V I ^larjLAnn'Scvieckc 1 1 (Decoratix^cArt 1 Couethoru STEH.L1 N G AND FRAN CINE CLARJC ART INSTITUTE L1BRART / ORIENTAL RUGS ANTIQUE AND MODERN WALTER A. HAWLEY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2012 with funding from Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute Library http://archive.org/details/orientalrugsanti1922hawl ■ ■ ■ ■ ■'- IwfMffL '■"-"'"■■' ."■■■,"'"'■■ •-''^'": '•.'>'■-'■.■■-.■■'•''■ --v .■ r*Stc ^ -\ '«S&£: ■ - } vza SECTION OF THE HOLY CARPET OF THE MOSQUE AT ARDERII.. Size : 34 ft. 6 in. by IT ft. Gin. Translation of Inscription. I have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold. My head has no protection other than this porchway ; The work of the Slave of this Holy Place. FORMERLY IN Maksoud of Kashan. 940 A.H=1540 A.D, Ltd.. THE POSSESSION OF VINCENT ROBINSON & CO.. 34 Wigmore Street, London, W., And Sold by them in 1S92 to THE ROYAL VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, SOUTH KENSINGTON, LONDON. COLOUR PLATE I Section of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil, in the Royal Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London. Described on Pages 83 and 8^. ORIENTAL RUGS ANTIQUE AND MODERN BY WALTER A. HAWLEY WITH ELEVEN FULL-PAGE PLATES IN COLOUR EIGHTY HALF-TONE ENGRAVINGS AND FOUR MAPS NEW YORK DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY MCMXXII Copyright, 1913 Br John Lane Company Printed in IT. S. A. THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, MASS., TJ. S. A. PREFACE |INCE the appearance, in 1900, of the excel- lent work of Mr. John Kimberly Mumford on Oriental Rugs, the public interest in these fabrics has so largely increased that the au- thor feels warranted in offering this mono- graph, which aims to treat the subject in a way that will not only appeal to the general reader but be of value to the student. In the chapter entitled " Rug Weaving Before the XVIII Cen- tury" is a brief review of some of the notable achievements in this branch of art; and in order that the public may as far as possible have access to the masterpieces described, the carpets on exhibition in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York have been given unusual prominence. The chapters on "How to Distinguish Rugs ' : and on "Purchasing Rugs " should prove serviceable to those who are collecting or are buying for use; and the chapter on "Weaving" con- tains many details which have not previously received from con- noisseurs the consideration they deserve. The descriptions of all but the least important classes of rugs in the Persian, Asia Minor, Caucasian, and Central Asiatic groups include not only a general statement of their most striking fea- tures, but also a technical analysis that is termed " Type Character- istics." It should be understood, however, that these characteristics are not invariable, but are remarkably constant. They may interest chiefly those who aim to acquire expert information, yet they will doubtlessly prove valuable to every owner of a rug as a means for its identification. It would be difficult to acknowledge all the assistance received by the author since he began the study of rugs; for sometimes a mere suggestion has started a line of investigation resulting in interesting discoveries. He has freely consulted well-known author- ities, who are quoted in the body of the work; and has received valuable suggestions and assistance from Messrs. T. S. Hawley, of Santa Barbara, Cal., George Harootunian and Frank Loftus, of vi PREFACE Los Angeles, Cal.; George Stevenson, of New York; G. Graf, of the Persiche Teppiche Gesellschaft, of Tabriz; and P. de Andrea & Co., of Constantinople. He gratefully acknowledges the per- mission of Messrs. C. F. Williams, of Norristown, Penn., and James F. Ballard, of St. Louis, Mo., to study their valuable collections; and the permission of Dr. Wilhelm R. Valentiner, Curator of Deco- rative Arts in the Metropolitan Museum in New York, to examine the carpets of the museum and to jtake photographs of them. He also wishes particularly to mention the kindness of the following collectors and firms who have allowed their rugs to be used for illustrations : Miss Emily Davis, of Buffalo, N. Y. ; the Misses Palache, and Messrs. Nathan Bentz and T. S. Hawley, of Santa Barbara, Cal.; Mr. R. Y. Struble, of Fredericktown, Ohio; Mr. E. L. Pierce, of Syracuse, N.Y.; Mr. H. C. Merritt, of Pasadena, Cal.; Mr. J. F. Ballard, of St. Louis, Mo.; Mr. C. F. Williams, of Norris- town, Penn.; Major L. B. Lawton, U.S.A., of Seneca Falls, N.Y.; Messrs. Mihran & Co., of Los Angeles, Cal.; Messrs. B. Altman & Co., Benguiat & Keresey, Wm. Baumgarten & Co., Jones & Brindisi, Jos. Wild & Co., W. & J. Sloane, and the Tiffany Studios, of New York City. He is also indebted to Vincent Robinson & Co., Ltd., of London, for the use of the colour plate of the Royal Garden Carpet, now owned by them, and to the Royal Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London, for permission to obtain a colour plate of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil. Walter A. Hawley. New York, June, 1913. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I Introduction 15 II Physical Features and History of Rug-Producing Lands 20 III Materials 30 IV Dyeing 37 V Weaving 44 VI Designs and Symbols 58 VII Rug Weaving before the Eighteenth Century . 74 VIII Classification of Modern Rugs 97 IX Persian Rugs 102 X Asia Minor Rugs 163 XI Caucasian Rugs 197 XII Central Asiatic Rugs 233 XIII Indian Rugs 253 XIV Chinese Rugs 263 XV Kilims 276 XVI How to Distinguish Rugs 282 XVII Purchasing Rugs 295 Index 309 ILLUSTRATIONS Coloured Plates Plate I The Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil .... Frontispiece Opposite Page II Oushak Carpet 40 III Mosul Rug 66 IV Bergamo Rug 102 V Ghiordes Prayer Rug 130 VI Royal Persian Garden Carpet .... Between pages 160 and 161 VII Ladik Prayer Rug 190 VIII Soumak Rug 210 IX Samarkand Rug 240 X Kang-hi Rug 270 XI Keen-lung Rug 300 Halftone Engravings Plate 1 Khorassan Rug 22 „ 2 Meshed Rug 26 3 Kirman Rug 30 4 Shiraz Rug 34 5 Niris Rug 36 6 Feraghan Rug 42 7 Feraghan Rug 46 8 Hamadan Rug 52 9 Sarouk Rug 56 10 Sarabend Rug 58 11 Carpet from Northwestern Persia 64 12 Carpet from Northwestern Persia 68 13 Compartment Carpet 70 14 Persian Animal Carpet 72 15 Persian Animal Carpet 76 16 Persian Animal Carpet 78 17 So-called Polish or Polonaise Carpet 80 18 So-called Ispahan 84 19 Armenian Carpet 86 20 Asia Minor Dragon and Phoenix Carpet 88 21 Portrait of Georg Gyze by Hans Holbein 92 J5 x ILLUSTRATIONS Opposite Page Plate 22 Oushak Carpet 94 „ 23 Sehna Rug 98 Map of Persia 104 24 Bijar Rug 106 25 Kermanshah Rug 110 26 Kurdistan Rug with Mina Khani Pattern 114 27 Gorevan Rug 118 28 Bergamo Prayer Rug 122 29 Ghiordes Prayer Rug 126 30 Ghiordes Rug 132 31 Kulah Prayer Rug 136 32 Melez Prayer Rug 140 33 Melez Rug 144 34 Rhodian Rug 148 35 Konieh Prayer Rug 152 36 Kir-Shehr Prayer Rug 154 E Primary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs 156 F Secondary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs 158 Map of Asia Minor 164 37 Anatolian Prayer Rug 166 38 Mudjar Prayer Rug 168 39 Daghestan Prayer Rug 172 40 Kabistan Rug 176 41 Kuba Rug . . . 180 42 Chichi Rug 184 43 Tcherkess Rug 188 G Primary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs 192 H Secondary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs .... 194 Map of Caucasia 198 44 Baku Rug 200 45 Shirvan Rug 202 46 Soumak Rug 204 47 Kazak Prayer Rug 208 48 Kazak Rug 212 49 Karabagh Prayer Rug 214 50 Gengha Prayer Rug 218 51 Royal Bokhara Rug 222 52 Princess Bokhara Rug 224 I Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs 226 J Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs 228 K Secondary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs 230 Map of Turkestan 234 53 Turkoman Rug with Katchli Pattern 236 ILLUSTRATIONS xi Opposite Page Turkoman Rug with Pinde Pattern 238 Turkoman Rug of the Salor Tribes 244 Yomud Rug 248 Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of Central Asiatic Rugs 250 Beshire Prayer Rug 254 Beshire Rug 258 Afghan Rug 260 Beluchistan Prayer Rug 264 Turkoman Saddle-bags 268 Medallions in Chinese Rugs 272 Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of Chinese Rugs . 274 Srinagar Rug 278 XVIII Century Chinese Rug 282 Keen-lung Rug 286 Keen-lung Rug 292 Kurdish Prayer Kilim 296 Black and White Engravings Page An Upright Loom 45 Technicalities of Weaving 49 Prayer Arches of Persian, Caucasian, and Central Asiatic Rugs 61 Prayer Arches of Asia Minor Rugs 63 General Designs 291 Charts Periods when Antique Carpets were made 96 Technicalities in the weave of Persian Rugs 161 Technicalities in the weave of Persian Rugs 162 Technicalities in the weave of Asia Minor Rugs 196 Technicalities in the weave of Caucasian Rugs 232 Technicalities in the weave of Central Asiatic Rugs 252 Plate 54 j> 55 >> 56 >> L >> 57 )» 58 5 J 59 >> 60 >> 61 >> M 5> N >> 62 >» 63 »» 64 »» 65 >> 66 Plate A >j B >> C >» D >> ORIENTAL RUGS ANTIQUE AND MODERN ORIENTAL RUGS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION T is not altogether surprising that in a most materialistic age many of a race distinguished more for its utilitarian than artistic accom- plishments should fail to see in Oriental carpets high artistic expression; yet during the last twenty years choice specimens have been sold for sums which not only are very large, but show a tendency to increase with each suc- ceeding year. In 1893 a woollen rug, known as the Ardebil carpet and regarded, on account of its beautiful designs and exquisite colours, as one of the finest products of Oriental art, was purchased for the South Kensington Museum. Since it had a length of thirty- four and a half feet with a breadth of seventeen and a half, the price of £2500, which was the sum paid, was at the rate of twenty dollars per square foot. At an auction sale in New York in 1910,* a woollen rug five and a half feet long by three and three quarters wide was sold for the sum of $10,200, or at the rate of four hundred and ninety-one dollars per square foot; and a silk rug seven feet and two inches long by six feet and four inches wide was sold for the sum of $35,500, or at the rate of nine hundred and thirty dollars per square foot. As it was the general opinion of connoisseurs that the prices paid for these two rugs were low, and as it is well known that these rugs are not more valuable than some others of equal size, it is not unreasonable to assume that many of the best judges of Oriental rugs would declare that at the present time the sum of five hundred dollars per square foot is a fair price for some antique woollen rugs, and the sum of one thousand dollars per square foot a fair price for some antique silk rugs. * The Yerkes sale. 16 ORIENTAL RUGS If these judges were asked on what they based their opinion of the value of these old pieces, which are less serviceable for wear than new rugs that can be bought of an American factory at twenty cents per square foot, they might with reason reply that they are works of art, woven in those days when Michelangelo, Titian, Rubens, and Rembrandt were busy in their studios; that they are as scarce as the paintings of these masters; and that they might justly be compared with them in beauty and artistic execution. Though granting that the technique of weaving makes it impossible to repre- sent a design as perfectly as can be done with a brush, they would claim that the drawing of dainty vines, scrolls, and arabesques was often represented by lines that in abstract beauty of form are unsurpassed, and that no artist had ever produced from his palette colours which equalled in brilliant sheen and marvellously changing hue those of the woven masterpieces. Whoever is inclined to disagree with these judges and with those art critics of Europe and America who assert that in an aesthetic sense the people of the Orient are cultured to a standard beyond the comprehension of the Western world, should remember that the taste for any kind of art is based on convention and is largely a matter of cultivation. The Occidental, who for generations has cultivated the taste for paintings and statuary, looks to the painter and sculptor for the highest expression of artistic genius; but the Oriental takes greater delight in his marvellous creations of porce- lain or woven fabrics. There is, too, a marked difference in treat- ment. The Occidental demands that in art " everything should be stated with the utmost fullness of a tedious realism before he can grasp its meaning" * and fails to recognise the more subtle beauty of various forms of Oriental art. The Oriental, on the other hand, is far less realistic and is better satisfied if his subject suggests abstract qualities that depend for their fullest appreciation on those quickening experiences that at different times have touched the soul of the observer. Moreover, as Buddhism, which prevails in many of the countries of Asia, teaches that a universal spirit is manifested in each form of nature, determining its character, and a similar idea pervades other religions of the East, the highest aim of Asiatic art is to express that inner spirit. It is largely this difference in artistic cultivation that accounts for the difference in taste. Whoever then would fully appreciate these rugs must view * Stewart Dix, in "Arts of Old Japan." INTRODUCTION 17 them not only with an eye trained to see the beautiful harmonies of colour and design, but with the artistic temperament of the Oriental. By study and cultivation the European as well as the American is growing to value more highly the products of Oriental art. When the old sea captains carried on trade with Japan, they imported into Europe large quantities of Imari ware, which the Japanese purposely decorated with crude and vulgar colours to meet the less refined taste of the Europeans, who regarded many of them as fine speci- mens of ceramic art and studiously copied them in their factories. But so great has been the change in artistic taste since then that now they are valued principally as objects of curiosity. Likewise, many beautiful Japanese Makimonos, in which a few strong lines gave but a hint of the essential thought, formerly passed before the eyes of Europeans as the paintings of semi-barbarians. But now we begin to see, as did Whistler, that they are often the prod- ucts of great genius and that they express thought and feeling with marvellous power. There has been a similar growth in the appreciation of Oriental rugs. Even within the last generation this growth has been apparent, so that the few who wisely bought those old worn pieces which thirty years ago hung at doors of little shops where dark-faced foreigners invited acquaintance, are now the envy of the many who, too late, have learned that to-day they can scarcely be bought at any price. The more we study the several fields of art in the Orient, the better we realise the wonderful creative genius of its people and learn to value the products of any one field. Japan has awakened the admiration of the highest art critics for its bronzes, some of which exceed in size any other castings in the world, and for its netsukes, which are the smallest of carvings. Its blades of steel are superior to those of Damascus and Toledo; and its lacquer, which is the most wonderful of its artistic products, displays genius of a very high order. To China, a country that we often regard as barbarous, we owe the invention of silks, the printing press, and gunpowder; yet it is in porcelain, that was manufactured even in those days when Caesar was marching with his legions against the barbarous races of Central and Northern Europe, that China has surpassed the world and set a standard that probably will never again be reached. In the land where glide the Indus and the Ganges stand temples, erected by the descendants of the house of Tamerlane, be- 18 ORIENTAL RUGS fore which the beholder, even if familiar with the wonders of St. Peter's, is lost in admiration of the intricate delicacy of detail, the majesty of proportions, and the gorgeous splendour of colour with which some of the spirit of the East is expressed in material form. When we realise that in these different lines of artistic effort the genius of Asia has rivalled and surpassed that of Europe and America, we become the better prepared to believe that choice specimens of woven fabrics, in weaving which every class of every country of Asia has been engaged from time immemorial, are to be regarded as works of the highest art. However pleasing the design or elaborate the detail, it is princi- pally in the colouring that these rugs claim our interest and admira- tion. The colours which are derived from vegetable or animal dyes grow more mellow and beautiful with passing years, and applied to wools of finest texture acquire a lustre and softness which in the choicest specimens are like the radiant throat of a humming bird, or tints at the close of an autumn day. The different shades have different moods, expressing peace, joy, pensiveness, sorrow, the deep meaning of which the Oriental mind with its subtle and serious imagination has grasped as has none other. Moreover, in all truly fine pieces there is perfect harmony of tone. It is in this richness, suggestiveness, and harmony that the greatest ar- tistic value lies. That all do not appreciate these qualities is not because they do not exist; for the keen perception of colour, like the keen percep- tion of music, is a faculty granted to one person but denied to an- other. Even to those who take delight in colour there are different degrees of appreciation. "The fact is," said John Ruskin, "we none of us enough appreciate the nobleness and sacredness of colour.'* But as the ear can be cultivated to a higher taste for music, so can the eye be cultivated to a higher taste for colour; and to fully appre- ciate the beauties of Oriental rugs it is necessary to develop this faculty to its fullest extent. And yet it is not alone as works of art that Oriental rugs interest us. They suggest something of the life and religious thought of the people who made them. Some seem redolent with the fra- grance of flowers, others reflect the spirit of desert wastes and wind-swept steppes. So, too, in the colours and designs of some appear the symbols of that mysticism with which the minds of the followers of Zoroaster in their effort to commune with the unseen INTRODUCTION 19 forces of the universe were imbued; and though the original mean- ing of many of these symbols has been forgotten, the study of others leads to a better understanding of the life-thought of the weavers. Realising, then, that Asia has been the cradle from which has come the highest expression of many forms of artistic achievement, and that the Western mind is now assigning to its woven fabrics their proper place in the galleries of art, we may begin the study of Oriental rugs with the assurance that the further it is pur- sued the greater will be the appreciation and delight. It will take us among strange and interesting people, and over fields that were historic grounds before the walls of Rome were built. It will lead beyond the dome of St. Sophia to the land of the Arabian tales, where the splendour of former days is reflected in tomb and mosque, and where, perhaps, when the Western world grows old, there will rise again from crumbling ruins another nation that will revive the poetic and artistic genius of the East with all the majesty and cre- ative power of the past. CHAPTER II PHYSICAL FEATURES AND HISTORY OF THE RUG-PRODUCING LANDS (HE artistic character of Oriental rugs, like every other artistic impulse, is subject to the influence of physical environment. This influ- ence is not alone that to which an individual weaver has been subjected, but is the trans- mitted effect of the accumulated experiences of many generations. It appears in the colours which simulate tones displayed by varying phases of nature, and also in the designs or symbols which, derived from older types by a long process of evolution, partially reflect feelings engendered in a people of highly imaginative and poetic temperament by long contact with elemental forces. Moreover, the quality of material used depends almost exclusively on the climate and physical conditions of countries where it is produced. Accord- ingly, the artistic and essential characteristics of rugs are better understood by a knowledge of the salient physical features of the countries where they are woven.* The principal Oriental countries that continue to produce rugs are China, India, Afghanistan, Beluchistan, Persia, Turkestan, Caucasia, and Asia Minor. As all of them are contiguous, they may be regarded as a geographic unit; and though there is much diversity of detail, there is also much in common. From near the western boundary of Asia Minor a vast plateau stretches east- ward into Central Asia, increasing in altitude towards the east. * The influence of the physical aspects of a country on its art as expressed in architecture is nowhere more clearly shown than in Egypt, and there is little doubt that, likewise, the character of the native rugs was influenced by the spirit of the sluggish Nile and the boundless desert wastes. But as Egypt long ago ceased to be a rug-producing country, and none of its ancient rugs remain, it will only be briefly referred to in this work, though symbolic designs which had their origin there during the Caliphate or even earlier were adopted by foreign weavers and occasionally appear with modified form in modern rugs. RUG-PRODUCING LANDS 21 Its mean elevation in Asia Minor is from two thousand to three thousand feet, and as it extends beyond the Zagros Mountains and crosses the northern half of Persia, it rises from four thousand to five thousand feet. Continuing eastward through Southern Turkestan and Afghanistan it increases in altitude until it has risen to nearly twelve thousand feet in the lofty tablelands of Central Asia, where it begins to descend as it extends farther into the desert of Gobi. From the western part of this plateau a spur extends northward between the Black and Caspian seas, to form the high tableland of Caucasia, which has a mean elevation of about seven thousand feet. The general topographic features of this plateau include great stretches of comparatively level land, broad tracts from which there is no drainage to the sea, and sandy desert wastes. On almost every side it is bounded by mountain chains and is intersected by transverse ridges that lift still higher peaks where rests the per- petual snow. Throughout the deserts and large parts of the table- lands the rainfall is slight, so that there are but few important river courses. The cultivated portions of this vast area are relatively small, and consist largely of strips of land in fertile valleys, through which flow perennial streams. Prom time immemorial these streams have been used for irrigation, and the inhabitants of the districts have prospered by abundant harvests. In one or another of these valleys have been built the principal cities, within the walls of which were imposing temples that stimulated religious fervour, schools of learn- ing to quicken the intellect, and gardens where perfumed flowers and the songs of birds delighted the aesthetic senses. In these cities science, philosophy, religion, and art received their highest development. In them lived the most skilled artisans and artists of the Orient; and the products of the loom were of the finest quality. Beyond these valleys are great stretches of uncultivated tracts consisting of plains, hills, and mountains. Some of these tracts are naturally fertile and could be made productive, but at present are used only for pasturage, and over them numberless tribes of fierce nomads drive their flocks of sheep. On the other hand, where the land has no drainage to the sea, so that the streams and rivers that flow into it empty into small lakes or are finally absorbed, the soil becomes im- pregnated with alkali deposited from the waters, and the grass is 22 ORIENTAL RUGS scanty. There are also sandy wastes of great extent where scarcely any animal life can exist. Moreover in many parts of the country the rain falls only during a few months of the year, and more abundantly in the higher altitudes, so that the nomads are constantly searching for fresh pasturage, and moving from the lowlands, where the grass dies after the rainy season, to the higher altitudes, from which they return again at the approach of winter. So numerous are the flocks that in the struggle for pasture the weaker tribes are driven to the poorer land. The pastoral life, the necessity of moving from place to place, the strife resulting from the difference in quality of pasture, have affected the temperament and character of the people. The bound- less stretches of land, the clear atmosphere, the burning desert sands, the