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The following considerations induced me to undertake the translation of Baron Max von Thielmann’s book of travels in the Caucasus, Persia, and Turkey in Asia. The enterprising nature of the journey, and the novel character of a great portion of the regions traversed. The interesting geographical, historical, political, and social details contained in the work. The desire to open up to my countrymen a new route of travel. Apart from the valuable geographical and archseo- logical information comprised in these volumes, the reader will hardly fail to peruse with interest the sketch given of the wars waged in the Caucasus, of the different tribes engaged in that warfare, and of the progress of a religious movement styled Muridism, which sprang up during the contest, and which is regarded as the most important event in the modern annals of Islamism. An insight is given into the political division of the Caucasus, the nature of the Eussian administration in VI Introdiictio7i by those districts, and the relations subsisting between the inhabitants of the soil and the Eussian element. A survey is made of the political condition of Persia, of the commercial relations of that country, with especial reference to the trade of Tabreez ; also of the state of the Kurds under Turkish rule ; and an account is given of the trade at Bagdad. Pictures are drawn of eastern town-life in Tiflis, Tabreez, and Bagdad ; and of Persian hospitality. The description of the mausoleum of Sheik Sefi, near Ardebil, and of its unique treasures of old Chinese and Persian porcelain, pottery- ware, etc., will interest the admirer of Oriental china and enamels ; and a receipt awaits the gourmet, who may now acquire the secret of the tschillaw — a delicate rice-pudding, regarded as the chef d' oeuvre of culinary art in Persia. The lover of nature should visit Mount Ararat and the Pass of Kasbek. Baron Max von Thielmann disclaims all intention of writing a hand-book ; but the love of travelling adventure, a predominant characteristic of the Anglo- Saxon race, and one to which Baron Max von Thielmann himself bears testimony, will prompt many ardent spirits to avail themselves of the information supplied in the course of this narrative, and notably in the final chapter, to seek ‘ fresh fields and pastures new ; ’ and in the region, too, where Alexander sighed for more worlds to conquer. In respect to the translation itself, I will only say that, whilst striving to adhere strictly to the sense of The Traiislator. Vll the text, I have endeavoured to reproduce the ideas and feelings of the author, and to elucidate any passages, with the subject of which the general reader may, possibly, be less familiar than the historian or diplo- matist. With the foregoing comments — in so far as they relate to the work in the original language — I recom- mend the translation to the indulgence of the English- reading public. CHAKLES HENEAGE. On board the ‘ Wizard,’ R. Y. S. Algiers: March 28, 1875. AÜTHOE’S PKEFACE. A RESIDENCE of Several months in St. Petersburg, during which period I contrived to master so much of the Eussian language as it is given to a Grerman possessing a normal larynx to acquire in so short a time, had matured a determination which I had formed, to travel over the more distant portions of Eussia, and especially over the Caucasus. I was not blind to the fact that the trip required more perfect knowledge of the necessary routes than could be ob- tained by a simple glance at the guide-books of Murray or of Baedeker, which might suffice for an excursion amongst the Alps, or for a tour in Italy. I conse- quently sought materials to promote the object of my study. I soon discovered that these materials were scarcely to be met with in any available degree, and that no work existed which could be employed in the sense of a hand-book. Undoubtedly Monsieur Dubois de Montpereux gives very detailed accounts of the Caucasus ; but his work was written a long time pre- X A tUhors Preface. vious to the recent era of pacification, at which period the country first became accessible to the traveller, and is therefore out of date. Haxthausen’s ‘ Trans- Caucasus ’ is utterly useless, and Dumas’ ‘Voyage autour du Caucase ’ is a narrative on the whole far too untrustworthy to serve as a guide, although it contains extremely clever descriptions, frequently both striking and correct. Bodenstedt’s work, however attractive to the reader, possesses no value for the traveller in quest of practical knowledge. The sources from which the necessary information was supplied which enabled me to undertake the trip were, a manuscript diary of a Prussian officer, and a work by Professor Petzholdt on his journey through the Caucasus, the latter narrative well wmrthy the attention of all those who are desirous to make similar excursions. From these two sources, and also from the records of the Emperor of Kussia’s journey through Daghestan, in 1871, I sketched out a plan of my travels. The result showed that I was not deceived in my expectations. Two incidents occurred, which considerably lengthened my original plan, in- tended for a three months’ tour ; and these, in the end, prolonged the journey to nearly double the anticipated length. The first was the accidental circumstance of my coming together with a passionate admirer of the East, who for years had been acquainted with Oriental countries, and who strongly advised me not to return Author s Preface, XI home without first visitiug the westernmost portions of Asia ; the second was the result of a final deliberation with my travelling companions, in deference to whose wishes the trip was extended from the Caucasus through Persia. I then commenced my tour provided with all the travelling requisites, which previous experience of trips suggested as necessary, and accomplished, without encountering any dangers and with comparatively little difficulty, a journey through countries rarely visited by Europeans and scarcely ever by tourists. Should the follov/ing pages fall into the hands of one fond of travelling, and be the means of inducing him to visit these fair and distant lands, I wish him good luck, and hope that the book may serve to guide him on his way. BAKON VON THIELMANN. CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME. CHAPTER L ODESSA TO POTI. Odessa — Sebastopol — Bachtchisarai — Journey to Yalta — Baidar Gate — Yalta — Livadia — Orianda — Aluplia — Waterfall — Kertch — Coast of Caucasus — Soukhum Kaleh — Arrival in Poti — The Country of the Caucasus — Chief Mountain Range — Daghestan — Little Caucasus — Lowlands — Political Division of the Caucasus — Roads — Navigation — Railways — Population — Kartalinians — Tartars — Armenians — Mountain Population — Russians and Foreigners page 1 CHAPTER IL POTI TO BORSHOM. Poti — By Rail to Kutais — Virgin Forests in Mingrelia — Kutais — Hotel de France — Our Servant Ali — An Imeretinian Tailor — Caucasian Dress — Monastery of Gelati — Motzamethi — Ex- cursion to Swanethia— Unfortunate Start — Valley of the Rion — Gorge of Ladshanura — Lailaschi — Grusinian Society — Pe- culiar Customs respecting Toasts — Orbeli and Muri — Valley of the Tzchenis-Tzchali — Ijentechi — Characteristic Features of Swanethia — Ludshi — Pass of Latpari — Encounter with Swane- XIV Co7itents of the First Vohune. thians — View from Pass of Latpari — Return — LailascM — Twiscbi — Departure from Kutais — Kwirila — Pass of Suram — Bjelogorie — Carts and Buffaloes — Suram — Borsbom — Timo- tbis-ubani and Daba — Ruins of a Monastery — Shooting Ex- cursion — Sport in tbe Caucasus — Attack of Fever . page 49 CHAPTER III. BORSHOM TO TIFLIS. Atzcbur — Acbaltzicb — Cbertwiss — Wardzia — Ducbobortz Tribe — Acbalkalald — Country of Ducbobortz Tribe — Scbiscbtapa — Cossacks on tbe Frontier — Alexandrapol — Tbe Alagöz — Drive to Ani — Ruins of Ani — Drive back — Road to Erivan — Mas- tara — Talyn — Village Arcbitecture — Sardarabad — Etscbmi- adzin — See of tbe Patriarch — Situation of the Monastery — Cathedral — Stay at the Monastery — Erivan — Mosque and Fort — View of tbe Ararat — Excursion to tbe Ararat — Monas- tery of Cborwirab — Aralycb — The Ararat — Agburri — Gorge of Agburri — Tbe Kipgol — Kurds — Aralycb — Return to Erivan — Daratscbitschach — Tbe Malakans — Lake Goktscba — Valley of Akstafa — Tbe Kura Steppe — Tbe Red Bridge — Karajaz — Arrival at Tiflis 137 CHAPTER IV. TIFLIS TO PETROWSK. Tiflis — Excursion to Kacbetia — German Colonies — Signacb — Carrying off tbe Princesses — Cultivation of Wine-grape in tbe Caucasus — Acbmeti — Tioneti — Cbewsur Tribe — Ananur — Pass of Kasbek — Ossetes — Defile of Dariel — Vladikawkas — Wars in tbe Caucasus — Tbe right wing — Tbe left wing — Muridism — Scbamyl — To Groznaja — Tbe Tscbetscbnia — We- den — Andi — Population of Daghestan — Bottlicb — Chunsak — Ravine of Karadagh — Tbe Gunio — Bridge of Saltinski — Cbodsbalmachi — Urmi — Dsbingutai — Temirscbanscbura — Pe- tro wsk 217 ILLUSTEATIONS IN VOL. T. BAcnxcinsARAi to face page G Grusinian Woman ,, 71 Lentechi „ 99 Boeshom, Villa of Grand-I)uxe Michael, Imperial Lieutenant „ 126 Tiflis „ 218 Geusinian Musicians ,, 229 Buch AN at the Pass of Kasbek . . . ,, 250 Lesghis „ 280 The Trunk Mountain 290 MAP. Caucasus, Persia, &c at beginning Errata, Page 9, lines 6 and 14, /o/- Yemtschik read Yamtchik „ 25, line ‘11, for Iwilsas-Mta read Tvviiilsas-Mta 5 , 26, „ 26, „ from tke river Tschetsclmia which falls into the Terek read 35, from the Tschetschnia 13, „ Kwrrila read Kwirila 25, „ Alexandropol read Alexandrapol 38, lines 2 and 3, for many of these suppositions read many of these dis- tinctions 39, line 1, for Swanithians read Swanethians ,, 2, ,, Tuschans read Tuschs 40, ,, 16, ,, Eriwan „ Erivan 61, „ 19, ,, incongrous ,, incongruous 107, „ 10, ,, in the Caucasus read of the Caucasus 123, „1, ,, valley of the Kuralies is here read valley of the Kura lies here 137, „ 1, „ when we entered Borshom read when we left Borshom 148, ,, 1, „ Kurdes j’ead Kurds 151, „ 3, ,, enfolded ,, unfolded 194, „ 1, „ which resolve themselves read resolving themselves Pages 203, line 20, and 204, line 5, /or Koords Kurds CAUCASUS. CHAPTER I. ODESSA TO POT I. Odessa— Sebastopol— Baclitchisarai— Journey to Yalta— Baidar Gate, or Pass of Pboros— Yalta— Livadia—Orianda—Alupka —Waterfall— Kertch— Coast of Caucasus— Soukhum Kaleh— Arrival in Poti— The Country of the Caucasus— Chief Moun- tain Kange— Daghestan— Little Caucasus— Lowlands— Poli- tical Division of the Caucasus— Eoads— Navigation— Railways —Population— Kartalinians— Tartars— Armenians— Mountain Population — Russians and Foreigners. As previously agreed upon, I met my travelling com- panions, Von Wurmb and Von Eeiswitz, on August 10, 1872, at Odessa. Their intention was to have pro- ceeded thither from Berlin by Pest and Gralatz, but no sooner had they arrived at Pest than they ascertained that communication by steamer was suspended between G-alatz and Odessa, on account of the cholera. This circumstance obliged them to take a round-about course through Galicia, and to post over the Carpa- thian mountains about 140 miles, which gave them some insight into the nature of the enjoyments re- served foi them later on. As for myself, T preferred VOL. I. B 2 Odessa to Poti. CH. I. the journey from St. Petersburg via Moscow, with which latter town I was well acquainted, having been there several times before. I confined myself conse- quently to a visit to the Exhibition, which I found most interesting, and well worthy of the notice of my countrymen. In Kief, an extensive and beautifully situated city, I remained but one day. Our original intention was to have remained in Odessa till Monday, August 12, and then to take advantage of the steamer to the Crimea; but a thick fog setting in rendered everything in the town so dim and desolate that we determined to get on as quickly as possible, and to take our chance of fine weather in Sebastopol. At 4 P.M. we embarked on board the ‘ Taurida, a Russian vessel belonging to the Black Sea Navigation Company an old craft, and by no means the best on the line ; but being not overcrowded, and the sea being calm, we felt we might count upon a comfortable night. At 5.30 P.M., after a slight collision with the bowsprit of another ship, our vessel left the harbour. The fog had considerably diminished, but the atmosphere was still damp and heavy, and insupportably close in the cabins below, so that we preferred remaining on deck as long as possible. The weather was splendidly clear, and the next morning about 8 A.M. we sighted the yellow coast of the Crimea, first Cape Khersonesus with its light- house, and beyond that the black stony heights west of Sebastopol. An hour later we entered the bay, passing between two forts armed with formidable batteries. CH. I. Sebastopol. 3 erected in stories ; the vessel then made a sharp turn to the right, and instantaneously the gigantic ruins of Sebastopol lay before us. There is perhaps no spot upon earth which after an interval of nearly twenty years so fully exhibits the spectacle of complete desola- tion as Sebastopol ; tvhilst in Strasburg and Paris no vestige remains to mark the destructive effect of the siege, Sebastopol presents the same appearance as on the day after the last attack. Scarcely a house in the town has been rebuilt; every step is amongst ruins, and on the opposite side of the harbour long barrack walls, extending far into the distance, display rows of empty window places. The little animation which still exists is confined to the streets adjoining the landing- place of the steamers. There are here two hotels for foreigners to put up at. We chose the one kept by Herr Wetzel, and found tolerable, though not very roomy, accommodation there. The landlord, a German, formerly steward to the Kussian officers’ club, lamented bitterly the golden age, when 260 officers daily sat down to table — a loss not redeemed by the present high charges, and not inconsiderable number of foreign visitors. The weather being magnificent, we lost no time in engaging a carriage and guide to go round the town. Our Cicerone was a Jew, speaking every lan- guage abominably. In the following broken German he described the death of General Cathcart : ^ War e grausser Monn, e gesuender ; kuemmt er gegangen ge- fahren szu reiten, wird er geschossen, is er gekuemmen szu fallen todt vom Pferde heruenter.’ After ascending 4 Odessa to Poti. CH. I. some distance above the harbour, our route, which occupied seven hours, brought us to the Grreat Redan, where the parallels and approaches of the attacking party may be easily recognised : we then passed on to the Malakoff, the importance of which as the key to the Russian defence would hardly strike the unpreju- diced observer. A small stone building and an insig- nificant tower mark this historic spot. Our road then continued to the edge of the plateau before Sebastopol, bringing us to the battle-field of Inkermann. Here a splendid view of the valley of the Tcbernaya, and the picturesque mountain chains beyond, repaid us for our exertions during the heat of the day. The mill which the battle has rendered historical is still in existence, and close to it a small well, where we observed a Tartar girl veiled, drawing water — the first sign to us of Eastern customs. The English graveyards, which we passed on our way back, are unfortunately in a state of complete ruin. The stone fences have been destroyed, the tombstones in many instances rolled down and broken to pieces, and the monuments injured ; whilst in every direction weeds have accumulated — a sad con- trast to the well cared for Russian cemetery on the north side of the bay. The continued range of fortifi- cations prevented us, even on the side next the sea, from making a complete circle, so we satisfied ourselves with going as far as the flag-staff on the southern ex- tremity, and to the central bastion. A day’s excursion to the fortifications will suffice for the ordinary tourist ; but the military traveller, to whom a visit to these CH. I. Bachtchisarai. 5 historical localities will be of special interest, should devote several days to a detailed inspection of them ; and for this purpose, as well as for a general tour in the Crimea, he will find Murray’s ‘ Handbook for Eussia ’ of great service. We refreshed ourselves on our return with a de- lighful bathe in the harbour, and determined to devote the following day to an excursion to Bachtchisarai, the former residence of the Tartar khans. We had to choose between two routes ; the one by Inkermann, and the other by the north side of Sebastopol. The latter has two disadvantages. In the first place it is necessary to cross the bay in a boat ; and in the second — a circumstance not mentioned to us in Sebastopol — no proper conveyances can be obtained on the north side ; only Tartar carts without springs, of very primi- tive construction, and with equally primitive drivers. Having no alternative, we got into one of these instru- ments of torture, which possessed a large hood, after the fashion of a Silesian cart, but no seats ; and after driving for four hours and a half at an extremely slow pace, we arrived at Bachtchisarai, a distance of twenty English miles. The route presented little variety. At first the route followed the plateau near the sea, then turning shortly aftei-wards to the right it led us into a somewhat dreary valley, watered by a scanty rivulet. Occasional patches of willows, and here and there a village with gardens and old trees, lent some animation to the spot ; but the most striking feature of the whole was the flocks of rollers {Gorracias garrula), that mos 6 Odessa to Poti. CH. I. beautiful of European birds, often met with in the Crimea. Bachtchisarai is not visible to the traveller until he is actually inside the town. Situated in a little narrow valley on the right hand corner of the road, it remains concealed to the last. The whole town consists more or less of one long street, at the end of which is the Khan- Sarai or Palace of the Khans. On each side of the street are small houses — one storey high, open in front like booths — containing a stall or workshop, and fre- quently both of these. The population is purely of Tartar origin, and with the exception of the Eussian guardian at the palace, I do not recollect observing a single European face. From the entire absence of all elements of modern civilisation, the town has become imbued with a thoroughly oriental character, more so perhaps than the generality of towns in Turkey ; and this is especially conspicuous from the circumstance that the edifices have all existed in the time of the last Tartar Khans, and have undergone no restoration since that period. We had told our driver to take us to the Palace of the Khans ; but as our knowledge of Turkish was small, and his knowledge of Eussian was it can hardly be wondered at if, following his usual custom, he turned off into a small side street to unhar- ness and put up his horses. Unfortunately this street was not large enough to let us pass, so that we were positively jammed in between two houses, and only managed to extricate ourselves after considerable time and some trouble. At last we arrived at the palace, and BACHTCHISAIIAI. To face j>. G, col. i. •'w < * CH. I. Bachtchisarai. 7 were certainly mucli impressed with our first view of it. Although neither remarkable for size or beauty of architecture, this edifice produces a lasting impression from its strange and motley appearance, its many bal- conies, gateways, and pavilions — its mosque and mina- rets — and its old shady trees in the garden. In marked contrast to the brisk, active movement in the street, a deep silence pervaded the dim passages of the palace, and although the atmosphere outside was sultry, an al- most icy coldness prevailed in the Cemetery of the Khans. There is nothing particularly interesting in the interior of the palace, except a few remarkable rooms, which have served as a hall of justice, and as apartments for the ladies of the harem, amongst whom formerly was the beautiful Countess Potocka. The ad- joining mosque is simple and unembellished, in common with all Turkish houses of worship, and the Tombs of the Khans are merely worthy of notice as historical re- membrances of a dynastic family deposed in a very prosaic manner. I can hardly advise persons suffering from giddiness to ascend the minaret, as the view from above is not extensive and presents no new features. Our day’s enjoyment would have remained incomplete without a ‘ diner ä la Tartare.’ Unfortunately our illusions were SDmewhat dissipated on finding the mutton tough, the rice without flavour, and the coffee indif- ferent, the price alone being worthy of a grand hotel. The lateness of the hour, as also the rainy weather, which in the meantime had set in, compelled us to give up our excursion to Tchufut Kale, the town of the 8 Odessa to PotL CH. I. Karaim Jews. We, however, made up for our disap- pointment as regards the anticipated magnificence of oriental cookery, by regaling ourselves with the beau- tiful fruits which are to be purchased at almost every house, and we loaded ourselves with souvenirs, consisting of pretty little objects — perfectly useless — made of leather and manufactured in the place at a very low rate (the days, alas ! when the sword-blades of Bachtchisarai rivalled those of Khorassan are gone by !) after which with due resignation we remounted our instruments of torture. Night had fallen before we reached the har- bour of Sebastopol, and with great difficulty we obtained a boat to take us across. On arriving at the hotel we received the startling intelligence that the ‘ Taurida,’ instead of going to Yalta, had put back into the har- bour with damaged engines, and that the passengers had monopolized all available conveyances in the town for the land journey. We fell back consquently, as a last resource, on the country vehicle, the telega. In the course of this narrative I have endeavoured to give some account of the telega, as well as of the afflictions and dangers to which the unhappy traveller who rides in one is exposed. But I should own that any such description must necessarily be imperfect, for only those who have been jolted along for hundreds of versts over bad and indifferent roads can really know what the telega is. Our telega, which had been ordered at the post- station to call for us at seven o’clock the next morning, did not arrive at the door of the hotel until ten a.m. CH. I. y ourney to Yalta. 9 We squeezed ourselves into it as well as the deficiency of room would allow, and bade adieu to Sebastopol. We were little more than a few hundred yards beyond the gate on to the plateau, when a sentry pointed out to us that half the road was marked off for target prac- tice, at the same time directing our yemtschick (posti- lion) to drive round so as to avoid the forbidden ground. Confiding in this information, we turned off from the road and proceeded over the open field, when suddenly a sound well known to us during the late war caught our ears, and a few seconds afterwards a cannon-ball struck the ground about fifty yards to our left, fortu- nately without causing our destruction. We gave the yemtschick to understand in a somewhat demonstrative manner that our desire was to get out of range of the firing as speedily as possible, and the horses appearing to understand the command, dashed round the rest of the dangerous territory at full gallop. The slope of the plateau, called the Sapun Mountains, which extend from Sebastopol to the Bay of Balaklava, was soon reached, and the historical bay itself, lying deep among rocks which shelter it from the winds blowing from the sea, remained on our right. Beyond the valley rises up the extensive chain of mountains forming the southern border of the Crimea. These mountains are very picturesque in appearance, full of ravines and valleys covered with luxuriant vegetation, which con- trast favourably with the bleak yellow steppe and bar- ren heights of Sebastopol. Our road first led into a little romantic valley ; then ascending between thick IO Odessa to Poti. CH. I. bushes alive with innumerable birds, especially rollers, it brought us to the first post-station, where we changed horses, and shortly afterwards to the valley, or rather the ravine, of Baidar, a little earthly Paradise, re- splendent with green foliage and sheltered from in- clement winds. Unfortunately, all villages in the East frequented by travellers do not convey the poetical associations attached to the place itself. This is the case with the village of Baidar, which is partly in- habited by Russian settlers, and which produced rather an insipid impression. The road then wound itself up the side of the mountains south of the valley, and reaching the second post-station brought us to the celebrated gate of Baidar. The view is one of the most marvellous in Europe. In the background the pleasant little valley gradually fades away into the dis- tance, whilst before us, rising suddenly from a depth of 1,550 feet, the sea, encircled with huge fantastic rocks starting up almost perpendicularly, meets our gaze. The mountain defile over which the road passes leads into a small tunnel. To the traveller emerging from within the contrast is most striking, as the comparison of the two landscapes is unbroken by intervening scenery. Unfortunately for us our enjoyment was not destined to be unalloyed, for hardly had we time to rush down the zigzag road by which we had ascended, when a storm, accompanied by torrents of rain, set in, wetting us through and through, together with everything we had, and curtailing the enjoyment which would other- wise have been derived from an occasional glimpse CH. 1. Yalta. 1 1 through the clouds of the splendid panorama before us. The road, which had been constructed by Prince Wo- rontzoff, and which was, according to local conceptions, in tolerably good repair, continues its course amidst a luxuriant vegetation, with the sea on the right hand and steep mountains rising into the air on the left. Each nook and corner, each little side valley, presents, according to the description given to us, features agreeable to the gaze ; but with this assurance we were compelled to remain satisfied. We of course imagined that on so frequented a road we should find something to eat at the post-houses ; but not until we arrived at the last station but one could we obtain even tea and bread. The customary false assertions, as regarded the impossibility of obtaining horses — household words to every Eussian traveller journeying by post — were re- peated to us at the last station ; and only after a decided demonstration on our part were we placed in a position to resume our journey. It was dark by the time we reached Yalta ; but the clouds had disappeared, and a bright starlight night, fresh with a vegetation exhaling a thousand odours, consoled us for our disasters. The next morning we awoke in not a very poetical mood. The sky was again cast over. Yalta emerged from amongst masses of fathomless dirt ; and the Hotel de Yalta, the best in the place, could hardly be taken for such. Only once during the whole journey do I recollect having had to make shift with such a filthy place for night quarters, and that was in a cowshed in Kurdistan. There could be no question of an excur- Odessa to Poti. CH. I. I 2 sion in the neighbourhood, so we passed the day in visiting the town, if the small locality can be so called, and in drying our wet things. Yalta has a future before it. Situated almost in the middle of the most picturesque region of the south coast, and possessing a good roadstead with favourable anchorage for ships, except during violent south-east winds, it must eventu- ally become the port of embarkation for all those who may hereafter settle down in this magnificent district. After the example of Prince Woronzoff’s splendid country seat at Alupka, which gave an impetus to the taste for country residences, innumerable villas belong- ing to the Kussian aristocracy, and frequented not only in the spring and summer, but also during the winter, have started up in all directions around Yalta. The climate is similar to that of the Corniche between Nice and Grenoa, and is highly beneficial to persons in deli- cate health, a circumstance which renders the estates doubly valuable. Anyone desirous to enjoy this beau- tiful country who is not the proprietor of a villa, or who has not expended some thousand roubles on a fur- nished residence for the season, will do well to wait for a few years until the projected bathing establishments and hotels, which are to be constructed on a grand scale, are completed in Yalta ; for the present hotels, irrespective of their dirty condition, would hardly satisfy the most moderate requirements. The accom- modation for bathing is also very primitive. The bathing establishment stands at the mouth of a small stream wliich discharges into the bay its fetid waters. CH. I. Yalta — Livadia, Orianda, Alupka. 13 mingled with the nauseous reminiscences of the town. The separation of the sexes is effected by a row of cloths suspended from a cord. During the period of my stay these cloths were carried away by a storm, and the cord alone remained to designate the moral pur- pose to which it had been applied. There are no cafes, restaurants, reading-rooms, or pavements ; on the other hand, an excellent performance of music by a Eussian infantry band takes place every afternoon on the sea shore. But the traveller who has no intention of making a prolonged stay should not be deterred on account of these trifling deficiencies from visiting the south coast. During the next two days we had the most superb weather for our excursions in the neighbourhood. Three country seats, Livadia, Orianda, and Alupka, form the chief attraction to strangers. The first, built by Count Potocki, and now in the possession of the Emperor, is situated in the immediate vicinity of Yalta, at a height of about five hundred feet above the level of the sea. The park, though only recently laid out, is in admirable condition, and extends down to the water’s edge. It contains no actual palace, but a series of tolerably large country houses. Amongst these the one inhabited by the Czarewitch, constructed in the style of a richly- ornamented chalet, rises up most charmingly from amidst the dense verdure. At a higher elevation of some hundred feet, and distant about half an hour from Livadia, stands the villa Ereklik, signifying in the Tartar language a garden of plums, recently con- H Odessa to Poti. CH. I. structed for the Empress. Here her Imperial Majesty passes the summer months, sheltered from the scorch- ing heat, considerably increased in Livadia by the reflection of the sun’s rays on the water. Orianda, the property of the Grrand Duke Constantine, situated lower down, lies close to the sea, behind Livadia. Two steep rugged promontories rise up on each side, almost en- tirely secluding the spot from the outer world, rendering it confined, and no doubt trying to the health during the summer heat. The chateau is built from designs by Schinkel, and carries with it the sober stamp of the late Emperor’s reign — very many straight lines, and no ornamentation to relieve the four massive white fapades. This style of architecture may possibly be adapted to a plain North Grerman landscape, but it is not suitable to a country rich in the beauties of nature, and gifted with such luxuriant manifestations. On the other hand the garden is fully worthy of the spot, and offers count- less beautiful features. The pearl of country seats is Alupka, belonging to Prince Worontzoff. It lies about nine miles from Yalta, on the Sebastopol road, and, amongst other advantages, possesses an extremely clean little inn. Situated above the sea, at about the same elevation as Livadia, the chateau exhibits a character seldom met with in Europe. Its architecture is that of a massive gothic castle, adorned with turrets and coignes, surrounded in front by a magnificent terrace, and behind by a number of court-yards, in the style of the Middle Ages, the walls being covered with a profusion of ivy interspersed with CH. I. A htpka — Waterfall. 15 blooming creepers. In many respects the details are Moresque, and the mixture of two foreign styles, far from offending the eye, appears natural and in character with the surrounding scenery. The eye reposes with involuntary satisfaction upon the bold outlines of this noble edifice, constructed of light grey stone without ornamentation, and forgets the unwelcome impression conveyed by the stiff straight outlines of Orianda. The garden, worthy that of Orianda, offers a number of enchanting views of the sea coast and the mountains which tower above the chateau. The district between Alupka and Orianda, and also to the east of Yalta, is studded with unpretending country seats, almost hidden away amongst the dense foliage. To the west of Alupka also, as far as the gate of Baidar, similar country seats may be seen. The coast has not unfrequently been compared with the Eiviera di Oenova, in my opinion incorrectly, for their character is entirely different. In Italy everything is light and life. Sprightly villages and the fine old chateaux of the Grenoese nobility follow upon one another. Nut-trees, pines, and occasional planes cast their shadows over the ground, while the olive groves deprive the light of its scorching power, though not of its splendour. Here, on the contrary, a deep silence prevails, whilst a luxuriant vegetation conceals the dwelling-place of man ; on each practicable road lies here and there a scanty Tartar village, through the streets of which veiled women slip along. Our second day was occupied with a visit to the waterfall in the mountains, the foam and spray of which i6 Odessa to Poti. CH. I. is visible from Yalta. We hired horses, small sinewy animals, which clambered along famously. These we hired from Tartars, who make a good business by it, and who alone amongst their countrymen in the Crimea attire themselves in the rich Levantine costume, which imparts to the wearers a most dandified appearance. The road passes Livadia, ascending through forests of beeches, succeeded by magnificent firs. The waterfall itself, in dry weather a mere thread, might from the copious rains of the last few days have almost vied with the Eeichenbach Fall in the Bernese Oberland. The view in the backgTound includes the Bay of Yalta, and is most picturesque. We descended a portion of the way by means of a so-called ‘ rattle,’ which the horses did not appear to heed. In the evening we went on board the steamer which was to convey us to the Cau- casus. She was called the ‘ Cesarevna,’ a beautiful new vessel, fitted out with every accommodation for a several days’ passage. The number of passengers was not great. Some officers and officials out of the Caucasus, an elderly lady in Grrusinian costume, and a French lady, the former proprietress of an hotel in the Caucasus, with her two daughters. At eight o’clock we weighed anchor, and soon the bright windows of Yalta were vanishing behind an immense rock jutting out into the sea. In the grey of the morning we were lying in Feodosia Eoads. The mountains have now disappeared, and the barren yellow coast extends to Kertch, which we reached shortly after noon. The entrance into the harbour is effectually CH. I. Kertch. 17 closed by the new fortifications, under the cannon of which the navigation passes. A second channel at Yenikale (about four miles east of Kertch) divides the roads from the Sea of Azov. The actual harbour is only navigable for ships of light draught, and the ‘ Cesarevna ’ was obliged to plough her way through the mud for some distance with her keel before she could moor alongside the wharf. As the vessel did not leave again until evening, we had sufficient leisure for sight-seeing in the town. Two things struck me im- mediately, the number of Grerman watchmakers, every third house containing one, and the Babel of tongues which prevailed in the market-place. A money-changer, who provided us with some small change, spoke fluently every European and some Asiatic languages. In the neighbourhood of Kertch, and especially on the penin- sula of Taman, situated opposite to it, very valuable discoveries of antiquities, especially of old Grecian ornaments, have been made in the course of the last thirty years. The most beautiful specimens are un- doubtedly in the Hermitage at St. Petersburgh, but there are sufficient of them remaining in Kertch to fill a small museum well worth seeing. A walk to the Hill of Mithridates, situated immediately in front of the town, will arouse very interesting associations, for this is the spot where Mithridates, when deserted by all his followers, and hemmed in by the Eomans, finally surrendered himself to death in his palace. The entire hill, about three hundred feet high, is covered with fragments of pottery, like the Monte Testaccio. Here VOL. I. c i8 Odessa to Poti. CH. I. may be found pieces of urns very prettily painted, which must have belonged to the best period of terra-cotta manufacture. An old ruin, described as having be- longed to the great King of Pontus, can have no pos- sible claim to so ancient an origin. The panorama includes the roads, alive with shipping (we counted no less than one hundred and twenty vessels), and extends far into Europe on the one side and into Asia on the other. Asiatic territory, represented here by the Penin- sula of Taman, is, however, yellow and flat, and not a vestige of the Caucasus is to be seen. In the evening we weighed anchor, but although a small tug-boat strove its utmost to assist us in forcing our way through the heavy mud, it was only after considerable difficulty that we effected a passage ; and we were very near being obliged to pass the night in the harbour. The following morning found us already in the Bay of Novorossisk, where there is excellent anchorage ground, sheltered on every side — the only one to be found along the whole coast of the Caucasus, but un- fortunately situated too far to the westward to be of service to traffic. There is only one road from here, viz., to the northward, leading into the territory of the Kouban. The place itself consists of a few huts in- habited by officials, military men, and a few settlers. After discharging cargo, consisting of a few sacks of meal, probably the week’s provision for the inhabitants, the vessel continued her course. So calm was the sea that during the entire day we kept close to the coast. The mountains which rise immediately from the sea CH. I. Coast of Caucasus. ^9 had attained at Novorossisk a height of more than 1,000 feet. At Tuapse, a small settlement, which we passed at 2 p.m., they must he 3,000 feet high, and the setting sun shone upon steep rugged peaks dotted over here and there with patches of snow. In other respects all along the coast was still as death. Bushes and thickets stretched down to the water’s edge ; not a vil- lage or a hut was to be seen ; occasionally the ruins of a destroyed fort. The tranquillity was almost un- earthly ; especially when we remembered that the mountains were formerly the home of numberless Tcherkesse tribes, who after their subjugation in 1864 expatriated themselves almost to the last man. For it is certain that not less than 400,000 souls migrated hence into Turkey, there to perish from misery and starvation. It can only be supposed that this was the result of a prolonged agitation on the part of Turkish agents, who must have held out to them the most brilliant inducements. It could not have been produced by fanaticism, as the tribes of Dag- hestan, zealous Mahometans, are in the present time in a very well to do condition under Eussian rule, and do not appear at all to yearn after the bloody tyranny formerly exercised over them by Schamyl. It is to be regretted that such powerful elements — for such they were, according to the testimony of Eussian officers — should be lost to the country. But civilisation re- quired the sacrifice, and this part of the Caucasus has in consequence suffered by it. At the present time the country lies desolate. Nor would it be an advan- c 2 20 Odessa to Poti. CH. I. tageoiis proceeding to endeavour to attract European settlers here, for the first generation would undoubt- edly succumb to the fevers, which at the time when the virgin soil is being first brought into cultivation are doubly dangerous. It may, however, be reserved to future generations to witness this bounteously luxu- riant territory blooming with produce. Before we reached Pitzunda, a spot in the country of the former Dshigetes, night had set in, and the full moon was casting her light upon the mountains, of which some of the peaks attain the limit of perpetual snow. We were thus deprived of a view of the cele- brated church, a master-piece of Byzantine art, which must formerly have possessed great treasures. In the grey of the morning we entered the Bay of Soukhum- Kaleh. The anchorage-ground is tolerably suitable, and the idea has already been entertained of continuing the Caucasus railway to this spot. The extreme point of the line is at present at Poti, which for maritime purposes is not a very convenient port. It would still, however, be a doubtful change for the better, as the roads of Soukhum-Kaleh are entirely unsheltered from the south wind. Here we saw first the costumes of the Caucasus. The town, if a few dozen wood houses can be so called, is principally inhabited by Abkhasians — an idle, thieving, deceitful, ill-famed population. Not improbably the lower classes of the community, as is fre- quently the case, are better than their reputation. Our vessel not being able to get up so far as Poti, on ac- count of her draught of water, passengers and goods cn. I. So^lkh^im-Kaleh, 21 had to be re -shipped on to a small flat-bottomed steamer, the ‘ Gralubchik,’ or Little Dove.’ This gave us sufficient leisure to obtain a glance of the place, and to enjoy a refreshing bathe after the heat of the preceding day. Singularly enough there were two excellent bathing-houses in Soukhum-Kaleh, whilst this accommodation was entirely deficient in much- frequented Yalta. When we returned on board, we fell in with a singular family, — a Princess Eristaw, from Gruria, with her children, dressed in the national costume of that place. Although the garments, as regards cut, displayed much taste, the entire costume would hardly have been a striking one, had not the children been all dressed from top to toe in scarlet, reminding us forcibly of the Prince of Arcadia in ‘ Or- phee aux Enfers.’ After unloading cargo, the ‘ Galubr chik ’ got under weigh, as far as her weak old engines would admit of it, and although the sea was by no means rough, the motion of the ship was somewhat peculiar, owing probably to her flat bottom. This had its good side, for the saloon was much too small to accommodate the number of passengers at table. The stewards consequently waited until the necessary amount were sea-sick, which enabled the remainder, although very much pressed for room, to partake of a very indif- ferent repast. The vessel has its history. In 1860, when the Prussian Mission set out for Persia, the ‘ Galubchik ’ conveyed it from Batum to Poti ; and on that occasion Professor Brugsch, the historian of the mission, indulged in the supposition that from the 22 Odessa to Poti. CH. I. moment of nativity the ‘ Little Dove ’ had never per- formed her ablutions. Twelve years have elapsed since that time, and during that interval the dirt had been steadily consolidating itself. The vessel, leaving Souk- hum-Kaleh behind, soon passed the mouth of the j- Kodor, a small river rising near the Elburz, and water- ^ ing the high valley of Tsebelda, which is inhabited by { Abkhasians. To the eastward the shore fell back a » little, and the haze which had gathered in the air made ? it disappear altogether from sight. The coast line is i moreover flat, and covered with virgin forests ; the mountain chain rising up at some distance from the shore. The clouded atmosphere prevented us from seeing the Elburz, although visible from the sea at a point be- tween Soukhum and Poti. Its peculiar position behind the chief mountain range renders it however invisi- ble from the land on the south side. To the north its snowy crest is visible far into the steppe, and must pre- sent an astounding spectacle to travellers coming from the sea of Azov, whose eye for the first time meets this gigantic wall, topped by its lofty dome, lit up in the early rays of the morning sun. In the meantime the sultriness increased, and with it the number of those who brought their sacrifices to Neptune. Towards 4 P.M. the white lighthouse of Poti appeared in sight, and as if to greet us on our arrival in Asia, countless shoals of dolphins, which until then, we had not noticed, danced merrily round the ship. The view of Poti was not poetical. In the roads a few sailing vessels which CH. I. The Cottntry of the Caucasus. 23 were obliged to lie very far out on account of the shallow water ; beneath us the brackish water which the Eion brings down to the sea, and which forms at the mouth of the river a circle of white slime ; and on the shore some low wooden houses ; add to this the malaria from the marshes which hovers over this most unhealthy of all human settlements. The bar at the mouth of the Eion is so dangerous that even our flat-bottomed vessel had to be steered over it with the greatest precaution. We steamed a few hundred yards up stream, and brought up close to the ruins of the Old Turkish Castle. The first thing which struck us on stepping upon this purely Asiatic ground were droschkies, which no town in Europe need have been ashamed of. Elegant carriages, good horses, and on the box a wild-looking coachman, in the Mingrelian costume, with a great dagger in his girdle. Their services were, however, almost superfluous, for the few inns which Poti boasts of are situated near to the river. The ‘Hotel Jacquot ’ and ‘Hotel Nouveau ’ contest the precedence; we selected the former, and found very tolerable accommodation there. If I now proceed to say a few words about the Caucasus from a geographical and political point of view, my object is solely to give the reader some data to go upon in order that he may understand the book. A tolerably exhaustive description would, apart from the limits which it would occupy, be beyond my reach, as no compilation exists reviewing the works of different authors based on statistical data supplied by the government. Moreover such a production would require , years of study on the spot. The reader, who from a statisti- } 24 Odessa to Poti. CH. I. cal point of view, is desirous to obtain more precise informa- tion, should, if acquainted with the Eussian language, consult an admirable work ( ‘ Eussian Military Statistics ’ ) compiled by staff officers, under the direction of General Obrutschew. From a geographical point of view, the staff map (five versts), is the best authority ; ethnographical and physiographical de- scriptions must be sought for amongst different works. The problem of the Caucasus commences with its name. No etymologist has as yet been able to establish a certain hy- pothesis in regard to its signification. So far is clear that the primary syllable stands in direct affinity with the Persian word Kuh, meaning mountain. The Oriental however, is accustomed to include under one denomination only so many mountains as the eye can compass at one time ; and thus the Caucasus is only known to him by name in parts, that is to say as applying to what lies within his immediate sphere of action. He does not understand or appreciate the notion of mountain chains in their entirety, and this conception is only occasionally designated by Arab geographers as the ‘ moun- tain of languages.’ As with the name, so it is with the sub- ject. In the Caucasus those who can give intelligence respect- ing the entire country are few, the generality being merely able to supply information connected with their immediate localities. Every atlas shows the general position of the Caucasus range, but with the almost universal error that it is represented as a gigantic wall extending from the sea of Azov to the Caspian, which induces the traveller to believe that glaciers and fields of perpetual snow exist on the peninsula of Taman. But this delusion speedily vanishes when the travel- ler finds that the steamer continues its course an entire day by the side of green hills and low mountains. The superficies of the Caucasus may be divided into three, or, in the event of Daghestan being regarded separately, into four parts. 1. The principal mountain chain from the peninsula of Taman to the Tsebelda, the high valley feeding the two sources of the Kodor which runs into the sea, not far from Soukhum- Kaleh. This part of the Caucasus ascends gradually from the CH. I. Chief Mountain Range. 25 north-west, and increasing more or less regularly, attains at its south-east extremity a height of from 6,000 to 8,000 feet, above which certain peaks tower some thousand feet higher still, without in most cases, however, attaining the limits of perpet- ual snow. In the direction of the sea it falls off rugged and abrupt, whilst to the north a widely ramified hilly country extends itself between it and the Kouban. It thus sends forth to the sea only unimportant rivulets, whilst the North Fore- land is intersected by a great number of streams of consider- able size, mostly flowing due north. Since the emigration of the Tscherkesse tribes the country has mostly remained un- employed ; virgin forests fill the valleys, and amongst the upper affluxes of the Kouban roves that rare animal, the wild bull. 2. From the Tsebelda to the Pass of Kasbek, the moun- tain chain presents an essentially different character. The crests attain the limit of perpetual snow, which’ lies here at an elevation of 12,400 feet ; and but few passes transect the line of mountains. On the other hand the peaks of this gigantic range, as well as those of the mountains immediately next to it, soar up to an altitude unknown in Europe. Thus in the north, the Elburz reaches an elevation of 18,526 feet ; the Dychtau and Koschtantau, 17,000 ; Kasbek, 16,546; south of the latter, Uschba (near to Elburz), the same height, whilst at the sources of the Ingur, the Tzchenis-Tzchali, and the Eion, a complete chain extending from the Tetnuld (the Jungfrau of the Caucasus), to the Adai-Choch (or Iwilsas-Mta), which lies in the principal range, attain an elevation exceeding 15,500 feet. These heights naturally abound in glaciers. From the pass of Latpari, in Swanethia, thirty such glaciers may be seen, of which ten are primary ones. A striking cha- racteristic feature distinguishes nevertheless this region from other mountainous districts, such as the Bernese Oberland, or the Bernina Group, in Switzerland. The Caucasus chain, with the exception of a short bend towards the south, at the source of the Ardon, continues in a straight line, and conse- quently no extensive seas of ice exist, such as are frequently 26 Odessa to Poti. CH. r. met with in Switzerland. The side chains, with the excep- ^ tion of the above-mentioned snow-mountains, Elburz, etc. , etc., attain a much inferior elevation, and glaciers are seldom met with, as for instance on the Laila Mountains, between the Ingur and the Tzchenis-Tzchali. What forms a still more striking contrast as regards Switzerland is the complete absence of lakes. The declivities of this mountain region to- wards the sea and the Colchian lowlands, are filled up by the valleys of the Kodor, the Ingur, the Tzchenis-Tzchali, and the Rion ; the Ljachwa and the Aragwa flow into the valley of the Kura. All these rivers pass through a mountainous fore- land, rich in luxuriant vegetation, and connected with the mountains in the south by the Suram chain, which forms the watershed between the Rion and the Kura. Towards the north the country falls oflf somewhat rapidly into the steppe ; the many parallel valleys which lead to the Kouban, the Kuma, and the Terek are chiefly barren and desolate. 3. East of the Kasbek the principal range breaks off into two branches. One running NE., and separating the valley of the Argun from the Andi Koissu ; the other — the main branch — continuing SE. in the original direction. Between the two lies Daghestan. The former, at its commencement, comprises mountains of still very considerable height, contain- ing glaciers ; at a further stage it descends, and, like a steep wall, cuts ofif the highly situated plateau of Daghestan, from the river Tschetschnia, which falls into the Terek. The south-east branch, however, retains as far as the region of Schemacha the not inconsiderable elevation of 8,000 to 10,200 feet. Yet it seldom reaches the limits of perpetual snow, though, at the sources of the Samur, and in the Bazardshuzi, it rises to the height of 15,100 feet. The rivers of the north- ern branch flow northward to the Terek, through a richly forested country ; those of the southern branch, the abrupt slope of which is covered with virgin forests, flow into the Kura. Amongst them are the Alazan and others, none of which are very important. The plateau of Daghestan, situated i i i CH. I. Daghestan — Little Caucasus — Lowlands. 27 between the two branches is, singularly enough, almost entirely devoid of vegetation. 4. It will be more appropriate to consider Daghestan as a country exclusively distinct, for it differs materially in its ground lines from the other countries of the Caucasus. It forms a high plain, gradually declining from the two principal chains towards the Caspian Sea. Volcanic action has rent it violently asunder, displacing individual portions ; and canals thus created are furrowed out by strong currents of water with such accuracy in many places that, viewed from an alti- tude, the country resembles the model-relievo which illustrates a geological lecture. The four principal watercourses — all designated Koissu, and distinguished from one another by the different districts whence they spring — unite together, and, under the name of Sulak, flow into the Caspian Sea, into which a fifth river, the Samur, likewise conducts the waters of the southern portion of Daghestan. 5. South of the Caucasus rises a widely ramified chain of mountains, principally known under the name of Little Cau- casus. This is connected with the Caucasus by the chain of the Suram Mountains, though separated from it by the valleys of the Eion and the Kura. It may be divided into two groups ; one central, encircling Lake Goktscha like a volcano its crater ; and the other a long straggling tract of mountain- land, widely ramified, stretching NW. from the former to the Black Sea. The first group — several crests of which attain the snow-line, although there are no glacier districts — dis- charges its waters through a multitude of lesser streams northward and eastward into the Kura, southward into the Arax, which latter stream divides it from the high plateau in Persia. This plateau seldom exceeds 10,300 feet. The Arax is almost exclusively a tributary of the Kura, and after having left the latter, traverses a long ravine. Entirely unconnected with these two groups, two gigantic mountains confront one another in the south — the barren inhospitable Alagoez, 13,436 feet high, and the majestic Ararat, 16,916 feet high, with its twofold crest and perpetual white crown. 28 Odessa to Poti. CBT. I. 6. The lowlands to the north of the Caucasus, those of the Kouban in the west, and those of the Terek in the east, pre- sent essentially the same characteristic features — hilly wooded steppes, with a fertile though mostly virgin soil ; whilst the lowlands of the Eion and the Kura, on the contrary, differ entirely from one another. The country of the Kion, the Sacred Plain of Colchis, whence Jason brought home the Golden Fleece, is the picture of the most luxuriant fertility. It yields rich harvests, even to the primitive plough of the indolent Mingrelian peasant, and produces splendid forests on each uninhabited spot of land. The flat country along the Kura is, on the contrary, bleak and desolate. The fault does not lie with the soil, which, with plentiful irrigation, at pre- sent only practicable along the sides of the mountains, proves very fertile, but with the parched and arid winds of Central Asia. In former ages a widely ramified system of canalisation replaced natural irrigation ; but this has been destroyed by the Persians, and in modern times it has neither been restored nor has the country been repopulated. The political position of the Caucasus is still distinct, be- fitting the widely different circumstances which sever it from Russia Proper. It possesses a Lieutenant, an army under his immediate command, and a separate financial administration. The principal organic laws of the Russian Empire have re- cently been introduced into the country, with such modifica-. tions as circumstances have called forth, and universal military service is imminent. Tiflis is the seat of central authority, under the Grand Duke Michael, the present Lieutenant, brother to the Emperor. The highest officials are Baron Nicolai, Chief of the Civil Administration, and Prince Swjatopolk- Mirski, Chief of the General Staff of the Army of the Caucasus. The country is divided into five governments, irrespective of several territories placed under military rule, a result of the permanently warlike condition existing up to within the last few years. The provinces consist of 1. The government of Stavropol. This comprises the north-east portion of the steppe, and possesses a superficies of CH. I. Political Division of the Caucasus, 29 5,992 square miles, with a population, according to the census of 1867, amounting to 371,000 inhabitants. 2. The territory of the Kouban Cossacks, situated between the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, i. e. between the principal mountain chain as far as the Elburz and the government just mentioned above. Superficies, 7,658 square miles ; popula- tion in 1867, 600,000 souls ; capital, Jekaterinodar, on the Kouban. Here the last battles were fought with the Tscher- kesse tribes, and at the present time the population has, not improbably, been greatly diminished in consequence of the mass emigration of these tribes. The administration, in com- mon with that of the following territory, is mixed, the soil being cultivated and the army supplied by the Cossacks of the Kouban, who form by far the greater portion of the Russian population. This system, based on the continual invasion of unruly neighbours, must, however, gradually disappear, a pacific condition of things having been secured. 3. The territory of the Terek Cossacks, 5,232 square miles, 450,000 inhabitants ; capital Wladikawkas on the Terek, at the entrance of the Kasbek Pass. This territory comprises the lowlands of the Terek, and the northern declivity of the principal mountain chain, the so-called Tschetschnia. This has undoubtedly been the most tried territory of the Cauca- sus. For since the first settlement of the Cossacks, dating back to the time of Peter the Great, and to a still more re- mote period, a continual state of warfare on a small scale had prevailed, until a final crisis was reached in the exas- perated conflicts which took place between the years 1839-59. 4. The territory of Daghestan, 2,422 square miles, 450,000 inhabitants, completely subjugated in 1859 by the final defeat of Schamyl, and since that time entirely tranquil ; capital, Temir-Chan-Schura, generally designated for the sake of ab- breviation Schura. The boundaries of this territory are the natural frontiers of Daghestan, except in the south, where the Khanate of Kuba, subdued long ago, has been added to the government of Baku. 5. The government of Tiflis, 3,756 square miles; popula- 30 Odessa to Poti. CH. I. tion, 650,000 souls ; situated in the very heart of the country. The western boundaries are formed by the watershed, be- tween the Rion and the Kura ; the northern (with a slight deviation at the Kasbek, and to the east of it), by the prin- cipal mountain chain, extending from the sources of the Ljachwa to the town of Nucha ; the south-eastern by a line drawn obliquely across the Kura Steppes, with a wide bend towards Tiflis, up to the vicinity of the north-west corner of Lake Goktsha ; the south-western by the watershed be- tween the Kura and the Arax ; and finally by the Turkish frontier. No portion of the country exhibits such diversity of physical features as this government. To the north are the wild mountains of the Kasbek Pass ; to the north-east the sacred valley of the Alazan, and Kachetia, the chief wine- growing district ; to the east the barren steppe ; in the centre the romantic Grusia ; and finally the monotonous high plain stretching along the Turkish frontier. Tiflis, the capital of the country, lies in a central position on the banks of the rapid Kura, and must now possess a population of nearly 100,000 inhabitants. 6. The government of Kutais comprises the entire ter- ritory surrounding the sources of the Rion and the Ingur ; it possesses a population of 650,000 inhabitants, and a superfi- cies of 1,745 square miles ; and is, relatively speaking, by far the most densely populated government. As regards scenery it is the most picturesque ; the plains are luxuriantly fertile ; and the mountains are covered with thick forests extending to the principal chain, which is occasioned by the moist winds blowing from the Black Sea. It is evident that no portion of the country possesses so grand a future as this government. Traversed over its entire length by a railway, it appears destined to become the wood and grain emporium of the Black Sea. Two obstacles alone present themselves ; the indolence of the inhabitants, and the pestilential nature of the climate — very pernicious to Europeans — neither of which offers an insuperable impediment. 7-8. The southern declivities of the principal chain facing CH. I. Political Division of the Catccasus. 3 1 the Black Sea are still divided into two small districts under military rule; that of Soukhum-Kaleh extending westward from the river Ingur to Pitzunda, comprising 620 square miles, and a population of 66,000 inhabitants ; and that of Tschornomoria, which includes the remainder of the coast line, and which is almost uninhabited. 9. The government of Erivan embraces the Eussian por- tion of the Arax district extending westward to the Turkish frontier, and to the east and north-east to a line drawn from Lake Goktscha as far as the town of Ordubat on the Arax, and northward to the government of Tiflis. Its superflcies is 2,324 square miles, and its population consists of 436,000 souls. Its characteristic feature is that of a dry barren high- land ; but wherever water exists in sufficient abundance, very fertile districts may be found. The town of Erivan is un- important. 10. The government of Jelissawetpol lies eastward of the preceding government, and of that of Tiflis. It is bounded on the north by a small portion of the principal chain ; on the south it touches on the confines of Persia ; and on the east, a line commencing between the towns of Nucha and Schemacha, and running due south divides it from the government of Baku. Its superficies is 3,738 square miles, with a popula- tion of 503,000 souls. The capital formerly called Guendsha is unimportant. On the other hand Nucha, the centre of the silk industry in the Caucasus, is steadily progressing. This government offers the same contrasts as Tiflis, barren steppes in the lowlands, and in the mountainous districts well-irrigated and highly cultivated valleys. 11. The government of Baku (3,276 square miles, with a population of 486,000 inhabitants) extends to the Caspian Sea from the confines of Daghestan, and from those of the last-mentioned government. It possesses in the immediate vicinity of the capital the only good natural harbour on the Caspian ; and even Schemacha, the second town in the govern- ment, although unfortunately destroyed periodically by earth- quakes, is the centre of a tolerably important industry. In 32 Odessa to Poti. CH. 1. the heart of the government extensive barren steppes abound ; but the district of Kuba, situated on the north, as well as the district of Lenkoran, the most southern point of the entire Trans-Caucasus, is on the contrary fertile and rich in forests. Communications in the Caucasus owe their development to the present age. The Russian Government, being thoroughly aware that every mile of practicable road replaces a battalion 7 of soldiers, has laboured zealously to strew the Caucasus with ♦ a network of roads, and has so far succeeded that nearly every i town is attainable by mail coach — an important undertaking . when borne in mind that the Oriental is ignorant of all means i of communication save the roads for the caravans ; in other e words, mere lines over which for centuries past all intercourse y* has moved without a stone lying accidentally in the way being displaced. It must not be supposed that the roads in the Caucasus can equal our macadamised chaussees ; but they are in sufficiently good order to admit of travelling being rendered comfortable in the season, and possible in the bad time of year. I have devoted some attention in the concluding chapter to describing the special peculiarities of the Russian system of posting, and will therefore only now give a brief survey of the different high roads. These are : 1. The high road leading from the Sea of Azov to Tiflis, the most important approach to the Caucasus. It starts from Rostow, on the Sea of Azov, traverses the steppe, and passing I by Stavropol, Georgiewsk, and Mozdok, reaches the foot of j the mountain chain near the point Wladikawkas, the key of the Caucasus (or, as it is literally called, the ‘ Conqueress ’ of the Caucasus). From Stavropol it sends out an important branch to Jekaterinodar, the capital of the Kouban, and lesser branches to the famous watering-places, Pjetigorsk and Kisslowodsk, as well as to the fortress of Naltschik. The branch roads leading to the Caspian Sea are enumerated lower down. At Wladi- kawkas, the road which from this point bears the title of ^ Grusinian Military Road,’ enters into the narrow rocky valley of the Terek, continues with steep ascent to the awful chasm of Dariel, and between the stations of Kobi and Mleti CH. I. Roads in the Cancasits. 33 ' crosses the principal chain of the Caucasus at an elevation of I 8,215 feet. It subsequently follows the valley of the Aragwa i as far as Mtzchet, and then enters, a few miles before Tiflis^ the valley of the Kura. The first half of the road is a mere pathway over the steppe, and but little idea is entertained of converting it into a road, as the railway from Kostotf to Wladi- kawkas is already in course of construction. The latter por- tion of the road, leading over the mountains, might, as regards condition, equal the best roads in the Alps. 2. The road from the Black Sea to Tiflis. It commences at Maran (Orpiri) on the Eion, which point can be reached by the small river- steamers from Poti, and leads past Kutais to the station, Kwrrila, at the foot of the Suram Pass, which it crosses at a height of 3,627 feet, between the stations of Bjelogorie and Suram. It then runs along the left bank of the Kura to Mtzchet, passing Gori, where it joins the Gru- sinian Military Road. It is officially called the ‘ Imeretinian Military Road.’ The condition of this road is also good, but the time for its utility has gone by, the railway which follows the same route being in full operation. 3. The road from Baku to Tiflis. It starts from the Cas- j^ian Sea, crossing the eastern branches of the main chain to the town Schemacha, a centre of industry, and continues its course, at one time traversing the steppe, at another the lower mountain ridges, past Nucha and Zakataly to Signach and Tiflis. Its condition is somewhat primitive, and except where it passes along the slope of a mountain, but little attempt at. construction has been made. 4. The road from Tiflis to Persia first descends into the valley of the Kura, then dives southward into the romantic valley of the Akstafa, and crosses at the end of this the Pass- of Pambak, 7,121 feet in height (called Kimirli, or ‘ Ass’s Back ’). Immediately afterwards it reaches Lake Goktscha,, situated 6,340 feet above the level of the sea ; thence passing Erivan, it continues to the valley of the Arax, and leads by Nachitschewan to Dshulfa, the frontier town of Persia. The level portion of this road is not precisely in model condition^. VOL. I. D 34 Odessa to Poti. eu. I. Avhilst the portion between the valley of the Akstafa and Erivan has been lately paved. In the autumn of 1872 only the portion from Jellenowka on the lake to Erivan was deficient. These four great roads form the foundation upon which the entire actual network of roads has been constructed. The two former principally assist communication with the interior of Russia, the latter two with Persia and the countries east of the Caspian Sea. The adjoining roads are as follows : 5. Between the Grusinian and Iineretinian Military Road, that already mentioned from Stavropol to Jekaterinodar, on the Kouban, with a southern branch to the fortress of Mai- kop ; and also a road from Jekaterinodar to Jeisk on the Sea of Azov, by Temrik to Taman (opposite Kertch), and to Novorossisk on the Black Sea. 6. Between the Imeretinian and Erivan road : branches in the Colchian Lowlands to Zugdidi in Mingrelia and Ozurgeti in Guria ; further on from Suram by Borshom and Achaltzich {in the neighbourhood of the watering-place Abastuman) to Achalkalaki, from Delidshan in the valley of the Akstafa to Alexandropol ; from Achty to Daratschitschach, a sunny spot 111 the mountains ; from Erivan to Etschmiadzin, seat of the Armenian Patriarch ; and from Dshulfa, a place on the fron- tier, to Ordubat. 7. Between the Erivan and Baku roads : a branch from Akstafinsk by Jelisawetpol (Gindska) to Schuscha in the Karabagh, as well as from that place further on over the mountains to Nachitschewan, the latter portion not being completely finished in 1872; a road from Schemacha south- ward through the steppes by Saljany to Lenkoran on the Caspian Sea; and finally the short portion connecting Jelisa- wetpol and Baku together near Nucha ; and a branch which Tuns from Signach up to the valley of the Alazan (Kachetia) to the village of Achmeti ; the small portions from Tiflis to the sunny spot Kadshory and to Bjelyj Klutsch. 8. The communications which lie between the Grusinian xind Baku roads are of more importance, as they occupy in cn, I. Navigation — Railways, 35 some degree an independent position, and as a considerable trade is carried on by means of them. There are the follow- ing lines : from Astrachan by Kizljar, Temirchanschura, Derbent, and Kuba to Baku; a branch from Scholkozawod- skaja (south of Kizljar) to Mozdok ; and a second branch from this by Groznaja to Wladikawkas ; and finally the short portion from a point north of Temirchanshura to the port of Petrowsk. The importance of these communications rests on this, that on the one hand, by Mozdok, they provide a direct line from the Sea of Azov to the Caspian Sea, and on the other hand they offer by Wladikawkas and Groznaja the most expeditious route from Tiflis to those seas ; and for communi- cation with the countries situated on the Wolga the latter road is notably of paramount importance. The remaining roads in the country are not employed for mail coaches, and the traveller is thrown back upon that very precarious means of conveyance — a hired vehicle ; rendered additionally precarious from the circumstance that roads, which in this country have been once laid out for passenger traffic, must not be supposed to continue in that condition for over afterwards. In illustration of the above assertion it may be mentioned that the road which in 1871, the emperor fol- lowed through Daghestan is at the present time unserviceable, and the circumstance that we should have pursued the Impe- rial route between Alexandropol and Etschmiatzin without oncountering some disaster may be ascribed to little less than a miracle. River navigation in the Caucasus is next to nothing. On the Rion it appears to have been discontinued on the occasion of the opening of the railway ; and on the Lower Kura only small barges can ply. Strangely enough, this appears to have been quite different in past ages ; for Ave learn from Greek authors that both the Rion and the Kura have been highways of commerce up to the Suram mountains. The traffic on both seas hemming in the Caucasus is, however, now very import- ant. On the Black Sea this is concentrated at Poti, notAvith- ^ standing the great draAvbacks arising from a defective har- I) 2 Odessa to Poti. CH. T.) 36, bour. Steamers sail once weekly in summer, and once fort- nightly in winter, for Kertch and Odessa, calling at Soukhum- Ivaleh, and for Trebizonde and Constantinople, calling at Batum. Besides this, a brisk trade is carried on by sailing vessels. On the Caspian Sea two steamers in the summer time leave Astrachan weekly for Baku, calling at Petrowsk. From Baku a sailing vessel starts for Persia. All traffic must of course be suspended during the winter months on the northern portion of the sea. The Caucasus has already been in possession of railways for two years. In the year 1867, a concession was granted for the Poti-Tiflis line. In 1871, the first portion from Poti to the foot of the Suram mountains was open to traffic, and in 1872 the remainder of the line was in operation. Almost every obstacle, which could impede the construction of a rail- way, had been overcome. Starting from Poti, more than eighteen miles of marshy forest land, the fatal miasma of which carried off workmen by hundreds, had been Avorked through. This Avas succeded by rapid streams which required bridging over; and finally a mountain Avas crossed, Avhere — to avoid expensive tunnelling, frequent recourse Avas had to gi’adients of 1.20, an unheard-of occurrence in Europe. The difficulties Avere nevertheless surmounted, and the line, although at great working expenditure, is in a condition to meet the demands of traffic. A second line from Postoff to WladikaAvkas, is in course of construction. The greater por- tion of it runs across the steppe, and Avill therefore soon be in operation. This line, Avhen completed to Petrowsk — Avhich is the present intention of the government — Avill be of greater service than the first to direct communication with Eussia and the interior, as it is not beset by difficulties in regard to con- struction, and should bring to the main line a large accession of goods traffic. This route Avould also render accessible during the entire year the countries bordering the shores of the Cas- pian Sea, Avhilst the Vfolga, hitherto the channel of communi- cation Avith Eussia, is scarcely open to navigation six months. Further projects for constructing lines from PetroAvsk to Per- €u. I. Railways — Population of the Catccasiis. 37 sia, via Baku, in connection with the railway system devised by Baron Reuter, the Fermier-General of that country, are being contemplated ; also lines from Tiflis to Bakii, and from Wladi- kawkas to Tiflis, via the Kasbek Pass. The two former, though easy of construction, would scarcely prove lucrative sources of investment to capitalists Avhilst the latter, although possessing favourable traffic expectations, could not be built without great cost. The following is the position as regards gradients : one of 1 .38^ (the maximum gradient on the St. Gothard railway), would be sufficient on the south side; but on the north side in a narrow ravine, which cannot be turned or evaded, between the stations of Lars and Kasbek, a diffe- rence of level amounting to 2,000 feet on 16 versts (or 10§ Eng- lish miles), must be surmounted, or a tunnel cut of eight versts in length. It is not improbable that this project will remain long unexecuted.^ A report appeared lately in the newspapers that a concession had been granted for a railway from Tiflis to Tabreez, via Erivan. Even if the country from Erivan to Tabreez presented no material obstacles, the route between Tiflis and Erivan on the line of the present road would still be out of the question for this purpose, and only at a very great expense, which would barely be covered by the traffic, could Erivan possibly be reached through the valleys of the Chram and its tributaries to Karakliss, and thence by means of vast tunnels through the valley of the Abaran. The population of the Caucasus demands a special study. W e Europeans are wont to represent all those denominated Cau- casians or Tscherkesse, as a handsome chivalrous people. The men imbued with burning hatred for the Russian invaders ; submitting with reluctance to their oppression. The Avomen, ideals of beauty, flying to the harem of the Turk to elude the accursed despotism of the stranger. It is certainly an un- grateful task to destroy so poetical an illusion ; but, were I to pay strict regard to truth, I must avow that no such ideal .exists, or indeed ever has existed. In the first place it is ^ Since writing the above a change has occurred. Vide Notes to the Fourth Chapter. 38 Odessa to Poti. cn. I* erroneous to cast into the same mortar Tscherkesse, Circassians, Georgians, Caucasians, and the like. Many of these supposi- tions do not in reality exist ; and if in Europe ideas of a simi- lar kind have been introduced, they have been chiefly errors. Moreover the population of the plains is in the Caucasus di- vided into at least four entirely distinct groups, and the num- ber of different tribes which comprise the mountain popula- tion, and which are often wholly unconnected Avith one ano- ther, is simply legion. Ethnographical descriptions of the Caucasus must thus be restricted to a disquisition of indi- vidual types ; for no type common to all exists. The division Avhich is founded on the most natural basis is that Avhich se- parates the population of the mountain from that of the plain. The Russians, the conquerors of the country, together with the colonists and strangers Avho have been attracted thither, represent a third element. Amongst the inhabitants of the plain the Kartalinian tribes, representing the most ancient element of civilisation in the Caucasus, are the first Avhich should be mentioned. Under this denomination are included numerous tribes, descendants of the ancient Iberians, who speak a language called Kartli, or more generally Kartuli, common to all, though possessing very different dialects, and who in the Middle Ages, were the real masters of the district of the Rion and Upper Kura, as far as the influx of the Alazaii. The tribes are : — 1. Grusians or Grusinians ; by Europeans, also denomi- nated Georgians. They call themselves Kartli, and occupy the district east of the Suram Mountains, between the princi- pal chain and the Avatershed of the Arax, as far as the height of Zakataly. 2. Imeretians, Avest of the Suram mountains to the river Tzchenis-Tzchali. 3. Mingrelians betAveen the latter rh^er, the Rion, the Ingur, and the Black Sea. 4. Gurians betAveen the Rion and the frontier of Turkey. The Laz, a neighbouring Turkish tribe, is closely connected Avith them. CU. I. Kartalinians — Ta7dars. 39 5. Some mountain tribes, as for instance, the Swanithians, on the Upper Ingur and Tzchenis-Tzchali, and the Tnschans, Pschaws, and Chewsurs at the sources of the Alazan and the Jora. The above-named tribes formed in the early middle ages a mighty dominion, the king of ^vhich resided at Mtzchet, near Tiflis. Through hereditary division of territory and unfortunate wars with the Persians and Turks, the country so far fell into decline that in the commencement of the present century, the king of Grusia, Kachetia, and Imeretia, a scion of the ancient race of the Bagratides, voluntarily sur- rendered himself to Eussia. As a natural consequence of this event the rulers of Mingrelia and Guria were ‘ mediatised.’ At the present time these tribes, numbering about 900,000 souls, all Greco-Christians, are in a very well to do condition, under the Eussian sceptre, and do not in any way desire to return to their former stare of independence, when each Turkish Sultan or Persian Shah made war upon them at will, burned down their villages, converted to slavery the male population, and carried away the women to the harem. Their character bears in general a media3val stamp. The nobility were chivalrous, though without culture and deficient in energy. The common man, Avho lived in a vile subjection, was idle and deceitful. The two orders have now advanced in development ; the nobles have acquired knowledge, and the people, though reluctantly, have begun to exert themselves. One of the qualities which distinguish them most is their passion for Avine ; but as they can endure large quantities Avithout being intoxicated, the harm done to them is not so great. Mention Avill be made hereafter of the beverage itself. They are also fond of singing ; but the performance is hardly pleasant. Their language sounds poAverful, though harsh, the syllables Tzch and Schch playing a great part in it. For Avriting, the Grusian dialect is the most in use. The al- phabet, composed in the Gth century by Saint Mesrop, presents tAvo phases. The church alphabet, called Chutzuri, has lapi- dary letters, similar to the Old Armenian, but is only em- ployed for ecclesiastical piurposes; Avhilst the Mchedruli, the 40 Odessa to Poti. cn. r. present orthography, is neat and full of curved flourishes. The costume differs -with each individual tribe. The notables, ■when not in European attire, wear, almost universally, the so called Tscherkesse dress. The tribes of Turco-Tartar origin form the second princi- pal group, d'hey nowhere live so closely together as the Kartalinians, and are found scattered throughout the entire Caucasus. Their generic name is Tartar, but the common Russian, especially the soldier, designates by this denomination all who are not Christians, and thus the distinction is, as a matter of course, frequently unclear. The districts which almost exclusively belong to them are the lowlands of the Kura and Arax; but intermixed with Grusinians, they occujry besides the eastern portion of the government of Tiflis, and together with Armenians, they are found in the government of Eriwan and in the Karabagh (the southern portion of the government of Jelissawetpol). They have also nomad tribes in the steppes from the Caspian Sea to Wladikawkas, and numerous colonies on the east coast of Daghestan; a branch tribe, too, dwells in the valley of the Elburz. Their total numbers, including the nomad tribes, exceeds 1,100,000 souls. Their language is akin to Turkish, and be- longs to the so-called East Turkish dialect. It sounds far harsher than the elegant Osmanli, and is pretty generally understood throughout the whole Caucasus. Their costume is Persian with some slight modification; except in the neighbourhood of Achaltzich, close to the Turkish frontier, where the Turkish dress is worn. The lower classes of the population chiefly possess the qualities of the Turkish race, perseverance, temperance, and trustworthiness. But a long period of Persian rule must have produced a pernicious in- fluence upon the higher strata ; yet there still exists a sterling element amongst them. The Armenians, numbering about 600,000 souls, unlike the above-mentioned tribes, have no especial dwelling-place in the country; they are everywhere to be found. With them the line of separation between the peasant and the remaining oir. I. Armenians — Mo2mtain Population. 