving at this determination we consider her habit of laying, as indi- cated by the physical examination. This examination should give us what she is or has been doing, precocity and persist- ency being taken into consideration. It has been shown that the longer we wait to see the quality of production the more accurate we will be. Birds may lay too heavily the first year and partially break down and not lay so many eggs the second year. Too much forcing may cause a physical breakdown. In a breakdown from forcing, the hen may not be able to fulfill her inherited tendency. Climate conditions of late fall and winter affect high egg production in that season of the year. 106 POULTRY CULTURE A bird with a physical impediment, as deformed feet, cannot secure ample feed. In making a physical examination to determine what a bird is doing we must bear in mind that the condition of the . comb, vent, pigmentation, and width between the breast bone and pelvis are indications of what the bird is doing or is going todo. The time when a bird commences to lay or ceases to lay is not dependent on the size of the bird. In a heavy laying bird the intestines become larger and longer, and again shrink after her laying period. This lengthening may be as much as 30 to 40 per cent. This same fact holds true of the oviduct. The laying hen is large posteriorly, and when she ceases to lay, the tendency is to become smaller posteriorly. A hen in a non-laying period stores up fat and with it yellow pigment (zanthophyll) which is used when the hen commences to lay. This fat and pigment disappears more rapidly from those parts with best blood supply, and consequently in the following order—vent, eyelids, ear-lobes, lower mandible, base of upper mandible, middle of upper mandible, tip of upper mandible. Of the shanks the fat first disappears from the sides and in front and later at the back; the last to disappear is on the heel just below the hock. Soil and vegetation is a factor in the amount of zanthophyll supplied and will be one governing factor in the amount of pigment stored. Such feeds as tender succulent alfalfa and alsike clover furnish much zanthophyll. Birds have a tendency to bleach out on sandy soil or soil containing much alkali. Wood ashes will cause bleaching. The greatest fat reservoir or storehouse in the bird is the retroperitoneal region; that is, the lower and lateral walls of the abdomen (Fig. 40, No. 5). When the hen ceases to lay, this storchouse begins to fill with fat covering over the pelvic arch, causing the arch to become blunt. The abdomen now takes on a hard texture. The pelvic arches come closer to- gether and as the intestine and oviduct shorten and become smaller the distance from the breast bone to the pubic bone becomes less. A hen cannot hold enough reserve material to form an egg a day, so she skips. The power to take in and metabolize food THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 107 varies with individuals and is an inherited character. The laying period commences slow, then is intensive, and slows down again near the end, or as the bird passes into her vaca- tion period. The later in the year a hen lays, the less the chance to pick up large amounts of pigment. For this reason late layers laying over a period of eight to ten months are not so likely to regain high color during their vacation. Fig. 40.—Normal functionating reproductive organs of a Single Comb White Leghorn hen. 1, Ova forming yolks; 2, folds of the oviduct; 3, an egg in the shell-gland portion (uterus); 4, rectum; 5, the retroperitoneal fat storehouse; 6, the liver. Birds may have an inherited tendency to high egg produc- tion but by improper feed and no animal feed, as milk or meat meal, will lay poorly and hence molt early, whereas if they had been properly fed and given milk or meat meal or both, they would have laid more eggs and molted later. Therefore in culling care and feed must be. taken into consid- eration. Culling should be done in July and August. A METHOD OF JUDGING FOWLS FOR EGG PRODUCTION As Formulated at the Judging School held at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. July 1—6, 1918, and Approved by 108 POULTRY CULTURE the American Association of Instructors and Investigators in Poultry Husbandry. In order to lay well a bird must have a sound body, As a first consideration a bird must be vigorous and healthy if it is to be able to lay well. Vigor and health are shown by a bright, clear eye, a well-set body, a comparatively active dis- position, and a good circulation. Further, the bird must be free from physical defects such as crooked beak, excessively long toe nails, eyelids that over- hang so that the bird cannot see well, scaly leg or anything else that would keep the bird from seeing or getting an abun- dance of food. Loss of Fat Due to Laying.—Color or pigmentation changes. These should be observed by daylight. A laying fowl uses up the surplus fat in the body; especially it removes the fat from the skin. In yellow-skinned breeds this loss of fat can readily be seen by the loss of the yellow color. The different parts of the body tends to become white, according to the amount of fat stored in the body and the amount of circula- tion of blood through that part The changes occur in the following order: The vent changes very quickly with egg production so that a white or pink vent on a yellow-skinned bird generally means that the bird is laying, while a yellow-vent means a bird is not laying. It should be recognized that all yellow color changes are dependent on the feed, coarseness of skin, and size of bird. A heavy bird fed on an abundance of green feed or other material that will color the fat deep yellow will not bleach out nearly as quickly as a smaller or paler, colored bird. The eyering, that is, the inner edges of the eyelids, bleach out a trifle slower than the vent. The ear-lobes on Leghorns and Anconas bleach out a little slower than the eyering, so that a bleached car-lobe means a little longer or greater produc- tion than a bleached vent or eyelid. The color goes out of the beak, beginning at the base, and gradually disappears until it finally leaves the front part of the upper beak. The lower beak bleaches faster than the upper but may be used where the upper is obscured by horn or black. On the average-colored, yellow-skinned bird, a THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 109 bleached beak means heavy production for at least the past four to six weeks. The shanks are the slowest to bleach out and hence indicate a much longer period of production than the other parts. The yellow goes out from the scales on the front of the shanks first and finally from the scales on the rear. The scales on the heel of the shank are the last to bleach out and may generally be used as an index as to the natural depth of yellow color of the bird. A bleached-out shank usually indicates fairly heavy production for at least fifteen to twenty weeks. The yellow color comes back into the vent, eyering, ear- lobes, beak, and shanks in the same order that it went ‘out, only the color returns much more quickly than it goes out. A vacation or rest period can sometimes be determined by the outer end of the beak being bleached and the base being yellow. Body Changes Due to Laying.—A laying hen has a large, moist vent showing a dilated condition and looseness as com- pared with the hard, puckered vent of a non-laying hen. The whole abdomen is dilated as well as the vent so that the pelvic arches are widespread and the keel is forced down, away from the pelvic arches, so as to give large capacity. The more eggs a bird is going to lay the following week the greater will be the size of the abdomen. The actual size of the abdomen is, of course, influenced by the size of eggs laid and by the size of the bird. Heavy production is shown by the quality of the skin and the thickness and stiffness of the pelvic arches. Fat goes out from the skin and body with production, so that the heavy producers have a soft velvety skin that is not underlaid by layers of hard fat. The abdomen in particular is soft and pliable. The sternal processes are very prominent and are generally bent outward. The thicker and blunter the pelvic arches and the greater the amount of hard fat in the abdomen the less the production or the longer the time since production. One of the finer indications, but yet one of the most valu- able in picking the high layer, is the fineness of the head and the closeness and dryness of feathering. The head of a high layer is fine. The wattles and ear-lobes fit close to the beak 110 POULTRY CULTURE and are not loose and flabby. The face is clean-cut. The eye is full, round, and prominent, especially when seen from the front. The high layer is trimmer; that is, the feathers lie closer to the body, and after heavy production the oil does not keep the plumage sleek and glossy but the plumage be- comes worn and threadbare. Changes in Secondary Sexual Characters——The comb, wattles and ear-lobes enlarge or contract, depending on the ovary. If the comb, wattles, and ear-lobes are large, full, and smooth, or hard and waxy, the bird is laying heavily. If the comb is limp the bird is only laying slightly, but is not laying at all when the comb is dried down, especially at molt- ing time. If the comb is warm it is an indication that the bird is coming back into production. Molting.—When a bird stops laying in the summer she usually starts molting. The later a hen lays in the summer or the longer the period over which she lays, the greater will be her production, so that the high producer is the late layer and hence the late molter. The length of time that a hen has been molting or has stopped laying can be determined by the molting of the primary feathers. It takes about six weeks to completely renew the primary feathers next to the axial feathers and an additional two weeks for each subsequent primary to be renewed. A bird molts one feather tract at a time, usually alternate ‘tracts. A bird may grow feathers and lay, but does not lay while dropping feathers. All secondary feathers may be dropped at the same time, but this is not true of the primaries. Temperament and Activity——A good layer is more active and nervous and yet more easily handled than a poor layer. A high layer shows more friendliness and yet elusiveness than a poor bird. A low producer is shy and stays on the edge of the flock and will squawk when caught. KEY TO PHYSICAL INDEX METHOD OF JUDGING LAYING CAPACITY (AS WORKED OUT ON 8. C. WHITE LEGHORNS) Vent.—The vent becomes bleached after about 3 eggs have been laid. THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 111 Eyering.—The eyerine becomes bleached after the hen has laid about 5 eggs. Ear-lobes.—The ear-lobes are bleached after the hen has laid about 10 eggs. The ecar-lobe scores are as follows: Enamel white, 1; Light cream, 2; Light lemon, 3; Lemon, 4; Light orange, 5. Beak.—The base of the upper beak becomes bleached after about 15 eggs have been laid. The lower beak becomes bleached after about 20 eggs have been laid. The middle of the upper beak becomes bleached after about 25 eggs have been laid, and all yellow leaves the tip of the beak shortly after the 30-egg limit has been reached. Note: With pullets indoors getting no green feed, and with Leghorns in par- ticular, the bleaching will be much faster than where the birds run at large and secure plenty of green feed. Shanks.—Shank scores are as follows: Pink or white, 1; Cream, 2; Lemon, 3; Light orange, 4; Orange, 5. Note: The color will be laid out of the front of the shanks of a Leghorn when about 40 eggs have been laid, and of a Red when about 60 eggs have been laid. Black shanks will lose pink and be- come white and lose its shininess. Comb.—Comb texture scores are as follows: Oily, soft, and pliable, 1; Very pliable, 2; Slightly pliable, 3; Quite hard, 4; Dry, hard, and stiff, 5. Note: The comb is an expression of the ovary. The comb of a laying hen at the time of ovula- tion becomes filled with blood, congested, red, and oily, soft, and pliable, not coarse and pebbly, but with a certain degree of firmness and heat. As a hen takes a short vacation the tips of the comb shrink first. Molt.—Molting scores are as follows: Not molting, 1; Neck molt, 2; Body molt, 3; Wing molt, 4; Complete molt, 5. Abdomen.—In a non-laying hen the fat accumulates in the abdonimal wall and the wall becomes hard to the touch. As she again comes into laying the abdomen becomes soft and the skin becomes kid-glove-like in texture. The abdominal scores are as follows: Soft, 1; Hard, 2. Capacity.—As indicated by span from the sternum to the pubic bones: 5 finger’s breadth, 1; 4 finger’s breadth, 2; 3 finger’s breadth, 3; 2 finger’s breadth, 4; 1 finger’s breadth, 5. 112 POULTRY CULTURE Pubic Span.—As indicated by the space between the pubic bones: 4 finger’s breadth, 1; 3 finger’s breadth, 2; 2 finger’s breadth 3; 1 finger’s breadth, 4. Thickness of Ischium.—Score as indicated by thickness of bone: Thin, 1; medium thick, 2; thick, 3. Position of Lateral Sternal Processes.—Score as indicated by position of process: Tendency to be forced down and out, 1; tendency to be parallel to the long axis of the sternum, 2. Length of the Toe Nails—Short, 1; medium short, 2; long, 3. Disease.—Absence of disease, 1; presence of disease, 2. Laying Now.—As indicated by full, moist, flabby, large vent. Positive, 1; negative, 2. Estimate laying past year on above indications. Actual laying as told by the trap nest. Score Carp ror JupGcina ror Eca PRopUCTION ischium ster. processes | | | Vent Eye-ring | Ear-lobe | Comb Molt Abdomen Capacity Pubic span Thickness of Position of lat. Toe nails Disease Laying now Estimate Actual Beak | | | | Shanks Age Identifications——As a bird becomes older the scales do not lie so closely, have a tendency to become rough and possibly scaly leg develops, though the scab parasites may be contracted by the chick from the hen brooding it. There may be a loss of points of the comb due to freezing. Thespurs have a tendency to turn up with age. The degree of develop- ment of the spur is useful in estimating the age. Asarule the primary feathers, one each year, commencing at the axillary feathers, become shorter each year; however this is not always THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 113 accurate. The posterior point of the keel changes from cartil- age to bone and becomes less flexible as the bird ages. The pubic or ‘“‘lay-bones”’ also become less flexible as age progresses. The scale at the base of the toe covering the joint in the pullet is flexible, but not so in the old hen. The pads of the feet are softer in the pullet than in the hen. The expression of the face is a factor in telling age, the face of the old hen becom- ing wrinkled. Selecting for Meat Quality.—In all utility fowls the breast should be well covered with flesh. The bird should be strong, vigorous, and true to the type of the breed to which it belongs. The back should be broad with well developed muscles. A fattened bird with best meat qualities should have a kid- glove texture or feel to the skin. The skin should be thin, not thick and rough. A bird not bred for full breast or not fattened will have a rough harsh touch. There is a possi- bility of having too deep a breast; if deep it must be well covered ‘with flesh so as to make a plump appearance. A bird with a warped or sprung keel, one with knots and dents, should not be bred. Select birds with straight keel, with deep well covered breast bones. Avoid the deep prominent edge. The flesh should not be too hard. Observe the posterior edge of the ischial bone to determine for fatness. If the bird is fat this prominent point will show yellow and plump. A meat type bird has a thick pelvic arch with muscles well developed. The flavor of the meat depends largely upon the kind of feed upon which the bird is fed. A bird of 5 pounds’ weight is sufficient for a family of six. In a market bird the two most important points are fullness of breast and quality. JUDGING FOR UTILITY General Considerations.—Allow for standard shape, 50 points; for standard color, 50; for egg production, or for meat production, characteristics, 100; total score; 200. Pen.—When pen contains 1 male to 4 females allow one- half of score to the male, one-half to the females. When pen contains 1 male to 9 or 10 females, allow one-third to male, 8 114 POULTRY CULTURE two-thirds +o females. Uniformity should be considered. Individuals of same general shape, size, type, and color are always more desirable than a pen of good individuals but of different types. Size.—Preference to be given to birds medium to. large in size. Extremely small hens usually lay small eggs. Ex- tremely large ones not best layers. Highest producers usually medium in size. Disqualifications—Evidence of contagious disease. De- cided evidence of mongrel or cross breeding. DESCRIPTION OF MALE Condition—Good health and reasonably well fleshed. Ex- cessively pale, purple or yellow comb denotes poor health. Drooping tail denotes poor condition. Free from parasites. Carriage.—Slightly more erect than female as this is natural characteristic of male. Extremely erect not desirable. Activity, Intelligence, and Friendliness.—Active and busy. Elusive but not flighty. Tame and friendly when handled. Gallantry and Fighting Ability— Calling the females con- tinually. A good scrapper and crower. Head-shape.—Moderately fine, without over-hanging eyebrows or other signs of extreme coarseness. Loss of fat from the head not expected as in the female. The comb medium to large but not excessive in size. Body-shape.—Broad, indicating full capacity and vitality. A triangle from front to back but not excessively so. This desirable character may be transmitted to his daughters. Legs, Toes, Neck, Wings, and Tail.—Strong shanks well apart, indicating good vitality, and of fair length to give him free action so he can work and forage well. The nails fairly well worn, indicating that he has been scratching for food and calling the hens to eat what he could find. Neck and wings well proportioned. Tail carried according to standard re- quirements of the breed. Plumage.—Comparatively close feathering with due allow- ance for breed. The American and English classes naturally have looser feathering than the Mediterranean class. Loose THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 115 feathering with heavy layers of fat underneath the skin is indicative of meat type. Skin Texture.—Thin, soft, pliable, oily, and loosely fitting on body, indicating good condition and activity. No change in the skin color as in the female. FEMALE Condition.—Good health. An excessively purple, pale or yellow comb indicates poor health. Drooping tail denotes poor condition. Free from parasites. ‘Carnage.—High producers tend to carry body so that back is horizontal, not erect. Activity, Intelligence, and Friendliness.—Elusive but not flighty. Poor layers are sluggish or wild. Good layers are active, hunting for food, and are tame and friendly when handled. Head (Including Comb, Wattles and Ear-lobes).—Head and face fine, free from wrinkles and fat deposits. Not thin enough to give crow-headed appearance or indicating low vitality or sickness. Comb should be full and firm, prefer- ably firm enough to be waxy, an indication of heavy laying. It is usually pale red during or just following heavy laying. Medium to large in size as there is a certain amount of rela- tion between size of comb and size of the egg the hen lays. Wattles should be in proportion to the comb and well up toward lower part of beak. LEar-lobes should be full and smooth. Body.—Large enough for good capacity. Broad and deep enough to afford room for good sized digestive organs. A triangle from front to rear. Not excessively long. Legs, Toes, Wings, Neck and Tail—Legs well apart, sturdy but in hens thin and fine on the back side, denoting production. Plump on pullets. Toenails worn short by work, the length depending upon nature of henhouse floor. The wings should be held up well to denote production. The neck moderate in length. Excessively high tail a matter of breeding and undesirable. Tail liable to be pinched during laying period. 116 POULTRY CULTURE Plumage.—Varies according to season. Heavy layers are busy, hence feathers soon become worn. Preference to be given to late molting hens in the fall and early winter months. Pullets will become closer feathered as the body fat is used in ege production. Skin Color.—In varieties having yellow skin the color of the skin all over the body, especially vent, eye-ring, ear-lobes, beak, and shanks will indicate egg production by bleaching ‘out. The more they bleach or fade the greater has been the production. This color returns in the order named when laying ceases. Meat Qualities—In birds bred for meat production the breast should be deep and well fleshed out. The breast bone should be free from deformities. The skin should be soft and kid-glove-like to the touch. The pelvic bones thick with well developed muscles. The body should have good depth and length and well developed muscles giving an abundance of meat. The back should be moderately broad. MENDELISM Mendel first gave to the world the proved fact that anatomic units were characters inheritable. Altered anatomic units due to environment, that is, post- natal deviations, are not inheritable. Thus a dog’s tail may be cut off, but his progeny would not be tailless dogs due to the fact that their parent had his tail cut off. A cow may be dehorned, but her progeny will not be hornless due to the fact that their mother had her horns cut off. Tailless dogs and hornless cattle are originally ‘‘sports’’ and are readily ex- plained by the laws of Mendel. The Jews have practiced circumcision since time immemorial, yet they still find circum- cision possible. No better concrete example can be given than this for the Orthodox Jew is supposed to marry only within his own race. It was Weismann who first showed that the inheritable factors we may call unit characters are transmitted through the germ plasm. There remains little doubt, after his ex- haustive studies, but that it is the microscopic granules or micro- THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 117 somes composing the chromosomes of the nuclear network that transmit characters good, bad, and indifferent. In regard to reproduction it may be said that in mammals, where the young are parasitic upon the mother during the earlier stages of their growth, the egg or germ cells are minute (microscopic in size) and contain only a small amount of yolk, called deutoplasm, that enables them to reach the stage at which they develop the processes for attaching themselves to the wall of the mother’s uterus. In the bird the contents of the egg form the source of food or nutrients for the developing young and for more than seventy- two hours after emerging from the shell, and hence are very large in comparison to the size of the animal producing them. The sexual cells of the male are very small (microscopic in size) and are produced in the testes or male generative gland. The ova does not possess the power of movement while the male element or spermatozoa are endowed with active move- ment. In the bird they take the form of a long whip, with slender lash or filament. By aid of this flagellum they move about in any liquid they happen to be deposited in in search of the ova. In the reproduction of animals or plants there are two sexual cells. The female cell in the animal is called ovum and in plants ovule. The male element is called a spermatozo6n in the ani- mal and pollen (a grain) in the plant. These are known by a general term, gametes or marrying cells. The new individual is formed by the union or fusion (yoking together) of a male and female gamete and is called a zygote. Therefore the zygote is a double structure, in which com- ponents brought in by each of the gametes remain intimately fused in a form of partnership. When later this zygote in turn forms gametes this partner- ship is broken and the process is reversed. In other words, the component parts of the double structure are resolved, with the formation of gametes, into single structures. From this the life cycle of a bird may be divided into—Fursst, a period of isolation in the form of a gamete and living as a single unit awaiting the union with the gamete of the opposite sex to make possible further development; second, the period 118 POULTRY CULTURE of union of the two gametes forming the zygote and cell division and formation of a fully developed individual, and third, the separating out of the single structured gametes from the individual or double-structured zygote through its generative gland. Nature’s scheme of inheritance was first worked out on plants. Mendel crossed the tall pea (6 fect in height) on a dwarf pea (1.5 feet high), and, although each kind of plant had been proved to breed true to height, if they were crossed artificially, using either as the pollen parent, the other being used as the ovule parent, the result of crossing tall with dwarf was in every Pe) = Pent ts —__—_____——Fi Generatvon r ‘p 7D) D F2 Generation | Le (a5 a —— D F3 Generation | T TO TO) D T T)7TO) D | Ee D— F+Generation Fic. 41.—Mendel’s illustration of inherited characters: T is for dominant tall,-D is for recessive dwarf. case nothing but talls. This tall character, because it domi- nated, was called the dominant character. The dwarf charac- ter was called the recessive character. The progeny was the F, generation (Fig. 41). Seeds from this F, generation sown the following year gave rise to talls and dwarfs with no inter- mediates. This formed the F2 generation, the talls numbering three to the dwarfs one. From the F. generation the seeds collected from the dwarf recessive always produced dwarfs. On the other hand, the seeds of the talls, though in physical appearance indistinguishable, some bred tall and some pro- duced both tall and dwarfs in the usual proportion of three THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 119 of the talls to one of the dwarfs, and the number of talls that produced some dwarfs was two to one. The diversity of characters which followed the laws of trans- mission appears before our eyes every day in observing the progeny of birds we breed by the character produced in feather pattern—from the feathers and of comb. Mendel taught that in each gamete there was either a definite faculty for the production of a recessive character or a dominant character These he called factors. These factors, then, may be considered the unit characters which appear in the development of the zygote. Prose R+P Pea w w————F; Generation oS a Ww R ee S 9g 3 7 LeGeneration 3 Fie. 42.—Mendel’s chart showing the result of breeding various varieties of combs of fowl. R, Rose comb; P. pea comb; VW’, walnut comb; S, single comb. In our example above tallness in the pea would be considered a unit character, therefore the gametes containing this unit character contain the factor for the production of tallness. Thus, in the structure of the feather we find the shape of the common type feather formed by barbules holding together the barbs preserving the usual shape. In the silky fowl the bar- bules are absent, and the barbs without support are not held together and a silky coat presents itself. This silky condition is recessive. In the production of the proper comb the breeder is con- stantly battling in an effort to secure and fix the proper unit character or factor. Thus, experiments have shown that the rose comb is dominant in the ordinary way to the single comb, such as 120 POULTRY CULTURE possessed by the Single Comb White Leghorn, and it has also been shown that the pea comb is dominant to the single comb. Thus we see two dominants in the rose and pea combs. When a rose comb is crossed on a pea comb a new type is formed, that of the walnut comb (so-called because it resembles half of a walnut). According to Fig. 42, we will see that the F, generation, that is, the progeny of the rose comb and pea comb crossed on each other, produced four types of combs, as follows: 9 walnut, 3 rose, 3 pea, and 1 single. According to Punnett, these are always produced in this proportion. In the analysis of the above we conclude that the walnut comb contains both dominant characters, the pea comb and rose comb one dominant each, and the single comb as a pure for both recessive characters. The pea comb and rose comb factors are distinct and sepa- rate entities which, when combined, have an influence on each other in the zygote, producing the walnut comb which is not an intermediate between the two. When one of these factors are alone in the zygote its influence in the single comb factor is different; that is, producing a pea comb if a pea comb factor or a rose comb if a rose comb factor. The single comb is the form found in the wild jungle fowl, the Bankiva, which is said to be the ancestor of all our domes- tic fowl. If this be true the reversion to the single comb in the F, generation is easily explained. It is a reversion pure and simple, the recessive factor coming to the surface. This is considered as due to the association of two complimentary absences. Punnett found that by crossing a White Dorking on a White Silky fowl, both of which had been shown to behave as simple recessives to color, the F; generation consisted of colored birds; the F, generation consisted of colored and white, in the ratio of nine to seven. This is, in reality, the 9:3 :3:1 ratio as ob- served in a study of the crossing of comb characters. The 3:3:1 factors are indistinguishable because they cannot pro- duce visible effects without the co-operation of each of these section factors. Another excellent illustration is shown in the breeding of THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 121 the Blue Andalusian fowl. It is difficult to secure a slaty-blue color, with darker hackle and with dark lacing of feathers on the breast. The off colors are white splashed with black and blacks. By making a careful study in breeding these blues it will be found that there will always be produced one black, one splashed white, and two blues; the blues are heterozygous, and the splashed whites and blacks are homozygous, forms. If the whites are bred together they will be found to always breed white. Likewise, if the blacks are bred together they will always breed black, but if the blacks and white are bred together they produce nothing but blues; that is, the off colors breed twice as many blues as when the blues are bred together. Therefore the blacks and the whites are the pure breeds, while the blue is a mongrel who can never be bred so as to always breed true. There are a few instances where a visible distinction can be drawn between a pure dominant and a heterozygote. Certain white breeds, as the White Leghorn, in which white behaves as a dominant color; heterozygous whites, made by crossing the dominant white birds with pure colored forms, as the Brown Leghorn or even the Spangled Hamburg, almost in- variably show ticks in their plumage. This shows the white dominance is not quite complete in the White Leghorn Punnett suggests that the dominant white fowl may be a colored bird plus a factor which inhibits the development of the color. The Spangle in the Silver Spangled Hamburg is a gen- etic factor and is carried in the sex chromosome of the male. It follows the sex link of inheritance. MONOHYBRIDISM AND DIHYBRIDISM Mated pairs differing only in a single pair of characters are known as cases of Monohybridism. Where the original parents differ in two pairs of characters the case is termed one of Dihybridism. Take the case of a cross between the rose-comb Black 122 POULTRY CULTURE Hamburg and the single-combed White Leghorn. In this case the rose-comb is dominant over the single-comb and the white plumage is dominant over the black. Let the rose-comb be represented by R, dominant. Let the single-comb be represented by s, recessive. Let the white plumage be represented by W, dominant. Let the black plumage be represented by b, recessive. Then Rs X Rs = RR + 2Rs + ss, and Wb X Wb = WW + 2Wb + bb. i.e. when two hybrids are mated together the resulting pro- geny (on the average) is one like the dominant parent, one like the recessive and two with the qualities of both the domi- nant and the recessive, 7.e., in mating a white fowl with a black fowl (in cases where the white is dominant), the result will be one pure white (W), which will continue to breed white; one pure black (b), which will continue to breed black; and two white fowls, which carry black as a dominant or recessive quality. These two are hybrids, which will breed the same as their parents. What is true of white plumage applies to the rose-comb. Dihybridism.—In the cross between the Black rose-combed Hamburg and the White single-combed Leghorn we have a case of dihybridism. The average result of such mating will be shown by the algebraic formula (RR + 2Rs + ss) X (WW + 2Wb + bb) In working out this simple formula we may place the symbols multiplied, in any order, thus WR, which expresses the domi- nance of white plumage and rose-comb, is equally correct if put down as RW. If I wish to express the white plumage I put the W first, and the result is— WWRR WbRR WbRs bbRR WWRs WbRR WobRs bbRs WWkRs Wbss WbRs bbRs WWss Wbss WbRs bbss This shows that out of every 16 of the progeny there will be on the average 12 chickens with white plumage and 4 with THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 123 black, z.e., 3 white to 1 black. It also shows that of the 12 whites 4 will be pure, since each gamete is pure (WW), and 8, though white because white is dominant will carry black as a recessive (Wb). By the same table of symbols I find there are 12 rose-combs as Ris present in 12 cases, but only 4 pure, where (RR) occurs, and 8 impure (Rs), and that there are 4 pure single-combs (ss). If I tabulate for rose-combs it appears more simple as— RRWW RsWW RsWb ssW W RRWb RsWW RsWb ssWb RRWb Rsbb RsWb ssWb RRbb Rsbb RsWb ssbb The tables show me that I get 3 rose-combs to I single- comb, 3 whites to 1 black, and that taking both pairs of charac- ters together there will be out of every 16 chickens, 9 roge- combed whites, 3 rose-combed blacks, 3 single-combed whites, and one singled-combed black. A glance at the table will show me the proportion of chickens which will breed true, viz., those which are homozygous for both pairs of characters, e.g., RRWW will breed pure rose- combed whites, and RRbb will breed pure rose-combed blacks, ssWW will breed pure single-combed whites, and ssbb will breed pure single-combed black. If the 9 rose-combed whites are taken to breed together, on the average only 1 will breed true, designated above RRWW, 2 will throw a proportion of single-combed whites (RsWW). 2 will throw also rose-combed blacks (RRWb), while the other 4 will throw both single-combed whites and single-combed blacks (RsWb), as well as rose-combs of both colors. The awkward part for the breeder is that he is not able, with present knowledge, to tell which will breed true, from outward appearance, but has to test his breeders in these cases by actual experiments, except in the cases above men- tioned, for he knows, e.g., that the single-combed black will breed true. These results may be tabulated as below, showing both the outward appearance and the breeding qualities of each chicken, taking the first of the above lists in order— 124 POULTRY CULTURE | Outward Appearance No. Symbol |_ Breeding Qualities | Color Comb 1/*WWRR;| White |Rose | Will breed white rose-combs with no taint of cross. A new variety. Will breed } pure white rose-comb. 2} WbRR ‘ Will breed 4 pure black rose-comb. 3 WbRR | White” | BOS 1) seit breed 4. impure aphite hetero zygotes like parents. 4 |*WWss White [Single | Will breed white single combs only, with no taint of cross. 5 | WbRs | These organisms having both pairs of 6 | WbRs | White |Rose characteristics are dihybrids like the 7 | WbRs | parent stock, and will breed as rep- 8 | WbRs resented in this table. { These will breed white rose-combs | and white single-combs in the pro- 9 | WWRs : portion of 1 rose-comb white pure, 10 | WWRs | White: | Hise 1 single-comb white pure, and 2 rose-comb white heterozygotes like their parents (WRs). | These will breed white single-combs | and black single-comhbs, viz., 1 11) Whss |) .,. ; single-comb white pure + 1 single- 12 | Wbhss j White | |Single comb black pure 2 single-comb impure whites, represented by for- mula sW + 2sWb + sb. These black rose-combs will breed in the proportion of 1 black rose-comb 13 | bbRs_ |} Black |Rose pure + 1 black single-comb pure 14 | bbRs and two impure singe rose-comb blacks = bR + 2bRs + bs. 15 |*bbRR Black |Rose | Pure black rose-comb with no taint of cross. 16 |*bbss Black (Single | Pure black single-comb with no taint of cross. A new variety. *Those marked* are pure for both characters. The example of the Black rose-combed Hamburg with the single-combed White Leghorn has been worked out in such THE PROBLEMS 1N MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 125 detail to show the nature of Mendel’s discovery of the law of Gametic Segregation. It is one of the most marvellous of the discoveries of science that by means of this law the breeder is able to predict before- hand the result of mating his stock. He may take a pair of these cross-bred fowls, both white plumage and rose-combs, and knowing their pedigree, 7.e., their gametic heritage, can tell the number of rose-combs and single-combs of white plumage or black plumage which he will get. The gain to the breeder is enormous. Although the parents were hetero- zygous (¢.e. in common parlance mongrels), he gets four birds out of the sixteen, one-fourth of the group, which will breed true, viz., the rose-combed white (WWRR), the single-combed white (WWss), the rose-combed black (bbRR), and the single- combed black (bbss), and that of these four two of them, the (WWRR) and the (bbss), are new forms, new varieties, proof of the theory of Discontinuous Variation. These are marked with an * in the tabulated list. Mendel’s Theory Summarized.—‘Mendel discovered an im- portant set of facts, and he also suggested a theoretical interpre- tation—the theory of gametic segregation. As Mr. Bateson says: ‘The essential part of the discovery is the evidence that the germ-cells or gametes produced by cross-bred or- ganisms may in respect of given characters be of the pure; paternal type, and consequently incapable of transmitting the opposite character; that when such pure similar gametes of opposite sexes are united in fertilization, the individuals so formed and their posterity are free from all taint of the cross; that there may be, in short, perfect or almost perfect discon- tinuity between these germs in respect of one of each pair of opposite characters’” (Professor Thompson, Heredity, p. 347). “The essential feature of Mendel’s discovery is the segrega- tion in the gametes of the factors corresponding to the dominant and the recessive characters” (R. C. Punnett, Men- delism, p. 30). “The breeding pen is to us what the test tube is to the chem- ist, an instrument whereby we examine the nature of our organisms and determine their genetic properties” (Bateson). 126 POULTRY CULTURE This principle of gametic segregation and the modes of its action in the breeding pen I have endeavored to point out in the tabulated list. Each group of symbols represents a number of characteris- tics, sometimes containing both units of pairs of character- istics, e.g., WbRs represents that the fowl in question has the gametes for white plumage and black plumage, for rose-comb and single-comb, and possesses them in equal numbers. In the sperm-cell or egg-cell which it imparts it may give off a gamete representing white plumage (W) or a gamete representing black plumage (b), but not both at the same time, Z.e., not a gamete representing half white and half black. The gametes are distinct units. They are segregated, 7.e., divided, separated, one from the other. What is true of color applies in the same way to the comb, and also to other Mendelian characteristics, if present. As an illustration, it may be said that they lie side by side like the numerous sections or ‘‘quarters’’ in an orange, each contained in its own envelope, while the cell-like fruit within the segment may represent as many distinct units of many pairs, but not the two distinct characteristics of any pair. How this segregation of the gametes, which represent the dominant and recessive characters, takes place in the or- ganism is at present unknown, though it is not impossible that the further studies and researches of embryologists may discover it. What is important is the fact, proved by abundant experi- ment, that these two “potential unit characters” do segregate, and that the adult organism cannot have both. ‘Interme- diate forms or blends do not occur in Mendelian phenomena.” In describing the ratio of their transmission by hybrid organisins, the expression ‘‘on the average’? has to be used. There is no proof that they are given off alternately, though it is assumed that they are present in equal numbers. It is not to be taken as proved that the group of sixteen inheritances I have given will be present in the exact order in each sixteen of the offspring, though if the number be multiplied by ten it would be found that they would be very near the number - given, THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 127 Chance Fertilization It is much the same as in a game of chance. If there were ten sets of the table of sixteen placed in a lucky bag we should not expect the one (WWRR) and the one (bbss) to be drawn with each sixteen, although we know that there would be ten of each drawn by the time the one hundred and sixty tickets had been drawn. This is the common experience of breeders. It sometimes happens that the best birds of the year’s breeding come all at once, at some period of the season, while at other times they are fairly evenly distributed all through. It is like the game of whist. Each player knows that there are four aces in the pack, and that four out of fifty two cards are of this nature and are dealt every time. The average is absolute, but the individual chance of getting one ace each hand is uncertain. In an experiment there were bred a number of Rose-comb Buff Orpingtons. Both parents had rose combs, but there was produced a fair proportion of single comb chickens. These were the recessives, bred because one of the parents was a D.R. and not a pure dominant. The single-comb reces- sives were not bred together, but there were mated two single- combed pullets bred in this way to a pure single-combed Buff Orpington cock. In this case there was a pure single comb and a recessive single comb, which should have bred pure single combs, but the result was a third of apparently pure rose combs, and some of the single-combed chicks has side spikes, as if a trace of the rose-combed blood showed itself in the hinder part of the single comb. These rose-combed chicks continued to be bred from the single-combed progeny for two generations. This shows the dominance of the rose comb, but it also shows that the domi- nance may lie dormant in a recessive character, and when fresh blood is introduced may take the opportunity of a new combination to reassert itself. The recessive character may therefore be incomplete as well as the dominant; but the occurrence is so rare that the excep- tion may be taken as proving the rule. 128 POULTRY CULTURE List oF Dominant AND Recessive CHARACTERS IN POULTRY No Character Dominant Recessive Notes 1 | Comb Rose Single As Wyandotte or Hamburg, over any single-breed. 2 | Comb Leaf Single Cf. Houdan-Leghorn. 3 | Comb Rose Leaf 4 | Nostril Narrow, High low nostril nostril Shown in crosses with Polish, or 5 | Cerebral No hernia Hernia Houdan, and fowl like Minorca and hernia Game with normally shaped heads. 6 | Crest Crested Smooth All first crosses with Houdan or Polish head show traces of crest. 7 | Muff Muffling No muff Crosses with Houdan or Faverolles 8 | Beard Bearded No beard show diminished muffs and beards in the progeny, which segregate in F2, 9 | Ear-lobe Red White White is a new character, and red is difficult to breed out. The red eye is the ancient character 10 | Eye Black iris Red iris of the Gallus Bankiva, and though 11 | Eye Red iris Pearl iris recessive to black yet is a stubborn 12 | Eye Dark brown | Red iris recessive, and though latent con- stantly reasserts itself. Pearl is frequently dominant over red. 13 | Beak White Horn Both ancient colors. Sometimes one 14 | Beak Black Yellow is dominant and sometimes the 15 | Beak Yellow Horn other. Black the most dominant | character, then yellow. 16 | Skin color Black White White and yellow skin are both ancient. Cf. Silkie with black skin is dominant, Davenport. 17 | Skin color White Yellow £.g. Dorking over Indian Game, or Cochin. Cf. Cochin-Leghorn. Cochin 18 | Shanks Feathered Clean feathering has been bred out in the 19 | Shanks White Yellow Orpington, but still reappears, and the Dorking white has conquered the Cochin yellow. 20 | Shanks Black Yellow Black usually dominant, as breeders of Wyandottes and Leghorns know. But yellow sometimes dominates and has covered the Minorca cross in Black Leghorns. THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 129 List or Dominant aND Recessive CHaracTrers IN PouLTry. (Continued) No. Character Dominant Recessive Notes 21 22 23 234 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Shanks Shanks Hock Plumage Plumage Plumage Wing- coverts Shaftiness Hackle Pencilling Splashing Mottling Yellow Blue Plain White White Black Red Shaftiness Solid black Pencilled feathers Splash Mottle Willow Yellow Vulture Black Pigmented Red Other colors No shaft Laced Plain Plain Plain Both ancient. Willow too often re- asserts itself. Rose-comb Leghorn breeders with Hamburg cross will find this a crux, also Blue Leghorn if contaminated with Andalusian blood. In crosses with Asiatic (vulture- hocked) and Mediterranean breeds (Plain), the plain dominates and disappears much more rapidly than shank feathering. All colored plumage is more or less recessive to white, which is a new character, but black sometimes dominates and sometimes mingles to form ‘‘blue.”’ But frequently albinism results. Black is imperfectly dominant over red. Red wing-coverts are an ancient heritage from the Jungle fowl and Red constantly reasserts itself, e.g., Brown Leghorn, Buff Orpington. A fault in Brown Leghorns, Buff Orpingtons, etc., hard to eradicate. E.g., Silver Laced Wyandottes crossed with Black Rocks lose the laced hackle, and many laced birds throw black hackles. Black is imperfectly dominant. Said to be ‘‘a fundamental form of. coloration in the genus Gallus.’’ “A concentric repetition on the feather of alternating bands of the lacing and ground-color,” e.g., Partridge Wyandottes. Said by Davenport to be dominant, but is certainly incomplete, and can be easily dominated by black. E.g., when a white and a splashed or a mottled bird are crossed the mark- ings persist through them in a diluted form. 130 POULTRY CULTURE List or Dominant anD Recessive CHARACTERS IN POULTRY. (Continued ) No. Character | Dominant Recessive | Notes - i 32 | Tail Black Other Black pigments persists in the tail colors e.g., Cochin and Orpington), much more than in any other part of the plumage. It is an ancient heritage of the race. 33 | Tail Tailed Rumpless The Rumpies are modern and eccentric. Tail Tail Normal tail | £.g., the Yokohamas are dominant unlimited over normal tails. 34 | Color of Brown White When the Mediterranean breeds egg-shell (white-shelled eggs) are crossed with Asiatic (brown), the brown domi- nates, and the eggs are tinted. And the tinted egg is one sign among others of a cross, cf., Leghorn and Minorca eggs often tinted. 35 | Broodiness Sitting Non-sitting | Incomplete dominance until the ‘‘sit- ting’’ blood preponderates, e¢.g., a “sitting’’ Minorca or Leghorn is not reliable in its broodiness. }o- . LINE BREEDING, OUTCROSSING, AND INBREEDING Breeding together of sire and offspring, or of dam and off- spring, or of brother and sister, is inbreeding, or breeding in and in. That veteran breeder of pure-bred poultry, I. K. Felch, has to say of line breeding, ‘‘ deterioration commences the moment there is no change in the blood proportion in the chick with that of sire and dam. The accompanying chart (Fig. 43) shows the progeny of a single pair of birds, a male and a fe- male. It is possible to raise a thousand chickens from a single pair, retaining their health and vigor and egg production inherited by the original pair by careful selection and mat- ing of the progeny.” In the chart the dotted line represents the females as having been selected from the upper group, while the solid line shows the males as having been taken from the indicated upper group. Each circle represents the progeny. Female THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 131 number 1 is mated with male number 2, having produced group number 3, which is one-half the blood of the sire and dam. Females from group number 3, mated to their own sire number 2, have produced group number 5, which is three- fourths of the blood of the sire number 2 and one-fourth the blood of the dam number 1. Fre. 43.—The Felch breeding chart. Line breeding. A male from group number 3, mated back to his own dam, number 1, produces group number 4, or vice versa, which will produce group number 7, which is mathematically half the blood of each of the original pair, numbers 1 and 2. This is a second step toward producing a new strain. Females from number 8, mated back to the original male, 132 POULTRY CULTURE number 2, produce group 8, that are seven-eighths the blood of number 2, and a cockerel from number 4, mated back to the original dam, number 1, produces group number 6, that is, seven-eighths the blood of the original dam and only one-eighth the blood of the original sire. Again we select a male from number 8 and female from number 6, and for a third time produce chicks (in group num- ber 2) that are half the blood of the original pair. This is the third step and the ninth mating in securing complete breeding of our new strain. In all this we have not broken the line of sires, for every one has come from a group in which the pre- ponderance of blood was that of the original sire. Numbers 2, 8, 13 and 18 are virtually the blood of number 2. We have reached a point where we would establish a male line whose blood is virtually that of the original dam, and we mate with a female from number 4 and produce group number 9, which is thirteen-sixteenths the blood of the original dam, number 1, and three-sixteenths the blood of the original sire. Again we select a male from number 9 and a female of the new strain, number 11, and produce group number 14, which becomes twenty-one thirty-seconds of the blood of the original dam, thus preserving her strain of blood. A male from number 13, which is thirteen-sixteenths the blood of the original sire, number 2, mated to females from number 10, which are five-sixteenths the blood of the original sire, number 2, gives us group 17, which is nine-sixteenths the blood of the sire. While in number 16 we have the new strain and in number 18 the strain of our original sire, number 2, we have three distinct strains, and by and by, with this systematic use, we can go on breeding for all time. .By the accompanying chart it is easily seen that if one was to mate sire and dam from either of the groups 3, 7, or 11 there would be no change in the blood, and if we should continue these with their offspring for three generations we would find it difficult to hatch more than 3 per cent. laid by these three generations from either of the half-blood groups; for all that these 3, 7, and 11 groups are in main spokes in the wheel of line breeding. = ' THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 133 So long as we mate so as to create a group of half the blood each of groups 1 and 2, we have a reservoir of blood to mate back to the two lines of blood we have chosen for our line breeding. These groups are the invigorating well of blood that sustains our flocks for all time. When we create a pen of half-bloods in our own yards we have that which renews the energy and vigor of both numbers 1 and 2 strains, while if we go out of our flock for new blood it serves only to invigor- ate the one, being our male line, number 2. Our male line should never be crossed by sex, only as we would create a line representing number 1, or the female line as in our chart; where we used male birds from 6 and 9 to establish the strain of the females, we used in our first cross that produced group number 3. While we Have made three matings to produce the half- blood cross for numbers 3, 7, and 11, yet the blood in all three is identically alike, being half the blood of each of numbers 1 and 2, male and female. In all other groups the percentage of blood differs as per the amount we increase the blood of the two strains we employed. To line breed is simply, in all our matings, to get a prepon- derance of the blood we desire to maintain; we have produced these flocks to full blood of the sire in group 8 for the male line and in group 6 for the female line. If one wishes to preserve his flocks in one shape, color, and vigor, his line of sires should never be broken (see black lines of the chart). Let us suppose a cross were carelessly made. Suppose you mate numbers 15 and 17, and, being pleased with the chicks in 16, you again mate numbers 10 and 12, and again 9, 13, and 18, where would you be? Every chick would be half- bloods, and you are forced back to the old cocks or to intro- duce new blood to get you out of the trouble. The whole art of line breeding is to not make mistakes, and to keep each strain of family alone and to each year create a new reservorr of blood. Halpin’s inbreeding experiments show a rapid decrease in fertility and hatchability. The ratio ran as follows: Inbred first. generation, 67 per cent. fertility; second generation, 49 134 POULTRY CULTURE per cent. fertility; third generation, 41 per cent. fertility; fourth generation, 18 per cent. PEDIGREE BREEDING Meaning of Pedigree.