delicate mirage, and the starry heavens, have made men hospitable, thoughtful, devotional; constant wanderings have made them independent; the struggle for pasturage has made them law- less and cruel. These qualities are reflected to some extent in their woven fabrics, which lack the high artistic finish of those woven in cities. A large proportion of them are prayer rugs and contain symbols of the sun and fire worship. The designs are barbaric, and many are doubtless the same as those used hundreds of years ago. The colours of the old pieces, woven on upland plains or in moun- tain fastnesses, blend less harmoniously than those woven by more cultured weavers; but they frequently possess rich, pure tones, which are no longer seen in the modern rugs. As even a partial expression of the thoughts and feelings of a people, there are no rugs from the Orient more worthy of study than the rare old pieces woven by nomadic tribes. Not only physical environment but the conquests of foreign enemies, as well *as political struggles at home, have had an im- portant influence on all art. It will be of interest, therefore, to briefly review the histories of Central and Southwestern Asia, where rugs have been made for over three thousand years, in order to understand the different racial influences which have affected their artistic development. In the rich valleys near the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates dwelt in the remote past a race of unknown origin called Sumerians, and to the north of them lived another people known as the Ac- cadians. These races built canals, cultivated the soil, established towns, and invented the cuneiform writing. They lived in harmony 4^&m v , *£<£ / m mmmmmit \ shbbhh Plate 1. Khorassan Rug RUG-PRODUCING LANDS 23 with one another, and continued to prosper until about 3000 B.C., when the Semitic race of the Chaldees, appearing from an unknown land, subdued them. The Chaldees, however, allowed the con- quered races to retain part of their lands, adopted their civilisation, and about the year 2500 B.C. built the city of Babylon, the foun- dation of which biblical students claim was laid by the mighty hunter Nimrod. By cultivating the surrounding country, by de- veloping its trade and commerce, the Babylonians became a wealthy and powerful nation; and by encouraging manufactures, art, and science, they became noted for their delicate fabrics, magnificent temples, and knowledge of mathematics and astronomy. About the year 2000 B.C. a number of tribesmen, among whom was Abraham, migrated with their flocks to the upper valleys of the Tigris and founded Nineveh. A century later the land occu- pied by colonists who settled about Nineveh was known as Assyria. It increased in numbers and in power until, in 1300 B.C., it gained its first victory over Babylon; and during the next four hundred years, though meeting with occasional reverses, it extended its rule over Babylonia, Asia Minor, and Assyria, and received tribute even from Egypt. It thus became the first great conquering power in Southwestern Asia. In their magnificent palaces of Nineveh, surrounded by luxury, the rulers of Assyria were resting in sup- posed security when a powerful and unexpected enemy appeared from the land now known as Persia. When the valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates were inhabited by Sumerians and Accadians, Iran, which included modern Persia, was similarly inhabited by races of unknown origin. Subsequently, but at an exceedingly remote period, from the region about the Oxus river in Western Asia two branches of the great Aryan family migrated to Iran. One of these, which settled in the northern part, was known as the Medes; the other, which settled in the south- ern part, was known as the Persians. Both Medes and Persians subdued the native races and in the course of centuries constructed powerful empires. The former were the first to extend their con- quests, and forming an alliance with the viceroy of Babylon they attacked Nineveh in the year 606 b.c. and destroyed it. Babylon now became the mistress of all Mesopotamia, and under Nebuchad- nezzar it was enlarged to cover an area of one hundred square miles, and surrounded by walls three hundred feet high. These walls enclosed parks, orchards, gardens, and a city that soon be- 24 ORIENTAL RUGS came famous for its palaces, its temple of Bel, and its Hanging Gardens. While Babylon was rising in power changes were occurring in Iran. Cyrus, leader of the Persians, instigated a revolt against the Medes and conquered them. But not satisfied with making the Persians rulers of Iran he extended his conquests westward, and in the year 538 B.C., by diverting the waters of the Euphrates, surprised Belshazzar in his banquet hall and became master of Babylonia. The complete subjection of all Asia Minor followed, and for the next two centuries the warlike Persians were the dom- inant power in Western Asia. But in the year 331 B.C., when Alexander the Great defeated their armies under Darius, the Per- sian Empire melted away. Whether in Egypt or China or by the Tigris the art of weaving first took definite form, it was in this land of Babylon and Nineveh, of the Medes and the Persians, of Abraham, Belshazzar, and Cyrus, where a few remaining monuments attest the delicate textiles of those early days, that in more recent ages have been woven the most perfect carpets of which there is any knowledge. During the succeeding five hundred years Persia, Asia Minor, Caucasia, and Syria became the prey of the Parthians, Greeks, and Romans, to whom petty tribes, recognising no sovereign power and secure in their mountain fastnesses, bade occasional defiance. About the year 226 a.d. an able leader of one of the Persian tribes founded the dynasty of the Sassanides, which during the reign of Chosroes (531-579 a.d.) and his grandson Chosroes II (590-628 a.d.) ruled over the country from the Oxus on the north to Arabia and Egypt on the south, and from India on the east to Assyria on the west. This was a period of prosperity and luxury, the glory of which continued until the middle of the VII Century, when it was over- thrown by a new power rising from a most unexpected quarter. In the inhospitable land of Arabia, noted for its coffee, dates, and myrrh, for its dreary, sandy, waterless wastes, a land hitherto almost unknown in history, Mohammed promulgated the religion which, suited to the temperament and desires of the Bedouins, united them into a fanatic, militant body of conquerors. After his death his successors, known as the Caliphs, extended his conquests. Their successful armies quickly overran Persia and over- threw the Sassanian rule; then marching northward into Turke- stan and as far east as the Indus they overcame all resistance. RUG-PRODUCING LANDS 25 From the Greeks, by whom they were known as the Saracens, they snatched Palestine and Syria, and invading Egypt, conquered it after the long stubborn siege of Alexandria. A little later the Arabs became masters of Northern Africa, and settling there inter- married with the native races. Near the Straits of Gibraltar their African descendants, known as the Moors, crossed to Spain, where in the year 711 they vanquished a powerful army that opposed them. During the following year they subdued all of that country and began an invasion of Northern Europe. But on the rich pasture lands near Tours, where the infantry of Charles Martel met the Mussulman cavalry in one of the most decisive battles of history, they were defeated with terrible slaughter and Christian Europe was saved. These conquests of the Mohammedans had not only a political and religious significance, but also an important influence on art at a time when Europe was sunk in ignorance and barbarism. Fond of magnificence and luxury, the Caliphs founded great capitals in Assyria, Egypt, and Spain, and built palaces that have histories which sound like fairy tales. Bagdad on the banks of the Tigris, with its sixteen hundred canals, one hundred and five bridges, and nearly a million people, with its countless baths, its many thousand mosques, and its royal palace, where was collected the best of Asiatic taste, elegance, and splendour, possessed more gran- deur than any other city in the world. Gibbon states that within the palace, furnished with Oriental luxury, hung thirty-eight thou- sand pieces of tapestry, one third of which were of silk embroidered with gold, and that on the floors lay twenty-two thousand carpets. In Cairo and in Cordova, likewise, the Caliphs surrounded them- selves with similar splendour, of which, unfortunately, but few traces now exist; but the Castle of the Alhambra still remains as a powerful reminder of their taste and artistic genius. It is largely to the influence of this race that were due many of the beautiful Spanish rugs such as Queen Eleanor in the XIII Century took to England from Cordova and Granada, as well as those of other periods. Moreover, in some of the choicest pieces of Asia Minor and Persia, woven during the XVI and XVII Centuries, are traces of this early Saracenic art. For about five centuries the militant power of these Mohamme- dans was dominant in Southwestern Asia when another conquering race appeared. The great wall of China, which was built over two 26 ORIENTAL RUGS hundred years before Christ by the famous Che-Hwang-te, to protect it against the invasions of the Tartars, turned westward many wandering hordes from the more fertile pastures and valleys of Southeastern Asia. One of these hordes was of Turks, who, leaving their homes near the sources of the Irtish and Yenisei rivers in the Altai Mountains, settled in Turkestan. Many centuries after- wards, to escape from other hordes pressing westward and to reach fresh pastures, different branches of them migrated southward and westward. About the year 1000 a.d. one of these branches known as the Seljukian Turks gained a foothold in Persia, and under Malek Shah, in 1072, made Ispahan its capital. About the same time it extended its power over Asia Minor and overran Georgia, where it destroyed the capital Tiflis after slaughtering the inhabitants. To this Turkoman race should probably be accredited the earliest Mongolian influence on Persian textile art. Somewhat later a people numbering forty thousand tents were ranging that part of Mongolia which lies north of the desert of Gobi in search of pasture and water. One of their number gathered about him a few followers, and by his own genius gained the as- cendency over his tribes. He then allied himself with another powerful tribe, and reducing to obedience all the Mongolians who dwelt north of the desert of Gobi, in 1206, in the presence of his chiefs, he assumed the title of Genghis Khan. After becoming the ruler of millions of nomads of the great central plateau of Asia and conquering part of China, which was then enjoying a period of great wealth and prosperity, he invaded Western Asia. Bokhara offered no resistance and might have been spared, but learning that some of the Sultan's garrison were concealed he ordered the city to be burned. Samarkand, which surrendered after three days* siege, was pillaged and the inhabitants were slaughtered. Herat appeased his anger by opening its gates. Even his death did not stop the ravages of the Mongol horde that captured and sacked Bagdad, and, crossing the Tigris and Euphrates, pillaged all Asia Minor. In 1258, Hulaku Khan, grandson of Genghis, conquered Persia and established his capital in the province of Azerbijan, where his descendants ruled for over a century. With these invasions another wave of Mongolian influence was felt in Western Asia. Whatever may have been the effect on local art by the settlement of the Seljukian Turks in Persia and Asia Minor during the early part of the XI Century, it was r 4*l££ Ssfie ft" fl-'-r/.f 4 > *£S . PI " " : " J •■■■* S23ZSI£A-EOZj f I i it il Plate 2. Meshed Rug RUG-PRODUCING LANDS 27 inappreciable as compared with that of Genghis Khan and his fol- lowers. For the influence of Bagdad over Southwestern Asia was like that of Rome over the empire of the Caesars, and when in the middle of the XIII Century it was plundered for forty days, and other important cities of Asia Minor and Persia similarly treated, there was no longer the same incentive to work, so that art for a time languished. But in some cities the artistic spirit of the people prevailed over the loss of independence, and the more skilled work- men were encouraged by their new masters, who, recognising the beauty of the Persian carpets, sent many Persian artists to China and brought many Chinese artists to Persia, that the different races might derive advantages from the instruction of one another. It is therefore not surprising that from this time the influence of Chinese art has been recognised in the woven fabrics and metal work made in the southwestern part of Asia. In fact, the Chinese motive known as the "key pattern," as well as other less familiar de- signs of distinctly Mongolian origin, appeared for the first time in some of the carpets and metal work of this period. Like Turkestan, Asia Minor has been one of the great battle- grounds of the world. During parts of the XI, XII, and XIII Centuries not only Seljukian Turks, but Mongols and Ottoman Turks under Murad and Bajazet, rose in influence until all Asia Minor, as well as Thrace and Macedonia, was subject to them. But still another power from the far East was to overrun Asia and di- vert Bajazet from the walls of Constantinople. Under Tamerlane, the descendant of Genghis Khan, the Mongol hordes were again united and again attempted the conquest of the world. From the walls of China to the Mediterranean Sea, and from the Steppes of Turkestan to the Arabian deserts, his victorious armies overcame all opposition. Never was conqueror more rapa- cious, more bloodthirsty. At Ispahan, seventy thousand inhabitants were slain. Georgia was laid waste and the people were mas- sacred. In 1401, Bagdad was besieged and, when taken, a pyramid of ninety thousand human victims was raised as a monument to the Tartar conqueror. In the following year, when the armies of Bajazet and Tamerlane met on the plains near Angora, the Turks were defeated and Bajazet was captured. But now the tide of Mongol invasion receded; and laden with spoils Tamerlane re- turned to his capital at Samarkand, where he enjoyed the remain- ing years of his life by surrounding himself with a brilliant court and 28 ORIENTAL RUGS by building palaces and temples, which he adorned with royal splendour. With all his atrocious barbarities he had a higher appre- ciation of art than his Mongolian predecessors. At his capital were assembled skilled artisans from Eastern and Western Asia; and there at the beginning of the XIV Century European travellers saw innumerable art treasures, including carpets of wonderful workman- ship and beauty. The Mongol power also gained an important foothold in India. This country, like Iran, had been subjugated by a branch of the Aryan race, which conquered the native Dravidians, and remained dominant until the VII and VIII Centuries. Then the Moham- medans invaded it, and were still in ascendency when Tamerlane crossed the mountains and attacked Delhi. After the lapse of more than a hundred years his descendants, Baber, Akbar, and Shah Jahan, rose to power. The magnificence of their courts and the splendour of the temples which they built stimulated Indian art; and under the instruction of Persian artisans, who were induced to settle in that country, the natives attained their highest skill in weaving. With the death of Tamerlane, in 1405, the Ottoman power in Persia and Asia Minor rose again, and Turkish victories followed in quick succession until in 1453 Constantinople fell and the church of St. Sophia became a mosque. After the lapse of half a century Shah Ismael of the family of the Safavids defeated the Turkomans in 1502, and founded a new dynasty in Persia. With his rise began one of the most splendid periods in its history. Within a few years victories extended his empire from the Euphrates river to Afghanistan and from the Oxus to the Persian gulf. This was the land of ancient Iran, over which from his court at Ardebil he ruled until his death. In the early part of the reign of Shah Tamasp, which lasted from 1524 to 1576, the new dynasty was threatened by the Turkish ruler, Soliman the Mag- nificent, after he had taken Rhodes from the Knights of St. John and invaded Southern Europe. In 1534 he captured Bagdad and Tabriz, as well as conquered Shirvan and Georgia.* But the lost territory was soon regained and the new Persian capital was estab- lished at Tabriz where, as will be seen later, were woven many of the greatest masterpieces of Persian textile fabrics. Much as these * It is said that he carried Persian weavers as captives to Asia Minor and Constantinople. RUG-PRODUCING LANDS 29 monarchs had accomplished, it was Shah Abbas the Great who, after ten years of internal strife, succeeded by expelling the Turks from Persia, restoring tranquillity, and establishing commerce, in elevating his country from one of devastation and confusion to one of greatness such as it had not known for many ages. He trans- ferred his court to Ispahan, where, while adding to the magnificence of the city, he encouraged art even to the extent of sending to Italy, for study, a number of the most skilled artists of Persia. These in time returned and exerted an influence that appeared in the more elaborate designs of carpets of a subsequent period. It is also prob- able that he rendered valuable assistance to Akbar of India in founding carpet-weaving in that country. He ruled from 1586 to 1628. This period, during which America was a wilderness and England under Queen Elizabeth was still struggling with the feudal system, was the golden age of Persian history and Persian art; but with his death the Safavid dynasty declined and art decadence began. In 1722, the Afghans conquered Persia and for a number of years ruled it with horrible cruelty; but they were finally defeated by Nadir Shah, who captured Herat in 1731, extended his dominion into Georgia, and recovered some of the lost territory from the Turkish Empire in the West. After his death the sovereignty of Persia again waned, until in time it was confined to its present limits. It thus appears that from the earliest times recorded in history the southwestern part of Asia has been subject to invasion, and to constant struggles between the different races of the East for su- premacy. Even from the desert of Gobi, the flanks of the Altai Mountains, and the deserts of Arabia have poured forth armies to devastate the land. One victorious power after another has extended its sway from the banks of the Indus to the shores of the Medi- terranean. The result is that the present Oriental textile art is of a composite character, which can be understood only by taking into consideration the value of these racial influences that have con- tributed to it some of its most interesting and subtle charms. CHAPTER III THE MATERIALS IS was the case with the earliest shepherd weavers, many nomads living in unfre- quented parts of Asia spin the wool taken from their own flocks, then colour it with dyes brewed from roots and herbs that they have personally gathered, and finally weave it according to well-known patterns into fabrics. But in large, enlightened com- munities the manufacture of an Oriental rug involves a division of labour. From the shepherds the professional dyers obtain the wool, which, after colouring, they sell to weavers; and these in turn often receive their patterns from others. A knowledge of these separate steps involving the industries of producing the different materials and the crafts of dyeing, weaving, and designing is essential to a full understanding of any Oriental woven fabric. The materials that were formerly used in weaving were gener- ally of animal origin, such as the wool of sheep, goats, and camels. To a more limited extent silk and cotton also were used, and occa- sionally hair of the yak, cow, and even human hair. In later years, when there arose a western demand for eastern fabrics so that the aim of the weaver was to produce an article as cheaply as possible, flax, hemp, jute, and larger quantities of cotton were sometimes substituted. Since all of these materials are indigenous to the country where they are used, and are affected by its climate, alti- tude, humidity, and fertility, they acquire qualities that frequently give to rugs a distinctly local character. The wool of sheep constitutes the warp and weft of at least half the Oriental rugs and the pile of over ninety per cent. To be sure, in Japan the pile is largely jute and cotton; in a few of the districts of Asia Minor and Persia it is mercerised cotton or silk; and in dis- tricts where the camel is still a beast of burden its wool and fine hair are often substituted for other kinds; but throughout all the rug- vj \jE39LE-3; 1 .hWi fll -■ vM ? &v" -fe-E "'few ■-. 1" Tiffed ': '* "*> inUri — i i ' . n ii i iiii ii w iiii n m T i i T i Jlinarfn— wrm — —" •*•-" "" """' "" '' "* ' " -*— — ■ ^Ja^Sig— ^SHSr ** ijwr mm Plate 3. Kirman Rug THE MATERIALS 31 weaving countries of the East the wool of the sheep has been and still is preferred to all other materials for the pile of rugs. This is due not alone to its warmth, to the facility with which it can be spun and twisted into knots, but also to the fact that from the remotest times the inhabitants of these districts, like Abraham of old, have been shepherds, who followed their calling because over the steppes of Tartary and the great plateaus that extend through Asia Minor, Persia, Afghanistan, and Turkestan spread vast pas- ture lands that seem better suited than any other parts of the world for the nourishment of sheep with fine fleeces. In fact, a part of these districts seems to be the natural habitat of the sheep; for among the crags of some of the lofty mountain chains of Central Asia, and farther west where Eastern and Western Turkestan meet in the lofty plateau of Pamir, called the "Roof of the World," still wander great bands of magnificent native sheep with enormous horns and brownish grey wool, from which it is believed sprang the vast flocks that now browse on every hill and mountain slope of Western Asia. Centuries of care have effected an important evolution in this native stock, for in no other part of the world are there sheep with longer and more silky fleeces. Nevertheless there are different grades, as the quality depends in a measure on the climate and pas- turage as well as on the care of the sheep. Thus in the hot, sandy lands the wool shows some deterioration; but in the cold, dry climates of the many high lands of Western Asia and in the pastures of particular localities the wool is long, fine, and lustrous. For instance, in parts of Khorassan, on the flanks of high mountains near Kirman and Shiraz, on the shores of Lake Niris in Farsistan, among the rolling uplands of Asia Minor, are produced uncommonly fine and beautiful fleeces. When, moreover, the sheep of these localities receive the care that is given by some of the nomadic tribes, as the Uzbeck Tartars, who not only shelter them but cover them with blankets, the wool acquires a soft and silky quality that is unsurpassed. The wool produced in many parts of India, on the other hand, is poor; for not only are the serrations, on which largely depends its value for textile purposes, less numerous than in better varieties, but it is harsh and contains many long hairs that do not well unite with it and that take up very little dye. The wool of the goat is much less extensively used, yet appears in some rugs, not only as warp and weft, but also as pile. The 32 ORIENTAL RUGS goats of Kashmir, which live in the cold climate of a tableland three miles above the ocean level, produce the finest and most beautiful wool; but as it grows near the skin, and beneath wiry hairs from which it can be removed only with tedious care, it is too precious to be used excepting for the most beautiful shawls and choicest carpets. Of next importance and finest texture is the wool of the Angora goat, known to commerce as mohair. Formerly there was not much demand for it, but now, on account of the consider- ation that it has received in the carpet factories of recent Sultans, it is found in many of the rugs of Asia Minor. As it grows to an average length of five to six inches it is easily spun; and its soft, lustrous sheen gives to the rugs in which it is used a silky and bril- liant appearance. Some of the Bokhara goats, also, yield fine wool that is used in rugs. Yet, as a rule, yarn made from the fleece of the goat is not regarded with favour by weavers, since it is apt to be coarse and to pack closely. Nor does the wool of the goat mix well with the wool of the sheep. There is, however, a much finer grade growing next to the