I^^„ " "^'T' Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from Boston Library Consortium IVIember Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/dictionaryofgeneOOcrab DICTIONARY OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE; OK, Bn ^rjjlanatioix ot ©STorCs ana ^^ixiQS CONNECTED WITH ALL THE ARTS AND SCIENCES. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS WOOD CUTS. BY GEORGE CRABB, A. M. AUTHOR OF 'ENGLISH SYNONYMES,' 'TECHNOLOGICAL DICTIONARY ' AND 'HISTORICAL DICTIONARY.' Mercury, guided by Minerva, bearing Science round the Woild. AMERICAN EDITION, WITH MANY IMPROVEMENTS. I^EW-YORK : WHITE, GALLAHER, AND WHITE. 1830. V DISTHICT OF MASSACHUSETTS, to wit: District Clerk's Office. BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the twenty-ninth day of July, A. D. 1830, in the fifty-fifth year of the Independence of the United States of America, SAMUEL G. GOODRICH of the said District, has deposited in this OiEcethe Title of a Book, the right whereof he claims as Proprietor in the woi-ds follow- ing, to wit : "A DICTIONARY OP GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ; or an Explanation of words and things. Con- nected with all the Arts and Sciences, illustrated with numerous woodcuts, by GEORGE CRABB, A. M, Author of English Synonymes, Technological Dictiouary, and Historical Dictionary. American Edition with many improvements," In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, " An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such co- pies during the times therein mentioned ;" and also to an act, entitled, " An Act supplementai-y to an act, entitled An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and hooks, to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned ; and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designixig, engraving, and etching historical and other prints.*' JNO. W. DAVIS, Clerk of the District of Massachusetta. STEllEOTYl'ED BY LYMAN TIIURSTOA & Co. ii(J& T N '. PREFACE TO THE LONDON EDITION. This volume contains definitions of all terms of art and science, with such additional explanations in some cases as serve to illustrate something more than the bare meaning of the word. It is drawn up with special regard to brevity, in order to comprehend within a convenient space all words on which the reader may wish for immediate information. To the juvenile and less informed class of readers, a work of this kind cannot fail to he acceptable, particularly as it has been so liberally supplied with illustrations by means of engravings. Although so small in bulk, yet this book will be found to contain a vast number of words which are not to be met with in any other works whatever, the expla- nation of which is nevertheless highly necessary for those who are not in the constant habit of hearing them used in ordinary discourse. Of this description are the Latin phrases now adopted into our language, as Sine qua non, Ne plus ultra, and the like. The historical essays on each science, whioh have been expressly composed for this Dictiona; . serve to show the progress of the arts and sciences irom the earliest periods to the present time. NOTE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION. The present edition of this work has undergone a care- ful revision, and such alterations, and additions have been made, as seemed necessary to render it complete, and adapt it to the United States. In the English copy, there are a multitude of local references, proper in a work designed expressly for England, but useless to the American reader. These have been expunged, and their place supplied by references to our own country. In the department of Natural History, many errors have been corrected, and many articles, particularly relating to the Zoology of the Wes- tern Hemisphere, have been added. The Zoological ar- rangement of Cuvier, which has nearly susperseded that of Linnaeus, is here introduced, it having been omitted in the English copy. Several new engravings have been added, while all the original ones are retained. The number of them all is now about five hundred. On the whole it is believed this edition will be found to possess all the advantages of the English, while in many respects it is essentially improved Boston, June 10th, 1830. DICTIONARY GENERAL KNOWLEDGE. ABA A, the first letter of the alphabet in most languages. It stands for the indefinite ar- ticle, as, a man ; for tlie sixtli note in the gamut ; for the first of the dominical letters in the calendar j as a numeral for one, among the Greeks, and 500 among the E.omans, or with a stroke over it, I, 5000j for an abbreviation, as A. M. Anno Mundi, A. B. Baccalaureus Artium, Bachelor of Arts, A. C. Ante Christum, A. D. Anno Domini ; in antiquity, A. Augustus, A. A. Augusti, A. A. A. Aurum, Argentum, Ms ; among chymists, Amalgam. AAM. A liquid measure, used by the Dutch, containing 280 pints English mea- sure. ABACUS. An instrument for calculation, consisting of a board of an oblong figure, divided by several lines or vvires, and mounted with an equal number of balls an-anged so as to express units, tens, hun- dreds, thousands, &c. The ball on the lowest Ime expresses 1 ; each of those on the second line, 10, &c.; those in the middle spaces, half as much as those on the lines above them. -#— ©- 10000 1000 100 10 1 ABAFT. The hinder part of a ship. ABAGI. A silver coin in Persia, vame about thu-ty-six sols, French money. 1 ABE ABATIS, or ABBATIS. Trees felled, and laid so as to impede the progress of an enemy. ABBESS. The governess of an abbey or convent of nuns. ABBEY. A house for religious persons, of which, in England, 490 were dissolved at the Reformation, having an annual rev- enue of 235,000Z. ABBOT. The governor of a religious house. ABBREVIATION. The contracting of a word or sentence, by omitting some of the letters. ABDOMEN. The lower part of the body ; the belly. ABDOMINALES. An order of fishes, having ventral fins placed behind the pec- toral in the abdomen, as ABDUCTION. The unlawful carrying away a person. ABERRATION. A small apparent mo- tion in the fixed stars, discovered by Mr. Molyneux and Dr. Bradley in the year 1725 ; also a deviation of the rays of light, when inflected by a lens or speculum, by 2 ABS which they are prevented meeting in the same point. ABETTOR. One who instigates another to commit a crime. ABEYANCE. The expectancy of an estate, honour, or title. ABJURATION. A declaration on oath, that the son of James II. and his issue have no right to the throne of Great Brit- ain ; also a voluntary banishment, or leav- ing the realm on oath never to return. ABLACTATION. A sort of engrafting trees, by leaving the graft on its proper stock, until it be fully incorporated with the new stock. ABLATIVE. The sixth case of nouns in gi'ammar. ABLUTION. A religious ceremony of washing the body, still used by the Turks and Mahomedans ; also the washing away the superfluous salts out of any body in chymistry. ABOLLA. A kind of military garment worn by the Greek and Roman soldiers. ABOMASUS ^(in Comparative Ana- tomy), The fourth stomach of ruminating animals. ABORIGINES. The ancient and origi- nal inhabitants of Italy, supposed to have been conducted into Latium by Saturn ; also the original inhabitants of any country. In America we call the native Indians, Aborigines. ABOUT. A sea term, signifying the sit- uation of a ship immediately after she has tacked. ABRAUM. A kind of red clay used by cabinet-makers to deepen the colom' of new mohogany. ABREAST. Side by side ; a sea term, ap- plied to two or more ships ranged together. ABRIDGING (in Algebra). The re- ducing a compound equation to a more simple form. ABRIDGMENT. The bringing the con- tents of a book within a short compass ; in Law, the shortening a count or declaration. ABSCESS. An inflammatory tumour containing purulent matter. ABSCISSE. The part of any diameter or axis of a curved Une, cut off by a per- pendicular line, called the ordhiate. ABSOLUTION. The forgiveness of sins, which the Romish Church claims to itself the power of gianting ; in Civil Law, a sentence whereby the party accused is declared innocent of the crime laid to his charge. ABSORBENTS. Medicines that have the powerofdryingup redundant humours: also what causes acids to effervesce, as quick lime, soda, &c. ACC ABSORBENT VESSELS. Vessels which carry any fluid into the blood, as the inhalent arteries. ABSORPTION (in Chymistry). The conversion of a gaseous fluid into a liquid or solid, on being united with some other solid. ABSTERGENTS. Medicines for cleans- ing the body from impurities. ABSTINENCE. An abstaining from meat diet, as practised in the Romish Church. - ABSTRACTION (in Logic). The intel- lectual act of separating accidents or qua- lities from the subjects in whicli they re- side, as whiteness from snow or a wall. Sec. ; animal from man or the brutes ; in Chymistry, the process of drawing off" by distillation any part of a compound, and returning it again any number of times to be redistilled. ABUTMENTS. The extremities of any body a)o, for tlie power 1, 2, 3, &c., and the numeral exponents 0, 1, 2, 3, &c. which lie called by the name of exponens expo- nent. He likewise uses the literal no- tation, A, B, C, D, &c. for the unknown or general quantities. John Scheubelius, who wrote about the same time as Car- dan and Stifelius, treats largely on surds, and gives a general rule for extracting tlie root of any binomial or residual, azh^j where one or both parts are surds. These writers were succeeded by Robert Recorde, a mathematician and physician of Wales, who in his works, in 1552 and 1557, on Arithmetic, showed that the sci- ence of algebra had not been overlooked in England. He first gave rules for the extracting of the roots of compound alge- braic quantities, and made use of the terms binomial and residual, and introduced the sign of equality, orzzz, Peletarius, a French algebraist, in his work, which appeared at Paris in 1558, made many improvements on those parts of algebra which had alieady been treated of. He was followed by Peter Ramus, who published his Arithmetic and Algebra in 1560 ; Raphael Bombelli, whose Algebra appeared at Bologna in 1579 ; and Simon Steven, of Bruges, who published his Arithmetic in 1585, and his Algebra a little after. This latter invented a new cha- racter for the unknown quantity, namely, a small circle (o)? within which he placed the numeral exponent of the power ; and also denoted roots, as well as powers, by numeral exponents. The algebraical works of Vieta, the next most distinguished alge- braist, appeared about the year 1600, and contain many improvements in the methods of working algebraical questions. He uses the vowels A, E, I, O, Y, for the un- known quantities, and the consonants, B, C, D, &c. for the known quantities ; and introduced many terms which are in pre- sent use, as coefficient, affirmative and negatiye, pure and adfected, (fcc: also the line, or vinculum, over compound quanti- ties (AtB). Albert Girard, an ingenious Flemish mathematician, was the first per- son who, in his Invention Nouvelle en I'Algebre, &c. printed in 1629, explained the general doctrine of the formation of the coefficients of the powers from the sums of their roots, and their products. He also first understood the use of negative roots, in the solution of geometrical pro- blems, and first spoke of imaginary roots, &.C. The celebrated Thomas Harriot, whose work on this subject appeared in 1631, in- troduced the uniform use of the letters a, b, c, &c. ; that is the vowels a, e, and for the unknown quantities, and the con- sonants, 6, c, d, &c. for tlie known quan- tities ; these he joins together like the letters of a word, to represent the multipli- cation or product of any number of these literal quantities, and prefixing the numeral coefficient, as is usual at present, except being separated by a point, thus 5.bbc. For a root he sets the index of the root after the mark^ , as ^3 for the cube root, and introduces the characters \ and <^^ for gi-eater and less ; and in the reduction of equations he arranged the operations in separate steps or lines, setting the expla- nations in the margin, on the left hand, for each line. In this manner he brought algebra nearly to the form which it nov.' bears, and added also much information on the subject of equations. Oughtred,in his Clavis, which was first published in 1631, set down the decimals without their denominator, separating them thus 21(56. In algebraic multiplications he either joins the letters which represent the factors, or connects them with the sign of multiplica- tion -J^, which is the first introduction of this character. He also seems to have first used points to denote proportion, as 7 . 9 :: 28 . 36 ; and for continued proportion has the mark ~ . In his work we likewise meet with the first instance of applying algebra to geometry, so as to investigate new geometrical properties : which latter subject is treated at large by Descartes, in his work on Geometrj-, published in 1637, and also by several other subsequent wri- ters. Wallis, in his Arithmetica Infinito- rum, first led the way to infinite series, particularly to the expression of the qua- drature of the circle by an infinite series. He also substituted the fractional exponents in the place of radical signs, wliich in many instances facilitate the operations. Huy- gens, Ean-ow, and other mathematicians, 14 ALL emplo3'ed the algebraical calculus in resol- ving many problems which had liitherto baffled mathematicians. Sir Isaac New- ton, in his Arithmetica Universalis, made many improvements in analytics, which subject, as well asthe theory of infinite se- ries, was further developed by Halley, Ber- noulli, Taylor, Maclaurin, Nicole, Stirling, De Moivre, Clairaut, Lambert, Waring, Euler, &c. ALGOL. A fixed star of the second magnitude in the constellation of Perseus, or Medusa's Head. ALGORITHM. An Arabic word, fre- quently used to denote the practical rules of algebra. ALIAS (in Law). A word signifying, literally, otherwise ; and employed in de- scribing the defendant, who has assumed other names besides his real one. ALIBI (in Law). A term signifying, literally, elsewhere ; and used by the de- fendant in a criminal prosecution, when he wishes to prove his innocence, by show- ing that he was in another place, or else- where, when the act was committed. ALICONDA. An Ethiopian tree, from the bark of which Mx is spun. ALIEN (in Law). One born in a foreign country. An alien is incapable of inheriting lands until he is naturalized by an act of the legislature. He has likewise no right to vote at elections, or to enjoy any office, nor to be returned on any jury , unless where an alien is to be tried. ALIMONY (in the Civil Law). The allowance made to a married woman upon her separation from her husband. ALiaUANT PARTS. Such numbers in arithmetic as will not divide or measure a whole number exactly, as 7, which is the aliquant part of 16. ALiaUOT PARTS. Such part of a number as will divide or measure a whole number exactly, as 2 the aliquot part of 4, 3 of 9, and 4 of 16. ALKALI or ALCALI. A perfectly pure salt, which combines with acids so as to neutralize or impair their activity, and produces salt3. Besides, alkalies change the purple colour of many vegetables to a green, the reds to a purple, and the yellows to a brown. Some alkalies are called fixed, because they remain fixed in the fire, as potash and soda; others are volatile, as ammonia. ALL All. The Arabian name of God. ALLEGIANCE (in Law). The faithful obedience which every subject owes to his prince ; the oath of allegiance is that which every person is required to take before he enters on any office. ALL ALLEGORY. A series or chain of me- taphors continued through a whole dis- course ; thus the prophets represent the Jews under the allegory of a vine, planted, cultivated, and watered by the hand of God. ALLEGRO. An Italian word used in music, to denote that the part is to be play- ed in a brisk and sprightly manner. ALLIGATION. A rule in arithmetic, teaching how to compound several ingre- dients for any design proposed. It is either medial or alternate. Alligation medial is the method of finding the rate or quality of the composition from having the rates or qualities of the several ingi-edients, as to find the value of brandy per gallon, which is composed of 10 gallons at 24s. per gal- lon, 12 at 305. per gallon, &c. Alligation alternate is the method of finding the quan- tities of ingredients necessary to form a compound of a given rate, as to find how gold of various degrees of fineness, that is of 19, 21, and 23 carats fine, &c. may be mixed together so that the mixture may be 20 carats fine. Questions of this kind are better solved by algebra. ALLIGATOR. An amphibious animal, abounding in both North and South Amer- ica in the torrid zone, and sometimes grows to the length of 18 or 20 feet. The Alligator is found in the lower parts of the Mississippi, but it is more common in the large rivers of South America. It is called Cayman by the Indians. It resembles the Crocodile of Africa and Asia, but it never gi-ows as large, and is beside, different in formation, and in its habits. ALLITERATION. A repeating or play- ing upon the same letter in a succession o€ words. ALLODIAL. An epithet for lands held without any acknowledgment to a lord or superior, in opposition to feudal lands. Allodial lands are exempt from rent or services. ALLOY, or ALLAY. A proportion of any baser metal mixed with one that is finer, thus the gold coin has an alloy of silver and copper, as silver has of copper ALM alone : the proportion in the former case ■for standard gold is 2 carats of alloy in a pound weight, or 22 carats fine ; in the latter case, for the silver, there are 18 dwts. of alloy in 11 oz. 2 dwts. fine. ALL SAINTS. A festival observed by some Christians on the first day of Novem- ber, in commemoration of all the saints. ALLSPICE, or the Pimento Tree. A beautiful tree of Mexico and the West In- dies, the fruit of which is highly aromatic. The tree is about 30 feet in height, and 2 in circumference ALT 15 ALLUVION. A gradual increase ofland washed to the shore by inundations. Al- luvial formations are also to be found in valleys and plains, by the deposit of gi-avel, loam, clay, or other earths washed down from the mountains. ALMAGEST. The name of a celebrated book on astronomy, composed by Ptolemy. ALMA MATER. The name given to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, En- gland, by their several members who have passed their degrees in each of these uni- versities. The same is done by the Am- erican Colleges. ALMANAC. A calendar or table con- taining a list of the months and days, with gn account of the rising and setting of the sun and moon, and other incidental mat- ters. The English Nautical Almanac, or Astronomical Ephemeris, is a kind of na- tional almanac, begun in 1767, under the direction and by the advice of the astrono- mer royal, the late Rev. Dr. Haskelyne. Besides most things essential to general use, which are found in other almanacs, it contains many new and important matters, particularly the distance of the moon from the sun and fixed stars, computed to the meridian of Greenwich, for every three hours of time, for the purpose of computing the longitude at sea. This almanac is generally computed a few years forward, for the convenience of ships going out upon long voyages. A similar work is published in the United States. The American Al- manac, first published at Boston in 1830, embraces a great mass of statistical know- ledge, beside that usually given inanalma^ nac. ALMOND. The fruit of the almond tree, which is a nut, and is either sweet or bit^ ter. ALMOND TREE. A tall tree, resem- bling the peach tree, which flourishes in Asia and the southern parts of Europe. It is one of the first trees that bloom in Spring. ALMONER. In England an ecclesiasti- cal officer of the king, appointed to distrib- ute the king's alms to the poor every day. ALOE. A tree which originally came from India, is remarkable for a bitter juice, called aloes, which is extracted from its leaves, and