41 population is still more sharply defined than with the Tartars. The peasants, who in the governments o£ Erivan and Jelissa- Avetpol live intermixed with Tartars, can, in outward appear- ance, scarcely be distinguished from the latter, and (is regards moral qualities differ but little from them. The Armenian of the town is, however, of quite another stamp. He is the mer- chant excellence. There is scarcely a single village in the country where one or more Armenians are not playing the part of Jews, like those which infest East Germany and Poland. Sly, pliant, persevering, seldom if ever conscientious, they monopolise all transactions in business, and speedily become the bankers and tyrants of the place. Still it must not be concluded from this that there are no honourable ex- ■ceptions amongst those whose intelligence and energy have conferred signal benefits upon the country. The Armenian language is rich in literature, and the alphabet possesses, in common with the Grusinian, two characters — the old ecclesi- astical, and the current character at present in use. The actual language has been more and more diverging from the 'ecclesiastical, and is universally admitted to belong to the •Indo-Germanic family. It sounds very harsh, and is appa- rently difficult to acquire ; but this is immaterial to the tra- veller, for every Armenian, even the peasant, understands •Turkish, and not unfrequently liussian. There is one very remarkable circumstance in connection with the Armenians. Although this people has been in continual subjection to suc- cessive conquerors, although a number has been scattered ’over the four quarters of the globe, although the greater por- tion still live under Turkish rule, never yet has an Armenian been known to deny the Christian faith handed down to him 'by his forefathers from the first centuries of our era. The inhabitants of the mountains manifest so varied a conglomeration of different races, different languages, and dif- ■ferent customs, that the traveller at first despairs of ever find- ing his way amongst the confusion. 8uch clearly defined dis- tinctions of every kind render it impossible to classify sys- tematically all these nationalities, and I must confine myself 42 Odessa to Poti, cn. I« to tlie attempt of briefly portraying the most prominent amongst them. A survey is much simplified by separating them into tliree groups — west, central, and east. It may be well to notice that the Eussians, in all their accounts of bat- tles fought in the Caucasus, employ the definitions right and left wing from the St. Petersburg standpoint. Thus when the right wing is mentioned, allusion is made to the western tribes ; and when the left wdng is named, the Tschetschniii and Daghestan are referred to. The total number of the moun- tain population in 1865, or previous to the emigration of the Tscherkesse tribes, which deprived the country of important sinews, amounted to about 900,'000 souls. 1. The western group of the mountain population com- prises the tribes which dwell on the south side of the Cau- casus as far as the Elburz, and on the north side further east- Avard up to the territory of AVladikawkas. We find in the first place the Adige, called by the Eussians Tscherkesse ; but this name is a collective term for a great number of small, and still smaller, tribes, as for instance the Dshigetes, Uby- ches, Schapsuchs, Natuchaitzs, and others, not bound together by any common tie, possessing different languages and cus- toms, and in continual hostility one Avith another. They formerly inhabited the mountain range from Taman as far up as Pitzunda, and the Northeiu Foreland to the furthest ex- tremity of the Kouban. To effect their conquest a long series of Avars undertaken against indiAudual tribes Avas necessary, for no union against the common foe ever existed amongst the tribes themselves. They Avere finally subdued in the year 1864 ; but from that time a mass emigration to Turkey, Avhich no power could restrain, commenced, and 400,000 Tscherkesse abandoned their fatherland, Avhich noAV lies almost entirely desolate. Their customs have been portrayed in A^ery different colours. Some persons have held them forth as heroes of freedom, Avhilst others have laid great stress on their marked predilection for their neighbours’ goods. What ap- pears certain is, that Avith great raj)acity they combine the quali- ties of mediceval chivalry and fidelity. Another tribe, in many CH. I. Moitntain Population, 43, respects similar to the Tscherkesse, but otherwise indolent and untrustworthy, are the Abkhasians, who occupy the abovementioned district of Tsebelda, as well as the coast-line- from Pitzunda to the Ingur, the eastern half of which is called Zamurzachan. They took no part in the emigration, and are supposed to be Christians. Still with a mountain population the existence of churches and priests is not always a proof ot sincere attachment to Christianity on the part of the people. On the north side of the mountain chain, on the Upper Kou- ban, and on the Kuma, dwell the Kabardans. Their country is called Kabarda, and the portion of it stretching further eastward to the Terek, and as far as Wladikawkas, is called Little Kabarda. This tribe, which in the early middle ages Avas Christian, though later on converted to Islamisin, is still regarded as the most chivalrous. Their customs have been law to a great portion of the Caucasus, and their costume has been adopted throughout nearly the entire country, even by the Cossacks, their neighbours on the Kouban and Terek. The Kabardans have in general lived in good fellowship with the Kussians, and a bold attempt of Schamyl to induce Ka- barda to join in a crusade against infidels failed. Besides the tribes already mentioned, there are Tartars dwelling in the northern declivity of the principal chain between Elburz and Adai-Choch. But the above-named Svvanethians, and the mountain population of Mingrelia (Letschgum) and Imeretia (Radscha) must be counted amongst the Kartalinians, and not amongst the real mountain tribes. 2. The central group is composed of only one nationality, the Ossites. Although not very numerous, they have for a long time formed the subject of study, being the only moun- tain tribe whose Aryan origin is beyond doubt. The lan- guage belongs to the Medo-Persian branch, and their costumes, strangely enough, recall to mind the old German. They brew too a very palatable beer, called ‘ ludi.’ Their territory ex- tends itself in the principal chain from the Adai-Choch to Avithin a short distance beyond the Kasbek Pass. As regards religion, they are partly Mahommedans and partly Christians. 44 Odessa to Poti. CH. I. There appears besides to be heathens amongst them. Like the Kabardans they have lived in harmony with the Eussians, a, circumstance of still greater importance to the latter during their wars with Schamyl, as the Grunisian Military Eoad, the only means of communication between Baku and Taman, passes through the country of the Ossites. 3. The eastern group of the mountain tribes is at the same time the most numerous and interesting. Their country from 1839 to 1859 became the theatre of an exasperated religious war ; here Schamyl domineered as priest, hero, and tyrant. Two types of nationality may be easily distinguished — the Tschetschentzes and the Daghestans. The former occupy the Tschetschnia, the declivity of the mountain chain to the Terek, and still further beyond. They are divided into a great number of individual tribes, possessing separate ■customs and languages. A subdivision of this group, which occupies ‘ Little Tschetschnia,’ between Wladikawkas and the Argun, and to which the tribes of the Kists, Galgaiers, and •others belong, appear to differ slightly from the rest. The character generally given to the Tschetschentzes is not very favourable. They are regarded as a thievish, untrustworthy, and mischievous race, and their conflicts with the Eussians consisted in mere bush-fighting behind ambuscades. As in the case of the above-mentioned Tscherkesse, no common bond of union connects together the Tschetschentz tribes ; and although Schamyl succeeded by cruelty and bloodthirsty violence in keeping some of the tribes chained down to his standard, others nevertheless sided with Eussia, or at all events remained tranquil. The inhabitants of Daghestan stand un- doubtedly highest in intelligence amongst the mountain tribes. In spite of the rugged and chiefly inhospitable moun- tains, they possess to some degree an industry, and almost a model system of agriculture, and one of the tribes possesses even a literature. As regards industry, the manufacture of steel and arms deserves favourable mention, Notwithstand- ing the deficiency of all important manufacturing appliances, they have themselves contrived to cast some of the cannons cn. I. Mountain Population. 45 used in tlieir wars with the Iviissians. The blades forged at some of the places enjoy a great reputation throughout the Caucasus. Amongst the number of tribes into which they are divided, and which, as in the case of the Tschetschentzes and Tscherkesse, possess different languages and customs, the Avares, who dwell in Northern Daghestan between Bott- lich and Temirchanschura, occupy the most prominent posi- tion. They have a written language, using the Arab characters. From amongst them have always sprung leaders of great movements ; and Himri, the birthplace of Schamyl, also lies in the district of Avaria. The tribes which inhabit Southern Daghestan and the mountain declivities towards the valleys of the Alazan and the Kura are comprised under the collective denomination of Lesghis. They are looked upon as trust- worthy, industrious workmen. It is a very extraordinary circumstance that the great number of small tribes in Dag- hestan, which are crowded together in a few villages, and even in a few huts, should still speak their own language, understood by none of their neighbours. This shows how here every migration of a tribe from the earliest ages of man- kind has left traces behind it which have, frequently by the force of circumstances, been nearly obliterated, but never entirely extinguished. The Udi, one of the Duodez tribes, dwelling in the few villages to the east of Nucha, have long puzzled ethnographs and philologists. An English savant, who has long made this tribe the subject of special study, has recently maintained that it descends from the ancient Egyp- tians. The tie which formerly united all Daghestan under one standard is Islamism. But few Musulmen exist so at- tached to their creed as the mountain tribes, and this devotion alone enabled a clever fanatic like Schamyl to render such varied elements subservient to his ascetic thirst for power. This sincere attachment to religion produces in the mind of the traveller a pleasing contrast to the lukewarm scepticism of the notables and the frequent artificial fanaticism of the masses in Persia and Turkey. Thus the tribes of Daghestan are famous for bravery and fidelity, and unlike the thievish 46 Odessa to Poti. CH. I. Tschetsebentzes for honesty. Their hospitality does not re- quire especial notice, as, the high road excepted, it is every- where to be met with in the Caucasus. Of the remaining mountain tribes we have still to notice the Pschaws, Tusches, and Chewsurs, of which mention has already been made in connection Avith the Kartalinian tribes. Little Caucasus does not possess mountain tribes properly so-called. Several thousand nomad Kurds, howcA’^er, of Avhich eighty families belong to the sect of the Zezides, Avander upon the slopes of the Alagoz and the Ararat. The country of Lenkoran is inhabited by Persians, Avho speak Talyschi, a dialect differing Avidely from High Persian, and aa'Iio are pro- bably descended from the ancient Medes. In conclusion, there remains the tribe of the Nogais, occupying the steppes north of the Caucasus, Avho are either Tartarised Mongolians, or Tartars AAÜth a strong infusion of Mongolian blood. The Kal- mucks, Avho dAvell in the government of Astrachan, bordering on the frontiers of the Caucasus, are of pure INIongolian origin. We noAv come to the Kussians, the ruling population. As it is not the object of this Avork to describe this element in general, my observations Avill be confined to a feAv comments upon their relations AAÜth the Caucasus. The Russian popula- tion, Avhich here amounts to nearly one million souls, may for coiiA'enience sake, be divided into three categories ; officers, officials, Avorkmen and merchants; peasants, and finally Cos- sacks. The first class abounds everyAvhere ; of course in smaller numbers in the country and mountainous districts than in the toAAms. Officers, officials, and especially common soldiers, regard service in the Caucasus as a transitory stage in their career. The Avorkman returns to Russia, as soon as he has earned a sufficient amount of money ; and the merchant, A\dio has to compete Avith the Armenians, finds it, in consequence, no easy task to gain a livelihood. The Russian peasant is not often to be met Avith in the country. He does not seem born for colonisation ; and there are only tAvo tribes Avhich appear to be in a prosperous condition. These are the tAvo sects of the Malakans and Duchobortzs, banished from Russia cn. I. Russians and Foreignei's. 47 on account o£ their dangerous political tendencies. Their dwelling-places and customs will be hereafter described. The Cossacks were, moreover, the first Eussian pioneers in the Caucasus. Previous to the time of Peter the Great, discon- tented hordes had already deserted their fiitherland, and settled down on the northern boundary of the mountain chain. Soon, more especially through their women, they in- termixed with the neighbouring mountain tribes, adopted many of their customs, and even wore the Tscherkesse dress. They are now divided into two bans ; that of the Kouban, and that of the Terek, which have absorbed the smaller independent bans, previously existing, such as the Gre- bentzkoi Cossacks between Sunsha and Terek, and the Tschornomorisch Cossacks of the Black Sea. Each ban is divided into regiments, and again into sot nies, or squadrons, being originally detachments of one hundred men each, this precise number, however, not always being maintained. Each detachment occupies the district assigned to it. Details re- specting regulations of service and domestic relations will be given later on. These bans, moreover, are on the eve of reconstruction, a process which, in the case of the Cossacks of the Don, is being carried out in accordance with modern ideas. The foreigners compose the last element of the population in the Caucasus. Though not numerous, they have exercised considerable influence in the country. The Germans possess colonies in the governments of Tiflis and Jelissawetpol, which from their prosperous condition enjoy much renown through- out the entire land. Germans, occupying almost every social station, are found in nearly every town and district. The large copper mines of Kedabeg, situated near Lake Goktschka in the government of Jelissawetpol, belong to Messrs. Siemens and Halski; and the model dairy farms which have been erected to the south-west of Tiflis, in the centre of a Tartar population, are the property of Herr von Kutzschenbach ; and at Alexandropol, on the Turkish frontier, Germans are again met with in the modest capacity of innkeepers, or at Baku, in that of tailors. French have settled in large towns 48 Odessa to Poti. cn. I. in the character o£ landlords of hotels, hairdressers, and milli- ners. In conjunction with Italians, they are also connected with the silk trade in the districts of Nucha and Schumachii. Englishmen are chiefly represented by railway engineers, and also by that class of engineers who construct and look after machinery. Turkey, and above all, Persia, naturally contri- bute a large contingent of temporary residents. But amongst the entire foreign element, none is so remarkable as the Geber priest, who resides in the fire temple at Baku, and who is sent by the Parsee community of India to watch over the sacred flame, and see that it is never extinguished ; for native fire-worshippers have long ceased to exist there. CH. 11. Poti. 49 CHAPTEK II. POTI TO BOKSHOM. Poti — By rail to Kutais — Virgin Forest in Mingrelia — Kutais — Hotel de France — Our Servant Ali — An Imeretinian Tailor— Caucasian Dress — Monastery of Gelati — Motzamethi — Excursion to Swanethia — Unfortunate Start — Valley of the E-ion — Gorge of Ladshanura — Lailaschi — Grusinian Society — Peculiar Cus- toms respecting Toasts — Orbeli and Muri — Valley of the Tzchenis-Tzchali — Lentechi — Characteristics of Swanethia — Ludshi — Pass of Latpari — Encounter with Swanethians — View from Pass of Latpari — Eeturn — Lailaschi — Twischi — De- parture from Kutais — Kwirila — Pass of Suram — Bjelogorie — Carts and Buffaloes — Suram — Borshom — Timothisubani and Daba — Euins of a Monastery — Shooting Excursion — Sport in the Caucasus — Attack of Fever. No great length of time has elapsed since Poti con- sisted of a mere swamp with a few huts built on piles ; ten years ago the inhabitants punted merrily in rainy weather from one house to the other, and although at present the streets are filled in and provided with a kind of pavement, still frogs are heard to croak exultingly from between the layers of piles and the ground floor ; nor can those animals be found fault with, for there scarcely exists on earth such another paradise for amphibious creatures. Poti owes its actual VOL. I. * E 50 Poti to Borshom. CH. ri. prosperity, if not indeed its very existence, to a slip of the pen ; for when Turkey ceded to Kussia, by the Treaty of Adrianople, the territory between Kars and the sea, the boundary line was, by general consent, drawn to run down the river Tschoroch, which arrange- ment would have brought over to the Eussian side the advantageous harbour of Batum. It was, however, discovered, but not until after the ratifications of the treaty of peace, that the river Tscholoch, which runs about eighteen miles on this side of Batum, had been inserted in the treaty as the boundary line. Batum was lost, and Poti was accepted in its stead. It is, strictly speaking, not correct to state that the harbour of Poti is unfavourable for shipping purposes, for no harbour exists ; merely a roadstead, completely exposed, and very shallow, vessels of any size being obliged to anchor at a considerable distance from the shore. The channel up to the Eion, which river is only navigable for very flat-bottomed boats, is closed by a bar ; the depth of water is often only from four to five feet, and the channel is frequently rendered dangerous by heavy breakers. The maritime position of Poti is therefore, by no means brilliant, and the great distance of Souk- hum Kaleh, which possesses a tolerably good roadstead, has chiefly prevented it till now from becoming the entrance to the Caucasus. It must also be noted that up to the year 1864 Soukhum Kaleh was the centre of unruly tribes, whilst Poti, with its Grurian-Mingrelian population gave no cause for disquietude. Another CH. II. Poti. 51 circumstance, too, must by no means be overlooked ; namely, that the river at Poti afforded a practicable route through the region of swampy forests in Min- grelia, which would, otherwise, have been impassable. The project of building a harbour at Poti is still some- what remote, and if the intention of doing so ever really existed, its execution has been impeded by the fear of the great expense, which must necessarily be incurred in the construction of dams and dredging operations. Curiously enough, a commencement has been effected, but at the wrong end ; for out into the sea, at considerable cost, an iron pier has been erected, against which no ship can lie, and from which the waves have already compassionately washed away a portion. The worst of Poti is the climate. No European has passed a night there and been spared by the fever ; nor were we more fortunate than others ; and on the very first evening of our arrival we fancied ourselves inhaling the germs of the disease from the dense misty atmo- sphere, smelling like the air of a bath-room where the windows have been closed for a week. The reader will find in the last chapter of this work further information respecting the nature of the fever in the Caucasus, and the remedies which are employed, with or without success, against it. It may fairly be concluded that other inconveniences, such as mosquitoes and house • vermin, were not wanting in the place, and during the night the traveller may, according to his taste, devote 52 Poti to Borshom. CH. n. his attention to the insects in his bed, to the rats in his room, or to the frogs beneath his window. It would be very ungrateful on my part, if I rendered to Poti no acknowledgment of the pleasant evening — the first in the Caucasus — which I passed there. I had already fallen in, on landing from the steamer, with a Prince G-agarin, a Petersburgh ac- quaintance, officially employed at Kutais, though acci- dentally away at Poti. In the company of the Prince, and of other gentlemen of widely different nationalities, .whose acquaintance we had made partly on the steamer and partly on om' arrival at Poti, and the greater number of whom had known the Caucasus for years, we passed a very jovial evening, during the course of which myself and my companions gathered much valuable information respecting our projected tour. We certainly had to undergo one disillusion, for we expected from Bodenstedt’s and Mirza Schaffy’s repre- sentations to find only Kachetia wine on the table, and were greatly surprised to see Vin de Bordeaux ex- clusively produced — a wine .which taken in the right quantity appears to be one of the best preventive remedies against fever. We afterwards took a walk in the botanical gardens — a small park very nicely laid out — where all kinds of southern plants, known to us only in hot-houses, thrive with exuberant fragrance. I only missed the palm-tree, and learned to my sur- prise, that in spite of the hot climate in the summer, and of the mild climate in the winter, it does not grow CH. II. By Rail to Ktttais. 53 here. During my walk I made my first acquaintance with the G-rusinian language ; I speedily relinquished all further study of this dialect, when my tongue had undergone the ordeal of such words as rchwa, tzchra (eight, nine), and otzchmodaatti (eighty). The night passed in the hotel was fearful — warm feather-beds, a sultry mist, no possibility of opening the window for fear of fever, and legions of insects welcoming our arrival in the country. The next morning my travelling companions could not refrain from indulging in an early bathe before leaving the Black Sea. I forebore from following their example in consequence of warnings which I had received the previous evening, and possibly owing to this circumstance the fever may have dealt more mildly with me than with my companions. At 8.30 A.M. a special train was to convey some railway officials to Tiflis, and we obtained permission to join them as far as Kutais ; we consequently took care to arrive in good time at the banks of the Eion in order to be conveyed over to the railway station, which is situated on the north side of the town, and rather above it ; but at the appointed hour not the slightest preparation for departure was made on board the steamer, which plied between the two landing-places. G-radually a considerable number of passengers assem- bled together on the steamer, all equally determined, 'per fas aut nefas, to avail themselves of this conve- nient opportunity of getting to Tiflis ; for only a third 54 Poti to BorsJiom. CH. ir. of the line, as far as the station at Kwirila, was open to regular traffic. The railway officials, however, dis- played an example of humanity, and finally our special train attained the length of about six carriages, a length for the Caucasus railway quite unheard of before that date. The railway station at Poti is very primitive. It consists of two sheds, the one open and the other shut ; and both so new that they might fairly be said to exult in their cleanliness. But, to make amends, it possesses a restaurant which, at all events, in choice of refresh- ments can surpass most German ones. At last, it being past ten o’clock, the train felt compelled to make a start, and to our utter amaze- ment, steamed off at the rate of twenty-eight miles an hour, a speed quite unknown on Eussian railways. An English engineer, the traffic-manager of this portion of the line, informed us, for our consolation, that on pretty nearly every occasion on which he accompanied the directors, an accident of some kind almost in- variably ensued : he suggested, however, that in our particular instance, as they were going on beyond the section under his control, the probabilities were that the train would run off the line somewhere amongst the Suram mountains, a district, he assured us, in the highest degree favourable for such occurrences. Amongst other experiences which he was kind enough to relate to us, the following communication was certainly interesting; namely, that a bullock, driven CH. ir. Virgin Forests in Mingrelia. 55 over, seldom occasioned serious damage, but the engine, on coming into collision with the hard and stiff bones of a buffalo would, as a rule, come off the rails, or otherwise sustain injury. For the first twenty-five miles the railway traversed the virgin forest of Mingrelia ; on both sides of the line huge masses of trees rose up into the air, but it was fre- quently difficult to recognise the kind to which they belonged, so thickly were their trunks and branches intermingled with the wild vine and ivy. The under- wood is a mixture of box-tree and laurel, and perfectly impassable. The after- growth is so luxuriant that even on the strips of land which had been dug up along the line of rails, whilst the sleepers were being laid down, vegetation had sprung up afresh, and within the space of three years had attained a height of more than six feet. The soil is damp and muddy ; the throwing up of the embankment for the railway not only necessitated great labour, but the lives of numerous workmen, scarcely one of the soldiers employed on the construc- tion of the line having escaped marsh fever. In some places the laying down of the railway has produced most melancholy results. Arising probably from the deficiency of proper drainage under the embankment, and the consequent stagnancy of the water in the soil, large patches of forest have completely died away, the rotten trees extending their leafless branches over hideous pools of muddy water — a nauseous spectacle when contrasted with the rich abundant foliage to be 56 Poti to Bor shorn. CH. I[. seen growing close around in every direction. Nor can I say that the virgin forest, respecting which I had conjured up such romantic notions, produced a satis- factory impression upon my mind ; on the contrary I found this luxuriant vegetation, which the eye cannot pierce five paces, and which impregnates the atmo- sphere with poisonous vapours, harassing and oppressive. Only one station, Tschelodidi, is situated in the forest — constructed there without, apparently, any necessity whatsoever — for not a living soul inhabits the place, and the receipts for the first year scarcely seem to have amounted to five roubles. About twenty- five miles from Poti the railway entered a flat, well-cultivated district, dotted over here and there with small Mingrelian villages — the whole forming an agreeable landscape. The soil is heavy and fertile, and is generally sown over with maize. It yields abundant harvests, notwithstanding the indolence of the inhabitants, who remain true to their ante- diluvian implements of agriculture,^ and who devote no portion of their leisure to rooting up weeds, which flourish in all directions. The houses possess a cha- racter peculiar to dwellings in the country west of the Suram Chain, and which is nowhere else to be met with in the Caucasus : that is to say, a wooden building with moderately steep gable-roof, and a verandah, which generally encircles the entire building, and which, pro- truding a few feet on the front side, is supported by rude wooden pillars. Thus houses, even in the CH. ir. Mingrelia. 57 mountainous parts of Mingrelia and Imeretia, are con- structed to stand free and without being made to in- cline against a slope, whereas in Grusia the back portion of the dwellings are generally built to lean against the side of the mountains. This probably arises from the abundant supply of wood, which to the westward of the Suram Chain, is ready at hand for building purposes, whilst to the eastward, timber being less plentiful, some economy is required in the con- sumption of it. Eight and left of the railway, pro- jecting mountains, green with verdure, rise to un- important heights ; but nothing is visible of the actual mountain chain. The station Senaki lies close to the chief town of the district which bears the same name. Here the line crosses the high road leading from Orpiri on the Eion, to Zugdidi, the capital of Mingrelia, and residence of the Dadian, a princely family deposed ; shortly afterwards, on the far side, it passes over an immense iron bridge, every portion of which, down to the final nail, has been brought from England, and which spans the Tzchenis-Tzchali, sepa- rating Mingrelia from Imeretia, a rapid stream, very full in the rainy season. Beyond, in the distance, a view of the mountain chain for the first time unfolds itself to the gaze, and, through a gap in the projecting mountains, a glimpse is caught of that splendid snowy pyramid, the Tetnuld, with the long pointed crest of the Schchara (Nuamquam) and far away into the Colchis plain. At Samtredi, the next station, the line 58 Poti to Borshom. CH. II. traverses the great Iraeretinian military road, and passing through a pleasant, undulated district, reaches the Kutais station, after crossing, immediately before, a long iron bridge to the left bank of the Eion. Kutais station is eight versts from the town ; two droschkies, ordered beforehand by telegraph, met us at the station, and in these we cod tinned our journey in company with a Eussian, who spoke Grerman, and who was starting on a short pleasure trip in the Caucasus with his three sons, the latter between ten and thirteen years of age. Considering the extreme youth of his offspring, the journey was decidedly premature ! After an hour’s drive over a good road, and chiefly through a forest of young oaks, we reached the Hotel de France at Kutais, our head-quarters for the next few days. The town of Kutais, the capital of the government of the same name and the ancient residence of the Imeretinian kings, lies on the rapid Eion at the spot where that river leaves the mountain chain to flow through a slightly undulated district of the Colchis plain. The importance of the situation has un- doubtedly diminished since the Imeretinian military road, which touches Kutais, has had to give up in favour of the railway the greater portion of its former traffic. Still two other routes, of importance to the town, are projected ; a branch railway from the station above the town, to the coal mines of Tkwibuli — the only ones existing in the Caucasus — situated in CH. n. Kutais — Hotel de France. 59 the Nakerala mountains, some miles to the north-east, and a road, which is to ascend the valley of the Eion, to cross over the Mamisson pass to the valley of the Ardou, and to continue to Vladikawkas. Kutais is agreeably situated; the adjacent mountains are rich in verdure, which imparts a joyous character to the scene. The climate is not so unhealthy as that of the low- lands, as the elevation of 600 feet, and the circumstance of the country situated on the mountain declivities being better drained, serve to impede the development of malaria to the extent prevalent in the marshy distinct of Mingrelia. The winter is mild, and the summer hot during the day-time, but there are cool refreshing sea- breezes in the evening. The interior of the town, the population of which numbers about 12,000 souls, and the greater portion of which stands on the left bank of the river, contains scarcely anything worth seeing. In the suburbs are small lanes with, here and there, a few low- built houses on each side ; near to the Eion is a small garden and villa, in which the Emperor was received in 1 87 1 . In the centre are a few large official buildings, such as may be found in Eussian provincial towns, an insignificant bazaar, and a public garden extending over several acres of ground and containing some fine old trees. Here lay our ‘ Hotel de France,’ a second edition of the ‘ Hotel de Yalta.’ A European can form no con- ception of the dirt which this house contains. The furniture of our room — the best of all — consisted of two tottering bedsteads, one primaeval divan, and two or 6o Poti to Borshom. CH. rr. three melancholy examples of chairs, to which was added — for the accommodation of three persons — one basin to wash in, and one glass. Many times during the course of the morning toilet, we had occasion to entreat the waiter to replenish our single water-jug, unless we preferred to fetch fresh water ourselves from the well, for that menial, who was a Mingrelian noble- man, was frequently not at hand when required, and under no circumstances particularly attentive. For a similar reason we took the liberty to pour the water, when done with, into the street below, and this we accomplished without exciting public indignation. Our host, a Frenchman, Monsieur Hector, charged us the modest price of seven roubles a day for our room, and excused himself with the standard remark, as applicable to third parties, who shall be nameless : ‘ II fallait bien se faire payer une partie des cinq milliards.’ The most endurable part of the whole affair was the food, upon which Monsieur Hector, mindful of his former career, expended more care and attention. Besides the ‘Hotel de France’ there is another hotel in Kutais, called, I believe, ‘ Hotel de la Colchide,’ or ‘ Hotel de la Medee,’ but I had no opportunity of ascertaining by personal experience the extent of its good or bad qualities. Through Prince Gagarin we became acquainted with some of the Eussian officials, and passed several agreeable days in their society. We, in general, devoted the morning to sight-seeing in the town, our CH. n. Our Servant A li. 6 1 attention being especially attracted by the novelty of its oriental character, although Kutais is far less imbued with this feature than many other places. Our afternoons we spent in the Ferme, a splendid park, lying above, and at a few minutes distance from, the right bank of the Kion, and below the ancient regal chateau. It was here, at a thoroughly oriental dinner, to which we were invited, that we made an acquaint- ance of such importance to our future journey that the circumstance forms an epoch in our entire route. We had already noticed at the hotel an object called Ali, who appeared to be a kind of commissionnaire ; here, in the park, in a dilapidated building, in company with several wild-looking Persians and Tartars, and busy amongst pots and pans and cooking utensils, we came upon this same individual again. The dinner which he served us up al fresco (it is true we had a wooden table and chairs) was, if looked at with the eye of an European, the most incongrous mixture of every different thing imaginable. First of all we had placed before us grapes, then boiled chicken with rice, after which a dish (highly to be recommended) of baked apples stuffed with brawn highly spiced, and — to finish up with — the characteristic plat of the east — mutton and rice. The use of garlick, dear to every Musulman, was to Ali on this occasion ‘ forbidden fruit.’ In respect to drink we ourselves did not depart materially from pre- scribed ordinances, for, abjuring wine, we took only ale, placed, or rather hung down, to cool in a deep 62 Poti to Borshom. CH. II. well in the park, each bottle being attached to a long string, and then allowed to descend until it touched the surface of the water. At dessert, which consisted of magnificent grapes, we inquired of Ali if he was disposed to accompany us on our travels. He agreed to our proposal on very moderate terms, and, as subse- quent events proved, turned out to be a most valuable acquisition. Ali’s cradle (I speak metaphorically, for no such appliance is known in the east) rocked at Lenkoran, on the shores of the Caspian Sea ; in early youth he migrated with his parents to Schemacha, and chang- ing about in the Caucasus and Persia from one place of residence to another, he became successively ser- vant, groom, and bathing-house attendant. At the time we are speaking of he was part proprietor of a bathing-establishment at Kutais. His cardinal virtues were those of the commonest Turk, honesty and so- briety ; but his courage speedily gave way on the most trifling provocation, and he lived in abject terror of robbers, fancying that every tree contained one lying concealed in ambush. He could never be brought to comprehend why we were not always mounted on horseback, with loaded guns by our sides, and ready for every emergency. His extensive knowledge of languages was of great advantage to us. Exclusive of Talysch, his mother tongue, and the Tartar dialect, his second mother tongue, he understood and spoke with considerable fluency, the Pussian, Turkish (Osmanli), CH. n. Our Servant A li. 63 Persian and Grusinian languages, with all the dif- ferent provincial jpatois. He had no acquaintance with the written language, and, when he spoke, as far as I could judge from his performance in Eussian, he displayed a proud indifference to declensions and conjugations. In fact, with the exception of his un- doubted honesty, he answered precisely to the descrip- tion so accurately portrayed of the Persian servant by Dr. Polack, in his work on Persia. Indefatigable on the road, grand seigneur in the towns, good-natured, negligent, dainty-mouthed, and vain — especially in his attempts (at our expense) to adorn, by a constant change of head-dress, features to which the Graces had- not stood godmother. When we parted company, with- out counting half-a-dozen fantastically shaped fur caps, he was the proud possessor of several Turkish fez, numberless Arab kefije, not to mention an unlimited supply of head-kerchiefs of every kind and hue. The terms stipulated for by Ali had the great advantage of being cheap for us and very favourable for him ; he received, exclusively of keep, to which he contrived surreptitiously to add each week a new article of clothing, twenty roubles a month, a perfectly unheard- of sum according to local computation. Just in the same way that no German thinks of leaving Constantinople without first investing in a fez, or Egypt without purchasing a turban, which he wears round his neck, so were we equally unable to resist the temptation of arraying ourselves in Tscher- 64 Poti to Borshom. CH. II. kesse costume. We ordered a tailor through Ali, who the following day made his appearance, a dagger in his girdle, and a yard measure in his hand. As he only spoke the Imeretinian dialect, our orders led to some difficulty of explanation ; however, thanks to Ali’s abilities as interpreter, we contrived to make our wishes intelligible, and the tailor noted down in his book our respective measures. I noticed that his handwriting was the most elegant I had ever seen in the G-rusinian Mchedruli character, the cramped and complicated letters being converted under his hand into the most charming arabesques. The Tscherkesse costume, which he duly delivered to us a few days later, is frightfully elaborate, and I can only say that I find it neither practical nor comfortable. I know that my opinion is widely at variance with that of most Russian officers, who take a great fancy to this dress in the Caucasus, and wear it frequently. My notions are merely those of one who likes to be able to dress quickly, and, when dressed, to be able to move about freely — both utter impossibilities in this costume. The origin of the so-called Caucasian or Tscherkesse dress must be sought for in the Kabarda, a country which sets the fashion for the Caucasus in the same way that Paris and London do for Europe. With some insignificant modifications it is worn by the entire mountain population, as well as by the tribes of Kartalinian origin, with the exception of the Gurians. It is seldom, if ever, met with amongst Tartars and CH. II. Caucasian Dress. 