skin, which may be removed with a knife when it is exposed by combing the longer fleece in a direction re- verse to that in which it lies. The tougher grades are preferred to any other material by weavers of the Afghanistan, Beluchistan, and some Turkoman rugs for selvages at the sides, as they afford excellent protection against hard usage. Goat's hair is also some- times used in these rugs for warp. Unless mixed with wool it is very rarely used for weft, as it is not sufficiently pliable. Of more frequent use than the wool of the goat is the wool of the camel which grows close to the skin beneath the long hair. In the tropical countries, as in Soudan, the camel has no wool, but in more northern latitudes it yields a crop which increases in quantity and improves in quality as the climate grows colder. Thus in Arabia, Asia Minor, and in most of Persia and Turkes- tan the yield is small, in the tablelands of Eastern Persia and Afghanistan it is much larger, and on the lofty plateaus of Turke- stan and Chinese Tartary as much as ten pounds of wool is obtained yearly from each beast. The clip is taken at the usual moulting season during the spring of the year. The wool of the older camels is coarse and dark, what is taken from the young is finer and lighter, and the most silky and valuable of all is what is obtained from the unborn. The best grade has been more highly esteemed than the wool of any other animal, and rugs in which it constitutes the THE MATERIALS 33 pile are more valuable than those in which the wool of sheep is used. It is seldom woven in modern rugs, but dyed wool or goats' hair of similar colour is often substituted for it. The wool or underhair of the yak is used only among the moun- tain tribes of Tartary, and is never found in any of the choicer grades of rugs. Occasionally the hair of the horse or cow is employed to a limited extent in the pile of nomadic rugs, where it may be dis- tinguished by its coarse and wiry character. In old rugs of which the pile is much worn cows' hair will now and then protrude like the hairs of small bristle brushes. Only very rarely is human hair seen in a rug. Natural colours of the several kinds of wool, which have made it possible to dispense with their dyeing, have always been taken advantage of by weavers. The only black yarn on which the wear of time has left no impress is from the fleece of the proverbially despised black sheep. Shades of white, ivory, brown, grey, rufus, and even a plum are obtained from different varieties. Likewise a wide range of rich chestnut colours are furnished by the camel. It is but natural that the nomad should depend on the wool of his flocks and herds for warp, weft, and pile; but people of fixed habitations have employed other kinds of material also. Where the sensuous luxury of the East called for magnificent carpets, they were often woven almost entirely of silk, which was easily obtained, as silkworms thrive on the mulberry trees that grow wild on the plains of Central and Southwestern Asia. Silk rugs are still woven in a few cities of Asia Minor and Persia. For the cheaper grades of rugs flax, hemp, and jute have been sparingly used; and during recent years cotton has been widely adopted, particularly in Persian, Indian, and Chinese rugs, on account of its cheapness as compared with wool. It is, however, almost en- tirely as warp and weft and rarely as pile that it is used. Though much less durable than wool, its white colour is far less likely to darken with age; yet there is a poorer variety which, after being thoroughly wet, acquires a dark colour. In the preparation of these different textile materials wool requires the greatest care. In some parts of the Orient it is not washed, and the lustrous hues of the pile are attributed to the fact that it is dyed in its naturally greasy state; but in other parts the grease and dirt are carefully removed. This cleansing is a craft that has been transmitted from parent to child, and is practised 34 ORIENTAL RUGS according to different methods in different parts of the country. One of the chief essentials is an abundance of clear running water free from alkali; for when the water is hard, as is often the case in the more arid parts of the country, it loses some of its cleansing properties, and potash or other chemicals are required to counter- act this unfavourable quality. After the wool has been thoroughly washed it is carefully dried in the sun and open air. The next important step is the proper sorting, picking, and comb- ing. The sorting consists of the separation of black and light wool, or of an inferior from a better grade; and the picking consists of the removal of burrs or foreign particles. The object of combing is to effect an orderly arrangement of the wool so that it is ready for spinning. One method, corresponding to carding, is to draw the wool repeatedly between rows of upright spikes set in a wooden frame until every matted particle has been separated and all the fibres are disentangled. The older method, still employed in nearly every part of the Orient, consists of "teasing" with the cord of a heavy bow, which is suspended or held firmly by the left hand over the wool, while with the right hand the cord is made to vibrate either by striking it with a wooden instrument or plucking it, so that the fibres of wool are separated and assorted by the vibrations. When the wool has thus been prepared, it is wound about the distaff and then spun into yarn. In many parts of the Orient the common spinning-wheel has been introduced and adopted for both wool and cotton; in other parts are crudely made spinning-wheels of different design and about the height of a man. The natives of districts more remote from civilisation still cling to the primeval spindle, which sometimes consists of no more than a rounded stick half an inch in diameter and a foot in length with a ball of clay at one end. Many of the nomadic tribes of Asia Minor and Mesopo- tamia use in place of it a small stone of convenient shape, to which is tied a strip of linen a few inches in length. A few fibres of wool are attached to the end of the linen by twisting them about it, and a few more fibres are similarly attached to these when the stone is suspended and twirled. As the fibres become closely twisted together more fibres are added until on account of the length of the thread thus formed the stone reaches the ground. The thread is then wound about the stone and secured by a couple of loops so as to leave a piece only a few inches in length, to which more wool is attached in continuing the spinning. When a large ball of thread Wf "H riwjawM simslf. row «\* taiU - DYEING 41 Add mineral acid; steep wool for thirty-six hours, then boil for three hours, wash well, and dry. "Pale Greyish Green. Take copper rust, asburg,* and alum. Mix well with any hot water, not boiling; soak wool for eighteen hours, then boil for three hours. Give a bath with water acidu- lated with some limes, and dry in shade. "Old Gold and Rich Yellow. Take turmeric and asburg, cin- nabar and alum. Soak all night. Steep wool for twenty-four hours, boil for four and a half hours, wash with a beating, and dry in shade. "Dark Grey. Take of the fruit of Cupressus sempervirens, seeds and seed pods of babul (Acacia arabica), iron-filings water, and alum. Steep over night. Now add the water and let it soak for twenty-four hours, then boil for two or three hours, until the colour is right, then wash and dry in the sun. "Rose Colour. Take ratanjot (Onosma echioides), a thought of cochineal, manjit (Rubia cordifolia) or lac colour a very little, and cinnabar. Add water, soak them for twelve hours, put in wool, and steep for thirty-six hours; cook it for three hours, then bathe the wool in alum and wash nicely; afterward dry in the shade. "Persian Scarlet. Take lac colour, and if you choose a little cochineal for richness, and soak from four to six days; strain it in two cloths and add alum and a little turmeric; let it stand for three hours. Put wool in and steep for twenty-four hours, then boil for two hours. Take out the wool and add mineral acid; re-enter wool and boil an hour more. Wash fifteen minutes when cold, and dry in the shade. "Saffron Yellow. Take turmeric, cinnabar, and soda, add water and keep for a full day. Then add some alum, make the dip, and soak the wool for thirty hours. Cook it for several hours, and dry in the shade after beating and good washing. "Rich Yellow. Take asburg and turmeric, soak for a night in water, steep the wool for twenty-four hours, add alum, shake out, and dry in shade." Identical shades of a number of colours are not produced in all parts of the Orient, not only for the reason that soil, moisture, and climate affect the colour values of dye-stuff, but because each family of dyers preserve inviolable the craft secrets transmitted from their forefathers. Thus it happens that different parts of the * This is a product of flowers of the genus Delphinum that grows in the Hima- layas. It is also obtained as a powder from Afghanistan. 42 ORIENTAL RUGS rug-producing countries adhere to particular tones that help to identify the locality where the fabrics were woven. Unfortunately the Western aniline dyes, which were introduced about the year 1860 and quickly adopted because they are cheaper and less complicated in their application, have to such an extent transplanted some of these fine old vegetable dyes that a number of the richest and most delicate colours found in the rugs of a former century are no longer produced. Thus the superb blue of the fine old Ispahans, as well as of lustre tiles and illuminated manuscripts, belongs to a lost art. The disadvantages of the aniline dyes are several: they have a tendency to make the fibres of the textile fabric brittle, and when it is wet the colours will frequently run. Some dyes also fade more readily than others, so that if a colour be the product of two or more dyes, the resultant tint may be to- tally unlike the original. On the other hand, not all vegetable dyes are fast; but as they fade they mellow into more pleasing shades. Efforts have been made to encourage the use of old vegetable dyes; but unless the laws which have been enacted in parts of Asia to restrict the importation of aniline dyes be more stringently enforced than in the past, the cultivation in the garden patch of the dye- producing herbs and plants will soon cease to be the time-honoured occupation it was in days gone by. Almost as important as the art of preparing the dyes is that of properly applying them to the yarns. It is an art that demands infinite pains in its technique, as well as a lifetime to acquire. It is in itself a separate profession practised by artisans who guard with jealousy the sacred secrets that transmitted from generation to generation occupy their thoughts to the exclusion of almost everything else. The homes of these professional dyers in the larger villages and cities are located on a stream of water which possesses mineral properties that long experience has proven especially suit- able as solvents for the different kinds of colouring matter. Ranged about the walls of their low dwellings are jars or vats contain- ing liquid dye of various colours. Suspended above them, from hooks driven into beams, are the yarns from which, after immer- sion in the proper vats, the liquids are allowed to drain. After this the yarns are exposed for the proper length of time to the dry air and burning sun. It is, therefore, the suitable mordants, the preparation of the proper dyes for the vats, the immersion of the yarn in correct sequence and for the correct length of time, as well Plate 6. Feraghan Rug DYEING 43 as the exposure to the glare and heat of the sun for a definite period to be gauged to the exact moment, on which the colour results de- pend. This complicated process by which, for instance, the in- finitely different shades of a red, a blue, or a brown may be conveyed to yarn by using the same dyes but by slightly modifying the steps requires the greatest precision, for which no rule but an experience amounting almost to instinct is the guide. There was a time when the Oriental had not learned the mean- ing of tempus fugit or seen the glitter of Western gold, when his dyeing and weaving were proud callings, in which entered his deepest feelings. Then the old vegetable dyes that mellow, grow softer and more lustrous, were almost exclusively used; but now through- out all weaving countries the dyer has deteriorated so that he can no longer produce some of the rich colours in use half a cen- tury ago. Yet remote from the principal lines of travel, on the edges of the desert, in lonely valleys, among rugged mountains, half-tamed tribes are still dyeing their hand-spun yarn as did their fathers' fathers. CHAPTER V WEAVING EAR the tents of some nomadic tribes may occasionally be seen crude looms on which are woven some of the most interesting rugs that now reach the Western markets. In all probability they are not dissimilar to what were used thousands of years ago, for it would be impossible to construct a simpler loom. Where two trees suitably branching are found growing a few feet apart, all of the upper branches are removed excepting two, which are so trimmed as to leave a crotch at the same height in each tree. In each crotch is rested the end of a pole or beam, and parallel to it is placed another extending at a short distance above the ground from trunk to trunk. Or, as is more frequently the case, roughly hewn posts are firmly implanted in the ground and horizontal beams are stretched between them. In the upper one is a groove with a rod to which one end of the warp, consisting of strong threads of yarn numbering from ten to thirty to the inch, is attached, while the other end is tightly stretched and firmly secured to the lower horizontal beam. Sometimes the beams to which the warp is attached are placed perpendicularly, so that the weaver may stand and move sideways as the work progresses. But among a very large number of those tribes that are constantly wandering in search of new pastures for their flocks and herds, it is customary to let the loom lie flat on the ground, while the weaver sits on the finished part of the rug. Under more favourable circumstances, when the tribes live in villages or cities, the looms are so made that the weavers are not compelled to bend in order to tie the first row of knots or stand erect to finish the last rows of a long rug. Of the several devices by which the weaver may remain seated while at work, the crudest consists of a plank used as a seat, which rests on the rungs of two ladders placed parallel to each other at the sides of the rug. As LEASE RODS SHOWING CHANGE OF POSITION. ■ cy o (a- h (A'- H - HEALD ROO IN POSITION. E.ALD ROD PULLED FORWARD. A- 6- -*•'. { A- BACK THREADS B- BACK THREAD3 OF WARP IN POSITION. OF WARP PULLED FORWARD; 4 UPPER EDGE OF RUG. Plate A. — An Upeight Loom 45 46 ORIENTAL HUGS the work progresses, the plank is raised and rested upon the higher rungs. More frequently, however, both upper and lower beams of the frame have the shape of cylinders of small diameter, which revolve between the upright posts. The lower ends of the threads of warp are attached to the lower beam, and the other ends may either be wound several times around the upper one or else pass over it and be kept taut by weights attached to them. Such a loom is generally used for weaving very large rugs, which are rolled up on the lower beam as the work progresses. In Plate A (Page 45) is represented a loom commonly used in many parts of the Orient. When preparing it for weaving two stakes are driven in the ground at a suitable distance apart, and about them the warp is wound in the way a figure eight is formed. The warp is then carefully transferred to two rods that are at- tached to the upper and lower beams. If it has been carefully wound, none of the threads should be slack; but if desired the ten- sion may be further increased by different devices. Two other rods, known as " Healds," are then attached to the front and back threads of warp; or in the case of a single rod, it is attached to the back threads, as shown in the Plate. A lease rod is next inserted between the threads of warp that cross below the upper beam, and another is placed below it where, if necessary, it is supported in position by loops. When the weaving begins, a short web is generally woven at the lower end to protect the knots from wear. After the first row has been tied, the shuttle carrying the thread of weft is passed between the front and back threads of warp; the heald rod attached to these back threads is then pulled forward, so that they are now in front of the others, and the shuttle is passed back. If the rug is narrow, only one shuttle is used; but if the rug is wide, or if the weft consists of two threads of unequal thickness, a shuttle is passed across from each side. Every thread of warp is in this way completely encircled by the thread of weft as it passes and repasses. When weaving large rugs, there is an advantage in having two heald rods, as by their use the distance between the front and back threads of warp may be increased. The object of the lease rod is to prevent any slack caused by drawing forward the threads of warp, and is accomplished in a very simple manner, as will be seen by studying the drawing; since when the tension of the back threads is increased by drawing them forward, the tension of the front threads is also in- creased by displacing the lease rods which thereby stretches them. Plate 7. Feraghan Rug WEAVING 47 The products of the loom are divided according to their weave into three separate classes. The simplest of these are the kilims, which are without pile and consist only of warp and weft to which a few embroidered stitches representing some symbol are occasion- ally added. A more elaborately made class are the Soumaks. They consist of warp covered by flat stitches of yarn and of a thread of weft which extends across and back between each row of stitches in the old rugs and between each second and third row of stitches in the new rugs. In the narrow, perpendicular lines that define both borders and designs the stitch is made by the yarn encircling two adjacent threads of warp; but in other parts of the rug it is made by the yarn passing across two adjacent threads of warp at the front, and after encircling them at the back, recrossing them again at the front. It is then continued across the next pair of adjacent threads of warp. The result is that at the back of these rugs each of the two threads of warp encircled by the yarn appears as a separate cord, while at the front the yarn passes diagonally across four threads of warp. As this diagonal movement is reversed in each succeeding row, the surface has an uneven appearance sometimes termed "herring bone" weave. By far the largest class of rugs are those with a pile. When mak- ing them, the weaver begins at the bottom and ties to each pair of adjacent threads of warp a knot of yarn so as to form a horizontal row. A thread of weft is then passed, as often as desired, between the threads of warp and pressed more or less firmly with a metal or wooden comb upon the knots, when they are trimmed with a knife to the desired length. Another horizontal row of knots is tied to the threads of warp; again the yarn of weft is inserted; and so the process continues until the pile is completed. In tying the knots, work almost invariably proceeds from left to right and from the bottom to the top. It is but rarely that the warp is stretched horizontally and that the knots are tied in rows parallel to the sides. It is still more infrequently that a rug is found in which the knots are tied by working from the centre to the right and left, and to the top and bottom. These interesting exceptions may easily be dis- covered by rubbing the hand over the pile, when it will be noticed that the knots lie on one another so as to face the same direction, which is the opposite to that in which the work of tying advanced, or as is generally the case, from top to bottom. The compactness, durability, and value of a rug depend somewhat 48 ORIENTAL RUGS on the number of knots in any particular area. Yet if the yarn is coarse, the rug may be compact even though the number of knots be small; and if the yarn is fine, the rug may be loosely woven, either because the rows of knots have not been firmly pressed down, or because there are several "filling threads" of weft, and still the number of knots be large. A square inch is a convenient size for measurement; but since all parts of a rug are not woven with equal compactness, the measurement should be made in several places if exactness be required. In loosely woven pieces, such as the Oushaks and some of the Genghas, there may be less than twenty knots to the square inch; but among the more closely woven, as the Kirmans and Bokharas, are frequently several hundred. These knots are of two classes, the Ghiordes and the Sehna. The Ghiordes are found in all rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia, in some of the rugs of India, and in most of the rugs of Persia. They are named after the town of Ghiordes in Asia Minor, where some of the finest Asiatic pieces were made, and which tradition states was once the ancient Gordion, noted even in the days of Alexander. In tying the knot, the two ends of yarn appear together at the sur- face included between two * adjacent threads of warp around which they have been passed, so that the tighter the yarn is drawn the more compact the knot becomes. The three different ways of tying this knot are shown in Plate B, Figs. 1, 2, and 3 (Page 49), of which the second is known as a "right hand" and the third as a "left hand" knot. The Sehna knots, which are used in the Turkoman, Chinese, many of the Persian, and in some of the Indian rugs, take their name from the city of Sehna in Persia. In tying them, a piece of yarn encircles a thread of warp and is twisted so that its ends appear at the surface, one at each side of the adjacent thread of warp, as is shown in Plate B, Figs. 4, 5, and 6. According as this thread of warp is to the right or the left of the one they encircle, the knots are known as "right-hand" or "left-hand" knots, f but in the appearance of the carpet there is no distinction. If the pile of a rug is carefully parted, the two ends of yarn forming a Sehna knot can be separated; but with the Ghiordes knot this is impossible, as will be understood by studying Plate B, in which Figs. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, and 9 are Ghiordes knots, and Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 10 are Sehna * In a few rare instances a knot is tied to four threads of warp. f Most Sehna knots are right-hand knots, but the Sehna knots of a large proportion of Khorassan rugs are left-hand knots. '***#** 7- a *ttSfi| mmm SHIS' 8-a. i2 ;■ *J *4 (BUS til .10-4. Hi f?##^#^#^#### roill; ffififfftfff J'ji'^p'jjgS l g'lf i£=£*#«##^#S^^^S«##^#* ^##€^#######=S*###^S# ##s#s####t^^^^#M*#f; wtmn* Iggji g grg gt f~gr gll S^ ^ g-s r ^gr: rs: 1 g'zg gggysgggslg p¥yi l . S§^§£^s B§S§? j^tssi 1 ? -*s :g: ggBgtggt£3Eg£§: i ggggl J?S§ f gggjy gg J gft 31 rg ^ ^ ^ ^ S ^ S S g ? S IP s ^ §? 3* gMr 1 t&'^tjT sfg^gge^te'Qe ^pgib* qry j '7 Plate B. — Nos. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, Ghiordes knots. Nos. 4, 5, 6, 10, Sehna knots. No. 11, Weft- overcasting. No. 12, Double-overcasting. No. 13, Weft-selvage. No. 14, Double-selvage. Nos. 15, 16, 17, illustrate one, two, and three threads of weft passing between two rows of knots. 49 50 ORIENTAL RUGS knots. As a rule, the Sehna knots, which permit of closer weaving and clearer definition of pattern, appear in rugs of shorter nap. The nice distinctions in the technique of weaving are rarely understood even by those who are familiar with Oriental rugs. The general pattern, which next to colour is the characteristic that most quickly arrests the attention, is often the sole guide by which novices guess the class. The more experienced will observe if the knot be Ghiordes or Sehna, and examine the finish at the sides and ends ; but few give the peculiarities of the weave the consideration they deserve. This, perhaps, is because only those who have made a special study would believe the constancy with which members of a tribe or locality have followed the same method of tying the knot and inserting the weft. The different methods of treatment by separate tribes are sometimes only slight, but they afford a most important clue for determining the place of origin of doubtful classes. In fact, nearly every class has a typical weave differentiating it from all other classes. To be sure, there are exceptions to the established type which are inevitable; since, for instance, a man from the Fer- aghan district might marry a woman from the adjoining Hamadan district, who, to please her husband, might weave a rug with pattern common to his district but follow the style of weaving that she has been familiar with from childhood. Nevertheless, weavers of a par- ticular district adhere more closely to a typical style of weaving than they do to any other characteristic of a rug. Nor is this sur- prising, since weaving is learned in earliest childhood; and as it contains no elements calculated to stimulate the imagination, it is mechanically followed with stereotyped precision. An innovation in pattern, by copying some strange designs that strike the fancy, is far more likely. These distinctions in weaving may be conveniently divided into those that affect the knot, the warp, and the weft.