—The pedigree of a fowl is its an- cestry. The term is also used to cover the record of this an- cestry. In this latter sense, the pedigree of a fowl shows the foundation stock of the breed that enters into his line of an- cestry, and then sets forth the various links in the chain of life, including all the various strains introduced by the use of new blood for certain definite purposes. What Such a Record Will Show.—A study of such arecord will often serve to explain cases of reversion to type, as, for instance, how a black feather now and then apy®ars in a white plumage, or blue or yellow legs where they should be white. Keeping an Accurate Record.— When once the principles of breeding have been mastered, and their importance thor- oughly understood, the next step is to apply these principles and keep a complete and accurate record of all the work done. A Descriptive Record of Each Fowl.—It is important to study each fowl in your breeding pens, point by point, and to write a full description of each bird somewhat as follows: 1. Name or number, sex, date of hatching, weight. 2. Head—size, shape, how held. 3. Beak—length, shape, color. 4. Eyes—color, expression. 5. Face—color. 6. Comb—diagram, kind, lopped or straight, size, color. 7. Wattles—size, color. 8. Ear-lobes—color, size, shape. 9. Neck—length, arch, color. 10. Back—shape, length, color. 11. Tail—length, angle, spread, color. 12. Shoulders—form, size, color. 13. Breast—breadth, depth, shape. 14. Wings—-size, setting, color of various parts, how carried. 15. Legs—length, size, distance apart, feathering and color of all parts from thigh to toes. THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 135 Value of Such a Record.—Such a record will help you in case you wish to make a sale, or a new mating, as you will 2 Ataze s Fig. 44.—Keeping pedigree records of eggs. Taking hen from nest, read- ing its number, marking number on small end of egg and recording date and hour egg is laid. not be compelled to examine a lot of fowls to discover just the one you want for a particular purpose. And you ean still further save your time by having a record 136 POULTRY CULTURE Fria. 45.—Incubating the pedigree eggs and leg-banding the chicks for identification. Upper tray testing eggs 7th day. THE PROBLEMS IN MATING AND IN EGG PRODUCTION 137 as to the pen where each bird is kept so that you can easily find it when wanted. This should be supplemented by exact notations as to the characteristics of each fowl, whether alert or slow, timid or assertive, a hustler, up early and late or sluggish. Trap Nest Records and Leg-banding.—The construction of the trap-nest is given on page 517. The daily egg record card on page 525. The individual annual egg and hatch- ability record on page 528, and the leg-bands on page 145. When the eggs are taken from the trap nest, the hen’s number is read and placed on the small end of the egg. On the eighteenth day of incubation all of one hen’s eggs are placed in a mosquitoe netting sack and the incubator closed till the hatch is over. When the hatch is over each baby chick is leg-banded and the number recorded together with the num- ber of the dam. The band may be placed around the leg, or it may be placed in the web of the wing or patagial duplicature. If the band is placed on the leg it must be loosened once a week as the chick develops. When the bird is nearly grown a permanent seal band may be placed on the leg. It is a good plan to leave the wing band on as this will give a double check on the bird. (See Figs. 44 and 45.) CHAPTER IV FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS BREEDING poultry on the farm has two objects in view— first, to bring a flock of mixed breeding up toa level of the better individuals of that flock and, second, to fix certain characters, such as large egg production. The purpose of selection is to prevent the hatching of indi- viduals not suited for production. In selecting we wish to fix the following characters: First, constitutional vigor; second, high fertility, third, high egg production; fourth, long-lived birds; fifth, early maturing; sixth, other varied characteristics the breeder may wish, such as feather pattern and standard requirements. Constitutional Vigor — While proper housing, feeding, incuba- tion, and general care help to conserve the health of the flock the above characters are inheritable. In inbreeding a consti- tutional weakness may be intensified, and the same as to other characters which are sought, hence great care must be used in selecting breeding stock and mating, and especially keeping uppermost in mind the defects one tries to breed out of the flock. The greatest manifestation of vigor and vitality are present only where the vital functions, as digestion, assimilation, circu- lation, respiration, and nervous functions, perform their work in a normal and efficient way. Under such conditions the highest type of vitality and vigor is manifested in the repro- ductive cells. If the hen producing the eggs for hatching does not receive the proper quantity of food, there is another chance that a chick of weak constitutional vigor may be produced. The embryo may die before hatching, or the chick may be weak and develop into an adult of low vitality and poor constitution. Evidence of sexual strength in the male is indicated hy his 138 { POULTRY PROBLEMS 139 Fie. 46.—A cockerel of weak constitution. Note the lack of vigor and development and attitude. Fic. 47.—A cockerel showing strong constitutional vigor. Note his head development, broad breast, and erect attitude. 140 POULTRY CULTURE great gallantry, persistence in crowing, challenge, fearlessness in fighting, and sidling strut before the hens. Heavy laying or high egg production does not decrease hatchability or livability. Ee Fig. 48.—Hen of weak constitution. and weak-appearing eye. [nn cee ene nage tree ae ip i ie Sh Fig. 49.—Head of hen showing strong constitutional development. The body of a laying hen is always in good condition, which indicates that the process of reproduction requires good diges- tion and assimilation. : FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 141 Egg Production.—It must be remembered that the happy hen is the laying hen, and that fright, improper food, damp, cold floor and yard, too cold, excessively hot weather, irrita- tion by vermin, internal or intestinal parasites, too close con- finement with no exercise, causing them to become too fat, or any other discomfort, will radically affect ege production. Not only this but the above conditions tend to lower vitality in both parent and offspring. It is the desire to have hens that lay a large white ege where we are selling to a market demanding this color shell, or a large Cee ee es Fic. 50.—Two chicks fourteen days old, one weak the other strong in constitution. The smaller one weighs 0.14 pounds and the larger 0.31 pounds. They were fed the ration given on page 332. Both were from the same breeding pen, eggs stored in the same storage tray, incubated in same incubator tray, brooded in the same brooder, and ate of the same ration. brown egg if we are selling where the market demand requires this color of shell. Mixed breeds or scrub breeds do not lay a uniform egg, which eggs do not bring the top market price, and the undersized egg likewise brings a lower price than the large egg. It is the desire that each hen lay a large number of eges each year. It is well to select those which have light pin-feathers and can be easily kept within the yards. Inselling dressed carcasses we find that the market looks with disfavor on the dark pin-feathers, and in some markets dressed car- casses with dark pin-feathers bring as much as two cents less than other kinds. Likewise, there is a difference of four or 142 POULTRY CULTURE more cents discrimination in most large markets in favor of the large white eggs as compared to the brown or mixed eggs. There is a relation between the size of the comb and the size of the egg. The size of the individual governs to a certain Fie. 51.—Showing the effects of cross breeding and the progeny of the breeding of the cross. (Buss.) extent the size of the egg; and the comb, an index to sexual development, governs the size of the egg. The Minorca has a large comb and lays a large egg. The Hamburg has a small FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 143 comb and lays a small egg. The Brahma has a large body and a small comb and lays a medium egg. Asa rule a bird that has a white ear-lobe lays a white egg and those with red ear-lobes lay brown eggs. Longevity is of the greatest importance, and there is no reason why the-average of active breeding, in both males and females, should not be at least five years. In selecting breeders one should look to the individuality of the bird, its ancestry; that is, it must be from a good strain for the purpose for which it is being bred, whether for egg pro- duction, dual purpose, or for meat. The character of the progeny must be taken into consideration; that is, if it has been used for breeding purposes other years. All hens and male birds should be put off not later than five years of age, and, if forced in laying, the probability is that three years will see their usefulness ended. As a rule, it may be said that eggs from hens make a greater hatch than those from pullets. Some experiments show 9 ‘per cent. in favor of hens. One- and two-year-old hens are preferable. That the chicks from hens are a trifle larger than from pul- lets is shown either by weighing the progeny at hatching or by weighing the eggs at the commencement of sitting. It is impossible to have a baby chick develop larger than the shell it develops in and larger than you have material for it to de- velop from, and pullet eggs always average smaller than hens’ eggs. Chicks from hens are stronger and have a greater con- stitutional vigor than those from pullets. As a result of these facts, we would expect a greater number of chicks to die coming from pullets as compared to hens. Records of the ages of birds on the farm can be kept by toe- punch marks; thus, the hatch of 1915 can be marked by means of a punch between the first two outer toes on the left foot, and the next year between the next two toes, andsoon. These holes can be punched with a punch made for the purpose or with an ordinary leather punch. Fig. 52 is an illustration of toe marking, which has often been told and illustrated. 144 POULTRY CULTURE Early Maturing.—The best period of egg production, as in- dicated before, is the first three years. In many cases the largest yield is during the first year. Quick growth means less cost of production of eggs as well as of meat. In rapid-maturing birds egg production comes earlier and is likely to be more persistent. The early layers are usually the heavy layers. As an egg machine the Mediterranean breeds, as the Leghorns and Minoreas, come closer to fitting ~M. M2 AN AN 2~ IV # MX A 2M WV %~ A A a/\ -\- 2# ASN AN e/\ My # AX A 6 fy /N # AN AD z/\ AX AN AD a/\y ~A # AN AD Fic. 52.—How to toe-punch baby chicks for the purpose of identifying them later. Sixteen different lots can be marked without duplication. the requirements, owing to the fact that they mature early and lay a white egg of good size. Leghorns hatched the first week in April, and properly cared for as to feed and housing as well as to sanitation, begin laying early in the fall, usually when they are about five to fiveand one-halfmonthsold. They will probably not molt till the following fall, whereas if hatched two months earlier they may begin laying in the summer while e are ch i i ie cheap and later go into a molt and cease laying for a FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 145 The larger breeds, as the Rocks, Wyandottes, and Orping- tons, should be hatched about two months earlier than the Leghorns and other light breeds, as it requires about two months longer for them to reach the same degree of maturity. 42S 25 BS mee ‘ Fic. 53.—A collection of leg-bands. These bands are used where it is the desire to obtain individual records of birds or as an ownership mark. Some are provided with colored celluloid with white rings in which the num- bers are black; others are aluminum and are adjustable, others can be sealed, that is, clinched like a rivet, others are celluloid rings. There are different sizes—thus one for Asiatic breeds, American breeds, Mediterranean breeds, pigeons, and baby chicks. Usually February and March is the best time to hatch the larger breeds and about the first week in April for the lighter breeds. 10 146 POULTRY CULTURE Some breeders make a practice of mating the cockerels that crow earliest, which they take to indicate early sexual ma- turity or development and constitutional vigor. In the lighter breeds that are naturally active, as the Leg- horns, Minorcas, and Campines, the male may be mated with a larger number of females than in the breeds that are more sluggish, as the Cochins, Rocks, Wyandottes, and Orpingtons. In the heavier breeds not more than eight or ten hens should be placed with each male, while in the lighter breeds as many as twelve to fifteen ‘hens may compose the pen. If the hens mated have been running with mongrel cocks, all spermatozoa in the oviducts of the hens should be dead by the 18th day, thus making it safe to save the eggs after that time. The fertility of the eggs from small and large flocks will reach a level of at least 80 per cent. by the sixth day, and that fertility rate should be maintained throughout the breeding season. Under ordinary conditions we should obtain a fertility of 80 to 90 per cent., and of those fertile eggs 80 to 90 per cent. should hatch. This is by natural incubation. If artificial incubation be employed, the percentage hatched may be from 15 to 20 per cent. less. Fertility rapidly declines after the removal of the cocks. It is not advisable to save eggs for hatching after the male birds have been removed from the pens five days. Cobb says, ‘‘Place a male bird among a number of hens, and in a short time you will find him surrounded by the layers and those on the point of laying, and if careful watch is made of his movements, you will observe that he pays special at- tention to those that are near him. This practice continues throughout the whole season; and as he becomes vigorous, his attentions are confined to the latest to commence to lay, and the older ones are gradually discarded. ‘““When a cockbird is given all the hens he can care for and kept with them constantly through the summer, fall, and win- ter, when the breeding season comes he is incapable of prop- erly fertilizing a goodly percentage of the eggs. Therefore the.cockbirds should have separate yards and compartments FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 147 after the breeding season and to within three weeks before the breeding season when matings should be made. “The eggs of a pullet are more pointed than those of hens and smaller in size.’”’ The first few pullet eggs are likely to be low in fertility. The economic importance of broody hens in time lost from laying is indicated by the following table compiled by the Conn. Agri. College. Number | Average ee eee ee Breed Ae a mumibe = ve be lost ey fost per | cent. broody D oni od basal ve Fa Plymouth Rocks.... | 129 56—43 | 2.9 19.3 56 24.3 Wyandottes........ 99 62—63 3.3 18.8 62 38.9 R. I. Reds......... 143 98—69 3.1 18.8 58 39.9 Leghorns.......... 345 33—10]} 1.5 21.6 32 3.1 Miscellaneous...... 100 58—58| 3.0 19.7 59 34.3 816 307—38) 2.9 19.2 56 20.9 It is not necessary to have a male bird or birds with the hens out of the breeding season, or those kept solely for egg production. The male bird has no influence whatever on egg production. The male has to do with fertility alone. Experiments have shown that just as many eggs are formed where no male runs with the hens as where male birds are constantly present. On the farm both breeders and layers should have free range of the fields nine months of the year. During the breeding season mature hens, preferably one year old or not more than three years old, should be selected and mated with proper males purchased for the purpose and which possess constitutional vigor. These birds should be mated not less than three weeks before eggs are to be saved for sitting purposes. At the end of the breeding season the male birds may be sold or kept in a separate enclosure and the hens turned out with the balance of the flock, 148 POULTRY CULTURE TURKEYS In selecting turkeys for breeding purposes one must take those with good-size bone in the shank, heavy weight, mature birds, and they must possess constitutional vigor and breed true to type. The turkey reaches maturity at the age of about three years. Birds two or three years old are most suited as breeders. Turkey hens give fairly good result when about twelve months of age. The turkey hen begins laying at about ten months of age. There are two laying periods during the year, at spring and at mid-summer. One mating is sufficient to fertilize a whole litter of eggs. The turkey hen shows that she wants to sit by remaining on the nest a little longer than usual. The nests should be 380 inches square. The nests are prepared on the ground with straw or hay. Sitters should be so placed that they can- not see each other. A barrel turned face toward the wall is a good nesting arrangement. Turkeys like to lay “away” when they are allowed range; they usually make their nests in thickets. On account of the fact that, at times, it is hard to make the hens lay in nests prepared for them, some breeders make a practice of shutting them in a room till noon. Others pen them during the breeding season. Unless the range is large the birds will not receive many kinds of feed, as bugs and green feed, unless these are carried to them in different forms each day. When a turkey hen is sitting she should always be attended by the same person. The number of eggs laid by a turkey hen will vary from 20 to 50. One large hen can cover as many as 25 eggs. One turkey hen can take care of about 25 poults. Turkeys are very delicate and frail till they are two months old. Cold, rain, dew and hot sun may prove fatal. The caruncles and fleshy part which surrounds the lower part of the head and throat develop at the age of two months. This is the critical time in the life of the young turkey. Dur- ing this time they must be kept in a warm, dry, clean place and have wholesome food, including buttermilk and green feed, FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 149 Turkeys do not need extensive and expensive housing facilities. The roosts should be put up under a shade tree and should be several feet off the ground. Turkeys roost on the limbs of trees, roofs of low buildings, and fences. During the day turkeys range over a large territory gather- ing bugs, worms, fruit, and in the fall acorns. Usually turkeys will come home to roost at about sunset. At this time supple- mentary feed should be given them in the form of a wet mash or a mixture of equal parts corn, oats, and wheat. Do not breed birds that are deformed, such as wry tail, crooked toes or legs, crooked back, blindness, lameness, or any defect or deformity likely to be inherited. It must be remembered that while the turkey breeders aim at large size, yet the popular market demand, which is gov- erned by the demand of the average American family, which is not large in number of members contained in it, is from 9 to 18 pounds. A bird larger than this is too large for the average family. One tom should be mated to not more than fifteen hens. A building 40 feet long, 15 feet wide, and 10 feet high will accommodate 40 turkeys. DUCKS In selecting ducks for brecding purposes one should take the most vigorous, best shaped, and heaviest. birds. By selecting the largest specimens to breed from the rapidity of growth of the young may be increased. The average weight of the young duck grown for the broiler market, if properly fed and cared for, should be about 6 pounds dressed at the end of eleven weeks. A drake is considered at his best the first two years of his life, while the duck should be over two years old for breeding purposes. There should be one drake to every four or five ducks. In determining the duck from the drake in the solid white, one will note that the drake seldom quacks, but has a harsh voice and is usually larger than the ducks. He is a trifle coarser’ about the head and neck, and has two feathers near the base of the tail which curl up toward the head. 150 POULTRY CULTURE GEESE In geese the gander may be used the first season, but the geese should not be used for breeders till after they are one year old. Their best breeding ages is from two to five years of age. One gander may be placed with two to three geese. Geese should be mated early in the winter, not later than the first of February. If mating is too long delayed the females may not lay any fertile eggs during the spring. When a goose walks around holding straws or bits of wood in its beak, it is a sign that laying time is near. The sitting goose should have grain, green feed, and water. GUINEA FOWLS Guinea fowls are natives of Africa. There is no fowl that needs less “given”? food than Guineas, or that needs less roosting accommodations. There are said to be about twelve breeds of Guinea fowls in their native country, but only one has been domesticated in this country. There are three colors of this one breed— namely, pearl, lavender, and white. Given suitable trees, the old birds will roost in the upper branches out of the way of vermin and are as good as any watch dog to give alarm. Guinea fowls are monogamous in their wild state, but the cock will successfully mate with two or three hens. The male birds are usually larger than the females, and have a peculiar habit of strutting about on tiptoe with the back arched. The wattles of the male are more prominent, and are inclined to stick out. The call of the female is much differ- ent from that of the male; the call of the male is a more shrill and chattering, a prolonged scream, while that of the female sounds more like ‘‘come back!” ‘‘come back!’ The hens usu- ally begin to lay at the commencement of April and lay con- tinually till the middle of August. The eggs are of medium size, brown in color, spotted with red and pointed. The hens seldom lay in the roosting house, but often select a‘nest in the open. The eggs should never be removed from the nest FARM POULTRY. PROBLEMS 151 while the birds are in sight, and two or three eggs should always be left in the nest, or the birds will probably seek a new one. Guinea-hens seldom become broody till late in the season. It is better to hatch early under hens. A medium-sized hen can cover as many as eighteen eggs. The eggs have a strong shell and are seldom broken in incubation. The young are strong on their legs and can run around when only a few hours old. Feed the same as baby chicks. Guineas are prolific layers and have a tendency to hide their nests in the field. The young are very wild and should be confined in a yard for a while. The Guinea eggs are of good flavor, but small in size. Guinea-hens are not good mothers, as they wander in the wet, dewy grass in the early morning. PIGEONS Pigeons breed by pairing off. Only those breeding should be kept in the breeding loft. A separate compartment should be arranged for the balance of the birds. Racing Homers.—The races consist of distances of 100 to 1000 miles. The old bird races are flown in the spring and the young bird races in the fall. The birds are put through a regular course of training. Then are kept flying around the loft one hour night and morning, besides being taken on numerous short training spins from 15 to 75 miles. This course of training begins about a month before the first regular race is scheduled. Two lofts exactly alike are maintained. One is used for the race team and the other for the breeders. Racing pigeons should be fed good sound grain, as much as they will eat up clean twice a day. Corn, buckwheat, kaffir corn and Canada peas in equal parts makes a good feed. The pigeons must be given clean drinking water in such a way that they cannot dirty it. They should have a bath pan set before them every two or three days, but it should be left before them only an hour or so, as they would dirty it and then drink the water. Squab Raising —Probably at the present time the improved Homer Carneéux and white King are regarded as the leading 152 POULTRY CULTURE Yo par Ee its Fie. 64.—A Red-chek Gitts hen. Owned by N. C. Exp. Sta. Points of a Homing Pigeon. 1, Top of skull; 2, cera; 3, eye; 4, back of skull; 5, neck; 6, hackle; 7, wing-bow; &, back; 9, rump; 10, tail, 11, flights; 12, vent; 14, aluminum message holder, 15, leg; 16, feet; 17, breast; 18, throat; 19, beak. z pate te eA es é ¥ a Fie. 55.—A pair of prize-winumg White King pigeons and their young. Owned by Mr. Rall. FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 153 birds for squab production. They are prolific, hardy, good feeders and mothers, and produces plump, sound squabs. The Carneaux tends to produce squabs of slightly greater weight than does the Homer. Crosses of the Carneaux and Homer are being tried out by some breeders with the hope of combining the prolificacy of the homer with the larger size of the Carneaux. Careful selection of breeders will go far in increasing the size of the squab. Age of Birds as Affecting Production——At the age of 214 to 6 years, the production of squabs is highest per pair of Fie. 56.—A pigeon loft and fly. Forty to fifty pairs constitute a unit. breeders. While they will mate and commence breeding at 6 to 7 months and are doing fairly good work at one year, the best years are those mentioned. On the other hand, birds 12 years old have produced 4 pairs of squabs per year, on the average, for a considerable sized flock. It is fairly safe to figure on 8 to 10 squabs per year for old birds and 11 to 15 for birds from 2!4 to 6 years of age. Housing—The general principles applying to poultry house construction apply to pigeon houses. The houses should be dry, provide for fresh air, sunlight, air drainage, be sufficiently large to permit the attendant to work conveni- 154 POULTRY CULTURE ently, and give space for the birds. Pens 8 by 8 to 9 feet and 6 feet high, will hold from +40 to 50 pairs. The side-line squab producer can utilize a small building, an upper floor near a window, or two piano boxes placed together. The single long house may be of the shed roof type, about 14 feet wide with a 3-foot alleyway at the rear or at the front. If at the front, boxed-in outlets leading over the alleyway are necessary. A door into each pen is an advantage. Both glass and muslin are desirable in the front. It will be much cheaper and undoubtedly as efficient, to build a wide, gable roof house, 22 feet wide or thereabouts, having a 3-foot alleyway through the center and doors opening intoeach pen. This type of house should run north and south. The flies should extend away from the building on either side. This should be as wide as the pen and about 24 feet long by 8 feet high. This size is sufficiently large for 50 pairs of birds, is a convenient size for saving waste of lumber, and is low enough to allow ease of catching a bird in the fly. A tread board 6 inches wide is usually placed along the side of the fly. The roof may be of matched boards covered with paper. The sides and back should be warmly constructed. Founda- tion walls and floor of concrete are giving excellent satisfac- tion. The ease of cleaning and the safety from rats and mice make it a very desirable investment. Interior Fixtures——Until the plant is sufficiently large to warrant the use of an automatic water supply, the water must be given fresh two or three times per day, depending on weather conditions. Small fountains, self-feeding, with the sides flaring out over the edge of the drinking dish, protect the water from becoming contaminated. A feed pan or box should be in the pen, as it seems more desirable to feed in a pan or trough than to scatter on the floor. Bath pans about 2 feet in diameter and 4 inches deep should be provided. The nests should be simple in construction and easy to clean. The inside dimension of the nest should be about 12 inches square. Two nests are required for each pair as the FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 155 birds frequently brood eggs while rearing a pair of squabs in the other nest. A simple method of nest construction is to place a 12-inch board from the floor to the ceiling with one edge against the rear. The 12 inches away on either side place boards 18 inches wide, ina similar way. Cleats may now be placed on these boards the required distance apart up and Fig. 57.—By having each front painted differently the pigeon always knows his home. The nests should be 12 inches * 12 inches 12 inches. down. Boards 18 inches long and 12 inches wide, are now eut to slide on these cleats. A strip 12 inches long and 2 inches wide is nailed on the sliding board 6 inches back from the front, which brings it flush with the 12-inch upright board just erected. This method of constructing provides for each pair two nests which are not connected with the 156 POULTRY CULTURE others. When cleaning the slide is pulled out, the nest or manure scraped off, and the slide put back. This proves to be an efficient nest. Nest-bowls may be used. These should not be over 9 inches in diameter. They should be of wood and not earthen ware. Feeding.—A wide variety of grains may be fed. All of the ration consists of grains, grit, shell, charcoal, and salt, no mash being fed. While it is possible to use several combina- tions of grains which may give results in the growth of squabs, the following has been found to give satisfaction: Cracked corn, 33 per cent.; red wheat, 25 per cent.; kafhir corn, 25 per cent.; split peas or lentils, 10 per cent.; rice, 5 per cent.; hemp, 1 per cent.; and millet, 1 per cent. This ration is varied according to the prices; and peanuts, hulled oats, buck- wheat, barley, rape, vetch, and about any kind of grain, may be used. White wheat is not considered as good as red wheat. Other rations for pigeons: Cracked Corie. csp eres-ce ys oR ee pe Bees 45 parts WIR CA tae cocci: 3.54 ce tre ters de aia aueds Saeed wats s 45 parts Canads Peas... cna cie ea eca ede mennhouae aa 10 parts MO tall, ziae x36: (enua!s noms Se a eapin’d oo ARE Rae 100 parts Cracked: CORE. 254 69S ack ones Peak dave dHeede 45 parts WIRSA Bos ie ce .teihi ccatdoie dd ek Gh banished sages tech dane ok 45 parts Cracked peanutsss esa eceds ee sacemaseeieed 10 parts Do talas dag Gh Aucde a hee hh OP Aha eae one Re 100 parts Ciacked: Cries xc oscgaereeg ue ee fig ahaha 25 parts AGAMT COMM ase v iy ox ke eahauhionvugaebn duende, 25 parts WiheatouGds tase oS se ke ee pean sae ne cee eee 25 parts Bread crumbs............0..00.0 0000005 25 parts Totals pic wiwe eee ae Ad eet eased oe 100 parts Wheat ccs yseeeek oe Seb hes Wee dee eee 40 parts Henip RCC <0:5 ase ede nance Ee ew home bs 10 parts Cracked) COR 532s a8 tos alba oO Seal Rac ek 10 parts Buckwheaiten cox edek anos eee o2oe5 ... 10 parts AGTH COMM. 5 fais se 88d en San ee oe eR 10 parts Canada P6883 shone es da ke ew seer e ee x es 10 parts Millet seed... 2.2... 0.20.0 00.00... ... 10parts Totalatcwn di sed eee aaks .... ... 100 parts FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 157 The grain is fed in the morning and afternoon, and enough given so that it is about cleaned up in 114 to 2 hours, Only clean, wholesome grain should be fed. Small hoppers of grit, charcoal, oyster shell, and salt are provided. Some breeders use a health grit, which i is a mixture of shell, grit, salt, and other substances, and which is much relished by the pigeons. Special care must be paid to the feeding as the old birds go directly to their young and food is transferred from the crop of the old bird to that of the squab, through the mouths. For the best results, it is necessary that sufficient feed be given at regular feeding periods. Pen Management. Pairs per Pen.—About 50 pairs per pen seem to be a good working unit. Nest Material.—A slatted frame with removable top may be: placed against the side of the building. This should be kept filled with cut straw 8 inches in length. The mixture should be about half and half. The birds make their own nests. Selecting Breeders.—It is not a good policy to select the largest bird from a pair to save as breeders, as by so doing, a larger percentage of males is likely to result. A better way is to save only from those nests which contain two large, well developed squabs. By selecting for size, shape, and strength, any breeder can improve the type of market squabs. Plum- age color may also be a factor, although some pigeons, as e.g. the Homer, come in many different colors. Mating.—As these squabs are selected, they are banded with an aluminum band and placed in a pen along with other youngsters. Here they continue their development and even- tually mate and breed. Careful watching should be kept and when a nest with eggs is discovered, the birds should be trapped. The male bird broods the eggs from 10 a.m. to 4 or 5 p.m., and the female the rest of the time. Making use of this fact, the breeder is able to determine the sex. When a bird is caught it is banded with a colored band, the male on one leg and the female on the other. It is but rarely that brother and sister mate, as they are in a pen with 50 other unmated pairs. The aluminum band placed on at the time they were selected shows whether they are related or not. 158 POULTRY CULTURE In case it is found that this sort of mating has occurred, they are placed in different pens and mated again. Inbreeding is not desirable. Pigeons as a rule are monogamous, and are faithful to each other until death. It is this fact which makes it possible to keep so many pairs in a pen and have them work successfully. Occasionally a bird will be untrue and cause a great deal of trouble in the pen. This bird should be removed and either disposed of or forced mating applied to. Forced mating consists in placing a male and female in a coop with a wire partition between, and leaving them there for from 6 to 10 days, then letting them go together. If they appear properly mated they may be placed in the breeding pen. Banding—Colored leg-bands show at a glance the mated pairs in a pen and are convenient in many ways. For a pen of 50 pairs, 50 color combinations are used, each mated pair wearing a certain color, the male on one leg and the female on the other. It is a simple matter to enter a pen and pick out a mated pair when banded in this way. Records.—If it is desired to know the color markings of a pair, a sheet may be ruled off for each pen, males on one side and females in the corresponding space on the other. A key of letters showing the color markings may be made, and as a par are mated and put in their permanent pen, their band colors and key letter showing the color is entered in the re- spective space on the sheet. If at some future time there is a prospective sale of a pair of a certain color, the chart will give the color of each bird in the pen and save considerable time. Baths.—Baths should be given at least three times per week in summer and on warm days in winter. The bath pans are filled and left for an hour, during which time the pigeons bathe themselves. The bath is essential for maintaining the health of the birds. If the flies can be constructed over run- ning water, the labor of preparing the bath and emptying the pans may be dispensed with. Cleaning—The old nests should be removed at weekly intervals. ‘Any wide, flat piece of metal with a handle is very FARM POULTRY PROBLEMS 159 efficient in scraping the type of nests previously mentioned. The floors should be cleaned monthly. _ Killing, Cooling, Packing, and Shipping —The period of incubation of pigeon eggs is about 17 days, and the squabs are ready for market at about 4 wecks of age. When the body feathers under the wings are just past the pin feather stage, squabs are ready to kill. At this time they have no pin feathers and pick easily. If they are left a few days longer, they will be flying, which is not desirable. Squabs should be collected in the morning before feeding the old birds, as this insures empty crops and leaves them in better condition for killing. From 18 to 22 squabs may be dry picked in an hour. The feet are slipped into a wire which is bent to hold their legs apart. The neck may be held by one finger while picking. As this is likely to prevent free bleeding, a better method is to fix a small can with a sharp prong on the inside of the can over which the beak is hooked. This stretches the neck out, holds the squab, and the can catches the blood. ree bleeding and clean picking is desired by marketmen. White-skinned squabs are worth more on the market than those with dark skin. A killing room is desirable where much killing is to be done. A cement floor which can be cleaned readily, and removable cans, boxes, and shelves for holding the squabs, are important. After the squabs are picked they may be hung in a cool place or placed in cold water to cool. Squabs may be shipped in egg cases or other carriers. An egg case will hold 10 dozen squabs without ice. During warm weather a layer of ice (cracked) is placed on the bottom, then a layer of squabs, followed by more ice and squabs. Barrels are used with good results. Express shipments should be made. Special rates may be obtained in certain cases from express companics on squab shipments. Prices of Breeders and Market Squabs.—Prices for breeders usually run from $1.75 to $2.25 per pair according to age. Marketmen like a heavy squab, and the prices vary from -- 50 to 75 cents for culls to $5.50 or $6.00 per dozen for 10 and 12 lb. squabs. Prices are usually sent weekly by the commis- sion men to those having squabs for sale, if requested. Business 160 POULTRY CULTURE is conducted on a 5 per cent. commission basis. Prices are quoted on 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 lb. squabs. The live poultry markets usually furnish a better market for the squabs of inferior quality. Live pigeons are shipped in baskets or in crates, with self- feeders and water cups attached, and a supply of feed suffi- cient to last the birds the entire trip. With this arrangement birds can be shipped any distance and arrive at their destina- tion in first-class condition. CHAPTER V HYGIENE AND SANITATION WATER Rain is the original source of all water. The water from wells, deep and shallow, springs, and rivers all come from the clouds. When rain descends it drains from the watersheds to brooks, which make rivers, or percolates through the ground, or evapo- rates. The amount of water that will percolate through soil de- pends on the porosity of that soil, and upon the slope of the ground as well as the time of year. The amount of water that evaporates from the surface of the soil depends on the time of year and the temperature of the atmosphere. A dry, warm air absorbs water from moist sur- faces rather rapidly. Percolation occurs more rapidly in sand and gravel, where the percentage may run as high as 90 per cent. of the rainfall upon it. Red sandstone may absorb or percolate 25 per cent., while magnesium limestone may percolate as much as 20 per cent. Water which percolates through the soil again returns to the surface by wells and springs. As the water percolates through the soil and follows the cracks and fissures of the rock it absorbs carbon dioxid gas from the air, which aids in its erosive and soluble action in dissolving mineral matter. The original water as it reaches the earth is free of any mineral matter, and is termed “soft water.”’ After reaching the earth the absorption of considerable lime-salts causes the so-called ‘hard water.’ Springs are surface outlets of underground water. The 11 161 162 POULTRY CULTURE amount of water coming from such a spring depends on the rainfall and upon the collecting area. An inch of rain delivers a little over 414 gallons on the square yard surface, which is 101 tons on each square acre. In falling during rainfall the water absorbs the impurities of the air which, in certain manufacturing communities, may be nitrous or nitric acid, ammonia salts, sulphurous acid, and products of combustion of coal and other combustive prod- ucts used in generating power. The first rain that falls contains more of these products or impurities as well as bacteria. Water collected in large lakes or reservoirs or ponds is attacked with vegetable growth on account of the organic matter contained in the water, which organic matter has been gathered from the watershed during the rain and drainage. The vegetable growth appears as a green scum. Most vegetable matter of this kind is not poisonous, though in India a poisonous kind has been found. Vegetable growth has a tendency to purify the water, as it utilizes the organic matter the water contains. River water usually contains more impurities than pond water. It is common practice for cities and private individ- uals to empty sewage and to dispose of other waste matter by aid of the rivers. Often rivers are polluted with germs of disease and form one means of spread of contagious diseases. Wells are classified as shallow, deep, and artesian. These form a source of pure water-supply, provided they have not become polluted through soil seepage. One of the sources of pollution of shallow wells and springs is cesspools and barnyards, as well as outdoor privies. The impurities found in water are of two kinds—namely, inorganic and organic. The inorganic impurities are the salts of metals. Inorganic material may gain entrance into the water by passing through pipes, canals, from river beds, from watersheds, from irrigation ditches, and by percolation through soil and over rock. The inorganic impurities depend upon the geologic forma- tion. HYGIENE AND SANITATION 163 The organic impurities are animal and vegetable substances. Water will be so contaminated if it comes in contact with animal excreta or animal refuse of any kind, including dead animals and bowel discharges. In percolating through the soil the earth acts as a filter and there is a tendency to purify polluted water There is a con- stant oxidation, by aid of germs, of all kinds of organic matter on and in the soil. Water from cultivated lands is usually very impure on account of the large amount of organic matter gathered from it. Certain diseases are said to be water-born, that is, the germs causing the disease gain entrance into the water, and fowls drinking the polluted water may become inoculated and con- tract the disease. A bird may die of cholera and be thrown into the stream or close to the stream, so that seepage in time of rain may carry the contagium into the water and thus form a source of danger; or drainage from a yard containing in- fected droppings from birds with cholera or other contagious bowel diseases may find its way into the stream, and this contaminated water may pass for miles down country and other fowls consuming the germ-laden water may contract the disease. As a rule, it is considered that germs of disease do not live indefinitely in the water, but after a while die. Puddles of polluted water in the barynard or hen yard may contain embryo of intestinal worms or harmful germs. Moist places are favorable locations for the preservation of the em- bryonic worm outside the body, awaiting a time to be taken up by a susceptible bird. : AIR Pure air is of the utmost importance to successful incuba- tion brooding, and to any class or age of birds. While the bird may do without water and food for hours, or even a day, it must have a constant supply of fresh air. Polluted air soon makes an alarming change in the organism. Since the living processes are going on in the animal body every minute, and even every second, it must be remembered that this means a 164 POULTRY CULTURE constant tearing down and building up, which means a con- stant supply of oxygen from the air by way of the lungs and the circulation and a return of a poisonous gas, carbon dioxid, by the reverse route, lest the bird dies of oxygen starvation and carbon dioxid poisoning. The body then is a great oxidizing apparatus and must have a constant and abundant supply; hence ample ventila- tion of all types of poultry houses is imperative. Air is a mechanical mixture of three gases—namely, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxid, with traces of other gases, as ozone, ammonia, argon, and bacteria, and other impurities that chance to be floating in the air. The usual accepted formula of air is as follows: Nitrogen ...... DK. eeu een eee 78.00 per cent. ORV PEW di aided dob Rese ates 20.96 mn ATCOMeioavesdeeckees, se eaca’s 1.00 oh Carbon dioxid................ 04 ce 100.00“ Air has a tendency to be purified by washing in time of rain. Plants utilize the carbon dioxid from the air as plant food and is used in the construction or building up of starch in the plant, and in return the plant gives off to the air oxygen as a by-product in this starch construction. Since oxygen supports combustion in the body it is a con- stant and essential element. When the air contains as great an amount of carbon dioxid as 5 to 10 per cent. it becomes poisonous, hence ill effects in improperly ventilated brooder houses and incubator rooms, as well as rooms for other kind of birds. The earth contains two hundred and fifty times more carbon dioxid gas than the atmosphere. During dry, dusty, and windy times there may be consider- able organic and inorganic matter in the atmosphere. These dust particles contain germs, some of which may be germs of disease, and this is one way contagious diseases are spread. The infected dirt particles are blown from an infected yard to other premises by the wind. HYGIENE AND SANITATION 165 To summarize, the impurities of the air may come from the respiration products of man and animals, by decomposition of organic matter, by various offensive trades, as copper smelt- ing, alkali works, smelters, and by combustion of gas, coal, and artificial lights. CoMPOSITION OF ExprreD AIR N O CO. Expired air.......... 79.01 16.02 4.38 RESPIRATION The organs of respiration in the fowl are the nasal passage, larynx, trachea, lungs, and air-sacs. The lungs occupy the thoracic or chest cavity, pushing out between the ribs, leaving only a thin muscular wall between them and the skin. The process by which the lungs are filled with air is known as inspiration. The process by which the air is forced out of the lungs is called expiration. The fowl is provided with six air-sacs, as follows: two at the anterior portion of the thorax, two at the posterior border of the same, and two rather long and large sacs, called the abdom- inal air-sacs, which lie along either side of the abdominal cavity. These communicate with the lungs. In addition to these, in the birds of flight there are air spaces in the larger bones, as the femur and humerus. Before the air reaches the lungs it is normally warmed by passing through the nasal cavities, but air may pass through the mouth into the lungs; thus, in excessive body temperature as in hot weather the body temperature is lowered by the bird holding its wings out from the body to give a chance of greater cooling surface (the action of the atmospheric air against the skin capillaries), and by opening the mouth, and by rather short, quick pants, which rapidly changes the air in the lungs, thus through the watery vapor and cooling the temperature is lowered. In this latter process the air is not warmed by the nasal passage before entering the trachea to the lungs. The anterior nares are small and are immovable, hence the volume of air cannot be increased through that channel. The nasal 166 POULTRY CULTURE chamber is divided into two parts by the turbinated bones, whicb are very thin and rolled like a coil of paper. It is probable that the sinuses of the head (infra-orbital and nasal) furnish a large mucous area which warms the air to a certain extent before passing into the long trachea (windpipe). There are certain changes that take place in the air that passes into the lungs. It was seen from the above discussion of air that it consisted of 20.96 volumes of oxygen, 78.00 volumes of nitrogen, 1.0 volume argon, and about 0.04 volume of carbon dioxid. The carbon dioxid, as shown before, is an impurity in the air. It is essential to plant life, but poisonous to animal life when in concentrated quantities. The air is spoken of as dry or saturated, depending upon the amount of watery vapor it contains. Dry air contains about 14 of 1 per cent. watery vapor. When air passes into the lungs oxygen is absorbed from it by the capillaries of the air tubules. In return for this there is given off to the atmosphere carbon dioxid, a by-product of combustion in the body. The volume of carbon dioxid given off is slightly less than the amount of oxygen absorbed. Expired air is warmer than inspired air and is saturated with watery vapor. The blood is composed of plasma, an unorganized body or liquid in which floats the organized constituents of the blood. In the fowl these organized bodies or cells are the red blood-cells, the thrombocytes, and several types of white blood-cells. The oxygen from the inspired air is absorbed through the wet membrane, the capillary wall, into the blood-plasma, from whence it is absorbed by the hemoglobin of the red blood-cells. The oxygen forms a loose chemical union with the hemo- globin, in which form itis known as oxyhemoglobin. In this form, through the blood-vessels, the cells laden with oxygen are carried to all tissues of the body, where through the single- layered cell capillary wall oxygen is given off to the cells of the tissues through the laws of diffusion of gases, thus the oxygen is enabled to support combustion in the body. A forced cessa- HYGIENE AND SANITATION 167 tion in respiration means immediate oxygen starvation and death. It is a continuous process, never ceasing a minute or second till death of the bird. Such cessation and death by shutting off the air-supply is called asphyxiation. The pressure of the carbon dioxid is lower in the systemic capillaries than in the tissues, and the result is that there is a constant diffusion through the capillary walls into the blood- plasma, as the carbon dioxid is formed in the tissues through combustion processes. The carbon dioxid thus passing into the blood-plasma is carried to the lungs, where the venous capillaries which are spread out, forming a network on the surface of the lung tubules, allows it to diffuse through into the air and is gotten rid of from the body. It is possible that the sodium carbonate of the blood unites with the carbon dioxid in the blood-plasm, thus aiding in its transportation. When birds are shut in a close coop or room, that is, one without proper ventilation, so that there may be a proper exchange of fresh air for the birds in the room, they will breathe the air over and over again, and there is a gradual loss of oxygen and an increase in the carbon dioxid content. If the amount of oxygen falls from 20 per cent., the amount normally in the air, to 11 per cent. there is noted distressed breathing, and when it falls to 4 per cent. there is rapid asphyx- iation and death. Respiration is presided over by the nervous system. The respiratory nerve-center is located in the floor of the fourth ventricle in the medulla oblongata (at the base of the brain). Excessive bodily temperature or exertion causes accelerated respiration. The fright caused in handling birds is sufficient in most instances to more than double the number of respirations. VENTILATION The object of ventilation is to supply pure air to the lungs, to dilute and remove from the hen house the noxious gases off from the lungs and from the fluidy portions of the excreta or droppings evacuated from the bowels. It is not considered ventilation if the incoming air is derived 168 POULTRY CULTURE from a contaminated source. It is essential that pure air be supplied. In ventilation we have three factors to consider—namely: 1. The amount of fresh air required. 2. The method by which fresh air can be supplied. 3. The method of examining to determine whether ventila- tion be sufficient. aearee LI Paper Ship Lap Fig. 58.