65 Armenians ; the Cossacks have adopted the costume from the Kussians, and even officers of other troops wear it occasionally. The most important portions of this dress are the tscherkesska and the beschmet(or archalyk), two lengthy garments, worn one above the other. The beschmet is a coat with sleeves hanging down half over the thigh ; fastened in front up to the neck by a row of hooks and eyes, with a low straight collar and capacious pockets on either side, embroidered the whole way down. The beschmet is composed of striped or printed cotton, and, in the case of wealthy persons, the portions around the neck and on the sleeves, which show, are made of silk. The tscherkesska is worn over the beschmet, the former being broader and longer, with sleeves hanging down so far that they require to be turned up ; in front it is fastened across the chest by a row of microscopically small buttons woven from thread, and joined together by means of eyes, a labour entailing much time and trouble ; it hangs loose round the neck, showing the beschmet worn underneath. On both sides of the breast are sewn on some seven, eight, or ten rows of cartridge-pouches, frequently adorned with silver and gold, and, amongst the notables, often con- taining boxes of ivory or horn with silver lids, holding ammunition. These cartridge-pouches are a most practical invention, and I have had similar ones made to suit my own Grerman shooting jacket, and have found them most useful. The tscherkesska has no pockets, but is provided with slits, through which the 66 Poti to Borshom. CH. n. hand passes into the pockets of the heschmet. The tscherkesska is generally made of stout woollen mate- rial, mostly of one colour ; at the time of my visit white ones were in fashion. A rough, greenish mate- rial, made by the Lesghies, considered to be water- proof and almost imperishable, was also very highly thought of. Modifications of this cut are generally to be met with in Grusia, where the traveller will fre- quently notice a costume, which is a mixture of the Tscherkesse and the old national dress. In that country vestments are worn shorter, not reaching down farther than above the knee, whilst the sleeves of the upper garment are slit open from the elbow, and can thus, with a view to giving greater freedom to the hands, be turned up over the shoulders, or fastened together behind the back. Examples of this costume frequently occur amongst Armenians residing in towns when they do not prefer to" wear European clothes. The Tusch and Pschaws carry in place of the sewn-on cartridge-pouches, a brass case, suspended from the neck and left shoulder, capable of holding seven or eight cartridges. In cold and rainy weather the garment generally worn is the burka, a half-circular piece of thick felt, with the shaggy woollen side ex- posed. This hangs from the neck by a strap, and as it only shelters one side of the body at a time, it requires to be constantly shifted in the direction facing the wind and rain. Thus, when observed from the weather side, the wearer looks like a gigantic mush- room. CH. II. Caitcasian Dress. 67 The clothing for the legs consists of tight, evenly fitting trousers of dark material ; over these are leather or cloth gaiters, often richly worked with lace and embroidery. The shoe is a simple half-shoe not attached to the gaiter, but slightly protruding over it ; and I have seen instead of a shoe a sandal worn, made of leather tightly bound round. The Cossacks wear tolerably high boots of Kussian leather, and not such narrow trousers. The portion of the costume which is of the most varied description is undoubtedly the covering worn around the head. This characteristic pervades the entire East, and even in instances where a tribe adopts almost entirely the costume of another tribe, it always displays a marked partiality for its own especial and peculiar head-dress. Thus, on the Egyptian reliefs, as well as upon the ancient Persian engravings drawn upon stone, and in the temple at Persepolis, it is always the head-gear which charac- terises the individual tribes. The predominant head- dress in the Caucasus, is the fur cap, commonly called the papach, but made in a thousand different shapes and forms. The mountain tribes generally wear a round one with a cloth top to it, the size changing with the fashion; seldom less than twenty centimetres in height, and made of such long-haired fur that the diameter is little less than the height itself. The material consists exclusively of sheep- skin, rough and fine, black, brown, and white. The G-rusinians wear rather a pointed cap, slightly turned 68 Poti to Borshoni. CH. II. up at the top, without intermixture of cloth, and not of any very unusual dimensions ; and, whilst the mountain tribes prefer the long-haired, shaggy fur, the former like the fine, curly Astrachan, or, as it is called in the East, Bokhara skin. Tartars and Armenians wear caps of every imaginable shape, sometimes set off with cloth or silk, and embroidered with gold, sometimes simple, pointed, and without ornament, like those in use amongst tlie Persian peasants. The Jews in Mingrelia and Imeretia have also adopted the latter shape, but their caps are really of quite alarming dimensions, and recall to mind, involuntarily, the representations given in old Grerman paintings of the Old Testament. I have said a few words in the last chapter about the necessity of a thick covering to the head, and, conse- quently, will confine myself to the remark that, during my comparatively short stay in the country, I fully appreciated the advantages derived from wearing a fur cap. The second characteristic feature of the dress is the baschlyk ; the expression is Turkish, and simply means a covering for the head. It is, however, so well known in Europe that a special description may be dispensed with here. The material of which the baschlyk is composed in the Caucasus, is chiefly a yellowish grey texture of camel’s hair or goat’s hair ; in wet weather it is worn over the fur cap, and has been introduced for that purpose throughout the whole Russian army ; nevertheless in Imeretia, Mingrelia, and Abkhasia, the common people wear it simply wound round the head like a turban, and without any other CH. II. Caucasian Dress — A rms. 69 coveriüg to the head. The great antiquity of this article of apparel is attested by the celebrated mosaic in the museum at Naples, representing a battle fought by Alexander, where the Persian warrior, who offers his horse to the king, is wearing a baschlyk. There still remain to be mentioned the black low felt cap with turned-up brim, worn by the Tusch, Pschaws, and occasionally by the poorer inhabitants of Grrusia ; amongst the Mussulman population, the turban of the Mullah ; in Swanethia, the grey felt hat, some- what resembling the Tyrolese hat; and — the most remarkable of all — the head-dress worn by the Grrusi- nians, Mingrelians, and Imeretinians. It is made of black material, shaped like a round plate, and, in the case of the notables, embroidered with gold. It varies in size from that of a Grerman student’s ‘ cerevis ’ to that of a Prussian thaler, and is made fast to the crown of the head by a string, affording naturally no protection against sun or rain. These caps are still very common in Gruria, but in other parts of the country they have been replaced by the papach and the baschlyk. The Gurian costume has still to be noticed. It is entirely different from the Tscher- kesse, and is a compound of the Genoese dress, as worn in Italy during the middle ages, and the Turkish costume of the present time. The dress of the Chewsurs, which is the most remarkable of all in the Caucasus, will be described further on. In describing costumes the subject of arms must not be forgotten ; for in the East weapons form an 70 Poti to Borshom. CH. II. inseparable adjunct to dress. Those which appear to be characteristic of the Tscherkesse attire are the kindshal and the schaschka. The kindshal is a straight two-edged knife, measuring from thirty to forty centimetres, with one or more grooves which do not, however, as a rule, run down the middle of the blades ; the handle which, strange to say, is very slightly hollowed out for the hand, has no guard, and the scabbard is plain and covered with leather. The kindshal is worn in front of the body and not by the side of it at the girdle, and is attached to a small black leather strap, which like all straps in the Cau- casus, has always the seam in the middle, and which also serves to keep the tscherkesska together. Besides the kindshal, are suspended from this strap a grease- box, and a complicated instrument made up of a steel for striking fire, a screw-driver, a gimlet, and a hook ; also several other articles of a like description. The schaschka, a longer and tolerably crooked sabre, equally without guard, is attached to a shoulder-belt, made from a narrow strap specially used for this pur- pose, and rests on the left hip with the concave side of the blade in front. The handles and scabbards of these weapons, as well as the buckles and buttons on the girdles and belts, are often adorned with ornaments of embossed silver, in which kind of handicraft the Cau- casian goldsmiths excel. A great value is set upon fine blades, that is to say, upon old ones. At the pres- ent time very good kindshals are manufactured in the Caucasus, but the greater portion of the schaschka 1 GUUSINIAN WOMAN. To /'(ICC ixl'j'! " 1 , I'ol- CH. ri. Caucasian Dress, 71 blades come from Solingen. Gruns and pistols do not necessarily belong to the dress. The former, enclosed in cases made of shaggy goatskin, are worn slung to the back ; the latter are stuck into the girdle, whilst the powder-horn is frequently carried in a small pocket below the cartridge-pouches. The mountain • tribes formerly equipped themselves in chain armour, helmets of steel with neck defences made of rings, the arms and legs being likewise protected ; but at the present day these articles have been mostly sold to collectors, and are only met with amongst the more opulent families, or in very remote valleys of the Caucasus, as, for instance, among the Chewsur tribe. The above description relates to the dress worn by the men ; as regards female costume less is to be said. Amongst the mountain tribes women mostly go about in tatters, whilst among Mohammedans they are so thickly veiled that their features are entirely concealed. The only female costume which strikes the eye as being characteristic, is that of the Kartalinians. Eespecting the outer garment and jacket, little is to be said, except that they are generally of very bright colours. The manner in which the women decorate their hair is, nevertheless, remarkable ; two or three long curls fall down on both sides over the ears, and upon the head is placed a kind of diadem, frequently consisting of red silk, adorned with gold and pearls, and from which a small gauze veil is suspended. This finery imparts a somewhat fanciful and romantic ex- pression to the features, which, as a rule, are handsome 72 Poti to Bor shorn. CH. ir. and regular, with large vacant eyes, and finely chiselled aquiline nose, and reminds the traveller of pictures of the high-born ladies of the Düsseldorf school. In the long run the characteristic monotony of trait, entirely deficient in individuality, becomes fatiguing. In the streets women put on a large thick veil, the tschadra, reaching to the knee and enveloping the whole figure. The most remarkable event which occurred during our many days’ stay at Kutais was a visit which we paid to the monastery of Grelati, at a distance of nine versts from that town. Early in the morning we rode off, mounted on good Cossack horses placed at our disposal, and accompanied by Count Tiesenhausen, an official of Kutais. Our road took us first through the ghetto of the town, a long street close to the left bank of the Eion. Here the opportunity was first afforded us of admiring the enormous fur caps of the Imeretinian jews. Gfenerally speaking, the jews in the Caucasus, the greater portion of whom profess the Talmud, are little respected, more especially as they are excluded by the Armenians from the higher branches of commerce. To this rule the Kuraim jews, who are friendly disposed towards Christians, and anti-talmudical, form an exception ; there are a few small colonies of them in the Caucasus. At the end of the jews’ quarter the road turns off from the valley of the Kion, and after an hour’s ride through a beautiful green country, we came upon the monastery, which is situated upon a lofty eminence commanding CB. II. Monastery of Gelati, 73 the valley. We soon arrived at the summit, and from the verandah in front of the archimandrite’s dwelling we enjoyed a view so exquisitely beautiful that not again in the Caucasus did we see one to equal it. At our feet, fresh in verdure, lay the valley of the Tzchal- Tzitheli (Ked Eiver), a small stream which rises in the north-east amongst the Nakerala Mountains, and flows into the Kwirila below Kutais ; in the background the picturesque mountains of Imeretia, through which the -Rion shapes its course from the high mountain chain to the Colchis lowlands ; and beyond that again, the more lofty mountains of the Letschgum and Radscha districts, amongst which, standing out in bold relief, was the proud rocky mass of the Chomli, to which for- merly Prometheus was chained ; and far away in the distance, visible through a break in the projecting mountains, and yet enormous from its immense height, towered the snow-clad summit of the Tetnuld. The transformation of shapes, the varieties of attitude, and above all, the splendid luxuriance of vegetation, threw an irresistible charm over the scene, and the clear weather and fresh morning-breeze helped to render the enjoyment perfect. As mass was being sung in the adjoining church — a circumstance of which we were made fully aware by the very unmelodious strains which proceeded from within — we had ample leisure to enjoy the beauties of Nature before turning our atten- tion to art. After an interval the archimandrite ap- peared, a remarkably handsome man, whose dignified deportment was somewhat compromised by the circum- 74 Poti to Borshom, CH. II. stance of his wearing a grey broad-brimmed felt hat, which he had put on after the service was over. Under his guidance we commenced our wanderings through the interior of the monastery. The church is a Byzantine central edifice, with a cupola covered over by a coni- cal green roof — a constantly recurring feature in the Caucasus. Griants must have aided in its construction, which dates from about the eleventh century, for the dimensions of the stones surpass everything which I have ever witnessed. Yet the work has been executed to such a nicety, that the joinings are as distinct and regular at the present time as they must have been seven hundred years ago. The walls, especially in the vicinity of the portals and windows, are adorned with flat relievi, an art in which the Byzantines were masters. In purity of design, and as regards the ingenuity dis- played in richly decorating naked surfaces without over- loading them, our own architects have still much to learn. An ornament of frequent occurrence, especially on en- trance walls, as well as on the apse, is a Latin cross, slightly protruding and surrounded on all sides by graduated flutings ; simple in form, though varied by the different profiles of flutings and curved recesses at the points, it forms, perhaps, the finest decoration for a church fapade. The interior of the church exhibits the customary form of a cross used for Gfreek houses of worship. The walls are completely lined with frescoes, amongst which two periods may be recognised. Some of the paintings are in the severe, repulsive style of CH. II. Monastery of Gelati. 75 later Byzantine art, whilst others have evidently been restored in the Middle Ages, and at the time when the Italian school of painting was in full bloom. Some pictures appear at first sight to belong to the Kenais- sance period ; but on closer examination it will be seen that only the ground work is more ancient, and that the restoration has been effected by artists at a later date, probably under the influence of Grenoese masters, that city having formerly exercised a great sway over the country of Pont us. Modern times, too, have had a share in the restoration of these frescoes, for one un- happy picture has experienced the misfortune, certainly undeserved, of being freshly retouched by an artistically- disposed Eussian colonel of gendarmes. The icono- stas is entirely covered over with costly things, and glit- ters with gold and precious stones. The most promi- nent objects are two gold frames inlaid with a variegated mass of diverse materials. Some miniature pictures of the saints especially strike the eye. These latter have Greek inscriptions in email cloisonne, which, on account of their beautiful design and model execution, must be ascribed to the most flourishing period of Byzantine art, and are consequently more ancient than the church it- self. There are, besides, some stones bearing inscrip- tions, which, according to the statement of the archi- mandrite, no one had been able to decypher. Of these I took an impression, and a scientific examination ot them in Germany has subsequently shown that these treasures of a Christian Church contain merely the names of the prophet Mahomet, and of the twelve imams, 76 Poti to Borsho^n. CH. II. together with another equally pagan inscription. The language is Arabic with Kufic characters. The church treasure is kept in a chapel. The sanctity of the spot must offer a satisfactory guarantee against thieves ; for the one decayed chest with rusted lock, in which the precious relics are deposited, assuredly does not do so. The treasure consists principally of a number of eccle- siastical robes, mostly covered with pearls of great price. The most remarkable object is the crown of the Imeretinian kings, a kind of hood, covered over with pearls, and adorned with gold bands and buckles, and with the cross at the top. Wearing this crown on their heads, many of the earlier kings — generally possessing handsome faces and a mass of reddish hair — are repre- sented in the frescoes of the church. Besides the church, the tomb of King David of Imeretia, the mighty potentate of his time and founder of this holy place, is especially worthy of notice in the monastery. He lies close to the church in a ruined chapel, almost concealed by the ivy growing about it. His grave is covered with a massive slab bearing an inscription in the Chutzuri character, and here I first noticed how peculiarly adapted for monumental inscrip- tions this character is. No writing engraved on stone comes out with such wonderful effect as these old and apparently clumsy and disjointed letters. By his grave is deposited one of his greatest trophies of victory — the iron gates of the city of Grundsha (the modern Jelissawetpol) also bearing a chased inscription in the Chutzuri character. For a long time the gates were CH. ir. Motzamethi. 77 considered to be those of Derbend, and the inscription upon them to be Kufic, when finally the error was discovered by the able investigator Brosset. ' After a farewell look at the splendid panorama be- fore us, we remounted our horses, and proceeded over a steep and stony road to the monastery of Motzamethi, distant only a few versts. It is scarcely possible to conceive a greater contrast than that existing between these two places. Whilst Gelati, proudly looking down from its lofty eminence, commands the country around, Motzamethi reposes modestly upon a rocky projection in the quiet valley of the Tzchal-Tzitheli, and is almost hidden away from sight by the surrounding foliage. Only at Lenkoran, on the Caspian Sea, did I chance again to find such luxuriant vegetation, although there the two shrubs were wanting — the laurel and the box tree — which form the chief attraction of the forests about Motzamethi. Here the box tree was growing to the height of twenty feet, and whilst the stem of the oak was being concealed beneath the noble laurel-leaf, ivy and the wild vine clambered up in the midst, and formed with interwoven tendrils a protecting roof against the sun. Amongst the trees were here and there rocks, and small glades, and down in the valley a trickling brook. The monastery itself possessed nothing particularly worth seeing, except a curious sarcophagus supported on lions, and we now began to miss the breakfast, which we had already foregone at Grelati, and to which we felt ourselves at noon fully entitled. A boy coming along with a basket of figs made up in 78 Poti to Bor shorn. cn. ir. some measure for our loss. We returned home by a nearer path, which afforded us many a beautiful view of the Colchis plain ; but the mountains on the far side were already wrapped up in the midday mist. On re- entering Kutais in the afternoon, everything fore- shadowed coming rain, and left us but a dismal pros- pect for our intended excursion to Swanethia. We had heard in Kutais so many attractive ac- counts of Swanethia, that we were not long in deciding to try our fortunes in this the wildest region of the Cau- casus. I say the wildest region, for Swanethia has only during the last few years been subject to Eussian supremacy ; and this has not been the result of any magnanimous attachment on the part of the population to freedom and independence, but solely because the Eussian Grovernment had not previously considered it desirable to expend power and money in subjugating a tribe whose tax-paying capabilities were more than doubtful. The following summary comprises more or less the description which we obtained at Kutais about the country, and the information, which I subsequently gathered from Eadde’s detailed account {yide last chapter) of his journey in those districts. Swanethia consists of the upper regions of the valleys of the Tzchenis-Tzchali and of the Ingur, extending from the sources of these rivers to the point where, abandoning their original directions from east to west, they turn towards the south. The superficies of the country is small. The valley of the Tzchenis-Tzchali is about CH. n. Excursion to Swanethia. 79 thirty-eight miles long to the point, where, as above- mentioned, it turns off, and the valley of the Ingur is only about nineteen miles longer. There are in the valley few flat patches of soil adapted for agriculture, and by far the greater portion of the area is occupied by forests, mountain pastures, and wildernesses. Not- withstanding its littleness, the country is divided into three clearly defined districts. Dadian Swanethia, called after the princely family in Mingrelia, which has possessions here, comprises the valley of the Tzche- nis-Tzchali, and consists of three large parishes, Lasch- cheti, Tscholuri, and Lentechi. These parochial dis- tricts are however not closed cantons, but a complex of farms spread over many miles, which often stand to- gether in small groups. The so-called Free Swanethia is the upper half of the Swanethian valley of the Ingur, with the districts of Uschkull, Kail, Adisch, Mushall, Mulach, Mestia, El, and Nenshar ; the lower half of the valley of the Ingur, comprising the districts of Betscho, Latal, Pari, and Lachamuli, is called after the princely family of Dadischkilian, which has property here. Strictly speaking, the long uninterrupted inde- pendence of the country above mentioned refers only to Free Swanethia. In the other parts, although there was no question of payment of taxes, yet there did not prevail an entire disregard of authority, if we except one individual crime, the murder of Prince Gragarin, the Governor-General of Kutais, by Prince Dadisch- kilian, who was, however, speedily condemned and ex- ecuted. Still in these regions, previous to the recent 8o Poti to Borshom. CH. ri. expedition of Count Lewasclioff, which took place, if I am not mistaken, in 1869 or 1870, the traveller’s life and property were not secure, if even he were pre- pared to defend them. The geographical situation of the country justified the exceptional attitude so long maintained. From Lower Mingrelia up the valley of the Ingur no regular communication exists, for between the extreme Mingrelian villages, Dshwari and Chuberi, and Lachamuli, the nearest Swanethian district, the river flows through a ravine about twenty-four miles in length, entirely uninhabited, and except on foot almost impassable. To the north, in the country of the Baksan Tartars, the chief mountain chain must be traversed over glaciers ; and in the south a solitary border-path leads over the Laila mountains, which form the water- shed between the Ingur and the Tzchenis-Tzchali. This latter track — the Latpari Pass — was crossed by the small expedition under Count Lewaschoff, who marched thence to Pari, skirting the districts of Free Swanethia. The population, although by no means amicably disposed towards the invaders, recog- nised the impossibility of resistance, and submitted without bloodshed. The only positive result of this submission has been the imposition of a very diminu- tive tax (I believe sixty kopecks per head), and security for life and property as regards Kussian officials and travellers, of whom the latter do not yet number a dozen. Amongst themselves they continue, in accord- ance with their ancient habits, to commit robbery and murder indiscriminately and uninterruptedly. Opinions CH. n. Swanethia. 8i differed formerly respecting the genealogy and charac- ter of the Swanethians. At the present time the tribe is pretty generally recognised to be an offshoot of the Kartalinian tribes, which in an earlier age had occupied a higher position, as attested by the ancient churches in the country and by old records, and which in the seclu- sion of its valleys had subsequently, after a period of bloom, sunk back into a state of barbarism, and had, even as regards the language, deviated so widely from neighbouring tribes and tribes of a like origin as to be unintelligible to them. In addition to this, it appears that even foreign elements have become intermingled with the population. In the country itself the in- habitants of Lachamuli are regarded to be of Jewish extraction, and Kadde found the Semitic type con- spicuously impressed upon their features. They are the only tribe in the country carrying on trade. Their religion, in so far as any exists, is Christianity. In the north some proselytes have been made to Islamism, and the village of Adisch is considered to be entirely Pagan. Three different tours were proposed to us : to ascend the valleys of the Eion and of the Tzchenis- Tzchali to the Pass of Latpari, returning the same way to Kutais ; or from the Pass of Latpari over the entire Free and Dadischkilian Swanethia, and down the Ingur ravine to Zugdidi in Mingrelia ; or starting from Las- cheti, below the Pass of Latpari, to cross over the mountains to the upper valley of the Eion, in the dis- trict of Eadsha, and thence over the Nakerala moun- tains back to Kutais. We selected the first route prin- G VOL. I. 82 Poti to Bo7'shom. GH. ri. cipally on account of our inexperience in travelling, for which reason we thought it advisable not to at- tempt too long excursions at first. Moreover, the path through the Ingur ravine, which was being constructed, was probably, from what we could gather, in an incom- plete state, and we could obtain no information re- specting the passes between Lascheti and the district of Eadsha. On both these two routes we should have been reduced to the unpleasant necessity of employing carriers to convey our baggage. I can picture to my- self in glowing colours how many a sturdy European tourist, considering a knapsack or soldier’s valise amply sufficient to meet his daily wants, and aught else as sheer luxury, would treat with ridicule the anxious forethought which we bestowed upon our baggage. I have pursued this subject with more ample details in the last chapter, and will therefore merely remark here that we had been most urgently recommended to take with us cooking utensils and provisions sufficient to last several days, unless we wished to find ourselves, like Count Tiesenhausen, compelled to choose between two alternatives — suffering from hunger, or being re- duced to eat millet paste, called Gfomi, the national food, which is quite indigestible for European stomachs. We equipped ourselves as fully as possible in accor- dance with past experience and present counsels, or- dered horses from a Jew in Kutais, and rose up on Friday, August 23, full of expectation. Our first look at the weather was anything but re- assuring; the street was swimmiug with muddy water. CH. IT. Unfortunate Start. 83 and fresh torrents of rain were pouring down from the grey sky. Our horses, which were to have been ready at daybreak, were nowhere to he seen, and the waiter bestowed upon us the doubtful consolation that the person, from whom we had hired them was hardly likely to make his appearance with his animals, as the idea would never enter his mind that we should be determined to start in such weather. The waiter was, however, deceived in this respect, for after about two hours delay the individual arrived, with half-a-dozen miserable -looking, half- starved jades, apparently ready to meet their fate with dumb resig- nation. We learned for the future to abide by the sage maxim of first seeing our horses before we engaged them, and proceeded to fit on, as best we could, our saddles and baggage. This was no easy work to per- form, for the girths of our European saddles, when taken up to the last hole, were still too long for the lank spider bodies of these animals, and neither the hirer nor his servant displayed the slightest willingness to assist Ali and ourselves in accomplishing the task. We were just on the point of doubting whether we should succeed in making a start or not, when, losing all pa- tience, I gave the man, who was accompanying the horses, one or two unmistakable hints with my Nogaika. From that moment the position of affairs was changed, and everyone set to work with astonishing alacrity. The above-mentioned Nogaika is a whip with a wooden handle a foot long, and with a piece of 84 Poti to Bor shorn. CH. ir. leather of the shape and size of a fly flapper, attached to the end of a switch, longer than it, and braided over with strips of leather. This instrument is easy to handle, very effective, and indispensable in the Caucasus. A traveller has rightly named it the key of the country. All arrangements being completed, our disconsolate caravan marched out of the town in the pouring rain. Our troubles immediately commenced. The road, which ascended along the right bank of the Eion, was being paved, and a layer of gravel had already been deposited for that purpose, but unfortunately the rain, which must have continued the whole night, had converted the gravel and clayey subsoil into an impenetrable mass of slime, through which stronger animals than our wretched steeds would have found it hard to push along. The bridges which led over the numerous small tributaries of the Eion had been, without excep- tion, carried away ; and every now and then we were compelled to make extensive detours over very rugged country ; the result of which was that as our baggage was very badly fastened on the horses’ backs, it was continually coming off or getting loose, and thereby occasioning considerable delay. That under such cir- cumstances we should be but little disposed to fully admire the magnificent scenery of the Eion valley is hardly surprising, and right glad we were after a ride of five hours and a-half, to reach the first Duchan in the little village of Nomochowanie, only fourteen miles from Kutais. Duchan is rather a difficult expression CH. ir. Valley of the Rion. 85 to define. It is scarcely an inn, for all the accommoda- tion to be had consists of the bare boards of an empty room with or without windows, and it cannot be called a shop doing a small retail business, for the only com- modities to be obtained are salt, and meal made from maize, occasionally wine, and rarely bread. The Duchan of Nomochowanie was better supplied. We even got a chicken, apparently the only one in the place, and our horses regaled themselves with maize. It is true we had contracted for their keep with the person from whom we had hired the horses, but he had abstained from providing the attendant with fodder or money. The horses were compelled to purchase this unaccustomed delicacy at the price of continual contests with the pigs in the neighbourhood ; for the latter, im- pelled by hunger or envy, disputed with them each grain of maize, and even grudged us our modest break- fast. The Nogaika, even here, however, came off tri- umphant. After a two hours’ rest, when we started off again, not only were we all refreshed, man and beast, but the weather had some consideration for us, and the sun shone pleasantly upon the green valley, whilst the remainder of the clouds hung in dark masses about the peaks of the mountains. We now began to admire nature in her full splendour. The Eion, swollen and wavy, flowed through a valley thickly studded with oaks and laurels ; on each side of the river were ever and anon rich meadows ; and in the openings of the forest were fields of maize well cultivated and neatly enclosed (against the pigs) ; streamlets, forming themselves into 86 Poti to Borshom. CH. n. cascades, came rushing down the mountains, and on the lofty crests, in places not enveloped by the clouds, massive ridges of rock stood forth. The Chomli, to our left was, however, not visible from the road, and we were obliged to console ourselves with the thought that we had ridden under Prometheus’ former abode. The sun was just setting, as we reached the village of Mekwen, but we determined to ride on to the next Duchan, about nine versts distant, not so much because Ali maintained that the inhabitants were all notorious robbers, but rather because the place itself did not seem to offer an advantageous prospect for night quarters. Further on, ascending over rocks, the road mounted up high above the river, and the last rays of the departing sun lit up for us once more a beautiful view of the valley, which close under our feet, seemed hemmed in by projecting rocks. To the right was visible— a few hundred feet above the Eion on a terrace-shaped break in the mountain — the reflection of a small lake, so modest and unpretending, that the five verst map of the G^eneral Staff —usually so accurate — had omitted it altogether. In the meantime night set in, and no signs appeared of the Duchan of Twischi. After riding a short distance further on the road, we recognised a light to the left. On chance I called out in Eussian, and received, to my utter amazement, a reply in Eus- sian that the Duchan was close at hand. Upon this we proceeded onwards. The rocks became more and more shut in, and finally we found ourselves in a dark ravine, the sides of which rose up perpendicularly. CH. n. Valley of the Rion. 87 whilst in the depths below we could hear the roar gf the Eion without any longer being able to distinguish the river. There being no more question of riding, we dismounted, and led our horses, feeling for the way with our hands along the side of the rock. Finally a torrent, which came rushing down the rocks, brought us to a halt, and we had no other course but to turn back. On emerging from the defile, after roving about through deep mud, we succeeded in finding the house, in which I had seen the light, and were very cordially received by its occupant, a Eussian policeman. Here we first had the opportunity to test the excellence of the Herman sausages which we had brought with us. In a few minutes’ time we got ready a strong soup, and our Eussian host did not know what to say for astonish- ment and bewilderment at the rapidity of the process. His amazement was increased when he saw us drinking our tea out of India-rubber cups, and when lastly we unrolled and inflated our waterproof beds (vide last chapter), he could no longer resist from arousing his fever-stricken comrade to show him these marvels. To the latter a good strong dose of quinine would have been at the time of more benefit than the sight of all our interesting things; and as we were provided with a travelling medicine-chest, we were also able to physic him. The clouds, which the following morning still hung about the mountains, faded away in the rising sun, and we were able to admire in perfect safety the immense ravine, in which the previous evening we had nearly 88 Poti to Bor shorn. CH. ir. broken our necks in the dark. The torrent which had compelled us to retrace our steps was not so formidable when viewed by daylight ; still it would have been im- prudent to have advanced further into the gorge by night, for the road was only broad enough for one horse to pass at a time, and whilst to the left the rock rose perpendicularly into the air, to the right down in the depths below the Eion was foaming. The Duchan we wished to reach lay completely at the end of the gorge ; but the road was interrupted, the bridge over a rather considerable stream, flowing down from the Chomli, having been carrried away. We might easily have had an accident here in the dark. Beyond the Duchan the valley became broader and sunny ; the forest showed several bare patches, and the summit of a hill was crowned by an old ruined castle. After a short ride we reached the spot where our path was to turn away from the Eion. Here we found a much frequented Duchan where we had a treat net to be despised. This consisted of red country wine, not only drinkable but even pleasant to the taste. Con- sidering how much the cultivation of the vine has been neglected in the Caucasus, notwithstanding the circumstances favourable to its growth, and bearing in mind what fearful stuff the traveller is frequently compelled to imbibe, our astonishment at obtaining such wine will be readily understood. Not only was the wine itself worthy of notice, but also the cellar which contained it and the apparatus in which it was kept; This latter consisted öf a big earthenware jug, CH. n. Gorge of Ladshamtra, 89 called in Grrusinian Kwewri, and in the Tartar language Kufschin, which is manufactured in the country. Its dimensions are often fabulous, for some are found eight feet in height and four feet in diameter. The one in question was simply buried up to the neck in a corner of the Duchan, with an aperture left open for the pur- pose of drawing off the wine : a process which the inn- keeper effected by merely letting down a scoop attached to a string into the depths of the Kufschin. The some- what irremovable condition of the wine-cellar unfortu- nately gives rise to the presumption that in proportion as the old wine disappears fresh wine is simply poured in from above to supply the vacuum created. Those who arrive late can scarcely expect to obtain the same quality of wine as those who arrive early, and the cir- cumstance that many very heterogeneous particles easily find their way into the wine through the ever ready orifice at the top is one hardly calculated to in- spire with confidence the traveller in the Caucasus. But no one particular in this respect could remain long in the country. Our route now abandoned the rather lively road in the valley of the Kion, and turned off again to the left into a narrow, beautifully wooded ravine, in the truest sense of the word romantic. The path which hitherto had been so small as to be impassable for European horses, was being made broader, and at one spot we met occupied in mining the rock about thirty wild looking workmen clad in picturesque rags. Some of the mines were being charged with powder at the 90 Poti to Borshorn. CH. n. moment that we were passing by ; but as the men greeted us most cordially, and gave no intimation of the explosion about to take place, we quietly continued our journey. Our terror may be imagined when the charges went off a few paces behind us, and stones were sent flying about in all directions. Fortunately no one was hurt, but we could not help thinking that the proceeding was rather an unceremonious one. The thousand echoes produced by the report amongst the surrounding rocks was, contrary to the Swiss custom, gratuitous. On reaching the end of the ravine, Lailaschi, our midday station, lay before us, not situated, as we imagined, down in the valley, but, to our disgust, on a mountain some thousand feet above it — exposed to the full glare of a broiling midday sun. Our poor horses, apparently left unfed by the attendant, for they hungrily snuffed about the blackberry bushes, refused so decidedly to make any further progress that in the end we were compelled ourselves to tug them up the steep mountain side, no pleasant task under a broiling sun. Ali and the baggage had vanished alto- gether, and we had some difficulty, when we arrived above in the village, in asking our way to the house of the chief of the district (Ujezdngj Natschalnik). Here we were received in the most charming manner by Mr. Bebureschwilli, a Grurian by birth, who, in the capacity of Chief of the Letschgiun district — which according to the former division of the country belonged to Mingrelia — had for several years inhabited Lailaschi, the chief town or rather village. We gratefully ac- CH. ir. Lailaschi — Grti-sin ian Society. 