* The Knot. — Not only may a knot be tied as a Ghiordes or a Sehna knot, but it may have other distinguishing peculiarities; as, for instance, it may be of fine or coarse wool. This is most con- veniently observed at the back, where it will be seen that the knots of rugs such as the Bokhara, Kirman, Joshaghan, and Bergamo are tied with fine yarn; while the knots of other rugs, as the Sam- „ * As far as the writer is aware, no one has hitherto called attention to the many precise distinctions there are in weaving, and to the fact that each class of rugs follows a distinct type of its own. For this reason this branch of the subject is treated more fully than would otherwise be necessary. WEAVING 51 arkand, Bijar, Gorevan, Kurdistan, Yuruk, and Kazak are tied with coarse yarn. Whether the yarn be fine, medium, or coarse, all spe- cimens of any class will show a remarkable conformity. Also in some rugs the knots are drawn very tight against the warp, while in others the yarn encircles the warp loosely. Any one who has examined the back of many Sarouks, Kashans, Kirmans, or Daghes- tans, and rubbed the finger-nail against them, could not possibly mistake them for a Shiraz, Kulah, Yuruk, or Karabagh, which are less tightly woven. Again, as a result of using yarn in which the double thread that forms two or more ply has been very loosely or very tightly twisted together, there is some difference in the di- rection or slant of the strands forming the yarn, where it shows at the back, though this feature is not pronounced. For example, in most Afghans, Yuruks, Bijars, and others the strands of yarn where it crosses the warp in forming the knot lie for the most part in a direction parallel to the weft; while in other rugs, as Mosuls, Kurdistans, and Kazaks, the strands of yarn slant irregularly. Furthermore, in some rugs, as the Melez and Yuruks, as a result of the threads of yarn being strung rather far apart, each half of a knot encircling a thread of warp stands out at the back distinctly from the other with clear cut edges; while in many rugs, as the Shiraz or Senna, each half is very closely pressed together. Also in some rugs, as Sarabends and Afshars, each of these half knots where they show at the back have the same length, measured in a direction parallel to the warp, as width, measured in a direction parallel to the weft; while in such rugs as the Kazaks, since the yarn generally consists of several ply, the length exceeds the width; and in a few rugs the length is less than the width. The Warp. — The appearance of the back of a rug is partly due to the relative positions of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot. If, for instance, in any Kazak a pin be thrust through the nap wherever a single perpendicular line of one colour appears at the surface, it will be seen that each of the two threads of warp encircled by a single knot lie side by side with equal prominence. This is shown in Plate B, Figs. 7 and 7a (Page 49), in which the former represents a section of a rug cut transversely to the threads of warp, and the latter the appearance of the rug at the back. The same will be found true of Beluchistans, Feraghans, Yuruks, and many others. If, however, a Kulah, Persian-Kurdish, or Karabagh be similarly examined, it will be seen that one thread of warp to 52 ORIENTAL RUGS each knot is depressed, so that the back has a slightly corrugated appearance (as in Plate B, Figs. 8 and 8a). And in the case of a Bijar or Sarouk it will be seen that one thread of warp, included in every knot, has been doubled under so as to be entirely concealed from view; with the result that the foundation of warp has a double thickness, which makes the rug much stronger, as in Plate B, Fig. 9, representing a Ghiordes knot, and Fig. 10 representing a Sehna knot. To be sure, it occasionally happens that in rugs of a particular class some may have each thread of warp included in a knot equally prominent and others may have one slightly depressed; or that in rugs of another class some may have one thread of warp depressed and others may have it entirely concealed ; but as a rule these tribal features show a remarkable constancy. These relative positions of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot are partly due to the degree of closeness with which the threads of warp are strung, also partly to the method of inserting the threads of weft or "filling" between the rows of knots ; but more than all else they are due to the way one end of the knots is pulled when they are tied. The Weft. — In the character and arrangement of weft are technical differences that are more serviceable than any other feature for distinguishing between the rugs of different tribes and districts. So subtle are some of them that they can be learned only by long and painstaking study, and are appreciated by few ex- cept native weavers. Nevertheless, to any one who will carefully examine almost any well-known classes, it will be apparent that these differences in the weave are real, and that they are sufficiently constant to differentiate one class from another. The fine brown weft of the Bokhara, or equally fine bluish weft of a Sarouk that is almost concealed between firmly tied knots ; the fine thread of cotton weft passing but once between two rows of knots and covered only by the transverse warp of the Sehna ; the coarse thread of cotton weft similarly passing but once between two rows of knots in the Hamadan ; the coarse thread of cotton weft that once crossing and recrossing appears irregularly between appressed rows of knots in Kerman- shahs; the bead-like appearance of the threads of weft that, as a rule, pass many times between two rows of knots in Genghas; the crudely spun weft of coarse diameter crossing and recrossing once between the rows of knots in modern Mosuls; the very fine reddish brown weft that entirely conceals from view the warp in old Ber- gamos, — are features peculiar to these separate classes with which '; Plate 8. Hamadan Rug WEAVING 53 every rug expert is familiar. The weft of many other classes is equally distinctive, though there are exceptions to the types. It should be remembered, however, that the weave of many rugs woven over a hundred and fifty years ago is different from the weave of rugs woven only fifty years ago; and that many modern pieces cheaply made for commercial purposes are more crudely woven than were the same classes thirty years ago. These distinctions in the weft relate to the material of which it is made, its colour, the size of the diameter, the way in which it is spun, to its loose or compressed condition between separate rows of knots, as well as to the number of times it crosses the warp between them, and to whether it is inserted with much or little slack. Most rugs are woven with woollen weft of a natural colour, but occasion- ally it has a reddish brown, a blue, or a yellow tint. When cotton, jute, or hemp are used, they are almost invariably of natural colour; only in a very few pieces, as some of the Kulahs, are both wool and jute ever used in the same piece. The weft of some classes, as Bokharas, Sarouks, and Bergamos, is of a very small diameter, and of others, as the Hamadans and Kurdistans, it is of relatively large diameter. In some classes, as the Karajes and Genghas, the weft is tightly spun like twine; while in the Beluchistans, Mosuls, and Kurdistans it is loosely spun, so that the projecting fibres of wool give a rough appearance to its surface. Also the weavers of some districts invariably compress very firmly the yarn of weft between every two rows of knots, while other weavers compress it only to a slight degree; as, for instance, in the Afghan, Tabriz, and Kirman the rows of knots are pressed down so firmly that the weft is almost concealed at the back and the trans- verse threads of warp are entirely covered; whilst, on the other hand, in the Karabagh or Kazak between every two rows of knots the weft and part of the transverse threads of warp are exposed to view. According as the rows of knots are pressed down upon the threads of weft or not, one of the two halves of each separate knot, as shown at the back, may extend slightly or very much beyond the other in the direction of the length of the rug, or each of them may lie in a straight line at right angles to the warp. Comparing Kazak, Kutais, and Tiflis rugs, for example, it will be noticed that as a rule the line thus formed in Tiflis rugs is nearly an even, clear cut line at right angles to the warp, that in the Kutais part of one knot extends beyond the other, while in Kazaks this unevenness is even more 54 ORIENTAL RUGS conspicuous. Or again, if typical Shirvans, Kabistans, and Daghes- tans be compared, it will be noticed that in Shirvans the half-knots, or parts of the knot encircling the two adjacent threads of warp, are often inclined at an angle of at least thirty degrees to the line of weft so as to present a serrated appearance, but that the alignment formed by knots of Daghestans is nearly even, and that of Kabistans is intermediate. To be sure, there are exceptions to this rule, but these features are remarkably constant. The number of times that a thread of weft is inserted between two rows of knots varies with the practice of different localities, but is almost constant in each locality. Weavers of Sehna rugs insert only a single thread of weft between every two rows of knots, which winds in front of and behind alternate threads of warp, with the result that the back of these rugs have a checkered or quincunx appearance, caused by minute portions of exposed warp and weft crossing each other at right angles. In Hamadans a much heavier thread of weft passes only once before and behind alternate threads of warp, so that the appearance of the weave is very similar to that of Sehnas.* In almost all other rugs the weft crosses twice, that is, across and back once, between every two rows of knots so as to com- pletely encircle each thread of warp. The weave of a few rugs, as some Anatolians, shows the weft crossing three times, that is, twice in one direction and once in the opposite direction. In the Genghas, Tcherkess, Bergamos, and in many rugs over one hundred and fifty years old, the threads of weft frequently cross many times; and it is not unusual for the number to vary in different parts of the same rug. In Plate B, Figs. 15, 16, and 17 (Page 49), is illustrated the appearance of the back of rugs in which a thread of weft crosses once, twice, and three times between two adjacent rows of knots. There are likewise rugs in which the number varies with methodical regularity; for instance, in Khorassans it is usual to find an extra thread of weft inserted at intervals of every few rows of knots; in many Herats the threads of weft cross twice between several successive rows of knots, then three times between the following several rows, and so continue to alternate; and in some of the Kulahs a thread of woollen weft that crosses twice alternates with a single coarser thread of jute. * A few of the weavers about Gozene in Asia Minor make rugs with a double foundation, in which a single thread of coarse weft crosses twice between parallel rows of threads of warp. Only rarely is this method followed in other districts. WEAVING 55 As the shuttle passes back and forth, the thread of weft may be allowed considerable slack, so that when it is pressed down by the comb it will fit about the sides of the warp; or it may be drawn tightly across, so that it has a tendency to displace the threads of warp. If, for instance, a Hamadan and one of the Feraghans which, unlike the majority of them, has only one thread of weft crossing between the rows of knots, be examined, it will be seen that in the Hamadan the weft crosses with hardly any slack, so that the warp stands out clearly and well defined at the back; but that in the Feraghan the weft crosses with much slack, so that it folds about the warp, which accordingly seems slightly imbedded in it at the back. In some rugs the weft is passed across once with very slight slack, and as it recrosses it is allowed much slack. These features of the weave, which are followed with remarkable constancy in the same class, can be observed to advantage in a fragment of a rug cut transversely to the direction of the warp. If, for instance, the weft which crosses and recrosses between the rows of knots be carefully removed so as not to disturb its mould, it will be noticed in the case of many rugs that each thread of yarn has a similar shape of moder- ately deep undulations, which show how it conformed to the warp and indicate how slack it was when inserted. In the case of a few rugs, as the Luristans, each thread will likewise have similar undu- lations, but they will be very prominent. If, on the other hand, the weft be removed from some classes, as the Tabriz, Sarouk, and Kashan, one of the two threads will be almost straight or have slight undulations, while the other thread will have deep undulations. The weft of the Herez, Herats, old Khorassans, and Koniehs have the same peculiarities, excepting that the thread with very slight un- dulations is of three or four ply, while the other is of a single ply. The only instruments employed in weaving are the knife, comb, and scissors. The first is used, after each row of knots has been tied, to cut the ends of yarn to nearly the proper length; the second, to press firmly each row of knots; and the last, to trim the nap with care, so that the finished product may present an even and compact appearance. Finish of Sides. — As the sides are constantly exposed to wear weavers of different districts strengthen them in different ways, which may be designated as Weft Overcasting, Double Over- casting, Weft Selvage, Double Selvage, and Added Selvage. Each of these terms, though not euphonious, suggests the method employed. 56 ORIENTAL RUGS In Weft Overcasting (Plate B, Fig. 11, Page 49) the thread of weft, after encircling the threads of warp to which the knots are tied, is wound about a much heavier cord that is strung at the side of the rug for a space equal to the thickness of the knots. It then partly encircles the threads of warp between the next two rows of knots as it passes to the other side, when it is wound about the heavy cord there. As this process continues, the cords at the sides are completely over- cast with the thread of weft. When the sides have a Double Over- casting (Plate B, Fig. 12), heavy yarn is wound about the cord that has previously been encircled by the weft. Frequently several threads of yarn take the place of a single heavy cord. Weft Selvage (Plate B, Fig. 13) is made by placing two or more heavy cords instead of a single one at the side of the warp, and encircling them by the weft in figure-eight fashion. As they extend beyond the rows of knots they form a plain flat selvage. The Double Selvage (Plate B, Fig. 14) is used among nomadic tribes such as the Beluches and Afghans, whose rugs receive an unusual amount of hard wear, so that an extra selvage is necessary. In adding this extra selvage the threads of weft are carried about the heavy cords, as in weft selvage, and then the extra yarn is wound over it in figure-eight fashion so as again to encircle the heavy cords. In Added Selvage the heavy cords are not encircled by the weft, but are attached to the side of the rug by the extra yarn that winds about them figure-eight fashion, and also encircles two or more adjoining threads of warp. Some- times also the selvage is "Mixed," or made by the weft encircling only one or two of the heavy cords, and then an extra yarn is wound about these and the remaining cord or cords. Moreover, the Double Overcasting and Double Selvage may be "attached" more firmly to the sides of the rug by the yarn passing in figure-eight fashion about the adjacent thread or threads of warp between the two rows of knots. When a Double Overcasting is thus "attached," it is somewhat similar to a two-cord Double Selvage. These are the principal methods of finishing the sides, though they are sometimes modified by tribal customs. Simple as they seem, skill is required in both overcasting and making the selvage; for if carelessly done the sides are frequently made to curl. This is occasionally found to be the defect of old rugs, the worn sides of which have been recently overcast by inexperienced weavers. When such is the case, removing the stitches and overcasting with more care will remove the defect. * '■ ^VV A Plate 9. Sarouk Rug \kP: V \ .' ,v'AV' WEAVING 57 Finish of Ends. — The ends, which receive more attention than the sides, are treated in several different ways; and in many rugs a distinction exists between the treatment of each end. The simplest finish is where the warp and weft are woven like the threads of a kilim, and extend beyond the pile as a web, which may be exceedingly short, or, as in Beluches and Afghans, several inches long. Frequently the ends are finished by a selvage formed by cords heavier than the weft braided into the warp; or the upper end may be doubled back and hemmed. It is not unusual to find both web and selvage; but though the finish be web, selvage, or web and selvage, the warp of the end finished last generally forms a fringe, and often each end will have a fringe. Sometimes each separate thread of warp hangs loose; sometimes a number a foot or more in length are twisted together in cords; and again they are knotted or are tied to one another diagonally so as to form a network from which hang the loose ends. Very frequently the loops formed by the warp that encircled the rod extend beyond the web at the lower end of the rug, or else are braided about the ultimate thread of weft in the web. Though the warp and weft are generally undyed in the body of the rug, the web of the ends is very frequently coloured. Some of the webs, particularly those of the Beluches, are embroidered; and through others, as the Kurdistans, a parti- coloured cord runs transversely; still others, as Bergamos, are adorned with shells, beads, or other articles to avert the evil eye. In the study of rugs it should be remembered that the effect of rough usage is so considerable that in old pieces the webs of the ends have frequently disappeared, leaving short fringes composed of the ends of warp from which some rows of knots have been re- moved, and that recent overcasting of the sides may take the place of former selvage. The many characteristics of knot, warp, weft, sides, and ends, with all the variations made by innumerable tribes, remarkably constant in their methods, are technical peculiarities that are un- interesting to those who feel only an aesthetic interest in rugs, yet they demand the most careful consideration of whoever would learn to differentiate accurately between the many classes. Though admitting of exceptions, these peculiarities are real and definite, yet their analyses often require the subtlest perception of small though exact distinctions, without which expert understanding would be impossible. CHAPTER VI DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS OWEVER well woven, however resplendent in rich modulations of colour, Oriental rugs would quickly lose their fascination if in patterns and designs there were not at least some partial expression of the simple lives of the people, of their religious feelings, and of that veiled mysticism which per- vades the thought of every Eastern race. In all nomadic rugs as well as in many others are innumerable reminders of common life. It may be only crude outlines of the goat or camel, or realistically drawn rose and lily; but even these are suggestive of associations. Religion, too, exercised on the character of rugs an important influence, which is expressed in the symbolism of both designs and colour. Without a doubt, some of these well-known designs have been transmitted from the earliest times, and were once associated with different forms of idolatry. Thus, among the old Babylonians the sun and moon, which are sometimes seen in the old pieces, rep- resented particular deities; and very many of the oldest Chinese rugs that remain also contain symbols of their deities. In the early religion of Iran, which over 1000 years B.C. was reduced to a system by Zoroaster, the elements were worshipped, so that designs representing these elements would likewise represent the divine forces they personified. This ancient fire worship of the Parsees, which even to-day has a few devotees in parts of Persia, and the kin- dred sun worship have added much to the symbolism of Oriental rugs. Buddhism also has contributed its share; and with the spread of Mohammedanism appeared a Saracenic influence that is frequently recognised. Even the two great sects of Mohammedan followers, the Shiites and Sunnites, have had distinct effects in the use of designs, as the former employed animal figures and the latter prohibited them. 1 • ifrmTr~ n ii in """ •■'■•-•- • Plate 10. Sarabend Rug ' ->^^^^. DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS 59 There was, moreover, a symbolism that in a manner expressed the vague philosophic teachings of the ancient races. It was but natural that the early weaver engaged in tedious sedentary work, often requiring many months of constant application to complete, should endeavour to express therein not only artistic taste, but also the spirit of his innermost thoughts. So as he wove he sometimes left the result, though poorly defined and little understood to- day, of that struggle to interpret the great mysteries of the visible and unseen universe, from which arose the crude beginnings of philosophy.