—Diagram showing currents of air through a poultry house. The air entering at a passes under the dropping board and above the dropping board at b and g, but no draft strikes the birds on the roosts at f. Theair passes through the house as indicated by the arrows and out at c.. For cold climates it is desirable to have a front drop curtain immediately in front of the birds and at the front of the house, as indicated in the drawing. The curtain material must allow of the passage of air through it. The amount of fresh air required by average size fowls is 8278 cubic feet per thousand pounds live weight each twenty- four hours. Russel estimates that an average sized fowl breathes about 1.2 cubic feet of air per hour or one foot per minute. Each bird should be provided with ten cubic feet air space. Geese and turkeys should have 40 cubic feet per bird. There is a method whereby a physical test may be made to fairly accurately arrive at the amount of carbon dioxid that is HYGIENE AND SANITATION 169 present in the air. The test is as follows: The sense of smell is immediately recorded upon entering a building from the out- side. If no sensible difference in smell can be determined, Fra. 59.—1f a house be constructed as indicated the vitiated air would rise at the highest point in the house, which is at c, and unless provided with a ventilator would stagnate there. With the ventilator the air enters the house at a (an open front), passes backward over the roosts at 6, and takes an upward course and out the ventilator at e. ——« ! | b 2 | Fig. 60.—The half monitor is a good building from a hygienic standpoint. The air enters the open front at a and passes backward to the roosts at d, and the vitiated air being lighter rises and passes out at e, and some cur- rents, taking the course indicated by f, pass out the upper part of the open front at a. the inside air smelling as fresh as that outside, the amount of organic matter is at its Jowest point, and such air is given on analyses 0.6 per thousand or per cent. carbonic acid; that is, 170° POULTRY CULTURE 0.2 per thousand added to the already 0.4 normally existing in the air. It has been determined that the greatest amount of carbonic acid that can exist in the air without impairing the “freshness’’ is 0.2 per thousand. If the air smells rather close of respiratory impurities it is 0.4 per thousand. If the air is close then the impurities are recorded as 0.6 per thousand. If very close, that is, offensive, the carbonic acid present ds Leaman J WEES 3 a a ~ Cat Fic. 61.—A small open front colony house. Plenty of fresh air is essential in successful poultry culture. recorded as 0.9 per thousand. The smell cannot differentiate beyond this degree. A poultry house should be ventilated so that it will not have more than 0.2 per thousand. One difficulty in carrying out this test is the odor of ammonia and other products originating from the droppings. Fresh air may be supplied in two ways—namely: 1. The process of diffusion. HYGIENE AND SANITATION 171 2. The action of the winds. In the process of diffusion the various gases present in the building mix. This process is slow. It may mix by diffusion through more or less porous walls or by cracks. The latter is extremely dangerous should the draft be directed over the roosts and strike the roosting birds. ~Winds are a great natural power of ventilation. The wind sets the masses of air in motion, and is a means of flushing and renewing the air in the buildings. Wind blowing 3 miles an Fic. 62.—Methods of hanging windows. 1, Swings from the side; 2, the sash may be raised or lowered; 3, slides to one side; 4, swings in from the top; 5, swings out from the bottom; 6, swings out at the top; 7, swings from pivots in the center; 8, swings from pivots from the ends; 9, upper half sash swings out from hinges above. hour (which is a little more than is perceptible) through a ventilator 1 foot square in size will force the passage of 15,840 cubie feet of air in one hour time. Thus, through such a ventilation in a space of 1000 cubic feet the carbon dioxid content of the air may be reduced from 0.6 per thousand to 0.1 per thousand. The objection to using wind as a ventilating agent is that the velocity may mean a draft. In supplying heat to brooders and in their ventilating prob- lems the fact that heated air becomes light and rises must be kept in mind, thus the monitor and half monitor houses fur- 172 POULTRY CULTURE nish ideal conditions for the escape of the light vitiated air arising from the birds, while the cooler outside air comes in at a lower level, causing an upward current, relieving the building of polluted air by the process of diffusion and air currents. Air shafts or tubes may be used, and can be used as either inlets from the sides or outlets from the top or roof. Air passing along a tube suffers loss from friction; thus, air moving through a tube at a velocity of 8 feet per second would be reduced to 4 feet per second on striking a right angle. The Fic. 63.—Methods of hanging doors. 1, The upper half swings out; 2, the door swings both ways on « two-way hinge; 3, each half swings out; 4, the door swings out; 5, the door slides to one side on a track. smaller the tube, the greater the friction and the greater inter- ference with the velocity per volume of air. Tubes should be made with rounded or U-shaped curves instead of abrupt straight right angles. One foot square will admit 15,000 cubic feet of air per hour with a calm air; that is, with the velocity of 3 miles per hour. Light air, that is, 8 miles per hour velocity, 0.4 square foot will admit 15,000 cubic feet of air per hour. A light breeze, or 13 miles an hour, 0.2 square feet will admit 15,000: cubic feet of air per hour. CHAPTER VI THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES Some of the essential features is the economic construction of the houses, to provide sufficient room, proper ventilation, proper equipment, and durability. As a rule, the old farm buildings can be utilized, using the principles here laid down, and thus making a saving and at the same time meet. every necessity. OES TES Fig. 64.—A group of model houses constructed by the students of the Poultry Science Department, A. and M. College, W. Raleigh, N. C. This work is done in the laboratory of the mechanical department: a, Monitor type; b, a half monitor; c, even span; d, two-thirds span; e, shed roof. The construction of proper flooring, drainage, and foundation are the first essentials. Heavy sills of good material are essen- tial. Number 2 pine siding may be used for boarding up the back and two ends. The roof should be covered with boxing boards and then with a good grade of tar paper. 173 174 POULTRY CULTURE Where winds cause trouble in tearing off the rubberoid by getting underneath it, the boxing boards should be replaced by tunged and grooved flooring and the edges of the roofing paper or rubberoid brought over the edge and securely nailed using strips of tin made for the purpose. The back and two ends are thus made tight, leaving the properly constructed open front, as illustrated in Fig. 61. In constructing the interior the labor-saving devices should be provided. By referring to Figs. 68 and 72, which are repro- ductions of blue prints of the North Carolina Experiment Station, these devices are seen to consist of drinking vessels ve se | SS a iB a Fic. 65.—A unit system house and yard: A, B, C, D, F, G, H, I repre- i sent separate runs for the separate compartments; # is an alleyway. which are quickly and easily cleaned, a mash hopper of sufh- cient capacity to carry sufficient mash to last the flock a week, hopper compartments for grit, charcoal and oyster-shells, nests properly constructed, roosts and dropping boards con- structed according to instructions. The open front ensures sunlight, which in warm climates can be left open all the year and in cold climates may be protected with a muslin curtain or drop sash during the cold spells. It is essential that the floor be free from moisture, as a cold, wet floor means unthrifty flocks, and thus unprofitable. In a house where the floor is noted to be wet it will also be found that there is water of con- THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 175 densation—that is, drops of water has formed on the walls and equipment, which makes an unhealthy condition. Witha dry floor and plenty of head room and ventilation there will be a dry condition, and the water of condensation will not be noted. In cold countries, by the substitution of muslin for the glass windows, it will be found that with other conditions being correct there will be no water of condensation form and the building will be dry. Ca Srey epee ad 5 ee fo ee ee es | Fic. 66.—A partial view of 2 poultry plant, showing at a a half monitor house; b, two-thirds span house; c, a shed roof house; d, an outdoor dry mash hopper. As stated before, good ventilation is essential and that there be no drafts on the birds. Birds contract colds if they are in the draft, and a bird with a cold will not-produce eggs. Plenty of fresh air is essential to health of the birds. Proper ventila- tion so as to ensure an exchange of air. Pure air means plenty of oxygen, and foul air means a lack of the proper amount of oxygen and an excessive amount of carbon dioxid or poisonous gas that must not be allowed to accumulate. In Figs. 58, 59, and 60 will be seen illustrated three principles of ventilation. 176 POULTRY CULTURE The laying hen must have exercise. Exercise is essential to good health and egg production, as well as for fertility. By a study of the blue-print sketch, it will be seen that the entire floor of the buildings is to be used for scratch room, and that it is planned to provide 4 square feet of floor space for each hen. The compartments in Fig. 68 are 20 by 20, which will give a floor space of 400 square feet or room for 100 birds. It must not be overlooked that it is essential to make the house as nearly rat-proof as possible. Rat-proof floor con- p= Fie. 67.—A partial view of colony house poultry plant, with a group of students in poultry science in the foreground. structed of concrete is the best. Rats sometimes cause death of the pullets and consume large quantities of mash, unless the mash hopper be provided with a proper drop door and kept closed during the night. The amount of mash a family of rats will eat will amount to quite a number of dollars in the course of a month. The internal construction of the house should be as plain as possible, so as to allow of as little chance of the harboring of filth and vermin as possible. By simple construction the THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 177 NoRTH CAROLINA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION WEST RALEIGH N.C. : é PouULTRY DEPARTMENT ee Floor Flan a Coop One Unit One |Unit Q Cross Section. ibuhi 4n-°—, or, Ou O cat Conerdhe Wall LASS, ainage forerel el Cinders ori 20° Stone Ora nag MRE EO OE Front View. 0 U; Bole ns On Bird 00 pen Front, pHa as ia “ple Uni Burien rds are kept ayn proximate Cost of 7 a Woes for Double Onit= 1802 ¥ * FP enen Wire T Chek ey Wires vl fos — 3 4 SR i & bation Door k Window Fr] 1 20-4 ee Fia. 68.—Photograph of blue print from the North Carolina Exp. Station. This is a double unit system house, each unit accommodating, 100 birds. 12 178 POULTRY CULTURE buildings may be kept clean. All fixtures, dropping boards, roosts, nests, and other equipment should be made movable so that they can be taken out and thoroughly cleaned and disin- fected and rendered free from vermin. Figure 68 is a plan for a double unit system house. A similar house was first designed and advocated by Prof. H. R. Lewis, of New Jersey Experiment Station; blue prints of this are furnished the residents of North Carolina, together with bill of lumber, to assist them in constructing suitable houses for that mild climate. The house is 40 feet long and 20 feet wide (outside dimensions). The sills are to be of yellow pine, Fic. 69.—Six-sided mesh poultry wire. This is poor netting, and to hold it in shape in the fence it is necessary to make a frame for it so that it is possible to staple it on all four sides of the panels. 4 by 6 inches, and to be bolted to a concrete foundation, 4 inches wide and 24 inches deep. This wall is laid in tamped crushed rock or cinders, the entire foundation trench being 3 feet deep. This allows of good drainage and prevents the floor from being wet. The entire floor-surface consists of 10 to 12 inches of tamped crushed rock or cinders and 3 to 4 inches of cement. The cement should be of smooth finish, using a mixture of 1 part Portland cement to 2 parts sand for the finish coat and 1 to 7 for the balance. It will be noted that the roof is of the shed type, which is one of the cheapest THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 179 types to construct. The front studding is 9 feet long and the rear studding 414 feet. The rafters, like the other frame- work, may be made of yellow pine. A 2 by 6 girder extends the whole length of the building, the rafters resting on this girder; 4 by 4 posts support this girder, the same being placed every 4feet. These posts are set on concrete piers. The ends, sides, and roof should be boarded up with 6-inch tonged and grooved yellow pine. It is customary in cold countries to cover the back with roofing paper. The top is to be covered with good tar roofing paper. All paper joints must be care- fully lapped and cemented. AWAY, VA VAL NL NL Ne. WAVAVAWAVAWAN L\L \ Le LAL AL Ad Ad Ab \L AL VK LVKLIKV EL AV AVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAWA LALALALNL NIV AN INV AA L Ah AL AL ALALALVIV INL AV AVAWAVAVAWAWAWAW/ WAVAVAVAVAVAVAWAWAWA VWAVAVAVAVAVAVAWAW AWA TAVAVAVAVAWAVAN WAV AWAWAWAWAW AW AVAVAWAWAWAWAVAWAVWA MWAVAVAVAWAWAWAWAWAW/ AWAVAWAVAVAVAVAVAWAW) we Lodo mloNcliWrol Wb AL ALN Fig. 70.—Three-sided mesh poultry wire, which is an improvement over the six-sided mesh. The muslin curtains in the front wall are hinged at the top and can be lifted up and hooked at the top till stormy or intensely cold weather, when it can be let down. In order that there be an abundance of light at these times 3 by 5 feet glass sash are placed in thefront. In warm climates, where it is not essential to have muslin curtains, the expense of these windows can be saved by not constructing them. It will be noted that the dropping boards and roosts are at the extreme back, which takes the birds back into the recess and ensures that they are not in a draft which would be in- jurious to their health. The nests can be so constructed that the front, in which the hen enters, is rather hidden, and a trap 180 POULTRY CULTURE door arranged on the exposed side from which the eggs may be gathered. The dividing partition may be of either substantially strong wire or of a solid partition. If of solid partition, it should extend from the back wall to within 6 feet of the front wall. In this space there is constructed a wire partition, a part of which is made into a door between the compartments so that one may enter the other compartment without going outside. In the front the windows in each compartment can be made into a combination door and window, as illustrated. Fic. 71.—The rectangular mesh wire and the best adapted for poultry fences. The floor should be constructed as follows: (1) Lay 10 inches of cinders or crushed rock and tamp in well. This provides drainage and keeps the wet away from the top of the floor. (2) Place 4 inches of rough concrete, making about one-seventh cement. (3) Place on a finish coat made up of one part cement and two parts sand. Trowel out smooth and make rat-proof at all points. The following is a list of the materials needed to con- struct the 40 by 20 double unit system house. 181 THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES “SPIIG GZ 0} GT. WOIZ OYE POMTMODOR [IIA YUN Yove ‘esnoy u19zsAs PUN eqnop BS sty, ‘worneig “dxy eurporwDy YyWON oy} Wor quid enjq vB jo ydeisoyoyg— zy ‘org x ™ 7. T Ti T TT I a t TH 1 a i tT T FST vn i vw 1 7 : my 7 TH T a oth ; am ro fy at = ~ Js Eh or’ Sy 1 s |e ea FY) yn eayrigig | 4] aug way | | ‘= [= Ye 4 E a oT 1 a a 1T 1 — 4 : 5 3 {UOLy F 9 i 9 { awole yousndy sesvapury Lup aug Lun aug 53 OG 1 ($0) PayvuUil[S7 SPAIG Sf fIUf) aUuo SPLIG OL SYN) “0G Kyrsodlog ISNO/Y NI INIGIIUG I79NAG . 4200/4 ‘IN HFT 0S LSIM LNIWLY VIF = AXLINGS NOULVLSLNIWMTIXT TYYNLINIYIP YN/TOHY] HLYOVy 182 POULTRY CULTURE LIST OF MATERIALS FOR THE 40 BY 20 FOOT HOUSE STS, rina foncilscatpesnieel cee cea Ne euch medida Gara PLE CES a tu aa atenecsnest Mavens gega settaae-dtest ee, abeceade Bs PO SUSS ids syzuecscube any sult Soavavicdeeane Sok Seed sae RS { Studdings 1c as. dsie cae cyg ee-aeas oe aces { IRGItGIS2. choniiasd todas ene neg G macetnes 2 nests, 2200 sq. ft. Capacity, 200 birds pieces 4 X 6—20 ft. 6 8 2 2 9 4 1 2 X 4—20 ft. “ 4X 4-14 ft. 4 xX 4—18 ft. “2 X& 4—18 ft. “2 xX 4—14 ft. «2X 4-22 ft. Frame for nests and dropping boards, 5 pieces, 2 X 3—16 ft. 8-inch grooved yellow pine boards for roof, dropping boards, walls, and 1 X 2 white pine for curtain frames and trim, 200 linear feet. 1 X 4.white pine for nests, 100 linear feet. One bundle plaster lath for broody coop. Nails: 10 lbs, 20-penny nails; 50 Ibs. 10-penny wire; 20 lbs. 8-penny nails. If it is the desire to keep only 100 birds then build only one unit. There is another convenient plan for house construction, where it is the desire to keep only about 30 birds or two breed- ing pens of about 15 birds each. Figure 72 illustrates this plan. The bill of lumber is as follows: Allframing material hemlock or yellow pine. : 2 pieces 4 X 4—10 ft SilleicaannuKg we a uoee oes Meas ig “4% 4-19 ft PIBGESS rks Fie cute seeadyt ae cia int SEA Ree Bhs 4 “ 2X 4—12 ft ¢ © 2x 4—I2 ft Studding 224 .¢6etedjoseardiecd hinds {3 “ 2X 4-14 ft (5 “ 2X 4—16 ft Reiters. +44 s¢%onka ey akew eevee see es 8 ‘ 2X 4-12 ft. Boards for sides and ends ....., 250 sq. ft. novelty siding. OGL sedan a aoe seeded Repl tes Ada Boca Re 200 sq. ft. yellow pine. 50 ft. extra for dropping hoards, ete 150 iho cvae heehee cs ek eo eads 1 X 3 in. white pine. LOOT bite cas eon eae remeber 1 X 2 in. white pine. It is advisable to place 10 to 12 inches of cinders or crushed rock and 4 inches of concrete for floor. This insures good drainage and a dry floor. A house the size convenient for the boys and girls poultry clubs has been designed by Prof. Graham. It is 8 feet wide THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 183 and 10 feet long and will accommodate 12 birds. The bill of lumber is as follows: (Labor not included.) s S pieces 2 X 4—10 ft. 33 bd. ft. Bash ssi ee asia Gauese 4 li * edie. Studs........... re ema g * 2x 4—10ft. 60 “ Rafters) moss sere pice ee ae 5 “ 2X4 12ft 40 “ Dropping boards (supports).............. 2° 2x3—8ft. 8 Roosts i 2242 pse0 eee hha sie 2“ 2x 3—8ft 8 PIB Seciiae aid veghins oan ates 2" 2X 416 ft. 22 “ Opening.................. 1“ 2X 410. 7 TRG ULE eto tan Sate ae ipa eats iss $5.65 POOP ssp sige oh aes REE ANG Ae PES RMA Re Re So Se 100.“ 2.80 FROOE eah ae wna kay dpcven a4 Rie maar ghee & ay oe eta in & Rhee haa 120. 3.36 Novelty siding......... ised ube Incoscdug ddan ae mere nee case 200“ 7.00 Dropping: boards); s 2s2225s.04 9494845 AES gn oe ue helen 25 70 Commercial roofing.........0... 000.000 00000 eee 1 roll 1.75 Cornice, frames, door..........0.0.0 000 0c cee eee 50 bd. ft. 2.10 Wire (l-inch mesh)..........0...0 fee eee cee 15 sq. ft. 2 Cloth ie use gemcounats aun ier nw damn s eee weer eee yee 124 yds. 15 LARA WATO cog tats 5 d doen @ cans ees avid Gee Bas ean keke 1.00 For illustration refer to Fig. 73. The extension department of the Ohio State University has a novel idea, which is illustrated in Figs. 74, 75, 76, and 77. Many persons who desire to keep a few birds desire a small colony house, but neglect to build one on account of the lack of sufficient funds and the high cost of lumber. The house is made of two piano boxes, which at times may be secured very cheaply, and the first part of the construction is illus- trated in Fig. 74. The boxes must be of the same size. The average piano box is 6 feet long, 5 feet high, and 32 inches wide at the bottom and 21 inches at the top. Make a founda- tion of 2 by 4 yellow pine scantling. Make the foundation level. Place the open boxes on the frame, with their open faces toward each other and 3 feet apart. Nail them securely to the frame. Take two boards, 6 feet long and 12 inches wide, and saw as indicated by the dotted line in Fig. 77. Then nail the 6- 184 POULTRY CULTURE NorTH CAROLINA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION POULTRY DEPARTMENT Wesr RaLeicn, N.C. FOR 12 HENS '@x/O COST OF MATERIAL Asour #25.22 Si he Lr 10 Ty Front Rear hicker® s Wire Fic. 73.—Photograph of a blue print from the North Carolina Exp. Station. This is a house suitable.for the town lot or for the boys and girls poultry clubs. THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 185 foot boards to the inside of the ends of the boxes, securely fastening them together at the top and also forming the sup- port for the roof of the house. Next remove the cleat xx from nee Fic. 76. Fias. 74, 75, 76.—Three stages in the construction of w boy and girl’s poultry house made from w piano box. the top of the piano boxes, and nail the triangular pieces that were sawed from the 6-foot boards on the outside of those boards at the top so as to make smooth gable ends to the K-— — Sr 5 1 ee lM pn oeeeeeaares i ee ee i Te 4i- 12 er ' g° ¥ I k= — — — — — — 6 —~——————----+-y Fig. 77.—Diagram showing how to cut boards for the piano-box house. See deseription in body of text of how to construct the house. house (Fig. 75). Finish the floor of the house with a part of one of the backs from the boxes. Then nail a 7-foot cleat on the inside of the rear of the house about 3 feet from the floor 186 POULTRY CULTURE and enclose the rear with a part of the other box back. If the backs from the boxes have been carefully handled, they together with the top of the boxes will complete the roof. Then the cleats marked xx should be removed, and the outside of. the house presents flat surfaces to receive the roofing paper with which it is to be covered. LIST OF MATERIALS FOR THE PIANO-BOX HOUSE 2 piano boxes. ao .eeecy agu@na rg rniaw see eke se saa $3.00 2 rolls 1-ply roofing paper............. 06.00. e ee ee eae 3.50 1 piece 2 X 4 X 8 ft. yp. 1 piece 2 X 4 X 12 ft. yp. | ahiniseagni Ne Rh Annee SRD oes 62 1 piece 2 K 12 X 16 ft. yp. 1 piece 2 X 12 X 12 inch No. I. Y. P. brace........... soe Ipiece 1X 12) X Sdtivps. | scosecngn cea o ae samedi 52 2 pieces 1 X 4 X 12 ft. yp. 2 pounds 7-penny nails............. 00.6 e cece eee .06 1 pound 8-penny wire nails............-.0 0.00 ee eee 04 1 pound 16-penny wire nails............ 000.0000 eee .05 J. pair st¥ap: HINGES: soso. eacs pucd edie eee ees SE ee HaKR S 10 1 piece poultry netting 2 X 2 X 6ft..............00.. 10 $8.31 The door is 3 feet wide and 5 feet 1 inch high, and is con- structed with an open top so as to admit fresh air and sunlight. The frame of the door is made of 4-inch strips. The lower half is filled with l-inch boards and the upper is covered with l1-inch poultry netting. The door is made to swing outward on a pair of 5-inch strap hinges. An opening, 8 inches wide and 10 inches high, is cut in the rear next to the floor through which the hens enter and leave. The roofing paper should first be placed on the front and rear and tacked temporarily. The paper on the sides should extend up one side over the roof, and down the opposite side and overlap the top and sides of the front and rear about 214 inches, making the house perfectly tight. A cheap and durable roofing may be made, as follows: Secure a sheet of brown paper, tar it on both sides, then tar the top of the roof, lay the paper on, and drive a few nails through; repeat this till several layers of tar and paper have been applied. Such a roof will last for years. THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 187 This is an excellent house for the boys and girls poultry clubs. New Jersey Experiment Station in summarizing their experiments in housing fowls conclude that a large amount of glass in a poultry house is undesirable, that the shed roof fur- nishes ideal conditions at a minimum cost, and that the twenty- 50° 50' > OATS PASTURE s € + HOUSE \ HOUSE ° > + ~ PASTURE OATS Jo’ Jo’ Fic. 78.—A diagram of a double unit system house, with two yards to each house. As indicated one pen is sown in oats, which aids in rendering the ground free from contamination, while the other yard is used for pas- ture. The oats should be pastured when it is from 2 to 4 inches high. foot house is more efficient for medium to large flocks than the smaller houses because it can be constructed more economi- cally. The birds are farther from the openings and hence better protected. In yarding fowls it is estimated that to maintain a perma- 188 POULTRY CULTURE nent sod there should be 150 square feet to each bird. It is difficult to maintain a permanent sod near the house. Where the double yardage system is used, that is, where the birds are allowed to run a while in one yard and green feed raised Fig. 79.—Showing housing methods in the three stages of poultry work. for them in the second yard, 75 square feet per bird will be sufficient. As soon as the green feed, as oats or rye, in the yard being cultivated is 4 or 5 inches high it is pastured by turning the birds into this lot and seeding down the first lot. THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 189 THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE UNIT SYSTEM HOUSE Like in the construction of all poultry houses, the unit system house should be so constructed that there will be a uniformity of temperature, general good health of the flock conducive to good egg production, economy of construction, and a saving in the work of care of the flocks that are to be kept in it. Poultry houses should always be provided with plenty of head room, so that the poultryman can work in the building without inconvenience. In the unit system house the front should be 10 feet and the rear 7 feet high. The deeper and wider the house, the higher the roof should be made to be in proper proportion. On the other hand, a colony house 8 by 10 feet could have a rear wall only 4 feet high and the front 6 feet and be in good proportion, while a building 14 feet square could have a rear wall 6 feet and a front wall 8 feet high and that be in good proportion. The floor material may be of boards, dirt, gravel, or cinders and concrete. Board floors should have a coat or two of asphalt, which should be applied hot. The fall of the year is a good time to give the buildings a new coat of paint as this preserves the wood. and gives visitors a good impression. The board floors are used to a considerable extent in the warmer parts of the country where there are no cold winters. The floor is located 2 feet above the ground. This allows of a free circulation of air and does not furnish a favorable place for rats and other nocturnal vermin of that character. This type is not so satisfactory for colder countries. Dirt is used to a great extent. The top of the floor should be at least 1 foot above the surrounding ground, so as to ensure it remain- ing dry in wet and rainy times. The dirt floors are more or less harbors for rats, who find hiding-places under the sills, and any other material of that nature that may be upon the floor. It furnishes a temptation not to be resisted by the hens in taking dust-baths, and the floor is not easily kept level. Gravel can be hauled from most creeks or rivers, and 12 inches on the floor of the house makes good drainage and ensures a dry floor. The same may be said of cinders, which may be secured in many localities for the hauling. The best POULTRY CULTURE 190 ‘BUI OT1O OFUL e yous hig 70D 424M suig ebo1045 192 POULTRY CULTURE and most substantial foundation and floor is made of concrete. Figures 81 to 82 show views of the construction of the main part and one wing of the new 180 feet unit system breeding- house at the North Carolina Experiment Station. Figure 83, 4 shows the survey outfit and a means of finding the level. When this is not available a line can be stretched and, by aid of the level and straight edge, the level line can be obtained. Figure 83, 7 shows the forms in which the concrete foundation is made. This foundation is 4 inches wide and 1 foot above the ground at the highest point. It extends into the ground 1 Fie. 83—Construction of the foundation and floor. 1, The cinders, which are being leveled and tamped (2) after being wet down (3); 4 is the survey outfit to find the level; 5, mixing the concrete; 7, the forms which extend 1 foot into the ground and in which the 4-inch concrete wall is made; 8, the 3-inch coat of coarse concrete; 9, the bolts set into the concrete to which the 4 by 4 inch sills are to be bolted. : } ei =| foot. The floor space inside the frames is filled in with cinders of a good grade to within 4 inches of the top of the foundation frames. These cinders are wet down and tamped (Fig. 838, 2, 3). Figure 83, 8 shows 3 inches of crushed rock and sand and cement. The crushed rock and sand should constitute 7 parts and Portland cement 1 part. The gravel, sand, and cement are mixed dry, then wet down and mixed again to the proper consistency, loaded into wheelbarrows, wheeled to the proper places, and tamped down. On top of this is placed THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 193 1 inch of cement, made by mixing 1 part cement to 2 parts sand. In this construction the cinders were from 12 inches deep in the highest place to 18 inches deep in the lowest place. This, together with the deep foundation, makes the best kind of drainage and ensures a dry floor under any climatic conditions. Figure 84 shows the foundation finished, ready for the super- structure. Here will be noted the smooth floor and the bolts, which have been set into the cement and to which the sills are to be bolted. In warm climates it is not necessary to provide the house with drop curtains, so that windows are not necessary. In Fie. 84.—Floor: 1, The finished concrete floor ready for the super- structure; 2, the exposed wall 1 foot above the ground at the highest place and 1 foot into the ground. This has had a finish coat of cement; 3, the bolts set into the concrete to which the 4 by 4 inch sills are to be fastened. This floor varies from 1 foot to 14% feet thick—4 inches concrete, the bal- ance tamped cinders for underdrainage. This ensures a perfectly dry floor. colder countries it is necessary to provide windows and drop curtains, as indicated in the plans for the smaller houses. In this type of house ventilation is by the process of diffusion. The walls for the ten compartments for the accommodation of the birds are 10 feet high in front and 7 feet behind. Hach compartment is 14 feet deep and 16 feet long. The outside walls are constructed of shiplap siding of good grade and clear of knotholes. lt will be noted that the roof is of single span or shed type. The roof extends 12 inches beyond the front and back walls. 13 194 POULTRY CULTURE The rafters are 2 by 4 inches and covered with sheathing or boxing boards, and are provided with a 4-inch facing. The roof is covered with a good grade of two-ply rubberoid. Each compartment in front is provided with an opening 12 feet long and 3 feet high, and covered with 114 inch mesh chicken netting. The lower edge of this spage is 30 inches from the floor. A hole 12 inches square with trap-door is provided in the rear of each compartment through which the chickens may pass. The lower edge of this opening is level with the sill. oe eae Set Saee Fia. 85.—The frame work of the superstructure, showing the main building and one wing: 1, The main building; 2, the wing; 3, the foundation; 4, the cement floor seen through the end door of first compartment; 5, one of the 4 by 4 inch sills fastened by a bolt embedded in the concrete. The doors are 3 by 7 feet with proper door jams and sills. The main part of the building is provided with one in the front and one in the rear, and each wing is provided with one at either end. A partition is constructed between each of the five compartments for the birds. These partitions are con- structed of boxing boards to a height of 3 feet, with 2 inch chicken netting over the balance fastened securely to 2 by 4 inch studding placed 2 feet apart. Each partition is provided with a swinging door, made to swing out and in, and is 3 by THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 195 7 feet. Fasteners are provided so the doors can be fastened and opened from either side. (See Fig. 87, 2.) Each of the five compartments are provided with four roost poles, each extending the entire length of the compartment, and are located in the rear. These roost poles are made of 2 by 4 inch lumber, with top edges rounded a trifle and the entire pole planed. These are nailed to 2 by 4 inch lumber, LL aay ; Clg SR Oh Fe Fig. 86.—Equipment each compartment is furnished. 1 is the storage box for morning and evening scratch feeds. 2 are the trap-nests. 3 shows the dropping boards which are removable. 4 illustrates how the roosts are arranged so they can be suspended from the ceiling during cleaning of dropping boards. The roosts are hinged to the studding. 5 is the broody coop. which is blocked 8 inches high off the dropping board or plat- form. The rear roost pole is 10 inches from the wall and the poles are 14 inches apart. They are built on the level. The 2 by 4 inch lumber is bolted at the rear, so the roosts can be raised and fastened to the roof during cleaning of the dropping board. A solid platform is constructed under the roosts. These 196 POULTRY CULTURE boards are laid crosswise and constructed in sections, so that they are easily removed. The material used is No. 2 pine flooring. The platform is 39 inches off the floor. The plat- form extends 15 inches in front of the front roost. Each of the ten compartments are provided with twelve trap- nests, made in two sections. A mash hopper provided with compartments for dry mash, charcoal, grit, and shell; and a aR = : peng a) SO MTCRE y j Bo AAO een Fic. 87.—Equipment each compartment is furnished. 1 is the water faucet. 2, the partition door made to swing out or in. 3, a slide bolt made of wood that is not affected by wet or dry weather and can be manipulated from either side. 4, the mash hopper. 5, the partition boarded 3 feet high, and 6, 2-inch mesh wire netting over the balance. storage-box provided with a compartment for morning seratch feed and one for evening scratch feed; a water faucet to furnish water and a broody coop. The broody coop is made 2 feet wide with slatted bottom. These slats are 2 inches wide and laid 2 inches apart. The front is provided with a door which is hinged, so that it swings out, and is fastened with a button (Figs. 86, 87). THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 197 The main part of the building is 20 by 24 feet, and provided with a comb roof. The roof is of the same material as the ten compartments for birds. The roof may be covered with shingles, tar paper, rubberoid, asbestos roofing, tar and gravel, or metal. Each end is provided with two full windows.on the first foor and a half window on the second floor. This building is one and one-half stories high. It is 14 feet to the square or eves. The roof is one-third picch. The floor of the second story is constructed of tongued and grooved flooring, with 2 by 6 inch girders with two pillar supports. These pillar supports are 6 inches by 6 feet. A stairway 30 inches wide is provided to go from the first to the second story. The floor of the first story is of concrete, the same as the two wings. The interior is provided with storage-bins, grinding and mixing machinery. The studding in all the construction are not more than 2 feet apart. The outside is constructed of drop siding, in con- formity to the balance of the building. Buildings should be painied with a good white lead paint and linseed oil. This should be repeated once every three years. Brown of England recommends gas tar mixed with paraffin oil or creosote. These not only protect the wood but keep down parasite life. LIST OF MATERIALS CUM STS ihn Gukedety setew Maayan eRe bey donee kas 80 yards Sand ook iSeeoh eae Re eReE hewn Renee Beet es 14 “* Gray el weak a si tretensted eval sxe ena dene Ween eae 41 “ CBI CIS Sir wean gator setee ne ABActA ota GAGE T oe A ao 65 barrels FRAMING: 16 pieces 4’ & 4’ 16’ long for base and corner studding. 24 pieces 4” x 4” 14’ end sills front base. 2 pieces 4” x 4’ 12’ sides of 114 story. 1 piece 4” XX 6” 16’ long cross-beams for 114 story. 1 piece 4’”” x 6” 8’ long cross-beams for 114 story. 2 pieces 4” < 6” 8’ long for column. 30 pieces 2” x 6” joists. 52 pieces 2” x 4” 16’ long studding and rafters for 114 story. 24 pieces 2” x 4” 12’ long for rafters. 10 pieces 2” x 4’ 10’ long. 38 squares rubberoid roofing. 198 POULTRY CULTURE 60 machine bolts 5g” X 8” for sill anchors. 4 pieces 2’ X 4’’ 12’ long for end plates. 350 pieces 2” x 4” 10’ long for studding, braces, and perch poles. 140 pieces 2” 4” 16’ long for rafters, beams, top plates. 60 pieces 2” x 4” 12’ long for perches, trap-nest supports. 500’ strips 2144” & 34” for broody coops. 4500’ sheeting. 4600’ drop siding. 1800’ flooring for floor of second story of main structure and dropping boards. 150 stakes 2” x 3” & 4.5’, 150 braces 1” X 3” &X 4’. 150’ 1” quarter round. 175 1” X 31,” corner boards. 250’ 146” & 115” door and window strips. 40’ 114” X 914” for stair treads. 500’ 1146” X 6” lineal feet. 2 pieces 2” X 12” for stair stringers. HARDWARE: 450 pounds wire nails (No. 8). 8 pair double swinging hinges. 6 pair 314” door hinges. 6 door locks. 40 13” x 416” bolts for perch hinges. 40’ well chain for hanging perches. 200’ 3.4” galvanized pipe for water-supply. 1 stop and waste cut off. 10 34” hose bibs. 11 34” galvanized T’s. 534” galvanized L’s. 134” galvanized unions. 10 pair 115” hinges for broody coops. 130 buttons for trap-nests and broody coops. 120 trap-nests—600’ pine lumber. 10 storage-bins—500’ pine lumber. 10 mash hoppers—400’ pine lumber. 8 doors between compartments. 8 door latches. 4 door frames 3’ X 7’ 4 doors 3’ X 7’. 2 half windows with frames. 4 windows 3’ X 515’ (lights complete). 4 window frames. 6 paneled doors. WIRE NETTING: 40 yards wire netting 48” wide 114’’ mesh for open fronts. 165 yards wire netting 24’’ wide 2” mesh—for partitions. THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 199 10 yards wire netting 36’’ wide 2” mesh. 54 yards wire netting 18” wide 1” mesh. 5 pounds staples for fastening wire. 10 trap-doors in rear of compartments—150’. 10 door slides 214” < 34’’—60 lineal feet. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE NORTH CAROLINA PORTABLE POULTRY HOUSE List of Materials Size, Length No. Board Use in. in feet pieces measure Sills (runners)................... 4X 8 = 16 2 86 BICEPETS. suites ey ne eh aoa tone eves 2M A TO 6 39 SbuddMeres.ss5aesese.s egress eye 2x 4 10 5 32 Plates ectscistiqnaieis e-aierg gvevquagiisen eae eco eeonlie 2x4 14 2 18 RRSTGETSY vx af avd bts 6 Aah a ted eee BeMndee 2x 4 12 6 48 Supports for dropping boards.......... 2x 4 14 2 18 Roosts or perches (dressed on all sides).. 2 4 12 3 24 Pereh supports. wc 000. 20esup aeeanees 2x 4 16 1 11 Nest supports and braces for drinking platiorms<: <2s¢4o cetehe ed Ret Rte ee bee 2X 4 12 2 16 Broody coop, studding and sills......... 2x 4 14 2 18 Lattice for broody coop and bottom of drinking platform. . se pee LX 2 4 24 16 Material for nests: DOORaad Bae SG a das ees Meee sh 1x 8 14 1 10 Strip at bottom of door............ 1x4 i4 2 9 Strip at top in back and front to hold wire netting. . 1x 2 #14 2 5 Board at bottom i in n back of building. 1x6 14 1 7 Partition between nests............ 1x14 14 1 16 Runboard in front of nests......... 1x 4 = 14 1 5 Battens for door and dropping Oars: 22 ces eaheenriomaie eens 1x 4 82 lineal feet ll SHea thing? ...35sauide: aaten awed oO aes Baan 180 Votaltexvescazasne gooey 569 HIGOMING is bn van euauwircedeey Wood Stes 500 pe Boers made from above flooring. Hardware: Hinges for door, nests fronts and roosts................ 5 pairs Chain to raise roost poles. . 2: Ete Rubberoid or other equally good roofing. . 180 sq. ft Wire netting: For front, back and sides of broody coop 34-in. mesh, 36 For top and bottom of nests, }4-in. mesh 80in. wide... 5 yds. POULTRY CULTURE 200 ‘asnoy Amyjnod 91qe,10d s,zeuLIVy ey} JO WOTJONIA}suUOd oY} TOF UB[{—'S88 OL NYTS YOOTA ar “bor fe nome 7725 STOMUNM' ET AF NMP TOGUS V/YRHW SO LSO2 CFLYWILST SHIOIB'SN IH OF Akl IbdHD {b/X Of FZ1S ‘DN HOITTYY LSIM BOITIOD “Pl Howe NOILHLS LNFAITATAXT DN SAH SF LF OFIN0HAAL IN OINNUTS FSNOH AWLINOd FWIPALAOL SYIHHHA HNITOLHD HLYON FHL NOLYPAT TF ONT NOVLAATT TZ LNOSS VINNIE THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 201 The sills or runners should be cut as sled runners as shown in Fig. 88 and a hole made near the end so that a team can be hitched to the house when it is to be moved. Therunners are placed 10 feet apart and upon these the sleepers are placed. The two outside sleepers are 14 feet from outside to outside. The other sleepers are placed 26 inches apart and nailed. Next the studding is cut and placed, plates laid, and the rafters put in position. These are to be 26 inches apart. Next the sheathing is placed and the roofing put on after which the siding is put on. This is done for pro- tection in case of rain during the building processes. The siding consists of tongued and grooved flooring and is placed as illustrated in Fig. 88. The front of the building is left open until the floor has been laid and the dropping boards and roost poles constructed. The supports for the dropping boards are put in place, the back one is nailed on the front of the corner studding so as to allow one opening between the sup- port and wall to prevent the holding of droppings. The front support is held at each end with a 2-inch by 4-inch timber placed at each end, perpendicular to the floor and nailed to the wall. Next the dropping boards are constructed in sections so they may be taken out of the building, disinfected, and sunned. These sections are 18 inches wide with two cleats 1 inch by 4 inches and 16 inches long, nailed 10 inches from either end of the boards. These boards extend across the back side of the house, but those under the broody coop may be nailed to the board supports. The roost poles are made of 2-inch by 4-inch timbers, as shown in Fig. 88. These roost poles are to be dressed on all four sides and are laid down flatwise so as to make a flat surface for the birds to perch upon, which prevents injury to the breast bone in case young chickens are placed in the house. The top corners of the poles are rounded, just a little, only enough to take off the sharp corner. The roost poles are made in sections and supported in the middle part with a short piece of 2-inch by 4-inch timber, which is nailed to the cross support of the roosts. The cross supports are hinged to the wall at the back so the front can be raised. A chain 12 inches long is provided for each section and is fastened to the rafters, and the links 202 POULTRY CULTURE can be hooked over a nail driven in the middle of the front pole, so as to keep it in position when raised. The nests are built in two sections, six nests in each section. An 8-inch board is hinged on the front of each section so that the nests may be reached easily. There isa narrow board at the bottom, both back and front of the nests. The top and bottom of the nests are covered with 14-inch mesh screen wire so as to allow a current of air through them. This gives the ample ventilation which must be provided for the nest in hot weather. A 4-inch board is arranged in front which servesas a stepforthe hens. The nests are made remov- able and located just under the front portion of the dropping boards, and are supported at either end and in the middle by 2-inch by 4-inch timbers. The broody coop which is shown in the front view and floor plan is to be constructed with 2-inch by 4-inch timbers used as studding and rails to hold the bottom. The coop is then slatted up with 1l-inch by 2-inch boards placed 2 inches apart. The studding runs from the dropping boards to the sheathing. The coop is to have a door 2 feet by 114 feet, and it should be covered with 34-inch mesh wire netting and hinged on the side next to the wall. In the middle on the front side there is a platform upon which is set the vessel containing the drinking water. The floor being covered with straw or leaves used as scratch material, it is necessary to have the pan of water or milk off the floor. This platform is 18 inches high, 18 inches by 2 feet, made of l-inch by 2-inch slats. The spaces between the slats is to be 1 inch. The platform is supported by 2-inch by 4- inch timbers. An opening 3 feet by 12 feet is left in the front of the building for light and ventilation. There is also an open- ing | foot by 2 feet in the center and top of the back side of the building for ventilation in the summer time. This latter opening is closed in the winter time. Both the back and front ventilation openings are covered with chicken netting. If it is desired to use a drop curtain, a window is placed in one side of the front opening. This window furnishes light while the curtain is down. By putting in the window the THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 203 opening is cut about 3 feet shorter. Ducking is used as a drop curtain. This cloth is tacked to a frame just the sizeof the open front. This cloth, being porous, allows plenty of ventilation and at the same time keeps out the winter wind, snow, and rain. The window supplies the light during this time. It is the intent to keep in the building the scratch feed used in the morning and evening. This feed is kept in the double compartment storage bin. The dry mash and shell is kept in the mash hopper. The water in a receptacle on the platform made for that purpose. The nests and the broody coop are also located inside. The floor is provided with a layer of leaves or straw about 1 foot deep in which is thrown the grain morning and evening so that the birds scratch for it and get their necessary exercise. ‘Thus in rainy weather the birds do not find it necessary to get out into the rain unless they choose. On snowy and stormy days they are likewise protected. Commercial egg farms usually house 500 hens in each unit. The house most in use is the shed type, open front. The building may be 14 to 16 feet wide and 80 to 100 feet long, and in warmer parts of the country 2 feet off the ground. A cheaply constructed building may be made of boxing boards, the roof covered with rubberoid and the sides and ends with tar paper. The boards are usually placed perpendicular on the sides and ends and the tar paper crosswise nailed using strips of tin. Many commercial men keep their birds the year round in the house. This is the intensive method. Others have small runs, this being the semi-intensive method. When the fowls run at large on the farm they are under range conditions. Fencing Materials—Various kinds of woods are used for posts. The woods that are most durable are white oak, cedar, and hedge. Woods less durable are catalpa, hickory, black oak, and pine. Posts may be round, split, or sawed. Round posts should be at least 6 inches in diameter at the base and peeled. Sawed posts are usually 5 inches square and are of heart wood Wood posts are made more durable by treating the base with creosote. Experiments conducted 204 POULTRY CULTURE with black gum, sweet gum, tupelo, short leaf, and loblolly field pine showed that creosote preserved perfectly these woods up to nine years, the end of the experiment. Cement and steel posts are most desirable on account of their lasting qualities. The end and corner steel posts are set in cement, the line posts are driven. The wire fencing may be of six-sided meshed chicken net- ting, or of three-sided mesh netting as shown in Figs. 69 and 70. This wire does not hold its shape well and is best used with a frame made of 1-inch by 4-inch pine lumber. A barbed wire may be stretched at the lower border next to the ground and one at the top and the netting lashed to it either by hog rings or by pieces of wire. Poultry fencing wireas shown in Fig. 71 is the best. It is more durable on account of being made of heavier wire. It holds its shape. Fences for young ducks should be 2 feet high, for old ducks 4 feet, for fowls of the American and English breeds 5 to 6 feet high, and for Leghorns and Campines 8 feet high. Three or four strands of barbed wire may be stretched on the top. These wires are placed about 4 inches apart. Fence posts may be of concrete, steel, round oak, or split or sawed posts. Cedar and white oak are most durable. Hedge posts are very durable. As a rule woods that grow quickly, as hickory, do not last so long. Heart wood lasts longer than round posts made from the tops of the trees. Posts should be set at least 30 inches in the ground. The bottom of the post should have the ground thoroughly tamped around it. The ground throughout the entire length of the post should be thoroughly tamped. AN UP-TO-DATE POULTRY AND FRUIT FARM In buying a farm there are many factors that should be care- fully considered, such as location, market conditions (both for buying and selling), climate, good roads, good neighbors, schools, churches, soil, water-supply, healthfulness, size, and shape of the farm. Locate in a good community, where there are good schools and churches, which means that you will have good neighbors. THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSES 205 Study the market conditions carefully by getting book ac- counts and reports from the experiment stations for your par- ticular locality. Wherever there isa restricted production on account of large cities, and you can locate within a reasonable distance, you will find good market conditions. The pa cel post is making it possible for one to locate farther away from the consumer, as it has a tendency to eliminate apparent distance. Locate where the climate is healthful for your family as well as your poultry. Good roads are a big advantage, as they are time-savers by facilitating travel. The farm itself should be located so as to avoid a northern slope. With a southern and eastern exposure you will get the early spring warmth and be protected from the prevailing cold winds. Some shelter that will protect your building from the prevailing cold winds means several degrees in tem- perature in your houses. This shelter can be orchards, woods, or hills. Air drainage is an important factor, and your farm should be so located that when the cold air settles it will settle or drain away from your farm buildings and orchard. It is always colder in the valley than on the top of the hill when protected. Locate your buildings above the lowest part of the farm, thereby avoiding the settling or draining of the cold air into your buildings. Natural grass meadow land is a great deal more profitable than a dry gravelly soil, where it is almost impossible to raise anything. Have your buildings high and well drained, but do not forget or neglect to have good grass land for a pasturage for your poultry. Choose a good soil (get a soil map from your experiment station). If you are fortunate enough to have a good spring on a hillside of the farm or running water you will find it a great asset. The size of the farm depends, of course, upon the extent of your future plans. FEEDSTUFFS 291 stituents of normal buttermilk. Dried buttermilk is also prepared. Milk Albumin.—In the process of the manufacture of milk sugar there is left over a by-product which is dessicated and sold as milk albumin. One pound of this dried material is added to 5 or 6 quarts of water and is used in mixing feed for the baby chicks and also as a drink for young and old stock. It is in fact the skimmed milk less the milk sugar.” In a study of the table of digestible nutrient it is found that ‘dried blood ‘contains’52.3 per cent. digestible protein and 2.5 ousey |] Fic. 101.—A green bone cutter sold Fig. 102.—A dry bone grinder sold on the market. on the market. per cent. digestiblefat. Meat scrap varies; thus, thereison the market what is termed a high-grade protein meat meal which contains 55 per cent. protein, and another as pure ground meat scrap or low-grade protein meat meal containing only 45 per cent. In addition to this, meat meal contains about 0.3 per cent. carbohydrate and 13.7 per cent. fat. There are many small slaughter-houses throughout the country where meat scrap can be purchased very reasonable. Some of these save the blood and dry it without cooking; it can be secured in a dried state and makes an excellent and cheap animal protein constituent in the mash. At these abattoirs the trimmings and stomachs and intes- 292 POULTRY CULTURE tines, after being opened and thoroughly washed, are placed in a closed tank and cooked. After the fat is run off the resi- due is drained of its water and the solid placed in a dryer and, by the application of heat furnished by steam-pipes and agita- tion, is dried, after which it is ground. This makes a low- grade meat meal, which is usually sold as tankage and carries a digestibility of from 40 to 60 per cent. Ground dry bone and cut green bone make excellent animal protein, furnishing at the same time much needed mineral matter, the mineral matter is principally calcium. The young and developing chick rapidly undergoes bone expansion and development requiring much calcium. Dried fish scrap is obtainable along the coasts, and usually contains about 44.1 per cent. protein and 10.3 per cent. fat. Fish scrap, fed in large quantities, may impart an objectionable flavor to the flesh and eggs. Jull reports that 10 per cent. fish scrap in the dry mash did not cause the eggs or meat of the fowl to be flavored of fish. Beet pulp, while constituting a valuable feed for cattle for both fattening and milk production and for finishing sheep, could not be strongly recommended for poultry feeding. It is rather woody, hard to digest, and contains but 0.6 per cent. protein, 7.3 per cent. carbohydrates, and no fat. When beet pulp is fed it should first be soaked in water for twelve hours. Hot mash given in the evening on cold days has a stimulating effect upon egg production. It is made by taking a quantity of bran shorts or middlings and scalding with boiling water. Sometimes mashed cooked vegetables, as potatoes, turnips, or rutabagas, are added. Ensilage is also fed in some localities in the midwinter season. Ensilage fed uncooked may cause sour crop which may be followed by diarrhea. If silage be fed it should be cooked. Succulent feed is essential to breeding stock as well as to egg production. Succulent feed may be furnished in the form of cabbage, mangel, rutabaga, turnip, sprouted oats, or pasture of rape, clover, oats, orrye. The pasture should be used when it is from 1 to 2 inches high. FEEDSTUFFS 293 Sprouting Oats.