91 cepted his invitation to remain at least for dinner. To our great astonishment we found ourselves ad- dressed in German by a gentleman in European dress who joined us, and who turned out to be the justice of the peace for the district. He hailed originally from the Baltic Provinces, but found himself ‘ post tot dis- crimina rerum ’ cast adrift in this neighbourhood, where on a competency of 2,000 roubles, a salary far beyond the reach of any Prussian magistrate, he administers the law — on account of the distances practically without appeal — to the mountaineers of Mingrelia and to the Dadischkilian Swanethians. He told us that in the course of the year he decided 1,200 civil and 200 criminal cases. A second inhabitant of the place, also speaking German, appeared in the person of the constructor of roads, a Warsaw Jew, and it came out at last that our kind host had also visited Germany, and had brought back with him a few words of our language. The dinner had been prepared for upwards of a dozen guests who had been gradually arriving, and it forms one of the great events of our journey. This dinner deserves a somewhat detailed description, not so much on account of the fare set before us, which was very similar to that of our Tartar dinner at Kutais, but in consequence of the odd mix- ture of people who' composed the society. The guests, with the exception of those above mentioned, were all natives of the country, and the greater part did not even understand Eussian. This however, was no im- pediment to conversation, and still less to enjoyment. 92 Poti to Borshom. CH. n. The opposite ends of the table were presided over by most distinguished personages ; at the upper end sat the archimandrite of the monastery, a fine old gentle- man, and at the lower end was a Mingrelian princess who, like all women of that country above twenty-five years of age, had once been handsome. They both fasted, that is to say, partook of food in accordance with fasting. I never succeeded in ascertaining why they fasted, but I perfectly well recollect that they did do so, and the food, as is customary in the Caucasus, consisted of spinach, called Kinza, a circumstance not easily for- gotten by those who have once smelt it. My right- hand neighbour was the wife of the Pristaw (high constable), a Grrusinian lady, who spoke Eussian fluently, and had emancipated herself from Grusinian toilette. She looked rather well in the European dress. The remaining ladies and gentlemen present were without exception attired in the national costume, and some of them were models of Caucasian type. The comic element was represented by a Prince Tschi- kowanni. His fe,ce, the living prototype of Punch, glowed with the deepest purple, and his performance at table proved that he had no desire to abandon that hue. In this country it by no means follows that be- cause a man is born a prince, he is necessarily accom- plished and wealthy. Many families bear the title, and it descends to all the sons, who may lack both property and education. The names of noble families in Grusia and in the other Kartalinian districts gene- cs. ir. Grttsinian Society. 93 rally end in ‘ schwilli ’ or in ‘ dze both mean son, and this derivation is thus analogous to the Spanish hidalgo (son of some one). When the names become Eussified, the termination ‘ schwilli ’ is generally changed into ‘ ew ’ or ‘ ow.’ An exception is found to this rule in the case of the Bagritidze, the most dis- tinguished family in the land, which calls itself Bagra- tion. The Tschikowanni, Matshabelli, Tzeretelli, Grelovanni, and a few other families are said to descend from Grenoese emigrants ; such names as Ciecovanni, Macciabelli, Zeretelli, which have remained totally un- changed, undoubtedly lead to this conclusion. The family of our Prince Tschikowanni could hardly have been very prosperous, judging by his dress, which did not indicate wealth ; and this is a tolerably fair criterion, for the nobility of the country would rather lavish the last rouble in purchasing some faultless object of attire than expend it in procuring the neces- sities of life. The sums paid by government to landed proprietors, as an indemnity for the abolition of serfdom, have been speedily squandered in such like extravagance, and, a few families excepted, the whole native aristocracy may be considered as completely impoverished. The ‘ res angusta domi ’ had failed to impair either the prince’s temperament or his complexion ; and no sooner had the second course been served, when, im- pelled by his second nature, he pledged each one of us in a full bumper of red Kachetine. This good example 94 Poti to Borshom. CH. ir. was speedily followed on all sides, and it needed a strong head to do justice to the many claims which custom imposed upon us. On this occasion I indulged in the following remark, interesting to every Oerman student, that the Caucasian ‘ comment’^ is most closely allied to the Oerman ‘ comment.’ For similar cere- monies exist here as amongst Oerman students in reference to the before-drinking and the after-drinking, the emptying of glasses, and the proposal of healths ; and great importance is attached to the strict observ- ance of customary formalities. I only missed the institutions of the ‘ Bierjungen ’ and of the ‘ Salaman- der;’ the beverage however is quite different. The following sentence 'is the customary one before drink- ing : ‘ Allah werdi ’ (Turkish), God has given H ; where- upon the after-drinker responds ‘ Jachschi jol,’ a fortunate journey. Whenever a toast was proposed, which unfortunately for me was always done in the Grusinian language, some of the company, generally the ladies, commenced singing the following refrain, ^ ]\Irawa shaemie,’ many years. The singing was pecu- liar, and, with the exception of one tune, most un- melodious. It appears moreover to be the custom to sing through the nose, and to endeavour to impart an expression of rapture to the features. One tune, which 1 ‘ Comment’ is a ceremonial performed by German students when drinking a toast. It consists in appropriate sentences, which are recited after the proposal of the toast by the ‘ vor ’ and the ‘ nach ’ drinker ; and in a peculiar mode of raising, emptying, and replacing the glass on the table, each action being carried out in accordance with special words of command. — C. H. CH. IL Peadiar Customs respecting Toasts. 95 seemed to enjoy especial favour with the lady on my right hand, was about as follows : — Mra-wa, -S: Mra - wa shaemie, Mrawa shae-mie, Mra-wa No system of annotation has, as yet, been discovered, capable of rendering the other tunes, for such a system would be obliged to distinguish thirds, fifths, and sevenths of a tone. Considering the general harmony which prevailed, and the universal participation in the fun and merri- ment which was going on, we could hardly be sur- prised at finding ourselves called upon to sing, and we released ourselves from the difficulty by performing the ‘ Wacht am Ehein ’ and some student songs. Toasts were then drank with full ceremonial to ourselves, our relatives, and our fatherland, after which we took leave of our kind host. He provided us an escort, and sent with us, as an interpreter for the Swane- thian language, a Mingrelian of frowning aspect armed to the teeth. But the latter proved eventually to be a very inoffensive and particularly stupid individual. We were also promised better horses for the next few days. After a hearty leave-taking, we descended by a fearfully steep path the mountain on which Lailaschi is situated, and we did so at rather a dangerous quick pace, resulting possibly from the jovial state of our minds. We then forded the Ladshanura at a shallow place, and ascended the small ridge, which separates 96 Poti to Borshom. CH. II. the valley of this tiny river from that of the Tzchenis- Tzchali. The village of Muri is situated on this ridge ; it is very extensive, and lies surrounded by luxuriant gardens and vineyards. I can scarcely tell whether it was the glorious illumination of the evening sky and the multitude of country folks in picturesque cos- tumes returning from their work, which caused me to view Mmi in so poetical a light ; but these circum- stances, combined with the romantic scenery around the spot, above which towered the defiant Castle of Orbeli, together with a view of the green valleys be- low, could hardly fail to deeply impress the lover of nature. From the watershed we glanced once again at the pleasant Lailaschi, just then lit up by the rays of the setting sun, and then descended towards the Tzchenis-Tzchali. At a point where the river flows through a steep gateway formed amongst the rocks, under the portholes of two castles — appearing, like the Swallow’s Nest near Heidelberg, glued on to the mountain — a very lightly constructed bridge, over which but one person at a time could pass, led to our night quarters some hundred paces further on. This spot was the ‘ Chancellerie ’ of the district. Why we should have been directed to this draughty place in- stead of being quartered upon the peasants I never could comprehend. The inventory of the ‘ Chancel- lerie ’ comprised nothing extraordinary. It consisted of a box containing about twelve sheets of paper, and one inkstand, apparently empty. No further vestige of furniture was to be seen. During the night I had CH. II. Valley of the Tzchenis-Tzchali. 97 ample leisure to solve tlie problem as to how the numerous fleas contrived to live, when no travellers passed that way. It is true they seemed famished. • The arrival the next morning of fresh and very ser- viceable horses afforded some consolation for the un- comfortable night we had spent. The police official, who found them for us, was a former officer of Cossacks, and was decorated with the St. Gfeorge’s cross ; he escorted us part of the way, and manifested great? pride in the bridge, over which we had crossed the previous day, it being his handiwork. Although it did not seem to us to be very substantially put together, still we could hardly withhold from him our admiration of a struc- ture which was about a hundred feet long, and con- sisted merely of eight or ten beams and rafters. The road, a very narrow one, continued for several hours along the right bank of the roaring stream, and fre- quently in the closest proximity to it. All attempts by blasting or by constructing to create a road having been avoided, our path kept ascending and descending, and winding round projecting rocks, whilst the scenery was constantly changing. The forest landscape was one of the grandest that could be seen ; although the box-tree did not thrive so well here at an altitude of 1,600 feet above the level of tlie sea, the laurel on the contrary flourished amazingly. The oak was still the monarch of the forest in less elevated regions, but at a- height exceeding 2,000 feet the beech-tree reigned su- preme. The plane, elm, chestnut, and linden were also to be seen ; one of the latter, which I measured. VOL. I. II 98 Poti to Bor shorn. cn. ir. was thirty-tliree feet in circumference at a height of six feet from the ground. A countless number of birds en- livened the air ; no one seemed to disturb their repose, for they were not frightened at our approach. We particularly noticed a species of jay, larger than the European, with variegated, black, red, and white plumage. Although several villages are described on the map as belonging to this tract of land, we only dis- covered from time to time a few miserable huts, almost entirely hidden away amongst the dense verdure. On one occasion, however, we fell in with a small crushing- mill, lying close to our path, but far from any human abode ; a wooden hammer striking merrily on a shell was set in motion by a rivulet ; but I could not ascer- tain for what purpose this apparatus should exist in the solitary depths of a forest. The traveller, Petz- holdt, has, however, in these parts met with similar isolated machines. On the road we encountered the first Swanethian, a sturdy fellow, whose felt hat, shaped in the Tyrolese fashion, occasioned us much astonish- ment ; he carried his gun in a case' of badger-skin, the fur of which was nearly a foot in length ; but we could not, even at a high price, induce him to part with it. There seems, moreover, to be very little traffic in this valley when compared with the valley of the liion, where we frequently fell in with peasants and packhorses going up and down the road. Lentechi is situated near to a point on the Tzchenis- Tzchali, where that river, which flows from the east, makes a sharp bend southward. This place, although R‘£rei^Ami>'UriX-A • LENTECHI. To face p. 9i), vol. cn. II. Lent ec hi — Cliaracteidstics of Swanethia, 99 inhabited by Swanetliians, still retains the character- istic features of a Mingrelian village. One peculiarity, however, attracted our attention ; the vines, as in Upper Italy, are trained to run up stone pillars, and then across lathworks extending up and down the vil- lage street — a peculiarity which I never again noticed in the Caucasus. Modern culture has reached Lentechi in the form of a schoolmaster, whose credentials to European education seemed to be represented by a knowledge of the Eussian language, and by the posses- sion of a broad-brimmed felt hat, which ill-accorded with his national costume. He honestly confessed him- self that attendance at school was far from being re- gularly conducted. As we had a considerable journey before ns, we only stopped long enough to rest the horses. We had already observed, when riding through the village, that we were in a country where the sight of a European face is a rare occurrence, the younger portion of the population, especially the female, draw- ing shyly away from us, although the European is generally an object of curiosity. Directly above Len- techi the mountains close up forming a grand wild ravine, the scenery reminding me vividly of the finest parts of the Ilsen valley in the Harz mountains. Here, as in the Harz, a roaring torrent rushes onwards over jutting cliffs hemmed in by steep rocks, and through primaeval forests of fir-trees ; but the proportions are five times greater than in the Harz mountains, whilst ever and anon a stray laurel bush recalls to mind the southern latitude. It furnishes a grand and beautiful lOO Poti to Borsho77t. cn. Ti. contrast to witness the laurel casting, as it were, a veil over the aged trunk of many a mighty fir end pine. After traversing about seven miles of road, we crossed the river a second time, passing over a very primitive kind of bridge, when shortly afterwards the valley opened. A broad level country, well cultivated, sepa- rated two mountain chains, the crests of which were partly concealed behind streaks of snow, whilst the lower slopes were covered with forests. At a higher elevation the -fir was replaced by the birch-tree, and above the altitude of 6,700 feet nothing remained to be seen but Alpine pastures. Instead of the half-hidden away, wooden huts of Mingrelia, rose up at the moun- tain edges, generally in groups numbering from three to six, stately farms, built of stone, with walls and mas- sive towers crowned by battlements. These towers, some of which measure eighty feet in height, are built of stone and cement, and are invariably square and strongly constructed ; they are quite in harmony with the customs of the country. Behind these towers the Swanethian, having committed a murder, retires for safety, dreading the old law of vendetta, which, in spite of the first elements of civilisation having penetrated into those regions, still reigns supreme ; and there he remains protected by thick walls against every attack from without, until the deed has been atoned for by the payment of blood-money, or until grass has gro^vn over it by the lapse of time. The villages produced a pleasing impression, the farms were in good substantial condition, the road and bridges kept in repair, and on. II. Ltidshi. Pass of Latpari. lOI each field, generally planted with millet and barley, was enclosed by a neat fence. The natives wore the national costume, although rather in a deficient condi- tion ; the head-gear consisted of the above-mentioned felt- hat, but we noticed some baschlyks, and the small cloth coverings already alluded to. We found the elders of the community of Tscholuri assembled in the road near a well, ready to receive through our inter- preter the orders of the chief of the district. They appeared to be remarkably sturdy individuals of mode- rate height, with unkempt hair and ferocious beards, and a good many of them showed a tendency to goitres. The general impression produced upon us by those in- habitants which we saw was one of roughness and coarseness ; still we did not suffer from any obtrusive conduct on their part, such as may have been expe- rienced by other travellers. One act of tenderness, which in some measure disclosed the disposition of the people, attracted my attention ; it was a small girl playing with a doll ; on closer examination the doll proved to be a dead sucking-pig. Our road descended a second time into a beech wood. It began to grow dusky, and still we could catch no glimpse of the Castle of Ludshi, our halting- place for the night. The interpreter had ridden on in advance, whilst Ali had remained behind with the baggage, and we found ourselves at last deep in the midst of a dense forest, in unknown regions. The position of affairs was becoming critical, when our Mingrelian reappeared, and, after searching about for 102 Poti to Bor shorn. cn. II.' some time, we discovered a passage leading over to the right hank of the river. The Castle of Ludshi, a gloomy old ruin, was situated on the mountain slope some hundred feet above the stream. Close to it was a wretched-looking farmhouse. The occupants consented, after some negotiations, to give up to us a cowshed for night quarters. The shed was empty, the cows being away on the mountain pastures, and we were decidedly better off, especially in point of cleanliness, than we should have been had we been lodged at the farmhouse or at the castle. After we had been anxiously waiting a whole hour, Ali reappeared with the baggage ; ac- cording to his version countless bands of robbers had been on the look-out to plunder our goods and chattels, but were dispersed and put to flight by his own personal intrepidity. We had learnt, however, by experience, to receive Ali’s statements ‘ cum grano salis.’ Having distinctly impressed upon the Mingrelian the necessity of punctual attendance at daybreak with fresh horses in order to ascend the Pass of Latpari, we received the unwelcome tidings that no eatables were to be obtained for love or money ; upon which we settled down to our German sausages ; and Ali also partook of them, heed- less of the stings of conscience which pork, one of the ingredients, ought properly speaking to have aroused. When, at the approach of dawn, we arose from our slumbers, no horses were to be seen, and the Mingrelian had disappeared. After waiting two hours without any better result, we decided to attempt the trip as best we could. We succeeded by signs and gestures, in en- CH. n. The Pass of Latpari. Encotmte7\ 103 gaging a guide (even Ali the linguist, failed in rendering himself intelligible to the Swanethians), and we then set out on the expedition, our rifles slung to our backs — a precaution which turned out in the end to be by no means superfluous. The road, owing to a recent military expedition, was still in good repair, and our route was consequently not beset with difficulties. The path first ascended through thick woods, afterwards between rows of single birch trees, then traversing some Alpine pasture lands, where numerous herds were revelling, it finally reached the mountain chain which separates the Valley of the Ingur from that of the Tzchenis-Tzchali. Below us we could see the farms of Tscholuri lying dispersed in every direction ; further up the valley was Laschcheti, the last village in Dadian Swanethia, and immediately in front of us was a steep mountain chain, behind which lay the upper valley of the Eion, the so-called Eadsha district. The sun’s rays had now increased to a perfectly scorching heat, and our costumes, especially our heavy riding boots, being little adapted for pedestrian expeditions, proved most troublesome to us when going up hill. It will therefore hardly be considered extraordinary that we should avail ourselves of an oiDportunity which unexpectedly came in our way. At about an hour’s ride from the summit of the pass, we arrived at a well, the water of which was delicious, and at this moment two Swanethians on horseback overtook us. We at once endeavoured to obtain the use of their quadrupeds. One of the Swanethians, a young man who spoke 104 Poti to Bor shorn. CH. ir. Kiissian fluently, came from Kutais, where he attended school, a rare occurrence for a Swanethian ; the other from the brass plate which he wore on his chest, bearing the inscription ‘ Selskij sudja,’ could be recog- nised as a village justice or bailiff. These two im- proved the occasion not only by asking us two roubles for the hour’s ride, but by selling to us a piece of bread, of which we stood sorely in need, at ten times its original value. But we were so exhausted by the heat, and not being in ‘ condition,’ by the fatigue of walking, that we readily acceded to any terms. The journey onwards became now an easy task, for we took it by turns to ride, and we should speedily have reached the summit of the pass, had not an unexpected delay arisen at a very short distance from it. This was caused by the two Swanethians, who, demanding twice the total amount agreed upon for the half-hour’s ride, informed us that they must turn off by a short cut, which branched off here, and that we could have the horses no longer. This sum we naturally refused to give them, when they commenced to threaten us, pointing to their weapons. They seemed to be under the impression that our rifles were not loaded, but on noticing the rapidity with which a cartridge is intro- duced at the breech, they altered their tone, pocketed the two roubles, and with a volley of curses took their departure. Although this adventure was scarcely fraught with any great danger to ourselves, our three European breech-loaders being more than a match for their two blunderbusses, it nevertheless proved how CH. n. View from Pass of Latp an. 105 useful in these countries a rifle can be, in case of necessity, to inspire awe ; and, later on, I was greatly interested to find it mentioned both by Eadde and Freshfield, in their respective works, that similar incidents were of daily occurrence in Swanetliia. Our guide, who had remained a passive spectator of the above episode, now conducted us in a very short time to the pass-level, when suddenly, without any transition, a panorama disclosed itself to our admiring gaze, such as I have never witnessed in the Alps, not- withstanding all my expeditions amongst the glaciers. Before us lay the entire snow and ice-bound range of the Caucasus — a gigantic wall some 140 miles in length, extending from the Tsebelda to the Terek — the peaks rising up like towers out of the chain, or like advanced bastions standing forth to protect it on the north and south. So enraptured were we with the grandeur of the whole scene, that at first we never thought of searching for the principal mountains, or of consulting our maps for that purpose. At last we recovered from the overwhelming impression which this magnificent view had produced upon our minds, and — the stomach asserted its claims ; we ate the rye-bread which we had just purchased, and finding it very palatable, our hearts softened towards the two evil-disposed Swanethians. We then ascended a projection lying eastward of the pass- level, wdiich afforded us a more extensive cowp-cVceil^ and then endeavoured, with the map for our guide, to make out the chief points in the surrounding landscape. The elevation above the level of the sea — calculated by our io6 Poti to Borsho77i. CH. n. aneroid barometers, whicli were, however, not entirely to be relied upon — amounted to 9,579 feet, and that of the pass level was less by about 300 feet. The eleva- tion of Ludschi being 3,914 feet, we must have ascended 5,665 feet. By means of our map and a compass we were able to determine the precise position of the dif- ferent districts before us. Free Swanethia, spread out like a relievo-map, lay below us ; on only one other oc- casion, from the Grunib Mountain in Daghestan, did I obtain an equally clear bird’s-eye view of a country lying beneath me. At a point where the valley com- mences, and where the sources of the Ingur, which rise amongst three mighty glaciers, unite, lies the com- munity of Uschkull. Although consisting of three groups (Murkmer, Tschubiani and Shiwiani), the in- habitants of which, according to Eadde, live in bitter feud with one another, it appeared, from the point where we stood, to be a connected complex, and tlie mighty towers, crowned by battlements, caused it to resemble a city, such as we find represented by the old Italian masters. The clearness and tranquillity of the atmosphere allowed us with the naked eye, at a dis- tance of more than five miles, to count the number of the battlements, and we could even hear the roar of the Ingur at the same distance ; only now and then for a short time a slight mid-day cloud enveloped the crest of a mountain. Below Uschkull the foot of the valley became narrower, and the villages lay concealed behind projecting declivities. A singular phenomenon in this region struck us forcibly. Whereas in the vicinity of cn. II. View from Pass of Latpari. 107 Uschkull, the fields, which were apparently in good cul- tivation, ran up the mountain slopes in regular lines for many hundred feet, the forest-growth attained a far lower level than in the valley of the Tzchenis-Tzchali, whilst the upper portion of the valley at an elevation of 5,665 feet was quite destitute of it. In the absence of any better solution, it may be concluded that the proximity of such enormous masses of glaciers must prove a hindrance to vegetation. Before us lay the principal chain in the Caucasus. The extreme crest to the westward was a lofty snow-moun- tain, rising in solitary grandeur from amidst a confusion of lower peaks, and which from its remote position (over ninety miles) must have been the solitmy mountain in the land of the Abkhasians, which Freshfield sighted from the pass between Abas-Tuman and Kutais, and describes as lying perfectly isolated from the other snow- mountains. The next division in a west-north-west direction consisted of a lofty mass of snow-clad moun- tains, jutting out in a southerly direction from the main chain, and separating the sources of the Nakra and the Nenskra, two tributaries of the Ingur, at the point where it projected southwards ; a ridge also branched off to the north, from the main chain, terminating with the Elburz, the monarch of the Caucasus, 18,526 feet high, called Minghi-tau by the Baksan Tartars who live in the neighbouring districts. The point has been frequently discussed whether the Elburz is visible or not from the Pass of Latpari ; for instance, in Kutais it was disputed. I am quite satisfied in my own mind io8 Poti to Borshom. CH. ir. that the mountain which we saw was the Elburz ; for the line of the horizon and the estimated distance (thirty- eight miles) tallied minutely with the map ; and the height of the mountain might, despite the distance, very easily be recognised from the circumstance that its snowy mantle occupied, in proportion, a greater sphere of elevation than that comprised by the highest of the remaining mountains. The difference of opinion ap- pears to me to arise from the fact that the spot on which we were standing is also denominated Latpari, as well as that portion of ground situated a little further to the eastward and leading straight to Uschkull, the direction taken by our Swanethians. The Elburz must undoubtedly be invisible from the latter point, owing to the eminence upon which we then stood. Close to this knot of mountains, the branches of which pro- jected north and south, rose up above the village of Betscho to the north-west, the Uschba mountain, also projecting southward from the main chain. Its jagged tower-shaped peak presents one of the wildest appari- tions known in the category of high mountains. East of Uschla, a high pass, on whicli even cattle are seen grazing, leads northward across the Thyber glacier. Then follows for fifteen or eighteen miles a rugged ridge some 12,000 to 13,000 feet high, without, however, possessing any very prominent peaks. It terminates with the Tetnuld, lying immediately in our front — the most beautiful of all the mountains in the Caucasus ; according to Eadde, it should be called Tötönal. In the form of a gigantic j)yramid it emerges from the CH. ir. Viezü from Pass of Latpari. 109 chain, ascending to a height of 16,000 feet, the dazzling’ whiteness of its snowy mantle together with its graceful shape producing an impression similar to that caused by the Jungfrau. To complete the comparison a conical peak, smaller, but equally beautiful, rises up close to it, like the Silberhorn in Switzerland. East of the Tetnuld rises the many-peaked ridge of the Schchara, called Nuamquam by the natives, concealing from sight the two mountains next in height to the Elburz, the Koschtan- tan, and the Dych-tau, which rise out of a short branch of the main chain, projecting northwards. The Dych-tau chain puts forth a multitude of peaks, which we, from our position, found it impossible to define, so close was the proximity of the one to the other. We noticed a mass of mountains with an infinity of branches, which possibly may have been the Adai-Choch group near the Mammisson Pass, whilst the mountains further in the background would be those at the source of the Ardon and of the Terek ; and the Kasbek, situated beyond the sources of the latter river, might also have been visible. A panorama such as this could easily bear compari- son with any which Alpine scenery could produce ; for although in Switzerland the elevation of the snow-line is greater, compensation is made in the Caucasus for this inequality by the prodigious altitude to which in- dividual peaks attain. Nor is there any lack of glaciers, for on the Swanethian range of the main chain, ex- tending over forty-two miles, we counted about ten of primary and twenty of secondary order ; whilst many others may have been concealed from view by projecting 1 IO Poti to BorsIio7n. CH. ir. mountains. Tlie Dadiascli, 10,550 feet in height, which has been ascended by Radde, offers a still more extensive view than the one of which we were specta- tors. It is to be regretted that that traveller, in liis work, which in general is most complete, has not given fuller details of this view during his journey through Swanethia. The two works also of Kadde and Freshheld supplement one another; the former writer treating the ethnographical and physical features, and conse- quently directing his attention principally to the val- leys, whilst the latter in his capacity of tourist and mountain-explorer, has supplied very valuable in- formation concerning the mountains and glacier dis- tricts of the country. The latter subject is of still more importance, as Eussian topographers, notwith- standing the general accuracy of their maps, have devoted but little attention to ice and snow regions. Nevertheless neither one of these two travellers has ever visited the Pass of Latpari, although both crossed the watershed between the Ingur and the Tzchens- Tzchali, traversing the Pass of Naksagar, which is situated higher up and is somewhat impracticable. With regard to the nomenclature which, with reference to these districts, will be found in their respective works, it should be mentioned that Eadde invariably retains names in local use, which differ, as a rule, from those employed by the general-staff map ; and this dif- ference is further increased by the numerous ways in which mountains are designated by surrounding tribes. The rule is that all mountain terminations in -tau, are €n. II. Rekirn to Lailaschi, 1 1 r of Tartar, those in -choch of Assetinian, and those in -mta of Kartalinian origin. Eadde has also cleared up an error occurring in most of the European maps, which contain, for instance, a high mountain pass between the Elburz and the Kasbek, designated mta ; in reality it only consists in an unimportant peak, not even covered with snow, the only merit of which is to be situated above the source of the Eion (Phasis, hence the name). Eadde is also quite correct in this respect with reference to names of tribes, which he always renders in the ori- ginal form. He writes, for instance. Swan, Imerian, IVIingrel ; whilst I, on the contrary, have adopted the usage of German-speaking Eussians, who saySwanethian, Imeretinian and Mingrelian. Having devoted three whole hours to the glorious view, we began to think of returning, when we were startled by an unexpected apparition. It was that of a Swanethian on horseback, approaching from the side by which w^e had come, and mounted, as w^e immediately perceived, on one of our European saddles. Our first impression was that the defenceless Ali had been de- spoiled of our baggage, and that the villagers were arriving to relieve us of what little remained about our persons. However, scarcely were our guns loaded than our anxiety vanished on recognising our Alingrelian, who, fearing lest we might complain to the district chief of his dilatory behaviour, had hunted up all the available horses in the neighbourhood, and come after us. As he stood before us his countenance assumed such an expression of humility, that we had not the I 12 Poti to Borshom. cn. ir. heart to scold him, especially after enjoying, as we had done, the glorious beauties of Nature. At four o’clock we mounted the horses, and rode down to Ludshi. The evening was mild and fine, and we soon forgot the trou- bles of the morning. At the foot of the mountain we encountered Ali, who liad passed the whole day in the direst apprehension of robbers. Fortunately he had secured a fowl and some beans, otherwise we should have gone hungry to bed. The return journey from Ludshi to Lailaschi pre- sented no novel features. We wished, if it could pos- sibly be effected, to reach the same day the house of the hospitable district chief, and consequently had to leave Ludshi before daybreak. By no other means could we have accomplished in one day a journey of forty-two miles over a road, not a quarter of v/hicli was level ground. Our horses had had rest and fodder on the previous day, and were refreshed, and the servants who were with them had been excited by the prospect of a good pouT-boire to speed and punctuality ; an in- ducement which wrought the desired effect, for by 5 A.M. the next morning every one was in marching' order. The distance to Lentechi was got over briskly in the cool of the morning, the only incident which occurred on the road being that of a Svv^anethian, tend- ing pigs in tlie forest, who, probably in the anticipation of a sultry day, had deemed it unnecessary to array himself in the smallest article of apparel. But his notions of propriety were, apparently, not in the least disturbed by this deficiency, for he greeted us with a CH. II. Rehtrn to Lailas chi. 113 friendly ^ good morning.’ Beyond Lenteclii, where we halted for a few hours, the heat became so oppressive that our horses, in spite of their willingness, could advance but slowly. Eesigning ourselves to our fate, we walked up the heights of Muri, whilst the pack- horses, panting and pausing every instant, followed at the slowest possible pace. Still we were obliged to make progress, if we wished to secure tolerable quarters that night for ourselves and our horses. When we had ascended the heights of Muri, and found ourselves opposite to the acclivity of Lailaschi, a storm was brewing in the sky, and we did not yield to the temp- tation at the passage of the Ladshanura, to quaff the good wine of the duchan, although our thirsty palates stood sorely in need of it. We also walked up the hill of Lailaschi, leaving the horses to climb up by themselves, or seek their own shelter for the night. We were hardly able to understand how a few days previously we could have performed the ascent in a few minutes, whilst now it seemed an eternity before we attained the summit. Hardly had we reached the village in spite of the dark- ness, and been welcomed by our kind host, when a storm burst forth, the like of which is unknown in Europe. The tempest and rain threatened to wash from its foundation the wooden building which contained us, and for hours together one flash of lightning was suc- ceeded by another. What must have been the fate of' a party of Gfrusinian ladies, who that very afternoon had passed us on the road, attired in the gayest of silk dresses, and attended by a large retinue of servants I. VOL. I. I 1 14 Poti to Bor shorn. cn. ir. Apart from the gaudy spectacle which tlieir gay costume presented in the green forest, we had been struck b}^ the sight of all these ladies mounted on horseback without exception like men, which is the custom in the East. I only fell in with one lady using a lady’s saddle. This was a princess Tschawtschawadze in Kachetia. Our host proved his knowledge of life by providing us in the first place with a good supper. It may doubtless seem very prosaic to be so constantly alluding to the wants of the body but, after the very scanty fare of the last three days the inner man asserted its rights. The following morning the rain continued to pour away steadily, and, our fresh horses not having yet arrived, we had full leisure to become acquainted with the monotonous nature of country life in the chief vil- lage of a district like Lailaschi. With the exception of the few officials previously mentioned, no sociable indi- vidual is met with from one year’s end to another, and this circumstance creates a feeling most depressing to all Europeans transferred to such places. Lailaschi was so far an exception to the rule that a Eussian, suffering from the chest, happened to be residing there for the air-cure. The climate is said to be very favour- able, as the elevated portion above the valley is a guarantee against fever, which does not ascend so high, whilst the altitude, amounting to 2,850 feet, is not suffi- ciently great to render the climate raw. The slender ■construction and interior economy of human dwellings in these parts are quite in accordance with the nature of the climate. The house of our amiable host was un- CH. ir. Lailaschi. 