* The patterns, however, of many Oriental rugs are chiefly decora- tive. Even a casual examination shows that in all of them the col- oured knots of the surface represent a border surrounding a central field. The former serves much the same function to the latter as a frame to a picture; yet its office is in no wise subordinate. Nor is there any part of the pattern more useful in determining the place of its origin. For this reason it is well to clearly define the special names which in this work are applied to its different parts. The lineal divisions are designated "Stripes," though they are frequently spoken of as separate borders. At or near the centre of the border is the main stripe, which is generally accompanied by a much narrower pair, one on each side, known as "Guard stripes." Very narrow stripes are sometimes called "Ribbon stripes," and those of only one or two knots in width are called "Lines." The latter are of solid colour or have the simplest geometric device. The decoration of the ribbon stripes is also necessarily simple; but in the main stripe of artistic rugs the patterns are often exceedingly elaborate, of exquisite colours, and co-ordinate in character with those of the field. The fields display even greater diversity of pattern than the * Sir George Birdwood has made the statement that "A deep and compli- cate symbolism, originating in Babylonia and possibly in India, pervades every denomination of Oriental carpet. Thus the carpet itself prefigures space and eter- nity, and the general pattern or filling, as it is technically termed, the fleeting, finite universe of animated beauty. Every colour has its significance; and the design, whether mythological or natural, human, bestial, or floral, has its hidden meaning. Even the representatives of men hunting wild beasts have their special indications. So have the natural flowers of Persia their symbolism, wherever they are introduced, generally following that of their colours. The very irregu- larities either in drawing or colouring, to be observed in almost every Oriental carpet, and invariably in Turkoman carpets, are seldom accidental, the usual deliberate intention being to avert the evil eye and insure good luck." 60 ORIENTAL RUGS borders. Frequently they are covered with a heterogeneous mass of detached and unrelated figures, as in many of the nomadic rugs; or, on the other hand, are entirely covered with repetitive patterns, as in the Turkomans; or with intricate and correlated designs, as in the diaper and floral patterns of so many of the Persian and In- dian rugs. Others consist of a background of solid colour on which appear isolated formal designs, as in some of the Khorassans, or medallions on which are represented smaller figures, as in some of the old Sehnas and Feraghans. Occasionally the medallions are so large as to extend to the sides and ends of the fields, and thus sepa- rate the corners into nearly triangular shaped sections, such as are characteristic of a number of Persian and one or two Caucasian rugs. In a few of the latter, also, the fields are covered with large geometric figures suggesting the medallions. It is only within com- paratively modern times that weavers have used .solid colours for large portions of the fields. The intent no doubt was a saving in labour and pains, but the effect is frequently most gratifying; as when, for instance, the space beneath the arch of Asia Minor prayer rugs is of a uniform red, blue, or cream, relieved only by a grace- fully suspended lamp, the tree of life, or some other emblem of immortality. The patterns of prayer rugs are not only pleasing, but have a peculiar importance, as weavers of certain sections of the country adhere so strictly to time-honoured traditions that the shape of the arch, or mihrab, which is the principal feature, often denotes the class, as well as the group, to which they belong. Some of these arches are illustrated in Plates C and D (Pages 61 and 63), from which it will be seen that in Persian rugs they are formed by gracefully curv- ing lines, but that in rugs of other groups, with the exception of a very few old Ghiordes pieces, they are geometric. The peculiarities of the arches of the several classes, also, are observable; as those of the Beluchistans, which are rectilinear and relatively high, and those of the Bokharas, which are tent-shaped, flat, and small. In the Caucasian group they have a marked resemblance to one another and also to those of the Turkoman rugs, but are larger than the latter. Again, the arch of almost all Asia Minor rugs rises higher than those of any others, excepting the Persian, and extends from one side of the field to the other. In many of them a panel is placed above the spandrel, and occasionally a second panel is placed beneath the field. Above the niche of some Asia Minor and Caucasian prayer rugs ^s s> 10 / / \ s, XJ 14 15 16 Plate C. — Prater Arches of Persian, Caucasian, and Central Asiatic Rugs No. 1, Antique silk. No. 2, Kermanshah. No. 3, Khorassan. No. 4, Sarouk. No. 5, Persian, XVI Century. No. 6, Kashan. No. 7, Feraghan. No. 8, Shiraz. No. 9, Daghestan, Kabistan, Shirvan, Chichi, Kazak, Karabagh. No. 10, Kazak. No. 11, Shirvan. No. 12, Karabagh (not usual). No. 13, Beluchistan. No. 14, Bokhara, Tekke. No. 15, Khiva. No. 16, Beshire. 61 62 ORIENTAL RUGS is woven a small rhomboidal figure, where the suppliant plants the pebble or bit of earth that he has brought from Mecca; and at the sides of a few arches are crude figures, where are placed the hands during the act of worship. More than one arch is the exception; but now and then are seen two and even four, one above the other, or several parallel to one another. These and other special features associated with prayer rugs will be considered more fully in subse- quent chapters. The smaller designs that appear in rugs and compose the general pattern are distinguished as geometric and floral ornamentation. The former is adopted in those countries where the population is principally nomadic; and the latter is the accepted style in coun- tries where exist numerous towns and cities in which the arts have been cultivated and where a large percentage of the population have enjoyed an advanced state of society. Thus in Caucasia, Turkestan, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan geometric designs are characteristic of the rugs; but in China, India, Persia, and part of Asia Minor floral designs prevail. Sir George Birdwood, an eminent authority on Oriental rugs, has made the statement that the geometric designs are found among the lower Turanian and the floral among the higher Aryan. But it seems most probable that the adoption of the geo- metric or floral style of ornamentation is due not so much to racial distinctions as to the state to which the textile art had advanced among the different peoples and to the waves of influence that at times spread over the countries. Thus the early rugs of Asia Minor had patterns that were more geometric than those of later times, and during the period when the Mongols ruled in Persia geo- metric patterns were more frequently employed in the rugs of that country than subsequently. In all rugs, however, some trace of the floral design appears. Even in the Turkoman weavings, the pattern of which is strictly geometric, some vestige of the tree of life is manifest. In the fields of Caucasian rugs, in which are represented squares, octagons, triangles, diagonals, lozenges, stars, etc., the weavers have depicted designs that are almost as geometric as those of the Turkoman rugs by which they have been influenced ; but, on the other hand, large numbers of the border designs are distinctly floral. In the rugs of China and Asia Minor are found both geometric and floral ornamen- tation, the latter predominating in pieces woven during the last two centuries, and the former in those of earlier date. Among ,,/ \ — VW> > — - V i fM\ iiQJ ^xsxxxza &&&&&& 12 0> O n<>) i V > < 14 X5 Plate D. — Prater Arches op Asia Minor Rugs j6 Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, Ghiordes. Nos. 5, 6, 7, Kulah. No. 8, Ladik. Nos. 9, 10, Bergamo. Nos. 11, 12, Melez. No. 13, Kir-sehehr, Mudjar. Nos. 14, 15, Konieh. No. 16, Anatolian. 63 64 ORIENTAL RUGS the woven fabrics of India and Persia, however, few traces of the geometric pattern remain; but vines, leaves, and flowers form the favourite theme for decoration. The floral patterns are the result of many centuries of growth, that reached its highest development in the Persian carpets of the XVI and XVII Centuries; and since then till the present time they have continued as the most characteristic features of the rugs of that country and India. They represent the highest technique of the weaver. In the borders are generally represented vines from which are pendant rosettes, palmettes, or flowers; and in the fields, particularly those of the fine antique rugs, are a profusion of floral forms realistically portrayed. On long, gracefully twining and intertwining stems is often the rose, pink, violet, lotus, crocus, narcissus, or daisy. But if the rug is more modern, in its field of uniform colour may be represented a central medallion covered with delicate tracings enriched by bright-coloured conventionalised flowers. In the general pattern of all rugs are interwoven particular de- signs or motives that give them a distinctive character and render the greatest assistance in distinguishing the groups and classes. Thus the serrated leaf and wine cup (Plate I, Fig. 1, opp. Page 226) is found only in Caucasian and old Armenian rugs; and the design repre- sented in Plate H, Fig. 10 (opp. Page 194), suggestive of some Chinese character, is found almost exclusively in Kulahs. Not only are all designs important as aids in classification, but they have a special interest, as it is maintained by writers of the highest authority that when employed by the earliest weavers each had a symbolic mean- ing. To be sure, the origin of many has been lost in the remote past and is unknown even to those who now employ them; but others still represent definite ideas, as they did centuries ago, and portray to some extent the thought of the weaver. They therefore deserve the most careful study. Few of these designs have been transmitted from a more remote past or have been more universally employed than has been the figure S or co. It appears in each of the groups of Oriental rugs ex- cepting the Chinese; and two of the forms it assumes are exceed- ingly like the arms of the swastika and parts of the fret as occasion- ally seen in Chinese designs. In Indian rugs it is rarely found except in the borders, which may have been copied from those of other countries. It is very commonly seen in the Beluchistans, Plate 11. Carpet from Northwestern Persia Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS 65 Tekkes, and Beshires, of the Central Asiatic group; and in the rugs of the Persian group that show nomadic influences. There is probably not a single class of the Caucasian group, nor any of the Asia Minor group, with the exception of the old Ghiordes, in which it is not some- times represented. It may be seen near the corner of the Asia Minor "Dragon and Phoenix" carpet of the XIV Century, illustrated in Plate 20 (opp. Page 88) ; and appears in some of the old Armenian carpets, which are believed to be even older. That it was associated with sun worship and regarded as an emblem of light and the deity is the accepted belief. It is possible, however, that it was intended by some weavers to represent the serpent, which among many differ- ent races is emblematic of superhuman knowledge. Probably no other design has been more universally employed than the swastika, which appears in the textile fabrics of North American Indians, on the Maya ruins of Yucatan, among the mon- uments of the Nile, and on the temples of India. Widely as is its dis- tribution, its most usual form of intersecting right angles is found in each of these countries. It is not improbable that it originated in China, where it is a most common decorative motive, and was almost invariably represented in the borders and in many of the medallions of rugs woven before the beginning of the XVIII Century. It is also very frequently seen in the rugs of Samarkand, and occasionally in those of Caucasia. It seldom appears in the rugs of Persia, Asia Minor, or Turkestan. The universality of the design indicates its great antiquity, yet its primitive symbolic meaning of abundance, fertility, and prosperity has never been lost. Some of its different forms are shown in Plate O, Pigs. 5a, 5b, 5c, 5d, 5e, and 5f (Page 291). The reciprocal trefoil (Plate F, Fig. 17, opp. Page 158) is a very usual design in Caucasian and Persian rugs ; it is often found in some of the rugs of India and in Beluchistans, but is very rarely seen in other classes of the Central Asiatic or in the Chinese and Asia Minor groups. Its origin is uncertain, but since it appears in the ' Polish Carpets " and other antique Persian carpets of strictly floral pattern, where its drawing is more elaborate than in modern rugs, it is not improbable that it is the conventionalised form of the lily or a spray bearing three leaves, and that it has the emblematic sig- nificance of the tree form. Among all primitive races the sun, moon, and stars have been associated with their religion, so that it is surprising that so few 66 ORIENTAL RUGS emblems of them are recognised in rugs. In the theology of the Chaldees, from which the earliest weavers must have received in- spiration, the sun was regarded as one of their principal deities and the moon as another. The sun is generally represented by a plain circle, a circle with diameters intersecting at right angles, or a circle with small ovals intersecting at right angles; the moon is represented by the crescent. Of much more frequent occurrence is the eight-pointed star, another inheritance of those ancient times when all primitive races worshipped the heavenly bodies. It repre- sented the female principle of the Chaldean sun god; and it is believed, too, that it represented the deity to the Medes, ancestors of many of the present Persians. There is a tradition among some Eastern races that King Solomon wore a ring of diamonds arranged in the form of an eight-pointed star, and also a crown containing a large star of which the eight points and centre were composed of precious stones of different colour. A star now and then seen in rugs with colours so arranged is known as "Mohammedan's jewel design." The six-pointed star, a Jewish symbol for the "shield of David," was adopted as a talisman by some of the Moslems. All of these stars are chiefly nomadic symbols, they rarely if ever are seen in the rugs of China or India, they are only occasionally found in those of Persia, and are of most frequent occurrence in the Cau- casian pieces. Another design is an octagonal-shaped disc (Plate O, Fig. 10, Page 291), usually about two and a half inches in diameter, on the face of which and extending the full width are figures somewhat like hour-glasses placed at right angles to one another. It seems not improbable that it is of the same origin as the large designs that ap- pear in the field of the Holbein rug of the XV Century, illustrated in Plate 21 (opp. Page 92). It is a very old motive, and is sometimes regarded as a dial symbolising the diurnal motion of the earth. It is of very frequent occurrence in nomadic rugs; and is found in Beluchistans, in nearly all Caucasians, in some rugs from Asia Minor, and in only a very few from Persia. The zigzag line, known as the water motive, is found in many of the rugs of China, India, Persia, Caucasia, and Asia Minor, as well as in the Beluchistans and Beshires of the Central Asiatic group, though in some instances it appears as little more than a serrated line. It is represented in the narrow guard-stripes of some of the Western Asia Minor carpets of the XV Century. According to Mr. COLOUR PLATE III — MOSUL RUG Long before the commercial instinct had been felt among the weavers of the Orient, one or more of them dwelling in the Mesopotamian valley tied the knots of this old Mosul. The central field is of cameVs hair that shades from a rich dark chestnut at one end to lighter tones at the other, and is enlivened by bright flowers representing those found on the river s banks. This variation of ground colour, the small geometric designs at the extreme ends of the fields, the eight-pointed stars of the main stripe of the border, and some of the drawing are nomadic char- acteristics. The dainty vine and flower of the narrow guard stripes, on the other hand, show Persian influence. This piece represents a type of which few now remain. Property of the Author \\\ , DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS 67 John Mumford, "even in the oldest Egyptian symbolism a zigzag line stood for water and by implication for eternity; and a succes- sion of these arranged to represent the sea has long been a recog- nised carpet design in India, China, and Persia." One of the most common designs is what has been called the " latch-hook." When there is a long succession of latch-hooks with the straight ends resting on a line and the hooked ends inclined in the same direction, as in Plate K, Fig. 20 (opp. Page 230), they are called "running latch-hooks." Since they appear in the Dragon and Phoenix rug (opp. Page 88), that was probably woven about the end of the XIV Century, they are evidently a very old design, which not improb- ably was derived from the Chinese fret. The hook is of different shapes, and is sometimes perpendicular, sometimes inclined. Its particular function is to shade or subdue the harsh effect of a sudden transition from one colour to another that is entirely different. As such a device is unnecessary in artistic rugs of intricate designs, it is rarely seen in any Indian or Persian piece, excepting the modern Shiraz that frequently adopts geometric patterns; but it is found in all the rugs of Caucasia, Central Asia, and in most of those of Asia Minor. It is in fact as universal as the reciprocal trefoil. In rugs of geometric patterns are occasionally found both Greek and Roman crosses. The latter are represented in most of the Soumak rugs, and appear profusely in old Asia Minor or Armenian rugs, in which they were probably woven with the intent to convey a religious significance; but in many instances crosses are not used symbolically. The design of a comb (Plate O, Fig. 11, Page 291) is a Moham- medan emblem suggestive of cleanliness, yet it is not improbable that it is sometimes intended to represent the instrument employed in pressing the threads of weft closely against the knots. It is found mostly in Caucasian rugs, and rarely in those of other groups. In a large number of the finest carpets woven in Persia three or four centuries ago was represented what is known as the Chinese cloud-band (Plate O, Fig. 7) . It appeared in Persia about the middle of the XV Century, and was conspicuous in the carpets of Herat, Tabriz, and Gilan, as well as in many of the "Polish Carpets." Later it was introduced into Asia Minor, but was never represented in any of the strictly nomadic weavings. It appears in only a very few of the modern rugs, and these are mostly Persian. Nor is it 68 ORIENTAL RUGS recognised in its usual form in any of the Chinese rugs that now exist; though without a doubt it originated with the Chinese, since their early mythology placed the abode of the Supreme Ruler in the Constellation of Ursa Major, of which the stars of the Big Dipper were represented in early art as enveloped in a band of clouds; but in more conventionalised ornamentation the stars are omitted and the band remains. As a motive, then, it is symbolic of heaven and the deity. In almost all rugs are found expressions of vegetable life, as a twig, vine, flower, or tree. Sometimes they are most naturalistic, again they are partly conventionalised, or so disguised, as in nomadic rugs of geometric designs, that only by study and comparison of many forms in a series can their origin be established. This universal adoption of floral form was due to something more than an aesthetic love for the beautiful, since in every country of the East some part of the tree or plant was emblematic. Moreover, a tree form known as the Tree of Life had a religious significance among many races. The Jews were told that in the Garden of Eden grew the "Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil;" and in the Book of Revelation the Apostle John speaks of "The Tree of Life which bore twelve manner of fruits and yielded her fruit every month, and the leaves of the tree were for the healing of the nations." From this pas- sage may have been borrowed the belief of the Mohammedans in the Tree of Life which grew in Paradise, and spread its branches that true believers might rest beneath them and enjoy its fruits and the companionship of beautiful houri. In the ancient lore of China is the Taoist tradition of the Tree of Life, growing by the Sea of Jade, that confers immortality on the fortunate who may gather and eat its fruits; also the tradition of the mountain top where grows the sacred tree on which the elect may climb and mount to heaven. Even among the ancient Chaldees was a story of a tree that grew to heaven and sheltered the earth. In different countries the Tree of Life is represented by different kinds; in Yarkand of Eastern Turkestan it takes the form of a cedar; in Persia it is gen- erally the cypress. Wherever employed it is symbolic of knowledge, resurrection, immortality. No other form of vegetable life was so universally employed in Oriental symbolism as the lotus flower (Plate O, Figs. 16a, b, and c), since the Egyptian, Assyrian, Indian, Chinese, and Persian alike did it reverence. It was, perhaps, first employed emblemati- Plate 12. Carpet from Northwestern Persia Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS 69 cally in the valley of the Nile, but later it was held in high esteem by the inhabitants of India where the floating blossom is regarded as an emblem of the world. It was inseparately associated with Buddha, and its religious significance must have extended with the spread of Buddhism. Professor Goodyear regards a large number of designs that apparently are not related in form as derived from it through a long series of evolutions. During the highest develop- ment of the textile art in Persia it appears most realistically drawn in a large number of the carpets, especially the so-called Ispahans, or Herats, and the so-called Polish. It is also most artistically represented in the fabrics of India, and is a favourite design for Chinese weavers. But in other modern rugs it is seldom used as a motive, and is so conventionalised as often to escape notice. If the lotus was the first flower to be represented in early woven fabrics, as seems not improbable, several others have met with greater favour among modern weavers. Of these the rose, which is cultivated extensively in the gardens of the East, appears in a large number of the rugs of Persia and Asia Minor. Moreover, a pattern frequently seen in many old Persian rugs is an all-over pattern of small bushes with flowering roses. Almost equally popular is the lily, which is characteristic of many of the rugs of India and of a few of Western Asia Minor. The "Euphrates flower," which grows by the river banks of the Mesopotamian valley, is also occasionally found as an all-over pattern in some of the rugs of Western Iran and Southern Caucasia. Less frequently seen and still less frequently recognised, as they are generally woven in small figures, are the daisy, anemone, crocus, narcissus, pink, and violet. All are depicted chiefly on account of their associations and beauty, and whatever emblematic meaning they are intended to convey is generally no more than that of their colours. There are, however, in a few old Persian carpets designs of sunflowers, which were accepted by the Zoroastrians and the earlier sun and fire worshippers as symbols of the sun and emblems of light. Of the fruits of the earth none is more highly esteemed than the pomegranate, which was sculptured in temples of Mesopotamia and embroidered on the robes of Assyrian and Jewish priests. In the days of King Solomon it was cultivated in Palestine, where the Israelites, like modern Persians, made a sherbet by mixing its juice with sugar and spices. At the time of Homer it was cultivated in Phrygia. Now it grows wild over vast tracts of Syria, Persia, and Asia 70 ■ ORIENTAL RUGS Minor. Yet it rarely appears conspicuously in any woven fabrics excepting the Ladik prayer rugs, in which it is invariably seen. Since the weavers of these, whether Christian or Moslem, would probably be familiar with many of the old Jewish and Assyrian rites, it is not unlikely that it refers emblematically to its religious associations rather than symbolises, as has been suggested, the idea of fruitful- ness as expressed in the Turkish wedding custom where the bride throws a pomegranate at her feet that the scattered seed may fore- tell the number of her children. In almost every rug of Persia, India, and Asia Minor there is in some part of the border a vine with pendant leaves, flowers, rosettes, or palmettes ; and even in many Caucasian rugs of geometric pattern the vine with its appendages is seen in conventionalised form. In a few of the more sumptuous carpets, where the draw- ing is elaborate, delicate tendrils bearing flowers or the more formal designs of the Herati border take the place of the vine, from which they were evolved. In such borders the designs generally convey no symbolic meaning, but the simpler vine encircling the field without beginning or end represents symbolically the continuity of purpose and permanency. One of the most interesting designs (Plate O, Fig. 6, Page 291) is known as the Cone, Palm, Mango, Almond, River Loop, and Pear. By some it is believed to represent no more than the closed palm of the hand, since there is an old tradition in Persia that a weaver once asked his little son to devise for him a new design, whereupon the boy thrust his hand into a pot of dye, then placed it sidewise upon a piece of white linen, on which became impressed the "palm" design formed by the hand and incurving small finger. By some it is regarded as a cluster of old Iranian crown jewels. To others, who point to the well-known pattern of the Kashmir weaving, it denotes the bend of the river Jhelum above Srinagar in the valley of Kash- mir; and to Sir George Bird wood it symbolises the flame sacred to ancient fire worshippers. In this work it will be called the Pear, the name now generally applied to it. In the course of the many centuries that have elapsed since its origin, and in its migration through India, Persia, Turkestan, Caucasia, and Asia Minor, it has adopted more strange shapes than any other device. In the rugs of Sarabend it is represented in its best-known form of simple curv- ing lines, in the Bakus its identity is almost lost on account of its geometric appearance, and. in the fabrics of India it is often very Plate 13. Compartment Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS 71 ornate. Though its origin is hidden in the mists of the past, when its antiquity is considered, and also the devotion of the early races to the glowing orb of the sun and to terrestrial fires, it is not sur- prising that it has been regarded as a relic of the Zoroastrian faith of old Iran, symbolising the eternal flames before which the Parsees worshipped. If the floral designs