—Fig. 103 illustrates a sprouting rack, as used at the North Carolina Experiment Station. lt is 7 feet high and 2 feet square. The trays have a 4-inch marginal Fre. 103.—An oat sprouting rack. A basement or cellar where there is some light and temperature above 60° F. is a good place in which to sprout the oats. The trays are removable. board and a metal bottom, which is perforated so as to allow the excess of water to run out. The trays should not be too close together or the back parts will be shaded. They should be at least 12 inches apart. 294 POULTRY CULTURE To sprout oats the rack must be kept where the temperature is above 60° F. The incubator or other cellar will do, pro- vided there is enough light. Use only the best seed oats, as a poor grade of feeding oats that has a poor percentage of grains that will sprout will be very dear in the long run. The author has seen oats used in which no more than half the seeds would sprout, in which case the cost of production of the succulent feed, so far as the oat grains were concerned, was just double that paid for the oats. These trays will hold about 6 quarts of oats. Place that quantity in a metal bucket and cover with warm water. The water should be close to 100° F. Allow the oats to soak in a warm room for twenty-four hours and then place in a layer in the rack. Wet the oats thoroughly once every twelve hours. The sprouted oats should be fed when they are from 4 to 6 inches high. If the temperature is proper it will require about ten days for the oats to reach the proper size. Do not allow them to get old enough to turn yellow or woody. Likewise, do not allow the roots to turn yellow and spoil. They should be fed while the roots are white and in good condition. There is much succulence in the roots, and that part is just as essential as any other part of the young plant. About 370 pounds of succulent feed can be produced from 100 pounds of oats. Give one ounce of sprouted oats to each ten hens per day. Grazing Crops for Poultry.—Grazing crops can be provided most of the year for poultry. From November to March, it is necessary to either sprout oats or provide mangles or turnips. For best results in egg production, birds must be provided with succulent feed. The following tabulation will be found useful information for the beginner: Oats may be used for either summer or winter grazing. Rape may be raised spring, summer, and fall if there is suffi- cient rainfall. Soybeans and cowpeas can be raised spring, summer, and fall as a yard rotation crop if there is sufficient rainfall. Turnips and mangles make the best root crops for winter feeding. Collards and cabbage, as well as lettuce raised in cold frames, also make excellent succulent feed. In 295 FEEDSTUFFS 98 LoqUIM IO foo spunodg| |, AvyT fcc sojsueu aqo[s eSuvio ‘sesueur por Suoy eztid Pouuepy UMOp poy Ug ccs YsIy soypout QT 04 gf ttt ‘spunod ¢z | gT ‘3ny “TQAOTD YOOMG Bulids pue JezUIM ATIRa avery | eysnq [|] Tydag | occ $18Q sutids pu JoyuiM AjIve azeIy | Joao] ‘q] gy ‘ada Tq TT] 1 ‘ydeg | Jeaojo uosum1o pue aA amnqeur [uy fos ysry SeYOU ZE ye feysnq ft | oT Avy SP) H6 sa BR ee SIE Saas uvogsog SET PVE [ee ee PRBS § SPOM RIS SUT he oS Ree Teusng T) OL AB fo Peoy MONG SII@} MoUs Tug a 0z “ydag SiS ead a at ome spunod e 0Z ‘Sny ne wn te eee ae sdruiny, uMop pey TauyQ See ew wee ee eee eee ee ‘CT SCI Be ee we spunod ZL 0% ‘ony Te eee ee we we “I9AOTO ped petunsuo0s Tug. ct qsty soqout OL 04 8 Pe ee ee, spunod e OL ABN BERG IR GL IE Ee Sa Re fopsay sie adey umoid Ty Tau a 0Z Seq "* $180 nq Zz ‘geod nq I Cl ady a $780 pue stog uUMOS UOTZBINpP powsg 95%4s Burzeir) aioe red pees jo yunowy | wu doin 296 POULTRY CULTURE raising mangles it is best to plough the ground deeply in the fall. The freezing will pulverize the ground and tend to make it in better condition for the crop. Good black loam soil is the best. The ground should be manured. If manure is not available, fertilize by distributing 400 to 500 pounds ferti- lizer to the acre. Plant the mangle seed in rows 214 to 3 feet apart, sow thick, later thin out, leaving one strong beet stock to each 10 inches. The rows should be ridged, the top of ridge being about 2 inches above the surface of the ground. The seed should be planted about 1 inch deep. Gather the root crops as late in the fall as possible. Bury in the ground until ready to use them. To do this, place about 6 inches of straw on the ground, then pile or make windrow; cover mangles, or turnips, with about 6 inches of straw or hay and cover with dirt. In securing the dirt take that close around the piles of roots so that there will be drainage away from the pile and thus keep dry. The roots thus prepared should keep till January and February, when they are most needed. During the fall and early winter grazing crops may be used. 297 FEEDSTUFFS “BuTUING UT 4SOT St [*(*Od)EeD] ayeydsoyd unyowor1} a[qviaprsuoo [vour suo puv yweuT UT pus [eu sug TIOq Ut VY} aBqeqord st4y , oo0¢ze'0 | 000°0 060°0 Z¥I°O | 00ZF'0 Tg6°2€ | 000°0 | 0000'0 Gee Re aT T24s 103849 oooogs's | 000°0 000°0 000°0 | 0029°9 | 0026°0€ | 000°0 | 0000'0 Gj | eR era YAS ouoysouryT 920000000 | 9¢01'0 £60°0 | #S€0°0 | 9020°0 | #800°0 800°0 | O1¢z°0 Ej |) Sse are es ae useis ‘advy €010'0 | zZ08'0 OST'O | Os6e'0 | e600 809°0 00z°0 | €0T0'0 SJ yee e der Teys Surpnpour ‘saqq 9e00°0 | 9e1'0 s90°0 | #2700 | 8I00°0 es1'0 FPL Isto GO) beiNhe ee ee yn wWaTAg o00g0'0 | seZL'0 £40°0 £280 9z8'0 8ét'0 98 °0 LLT'T T “*Qoer}xe 7e}) [Bow ynuBag 00g0'0 | #99°0 3e0'0 SEF 0 8620 8ez"0 SIF0 68T'T I “"**(90813x9 484) Teou uveq fog 9z10'0 | #9L°0 BESO ISst'0 8020 09e'0 IFL°0 98I'T To eek [vou WeIq-JoAOA osso'0 | 09¢°9 o¢s'0 6ge'0 09F 0 908°3t | SLO g8t'°0 é ee ty pour au0g pus FeaT] 6010'0 | #9%°0 | 0280°0 402'0 | G9FT'O | gT60'0 £¢0°0 18°0 9 See ane ** "8380 porn 810°0 | 6FE'OT | 00600 OLT'O | OO8S°O | OLLTIZ | ¢EL0 6220 eg Rao gee nave p[eou su0g zs00°0 | €8Z°0 | €090°0 ZES'0 | 8z9E'0 | O860'0 61z'T 676°0 9 RS OS oe He SBur[pprar yeaq Ay $r00'0 | €62°0 | Izg0°0 StI°O | TSOT'O | 2zT0°0 T#0'0 see 0 eI Res a Saat ui0d 8fOUM 200°0 | 980 | 0€90°0 €81'O | 2ZIL'O | 12z0°0 6£0°0 eer'0 81 ee Torres ss agaq at TOU, z900°0 | €L%°0 | 8&Z0°0 982°0 | O9ST'O | O8FO0'0 9eT 0 oe °0 z PPR ie ean oe 8780 peoy 6100'0 | 66%'0 | 0060°0 983°0 | F0L0'0 | 92100 60T 0 TPP '0 L Sore eeeesesescs= "S980 proqurd ¥00°0 | I¥e°O | FZ0'0 O9t'O | 9eeT'O | Z600°0 &20°0 6FE 0 ee | eros “Tress ss payod ‘Teauras0¢9 snioyd uInIseu sessTeue wor] i Sie moyyg | nyding | Tey | ERPIEO | wmrpog soni Hee ad peag [perpuny sed sjied se pessaidxa sy[nsey] sqqgaqy AUYLTAOT dO INGLNOD) IVUENITPL 298 POULTRY CULTURE AvERAGE DigEsTIBLE Nutrients IN Poutrry FEEpDs The data of this table for the digestible nutrients are derived mainly from Bulletin 22, Office of Experiment Stations, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, Washington; Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen, Woll; Farm Foods, Wolff (English edition, Cousins), and Zusammensetzung der Futtermittel, Dietrich and Konig. Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds Name of feed : Carbohy- Ether pounge | Grates,” | extract CoNCENTRATES Corn, all analyses.............. 7.9 66.7 4.3 OT CHC OEM cecercneseprinrse Geran aon anne 7.8 66.7 4.3 Hint COM pancoce cn dere emer eae 8.0 66.2 4.3 Sweet: COM vst eyeeseseees ced} 8.8 63.7 7.0 CORN=COD eee ade 8 aed es ncedawn 0.4 525 0.3 Corn and cob meal............. 4.4 60.0 2.9 COM BEAM cintnoian cn Ape etn meets 7.4 59.8 4.6 Gluten meal.............0..... 25.8 43.3 11.0 Germ-meal cocina save sea4 eee 9.0 61.2 6.2 Starch refuse.................. 11.4 58.4 6.5 Grano-gluten..........00.0..... 26.7 38.8 12.4 Hominy chops........4........ 7.5 55.2 6.8 Glucose meal..........0....... 30.3 35.3 14.5 Suparmedlinsgiocisn super gaa cetiys 18.7 51.7 8.7 Starch feed, wet............... 5.5 21.7 2.3 Hemp-seed.........-.......... 10.0 30.4 20.5 WIHES the sannnnon aeadety ao eam ween 10.2 69.2 Lied’ High-grade flour............... 8.9 62.4 0.9 Low-grade flour............ 0... 8.2 62.7 0.9 Dark feeding flour............. 13.5 61.3 2.0 Wheat brati..ccccse kee ewes ws 12.2 39.2 Dil Wheat bran, spring wheat..... 12.9 40.1 3.4 Wheat bran, winter wheat... ... 12.3 37.1 2.6 Wheat shorts.................. 12.2 50.0 3.8 FEEDSTUFFS 299 Name of feed Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds Protein, Carbohy- pounds | arate CONCENTRATES Wheat middlings............... 12.8 53.0 Wheat screenings.............. 9.8 51.0 Bread crumbs................. 6.9 44.2 RVC seen rats ae eanaeee ees 9.9 67.6 RY6 Brain: ecco eaieca gain ven ¥ as 11.5 50.3 Rye shortsyecs ans ase agesa keene 11.9 45.1 Barleye vice wecens duel cne a aetak 8.7 65.6 Malt sprouts.............0.00. 18.6 37.1 Brewers’ grains, wet............ 3.9 9.3 Brewers’ grains, dried.......... 15.7 36.3 OatSs 2 wi icatea de ells ada 9.2 47.3 Oatmeal sence wes aver saya 11.5 52.1 Oat feed or shorts.............. 12.5 46.9 Oat AUSticdnuies eleiet awl ts eerie 8.9 38.4 Oat: RWS isc ecy se ary ceern oak 1.3 40.1 Oats rolled, hulled, or pin-head. . 15.0 66.6 RICE 4. snot aS We end 4.8 (252 Rice hulls. ............0..00000- 1.6 44.5 Rice: Braman sanw eae s Bode 12.5 62.0 Rice polish.................... 9.0 56.4 RICE THEA isi cncyeacsun ys Goes dla wane ak 11.0 51.0 Buckwheat................004. Vt 49.2 Buckwheat hulls............... 2.1 27.9 Buckwheat bran............... 7.4 30.4 Buckwheat shorts.............. 21.1 33.5 Buckwheat middlings........... 22.0 33.4 Milo maize.................... 8.7 66.2 Ether extract, pounds bho on o o COIN w Co SCOOnao pe Ne None OF op COrwonw NPN ODDW 300 POULTRY CULTURE Name of feed Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds . Carbohy- Ether pounda’ | Grates,” | extract, CONCENTRATES Sorghum seed................. 7.0 52.1 3.1 Broom-corn seed............... 7.4 48.3 2.9 Wail COM cscies cccnesdeed Ree 8 7.8 57.1 2.7 INTIME Gcsavastasies inlet whens aseaee racing 8.9 45.0 3.2 HOteritais + Guanes Saaariie exes 9.3 66.6 2.5 Makseed cccxcckeas caweacn ceded 20.6 17.1 29.0 Linseed meal, old process....... 29.3 32.7 7.0 Linseed meal, new process....... 28.2 40.1 2.8 Cotton seed................005 12.5 30.0 17.3 Cotton-seed meal.............. 37.2 16.9 12.2 Cotton-seed hulls ............. 0.3 33.1 1.7 Cocoanut meal................ 15.6 38.3 10.5 Palm nut meal................ 16.0 52.6 9.0 Sunflower seed................. 12.1 20.8 29.0 Sunflower-seed cake............ 31.2 19.6 12.8 Peanut in hulls................ 20.4 16.4 36.2 Peanut kernels................ 26.8 17.5 44.9 Peanut cake or meal from hulled nuts, fat extracted............ 42.8 20.4 7.2 Peanut cake or meal, hulls in- Cudednanseeree ce seen conudeun 28.4 27.0 11.1 Peanut hulls.................. 7.3 18.9 2. Rape-seed meal................ 25.2 23.7 7.5 PEAS sek drmtntene Svea Sainaemautasdnant 16.8 51.8 0.7 SOV Deane «x nam nancedae ventas 29.6 22.3 14.4 Soy-bean meal (fat extracted)... 38.1 33.9 5.0 COWEPESi i. occis bce acsodie diddonnn cade w 18.3 54.2 1.1 TOTSE, BEAN cussieccescrnne gla antes avers 22.4 49.3 1.2 Velvet bean meal (pods and DEAT) geanmiecqendtemviate dae uedabie neice 18.1 50.8 5.3 FEEDSTUFFS 301 Digestible nutrients in 100 pound: Name of feed Protein, Carbohy- Ether pounds | arates, | extract RovucHaGE Fresh grass Pasture grasses (mixed)......... 2.5 10.2 0.5 Kentucky blue grass........... 3.0 19.8 0.8 Timothy, different stages....... 1.2 19.1 0.6 Orchard grass, in bloom........ 1.5 11.4 0.5 Redtop, in bloom.............. 2.1 21.2 0.6 Oat fodder.....csssee0eresaess 2.6 18.9 1.0 Rye fodder..............-..0.. 2.1 14.1 0.4 Sorghum. cecciwe cose sas tenawen 0.6 12.2 0.4 Meadow fescue, in bloom....... 1.5 16.8 0.4 Hungarian grass............... 2.0 16.0 0.4 Green barley.................. 1.9 10.2 0.4 Peas and oats........-....... 1.8 7.1 0.2 Peas and barley............... 1.7 7.2 0.2 Fresh legumes Red clover, different stages...... 2.9 14.8 0.7 Alsike, bloom.................. 2.7 13.1 0.6 Crimson clover..............-. 2.4 9.1 0.5 USS cos. oh icece ue eee 3.9 12.7 0.5 COW=Peadxdces sua re vee sees 1.8 8.7 0.2 Soja bean............0.-..005. 3.2 11.0 0.5 Legume hay ALAM a onetate win ne cinta 11.0 39.6 1.2 Cow-pedns ic ci eke teense ets 10.8 38.6 1.1 Soja-bean straw. ......--.-..-- 2.3 40.0 1.0 Pea-vine straw.........-...4.- 4.3 32.3 0.8 Silage COT: Cesk ae ene elon saa 0.9 11.3 0.7 Clover. alpaca Mse eae 2.0 13.5 1.0 Sorghum..........600050e eee 0.6 14.9 | 0.2 302 POULTRY CULTURE Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds Names of feed Protein, earthy Ether pounds rates, extract, pounds pounds Silage AMA Os ccd aes iting ta D aint Ms bene ede Selb A 3.0 8.5 1.9 GIPASS is aes -Adtas dean a wiquits cate Raeaenee ae aE ok Sac aene ee 1.9 13.4 1.6 Cowpea Vine ..c. xs ccvateiers ey ities ye wd enaiaianece pein aa 1.5 8.6 0.9 SGja WEAN yw lee apteklaais ory mandale mle wel meds a Ne Qa 8.7 1.3 Barnyard millet and soja bean.......... 1.6 “9.2 0.7 Corn and soja bean...........00 220-2 wee 1.6 13.0 0.7 Roots and tubers RaPCheccciegramrce daze adem “x a emate dias 2.6 10.0 0.3 POtatO adiar oa a sarees PMlemak ion iamimnlals auleanaee = 0.9 16.3 0.1 Beet, COMMON. ne eee c pads dee BAR ET SRE PERE EES 12 8.8 0.1 Beet Sears y oc ey ed oY GE es Sy OS dae ee 1.1 10.2 0.1 Peet Manel coe sos ie esiesgveiaes Gigend bud Satan’ 1.1 5.4 0.1 Plat Curiae vsesave evs, schacgoha ne eeaed oo bs 1.0 C2) 0.2 Rutab again cece. ser od h4a ead ats Fea wa Rew RR es 1.0 8.1 0.2 Cartotissc cuissiccces swears ews eaanas wy rpiesttelntnceiS 0.8 7.8 0.2 PATSNLD ss sca eidiicven or aNerelt aq o en aw emonnwae ee 1.6 11.2 0.2 ATTIChHOK Gs ie sag osiy ow ndionsa Re SHER SOR EMRE SEED Ee 2.0 16.8 0.2 TURD DY 2550's as Fee Ha Oe PhaaS EG So Shae aS 1.0 6.0 0.2 MISCELLANEOUS WCAG scents oA ae Steed ahaa ey coy a Ptiabe 1.9 4.7 0.3 CBD WAS Od ccccncgs stan a aeedinnnhs Sand) Kethademenc agis 1.8 8.2 0.4 OPULTY oct agcdeaalsavorignoweeeewns “seed oases 15 9.8 0.3 Sugar-beet leaves........0..0 02.020 c ee eee 1.7 4.6 0.2 Ptrmpkiny feldie gecss hoe gs Seg GSS Bhe2 bode 1.0 5.8 0.3 Pumpkin, garden..... ........ Mihhee, Ree ae 1.4 8.3 0.8 Prickly Comireyig ..asGeede adele vale sary eecewen 1.4 4.6 0.2 Rapesccess svaG ave cent ee wage ee Ee RS 15 8.1 0.2 Acortis, fresh: apideacin ss os sees Fame dayewes 2.1 34.4 1.7 Brewer's grain, dried...... 2... 02. 20.2... Lee 215 30.5 6.1 Dried bloddisis ns euius he eouhen sae PEK oy ok bade 52.3 0.0 2.5 MGAt SCRAD: 152-55 adresse cease Sy ae ee haat 50.2 0.3 13.7 Dried fish................. i 3 ; e Se: 44.1 0.0 10.3 Beet pulp, dried.......,...00. 0... 2~:. 4 4.6 65.2 0.8 Beet molasses........ 0... cee c cece ee eee Abe 9.1 59.5 0.0 Boneemalens sci: dy saree Heme on gay kanes oe Sees 26.0 Cows! mille.24 soe ioe ines Scenes tadatie ® tameds 3.6 4.9 3.7 Cows’ milk, colostrum... . .. 2.0 ww... 17.6 2.7 3.6 Skim milk, gravity... ..............2.-0000. ricaclee 3.1 4.7 0.8 Skim-milk, céntrifugal sss cna smww. 48 atasa sens mada 2.9 5.2 0.3 Buttermilless oie dagaws ghrgylaaad show. gee eevee ey 3.9 4.0 1.1 Wheyies ci¢aate A GE eoR 0.8 4.7 0.3 FEEDSTUFFS Armspy’s Net Enercy Vauues For Frepine Sturr 303 The following net energy values for the most important American feeds are taken from Armsby, Pennsylvania Bul. 142. Digestible otal. | Net Feeding stuffs es Crude True alue- pounds | protein, | protein, | therms pounds | pounds Grains and seeds PRATLGV cascheauitanle: Sack tcanadoah Rabasl web ead bes 90.7 9.0 8.3 | 89.94 Bean NAVY sc nccua ou wares eal Rased 86.6 18.8 | 16.4 | 73.29 Buckwheat.........................] 87.9 8.1 7.2 | 59.73 Cory dette . esta ae 62.40 | 98.39 | 85.71 OatSe son se ate he deeeeee 13 62.69 | 71.31 | 90.10 | 87.89 PAS ees :bcs Gass sare eae aeons 3 77.07 | 87.00 | 84.80 | 80.01 Wiha tin ).s ota Gals othcteardusssroass 10 82.26 | 75.05 | 87.04 | 53.00 RVC seid peer eka tees 2 79.20 | 66.90 | 86.70 | 22.60 PotatOesi: cadets dokokese 6 78.33 | 46.94 | 84.46 Oats, rolled................. 1 84.00 | 81.00 | 84.80 | 86.20 Weicut or VARIOUS CONCENTRATES In computing rations for poultry it is desirable to know the weight per quart, or the bulk, of the different concen- trates. The following table, compiled from Massachusetts Bulletin 136 by Smith and Perkins, Louisiana Bulletin 114 by Halligan, and Indiana Bulletin 141 by Jones, Haworth, Cutler and Summers is therefore presented. FEEDSTUFFS 307 On One | pound One, | pound Feeding stuffs weighs, meas- Feeding stuff ele meas- pounds| quarts pounds} quarts Whole corn............. 1.7 0.6 Millet, foxtail.......... 1.6 0.6 Corn meal..............] 1.5 0.7 Rice polish............. 132 0.8 Corn-and-cob meal...... 1.4 0.7 Rice bran.............. 0.8 1.3 Hominy feed............ es 0.9 Buckwheat............. 1.4 0.7 Gluten feed............. 1.3 0.8 Buckwheat flour........ 1.6 0.6 Gluten meal............ 1.7 0.6 Buckwheat middlings...) 0.9 tet Germ oil meal........... 1.4 0.7 Buckwheat bran........ 0.6 1.7 Corn bran....... isla tase 0.5 2.0 Buckwheat hulls....... 0.5 2.0 Wheat seiicew-e cs seman 1:9 0.5 Cotton seed.. ......... 0.8 1.3 Wheat, ground.. Hee Dh 0.6 Cottonseed meal........ 1.5 0.7 Flour wheat middlings...| 1.2 0.8 Cottonseed hulls........ 0.3 3.3 Standard wheat middlings| 0.8 1.3 Mlaxseed ine oeid oace Read a 1.6 0.6 Wheat bran............. 0.5 2.0 Linseed meal, old process} 1.1 0.9 Wheat feed (shorts and Linseed meal, new proc- BEAN) paves co seewo ae 0.6 1.7 OSSixks pee Geen bees 0.9 1.1 Wheat screenings........ 1.0 1.0 Flax feed............5. 0.8 1.3 AY Gis 2 teas beh Sie. 2 otacouday 1.7 0.6 Flax screenings......... 1.1 0.9 Rye meal: 5. sinen cae avas 1.5 0.7 Beans, navy............ 1.7 0.6 Rye middlings...... ’ 1.6 0.6 COWDCESs bles wes ae eae 1st 0.6 Rye branes ceoce sce 4 0.8 1.3 Rye feed (shorts and Peas, field..............] 2.1 0.5 Branys scomapics At sree evads 1.3 0.8 Soybeans.............- 1.8 0.6 OBtSnacs-ciges seein « 1.0 1.0 Cocoanut meal....... 1.5 0.7 Oatmeals :sc0cc a es2ssame 1.7 0.6 Cocoanut cake.......... 1.3 0.8 Oats, ground............ 0.7 1.4 Sunflower seed ......... 1.5 0.7 Oat feed........eeer eee 0.8 1.3 Beet pulp, dried........ 0.6 Ved Oat middlings........... 1: 0.7 Distillers’ grains, dried..| 0.6 LF Oat hulls. sa.cccecssens 0.4 2.5 Molasses, cane, or black- Barley science oh see ay 15 0.7 BERAP aes ead ale eg p he 3.0 0.3 Barley meal............ 1.1 0.9 Molasses feed.......... 0.8 1.3 Malt sprouts..........++ 0.6 1.7 Alfalfa meal............ 0.6 1.7 Brewers’ grains, dried....| 0.6 1.7 CHAPTER XVI DISEASES CONNECTED WITH FEED SPOILED AND DISEASED FEEDS Many digestive derangements are caused through dietetic errors caused by spoiled feeds. It is a common and popular thought that spoiled feed, not fit for human consumption, is good enough for the chickens. Food that is injurious to the digestive canal of one group of animals is pretty likely to prove just as injurious to another. There are very few exceptions to thisrule. The fact that a buzzard can eat carrion and thus spread disease does not imply that all kinds of birds can eat spoiled feed with impunity. The anatomic and microscopic structure of the digestive tract of all animals is pretty much alike, as we may see under the section on Digestion. All animals make use of the same nutrients, assimilate them, and build organic structures out of them. So far as we know, fat in the body of a hen is built up by the same process as fat in the body of a cow ora human. Its sources may be the same. Al! eat similar food—that is, the same kind of carbohydrates, hydrocarbons, protein, and ash. All are affected in a similar manner when poisonous substances are taken into the body. Some withstand certain poisons better than others. It was formerly thought that it was impossible to poison birds with strychnin, and one author went so far as to say that pigeons ate strychnin with impunity, but that birds can easily be poisoned by strychnin is shown by the experiments of the author, in which experiments the medicinal dosage of sulphate of strych- nin was found to be from 14 to 14 grain to an adult hen. One grain in solution, given on an empty stomach, always proves fatal in a very few minutes. Therefore, birds have a greater resistance to strychnin per body weight than other animals, making the medicinal dose greater, and hence the lethal or poisonous dose correspondingly larger. 308 DISEASES CONNECTED WITH FEED 309 Birds readily succumb to ptomain-poisoning after eating rotten meat. Birds have been known to suffer from ptomain- poisoning after eating putrid canned corn. While the intestinal flora or bacteria which live in the diges- tive tract is somewhat similar to that of higher animals, yet they do not apparently suffer to any great extent with fermen- tation of the undigested food and with tympany. The carcass of a horse, cow, dog, or hog, in many instances, and especially in cases in digestive derangements, soon ‘‘bloat”’ to enormous size. This bloating does not readily take place in dead fowl, if at all. There appears-to be no fermentative trouble from digestive contents in dressed carcasses of fowl. Fermenta- tion and putrefaction is indeed slow, though it cannot be dis- puted that if the carcass be kept under the proper temperature the germs or bacteria from the intestinal tract grow by ex- tension through the intestinal wall, and ultimately contribute to degenerative changes as well as products given off by them in solution spreading by diffusion. This change, however, is slow if the carcasses be kept at a cool temperature (below 40° F.). In studying feeds and digestion, we take under consideration the possible alteration in quantity, conditions of quality, and conditions of digestibility. An excess of certain kinds of food, without sufficient exercise, may lead to a physiologic deposition of fat, especially in the abdominal cavity, which may interfere from two standpoints —namely, egg production and as breeders, affecting fertility and vitality of the progeny. As a pathologic result it may produce a febrile condition with blood and liver derangements, especially when the excess is protein. Spoiled feed may be-of such a nature as to cause diarrhea by acting as an irritant to the intestinal mucosa. The diarrhea is a natural result of nature, the intestinal canal trying to rid itself of the objectionable material. When feed is kept for a considerable length of time and under certain conditions it may be attacked by vegetable and animal organisms. Thus, mash, bran, middlings, and shorts kept in too damp a quarter are readily attacked by molds and sapro- phytic bacteria of decay, and the feed soon becomes bitter and 310 POULTRY CULTURE spoiled and unfit for feeding. (See Fig. 104, a, b, c, and d.) Weevil is another enemy of feed, especially grain. Rats and mice destroy large quantities. The storage-rooms should bemade and maintained rat- and mouse-proof, and the grain bins and mash hoppers in the poultry houses should be kept closed at night. It is good practice to have the mash hopper in the hen-house so construéted that the lid may be closed in the evening when the evening scratch feed is given, and again opened when the morning scratch feed is given; thus it takes no extra time to see that this precaution in feed saving is carried out. As hinted before, the quality of feed is affected by its mode of growth, care in saving and preservation, as well as cleanli- ness, and the inroads of vegetable and animal parasites. If grain be grown on land that is poor in quality, the product will also be poor in quality. Therefore the quality of the soil affects the quality of the crop. It has been noticed that oats grown on clay soil are superior to any other. Rye grows best on light sandy soil and barley on good loam. The age at which the crop is gathered is also an important factor exerting its influence upon the nutritive value. Wheat cut about fifteen days before it is ripe contains the most protein and starch and the bushel measureful weighs more. If it be cut late, there is found a less percentage of the floury part and an increase in the percentage of bran. The season has a great influence on the quality of feed, wet years producing parasitic diseases of the grain and stalk, and the crop is usually delayed in maturing. It is noticed that in a wet, hot summer ergot of the seeds of grains and grasses, especially rye and blue grass, is more common. There are certain chemical changes that take place in grain after it is stored which apparently removes any irritating properties it may contain, and renders its nutritive substances easier digested. This not only applies to grain, but to mangles and even hay. Food improperly taken care of in wet seasons may deterio- rate, that is, become moldy, and chemical changes of various kinds take place, affecting both the proteins and starches, and at times rendering them unfit for food and even poisonous. DISEASES CONNECTED WITH FEED 311 The risk which one takes in feeding any foodstuff which has kept badly depends upon the extent to which deterioration has taken place. The degree to which the food is damaged may range from a faint moldy smell to a decomposing and offensive-smelling material. Root-crops, under the conditions usually kept, may readily undergo decay. Rotten potatoes and other roots may produce digestive irritation and even poisoning. Cleanliness in feeding is essential. Baby chicks sometimes gorge themselves with sand, impac- tion of the crop being the result, and death often follows. DISEASES OF FEED Certain fungi attack plants during growth, and thus may be considered parasites of that plant. Those organisms which attack the grain or plant after death or at maturity are called saprophytes. Some organisms attacking foodstuffs are vegetable in nature, while others are animal organisms. The organisms here considered destroy the grain on which they live. The principal vegetable parasites are those causing ergot, rust, smut, and mildew. (See Fig. 104, 2, j, and k.) Those attacking plants and grain after death or at maturity cause moldiness and rottenness, and these molds belong to the genera of aspergillus, penicillium, and mucor, besides many kinds of saprophytic bacteria. (See Fig. 104, a, 6, c, and d.) Puccinia graminis is the fungus which under certain condi- tions attacks growing grain. It must necessarily pass through two hosts or plants to complete its life cycle. In each host it produces a distinct disease. The stems and leaves of all grasses and cereals may be attacked by it in the early summer. On these it produces yellowish-red lines or spots. The color is due to the spores or seeds of the fungus. This material when dry is dust-like, and gives the rusty appearance to the leaf or stalk attacked. The mycelia or mass of hyphe are composed of elongated cells, arranged end to end, and grow 312 POULTRY CULTURE into the substance of the leaf or stalk. The spores they form are called uredospores. Later in the summer the production of yellowish-red spores ceases and changes take place in the mycelia, when, instead of yellowish-red spores, there is now formed another kind, known as the teleutospore, and is not capable of producing the disease if placed on a fresh plant. It must undergo another change in which a small hyphe-like outgrowth is formed and which bears four spores; this is the third kind of spore produced in the cycle. These latter spores may be transmitted by the wind to other plants, where the fungus again repeats its cycle. Smut of corn is produced by a fungus, Ustilago maydis, and is said to be non-poisonous. Ustilago carbo is the fungus that produces smut of oats. (See Fig. 104, 7.) This fungus con- sists of mycelia and spores. The flowering heads of grains, as wheat, oats, rye, and barley, may be attacked. The diseased area appears at first as a small whitish spot which, after the spores have formed, appears black. This fungus completely destroys the flowering head and seed. Claviceps purpurea is a fungus which attacks the grains of grasses, as blue-grass and grains of rye. (See Fig. 104, k.) The grain becomes enlarged to twice or more in length, and varies from a brown to black in color. The attacked grain is known as an ergotized one. Grain and mash exposed to sufficient dampness become moldy. Figure 104, a, 6, ¢, d, illustrates various kinds of bacteria and molds, as stated before. The latter are made of hyphe and spores. Damp grain becomes dark in color and sprouts; the starch is changed into sugar, and other chemical changes take place, be- sides some of the nutrients are used up by the mold. Fermen- tation of the mass raises the temperature and, if much bulk, becomes quite hot to the hand. As soon as it is found that feedstuff becomes wet, it is advis- able to spread it out in a thin layer so that it can readily dry and thus produce unfavorable conditions for the growth of the fungi. A dry place is essential for the storing of feedstuffs. While the drying prevents sprouting, stops the fungoid growth, 313 DISEASES CONNECTED WITH FEED ‘Fy ‘E'S 'T YB Sureis yoS1a oy} Furmoys pur yossa Jo snsuny ayy Aq payoezye peoy of1 @ y ‘qnuIs Aq poyoryye poy yvo ue £ ysnr Aq poyouyqe syv0 Jo y[BIs & ST t'SUTvIS OY} Youre Yor sdnq are y ‘6 ‘fo Syuesaid St Bey puev oinystow Jodord oy usyM Pood Aossop puv youzye YyoryM spjour O18 p pu 9 pus ‘ABoop asneod yey} stUIEs aIe q pues D :syNyspooy pue soyisered jo yieyo W— POT ‘Ol ad L uANTaOA PY eqdséQ eqdigg ‘BIPISU_ ‘ByOTANTOD ByBULSL1979 manigaviodg BIpIaoD dyByeXo MNJOTVO Josyeys{1o AvMOWR (smritAL iF) “upoeg Jo saddt~ te IZ oe | (sumone ay 41/7) “poosorstww Jo sadét— yo B ta00 eB ae Be B ze te ae & foes es Eo eS é 7 Ser? 314 POULTRY CULTURE and gets rid of the moisture, yet one should be apprehensive about feeding such spoiled feed. There are two kinds of animal parasites affecting grain, as mentioned before. One attacks the grain during growth and development, the other the cured grain. Thus, the ear of corn is attacked by a worm, and wheat, rye, and oats by the ear cockle, another kind of round-worm. The insects attacking cured grains are the Tenebrio forma. The larva of the Tenebrio of grain destroy the grains, reducing them to a powder. Certain acari also destroy grain, among which are the Gamasus and Argas. (See Fig. 104, f, g, A.) The acari (Fig. 104, e) reduce the grain content to a powder, consuming a part and contaminating the balance with their excrements and destroying it. Birds are capable of eating many kinds of insects and worms, and while some of these when ingested by other animals suffer, it is not proved that they are harmful to birds. CHAPTER XVII RATIONS AND METHODS OF FEEDING Tue object of feeding is to transform the vegetable and ani- mal feeds into finished products in the form of eggs and meat which are edible, and to keep the body in a normal physiologic condition. The different processes in the body to be considered are growth, reproduction, storing of fat, maintenance of the body temperature, repair of body tissue waste, to supply muscular energy, and the elaboration of secretions. A chick develops or grows very rapidly if given proper food. The baby chick is one of the most delicate animals, and is capable of making the most rapid growth of any. The baby chick at hatching weighs about 114 ounces. By proper care and feed the chick should weigh 40 ounces at twelve weeks old, or an increase of approximately twenty-six times its original weight. Therefore, the process of digestion and assimilation is much greater than in other animals. Cell metabolism is very rapid. A chick requires a large amount of mineral mat- ter, as lime-salts, as well as much protein, hence it requires a narrow ration. The greatest primary increase is in bone and muscle. The bony structure is the framework for the support of the reproductive and other vital organs and attachment for the skeletal muscles. Many of the hollow organs, as the bowels, contain muscular coats, which are composed largely of albumen. This albumen is built up from the protein of the food, and the same may be said of the skeletal muscles and of the cells of the glands. The muscular structure is called lean meat. Protein is the nitrogen-containing portion of the food. As a result of rapid growth and development the bird must be supplied with food containing much protein. Body de- velopment or growth is largely completed when egg production or egg formation begins. 315 316 POULTRY CULTURE The length of time for a bird to reach the age of full develop- ment, as far as skeleton and muscle is concerned, varies with the care, feed, and breed. If the birds are properly fed the smaller breeds, as those belonging to the Mediterranean— namely, the Leghorn and Minorca—will be sufficiently de- veloped to lay at about five months of age, while the larger breeds, as the Asiatics and American—namely, the Cochins, Plymouth Rocks, and Wyandottes—may not lay till they are six or even seven months old. The workers at Cornell have determined by careful observa- tions that a young bird molts four times before growing its permanent adult feathers and does not lay till adult plumage is developed. The late molting hen is the heavy layer and it is therefore advisable to select the late molter for breeding. 8. C. White Leghorn pullets force fed from baby chick to maturity have laid at four months and four days to five months of age. In selecting hens for breeding one should take only the heavy layers if increased egg production is desired. An average- sized egg weighs about 2 ounces. Of this, 11 per cent. is shell, 32 per cent. is yolk, and 57 per cent. is white. The principal chemical constituents are ash or mineral matter, which con- stitutes 9 per cent.; fat or hydrocarbon, 93/9 per cent.; pro- teins or nitrogenous-containing substance, 1199 per cent.; water, 65570 per cent. Calcium, or lime-salts, is essential for the formation of the egg-shell. As the feeds commonly fed to poultry do not con- tain sufficient lime, it is necessary to feed shell, as oyster-shell, unless the birds are on range where they have an opportunity to pick up lime. Foods consist of three organic compounds as follows: Pro- tein, carbohydrates, and hydrocarbons. Protein contains the following elements—carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur. All the nitrogen of the foodstuffs is contained in the protein. The carbohydrates contain three elements—namely, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen—and include the starches, sugars, gums, resins, and other similar substances. The third compound, the hydrocarbons, are composed of RATIONS AND METHODS OF FEEDING 317 three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and include the compounds, fats and oils. In addition to these three com- pounds we find water and ash or mineral matter, representing the inorganic compounds. The egg, as stated before, contains a large amount of albu- men or nitrogen-containing substances, which must be built up from the protein constituents of the food. The same may be said of a growing animal, hence feeds for these animals must contain considerable protein. Therefore, oats and wheat in different forms, as well as meat scrap and green feeds, make up the greater protein content of these rations which give the best results in egg production and growth and development. In mature birds, where it is the desire to finish them—that is, fatten them for market—it is necessary in order to obtain the best results to feed a ration containing much carbohydrates and hydrocarbons. To summarize, we might say that the protein, or nitrogen- containing compounds of the food, repairs the body-waste caused by exercise and living processes, as that brought about by the beating of the heart and by respiration. The carbo- hydrates and hydrocarbons or starches and fats are utilized in the body for combustive purposes for the production of energy and to keep up the body temperature. Any nutrients in excess of the body requirements to make good tissue-waste are stored up as fat or go for egg production. FOR LAYING HENS To secure a goodly number of eggs it is necessary to make the proper selection of hens. In breeding, one should select for longevity, use late molters, select early producing pullets, use fall and winter layers, select heavy eaters, early risers, and late retirers, and procure mature birds. Pullets for fall laying should be hatched the first week in April. It pays to keep pure bred poultry because they are more reliable in breeding. They are greater egg producers, superior in meat quality. With pure bred one should secure better results in feeding, better hatching quality, less. broodiness, more attractive ap- pearance, and a more uniform egg in size, shape, and color. 318 POULTRY CULTURE Breeding stock can be sold at a higher price than butcher stuff. In order to build up a greater egg-laying strain trap nests are resorted to, and those showing a high egg-laying record are used to breed from. Male birds from these high-laying strains should be used, as inheritance of high egg-producers is also transmitted to the offspring by the male. An important factor in the success of winter egg production is the manner in which the pullets are started out in the fall. The young pullets that are expected to lay the high priced eggs in the fall and winter should be properly housed in their permanent winter quarters as soon after September Ist as possible, and with the least possible excitement accompanying this moving. New surroundings always occasion a setback in pullets just entering the laying age. The set back is more pronounced in the nervous, active breeds as the Leghorns than the heavy sluggish breeds. Decker relates an experience in which 60 White Plymouth Rock pullets were moved twice after September Ist, the last time being on October 10th. These pullets did not settle down to laying till after Christmas, whereas others of the same age and breed that had not been moved were laying regularly by November Ist. Some com- mercial egg producers shut their pullets in the house all fall, winter, and spring, force feed them for laying, and sell them in the summer when the eggs are a low price, and again take on a new lot of pullets raised that year. The youngsters are raised on range, and when it is time to take them to their new quarters they are fed gradually closer to their permanent house, are finally enticed into the house where they soon begin to feel at home, and roost at night. Finally when there is no danger of disturbance from closing the doors, they are shut.up and there remain for the winter. It is very important that the young pullets receive an abun- dance of green feed daily after they are confined in the laying house. This green feed may be cabbage leaves, lettuce, second growth clover clippings, sprouted oats, green corn blades and stalks cut fine, sweet corn planted closely and stalks thus grown cut finely in feed cutter. Lettuce may be planted each week from as early in the spring as it will grow to as late in the fall. In the South it may be grown all year round. RATIONS AND METHODS OF FEEDING 319 The pullets need an abundance of lime as the stronger the shells the fewer will be broken when shipping to market and the less loss to the producer. Then the pullet needs lime to complete growth. Three pounds of oyster shell, ground to a fine powder, added to each 100 pounds of mash has proven beneficial. An Estimate of Possible Production—The Dominion of Canada gives the following summary: It may be of interest to outline what might be considered reasonable winter pro- duction in Canada from a flock of strong, vigorous, well- matured pullets intelligently housed, fed, and cared for. The figures indicated are percentages figured on the number of eggs laid per day in proportion to the total number of pullets in the flock: October from 14 per cent. to 5 per cent. November from 5 per cent. to 15 per cent. December from 15 per cent. to 20 per cent. Usually there is a slight falling-off early in December when the extreme cold weather commences; this shrinkage, however, is usually overcome as soon as the birds become accustomed to the changed conditions. January from 20 per cent. to 40 per cent. February from 20 per cent. to 30 per cent. The figures for February would be high in many cases, for birds that have laid well during the previous three months usually show quite a marked falling-off in February, evidently a provision of nature to prepare for the stress of the natural hatching season to follow: March from 35 per cent. to 55 per cent. April from 55 per cent. to 70 per cent. The period of highest production comes usually between the middle of March and the middle of April. The most valuable bird, however, is the one that lays in her pullet year thirty or more eggs before the first of March. Farm range conditions are best for health, vigor, and strong progeny. The food obtained from range consists of worms, slugs, insects, seeds, green feed, lime, various salts, and small sharp stones. Hot mashes at night in the winter time in which is incorpo- 320 POULTRY CULTURE rated green feed, milk, and meat scrap stimulate winter egg production. Laying hens should be kept warm and protected from storms. To keep the hens happy they should have about a foot of wheat or oat straw in the bottom of the houses, into which the scratch feed should be thrown. It is necessary to keep the birds free of lice and chiggers. Vermin weaken birds and lay them open to attacks of disease, and are indirectly the cause of more loss from death, egg production, and flesh than any other one cause. The birds should not be frightened by strangers and dogs, etc., entering the premises. men Fig. 105.—A comparison of the number of eggs laid by a scrub (75) and a hen bred for high egg production (224). For laying hens the following feeding program should be carried out: The first scratch feed should consist of clipped oats and wheat, of each equal parts, and should be given at about 7 o’clock in the morning and thrown in the litter, so they will have to scratch for it. The second scratch feed should consist of clipped oats, wheat, and the coarse particles of cracked corn, equal parts, and should be given at about 3 o’clock in the afternoon and placed in the straw. Dry mash should be kept in slatted hoppers in such a way that they cannot throw it out, and this feed should be kept before them at all times. This dry mash should consist of the following: RATIONS AND METHODS OF FEEDING 321 Wheat brant.. ioc. suesdesceeuenes para yes 2 parts. Wheat middlings................0...0000.. 2 Ground Ofte x25: siete ce ee AN aa ee Dado Qt Cormiiealnaseaus nase yee aes eee nes 1 part, Cotton-seed meal........ dg hice ores ngvensionestns Ls Meat scrap........... er rae ere eee qo Ground alfalfa....... ESTE Or ie eae 1“ Thoroughly mix. In addition to this, skimmed milk, clabber, or buttermilk may be given. It has been found that milk will, at least toa certain extent, take the place of the meat scrap. COO Ly LEM i EET Fig. 106.—a is a grain storage box to be kept in the hen house for storage of the grain feed: b for the morning scratch feed, c for the eveping scratch feed; @ is an inside dry mash hopper; e, the lid; f, compartment for grit; g, com- partment for charcoal; hk, compartment for oyster shells; 7, compartment for the dry mash; j, the let-down lid so the rats cannot eat the mash at night; k is a commercial mash hopper; J, the let-down lid; m is a three-compart- ment mash or shell hopper; n is a metal mash hopper; 0, a netting over the mash to prevent the birds from throwing the feed out. It is convenient to have in each hen house a grain storage box, as illustrated in Fig. 106, a—b is the compartment for the storage of the morning scratch feed and c for the evening scratch feed. The lid is up to show the interior; d represents a dry mash hopper which should be provided for the interior of every hen house; ¢ is the lid; f, the compartment for oyster 21 322 shells; g, the compartment for grit; h, the compartment for charcoal; 7, the compartment for the dry mash; j, indicates the lid, which may be closed down at night, thus keeping out the rats and mice; & is a commercial metal mash hopper; / is a lid to let down at night; m is another mash hopper with three com- partments, and is excellent for chicks or bantams; 7 is still another type of mash hopper, with o, a grating to keep the POULTRY CULTURE fowl from throwing out the mash. box. The New Jersey Experiment Station recommends the follow- ing ration for laying hens, in their Bulletin No. 2, vol. i, 1912: i Fie. 107.—An outdoor mash hopper. The four compartments A, B, C, and D are for use as in Fig. 106, d. The dimensions are given on the It is covered with rubberoid. Dry Masa Wheat bran....... ee 200 pounds, Wheat middlings......... 200 Ground oats............. 200 “ Cornmeal..............- 100 " Gluten meal............ 100 a Meat scrap............00- 100 a Short-cut alfalfa......... 100. 1000 pounds, 1381 quarts. 380 quarts. 240 200 95 80 86 200 ital 6c RATIONS AND METHODS OF FEEDING 323 By referring to the table of digestible nutrients and adding up the fat, multiply this by 2.25 and add it to the carbohy- drates, and divide this by the amount of protein, it will be found that the nutritive ratio will be 1: 3.02. Morninea ScratcH FErEep WhEAE siege esac eae wm asnuas 200 pounds, 53 quarts. Clipped oats .............. 100“ OS <8 300 pounds, 151 quarts. Nutritive ratio, 1:6.6. Nicut Scratcu FErEp Cracked corn.............. 200 pounds, 120 quarts. WHA A tiocmenclaungee ae 100 53. CO Clipped oats............... 100. “ 98 Buckwheat................ 100 o 66 OC 500 pounds, 337 quarts. Nutritive ratio, 1:7.8. Another feed for laying hens, which has been recommended by the Poultry Review, is as follows: Mornine ScratcH FEED OBtSs denunalae doe, AOR BOG RY Rowe anal aes, LO POUnas: WHAT cecnrcanae ace Sarat Maas aed 60 “ BuCKWHESG: ccc. ec sk he kona as ye eam SuNS 24 & Millets acts santiwrs Sin cannes corr aie sine 50 _ 454 pounds. Nutritive ratio, 1 :6.02. EVENING ScRATCH FEED Cracked Corts csesce sens sew ees eee oe 100 pounds Wheaties eo hs o eige chia gt nes OB AEA 60 as OBS ehh be ae ane eenen San ene ENe Mamta 64 os Buckwheat.........0.0.000 0000 e eee eee 48 - RYyGincfcotur cas ee eee or anewe esas eee 56 CS 328 pounds. Nutritive ratio, 1 :7.7. The Ohio Experiment Station recommends the following ration for laying hens: 324 POULTRY CULTURE WINTER ScratcH FEED Cracked corn.............. 60 pounds, 36 quarts. WHEFtactcc snus ata decals 40 Dh — Heavy oats................. 20. & 20“ 120 pounds, 17 quarts. Nutritive ratio, 1:8.3. SuMMER ScratcH FEED WHEE Gow siaianiaia dadtyeS oan bes eee 60 pounds, 32 quarts. Cracked corn............... 40 a 24 «= Heavy O8tSien is gen awww cos 20 ae 20° 120 pounds, 76 quarts. Nutritive ratio, 1:8.5. Dry Masu Cornmeal...............4. 100 pounds, 90 quarts. Wheat middlings........... 150“ 189 ‘ Wheat: braittsce. ce ae casas d 100.“ 190 =“ Meat: scrap: cccscin cur aves 100.“ 190“ Linseed oil meal........... 25% is “ Alfalfa meal es stele dS 25 ue 45 “ Charcoal. . Mian mneee: 2S a dd BalGis aie vache cele eho be es 2 es 1 es 510 pounds, 590 quarts. Nutritive ratio, 1 :2.7. In regard to the method of feeding, they say: “Tn addition to above give grit and oyster-shell, green feed— mangles, rape, cabbage, kale, sprouted oats, etc., and water. “Tn the morning, feed, in a deep litter of straw, a sufficient quantity of grain to keep the hens busy for an hour or two. The exact quantity to feed will depend on the size, number, and appetite of the flock. Provide plenty of fresh water—cold in summer and warm in winter. “ At noon give enough green feed to satisfy each hen. If the hens have a tendency to fatten, scatter a handful or two of grain in the litter. This will encourage the hens to exercise and to fatten less readily. Open the dry mash hopper dur- ing the afternoon so that the hens may help themselves. Leghorns, Hamburgs, and Minorcas may have access to the dry mash at all times, but Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Orpingtons, and Rhode Island Reds will often become too fat if allowed the same freedom. RATIONS AND METHODS OF FEEDING 325 “Late in the afternoon give the hens a good feed of grain in the litter. Endeavor to feed sufficient grain so that each hen will go to roost with a full crop. Ifa little grain remains in the litter, it will be scratched out early in the morning and keep the hens busy until feeding time. However, only enough grain should be fed to keep the appetite of the flock keen. The action of the hen isthe best guide in this respect. Experiments have shown that the most economic production of eggs is attained when the hens consume twice as much grain as dry mash, and that a hen will require from 75 to 90 pounds of grain and mash a year. “Grit and shell should be provided in open hoppers. ““Skimmed milk may be fed in pans, as a substitute for part of the meat scrap in the dry mash. The pans should be scalded occasionally. Sour milk is safest and best throughout the year, but avoid changing from sour to sweet or vice versa. “Feed regularly and at the same hour every day. Examine a hen occasionally and note the condition of her body.” The Massachusetts Experiment Station recommends the following ration for laying hens: Prof. Graham says: “There are about as many methods of feeding poultry as there are poultrymen, and yet there are perhaps more questions asked regarding this subject than any other. It is a well-known fact that one can feed almost any ration to hens and get good results for a time, provided he feeds enough of it; but to feed in such a way that the hens will be strong and vigorous and have good appetites, and to get the most possible for the amount of feed and labor expended, is another question. In other words, the time has come, with our high-priced feed, when we must feed as economically as possible. “Good results can be obtained by feeding a grain ration and balancing it with milk. A good ration for this method of feed- ing is 2 parts cracked corn, 1 part wheat, and 1 part oats. In addition to this, by giving the hens all the milk they will drink, enough protein will be furnished so that they can balance their own ration. “This ration can be varied, substituting beef scrap for milk. The beef scrap can be fed in a hopper, and if the hens are in- 326 POULTRY CULTURE clined to eat too much of it the hopper can be closed a part of the day. It can also be varied by substituting barley and buckwheat for corn and wheat respectively where these grains are available. A great variety of grains, such as we find in commercial scratch feeds, can be fed and balanced by feeding either milk, beef scrap, or green cut bone.” ‘Ration No. 2, Combination ration (grains and dry mash). “This is perhaps the most popular ration used in feeding poultry at the present time. In feeding this ration one can give a greater variety, utilize waste products and concentrates, can determine more nearly the amount eaten, utilize bulky materials, prevent waste, and stimulate the hens. “The disadvantages of a dry mash are that we are apt to get the mash too rich, too bulky, or get too much fibrous material in it, and if the hoppers are not constructed properly there will be more or less waste. It is not forcing, and birds must be taught to eat it. The advantages of a dry mash over a wet mash are that it saves labor, avoids decomposed materials, can be eaten when desired, perhaps at leisure, and is more sanitary.” The grain used in this ration are the same as in ration No. 1, and the two following formule for dry mashes are recom- mended: Mash No. I Wheat bran (by weight)................. 2 parts. Wheat middlings.. ............0...0.... 1 part. COrmniniG aig tuac cit oikse OA Sue soare - Benyede. 