is very useful in medicine. The aloe soccotrina is a European species much cultivated in Spain. ALPHA. The first letter in the Greek alphabet, which with the second letter, be- ta, forms the word alphabet. ALPHABET. A series of the several letters in a language, which vary in num- ber in difierent languages. The Hebrew contains 22 letters, as also the Chaldee, Samaritan, Syriac, Persian, ^thiopic, Sa/. racen, &c. ; but the Irish, which is the same as the Pelasgian, or Scythian, still retains only 17 ; the Greek alphabet, which was brought by Cadmus into Greece from Phoe- nicia, and was also Pelasgian in its origin- al, consisted of 16 or 17, to which were af- terwards added 7 or 8 more, to make up 24. The ancient Arabic alphabet consisted of 24, to which 4 more letters have since been added ; the Coptic alphabet consists of 32, the Turkish of 33, the Georgian of 36, the Russian of 39, the Spanish of 27, the Ital- ian of 20, the Latin of 22, the French of 23, and the English of 26. See more on this subject under the head of Writing. The Chinese have no proper alphabet, unless we reckon as such their keys to classes of words, distinguished by the number of strokes combined in each, of which they have 214 in number. As to the written characters of these alphabets, see Writing. ALT. That part of the great scale of sounds lying between F above the treble clift^note, and G in altissimo. ALTAR. Atable orraised place on which any offering was made to the Almighty. The first altar mentioned is that built by 16 ALT Noah after the flood. The two principal altars of the Jews were the altar of burnt offerings and the altar of incense. ALTERNATION. A rule in arithmetic showing the different ways in which any number of quantities may be changed or combined. ALTIMETRY. The art of measuring altitudes or heights. ALTITUDE. The height of an object, or its elevation above that plane to which the base is referred ; thus in mathematics the altitude of a figure is the perpendicular or nearest distance of its vertex from the base. The altitude of an object is the ele- vation of an object above the plane of the horizon, or a perpendicular let fall to that plane, as a perpendicular let fall from a tower. Altitudes are either accessible or inacces- sible. An accessible altitude of an object Is that whose base we can have access to, so as to measure the distance between it and the station ft-om which the measure is to be taken. Inaccessible altitude is when tlie base of the object cannot be approached. Inacces- sible altitudes may be measured either by AMA geometry, trigonometry, optical reflection, or by the barometer. The altitudes of mountains may be determined best by the barometer, for as the weight of the atmos- phere diminishes as we rise, the fall of the barometer determines the elevation of any place. The altitude of the pyramids in Egypt was measured in the time of Thales, by means of their shadow and a pole set upright beside them, making the altitudes of the pole and pyramid to be proportional to the length of their shadows. The in- struments now commonly used in measur- ing altitudes are the geometrical square, the quadrant, and theodolite. ALTITUDE (in Optics). The height of an object above a line drawn parallel to the horizon from the eye of the observer. ALTITUDE OF THE EYE (in Per_ spective). The perpendicular height of the eye above the geometrical plane. ALTITUDE OF A STAR, &c. (in As- tronomy). The height of any star, &c- above the horizon, or an arc of a verticls circle, intercepted between the star and the horizon. This altitude is either true or ap- parent, according as it is reckoned from the rational or sensible horizon, and the differ- ence between these two is termed by as- tronomers the parallax of altitude. ALTO ( in Music books). Italian for the upper or counter tenor, and is common in music of several parts. ALUM. A mineral salt, composed of sulphuric acid , potash, alumina, and water- It is of a white colour, and of an astringent acid taste ; natural alum, which was well known to the ancients, is a kind of whitish friable stone, formerly found in the island of Melos, Macedonia, Egypt, &c. Facti- tious alum is commonly made of a stone, of seaweed, and of urine. It is known by the names of rock or English alum, which is colourless ; and Roman alum, which is of a reddish colour. ALUM EARTH. The earth from which alum is extracted. ALUMINA, or ALUMINE. The earth of alum, an argillaceous, soft, and insipid sort of earth, which is the base of alum, being' the principal part of clay. ALUM WATER. A preparation used by painters in water colour, prepared by dissolving alum in water. A. M. An abbreviation for Anno Mundi, the year of I lie world, and Magister Artiuni, master of arts. AMALGAM, or AMALGAMA. The mixture of mercury with some other metal- Amalgams are used either to render a metal fit to bo spread on some works, as in gilding,^ AME or else to reduce the metal to a subtle powder. An amalgam of tin and mercury is used for looking glasses. AMALGAMATION. The operation of mixing quicksilver with some other metal, by fusing the metal, and in that state add- ing a portion of mercury to it. Gold of all metals unites best with mercury, next to that silver, then lead, tin, and every other metal, except iron and copper, the last of which admits scarcely any of such amalgamation. AMANUENSIS. A slave among the Romans, who used to be employed in writing for his master 5 also any one among the moderns who is employed to transcribe for another. AMARANTH. A plant which flourishes in the Indies and South America, remark- able for the lasting beauty of its flowers. AMATEUR, One who follows a parti- cular art or profession not for gain but for pleasure. AMBASSADOR. One appointed by a sovereign power to represent him, and su- perintend his aftairs at a foreign court. AMBER. A hard, brittle, tasteless sub- stance, mostly semitransparent, or opaque, and of a glossy surface. It is highly elec- tive, and if a piece be kindled it burns to the end with pungent white vapours, with- out melting. AMBERGRIS. A solid sebaceous or fat substance, found floating in the sea, near the coasts of various tropical countries. It is supposed to be the excrement of the spermatic whale, having frequently been met with in the intestines of that fish. AMBER TREE. A shrub, the beauty of whicli lies in its small evergreen leaves^ these grow as close as heath, and when rubbed emit a fragrant odour. AMBIDEXTER. A person who can use both hands with equal facility. AMBUSCADE. A place where soldiers lie concealed, in order to surprise an enemy. AMENDE. A pecuniary punishment im- posed, according to the customs of France, by a judge, for any false prosecution or groundless appeal. AMENDE HONORABLE. An Infa- mous kind of pimishment formerly inflicted in France on traitors, parricides, or sacri- legious persons, who were to go naked to the shkt, with a torch in their hand, and a rope about their neck, into a church or a court, to beg pardon of God, the court, and the injured party. AMENTACE^. A natural order of plants, bearing catkins, as the poplar, ha- zel, beech, &c. AMERCEMENT. A pecuniary punish- 2* AMP 17 meat imposed on offenders at the mercy of the court ; it is contracted from the Latin words a misericordia, which signify lite- rally /ro?re or at the mercy. Amercements differ from fines, in as much as the latter are defined, and the former are proportion- ed to the fault, or more properly at the dis- cretion of the coui-t. AMERICAN ELK. A noble animal of the deer kind. AMETHYST. A gem of great hardness and brilliancy, and of various colours, but mostly purple or violet. It comes from India, and is used in medicine as an as» tringent. AMIANTHUS. An incombustible mine- ral flax, which may be drawn into threads and wove into cloth. It is mostly fbund among rocks. AMMON. The title under which Jupiter was worshipped in Libya, where a temple v/as erected to him, from which oracles were delivered for many ages. AMMONIA. A volatile alkali, which, when in its purest state, exists only in the form of a gas. It forms a liquid when cooled, and is known by the name of harts- horn, because it is obtained from distilling the horn of the hart. It may also be ob- tained from urine and camel's dung by distillation. AMMONIAC, or GUM AMMONIAC. A resinous substance brought from the East Indies in drops or granules. The best kind is of a yellowish colour without and white within, AMMONITJ3 SNAKE STONE. A sort of fossil shells, made up of small cir- cles, like those of a snake rolled up. AMMUNITION. A general term for all warlike stores, but more especially powder, balls, guns, &c. AMNESTY. An act of pardon granted by a prince to his subjects for former offen- ces, as the amnesty granted by Charles II, at the Restoration. AMPHIBIA. A class of animals which live equally well in air or water, such as the phocce, or seal tribe, frogs, lizards, crocodiles, eels, water sei-pents, snakes. They are remarkable for their tenacity of 18 ANA life J some will continue to move even wlien the head is cut oft'. AMPHISCII. A name applied by geogra- phers to the inhabitants of the torrid zone. AMPHITHEATRE. A circular building among the ancients, having seats entirely around, and an area in the middle, where spectacles were exhibited. Some of these, as the Colisosum in Rome, could contain from 50,000 to 80,000 persons. AMPLIFICATION(withRhetoricians). An amplifying or enlarging upon an argu- ment, either by aggravating or extenuating a crime, heightening an eulogium, or en- larging a narration, by an enumeration of circumstances, so as to excite proper emo- tions in the audience. AMPLITUDE. An arch of the horizon, Intercepted between the east or west points and the centre of the sun or stars at their rising and setting. It is called orti^e, or eastern amplitude, when the star is rising ; and occiduous, or western, when the star is setting. AMPLITUDE MAGNETICAL. Is an arc of the horizon, contained between the sun or a star at its rising and setting, and the magnetical east or west point of the hori- zon, indicated by the magnetical compass, or the amplitude or azimuth. AMPUTATION (in Surgery). The cut- ting off a limb or other part of the body with an instrument. AMULET. A supposed charm or pre- servative against witchcraft, mischief, or diseases. Amulets consist of stone, metal, simples, or whatever else the fancy sug- gested ; sometimes words or sentences might be employed in this manner. AMZEL. A bird of the blackbird kind, belonging to the same genus, morula, in the Linnfean system. The ring-amzel is remarkable for having a fine broad white ring at the lower part of its throat. ANA. A name given to amusing mis- cellanies, consisting of anecdotes, traits of character, and incidents relating to any person or subject. ANABASIS. The title of Xenophon's description of the younger Cyrus's expedi- tion against his brother, in which the wri- ter bore a principal part. ANACHRONISM. An error in chrono- logy, as when an event is related to have happened in tlie reign of a certain prince, which happened either before or after. ANACLASTICS. Another name for dioptrics, or that branch of optics which relates to refracted light. ANACREONTIC VeRSE. A sort of verse so called from the Greek poet Anac- reon, by whom it was first used. It con- ANA sists of three feet, generally spondees and iambic. It is adapted to soft and tender subjects. ANAGRAM. The transposition of the letters of one word so as to form another, as amor changed into Roma. ANALEMMA. A projection of the sphere on the plane of the meridian, orthographi- cally made by straight lines and ellipses, the eye being supposed at an infinite dis- tance, in an equinoctial point. ANALEMMA. Is also an instrument, a kind of astrolabe, made either of brass or wood, with an horizon fitted to it ; it is used for finding the time of the sun's rising or setting, the length of the longest day, &c. The most ancient treatise on this in- strument was written by Ptolemy, and published in 1562, with a Commentary by Commandine. Other authors, as Aqui- lonius, Jacquet, Deschales, &c. have since written on the same instrument. ANALOGY. The relation which things bear, or are supposed to bear, to each other, from their resemblance or proportion to one another ; as the analogy between animals and plants, from which a similar treatment of them in many cases may be inferred. Analogy is one of the principal grounds of reasoning in matters of experience. ANALYSIS (in Logic). The resolution or unfolding of any thing, so as to discover its component parts as opposed to synthesis. Analysis is the method of finding out truth, and synthesis is the method of explaining that truth to others. Amongmathematicians it is the art of discovering the truth or false- hood of a proposition, by supposing the question to be solved, and then examining the consequences, till some truth is disco- vered, or the absurdity and impossibility of the proposition is discovered. The analysis of finite quantities is properly called spe- cious arithmetic, or algebra ; the analysis of infinite quantities is tJie method of fluxions or ditt'erential calculus. ANALYSIS (in Chymistry). Is the de- composition of bodies, as vegetables and minerals, to discover their component parts. ANALYTICS. A name given to algebra, being nothing else but a general analysis of pure mathematics ; or else because it teaches how to solve questions, and demon- strate theorems, by searching into the fun- damental nature and frame of the thing, wliich is, as it were, resolved into parts, or taken to pieces, and tlien put together again. ANAMORPHOSIS (in Perspective and Painting). A monstrous projection, or re- presentation of an image on a plane or curve surface, which beheld at a certain ANA distance shall appear regular and in pro- portion. ANA 19 k# ?^ m 9,^ ^ M ^ ^. ANAPAEST. A metrical foot, having the two first short and the last long (" "" ~), as pietas. ANARCHY. A society without a govern- ment, or where there is no supreme gov- ernor. ANATHEMA. In the general sense, a religious curse ; in the particular sense, ecclesiastical excommunication. ANATOMY. The act of dissecting bo- dies for the purpose of examining their etnicture, and the nature, uses, and func- tions of their several parts ; also the know- ledge of the human body derived from such dissections and examinations ; when ap- plied to animals it is termed Comparative Anatomy. In the science of anatomy, the body is divided into the head, trunk, and extremities, and is composed of solids and fluids. The solids are the integuments, bones, cartilages, ligaments, membranes, vessels, muscles, nerves, and glands. The principal fluids are the blood, the chyle, the lymph, and the bile. Anatomy, from the names of the parts treated of, is divided into osteogeny, or the doctrine of the growth of the bones ; osteology, the doctrine of the bones in the adult subject ; chondrology, the doctrine of the cartilages ; syndesmo- logj', the doctrine of the ligaments ; my- ology, the doctrine of the muscles ; bursas log}', the doctrine of the bursas mucosee ; splanchnology, the doctrine of the viscera ; angeiology, the doctrine of the vessels ; adenology, the doctrine of the glands ; neurolog}', the doctrine of the nerves, &e. Anatomy, taken absolutely, applies only to the dissection of human subjects ; the dis- section and examination of brutes is called Comparative Anatomy. ANATOMY, History of. The science of anatomy was doubtless coeval with that of medicine, for the connexion between the two studies would naturally suggest to the inquirer into the diseases of the human body the necessity of becoming acquainted with its component parts. In Egj-pt, the practice of embalming rendering it neces- sary to open the body, led them first to make observations on the structure of the human frame, which was afterwards en- couraged by their kings, who ordered dead bodies to be regularly dissected for the perfection of the art 5 but, judging from some specimens which have been preserved of their anatomical observations, the sci- ence did not make any considerable progress among them. There is, however, no doubt, but they laid the foundation,and the Greeks, who derived their earliest information from them, enlarged the boundaries of the sci- ence by their researches. Hippocrates, who lived about 400 years before Christ, is the first who expressly wrote on this subject ; and the first anatomical dissection recorded was made by his friend Democritus, of Abdera. In Aristotle's works there are many minute particulars on this subject, which show that he had made the animal body his particular study. From tlie Greeks this science, after an interval of several centuries, passed again into Egypt, where, by the fostering care of the Ptolemies, it was revived and made great advances. Erastratas, the pupil and friend of Theo phrastus and Herophilus, laid the founda- tion of the famous school of anatomy at Alexandria, which v/as for many centuries in such high repute that no one Avas sup- posed qualified for the medical art, who had not studied at Alexandria. Herophi- lus is said to have dissected not less than 700 bodies, and among the rest some living subjects, but probably, as such a monstrous piece of cruelty must have defeated its own purpose, this latter part of the story is only an exaggeration. The Romans learned from the Greeks the science of anatomy, as they 20 ANATOMY did most other arts and sciences ; for the first rudiments were tauglit to them by Archagathus, a Greek physician, who first established hmiself at Rome,and afterwards by Asclepiades, who flourished in the time of Ponipey, and gained sucli repute that he was looked upon as a second Hippo- crates. He was succeeded by Cassiue, who was supposed to be the disciple of Ascle- piades, Celsus, Rufus, Pliny, Coelius Aure- lianus, and Aratseus, whose works abound with anatomical observations, and prove that, although their researches were not deep, their attention was drawn towards the subject. This is also still more evident from the works of Galen, who, in point of accuracy and minuteness of detail, sur- passed all that went before him, and also all that followed him until within the last three centuries. The Arabians and Sara- cens, on the decline of the empire, took the place of the Greeks and Romans in the cultivation of the sciences, but as by the tenets of their religion they were prohibited from touching dead bodies, and conse. quently could not practice dissection, they were obliged to content themselves with commenting upon Galen. To eftect this object, we find that Abdollatiph, a teacher of anatomy in the thirteenth century, ex- amined and demonstrated the structure of the bones by going to the burying grounds ; and by that means he detected some errors In Galen. Although the Europeans were not under the same restrictions, yet during the middle ages it is certain that the science of anatomy made no advances. The best trea- tise then extant, which gained the author great repute, and was the standard book ill the schools, was that of Mundinus, which appeared in 1315, yet this was nothing but an abstract of Galen. On the expulsion of the Moors, the prejudice against dissec- tion abated, and copies of the Greek authors having found their way into Europe after tlie sacking of Constantinople, the study of anatomy revived considerably in the fif- teenth century. Among the Italians, Achil- linus Benedictus, Berengarius, and Massa added to the stock of anatomical knowledge by discoveries of their own from dissections. But the most distingviished names among the anatomists of that period.are tliose who flourished in the following century, namely, Vesalius, a native of Brussels, Sylvius in France, Columbus, Fallopius, and Eusta- chius in Italy, wlio, contrary to tlie prac- tice of Galen, drew their observations from the human body, rather than from that of the brutes. Vesalius gave the names to the muscles, most of wliich are retained to this day. Gabriel Fallopius, in his treatise en- titled Observationes Anatomicoe, published in 1561, improved upon the descriptions of Vesalius. The Opuscula