115 mistakably arranged in Eastern fashion — that is to say, with plenty of space and but little furniture, the most prominent European article being a small appa- ratus for manufacturing seltzer-water, which he had purclmsed in Grermany, and which, notwithstanding its fragility, he had succeeded in conveying without any mishap to Lailaschi. The rain having subsided in the afternoon, and our horses having one by one put in an appearance, we took leave of our host with expressions of sincere gratitude for the hospitality which we had enjoyed under his roof. I received, besides, as a souvenir, the horns of a wild goat, which had been recently shot, and the flesh of which we had eaten. It tasted like mutton, with a slight flavour of game, but was rather tough. The wild goat of the Caucasus, called Tur, is tolerably abundant in these districts, and at a day's journey from this, on the properties of the Dadian, a princely family, most successful battues take place. The shooting is so ar- ranged that the game is beaten towards a single outlet, consisting of a ravine amongst the rocks, where the guns are placed. Our host expressed his regret at not having been sooner made acquainted with our 'penchant for horns, as in that case he would have obtained a supply of them from the neighbouring villages. As we only contrived to make a start at 5 P.M., we were compelled to halt for the night at the Duchan of Twischi, the same which we had fruitlessly endeavoured to reach on the outward journey. The keeper of the duchan seemed to possess some faint conception of 1 1 6 Poti to Borshom. cn. n. European comfort, for in liis apartment there was a bench to sit down upon, and the walls were papered : luxuries which must be prized by the traveller in pro- portion to their rarity. The weather had entirely cleared up during the night, and our ride to Kutais would have been accomplished with ease had not the attendants again neglected to feed the horses. We could therefore scarcely wonder at their refusing to- wards the close of the journey to proceed at all, and we made our entry into Kutais at the most dismally funereal pace. Passing by, we noticed a very curious waterfall, which had carved out of the schistous rock a regular flight of stairs with rectangular steps. The latter numbered about twenty, were a foot in heiglit, and of equal dimensions, a circumstance which con- duces to the belief that they must have been the work of man’s hands. On arrival at Namochowanie, both ourselves and our horses were again brought into fearful conflict with the pigs of the neighbourhood. On reaching Kutais, we found the Hotel de France richer by two new arrivals. These were two English- men, who had come from Vladikawkas by the Mamis- son Pass, and who purposed starting from Kutais, making within the space of four weeks the tour to Teheran, by Tiflis, Erivan, and Tabreez ; thence to the Caspian Sea, by Eescht : a journey comprising a total of 475 miles to be performed posting, and 700 miles to be ridden on horseback. It appeared that two English- men had been staying at Kutais during our former visit ; but I was unable to ascertain the nature of their cn. II. Departii7x from KtUais. 117 travelling plans. Another traveller residing at the hotel was a professor of jurisprudence from Odessa, commissioned by the Government to collect law anti- quities amongst the different tribes. He seemed equally to be in a great hurry, for three days sufficed to study the law antiquities of the Abkhasians (with whose lan- guage he was unacquainted), and he intended to devote still less leisure to the Swanethians. Our time was chiefly employed during our second stay at Kutais in tlie very prosaic occupation of unpacking and repack- ing our goods and chattels in anticipation of the journey by mail-cart. As everything in a Eussian telega in- fallibly ends by being shaken to pieces, travellers are advised to be especially careful in packing up their baggage, if they are anxious to see any portion of it arrive safely. In our own experience, the contents of a box full of insect-powder has been known to penetrate into a tin containing extract of meat, although neither case had been previously opened ; the fine dust, in con- sequence of the jolting and shaking of the vehicle, having forced its way through the tight corks. On opening our trunks, which we had left behind at Kutais, and which were tightly fastened down, we were not very agreeably surprised to find them infested by a legion of cockroaches ; and in such multitudes had they arrived, that all our clothes and linen were covered by them, and out of each fold these not very pleasant- looking creatures emerged in masses. Finally, we were obliged to strew handfuls of insect-powder amongst all our things in order to get rid of these unwelcome ii8 Poti to Bo7'shom. cn. n. guests. Meanwhile our Caucasian dresses had been got ready, and we completed the costume by purchas- ing some arms. Having ordered two telegas for the next morning, we spent the evening in the company of our acquaintances. The conversation naturally turned upon our trip to Swanethia, and upon our future plans. The road, as far as Kwirila, the second station, situated on the river Kwirila, a tributary of the Eion, presented no very remarkable views. It conducts along the projecting mountains, which slope towards the Colchis plain, and every now and then one of the snow- crowned summits of the main chain belonging to the range, watered by the sources of the Eion, peeps through a break in the mountains. To the right lies the plain, which gradually becomes narrower, and be- hind it the range of mountains forming the Little Caucasus. Near the station of Kwirila the road joins the railway again. AYhen we passed by — the railway still terminated here — but a few weeks later on, the line was opened as far as Tiflis. In consequence of the important traffic, which necessarily accumulates here, both the railway station and post station possessed more spacious accommodation than would otherwise have been the case. In the former there was also a pretty good restaurant. We saw here for the first time the powerful double locomotive engines (Fairley’s system) emplo3md to ascend the steep gradients which occur in the Suram mountains ; but even these engines at the official trial only succeeded in drawing four CH. IT. The Pass of S2irain. 119 double-axled carriages over the gradients. The moun- tains of Gfreat and Little Caucasus closed up behind Kwirila. Here begins the range of mountains, which branching off in a southward direction at the source of the Eion, runs towards Achaltzick, and separates the basins of the Black and Caspian Seas. The road leaves the valley of the Kwirila and enters the valley of the Tschcherimela, a small tributary river. I confess that the scenery of the Suram Pass, the ascent of which com- mences at this point, somewhat disappointed me. It is so romantically described in the pages of Murray’s ‘ Kussia,’ that I expected to find something finer and grander still than the splendid valleys of the Eion and of the Tzchenis-Tzchali. Instead of this I merely per- ceived some scantily wooded valleys ; and as regards the lofty castles which, according to Murray, crown the heights on every side, I only noticed here and there a crumbling old ruin. I should, however, add, in pallia- tion of the above statement, that the heat was intolera- ble, and that it became a very difficult task for us, seated in our wretched telega, to dispel the discomfort of bruised bones by the indulgence of romantic illu- sions. The railway frequently runs along the side of the road. An engine which had come off the rails, had considerately selected a spot on the opposite line. There it lay capsized, and apparently enjoying repose after the fatigue of ascending such unheard-of gra- dients. At Ejelogorie, the second station past Kwirila, situated below the old castle of Tschcheristziche, we were brought to a halt, owing to the postmaster having 120 Poti to Borshom. cn. II. no more horses. After examining the stables, and closely investigating' the station-book, we are bound to testify for once that he had not told a lie (rare occur- rence !). It being still pretty early in the day, and as we were amongst the ürst arrivals, we obtained at least a tolerably good room wherein to pass the night ; but many of those who came in later must have fared very badly in respect of accommodation. Bjelogorie and the adjoining district are the seat of what apparently is a very ancient industry. Jugs, curiously shaped and prettily decorated, specimens of which we had already seen at Kutais, are manufactured here. No supply was to be found at the one solitary shop in the village, and much to our regret, we were unable to obtain a souvenir of an art-industry which dates possibly from a Byzantine era. The station gradually became full with a crowd of travellers, all anxious to catch the steamer for Odessa, which was to start in two days’ time. It was highly amusing to witness the several grades of resignation which the different arrivals displayed on being refused fresh horses. The post-master did not permit the cares of office to lie heavily on his shoulders, for he disap- peared altogether, leaving the passengers to the mercies of a waiter, speaking Oerman. A splendid evening com- pensated for a hot day. The mountains, which before looked barren and desolate, appeared to become reani- mated, and when twilight set in even the old castle above our heads had assumed greater dimensions, until its small crumbling ruins became transformed into a mighty chateau. The beds, as in most post-stations, cir. n. Bjelogorie, Cai^ts and Btiffaloes. I2I consisted of wooden frames, wliicli, in order to replace pillows, rise up at one end in a conical shape. Of course, for a night’s rest our travelling-beds were in- finitely superior. On waking up the following morning we received the first unwelcome news during our journey. We learned that our travelling-companion Von Wurmb was taken ill with fever. This incident compelled us to hurry on as speedily as possible to Borshom, where we hoped to find better quarters as well as medical advice. From Bjelogorie the road, winding up steep curves, ascends along the valley of the Tschcherimela, which here takes the name of Moliti. The railway however despises even these zig-zags, and climbs up the moun- tain over gradients positively incredible. This circum- stance, together with a talus in the loose vein of 60°, not walled up, prove conclusively that the contractor’s object was merely to run up a line, without construct- ing it for practical purposes. The forests, mostly containing beeches and very little undergrowth, ap- proached the road on each side ; they appeared burnt up by the sun, and could not be compared with those which we had seen before. The road was well con- structed, in good repair, and much frequented. Groods were being transported on long lines of ‘ arbas,’ high carts, with gigantic wheels cut out of boards without spokes, and drawn along by buffaloes. The buffalo is an indispensable animal in mountainous districts for the transport of heavy merchandise. Two of them will draw a load which would often prove too great a 122 Poti to Bo7'sJiom. cn. n. burthen for eight horses ; and the passion of the animal for drawing weights is so remarkable, that, wheD, nothing else will suffice, it will frequently go down on its knees to utilise to the utmost the drawing- capabilities of its uncouth frame. The buffalo is nevertheless a mild good-tempered beast, and quite harmless. Apart from its slow pace, it possesses but two defects, both of which are fully redeemed by its drawing-powers. Firstly, it is very sensitive to cold, and cannot, consequently, be employed during the entire year ; and secondly, it has a great passion for the water. If on a hot day it spies out an accessible pool, it immediately wades in, dragging its burthen along with it, and no human being can induce the animal to stir out again until it is completely satiated with the bathe. The buffaloes here are remarkably large and powerful when compared with others which I saw later on, and I only recollect noticing at Bagdad similar gigantic brutes. Having started early in the morning, we found no lack of horses at the post stations of Moliti and Ponia, and at 10 a.m. we had already reached the summit of the Pass (3627 feet), which forms the boundary be- tween the countries of Imeretia and Grrusia (Greorgia) and the governments of Kutais and Tiflis. In front of ns lay the broad sun-burnt valley of the Kura, sur- rounded by mountains of rather uniform shape, and to the left might be seen some of the snowy crests of the main chain of the Ossetes, out of whicli country the Ardon flows northward, and the Ljachwa southward. CH. II. Su7^am. Borshom. 123 Altliougli the valley of the Kuralies is here at a rather high elevation, the extreme altitude of the slope does not exceed one thousand feet, but the acclivity itself was so abrupt that even the railway made a wide bend to the southward. Suram is situated at the foot of the pass. It is a small spot, above which towers a castle erected on an isolated rock. It appears from a legend of the place that, in order to render the castle impreg- nable, the only son of a widow was immured here, and the Gri'usinian ballads still preserve the touching fare- well scene whicli took place between the mother and the son. Hardly had we reached the station of Tschaly, situated a few versts beyond Suram, a point where the roads to Tiflis, Kutais and Borshom-Achaltzich cross one another, when the heat again commenced to be so oppressive that we became seriously anxious about con- tinuing our journey with our fever-stricken comrade. To halt was out of the question, and, after a short rest, we resumed our route to Borshom, the drive being rendered doubly uncomfortable by the bad condition of the road and by the miserable telega in which we travelled. The valley of the Kura narrowed a second time some flve miles beyond Tschaly, and woods again ap- proached on each side to the very edge, leaving just room for the roaring Kura and the road. The nature of the landscape was however completely changed. The beech-tree had been supplanted by the pine, which had now become the exclusive tree of the forest; and, were we not reminded of the East by the many 124 Poti to Borshom. CH. II. arbas, drawn along by teams of buffaloes, and driven by wild-looking Grrusinians, we might haye fancied ourselves transferred to the Black Forest. Although the scenery grew more beautiful in proportion as we advanced, we nevertheless rejoiced to think that a distance of only a few miles separated us from Bor- shom ; for apart from the illness of our companion,’ the two days’ journey in a telega were more than suffi- cient to dull all sense of appreciation, even in the most ardent admirer of the beauties of nature. We reached Borshom in tlie course of the afternoon ; and found at the Crown-house good accommodation, and the pros- pect of medical attendance. Borshom is situated on the right bank of the Kura at a point where two romantic side valleys — only some hundred paces distant from one another — the valley of the Tschawi-Tzchali (in Eussian Tschornaja Eetschka) and the valley of the Borshomka, the latter of which commences its existence at the junction of the Gud- sharetis-Tzchali and the Bakuriani-Tzchali, enter the main valley. The original and least important portion of the place is situated close to the Kura, whilst the quarter which contains the villas, the Crown-house and Kur-house lies in the narrow ravine of the Tschornaja- Eetschka, wdiich at one spot widens in the form of a kettle. Borshom owes its rise principally to the medicinal springs, which, next to those of Pjatigorsk on the northern border of the Caucasus exercise the chief attraction to those amongst the Caucasian public, who delight in watering-places. Another scarcely less en. II. Borshom. 125 important element is the healthy condition of the climate, which in summer is free from fever ; and, owing to the altitude of 2630 feet, the heat is less oppressive here than at the barren sun-scorched Tiflis. But the great charm is the beauty of the surrounding' scenery. The valley of the Kura, as well as the two deeply immerged side valleys which, at a distance of a few hundred paces, run parallel with another for nearly five miles, and also the narrow rocky plateau between them, on which the so-called Worontzoff Park is situated, affords an inexhaustible supply of most en- chanting walks ! Eavines half concealed by pine trees,, plashing brooks, and new vistas starting up ever and anon at every turn of the path, abound in this spot ; and the eye now ranges over lofty mountains crowned with rocks, now wanders along peaceful meadows in the wood, or gazes at the ruins of some ancient monastery. This country must have experienced better times, for whether in the depths of the forest or in the most obscure Grrusinian village, the traveller is constantly stumbling upon churches and chapels, the wonderful architecture of which points to a great period of art. Another event within late years has greatly contri- buted to the prosperity of Borshom. The Gfrand Duke Michael, brother to the Emperor, and successor to Prince Bariatinski in the governorship of the Cau- casus, has made this town his summer residence. It would have been hardly possible to make a more favourable selection. The situation between Tiflis and 126 Poti to Bo7^shom. CH. ir. the Black Sea, either of which points may be reached in a few hours by rail, the splendid environs and the abundance of game — the Grand Duke is a keen sports- man — must have made Borshom appear pre-eminently adapted for summer quarters. The chateau, or rather the villa, of the Grand Duke is situated on the opposite side of the town on the left bank of the Kura, which is crossed over by a bridge with stone arches. It is con- structed in the style of an agreeable country mansion, and is surrounded by grounds which are being laid out as a park, but these latter works are not as yet far advanced. Almost immediately in the background lofty crags rise into the air, and upon them, both in the morning and evening, herds of chamois may be recognised from the valley. The Grand Duke and his family spend the entire summer and early autumn months here, and every traveller will carry away a grateful recollection of the hospitality vouchsafed to him in this house. Borshom, as already stated, consists of two parts ; the original quarter, containing a few unimportant shops and some small one-storied houses, and the quarter where the villas are situated. There being no hotel, and as the Crown-house only possesses accommo- dation for passing travellers and not for regular visitors, each family is obliged to rent a villa in advance out of the thirty or forty which exist. A small but elegant Kimhouse, comprising reading-room, restaurant, and a pastry-cook’s shop, and provided with a special band of music, lends an impetus to social enjoyment. The «1 ^ €H. II. Bor shorn. Ruins of a Monastery. 127 bathing establishment, a model of comfort and cleanli- ness, lies next to the Knr-honse, and immediately behind it is the ravine of the Tschornaja Eetschka, a far more engaging spot for a ‘ constitutional ’ than can be met with in any German watering-place. The military suite of the Grand Duke are lodged in the Crown-house, a long one- storied building. Vacant rooms are reserved for travellers, and here we found not only good accommodation for ourselves, but com- fortable attendance for our invalid companion. The French couple, who had charge of the house, laid aside all political considerations, and bestowed upon him the greatest possible care and attention. We were in- formed to our regret, by the doctor, a German, that the state of health in which he had been thrown by the fever would not admit of his taking part in our excursion to Armenia ; and we therefore determined to undertake the trip by ourselves, leaving our com- panion to take a thorough rest in Borshom, and then to travel direct to Tiflis via Gori, and rejoin us there. The days which we spent in Borshom were golden times for Ali. He led a life of perfect idleness, de- vouring at our expense all the butter and sugar in the larder ; we must, however, say to his honour that we never caught him again indulging in similar excesses. A charming little excursion which we made in com- pany with some of the Grand Duke’s suite deserves description. In the cool of the morning we ascended on horseback the valley of the Borshomka, passing by 128 Poti to Borshom. CH. II. the little village of Daha, which contains interesting- ruins of a church, and rode on as far as Timothisuhani, a monastery about ten miles distant from Borshom. We noticed on the road some monks’ cells situated in the inaccessible, perpendicular walls of the rock, and which could only be reached by a rope ladder ; this circumstance proves that fine scenery must in olden times have exercised over anchorites a great power of attraction, although to modern ideas their method of enjoying nature may appear remark- able. Timothis-iibani (so, at least, I fancy it was pro- nounced ; in the map it was written Timothis-umani), is situated in the midst of an extensive forest of fruit trees, which after many centuries’ neglect have grown wild, and, having assumed the appearance of forest- trees, have attained a size quite unknown to Europeans. Kemnants of walls are all that at present exist of the monastery, but the church is in good repair. It is built of tiles with a stone roof, a feature which I never met with again, and the drum of the conically- shaped dome is decorated with variegated glazed tiles, to all appearance a token of Persian influence. The interior contains some well-preserved Byzantine fres- coes. After a long interruption divine service is again celebrated within these walls. This is owing to a circumstance of almost legendary character. Some time ago a Russian soldier, having accomplished eigh- teen years of service, returned to his native land. He found on his arrival none of his family and none of his acquaintances, and so great was the feeling of loneli- CH. n. Daba. Ruins of a Monastery. 129 ness and desolation Avhicli overcame him, that he resolved to wander about the world until he should discover a spot, wliere as an hermit he might end his days. After having’ performed pilgrimages to Solow- jetzk in the White Sea, to Troitsa, near Moscow, and to the Monastery of Petscherski near Kief, the three most holy shrines in Eussia, he wended his way south- ward, and found at Timothis-ubani the spot for which he was seeking. To him is due the merit of having placed the church in repair, and of carefully watching over it, a task in which he is supported by the govern- ment. The impression which this modern hermit produced upon me was that of a pleasant, decent sort of a fellow. In the country round about he already stands in the odour of sanctity ; and should accordingly be forgiven, if he has nailed the modern pictures of saints over the venerable Byzantine frescoes, and con- tinues to read mass, clothed in a soldiers grey mantle. We had a charming surprise on the way back. From Daba, instead of riding through the valley over the same road by which we came, we ascended the mountain to our left, and suddenly found ourselves in a dense copse opposite a second ruin. It was a little chapel, over which a rock projected, and which was so hidden away in the recess of the forest as to be only visible to those who were close to it. It is built of light-coloured stone, and especially on account of the ornamentation of the walls, is, in an architectural point of view, a perfect little jewel. The rock situated by its side, from which flows a limpid spring, and the VOL. I. Iv 130 Poti to Borshoni. cn. n. verdure wliicli surrounds it in every direction, impart to the picture so mysterious and lovely an aspect that I would urge any travellers, who might find the ride to Timothis-ubani too much for them, to make at all events this excursion, which can be done on foot. It is to be regretted that no photographs of these exqui- site specimens of architecture can be purchased. It is true that Prince Troubetzkoi, on behalf of the govern- ment, caused photographs to be made of the finest examples of Grrusinian ecclesiastical architecture, which were arranged with great taste in a valuable album. But a limited number of copies had been taken owing probably to the want of demand for them ; and I could not ascertain where the plates were to be found. From the chapel the road led across a plateau between two small rivers ; and finally through the ravine of the Tschornaja Eetschka back to Borshom. I should here mention that, contrary to the map, which I followed as a guide, it is the southern stream which at Borshom is called Tschornaja Eetschka. We were invited by the Grand Duke to a battue, which was to take place on one of the following days. In order to be at the appointed spot by daybreak, we started at 4 a.m., and rode up a steep hill, situated be- yond Borshom on the left bank of the Kura. I was mounted on a Kabardan gelding out of the Grand Duke’s stables, which at first sight I should have mistaken for a Mecklenburgh half-bred. Notwithstanding its size and apparently heavy frame, it clambered up the steep and stony path with astonishing cleverness. Natives CH. ir. Shooting Excursion. Caucastts. 131 of the Caucasus attach great importance to a good ambling gait, called in Eussian, ‘ projezd,’ and, as a matter of fact, the horses themselves prefer this pace, both speedy and comfortable to the rider, and display great powers of endurance under it. The amble-trot, although graceful to witness, bears the rider along with such rapidity, that for instance, when returning through the valley, we had to break off into a sharp canter in order to keep up with the grey amble-trotting stallion ridden by the Grand Duke. On reaching the crest of the hill, we obtained a fine view of mountain and forest dis- trict, in which, however, a fire had lately made great havock. Large tracts looked brown and desolate. The first battue brought out two stags, one of which was shot, and several roe-deer. The second was more productive in game, but the steep and rocky ground presented such insuperable difficulties to the beaters that only one roebuck passed within range, whilst many chamois and stags escaped. I had no opportunity myself of firing a shot, none but hinds coming my way. Very erro- neous views are circulated, especially in Eussia, about sport in the Caucasus. The following is a brief sum- mary of the information which I obtained on this subject from the Grand Duke Michael, the first sports- man of the country, from Professor Eadde of Tiflis, the first zoologist, and from other reliable sources. The Caucasus contains, with the exception of the lion, every species of game known to exist in Europe and Western Asia. The tiger, which is pretty fre- quently met with in the Persian provinces of Mäzen- 132 Poti to Bo7^shom, cn.. n» deraim and Grilän, formerly made incursions into Daghes- tan and Kachetia. At present it is only to be met with at Lenkoran on the Caspian Sea, where several of these animals are yearly destroyed ; but even there, as the chief of the district assured us, fine specimens are ex- tremely rare, and he himself during the last four years had been unable to obtain a really good skin. Those primeval forests, which harbour the tiger, form also the retreat of a more inoffensive creature, the hedgehog. Single leopards are met with at Lenkoran, in the Karabagh, and even in Kachetia. A specimen has been seen at Tzarskie-Kalotzy, not many years ago, at a battue. Hyenas are occasionally found, and some are even shot near Tiflis. I could not obtain any informa- tion respecting the lynx and the wild-cat ; but these animals can scarcely be missing here. Bruin is at home throughout the whole country, but the species in the Caucasus is smaller than that which inhabits Eussia, and the fur is always of a bad colour, generally grey or yellowish. Bears seem to be here as little dreaded by the people as in North Eussia ; but they must fre- quently prove dangerous guests to the herds in the mountains. Wolves are also to be found, but I did not learn whether, as in Eussia, they keep together in packs during the winter. In Armenia a large wolf once crossed the road about ten paces in front of me. I happened to be without my gun, but the animal did not take the slightest notice of my presence. Foxes and jackals are abundant ; the latter are a nuisance on account of their nightly bowlings, but in other respects CH. II. Sport in the Caucasus. 133 they are quite harmless. The wild boar is found chiefly in slopes above rivers, and, not being molested by the Mahometan inhabitants, often attains an amazing size. In the museum at Tiflis may be seen a .specimen weighing 21 pud (757*68 lbs.) Every year the Grand Duke holds most successful boar-hunts in the so- called Karajaz steppe, not far from Tiflis; and these animals are said to be very plentiful along the Arax in the neighbourhood of the Ararat. The Caucasus still harbours in remote and almost uninhabited moun- tain-valleys, at the sources of the Kouban near the Elburz, a rare species of game, the ure-ox (Bos taurus ferus), of which the Tiflis Museum possesses a very fine specimen. Its existence has only in latter times been traced with certainty. The game most characteristic of the Caucasus is the wild goat. It is to be met with over the entire range of the main chain, and appears still to abound in great numbers ; although, according to Kadde, the powerful horns, which were formerly given as votive offerings, and which may be seen in old ►Swanethian churches, have ceased to exist. This ani- mal is called tur (Capra caucasica), and is allied to the Alpine wild goat, though not identical with it. The horns are shorter, of diagonal shape, but differently formed, being, in proportion, stronger at the root, and pointing more obliquely towards the side than is the case with the Alpine relative, now apparently extinct. The mountaineers stalk them, or shoot them in battues, and the tur-shooting on Prince Dadian’s property in the Letschgum district enjoys a great reputation. The game Poti to Borshom. cn. II. 134 there is driven into a ravine between the rocks, upon which the guns are placed, and must necessarily pass with- in shot, whicli naturally leads to good sport. The wild she- goat (Capra oegagrus), called by the Eussians, beard-goat, ‘ Baradatyj Kazjol,’ which roams about Little Caucasus, especially near Borshom, is totally different from the tur. The horns of the he-goat stand erect, as in the case of the European wild goat, and attain the same size, but the diagonal shape is narrower. Specimens are met with in the G-rand Ducal grounds. This species of game, which is regarded by zoologists as the 13rogenitor of our domestic goat, has become rather scarce, and is strictly preserved in the neighbourhood of Borshom. Eadde supposes that the European wild goat is also to be met with in Daghestan, but he has not, as yet, succeeded in coming upon any specimens. I do not know whether chamois exist in Great Caucasus ; in Little Caucasus, where they formerly were so plen- tiful that a small party of officers killed twenty in one day, at Bjelyj-Klutsch, not far from Tiflis, they have lately decreased in number, and the Grand Duke has them preserved with the greatest possible care. Wild sheep are said to be found on the mountain range along the Persian frontier, which is not improbable, as they abound in the Persian mountains close by. Stags and roe-deer are met with over the entire country. The former often attain a great size, for a pair of horns with sixteen antlers, which I bought at the Tiflis bazaar for two or three roubles, and the original possessor of which could only have been shot a few cn. II. Sport in the Cmccastis. 135 years ago, weighed nearly 24 lbs. I frequently fell in with roe-deer ; on the Ararat I saw a herd scampering up the rocks like chamois. Finally the hare, the humblest amongst sporting quadrupeds, is unquestionably a native of the steppes, but the enor- mous mass of birds of prey which inhabit those regions materially tend to its destruction. I never saw roast hare in the Caucasus. In turning to the subject of wild-fowl, our attention is first called to the pheasant — the bird which owes its name to the Eiver Phasis (Eion). It has ceased to be plentiful in the neighbourhood of its Colchis home, but is found in great numbers near the Kouban and the Terek. I only on one occasion saw pheasants in Kachetia. I obtained no information about the cock- of-the-wood (Tetrao urogallus), and the heath-cock (Tetrao tetrix), but I noticed their foot-prints in Armenia. Partridges and quails are abundant, and I observed on the Ararat great numbers of the red-legged partridge. Woodcocks must be numerous at the sea- son of migration, as the Caucasus is the only outlet between the Black Sea and the Caspian, and I actually saw on the slopes above the Arax, at the foot of the Ararat, twenty-two woodcock and snipe fall to one gun within two hours. The Caucasus harbours incalculable quantities of birds of prey, from the royal eagle and the vulture down to the tiniest falcon. In driving through the steppe, the traveller is certain to see one of these birds perched upon each verst-post, and not in the least disturbed by the telega rushing by. I met the 136 Poti to Borsho^n. cn. n. greatest number on the high plain of Achalkalaki, and I must ask not to be n.ccused of exaggeration, when I say that we literally passed through a row of eagles. But, notwithstanding the extensive supply of game, travellers can only count on large bags by devoting whole days together to the pursuit of sport. I should, however, mention that I know two Grermans, one of whom shot a tiger at Lenkoran, and the other a wild- goat in Daghestan. On the final day of my stay at Borshom I was made unpleasantly acquainted with the Caucasian fever. After walking in the Worontzow Park, I was suddenly seized with so extraordinary a sensation of faintness that I felt compelled to lie down. Violent pains in all my limbs, especially in the knees, ensued, and I lost all perception of heat or cold. Towards the evening I felt somewhat better, but at the Grand Duke’s dinner, I was forced to play the uncomfortable part of spectator, it being almost impossible for me to swallow a morsel. The doctor recommended imme- diate change of air, and this advice fitted in with our plans, for our departure was already arranged for the next morning. We, however, delayed till noon, before making a start, on account of the Grand Duke, who was travelling over the same route, via Achaltzich, on a tour of inspection ; for before that hour we should have been unable to procure horses, the road being little frequented, and provided with few relays. Our com- panion, already convalescent, remained behind at Bor- shom, where he was receiving every care and attention. CH. III. Atzchur. CHAPTER HL BORSHOM TO TIFLIS. Atzcliur — Achaltzich — Chertwiss — Wardzia — Diicbobortz Tribe — Acbalkalald — Country of Diicbobortz Tribe — Scbiscbtapa — Cossacks on tbe Frontier — Alexandrapol — Tbe Alagöz — Drive to Ani — Ruins of Ani — Drive back — Road to Erivan — Mas- tara — Talyn — Village Arcbitecture — Sardarabad — Etscbmi- adzin — See of tbe Patriarcb — Situation of tbe Monastery — Cathedral — Stay at tbe Monastery — Erivan — Mosque and Fort — View of tbe Ararat — Excursion to tbe Ararat — Monas- tery of Cborwirab — Aralycb — Tbe Ararat — Agburri — Gorge of Agburri — Tbe Kipgol — Kurds — Aralycb — Return to Erivan — Daratscbitscbacb — Tbe Malakans — Lake Goktscba — Valley of Akstafa — Tbe Kura Steppe — Tbe Red Bridge — Karajaz — Arrival at Tiflis. The weather was dull and rainy when we entered Bor- shom about noon on the 6th of September. I still felt rather exhausted after the attack of fever on the pre- ceding day, and the dreadful jolting of the telega did not improve matters. The road ascended the Valley of the Kura to Atzchur, the second station. The scenery which, hitherto, had afforded a succession of beautiful views, extending over mountains crowned with forests, and side valleys luxuriant in vegetation, suddenly as- sumed a new aspect. All woodland ceased as if severed ; the rugged forms of mountains became rounded off ; the valley grew broader, and the surrounding heights Bor shorn to Tiflis, CH. iir. 138 displayed traces of plateau formation. At this point commences the great high plain of Armenia, aithougli, politically speaking, the adjacent tracts of land never yet belonged to Armenia. In the middle ages Grusi- nians, and other tribes of Kartalinian origin dwelt here, as the names of places (Achaltzich, new fortress ; Achalkalaki, new town) remain to testify. At a later period these districts came under Turkish rule, and were not ceded to Eussia until the peace of Adrianople. The population has adopted almost exclusively the Turkish habits and customs, and has embraced Islamism. The turban, almost universally worn by the people, is an external proof of the former dominion of the Osmanlis, for the Mahometan tribes of East Turkish (Tartar) origin, invariably wear a conical hat. Moreover, the national dress here is not the Persian coat, but the Turkish jacket. Atzchur possesses two very important buildings ; a mighty castle, situated upon a rock imme- diately above the Kura, and the crumbling ruins of a beautiful church with an exquisitely ornamented fapade. Here our troubles with postmasters commenced. At the first station a friendly word combined with a sub- stantial jpour-hoire immediately sufficed to procure us liorses ; but here the postmaster ominously shook his head, observing that horses which had taken the Grand Duke to Achaltzich could not be expected to go out again the same day. A display of firmness was re- quisite on our part in order to remove this prejudice ; still we did not succeed in getting away until half-past four. Achaltzich is only a journey of about thirteen .CH. III. Achaltzich. 139 miles, a distance, as a rule, easily accomplished in an hour and a half. But heavy rains had fallen lately, for the horses frequently experienced real difficulty in drag- ging the light telega through the deep clay soil. Thus, instead of entering Achaltzich in the afternoon, as we anticipated, we only arrived there during the night. We were received in the most charming manner by the family of Prince Katieff (in Grusinian, Eatieschwilli) the chief of the district, the prince himself, who was in attendance on the Grand Duke, being absent. The niece of the prince, the only lady acquainted with the Eussian language, did the honours. I confess that I never again saw so perfect an ideal of the beautiful Circassian type, set off by a noble and natural grace of manner. Our reception, too, was really quite brilliant, owing to preparations for illuminating the house, which had been made in anticipation of the Grand Duke passing the night there. The latter had, however, con- tinued his journey without stopping, to Achalkalaki, and the honour of a grand illumination was bestowed upon us. A relapse of fever, which had made its ap- pearance on the road, entirely prevented me from duly appreciating the exceedingly kind reception afforded to us, and I was soon compelled to ask permission to re- tire to my room. The town of Achaltzich, situated upon a rocky ter- rain above the Potzchowtschai, a tributary of the Kura, presents an aspect more imposing than beautiful. The surrounding mountains are barren, and by no means picturesque ; whilst the yellow clay soil imparts to the 140 Bor shorn to Tiflis, CH. in. landscape a most desolate appearance. I was told, how- ever, that Achaltzich is famous for its fruit. In the town there is nothing to be seen, if I recollect rightly, except a castle and a few churches or mosques. The place seemed to me to be in a state of sad decadence, but this impression may have resulted from my feverish condition. The environs are rich in remarkable sights. Situated at a distance of about four miles to the south- east of the town are two monasteries, Safara and Zarm- za, both famed for their architecture. The former is in a good state of preservation, but the latter is in ruins. Amongst the mountains to the north-west, and connected by road with Achaltzich, lies concealed in the most lovely recess of the forest, a watering-place called Abas-Tuman, also much frequented. Its lofty eleva- tion (4,300 feet) renders it during the hot summer months a still more agreeable residence than Borshom. From here a celebrated pass (7,300 feet) leads north- wards over the mountain chain into the valley of the Eion, and thence further on to Kutais. The view of the main chain from the watershed (although seventy miles distant), is from its grandeur considered to be most wonderful. But being desirous on account of our companion not to prolong too much our excursion in Armenia, and as, moreover, we had a large supply of monasteries and churches in store for us during the next few days, we decided to forego the pleasure of visiting any of the places above mentioned, and the following morning we resumed our journey. The ladies were unfortunately not yet visible ; so we begged Prince CH. ni. Achaltzich. 