1 5 Altalta (ground) 0 e504 Sies6 ye eel odes cubean I. p 8 BeGMSCTADr acc me een aie a econ erase we ud. feed CE OU TMeals csaA sa ond alae kaweganneivk eed ace as lg “ Gluten meals eid sua cpa eb aderagisdwsa as i “ Nutritive ratio, 1:3.4. Mash No. II Wiheak brates ocisek ba etes ew edie a odin dens 1 part. Wheat middlings...0s5sG aus ee adage ee 4p t i. CORninGa] gi acns Gea eek eee els th cowed gtced.a ahd Lo Finely ground oats........................ 1 & Beck sorapsvaces aod aes ave eke ee Sea es fy pee OT anal a 5 cscs tte torn lr Osshtra veh doh rea Seen dbase tlt Loe Gliten TEC: vars eeceneuswee ac eag dee a waa ee 1 4 Nutritive ratio, 1 :2.6. RATIONS AND METHODS OF FEEDING 327 The Pennsylvania Experiment Station says: ‘There never can be a balanced ration that will hold for all sorts and condi- tions of laying hens. Flocks differ as to age, development, breed, manner of housing, ete. “Of the different grains corn is the most fed, but it is a fat- and heat-producing food and should be always so viewed. The great problem in open-front houses is to keep Leghorns in them from ‘pouting’ in very cold weather, and there is no one grain that we have that will so cheaply and effectually keep a Leghorn pullet warm and happy as corn. Corn is the grain most greedily eaten by chickens, and because of its size they can quickly fill up. This and its make-up has a strong tend- ency to make hens fed heavily on it overfat. From a close study it must be said that hens relish corn merely on account of its size. When cracked it seems to have no special attrac- tion over other grains, and allows them to eat it the same way, two reasons why corn should always be fed only as cracked corn. Wheat is the one best chicken grain, and yet if one grain and one only is to be fed corn turns out to be better than wheat. Good heavy oats rank next to wheat. Light oats and barley are a delusion, and have so much fiber that a hen will waste a lot of good value getting rid of it, or she can eat enough only to keep herself going and perhaps do a little at laying besides. “Too many scratch feeds contain much of this stuff, besides shrunken wheat, poor buckwheat and a lot of corn-hulls, etc. Some kaffir and sunflower seeds are added, the whole put up to sell at. a low price to meet competition. A hen to do heavy laying must have a large amount of the cleanest, soundest grain, the hardest red wheat and the plumpest oats, and the cleanest, soundest cracked corn. This is very much the cheap- est to buy. “Formula for home-mixed scratch feed for Leghorns in cold weather: Cracked Corse vires cae es odes wie OL 9% 400 pounds. Wheaticusite sc eamryge sega eGaaeene 300“ WEA Oat acainie aed eae eG Gnd wa 100 Buck wheati.c:. ccceasa cowsotin ew ess aes 100 ee Whole 08s: alll Nutritive ratio, 1 : 3.1. The grain ration may consist of the following: Cracked COtcccawoai ouuuiacuieeassiakes 10 pounds. Wists 20 cesses yew eedea We eae toa a SEe er OBIS ce os died seh nae Soa BAF mB onc ead a 5. os Nutritive ratio, 1 : 7.2. The rapid growth and development that take place in the bones make a greater demand for mineral matter than this ration supplies, hence the bones break easily, unless the ration contains a sufficient amount of mineral matter, and particu- larly calcium. The following mixtures have also proven excellent rations for chicks from hatching to range size which is about eight weeks of age. It should be fed five times a day, just what they will eat up clean. Better results are obtained when mixed with milk and the birds are given milk to drink. Penni i mieals.. oes ciga veut ee sae aaes eluad o 33 parts. Ground Gorns.a saws wewies aeaw oe eet orcctns Faroe 67 100 RATIONS AND METHODS OF FEEDING 335 Soybean meal........................ MaOBE> Corn meal. ey * Byatayahvltae aa thas .... 67 & 100.“ Wheat middlings... ....... ............ O8.. 0 Corn meal. ....... 0 ...... 00... 2... 2g Ground oats.......00......0 0.0.02. 200. 28. Meatscrap......... ..... og -aen aoe 26 100. Milk-fed chickens undergo heavy shrinkage when shipped alive. The most profitable way is to dress them on the plant and ship dressed for market. The fattening period lasts from ten to fourteen days. Pullets raised for egg production or for breeding purposes should not be force-fed. Pullets and cockerels must be kept in separate yards after they reach a weight of about 2 pounds. In crate feeding as many birds are placed in the crate as can find room to eat feed from the trough placed along the side. The feed is fed sparingly at first, gradually increased. The birds are fed every twelve hours, that is, morning and evening. In feeding for eggs, fattening birds, or growing stock it is essential that the feeding be regular and done each time on the minute. Equalization of the time of feeding is essential for the best results. Chick Feeding.— Keep clean pure water and fresh sour milk before the chicks at all times. At first dip the bills of a few of the baby chicks into the milk and they will teach the balance to drink. If the milk gets into the eyes it may ferment there and cause sores. In this case wipe out the eye with clean absorbent cotton and drop one drop of a 1 per cent. solution of Sulphate of Zinc in the eye. The dishes must be washed clean each day and kept clean and sweet smelling. Do not allow chicks or ducklings to have musty grain or mash. Musty feed can be detected by its odor. Do not allow them to have feed that has become putrid. Feeding trays should be cleaned in one hour after the chicks are fed and the cleanings thrown where the chicks cannot get at it. 336 POULTRY CULTURE Fermenting putrid feed may cause diarrhea and loss of chicks in forty-eight hours, and those that are affected and do not die do not properly develop. Do not give frozen feed. The milk may be either fresh sweet milk or sour milk (clab- ber) or buttermilk. Do not feed sour milk at one time and sweet milk at another, as this method may result in serious bowel trouble. Charcoal to the baby chick aids digestion, prevents sour crop and bowel disorders. Feed chick size grit, charcoal, and shell in self-feeding hoppers. Clover, blue grass, rape, vetch, sprouted oats, lettuce, and alfalfa 4 to 6 inches high and this cut fine with a knife makes excellent green feed for the baby chick and should be fed not later than the sixth day. Dry Litter Feeding of Chicks.—Deep litter feeding of chicks after one week of age has been recommended. The first step is to clean and disinfect in a thorough manner the interior feed pen. Then place upon the floor about 2 or 3 inches of short cut straw or chaff and sprinkle upon this about 15 pounds of scratch feed, then another layer of about 2 inches of litter and more scratch feed. Repeat these layers till there has been sown down about 60 pounds to each 50 chicks, which is about what they will consume in about six weeks. TURKEYS AND POULTS In turkey raising an orchard will be found an excellent range. Cottage-cheese, buttermilk, or clabber milk is excellent. The breeders need green feed, but usually secure this by forag- ing. Bone meal, also meat scraps from the table, may be fed. The birds need plenty of grit. Oats and wheat make excel- lent grain feeds, and should be scattered over the ground and not fed from troughs. Examine the turkey hens and poults to make sure they are not infested with lice or other vermin. In case they are infested dust with louse powder, as in the case of hens. The young poults should not be fed for the first day after hatching, for the same reason that feed is withheld from the baby chicks. At the end of twenty-four hours feed hard- RATIONS AND METHODS OF FEEDING 337 boiled eggs with dried bread crumbs. After the fourth day this may be replaced with hulled oats, cracked corn, and cracked wheat. Fine grit and charcoal should be kept before them at all times. The young poult must not be allowed to wander over the farm till it has grown large enough to be strong and out of danger of the ills the baby poult is heir to. This will require about five to six weeks. It is a good plan to con- fine the hen turkey, as is the case of the hen with baby chicks. Poults must not be allowed to run in the dewy grass, or be out in a rainstorm. They must be protected from excessive heat by being provided with shade. If the turkeys begin to “hang around”’ the buildings it is an indication that they are not securing enough feed on the range. It is then necessary to feed them. This feed may consist of a grain ration, consisting of corn, wheat, and oats, equal parts. , When it. is desired to prepare them for market it is advisable to place them in yards, so as to limit their exercise. Gradu- ally bring them up to fu!l feed. Besides grain, such as corn, wheat, and oats, they should have all the milk they will drink, and they should be fed twice a day and given all they will clean up as soon as on full feed. DUCKS AND GEESE During the laying season ducks should be confined in the house till about 9 o’clock in the morning. By this time most of the eggs will be laid. Ducks have a tendency to lay their eggs in the yard. On Long Island, in 1914, there was 1,165,000 ducks hatched. Mr. Hallock, one of the largest and most successful breeders on the island, told the writer that his ration for old breeding ducks was as follows: WHERE: DIAM esc. ssueca cake peRevnud argues oe mood 10 parts. Gormmmesl,. . oc pi oavetucs tea eoce hanes 10“ NG: 2 Mot: ue ienee a eysaeerayswasgeces Lpath Ground ‘alfalfa: + ccis erace caer eee ime atin 2 parts. Nutritive ratio, 1 : 5.9. Mixed and fed as mash, using water in mixing. 22 338 POULTRY CULTURE His feed for-ducklings consists of the following: Cornmeal wie scan cag niin widen ide ibene 2 parts. Wheat bran.. ..... ..... Seite -amswe Qe tt DeCi Slap cos cat aa emamen ee wae eee Oe 1 part. No. 2 flour... 2.02.0 cece ee I Ae Greenistuih. so. wecinneee sexe whee e Bet cl Nutritive ratio, 1 : 3.4. The green feed consists of cut grass or sprouted oats. The mash is always fed wet. They are given all they will “clean up,” and are fed four times a day. Another well-established way of handling the young duck- lings is as follows: The ducklings should not be fed for the first day. After the first day, and for the succeeding seven days, the feed should consist of wheat bran, cornmeal, wheat middlings, of each equal parts. Grit must be furnished to young and old alike. The mash should be mixed with sour milk or buttermilk. There should be added to the mash after the third day about 5 per cent. meat scrap and the same amount chopped sprouted oats. 5 After the seventh day this feed may be replaced with the following ration: Wheat bran.................. ... .... 10 pounds. Wheat middlings..................... 5 m COPA TC A ois occcat 4 stesne fi x a 2 Fic. 148.—A combination sitting and brooding coop. 1, Side view of the coop; 2, the extension run; 3, the roof; 4, the door to the coop; 5, the compartment for the hen; 6, the compartment in which to feed the chicks; 7, shade tree necessary in chick raising. See page 412 for construction. that the chicks can be fed in this extension and yet the mother or other birds cannot molest them. There is a slatted parti- tion placed between the first and second runs. Continued damp rainy weather when the ground becomes thoroughly saturated with water makes unfavorable conditions for the young chicks. The hen usually weans her young when they are six or eight 414 POULTRY CULTURE weeks old. At this time instead of clucking to them she picks at them whenever they come near her. Cockerels should be separated from the pullets as soon as the sexes can be determined which is at about ten or twelve weeks of age. When wishing to sit the hen prepare a nest, as indicated before. Dust the hen thoroughly with insect powder, and when through hatching clean out the nest-box, disinfect the box with a 1 to 2 per cent. creolin, or other equally good disin- Fie. 149.—A portable oie house for the youngsters. fectant; again dust the hen with insect powder and let her brood her chicks in the box. If the sitting hen is quiet during hatching leave the chicks under her, as artificial heat is not likely to perfectly take the place of the heat from the body of the mother. As soon as hatching is over and the brood and hen are removed to comfortable quarters the hen should be properly fed and watered, since she has in all probability eaten very little during the feat two er three days. This feed may consist of wet bran mash, or corn, oats, and wheat. The little chicks may be fed later since they should not be fed till they are three days old. INCUBATION 415 The hen should be confined in the enclosure until the chicks are ready to be weaned. ee ee = ‘ . : - 1 OTT a aati Fig. 150.—A cheap and convenient boys and girls poultry club house and run for sitting and brooding: A, The house; B, the wire-netting run; C, the door to the coop; D, the ventilating holes. From this enclosure the chicks can go a short distance and catch bugs and other insects, which furnishes them with much Fre. 151.—A series of coops and runs in an orchard where they are properly protected from the hot sun’s rays by the shade. animal food necessary for growth and development, besides ridding the premises of enemies of vegetation. Under these 416 POULTRY CULTURE conditions the chicks will not wander too far and will return again. If the hen is allowed to run on free range, she will take her flock long distances, using no judgment or discretion. The weaker ones will fall behind, and if the weather is cold, or grass and weeds are covered with dew or rain water, the chicks become wet, and if the weather is cold they will become chilled, which means that they are likely to become sick, especially attacked by bowel derangement, and die. The death-rate under these conditions is much higher than when the hen is kept confined. The house and run being movable should be removed to new quarters once or twice a week. This is advisable from a sani- tary standpoint, as the ground close around soon becomes polluted. Fig. 152.—A cheap and convenient A-house for a hen and her brood. In case it is not the desire to sit a hen do not mistreat her, as it is perfectly natural for her to want to brood; it is a part of the laws of nature and follows with birds in their cycle of repro- duction. The sitting hen can be easily dissuaded from her notion to sit. Make a broody coop. This coop should be about 2 feet square and the top, bottom, and sides made of plaster lath. The coop can be left out in the open, when find- ing it impossible to sit the hen will soon give it up. While she is confined, feed and water her so that she will soon commence laying again. She should have an allowance of cut sprouted oats in her feed. If properly cared for, the ovary will begin ovulation again in from ten days to two weeks. To protect chicks from hawks and rats make wire netting runs 18 inches high and 4 feet by 12 feet and allow INCUBATION 417 the chicks to run in this netting covered run during the day. At night a frame covered with 14 inch sand screen is placed tightly against the front of the open coop to keep out the rats and other nocturnal enemies. THE SMALL INCUBATOR Tn hatching eggs with an incubator the first cost—that is, the cost of the machine—is between ten and fifteen cents per egg capacity. A machine holding 100 eggs should not cost more than ten dollars. BEADED TOP RE RICE RARE REGULATOR CASTING ASBESTOS DAMPER BAR RED CEDAR ee tae = ASBESTOS ee G TUB! COMPOUND WAFERS HEATER JACKET END CASTING CONNECTING ROD ADJUSTMENT NUT TANDEM WAFERS REGULATOR BAR Fie. 153.—A diagram showing the parts of a small incubator. (St. Helns. Inc. Co.) The cost of operating a 100-egg incubator twenty-one days, using kerosene at twelve cents per gallon, will be about twenty- five cents, or, in other words, it will require about 2 gallons. It costs from ten to fifteen cents a month tofeedahen. The cost of feeding six hens, which would equal in capacity the 100- egg incubator three weeks, will be about fifty cents. The labor of caring for an incubator is no more than caring for the six hens. 27 418 POULTRY CULTURE An incubator consists of three essential parts—namely, an insulated and ventilated box—the body—a heater, and a regu- lating device. The body of the machine is supported by legs. T he heating device is attached to the side of the body, except in those oper- ated by electricity or by a stove. The body is provided with three chambers—namely, an upper, middle, and a lower (Fig. 153). The upper chamber is the heating chamber, and is separated from the egg chamber by a diaphragm in those heated by diffusion or by a radiating surface in those heated by radiation. Fig. 154.—A view showing insulation of a small incubator. The diaphragm is usually of cheese cloth. After each hatch this cloth should be thoroughly dusted to keep the pores of the cloth open. In single-tray incubators, the tray should be turned end for end. In two-tray incubators the trays should be turned end for end and trays exchanged each day. In the hot-water system the chamber is occupied by pipes. These pipes are not separated from the egg chamber. The eggs occupy the middle or egg chamber. The lower chamber is provided with a canvas-covered tray, and is called a nursery chamber, A glass door is placed before INCUBATION 419 this chamber and, as the chicks are attracted by light, they come to the edge and fall into the nursery tray. This arrange- ment is to relieve the congestion of the egg-tray during hatching. Fig. 155.—Showing method of handling lamp (Essex). The regulating device is so constructed that a fairly even teraperature is maintained in the egg chamber (Figs. 153-156). The incubator has a ventilator at the bottom to allow the escape of the carbon dioxid laden air, this should be kept open at all times. The thermoregulator (Fig. 157) consists of a thermostat 420 POULTRY CULTURE (b) joined to a damper arm (i) at the pivot casting (9). The connecting rod passes through a connecting tube (d), which supports the thermostat at its lower end by a casting (e) = este! os Ieee a Fra. 156.—An incubator ready for use. Showing egg-try, nursery tray, lamp, and thermoregulator. which lies under the casting (f). The connecting rod must be straight and pass through it without touching it. This makes sure there is no friction for the thermostat to overcome. If the Fic. 157.—Various parts of a thermostat. (See body of text for description.) connecting rod becomes kinked it is better to obtain a new one. When the thermostat expands it pulls down the connecting rod, and a thumb-nut (f) pulls on the pivot (g) which is situated INCUBATION 421 just back of a line joining the knife-edge bearings (m), which rests on the two projections of the base casting (f) and which acts as fulerums. The damper arm (k) acts as a reverse lever, and a little pull at g is transformed into a considerable raising of the damper disk (1). The damper arm is balanced by a counterbalance weight (7), and the damper will close of its own accord unless restrained by a pull from the thermostat. For oil burning incubators, use good oil. Clean and fill the lamp once daily, trimming the wick by scraping the charred portion off with a knife or square-edged nail, or by cutting the wick with scissors. The burners should be kept free from 2 Fig. 158.—1, The flame shaped as here illustrated will give the greatest possible amount of heat and may.be turned quite high without danger of smoking. To secure it trim the wick as illustrated in 2. 2, The corners of the wick must be rounded off as here indicated to get the ideal flame as shown in 1. 3, If the corners of the lamp wick are not properly rounded off the flame will be sharp-cornered, will smoke readily, form dangerous soot and the lamp will supply comparatively little heat. dirt and thoroughly cleaned by boiling after each hatch. Turn the eggs before caring for the lamp, so there will be no chance of getting oil on the eggs and thus make possible the closing of the shell’s pores with oil. The flame is apt to increase in size after lighting, so that it is advisable to return about half an hour after tending to the lamp to see that the flame is all right. The eggs are turned daily in the egg-trays during incubation, except the last two days, when the incubator is not opened. Successful incubation depends on the faithful carrying out of the four great principles—namely, proper ventilation, proper 422 POULTRY CULTURE moisture, proper temperature, and proper position. The eggs should lay on their sides. To successfully operate an incubator it must be in a room not subject to sudden changes in temperature; an abundance of fresh air with ventilation at the top and bottom of the room. The humidity should be high, and the sun’s rays must not strike the incubator at any time during the day. The incubator must be level, lest you have hot corners. A cellar is a good place, provided it is dry and clean and free from foul gases. The eggs in the incubator need not be turned after the eighteenth day, and the incubator should be kept closed. As soon as the chicks begin to pip the moisture pans should be removed and the aperture for the chicks to drop through opened. The incubator should then be closed and kept closed till the hatch is over. The struggling chicks sometimes raise the temperature of the incubator beyond the ability of the regulator to control it, so that it is necessary to keep close watch of the thermometer. The thermometer must not be allowed to run over 105° F. Leave the chicks in the incubator at least seventy-two hours after the hatch is over. This will allow the absorption of the yolk left in the abdominal cavity of the chick at the time of hatching. If the baby chicks are taken off and fed too soon, and they gorge their intestines before the yolk is practically all absorbed, there may be an interference with absorption of this yolk by pressure on the absorbing vessels and digestive complications result. . A woolen-lined, hooded basket should be used in removing the chicks from the incubator to the brooder. A cold wind striking them at this time may result fatal to many of the baby chicks. Poor hatches may be due to too uneven a temperature. The eggs in the incubator not being turned for the last three days allows the chick to work around and be head up. All chicks should be out of the shell in eighteen hours after hatch- ing begins. Often the chick can be aided by turning with “‘pipped’’ side up and by cracking the shell around the circum- INCUBATION 423 ference. If the membrane becomes too dry a few drops of warm water may be sprinkled on the membrane. Eggs left standing on the end instead of the side may result in cripples being developed. Chicks dead in the shell may also be due to low vitality of the eggs, caused by being kept too long before sitting, or at improper temperatures, from parents being too old, from par- ents being too young, from inbred parents, the male mated to too many females, the flock poorly fed, eggs overheated, the eggs chilled too much during incubation, too much moisture or insufficient ventilation, or parents not receiving sufficient exercise or green feed. If the air be too moist there may not be sufficient evapora- tion from the egg. On the other hand, if the air be too dry, the evaporation may be too great and the membrane becomes too dry and even leather-like and the chick unable to break through. Duck eggs require to be incubated at 14° to 1° F. lower tem- perature than hens’ eggs. Turkey eggs can be successfully hatched in the incubator and the poults raised by aid of the brooder, as in chicks. Barrels or large boxes may be placed around in rather secluded places for the turkey hens to lay in. These barrels or boxes must be clean and nests made of clean straw. Some breeders yard their turkeys till after 4 o’clock, which compel them to lay in nests prepared for them. The turkey hen begins laying at about ten months of age. Turkeys usually commence laying in March, and lay fifteen to twenty eggs before becoming broody. If the broodiness is broken up she will begin laying again in about ten days. One male is sufficient for ten females. Barrels should be placed on their sides and straw nests made in them. These barrels should be placed in out-of-the-way places. The same person should always attend the sitting turkeys, as they do not like to be disturbed, and may desert their nests or break some of the eggs. One good-sized female should cover twenty-five eggs. It is often found necessary to remove the tom from the sit- ting turkey hen or the brooding young poults, and, in fact, often 424 POULTRY CULTURE the male may interfere with the hen laying and even drive her away from the nest. Poults only cry when hungry. Broodiness has been bred out of some kinds of birds, as the Mediterranean breed of chickens, especially the Leghorns, and in some kinds of ducks, as the Pekin. Duck eggs may be placed in an incubator or under hens. A hen can cover about ten duck eggs. Duck eggs do not keep as well as hens’ eggs. Geese.—There should be as many nests as there are geese. When nests are located outside of the building, barrels will be found to make very good nests. Geese lay early in the morning. If they lay in cold, freezing weather, close watch must be kept on them to gather the eggs before they have time to become too much chilled. A goose lays from fifteen to twenty eggs before becoming broody. Usually the first eggs are set under hens. If the goose is not allowed to set, but placed in a crate till she ceases to be. broody, she will soon begin to lay again. It is well to set the goose the second time she becomes broody, as she may not lay more than two batches in the season. Occasionally one will find a goose who will lay the entire season and not become broody. A goose should be set in the nest where she has been laying, and if she becomes cross should be left alone. The goose eggs hatch very slowly, requiring the greater part of two days after beginning to pip the egg before the gosling emerges. The goslings should be left in the nest till strong enough to run around. A goose laying in a nest made in a pile of straw has a ten- dency to cover the eggs. Goslings should not be hatched on the farm till after the grass is green. Incubators do not prove very satisfactory for goose-egg hatching, and it is better to hatch the goose eggs by the hen or allow the geese to set and brood them. A goose will cover about ten eggs, and hens of the American breeds, as Rocks or Reds, in warm weather will cover five or six and in cold weather only three or four. INCUBATION 425 If hatched by the hen, the first. gosling must be taken away as soon as hatched and wrapped in woolen cloth. If this is not done, the hen or goose may leave her nest before hatching is over. They should be kept confined with the mother till they are about five days old. The Electrobator.—Electrical incubators and brooders have been placed on the market. The same principal of construc- tion is used as in those burning gas, coal, or oil. They are so constructed that they may be attached to any electric dis- tributing lines commonly used in dwelling houses. They may be operated in a cellar or in some room in the house. The room in which they are operated should be as near an even temperature as possible. CHAPTER XXIII THE MAMMOTH INCUBATOR AND BROODER Wiru the.increased interest in poultry production in the United States, there comes provisions for hatching chicks in large quantities. With the development of the times and modernization of all things, there is a tendency to concentrate work and proceed along economie lines. : | bs Fig. 159.—A view of a giant incubator: u, Expansion tank; b, the coal heater. There has grown up in many localities custom hatching and a baby chick trade. To furnish chicks in large quantities a correspondingly increase in capacity for hatching must be pro- vided, hence the development of the large incubator, which, on account of its large size, has been called the giant incubator. The fact that when the chick is hatched the abdominal cavity contains a part of the yolk-sac unabsorbed makes it possible to ship the baby chicks long distances. These boxes are provided with proper ventilation with no draft. Centuries ago the Egyptians and others hatched chicks in large quantities in large ovens in which a fire was kept kindled. 426 THE MAMMOTH INCUBATOR AND BROODER 427 The Chinese buried the eggs deep in manure to attain the proper amount of heat for incubation. The giant incubator is constructed in sections, each section being provided with four trays, of about 150 eggs’ capacity. Each setting of eggs has its own automatic regulator, which assures a steady and even temperature, thus making it possible L Fic. 160.—A view showing heating arrangement of one compartment (Candee). to have settings at different stages of chick development (Figs. 159 and 160). Incubation is primarily a heat problem. In solving it the main consideration in mammoth incubators is that each differ- ent compartment containing eggs be held at the exact degree of heat required, and yet safely protected every instant during the incubating period regardless of the operator or weather. “Safety first’ is of the greatest importance, and when 428 POULTRY CULTURE applied to incubation it can only be secured by automatic protection of the eggs against overheating. Each egg chamber may be considered a separate incubator, with its own heating system. Tach sitting of eggs is started whenever an egg chamber is empty and it receives only the heat it needs, and securing it directly from the main supply without having to pass through any other egg chamber in such systems as used by the Candee, where by a set screw each chamber is regulated to itsdesired temperature. In some other makes the pipes run directly through all of the chambers, and Fic. 161.—View of the egg and nursery trays in a small giant incubator. a special regulating device is constructed on cach chamber to properly regulate the temperature. The mammoth incubator is made up of a series of units or compartments, with one common source of heat—namely, a coal-burning hot-water heater. In Fig. 160 the top of one of the compartments is cut away to show the automatic heating system and the coil of pipes from which heat isradiated. The illustration shows the heater with its automatic draft regulator (c) and the large covered supply pipes (d) located under the machine, and a small supply pipe (e) for a 300-egg compartment. In the smaller pipes the direction of the course of the warm water is indicated by the THE MAMMOTH INCUBATOR AND BROODER 429 arrows. In the compartment will be noted the thermostat or thermoregulator, just above the eggs (f). Its connection with the compartment valve is easily traced. In Fig. 160 g andh shows these valves in two operating positions. When the thermostat opens the valve wide there is a free flow of heated water into the pipes, and when the compartment becomes too warm it gradually closes down, thus gradually regulating the amount of water that passes into the pipes and thus maintains an even temperature. Other types do not regulate the cham- bers by a hot-water valve, but instead provide a thermo- regulator, as shown on the smaller type machine (Fig. 156), : 7 | t t Fie. 162.—The parts of a heater in a giant incubator: a, The base and grate; b, the brick ring; c, heater, water-pot, and top; d, pipe tank and gauge- glass. which, as the chamber becomes too warm, opens up a circular opening at the top of the chamber and allows the escape of the surplus heat. The mammoth incubator has trays opening on both sides, thus giving right- and left-hand compartments. It will be noted that while all of the compartments in Figs. 159 and 160 are connected with the main water-supply, because of the compartment valves there are two water circulations. First, there is a continuous circulation in the main supply, and, second, an intermittent circulation in each compartment radia- tor for each sitting of eggs. The first circulation is in the water-jacket around the heater fire (Fig. 159, 6), from which the hot water flows through the right hand in (Fig. 160) a large covered pipe, carrying the heat- 430 POULTRY CULTURE supply under all the sections and then across under the last section to the left side of the machine, and is the common re- turn pipe from the compartment radiators. This main supply can be piped in any direction, and there the sections can be set in a continuous row, or to skip posts or a double row, and in various other shapes. As stated before, in other type incubators there is but one water-supply, which has two thermoregulators, the second thermoregulator controlling the heat of the chamber by allow- ing heated air to escape from a circular opening in the top of the chamber and cool air to rush in to reduce the temperature to the proper degree. In some makes of incubators the supply pipes, as well as the return pipes, are on the inside of the compartments. All of the hot water, after leaving the heater, flows around the bottom of the heater regulator, so that the regulator is constantly affected by the temperature of the water, and it in turn opens or closes the heater drafts, and thus automatically controls the fire brought about by the expansion or contraction of the mass of water contained in the pipes as a result of the heat or cold. In those provided with a double system, as in Fig, 160, the hot water rises, and the heating system is so arranged that were there no compartment valves the water would be circulating through each compartment radiator as well as the main supply. It is necessary that each sitting of eggs have the exact degree of heat required, according to the length of time incubation has been in progress, and the compartment thermostats attend to that for the operator. The thermoregulators admit the proper amount of water to maintain the temperature needed in that compartment. The hot water is always ready to pass the com- partment valve and flow through the radiator and return directly in the common return pipe to the heater to be reheated. It will be noted that the thermostat is directly above the ege-trays. It is the desire at all times to know the temperature at the top level of the eggs, and the best methods of handling the thermometer is by laying the thermometer bulb on the top of a fertile egg. It is not desirable to lay the bulb on the top of an infertile egg or one containing a dead embryo, as the THE MAMMOTH INCUBATOR AND BROODER 431 dead embryo or egg, in which there is no life, is much cooler, thus the exact temperature of the incubating eggs are not recorded. Some makers now construct the thermometers with the bulb exposed so that it is easy to bring the bulb in direct contact with the eggs. The automatic regulation is necessary to successfully meet ordinary conditions. In theearly spring the weather fluctuates from extreme cold spells to very warm weather, which often makes changes in the temperature of 15 to 20 degrees in a few hours. Frequent high winds come up in a few minutes, and with the wide variations it is practically impossible to keep anything like a uniform cellar temperature. Having a thermostat just above the eggs it expands with heat and contracts with cold, thus accurately controlling the heat. Thus, if too much heat accumulates in the egg chamber the ventilator is opened and the excess is allowed to radiate off. The exterior of the machines is constructed of wood, as chestnut, walnut, or oak. The material should be tonged and grooved, and the parts insulated to prevent any cracks admit- ting a draft of cold air directly upon the eggs. The stove or heater is usually constructed with a round base which sets squarely on the floor. The ash doors and drafts fit tight, so that when closed there is no air admitted. The grates are usually of the sliding and slicing type, which permits of the ready removal of clinkers. The heater pot and water cylinder should be cast in one piece. There should be ample water capacity to ensure quick circulation and a steady flow of water. A draft regulator is arranged in the heater top. This con- sists of a check door in front and a griddle seating directly on the top of the water jacket. With the front door closed the griddle is raised, allowing the fire to burn faster. As the griddle seats the front door opens. When the front door of the stove is opened, air from the room is drawn over the top and up the chimney, indirectly assisting in the ventilation of the cellar. In the heater pipes the same water is used over and over again. When desired electric lights are provided, drawing their current from dry-cell batteries. Small bulbs are attached 432 POULTRY CULTURE inside the egg chamber, and by pressing a button above the door there is an illumination, making thermometer reading easy. Ventilation of the compartments is made through holes in the bottom. In egg development there is given off from the eggs carbon dioxid. As carbon dioxid is heavier than air it settles to the bottom, and with the ventilation in the bottom of the com- partment the chamber should keep from having an excess of this gas. The first principle in artificial incubation is a steady, even, overhead heat, and no greater heat surrounding the eggs than the hen gives. Cellar ventilation is essential, so that the air-supply outside the machine is fresh. The eggs need the proper supply of oxygen, and must have taken away the air that has become polluted with COs, as a result of the living processes of the embryo inside the shell. Proper moisture should be in the air of the egg chamber, and in order that the proper amount be ensured the chamber is usually supplied with a water pan in which water is kept. The proper amount of moisture prevents too rapid evaporation from the egg during incubation. It is estimated that the minimum space of the incubator cellar should be 2 cubic feet space for each egg-capacity together with a circulation of fresh air. In incubator cellars below the ground air shafts should be extended to the floor. The windows should be on the north and not on the south or west unless protected by shutters. Sun-rays finding their way into the incubator cellar will modify the temperature too much and make the variation between day and night more than can be overcome by the thermoregulators of the incubators. The room temperature should not vary more than 20° F. at the most in twenty-four hours. Constant Temperature Essential.—For successful incubation there must be a regular and constant temperature, with fresh air and moisture at a definite rate. If it is an air circuit machine and the pipe empties onto a diffusion diaphragm of cheese cloth, this cloth must be kept brushed clean so as to THE MAMMOTH INCUBATOR AND BROODER 433 keep the pores open and allow rapid diffusion. It has been estimated that the required amount of fresh air is one cubic foot per egg per hour. A chamber containing 200 eggs would require 20 cubic feet of air to pass through it per hour. This would be a complete change of all air in the compartment three times during the hour. The light must be higher at the start to secure the right temperature in the egg chamber. The embryo in the egg respires giving off moisture and CO.. If the moisture of the chamber is too low the shell membranes become too dry and the chicks have trouble getting out of the shell, or even die in the shell. The humidity must be constant. The amount of heat needed over any 600 eggs at different cellar temperatures, as given by the Candee Incubator Co., is as follows: Cellar Square feet of radiation temperature required to secure 103° ZeT0.. 6.0 eee eee. 2.94 square feet. 10 above........0 0.0.00... eae 2.655 ee DONT FO ete areata 2.151 eS 30. 1.702 ae 40. 1.29 ~ dy Oe eee ote. EG aaa mine aie LOND an 150) n aaahae 2 gay cee ox e858 te 55 cc 0 642 ce GO) 8S Feeeee anes was, Koeiws 0.429 cd When the cellar temperature rises from 40° to 60° F.—only 20° F.—only one-third as much heat is required; and as the cellar gets warmer, less is required. The thermometer bulb should be kept at the top of the eggs. Some recent investigational work rather points to the fact that the better hatches are obtained where the temperature is kept during the entire three weeks at 103° F. Effect of Humidity—The hygrometer is an instrument with which we can tell just how much moisture there is in a machine. lt is found that to obtain the best hatches there should be 60 per cent. moisture in the air that passes through the machine, 55 per cent. the second week, and 50 per cent. tapering down to 45 per cent. by the end of the third week. 1 Normal cellar temperature. 28 434 POULTRY CULTURE There is a greater loss, with the haphazard methods under which most incubators are run, than where the eggs are placed under hens for hatching. Extreme dryness and extreme humidity are both detrimen- tal. The range between the temperature of the incubator and that of the room influences the humidity in the egg trays of the machine. The difference of the temperature of the two bodies of air—the one in the machine and that outside—causes a circulation of air through the machine. As the difference in temperature decreases, there is less circulation and higher humidity in the machine. A machine set in a corner where there is dead air will have insufficient circulation of air, and there is likely to be a poor hatch. To maintain a uniform humidity, note must be made of the range of temperature, and the supply of moisture must be governed accordingly. A wet bulb thermometor kept at a temperature of abaut 88° gives the most favorable results. Carbon dioxid is given off from the embryo through the egg shell. Atwood has shown that the loss of carbon dioxid during the last five days of incubation is about five-eighths of the total loss of carbon dioxid, twice as much as is given off in the third five days, ten times as much as in the second five days, and almost fifty times as much as in the first five days. Inan incubator this carbon dioxid must be kept below 150 parts in 10,000. One hundred fertile eggs will require 165 cubic feet of fresh air to be passed over and around them on the twentieth day to keep the embryos from asphyxiating. Standardizing the Incubator.——Proper moisture, it is found, will result in as much as 35 per cent. difference in hatching of the eggs; therefore the incubator trays should be standard- ized by the following rule: Rate of evaporation depends to a certain extent on amount of ventilation; therefore it will be necessary to observe just how much ventilation you have in applying moisture. The difference between the temperature of the body of air in the room and that of the incubator makes the exchange of air in the incubator possible, and the greater this difference the faster the two bodies of air will exchange. Calcium salts are absorbed from the shell during the chick’s THE MAMMOTH INCUBATOR AND BROODER 435 development. This is made possible by the moisture inside plus COs, and the shell thus becomes brittle. Proper moisture and ventilation as well as temperature, it is found, affects even this. Moisture is to be furnished by sand in the pans, and the amount of moisture to be supplied must be worked out by the following tests. The proper loss of weight of eggs, on an average, should be as follows: During first 6 days... 3.5to 4.0 per cent. loss. “second 6“ . 40% 4.5 i “third 6 “ 4.5 “ 5.0 Total 12.0 “ 13.5 The Hatch.— When conditions are right all chicks should be out of the shell in from twelve to eighteen hours after the first. chick frees itself. Long drawn out hatches indicate that there is something wrong. Slow hatches cause weak chicks and cripples. The chicks should be kept in the nursery tray three days at a temperature of 98° F. to 100° F. During this time the chicks do not need to be fed or watered. Start the heat in the brooder twenty-four hours before placing the baby chicks in it.so as to ensure proper regulation of the temperature. The temperature of the hover should be 95° F. to 100° F. when chicks are placed under it. The chicks occupying the hover space will raise the temperature 3° to 5° F. The third week the temperature may be dropped to 90° F. and after the fourth week 75° F. The baby chicks may be placed in the brooder at the end of the third day and be given sour milk the first day and two feeds on the following day, and on the sixth day on full feed. The first five days the feed may consist of Stalesbréad sce garekotgasgca eh sae ee 2 parts. ROMS O88 oc0xcciescamvaicde asked wn wee Hard boiled egg............ 2.2... ... 1 part. Mix with sour milk. Sprinkle with sharp grit. (See chapter on feeding.) 430 POULTRY CULTURE It is generally conceded that hot water is the better heat for incubating and brooding. It does not consume the oxygen needed by the developing embryo. It is a mild heat that diffuses a gentle warmth. It is estimated that an 1800-egg-capacity incubator can be operated five weeks at a cost of only $3.15 when coal is $7.00 a ton. The time for installation is estimated at one day, and the time consumed in running it as two hours @ day. It is finally estimated to be 25 per cent. cheaper than the oil method, as used in small machines. Se ky Cut out 4 Wh Zs y 7 Ye y ec 4 Br ©& Fig. 163.—An electric alarm for an incubator. An Electric Alarm for an Incubator.—Mr. Walker has de- signed a simple but accurate device to give an alarm when the temperature goes too high in the incubator. If the incubator is in the basement and you are sleeping, and the temperature goes to 110° F., you have an alarm arrangement to save your sitting. By referring to Fig. 163 it will be seen that the device con- sists of an electric door-bell outfit, using the thermostat as a switch. Take a strip of copper and cut it into shape and tack it to the incubator; a strip of copper 34-inch wide and 2 inches THE MAMMOTH INCUBATOR AND BROODER 437 long is bent in X squares; then cut out Z 1¢-inch from the top end and !4 by 14% inch and punch holes at S for wire. Overheating.—A great danger in artificial incubation is overheating the eggs, which is impossible to happen with the hen. Overheating is more serious than the same degree of underheating. Eggs raised to a temperature of 105° F., and held at that temperature for any length of time, is dangerous, and the embryo may die when the temperature reaches 107° F. The proper hatching temperature is 103° F. The temperature may be allowed to fall to 99° F. for considerable time without apparently destroying the embryo. This delays the hatching a few hours. There are not so many eggs chilled or broken in incubator hatching as hatching by the hen. An incubator is desirable on the farm where 200 or more chicks are to be raised. Hens are rather uncertain; many are poor sitters, some desert the nests, and a late spring means late sitting, making late hatching inevitable and undesirable. Heavy breeds should be hatched in February, or March at the latest, and the light breeds the first week in April. Chicks hatched too late suffer from the heat and do not mature early, and without development there is no proper weight, and weight is needed when making our selection for breeders and layers for the fall and winter and spring work. The hatching powers of the incubator are probably not quite so great as those of the hen. All incubators before being used should be thoroughly disinfected by scrubbing with a 1: 500 solution of formaldehyd solution, and both egg and nursery trays should be disinfected in a like manner between each sitting. CHAPTER XXIV BROODING Brooding may be done by one of two means: First, by natu- ral brooding or by the hen; second, -by artificial means by either cold or heated brooders. Heated brooders may be run by oil, coal, gasoline, gas, or electricity. Hard nut coal is used in coal burning hovers and incubators. Natural {Hen Cold Brooding Oil i Artificial Small Electricity Heated Colony Oil (Hot air) ) or deflector | Coal Gasoline Gas Mammoth | Coal Electricity In artificial brooding the following conditions must be taken under consideration: A compartment in which the temperature is under control. Dryness and a constant supply of fresh air are essential. A brooder may be of two kinds—that is, an indoor brooder or one kept inside a building, providing a run, and the outdoor brooder. The outdoor brooder is provided with two compartments, one compartment having a cooler tem- perature than the other, to which the chicks may escape for food, exercise, and a sun-bath. Sufficient space and sunlight must be provided. Safety from fire and protection from ene- mies, as cats, hawks, crows, and skunks. Frequent disinfection of the brooder and feeding and water- ing utensils are necessary. The second compartment of the outdoor brooder is the warm-air compartment, provided with 438 BROODING 439 a hover, which is supplied beat by means of a heating appa- ratus, with either hot air or hot water. The hover should be oe ae ee es noe | Fig. 164.—The mother and her brood. (Iowa Experiment Station.) provided with a thermoregulator. It is essential to provide sufficient ventilation to allow fresh air, so the chicks have the ace Fie. 165.—A colony brooder house. The hover is in the center of the house. proper amount of oxygen and to allow the escape of polluted air containing carbon dioxid given off from the body of the 440 POULTRY CULTURE chicks. The ventilator must be so constructed that there will not be a draft on the birds. The most common cause of the small oil hovers catching on fire are: soot collecting in the chimney, holes in the burner becoming clogged, filling the lamp too full. It is therefore best to keep chimney clean and holes in burner open, to fill oniv two-thirds full, to keep the wick long enough, to trim properly by cutting the top square and clipping the corners so there will be a round flame or to rake off with a match the charred wick. Guard against the accumulation of oil gas in the w per chamber of the brooders. After a certain amount of this gas has accumulated, it flashes, and the whole interior of the brooder catches fire. There is also a possibility that when the wick burner gets too hot the wick will siphon more oilthan the flame can consume and ignition takes place and the hover catches on fire. There have been constructed and put into use wickless brooders which eliminate this danger. Filth of all kinds must be guarded against. Filth harbors harmful germs, and in many instances germs of contagious diseases. The location of the brooder should be dry. The indoor brooder should be located in a building that is dry, has good ventilation, and can be easily cleaned and dis- infected. There must be protection against enemies, as cats and rats, and a scratching room must be provided when the chicks are old enough to scratch for their feed. As stated before, the outdoor brooder is provided with a hover, in some of which there is provided a radiator. This radiator in some instances is a hot-water coil, while in others it is a metal drum in which a lamp is located. When a water- coil is used the system is similar in structure to that of the incubator. It is reeommended by some to have an inch of sand sprinkled on the floor, in the second compartment, in which they are fed and receive a sun-bath through a glass door. In nature a hen in brooding her chicks sits on the ground. To mimic the hen the brooder must supply top heat. There must be ventilation to carry off the respired air and supply them fresh air, but there must not be any draft on the birds. The sand placed on the floor in a way mimics nature and is BROODING 441 calculated to prevent them from becoming weak-legged. In placing sand it will be necessary to see that the baby chicks when first placed in such quarters do not gorge themselves with sand. When the baby chicks are taken from the incubator they will fill up on chaff, sticks, and sand if not looked after carefully. Therefore, as soon as they are placed on the floor have feed there for them so they can fill their crops, and thus prevent impaction and death of some of them from that cause. There should be no trouble after they have their crops full if they are properly fed. Do not allow the chicks to become chilled or exhausted by following a hen, as such treatment will be disastrous, for chilling causes diarrhea and pneumonia and exhaustion saps them of their vitality and retards their Fre. 166.—An out-door brooder: A, The lamp compartment; B, the hover; C, the feed room and sun-bath parlor. growth. Chicks must be kept warm at all times. If they stand around and peep you know they are cold and that they need be placed under the hover. All incubators, brooders, drinking-troughs, and fountains should be thoroughly disinfected before being used a second time. If chicks die of a contagious disease, as white diarrhea, the hover and room must be thoroughly and frequently disinfected. Serub with a 1: 400 solution of formalin. A small broom with a handle will be found convenient for this disinfection work. A force spray-pump can also be used to advantage. 442 POULTRY CULTURE Depraved appetite, as toe picking, is one of the vices of brooder-raised chicks. Particularly is this true if the birds are placed in crowded quarters. ' BSS Ee aa Sct ae ae fe eatioanTe ne Fic. 168.