AnatomicaofBar- tliolomffius Eustachius, published in 1563, have ever been admired for the correctness and exactness of their descriptions. His plates, which were intended for a large and complete work on the subject, were not published until 150 years after, when being found in an old cabinet, they were edited by Lancisi, the pope's physician,who added a short explanatory text, because that of Eustachius could not be found. The next in the list of distinguished anato- mists must be reckoned Harvey, who, after having studied in Italy under Fabricius ab Aquapendente, was led by the writings of his master to consider the manner in which the blood was circulated over the whole body, and the offices of the several vessels. Fabricius published an account of the valves which he discovered in the veins. This discovery affected the established doctrine of all ages, that the veins carried the blood from the liver to all parts of the body for nourishment ; and Harvey was led by this to consider more narrowly the functions of the heart and the vascular system. The result of his investigation was, that the heart is the gi-and reservoir of the blood, that the arteries, which had hitherto been considered as air vessels, were the channels by whicli it was conveyed to all parts of the body, and the veins were the channels by which it was carried back to the heart. His doctrine at first met with considerable opposition, but farther researches put it at length beyond all question, and led to other discoveriesof considerable importance. The lacteals, or vessels which carry the chyle to the intestines, were discovered by As- celius, an Italian ; the thoracic duct by Pecquet, in 1651 ; the lymphatics by Tho- mas BartJioline, a Danish anatomist ; be- sides numerous other discoveries which were made by the help of magnifying glas- ses. These were first brought into use by Malpighi, after by Laurentius Bellinus, a distinguished anatomist of Italy, Swam- merdam. Van Horn, De Graaf, and other Dutch anatomists, particularly Antonius Liewenhoeck, of Delft, who improved on Malpighi's use of microscopes, and succeed- ed in discovering globules in the blood, animalculae in the semen, and many other particulars which had hitherto escaped no- tice. From this time the science of anato- my made prodigious advances towards ac- curacy, so that each particular part has fur- nished matter for the labours of celebrated anatomists. The figures ofthe bones have been given in four large folio volumes, by AND Albinus, Cheselden, Trews, &c. ; those of the muscles are given in two large folios, by Cowper and Albinus, the latter of which are particularly admired for their correct- ness. Haller has published a folio on the blood vessels, Dr. Munro, junior, on the nerves, Albinus, Roederer, and Hunter on the gravid uterus, Weibrecht and others an the joints and fresh bones, Soemmering on tlie brain, Zinn on the eye, Cotunnius Mickel, junior, and others on the ear, Walter on the nerves of the thorax and abdomen, Munro on the bursEe mucosae, besides the several systems of anatomy from the pens of Albinus, Keil, Cheselden, Hunter, Munro, Douglas, Fife, Winslow, &c. ANCESTRY. The line of ancestors or forefathers from which any person is de- scended, ANCHOR. An instrument for holding a ship in the place where she should ride. ANG 21 ANCHORAGE. The ground that is fit for holding the anchor ; also the duty taken of ships for the use of the haven where they cast anchor. ANCHORET. A hermit, or one who retired from the world, and lived in per- fect solitude. ANCHOVY. A small seafish much used in sauce ; it is so like the common sprat, that the latter is often pickled and sold tinder its name. ANDANTE (in Music). Italian for ex- act and just time in playing, so as to keep the notes distinct from each other. ANDROIDES (in Mechanics). A term used to denote an automaton in the figure of a man, which, by means of certain springs and other mechanical contrivances, is enabled to walk, and perform other actions of a man. The most celebrated of these automatons which have been exhib- ited in modern times are the flute-player of M. Vancanson, exhibited at Paris, the chess- player of M. de Kemplin of Presburg, and the chess-player who lately performed won- ders in that game in London. The con- struction of these automatons is at present a secret. ANDROMEDA. A small northern con- stellation consisting of sixty-three stars, ANEMOMETER. An instnmient used for measuring the force and velocity of the wind. ANEMONE. A ■beautiful flower origi- nally brought from the east, but now much cultivated in our gardens. The word sig- nifies properly wind-flower, because it was supposed that it opened only when the wind blew. ANEMOSCOPE, A machine showing from what point of the compass the wind blows. ANEURISM. A diseased swelling of an artery, attended with a continued pulsa- tion. ANGEL. Literally, a messenger ; par- ticularly, the heavenly messengers sent by God as ministers to execute his commands. ANGEL. A gold coin, in value ten shil- lings, having the figure of an angel stamped upon it, in commemoration of the saying of Pope Gregory, that the English were so beautiful that they would be Angeli, not Angli, if they were Christians, ANGIOSPERMIA. A term in the Lin- nsean system for such plants of the class Didynamia as have their seeds enclosed in a capsule or seed-vessel, ANGLE, The inclination of two lines meeting one another in a point, which lines are called the legs ; when the lines meet perpendicularly it is a right angle, as A, B, C 5 when they meet so as to make the angle less than a right angle, it is called acute, as A, B, D ; and when they make the angle gi-eater, it is called an obtuse an- gle, as A, B, E. ANGLER, A singular fish, also known at present by the name of the fishing frog, from the resemblance which it bears to that animal in the state of a tadpole, ANGLICAN CHURCH, That form of doctrine and discipline which is established in England, and serves for the government 22 ANN of the whole Christian church in that coun- try. Its doctrines are comprehended within thirtjr-nine articles, and its government, which is episcopal, consists of two arch- bishops and twenty-four bishops, together with the different orders of inferior clergj^ The same Church is established in Anieri- ca, but is independent of that of England. The members of this church are called Episcopalians. ANGLICISM. An idiom or manner of speech peculiar to the English, and tlieir descendants. ANGLING. The art of fishing with a rod, to which are attached a line, hook, and bait. Anglers look for breams in the deepest water, for eels under banks, for chub in deep shaded holes, for perch and roach in ponds, and for trout in quick streams. The best months for angling are from April to October ; the time of the day early in the morning, or in the evening of hot days. Fish bite freely in cloudy warm weather, but not at all when it is cold and stormy. Fish ought to be fed on corn boil- ed soft, garbage, worms chopped to pieces, or grains steeped in blood. If you fish in a stream, it is best to cast in the grains above the hook. ANIMAL. A living body endued with sensation and spontaneous motion ; in its limited sense, any irrational creature, as distinguished from man. ANIMALCULE. Animals so minute OS not to be the immediate object of our senses. They are seen only by the help of the microscope. ANIMAL KINGDOM. One of the three principal divisions into which all organized bodies are divided by Linnasus. It com- prehends six classes of animals; namely, Mammalia, or such as suckle their young, mostly quadrupeds ; Aves, birds , which aj-e oviparous ; Amphibia, amphibious ani- mals ; Pisces, fishes, such as live only in water, and are covered with scales ; Insec- ta, insects, which have few or no organs of sense, and a bony coat of mail ; Vermes, worms, which have mostly no feet. ANIME, or GUM ANIME. A resinous substance imported from New Spain and the Brazils. ANNALS. A species of histor}', in which events are related in the exact order of chronology. ANNEALING. The process of heating steel and other metal bodies, and then suffering them to cool again gradually. ANNOTTO. A kind of red dye brought from the West Indies. It is procured from the pulp of the seed capsules. ANNUAL. An epithet for whatever ANT happens every year, or lasts a year. An annual, in Botany, is a plant wliich dies within the year. ANNUITY. The periodical payment of money, either yearly, half yearly, or quar- terly ; for a determinate period, as ten, fifty, or a hundred years ; or for an inde- terminate period, dependant on a certain contingency, as the death of a person ; or for an indefinite term, in which latter case they are called perpetual annuities . ANNULET. A small square member in the Doric capital. ANNUNCIATION. The deliveiy of a message, particularly the angel's message to the Virgin Mary, concerning the birth of our Saviour. The festival in commeni- oration of that event is called Lady Day. ANODYNES. Medicines so called be- cause they ease pain and procure sleep, such as the medicinal preparations of the poppy. ANOMALISTICAL YEAR (in Astro- nomy). The time that the earth takes to pass through her orbit. ANOMALOUS VERBS (in Grammar). Verbs which are not conjugated regularly. ANOMALY. In a general sense, irregu- larity ; in Astronomy, the irregularity in the motion of a planet. ANSER. A star of the fifth magnitude in the milky way. ANSERES. The third order of birds in the Linneean system, including such as have the bill somewhat obtuse, covered with a skin, and gibbous at the base, as the goose, duck, swan, &c. ^^^^^^^^^^ ANT. A gi'egarious and proverbially industrious tribe of insects, which are di- vided into males, females, and neutrals- Their houses are curiously constructed, and divided into chambers, magazines, &c. ANTxlRCTlC (in Astronomy). The name of a circle of the sphere, which is opposite to the arctic or northern pole. It is nearly 23 and a half degi-ees distant from ANT the south pole, which is also called the an- tarctic pole. ANT-EATER. An animal of South America, that has a large slender tongue, which it allows to get covered with ants, ajid then quickly draws it in. ANTECEDENT. The word in grammar to which the relative refers ; as God, whom we adore, the word God is the ante- cedent. ANTEDATE. A date that precedes the real one ; as the antedate of a bill, that which is earlier than the time when it is drawn. ANTEDILUVIANS. Persons living be- fore the deluge. ANTELOPE. A beautiful quadruped, of which there are many varieties. Ante- lopes are singularly swift in their motion, and in general natives of hot climates, particularly in Africa and Asia. Europe has but two species, and America but one ; it is called the Prong-horned Antelope. AOR 23 ANTENNAE. The horns or feelers of insects which project from their ; heads, and serve them in the sense of feeling and seeing. ANTHEM. A sacred composition used as a part of Christian worship. ANTHER. A part of the stamen of a flower which is at the top of the filament. It contains the pollen or farina, which it emits or explodes when ripe. ANTHOLOGY. A collection of choice poems, particularly a collection of Greek epigrams so called. ANTHROPOPHAGI. Another name for cannibals, or men eaters. ANTIDOTE. A counterpoison, or any medicine generally that counteracts the effects of what has been swallowed. ANTIMONY. A metallic, solid, heavy, brittle substance, which is very seldom found pure, but mostly mixed with other metals. In its pure state it is called the regulus of antiinony. Crude antimony, in commerce, is a metallic ore, consisting of the metal called antimony combined with sulphur. ANTINOMIANS. An ancient sect, who maintained that faith, without good works, was sufficient for salvation. This sect has been revived since the Reformation. ANTIPODES. Persons so named in geography, who live diametrically opposite to one another, as it were feet to feeL They have equal latitudes, the one north^ and the other south ; but opposite longi- tudes, consequently when it is day to the one it is night to the other, and when summer to the one winter to the other. ANTiaUARY. One who searches after the remains of antiquity. The monks who were employed in making new copies of old books were formerly called antiquariL ANTISCII (in Geography). People who live on different sides of the equator, and have their shadows at noon fall directly opposite ways. ANTISEPTICS. Substances which re. sist putrefaction. ANTITHESIS. A figure of speech, in which contraries are put in contrast with each other, as, He gained by losing, and by falling rose. ANTOECI (in Geography). People who live under the same meridian, east or west, but under opposite parallels of latitude ; they have their noon or midnight at the same hour, but their seasons contrarj'. ANVIL. An iron instrument, on which smiths hammer their work. It is usually mounted on a wooden block. AORTA, otherwise called Magna Ar- TERiA. The great artery proceeding from the left ventricle of the heart, from which all the other arteries proceed mediately or immediately. It is distinguished into 24 API the descending or ascending, according to tlie manner in which it runs. APATITE. Phosphate of lime ; a mine- ral which occurs in tin veins, and is found in Cornwall and Germany. APE. The name of a tribe of animals of the monkey kind which are without tails, imitative, chattering, full of gesticu- lations, thievish, and mischievous. APERIENTS. Opening medicines. APETALOUS ( in Botany). A term for plants whose flowers have no flower leaves or corolla 5 as the hippuris, or fox tail grass. APEX. A little woollen tuft on the cap of the flamen, or high priest, among the ancients. APEX (in Mathematics). The angular point of a cone or conic section. At P. G. An abbreviation for Professor of Astronomy in Gresham College, Eng- land. APHiERESIS (in Grammar) The taking away a letter or syUable from a word. APHELION. That point at which the earth, or any planet, is at the greatest dis- tance from the sun. APHIS. The plant louse ; an extensive geiius of the hemiptera order. APHORISM. A brief sentence in science, comprehending some experimen- tal trutli, as the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, &c. APIARY. A place where bees are kept, which should be selected with great care, observing that it face the south, be defen- ded from high winds, and not within the sphere of offensive smells, or liable to the attacks of hornets, or any other hostile vermin. APIS. The bee ; a genus of insects of the order hymenoptera. APIS. An Egyptian deity, worshiped under the form of an ox. APO APOCOPE ( in Grammar). Tlie cutting off" the last letter or syllable of a word. APODAL. The first order of fishes in the Linntean system, having no ventral fins, as the eel, the wolf fish, the sword fish, the lance, &c. APOGEE. That point of the orbit at which the sun, moon, or any planet is most distant from the earth. This term, as well as the perigee, was most in use among the ancients ; modern astronomers, making the sun the centre of the universe, mostly use the terms aphelion and perihe- lion. APOLLO. The god of medicine, music, poetiy, and the fine arts. He was the son of Jupiter and Latona, born in the island of Delos, and is commonly represented naked, with his lyre or bow. APOLOGUE. An instructive fable, or a feigned relation, intended to teach some moral truth ; as the Fables of Esop. APOPHTHEGM. A brief and pithy saying, particularly of some distinguished person. APOPLEXY. A disorder which sud- denly surprises the brain, and takes away all sense and motion. APOSTATE. One who has forsaken his religion ; particularly one who has de- serted the Cliristian profession. A POSTERIORI. A term employed in APP demonstrating a truth ; as when a cause is proved from an eftect. APOSTLES. Properly messengers or ambassadors, a term applied now particu- larly to the twelve disciples commis- sioned by our Saviour to preach the gospel to all nations. APOSTROPHE. A figure of speech, by which the orator turns from his subject to address a person either absent or dead, as if he were present. APOSTROPHE (in Grammar). A mark of contraction in a word ; thus, lov'd for loved. APOTHECARY. Properly the keeper of a medicine shop ; but more generally one who practises the art of pharmacy, or of compounding medicines. In London, apothecaries are one of the city companies, and are exempted, by stat. 9 Geo. I. from serving upon juries or in parish offices. They are obliged to make up their medi- cines according to the formulas prescribed in the college dispensatory, and are liable to have their shops visited by the censors of the college, who are empowered to des- troy such medicines as they do not think good. APOTHEOSIS. Deification, or the cer- emony of placing among the gods, which was frequent among the ancients. This honour was conferred on several of the Roman emperors at tlieir decease. APPANNAGE, or APPENNAGE. Lands set apart as a portion for the king's younger children in France. APPARATUS. A set of instruments or utensils necessary for practising any art, as a surgeon's apparatus, a chymist's appa- ratus. APPARENT (among Mathematicians). A term applied to things as they appear to us, in distinction from what they are in reality ; as the apparent distance, magni- tude, place, figure, &c. of any heavenly body, as distinguished from tlie real or true distance, &c. APPARITION (in Astronomy). The becoming visible. The circle of apparition is an imaginary line, within which the stars are always visible in any given latitude. APPEAL (in Law). The removal of a cause from an inferior to a superior court. APPEARANCE (in Law). The defend- ants appearing before the court to plead in any prosecution ; there are four ways for defendants to appear to actions ; in person, or by attorney, for persons of full age ; by guardians, or next friends, for infants. APPEARANCE (in Perspective). The projection of a figure or body on the per- APP 25 spective plane ; in Astronomy, the same as p}ii?Bnomenon, or phasis. APPELLANT, or APPELLOR. One who makes or brings an appeal ; it was formerly much used for one who brought an appeal in a criminal prosecution. APPELLATIVE (in Grammar). A noun or name applicable to a whole spe- cies or kind, as, a man, a horse. APPENDANT (in Law). Any thing inheritable that belongs to a more worthy inheritance, as an advowson, or common, which may be appendant to a manor; or land to an ofiice : but land cannot be ap- pendant to land, both being corporeal, and one thing corporeal may not be appendant to another. APPLE. A well known fruit, from which cider is made. APPLICATION. The bringing one thing nearer to another for the purpose of measuring it ; thus a longer space is meas- ured by the application of a less, as a yard by a foot or an inch. APPOSITION (in Grammar). The placing two or more substantives together, without any copulative between them, as, Cicero the orator. APPRAISING. The valuing or setting a price on goods. An appraiser is one sworn to value goods fairly. APPREHENSION. The first power of the mind, by which it simply contemplates things, without pronouncing any thing up- on them. APPRENTICE. Ayoung person bound by indentures or articles of agreement to a tradesman, or artificer, to learn his trade or mystery. By the stat. 5 Eliz. no per- son can exercise any trade in any part of England, without having served a regular apprenticeship of at least seven years. No trades, however, are held to be within the statute but such as were in being at the making of the same in the reign of Eliza- beth. No such law exists in the United States. APPROACHES (in Fortification). The works thrown up by the besiegers, in order to get nearer a fortress without being ex- posed to the enemy's cannon. APPROPRIATION. The annexing a benefice to the proper and perpetual use of a religious house, bisliopric, college, &c. so that the body or house are both patron and person, and some one of the number was appointed to officiate. At the dissolu- tion of the monasteries, the appropriations, being more than one third of all the parishes in England, were given to laymen, whence sprung most of the