are more beautiful, others are more truly symbolic, and when appearing in rugs of barbaric patterns they are more interesting. Of these the creeping things are represented by the serpent, scorpion, turtle, crab, and tarantula. Among a few races of Asia the serpent, which is found in a few old Persian carpets, has been regarded as emblematic of immortality, but has been more frequently considered as the symbol of knowledge. The scorpion, also, was supposed to represent the idea of knowledge. It does not often appear in woven design, but is sometimes drawn with careful precision in Caucasian fabrics. The turtle or tortoise stands for constancy. What is called the " turtle border " (Plate E, Fig. 3, opp. Page 156), which was probably derived from interlacing arabesques, occurs most frequently in Feraghans and also in some other Persian rugs, as Muskabads, Sarabends, Serapis, and even the Sehnas. The tarantula and crab designs are found exclusively in borders of Caucasian rugs. As their resemblance to the animals they are supposed to represent is remote, it is most probable that they are simply the conventionalised forms of the star and palmette. Among the designs seen in Chinese rugs are several not found in any others. Of these the dragon, originally intended as a symbol of the infinite, denotes imperial power; the stork, long life; the duck, conjugal felicity; the bat, happiness; and the butterfly, a spirit. These designs will be noticed in the chapter on Chinese rugs. With few exceptions the only modern rugs in which birds are represented are the Persian. The drawing as a rule is far from natural; but in the fine old carpets it is often so accurate as to show unmistakably the order to which they belong. Several of them were used symbolically, as the bird of paradise, suggestive of felicity; the peacock, symbol of fire; the eagle, emblem of power. The atti- tude, to be sure, in which they appear, affects in a measure their symbolic meaning; as an eagle in flight denotes good fortune, but one in the act of descending denotes ill luck. As the Mohammedan religion interdicts portraying birds and beasts as well as human forms, they are rarely seen in any rug of 72 ORIENTAL RUGS Western Asia Minor, which is inhabited by the Sunnites, the strict conformists to the law of the Koran; but in Mohammedan countries lying farther to the east, where the Shiites or nonconformists live, animal designs are very common. In modern rugs of Persia and Cau- casia, dogs, goats, and camels are the most popular animal sub- jects, but the drawing is often so poor that the identity is in doubt. In the old carpets, on the other hand, animals and human beings were most realistically drawn, and were intended to represent sym- bolically the weaver's thought. In fact, those masterpieces of Per- sian art known as the "Hunting Carpets" would lose much of their interest if their many forms of animal life were without symbolic meaning. In them the lion is a symbol of victory, power, the sun, and the day; the antelope and unicorn are symbols of restfulness and the moon. The lion destroying an antelope would mean, then, the victory of day over night, or of a powerful over a weak foe. Leopards and hounds likewise symbolise success and fame. There are also mythological creatures, as the phcenix, emblematic of life and resurrection, and the winged djinni or Persian spirits, that often adorn the fields and borders of some of the elaborate antique carpets of Iran. Not only the forms of vegetable and animal life and their rela- tive attitudes to one another were intended to convey a symbolic meaning, but among almost all ancient races colours had a special significance. To the Moslems no colour was more sacred than the green, which, though difficult to produce in beautiful tones, they have placed in the fields of many of their prayer rugs. To them, also, blue was the emblem of eternity, and in the spandrels above the arches it was the symbol of the sky. Though to the Hindoo it denotes ill luck, it was the chosen colour of the Persians, as well as one of the imperial colours of the Chinese. Among all nations yellow, another imperial colour of China, and red are suggestive of joy and happiness. Such colours, when used in conjunction with other emblems, expressed not only beauty, but also different shades of thought. These are but a few of the many motives that are employed by the weaver. Some of them represent objects intimately associated with his daily life. Some of them reflect his thoughts and emo- tions. Others are the still unsolved hieroglyphics of his craft. When, then, we examine some old worn rug, we may see only an exquisite pattern resplendent in the deep rich colours of an art Plate 1-t. Persian Animal Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS 73 now lost; but if to an aesthetic taste be added an interest in a symbolism that expresses something of the thought and life of the weaver, we may find in the study of the various designs another charm that increases with the discovery of any previously hidden meaning. CHAPTER VII RUG WEAVING BEFORE THE XVIII CENTURY I HE RE are no records to definitely indicate in what land the art of rug weaving origi- nated, or to disprove that it developed in- dependently in different lands. It would be unreasonable, then, to assume that rugs were not woven in northern regions as early as in southern. In fact, during the Neo- lithic age the Lake-dwellers of Switzerland grew and spun flax, and it is believed that they had looms. More- over, it is probable that the savages of cold climates soon learned to weave garments with the long wool of their sheep or goats; and the similar process of weaving mats for the floors of their huts would naturally follow. Nevertheless, such evidence as now re- mains points to the civilisations of the Euphrates or the Nile, as the birthplace of this art. Though we do not know when the first rugs were made, without a doubt they existed before the pyramids of Egypt or the palaces of Babylon had risen from the plains. Among the rock-cut tombs of Beni-Hassan in Egypt, that date from about 2500 b. c. are pictures of men with spindles, of looms and weavers. There is also unmistakable evidence of the antiquity of a high state of the textile art among the ruins in the valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates. On carved walls of the palaces of Nineveh, where dwelt the rulers of Assyria over three thousand years ago, are elab- orate drawings indicating that carpets of remarkable workmanship were then in use. In the borders of some of the robes worn by the rulers are designs of rosettes and latch-hooks, and on one is de- picted the tree of life, similar to what may be seen in modern rugs. Nor are ancient writers silent. In the Old Testament are frequent references to woven fabrics. Homer, also, speaks of them in his Odyssey. Herodotus, Diodorus, Pliny, Strabo, in fact almost all classic writers have mentioned them. Moreover, designs on pot- EARLY RUG WEAVING 75 tery, bowls, tiles, and walls, similar in appearance to those found in the oldest existing carpets, carry contributory evidence to their antiquity and character. This art, that necessity created, comfort nourished, and luxury matured, has been a process of slow development. To the mind of some dark tribeswoman of the desert contemplating the rushes gathered from a sluggish stream and strewn upon the floor of her master's hut several thousand years ago, may have been suggested the first idea of a mat. Indeed, from earliest times mats of reeds, straw, bamboo, or other pliable material have been constantly made. At first they were doubtless without ornament; later they were coloured with dyes obtained from roots and herbs to increase their attractiveness; finally designs symbolic of nature or the deity were embroidered on them. As wealth and luxury increased the orna- mentation became more elaborate, until during the rule of the Ca- liphs the mats rivalled in beauty the carpets for which, during the summer months, they were substituted. "On these mats," wrote the eminent authority, Dr. F. R. Martin, "the artist found free scope for displaying as much artistic skill as on the real carpets, and gold threads were intertwined to make them as precious as the most expensive silk and gold carpets." Long, however, before they had reached such a high state of perfection, they would have suggested the idea of making warmer and more durable floor cov- erings. The first of these was a simple web of warp and woof; later they assumed a character not dissimilar to the kilims now made in the lands of their origin. With further advance, more elaborate carpets and tapestries were made; but it was not until the art had been developing for a great many centuries, that there ap- peared those most perfect products of knotted pile that were similar in kind but superior in quality to the modern pieces. Slow as was this development, as early as the Christian era, the work of the most skilled weavers of the Orient deserved to be classed as a fine art. During the time of the Sassanian kingdom (extending from about 226 a. d. to 632 a. d.) carpets of elaborate design and finish were produced in Mesopotamia and Syria. Most of them were of the wool of sheep or goats; and in them were represented designs of trees, birds, animals, and other figures. Other pieces were made of silk richly embroidered with silver and gold. More- over, authentic evidence from the VI Century a. d. not only gives us positive knowledge of the marvellous workmanship of that time, 76 ORIENTAL RUGS but enables us to conjecture through what a long period of progres- sion the artisans had been labouring to arrive at such results. Dr. Karabacek, director of the Imperial Library of Vienna, in his mono- graph "Die Persische Nadelmalerei Susandschird," gave the fol- lowing description of the "Spring of Chosroes" carpet: "When Ctesiphon, the residence of the Sassanides, fell into the hands of the Arabs in the year 637 a. d., they found in the royal palace, the ruins of which still remain, a colossal carpet of 1051 square metres,* which was originally made for Chosroes I. His successor, Anoschar (531-579 a. d.), used it also, but only during the stormy weather, when remaining in the gardens was impracti- cable. The festivities were then transferred to the palace, where a garden with the beauty of springtime was represented by the pat- tern of the carpet. This was the Winter Carpet that was called in Persia the Spring of Chosroes. Its material, which was marvel- lous and costly, consisted of silk, gold, silver, and precious stones. On it was represented a beautiful pleasure ground with brooks and interlacing paths, with trees and flowers of springtime. On the wide borders surrounding it were represented flower-beds in which precious stones coloured blue, red, yellow, white, and green denoted the beauty of the flowers. Gold imitated the yellow-coloured soil and defined the borders of the brooks, where the water was repre- sented by crystals. Gravel paths were indicated by stones of the size of pearls. The stalks of trees were of gold and silver, the leaves and flowers of silk, the fruits of many -coloured stones." As the value of this carpet was estimated at about three quar- ters of a million dollars, it was regarded as too precious to fall to the lot of a single captor, and was accordingly divided into segments to be distributed as booty among the soldiers. Even if during this period there was no other fabric so valuable and elaborate, it repre- sented the importance of the textile art during the dynasty of the Sassanides. During the Caliphate (632 to 1258 a. k D.) the Moslem rulers, devoted to luxury, preserved the art treasures of their conquered subjects and encouraged them to renewed efforts. This is particu- larly true of the Caliphs and sultans of Syria and Egypt. A carpet that adorned the banquet hall of the Caliph Hisham of Egypt, who died 743 a. d., was of silk interwoven with strands of gold, and had a length of three hundred feet and a breadth of one hundred and * The equivalent of 106 feet square. Plate 15. Persian Animal Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York EARLY RUG WEAVING 77 fifty feet. All of the rooms of the Egyptian palaces, occupied by the sultans, contained carpets of silk and satin; and the mosques of Syria were similarly furnished. In the year 1067 a.d. one of the Caliphs was forced to sell his accumulated treasures, which con- sisted, besides jewels and works of art, of about four thousand bales of carpets. Dr. Martin states that a single one of these bales con- tained several hundred perfect carpets, which were woven in silk and gold, and that some of them contained portraits of entire royal families. One of them, valued at about $300,000, was made for the Caliph el Mirz li alia in the year 964 a. d. It was of blue silk, on which were represented the heavens and the earth, seas and rivers, as well as the holy cities Mecca and Medina. Such was the char- acter of some of the carpets woven during the days of the Caliphs. As the imperfect records which have been left us indicate that the finest carpet collections of this period were in the mosques and palaces of Syria and Egypt, it has been assumed that they were woven by the native artisans. To some extent this is doubtless true, as rug weaving was one of the oldest industries of these coun- tries. But it is more probable that most of them were made else- where and were acquired as presents or by purchase. Some were made in Armenia, Assyria, and Turkestan; but the largest number, as well as the most costly and elaborate, doubtless came from the same hills and towns of Persia where many of the finest pieces are woven to-day. In several of these towns as many as three or four hundred looms were constantly at work; and since the carpets con- sisted of warp and weft only, it is probable that they were produced far more rapidly than modern rugs in which knots are tied to the warp. But if they lacked the richness of deep, heavy pile, they were elaborately woven with threads of gold and silver, and were often embellished with precious stones. ANTIQUE PERSIAN CARPETS To the tendency of overestimating the age of art objects to which antiquity adds value, there is no exception in the case of Oriental rugs, yet there is good reason to believe that a few pieces still exist that were woven in Persia as early as the XIII or XIV Century. Indeed, we cannot positively affirm that there may not be religiously preserved some relic of the Seljukian dynasty, which ruled in Persia till about 1150 a.d., for we have little knowl- 78 ORIENTAL RUGS edge of what some of the old mosques which no Christian has ever entered may contain; but it is more probable that the oldest remain- ing pieces belong to the Mongolian period, which began with the invasion of the armies of Genghis Khan in the first half of the XIII Century. This conclusion is based partly on the facts that their archaic patterns indicate a very remote period, and that they sug- gest early Mongolian influences. Moreover, as the age of rugs of a somewhat later period can be determined by the evidence of simi- larity of their designs with those of early tiles, metal work, pottery, and miniatures, of established age, it is possible to infer the relative age of these older pieces by comparison of patterns showing a pro- gressive development. One of the oldest Persian pieces now existing, the property of C. F. Williams, Esq., of Norristown, Pa., is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York (Plate ll,opp. Page 64). It is also one of the most interesting. In it are found Persian, Armenian, Cauca- sian, and Mongolian characteristics, which serve to determine the district where it was woven and to suggest its age. Its Sehna knot, cotton warp and weft, as well as much of the drawing, are typical of Persia. The tri-cleft leaf and stem seen in the two lower corners, in the main stripe, and in parts of the field are found in almost all Armenian rugs. The reciprocal sawtooth of the outer border stripe and the geometric inner stripe are Caucasian features. Cer- tain colour tones, the octagonal discs at each end of the large central palmettes, and more particularly the tendrils or scrolls of the main stripe of the border which resemble the foliate forms as they appear in Chinese rugs and porcelains of the late Ming and Kang-hi periods, are Mongolian. The combination of these characteristics indicates that it was made in the most northwesterly part of Persia where in 1258 Hulaku Khan established his capital, and his successors ruled for over a century. Here undoubtedly the craft of weaving flour- ished for a long period, and exercised an important influence on the surrounding countries. To judge by the colours; the formal char- acter of the border; the rigid lines of the large palmette motives of the field, which are not seen in carpets of a much later period; and the stiff, archaic character of the bushes with foliage and blossoms arranged mechanically on the thick trunks, it is not unreasonable to place this piece as early as the middle of the XIV Century, dur- ing the interval between the overthrow of the Seljukian dynasty by the followers of Genghis Khan and the later invasion of the Plate 1(5. Persian Animal Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York EARLY RUG WEAVING 79 Timurids. In fact, it may be even older, since those graceful lines that belong to the highest art of a subsequent period are entirely lacking. But in the drawing is strength, and in the colours, a few of which have faded, are beauty and harmony. Such old pieces are very rare, yet a similar one, belonging to Prof. W. Bode, is in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin. Its drawing is more regular, and the trunks of the trees are broader. These two carpets represent the art of weaving at a very early period. Of equal interest and higher artistic merit is another carpet (Plate 12, opp. Page 68), belonging to C. F. Williams, Esq., and at present in the Metropolitan Museum of Art but formerly in the possession of J. Bbhler of Munich. It has a length of nearly seventeen feet and a breadth of nearly twelve. There are about three hundred knots to the square inch. Though much of that stiffness of draw- ing found in the earlier pieces remains, the more pliant branches and less regular setting of the flowers indicate a later date; so that it is not improbable that it was woven about the first of the XV Century. Dr. Martin regards this piece as one of the oldest of the Timurid period if not from the Mongolian, and says that the trees resemble those in a Mongolian miniature in the Musee des Arts Deco- ratifs in Paris, and in a manuscript from the year 1396. At any rate, they display more formal drawing than the trees of more re- cent carpets. The character of pattern and the colouring suggest that it was woven in Northwestern Persia. The field is skilfully divided into three subfields by beds of flowers, from which slender trees rise and partly screen from view more stately cypresses. The subdivisions are further indicated by pairs of palmettes, of which the upper pair mark a transition be- tween the lower pair and those more elegant forms commonly seen two centuries later. There are likewise palmettes of simpler form in the two guard stripes. But the principal ornamentation of the rich border is the interlacing arabesques of three different colours, which are decorated with a slender wreath of leaf and flower. There is, moreover, a particular interest in the grouping of the arabesques since they form a design which may be the prototype of the so- called turtle borders so frequently seen in Feraghans and Gore- vans, and is itself derived, according to Dr. Martin, from a still older form in which branching arabesques extend across the whole field. It may not be unreasonable to assume that this pattern has 80 ORIENTAL RUGS been handed down from that earlier period when a Saracenic influ- ence was felt in all the weavings. If the chief interest in this piece is centred in the pattern, its greatest charm lies in its soft, dainty colours, some of which are ex- quisitely beautiful. They are expressed in delicate shades of orange, ivory, light green, sable brown, and light and dark blue on a back- ground of pinkish red. This pattern and colouring suggest an East- ern wood when the first frost of autumn has left its touch on the leaves. The border contains the same colours as the field but is strong and effective, since the soft tones are in the narrow guard stripes and the deeper colours appear in the broad central stripe in larger masses and in immediate contact. If this carpet was woven about 1400 a.d., as seems not improb- able, the drawing of the trees, palmettes, and border designs becomes by comparison an important guide for determining the age of other antique Persian carpets. Very different, indeed, from the preceding is a woollen piece (Plate 13, opp. Page 70), sixteen feet four inches long by eleven feet two inches wide, that was formerly in the collection of Mr. Vincent Robinson of London, but is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, which bought it at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $19,600. It has about six hundred knots to the square inch, and is woven with warp of cotton and silk, and with weft of silk. The pile is velvety, and the texture, drawing, and colouring display a high grade of artistic craftsmanship. Another of similar character is represented in the Vienna Publication of Oriental Carpets of 1889, at which time it belonged to the Countess Clotilde Clam-Gallas of Vienna; and a third belongs to the Palais de Commerce at Lyons. In no other rugs from Iran is the effect of Mongolian tradition on design more noticeable; but that this was due to the Timurid invasion at the end of the XIV Century is doubtful, and it is not improbable that more immediate intervention with China deter- mined the motives. Nor is the Saracenic influence obscured, since in every part of the field and border is seen the perfect rhythm of graceful arabesques. Such carpets represent, in fact, the transi- tion from those earlier pieces to the higher products of Persian looms. One of the simplest ways of studying the pattern is to regard it as consisting of a number of units formed by a large rounded octagon encircled by eight heart-shaped escutcheons, and with a Plate 17. So-called Polish or Polonaise Carpet est the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York EARLY RUG WEAVING 81 smaller rounded octagon at the centre of the diagonal lines con- necting them. On the large octagons, which are of dark blue crossed by narrow bands of sable brown, is represented the fight of dragon and phoenix so common in the ornamentation of the Ming dynasty; and in the smaller octagons, which are plum colour, are four running lions in red, blue, and green. The eight escutcheons alternate in crimson and blue, and have arabesques and Chinese ducks. The large pentagonal-shaped areas of the ivory field are covered with a most symmetrically drawn tracery of tendrils and flowers in red, yellow, and blue; and in the smaller hexagonal-shaped areas are cloud bands of similar colours. The border shows a marked advance over that of the preceding piece. The main stripe, which follows a pattern that with slight modification is adopted in many of the carpets of this and a later period, consists of a chain-like series of octagons similar to those of the field, separating elongated panels with crenated edges. The latter are adorned with cloud bands in yellow interlaced with deli- cate tendrils supporting flowers in red, yellow, green, and white, on a dark blue field; and surrounding them on a red ground is also a delicate tracery of leaves and flowers. The outer and inner stripes have arabesques and tendrils bearing flowers in red, green, and blue on a ground of golden yellow. All the colours of both field and border have mellowed into rich, beautiful hues in which is the most perfect harmony. The intricacy and character of design, the delicacy of drawing, and the tones of colour indicate that this piece was woven near the beginning of the Safavid dynasty, in the early part of the XVI Cen- tury. Mr. Robinson ascribes its origin to Bagdad; but it seems far more probable that it came from the northwestern part of Persia, which was an important centre of textile art only a few years later. This piece and the two others described on the pages just preceding are among the most interesting carpets now existing; for they rep- resent not only a very high standard of the textile craft, but also most important steps in its development. There is no evidence to indicate how early animal carpets were woven in Persia. Dr. Martin found a piece with archaic drawing, that from its resemblance to an old tile of established age, he placed at about the year 1300 A. D.; but it was about the beginning of the XVI Century that