—Improvised shade as used by the North Carolina Experiment Station. Birds must be protected from the hot rays of the sun in summer time. An abundance of animal food may prevent the toe picking. When the chick once gets a taste of blood he becomes a cannibal and the vice is difficult to check. By continually picking BROODING 443 there will result a loss of considerable blood, and as a loss of blood means a loss of proteins from the body it can be readily seen that it is a condition to be avoided. When the vicestarts, remove the chicks with bleeding toes and give the flock more room, and if the animal feed has not been included in their feed, supply it. Give them scratch feed in litter and make them work. In those with a depraved appetite often one finds the chicks fill their crops to distention with sand and other undigestible material, as chaff. Many of these birds then suffer from im- paction and may die. If they pick at the curtain the oil-cloth may be replaced with canvas. In the hot summer time it is essential that the young birds be provided with sufficient shade. An orchard makes an ex- cellent place in which to raise poultry. If it is the intention to raise poultry on the semi-intensive plan it is well to plant the trees about 45 feet apart, which makes it possible to alter- nate crops and poultry, and by having twice as much orchard space as needed one plot can be farmed in corn, wheat, or oats for poultry feed and, at the same time, the fruit trees and nut trees, as pecans, will alse bear a crop. This tillage prevents the soil from becoming germ-laden and foul, a condition dangerous to the health of the birds. PLANS FOR A HOME-MADE BROODER Figure 169 illustrates a home-made brooder. It is 15 inches deep, 24 inches wide, and 48 inches long. When the top and bottoms are added the height is about 17 inches. The following material is required: 150 lineal feet of matched flooring, with 314-inch surface and about 40 lineal feet of 34 X 114-inch strips. Buy both the flooring and the strips in either 12, 14, or 16 feet lengths. Use 4 and 8 size finishing nails. One pound of sheet asbestos, one piece of standpipe tin, about 25 inches square; two pair of small hinges, one piece of 14-inch mesh wire cloth, about 6 x 12 inch size. One lamp front and chimneyless burner. First, make the ends 15 inches high by 24 inches long. Nail the end or cross-pieces on the outside, and allow same to extend 444 POULTRY CULTURE over the edge enough to cover the ends of the front and back, as shown in the drawing. Then build the sides onto the ends and underneath nail on the bottom floor. Next build a partition in the middle, the height of the brooder inside. Place the cross-pieces of the partition on the left side, and around the inside of each department tack a narrow strip 7/5 inches from the top. Upon this lay the middle floor on the left side of the partition. On the right side make a removable floor, in the center of which cut a 3-inch hole. a ri Fic. 169.—A home-made brooder. (See description in text.) Tack the crosspieces underneath the floor, and cut about 2 inches short and space about 1 inch from the top edge. Melt off the ragged edge of a large tin can (as a tomato can), and with a pair of shears cut slits; 14-inch deep and 34 inch apart, around the open end. With a large nail punch five rows of holes in the side of the can. Bend the slits out at the bottom and tack the can over the holes in the floor. Around, under- neath the strips upon which the removabie floor rests, tack a narrow strip of asbestos. Over the asbestos tack the large BROODING 445 piece of tin. In the center of the floor, underneath the tin tack a tin bucket-top in which to place the lamp. The tin top will prevent the lamp from being misplaced underneath. With a brace and bit bore three 1-inch holes in the brooder, in places where shown in Fig. 169. Bore the middle row be- tween the piece of tin and the middle floor. Cut the two openings in the front 5 by 6 inches, and cut one in the partition the same size, over which tack a piece of woolen cloth, in which cut two or three slits. Make an opening in the left end of the brooder 5 by 10 inches, over which tack a piece of wire cloth. The cost of the material and lamp is about $3.50. Fie. 170.—A small oil-burning hover sold on the market. 1, The lamp; 2, the intake flue; 3, the draft pipe; 4, the radiating drum; 5, the thermome- ter; 6, peep hole. CONSTRUCTION OF THE FIRELESS BROODER The fireless brooder is a success in the later spring and summer, when the outside temperature is not so cold, or after the chicks have been in a heated brooder for a considerable time and gradually brought down to only their own heat produced by their bodies. This system requires that several chickens be placed together, as the source of heat is solely from their bodies, and keeping them warm depends upon the conservation of this heat. 446 POULTRY CULTURE Figure 171 illustrates the simple construction of a brooder. The box is made 18 inches square and 8 inches deep. The number and positions of these quilts are regulated according to the weather and the number of chicks in the brooder. In cold weather the quilts should sag so as to rest on the backs of the newly hatched chicks. There should be little or no empty space in the hover. From twenty to forty chicks are usually Fic. 171.—A cheap but efficient fireless brooder: u, Box; b, hinged lid showing ventilator openings; «, the removable frame, covered with cheese- cloth and on which a sack of feathers or woolen blanket may be placed as an overhead protection. This cheese-cloth is made to sag in the center. placed in a fireless brooder. Under this method small lots do better than large ones. A small amount of litter is placed in the bottom of the hover and must be changed often. The chicks must be watched closely to see that they are warm enough and yet not too warm. If the fireless brooders are used in connection with heated brooders, keep the baby chicks in the heated brooder for ten days before beginning to cut down BROODING 447 — Top 2 LOOSELY WITH CHEESE CLOTH SAGGING 4 CHES IN GENTER SOAP BOX Fig. 172.—A fireless brooder made out of an ordinary soap box. The heat cushion is a bag of chicken feathers or a woolen blanket. Holes in the sides of the box give ventilation. (Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture.) 448 POULTRY CULTURE : the heat. Then gradually cut down the heat until there is no heat at all except that generated by the birds. About 2 ISIS i= SE 5 i: bray eng fi rE b, a wire netting around the brooder to keep enemies of the chicks out at night; c, a rat. degrees a day is fast enough to cut down the heat. After they are used to no heat except that which they generate they Fic. 174.—The interior part of the metal hover, shown in Fig. 173. These feathers are turkey feathers. can be transferred to the fireless brooders, and the heated brooders can again be used for the newly hatched chicks. BROODING 449 When the chicks are first placed in the fireless brooder it will be necessary to watch them closely, as it will be found necessary to place them under the hover until they learn to go under it themselves. ie oe come q Fie. 175.—The H and D brooder sold on the market: A, Celliform con- struction of ventilation, exit of foul air; B, opening through which foul air passes; C, hover showing non-ravelling felt; D, door from hover chamber to non-crowding yard; £, sliding boards to adjust yard. Fig. 176.—A commercial fireless brooder sold on the market: uw, Strips of felt; 6, the opening through which the chicks enter to the yardc. When the chickens are first placed in the brooder they should be restricted in their space by placing a board or wire frame around the hover, so that they will not wander away from the hover too far and become chilled before returning to it. The 29 450 POULTRY CULTURE fence should be gradually moved farther away as the chicks grow older and stronger, and after they have learned to return to the hover for heat. Young chicks should be closely watched to see that they do not huddle together in a corner, and not only get chilled but trample some and smother the weaker under ones. They should be made to return to the hover to get warm when they are cold. Much exposure to cold leads to bowel trouble, weakness, and a heavy death-rate in the flock. Since weak chickens mean weak constitution, and weak constitution a bird no good, either for fattening or breeding, it is well to immediately kill ‘‘those that fall by the wayside.” The small hover of 50 chick capacity, heated by a kerosene lamp, is in common use and is very satisfactory. It consists of a metal drum in which is located a kerosene lamp. The lamp receives its air from the room and not from under the hover. The drum becomes heated and the heat is deflected downward, thus simulating a hen in brooding. The hover is round in shape and surrounded with felt reaching within about 1 inch of the floor, and is slitted so the baby chicks may pass in and out with ease (see Fig. 170). BROODING ON A LARGE SCALE Hot-water brooding is perhaps the best method in use, for similar reasons as given under the above discussion. The hot-water methods are used either in connection with hovers or for open pipes and overhead brooding. As illustrated in Fig. 177, the hot-water system usually has 3-foot square brooders with a 2-foot circular hover. These are arranged in a row, with an alley on one side, or between in those cases where two rows are used. On the opposite, or outside pens and outdoors, runs are provided. These runs outside the building are spaded up and sown in rape or oats, and thus by digging up the ground and admitting sunlight there is allowed the action of the soil’s bacteria, which split up the organic matter, polluting the ground, and thus preparing the nitrogen content in a form that can be utilized by the grow- ing plantsand purification of the soil results, as well as the effects BROODING 451 Fig. 177.—A view of the heating system of the giant brooder system, showing hot-water pipes, heat drum, and hover. Fic. 178.—A large brooder. The heater is a coal stove regulated with a thermoregulator as other brooders. This metal top becomes hot and the heat is deflected down. 452 POULTRY CULTURE Single Incubator Cellar Plan CENTRAL ALLEY po” Double Brooder House | =» ff i T aii Fore Roary n we | | . S / | l 7 \ L Whe ee tt ine 2 Single Brooder House ( z Single House with Alley Between Brooders Fig, 179.—Floor plan of an incubator cellar and brooder houses. (Candee Incubator Co.) BROODING 453 of the sun’s rays in destroying harmful bacteria not of soil’s bacteria group. Each hover usually has a capacity of from fifty to seventy- five chicks. Hovers are of different types. The two general types are the stationary and adjustable. The heat is conveyed by water in Iron pipes in a box close to the floor and the pipes warm the air. Warmed air rises, and the chicks are always assured of a Fre. 180.—The interior of a commercial brooder house, showing compart- ments and runs. gentle, ever-changing, pure warm air. Three grades of heat are thus ensured—frst, it is warmest under the hover, cooler between the hover and the partition, and cooler in the chick pens. Thus the chick is allowed to get into the temperature best suited to him. The felt on the hover is slitted and the chick can readily go in and out. Having a small unit hover system chicks of different ages can be raised, as each size chicks must be kept by themselves. It is eskinrated that a 20-hover system house will need a floor space of 14 by 66 feet. 454 POULTRY CULTURE Floor plans are given of the double and single brooder houses in Fig. 179. A double brooder house is usually 24 feet wide, with a central alley and a brooder system on each side. A double house is built to run north and south, so that the chicks in one side get the morning sun and on the other side the after- noon sun. A single brooder house is built east and west, facing the south, with an alley on the north side. The roof is built either on the shed plan or three-quarter span. po . ey Fig. 181.—A cross-section of an automatically heat-regulated colony brooder. Another type of large brooder is the colony house brooder. Many take houses 20 by 20 and place in the center a large hover, with a capacity of several hundred chicks. Figure 181 shows one of these hovers. As the chicks become too warm they move away from the stove and project their heads through between the slits in the felt, and finally, if too warm, outside the hover, again returning after becoming cooled off. The BROODING 455 first few days small chicks need to be watched closely, as they may not return when becoming cold, and thus chilled may result in bowel trouble and death of considerable number. These stoves are provided with thermoregulators, as illustrated in Fig. 181. In duck raising by the large producers pipes are used over- head, as illustrated in Fig. 182. This is the same principle as used in brooding, a thermoregulator being supplied on the stove. Fre. 182.—A brooder for ducks, showing heater, heat regulator, hot-water pipes, and brooder box. Phillip has given the monthly hatching expectation in percents as follows: Per cent. P t., Per cent., P. i, , Month: oP ace. ee February........... 20 10 30 40 Marelli... sce ec ack os 10 10 30 50 MiMi scaaaeeuces 8 5 25 60 May onessesiare esos 8 10 27 55 1 Term month means time of hatching, eggs being laid three to five weeks previously. 456 POULTRY CULTURE Per cent. chicks that die first three weeks................ 15 per cent. Per cent. chicks that die after first three weeks... ....... 10 oe Number eggs set to produce one pullet. . saceexeenymas “D-Cees: Per cent. pullets reared not fit to keep.. ‘ ........ 10 per cent. Per cent. eggs culled from those laid ° when selecting for TRUCCHTTAB ce 5 3 aha iskeants Hand seroeod aie hn useac weal dadtes utaiene O° Gostto hatch One e@e nec yassarkarnne para y gar abemeatons $0.013 Average amount of hard coal per day for large brooder stove ONCE SOAS OM aed seca se Kit craps Sedoeeuk sein deaauas 8.5. Gn Gea ingk bite Bedlae A 20 pounds. Per cent. to the total cost of producing eggs coming from the HO OC: POM ee ycet ens git geen seen saecgis ke Rae ehay ee code gash eC ah gene a. Ons 50 per cent. Rearing Commercial Chicks.—In raising birds on a commer- cial scale it is most economical to brood them with a colony hover which has a capacity of 500 to 1000 chicks (Figs. 178 and 181). The large deflector hovers may be heated by electricity, coal, gasoline, or kerosene; most usually one of the two latter. The coal stove burns small nut coal best and may or may not be aself-feeder. Theself-feeders are provided with a maga- zine or central tube which is filled at regular intervals with coal. The small capacity stoves in cold weather may not hold sufficient coal to run them through the night and thus may burn all the coal and the fire disappear before morning. In this case the chicks become chilled, and as a result many are later found sick, becoming puny, and some die. Chilling and similar neglect is one of the chief causes of loss among small birds. The oil heater has the advantage of the coal burner in that it gives a constant fire. It is necessary to keep the charred material or carbon away from the burner by brushing once a day. If the chicks become cold they may pile up or crowd in a corner and many of the birds on the under part of the pile become crushed and smothered. The area about the hover should be kept at a temperature of about 100° F. at all times so the birds do not. become cold. They will then adjust themselves to the temperature most adapted to them. A house 12 feet square is large enough for 500 to 1000 birds. Proper ventilation should be provided with an open front at the floor level and a sliding window so that the netting- BROODING 457 protected front may be kept open in warm weather. In cold weather the window is drawn shut and thus the birds may bask in the sunshine. The wire netting should be of 1- inch mesh. The Baby Chick Industry—One of the large branches of the poultry industry to develop during the past few years is the baby chick business. Some commercial hatcheries pro- duce over a million baby chicks. The fact that 47 per cent. of the yolk is inclosed as an abdominal yolk sae for food for the baby chicks for at least seventy-two hours makes shipping of chicks just hatched possible. They have been successfully shipped distances of over 1000 miles. The following measurements are standard boxes for ship- ping baby chicks in large consignments: 100-chick box—22 in. by 18 in. by 514 deep—4 compartments. 50-chick box—18 in. by 11 in. by 5144 deep—2 compartments. 25-chick box—9 in. by 11 in. by 514 deep—1 compartment. 12-chick box—6 in. by 8 in. by 5 in. deep—1 compartment. Two strips of wood, one-half of an inch square, are tacked on each cover of a shipping box crosswise of the box and two inches from either end. These strips one-half inch longer than the width of the box and are tacked on in such a manner so as to project one-quarter of an inch on either side. The above procedure prevents the ventilating holes from becoming closed when stacked in transit. Proper Care of Baby Chicks in Transit—Numerous claims are paid each year for the loss by death of baby chicks in transit, caused by improper handling or exposure to extreme heat or cold. On account of the delicate nature of such shipments, it is important that employes handle them with the greatest care, and also expedite the movement as much as possible, always forwarding on first available train and delivering to consignee immediately upon arrival at destination. In the handling of shipments of baby chicks express or postal employes should be governed by the following rules: The boxes must be carried on the level; otherwise the chicks will trample or smother those beneath. Boxes should not be jarred, shaken, or thrown, 458 POULTRY CULTURE The same setting of eggs will not all hatch at the same time. The hatching will extend over a period of from six to thirty-six hours. Breeders take this into consideration when allowing time for shipments to reach destination. If they are delayed enroute beyond the allotted time the oldest chicks are likely to be dead upon arrival at destination, or partly starved and die within a few hours, which makes it necessary that they be given expedited service. The chicks are generally shipped in double corrugated paste- board boxes properly ventilated for the average temperature according to the season of the year. The chicks’ bodies generate enough heat to keep them comfortable in these boxes unless exposed to extremes of heat or cold. Therefore, the boxes should not be placed in the sunshine or set on steam radiator or near a stove. Shipments of baby chicks must not be closely packed with other freight. While the containers are so built that the air cannot be entirely cut off, the excessive heat and lack of suff- cient ventilation will cause the chicks to suffocate. Shipments must not be allowed to remain out in the open or be hauled about the streets on a cold day without placing a blanket or some similar covering loosely over them. Do not place on floor except in very warm weather. CHAPTER XXV MARKETING EGGS Ir has been estimated by Lamon and others, after careful investigations, that the loss on the farm due to improper care of the eggs amounts to $45,000,000 in the United States alone. The greater part of this loss takes place in the hot summertime, when fertile eggs not promptly placed and kept in a cool place soon form embryos and are then unfit for food. It is esti- mated that about 70 per cent. of the loss has occurred before they arrive in town. This loss has been divided as follows: Irie Soecisn Geant sealersA vader ocieeaeyane 2 per cent. BRC AICS. cities mace oauacnaeaicsig seegece pander 2 ee Chick development................04. 5 ss Shrunken or held.................00. 5 oe TO CRO Gs fe asi ai's oaks easels Gates aeaeonanatnen te 2.5 2 Moldy, bad flavor, ete.............-.. 0.5 * UV GEL osc veatase die SSis5 chee Sint San See scryes lates Cette 17 per cent. To summarize, deterioration of eggs may be brought about by shrinkage, liquefaction, germination of fertile eggs caused by heat, breakage, dampness, and filthy surroundings favor- ing bacteria and mold contamination, as well as absorption of odors. Eggs are a perishable food-product, hence, like meat, are on a retrogressive change as soon as laid until they are consumed. The product on the market is so bad that if it were not a fact that eggs are a staple in the general routine of household econ- omy the consumption of eggs would be greatly curtailed; and, in the face of the fact that eggs are a staple article, it cannot be denied that there is a curtailment of egg consump- tion at certain seasons of the year. The greater part of the bad condition of eggs on the market is due to gross neglect, carelessness, and in some few cases to dishonesty and a general lack of appreciation of the perishable 459 460 POULTRY CULTURE nature of eggs. The eggs from the producer to the consumer take a rather circuitous route. First, the eggs are gathered on the farm, in many cases when convenient, sometimes once a day and sometimes once or twice a week. They are then taken to the house and held until it is convenient to take them to town. Then, just before going to market, perhaps, the children are sent to search for nests, and a few hidden nests’ eggs are added to the collection. Many times these eggs are then taken to the store in the country town and traded for merchandise, and then held for a time by the merchant under very unfavorable conditions before being disposed of to the buyer of some packer or wholesale egg house, at which time they are hurried to the city wholesale firms. The common carriers, Fie. 183.—A convenient three-compartment egg carrier. the railroads, and the express companies in particular are unmindful of the fact that the eggs are perishable products much less breakable, and they are thrown in handling by careless employés and allowed to set in the hot summer’s sun for hours. When they reach the city they may be placed in cold storage for a while, or they may be placed on the retail market. The deterioration in cold storage is a slow process, and months are required to noticeably affect perfectly fresh eggs. Eggs should be perfectly fresh when placed in cold storage, and should not be placed in storage with fish, kerosene, and other products, as the objectionable odors are absorbed through the pores of the shell into the eggs as milk and butter absorb these objectionable odors. Cold-storage people recognize these facts and provide separate compartments for eggs. The jobber or wholesale merchant candles the eggs and grades them. Thus, in New York City, where there are establishments MARKETING EGGS 461 candling 10,000 eggs daily, the eggs for sale to retailers are placed on the market in grades as follows: one, two, checks, dirties, and so on. Dirty Eggs.—The dirty eggs that go to market do not bring as much when sold to the city consumer as they would if they were washed and perfectly clean. As a result of this, the cross- road country merchant makes allowance for all such shortage when he buys the eggs from the farmer. The reform must begin at the farm, and all move together and not market any eggs not first class, as the merchant is afraid of offending the countryman if he tells him he cannot pay so much for the dirty or small eggs, and hence he goes on silently and, unknown to the producer, making his allowances so that he may not > Be ‘cca . WelGism 42 PE gett OE a ects Fie. 184.—A bunch of dirty eggs. Dirty eggs should not be sent to the ~ market. lose money by his transactions, hence all countrymen selling to the country merchant loses his proportionate amount. The city grocer, in his eagerness to sell his eggs, frequently places them in a show-window, where in the hot summer time the eggs soon spoil. Under these conditions deterioration goes on by bounds and leaps; he would not think of setting his but- ter or lard out that way, and if the consumer says anything the grocer blames the producer for selling “‘rotten’’ eggs. Neither should the housewife or cook place the eggs she pur- chases from the store or elsewhere on top of the cupboard or other warm place, where they may undergo considerable change in the course of a week or ten days that may elapse before they are all used. Eggs being a perishable product 464 POULTRY CULTURE eggs. This albuminous material, becoming smeared over the balance of the eggs, furnishes excellent food for bacteria, which may find their way into the pores of the egg so smeared Fie. 189.—A broken egg showing Fia. 190.—An egg the tenth day of a heavy growth of mold: u, The mold. incubation: a, The air-cell. and hasten its spoiling. This is one source of smeared eggs. Care should be used in packing eggs, and smeared eggs should Fie. 191.—An egg the twentieth day of incubation: a, The air-cell; b, the embryo. be washed or used at home. Wash by dipping them in water, and rub as little as possible, as the rubbing takes off the coating giving the egg the so-called bloom and makes it appear like a MARKETING EGGS 465 stale egg. Eggs should not be kept long, but in the hot summer time marketed twice a week. In spraying the hen house with either a watery solution of some coal-tar dip, as creolin, or with kerosene, be sure all eggs are out of the nests, as they soon absorb these odors through their pores. Damp, muddy yards are one source of dirty eggs, and hens should not be allowed outdoors while the yards are muddy. Ifthe house is properly constructed and straw provided, into which the scratch feed is thrown morning and evening, and the mash hopper is located inside the house, as well as the milk and water fountains, the birds are far better off not to be al- lowed outdoors until the ground is dry. Droppings allowed to foul the nests can only result in a soiled, stained egg, and such eggs bring less on the markets on account of the soil or stain, even in case they be washed, as a foul egg may always show the stain. The following rules must be observed to successfully pro- ducduce and market eggs: 1. Ship only eggs that are produced by healthy fowls kept under proper sanitary conditions and supplied with sound, wholesome feed. 2. If possible, only non-fertile eggs should be produced for market. 3. Fowls must be kept so that eggs will not be soiled in the nests. 4. Eggs should be gathered at least once a day. Twice a day is better, especially in hot weather. 5. Eggs should be stored in a well-ventilated place, which must be kept as cool as possible. 6. It is well to candle all eggs shipped, and any egg that shows any defect should not be marketed. 7. Suitable containers must be used for shipping. 8. Eggs should be sorted of one kind and color. 9. Usually long or thin-shelled eggs should not be marketed. 10. Each egg must be wrapped in some springy material as felt, soft paper or excelsior if shipped by parcel post or express for hatching. 11. Egg parcels should be neat and attractive. The shipper should be supplied with good, tough wrapping paper, 30 464 POULTRY CULTURE eggs. This albuminous material, becoming smeared over the balance of the eggs, furnishes excellent food for bacteria, which may find their way into the pores of the egg so smeared Fia. 189.—A broken egg showing Fic. 190.—An egg the tenth day of a heavy growth of mold: u, The mold. incubation: a, The air-cell. and hasten its spoiling. This is one source of smeared eggs. Fic. 191.—An egg the twentieth day of incubation: a, The air-cell; b, the embryo. MARKETING EGGS 465 Eggs should not be kept long, but in the hot summer time marketed twice a week. In spraying the hen house with either a watery solution of some coul-tar dip, as ercolin, or with kerosene, be sure all eggs are out of the nests, as they soon absorb these odors through their porcs. Damp, muddy yards are one source of dirty ceys, and hens should not be allowed outdoors while the yards sre muddy. Ifthe house is properly construeted and straw provided, into which the scratch feed is thrown morning and evening, and the mash hopper is located inside the house, as well as the milk and water fountains, the birds are far better off not to be al- lowed outdoors until the ground is dry. Droppings allowed to foul the nests can only result in a soiled, stained egg, and such eggs bring less on the markets on account of the soil or stain, even in case they be washed, as a foul egg may always show the stain. The following rules must be observed to successfully pro- ducduce and market eggs: 1. Ship only eggs that are produced by healthy fowls kept under proper sanitary conditions and supplied with sound, wholesome feed. 2. If possible, only non-fertile eggs should be produced for market. 3. Fowls must be kept so that eggs will not be soiled in the nests. 4. Eggs should be gathered at least once a day. Twice a day is better, especially in hot weather. 5. Eggs should be stored in a well-ventilated place, which must be kept as cool as possible. 6. It is well to candle all eggs shipped, and any egg that shows any defect should not be marketed. 7. Suitable containers must be used for shipping. 8. Eggs should be sorted of one kind and color. 9. Usually long or thin-shelled eggs should not bemarkcted. 10. Each egg must be wrapped in some springy material as felt, soft paper or excelsior if shipped by parcel post or express for hatchingg 466 POULTRY CULTURE and strong twine that stretches very little. Eggs for setting can be more cheaply shipped by parcel post, but market eggs in 30-dozen cases should be shipped by express. 12. Each package must be marked with the name of the sender and also the word EGGS. 13. A purchaser must be found in the city for market eggs. This can be done through personal acquaintance or through advertising, or one may sell through the commission men. 14. If selling to private parties the price, based on market quotation, must be determined, and an agreement entered into. 15. A method of remittance for shipments must be established. 16. Weights of packages must be ascertained and the post- age determined. 17. The producer in making an agreement with a customer should undertake to stand good for eggs lost by breakage in shipping. Certain feeds affect the color of the yolk. Insufficient supply of green feed is likely to result in the formation of very pale yolks. Cottonseed meal causes the yolks to be very dark, in fact yellowish brown due to two pigments foundin the meal—a yellow crystalline substance and a brown resinous material. Some hens store up in the yolks more of these pig- ments than others. Alfalfa causes a rich yellow-colored yolk, sugar beets a very pale, and corn and kale a rich yellow color. Some markets prefer white eggs to brown eggs. For in- stance, the first week in November, 1914, the writer saw good, even-sized, white fresh-laid eggs, weight at least 2 ounces to the egg, sell at sixty cents a dozen on the New York City market, while the same grade, except brown instead of white, brought four cents a dozen less. Some time was spent in a candling room, wherestorage eggs are candled. In this establishment six commercial candlers handle 10,000 eggs a day. The cold-storage eggs are divided into four classes, as follows: number one, cold storage; num- ber two, cold storage and checks or dents, and the fourth class are those that are spoiled and are thrown into a garbage can. At this time number one cold-storage eggs were selling MARKETING EGGS 467 for thirty-three cents a dozen on the retail market and number two for twenty-eight cents, while checks, or those found broken but not leaking, and yet in candling showed the contents to be fit for food, sold for twenty-three cents. Why different grades? It must be because of improper handling before being placed in cold storage else they would have all been of one grade. If the following rules were carried out by the different parties handling the eggs from the hen to the consumer, there would be a greater part of the 17 per cent. loss saved, which percentage runs into an economic saving of millions of dollars a year in the United States alone. The farmer should keep only pure-bred stock of the gen- eral purpose breeds, as the Rocks, Wyandottes, Reds or Orping- tons, unless he intends to enter the commercial egg-production i Highest, Quality New Laid Eggs"| Fig. 192.—The proper way to pack and deliver eggs. These cartons can be bought on the market very cheaply, about one-half of a cent a piece. field, in which case the Mediterraneans, as White Leghorn or Minorca, may give better results. He should not keep stunted birds in his flock, or breed from birds that have gone through serious illness. Strength and vigor in the birds must be kept in mind in making selections in egg as well as for other production. The house must be kept clean, the birds free from vermin, and only good clean food given. Pullets for early laying should be hatched early. For the heavy breeds February and March, and for the smaller breeds the last week in March or first week in April. Poultry on the farm must be given the care and attention it deserves, not los- 468 POULTRY CULTURE ing sight of the fact that the hen aids the cow in keeping the table supplied. Allmale birds should be removed from the flock as soon as the breeding season is over, then the eggs produced being infertile cannot spoil from chick development. The formation of the egg is in no way influenced by the male, the egg being formed regular as the ovum in higher animal life. Infertile eggs will be produced just as often as if there was a chance to fertilize every one laid. The nests must be clean, dry, and sanitary at all times. The eggs must be collected at noon and in the evening, and kept in a cool place and marketed twice a week. Cover eggs in storage so the dust cannot accumulate on them, using preferably a clean, fresh laundered cloth. Pack securely in a box, using cotton-seed hulls, bran, or saw-dust when taken to market to avoid breakage. Fie. 193.—The parcel-post egg-shipping box. Eggs for sitting are shipped safely by parcel post. If the merchant would observe the following rules there would be prevented a loss from his careless handling: Buy ona loss-off basis and encourage other merchants to do the same. Candle all eggs he buys. Keep in mind that eggs are a perish- able product and properly storethem. Keep in mind that fresh eggs at any season of the year are more valuable than stale eggs, and that a satisfied customer is worth a dozen unsatisfied. When shipping, pack in strong, clean cases and fillers. If the buyer would buy direct from the farmer and make frequent and regular collections and pay a premium for quality, and not hesitate to condemn dirty, bad, small, and broken eggs, and encourage the farmer to keep more poultry and better poultry, and when buying from the country merchant to make MARKETING EGGS 469 frequent shipments and to buy on a quality basis, the egg consumers would be better satisfied, as the product wate rapidly improve. If the railway and express companies would observe some of the following suggestions there would be less loss from their careless and unmindful handling. Handle the egg cases with care, provide suitable accommoda- tions, guard against exposure to cold and heat, and deliver promptly to the consignee. If the dealers and packers would observe these suggestions there would be a saving at their end of the line. Fig. 194.—A cheap but efficient way to ship baby chicks. To make it clear to the producer that quality counts more than quantity, and that he is paid for his product on a quality basis and quality alone. If the retailer was to buy his eggs guaranteed quality and always sell his eggs for what they are represented, and come back on the wholesaler for any shortage along this line, there would be better satisfied customers. If brands of eggs could be established that would be guarantee in themselves to the consumer of good quality, at least part of the problem would be solved. In fact, commercial plants have already taken up ‘this phase, stamping their name and date on the egg the day it was laid. The city retailer, as well as the wholesaler and the producer, should realize that an increased quality means an increased consumption of that product. 470 POULTRY CULTURE The consumer should demand: New-laid eggs of good size and color, and insist that they be clean. They should learn to distinguish a new-laid egg from a stale egg, and a fresh egg from a storage egg. Demand com- pensation for the bad eggs supplied by the seller. One should be willing to pay a small premium for a strictly first-class prod- uct, and in the cities they do. When eggs are purchased not to overlook the fact that they are perishable, and that they, like milk and butter, absorb odors, and keep them in proper refrig- eration as pointed out before. , Car Lot Shipment.—Eggs may be shipped in car-load lots. Thirty dozen cases are used. The cases are so packed in the car as to allow a free passage of air around the boxes. A scant- ling holds the cases off the floor and allows a free circulation of air under the cases. The average size car will hold about 400 cases. The bunkers are filled with ice but no salt is used. The temperature must be about 33° F. to obtain the best results. Salt in the ice will cause the temperature to fall too low, which if it reached a point below 30° would be injurious to the best quality of the egg since the egg freezes at about 28° F, Dressed poultry may be shipped in car lots. The boxes are so placed that there is a free circulation of air around the boxes. In dressed poultry the ice is often salted. The addi- tion of 10 to 15 per cent. salt will cause a very low temperature often as low as 7° above zero at the lower border of the bunker. A new scheme in bunker construction has resulted in better results in shipping dressed poultry. There is in this new method, a metal net which receives the ice so that there is a free circulation of air around the ice, and as a result the temperature can be kept below 33° in the warmest part of the car. The bunker is the compartment for ice at the end of the car, the top opening is the hatchway, the side or wall of the bunker next to the inside of the car is the bulkhead. The water is drained from the car by a trap which prevents hot air from rushing into the car. The car is insulated. How to Load Cars of Eggs.—Much of the heavy loss in shipping carloads of eggs is caused by the cases being im- 471 e EGGS MARKETING ‘IOYUN 91 oY} ‘F +[VMUe}VU IayNq sv MeI}S ‘g fate JO WONV NIT ddI] JO MOT[E OF oUMvIZ poz}e[s ey} ‘Z ‘peyoed ATVYI sBBe Jo sesvH ‘[ ‘sddo yo Ivo W—'Q6T ‘OMT Sy + ac Ir aye 11 uc eo ‘[BI1aYVUL aN st MeIys ‘Gg ‘sBso Jo sasvo ‘fF /.A1ypNod posseip Jo spereq ‘gE ‘sesvo sspuNn Ive JO WOTBMOoII very BInsud 0} 100 pojj}VIS ey} ‘Z ‘oyUNG ey], ‘T ‘Am[nod posserp pu’ sBRe JO Ivo poXTUL Y—'GEL “OTT J tole TOSS. A COs AES OP, Fs “aD “ia =) ea? AL Cre. AOD ny nee es —_ eS a CH x ae rE) Tay Wen? Ta Z82 ww iD oe) 2 Ss LED os : 7 \ \ — a f 7 7 /- Sf /- e + 4 fF 1 L Z Z Z 472 POULTRY CULTURE properly packed in the load. To prevent damage to eggs in transit the cases must be properly stowed, braced, and buffed. Cases must be standard and new, with at least five cement- coated three-penny nails at each corner of sides, bottom, and at center partition. Use medium or heavy new flats and fillers. Spread top and bottom cushions and make them fit. Make the load fit the car exactly. There should not be an inch of play lengthwise of the car when it arrives at destination. Load from the side, make the load solid, put braces under the cases, make the buffing fit the space tightly, and have az a ae GAEL R aati oe eR dig. Lu4.—bhipping day-old baby chicks. load even at the doorway. Don’t nail braces to sides of car against incomplete top layer; they seldom hold in place and often are the cause of damage. They injure the efficiency of the car insulation. The use of small under-case braces will prevent all of this. Preserving.—At times eggs are preserved at home and are placed in a solution of water-glass, which is made as follows: add 1 part of water-glass to 9 parts water, and place the eggs in a glazed earthen jar with small ends down, covering the upper surface 2 inches deep. Cover jar with tight-fitting lid or paper to prevent evaporation of the water. MARKETING EGGS 473 A 1-gallon jar will hold 40 eggs; 2-gallon jar, 80 eggs; 3- gallon jar, 120 eggs; 4-gallon jar 160 eggs; 5-gallon jar 200 eggs and a 10-gallon jar 400 eggs. The jar should be scalded and the water boiled. Set the jar containing the eggs in a cool place. Select only well-formed eggs possessing thick shells, so the weight on the lower layers do not break some of them. When taking the eggs out wash them with water, rubbing as little as possible. Water-glass preserved eggs do not bring as much as fresh eggs on the markets where eggs are sold according to market grades. Eggs may be preserved by freezing or by drying. The Freezing Method.—The eggs are broken out of the shell in such a way that the contents do not come in contact with the shell. In some cases the yolks and albumen are separated and each placed in a separate can and sold as frozen yolks or frozen albumen. In other cases both yolk and albu- men are placed in the same can. The size can differs with the different plants; usually either 30-pound or 50-pound cans are used. The eggs thus prepared are kept at a temperature near zero till they are to be marketed. Usually small, ill- shaped, dirty, or checks are thus disposed of by the larger storage firms doing a large egg storage business. The Drying Method.—In the drying method the eggs are carried in pipes to the dryer in which the egg material is spread out in a very thin layer over a drum. This drum is heated by dry hot air. The egg material dries by the time the drum has revolved around and the dry egg is then scraped off and carried away from the drum and put up in packages and sold as dried or powdered egg. One pound of dried egg represents 30 eggs or 3/4 pounds. Boiling Oil Preservation.—Recently a firm has developed a method of sterilization of the surface and sealing the egg pores by passing the eggs through boiling oil. This kills all germs it comes in contact with and sears the inner membrane, but is said not to alter the value of the egg content. It thus prevents further contamination and prevents further evapora- tion through the pores of the shell. There are three channels through which eggs may be marketed, namely: (1) The large cities, through the commis- 474 POULTRY CULTURE sion merchants; (2) the nearby towns, to merchants, hotels, restaurants, or summer resorts; (3) the family trade of nearby towns. Route of the Egg from the Producer to the Consumer.— The route the egg takes from the hen to the table may vary. In the graphic illustration given in cut No. 198 we see that the egg may take a start in one of five directions, and that the city consumer may receive his eggs in one of three directions. The producer may sell to the consumer, as is the case where the Tae Boca Rovte Fig. 198.—The route of the egg from the producer to the consumer. producer lives in close proximity to towns or cities, where there are families, hotels, and restaurants that do not produce but purchase their egg supply. This we may term family and nearby restaurant trade. This is one of the most remunera- tive trades to the producer. Some producers deliver their eggs “same day laid” or ‘‘next day laid” in which case they are collected at noon or middle of the afternoon and hurried off on the delivery wagon. Usually these eggs bring five to ten cents above the market. price. MARKETING EGGS 475 In many instances the producer sells his eggs to the retail stores of the larger towns, and these retail stores in turn sell to the consumer. ; The third route the egg may travel is by way of huckster or by the cream route. The huckster traveling through the country collects the eggs and then disposes of his holdings in one of three ways. There are some who go to the larger SRS z LAB fe SP SOP 2s ly Fig. 199.—A typical ice chilled room—with overhead bunker. 1, Con- crete; 2, cork; 3, concrete base; 4, 14-inch rough and 14-inch finish coat; 5, 4-inch cork; 6, 14-inch rough 14-inch finish; 7, }9-inch plaster; 8, 5-inch cork; 9, 2-inch cork; 10, 2-inch cork, 11, drip pan; 12, removable racks; 13, 2-inch cork; 14, drain pipe; 15, ice rack; 16, ice. towns, or even the city where they are close to the same, and sell direct to the families; or they may sell to the retail stores and hotels, or may ship direct to the commission man in the city. The cream route comes in the huckster class; that is, the creameries after collecting the eggs may and do sell to families, clubs, hotels, and restaurants, to the better class 476 POULTRY CULTURE retail grocery stores, and the surplus is sent to the commission man of the large cities. The fourth route the country eggs may take is to the country store, where they are traded for merchandise. The country store in turn disposes of its collection to the hotels and restau- rants of larger cities or sends them to the commission man in the large cities. Fifth, the producer may ship direct to the commission man of the cities, who in turn may sell either to retail stores, restau- rants, hotels. Or in case the market becomes ‘‘loaded up”’ he may sell to the jobber. Refrigeration.— Refrigeration is to the nation what the house refrigerator is to the home. It is a means of preserving food from the time of heavy production till the time of scarcity. Refrigeration of dressed poultry and of eggs is used in two ways: First, to prevent deterioration in the ordinary passage of goods from the producer to the consumer, and second, to hold goods from season of surplus production until season of scant production. There are specialized rooms for the storage of eggs and others for dressed poultry. These storage warehouses are found in the large cities and are of two kinds, public and pri- vate. The private houses are those used by the owners for the storage of their own products. The public houses are those doing a warehouse business, that is, in which an outsider may store their products on payment of a storage fee. It is estimated that 15 per cent. of the eggs produced in the United States are placed in cold storage for a time. About 80 per cent. of these are placed in storage during the months of April, May, and June. They are stored in 30-dozen cases. In dressed fowls roasters go into storage in November and December, fowls in December and January, broilers in July and August, and turkeys mainly in December and January. The average number of months these products stay in storage has been given as follows: poultry 2.42 and eggs 5.91. The eggs placed in storage in April are likely to be held as much as seven months, those in May six months, June five months, July four months, and August three months. The percentage of dressed poultry delivered from the storage MARKETING EGGS 477 warehouse at the end of four months was 85 per cent., seven months 96 per cent., and ten months 99.9 per cent. Of eggs by the end of four months 22 per cent., seven months 75 per cent., and ten months 99.9 per cent. Factors Affecting the Cost of Marketing.—Eggs may be broken and also shrink during the process of marketing. Live and dressed fowls shrink in transit. Milk fed live poultry shipped a distance of 500 miles may shrink 10 to 16 per cent. h d eee EO ION SG EIS SOLSD, Fra. 200.—Egg storage room. Note the cases are held apart by cleets to allow of free circulation of air. if not fed before being cooped. If fed whole corn at time of cooping and rushed this shrinkage may be reduced to 4 or 5 per cent. Occasionally heavy shrinkages which cannot be accounted for occur. Corn-fed poultry do not make such heavy shrinkage Dressed fowls make shrinkage, and if not properly cooled and packed as well as refrigerated may spoil. Eggs may be, purchased by the retailer from the commis- sionman and paid for by the “case count;” that is, for all 478 POULTRY CULTURE the eggs regardless of whether they are all marketable. He may pay for them “‘loss off,” or have them candled and pay for only the good eggs. The New York State Food Gommission gives the follow- ing analysis of costs of marketing a dozen eggs based on a price of twenty cents paid to the farmer, and assuming that they are held in storage. Producer’s price. ............... .. .. «$0.20 $0.20 Shipper’s charges: (a) Labor in collecting and packing ...... 0.005 (b) Cases, fillers, and packing... .. .... 0.0073 (c) Transportation charges to city... .. .. 0.0106 0.023 Commission for handling... .. .. .. ..... 0.0100 0.01 Jobber’s charges: (a) Cartage from dock to store... .. ... 0.00133 (b) Candling and grading.... .. .. .... 0.00666 (c) Storage and insurance.... .. .. .... 0.016 (d) Jobber’s profit and charges.... ....... 0.01 (e) Delivery to the retailer...... Le. es ~~ 0.004 0.038 Retailer’s charges: (a) Operating expenses 10 per cent... ... 0.0271 (b) Retailers profit 5 per cent. .. ...... 0.01497 0.042 Price paid by consumer. .. ............ $0.313 In the above estimates the total spread including storage was 11.3 cents per dozen eggs. The producer in this case received 63.9 per cent. of the final price. Express or freight charges as an element of marketing cost depends on four things: (1) Distance over which goods are shipped. (2) Relation between bulk of a commodity and its intrinsic value. (8) The weight of the package in which goods are carried. (4) The amount and special care required during transit. Poultry and eggs may be carried by trolley; freight; ocean freight, as between countries; or coastwise; inland waterway, as the rivers and great lakes. Cost of Storage.—An analysis of storage charges on poultry and eggs at hypothetical cost prices in New York City as follows: MARKETING EGGS 479 Hypo- Storage | Insurance Interest Total Increase Commodity thecal charge, 6 | at 0.416, 6 mats storage ae cost months 6 months per cent. expense storage Poultry....... $0.18 $0.0100 | $0.000522) $0.0054 | $0.195922]} $0.016 Beesss oases 0.20 0.0089 0.000590 0.0060 0.215490 0.016 The laws require that all products placed in storage: be stamped giving the name of the product and date of entry and date of withdrawal. Marketing.—Ordinary marketing processes may be divided roughly into four successive steps as follows: (1) Producer. (2) Country shipper. (3) Transportation company. (4) Wholesale dealer. (5) Retail stores. (6) If the market is glutted the wholesaler may sell to the jobber and the product be placed in a storage warehouse. (7) A drayman may be introduced between any of these dealers as an additional trans- portation factor in the chain. All of these add to the cost of marketing. Ways in which Poultrymen may Sell Their Products.—The poultryman may sell his product in any one of five ways as follows: (a) Direct to the consumer by 1, going direct to the residence; 2, through municipal markets; 3, by parcel post or express companies to clubs in the cities who distribute the eggs or poultry among themselves, or to a single individual. (b) By selling to local stores. (c) By shipping direct to dealers in large cities. (d) By selling to a local buyer who does a jobbing business. (e) By shipping through a codperative association. Construction of Storage Houses.—The outside wall of the storage houses are made of brick or reinforced concrete. The inner wall is given a coat of cement, next a 4-inch layer of insulating material as cork, and on the inner side a layer of cement. Some walls are provided with two layers each of cork and cement. The inside walls are of frame construction as follows: .studding, sheathing paper, asphalt, cork, asphalt, cork, and a surface cover of cement. The ceiling is covered with 2 inches of cork, a layer of asphalt, another layer of cork, and a surface cover of cement. The floors are made as 480 POULTRY CULTURE follows from bottom up: boards, paper, asphalt, cork, asphalt, concrete, cement finish coat (see Fig. 199). THE EGG CASES AND FILLERS The standard egg case commonly used by 75 per cent. of the trade is a 37-inch veneer cottonwood case. Some buyers use a trifle heavier case, that is, one 7.32-inch veneer. Some shippers use a 37-inch tupelo case, which differs only in the wood out of which itismade. Others use a 37-inch gum case. Some use a drop cleat end, that is, having six cleats to the case, two of which are attached to the top and lap down over the ends, resting on a cleat that is recessed from the top of the end. Others use a flush cleat case, which has four cleats to the case, and the top is nailed directly to the case and no cleat is attached to it. PUT FLAT OVER E665 AND UNDER CORRUGATED cusylon PUT CORRUGATED CUSHION ON TOR THIS SIDE UP Pur MEAT dvER CUS, FILLER e PUT CUSHION FILLER (IN BOTTOM Fia. -201.—How to pack a case of eggs. There are in use four different weights of fillers: No. 1, 318, medium, and No. 2. The medium filler is used by 75 per cent. of the trade. The No. 2 is ‘outlawed’ by the Railroad Company, but is still used in some localities, but very seldom for shipping purposes. The No. 1 and 310 fillers are used by certain packers, also by those who are shipping eggs in what is known as pick-up cars, that work on local freight, stopping at each station, where other eggs are added to the car. Some use a white filler for packing export eggs on account of its color and a trifle less odor. Nearly all the trade use a straw- MARKETING EGGS A481 board filler. Some use corrugated cushions on the tops, cushion fillers on the bottoms. Others use excelsior pads, while still others use loose excelsior on both tops and bottoms. A few use corrugated cushions on the ends and centers to protect the eggs from jarring. It is proportionately cheaper per dozen eggs to ship them in 380-dozen cases rather than in 15-dozen or smaller lots. The U.S. Department of Agriculture states that cottonwood possesses certain advantages over other woods as material for egg cases. It does not warp or crack as easily as other woods; it is lighter, softer, more easily handled, and is odorless. It is found that fillers which are old or have been wet stand less pressure than new uninjured fillers. The new fillers are the most satisfactory. The tips of the fillers should be strong and prevent the eggs from coming in contact with the wood of the box. Cement covered nails have a great advantage in holding power over those not cemented. This coating usually consists of resin, mixed with wax. The heat developed in driving the nail fuses the coating and causes it to adhere to the wood. In shipping eggs in carload lots it is found that if the boxes are not packed tightly the entire mass of cases shift from end to end as the train starts and stops or in switching operations. If this occurs there will be considerable breakage in the cases at the ends of the car. Eggs are sometimes broken by the handlers stepping on the tops of the cases. The case should not have so much excelsior or other material in it that the top bulges slightly upward, or in settling, as a result of other packages being placed upon it, there will be breakage of some of the eggs. The car can be packed with straw in between the cases and car ends. While this acts as a buffer, preventing to a certain degree breakage, yet it prevents a free passage of cold air from the ice bunkers. Many eggs become broken by not using cushions or the ex- celsior not evenly distributed. THE COLLECTING OF EGGS ON CREAM ROUTES The question of markets is one that is of vital interest to all producers. 