lay impropriations ex- isting at present : for what is called an ap- 26 AQU propriation in the hands of religious per- sons, is usually called an impropriation in the hands of laity. It is computed that there are in England three thousand eight hundred and forty-five impropriations. APPROVER (in Law). One wlio, being indicted of treason or felony, confesses him- self guilt}', and accuses others to save him- self: this is vulgarly called turning king's evidence. APPROXIMATION. In general a get- ting near to an object j in mathematics, a continual approach to a root or quantity sought, but not expected to be found, APPULSE (in Astronomy). The ap- proach of a planet towards a conjunction with the sun or any of the fixed stars. APPURTENANCES (in Law). Things corporeal and incorporeal that appertain to another thing as principal ; as hamlets to a chief manor. Outhouses, yards, orch- ards, gardens, &c. are appurtenant to a messuage. APRICOT. A fine sort of wall fruit, which requires much sun to ripen it. APRIL. The second month of Romulus' year, and the fourth of Numa'syear, which began as it does now, in January. A PRIORI. A mode of reasoning by proving the effect from the cause. APROPOS. Just in time. APSIDES. The two points in the orbit of a planet, at the greatest and least dis- tance from the sun. APTERA. The seventh order of insects, having no wings, including spiders, fleas, earwigs, &c. ; also lobsters, crabs, prawns, and sJirimps. AaUAFORTIS. A weak and impure nitric acid, commonly used in the arts. It is made of a mLxture of purified nitre, or saltpetre, vitriol, and potter's earth, in equal parts, and is distinguished into sin- gle and double, the former of which is on- ly half the strength of the latter. AaUA REGIA. Nitro-muriatic acid ; composed of a mixture of the nitric and muriatic acids, which dissolves gold. ACIUARIUS. The water-bearer, a con- stellation, and the eleventh sign in the zo- diac, commonly marked thus {:z). ARC AQUATICS. Trees or plants which grow on the banks of rivers and marshes and watery places. AaUA-TINTE. A method of etching, which is made to resemble a fine drawing in water colours. AQUEDUCT. A conduit for water by pipes. In the time of the emperor Nerva there were nine, which emptied themselves through 13,594 pipes of an inch diameter. That constructed by Louis XIV. for carry- ing the Bucq to Versailles, is 7000 fathoms long, with 2560 fathoms of elevation, and contains 242 arcades. AQUEOUS HUMOUR. The watery humour of the eye, the first and outermost, which is less dense than the crystalline. ARABIC, or GUM ARABIC. A trans- parent kind of gum brought from Arabia, which distils from a plant of the acacia species. It is used for painting in water colours, and also by calico printers and other manufacturers, but it is difficult to procure it genuine. That which is in small pieces, and of a perfectly white colour, is reckoned the best. ARABIC FIGURES, or CHARAC- TERS. The numeral characters now used in our arithmetic, which were introduced into England about the eleventh century ARBITER (in Civil Law). A judge appointed by the magistrate, or chosen by the parties to decide any point of differ- ence. An arbiter must judge according to the usages of law 5 but an arbitrator, who is a private extraordinary judge, chosen by the mutual consent of parties, is allowed a certain discretionaiy power. ARBITRATION. A mode of deciding controversies by means of arbiters or arbi- trators. (See Arbitek). ARBOR VIT^. An evergreen shrub. ARBUTUS. The strawberry-tree, A beautiful shrub, bearing a red roundish berry, ARC. Any part of a curve line, as of a circle, ellipse, &c. ARC, or ARCH DIURNAL (in Astro- nomy). That part of a circle described by a heavenly body, between its rising and setting. The nocturnal arch is that which is described between its setting and rising. ARCH (in Architecture). That part of a building which derives its name from its curved form. Some arches are semicircu- lar, wliich are called Saxon arches ; otiiers pointed, which are called Gothic. ARCH OF EQUILIBRIUM (in Bridge building). That which is in equilibrium in all its parts, and therefore equally strong throughout, having no tendency to break in one part more than another. ARC ARCHBISHOP. The chief prelate, having authority over other bishops. There are two archbishops in England ; namely, that of Canterbury, who has twenty-one bishops under him ; and that of York, who has four. ARCHDEACON. An officer in the church of England, who acts for the bishop, having a superintendant power over the clergy within his district. ARCHDUKE. One having a preemi- nence over other dukes. ARCHERY. The art of shooting with a bow ; formerly a favourite diversion among the English, who were also much skilled in it as a military exercise. The practice of archery was much encouraged by our kings. It was followed both as a recreation and a service, and Edward III. prohibited all useless games that interfered with the practice of it on holydays and other inter- vals of leisure. By an act of Edward IV. every man was to have a bow of his own height, to be made of yew, hazel, or ash , &c.; and mounds of earth were to be made in every township, for the use of the in- habitants. There were two kinds of bows in use among the English; namely, the longbow and the crossbow, those who used the long bow were called archers, in dis- tinction from the crossbowmen. The Eng- lish archers were the most skilful in Europe, and were employed in the army long after firearms were introduced. The artillery company of London is an ancient frater- nity of archers and bowmen, besides which there are several companies of archers in England, as the woodmen of Arden. ARCHITECT. One who is skilled in architecture. The architect forms plans and designs for edifices, conducts the work, and directs the artificers employed in it. ARCHITECTURE. The art of building, or the science which teaches the method of constructing any edifice for use or orna- ment. It is divided into civil, militaiy, and naval architecture, according as the erec- tions are for civil, military, or naval pur- poses. The two last kinds are otherwise called Fortification,andNaval Architecture or Shipbuilding. (See Fortification and Naval Architecture.) ARCHITECTURE, History of. The origin of civil architecture, or architecture properly so called, is commonly derived from the building of huts in a conical form, spreading wide at the bottom, and joining In a point at the top, the whole being covered with reeds, leaves, &c. But what- ever may have been the form of the first buildings, there is no doubt that the making of regular habitations v/as one of the first ARC 27 things which necessity suggested to the reason of man ; for we find that Cain, the son of Adam, built a city. Tents, or tem- porary residences, which were only suited to such as lead a wandering life, were not invented before the time of Jubal, the son of Tubal Cain ; since that time the Tartars have followed the practice, and the original inhabitants of America did the same. Every nation, in proportion to the degree of civili- sation which it has attained, has shown a disposition to exercise their ingenuity in the construction of their residences. Among the Egyptians this art was earned to an extraoi-dinary degree of perfection. Their pyramids, labyrinths, and some ruins of their palaces and other edifices are still to be seen and admired as stupendous monu- ments of their industry, perseverance, and skill. Near Andera, in Upper Egj'pt, are the ruins of a palace of gray granite, the ceilings of which are supported by columns of such thickness, that four men can scarce- ly span them. The grand hall is 112 feet long, 60 high, and 58 broad. The roof of the whole edifice is a terrace, on which once stood an Arabian village. The Babylonians and Persians vied with the Egyptians, both in the grandeur and splendour of their buildings, as may be judged from the ruins still remaining. A staircase was to be seen some time ago, having 95 steps of white marble still standing, so broad and flat, that 12 horses might conveniently go abreast. As these vast structures were not fitted for the general convenience of mankind, we must look to the Greeks for the art of architecture as it has since been exercised. From the simple construction of wooden huts,Vitruvius supposes the orders of archi- tecture took their rise. When buildings of wood were superseded by solid and stately edifices of stone, they imitated the parts which necessity had introduced into the primitive huts ; so that the upright trees, with the stones at each extremity of them, were the origin of columns, bases, and capitals ; and the beams, joists, rafters, and the materials which formed the covering, gave birth to architraves, frizes, triglyphs, cornices, with the corona, mutules, mo- dilions, and dentiles. To bring all these several parts to the state of perfection at which they arrived was the work of long experience and much reasoning, aided by the invention of many tools. The Greeks improved upon the works of the Egyptians, so as to render them, if not so durable, at least more ornamental, and perhaps more really serviceable. The construction of arches was unknown to the ancient Assy- rians and Babylonians. The roofs of their 28 ARCHITECTURE. halls were flat , and covered with prodigious- ly large stones, some of them large enough to cover the whole room. They had columns, but they were ill proportioned, and the cap- itals were badly executed. The art of pro- portioning the various parts of a building belongs,inapecuIiarmanner, to the Greeks, from whom we derive the three principal orders : at the same time it must not be denied, that the Jewish nation had earlier examples of such proportion ; and that, in all probability, the Greeks took their idea of a regular order in architecture from the temple of Solomon. In the Doric Order, which is so called from Dorus, the son of Helenus, and gi-and- son of Deucalion, the column approaches very nearly to the proportions of those to be found in Solomon's temple. This order was first employed by Dorus in the build- ing of a temple at Argos, in honour of Juno, and was formed according to the propor- tions between the foot of a man and the rest of his body, reckoning the foot to be tlie sixth part of a man's height : tliey gave to a Doric column, taking in its chapiter, six of its diameters ; that is to say, they made it six times as high as it was thick, but they afterwards added a seventh di- ameter. The Ionic Order, which takes its name from the lonians, in Upper Asia, was formed according to the proportions of a woman ; making the height of the column to be eight times greater than the diameter. They also made channeling in the trunk, to imitate the folds in the dress of a woman, and by the volutes in the chapiter they re- presented that part of the hair which hung in curls on each side of the face ; besides the lonians added a base to their column, which the Dorians originally had not. The Corinthian Order, which was poste- rior to the other two, took its rise from an accident related by Vitruvius. A basket, with a tile over it, had been placed on the tomb of a young Corinthian maid, near which grew the herb acanthus, or bear's breech. The leaves of this plant rising up to the tile,then curled themselves down into a sort of volute, which being observed by Callimachus, the sculptor, he took the idea of representing such a circle of leaves in the capital of a column, that has since been characteristic of the Corinthian Order. Sca- mozzi calls this the virginal order, because it bears all the delicacy in its dress peculiar to young virgins. The Tuscan, or Etruscan Order, derives its name from the Etruscans, or Pelasgians, who first inhabited Etruria, in Italy ; this is therefore looked upon as a Roman Order. It has the proportions of the Doric Order ; but as it is one of the plainest and simplest orders, it is in all probability one of the most ancient. Vitruvius speaks of the pro- portions of this order, but there are no certain remains of it, unless we except the Trajan and Antonine pillars at Rome. The Composite or Roman Order, is so called because it combines the proportions and decorations of the Corinthian Order with the angular volute and dentils of the Ionian, thus forming a new order, wliich was adopted by the Romans. Both the Greeks and Romans were iu the practice of using the figures of men and women instead of regular columns, whence arose the Persian or Persic Order, in wliicli the statues of men, and the Caryatic Order, in which the statues of women, served to support the entablatures, in the place of columns. The Romans had also their Ter- mini for tire support of entablatures, the upper part of which represented the head and breast of a human body, and the lower the inverted frustrum of a square pyramid. Persian figures are generally charged with a Doric entablature ; the Caryatides with an Ionic or Corinthian architrave and cor- nice ; and the Termini with an entablature of any of tlie three Grecian orders. In their private buildings the Roman architects followed the Greeks 5 but in their public edifices they far surpassed them in grandeur. Architecture was carried to its highest pitch of perfection iu the reign of Augustus. The Pantheon, one of the finest monuments of antiquity, was built by Agrippa, the son in law of Augustus. Some of his successors, particularly Trajan and Antoninus, were no less favourable to the exercise of this art ; but on the decline of the empire, architecture shared the fate of other arts, and declined also, but did not altogether drop. New modes of building were introduced, which acquired the name of styles ; as the Gothic, Saxon, and Nor- man styles. The Gothic style was so called because it was first used by the Visigoths. The Saxon and Norman styles were so called because they were respectively used by the Saxons before the Conquest, and by the Normans after, in the building of church- es. The Saxon style was distinguished by the semicircular arch, which they seem to have taken partly from the Romans, and partly from their ancestors on the conti- nent. The Norman style v/as distinguished by the following particulars: the walls were very thick, generally without buttresses ; the arches, both within and without, semi- ARC circular, and supported by veiy plain and solid columns ; of which examples are to be seen in the chancel at Orford, in Suf- folk, and at Christ Church, Canterbury. Sometimes, however, the columns were decorated with carvings of foliage or ani- mals, and sometimes with spirals, lozenge, or network. These two styles continued to be the pre- vailing modes of building in England until the reign of Henry II., when a new mode was introduced, which was called modern Gothic. Wliether this was purely a devia- tion from the other two modes, or whether it was derived from any foreign source, is not known. It is, however, supposed to be of Saracenic extraction, and to have been introduced by the crusaders. This supposition is strengthened by the fact, that the mosques and palaces of Fez, and also some of the cathedrals in Spain built by the Moors, are in this style 5 which ought therefore to be called Arabic, Saracenic, or Moresque. This style is distinguished by its numerous buttresses, lofty spires, and pinnacles, large and ramified windows, with a profusion of ornaments throughout. It came into general use in the reign of Henry III. ; when the circular gave way to the pointed arch, and the massive column to the slender pillar, of which the present cathedral church of Salisbuiy, begun at that period, affords the best specimen. From that time to the reign of Heniy VIII. the pillars in churches were of Purbeck marble, very slender and round, encompassed with marble shafts a little detached, having each a capital adorned with foliage, which join- ing formed one elegant capital for the whole pillar. The windows were long and nar- row, with pointed arches and painted glass ; and the lofty steeples were furnished with spires and pinnacles. In the reign of Hen- ry VIII. a new kind of low pointed arclr was introduced, which was described from four centres, was very round at the haunches, and the angle at the top was very obtuse, as may be seen in Cardinal Wolsey's build- ings. In the fifleenth and sixteenth cen- turies the taste for Greek and Roman archi- tecture revived, and brouglit tlie five orders again into use, although for sacred edifices the Saxon and Gotliic styles still maintain the preeminence. The Italians were for a long time reckoned the greatest arcliitects, but England may also boast of an Inigo Jones and a Sir Christopher Wren, wlro hold a very high rank in the art. Inigo Jones has left tlie banqueting house at Whitehall, dueen Catherine's Chapel at St. James's, the Piazza at Covent Garden, and other buildings, as proofs of his skill 3* ARI 29 and taste. Tlie works of Sir Cliristopher Wren even surpass those of his predecessor, both in number and magnitude. Among these stand foremost the Cathedral of St. Paul's, Greenwich Hospital, the Monu- ment, Chelsea Hospital, the Theatre at Oxford, Trinity College Library, and Em- manuel College, Cambridge 5 besides up- wards of fifty-two churches and innumer- able other public buildings. ARCHITECTURE (in Perspective). A sort of building, the members of which are of different measures and modules, and diminish in proportion to their distance, to make tlie building appear longer and larger to the view than it really is. ARCHITRAVE. Tliat part of a column or series of columns that is above or lies immediately upon the capital. It is the lowest member of the frieze, and is sup- posed to represent tlie principal beam in limber buildings. It is sometimes called the reason piece, as in porticoes, cloisters, &c. ; and the masterpiece in chimneys. ARCHIVAULT. The inner contour of an arch, or a frame setoff with mouldings, running over the faces of the arch stones, and bearing upon the imposts. ARCHIVES. The place where the re- cords, &c. belonging to the crown and kingdom are kept. ARCTIC. An epithet for what lies to the north, as the Arctic Circle, the Arctic Pole. AREA. The site or space of ground on which any building is erected. AREA (in Geometry). Tlie superficial contents of any figure, as a triangle, qua- drangle, &c. ARENA. That part of an amphitheatre where the gladiators contended, so called from the sand with which it was strewed. ARGENT (in Heraldry). The white co- lour in the coats of arms of baronets, knights, and gentlemen. ARGO NAVIS. A constellation called after the ship of Jason and his compan- ions. ARGUMENT. Whatever is offered^or offers itself to the mind, so as to create be- lief in regard to any subject or matter laid down. ARGUMENT (in Astronomy). An arc, whereby another arc is to be sought bear- ing a certain proportion to the first arc. ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM (In Logic). A mode of reasoning, in which an argument is drawn from the professed prin- ciples or practice of the adversary. ARIES. The Ram, a constellation of fixed stars, and the first of the twelve signs of the zodiac, marked {°f). ARISTOCRACY. A form of govern- 30 ARI ment in wliich the power is vested in the nobility. ARITHMETIC. The ait of numbering or computing by certain rules, of which the four first and simplest are addition, sub- traction, multiplication, and division. Vulgar Arithmetic is the computation of numbers in the ordinary concerns of life. Integral Arithmetic treats of whole num- bers ; Fractional Aritlimetic, of fractional numbers ; Decimal Arithmetic, of decimal numbers. Universal Arithmetic is the name given to Algebra by Sir Isaac New- ton. ARITHMETIC, History of. Of Arith- metic as a science, we know but very lit- tle as to its state and progress among the ancients. It is evident, from the bare con- sideration of our wants, and earliest im- pressions, that some knowledge of numbers or some mode of computation, however im- perfect, was coeval with society ; and as the transactions of men became more compli- cated, it is reasonable to infer that they would liit on devices for facilitating and simplifying their calculations. Josephus asserts that Abraham, having retired from Chaldea into Egypt, during the time of a famine, was the first who taught the inha- bitants of that countiy a knowledge both of arithmetic and astronomy, of which they were both before ignorant 5 a circumstance the more probable, as it is well known that the science of astronomy was first cultiva- ted among the Chaldeans, and such advan- ces made iu that science as could not have been effected without the aid of arithmeti- cal calculations. The Greeks imagined that the science of arithmetic, as well as that of geometry, originated with the Egyptians ; but this notion, as fiir as respects priority of dis- covery, was evidently erroneous, and no doubt arose from the circumstance of their having derived all their first ideas of the arts and sciences, as well as many of their fables, from the Egyptians, Thus, as the Egj'ptians believed that they were taught numbers by their god Theut or Thot, who presided over commerce, the Greeks as- signed a similar oflice to their god Mer- cury. As the Phoenicians were the first trading people, they naturally addicted themselves to the science and practice of arithmetic, v.iiich led Strabo to observe that the invention of the art belonged to them ; but, as the Chaldeans were a more ancient people, this supposition is no less erroneous than the former. What advan- ces were made by these people in tlie sci- ence we liave nomeans of ascertaining, for nothing remains of the early writings, on ARI this subject except what may be gathered from the commentary of Proclus on the First Book of Euclid's Elements. It ap- pears that almost all nations were led to fix upon the same numeral scale, or the com- mon method of notation, by dividing num- bers into tens, hundreds, and thousands ; a practice doubtless derived from the cus- tom, so universally adopted in childhood, of counting by the fingers ; which, being first reckoned singly from one to ten, and then successively over again, would natu- rally lead to the decimal scale or the de- cuple division of numbers. But they rep- resented their numbers by means of the letters of the alphabet in the place of the modern numerals. Thus the Jews divided their alphabet into nine units, nine tens, and nine hundreds, including the final let- ters, as frj Aleph, 1, 3 Beth, 2, &c. to t Yod, 10 ; then 3 Caph, 20, ij Lamed, 30, &c. to p Koph, 100, n Resh, 200, &c. to y Tsadi final, 900. Thousands were sometimes expressed by the units annexed to hund- red, as •y'^m, 1434 ; sometimes by the word t\^H, 1000, o^e'jH, 2000, and with the other numerals prefixed, to signify the num- ber of thousands. To avoid using the di- vine name of riS Jehovah, in notation, they substituted p for fifteen. To the al- phabet of the Greeks were assigned two numerical powers, namely, a power to each letter in order, as a. Alpha, 1, &c. to w Omega, 24, and a power similar to that adopted by the Jews, as a Alpha, 1, &c. to y. Kappa, 10, &c. j to to Omega, 800 ; then 900 was expressed by the character^ and the thousands were denoted by a point under the letters after this manner, «, 1000, /? 2000, &c. ; the number of 10,000 was sometimes expressed by a small dash over the iota thus i, but mathematicians employ- ed the letter M, which, by placing under the small letters, indicated the number of thou- sands, as a for 10,000, ^ for 20,000, &c. M M Diophantus and Pappus made Mi; to re- present 10,000, and then by the addition of the letters, as ftMv, for 20,000, &c. Apollonins divided numbers into periods of four characters, to wliich lie gave a local value very similar to the modern mode of notation. The Greeks, however, were en- abled, by means of their letters, to perform the common rules of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, from which, no doubt, the idea was taken of working with letters in our Algebra ; for it is worthy of observation that in their multiplication they proceeded from left to right, as in t]»e ART multiplication of algebra at present. The Greeks had likewise another kind of nota- tion by means of capitals, more properly initials of the names of numbers, and were used in inscriptions, as I for lu, or uia, 1, IZ for Trarrs , 5, A for Sexa, 10, &c. The Roman notation, which is still used in marking dates, and numbering chapters, &;c. consists of five of their capital letters, namely, I one, V five, X ten, L fifty, C one hundred, which are increased in this manner : the repetition of the I's in- creases numbers by units, as II for two, III for three, &c.; that of X's increases numbers by tens, as XX for twenty, XXX for thirty, &c.; and that of C's increases numbers by hundreds, as CC for two hun- dred, CCC for three hundred, &c.; also a less character before a greater diminishes the value of the number, as I before V, tlms, IV, makes it four, I before X, thus, IX, makes it nine : on the other hand, a less character after a greater increases the value of the number, as I after V, thus, VI, makes it six, and I after X, thus, XI, makes it eleven. In what manner the Romans performed their arithmetical operations is not known ; but it is most probable that, as they were not a commercial nation, they followed the simplest forms of calculation : we must therefore look for further informa- .tion on this subject to the period when the Arabs or Saracens introduced into Europe tlieir mode of notation, which is not only distinguished ft-om the others by the pecu- liarity of the characters, but also by their value and disposition. Although this nota- tion consists of only nine digits, with the cipher 0, yet, by giving a local power to these figures, namely, that of units, tens, hundredSjthousands, &c. they maybe made to express numbers to an indefinite extent. Besides, this mode also presents many ad- vantages by the additional facility with which all arithmetical operations are thus performed. By what nation this improve- ment was first made is not known. The Greeks, as before observed, were making advances towards it by giving a local value to certain periods of four numbers each, but it does not appear that they proceeded any further. The Aiabs introduced it into Europe about eight hundred years back, whence it soon circulated among the dif- ferent European nations ; but although the first use of this scale is commonly ascribed to them, yet they acknowledge themselves indebted to the Indians for it ; and as this latter people were in many respects very ingenious, it is not at all improbable that they were the authors of the invention. The cultivation of arithmetic in Europe ARM 31 may be dated from the thirteenth century, when Jordanus of Namur, the first writer on the subject that we know of, flourished. His arithmetic was published with illustra- tions, by Joannes Faber Stapulensis, in the fifteenth century, but was less perfect than the treatises of Lucas de Burgo and Nicholas de Tartagliain that and the subsequent cen- turies. In France, the subject of arithmetic was handled about the same time by Cla- vius and Ramus; in Germany, by Sturmius, Stifelius, and Henischius ; and in England by Recorde, Diggs, and Buckley. After that period the writers on arithmetic be- came too numerous to be particularly spe- cified, but the names of Briggs, Emerson, Napier, Maclaurin, Hutton, and Bonny- castle, are entitled to notice for having systematized, enlarged, and in many par- ticulars simplified the science. ARK. The floating vessel in which Noah and Jiis family were saved from the flood. It was 500 feet long, 90 broad, and 50 high. ARK OF THE COVENANT, or Mo- ses' Ark. The chest in which the stone tables of the ten commandments, written by the hand of God, were laid up. ARMADILLA. A quadruped, a native of Brazil and the West Indies, with the snout of a pig, the tail of a lizard, and the feet of a hedgehog. He is armed with a coat of impenetrable scales, under which he retires like a tortoise. ARMILLARY SPHERE (in Astro- nomy). An artificial sphere, composed of a number of circles, of metal, wood, or paper, representing the several circles of the sphere of the world put together in their natural order. The armillary sphere revolves upon an axis within a silvered horizon, which is divided into degrees, and moveable every way upon a brass supporter. In Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, there is an armillary sphere constructed by Dr. Long, which is eighteen feet in diameter, and will contain more than thirty persons sitting within it, to view, as from a centre, the representation of the celestial spheres. That part of the sphere which is not visible in England is cut off*; and the whole is so contrived, that, by being turned round, it 82 ARR exhibits all the phenomena of the heavenly bodies. ARMORY. A branch of the science of heraldry, consisting in the knowledge of armorial bearings or coats of arms, which serve to distinguish the quality of the bearer. ARMOUR. All such habiliments as serve to defend the body from wounds inflicted by darts, swords, lances, &c. ARMY. A body of soldiers consisting of horse and foot, under the command of a general and subordinate officers, and com- pletely equipped and disciplined for service. An army is generally divided into a certain number of corps,each consisting of brigades, regiments, battalions, and squadrons; when in the field, it is formed into lines ; the first line is called the vanguard, the second the main body, the third the rearguard, or body of reserve. The middle of each line is oc- cupied by tlie foot, the cavalry forms the right and left wing of each line, and some- times squadrons of horse are placed in the intervals between the battalions. AROMA, A general name for all sweet spices, but particularly myrrh; also the odoriferous principle which produces the fragrance peculiar to some plants. ARRAC. A spirituous liquor distilled in India from the cocoa tree, rice, or sugar. It is very strong, and intoxicates more than rum or brandy. ARRAIGNMENT (in Law). The bring- ing a prisoner forth, reading the indictment to him, and putting the question of guilty or not guilty. ARRAY. The drawing up of soldiers in order of battle. ARREARS. Money unpaid at the due time, as rent, moneys in hand, &c. ARREST (in Law). The apprehending and restraining a man's person in order to ART compel him to be obedient to the law. This, in all cases except treason, felony, or breach of the peace, must be done by the lawful warrant of some court of record or officer of justice. Arrest of judgment is the staying of judgment, or not proceeding to judgment. ARROW. A missile weapon, which is commonly discharged from a bow. When this weapon is borne in coats of arms, it is said to be barbed and feathered. ARROW-ROOT. An Indian root, of which starch is made. It is also used medicinally. ARSENAL. A public storehouse for arms and all sorts of ammunition. ARSENIATE, A sort of salts formed by the combination of arsenic acid with different bases, as the ai-seniate of ammo- nia, &c. ARSENIC. A ponderous mineral body. It is yellow, white, and red. Yellow arsenic is the native arsenic dug out of the mines, otherwise called Arsenic Ore. White arsenic is drawn from the yellow by sub- limating ; and is reduced to powder by the mixture of oxygen, or exposure to the air. This is sometimes used in medicine in small quantities, but is otherwise a deadly poison. Red arsenic is the yellow arsenic rubified by fire, when it is called realgal. ARSENITE. A sort of salts formed by the combination of arsenious acid with different bases. ARSIS (in Grammar). The elevation of the voice, in distinction from thesis or the depression of the voice. Arsis and thesis, in Ancient Music, is applied to the raising and falling of the hand in beating of time. ARTERY. A hollow, fistulous, conical canal, which serves to receive the blood from the ventricles of the heart, and to distribute it to all parts of the body. ART. The contrivance and use of things by the help of thought and experience, ART and according to prescribed rules, so as to make them serve tlie purposes for whiclr they were designed. Liberal or fine arts are those which are noble and worthy to be cultivated without regard to lucre, as painting, poetrj', music, &c. Mechanic arts are those wherein the hand and body are more concerned than the mind. Terms of art are such words as are used in re- gard to any particular art, profession, or science. AUTICHOKE, A plant very like the thistle, v/ith scaly heads similar to the cone of the pine tree. At the bottom of each scale, as also at the bottom of each floret, is the well known fleshy edible substance. The Jemsalem Artichoke is a plant, the root of which resembles a potatoe, having the taste of the artichoke. ARTICLE (in Law). The clause or con- dition in a covenant. ARTICLE (in Grammar). A particle, which in most languages serves to denote the gender and case of nouns ; and in lan- guages which have not difierent termina- tions it serves to particularize the object refen-ed to. ARTICULATION (in Anatomy). The junction of two bones intended for motion. There are two kinds ; the diarthrosis, which has a manifest motion, and synar- throsis, which has only an obscure motion. ARTICULATION. The articulate or distinct utterance of every letter, syllable, or word, so as to make oneself intelligible. ARTIFICERS. Persons employed in the performance of mechanical arts. ARTILLERY. A collective name de- noting all engines of war, but particularly cannon, mortars, and other large pieces, for the discharge of shot and shells. It is also employed to denote the science which teaches all things relating to the artilleiy, as the construction of all engines of war, the arrangement, movement, and manage- ment of cannon and all sorts of ordnance, used either in the field, or the camp, or at sieges, &c. ARTILLERY, Park of. A place set apart in a camp for the artillery and large firearms, ARTILLERY, Train OF. Asetornum- ber of pieces of ordnance mounted on carriages. ARTILLERY, Flying. A sort of artil- leiy, so called from the celerity with which it can be moved. Seats are contrived for the men who work it, and a sufficient force of horses is applied to enable them to pro- ceed at a gallop ; each horse being rode by a separate driver. This kind of artillery was introduced by the French during the ASP 33 late war, and has been adopted by other nations. ARTIST. A proficient in the fine arts. ARUNDELIAN MARBLES. Ancient marbles illustrative of the history and my- thology of the ancients, so called from the Earl of Arundel, by whom they were trans- ported from the island of Paros into Eng- land. They contain a chronicle of the city of Athens, supposed to have been inscribed thereon 264 years before Christ. ASA-FCETIDA. A gum resin of a very fetid smell, obtained from the ferula asa fcetida, a perennial plant, which is a native of Persia. It comes into this country in small grains of different colours, hard and brittle. ASBESTOS. A mineral substance, of which Amianthus is one of its principal species. This consists of elastic fibres, somewhat unctuous to the touch, and slightly translucent. The ancients manu- factured cloth from the fibres of the asbes- tos for the purpose, as is said, of wrapping up the bodies of the dead when exposed on the funeral pile ; it being incombustible in its nature. It is found in many places in Asia and Europe. ASCARIDES. Worms that infest the intestinum rectum, and cause a violent itching ; also a kind of worms which infest the intestines of all animals. ASCENSION (in Astronomy). That de- gree of the equator reckoned from the first of Aries eastward, which rises with the sun or a star. This is either right or oblique, according as it rises in a right or an ob- lique sphere. ASCENSIONAL DIFFERENCE. The difference between the right and the ob- lique ascension in any point of the heav- ens. ASCENT. The rising of fluids in a glass tube or any vessel above the surface of their own level. ASH. A well known tree, the timber of which is next to the oak in value, being used in ever>' sort of handicraft. ASHES. The earthy substances remain- ing after combustion, which contain an alkaline salt ; also the skimmings of metal among the letter-founders, ASH-WEDNESDAY. The first day in Lent, so called from the custom of fasting in sackcloth and ashes. ASP. A very small kind of serpent, pe- culiar to Egypt and Libya, the bite of which is deadly. Its poison is so quick in its op- erations, that it kills without a possibility of applying any remedy. Those that are bitten by it are said to die within three hours, by means of sleep and lethargy, 34 ASS without any pain ; wherefore Cleopatra chose it as the easiest way of dispatching herself. ASPARAGUS. A valuable esculent plant, which requires three years at least to bring it to maturity from the time of sow- ing the seed, and will not yield vigorously without a continual supply of manure. ASPEN-TREE. A kind of white poplar, the leaves of which are small, and always trembling. ASPHALTUM, or Jews' Pitch. A solid, brittle, ponderous substance, which breaks with a polish, aud melts easily. It is found in a soft or liquid state on the surface of the Dead Sea, a lake in Judea, and by time grows dry and hard. The Egyptians used asphaltum in embalming, which they called numia mineralis. ASS. A well known useful quadruped, remarkable for its patience, hardiness, and long life. The milk of the female is highly esteemed for its light and nutritious quality, and for that reason recommended for con- sumptive persons, ASSASSINATION (in Law). The mur- dering a person for hire. ASSAULT (in Law). The offering or attempting, with force and violence, to do a corporal hurt to another, as by striking at him with or without a weapon, as dis- tinguished from a battery, which is any injury actually done to a person. ASSAY. A mode of trying metals, or separating them from all foreign bodies : thus gold and silver are assayed by the re- finer, to obtain them in their purest state. This was formerly called the Touch, and those who had the charge of assaying were called Officers of the Touch. There are two kinds of assaying, namely, one before metals are melted, the other after they are struck. In the first case the assayers usu- ally take 14 or 15 grains of gold, and half a dram of silver, if it be for money, and 18 ASS grains of the one, and a dram of the other, if for other uses ; in the second case, they take one of the pieces of money of each sort. The Assay of Weights and Meas- ures was an examination of them by the questmen in the city, &c. ASSAYER OF THE KING. An officer of the king's mint, for the trial of silver. ASSAYING. The particular mode of trying ores or mixed metals by means of proper fluxes, in order to discover the pro- portion of metal, as also of the other ingre- dients, as alum, sulphur, vitriol, and the like, which are contained in them. Gold is obtained pure by dissolving it in nitro- muriatic acid, when the metal may be pre- cipitated by dropping in a diluted solution of sulphate of iron ; the precipitate which is in the form of a powder is pure gold. Silver is obtained pure by dissolving it in nitric acid, and precipitating it with a di- luted solution of sulphate of iron. ASSAY-MASTER. The master of the mint, who weighs the bullion, and takes care that it be according to the standard. ASSETS (in Law). Goods and chattels sufficient for an heir or executor to dis- charge the debts and legacies of the testa- tor or ancestor. ASSIGN (in Law). One to whom any thing is assigned or made over, as an exe- cutor, &c. ; also an assignee or assign to a bankrupt's estate. ASSIGNMENT. A transfer or making over to another the right one has in any estate, usually applied to an estate for life or years. It difters from a lease in this, that by an assignment one parts with the whole interest one has in the thing, but by a lease he reserves himself a reversion. ASSIMILATION (in Physics). The pro- cess in the animal economy by which the food is converted into nourishment for the body. ASSIZE (in Law). An assembly of knights and other substantial men, who, with the justices, met at a certain time and in a certain place for