were woven the first of those masterly pieces which displayed animals surrounded by a maze of floral life. Lions, 82 ORIENTAL RUGS leopards, boars, deer, and hounds were the principal motives. To each of these was ascribed some principle or quality, so that it has been assumed that the aim of the weaver was to give expression to some theme of interest. A number of these carpets represent the chase and are called " Hunting Carpets." The best of them are regarded by Dr. Martin as belonging to the latter half of the XVI Century for reasons in- dicated in the following extract from his work: "The manuscript of Nizami, one of the pearls of the British Museum, which was executed in Tabriz 1539-1542 for the Shah Tamasp, has the most wonderful designs on the margins. Although the manuscripts and the miniatures are signed by Persia's most renowned masters, there is nothing to give a hint as to who has drawn these magnificent borders. This manuscript, which at the time it was written, was considered one of the most remarkable 'the like of which the eye of time never beheld,' plainly proves that the large carpets with hunting scenes must be relegated to a later time or to about 1560- 1570. Both animals and trees are of a far more stately and earlier character in the manuscript." One of the best of these pieces with animals (Plate 14, opp. Page 72) is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, in New York, by which it was purchased at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $15,200. It has a length of ten feet eleven inches with a breadth of five feet ten inches, and an average of four hundred and eighty knots to the square inch. Both warp and weft are of silk, and the pile is of wool. As it was confidently believed by Mr. Edward Stebbing * that this piece belonged for a long time to the Mosque of Ardebil, where Ismael had established his capital, and from which Tamasp sub- sequently moved; it is not improbable that it belongs to the early period, between the closing years of Ismael's reign and the first part of the reign of Tamasp. f Nor is there anything in the tech- nique of colour or design to convey a different impression, as the general colour of the field is a claret red, and that of the border a dark blue characteristic of this period. The most noticeable feature of the carpet is the display of animal life amid the carefully balanced arrangement of floral figures. Four- fifths of the field can be divided into two perfect squares with sides equal to the breadth of the field; and the remainder will be equiva- * See his work, " The Holy Carpet of the Mosque at Ardebil." t Ismael reigned, 1502-1524; Tamasp reigned, 1524-1576. EARLY RUG WEAVING 83 lent to one-half of one of these squares. Each quarter of a square contains animals, probably intended to represent a lion, leopard, and boar, that are perfectly balanced with those of the adjacent and alternating quarters. Moreover, the same balance exists in the case of the smaller animals and floral forms. Thus it appears that each square forms a perfect unit in which is shown a remarkable relation between all parts. Such mathematical exactness indicates the highest artistic skill. The repetition of pattern also accentuates the predominant idea of animal life, which is rendered even more noticeable by the strong golden yellow of some of the group. Who- ever has studied the early Iranian monuments remembers with how slight variation some of the drawing has been copied during subsequent generations; so that it is not surprising that Mr. Steb- bing should call attention to the resemblance of some of the animals in this carpet to those of the rock-carved sculptures of Tak-i-Bostan near Kermanshah. As is the case with most modern Persian rugs, there is no corre- spondence between the size of the animals and the flowers. Never- theless the lack of harmony is not felt, as the animal and the floral life are intended to be regarded separately. The principal flowers of the field are peonies, some of which are woven with silver threads. They also appear in the border arranged with perfect precision within the folds of symmetrical cloud-bands and interlacing ara- besques. The latter form a well-executed repetitive figure that suggests an origin for the reciprocal trefoil or lily pattern, as it is sometimes called, which received its highest development in the silk rugs of a later century. On the whole, this piece is not far short of the highest sumptu- ary standard of a subsequent period, and is an excellent example of the artistic development of the earliest part of the Safavid dy- nasty. In few other carpets is combined such intricacy of design with richness and simplicity of colour. Of still greater interest than the last is the Arbedil Carpet, now in the South Kensington Museum. It has a length of thirty -four and a half feet with a breadth of seventeen and a half; the texture shows about three hundred and twenty-five knots to the square inch; and the pile is of wool tied to warp and weft of silk. It has been very carefully studied by Mr. Edward Stebbing, from whose description the following extracts are taken: "The body ground is blue, covered with a floral tracery of 84 ORIENTAL RUGS exquisite delicacy and freedom of treatment. A central medallion of pale yellow terminates on its outer edge in sixteen minaret- shaped points from which spring sixteen cartouches; four green, four red, and eight light cream; and from two of these again, as it were, suspended and hanging in the direction of the respective ends of the carpet, two of the sacred lamps of the mosque. "Quarter sections of the central medallion also on a pale yellow ground, relieved by tracery, form the angles; while a broader border completes the glorious design, a border of the alternate elongated and rounded cartouches filled with floral and other tracery, the former on a base of red, the latter on a rich brown ground flanked on the inner side by a broad band of cream seven inches wide, relieved by a variation of a so-called cloud pattern, and a narrower band of crimson near the body of the carpet; and on the outer side by a single broad band, also seven inches wide, of tawny hue, shading from dark to light, and relieved by a bold design in blue." But however exquisite the tracery, however delicate the colour- ing, the greatest interest centres in the fact that in a panel adjoining the border of the upper end is the following inscription: "I have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold; "My head has no protection other than thy porch way; "The work of the slave of the holy place, Maksoud of Kashan, in the year 946." Here is revealed the age of the carpet, which not only determines the character of workmanship of a particular period, but affords a standard for determining by comparison the relative age of other pieces. The year 946 corresponds with our year 1540 A. D., and the position of the date indicates that it was inscribed a little before the completion of the fabric. Accordingly, it would not be unreason- able to assume that the carpet was begun during the closing years of the reign of Ismael, who died at Ardebil in 1524, and that it was finished during the reign of Tamasp I. To infer that at this period were many such carpets would be a mistake; since this was doubtless woven by the order of the court, and by one of the most skilled artisans, who may have made it the crowning labour of his life. It indicates the highest technique ac- quired in the early part of the Safavid dynasty. Besides the mosque carpets, other pieces such as small prayer rugs were used for devotional purposes. When the first of them were made is unknown, though they existed in the days of the Plate 18. So-called Ispahan in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New Yc ORK EARLY RUG WEAVING 85 Caliphs, when the words of the Prophet were still fresh in the mem- ories of his followers; and they were also used at an early period among Turkomans. The oldest that remain belong to the early part of the Safavid rule. One that was formerly in the collec- tion of Stefano Bardini of Florence and is now owned by Mr. Benjamin Altman, appeared at the exhibit of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1910. It is a woollen piece with a length of nearly five and a half feet and a breadth of three and a quarter. In the central field is a prayer arch resembling some of a later period, with outlines gracefully recurving near the base and broken on each side by a pentagonal-shaped flower. All parts of each of the two trees that rise from the bottom of the field are reversely duplicated in the other. Some of the stiffness of drawing of the earlier carpets remains, but the blossoms are clustered more naturally and the whole treatment is more skilful. The effect of the scroll-work on the red ground of the spandrel; of the suspended lamp with its bright flowers of red, yellow, and pink; and of the blossoming trees beneath, is most pleasing; but the chief interest centres in the outer border stripe, where appear features that are more interesting than harmonious, features derived from Persia, Assyria, Mongolia, and Arabia. The rounded octagons have Cufic lettering that recalls early Mesopotamian civilisation; the cartouches at the bottom with their cloud-bands suggest Mongolian conquests; and the upper cartouches contain the following verses from the Koran: "Iman the victorious and expected Mahdi, the Lord of the Age. Zalsi and Hason; and bless the standing proof. Oh Lord bless Mohammed the chosen one. Ali, the elect, Fatimeh the Immaculate. Jofer Sadik, Mooza Kazin, Ali Riza Mohammed Taki, Mo- hammed Nakee, Ali. The two branches Harson and Hussein Bless Ali Zaimulubbad Mohammed Bak'r." These verses, the archaic lamp, and the green of the field, a colour sacred to Moslems, all indicate the religious character of the carpet. Similar features also appear in another antique piece of about the same age, but the Cufic characters of the border are within squares surrounded by circles that resemble Chinese seals as they appear in early manuscripts. Both of these pieces were probably woven in Northwestern Persia about the middle of the XVI Century. Few such prayer carpets remain, though without doubt they were used 86 ORIENTAL RUGS by devotees during succeeding periods, and it is not unusual to see, even in modern Kermanshahs, prayer arches of the same pattern. Of totally different character but of about the same age is an animal rug (Plate 15, opp. Page 76) that belongs to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. It was bought at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $5,600, and had previously belonged to the collection of Vincent Robinson of London. It has a length of about seven and a half feet with a breadth of about five and a half, and consists of woollen pile tied to cotton warp crossed by woollen weft. The weave is not unlike what is seen in many modern Sarouks; as the knot is Sehna, one thread of warp is doubled under the other in each knot, and the coloured thread of weft, which crosses twice, is partly exposed at the back. Like so many of the old Persian pieces, the ground colour of red appears in the main field, and is strongly contrasted with the dark blue of the medallion and dark green of the corners. Red and green also appear in the border contrasted with yellow. This association of colour is not usual, nor is the repetitive pattern of the border with its sharp cusps at many of the angles, nor the trapezi- form corners, and the nearly rectangular medallion. Likewise the mechanically formed bushes with their quince-like fruit, on which sit birds of disproportionate size, show a departure from the accepted traditions of the Safavid schools. Yet these very features awaken new interest, and suggest that it was probably woven in some part of Northern or Western Persia where the influence of the court was not paramount. Nevertheless the accurate balance of the differ- ent halves, and the drawing of the palmettes show that it is dis- tinctly Iranian. If this last piece be compared with the animal rug (Plate 16, opp. Page 78) that was presented to the Metropolitan Museum of Art by Mr. Cochran, the wide contrast will at once be noticeable. As the latter has a length of about eight and two-thirds feet with a breadth of nearly six, the difference in size and proportions is not great; nor is there any particular difference in the number of ani- mals; nor in the balanced relation of upper and lower, right and left halves; nor in the red ground of the main fields. But here the resemblance ends. Whereas in the former the animals are one of the most prominent features, in the latter they are subordinate to the rich assemblage of floral and palmette forms, that occupy not only the field but also the border. It is, indeed, a piece that marks Plate 19. Armenian Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York EARLY RUG WEAVING 87 a transition from the animal rugs, so prominent in the early part of the XVI Century but rarely woven later than its end, to the more elegant pieces, so characteristic of the court of Ispahan, which be- long almost exclusively to the XVII Century. It accordingly seems not without reason to assign it to about the year 1600. Not only do these different elements that denote a transition add interest; they also give a most pleasing effect. The main border stripe of a rich green with its well-drawn palmettes surrounded by vines and foliated stalks, on which rest naturally drawn birds of handsome plumage, and the chaste floral designs of the narrow guards, serve as a tasteful frame to the central picture. Here again the outer field, with artistic effect, brings into greater relief the central medallion, where on a ground of greenish yellow, stand- ing and seated amidst blossoming shrubs in red, blue, and green, as in a garden, are richly dressed human forms. Apart from these, yet perhaps intended in some way to reflect the tenor of their thoughts, are four ducks, emblematic of matrimonial happiness. Whatever may have been the original shade of the central me- dallion, it is now slightly out of harmony with the surrounding colours, and is perhaps the only jarring note in this exquisite piece of workmanship. Not improbably the present shade is due to the unfriendly hand of time, since the artistic genius of the weaver is fully displayed in the masterly arrangement of other colours and in the delicacy and precision of the drawing of the per- fectly balanced floral and animal forms. The difficulty of determining the locality where the antique carpets were woven is often greater than in the case of modern rugs, but this piece was probably one of the last of those fine old animal carpets that were woven in the northwestern part of Persia. Though modern silk rugs fail to awaken the interest of woollen pieces, the old silk carpets were formerly regarded as the choicest products of weaving. As a rule, they were the work of the most skilled artists employed in the imperial factory under the direction and patronage of the court. It was during the reign of Shah Tamasp that they received special attention. Following a custom that had been in vogue of sending carpets as presents to foreign courts, in 1566 he sent to the Sultan of Constantinople a number of pieces on which flowers, birds, and animals were woven with silk on threads of gold. But it was doubtless after his successor Shah Abbas I had begun to embellish his capital at Ispahan, that were 88 ORIENTAL RUGS made the famous "Polish" silk or "Polonaise" carpets about which there has been so much controversy. It is true that Mr. Robinson in his "Eastern Carpets" claims that they were woven in Poland by Persians taken there by a Pole named Mersherski; but it seems far more probable that they were woven under the supervision of the Persian court and were either sent as presents to European sov- ereigns or purchased by wealthy connoisseurs of art. How many of these pieces may be hidden away in the palaces and mosques of the far East it is impossible to determine, but two hundred would be a very conservative estimate of the number owned by the different courts of Europe and by private collectors of that country and America. One of them was presented to the Danish court as late as 1639; and it is believed that all that reached Europe arrived there between the years 1604 and 1650. Their beauty is exquisite and chaste. To the threads of silver and gold is tied silken nap that often displays a striking brilliancy. Unlike the earlier Persian carpets which had more subdued hues, these pieces have light tones such as salmon, rose, and green, which are arranged with perfect harmony. Moreover, there is an ele- gance of design representing the highest types of Iranian, Saracenic, and Mongolian influences combined. Here in perfection are dainty floral forms, the rhythmic tracery of arabesques, and delicate cloud- bands. In them the textile art of the East reached a perfection that probably has never been surpassed. One of these (Plate 17, opp. Page 80), that has a length of about nine feet and a breadth of five and a half, belongs to the Metropoli- tan Museum of Art. In many respects it is typical of its class, though threads of yellow and grey are substituted for the usual gold and silver of the foundation. On a field of rose are outlined palmettes, leaves, and scrolls in green, blue, brown, and salmon, that harmo- nise with the light blue of the border. All of these colours blend with pleasing effect and soften lines that in a print seem harsh. Further- more with all its complexity of detail, every part of the pattern is arranged with mathematical precision. That a carpet with such perfect balance of every part, such intricacy of elaborate detail, such graceful curves of the heavy foliate leaves should be woven without copying some older pattern or a carefully executed draw- ing, seems improbable. In this piece and in others of the same class can be recognised what is probably the prototype of more conventionalised and less Plate 20. Asia Minor Dragon and Phoenix Carpet in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum, Berlin EARLY RUG WEAVING 89 elegant designs so often seen in modern Persian pieces, since the palmette with encircling lancet leaves in its borders is most sug- gestive of the borders of modern Herats; and the rhomboidal- shaped figure connecting four palmettes at the centre is equally suggestive of the Herati or fish pattern seen in the field of innumer- able Feraghans. It was also during the reign of Shah Abbas * and his immediate successors that most of the so-called Ispahans were woven, though some of them appeared as early as the XV and some as late as the close of the XVII Century. As in the case with the Polish silk carpets, within recent years some difference of opinion has existed regarding the place of their manufacture. After careful research, Dr. Martin believes that they came from Herat and with this idea some other authorities concur. It is true that Herat belonged to the Persian Empire during the reign of the Safavid dynasty, and that even in the days of Shah Ismael magnificent carpets were woven there. It is also true that during the time of Tamasp and Abbas it was as important an art centre as Tabriz, and that the weaving of carpets was a leading industry there. Furthermore, there has not been found the same evidence to show that Ispahan was at this period an equally important centre of weaving. On the other hand, it is well known that the splendid industrial and art prod- ucts of this period were largely due to the direct encouragement and favour of the court, and that the court was for most of the time at Ispahan. It is also known that skilled artisans were repeatedly removed from one district to another at the command of a sovereign, so that carpets of similar character might be woven contempo- raneously in remote parts of Persia. It accordingly seems not improbable that the original type of these carpets was evolved at Herat and that many of them at least were made at Herat, but that others were also made at Ispahan. At any rate they were made to a great extent under the influence that emanated from Ispahan. Almost without exception they are pieces of large size and oblong shape. The ground colour of the field is usually red, the border blue; but blue is occasionally used in the field and green in the border. Their distinguishing feature is the use of the palmette, that was probably derived from the lotus, so frequently associated with the Buddhist cult of India and China. In the field it gener- * 1586-1628. 90 ORIENTAL RUGS ally occurs in pairs that slightly vary in size. Of almost equal importance are the Chinese cloud-bands and the scrolls or ara- besques. These three designs were constant motives in almost all the Ispahans; but they were subject to modifications in size and shape, which appearing in chronological order furnish some guide to the time when the carpets were woven. For instance, the palmettes were at first small and distributed plentifully over the field; later they became larger, until in a few instances they were a yard in di- ameter. Dr. Martin says that in the first part of the XVII Century the palmettes began to be very large and the richness of the interior design to disappear; until at the end of the XVII Century only a few were sufficient to cover the ground that one hundred years before was almost hidden by innumerable designs of small pal- mettes, cloud-bands, and scroll work. He also states that towards the middle of the XVII Century the borders began to lose their importance and that the palmettes were surrounded by two long, narrow leaves. Though most of the antique Iranian carpets that remain were woven in the Northern provinces, it is well known that even from earliest times carpets of elaborate design and skilful technique were also woven in Southern Persia. In fact, many of the wonder- ful pieces that adorned the palaces and mosques of the Fatimid Caliphs of Egypt came from the districts of Fars and Kirman. The latter, notwithstanding invasions of Seljukian Turks, Mongolians, and Afghans, has continued almost uninterruptedly as a centre of the textile industry; yet comparatively few pieces exist that were woven there three or four centuries ago. Their colour scheme har- monises more with that of the carpets of Western Persia than with the more sombre tones of the old animal carpets and Ispahans, or with the brighter hues of the so-called Polish. Their patterns also show a distinction from those of northern textile fabrics. The fields are often artificially divided, by foliate stalks or lance-shaped leaves with serrated edges, into rhomboidal figures that contain mechanically drawn shrubs, palmettes, or flowers. In the main stripe of the border are generally represented interlacing arabesques adorned with flowering vines or arabesques and a subpattern of vines. Mongolian designs are rarely seen in any of these pieces, which probably represent more closely than any other Persian carpets native art unaffected by foreign influences. Almost all of them are now owned in Europe. EARLY RUG WEAVING 91 Of the early rugs, those woven in Armenia are far less known than those from Persia. Nevertheless, it may reasonably be as- sumed that the high culture that was manifested in Bagdad and Ctesiphon during the sway of the Caliphs was felt among the moun- tainous districts to the north; and that the Seljukian rulers, who left such artistic monuments in the old Armenian capitals, appreciated and encouraged the manufacture of fine woollen fabrics. In fact, Marco Polo, who travelled through that region during the latter part of the XIII Century, referred to them as being remarkably handsome. Probably the oldest remaining pieces are the so-called Dragon carpets, which, it is believed, were produced from the XIV to the XVII Century and possibly even earlier. Not infrequently the length is at least twice the breadth; the very narrow border oc- casionally consists of only a single stripe; and the field is occupied by a trellis-like pattern of narrow, conventionalised leaves, within which are designs containing archaic flowers and dragons. The ground colour of the field is generally some shade of red, that of the border white, and the leaves are yellow, blue, or green. In the borders of many of them appear an S motive from which undoubt- edly was derived the design so frequently seen in panels of more recent Asia Minor prayer rugs. In the Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York is a XV Cen- tury carpet (Plate 19, opp. Page 86), which, though widely differing from these pieces in general pattern, so closely resembles them in the essential characteristics of weave and colour that it is unquestion- ably of the same class. The field is occupied by concentric dia- monds with stepped sides. The encircling bands, that are mostly red, yellow, and violet, and the corners, that are white, contain numerous