141 Eatieff s assistant, a native of Berlin, wlio had, however, forgotten every syllable of his native tongue, and a nephew of the house. Prince Tscholochaiew, to be the channel of our best thanks. The journey was not at all enjoyable, for the road, instead of continuing along the valley, diverged in a straight line over the moun- tains east of the town. Nothing was gained thereby, for the time which, owing to the bends in the river, might have been lost in proceeding along the valley, was wasted here in ascending constant zigzags, whilst the deep slippery clay soil made it extremely difficult for the horses to drag us along. After again descending into the valley and crossing over the Kura by means of a bridge, certainly not destined to last for ever, en- gineering eccentricities again awaited us, but this time on a grander scale ; for to gain about two miles of straight course, the poor horses were compelled to drag us up some 1,545 feet. The road again reached the valley near to an old ruined watch-tower, and at last continued along it. On the opposite side of the Kura we saw perched on a rock two gigantic eagles, as white as snow. It took us four hours to get over the sixteen miles before arriving at Idumala, the first station, situ- ated below the castle of Aspinza, and the reception which we there encountered was not one calculated to afford either comfort or consolation after the tedious drive. The postmaster was — in consequence, I presume, of a Grrancl Ducal received the preceding day — in a state of hopeless intoxication, and his Yamtchiks had improved the occasion by disappearing altogether. 142 Borshoni to Tiflis. CH. iir. It reo^iired considerable energy and much strong lan- guage to obtain even one telega. Ali foi'tunately found a Duell ob ortz with a waggon, which served to convey him and the baggage. Scarcely had we proceeded two and a half miles along the road, when the telega, catching against a stone which lay in the way, suddenly collapsed, all its component parts giving way at the same time. In the twinkling of an eye we found our- selves and our baggage scattered far and wide ; fortu- nately, however, no one was hurt. Ali soon overhauled 11s, and managed to make room in his waggon ; and in this manner we resumed our journey, resembling very much a party going to a fair, whilst the Yamtchik em- ployed his time in gathering together the different por- tions of the telega. To me the inconvenience of this tragi-comic expedition was materially enhanced by a violent attack of dysentery, an almost inevitable result of fever. The mountain sides, enclosing the valley, became steeper beyond Idumala, and we frequently noticed those peculiar hermit cells, which had attracted our attention on the way to Timothis-ubani. The multi- tude of these cavernous abodes almost suggests the im- pression that they must be remains belonging to a pre- historic period, when men inhabited recesses in the rocks, only accessible by ropes, in the same manner as certain Papuan tribes in New Guinea live now-a-days in the tops of high trees. At all events it seems in- credible that so great a number of anachorites should have selected for their retreat this particular valley, CH. HI, Chertwiss. 143 which does not abound in fine scenery. A charming' oasis lies near the point where the Achalkalaki-tschai discharges its waters into the Kura. It is called Chert- wiss and is famous for the grand ruins of a castle, as well as the highly cultivated gardens, luxuriant with verdure, which surrounded it. We had still about an hour’s drive from this spot to Kakolachewi, our night quarters. I had heard it mentioned by an experienced traveller in the East, that riding on horseback is a good remedy for dysentery ; so I resolved to test for myself the efficacy of this cure, which sounds rather incredible. My determination also suited our plans, especially as the fine, mild afternoon seemed expressly adapted for an excursion to the far-famed monastery of Wardzia, situated on the rocks at a distance of about five or six miles from Nakolachewi. As there were no other horses to be obtained, we hired from a Duchobortz two young cart-horses, and, as a matter of lact, my sufferings vanished after being a few minutes in the saddle. Our intention was only to take one guide with us ; but al- most before we were aware of it, we found ourselves escorted by some half-dozen armed Tartars mnunted on small sinewy Turkish horses. These fellows gave as a pretext for wishing to accompany us the great insecurity of the country, owing to plundering Kurds, but in reality they simply hoped to obtain a pour-hoire. They were, however, extremely polite and obliging, and appeared to enjoy themselves beyond measure. We soon reached a point in the valley, where the river is hemmed in between two projecting rocks over 500 feet 144 Bor shorn to Tiflis, cn. irr; in height, on one of which is situated an old castle ; here the path was not more than a foot wide. Half way up the rocky walls commenced a track, the like of which — ^with one exception on the Persian frontier — ^ we never again witnessed. The nimble Tartar horses, often ascending and descending a yard at a time, clambered without any hesitation over masses of uneven rocks scattered pellmell here and there, and our well- fed cart-horses, which had probably before never had a saddle on their backs followed boldly in the rear. This induced me to come to the conclusion that stable com- forts are the cause of our horses being so shy and awk- ward ; for throughout the East, horses — very superior thoroughbreds excepted — rarely liave the opportunity afforded them of a stable, yet they never hesitate, if they see before them the slightest possibility of suc- ceeding, to try at least to accomplish whatever tasks may be required of them. In paths such as these the animal first carefully tests the stability of each stone with the forefoot, and in steep descents will, often and intentionally, poise itself firmly on its hind-quarters, whilst it feels in front with its fore-legs for a secure stepping-place. Two instances have especially im- pressed upon my memory the sureness and sagacity of Oriental horses. On one occasion one of our pack- horses fell over a steep incline, rendered slippery by the rain, with two pack-baskets on its back containing a load weighing over three cwts. It was impossible to get down to its assistance, the slope, which was fifty feet in depth, seeming well nigh impracticable, and we cm iir. TV ai^dzia. 145 waited up above on the path to see what the horse would do. After having recovered from its fall, the animal closely examined the incline, and then without any hesitation selected for itself a zigzag course, fre- quently testing the ground in front with its forefeet, and it finally climbed up to us. On the other occasion (in Persia) we had arrived at a moat, which intersected the paths, and seemed too wide to jump over. Whilst we were looking about in search of another route, up came the leading pack-horse. This animal, a grey, was very proud of its position, and would never tolerate any one of the other pack-horses to pass in front. As soon as it approached the moat, it measured the distance with its eye, and retreated some twenty paces. It then took a short run, and cleared the moat at a bound, in spite of its load. Somewhat discomfited, we leaped after it. I do not think that any European horse would have proved itself equally independent. Oriental horses possess, besides, the great merit of being very mild- tempered. Amongst nearly two hundred horses which we had occasion to use during the course of our journey, not one was ever seen to kick or bite ; they were all easy to mount, and none of them possessed the defect, inherent in our cavalry horses, of endeavouring to stick close to one another’s sides. Beyond the ravine the path again descends towards the Kura, and a gallop across the meadows along the river soon brought us to the heights of Wardzia, which being situated on the left bank of the Kura, made it necessary for us to ford across. The river, some hundred VOL. I. L 146 B 07 ^ shorn to Tiflis. cn. iir. feet broad, was, owing to the dry season of the year, only knee-deep, and did not flow very rapidly. A zig- zag road in good condition then led us up to the mon- astery. This remarkable retreat for Troglodytes is composed of a number of cells (report says 365), hewn out of the soft rock, and which are so constructed that one cell with doorway and window lies to the front, whilst a second cell adjoining it, which is quite dark, faces the back. These cells, built of stone, are situated, although in a very irregular manner, one above the other, and are connected by means of subterraneous passages and open galleries. These galleries are gener- ally supported by parapets hewn in the rock, which falls away very abruptly. These cells, as regards internal arrangements, contain nothing worthy of notice; the so-called refectory alone possessing stone benches and a stone table, the whole cut out of solid rock. The church of the monastery is a large room, over twenty feet in length, the roof of which is hewn out in the form of a vault. The walls have a coating of chalk, and are also decorated with Byzantine frescoes, pro- bably dating from the twelfth century. But time and Persian invaders have played sad havoc with the in- terior, where, owing to the darkness which prevails, scarcely anything is to be seen. We could, however, plainly recognise the full-length portrait of Queen Tamara, the national heroine of Grrusinia, and bene- factress of the monastery. The adjoining chapels are also adorned with frescoes. There are no actual build- ings at Wardzia ; but a gallery, leading to the slope CH. III. Wardzia. 147 formed by the rock, contains some elegant pillars ; and, situated on a projection, there is a small and most grace- ful square chapel, the cupola of which has also unfor- tunately been much injured. According to popular belief, this spot is supposed to be the grave of Queen Tamara. The memory of this national heroine is wor- shipped far and wide over the entire Kartalinian dist- ricts, as far even as Swanethia. The people recognise her palace in each ruin, and her grave is exhibited at more than a thousand places. Brosset, the learned investigator of Grrusinian antiquities, has established the groundless- ness of most of these traditions ; but, as far as I could ascertain, the last resting-place of the queen has never yet been decided upon with any accuracy, and the people may well be permitted to invest with sanc- tity places which to them are monuments of a former era of glory and magnificence. As we never stopped at Grori, an old town situated between Suram and Tiflis, we were unfortunately unable to pay a visit in the neighbourhood to Uphlis-Tziche. a city built on the rocks, and in many respects resembling Wardzia. But I learnt on reliable authority that Wardzia, from its situation, and still more from its interior aspect, pre- sents greater objects of interest than Uphlis-Tziche, although the latter, on account of its proximity to the high road and the railway, is better known and more famous. It was beginning to get dark as we left Wardzia. The only occupant of the ruins was an old hermit, pro- bably a Tartar and hence a Mahommedan, who set our 148 BorsJiom to Tiflis. CH. III. minds at ease concerning the plundering Kurdes, of whose existence I had entertained very great doubts from the first. It is remarkable how great is the dread in which the people stand of those nomad tribes. In Armenia no authorities would allow us to proceed without an escort along the Eusso-Turkish fron- tier ; yet later on we rode by ourselves, through the whole of Turkistan, without encountering the slightest sign of hostility on the part of the natives. The moon was fortunately shining brightly as we rode back to Nakolachewi, which enabled us to pass without difficulty or danger through the ravine in the rocks. On arriv- ing at the village I was again seized with dysentery ; but on applying a remedy, the recipe of which had been given to us by a friend, the attack soon passed off. This remedy is, I believe, used in the English army in India. It proved, later on, equally successful in the case of Ali, who, liking the aromatic flavour of the medicine, used subsequently, although perfectly well, to sip it behind our backs. The recipe, which is not written according to the Gferman pharmacopoeia, but which any chemist could easily prepare by adhering to the nature and not the actual letter of the prescription, is as follows : Esprit de canelle, 210 gr. ; confections aroma- tiques, 15 gr.; esprit d’ammoniac aromatique, 15 gr.; S 3 UOP de safran, 45 gr. ; Colombo, 15 gr. ; bicarbonate de sonde, 8 gr. ; to be well shaken and a table-spoon- ful to be taken every two hours in a wine-glassful of water until relieved. The post-master having really an insufficient supply €F. rii. CotLutry of Duchobortz 7'ribe. 149 of horses, arid as the post-road terminated with the next station, we hired the following morning a six- horsed waggon from a Duchobortz, whose particular district begins near Achalkalaki. The Duchobortz are a Kussian sect which, in the early part of the present century, sprang up near to the Sea of Azow. I could not ascertain in what respects they differ from the orthodox Grreek Church. They preserve a strict silence on the subject, and possibly themselves know very little about it. This much is clear : that they have no popes, and that when assembled for Divine worship any indi- vidual member of the community, on whom the Spirit descends, can address the congregation. Hence, pro- bably, the name Duchobortz, or spirit-worshippers. The Grovernment, not improbably apprehensive lest the propagation of the sect might endanger the dignity of the Eussian priesthood, compelled the tribe to migrate from its original abode to these regions. Shortly after the acquisition of Turkish and Persian territories by the treaties of peace of Adrianople and of Turkmant- schai, a tract of land between Achalkalaki and Alexan- drapol, contiguous to the new frontier, was assigned to them. Here they settled down ; but the soil not pro- ducing sufficient elements of subsistence, the greater portion have taken to the trade of carriers. They are considered to be thoroughly trustworthy, and enjoy general confidence throughout the Caucasus. Their villages are prosperous and clean. A peculiarity which immediately attracts attention is that they have bor- rowed from their neighbours in Eussia, the German Borshom to Tiflis. eil. III. 150 colonists on the Molotsclma, not only the dress, but the characteristic vehicle and harness. They wear jackets, trousers, and caps with a shade in front made of dark blue cloth, and in outward appearance can scarcely be distinguished from Grerman peasants. Instead of the Troika, Grerman harnesses are used, and substantial carts or waggons replace the abominable telega. Their horses are sturdy animals, always well fed and well cared for. They brought away with them from their original birthplace another creature of a less agreeable description. This is the Eussian moth, from which their women seem to have been unable to separate themselves. When the migration took place, these in- sects found themselves stowed away in bandboxes, and on their arrival in the Armenian climate, which is very favourable for the production of vermin, they were not slow to increase their numbers. It was no very arduous task for our six horses to draw us up from Nakolachewi to the plateau of Achal- kalaki ; for the road, which had been newly constructed and was in good condition, ascended the steep declivity by long easy curves. The stony walls swarmed in every direction with partridges. The plateau itself, 5,700 feet above the level of the sea, is as flat as a table ; it is surrounded to the north-east and to the south by barren mountains, whilst to the west it breaks off abruptly into the Valley of the Kura. The double- crested Abul, tlie highest mountain to the eastward, does not appear very awe-inspiring, despite its elevation of 11,100 feet, for it lacks the line of perennial snow. CH. in. Coitntry of DiLchobortz Tribe. 151 Owing to the beautiful clear atmosphere, as well as to the tranquillity of the Sabbath, the panorama which enfolded itself before our eyes possessed, notwithstand- ing its barren aspect, great attractions : the soil was well cultivated, and innumerable eagles and falcons sat perched upon each side of the road. Our Duchobortz attendants, one of whom, from his saddle, drove the three front horses, were very anxious to cut a dash, and the distance of seven miles to Achalkalaki was accom- plished at nearly full gallop. Achalkalaki, situated on the Taporowantschai, which lower down takes the name Achalkalaki, is a small country town possessing no re- markable sights. It has acquired fame from the heroic- defence of its citadel in the year 1828, after Achaltzich had fallen into the hands of the Eussians ; the Turkish commander literally held out until the last man. T]ie Pristaw (chief of the police) had provided for our re- ception, and had also made arrangements enabling us to continue our journey; the latter proceeding on his part being very essential to our future progress, for no posting communications existed between Achalkalaki and Erivan. On my inquiring if travellers occasionally passed that way, he replied literally as follows ; ‘ Oh ! very often ; why, it is scarcely four years since the last was here.’ I only found mention made of Achalkalaki in the works of Petzholdt and Cunynghame. The latter, who was entirely unacquainted with the Kussian language, persisted, as I was told by the Pristaw, in recognising Kirghiz at this spot, and would not be per-, suaded to abandon the idea. Bor shorn to Tiflis. CH. III. 152 The villages of the Duchohortz begin on the far side of Achalkalaki ; Bogdanowka, the first of them, is twelve miles distant from the town, and some seven miles further on lies Gariellowka. The great elevation of the district renders it unsuitable for agriculture ; and the chief element of prosperity consists — after their carriers’ waggons — in large herds of cattle. The extensive dairy of Herr Von Kutzschenbach is situated in the vicinity of the district of the Duchobortz, in the direction of Tiflis. He is a Herman, who has settled down amongst Tartar tribes, and his establishment is said to be in a most thriving condition. The produce of his farm finds a market chiefly at Tiflis. I have been assured that Tartar tribes, which dwell in the neighbourhood, place most implicit confidence in his decision, and generally select him to act as arbitrator in cases of dispute arising amongst themselves: instances of a similar choice being made, as regards persons of consideration, being of frequent occurrence in the East. Petzholdt gives some description of this estab- lishment. At Gariellowka we met Prince Eatieff, the chief of the Achaltzich district, in whose house we liad been so hospitably received. He had been in attendance on the Grand Duke as far as the limits of his district, and was awaiting the return of the latter from the ma- noeuvres held at the camp near Dshelaloghlu. We spent the early part of the afternoon in his society, and had an opportunity of noticing the extreme cleanliness which prevails in the dwellings of the Duchobortz, and cn. III. Coimtry of Duchobortz Tribe. 153 the quiet respectable behaviour of these people. Beyond Grariellowka all cultivation of the soil ceases, and the high plain, considerably hemmed in by long’ lines of barren heights, would, were it not for extensive herds which lend animation to the scene, have presented a very dreary and very monotonous aspect. We also fell in with large numbers of birds of prey, and in the course of the afternoon I shot a bustard, which, nothing daunted, had allowed our vehicle to approach within thirty paces. The only varicdion which the land- scape offered was that of occasional lakes with flat swampy banks. During the afternoon we reached a desolate ridge, 7,000 feet in height, forming the water- shed between the Kura and the Arax, the ascent of which was so gradual as to be almost imperceptible. In like manner the descent on the south side was most easy, and could scarcely be felt. The nature of the landscape became, if possible, still more deso- late, for stony acclivities projected on the east side, and the large herds of the Duchobortz had disappeared altogether. The watershed is equally the boundary between the districts of Achaltzich (government of Tiflis) and of Alexandrapol (government of Erivan) ; and, strictly speaking, Armenia commences at this point. The terribly stony ground, and the multitude of offensive vermin, made it sufficiently evident in the course of the next few days that we were travelling in that inauspicious country. Some five miles south of the pass the Turkish frontier touches the Arpatschai, and continues along its bank for a distance of more 154 Bor shorn to Tiflis. cn. nr. tlian seventy miles, until it reaches the point where that river discharges itself into the Arax. The name Arpatschai signifies barley-brook, and would seem to indicate the extreme fertility of this tract of land in former times, but the clearing away of forest on the heights has reduced it to a very unimportant stream, and there is but little fertile land to be seen. It is invested to a certain extent with historical interest by the circumstance that Xenophon, at the head of the ten thousand, erroneously believing this river to be the Phasis, marched his troops along its bank for a cer- tain distance. The Cossack post, Schischtapa, or, as we generally heard it pronounced, Schischtapur, was situated on the far side of the stream at the frontier above mentioned, and opposite to us was the Turkish guard-house. Like our own guard-houses the latter was a one-storied building with a flat roof, and a very plain exterior. The officer in command of the post was away on duty, and the vermin of the place imme- diately sought compensation for his absence at the expense of our persons. Never did I spend such a night ! As for the Cossacks, they slept on the roof, wrapped up in their burkas, and were consequently less tormented. The line of frontier which separated the Caucasus from Turkey, and from Persia, is guarded by a cordon of Cossack-posts, stationed at distances of between five to ten miles from one another. The force employed at these posts varies from ten to thirty men, according to the position ; the larger posts are commanded b}^ an officer, and the smaller ones by a non-commissioned cn. III. Cossacks on the Fi^ontier. I5S officer, who, amongst Cossack troops, is styled Urjadnik, a title not in use in other corps. Their service con- sists in patrolling the country in search of smugglers and robbers, a very arduous duty to perform during winter amongst mountainous districts. The regiments of the Terek and Kouban Cossacks supply respectively a fixed proportion of men for this service, selected, as I was informed, from the age of twenty-five to thirty, and between the fifth and tenth years of service. This accounts for the circumstance that a traveller pro- ceeding along the frontier is continually falling in with troops belonging to different regiments. This incident is not made apparent by any variety of uniforms, for Cossacks only put on their regimental costume on great occasions ; for ordinary use they wear their own clothes, which, as regards cut, are not unlike the uniform, but which, as regards colour and embroidery, vary according to individual taste. A dark greyish- brown material seemed to be most generally worn. The Tscherkesska and the Papach compose the uniform for grand service, the Terek regiments having blue, and the Kouban regiments red, collars. The armament consists of musket, pistols, kindshal, and schaschka. The Caucasian Cossack does not carry a lance ; more- over, all these arms, together with the horse, are the property of the individual, and no general standard is prescribed. Each Cossack post is constructed on the same principle : a one-storied building, with stabling, room for the officer in command, larder, and kitchen ; there are, as a rule, no rooms for the men to sleep in, BorsJiom io Tiflis. CH. III. 156 as in summer time they lie down on the roof, and during winter in the warm stable. The sentry stands on the roof, and in districts — as, for instance, in the Tschetschnia — where thickets impede the free survey, a wooden watch-tower, resembling a huge dove-cot, is erected near the post. Opinions differ very much in respect to the Cossacks of the Caucasus. By some persons they are extolled to the skies ; whilst others, adopting the more prosaic view of late years, will scarcely admit that they possess a re- deeming quality. Judging from what I heard and saw, I believe that in former times they were deserving of all the praise which has been so lavishly bestowed upon them. But the conflicts with mountain tribes, from which the Cossacks derived their chief experience of fighting, have ceased ; and as they are no longer obliged, by day and by night, to watch over and defend from attack their stanitzs (strongholds) on the Terek and on the Kouban, their warlike propensities have declined, and the young men now found serving under the standard differ but little from other Eussian peace-soldiers. A complete reor- ganization of the two Bans of Cossacks in the Cauca- sus must necessarily take place sooner or later ; such a re-organization is now being completed in regard to the Cossacks of the Don, whose stanitzs — ancient fortresses — will then become nothing more than villages sur- rounded by walls. The service which they perform on the frontier is very valuable, and is conducted at but little cost to the State ; for every Cossack, in return for the land allotted to him by the crown, is bound to CH. irr. Schisclitapa. A lexandrapoL 1 5 7 perform military service, and is compelled to keep a horse, receiving very insignificant pay. A drawback to this system is that the horses being nourished as cheaply as possible, are in a very reduced condition, and can hear no comparison with the well-kept Tartar horses. It has happened to us on more than one occasion that Cossack horses, which had been assigned to us, were found to be scarcely able to sustain their own weight without the additional encumbrance of ourselves, and which, after trotting for a few minutes, would abruptly desist from further exertion. I also noticed, several times, a certain flabbiness about Cossack youths, who are indolent, morose, and very unskilful. The abominable state of dirt, which prevailed at the post-houses and amongst horses and men, contrasted very unfavourably with the model cleanliness displayed by the Turkish frontier soldiery. Our stay at Schischtapa was not in any way delight- ful. The vermin at night would not let me close my eyes, and our food — Cossack fare being of too meagre a description — consisted solely of the bustard shot on the way, the original toughness of which had been to some extent removed by skilful culinary manipulation. In respect to the short distance which separates Alex- andrapol from Schischtapa, it can only be said that the country around was barren and desolate, the road stony, and the heat oppressive, notwithstanding the consider- able elevation of the plateau. At noon we had already reached the town, and found to our surprise a small hotel, tolerably clean, and kept by an honest Swabian, 158 Bo7^sIiom to Tiflis. cn. III. Herr Grross from Wurtemberg. A few hours siesta fol- lowed by a good dinner, with excellent Erivan grapes for dessert, compensated in some measure for the sleep- less night and the heat. Alexandrapol, the sights of which we visited during the afternoon, belonged, until the Peace of Adrianople, to Turkey, and bore tlie name of Giimri. It is situated, at an elevation of 5,230 feet, near to the river Arpatschai, which forms the frontier. Its importance lies chiefly in a fortress erected by the Eussians as a counterpart to Kars, distant forty-two miles, and which, according to European ideas, is re- garded as a fortification of some strength, but according to Oriental notions is quite impregnable. The town is not particularly remarkable, yet it possesses some stately Armenian churches. The most recent, which at the time of our visit had not been completed, was most tastefully constructed in the Armenian style, and, a sys- tem of decoration had been resorted to which frequently occurs in Armenian architecture, and which consists in introducing into the building a varicoloured element of red, black and grey stones. A good view is obtained from some churchyards, situated close to the town on the low ridge of a hill ; this point overlooked the wide and barren expanse of high table-land surrounded by dreary and desolate mountain ranges. Few trees were to be seen in the town. Mount Alagöz, lying to the south-eastward, had been connected in my imagination with a more imposing spectacle ; I had heard it so frequently mentioned as the neighbour and rival of the lofty Ararat, that remembering the elevation of ‘CH. III. Amount Alag'öz. 159 tlie former to be 13,400 feet, I bad depicted to myself a magnificent snow-capped cone. In reality it was an ugly, ungraceful mountain, with long continuous slope, and its celebrated seven peaks were merely abrupt points covered here and there with a streak of snow. Its real Armenian name is Aragadz, and the Turkish Alagöz (Grrey Eye) is only a corruption of it. Apart from the view, there was not much to be seen in the churchyard save a multitude of crosses upon tombs with inscriptions in the Armenian Cursive characters : they were of good workmanship, and dis- played the grotesque flourishes of the Armenian style. These Cursive characters are as little adapted for monu- mental inscriptions as the Grrusinian Mchedruli, whilst the old Armenian lapidary writing — notwithstanding its heaviness, or possibly on account of it — looks very im- posing when engraved on stone. On our return to the hotel we hired one of the excellent conveyances of the town for our excursion to Ani ; and not being disposed to incur the inconvenience of doubtful night-quarters in a Turkish village, we came to a distinct agreement with the driver that we were to be taken there and brought back again the same day. The Pristaw, who conducted the negociations, promised to send with us one of his policemen to serve as escort and interpreter, and he also gave notice to the Turkish and Eussian frontier- authorities of our intended expedition. The night was again destined to be a restless one, for the elite of Alexandrapol played billiards in an adjoining room, until four in the morning. i6o Bor shorn to Tiflis. ch. m. Ten years ago the trip to Ani was still a perilous undertaking. For the sake of security travellers were obliged to ride along Eussian territory, until they came to a Cossack post, situated opposite the ruins ; thence they were attended by a strong escort to guard against surprise, which enabled them, after crossing the Arpatschai, to visit the city of ruins. At the present time the road is so entirely free from danger that they may without hesitation perform, as we did, the entire distance over Turkish territory. It is true that no road exists, but the sterile soil is as firm as a macada- mised street, and the heights to be crossed are unim- portant. After several days rain both the Arpatschai and its tributary the Karstchai are no longer ford- able for carriages, and the soaked condition of the ground is of itself sufficient to render any tom* imprac- ticable. Those who are desirous to pass a night in the neighbourhood of Ani may safely count on being hos- pitably received at the Armenian monastery of Kots- chewank, only a few versts distant. The escort serves principally to attend upon travellers during the journey; for as regards security, one European gun, conspicuously displayed, would be equally effective. The mediation of the Pristaw seemed to have inspired the Armenian driver with awe, for punctually at the first dawn of day he was on the spot with a comfortable conveyance, drawn by four horses abreast. The Pris- taw was obliging enough to accompany us across the Arpatschai, which was quite shallow, to the Turkish frontier on the far side, where he introduced us to the CH. in. Drive to Ani. i6i officer in command, who at the sight of my Imperial firman, a document a yard long, became politeness itself. The latter gave us as an escort two very elegant- looking, active, well-mounted Turkish soldiers ; so that, including our policeman, we were under the protection of three armed men. The policeman, an Armenian, who spoke both Eussian and Turkish fluently, was also well mounted, and he certainly was the handiest man of his kind that I fell in with during the journey ; for, in general, we had to experience considerable incon- venience from the clumsiness of policemen sent to escort us. The first portion of the twenty-seven miles of road was not picturesque, but the beautiful fresli weather, combined with the agreeable sensation of treading for the first time upon Turkish soil, and at a spot too where for some time to come the swarm of Oriental travellers will not make its appearance, tended materially to raise our spirits ; and our two Turkish soldiers vied with the policeman in executing small feats of horsemanship. The country round about did not seem sterile, for the villages were both extensive and numerous, although in outward appearance they were not inviting. We followed the course of the Arpatschai as far as Basch -Schuregel (chief place in the district of Schuregel), where the unshapely and ponder- ous ruins of a castle seemed to indicate the vicinity of the ancient regal city of Armenia. A few versts fur- ther on near the village of Akiiziim (White Grrape) — where, certainly nothing more remains of vino-culture — we crossed the Karstchai, which seemed to me a more im- VOL. I. M i 62 Bor shorn to Tiflis. CH. m. portant stream than the Arpatschai, and afterwards the INIawrektschai, near Kamir-Eank, where stands the crum- bling castle of Mawrek. Up to this point the soil was in a fair state of cultivation, and the roads were well frequented, but here the dreary Armenian wilderness again commenced; in front of us were barren cliffs, some twenty miles to our right yellow mountains, at the base of which Kars is situated, and to our left the ugly Alagöz. As yet nothing was visible of the Ararat, and we almost despaired of ever getting the promised view of this far-famed mountain, when, on reaching a gentle ridge extending between two hills some 200 feet in height (near Kara-Kala in the Five Verst Map), a panorama disclosed itself to our gaze, which for wild and desolate grandeur is perhaps unparalleled. Before us lay extended a rocky plain about five miles in length, and at its further extremity was a mighty city, surrounded by walls with towers, churches and palaces — a noble pile, but devoid of animation. In the back- ground the rugged peaks of wild-looking mountains, dividing the valleys of the Arax and of the Eastern Euphrates (Murad), rose into the air. From the midst of these, and beyond the salt mines of Külpi, a steep cone started up, and far away to the south-east, at a distance of seventy miles, the snowy crest of the Aramt towered majestically above the intervening mountains. The associations aroused by this scene were enhanced a thousand-fold by the tranquillity and desolation which prevailed ; for in days gone by the capital of a mighty empire had stood on this -very spot CH. ni. Rtiiiis of A7ii. 163 in full glory and magnificence ; and so intense was the impression occasioned by this solitude amongst ruins, that, even later on at Babylon and at Palmyra, I did not experience so acute a sensation. The last five miles were soon got over ; and when we reached the small Turkish watch-post, situated not far from the ruins, the guard, consisting of six men, turned out in honour of our arrival, presenting arms. But in the ex- citement of the moment the sergeant forgot to give the order to shoulder arms, and the men, after having received our thanks, marphed back to the guard-room, still presenting arms. We followed, and remained a short time in the guard-room^ which was a model of cleanliness. After clearly intimating to the driver the necessity of returning the same evening, we commenced our ramble amongst the ruins. The entire guard — five, active well-clad men — accompanied us, partly in order to carry our provisions and partly induced by curiosity. We entered the imposing city of ruins through a hole in the wall, and were sufficiently matter-of-fact to in- dulge in a breakfast al fresco under the shade of the cathedral, the grandest of the edifices. The Turkish soldiers, being Sunnites, had no scruples in partaking of our provisions, and they gave us in return a delicious melon. This is one of the characteristic features which clearly define the two sects pf Islamism. ; t^ie Sunnite is not deterred by his religious tenets from eating with a Christian, but the Shee-ite reluctantly takes part in a meal in company with an unbeliever, and, although possessing a natural inclination to hospitality, 164 Bor shorn to Tiflis. CH. Ill, he is sufficiently fanatical to break in pieces the plates on whicli a Christian has been served, or at least to have them consecrated anew by the priest. I noticed no exception to this rule amongst the Shee-ites. The Turkish soldiers, although they accepted the food which we offered to them, refrained from eating it in the company of the Armenian, with whom nevertheless they appeared to be on excellent terms ; they retired by themselves to a corner of the church. Ani presents so many points of interest, that I will only give a general summary of what I saw. Those who are desirous to go deeper into the subject should consult Eitter’s Geography, Section x., page 439. The monography respecting Ani, written by a living author. Professor Obich, is perhaps the best authority for this portion of Armenia, and especially for the Ararat. Photographs of the ruins do not, unfortunately, exist ; but Westley, the photographer at Tiflis, informed me that on the occasion of his next tour througli these regions he intended, if possible, to call at Ani. As regards the foundation of the city, nothing is positively known. Its era of splendour commenced in the year 961, when under Aschod III. it first became the resi- dence of the kings of Armenia, who belonged to the race of the Bagratides, and from that period the town continued to flourish until 1045. The magnificent edifices which formerly existed, and of which the ruins are a record, were constructed at an epoch when Ani was the centre of a powerful kingdom comprising more than 100,000 inhabitants. Subsequent to the year CH, III. Ruins of Ani. i6s 1045, at which date the city was betrayed into the hands of the Byzantine Emperor, it served as an apple of discord during the successive wars which were waged between Byzanz, the Grrusinian rulers, and the Sultans of the Seldschuks; the latter of whom, during the period of their domination, erected mosques side by side with the churches. In the year 1319 the town was completely destroyed by an earthquake, which re- duced it to ruins, and since that time Ani has lain desolate, no living soul dwelling within its walls. The city, which commands a very strong position, is built in the form of a triangle. To the south-east the rocks descend some hundred feet perpendicularly in the direction of the Arpatschai, and rise with equal abruptness on the far side, the apex of which is sur- mounted by the plain unimposing guard-house of the Cossack post. To the west extends a precipice of about equal depth, but the bed of the ravine below is dry. A double range of walls, of prodigious size, facing the high -plain to the north-east, protected the city from outward invasion. At a point near the southern angle of the city, where the gorge enters the valley of the Arpatschai, the terrain rises some hun- dred feet, and on this spot the citadel, which may still be recognised by the massive mural substructures which divide it from the rest of the town, was most probably situated. These remains were, curiously enough, overlooked by the traveller Hamilton, who in consequence (Bitter, page 446) contests the ancient existence of an acropolis. Eemnants of two unim- i66 Bor shorn to Tiflis. cir. III. portant churches, still standing erect, are apparent on the citadel, from which eminence a good survey may he had of the City of Euins. One of these churches contains a pillar with a very curious capital, represent- ing an eagle holding a lamb in its claws ; but the same device may occasionally be met with in some of the other churches. Although the houses in the lower portion of the town were swept away by the earth- quake like chaff before a whirlwind, their ground-lines and the direction of the streets may still be traced amongst the vestiges which remain. The churches, mosques and outward walls, have withstood the power of the elements, and some parts of them are as fresh- looking as if they were only completed yesterday. A feature, which is common to all the edifices, consists in a combination, carried