the due admi- nistration of justice. In the modern appli- cation it signifies a sitting of the judges by virtue of a commission, to hear and de- termine causes. The assizes are general when the justices go their circuits, with commission to take all assizes, that is, to hear all causes ; they are special when special commissions are granted to Iiear particular causes. ASSOCIATION. The connexion of ideas in the human mind which for the most part immediately follow one another, whether there is any natural relation between them or not. AST ASSUMPSIT (in Law). A voluntary promise by wliicli a man binds himself to pay any thing to another, or to do any work. ASSURANCE, or INSURANCE. An engagement by which a person becomes bound for a specified sum, and for a limited period, to indemnify another for any losses which his property may sustain from fire or shipwreck, &c. ASTERISK. A star (*) used in printing as a mark of reference. ASTERN. Behind a ship. ASTEROIDS. The new planets, Ceres, Juno, Pallas, and Vesta, lately discovered. ASTHMA. A painful, difficult, and la- borious respiration, with a sense of stricture across the breastjthat sometimes approaches to sufibcation. ASTRAGAL (in Anatomy). The ankle bone; in Architecture, a small round mould- ing serving as an ornament to the tops and bottoms of columns. AST m (T ASTRAGAL (in Gunnery). A small moulding encompassing a cannon. ASTROLABE. An instrument for taking the altitude of the sun or stars at sea. ASTROLOGY. An art formerly much cultivated, but now exploded, of judging or predicting human events from the situ- ation and different aspects of the heavenly bodies. ASTRONOMY. The science which treats of the sun, moon, earth, planets, and other heavenly bodies,showing their magnitudes, order, and distances from each other, mea- suring and marking their risings, settings, motions, appearances, the times and quan- tities of their eclipses, &;c. It comprehends what was anciently called the doctrine of the sphere, and is a mixed mathematical science. ASTRONOMY, History of. Of all the sciences which have engaged the attention of mankind, none appears to have been cultivated so early as that of astronomy, which treats of the noblest and most inter- esting objects of contemplation. Josephus informs us that Seth, the son of Adam, is said to have laid the foundations of this science, and that his posterity, understand- ing from a prediction of Adam that there would be a general destruction of all things, once by the rage of fire and once by the violence and multitude of waters, made two pillars, one of brick and the other of stone, and engraved thek inventions on each, that if the pillar of brick happened to be over- thrown by the flood, that of stone might remain ; which latter pillar, Josephus adds, was to be seen in his day. He also ascribes to the antediluvians a knowledge of the astronomical cycle of 600 years, but upon what authority we are not informed. The account is, however, not improbable; for historians generally agree in assigning the origin of astronomy to the Chaldeans soon after the deluge, when, for the purpose of making their astrological predictions, to which they were much addicted, as also for that of advancing the science of astro- nomy, they devoted themselves to the study of the heavenly bodies. The Chaldeans were in fact a tribe of Babylonians, who constituted the priests, philosophers, astro- nomers, astrologers, and soothsayers of this people, whence a Chaldean and a sooth- sayer became synonymous terms. These Chaldeans discovered the motions of the heavenly bodies ; and, from their supposed influences on human affairs, pretended to predict what was to come. The planeta they called their interpreters, ascribing to Saturn the highest rank ; the next in emi- nence was Sol, the sun; then Mars, Venus, Mercuiy, and Jupiter. By the motions and aspects of all these they foretold storms of wind and of rain, or excessive droughts, as also the appearance of comets, eclipses of the sun and moon, and other phenomena. They also marked out thirty-six constella- tions, twelve of which they placed in the zodiac, assigning to each a month in the year, and thus dividing the zodiac into twelve signs, through which they taught that the several planets performed their revolutions. They appear not to have had much idea of the immense distance of some of the planets from the sun, but accounted for the time they took in performing their revolutions bytheslownessof their motions. They, however, held that the moon com- pleted her course the soonest of any, not because of her extraordinary velocity, but because her orbit, as it would now be called, was less than that of any of the heavenly bodies. They taught that she shone with a light not her own, and that when eclipsed she was immersed in the shadow of the earth. Of the eclipses of the sun they ap- pear to have had no just idea, nor could they fix the time when they should happen. Their ideas of the earth as a celestial body were also crude and imperfect. Astronomy was cultivated in Egypt nearly about the same time as among the Chal- deans ; and, according to the opinions of some, the honour of the invention is due to them : but the most probable conclusion is, that as these two nations were coeval, and both addicted to the arts and sciences, ASTRONOMY. they cultivated astronomy at the same time. The Egj'ptians had at a very early period their college of priests, who were all accu- rate observers of the stars, and kept, as Diodorus observes, registers of their obser- vations for an incredible number of years. It is said, that in the monument of Osy- mandyas there was a golden circle of 365 cubits in circumference and one cubit thick, divided into 365 parts, answering to the days of the year, &c. The Egyptians dis- covered that the stars had an annual motion of 50" ,9'" ,45"" in the year; and Macrobius asserts that they made the planets revolve about the sun in the same order as we do. From Chaldea and Egypt astronomy passed into Phoenicia, where it was applied by that trading people to the purposes of navigation. The Arabians also, one of the most ancient nations in the world, cultivated astronomy as far as was needful to answer the ends of their pastoral life, by observing the stars, their position,and influence on the weather. In travelling through the desert, we are informed that, at a very early period, they used to direct their course by the Great and Little Bear, as is done at sea to this day. They also gave names to the stars, mostly in allusion to their flocks and herds ; and they were so nice in this matter that no language abounds with so many names of stars and asterisms as the Arabic. As to the Indians and Chinese there is no doubt but that they cultivated astronomy at a very early period, and that the Brah- mins of the former people, being altogether devoted to speculative sciences, made ad- vances in that of astronomy equal to any of the nations of antiquity. M. Bailly in- forms us, in his history, that he examined and compared four different sets of astro- nomical tables of the Indian philosophers, namely, that of the Siamese explained by M. Cassini in 1689 ; that brought from India by M. le Gentil, of the Academy of Sciences, and two other manuscript tables, found among the papers of the late M. de Lisle ; all of which he found to accord with one another, referring to the meridian of Be- nares. It appears that the Indians date their astronomy from a remarkable conjunction of the sun and moon which took place at the distance of 302 years before Christ; and M. Bouilly concludes that, from our most accurate astronomical tables, such a conjunction did take place. The Indians calculate eclipses by the mean motions of the sun and moon, commencing at a period five thousand years distant ; but, without giving them credit for an antiquity which is at variance with all historical documents, sacred and profane, it suffices here to ob- serve that tliey ha%'e adopted the cycle of nineteen years, and that their astronomy agrees with modern discoveries in many particulars,as to the obliquity of the ecliptic, and an acceleration of the motion of the equinoctial points. They also assign ine- qualities to the motions of the planets, an- swering very well to the annual parallax, and the equation of the centre. The Greeks, without doubt, derived their astronomical knowledge fromtheEgyptians and Phoenicians by means of several of their countrymen, particularly Thales the Mile- sian, who, about 640 years before Christ, travelled into Egypt, and brought from thence the chief principles of the science. He was the first among the Greeks who observed the stars, the solstices, the eclipses of the sun and moon, and proceeded so far as to predict an eclipse of the sun. It appears, however, that, before his time, many of the constellations were known, for we find mention of them in Hesiod and Homer, two of their earliest writers. After Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anax- agoras, but above all, Pythagoras, distin- guished themselves among the number of those who cultivated astronomy. The latter, after having resided a long time in Egypt and other foreign parts, established a sect of philosophers in his own country, known by the name of Pythagoreans. He taught, among other things, that the sun was in the centre of the universe and immovable ; that the earth was round, and the inhabit- ants were antipodes to each other; that the moon reflected the rays of the sun, and was inhabited like the earth ; that comets were wandering stars ; that the milky way was an assemblage of stars, which derived its white colour from the brightness of their light; besides a number of other particulars, some of which are admitted in the present day. Philolaus, a Pythagorean, maintain- ed the doctrine of the earth's motion round the sun, 450 years before Christ, and Hice- tus, a Syracusan, taught, a hundred years after, the diurnal motion of the earth on its own axis ; also Meton, the inventor of the Metonic cycle, and Euctemon, observed the summer solstice 432 years before Christ, be- sides the risings and settings of the stars, and what seasons they answered to. The same subject was treated of at large by Aratus in his poem entitled Phoenomena. Eratosthenes, a Cyrenian, who was born in 271 B, c, measured the circumference of the earth ; and, being invited to the court of Ptolemy Evergetes at Alexandria, he was made keeper of the royal library, and set up there the armillary spheres which Hip- parchus and Ptolemy afterwards used so ASTRONOMY. 37 effectually. He also determined the dis- tance between the tropics to be 11-83 of the whole meridian circle, which makes the obliquity of the ecliptic in his time to be 23 degrees, 51 minutes and one-third. Ar- chimedes is said to have constructed a planetarium to represent the phenomena and motions of the heavenly bodies ; and many others added to the stock of astro- nomical knowledge, but none so much as Hipparchus, who flourished about 140 years fi, c. and surpassed all that had gone be- fore him in the extent of his researches. He showed that the orbits of the planets were eccentric, and that the moon moved Blower in her apogee than in her perigee. He constructed tables of the motions of the sun and moon 5 collected accounts of eclipses tiiat had been computed by the Chaldeans and Egyptians ; and calculated such as would happen for six hundred years to come ; besides correcting the er- rors of Eratosthenes in his measurement of the earth's circumference, and compu- ting the sun's distance more accurately. He is, however, most distinguished by his catalogue of the fixed stars to the number of a thousand and twenty-two, with their latitudes and longitudes, and apparent magnitudes. These and most other of his observations are preserved by his illustri- ous successor Ptolemy. From the time of Hipparchus to that of Ptolemy, an interval of upwards of two centuries, few or no advances were made in astronomy. Claudius Ptolemy, who was born at Pelusium in Egypt, in the first centuiy of the Christian era, is well known as the author of a great work on astronomy, entitled his Almagest, which contains a complete system of astronomy drawn from the observations of all preceding astrono- mers in union with his ov.-n. He maintain- ed tlie generally received opinion of the sun's motion, which continued to be uni- versally lield until the time of Copernicus. The work of Ptolemy being preserved from the gi-ievous confiagi-ation that consumed the Alexandrian library duringthe ravages of the Saracens, was translated out of the Greek into the Arabic, a. d. 827 ; and, by the help of this translation, the Arabians, who now addicted themselves to the study of astronomy, cultivated it with great ad- vantage under the patronage of the caliphs, particularly Al Mamon, who was himself an astronomer, and made many accurate obsen'ations by the help of instruments, which he himself constructed. He deter- mined the obliquity of the ecliptic in his time to be 23 degrees, 35 minutes. Among the Arabian authors of this period was Al- 4 fragan, who wrote his Elements of Astro- nomy, and Albetegnius, who flourished about 880. This latter compared his own observations with those of Ptolemy, and computed the motion of the sun's apogee from Ptolemy's time to his own. He also composed tables for the meridian of Arabia, which were much esteemed by his country- men. After this, Ebn Younis, astronomer to the caliph of Egj-pt, observed some eclipses, by means of which the quantity of the moon's acceleration since that time has been determined ; also Arzechel, a IMoor of Spain, observed the obliquity of the ecliptic; and Alhazen his contemporarj', wrote on the twilight, the height of the clouds, and the phenomena of the horizon- tal moon. He likewise first employed the optical science in astronomical observa- tions, and showed tJie importance of the theoiy of refraction in astronomy. In the thirteenth century, astronomy, as well as other arts and sciences, began to revive in Europe, particularly under the auspices of the emperor Frederick II. ; who, besides restoring some decayed uni- versities, founded a new one, and in 1230 caused the works of Aristotle, and the Al- magest of Ptolemy to be translated into Latin. Two years after this, John de Sacro Bosco, or John of Halifax, published his work De Sphsera, a compendium of astro- nomy drawn from the works of Ptolemy, Alfragan, Albetegnius, and others. This was held in high estimation for some cen- turies, and was honoured with a commen- tary from the pen of Clavius and other learned men. In 1240, Alphonsus king of Castile, a gi-eat astronomer himself, and an encourager of astronomers, corrected with their assistance the tables of Ptolemy, which, from him, were called the Alphon- sine tables. About the same time Roger Bacon published his tracts on astronomy, and shortly after Vitellio, a Polander, in his treatise on optics, showed, in accord- ance with Alhazen, the use of refraction in astronomy. Nearly two centuries elap- sed from this period before any farther progress "was made in the science, when Purbach composed new tables of sines for every ten minutes, constructed spheres and globes, wrote commentaries on Ptole- my's Almagest, corrected the tables of the planets and the Alphonsine tables, deter- mined the obliquity of the ecliptic at 23 degrees, 33 minutes and a half, and begun, at his death, a new series of tables for com- puting eclipses. He w^as succeeded by John Muller, commonly called Regio- montaiius, Bernard Walther, John Werner, and others. John Werner showed that the 38 ASTRONOMIC . motion of the fixed stars, since called the precession of the equinoxes, was about 1 degree, 10 minutes, in a hundred years. The celebrated Copernicus came next in order, who distinguished himself by calling in question the Ptolemaic system of the universe, and reviving that of Pythagoras. After making a series of observations, and forming new tables, he completed in 1530 his work, first published under the title of DeRevolutionibus Cuiiestium Orbium, and afterwards under that of Astronomia In- staurata, in which he set forth the system since known by the name of the solar sys- tem, in which all the planets are consider- ed as revolving round the sun as their immovable centre. The science of astronomy henceforth continued to receive regular accessions and improvements by a series of writers, as Schoner, Nonnius, Appian, Gemma Frisi- us, Byrgius, &c. Besides, William IV., landgrave of Hesse Cassel, applying him- self to the study, formed, by the help of the best instruments then to be procured, a catalogue of four hundred stars, with their latitudes and longitudes adapted to the be- ginning of the year 1593. About this time the Copernican system found a strenuous though unsuccessful opponent in Tycho Brahe, a Danish nobleman, who, to obviate the objections against the Ptolemaic sys- tem, advanced an hypothesis of his own, vv-hich added less to his reputation than the accurate observations which he made by the help of improved instruments in a new observatory built for him by order of the king of Denmark. His friend Kepler, who enjoyed the title of mathematician to the emperor, finished his tables after his death, and published them under the title of Rhodolphine tables. This latter astron- omer discovered that all the planets revolve round the sun, not in circular but in ellip- tical orbits ; that their motions are not equa- ble, but quicker and slower as they are nearer to the sun or farther from him ; be- sides a number of other observations on the motions and distances of the planets. He also concluded, from his observations on the comets, that they are freely carried about among the orbits of the planets in paths that are nearly rectilinear. To the astronomers of this age may be added Bay- er, who, in his Uranometria, has given a representation of all the constellations, with the stars marked on them, and accom- panied with the Greek letters for the con- venience of reference. The seventeenth century added many great names to the list of astronomers, as Galileo, Huygens, Cassini, Hevelius, New- ton, and Flamstead, &;c. As the Coperni- can system had met with an opponent in one that ranked high in tlie science, it found a defender in Galileo, an Italian no- bleman, who in his Dialogi, in 1632, drew a comparison between the Ptolemaic and Copernican system, much to the advan- tage of the latter, for which he incurred the censures of the church, as the doctrine of the sun's immobility was looked upon as directly opposed to the express language of Scripture. Although Galileo professed to recant in order to obtain his liberation from prison, yet the system daily gained ground, and became at length established. Galileo besides made many accurate observations in astronomy, and was one of the first who, by improving the new invention of the telescope, was enabled to employ them in advancing his favourite science. By this means he is said to have discovered inequa- lities in the moon's surface, Jupiter's satel- lites, and the ring of Saturn ; so likewise spots in the surface of the sun, by which he found out the revolution of that luminary on its own axis. He also ascertained what Pythagoras had conjectured, that the milky way and the nebulse consisted of innumer- able small stars. Harriot made similar dis- coveries in England at the same time, if not earlier. Hevelius, by means of his obser- vations, formed a catalogue of fixed stars much more complete than that of Tycho's. Huygens and Cassini discovered the satel- lites of Saturn, and Sir Isaac Newton de- monstrated, from physical considerations, the laws which regulated the motions of the heavenly bodies, and set bounds to the planetary orbs, determining their excursions from the sun, and their nearest approaches to him ; he also explained the principle which occasioned that constant and regular proportion, observed both by the primary and secondary planets in their revolutions round their central bodies, and their dis- tances compared with their periods. His theory of the moon, grounded on the laws of gravity