31 482 POULTRY CULTURE A cream and egg route is simply an organization of farmers for the purpose of providing an economic means of marketing their cream and eggs. There are three ways in which these routes can be organized. Where a number of farmers live together in a comparatively small community it is usually found most economic for each farmer to take his turn collecting the cream for his neighbors and carrying it to the creamery or shipping station. For instance, if six farmers were living somewhat near together and cream were collected three times a week, each farmer would collect the cream and eggs every two weeks. If there were only three in a community, each farmer would collect the cream once each week. When farmers do not live in thickly settled communities, but are scattered out along the road, it is best to hire the farmer on the end of the route furthest away from the creamery or shipping point to collect the cream and eggs. At the end of the month each farmer along the route would pay his share of the cost of collection, according to the amount of butterfat and eggs shipped. Where farmers are so situated that a “belt line” route can be organized, it is economy to have the cream gatherer located at the creamery or the shipping station. He would then leave his home in the morning, collecting the cream on one road going out and collecting on some other road on hisreturn. Since it is necessary to collect cream and milk and eggs three times a week, the route man collects Mondays, Wednesdays, Fridays in one direction, and Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays in some other direction. In this way he would be busy each day in the week and would be collecting cream and eggs on both outgoing and returning trips. With a horse and buggy and fair roads he could make a circuit of twenty-five to thirty miles a day. COOPERATIVE MARKETING The Egg Circle By uniting several egg producers in an association more can be accomplished in these essentials. One very successful egg company has a large incubator house with 12,000 eggs capacity, where early chicks are produced for the members at a low cost. MARKETING EGGS 483 This is done in order to obtain early maturing pullets, thus securing eggs during the fall, when eggs are usually scarce. The company also has a receiving room for eggs where they are candled, sorted to weight (about 24 ounces to the dozen), packed in cartons, and shipped on contract orders. Their eggs are all guaranteed to be according to grade; they advertise the fancy grades on their cartons and cases, and market priees are paid to the members. Twice a year dividends are paid each member in proportion to the amount of eggs markete d through the company and the time of year eggs were brough ‘in, a larger dividend being paid per dozen for eggs brought in? during the fall and winter than for those brought in during the spring and summer, estimated by months. A regular trade is established with discriminating consumers with city clubs, with the best class of hotels and restaurants, and with fancy grocers for a supply each day or week. The reputation thus established enables this association to fix its price at several cents per dozen above the regular market quotations, as fancy trade is willing to pay a premium for a guaranteed article. Most egg circles coéperate in buying their chicken feed and other poultry supplies. Attractive Package.—All food products should be delivered in a clean, attractive package. Some of the most successful egg shippers have discarded the dirty wooden case and are using a heavy fiber-board gift case, which will hold from 15 to 30 pasteboard cartons. Each carton has compartments for 12 eggs. Upon both the cartons and the case can be printed such advertising as may be wished. This style of package is especially desirable for the fancy retail grocer who can have his firm name included in the advertising. The fiber-board case is not expensive, forms a good protection to the eggs in shipping, and is worthy of trial. ORGANIZING AN EGG CIRCLE (Suggestions of the U. S. Department of Agriculture) The following forms are offered as aids in organizing, manag- ing, and auditing a community codperative eggs circle or asso- 484 POULTRY CULTURE ciation. They are subject to such changes as will make them best adapted to the local conditions. While at first the number of eggs to be marketed may not warrant a central station, with a manager to inspect, grade, and market the whole product, the aim should be to develop to that state. It is the only way to secure a uniform grade which will attract the highest class of trade. PRELIMINARY AGREEMENT We, the undersigned, citizens of ... . County, Stateof.. mt do hereby agree to form ourselves into an association, to be known as the Egg Circle, and agree to abide by the rules for the conduct of the business whieh may be adopted by a majority of the members in regular session. Name Address aveaie a hens CONSTITUTION ARTICLE 1.—Name The name of this association shall be the . Egg Circle and its place of business shall be at ey ARTICLE 2.—Objects The objects shall be to secure and improve better strains of poultry; to produce more eggs of good color and size; to handle eggs more carefully in order to avoid waste; to pack a uniform grade of clean, fresh eggs, in order to be able to guarantee them and thus create a reputation; to market same more directly to the consumers; to purchase supplies in a codperative way, and to do such other things as may prove of benefit to the members and the community. ARTICLE 3.—Officers The officers of the circle shall be a president, vice-president, secretary- treasurer, and two trustees, the five to constitute a board of managers. MARKETING EGGS 485 They shall be elected at the regular annual meeting, to be held on the second Monday in January of each year and they shall serve one year or until their successors are elected. ARTICLE 4.—Duties of Officers The officers shall perform the usual duties connected with their several offices. Unless the board of managers elects a manager, the secretary- treasurer shall act as manager, and, in addition to keeping all records, shall have charge of the buying of allsupplies; the collecting, inspecting, grading, and packing of the eggs; the securing of orders from the most profitable class of customers (such as first-class hotels, restaurants, and private trade); the making of all shipments and collecting of accounts, settling with all members on the same basis for the same class of eggs. The manager shall give a bond in twice the sum that he is liable to handle at any one time, the cost of said bond to be paid for by the circle. He shall keep a careful account and record of all money transactions, which account shall be inspected and audited not less than once in each three months by two component persons, with a yearly audit just before the annual meeting, the report of such audit to be made in writing to said annual meeting. ARTICLE 5.— Membership Any person may become a member of this circle by paying the annual fee of $1 and agreeing to live up to the rules of the circle. ARTICLE 6.—Voting Any member in good standing shall be entitled to cast one vote at any meeting of the circle, but no proxies shall be allowed. ArticLE 7.—Amendments This constitution may be amended ,at any annual meeting or atany special meeting called for that purpose, provided that two-thirds of all members present vote for such change; and provided further that at least 10 days’ notice of such proposed amendments shall have been given members. BY-LAWS 1. Members must deliver to the circle all eggs produced by their hens, except those for home use, and those from stolen nests of unknown age. 2. Eggs must be gathered daily (twice daily in hot or muggy weather) and kept in a cold place. No eggs older than seven days shall be de- livered to the collector. Artificial eggs only may be used as nest eggs, 486 POULTRY CULTURE and the nests must be kept clean. Broody hens must be confined away from nesting hens. 3. Members may deliver eggs to the circle only from their own hens. 4, The manager shall have power to pay a higher price for white or brown shelled eggs, according to the demands of the market.1 Eggs that do not average 24 ounces to the dozen shall be paid for by weight on the above basis. 5. With the exception of during the mating season, all male birds must be kept apart from the flock of hens. The manager shall have power to pay a small premium for these infertile eggs, if the market warrants. 6. The manager may refuse to accept ‘“‘dirties.” If accepted, they shall be taken at a discount. (If each member is permitted to pack the eggs, the following by-law applies:) 7. Each member shall receive a rubber stamp, giving the brand of the circle and the recorded number of the member. Each egg must be stamped plainly and neatly on the big end. Only fresh, clean eggs of standard weight, and uniform color may be packed in the cartons, holding a dozen each, the cartons being furnished by the circle, and the member’s stamp also being placed on the face of the carton. In case any complaint is received in regard to any eggs, the member whose stamp is on the eggs shall be charged with any expense of settlement made necessary by his carelessness. (If the eggs are brought to a central house for packing, the following by-law applies:) 8. All eggs shall be collected and delivered to the circle packing house by such means as the annual meeting may determine. Each member shall be given a receipt for the number of eggs he delivers. These eggs shall be candled, graded, and packed by the manager or his assistants and each member be given credit for the number of each grade. All eggs of the same grade shall then be pooled, and when sold payment shall be made on the basis of the price received for each grade, less all necessary expenses. 9. The manager shall be paid acommission of . . . per cent. on the net sales of the business, not to exceed a total amount of $ per year. 10. Any member failing to live up to these by-laws may be expelled from membership or sufficient sum withheld from his sales to reimburse the circle for any loss occasioned by his failure. In all such cases the member shall first have the right to be heard before the board of managers. 1 New York and Chicago markets will often pay several cents a dozen more for white-shelled eggs, while Boston prefers the brown-shelled eggs, It is a case of market preference. MARKETING EGGS 487 11. Members may voluntarily withdraw from the circle, to take effect only at the end of the business year, by giving thirty days’ notice to the manager. COMMUNITY EGG CIRCLE RECEIPT FORMS INSTRUCTIONS FOR PRINTING AND BINDING Forms A, B, and C should be numbered in triplicate. Form A (original) should be printed on white paper, Form B (dupli- cate) and Form C (triplicate) on paper of different tints, preferably light bond, and bound in books of 25 numbers to the book. Forms B and C should be perforated. INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE The collector enters the total number of eggs received from a member in the spaces provided on Form A, using carbon sheets so that the date, member’s name, circle number, and number of dozen: eggs collected are given on all three forms. The collector, at the time of collection, delivers Form C to the member, which is a receipt for the number of eggs delivered to the collector. At the end of the day the book containing the original and duplicate copies, Forms A and B, is turned in at the office. As the eggs are candled and graded the number of dozens of each grade is placed upon Form A by the grader, the same information being shown on the carbon, or Form B. This then gives thé member the proper credit for the number of dozens of each grade delivered. Settlement is made for each pool or delivery, which in most cases will be covered by one receipt for each member. As returns for the shipments are received the amount due each member will be carried out in the price and total columns of Forms A and B. Check is then drawn for the amount due and forwarded to the member with Form B, which gives a statement of returns and a duplicate of the receipt which the member holds with the additional information of the grading and amount received for each grade. Form A remains in the book and is kept on file in the office to serve as a permanent record of settlements with the producer. 488 POULTRY CULTURE FORMS (Form A) Folio, a 5» No. . FarMvILtLeE Pouttry Crrcin, FarMvIutun, Va. Office copy of member’s receipt Date, , 191. Received of . . Cirele No. . . the following: No. | Price | Total Paid by check No. ...... Checked by:...... ee Date; 2: easy POL cas Collector 6.2... 0.0... (Form B) No. Farmvitte Pouutrry Circie, Farmviuue, VA. Statement of returns and copy of member’s receipt Date collected, ; 2 191 Mr... . , Circle No. the inclosed check is in payment of the following: 2 No. | Price | Total TESS uh caigtusie Gomirasecnn eee ua Total of check............. | Checked by ......00 2.2... Collector = ...... 0 wwe Manager... MARKETING EGGS 489 (Form C) No. FarMvitte Pourrry Crrcur, Farmvinun, Va. Member’s receipt Date . j « 19D Received of . . . . . . ., Cirele No. , the followin: Collector ......0 0.2... To Memper: Keep this receipt and compare with monthly statement sent you by Circle office. The Candling and Grading of Eggs.—The following grad- ing instructions are in use by the buyers of eggs for the Boston market: Fresh Extras.—An egg to be accepted as an “‘extra’’ must be newly laid, clean, large size (minimum weight to be 45 pounds net per 30-dozen case), showing only a very small air-cell, and must have a strong, smooth shell, of even color and free from cracks. An Extra must be absolutely free from the effects of heat. Fresh Firsts —A “first” is an egg that is not quite nice enough for an Extra, but too good to be classified as a Second. It must be fresh laid and of medium size, and may show a small air space or may be slightly dirty. This grade must not con- tain very small, very dirty, or stale eggs. Minimum weight should be 42 pounds net per 30-dozen case. Checks.—This term applies to eggs which are cracked and not leaking. Seconds.—This term applies to eggs that are not good enough for Firsts, but of high enough quality to be used for human consumption. There are several kind of Seconds which are defined as follows: (a) Heated egg. One in which the embryo has proceeded to a point corresponding to about eighteen to twenty-four hours of normal incubation. In the infertile egg this condition can 490 POULTRY CULTURE be recognized by the increased color of the yolk; when held before the candle it will appear heavy and slightly darker than the fertile egg. (b) Shrunken egg. This class of eggs can be easily distin- guished by the size of the air-cell. It may occupy from one- fifth to one-third of the space inside the shell. The holding of eggs for a sufficient length of time to allow a portion of the contents to evaporate is the main cause of this condition. (c) Small egg. Any egg that will detract from the appear- ance of normal eggs on account of its small size will come under this class, although it may be a new laid egg. (d) Dirtyegg. Fresh eggs which have been soiled with earth, droppings, or egg contents, or badly stained by coming in con- tact with wet straw, hay, ete. (e) Watery egg. Those in which the inner membrane of the air-cell is ruptured, allowing the air to escape into the contents of the egg, and thereby giving a watery or frothy appearance. (f) Presence of foreign matter in eggs. This condition is found in many new laid eggs, and has the appearance of a small dark streak or clot of blood—often eggs are laid which show small clots about the size of a pea. These are sometimes termed ‘‘liver’’ or “‘meat’’ spots. (g) Badly misshapen eggs. Eggs which are extremely long or very flat, or in which part of the shell’s surface is raised in the form of a ring; in other instances a number of hard wart- like growths appear on the outside of the shell. The following classes are to be rejected as worthless: - Leakers.—As indicated by the name, this term applies to eggs which have lost a part of their contents, and eggs so badly broken that they cannot be safely transported in cases. These should be saved by breaking into cans and frozen. Spots.—Eggs in which bacteria or mold growth has devel- oped locally and caused the formation of a lumpy adhesion on the inside of the shell. There are three well-recognized classes of mold-spots, namely, white, brown, and black. In cases where an infertile egg has been subjected to natural heat for a sufficient time the yolk will often settle and be- come fixed to the membrane. This condition might be termed a “plain spot.” MARKETING EGGS 491 Blood Rings.—Eggs in which the embryo has developed to a sufficient extent that it is quickly recognized when held before the candle. It has been found that it requires between twenty- four and thirty-six hours of incubation under a sitting hen to produce this condition. Rots.—Eggs which are absolutely unfit forfood. The differ- ent classes of rots may be defined as follows: (a) Black rots. This is the easiest class of rots to recognize and, consequently, the best known. When the egg is held before the candle the contents have a blackish appearance, and in most cases the air-cell is very prominent. The formation of hydrogen sulphid gas in the egg causes the contents to blacken and gives rise to the characteristic rotten-egg smell, and sometimes causes the egg to explode. (b) White rot. These eggs have a characteristic sour smell. The contents become watery, the yolk and white mixed, and the whole egg offensive to both the sight and the smell. It is also known as the ‘mixed rot.” (c) Spot rot. In that case the foreign growth has not con- taminated the entire egg, but has remained near the point of entrance. Such eggs are readily picked out with the candle, and when broken show lumpy particles adhering to the inside of the shell. These lumps are of various colors and appear- ances. It is probable that spot rots are caused as much by mold as by bacteria, but for practical purposes the distinction is unnecessary. To all intents and purposes, the spot rot, as explained above, is practically the same as the brown and black spots described under the general head of ‘‘spots.”’ The spot rot is also placed under the general head of rots simply because some candlers will call it a spot, while others designate it as spot rot. Pink and blood rots are names which are applied to a certain class of rotten eggs, the pink rot deriving its name from the peculiar pinkish color of the contents when held before the candle. The same thing is true of the blood rot, which is bloody or red in appearance. The causes for changes taking place in market eggs have been classified as follows: 492 POULTRY CULTURE INTERIOR FACTORS AFFECTING THE INTERIOR QUALITY OF EGGS General conditions: Feed Physical condition Heredity Ovarian conditions Oviduct conditions EXTERNAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE INTERIOR QUALITY OF EGGS Evaporation Temperature: Heating at high temperature Heating at incubator temperature Heating at low temperature Chilling and freezing Moisture Bacterial invasion Preservation: Home preservation Commercial preservation Cold storage Freezing Drying The feed is known to affect the color of the yolk, density of the albumin, odor, and flavor. The percentage of moisture, condition of shell, firmness of the albumin, and size of yolk depend upon the physical condition of the bird. Deranged ovarian conditions bring about double-yolk eggs, blood clots, multiple-germinal disks. Derangement of the oviduct cause body heated eggs, egg within egg, yolk substitu- tion, foreign substances within eggs, and loose shell membranes. Atwood found that there was an appreciable difference in the weights of eggs produced at different seasons of the year. In a pen of fowls which received green feed in addition to their grain ration the average weight varied from 12.72 pounds per hundred in February to 10.07 pounds in July. MARKETING EGGS 493 In a pen of fowls receiving no green feed the weight varied from 13.33 pounds per 100 eggs in February to 11.09 pounds in July. Economical egg production shows that liberal feed- ing is essential. In a test of fowls of supposed equal value three pens fed liberally laid 8,062 eggs, and the same number during the same period of time scantily fed laid only 5,144. The following test showed that for these two lots of eggs the heaviest production was in the pullet year. Two pens of pullets fed liberally averaged 138.7 eggs each, while the same test run with yearling hens averaged only 125.6 eggs per hen. That scanty feeding reduces the size of the egg is shown in an experiment in which the eggs, in March, from a pen liberally fed averaged 60.3 grams, while the same breed and same age hens scantily fed laid eggs averaging only 57.6 grams, or a decrease of 4.5 per cent. HOW TO CANDLE EGGS Eggs may be clicked together and if one is cracked it can be detected by the click or ‘‘cracked pot” sound. The room in which eggs are candled must be dark. The egg is held in the hand in a slanting position with the large end against the opening in the candler. A rapid twist from right to left will bring into view the location of the yolk, air cell, and condition of the white. The egg should be completely turned so any mold or other spots on either side may be observed. The Air Space.—The air space of a fresh egg isless than three- fourths inch in diameter. A full egg is a first and a shrunken egg a second. Where the membrane is broken (addled egg) there may appear bubbles, a mixture of air and albumin. Movable air cells are seen in very stale eggs when the air cell divides and moves between the two membranes. The White.—Firmness and color are to be observed. Ina fresh egg the albumin is firm and thick, and in a stale egg it is weak and thin. This latter condition occurs where the egg has been exposed to warm temperatures as in summer and by incubation. If the albumin is firm it sways but little in turn- ing during candling; on the other hand if the albumin is thin 494 POULTRY CULTURE it sways readily and the air cell shifts sooner. A fresh egg out of the shell has an opalescent appearance and the yolk stands up. Neither of these are observed in the stale egg. A watery egg may be caused by invasion by bacteria. The Yolk.—In a fresh egg the yolk is dimly seen before the candler. The more transparent the shell the more distinctly the yolk can be seen. Because of the thin condition of the white in a stale egg the yolk can be more plainly seen. The yolk sac weakens in a stale egg, making the yolk more and more plainly visible. In such an egg when broken into a dish the yolk is noted to flatten out. In a stale egg the yolk has a tendency to float near the shell, while in a fresh egg the yolk is more nearly centrally located. Finally the yolkin very old eggs may be noted to adhere to the shell. The color of the yolk affects the light passing through it. Thus a light-yellow yolk will reflect a pink-yellow color when held before the candler, and an orange yolk a red light. In the commercial candling room an experienced man can candle a 30 dozen case in fifteen minutes. They work nine hours a day handling approximately 1080 dozen eggs or about 3,600,000 dozen annually. STUDENT'S LABORATORY CHART Testing Eggs for Home Consumption (1) Number the eggs before you, very lightly, with a lead- pencil. These numbers must be cleaned off later. (2) Estimate their size and classify as follows: Number of Eggs Large, over Medium, 134- Small, 1°4 Totals Lot No. 2 0%. 2 02. or less aa | | : | } : | MARKETING EGGS 495 (3) Candle the eggs at the candle assigned, and make a careful sketch of each egg, showing the interior appearance, including at least the yolk and the air space. The quality should be designated by one of the following terms: 1. Fresh. No heat shown. 15. Cold storage No. 2. 2. Light float. 16. Water-glass. 3. Heavy float. 17. Limed. 4. Blood ring. 18. Boiled egg. 5. Infertile incubated. 19. Blind check. 6. Visible chick. 20. Check. 7. White rot. 21. Dent. 8. Mixed rot. 22. Leaker. 9. Black rot. 23. Blood-clots. 10. Evaporated or shrunken. 24, Meat spots. 11. Ruptured air-cell. 25. Rape worms. 12. Mold spot. 26. Bloody egg. 13. Grass egg. 27. Plain dirty. 14. Cold storage No. 1. 28. Stained. 29. Smeared. At the time of candling observe if the surface of the egg is glossy or dull in appearance, and note this condition in part of the space reserved for the designation of ‘quality’’ on the can- dling blank (page 497). (4) Now place each egg into a dish of water, and note the relative specific gravity of the egg as it lies in the bottom of the dish. Denotethis by “heavy,” “medium,” and “light,” and place these terms also in part of the space reserved for the “quality’’ designations (page 497). (5) Clean and wipe each egg, and leave them in a row ar- ranged in the order of their numbers, so they may be readily checked withthe corresponding candling blank, which should be left with them. 496 POULTRY CULTURE STUDENT’S CANDLING TEST Student’s Name........ Dates cccgadscan tent Per cent. Fresh........ Place Examined........ No. Eggs in Lot....... Per cent. Loss......... S| og Fn si o aa 8 N | 2° | a? 2° a > Preshiss sseegass oeeu leewewal send resus dau 0.40 Tiehilbgi sacs. becom ae eden 0.37 i Heavy floats......... eal ae iamean eae 0.34 a 7 iia acai Shad ede 0.36 cr Black rots...........|. sa) eeas ss seg alend Toss iT White rots...........]. = Veer rere loss — Spot rots and molds. . ae Leen Lasers 0.15 a Blood-clots..........]. —— ie Suageeree lege = Meat spots... Eokeaal a nea Pate hen ae 0.25 | Blind checks.........). ly ese nhelpdarchcaliis 0.35 i Ohecks..............). re oe ites ich 0.29 — Leakers.............]. oe a semi anathind 4 0.15 1 Miscellaneous ote a a MARKETING EGGS 497 CORNELL STUDENTS CANDLING CHART Candling Quality of Eggs (1) Do not mark the eggs, but arrange them in regular order to correspond with their record No. on this sheet. (2) Sketch the air space, yolk, and all other interior characters. Student’s Name..... - eo . .. Date... . INOssoreeu @ diane No..... NORAsi 28008 Quality. ...... .. Quality Quality... .candens INOkeaceans: couahems No..... No....... Quality. . Quality QUBIt ys cca ceane es NOL Aeees ade eds INiOgemeeGecm » saeanur INGie glad aGke SS te gangs QuaTIEY oo ee Qualitys<:scxseees Quality cde mupmae ans 498 POULTRY CULTURE THE COLOR OF EGGS FROM THE DIFFERENT BREEDS The eggs from the Asiatics—that is, the Brahmas, Langshans and Cochins—are brown. The eggs from the Langshans are various shades of brown. The eggs from the American class, as the Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Javas, Dominiques, Rhode Island Reds, and Buck- eyes, are a brown, shading from a light to a dark color, that is, a pink, pink brown, and brown. The eggs from the Mediterranean class, as the Leghorns, Minoreas, Spanish, Blue Andalusians, and Anconas, are white. Eggs from the English class, as the Dorkings, Redcaps, and Orpingtons, are a light to a medium brown color, being influ- enced by the breeding. The French class, as the Houdans, Crevecceurs, and La Fleche, are white. The Continental class, as the Campines, lay a white egg. The Games lay a brown egg; the Lakenvelders, Yokohamas, Sultans, and Silkies lay a white egg. Geese lay a white egg, ducks white or tinted green, turkeys a speckled, and guineas a cream-colored egg. JUDGING EGGS Two methods are used in judging eggs, as in judging birds— that is, by comparison and score-card. The fancy egg score-card has provisions for the following information and points: Date, exhibitor, address, variety, color, weight, entry number, size, shape, shell texture, condition of shell, uniformity of shape, uniformity of color, a space for the total points required, the total points cut, and the score. This also has provision for the signature of the judge and the secretary. Eggs from Anconas, Brahmas, Langshans, and Minorcas must weigh 26 to 28 ounces, all other breeds 24 to 26 ounces. Three points are cut for each ounce over or under weight. Five to 6 points are allowed for shape and for the standard; taking into consideration the whole dozen exhibited it is usual to allow 10 points. MARKETING EGGS 499 APPEARANCE OF EGGS ON CANDLING (South African Poultry Magazine Candling Chart) FIT FOR FOOD FRESH EGG Before the Candle: Air Space: Small; less than 34- inch in diameter; edges firm. Yolk: Can be dimly seen above middle of egg; it moves slowly when egg is turned. Chick Spot cannot be seen. White: Clear and firm. Out Of Shell. Yolk: Even in color, firm and round. Chick Spot small, with no sign of growth. In an infertile egg the chick spot is exceedingly small. White: Firm and thick; flows slowly and glistens. STALE OR SHRUNKEN EGG Before the Candle. Air Space: Always large. Its edges may be wavy. Yolk: Easily seen and moves quickly when egg is turned. White: Clear but thin. Out of Shell. Yolk: Flattened, sometimes mottled with deeper colored spots; easily broken. Chick spot either small or enlarged, and generally shrunken. White: Watery, with very little thick white; flows freely and does not glisten like a fresh egg. Caused by long holding after egg is laid, allowing the egg con- tents to dry out. WEAK EGG Before the Candle. Air Space: But slightly en- larged. Yolk: Very easily seen and near the shell. Moves quickly; may have a hatch spot. White: Clear and thin. Out of Shell. Yolk: Flattened. White: Thin and watery. This egg occurs most frequently in the summer-time. It is neither stale or shrunken. EGG WITH SETTLED YOLK Before the Candle. Same as stale egg, except that yolk is in lower half of egg and moves upward when egg is turned before the candle. Out of Shell. Same as stale egg. Caused by long holding. HATCH SPOT EGG Before the Candle. Air space is either large or small. Yolk is easily seen with a red- dish glow or spot on its upper surface. No blood be seen. Out of Shell. Chick spot shows. signs of development, but no blood. Cause: ONE RESULT OF A FERTILE EGG. FGG WITH OLIVE YOLK Before Candle and out of Shell. Yolk appears dark brown or olive. Cause: Not definitely known; may be due to feed of hen. EGG WITH MOVABLE CELL Before the Candle. Air space moves as egg is turned; when composed of small 500 bubbles, indicates egg membrane broken and air mixed with white. Out of Shell. May be any kind of egg, good or bad. Edible, if good; inedible, if bad. Caused by either long holding or rough handling. UNFIT FOR FOOD EGG WITH BLOOD RING Before the Candle. Bloody veins, or a whole or partial ring of blood, can be seen on the yolk; sometimes shadow of yolk is shaped like a new moon. Out of Shell. Blood is seen on yolk, due to developing chick; a later stage than the hatch spot. Caused by development of em- bryo in fertile egg. Take the Rooster away! Un- fertile eggs cannot form Blood Rings. EGG WITH STUCK YOLK Before the Candle. Yolk has stuck to shell. Out of Shell. Yolk breaks with a_ portion sticking to shell. Caused by yolk in stale eggs rising or settling and sticking to shell. MOULDY EGG Before the Candle. Black patches or spots show on inside of shell. They cannot be seen without candling. Out of Shell. Patches of mould are seen on inside of shell or through the egg. Caused by damp nests, washing or holding in damp place, thus allowing mould to enter shell. POULTRY CULTURE BLACK ROT Before the Candle. Contents mixed and muddy or black. Out of Shell. Yolk and white mixed—grayish- yellow in color; stinks. Caused by death of embryo, or: mould and decomposition. MIXED ROT, WHITE ROT, OR ADDLED EGG Before the Candle. Yolk and white mixed; yellowish color; portion of yolk may some- times be seen. In advanced stages the yolk outline is entirely gone. It is difficult to distinguish this egg from a fresh egg. Out of Shell. Yolk and white mixed; light yel- low color. Sometimes sour odor. Caused by bacterial decom posi- tion or breaking of yolk and white in stale egg. EGG WITH BLOODY WHITE Before the Candle. General bloody or brown ap- pearance of egg, indicating blood mixed in white. Out of Shell. Red or brown blood mixed or diffused in white. Caused by rupture of ovary or oviduct, allowing blood to enter ege during its formation. EGG CONTAINING BLOOD SPOTS OR OTHER FOREIGN BODIES Before the Candle. Dark spots are seen floating in white or attached to yolk. They must not be confused with the white cords that hold the yolk. MARKETING EGGS 501 Out of Shell. are small, the egg is generally con- sidered edible on removal of such Clots of blood, flesh, grain or bodies. even worm or feces or gravel may Caused by rupture of ovary be against the yolk or floating in or oviduct or the inclusion of white. foreign matter during the for- If the particles of blood or flesh mation of the egg white. In texture the shell must be free from wrinkles, cracks, weak spots, or rough places; 11¢ points are allowed for each egg. As to condition, the eggs must be unwashed and free from stain or dirt of any kind. To secure this, the eggs must be laid Fig. 202.—Purdue University. 1915 egg contest. in a clean nest and the feet of the bird must not be wet or muddy. . Since small or large eggs are not classed as first-class eggs, they must be of uniform size. The eggs must be of uniform shape, which is governed to some extent by the breed. The color must be uniform. Since some varieties lay eggs of different shades, this will require careful selection of the eggs for exhibition. lf the variety lays a brown egg, as the Rocks, the color may be of any shade, from a pink to a pink brown toa POULTRY CULTURE 502 “VIGIL ‘IOQUIOAON ‘API YIOR MON ‘[OLOF e10Ul} [gq 94} 7B yonbuvq onbiun &v ye aeuIAIy[NOg— eQz “DIY MARKETING EGGS 503 brown, but all of the eggs exhibited should be of the same shade. As to disqualifications, we may consider cracks or checks, dents, leakers, spotted, musty, rotten, and blood rings. The latter occurring in one egg of a lot is considered sufficient to disqualify. the entire lot. The relative points allowed in the score-card for commercial eggs are as follows: Shape, 3 points; size, 25 points; uniformity of color, 4 points; uniformity of size and shape, 5 points; shell texture, 8 points; quality, 25 points (shown by the size of the air-cell); opaqueness, 25 points; condition of shell, 5 points. Total, 100 possible points. The relative points allowed in the score-card for fancy eggs is as follows: Uniformity of color, 10 points; uniformity of shape, 5 points; uniformity of size, 15 points; size, 40 points; shape, 10 points; shell texture, 15 points; condition of shell, 5 points. CHAPTER XXVI CASTRATION OF THE BIRD (CAPONIZING) THERE are great possibilities in the more extended practice of capon production. The fact that there is a growing demand, as their value as a superior meat product over the cock or cockerel, and the fact that they bring about thirty cents a pound, while the uncastrated bird brings only about fifteen cents, together with the fact that they become very much larger, makes this phase of poultry husbandry a productive and remunerative one. The male bird, after the removal of his reproductive organs, loses his masculine appearance, becomes sluggish, and, as a result of his inactivities, gains weight rapidly. From the loss of that internal secretion manufactured in the testes we note that there is the same difference which is observed in other animals under the same treatment. The develop- ment of the gelding, as compared to the horse, and the barrow, as compared to the boar, are some concrete examples. Ovariectomy results in the assumption of male characters by the operated female. It was noted that in some capons kept several years, the comb and wattles began to grow, after eighteen months of age, eventually reaching a large size. These birds crow and ex- hibit sexual relations. Castrated drakes assume the plumage of the normal male. The castrated drake does not assume the summer plumage, although molting frequently always retain the so-called breeding plumage. The ovariectomized duck assumes male characteristics. The spayed pullet appears much like a capon but has short legs. The comb and wattles may become relatively large. It appears that while both testes and ovaries develop an internal secretion, yet their effect is quite different. 504 CASTRATION OF THE BIRD (CAPONIZING) 505 The same improvement in meat is noted in the castrated or caponized bird as in the steer over the meat of the bull, or the meat of the barrow superior to that of the boar. Hence, capon raising is highly desirable, and if properly managed is a prof- itable undertaking. A capon of the Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, or Rhode Island Red breed should weigh fully 7 or 8 pounds when eight months old. Light capons are produced from the Rocks, Wyandottes, and Reds, while the heavy capons are produced from the Brahmas and Cochins. The cockerel should be caponized when he weighs from 1 to 114 pounds, which will probably be when he is about eight to ten weeks old. If the birds are allowed to become too old before operation the testes are found to be very large, the removal of which may prove fatal to the bird. If the birds are hatched from March to May, the operation should be performed in the months of June to September, and with proper feeding and care these birds should then be ready to market from December to March. The equipment needed to perform this operation is a table provided with means of confining the bird, and instruments, consisting of a knife or scalpel, with which to make the incision or cut through the abdominal wall, a hook for tearing through the peritoneum or lining of the abdominal cavity, air-sac walls, and at times through the mesentery, and a spreader for holding the wound open while the removal of the testes is accomplished. An improvised table may be made by taking-a barrel, using two strings and two weights of sufficient size to hold the bird down, usually about the size of a half-brick. The strings are doubled, and one looped around the legs, the other around the base of the wings, and half-bricks tied to the free ends, as shown in Fig. 204. A poultry operating-table has been designed by the writer, as shown in Fig. 205. It consists of a top 2 feet wide and 30 inches long. This table is provided with 4-inch cross-pieces, as shown, and are located about half-way from the top of the table to the ground, and provided with two awning hooks on either side. Holes are bored through the top at suitable loca- 506 POULTRY CULTURE tions. The loop of the string is run through the hole on its respective side and over the leg or base of the wings, and the legs and wings drawn snugly down to the top, and the free end of the strings wrapped around the hooks and given a half- hitch. If the bird or birds are to be operated on in the forenoon no feed should be given on the previous day. It is also well to withhold water, as an abundance of water causes more hemor- rhage, owing to the increased amount of liquid in the body Fig. 204.—An improvised operating-table for caponizing: a, Top of barrel; b, weights to hold down the bird; c, cord looped around the legs and wings; d, the spreaders holding the wound open; c, cannula for removing the testes. tissues. It is rather difficult to accurately and satisfactorily operate when the intestines are gorged with food. The operation is best performed in the bright sunlight unless the operator is provided with a head reflector. The instruments should be kept in a shallow pan of anti- septic, as creolin, or, better, formaldehyd solution. A small amount of absorbent cotton should also be at hand. After the bird is confined pluck a few feathers over the field of opera- tion, which is between the last two ribs. It is well to place a small chunk of ice in the pan of antiseptic and use the ice-water CASTRATION OF THE BIRD (CAPONIZING) 507 in sponging the field of operation. The cold water thus acts as an antiseptic, as well as causing a contraction of the capil- laries of the region, and less hemorrhage result. When ready to make the incision, pull the skin over so that after the incision is made and the skin released the wound into the abdominal cavity will be closed. In making the incision Be ee ed Fie. 205.—A scientific operating-table: a, The table top; b, cord looped around the legs and wings; c, two awning hooks, around which the cord is secured; d, the incision preparatory to removal of the testes. through the skin the bird will struggle, on account of the fact that the skin is endowed with tactile or sensory nerve terminals, as is the case with all animals. The muscular and areolar tissue is not so sensitive. After this incision is made the bird will struggle very little. The knife or scalpel should be sharp and the incision made quickly. The upper point of the incision 508 POULTRY CULTURE should be about 14 inch from the center of the backbone or vertebra. The incision should be about 1 inch long. As a nerve, artery, and vein pass along the posterior border of each rib it is necessary to not cut close to the posterior border, but make the incision close to the anterior border of the last rib. A second incision is now made in the same wound, this time cutting through the abdominal muscles. Care must be exercised not to cut too deep and injure the internal organs. If the peritoneum (the thin and rather glistening tissue lining the abdominal cavity) is not cut, this can be broken through by aid of the hook and the spreaders inserted. Now tear Fie. 206.—A set of caponizing instruments: a, The knife; b, the spread- ers; c, the hook for tearing the peritoneum; d, the instrument for removing the testes. through the walls of the air-sac and push the intestines to one side and the top testis will be in plain view. The testis will appear bean shaped, about 14 inch long and yellowish white in color. It lays up close to and is attached by connec- tive tissue to the body of the vertebra and large abdominal blood-vessels. If it is the desire to remove both testes through the one opening, it is necessary to tear through the mesentery or web-like membrane supporting the viscera, care being taken not to make the opening too close to its attachment to the backbone or vertebra, or fata! hemorrhage may take place as a result of rupturing these delicate vessels. CASTRATION OF THE BIRD (CAPONIZING) 509 If the opening has been properly made the lower testis will be in plain view. Always remove the lower one first, for if the upper one be removed first there may be some hemorrhage take place that will make it very hard to find the lower one later. For beginners it is better to operate from both sides, each time removing the upper one. The testicular tissue is very soft, and it is necessary to use great care to remove all of the tissue. If it is crushed it will be very difficult to successfully remove it, so that it is necessary that the operation be done with skill. If care is not used, often the end of a testis will break off, and this part remaining makes a sip. This small particle will furnish some internal secretion, and the bird can neither be regarded as a cockerel orasacapon. Slips are undesirable. The accidents may be as follows: On account of the testes laying close to the vertebra or backbone, in close proximity to the abdominal aorta and other large vessels, and that the capsule of the testis is attached to them, too much traction, or improperly applying the trac- tors, may result in rupture of the vessel and fatal hemorrhage occur at once. If the abdominal aorta is ruptured there will be noted a hissing sound, and the bird becomes pale in the face and comb and immediately collapses. In this case cut off the head and the bird can be used for food. If the bird is allowed to struggle after the operation, a large vessel al- ready injured by the operation may rupture and fatal hem- orrhage result. After the operation, if the incision has been properly made, no suture is necessary, but if the opening in the abdominal wall be large it is well to take one or two sutures with clean sterile cotton or silk thread. After the operation is completed remove the birds as care- fully as possible, and quietly place in a clean coop or run bedded down with clean straw. Often a struggle at this time proves fatal. Do not allow them in coops or enclosures where they can jump upon boxes, perches, or fly, as they must be kept down on the floor for a few days. Supply the birds with clean, fresh water, and give them ground feed mixed with milk as soon as they are placed in their runs. They do not apparently suffer any inconvenience 510 POULTRY CULTURE from the operation, and will eat heartily immediately after the operation. On the third day examine each bird to make sure there are no “wind-puffs” or emphysematous conditions—that is, air worked under the skin from the edge of the wound or incision. If wind-puffs or emphysema is present, puncture with clean sterile sharp knife or pin and allow the air to escape. Birds have a great resistance against germs of the ordinary wound infection, as the pus-producing organisms, as staphylococci and streptococci, and fatalities from this cause are very rare, if at all. The wound should be entirely healed in three weeks’ time. SPAYING THE HEN An unsexed (spayed) pullet is called a poulard. Spayed pullets make more rapid growth without the handicap of egg production at a later stage, and the meat is of improved quality and flavor. The spayed pullet takes on some of the appearance of a cockerel. The poulard, like the. capon, becomes an outcast and is never known to cackle. The pullets are usually operated upon at about the same age as in caponizing the cockerel, and usually in the late spring or early summer. The pullets are prepared in the same manner as cockerels for caponizing. The incision is made in a similar manner as in the cockerel, and the undeveloped egg cluster is found in a similar location in the pullet as the testicles in the cockerel. With a pair of artery forceps grasp the undeveloped oviduct, which will be found to be about the size of a broom straw, and remove about 1 inch of this and the cluster of eggs. Care must be taken not to cut or rupture any of the large abdominal blood-vessels laying just back of the ovary and against the vertebra (a similar precaution as in caponizing). The removal of the ovary and a section of the oviduct prevents the formation of eggs or the further development of the egg canal and functionating of the cells of the canal. The after-treatment is the same as for capons. CHAPTER XXVII PREPARING BIRDS FOR THE SHOW-ROOM Birps to be prepared for the show-room should be selected three months before the time for the exhibition, and placed in coops similar in structure to those used for exhibition coops in Fig. 207.—A shipping crate for pure-bred birds. the show-room. For the larger breeds these are 30 inches high, 2 feet deep, and, better, 4 feet long, and the birds are handled daily to become accustomed to it. Pullout the broken feathers that better ones may grow in their place. It is the desire to 511 512 POULTRY CULTURE have a bird that does not fight and flutter with fright when he is approached. It is essential that he offer no resistance to a stranger in approaching and picking him up. Birds for show purposes are taught to pose in proper fashion much as horses are taught to pose in the show ring. A bird that is a good poser will stand a better chance of winning than one that is frightened half out of his wits when some one approaches to pick him up, for the Judge who is to decide quality is a stranger to him. Exhibition birds are usually early birds—that is, those hatched in January and February—so they may grow to maturity and possess the proper weight by the time of the fall shows. Fig. 208.—An exhibition coop. Male birds require proper training, as stated above, so that they will present the proper appearance as to carriage and symmetry. During the training period each male is kept separate. It is essential to see that they have no opportunity to injure them- selves by tearing their face, comb, or wattles, and they must be free from vermin, as mites and lice. Show birds shut up are fed once daily, usually in the evening; they are given all they wish to eat. The feed should consist of wheat, oats, cracked corn, and sunflower seed. They are watered at 9 a. M. and 1 P.M. Some litter, as clean straw, should be kept in their coops. If their legs are not in good condition, oil them every two weeks with sweet oil. PREPARING BIRDS FOR THE SHOW-ROOM 513 All yellow legged varieties intended for exhibition purposes should have their legs thoroughly soaked in warm water once or twice a week, using a soft nail brush and soap to get off all dirt. When the legs have dried rub in a small quantity of sweet oil and polish with a woolen cloth. A tablespoonful of borax added to the water aids in bringing out the shades. To obtain white ear-lobes keep birds in a darkened pen and apply to the ear-lobes each day a small quantity of zinc oint- ment. Afterward dust with violet powder. If the birds become dull and constipated, give each bird one tablespoonful of castor oil. Birds for exhibition must conform to the “American Stand- ard of Perfection” in every way and not possess any of the disqualifications. Birds for the show-room should be washed. The room in which birds are washed should be over 80° F. Three wash- tubs are convenient receptacles in which to wash them. The water in each should be about 110° F. The bird is immersed in the first tub with only the head out of the water, lather thoroughly with white soap, rubbing the way the feathers lay. With nailbrush lightly scrub; it is necessary to avoid rubbing against the feathers, or crosswise of the feathers, or ruffle, or in any way break the feathers. Rinse thoroughly with two rinse waters. The soap must be thoroughly rinsed out of the feathers or they will not thoroughly fluff out after drying. In white plumage birds often a small amount of laundry bluing is added to make the feathers whiter, but care must be taken not to use too much as injury may be done. White ear-lobes may be tinged blue, as well as streaking of the plumage. After rinsing thoroughly dry with a towel, using it by sopping and patting the bird. Often absorbing paper-towel material gives good results. Do not rub the feathers, as injury may result. In some experiments, conducted in the laboratory of the author, it was found by having one of the tubs of water at 80° F. that by passing the birds through in a space of five minutes the body temperature would fall 3° to 5° F. below normal, which would upset the normal thermic equilibrium of the bird if then placed in a room too cool. Ina room at a temperature of 60° F. the birds shivered and apparently suffered from exposure. It 33 514 POULTRY CULTURE would appear, from a physiologic standpoint, that it would be better to place the birds in wash and rinse water at a tempera- ture near that of the body and then have the drying room at a temperature of approximately 100° F. The normal tempera- ture of an adult fowl is about 106° to 107° F. The room tem- perature should be gradually brought down to about 70° F. as the birds dry. In shipping, regulation exhibition coops should be used. These are substantially built coops, with sufficient capacity so the feathers of the birds do not become ruffled or damaged and the comb does not touch the top of the coop. (See Fig. 207.) Do not put water in the coop, as it will result in soiled plumage. Place an apple or potato in the coop for them to pick at, it will give them some succulence. For requirements of the different standard breeds reference should be made to the ‘‘American Standard of Perfection.” Saturated carbonate of iron has been fed to birds of buff and yellow varieties to improve the depth of color. This must be fed at time of molting. Birds which should have white ear-lobes often develop red in them. To make the ear-lobes white Cobb recommends the following: wash them in milk, and dry thoroughly, then apply powdered oxide of zinc. Peroxide of hydrogen bath is sometimes used to make the white plumage pure white and to overcome brassiness. Dirt from the legs and nails is removed by scrubbing with a nail brush during the bathing process. The feeding of linseed meal and sunflower seed improves the gloss of the plumage. GROWING SHOW BIRDS In rearing show birds special care should be given to the care and feed as they grow and develop. When the birds are about five months old the adult plumage begins to develop. At this age the birds should be carefully shielded from the sun’s rays. This can be done by keeping them in the house during a part of the day and allowing them to go out into the PREPARING BIRDS FOR THE SHOW-ROOM 515 pen after the sun is offthe pen. This shade is, in large measure, the secret of success. Give a roomy shed in which to exercise, or a small exhibition pen which can be moved to fresh grass every two or three days. Hooley recommends that the buff and black fowls be given cracked corn and corn meal as part of the ration, Hamburgs and bantams hemp and buckwheat seed. Game fowls should be fed entirely on grain diet. This grain diet may consist of 1 part peas, 3 parts wheat, and 3 parts oats. Peas produce a hardness of the feathers. Meat, cut bone, and peas are rich in albuminous food, and promote large fleshy combs, and therefore should be fed very sparingly in small-combed breeds. The plumage of fowls is affected by the feeding. Corn, both whole and cracked, can be given to buffs, as it perhaps affects both legs and plumage. Do not give corn to exhibition white plumage birds. Those feeds which darken the plumage, increase the gloss, help the sheen and luster of feathers and promote length of feather, and increase the intensity of yellow legs are corn, cracked corn and corn meal, hemp seed, cotton- seed, and linseed meal, meat and cut bone. Those which have a bleaching effect on the skin and can be given to pure white plumage birds are oats, oat meal, middlings, sunflower seed, barley, wheat, and pea meal. Handling the Fowl.