archaic forms, including palmettes, trees, birds, and animals. There are also numerous small designs of the tri-cleft leaf so common to the Circassian and Soumak rugs; and the ray -like edges of the central lozenge, as well as the four palmettes that rest upon it, suggest the origin of the effulgent stars of old Daghes- tans and Kabistans. An effort has been made to balance similar designs in corresponding parts of the field, though its centre is at one side of the geometric centre of the diamonds. The palmettes show distinctly a strong Persian influence and the animal forms likewise show that it was not woven by a sectarian Sunnite of West- ern Asia Minor. Part of a very unusual carpet (Plate 20, opp. Page 88), from a 92 ORIENTAL RUGS district in Eastern Asia Minor, is in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin. Its principal interest lies in the fact that it is very old and that its approximate age has been determined. In the hospital at Siena, Italy, a similar rug is represented in a fresco called the " Wedding of the Foundling," painted by Domenico di Bartolo about the year 1440, so that it is reasonable to conclude that this particular piece was woven not much later. In fact, its character would indicate that it or some other from which it has been copied was much older. Each of the nearly square compartments contain octagons, within which on a yellow field are represented the mythical fight of the dragon and phcenix that was adopted as the Ming coat of arms. It is interesting to note that the chain pattern of the brownish-black main border stripe is not unlike what is seen in modern pieces, but the running latch hooks of the corners and the small S designs are unusually stiff. This disposition to formal drawing, which is conspicuous in all parts of the rug, shows an archaic style noticeable only in the very earliest carpets. In the celebrated painting of Georg Gyze (Plate 21, opp. Page 92) which hangs in the Berlin Gallery, is represented a rug of a class so frequently seen in the paintings of Hans Holbein that they are known as "Holbein rugs." Their marked dissimilarity to those previously described indicates that they were woven under dif- ferent circumstances if not in different regions. Neither in the fields nor borders is any trace of Mongolian or Persian influences; and the absence of all floral, leaf, and animal forms so usual in most antique carpets is noticeable. Indeed, the fact that animal forms rarely appear in the art of the Sunni Mohammedans aids in deter- mining the place of their origin. They came from Asia Minor or Western Armenia. It has generally been assumed that they were woven in Western Asia Minor, because they were purchased there in former centuries and taken thence to Europe; but they possess many features that indicate they may have been woven farther to the east, whence many could easily have been transported westward in caravans. Their borders contain the well-known pattern derived from Cufic letters which, more conventionalised, appears in later years only in such rugs as the Kabistans and Daghestans of Eastern Caucasia. Most of them also contain the small octagonal discs and larger octagonal figures with Greek crosses at the centre that suggest forcibly the designs of Southeastern Caucasia. The narrow stripes Plate 21. Portrait of Georg Gyze by Hans Holbein, showing a Holbein Rug with Cufic Border EARLY RUG WEAVING 93 of ribbon and chain pattern found in many of them also are very- common in Caucasian rugs; so that it seems not improbable that these Holbein rugs were made within the boundaries of that greater Armenia which, embracing the upper Mesopotamian valley, ex- tended over the eastern part of Asia Minor and the southern part of modern Caucasia. These rugs claim the attention not only because they have borders of such interesting origin, but by the fact that the age when they were woven is ascertainable. As Holbein lived between the years 1497 and 1543, and some other rugs of this type appear in the works of early Flemish and Italian painters, it may reason- ably be assumed that some of them were made before the end of the XV Century. A very excellent example of this class, owned by Mr. C. F. Williams, is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. It has a length of about five feet with a breadth of three and a half. The ground colour of the field is an olive green and that of the main stripe of the border is red. The prevailing colours of the designs, which are entirely geometric, are blue, green, and ivory. All of these rugs are small or of moderate size, and are slightly oblong. Some of them have a ground colour of green; and yellow is frequently found in the pattern. The weaving is rather loose; and compared with Persian rugs they have fewer knots to the square inch. Another carpet from Asia Minor that also belongs to Mr. C. F. Williams appears in Plate 22, opp. Page 94. It is the only entire rug with this pattern that is known, though a piece of a similar rug is in the Victoria and Albert Museum at London. On fields of blue and red are outlined three large four-pointed stars separated by smaller diamonds. Within these figures and in the surrounding field is a network of tracery supporting conventionalised leaf and floral forms. Between the field and the main stripe of the narrow border is a close co-ordination of pattern, but the simple ribbon of the inner guard seems alien. It appears without modification in many later Asia Minor and Caucasian rugs. An important feature are the double knots at the corners of the stars, since they are identical with designs found in a manuscript made for one of the Shahs in 1435, and thus assist to determine the age of the rug. For this reason and on account of its general . char- acter, it seems not unreasonable to place it as early as the middle of the XV Century. 94 ORIENTAL RUGS Similar carpets were woven during a long period, and it is prob- able that in the latter half of the following century they were largely influenced by the weavers that Solyman the Magnificent, after cap- turing Tabriz in 1534, transported to his own country. The same general features still remained, but the detail was more elaborate and ornate. Arabesqi s, palmettes, and floral forms, both of field and border, resemblec 1 more nearly the Iranian character. But at a later period, after the beginning of the general decadence to which every industry and art were subject, the patterns became much simpler, and the colours were reduced almost exclusively to red and blue with a little green. At length, both pattern and colours assumed the type of modern Oushaks, that by a slow process of devolution originated from these antique pieces. In Armenia and Asia Minor it is probable that weaving existed before the Christian era, and that the earliest carpets which remain, though affected by more eastern influences, are largely the product of an indigenous art. But in India it was otherwise. It is true that Sir George Birdwood is authority for the statement that the Saracens introduced carpet-weaving there; but it is most probable that at the time of the invasion of the armies of Tamerlane and during the lives of many of his successors, whatever carpets were woven were very crude. Even when the Moguls began to build and embellish palaces, they obtained their carpets from Persia. But at length Shah Akbar established manufacturies at Lahore about the year 1580, and invited Persian weavers to settle there. From them the native workmen acquired much of their knowledge of patterns and technique. It was during the reign of Shah Jahan (1628-1658), builder of the famous peacock throne and Taj Mahal, that most of the choicest pieces that now remain were woven. In delicacy of texture they rival those of any other country, and it is not unusual to find pieces with nearly eight hundred knots to the square inch; more- over, all their designs are depicted with remarkable clearness of definition. One of the most noted of these carpets is the woollen piece, about eight yards long by two and a half wide, that was made at the royal factory at Lahore and presented to the Girdlers Com- pany of London in 1634. The mingling of leaf and floral forms, as well as the Herati designs of rosette and crumpled leaf, on a field of red, shows unmistakably its relation to Persian carpets. At the same period were woven large numbers of others with fields covered Plate 22. Oushak Carpet Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York EARLY RUG WEAVING 95 with an imposing display of superbly drawn flowers, of which every part from root to leaf tips was represented with astonishing realism. Another class included the animal or hunting carpets, which un- like their Persian prototypes seem intended not so much to" portray symbolically some historic event or abstract idea, as to convey a correct impression of an actual event. One of these, a woollen piece with a length of eight and a quarter feet and a breadth of five and a quarter, is in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. The inspiration was from some old Persian piece, but the rendering is peculiarly Indian. In this representation of an Oriental jungle is a strange mingling of the real and unreal. The struggle of a monster bird with a winged beast, half lion, half ele- phant, and the demoniac faces of the border suggest the inspira- tion of early pagan mythology; but the movements of the running gazelles and the stealthily creeping tiger, the attitude of the driver of the cart and his attendant, are most natural. The drawing as a whole is exceedingly delicate. The ground colour of the field is the red of most Ispahans and Herats of this period, but the border is a cream colour, a combination not in accord with Persian tradition. The other colours are fawn, blue, pink, grey and brown. It is prob- ably the only Indian hunting carpet of its kind. Few strictly antique carpets from other countries of the Orient are known. Of the innumerable pieces that were surely woven in Caucasia and Western Turkestan before the end of the XVII Cen- tury, scarcely a vestige can be found. Nor are there many from the looms of Syria, though in the days of the Caliphs every mosque was adorned with magnificent carpets. It is true a few sterling pieces of Saracenic character, that have been ascribed to the region about Damascus, still exist. There are also a few rare and beautiful pieces that have come to light in China.* But of the countless thousands that in almost every country of the Orient once covered floors of palaces and mosques, representing one of the most refined arts, now nearly lost, only an insignificant fraction remains. * These will be considered in a later chapter. CHART INDICATING PERIODS WHEN ANTIQUE CARPETS WERE MADE Timurid & Turkoman dynasties 1396-1502 Shah Ismael 1502-1524 Shah Tamasp 1524-1576 3 Rulers Shah Abbas 1586-1628 A.D. I 1500 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1600 10 20 30 40 50 Nadir Shah 1736-1747 Asia Minor Soliman the Magnificent 1520-1566 Ming dy- nasty 1368-1644 Kang-hi 1661-1722 Yung-ching 1722-1736 Ching-lung 1736-1795 CO & o .9 w O a §> oj Q -a a oS -— . cS ►J 03 -a China Patterns display geo- metric characteristics, and conventionalized dragon forms: also foliate and floral designs that denote Persian influence. Patterns more floral and represent Manchurian ideas and colours. Patterns less conventional and floral designs are more naturalistic. CHAPTER VIII CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN RUGS JUGS contribute to the comfort of the nomad more than any other fabric. With them he closes the entrance to his tent or covers the floor and couches on which he sits and sleeps. Thrown over other objects they form the table, made into saddle bags they take the place of trunks. The followers of Islam when at prayer kneel on a rug, and in token of affection spread one over the grave of a friend. To dwellers in cities, also, rugs contribute largely to the comfort and luxury of the home. Indeed, without them the splendour of Oriental life would seem incomplete, since they are the principal furnish- ings of every house, where stout woven pieces with long pile are spread as floor coverings, and lighter ones are hung as portieres and tapestries. Yet it is in the assembly or dining hall that the finest rugs are used, though here the most valued are exposed only on great occasions. In the East a rug receives a particular name according to which of these special purposes it is adapted. The large, almost square piece that is used to cover the centre of the assembly hall is known as the "Khali;" and the narrow strips or "runners" that are placed at its sides and ends are known as the "Kenares." It is on the Kenares that the servants are required to walk and the less hon- oured guests to stand, for they are rarely of such fine quality as the former. Before the divan, that generally surrounds three walls and is covered with fine cloth and velvet, are seats on which are placed carpets called "Sedjadeh." They are nearly twice as long as broad, and since they are of moderate size and excellent quality they are frequently used for many other purposes. The hearth rug, termed "Odjalik," can generally be distinguished from others, as each end of the field is of triangular shape with the apex at the extremity. However much any of these may be valued, the one that to every 98 ORIENTAL RUGS worshipper of Allah has the most sacred association is the "Namaz- lik," or prayer rug, at one end of which is an arch in token of the mosque. At call for prayer the faithful Moslem spreads his rug with arch directed towards Mecca, and kneeling with the palms of his hands at each side of the centre he bows his head till it touches the rug. As the Mohammedans of Persia are unwilling that a Namazlik be trampled by the foot of an infidel, few from there can be bought; but the Mohammedans of other countries are less scrupulous, so that many of the prayer rugs sold in America have been made solely for trade and have never been used in worship. They may be beautiful, but special interest attaches to old pieces of which the well-worn nap shows where the knees of both father and son for over half a century have often pressed. In addition to these are other rugs with technical names, but a classification of much greater importance is that which depends on the country or district where they are woven. When the Oriental rugs first appeared in the market of the United States, they were spoken of as "Turkish," for the reason that import- ers purchased them from Turkish merchants of Constantinople. But when it became known that they had been taken there by caravans from countries farther to the east, and that large numbers of them came from Persia, the name "Persian," that to the mind of many conveys ideas of splendour, was at once applied ; even to-day all classes of Ori- ental rugs are often spoken of as Persian. As objects of ornament or utility, their value is independent of their place of origin; yet it is known that the wool of the nap and the dyes used in some dis- tricts are superior to those in others, and that in consequence the beauty of some rugs will improve with age far more than that of others. It is also known that because in certain districts the material of warp and weft, as well as the workmanship, is of a superior quality, the rugs made there will wear better than others. The knowledge, then, of where a rug is made is important in determining the quality and value, which otherwise only a critical examination, that few people are able to make, would show. Furthermore, the knowledge of where a rug is made, suggesting the class of people who wove it, adds immeasurably to our interest. When, for instance, we look at an old piece of Kurdish weave with its nomadic designs and shaggy nap, on which a Moslem savage as an Apache often rested fully half a century ago, there is called up a picture of the dark-visaged tribesman, fearless and untamed Plate 23. Sehna Rug CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN RUGS 99 as were his ancestors who contested the march of Xenophon over two thousand years ago. We see him wandering with his flocks over the hills while he watches for a chance to fall upon an unsus- pecting stranger. We picture to ourselves the hut of brush upon the mountain side where a slender barbaric girl bends to tie, with wonderful patience, the knots one by one. So if we would enjoy our Oriental rugs, we should know what people made them, and whence and how they journeyed, before they reached our fireside. At the request of a purchaser the vendor is ever ready to classify a rug, but his statements are not always reliable. This is partly due to the fact that even the great importing houses are often de- ceived. Throughout Asia Minor, Persia, Turkestan, even farther east, great fairs are regularly held. Here gather the representatives of tribes from far distant quarters to enjoy for a few days or weeks the gay life and abandon of the East while bartering the products of their different crafts. Here come the purchasing agents look- ing for rugs ; and the pieces that may be brought from afar are bought and shipped by camel and rail to such great marts as Tabriz, Tiflis, and Constantinople, where the bales are unpacked and the rugs assorted, classified and labelled, before they are resold to the import- ing houses of Europe and America. Thus both in the buying from the itinerant agent of rugs assembled from different quarters and in the reassortment at the exporting cities there is frequent oppor- tunity for errors of classification. The characteristics of the different groups and classes of rugs are given in later chapters, but it should not be presumed that these are infallible guides to the locality where they were made. Often a ruler, by fostering art, has drawn to his capital artists and artisans from other districts. Thus designs and quality of workmanship characteristic of one district would be adopted in another. So, too, the great caravans that pass along regular routes eastward and westward, and the annual pilgrimages to Meshed and Mecca, have been most potent influences for the dissemination of designs. Yet taking into consideration the general pattern and smaller designs; the material of warp, weft, and pile; the knot; the dyes; the finish of sides and ends, and the peculiarities of the weave, it is possible with a reasonable amount of certainty to determine in what districts almost all Oriental rugs are woven. It should be borne in mind, however, that the names by which some of the rugs are known in America are not the same as those 100 ORIENTAL RUGS by which they are known in Asia. For instance, the rugs made by some of the tribes of the Tekke Khanate are known in the Orient as 'Tekkes;" but as the great depot for Turkestan carpets was formerly the city of Bokhara, they are generally known in this country as "Bokharas." On the other hand, there are local distinctions in the eastern countries not known in the western. The accompanying classification, therefore, is slightly arbitrary, but should be con- venient for reference; since the classes represent the cities or dis- tricts where are woven the several different kinds, excepting the Chinese, which are divided chronologically. The names of the groups are not in each instance entirely satisfactory, but are prob- ably the best that can be chosen. The fourth group, for example, has frequently been called the "Turkoman;" but as it includes some of the rugs of Afghanistan, and also those of Beluchistan, which is remote from Turkestan, that name is not sufficiently comprehensive. The district where these rugs are made is, strictly speaking, the western and southwestern part of Central Asia; but the term here employed has the authority of some German writers of note. So, too, the rugs of Herat, though it is now a city of Afghanistan, are included with the Persian group; but it should be remembered that Herat, as well as the districts of Mosul and Kurdistan, was once part of the old Persian Empire. GROUP I. PERSIAN. (a) Khorassan district: Herat, Khorassan, Meshed. (b) Shiraz district: Ispahan, Kirman, Yezd, Shiraz, Niris. (c) Feraghan district: Feraghan, Hamadan, Kara-Geuz, Bibikabad, Iran, Sarouk, Kashan, Sarabend, Burujird, Sultanabad, Muskabad, Mahal, Joshaghan, Gulistan, Teheran. (d) Sehna district, or Adelan province: Sehna, Bijar, Kermanshah, Persian Kurdistan, Karaje. (e) Tabriz district: Tabriz, Gorevan, Bakshis, Serapi, Herez, Suj-Bulak, Karadagh, Afshar. (/) Kurdistan district: Western Kurdistan, Mosul, Gozene. CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN RUGS 101 GROUP II. ASIA MINOR OR TURKISH. (a) West Asia Minor district: Bergamo, Ghiordes, Kulah, Oushak, Ak-Hissar, Demirdji, Kutayah, Smyrna, Melez, Isbarta, Rhodian, Broussa, Hereke. (6) Central Asia Minor district: Konieh, Ladik, Kir-Shehr, Anatolian, Karaman, Sivas, Mudjar, Nigde, Tuzla, Kaisariyeh, Zile, Yuruk. GROUP III. CAUCASIAN. (a) North Caucasian: Daghestan, Kabistan, Kuba, Derbend, Lesghian, Chichi, Tcherkes. (b) Trans Caucasian: Baku, Shirvan, Soumak, Shemakha, Tiflis, Kutais, Kazak, Karabagh, Shusha, Gengha. GROUP IV. CENTRAL ASIATIC. (a) West Turkoman sub-group, Western influence: Royal Bokhara, Princess Bokhara, Tekke, Yomud, Khiva, Afghan, Beshir. (b) East Turkoman sub-group, Eastern influence: Samarkand, Kashgar, Yarkand. (c) Beluchistan. GROUP V. INDIAN. (a) Northern India: Srinagar, Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Agra, Allahabad, Mirzapur, Zabal- pur, Patna, Jaipur. (6) Southern India: Madras, Mysore, Bangalore, Warangal, Malabar, Hyderabad, Mar- sulipatam. GROUP VI. CHINESE. 1 (a) XVII Century: Late Ming 1600-1643 and Early Kang-hi (1662-1700). (6) XVIII Century: 1. Late Kang-hi (1700-1722). 2. Yung-ching (1722-1736). 3. Keen-lung (1736-1795). (c) Early and Middle XIX Century. (d) Late XIX Century or Modern. 1 This group includes both antique and modern rugs. CHAPTER IX PERSIAN RUGS N the grouping of Oriental rugs, it is not always desirable to follow the present polit- ical divisions of territory, since great and frequent changes in national boundaries have occurred without corresponding changes in the traditional style of weaving. Thus it happens that with the rugs made in Persia, which is still called Iran by its inhabitants, it is desirable to group those made within that former Iran that included the valley of Mesopotamia on the west and part of Af- ghanistan on the east. The woven products of all this territory- have characteristics that are similar to one another and that dif- ferentiate them from those of other countries. Their patterns are distinctly floral, representing leaf, bud, and flower, and show a tendency to naturalistic drawing with graceful and often intricate lines. Moreover, their colour schemes of delicate tones are not only beautiful but in perfect harmony. In marked contrast with them are the rugs of Caucasia, Asia Minor, and Central Asia, which have patterns of geometric shape or highly conventionalised flower forms, and colours that often appear in bold contrast. In the Chinese rugs, also, is generally less harmony of colour, as well as less co-ordination of design, than in the Persian. The scroll and floral patterns appear on the field in isolated figures, or else imitate with more formal drawing the diaper pattern of some Iranian car- pets. Only in the rugs of India is there a similarity to the patterns and colour tones of those of Persia; but the designs are more real- istically drawn, less artistically arranged, and less profuse. The similarity in the rugs of the Persian group is due to past political influences as well as to common ties of race and religion. From the time when Ctesiphon and Babylon vied with the cities of Persia in the splendour of their capitals, all of this territory was repeatedly under one and the same dominant power, which at dif- COLOUR PLATE IV — BERGAMO RUG The weaver of this interesting Bergamo followed the early Asia Minor traditions in the use of rich, deep blue and red of field and bor- der, yet in respect to pattern showed his freedom from conventionality by departing from types peculiar to his district and adopting many nomadic designs prevalent throughout Anatolia. Reciprocal latch-hooks form the background of the central field, on which are three upright panels containing octagonal discs; and latch-hooks surrounding loz- enges and forming what may originally have been intended to represent the tree of life appear almost as conspicuously in the border. There are also combs, knots of destiny, and innumerable S-forms. The panels at the upper and lower ends of the field and the reciprocal Vandykes are most suggestive of Ladiks, but in the place of pomegranates at the ends of the upright stalks are small checquered squares. Bergamos with such patterns are now rarely seen. Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt Jr\fL ■ ■ 4» sto \ to As vmvp? jmAo S3 -\\0ftbsV3 .St*