and mechanics, has also been found to account for all her irregularities. Mr. Flamstead filled the ofiice of Astrono- mer Royal at Greenwich from 1675 until his death in 1729, during which time he was constantly employed in making obser- vations on the phenomena of the heavens. As the result of his labours he published a catalogue of three thousand stars, with their places to the year 1689; also new solar tables, and a theory of the moon according to Horrox. On his tables was constructed Newton's theory of the moon, as also the tables of Dr. Halley, who succeeded him in his office in 1729. Besides composing ASTRONOMY. tables of the sun, moon, and planets, Dr. Halley added to the list of astronomical discoveries, being the first who discovered the acceleration of the moon's mean motion. He also contrived a method for finding her parallax by three observed places of a solar eclipse, and showed the use that might be made of the approaching transit of Venus in 1761, in determining the distance of the sun from the earth, and recommended the method of determining the longitude by the moon's distance from the sun and certain fixed stars, which was afterwards success- fully adopted by Dr. Maskelyne, Astrono- mer Royal. It was about this period that the question respecting the figure of the earth appears to have been satisfactorily decided, and in favour of Newton's theory. M. Cassini concluded, from the measurement of M. Picard, that it was an oblong spheroid, but Sir Isaac Newton, from a considera- tion of the laws of giavity, and the diurnal motion of the earth, had determined its figure to be that of an oblate spheroid flat- tened at the poles, and protuberant at the equator. To determine this point Louis XV. ordered two degrees of the meridian to be measured, one under or near the equator, the other as near as possible to the poles ; the expedition to the north being intrusted to Messrs. Maupertuis and Clairaut, tliat to the south to Messrs. Condamine, Bouguer, and Don UUoa. Among the many obser- vations made by those who went on this expedition, it was found by those who went to the south that the attraction of the mountain of Peru had a sensible efl:ect on the plumb lines of their large instruments, which is supposed to afford an experimental proof of the Newtonian doctrine of gravita- tion. A similar observation has since been made by Dr. JMaskelyne on the mountain Schehallien in Scotland. The eighteenth century was marked by the discoveries of Dr. Bradley, the successor to Dr. Halley as Astronomer Royal, and Dr. Herschel, who also filled the same post so honourably to himself. Dr. Bradley dis- covered the aberration of light, and the mutation of the earth's axis, besides having formed new and accurate tables of the mo- tions of Jupiter's satellites, and the most correct table of refractions that is extant : also with a large transit instrument, and a npw mural quadrant of eight feet radius, he made observations for determining the places of ail the stars in the British cata- logue, and likewise nearly a hundred and fifty places of the moon. Dr. Herschel, by augmenting the powers of the telescope beyond any thing existing before, or even thought of, succeeded in discovering a new planet, which he named theGeorgiumSidus; he also discovered two additional satellites to Saturn, besides those of his own planet. Among those wlio cultivated the higher branches of the science, and distinguished themselves by their researches. Dr. Maske- lyne,the predecessor of Dr. Herschel, ranks the foremost, having been the originator of the Nautical Almanac, and brought into use the lunar method of determining the longi- tude, &c. besides making tlie requisite ta- bles. The theoretical part of the science was indebted to Clairaut, Euler, Simpson, de la Caille, Kiel, Gregory, Leadbetter, for many correct observations and elucida- tions. The practical part acquired a system- atic form and many improvements from the pens of Lalande, Ferguson, Emerson, Bon- nycastle, Vince, &c. The historians of the science are Weilder, in his History of Astronomy; Baillie, in his History of An- cient and Modern Astronomy ; Montuccla, in his Histoire des Mathematiques ; and Lalande, in the first volume of his Astro- nomj'. The nineteenth century was commenc- ed with the discovery of several new planets, namely one in 1801 by M. Piazzi of Palermo, named Ceres, between Mars and Jupiter ; another, named Pallas, dis- covered March 28, 1802, by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen; a third, named Juno, by Mr. Harding, at the observatory at Lilientlial, near Bremen, Sept. 1, 1804 ; and a fourth, named Vesta, by Dr. Olbers, March 29, 1807. These three last have also been observed to revolve between Mars and Jupiter. ASYMPTOTE (in Conic Sections). A line which approaches nearer to another continually, and never meets it. It is pro- perly applied to straight lines approaching a curve. ASYNDETON. A figure in gi-ammar, when conjunctions are omitted in a sen- tence. ATCHIEVEMENT (in Heraldry ; vul- garly called Hatchment). The arms of any family, with the ornaments appendant thereto, painted on canvass, and fixed to the dwelling house of a person deceased, to denote his death. ATE. A termination of chymical words. See Chymistry. A-TEMPO (in Music). Italian for 'in time,' employed when the regular measure has been interrupted. ATHANASIAN CREED. A formula of faith ascribed to St. Athanasius, which has been adopted into the liturgy of the church of England, 40 ATM ATHEIST, One who denies the existence of God or a providence. ATHWART. A sea term, signifying across the line of a ship's course. ATLAS (in Geography). A collection of maps ; also the name of a chain of high mountains in Africa, extending from the coast of the Atlantic to the border of Egypt. ATLAS (in Mythology). One of the Titans, who is fabled to have borne heaven on his shoulders, and afterwards to have been metamorphosed into the mountain in Africa which bears his name. The origin of this fable is ascribed to Atlas, a king of Africa, who is supposed to have been ad- dicted to the study of astronomy. He is frequently represented bearing a globe on his shoulders. ATLAS (in Commerce). A satin raanu- /actured in the East Indies. ATMOSPHERE. That region of the air next to the earth, which receives the va- pours and exhalations, and is terminated by the refraction of the sun's light; some- times it signifies the whole ambient air. The pressure of the atmosphere on the whole surface of the earth is said to be equivalent to that of a globe of lead of sixty miles in diameter. Admitting there- fore the surface of a man's body to be about 15 square feet, and the pressure about 15 lb. on a square inch, it is computed that a man must sustain 32,400 lb., or nearly 14 tons and a half weight ; but the difference in the weight sustained in different states of the atmosphere may be as much as a ton and a half. The density of the atmosphere is not the same in all parts ; for it decreases in proportion to the height, and, as is sup- posed, in this proportion : that the density decreases in geometrical progression as the A TO heights increase ; whence the comparative density of the air at the several correspond- ing heights has been calculated as follows : Height in Miles. No. of times rarer. 1 3 and a half 2 7 4 14 16 21 64 28 256 35 1024 and pursuing this calculation, it has been computed that a cubic inch of the air Ave breathe would be so much rarefied at the height of 500 miles, that it would fill a sphere equal in diameter to the orbit of Saturn. The temperature of the atmosphere likewise diminishes as the distance from the earth increases, though, as it should seem, in a less ratio. M. de Saussure found that, by ascending from Geneva to Chamouni, a height of 347 toises, Reau- mer's thermometer fell 4 degrees,2 minutes, and that on ascending from thence to the top of Mount Blanc, 1941 toises, it fell 20 degrees, 7 minutes. ATMOSPHERE (in Electricity). That sphere which surrounds the surface of elec- trified bodies, and is formed by the effluvia issuing from them. ATMOSPHERIC STONES. The same as Aerolites, which see. ATMOSPHERIC TIDES. Certain pe- riodical changes in the atmosphere, similar to those of the ocean, and produced from nearly the same causes ; of this description are the equinoctial winds. ATOM. A part or particle of matter, so small as not to admit of farther subdivision. The Epicureans professed to account for the origin and formation of all things by sup- posing that these atoms were endued with gravity and motion, and thus came together into the different organized bodies we now see. This was called the atomical philoso- phy, which was adopted by the skeptics and infidels of those times. ATOMIC THEORY. A species of phi- losophy recently introduced into chymistry, and grounded on the axiom that ' chymical union consists in the combination of the atoms of bodies with each other ;' so that when two bodies chymically unite and form a third body, the two substances united are dispersed everywhere through the new compound. Thus, for instance, saltpetre is a compound of nitric acid and potash ; and if we examine even so small a portion of this salt as the hundredth part of a grain, it will be found to be compounded of these two substances, nitric acid and potash; and ATT if any part of it wanted these constituents, it could not be saltpetre. ATROPA, or Deadly Nightshade. A genus of plantSjOne speciesof vvhich,namely the Atropa Belladonna, is remarkable for bearing berries of a fine black colour, which are highly poisonous. It grows wild in England, and has caused the death of many children who have eaten incautiously of its berries. The root is perennial. ATROPHY. A disease, a kind of con- sumption, where the body is not nourished by food, but decays and wastes away in- sensibly. ATROPOS. One of the three destinies, who, as the poets feign, cuts the thread of life. ATTACHMENT (in Law). A laying on of hands, or taking by virtue of a precept ; it differs from an arrest, inasmuch as it lays hold of the goods, as well as the per- son ; and also from a distress, which seizes on lands, tenements, and goods ; but an attachment on the goods and body. ATTACK. A military term ; a general assault or onset, made to gain a port or any particular point. ATTAINDER (in Law). The corruption of blood, which follows from being convict- ed of treason or felony. A Bill of Attainder is a bill brought into parliament for attaint- ing persons convicted of high treason. Such bills have been passed occasionally from the reign of Charles II. ATTIC (in Architecture). A sort of build- ing, in which there is no roof or covering to be seen, as was usual in the houses of the Athenians. The attic, or attic story, is the upper story of a house. ATTITUDE (in Painting). The gesture of a figure, serving to express the action and sentiments of the person represented. ATTORNEY. One who is appointed by another to do a thing in his absence. A public attorney is one who acts in the courts of law, and is a lawyer by profes- sion : a private attorney acts upon particu- lar occasions, and is authorized by a letter of attorney, which gives one full power to act for another. ATTORNEY-GENERAL. A gi-eat law officer, appointed to manage all affairs of the state, either in criminal prosecutions or otherwise. ATTRACTION. In a general sense, the power or principle by which bodies mutu- ally tend towards each other, which varies according to the nature of the bodies at- tracted, and the circumstances under which this attraction takes place ; whence attrac- tion is distinguished into the Attraction of Cohesion, Attraction of Gravitation, Attrac- ATT 41 tion of Electricity, Attraction of Magnetism, and Chymical Attraction. The Attraction of Cohesion is that by which the minute particles of bodies are held together. Attraction of Gravitation is the prin- ciple by which bodies at a distance tend to each other ; on this principle it is that two leaden balls, having each a smooth surface, if compressed strongly together, will cohere almost as strongly as if united by fusion ; and even two plates of glass, if the surfaces are dry and even, will cohere so as to require a certain force to separate them ; which is supposed to be a universal principle in nature. By gravitation a stone and all heavy bodies, if let fall from a height, are supposed to drop to the earth. All ce- lestial bodies are supposed to have not only an attraction or gi-avitation towards their proper centres, but that they mutually at- tract each other within their sphere. The planets tend towards the sun and towards each other, as the sun does towards them. The satellites of Jupiter tend towards Jupi- ter, as Jupiter does towards his satellites ; and the same with the satellites of Saturn and of Uranus. The earth and moon tend likewise reciprocally towards each. By this same principle of gravity heavenly bodies are kept in their orbits, and terres- trial bodies tend,as is supposed, towards the centre of the earth. From this attraction all the motion, and consequently all the changes in the universe, are supposed to arise, the rains fall, rivers glide, ocean swells, projectiles are directed, and the air presses upon different bodies. Attraction of Magnetism is the parti- cular tendency of certain bodies to each other, as that of the magnet, which attracts iron to itself. This is only a sort of attrac- tion of gravitation, acting on particular substances. Attraction of Electricit vis the prin- ciple by which bodies, when excited by friction, tend towards each other. This species of attraction agrees with that of gravitation in the property of acting upon bodies at a distance ; but it differs from it inasmuch as these bodies require to be in a particular state in order to be acted upon, Chymical Attraction is that disposition which some bodies in solution indicate to unite with some substances in preference to others. This is otherwise called affinity, and is considered as a sort of attraction of cohesion, acting in an unresisting medium, as it applies peculiarly to such bodies as, in solution, indicate a disposition to unite with some substances in preference to others. ATTRIBUTES, Those properties or per- 42 AVE fections which are attributed to the Divine Being only, as his self-existence, immuta- bility, eternity, &c. ATTRIBUTES (in Logic). The predi- cates of any subject, or that which may be affirmed or denied of a thing, as ' man is an animal,' ' man is not a brute.' ATTRIBUTES (in Painting and Sculp- ture). Symbols added to certain figures, to denote their office or character, as the eagle added to the figure of Jupiter, to denote his power ; a club to Hercules, to denote his prowess, &c. AVALANCHES. A name given in Savoy and Switzerland to the masses of snow, which break off from the mountains with a noise like thunder, and sometimes over- vv'helm whole villages. AVAST. A term of command at sea, signifying, hold, stop, stay. AUCTION. A public sale of goods by persons called auctioneers,who are licensed to dispose of goods to the highest bidder on certain conditions, called the conditions of sale. A mock auction is that which is conducted by unlicensed persons for fraud- ulent purposes. AUDIENCE. The ceremony of admit- ting ambassadors and public ministers to a hearing at court. AUDIENCE COURT (in Law). An ec- clesiastical court appertaining to the arch- bishop of Canterbury. AUDIT. A regular examination of ac- counts by persons duly appointed. AUDITOR. An officer of any public body, appointed to examine accounts. AVE-MARIA. A prayer used by the Romish church, whicli was so called be- cause it consists of the first words addres- sed by the angel Gabriel in his salutation to the Virgin Mary. AVENUE. A walk planted on each side with trees before a house, or as a passage to any place. AVERAGE (in Commerce). The damage which a vessel, with the goods or loading, sustains from the time of its departure to its return ; also the charges or contribution towards defraying such damages, and the quota or proportion which each merchant or proprietor is adjudged, upon a reason- able estimate, to contribute to a common average. AVES. Birds ; the second class of ani- mals in the Linnaean system. This class of animals is distinguished from all others Ity several peculiarities in their form, having feathers for their covering, two feet, and two wings formed for flight. They have, for the most part, the mandible protracted and naked, but are without external ears, AUR lips, teeth, scrotum, womb, urinary vessel, or bladder, epiglotis, corpus callosum, or its fornix and diaphragm. They are divided in the Linnaan system into six orders : namely, Accipitres, or the falcon and eagle kind ; Pics, the pies ; Anseres, the goose and duck kind ; Grallse, the crane kind ; Gallinse, the poultry or domestic fowl 3 and Passeres, the sparrow and finch kind, with all the smaller birds. AUGER, A wimble, or tool for boring. AUGMENT (in Grammar). A letter or syllable added or changed in Greek verbs. AUGMENTATION (in Heraldry). A particular mark of honour borne in an escutcheon, as the hand in the arms of baronets. AUGURY. The practice of divining by the flight of birds or from inspecting their entrails. The augurs were a principal order of priests among the Romans. AUGUST. The eighth month of the year, called after the emperor Augustus Caesar, who entered his second consulship in that month, after the Actian victory. AUGUSTAN CONFESSION. A con- fession or declaration of Christian faith made by the Protestants at Augusta or Augsburg in Germany, a. d. 1550. AUGUSTINES, or Austin Friars. A religious order, so called from St. Augustin their founder. They were very numerous in England before the Reformation. AVIARY. A place set apart for feeding and propagating birds. AUK. A bird, otherwise called Penguin or Razorbill, an inhabitant of the arctic or northern seas. AVOIRDUPOIS. A sort of weight used in England, of which the pound consists of 16 ounces. The proportion of a pound avoirdupois to a i)ound troy is as 17 to 14. AURICLE. Tliat part of the ear which is prominent from the head. The auricles of the heart are appendages at the base of the heart, which are distinguished into right and left, the former of which is pla- AUT ced in the anterior, the latter in the hinder part. These are muscular bags, which move regularly with the heart, but in an inverted order. AURICULAR CONFESSION. A mode of confession among Roman Catholics, by whispering in the ears of their fathers, confessors, or priests. AURORA BOREALIS, i. e. the North- ern Twilight. An extraordinarj^ meteor or luminous appearance visible in the night time in the northern parts of the heavens. The aurora borealis appears frequently in the form of an arch, chiefly in the spring and autumn, after a dry year. This kind of meteor is more rarely to be seen, the nearer we approach the equator, but in the polar regions it is very constant and brilliant. In the Shetland Isles these lights are called ' the merry dancers.' AURUM MUSICUM, or Mosaicum. A combination of tin and sulphur, used by statuaries and painters, for giving a gold colour to their figures. AUSPICES. A kind of soothsaying among the Romans, by the flight or sing- ing of birds. AUTO DA FE, or An Act of Faith. The solemn act of punishing heretics, for- merly in use among the Spaniards. Upon a Sunday or festival, the offender being brought from prison to church, dressed in a frightful manner, attended divine service, after which he was delivered over to the civil power to be burnt. AUTOGRAPH. An epithet applied to whatever is written in a person's own hand writing, as an autograph letter, a letter of one's own writing. AUTOMATON. A self-moving engine, more particularly the figure of any animal having the principle of motion within itself by means of wheels, springs, and weights,- tliose in tlie figure of a man are called androides, as the mechanical chess-player, &c. (See Androides); those of animals are properly called automata. It is said that Archytas of Tarentura, 400 years before Christ, made a wooden pigeon that could fly; and that Archimedes made similar