out with great taste, of three different kinds of stone : one dark grey, one brick-red, and one yellowish grey. The material appeared to be a species of Tufa ; but, as I do not possess geognostical knowledge, this statement is made with reservation. Eising close to the citadel, on the very edge of the Arpatschai abyss, lies a mosque with a slender octagonal minaret of some height. Though but a small con- struction, it is still a very picturesque building, from its graceful appearance and elevated position. The next edifice, the cathedral, is also situated close to the precipice, and is, including the dome, still in good preservation. The base represents a Latin cross, but details of style have been borrowed from Byzantine models. The pleasing impression which it creates is CH. III. Ruins of Ani. 167 due less to grandeur of effect and ricliness of ornamen- tation than to the noble and well-proportioned outlines. The new church at Alexandrapol, to which I have re- cently alluded, is a very happy reproduction of the same style of architecture. The cathedral is not rich in ornamentation ; and, generally speaking, as regards the decoration of outward surfaces, these edifices can- not — so far as beauty is concerned, allowance being made for the tasteful polychromatics displayed in the materials • — compare in the slightest degree with the examples, which I have myself witnessed, of Grrusinian ruins. The cross, which forms so characteristic a feature in Grrusi- nian churches, is here so completely overcharged and distorted by complicated flourishes, that the main object held in view sinks into insignificance. Some of these re- lievo-crosses were positively monstrous. The absence of rich outward decoration is to some extent redeemed by means of innumerable inscriptions in the old Armenian language, which were copied and deciphered by Brosset, and which principally refer to the history of the city. At the north-east corner of the city, where the walls overhang the Arpatschai, stands the most re- markable structure — a circular church built in the form of the Baptistery at Pisa. Frescoes pointing to the best period of Byzantine art may still clearly be recognised here. The other churches and chapels,’ which lie scattered about in different directions, are of no very considerable size, and some parts of them are not so well preserved as the cathedral. Still they offer an abundance of interesting details. A little chapel, for Bor shorn to Tiflis, cn. m. 1 68 instance, situated near the city walls, contains a ceiling in mosaics, interspersed with stalactite vaults, the whole most graceful in design and perfect in execution. A church close by possesses a Byzantine basso-relievo, which would well repay the transport to some museum in Europe. The subject is the Annunciation, and the Virgin Mary is represented sitting on a stool, v/hich in view of Oriental ideas is a very remarkable design. In another small church, situated near the citadel, and on the brink of the western abyss, the lateral chapels are divided from the nave by galleries, the pillars of which attract notice on account of their capitals. They were originally Ionic capitals, but a third volute had been introduced between the two others with a view to im- part a massive appearance to the capitals and to bring them into harmony with the heavy character of the whole. The palace is situated at the west corner, and overhangs the abyss ; the greater portion is destroyed, but the ponderous fragments of the walls prove that it must have been a mighty structure. The gateway possesses a beautiful frame of relievo-arabesques, divided into cassettes ; but impelled by a savage lust for destruction, the surrounding tribes have unfortunately — as far as the hand could reach — annihilated this delicate tracery, which recalls to mind the Alhambra. Amidst this field of ruins, and almost precisely in the centre of it, the circular minaret of a ruined mosque rises about a hundred feet in height. The spiral stair- case in the interior is sufficiently preserved to admit of an ascent being made ; and this, accordingly, we ac- CH. III. Drive Back. j6q complislied ; but the crumbÜDg condition of the stones renders it very iinadvisable to step out upon the roof. The walls which protect the northern portion of the city are of gigantic dimensions, and the masonry is still in good condition. They run in a double row, at an in- terval of about ten paces, and are intersected by three double gateways, the outer one of which stands at some distance to the side of the inner one. A large basso- relievo representing a lion courant, probably the aruis of the city or those of its rulers, has been inserted into the inner wall above the western gate. The towers, which flank the walls at regular intervals, contain spacious receptacles for the defenders. As we had arrived early in the forenoon, we had ample leisure until 3 p.m. to visit the ruins. After rambling amongst them, we descended into the west- ern abyss by rather a dangerous path. The walls of this abyss were covered with Troglodytes’ cells, which may possibly have sheltered as large a population as the city itself contained. Some of the principal ca- verns were occupied by nomad shepherds and their herds ; they were wild-looking fellows, and it would be very unadvisable to meet them unarmed. On our return to the guard-house, the driver, as I had foreseen all along, refused to proceed back again the same day, giving as his excuse the extraordinary pretext that he had not yet fed his horses. We insisted, however, on the agreement being carried out, and, by the time the horses were sufficiently fed, were ready for a start. I had, meanwhile, taken a survey of the Turkish guard- 170 Bor shorn to Tiflis. CH. III. house. It comprised two rooms only — the actual guard- room, which contained the men’s arms and equipment, and the sleeping room provided with the neces- sary broad wooden bed. Everything was remarkably clean, including the uniforms of the men, which were very attractive, and consist of a simple blue Zouave costume with fez. They had received new guns some few weeks before ; breech-loading carbines, apparently of i\merican manufacture. A lithographed instruction in Turkish explained the use of these weapons. When- ever I have fallen in with Turkish soldiers, I have inva- riably been favourably impressed by their pleasant manners and readiness to oblige ; and a portion only of these qualities which are displayed by the Turk, who stands in such bad odour wdth us, would prove highly beneficial to our middle and lower classes. About 5 P.M. we set out on our return journey. I now had an opportunity afforded me for the first time in these Southern regions to appreciate the advantages derived from a Petersburg padded cloak ; for the evening wind, which blew across the high plain, was icy cold. Everything went well as far as the Karst- schai ; but during the second half of the journey one of the horses, a chestnut, who on coming had exhibited symptoms of staggers, began to tire considerably. As a drive of fifty-four miles over a good road and with a light carriage could hardly be considered as excessive exertion for four horses, we arrived at the conclusion that the animal must be ill ; and the driver had only himself to thank if finally he was obliged to unharness CH. III. Road to Erivan. 171 the chestnut, and leave it to its fate with a bag of barley tied round its neck. The Armenian and his steed gave proofs of greater endurance ; for only after having accomplished the entire distance of fifty-four miles did he confess that his saddle was somewhat out of order and had galled him considerably on the way, and he apologised on that account for not having ridden the whole time close to our carriage, as it was his duty to do. The Turkish soldiers had changed horses several times on the road. When we reached the Turkish frontier-post opposite the town, it was already half-past ten. In spite of the darkness, the cold, and the stormy weather, the Turkish officer, clad in the lightest of night apparel, with which the breezes sported merrily, insisted on coming out to congratulate us on our safe return. He was himself in high spirits, for he had just received the news of his transfer to Erzeroum, which represented in his eyes a great and enjoyable city; nor would he be induced to retire until a gust of wind had carried away his fez. Half-an-hour later we were indulging in a well-earned repose at the Hotel Grross. We had the choice of two routes between Alexan- drapol and Erivan ; the post-road which passes Delids- han and the direct road, which goes by Sardarabad. The former tour was the longest by at least forty-seven miles, and had the additional disadvantage of obliging us to pass twice over the same ground ; as, under any circumstances, we had to go from Delidshan to Etch- miadzin via Erivan. The road via Sardarabad still re- Bor shorn to Tiflis, CH. m. I 72 tains the appellation of Imperial road (Tzarskaja daroga) : for the Emperor Nicholas once travelled over it on the occasion of his tour of inspection through the annexed territories. It is in fearful disorder, having never been repaired since the visit of the Czar ; and I recommend all travellers who may select this route, which at any rate is an interesting one on account of Tal3rn and Sardarabad, to perform the journey on horse- back. As we were ignorant of the bad condition of the road, we hired a large waggon with a hood, drawn by four strong-looking horses, apparently not over-fed, and conducted by an Armenian driver, who did not inspire us with much confidence. The Pristaw showed his care and attention by giving us a policeman as escort ; but we soon found the latter useless, and sent him back again. Before leaving Alexandrapol about noon on September 11th, we made the acquaintance of an Austrian journeyman, who came from Arabia, and had succeeded in begging his way through to this place. He was far better acquainted with the distances between Moussoul, Diabekir, Aleppo and Bagdad, than we could possibly have imagined, and gave us some really very useful information. Our road led southward across barren and dreary regions, which were covered over, however, by a multitude of small dusky villages, and finally brought us to Boghazkessan, at the foot of the Alagöz. The name of this village, which signifies cut- throat, is scarcely exhilarating. Here the driver was anxious to pass the night, although we had not gone more than eighteen miles. He alluded significantly to CH. III. Mastara. 173 the danger of falling in with plundering Kurds, but this bugbear had altogether ceased to terrify us. We ended by carrying our point ; but, as a matter-of-fact, the next stage was anything but a pleasant one. The road, which slowly ascended a ramification of the Ala- gÖz, which we had to traverse, was in a condition defy- ing description ; and, but for the substantial construction of the waggon, we might possibly have never reached a place of shelter. The crowning point of our diffi- culties was the descent into the little valley in which lay Mastara, our night quarters. During this latter portion of the route we felt as though we were being driven down a stone staircase. In consequence of the nature of the track, caravans consisting of beasts of burthen laden with merchandise were all we met on the way. In Armenia the ox is employed equally with the horse for the transport of goods : a custom which, to my knowledge, does not exist either in Western Asia or in Persia. Large teams of oxen might be seen moving along this very road, chiefly carrying rock-salt from Kfil- pi, which is situated in the valley of the Arax, close to the Turkish frontier and fifty-six miles south of Alexan- drapol. Two blocks of rock-salt, each weighing above 1|- cwt., are attached to the two sides of the wooden pack- saddle, no precautions being, however, taken to protect them against damp. From time immemorial the Caucasus and Armenia have been provided with salt from the mines of Kiilpi, and the supply is said to be inexhaustible. In Mastara we took up our quarters for the night at the house of a tax-gatherer, who never recollected having seen 174 Bor shorn to Tiflis. CH. III. a European pass through the place. At our arrival his dog became almost frantic with delight. It was a big shaggy Bernardine, and seemed never to get over its extreme pleasure at the sight of people in the European dress. As a rule Tartar dogs bark at all Europeans, and will watch a fair opportunity to fly at their legs ; whereas dogs belonging to Cossacks and to Eussian officers are not naturally aggressive. The tax- gatherer lived in Mastara alone with his dog from one year’s end to the other ; and very bitterly did he com- plain of the wretched state of the country, the vile na- ture of the Tartar race, and the insignificancy of the pay. The road being scarcely better on the following day, we preferred leaving the waggon to follow behind, wiiilst we walked on in advance. Unfortunately we forgot to take our guns with us, and thereby lost the chance of a good shot, for not far from Mastara a large wolf crossed the road, within fifteen paces, without apparently heed- ing us in the least. Some four miles south of Mastara the extensive ruins of Talyn commenced, which Eitter iden- tifies with the ancient regal city of Pakaran. Above a mile to the eastward of the road stood a lofty church, resembling the cathedral of Ani, and surrounded by fragments of other buildings. Had we been on horse- back we might easily have visited this place ; but un- fortunately we were tied down to our waggon, which kept coming up at a painfully slow pace, the four horses panting for breath. A few versts further on we came upon the ruins of a large palace, situated along the road; it is wrongly designated in the Five Verst Map CH, III. 7'aiyji. Village Architecture. 175 as a caravansarai. It contained some long low halls in good preservation, with arches shaped like the interior of a hollow cylinder. The present village of Talyn, which we reached soon afterwards, is surrounded by a high wall fifty feet in height, and crowned with battle- ments apparently of Saracenic origin, and it possesses a well-preserved citadel of the ancient Armenian period. A small church, lying close at hand, is, however, almost entirely destroyed. We here enjoyed the hospitalit}^ of a descendant of the once powerful Khans of Talyn. Since the annexation of the district, the family had evidently become impoverished ; for our host lived in a condition but little removed from that of a peasant, and a few good carpets, together with some other articles, were the sole vestiges of former prosperity. In these countries, as well as in Persia, the same description applies alike to all villages. I know no district where villages are so entirely devoid of indi- viduality. The houses are roughly put together with stones and clay, and are almost always one-storied, with flat roofs. Wood being too expensive, the ceil- ings are constructed of stems of willows and of similar materials, resulting in a want of durability for the whole, and in the entire ruin, within a year’s time, of any house left untenanted. The outer surface of the roof is covered over with a species of cement concocted out of sand, earth, ashes, and manure, which is said to be water-tight, but requires constant renewing. The roof is quite as much a dwelling-place for the occupant of the house as the interior of ^ the building; and 176 B 07 ' shorn to Tiflis. CH. III. wherever a village has been constructed on the edge of a mountain, the roof of the lower dwelling serves both as street and ante-chamber for the one situated above it. Tlie streets are narrow, angular, and dirty ; and the sole desire of any traveller entering a village is to make his way to the far end with all possible despatch. A strange system of decoration arises from the scarcity of wood, and the consequent use of manure for burning material. The walls are lined with cakes, of the size of plates, composed of a mixture of fresh manure and chopped straw ; and no sooner are these cakes suffi- ciently dried by the sun than they are piled up pyramid-fashion on the roof, and the walls receive a fresh garniture. I cannot say that food prepared upon manure fuel has any disagreeable smell or flavour. This fuel possesses the property, not to be undervalued for a travelling-cuisine, of igniting with great facility, and of dissolving, after speedy combustion, into glow- ing ashes very convenient for heatiug water. The chopped straw employed in the manufacture of these manure cakes is produced by the singular process of thrashing which prevails in this country. A flat wooden grinder, the lower extremity of which has stones wedged into it, passes over the ears of corn, which are piled up upon the floor, until the sharp edges of the stones have cut the straw into chaff. The grain, which from its weight falls upon the floor, is then separated by means of a winnow. Petzholdt gives a detailed de- scription in his work of this particular instrument, and also of other agricultural implements. The national •CH. III. Sardarab. 177 dress, worn alike here hy Tartars and Armenians, both of which races dwell intermixed with one ano- ther, is of Persian cut ; but the fashionable colours are especially bright blue and red, whereas in Per- sia, amongst the peasants, the men are generally clad from head to foot in a suit of yellow-brown, whilst the women are attired in a costume of grey-blue. A rocky wilderness, totally uninhabited, eighteen miles in length and twenty-eight miles in width stretches from Talyn to Sardarabad. The Arabian Desert between Babylon and Palmyra presents a less desolate aspect, for it is at least covered with briars and brambles. The only compensation, whicli we had for this dreary drive was the view of Mount Ararat, which towered more and more above the surrounding moun- tains. When finally we reached Sardarabad, the level valley of the Arax alone separated us from it, and, not- withstanding the distance of tliirty-three miles, it ap- peared quite close to us. Although for several hours we had already sighted Sardarabad with its lofty battlements, a fine sand, which covered the latter por- tion of the road, impeded our progress, and prevented us from arriving there before five o’clock in the after- noon. On approaching the spot, the grand picturesque effect passed away to be replaced by a very prosaic reality ; the walls were of clay, and were rapidly falling asunder. The village, though extensive, was not better than any which we had previously seen. It possessed, however, at its eastern extremity, one very beautiful spot : A limpid streamlet, oozing from a well, VOL. I. N 178 Bor shorn to Tiflis. CH. m. bubbled along through a well cultivated garden of fruit-trees. On the one side we had the view towards the Ararat and the mountain chain, which runs to the westward of the former, along the Arax ; and on the other side lay before us the yellow walls of the village, in the shade of which caravans of camels were encamped, and behind us were the dreary slopes of the Alagöz. We bought here some splendid fruits, and afforded the village population the opportunity of a good stare, although the curiosity of the natives is at first most irritating to the traveller. The numerous maidens who came to fill their pitchers at the well were all strictly veiled ; but they contrived by an adroit manipulation of the veil to show that they were not the ugliest of womankind. We soon perceived that we were not very far distant from Persia, for a beggar, with chains round his neck and about his arms, ap- proached us soliciting a contribution towards the re- lease of his brother, who had been kidnapped by the Turkomans and dragged away captive from Khorassan to Khiva. These beggars are of daily occurrence in Persia ; and here it certainly aroused our suspicion to find ourselves beset by a succession of similar mendi- cants wearing the same chains, and each pretending to have a brother carried away in slavery to Khiva. After the horses had been fed and rested, and after an ineffectual attempt on my part to manoeuvre one of the above-described threshing-machines — which pro- ceeding ended in my being run away with by the oxen, and in my being subsequently pitched into the CH. in. Etschmiadzin. 179 chaff to the great delight of the bystanders — we made a fresh start in order to arrive, if possible, on the same day, at Etschmiadzin. Although the road was in good condition, we did not manage to get farther than the watch-post Karasou, situated half way between Sar- darabad and Etschmiadzin, where in the stables of the Tartar Tchapars (police militia) — who were very obliging — we found a shelter for the night at least destitute of vermin. We soon accomplished the short distance to Etsch- miadzin. It was still early in the morning when we stopped at the gate of the famous monastery, which, as regards exterior, far more resembles a fortress than a place devoted to Divine service. On announcing our- selves, we were immediately shown with the greatest politeness to a monk’s cell. The monk, however, only spoke Turkish and Armenian : but through Ali, who served as interpreter, he begged us to wait a few minutes until the rooms which were destined for us could be got ready. Our amazement may be conceived on finding hung up against the walls of the cell wood- cuts representing the emperor of Germany and the battle of Sedan. They were extracts from an English illustrated newspaper ; but we could not ascertain how they ever got there. The archimandrite, Kework Surenianz, appeared after an interval, and introduced himself. The patriarch Kework being absent at a summer residence, he had been appointed to act as deputy, and to do the honours of the monastery during our stay. We were soon shown to our rooms, which i8o Bor shorn to Tiflis. CH. in. were situated in a newly constructed wing of tlie build- ing, and w^ere furnished entirely in the European style. Amongst other articles they contained two good beds, an unknown occurrence to us since Borshom, and a most agreeable surprise. In the course of that day and during the following morning the archimandrite most obligingly pointed out and explained the different objects of interest in the monastery. He had studied at Tiflis, and spoke Eussian fluently, and had also acquired a smattering of French and Herman ; but, as a rule, the knowledge of languages possessed by monks in these parts is limited to Turkish and Armenian. He was a man of research, and for several years had been engaged in writing for the National Schools of Armenia abridged compendiums of the modern sciences, including history and geography, subjects of which the youth of the country had been formerly ignorant. He deeply deplored the neglected state of school education, which had kept in the background the Armenian population, highly gifted as regards in- tellect ; and he frankly acknowledged the meritorious and successful labours in the field of science of the Mechitarists near Venice, although he was compelled to condemn them as papal schismatics. Unfortu- nately the archimandrite was not a connoisseur of art, and thus to my regret, was unable to give us any information on many interesting points, especially on the different periods of the architecture of the country. The monastery of Etschmiadzin is the residence of CH. in. See of the Patriarch. i8i the Armenian patriarch. He is acknowledged as head of the church by about four millions of Grregorian Armenians on Turkish soil, by about one million in Eussia, and by numerous adherents scattered through- out Persia, India, and Europe. His power is some- what analogous to the Papal supremacy ; but it is exercised more in an administrative manner ; and he keeps altogether aloof from innovations in the domain of dogmas. The patriarch is surrounded by a num- ber of archbishops, bishops, and clergy, who occasion- ally reside at the see, and are constantly being deputed to superintend the spiritual functions in dif- ferent dioceses, so that a frequent intercourse is kept up between the parishes and the central authority. The church stands on the best footing with the Eus- sian Grovernment, and in the event of any change taking place either as regards the throne or the see, the patriarchal rights are confirmed by an imperial ukase. The duties of the clergy residing at Etsch- miadzin consist chiefly in the administration of all matters, spiritual and temporal, incumbent on the patriarchate ; and in the temporal affairs is included the whole of the church property, which is of some importance. Activity in the purely spiritual concerns scarcely exists, abstraction being made of the daily masses and ecclesiastical exercises. Hence the stag- nancy prevailing in the spiritual domain as compared with the efficacious exertions of the Mechitarists. The rules of the monastery are not very severe ; and with the exception of the simplicity observed in the i 82 Bor shorn to Tiflis. CH. irr. mode of living, everyone may do as he pleases. The prescribed dress is the garb of the Armenian monk — the most dignified which I have ever seen. It consists of a black gown similar to that worn by our Protestant clergy, and of a black cap, of which the portion encir- cling the forehead is about four inches in height, and terminates in a conical point. A black moire veil is attached to the cap, and falls down over the back as far as the elbows. The body of the cap was formerly made of pasteboard; but fashion has changed this material to whalebone, which is a far pleasanter sub- stance during the heat of summer. The district around the monastery is one of the most fertile in Armenia, and is richly watered by streams flowing from the north-eastern base of the Alagöz and by numerous canals communicating with the Arax. The monastery, together with two other small but independent churches (hence the Turkish name, Uetschkilissa, ^ three churches ’) is situated close to the populous and much-frequented hamlet, Vagharschapat. A large stone reservoir, erected by the patriarch Narses, supplies abundance of water, whilst a grove with pop- lars and fruit-trees, planted by him, and the only one for some distance around, provides cool and refreshing walks. The site of the monastery was, according to the legend, assigned by Christ himself to Grregorius Illuminator. The name Etschmiadzin has reference to this; for it signifies, Hhe only begotten One came down from on high.’ The walls, which still have the appearance of being fortified, an indispensable precau- CH. m. CathedraL 183 tion in former times on account of the feuds raging in the country, enclose a large complex of habitations and farm-buildings. In the centre rises the cathedral, the construction of which has lasted during many cen- turies, and which, taken as a whole, does not produce a very favourable impression. The main body of the cliurch seemed to me to date from the eighth century. Its form is that of a Grreek cross with somewhat pro- longed fore-nave ; but subsequent additions have much defaced the original character. It had even been thought necessary in the last century to paint the inner walls of the church in the Persian landscape style with poplars and garlands. Amongst old curiosities worthy of notice there are many interesting objects, which to look at are almost magnificent, but regarded as works of art are valueless. Two tabernacles with octagon- painted roofs resting upon four pilasters, which have been erected in the apse of the transept, deserve the highest praise. They date from the earliest age of the church, and combine great and massive dignity, some- what archaistic, with perfect execution. There stands in the courtyard close to the church, a stone with cuneiform inscription; it was found not long ago, amongst the ruins of the ancient residence Armavir, which existed previous to the Artaxata of Hannibal. Armavir lies in the vicinity of Sarderabad, and to our right we saw the remains of it from the road. The archimandrite assured us that the inscription was in old Persian ; but the absence of the oblique arrow- headed character, the specific sign which marks the 184 Bor shorn to Tiflis. CH. nr.. divisions of words, convinced me tliat such was not the case. Professor Mordtmann is said to have deciphered this inscription. The priest’s seminary, belonging to the monastery, the internal arrangement of which was shown to ns, was not very numerously attended. A wild-looking seminarist, coming from Sis in Cilicia, represented the Diaspora of that place — a small Ar- menian tribe which has to this day kept itself almost independent of Turkish rule. The seminarists sang for us some old national melodies, and we could only praise the purity and precision of their singing, as compared with the abominable dissonance of the Armenian liturgy. The melodies, which were sung in unison, reminded us of old G-erman church music, and had something wild and plaintive about them. A new building, to be used for the seminary, or for some other kind of theological school, is in course of construction. The library of the monastery, which is famous, is said to conceal treasures as yet unrevealed, especially with regard to the history of Armenia during the Middle Ages. I only saw the miniatures, which are the same as we possess in Ger- many, and the manuscripts, of which I understood nothing. At the present time the printing establish- ment is of the chief importance ; for it tends to spread abroad popular Armenian books, and it publishes a weekly periodical called the ‘ Ararat.’ Our one and-a-half day’s sojourn at the monastery was spent in the most pleasant manner. I still recall with pleasure the mild summer’s evening, which we passed in the garden enjoying the magnificent view of CK. in. Stay at the Mo7iasteiy . 185 the majestic Ararat. Another monk had joined ns on that occasion, the only one, with the exception of the archimandrite, who spoke Russian. I had occasion, whilst they were speaking together, to notice with some surprise the extreme harshness of the Armenian language,, which appears to possess no soft consonants. With them the euphonistic titles Greorg and Gregor were con- verted into Rework and Krikor, but pronounced with a far more emphatic ‘ K ’ than is known to us. Our re- pasts, in which — it being Friday — our host did not par- ticipate, were prepared entirely in the European fashion but I could not bring myself to like the wine of the place, which I had often heard praised. It was very strong, but had no bouquet, and could not be compared with Kachetia. I thought it my duty, on taking leave of our hosts, and after thanking them most cordially for their kind hospitality, to apologise for having introduced Ali, a mussulman, into the monastery. Surenianz set my mind at ease on that score, assuring me that during Divine service he frequently noticed in church more curious Tartars than devout Armenians. Besides, the monastery is held in high respect by all the surrounding Mussulman population. The distance to Erivan only amounted to twelve miles, and this we soon accomplished, escorted on the road by half a dozen Tschapars, who were quite un- necessary and were several times relieved. We might as well have driven from Berlin to Charlottenberg with a mitrailleuse behind our carriage, for the road was as much frequented as one of our great chaussees. At. i86 Bor shorn to Tiflis. ch. in. Erivan we found quarters prepared for us at the Crown-house. There is no hotel, and travellers must try to get a room at the club, if they cannot be ac- commodated at the Crown-house. They can breakfast and dine at the club, and will be able to get a glass of very palatable Bavarian beer, brewed at Erivan. This latter town is situated on the Zenqui, a limpid stream flowing out of the Groktscha lake, at a point where the former leaves the mountain chain through an abrupt ravine to enter the valley of the Arax. Thanks to the never-failing supply of water, the town is sm- rounded by a circle of gardens rich in foliage, and the sight of trees in dreary desolate Armenia is very re- freshing to the eye. Fruits grown here are of ex- quisite quality, especially grapes and apples ; but the peaches, which are of a hard kind, did not please us so much. The town is altogether Persian, the Kussian quarter, which is unimportant, being ex- cepted. Narrow winding lanes extending between walls of yellow clay utterly conceal the houses, and exclude all view, so that a stranger never knows where he is. As regards sights, the town only possesses two buildings worthy of notice ; but these two are perfect g'ems. The first is a mosque behind the bazaar, which is not large, but most attractive, owing to its graceful construction, and richness in magnificent glazings ; and the four splendid elm trees, which surround the fountain bubbling in the outer court, impart to the whole a most poetic aspect. In fact I never saw throughout the cast so beautiful a mosque. We had no conception of CH. in. Erivan. Mosque and Fort. 187 its existence, and came upon it quite by chance whilst wandering through the bazaar, which latter contained nothing remarkable. It being dusk when we entered, we had already walked through the interior without attracting attention, when one of the attendants, a coarse fellow, became aware of our presence, and ordered us in no very moderate language to quit im- mediately the sacred precincts. The other sight is the fortress which Paskiewitsch took by storm ; and in consequence of this event he was surnamed ‘Erivanski.’ A Tartar bard has written a poem on this subject, which has been handed down to us by Bodenstedt in his ‘ Thousand and One Days in the East.’ The fortress rises up on the edge of the rocky bank of the Zenqui, and contains a famous hall, formerly the audience chamber of the Persian governor, and hence still called ^ Apartment of the Serdar.’ It is decorated in the Persian style, and is full of mirrors, stalactite niches, and similar ornaments. A mosque situated on the fortress is very much destroyed, but is nevertheless worthy of notice on account of the rich glazing. It appears to have served as arsenal during the siege, for the court-yard is paved with bombs; and in the in- terior of the mosque cannon-balls and shells are heaped up like potatoes in a cellar. The great attraction of the fort is the view of Mount Ararat. Although during the previous eight days I had constantly seen Mount Ararat, and gazed upon it from different points of sight, never did it appear to me to stand forth in such majestic tranquillity as at present, notwithstand- i88 Borshom to Tiflis. CH. Ill, ing tile distance of thirty-three miles which separated me from its summit. The view obtained from the Hall of the Serdar, or from the ramparts, comprises first, immediately below the spectator, the rocky ravine of the Zenqui, encircled by gardens luxuriant with verdure ; beyond that the eye ranges along the fertile plain of the Arax, dotted over with villages, until it reaches the horizon, where, without the transition of any intervening heights, the double-coned Ararat ascends into the skies. To the northward and east- ward it stands isolated ; and only to the westward is it connected with a rugged mountain chain, which, later on, follows the course of the Arax. But even this chain is separated from the Ararat by a deep indenture in the land, so that nothing practically intervenes to impair the impression created by its superb loneliness. Whilst the sharply peaked cone of the Little Ararat, although at an elevation of 12,840 feet above the level of the sea, is free from snow, the cone of the Grreat Ararat, 16,916 feet in height, donned its white perennial crown. The sides of the mountain rose up in beauti- fully bold outline to the summit, on which popular belief still fancies that the ark is resting. The only sight in Europe which can be compared to this, is the view of Mount Etna from the theatre of Taormina. We lingered on the ramparts until the last ray of the setting sun dwindled away behind the peak. For a moment the mist, ascending from the valley, veiled the mountain, but its form re-appeared pale and mys- terious in the light of the rising moon. OH. III. Excursion to the A rar at. 189 The first dawn of day found us the following morning on our way to the Ararat. Cossack horses were awaiting us at Kamarlou, the second station from Erivan, to convey us first to the monastery of Khor- wirah, which we had been strongly advised to visit, and afterwards to Aralych at the foot of the Ararat. The country along the road was one continuous garden. One village joined on to another, and the waters of the Zenqui, and of other smaller streams flowing from the north east, had been carefully utilised to irrigate and fertilise the fields. The appearance too of the villages struck us as being more prosperous. Past Kamarlou the plentiful supply of water ceased, and the tract of land extending to Khorwirab was desolate, and grown over with briars. Our escort did not, this time, con- sist of Tschapars, but of the tartar qUU of Kamar- lou, who had joined us of their own accord, and some of whom were mounted on fine horses. We especially admired a grey horse, ridden by the elder of the village, and at an amble trot this animal was not in- ferior to the horse belonging to the Grrand Duke Michael, which had excited our admiration at Bor- shom. We were very much disappointed with Khor- wirab. It lies on an isolated rocky hill close to the Arax, and offers merely an extensive view down the valley of the river as far as the country about Nachitschewan. The principal sight in the monastery is said to be the well, in which King Tiridat kept Gregorius Illuminator, the Armenian apostle, a prisoner for thirteen years, until a vision moved the former to Borshoin to Tiflis. CH. in. 190 release the apostle and to he converted to Christianity. Yet I could not help remarking that this well looked very much the same as any other well, and that if the apostle is to he regarded as one who enlightened all and everything around him, no trace remained in the well itself of its former occupant or even in the monastery. The latter place is presided over hy an archimandrite. This dignitary received us arrayed in hright-coloured Persian stockings, which ill accorded with the monk’s attire ; he was very obliging, hut could give us no information respecting art and architecture in connec- tion with the monastery, which hnilding however did not contain much of either. We were obliged to ascend the Arax about four miles to a ford, in order to reach Aralych, which is situated at a short distance on the opposite hank. The river at this point was more than a hundred paces in width, knee-deep, hut very rapid so that we had to proceed very cautiously whilst cross- ing over. As far as the eye could reach, numerous herds of oxen and hulfaloes were taking their midday bathe, visibly enjoying it. The opposite bank is in many parts marshy, owing to the bad regulations of the course of a little stream, the Kursou, the waters of which might be applied more beneficially to the fer- tilisation of the soil. Aralych lies in the plain ; and, only two miles farther on, the ascent of the Ararat com- mences. This place contains the staff residence of the Uman Cossacks, a regiment of the Kouban army. The colonel received us with the greatest amiability, and insisted on our considering his house as our head- CH. III. The A rar at. 191 quarters duriug our stay. He belonged to an old family of the Kabarda, and, although a Mahomedan, had obtained by diligent study a knowledge of the military systems existing throughout Europe, such as is seldom met with amongst Eussian officers, the guards excepted. His acquaintance with the proceed- ings of the late war, and with the organisation of the Prussian army, was so complete and minute that I was frequently embarrassed by his questions. In strict accordance with Mahomedan tenets, he refrained from giving wine at dinner, but we had served to us instead some excellent English porter, no bad substitute for the former, considering the oppressive heat of the day. The afternoon was devoted to a siesta, and we spent the fine mild evening in front of the house. Meeting our gaze, the Ararat, supremely beautiful, rose up in the moonlight. The Ararat, from its isolated position and imposing appearance, has from the earliest ages of mankind been enveloped in a haze of mysterious legends and traditions. That the ark should have rested upon its summit is com- prehensible to all who notice that no peak in the sur- rounding chain can compete with it in elevation. It must, consequently, have been the first point visible above the face of the waters. The names of numerous places in the neighbourhood bear traces of diluvian tradition. Thus Aghurri, the only village situated on the slope signifies ‘ we planted the vine ; ’ Nak- hitchevan, the spot where Noah descended into the valley, ‘ He descended first ; ’ and the name Erivan^ 192 Bor shorn to Tiflis. CH. irr. .