—lIn taking the bird from the cage, the hand should be placed over the back and the right wing grasped. The left hand takes the opposite side with the thumbs crossed meeting across the back, and with the fingers under the breast, the bird is carefully lifted from the cage. CHAPTER XXVIII THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSE EQUIPMENT THE CONSTRUCTION OF A DRY MASH HOPPER Fiaure 209 illustrates one of the most useful pieces of poultry house equipment—namely, the dry mash hopper. It can be built of 7g-inch yellow pine boxing boards. From the illustration it will be noted to be 29 inches high at the back and 18 inches wide at the bottom. A convenient length is 4 feet. Partitions are so placed that there will be a 4-inch compartment for shell, a 4-inch compartment for char- coal, a 4-inch compartment for grit, and the balance for the dry mash. The lid at the top is sloped so that the chickens cannot roost upon the box. The front wall is placed at an angle so that the bottom end is only 8 inches from the back. At the top it is 14 inches. A strip is placed in the back angle so that the mash feeds down well. The lift-up lid should be at least 12 inches wide, so as to make an opening large enough to empty the mash in with ease. A 4-inch strip is nailed to the feed opening in such a manner that a lip of about 2 inches projects into the hopper and makes it more difficult for the birds to throw the feed out with their beaks. One-quarter inch round wire bars are placed every 4 inches the entire length of the hopper, which aids in keeping the hens from throwing the feed out. A lid 4 inches wide is placed over the 4-inch opening where the birds feed. This is kept down at nights to prevent the rats and mice from eating the feed. (Refer to Fig. 106 for the front view of this hopper.) Breeding hens should be given their mash every afternoon, and for laying hens both forenoon and afternoon. A storage box for morning and afternoon scratch feed is also shown in Fig. 106. It js 4 feet long, 12 inches wide, 15 inches 516 POULTRY HOUSE EQUIPMENT 517 high in front, and about 30 inches in the rear, which gives a steep slope to the top and makes it impossible for hens to roost on it. By keeping a supply of the feed in the hen house much valuable time is saved. 2 Le ANSSASSASSSS SANS SSAASAS \ i a eh w | eS /k _y Fig. 209.—The indoor feed hopper. THE CONSTRUCTION OF A TRAP-NEST There are many kinds of trap-nests. The following draw- ings and photograph were made from trap-nests in use at the North Carolina Experiment Station. A trap-nest should be simple, not being easy to get out of order, and at the same time 518 POULTRY CULTURE durable. It is estimated that there should be one nest for each four hens. Figure 210 gives a sectional view of Fig. 212, the trap-nests that are in use at the North Carolina Experiment Station. It 25 Chicken Wire. © ah Xv = a 18 “ “i a A st yY———> Id S MOY YS SAMOS MOU fe a Fic. 210.—Side sectional view of a trap-nest. is 12 inches wide, 18 inches long, and 12 inches high, inside measurements. The top is made of chicken netting, so that it is not too hot in the summer time, ensuring plenty of ventila- © Fic. 211.—The trigger for the trap-nest. tion. The compartment the nest is located in is 1114 inches long. In front of this is a 3-inch strip which holds the nest material in. The front piece is a 4-inch strip, which leaves POULTRY HOUSE EQUIPMENT 519 6 inches between the nest and the door, ensuring that the hen does not break the egg should she struggle to get out. A 1-inch opening in the back partition gives ventilation and an inch space in the bottom allows the filth to drop out on the floor. The trigger holds the door open, which, when released, keeps Fig. 212.—The front view of the trap-nest in use: a, A trap-nest set; b, trap-nest sprung, containing hens on the nests; c, the dropping board; d. the roost; e, scratch litter on the floor in which scratch feed is thrown. it closed. The dotted lines indicate the door up or set and the position of the trigger. By again referring to Fig. 212, the front view set and closed can be observed. When the door is closed there should be about 14 inch space on the side of the door, so that a lead pencil can be gotten in to release the 520 POULTRY CULTURE trigger, and this same pencil is then used to mark the date and leg-band number on the small end of the egg. The record sheet is shown in Fig. 216. Nests require an abundance of ventilation in hot weather. The bottom of the trap nests may be covered with 14 or 14 inch square mesh wire gauze. In taking the hen from the nest stand directly in front of the nest, and allow the hen to come out directly in both hands in such a way that you grasp the wings and body, and by gently talking to them they soon become accustomed to trap-nest methods and do not appear frightened. Laying hens must be carefully handled, as their physiologic equilibrium is easily upset and egg production interfered with. One person should visit the trap-nests alone, and he should be a person that likes the work and takes an interest in it, and is, above all, kind and gentle with the hens. The trap-nests should be visited at about 7 a. mM. when the scratch feed is given; again at 9 A. M., when water is given; again at 10 a. m. when succulent feed is given, and again at 12 m. and at 1 Pp. M., 2 Pp. m., and at 3 Pp. M., when the evening scratch feed is given. The bulk of the laying is done between the hours of 11 a. Mm. and 3 P. mM. LIST OF MATERIAL FOR NESTS 1 board 1” x 14” x 8’ (for partitions). 1 board 1” X 8” X 7’ (for door). 3 boards 1” X 4” X 7’ (for bottom, front and back and run-board or step). 2 boards 1” X 2” X 7’ (to nail netting to). 2 pair strap hinges 8” long. The nests are constructed with the inside compartments 14 inches square. Nests for the Mediterranean breeds such as the Leghorns may be 12 inches square; for the American breeds, as the Plymouth Rocks, 14 inches square; and for the Asiatics, as the Brahmas, the nest should be 16 inches square. The top and bottom is provided with a strip 2 inches wide extending around the outer border to which 14 inch mesh wire netting is stapled in the front. The opening is covered POULTRY HOUSE EQUIPMENT 521 with a board eight inches wide and is hinged at the bottom and hooked above so that by letting down this door the nests may be gotten to. The bottom strip to which this is hinged is 4 inches wide and a strip along the top border 2 inches wide to which the door is hooked. There is a strip 4 inches wide in the back and at the lower portion of the nests which re- tains the nesting material. A runboard or step 4 inches wide F -| } f\ q A | i 3” Vv 1 v we eo ad | \ | j 7 : | | 9 ! | | \ P enol en” 1 a | £8 + z MORNING I EVENING | | | SCRATCH FEED \| SCRATCH FEED | pee tec geane et eed aM eed A eee oe od di FRONT V/EW END VIEW STORAGE G/N Fig. 213.—A grain storage bin. and extending along the entire length furnishes a step for the birds to hop upon in entering the nests. This strip is held in position by a cleat, and a space 2 inches wide is provided be- tween the step and nests. The partitions are located 14 inches apart, making six nests (see Fig. 215). LIST OF MATERIALS FOR THE STORAGE BIN 2 boards 1” X 12” x 14’. 1 board 1” X 6” X 12’. 1 pair strap hinges 8” long. The back is 30 inches high and the front 18 inches. The bin is 12 inches wide and 4 feet long with a partition in the center dividing the bin into two chambers, one for the morning 522 POULTRY CULTURE scratch feed and the other for the evening scratch feed. The steep angle at the top prevents the birds from roosting on the top (see Fig. 213). SCRAPE AND BOX FOR DROPPINGS The dropping box is 16 inches wide, 24 inches long and eleven inches deep. It is provided with a handle. The scrape is 314 inches wide and 18 inches long with a 30-inch handle. bt [ , fo) . WOODS CHEWS ® 4 Lex al WA ” a 8 a ae * 1 rit | tt ° - Lia SS RSY ILL SIOE VIEW ENO VIEW GOX FOR REMOVING DROPPINGS Fic. 214.—Dropping box and dropping board scrape. The scrape is provided with a metal scraping edge (see Fig. 214). THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE COMBINATION SITTING AND BROODING COOP LIST OF MATERIALS 1 bunch plaster lath (for run). 2 boards 1” xX 8” x 12’ (for bottom sides and back). POULTRY HOUSE EQUIPMENT 523 6 pieces 2” < 2” x 12’ (for framing for run and house). 1 piece of rubberoid 314’ square. 3 hinges 4” long. The roof is a shed-like structure so made that the 2-inch by 2-inch framing material fits over the building like a hood. The back of the building is 18 inches high and the front is 2 NO VIEW PUNNING GOAFOD TOP VIEW in '| D00R I yer FRONT VIEW Fia. 215.—The construction of hen’s nests. feet. The floor area is 2 feet square. A removable bottom is constructed of three 8-inch boards which should be tongued and grooved. Notches are cut out so that the floor boards fit around the frame. This floor is used in the winter and 524 POULTRY CULTURE early spring when the ground is cold and wet. Later, it is dispensed with and the hen is set on the ground. Her young are brooded on the ground later on. The area on which the coop rests should be slightly higher than the sur- rounding ground to insure the dirt floor being dry. The top of the coop is covered with rubberoid or other equally good roofing material. The front is slatted with one slat removable and slat hinged at the middle so that it may be placed without removing the top. To keep out rats and other nocturnal animals, a frame is made 2 feet square on which is tacked y-inch mesh wire netting. This netting frame is placed in front of the house at night and allows of an abundance of air, yet at the same time protects the brood. A door, 8 inches wide and hinged at the bottom, is constructed at the side of the coop and gives ready access to the interior of the coop without removal of the top. The extension run is 4 feet or the length of the plaster lath. The framing material on which the laths are nailed is made of 2-inch by 2-inch material. A door is constructed at the top and hinged with two small hinges. The run is divided into two compartments, the one for the hen a little larger than the other one. The hen is allowed her run while sitting and while brooding. The baby chicks may be fed in their own compartment where they are not molested, and the hen is fed a cheaper feed consisting of grain. The slats are arranged 2 inches apart which allows the chicks to enter but keeps out the larger birds (see Fig. 148). 525 POULTRY HOUSE EQUIPMENT RECORD CARDS save wpe terddoia—aa 3 rang ORR “pny ¥ “AML 100 prp ana tee SON “qsou-dei} 10} J2eYS8 p1odeI-339 ATIep W—OIZ ‘OL waoz 1E | oc | 6z | 82] 22 | 92] sz] | te 2%] woz | or} st] zi for fst gyuod3ay 993 ATI \ er jar jit forje js jz TT CRS NOILVIS AN3WIS3dX3 TVENLINDIYOV VNITONVD HLYON —=-—. 9 $ TON ’ & z 1 526 POULTRY CULTURE NORTH CAROLINA‘AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION MONTH prosect No — WEEKLY PEN RECORD fRoM_____ro. PEN NO,—_____ NO FEMALE AGE OF Female: Dar Ornea Tare} PAE, | Mons penne Eoow | Hews DRY MASH Weiont MORNING FEED Weront NIGIT FEED Wrroor OTHER FEED Weonr Fic. 217.—A weekly pen-record sheet. POULTRY HOUSE EQUIPMENT 527 NORTH CAROLINA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION—INCUBATOR RECORD INCUBATOR Ecos IN Tested DAY 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 | 10 Morning Temp. Noon Temp. Night _Temp. Notes: DAY Wl 12 13 14 15 16 7 | 18 19 20 21 REMARES: Eggs Brof&en Chicks Hatched Infertile Eggs % Eggs Hatched Hatch Due Hatch Out Died in Shelb Fie. 218.—An incubator record card. NORTH CARQLINA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION—BROODER RECORD BROODER STARTED FROM INCUBATOR DAY 1] 2} 3] 4] 5 A.M. Te . M. Dead Total i Total Survivors Total deaths Chicks moved to another Feed— Fic. 219.—A brooder record card. 528 POULTRY CULTURE NORTH CAROLINA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION VARIETY EGG RECORD BIRO No, HATCHED House No. ‘Yarp No. Pen No. 14243) 4{ 5] 6] 7] 8] 9 10) 1/12) 13/14) 15,16)17)18 1 | Fie. 220.—An individual egg-record card. TOTALS INFERTILE DEAD IN SHELL INFECTED HATCHED Fic. 221.—The back ruling of card of Fig. 220. POULTRY HOUSE EQUIPMENT 529 NORTH CAROLINA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION—ANIMAL INDUSTRY OIVISION POULTRY EXPERIMENTS AND PATHOLOGY SALES MEMORANDUM To { Heap or DepaRTMENT OR! PURCHASING: AGENT 5 s- NOtALeties 25 SG Hobe ASAE EOE ane $ *To reduce skim milk, beets, ete., to dry matter basis, comparable with other feeds so that the total may be added, divide the pounds by 10. GRIT AND SHELL Oystenslielll 2: oaxscset cs meena nea nes munad lb. $ Grit ak eee ewan, pee Ruew seed Mey kas lb. $ TOA oa ustuca aww esr te ny keN ae lb $ LITTER Kind Amount Value $ OCA cad dhe ANG RAS TA $ POULTRY HOUSE EQUIPMENT LABOR 545 Human hours Horse hours Daily chores and care of flock............... Mixing feed Preparing eggs for market............. Hauling eggs and stock Cleaning houses Hauling litter Hauling feed Whitewashing houses Making and repairing fences Buying, poultry, eggs, and supplies................. selling, and collecting, for feed, Accounting, etc..........6.0 022 bee ee Other labor Value of labor per hour ‘Total waltivescaseacnc casero eames $ BUILDINGS Value of buildings for the flock, including the proportionate share of buildings used for storage of feed, litter, supplies, equip- ment, 666. Bein vac sce sae 35 Taxes on buildings Di ser tleonar char Insurance on buildings = = ~—............. Depreciation on buildings = =——......... - Interest on buildings is ee ee ee ees Total 546 POULTRY CULTURE LAND Value of land used by the laying flock $.......... Charge taxes, interest, fences, seeds, and other costs of yards and ranges. Sie ease WATER Charge the flock with its share of the in- terest and upkeep of the water supply. Ghana names EQUIPMENT Coops, pails, feed hoppers, and other special poultry equipment, value $..... Charge taxes, interest, repairs, insurance, and depreciation. Diss ieee asta s Charge wagons, harness, trucks, and autos in proportion as they are used for the laying flock. Ses eeeeas Total equipment Sic cata es INTEREST ON STOCK Average inventory of stock from page 1, No.............. Value $............ Interest at....% Dis center nsarea ly INTEREST ON FEED AND SUPPLIES MISCELLANEOUS COSTS Interest at ....% on investment in feed and supplies. $e puss sees s Quantity Value HBG? CARES 2c 3c ac otek 2 adaeee der Sede ea $ Other market carriers...................... Shipping tags...........0.000..0 000.0000. Nails and wire for shipping cases......... EEX COL STOR occa, 3.54 Gethcod eves Bk bon vem wl at PTOI His win Sei th GRE Ae eat Being eed ee eRe EX PresSrisgs.c panies ee ceive eh see Sea ADEE e POULTRY HOUSE EQUIPMENT 547 Quantity Value Commissions........... 000 cece eee eens STH Clay US os nacho la ice ae heen eee eek Insurance on stock................0.00000. és bandSs nus wssechae geageh eels eww eea-an Carbolineum, lime, sprays, etc............... IC AICIT GS sconce dics Arcane: abate da beatin aed sen aecey RaeeegS Kerosene and other light................... Gasoline (hens’ share for truck or auto)...... Paid for hauling feed, supplies, eggs, etc...... Railroad fares..........0. 0000000000 cece URGE SPAIN Six niciiss vom chien ge AA eM eA ome SEGLE PHOMES i cccsoe ce acd elie naspisun Awe acne Bard ibaa Association dues............0...00.00002.0. 548 POULTRY CULTURE EGGS Dozens Price per Total value dozen Eggs sold (exclusive of hatching eggs) : November!.................. $ $ December................... OCTOBER sa csanst ake es SERS Ti casstanavensneam ace | $ Eggs sold for hatching....... Eggs used for hatching day-old chicks for sale................ Eggs set or incubated for flock. . Eggs consumed on farm........ Total eggs produced. ...... 1Jf the year does not begin on November 1, rewrite the months so that the first month given is the beginning of your year, POULTRY HOUSE EQUIPMENT 549 Cost of eggs equals total costs less manure and miscellaneous returns. Cost per bird! $ 1“ Bird” includes males and females.’’ Cost per dozen ........ ¢. MANURE Manure recovered from laying flock for use on crop land WONG 5 aces teh Price per ton $...... au MALU! Bia aieaiy estes MISCELLANEOUS RETURNS BEC BAGS GOI wiscae ince ecseernemesions-wyeteaheres eines insta waren Dien sore athuonse PGA CHIOTS asta oC aataae Guia iu Cath cp AGA SAL aca pee ticteain enen enegsaes De arsosiesevsa tier SUMMARY OF COSTS AND RETURNS | | Quantity Value From page Total Per Total Per bird bird! | Costs: Depreciation..................-2... 1 oS $ 3 Total feed........... 2 Ib. lb. Gritand. shellicncwsrcexnens, aseaues 2 ag a STE TT EGE aemcstocnecoanensic asteenss op eraeneena 2 “ a | Labor: , PUNO Disses, siete e esneentceuseesaarsieaneaeeoas 3 hr. hr. BBE side ededene digs T eebae eo apeers 3 be | mamcotacass SSS ae BUG URES 5c. jssassneioied odggodnrs wionarderebacras 3 x xX | Land geyusr cornea dssoaonkwees 3 x xX WBE CP sro nerasaite sms id srencanawclearer es ght was 3 x xX POQUIPMeNbnecapicee cae oar cearmuiens 3 x x Interest on stock................... 4 x aN. Interest on feed and supplies...... 4 x xX Miscellaneous................55 2, a PG Total costs... 06 e205 0s | x aX xX: $ 3 Returns: | Total eggs produced. ............. | 5 doz. Manure iciisis ciavscecsace conse 6 Miscellaneous............ 0. ....... 6 Total returns.................. p a, if x Gain Or 1loss:s25s23-e70ees sence us | x xX | xX | | Total cost 550 POULTRY CULTURE POULTRY ACCOUNTANT WORK FINANCIAL RECORD OF CHICKENS RAISED Prepared by American Poultry Association, American Association of Poultry Instructors and Investigators. NAM Gives cncecaarnc-esiae DEAbEbacnmcn as County....... Post Office...... Record for the year 19........... TTC Cis ie cxdovincwris tse tes shore sabteced\ tage dudated Give purpose for which reared (broilers, fryers, roasters, capons, etc. ADE ale WOE BO Qaccnanvaadnrnuciaccnasnsatathsenccane nes toneda sd Record filled out by.............-- Date of report.................. FEED (Include only that used for raising chickens) Pounds Price Total value Home grown: CA BD ABE occu ait tavianaewesod we Skim milk: «aeseanceeeeycees Purchased : BATE Ye cc cukss C ea.caatelndudeaaetets Mid Gling Sic nts ccenmis sonal mas COTAMEAL sare crn cecrrnoca anak x Gluten................ Meatiscrapwisccevcanne eke one POULTRY HOUSE EQUIPMENT FEED SUMMARY 551 Pounds Value Total. . $ *To reduce skim milk, beets, etc., to dry matter basis, comparable with other feeds so that the total may be added, divide the pounds by 10. GRIT AND SHELL Oystershelleye sess aa Siveieesy dasa apced oan lb. GU ene t sc certo aoh oan ie udors lhe lb. POtalrans. aces tcwen tee wae oes a eg x LITTER Kind Amount Value $ LORE pees h ce he wis aoe s eee wig cul eR SNE $ 552 POULTRY CULTURE LABOR (Raising chickens) Human hours Horse hours Incubation and care of incubators........... DORI GHCHOTESS & ab-4 cuede seca toeanie cater y sheen kiaiee Mixine feed» scusrseeeree ett sawiwoudwesuus Cleaning houses........................... Hauling bedding.............. Farthing feed es os ac bck sons decd ee eos domee ds oodiwe Whitewashing houses...................... Making and repairing fences.......... Buying, selling, and collecting, for feed, poultry, and supplies..................... ACCOUNTING ClO crcunkadedne wer eenesenary OCHS R ADOT: sc. scare aandaedur Sad ahodeusouey da Value of labor per hour........... ........ TiO GAVAGE MCS oo esc suinsisern deme disGecdod ey balarde BUILDINGS Value of colony houses, incubator houses, and including the proportionate share of buildings used for storage of feed, bed- ding, supplies, equipment, ete. $...... Taxes on buildings $. Insurance on buildings : Depreciation on buildings : Interest on buildings Total POULTRY HOUSE EQUIPMENT 553 LAND Value of land used by the chickens $..... Charge taxes, interest, fences, seeds, and other costs of yards and ranges. Dn deehee ae WATER Charge the chickens with their share of the interest and upkeep of the water supply. Datecode aa EQUIPMENT Incubators, brooders, coops, pails, feed hoppers, and other special poultry equip- ment value $........... Charge taxes, interest, repairs, insurance, and depreciation. pvc s cs Charge wagons, harness, trucks, and autos in proportion as they are used for the chickens Backoa wa Total equipment Deed pe scl algae EGGS INCUBATED Number eggs hatched............ VEC Paced ema ignseote en we Number chickens hatched........................ INTEREST ON FEED AND SUPPLIES Interest at .......... % on investment in feed and supplies$......... MISCELLANEOUS COSTS | Quantity | Value | | Market carriers................ 0 .......0.4. | $ Lee band Si ise egoe ay gator aad ence eer anne oe Carbolineum, lime, sprays, etc............... 554 POULTRY CULTURE MISCELLANEOUS COSTS (Continued) Quantity Value NICGICIMNES i. sck con din Se Ae sede SG REESE SSH S Fuel for incubators (give kind).............. Fuel for brooders (give kind)............... - Kerosene and other light................... Gasoline (chickens’ share for truck or auto, CHOING CLC in maacat @ pia MPRA e REPRE ARA Paid for hauling feed, supplies, etc....... as Railroad fares............... acre dl aputatieties Telegramsiacieua ac wanes ae Pentel tena Telepbones....0. 0000.00 eee POSTE Gs osuiinacst ney eehiel dae Situ kad + ekseeeunans ey kisi Ghali Getic deeduaseveesonved. eyed oes $ Advertising............. a , ai Hoenn 7 Other costs....... spetaen tase neaimssacote cal AOU sce ido anborhiataws sedge we wer edged nvblala een eee $ MANURE Manure recovered from brooder houses, tons.......... Value$...... MISCELLANEOUS RETURNS Feed bags sold CHICKENS RAISED No. Weight Value Sold for human consumption or $ eaten on the farm............. Sold for breeding or laying...... Pullets kept for breeding or VAAN G schicante aca cheomencuae aeee-oe Cockerels kept for breeding..... Tota lin sevewcdwagaense es $ POULTRY HOUSE EQUIPMENT SUMMARY OF COSTS AND RETURNS 555 Costs: Total feed...... | Quantity | Value Grit and shell... Bitteroes a ee2 Labor: AOIs@iseeee ene eeed iam dian ca wied stirs Cnc AG Endy er Aetn aa aie | WA LCI ay sa ausid mtiiarn iidcsvecwina dAed 8 wokean ataresques | IG UIP MGM aiid dies ewer omer ne cent eng ate he | : Higgs incubated . 6.0602 29.055 eRe ee eee ese | Interest on feed and supplies.............. | Miscellancousesds0s ceo 2en yap eacwe mean | RG ta COSUS sc 4) de aaiain sonyieheraniivan’ ibohst Acie Returns: Chickens raised. Manure........ Miscellaneous... TO GAL PeGWIS 0:45 ees uate hare eres 8 toc | Gain or loss 556 POULTRY CULTURE ¥ MEAT COST Total pounds of meat produced.......... Total cost equals the total cost less returns for manure and miscellaneous returns... . . Ss Cost per pound $............ PULLET COST No. pullets raised for breeding or laying.......... Net cost per pullets equals total cost less all returns except for pullets kept or sold as layers $.......... Cost per pullet $............ INDEX A ABDOMEN, 21 Absorption, 261, 263 Acari, 314 African Geese, 78 Age identification, 112 Air, 163 amount required, 168 carbon dioxid, 166 composition 163 impurities, 166 oxygen, 166 ~ respired, 165 sacs, 165 shafts, 172 supply, 170 watery vapor, 166 Alarm, electric, 436 Albino, 85 Albuminoid, 21, 252 Aleurone layer, "282 Alfalfa, 21 Alimentary tract, 21 American class, 31, 38, 45 Buckeyes, SI, "54. Dominiques, 31, 54 general characteristics, 38 Javas, 31, 54 Plymouth Rocks, 31, 45 Rhode Island Reds, 31, 52 Wyandottes, 31, 48 Amount feed consumed, 330 Amylopsin, 256 Anabolism, 260 Analyses of feed stuffs, 297, 303 Anatomy of chicken, 20 Anconas, 32, 38, 61 Rose Comb, 61 Single Comb, 61 Animal food, 290 buttermilk, 290 condensed milk, 290 dried blood, 291 bone, 292 buttermilk, 291 fish scrap, 292 meat scrap, 291 Animal food, milk albumin, 291 protein, 978, 290 Antiseptic, 21 ee lights in egg production, 9 selection, 21 Ascaride, 244 Ascaris inflexa, 244 Ash, 21, 252, 368 Asiatics, 31, 37, 55 Brahma, 31, 37, 55 Cochins, 31, 37, 57 Langshans, 21, 37, 57 Assimilate, 21 Avenine, 285 Avian diphtheria, 234 Aylesbury Duck, 76 White, 34, 76 B Basy chick, care in transit, 457 industry, 457 Bacillus avisepticus, 228 pullorum, 230 tuberculosis, 232 Balanced ration, 21 Banding, 158 Barley, 283 Barred Plymouth Rock, 31, 38, 46, 91 Barring, 21 Baths, pigeons, 158 Beard, 21 Bearded Golden Polish, 32, 40 Silver Polish, 32, 40 White Polish, 32, 40 Beet pulp, 292 Beri Beri, 274 Bile, 258 Bilirubin, 258 Biliverdin, 258 Birchen Bantam, 33 Game, 33 Birds for breeding, 87 for exhibition, 511 Black Bantam, 33 557 558 INDEX Black Bantam, Breasted Red Game, 33 Bantam, 33 Malay, 33 Turkey, 74 Blackhead, 225 Bleeding, 272, 376 Blood meal, 291 Blue Andalusian, 32, 61 corn, 280 Swedish Duck, 34, 78 Body louse, 237 Boiling oil preservation of eggs, 473 Bone, dry, 292 green, 292 Boning fowls, 389 Booted Bantam, 71 Bourdon Turkey, 74, 76 Boxes for baby chicks, 457 for dressed poultry, 382 Boy’s and Girl’s poultry house, 182 Brahma Bantam, 33, 73 Dark, 31, 55, 57 Light, 31, 55, 57 selection for breeding, 89 Bran, 283 Branch, 20 Bread crumbs, 283 Breeding, 130 chart, 131 ducks, 149 geese, 150 guineas, 150 inbreeding, 130 line, 130 out crossing, 130 pedigree, 134 pen, 21 pigeons, 151 turkeys, 148 Breeds, 33 Campine, 68 classification of, 37 Cochins, 31, 57 Crevecceurs, 32, 68 Dorkings, 38 ducks, 34, 76 East India Ducks, 34, 76, 77 Favorelle, 68 feathered shanks, 39 games, 33, 69 bantams, 33, 69 geese, 34, 78 Hamburgs, 32, 67 Breeds, history, 45 Japanese Bantam, 33, 71 Java, 31, 54 La Fleche, 32, 68 Langshan, 31, 57 Leghorn, 32, 58 Minorca, 32, 60 of poultry, 31 Orpington, 32, 62 pigeons, 34 Plymouth Rock, 38 Rose Comb Bantam, 33, 71 shanks not feathered, 39 Spanish, 32, 60 Sumatra, 33, 70 turkeys, 33, 74 Wyandottes, 31, 48 Brewers’ grain, 284 Broilers, 21, 363 large, 363 medium, 364 squab, 27, 363 Bronze Turkey, 74 Brood, 21, 408, 439 Brooder, colony house, 438 fircless, 445 heated, 440 home-made, 444 indoor, 488 mammoth, 426 on large scale, 450 outdoor, 438 Brooding, 438 artificial, 438 cold, 445 natural, 438 Broody coop, 416 hens, 147 times, 147 Broom corn, 286 Brown Chinese Geese, 34, 79 Leghorn, 32, 58 Red Game, 33, 69 Buckeyes, 31, 54 Buckwheat, 285 bran, 285 flour, 286 hulls, 286 middlings, 286 shorts, 286 Buff Cochin, 31, 57 Bantams, 33, 73 Laced Polish, 33, 67 Bantams, 33, 73 INDEX Buff Orpington, 32, 62 Duck, 34, 78 Plymouth Rock, 31, 48 Turkey, 33, 74 Wyandotte, 31, 50 Buttermilk, 290 By-produets, 282 C z Cauu Duck, 76 Calorie, 21 Campines, 33, 68 Golden, 68 Silver, 68 Canadian Goose, 34, 80 Candling eggs, 409, "481, 493 Cane sugar, 251 Capacity, 21 Cape, 21 Capon, 21, 367, 504 picking, "376 Caponizing, 504 Car lot shipment of poultry and eggs, 470 Carbohydrates, 21, 251, 252, 266 Carbon dioxid of air, 166, 251 Cards, record, 217 Care of buildings and equipment, 0 of nests, 463 of sick birds, 218 Carriage, 21 Caruncles, 22 Carunculated, 22 Casein, 21 Castration of male bird, 504 Catarrh of crop, 223 Cayuga Duck, 76 Cecum, 255. worm, 245 Cellulose, 250, 252 Changes due to laying, 108 abdomen, 109 beak, 108 body, 109 comb, 110 ear lobe, 108 eye ring, 108 molting, 110 secondary sex characters,110 shanks, 109 skin, 108 vent, 108, 109 wattles, 110 559 Characters, 128 dominant, 128 recessive, 128 Chick feeding, 331 wheat, 282 Chicken, 22 cholera, 228 mite, 239 pox, 233 stewing, 29 Chicks, 22 commercial production, 256, 405 mortality, 456 is ee from hawks and rats, 416 providing shade, 442, 443 Chigger, 239 Chinese Geese, 78 Brown, 79 White, "79 Cholesterine, 258 Chyle, 262 Class, 20, 31 American, 31 Asiatic, 31, 137 general characteristics, 37 Continental, 33, 68 Duck, 33, 76 English, 32, 61, 62, 65, 66, 67, 68 French, 32, 67 Games and Bantams, 61 Geese, 33, 78 Guineas, 33 Hamburg, 32, 67 Mediterranean, 58 general characteristics, 38 Miscellaneous, 33, 74 Oriental, 33 Ornamental bantams, 33, 77 Pigeons, 33 Polish, 32, 66 Turkey, a5 Classes of winter layers, 98 Classification of breeds, 37 of fowls, 20 Claviceps purpura, 312 Cleaning dropping boards, 211 Cloacitis, 224 Club Boy’ s and Girl’s poultry houses, 182 Coceidiosis, 23 Cochin Bantams, 73 560 Cochin Bantams, Black, 73 Buff, 73 Partridge, 73 White, 73 Black, 31, 57 Buff, 31, 57 Partridge, 31, 57 selection for breeding, 88 White, 31, 57 Cock, 22 Cockerel, 22 Cold storage eggs, 462, 463 Colitis, 224 Collecting eggs, 465 Colony house brooder, 439 Color problem, 84 Colored Dorking, 32, 61 Egyptian Geese, 34, 80 Muscovy Ducks, 34, 77 Rouen Ducks, 34, 76 Columbian Plymouth Rock, 45 Wyandotte, 45 Comb, 22 pea, 28 rose, 28 single, 28 strawberry, 28 v-shaped, 28 Combination sitting and brooding coop, 412, 413 protection from rats, 524 Community egg circle, 482 Composition of air, 164 Concentrated feeds, 280 Concentrates, 22 Concrete floors, 180, 192 construction, 192 Condensed buttermilk, 290 Condition, 22 Constitutional vigor, 138 Construction of poultry houses, 173 clubs, 185 drop or muslin curtains, 179 floors, 173, 176, 180 list of materials, 182, 183, 197 ; plans, 177, 181, 184 portable, 199, 201 roof, 173 sides and ends, 173 unit system, 180 Consumption, 232 Contagion, 214 INDEX Contagious diseases, 225 blackhead, 225 chicken pox, 233 fowl cholera, 228 roup, 234 tuberculosis, 232 white diarrhea, 230 Continental class, 33, 68 Campines, 33, 68 Cooling dressed pigeons, 159 poultry, 373 Codperative marketing, 482 Coops for shipping live poultry, 362 sitting, 412 Corn, 22, 280 and cob meal, 281 bran, 281 meal, 282 smut, 312 Cornell outline for student prac- tice, 80 study outline, 37 Cornish, 32, 65 Dark, 32, 65 White, 32, 66 Laced, 32, 65 Cost of commercial picking, 371 Cottage cheese, 290 Cottonseed, 286 hulls, 286 meal, 286 Cow pea, 290 Cracked corn, 281 Cracker crumbs, 283 Crest, 22 Crested Ducks, 34, 77 White, 77 Crevecceurs, 32, 68 Black, 68 Crop, 22 bound, 223 Cross breeding, effects, 142 Crude fiber, 22 Cushion, 22 D Damp grain, 312 Dark Brahma, 31, 56 Bantam, 33, 73 Cornish, 32, 65 Dent corn, 281 Development, parts of chick, 346 INDEX Diagram of ventilation, 168, 169 Diastase, 22 Diffusion of air, 170 Digestibility, 253, 276 Digestible matter, 22, 276 nutrients, 276, 298 Digestion, 254 physiology, 253 Digestive Juices, 254 tract, 22, 254 Dihybridism, 121, 122 Dirt floor, 189 Dirty eggs, 461 Discontinuous variation, 125 Diseased feeds, 308 Diseases, contagious, 225 crop, 223 gangrene, 223 impaction, 223 noncontagious, 222 of fecds, 311 Disinfect, 215 Disinfecting, 211, 215 Disinfection, 22 Disinfest, 22 Disqualification, 22 Distribution of egg production, 98 Dominique, 31, 54 Rose Comb, 31, 54 Doors, methods of hanging, 172 Dorking, 32, 61 Colored, 32, 61 Silver Gray, 32, 61 White, 32, 62 Double yardage system, 187 Down, 22 Drake, 22 Drawing fowls, 387 Dressed poultry classification, 368 score card, 391 Dressing broilers, 363 boxes, 382 capons, 376 cost, 371 ducks, 376 fowls, 372 geese, 374 killing, 368 loss in weight, 390 per cent. dressed weight, 390 pigeons, 386 poultry, 368 refrigerating, 378 room, 368 36 561 Dressing broilers, shipment, 470 sticking knife, 369 turkeys, 376 Dried brewers’ grain, 284 buttermilk, 291 Drop curtain, 179 Dropping boards, cleaning, 211 construction, 174, 201 box, 522 scrape, 522 Dry air, 166 eggs, 373 fish scrap, 292 litter feeding chicks, 336 matter, 22 meat scrap, 292 packing poultry, 377 picking, 372 Dubbed, 23 Dubbing, 23 Duck, age for breeding, 149 Aylesbury, 34, 76 breeding, 149 Call, 34, 77 Cayuga, 34, 77 class, 34, 76 distinguishing sex, 149 East India, 34, 77 feeding, 337 footed, 23 housing, 344 Indian Runner, 33, 77 Muscovy, 384, 77 number ducks to each drake, 149 Orpington, 34, 77 Pekin, 34, 77 Penciled Runner, 34, 77 Rouen, 34, 77 Swedish, 34, 77 Ducklings, 23 Duodenal fold, 255 Duodenum, 255 Dusting a hen, 238 E EaR-LoBe, 23, 40 red, 39 white, 40 Early maturing, 144 East India Duck, 34, 77 Egg, absorb odors, 465 air space, 493 blind checks, 489 blood rings, 491 562 INDEX Egg, boiled, 495 broken, 490 by parcel post, 468 candling, 409, 489, 498, 499 chart, 497 for market, 463 white, 493 yolk, 493 car lot shipment, 470, 472 care, 407 of market, 468 cases, 480 cushions, 480 fillers, 480 flats, 480 wood used, 481 causes of changes, 491 checks, 489 chick production, 405 circle, 482 classification of dirties, 462 collecting on cream routes, 481 color, 498 coéperative marketing, 481 delivered same day laid, 474 dirty, 401 eating hens, 219 effect of feed on color of yolk, 466 on quality, 463 expectancy, 104 export, 480 factors affecting color, 492 quality, 492 for sitting, 400, 401 foreign matter, 490 fresh extras, 489 firsts, 489 grading, 489 heated, 489 heavy floats, 495 held in cold storage, 463 how to load cars, 470 to sit a hen, 408 transported, 478 incubation, 405 infertile incubated, 495 judging, 498 laboratory chart, 494 leakers, 490 light float, 495 limed, 495 losses, 498 causes, 459 Egg, males not needed in pro- duction of market eggs, 468 marketing, 474, 477 cost, 477 meat spot, 491, 495 mixed rot, 490, 500 most economic size package, 466 musty, 462 on cream routes, 481 packing for shipping, 404, 466 per cent. cost of feed, 456 hatching expectancy, 404 preserving, 472 drying, 473 freezing, 473 oil, 473 refrigeration, 476 water glass, 472 production, 141 distribution, 98 factors which hinder, 141 for market, 465 hatching expectancy, 404 judging, 107 pullet, 462 rot, 491 seconds, 489 selection for sitting, 400 shrunken, 490 small, 490 spots, 490 rot, 491 storage, 476 cost, 478 strength of shell, 404 time for hatching, 405 turning, 421 watery, 490 weights affected by season, 492 when to hatch for winter layers, 467 white rot, 491 Egyptian Geese, 78, 80 Electric alarm, 436 Electrobators, "425 Embden Geese, 78 White, 78 Emulsion, 23 English class, 61, 64 Dorking, 32) 61 Orpington, 32, 62 Red Caps, 32, 64 Sussex, 32, 64 Ensilage, 23, 292 INDEX 563 Enterohepatitis, 225 Enterokinase, 261 Epiornithics, 210 Erepsin, 257 Ergot, 283 Esophagus, 253 Established points, 23 Ether extract, 23 Evening scratch feed, 321, 323 Excrement, 23 Exercise for hens, 176 Exerciser, home-made, 349 Exhibition birds, 511 External anatomy of fowl, 20 parasites, 236 Lye-ring, 23 ° F Face, 23 white, 28 Fancy poultry, 23 Farm flock, 208 poultry problems, 138 Fat, 277 tallow fattening, 359, 361, 367 reservoirs, 267 Fattening birds, 330, 334, 353, 359, 360 establishments, 360 funnel cramming, 361 geese, 339 hand cramming, 360 Favorelle, Golden, 32, 68 Fawn Indian Runner, 77 Feather, 23 care of, 392 handling, 394 market grades, 394 pulling, 220 shipping, 394 shrinkage, 394 yield, 396 Feed, amount consumed, 330 animal protein, 290 barley, 283 beet pulp, 292 bone, 292 bran, 282 broom corn, 286 buckwheat, 283 buttermilk, 290 corn, 281 cracked, 281 Feed, cornmeal, 282 cottonseed meal, 286 cow peas, 290 ensilage, 292 exerciser, 348 fish scrap, 292 flax-seed, 288 for pigeons, 151 gluten feed, 281 grazing crop, 294 hopper, 322 kafhr corn, 286 middlings, 282 milk albumin, 291 millet, 286 oats, 284 palatability of, 330 peanut meal, 289 problems, 250 rice, 285 shorts, 282 sorghum, 286 soybean meal, 289 spoilt, 308 succulent fecd, 292 table of analyses, 299 troughs, 215 velvet bean meal, 289 weights and measurcs, 307 wheat, 282 Feeding baby chicks, 331 chicks, 331 ducks, 337 geese, 337 guineas, 347 laying hens, 317 methods, 315 pigeons, 156, 347 poults, 336 turkeys, 336 Feet space per bird in yard, 188 Felch breeding chart, 131 Fencing material, 203 cement, 204 posts, 303 rectangular, 204 six-sided wire mesh, 204 steel, 204 wire, 204 wood posts, 204 Fertility, 146 after mating, 146 removal of males, 146 hens’ eggs, 143 564 Fertility, percentage, 146 pullet eggs, 147 Fertilization, chance, 127 Finishing birds, 353 Fireless brooder, 445 Fish scrap, 292 Fixing characters, 96, 116 Fleshing, 353 Flight coverts, 23 Flights, 23 Fluff, 23 Foot tons, 23 Footings, 23 Forced mating, 158 Fowl cholera, 228 classification, 20 peacomb, 37 single comb, 37 white skin, 37, 379 yellow skin, 37, 379 French class, 32, 67 Crevecceurs, 32, 68 Houdans, 32, 67 La Tleche, 32, 68 Fresh blood, 23 Frizzles, 23 Frosting, 23 Frozen poultry, 378 Fryer, 23, 366 Fungus, 312 Furnished, 23 GALL, 258 acids, 258 pigment, 258 Gall-bladder, 258 Gallus Bankiva, 84 Game Bantam, 69 Birchen, 33, 69 Black, 33, 69 Breasted Red, 33, 69 Brown, Red, 33, 69 Red Pile, 33, 69 Silver Duckwing, 33, 69 White, 33, 69 Games, 69 Black, 69 White, 69 Gametic segregation, 125 Gangrene, 223 Gape worm, 246 Gapes, 247 INDEX Gastric juice, 254 Geese, 34, 78 African, 34, 78, 79 age for breeding, 150 bleeding, 374 Canadian, 34, 80 care of sitting goose, 150 Chinese, 34, 79 Egyptian, 34, 80 Embden, 34, 80 feeding, 337 number geese to one gander, 150 selection for breeding, 150 Toulouse, 34, 79 when to mate, 150 wild, 34, 80 Germicide, 23 Gils, 23 Gizzard, 254 worm, 246 Glossary of terms, 21 Glucose, 23 Gluten feed, 281 Glycocholate of soda, 258 Glycogen, 259, 266 Gonoides stylifer, 237 Grading eggs, 489 Grain, 280 storage bin, 516 Gram, 23 Gravel floor, 176 Gray African Goose, 79 Call Duck, 34, 77 Indian Runner Duck, 77 Toulouse Goose, 79 Grazing crops, 294 Green bone, 24 goose, 24 Ground dry bone, 292 Growing show birds, 514 Guinea Fowls, 150 breeds, 150 hatching, 151 how to distinguish sex, 150 how to manage, 150 number females to be mated to one male, 150 Gullet, 24 H Hackte, 24 Hamburg class, 32, 67 Black, 32, 67 INDEX Hamburg class, Golden Penciled, d Spangled, 32, 67 selection for breeding, 94 Silver Penciled, 32, 67 Handling fowls, 515 Hangers, 24 Hanging doors, 172 Hard feathered, 24 Hatchability 24, 140, 143 percentage, 146 artificial incubation, 146 natural incubation, 146 Hatching eggs, 400 expectancy, 455 Heavy breeds, 24 Hen, 24 feathered, 24 History of breeds, 45 Hock, 24 Home-made brooder, 444 Hopper for mash, 292 Hormone, 272 Hot mash, 292 Houdans, 32, 67 Mottled, 32, 67 selection for mating, 94 White, 32,67 | House for ducks, 344 Housing pigeons, 154 fixtures for, 154 How to dust a hen, 238 to sit a hen, 408 Hydrocarbon, 252, 266, 267 Hygiene, 161 I Ictrne dressed poultry, 377, 470 Illumination in egg production, 329 Impaction of crop, 223 Impurities of air, 165 Incomplete bleeding, 376 Incubation, 405 eggs, 422 duck, 423, 424 geese, 424 guinea, 423 hen, Oe a pigcon, turkey, 423 Incubator, 417 carbon dioxid, 484 care, 417 chicks dead in shell, 423 565 Incubator, constant temperature essential, 432 construction, 418 crippled chicks, 423 electric alarm, 436 humidity, 433 leveling, 422 mammoth, 426 overheating, 437 poor hatches, 422 position of thermometer, 433 proper temperature, 433 removing chicks, 422 room, 422 small, 417 standardizing, 435 Indian corn, 281 Runner Duck, 76 Inorganic matter, 252, 268 Insect powder, 239 Inspiration, 165 Internal parasites, 243 Intestinal juice, 261 enterokinase, 261 erepsin, 261 invertinase, 261 lactase, 261 maltase, 261 secretin, 261 Introductory, 17 J JAPANESE Bantams, 33, 74 Black Tailed, 33, 74 Gray, 38, 74 White, 33, 74 Java, 31, 54 Black, 31, 54 Mottled, 31, 54 Jaw, 24 Joint, knee, 24 Judging hens for egg production, 107, 110 utility, 113 K KXarrir corn, 286 Katabolism, 260 Isidneys, 263 Killing ducks, 374 fowls, 368 cooling, 373 picking, 372 566 Tulling geese, 374 pigeons, 159 turkeys, 374 Kilogram, 24 Knee-joint, 24 Kupfer cells, 260 L Lacep, 24 Lacteal, 24 La Fleche, 32, 67 Lancashire method of trussing, 387 Langshan, 31, 57 Black, 31, 57 White, 31, 57 Large broilers, 366 Lateral sternal process, 24 Lay bones, 24 Layers, temperament, 110 Laying breeders, 317 hen, 317 time of, 105 Leaf comb, 24 Lecithin, 258 Leg, 24 bands, 145 feathers, 24 Leghorns, 32, 58 Black, 32, 58 Brown, 32, 58 Rose Comb, 32, 58 Single Comb, 32, 58 Buff, 32, 58 Rose Comb, 32, 58 Single Comb, 32, 58 selection for breeding, 94 Silver, 32, 58 White, 32, 58 Rose Comb, 32, 58 Single Comb, 32, 58 Legumes, 24 Lice, 236 Light Brahma, 31, 55 Bantams, 73 Lights in egg production, 329 Limber neck, 224 Line breeding, 130 Linseed, 288 cake, 288 meal, new process, 288 old process, 288 nut cake, 28S INDEX Lipase, 256 Liperus baculus, 237 Live poultry shipments, 362 Liver, 255, 257 function, 260, 261 Livibility of chickens, 140, 143 Longevity, 143 Lopped comb, 24 Loss of fat due to laying, 108 of pigment, 108 Louse powder, 239 Lungs, 165 Lymph, 24, 262 Lymphatic system, 23, 262 M MAINTENANCE ration, 25 Malay, 70 Black Breasted Red, 70 Malt, 283 sprouts, 284 Mammoth brooder, 450 incubator, 426 Mange, 241 Mangles, 25 Manure, poultry, 397 amount voided, 397 composition, 397 preservation, 397 value, 397 Market grades of feathers, 392, 395 Marketing eggs, 473 feathers, 394 Marking, 157 Mash, 24 dry, 319, 321 hopper, 516 hot, 292 Masticate, 25 Mating, 24 forced, 158 problems, 82 number to each male, 146 wer to save eggs after mating, 14 Maturing early, 82, 144 pigeons, 157 Mealy, 25 Meat meal, 291 scrap, 291 type bird, 77, 113 INDEX Mediterranean class, 58 Anconas, 32, 61 Blue Andalusians, 32, 61 Leghorns, 32, 58 Minorcas, 32, 60 Spanish, 32, 60 Medium broiler, 366 Mendelism, 116 Mendel’s law, 116 Menopon biseriatum, 236 pallidum, 236 Metabolism, 25, 260, 265 anabolism, 260, 265 katabolism, 260, 265 Meter, 25 Methods of feeding, 315 of ventilation, 168 Middlings, 282 Milk albumin, 291 Millet seed, 286 Mineral matter, 25, 252 aid to construction of tissues, 270 to function, 271 how eliminated, 264 kinds, 268 requirements, 268 used in body, 268 Minorcas, 32, 60 Black, 32, 60 Rose Comb, 32, 60 Single Comb, 32, 60 White, 32, 60 Rose Comb, 32, 60 Single Comb, 32, 60 Miscellaneous class, 74 Frizzles, 74 Silkies, 74 Sultans, 74 , Mites, 239 Mold, 312 Molting, 221 Monhybridism, 121 Morning scratch feed, 321 Mossy, 25 Mottled, 25 Houdans, 32, 67 Javas, 32, 67 Muffs, 25, 28 Muscovy Duck, 34, 77 Colored, 34, 77 Muslin curtains, 179 Musty eggs, 462 567 N NaRRAGANSETT Turkey, 74 Natural selection, 25 Nesting material, 57, 212 hens, 212 pigeons, 57 Nests, 520 construction, 520 size necessary, 520 Nitrogen-free-extract, 25, 252 Nitrogenous substance, 25, 257 Nits, 237 Nonbearded Polish, 32, 67 Bantams, 73 Nilver, 32, 67 White, 32, 67 Non-contagious diseases, 222 eatarrh, 223 cloacitis, 224 colitis, 224 gangrene, 223 impaction, 223 limberneck, 224 obstruction of beak, 222 pip, 222 sore mouth, 222 Nursery tray, 418 Nut cake, 288 Nutrients, 25, 264 digestible, 276 required, 272 Nutrition, 253, 264, 272 Nutritive ratio, 25, 276, 277 Oo OaTMEAL, 284 Oats, 284 dust, 284 hulls, 284 shorts, 284 smut, 284 Obstruction of beak, 222 Ou cake, 288 meal, 25, 289 Open front house, 200 Organic matter, 25, 252 Organization of egg circle, 483 Organs of respiration, 165 Oriental class, 70 Booted, 70 Malays, 70 Bantams, 71 568 Oriental class, Sumatras, 70 Ornamental Bantams, 71 Booted, 71 Brahma, 73 Cochin, 73 . Japanese, 74 Polish, 73 Rose Comb, 71 Sebright, 71 Orpingtons, 62 Black, 62 Buff, 62 Duck, 76 White, 62 Outcrossing, 130 Out-door brooder, 438 Outline for college.course, 19 Ovary, 107 Oviduct, 107 Oxygen of air, 165, 166 P Packina eggs for shipment, 481 water fowl for shipment, 375 Palatability of feeds, 330 Pancreas, 254 Pancreatic fluid, 254 Parasites, external, 236 chigger, 238, lice, 236 sealy leg mite, 241 internal, 243 gape worm, 246 gizzard worm, 246 round worm, 241 Parasiticide, 25 Parasitism, 25 Parti-colored, 25 Partridge, Cochin, 31, 39, 57 Bantam, 73. Plymouth Rock, 45 Wyandotte, 31, 51 Pasture, 295 Pea comb, 25 Peanut meal, 289 Pedigree breeding, 134 Pekin Duck, 77 Pelvic arch, 25 Pen, 25 Penciled Runner Duck, 76 Penciling, 25 Peppered, 25 Pepsin, 25, 254 Persistency, 105 INDEX Pests, 220 dogs, 220 mink, 220 opossum, 220 pole cat, 220 rats, 220 Phagocytes, 260 Physical changes of body due to laying, 106 Physiology of digestion, 253 Piano box house, 185 Picking fowls, 372 cooling, 373 geese, 361, 375 packing, 380 per cent., dressed, 380 pigeons, 3886 seald, 376 shaping, 375 turkeys, 376 Pigeons, 35 age affecting production, 153 for marketing, 159 Archangle, 35 Barbes, 35 breeding, 151 Carneaux, 35 cooling dressed squabs, 159 Dragoons, 35 English Carriers, 34 Pouters, 34 Fantail, 35 feed, 151 Florentine, 35 Frillback, 35 Helmets, 35 housing, 153 fixtures, 154 nests, 154 Hungarian Hens, 35 Ice, 35 Jacobins, 35 killing squabs, 159 live birds, how shipped, 160 Magpies, 35 Maltese, 35 market, 159 marketing, 157 mating, 157 Modena, 35 Mondaines, 35 Montabans, 35 Moorheads, 35 nesting material, 157 Pigeons, Nuns, 35 Oriental Frills, 35 Owls, 35 packing dressed squabs, 159 pairs per pen, 157 period of incubation, 159 Polish Lynx, 35 Porcellan, 35 Pouters, 35 prices of breeders, 159 production per pair, 153 Racing Homers, 151 breeding, 151 feed, 151 lofts, 151 Runt, 34 Scanderoons, 35 selection breeders, 157 shipping birds, 159 Squab Homer, 35 raising, 151 Starling, 35 Strassers, 35 Swallows, 35 time female sits, 157 male sits, 157 Trumpeters, 35 Turbits, 35 White Kings, 35 Pigment, yolk, 330 Piles, 87 Plans for brooder, 444 for cellar, 452 for houses, 173 for incubator, cellar, 452 Plant growth, 250 Plumage, 25 Plymouth Rock, 45 Barred, 45 Buff, 45 Columbian, 45 Partridge, 45 Penciled, 45 Silver, 45 Poisoning, 223 Polish Bantams, 73 Bearded, 66, 73 Buff Laced, 73 Golden, 67 Silver, 67 White, 67 Non-bearded, 67 Golden, 67 INDEX 569 Polish Non-bearded, Silver, 67 White, 67 Crested Black, 67 Polyneuritis, 274 Portable poultry house, 199 Poulard, 25 Poult, 25 feeding, 336 Poultry, 25 accountant work, 529 breeder, 25 club, 185 dressed shipment, 470 farm, 204 plan, 204 trees, 209 house, construction, 516 equipment, 516 plans, 516 portable, 199 unit system, 180, 189 raiser, 25 Poultryman, 25 Precocity, 105 Preparing birds for show, 361 Prepotency, 82, 103 Preserving eggs, 472 drying, 473 freezing, 473 oil, 473 water glass, 472 Primaries, 26 Problems of mating, 82 Production of eggs, 141 Progeny, 25 Protein, 26, 252 amino-acids, 257, 272 animal, 278 Provender, 26 Proventriculus, 254 Puberty, age of, 26 Pubic bones, 26 Pullet, 26 QUILL, 26 R Racine homers, 151 Raising squabs, 151 Range, 187 570 Rations, 315 for chicks, 315, 331 for ducks, 337 fattening, 356 geese, 337 guineas, 347 laying hens, 317 pigeons, 347 poults, 336 turkeys, 336 Record cards, 525 pigeons, 158 Red Caps, 64 dog flour, 283 Refrigerating cars, 471 dressed poultry, 378 eggs, 476 Respiration, 26, 125 organs, 165 Rhode Island Reds, 31, 52 Rose Comb, 31, 52 Single Comh, 31, 52 Rhythm of egg production, 97 Rice, 285 bran, 285 hulls, 285 polish, 285 ae arch of poultry success, 9 Roaster, 366 Rooster, 26 Rose Comb, 26 Anconas, 61 Bantams, 71 Black Minoreas, 60 Brown Leghorn, 58 Buff Leghorn, 58 Dominiques, 54 Red Caps, 64 Rhode Island Red, 52 White Leghorn, 58 Round worm, 241 Roup, 234 Runner Duck, 76 Rutabaga, 26 Rye, 283 by-products, 283 . Ss SapDLg, 26 Salt, 277 Sanitation, 161, 210 Sanitary water containers, 212 INDEX Sarcoptes mutans variety galling, 241 Scabies, 241 Scald picking, 373 Scaly legs, 241 Score oo for dressed poultry, 91 for judging layers, 111 Scrape for dropping boards, 522 Scratch feed, 323 evening, 323 morning, 323 Sebright Bantams, 71 Golden, 71 Silver, 71 Secondaries, 26 Secretion, 261 Selecting birds for breeding, 87 Barred Plymouth Rock, 91 Brahmas, 89 Cochins, 88 Hamburgs, 94 Houdans, 94 Leghorns, 94 Rhode Island Red, 92 Wyandottes, 93 breeding pigeons, 157 for egg production, 96 for meat quality, 113 sitting eggs, 400 Serrated, 26 Serration, 26 Setting goose eggs, 341 Shade, 211 Shaft, 26 Shafting, 26 Shank, 27 Shaping board, 361, 362 dressed fowls, 374 Shipping boxes, 384 crates, 362 fattened poultry, 361, 362 live poultry, 477 pigeons, 159 shrinkage, 477 Sick birds, 218 care of, 218 Sickles, 27 Side sprigs, 27 Silage, 27, 292 Silkies, 74 Silo, 27 Silver, 45 Silver, Campine, 33, 68 Duckwing Game, 69 Bantam, 70 Gray Dorking, 61 Leghorn, 58 Penciled Hamburg, 67 Plymouth Rock, 45 Wyandotte, 45 Sebright Bantams, 71 Spangled Hamburg, 67 Wyandotte, 45 Single Comb, 27 Ancona, 61 Black Leghorn, 58 Minorca, 60 Orpington, 63 Brown Leghorn, 58 Buff Leghorn, 58 Orpington, 63 Rhode Island Red, 52 White Leghorn, 58 Minorca, 60 Orpington, 63 Sitting, coop, 412 ducks, 424 eggs, 400, 401 geese, 424 hen, 408 testing, 409 turkey hen, 423 Slate turkey, 74 Small round worm, 241 Smeared eggs, 462 Smut of corn, 312 of oats, 312 Soda glycocholate, 258 taurocholate, 258 Soft roasters, 366 Solid color, 27 Sore mouth, 222 Sorghum, 27 Source of water, 161 Soybean meal, 27, 289 Spangle, 27 Spangles, 27 Spanish, White-faced Black, 60 Speckled Sussex, 64 Spiroptera Hamulosa, 246 Spleen, 255 Spoiled feed, 3808 Spot rot, 491 Spray pumps, 216 Spraying, 211, 216 Spring chicken, 27 INDEX 571 Sprouting oats, 293 Spur, 27 Squab, 27 broiler, 27 raising, 151 Squirrel tail, 27 Stag, 29 Stained eggs, 465 Starch, 252 Steapsin, 256 Stewing chicken, 29 Sticking knife, 369 Stipple, 29 Stock, 29 Stomatitis, 222 Storage bin, 516, 521 construction, 479 dressed poultry, 476 eggs, 27, 476 room, 477 house, 479 Strain, 29 Strawberry comb, 29 Strength of egg shell, 404 Study outline, 37 Succulent feed, 29, 292 Succus entericus, 257, 261 Sugar, 252 Sultans, 74 Sumatras, 70 Black, 70 Sussex, 64 Red, 64 Speckled, 64 Swedish Duck, 76 Blue, 76 Sweet corn, 280 Symmetry, 29 Syngamus trachealis, 246 T Tait coverts, 29 feathers, 29 Tapeworm, 248 Taurocholate of soda, 258 Tenebrio, forma, 314 Thighs, 29 Throwing back, 29 Thumb mark, 29 Time of hatching, 144, 145 Toe feathering, 29 marking, 144 picking, 220 572, Toulouse goose, 79 Gray, 79 Trap nest, 517 construction, 517 records, 135, 136, 137 Trees for poultry yards, 209 Trio, 29 Trombidium holosericeum, 239 Trussing, 386 boning, 389 Lancashire method, 387 roasters, 387 Sussex method, 389 Trypsin, 256 Tuberculin, 232 intradermal test, 232 Tuberculosis, 232 Turkey class, 74 age of laying, 148 Black, 74 Bourbon, 74 Bronze, 74 Buff, 74 feed, 149 feeding, 336 housing, 149 Narragansett, 74 number of eggs laid, 148 of hens to mate with one tom, 149 selecting for breeding, 148 sitters, 148 size of nests, 148 Slate, 74 White, 74 Turnips, 292 Twisted comb, 29 feathers, 29 Types of combs, 28 Typical, 29 U Unver color, 29 Unit system house, 189 construction, 189 Up-to-date poultry plant, 204 Uric acid, 260 Urine, 263 Ustilago carbo, 312 maydis, 312 Utility classification, 95 judging, 113 poultry, 29 INDEX VACATION, 29 bird, 109 Value of egg crop of U. S., 18 Variation, discontinuous, 125 Variety, 20 Barred, 43 Black, 44 Blue, 44 Brown, 44 Buff, 43 classification, 39 Columbian, 43 Dark, 44 Golden, 43 Light, 44 Mottled, 44 Penciled, 43 Partridge, 43 Red, 44 Pyle, 44 Silver, 43 Gray, 44 Spangled, 44 Speckled, 44 White, 43 Velvet bean meal, 289 Vent, 30 Ventilation, 168, 169 amount required, 168 by diffusion, 170 draft, 171 methods, 168, 169 windows, 171 Vermin, 236 Vice, 219 egg eating, 219 feather pulling, 220 toe picking, 220 Vigor, 138 Villi, 262 Vitamines, 272, 274 Vulture hocks, 30 V-shaped comb, 30 Ww Water, 161 containers, 212 fountains, 213 in body, 274 source, 161 troughs. 212 INDEX 573 Wattles, 30 Web, 30 Weights and measures, 307 of barley, 284 of buckwheat, 236 of corn, 281 of oats, 285 of rice, 285 of rye, 283 of wheat, 283 Wheat, 282 by-products, 282 White Booted Bantams, 71 Call Ducks, 77 Cochins, 57 Bantams, 71 corn, 280 Cornish, 65 Crested, Black Polish, 66 Duck, 77 diarrhea, 230 Dorking, 61 ear lobes, 40 face, 28 Faced Black Spanish, 60 Games, 69 Bantams, 70 Guineas, 34 Hamburgs, 67 Houdans, 67 Japanese Bantam, 74 Laced Red Game Bantams, 70 Langshan, 57 Leghorn, 58 Minorca, 60 Muscovy Duck, 77 White Plymouth Rock, 46 Rose Comb Bantam, 71 Toulouse Goose, 79 Turkey, 74 Wyandotte, 50 Wild Goose, 79 Wing bar, 30 bay, 30 bow, 30 coverts, 30 fronts, 30 points, 30 Wire fence, 204 Worms, 246 Wort, 283 Wry tail, 30 Wyandotte, 31, 48 Black, 31, 48 Buff, 31, 48 Columbian, 31, 48 Golden, 31, 48 Partridge, 31, 48 selection for mating, 93 Silver, 31, 48 Penciled, 31, 48 White, 31, 48 we Yarp, drainage, 211 feet per bird, 188 Yellow corn, 280 Yolk pigment, 330 Z ZyGore, 117 repeat Senpre, 0 Pinal iol ies oth arias Hit pt Pye a Se bate alta ae Pheer eh tae