automata. Regiomontanus made a wooden eagle, that flew forth from the city, met the emperor, saluted him, and returned ; also an iron fly', which flew out of his hand at a feast,and returned again,after flying about the room. Dr. Hooke made the model of a flying chariot, capable of supporting itself in the air. M. Vaucanson made a figure that played on the flute ; also a duck capable of eating, drinking, and imitating exactly the voice of a natural one ; and, what is A XI 43 still more surprising, the food it swallowed was evacuated in a digested state ; also the wings, viscera, and bones were formed so as strongly to resemble those of a living duck. M. le Droz, of la Chaux de Fonds, presented a clock to the king of Spain, which had, amongother curiosities, a sheep that made a bleating noise, and a dog watching a basket, that snarled and barked when any one offered to take it away. One of the most celebrated automata ever invented, was that of the Chess Player, constructed in Germany by Baron Kemp- lin, and since exhibited in various parts of Europe and America, by Mr. Maelzel. It represented the figure of a Turk, who made the moves on the chess-board with its hand, and played the game with so nmch skill that it was long thought never to have been beaten. It was however fre- quently beaten in America, and is now gen- erally supposed to have concealed a person of small size within tlie engine, which directed the moves. The ingenuity of this contrivance, therefore, lay rather in the mode of concealing the real player, tlian in the mechanism. AUTUMN. The third season in the year, which begins, in the northern hemisphere, on the day when the sun enters Libra, that is, on the 22d of September. It termi- nates about the same day in December, when the winter commences. AUTUMNAL SIGNS. The three signs, Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius, through which the sun passes during the autumn season. AUXILIARY VERBS (in Grammar). Such verbs as help to form or conjugate others, as, in English, the verbs ' to have,' and ' to be.' AWL. A shoemaker's tool, v/ith which holes are bored in the leather, for the ad- mission of the thread in stitching and sew- ing. The blade of the awl is mostly a little flattened and bent. ^ AWNING. A piece of tarpaulin or sail, &c. hung about the decks or any other part of a vessel, to screen persons from the sun and rain. AXIOM. A self-evident proposition, or one requiring no proof, as that ' the whole is greater than the part.' AXIS (in Geometry). A right line con- ceived to be drawn from the vertex of a figure to the middle of the base. It is so called because the figure, by revolving 44 AZI round this line, is conceived to generate a solid. The axis of a circle is the same as the diameter. AXIS (in Mechanics). A certain line, about which a body may move, as the axis of a balance, &c. AXIS IN PERITROCHIO, or. Wheel AND Axle. One of the five mechanical pow- ers or simple machines, which is principally used in the raising of water. AXIS (in Astronomy), or Axis of the Sphere. An imaginary right line con- ceived to pass through the centre of the earth from one pole to the other. The sun and all the planets are each conceived to revolve about their respective axes. That of the earth during its revolution round the sun remains parallel to itself, inclined to the plane of the ecliptic in an angle of 66 degrees and a half. AXLE, or Axle-tree. The piece of wood which passes through the middle of any wheel, and on which it turns. AZIMUTH. An arch of the horizon, in- tercepted between the meridian of the place and the azimuth or vertical circle passing through the centre of the object. AZIMUTH CIRCLES, or Vertical Circles. Imaginaiy great circles passing through the zenith and nadir, and cutting the horizon at right angles. AZU AZIMUTH COMPASS. An instrument for finding in a more accurate manner than by the common sea compass, the magnetical amplitude or azimuth of the sun or stars AZIMUTH, Magnetical. An arc of the horizon, intercepted between the vertical circle passing through the centre of any heavenly body and the magnetical me- ridian. AZOTE, or Nitrogen (in Chymistry). A simple substance, which, though not per- ceptible to the senses, is known to exist, by observing its passage from one combi- nation to another, and tracing the laws of chymical attraction to which it is subject. It is the radical principle of atmospheric air, which contains nearly four-fifths of it in bulk, and three-fourths in weight ; it also forms a part of nitric acid, ammoniac, and other substances. Its most remarkable com- bination is that which it enters into with light and caloric, so as to form the com- pound well known by the name of nitrogen gas or azotic gas. AZURE (among Painters). The beauti- ful blue colour, with a greenish cast, pre- pared from the Lapis Lazuli, generally called Ultramarine. AZURE (in Heraldry). The blue colour in the coats of arms of all persons under the degree of barons. In engraving, the azure is represented by horizontal lines across the shield from side to side. BAC BAI 45 B. B, the second letter of the alphabet, is often used as an abbreviation for Bachelor, as B. A. Bachelor of Arts, B. D. Bachelor of Divinity, &c. B as a numeral among the Romans stood for 300, and with a dash over it thus, B, for 3000. B, in chronology, stands for one of the Dominical letters, and in music for the seventh note in the gamut. BAAL. A god of the Phoenicians and Canaanites, which is supposed to represent the sun, and to be the same as the Bel or Belus of the Greeks. BABOON. A large kind of ape with a short tail, which forms one division of tlie genus Simla in the LinnEean system. BACCHANALIANS. Those who per- formed the rites at the Bacchanals in hon- our of Bacchus. BACCHANALS. A festival at Rome in honour of Bacchus, which, for their licen- tiousness, were suppressed by a solemn decree of the senate. BACCHUS. The god of wine in the heathen mythology, was the son of Jupiter and Semele. He was the Osiris of the Egyptians, from whom the fables respecting him were taken by the Greeks. BACCIFER^. Beriy-bearing plants. BACHELOR. One of the first degrees in the liberal arts conferred at the univer- sities of Oxford and Cambridge. BACKGAMMON. A particular game played by two persons with the help of dice, on a board or table divided into parts, whereon are twenty-four black and white spaces called points. BACKPAINTING. The method of painting mezzotinto prints pasted on glass, with oil colours. BACKSTAFF. An instrument formerly used in taking the sun's altitude. It was so called because the back of the observer is turned towards the sun when he makes the observation. This quadrant is noW superseded by more accurate instruments. BADGE. An exterior ornament of a coat of arms, originally worn by the retainers or attendants of the nobility. It fell into dis- use in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. BADGER. An animal ranked by Lin- nteus under the Bear tribe, which lives in holes by the sides of rivers, or in the clefts of rocks. It feeds on insects or berries, burrows during v/inter, hunts by night, and lies concealed by day. BAG (in Commerce). A determinate quantity of goods contained in a bag, vary- ing in size, according to the article or the place, from three to four hundred weiglit, BAGNIO. Italian for a bathing house, with conveniences for bathing, sweating, and otherwise cleansing the body. BAGPIPE. A favourite wind instrument among the Highlanders. It consists of two parts 3 namely, a leathern bag, and pipes for admitting and ejecting the air. One of the pipes called the drone, with which the base part is played, never varies its tone. The third pipe is played on by compressing the bag under the arm. BAIL (in Law). Sureties given for the appearance, when required, of a person in custody. Common Bail is in common con- cernment, where any sureties may be ta- ken; but Special Bail is in matters of gi-eater importance, where special surety of two or more persons must be taken according to the value of the cause. BAILEE (in Law). The person to whom the goods of the one that is bailed are de- livered. BAILIFF. A subordinate magistrate or officer appointed within a particular pro- vince or district, as bailiffs of hundreds, liberties, courts baron, &c. Sheriffs' bailiffs are officers appointed by the sheriff to ex- ecute writs. These, being bound in bond to the sheriff for the due execution of their 46 BAL office, are called bound bailiffs, vulgarly bum-bailiffs. BAILIWICK. The hundred or any other district wherein a bailiff has a jurisdiction. BAILMENT. The delivery of goods in trust upon a contract expressed or implied. BAL^NA. The whale j a genus of the class Mammalia, and of the order Ceti. BALANCE. One of the simple powers in mechanics which serves to find out the equality or difference of weight in heavy bodies. It is a peculiar application of the lever to this particular purpose. The com- mon balance consists of a lever with equal arms, at the extremity of each of which is attached a scale. Before loading it with any weights, the whole ought to preserve a perfect equilibrium ; and this equilibrium must arise from an exact distribution of the weight of each arm and scale of the balance, as well as from the equal length of the former ; for on this depends the correctness of its action. The Assay-Balance is a very delicate kind of balance, used for determin- ing the exact weight of minute bodies. It is so called because it is particularly used in the different processes of assaying ; it is also frequently used in chymical analysis. Balances also vary in their form,as the Bent- Lever Balance, the Compound Balance, consisting of a combination of balances used in weighing very heavy bodies ; also the Danish Balance, a kind of steel-yard. BALANCE OF TRADE. A term in commerce, denoting the equality between the value of the commodities bought of foreigners, and the value of the native pro- ductions transported into other countries. Balance in a merchant's account is when the debtor and creditor account are made even. BALE (in Commerce). A quantity of merchandise packed up in cloth. A bale of cotton yarn is from three to four hun- dred weight ; of raw silk, from one to four hundred. BALISTER, or File-Fish. A fish so called from the resemblance of its back- bone to a file. It is remarkable for the brilliancy of its colours. BALL AND SOCKET. An instrument of brass with a perpetual screw, construc- ted to move in any direction. It is used in the management of surveyirig, and astro- nomical instruments. BALLAST. Gravel, sand, or any weighty matter, put into a ship's hold, to poise her and bringher sufficiently low in the water. BALLET. A theatrical representation, consisting of music and dancing. BALLET-MASTER. The artist who re- BAL gulates the performance and representa- tion of the ballet. BALLISTA. A warlike engine used by the ancients in besieging cities, to throw large stones, darts, and javelins. BALLOON. A globe commonly made of lutestring, and covered with an elastic varnish, to render the substance impervious by the gas. When filled with hydrogen gas, from ten to thirteen times lighter than at- mospheric air, the balloon will ascend, and convey heavy bodies suspended to it. The weight which the balloon is capable of raising will be in proportion to the diameter of the sphere. From experiments it has been found that a cubic foot of hydrogen gas will raise about one ounce avoirdupois. BALLOT. A little ball ; also the manner of giving votes at an election by putting little balls, black or white, into a box. BALLUSTRADE, A series or row of ballusters or small pillars, serving as a guard or fence to balconies or staircases. BALM, or BALSAM. A liquid resin of a whitish or yellow colour, a fragrant smell, and a penetrating aromatic taste. It flows from the balsam tree, and is much used by the females in Turkey as a cosmetic. BAN BALM, or Bx\LM MINT. A perennial, so called from the fragrance of its smell, which resembles that of balsam. BALSAM TREE. A tree growing in Arabia and Egypt, the bark of which jdelds the balm or balsam abovementioned. BALSAMICS. Softening, healing, and cleansing medicines. BxlMBOO, or BAMBU. An Indian reed with larger knots than the common reed. The poorer inhabitants of India make their dwellings of this reed : paper is also made of the same material, by bruising it and steeping it in water until it be reduced to a paste. BANANA. See Plantain Tree. BAND (in Architecture). Any flat, low member or moulding, which is broad but not deep. BANDANA HANDKERCHIEFS. A kind of silk handkerchiefs manufactured, in India, of silk and cotton. BANDEROLE. A sea term for a little flag in form of a gridiron, that used to be hung on the masts of vessels. BAND OF PENSIONERS. A parti- cular company of gentlemen bearing hal- berds, and attending upon the person of the king upon solemn occasions. BANDITTI. A band of outlawed rob- bers, most frequent in Italy. BANDOLEER, or BANDOLIER. A large leathern belt, formerly worn over the right shoulder, and hanging under the left arm, to carry some warlike weapon. BANDROL. A little flag or streamer. BANDS. Two pieces of iron nailed upon the bows of the saddle, to hold them tight. BANERET. A knight made in the field, whose standard was converted into a ban- ner which he could display in the king's army as the barons did. BANIAN TREE See Indian Fig. BANISHMENT. A quitting the realm, either voluntarily, as by abjuration ; or compulsorily, as by transportation. BANK (in Commerce). An establishment for the receiving of moneys and letting them out on interest. Banks are general- ly formed by a number of moneyed per- sons, who, for carrying on the business of negotiating bills of exchange, and dealing in bullion, &c. advance a considerable sum as a joint capital. The first bank was es- tablished at Venice about 1157, and the name of Banco was given to it in Italian, from the bench which the money-changers or bankers used to sit upon in their courses or exchanges. The bank of Genoa was established in 1345; that of v^msterdam, in 1609 ; that of Hamburg, in 1619 ; that of Rotterdam, in 1635. The Bank of Eng- BAN 47 land, one of the last, but at present the greatest of its kind, was established by charter in the reign of William and Mary, into a corporate body, by the title of the Governor and Company of the Bank of England. Its notes form the currency of the kingdom to a certain extent, and amount to between twenty and thirty mil- lions. The Bank of England is also the Government Bank, and pays the interest of the national debt. Bx\NKER. A person who traffics in money, by receiving the current cash of individuals free of interest, and negotiat- ing with it, either in the discount of bills or the advance of money on sufficient se- curities. BANKING-HOUSE. Any mercantile house which carries on the business of a private banker, as distinguished from the Bank, by which is understood the Bank of England. BANKRUPT. A trader who fails or breaks, so as to be unable to carry on his business or pay his debts. In Law, a bank- rupt is one who has cuinmitted an act of bankruptcy, so as to bring him under the protection of the bankrupt laws, whicli is allowed to none but actual traders, or such as buy and sell, and gain a livelihood by so doing. It is derived from bancum, a bench, and rumpere, to break, because the bench of the Italian banker or money- changer is said to have been broken by way of infamy when he failed. BANNER. A flag or standard at the end of a lance. BANNIANS. A religious sect among the Hindoos, who believe in the transmi- gration of souls, and therefore abstain from eating the flesh of animals, which they carefully preserve. They are so cautious of having communication with any but their own caste, that if any of another na- tion or tribe has drunk out of or touched their cup, they break it. BANNOCK. A sort of oaten cake in the north of England, baked in the embers or on a hot stone. BANNS OF MATRIMONY. The pub- lishing of marriage contracts in the church before the performance of the marriage ceremony. By the ordinances of the church, when persons are to be married, the banns of matrimony shall be published in the church where they dwell three several Sundays or holydays in the time of Divine Service ; and if, at the day ap- pointed for their marriage, any man do allege any impediment or precontract, consanguinity or affinity, want of parent's consent, infancy, 4'c. why they should 48 BAR not be married (and become bound with sureties to prove tills allegation), then the solemnization must be deferred until the truth is tried. BANTAM. The name of a domestic fowl of the hen tribe, having short legs, and the shanks well feathered. BAPTISM. Asaci-amentofthe Christian church, administered either by immersion, that is, dipping in water, or by sprinkling with water. BAPTISTS. A denomination of profess- ing Christians, who practice adult baptism instead of that of children, and by immer- sion rather than by sprinkling. BAR (in Courts of Law). The place parted off by a bar or railing, within which counsellors stand to plead ; also the pro- fession of a barrister or pleader. BAR. A sea term for a rock lying before the harbour in such a manner that ships cannot sail over except upon the flood. BAR (in Music). A line which divides the notes into equal portions in respect to their duration. BAR (in Heraldry). One of the honour- able ordinaries, consisting of two horizon- tal lines drawn across the escutcheon. BARALTPTON. An arbitrary name among logicians for an indirect mode of the first figure of syllogisms. BARATRY (in Commerce). A term used when the master of a vessel or the mariners cheat the owners by embezzling theirgoods, or running away with the ship. BARB. The points that stand back in BAR the head of an arrow or fishing-hook, to prevent them from being drawn out easily; also the name of a horse of the Barbary breed, remarkable for its swiftness. BARBARA. An arbitrary name among logicians for the first mode of the first fig- ure of syllogisms, consisting of three uni- versal propositions : as, ' all animals are endued with sense ; all men are animals ; ergo, all men are endued with sense.' BARBARISM. A rude kind of language used only by the savage or unlettered per- son. BARBEL. A fish of the carp kind, which lies in holes near the banks, and feeds on testaceous animals, worms, &c. It has its name from the beards or wattles under its nose. ^^®^$'"^A^\)i^ oy BARBER. One who follows the trade of shaving and dressing hair, and anciently also that of bleeding, whence barbers were called Barber-Chirurgeons, and used a pole as a sign to represent the staff which per- sons used to hold when they were bled. The barbers were separated from the sur- geons by a statute in the reign of George the Second. BARBERRY. A tart beny, the fruit of the barberry tree ; a prickly shrub. BARBICAN. An outer defence or forti- fication to a city or castle, used as a fence, and also as a watchtower, to descry the approach of an enemy. BARD. A sort of poets among the Gauls, who used to set forth the deeds of heroes and great men. BARGAIN AND SALE (in Law). An instrument whereby the property of lands and tenements is, for valuable considera- tion, transferred from one person to anoth- er. It is called a real contract upon a val- uable consideration for passing of lands, tenements, and hereditaments, by deed indented and enrolled. BARGE. A very large boat used on rivers either for pleasure and state, as the royal barge ; or for trade, as the coal barge, &c. BARILLA. A kind of Spanish alkaline salt used in the glass trade. BAR BARITONO. A low pitch of the voice between hass and tenor. BARIUM. A metal so called by Sir H. Davy the discoverer, which is obtained by the chymical decomposition of barytes. BARK. The skin or covering of a ligne- ous plant. Bark-binding is a disease in trees cured by slitting the bark. BARK (in Commerce). A stuff manu- factured in India of the bark of trees ; also the Peruvian or Jesuit's bark, which is procured from the Cinchona tree growing in duito. BARK. A sea terra for a small vessel, particularly one carrying three masts. BARKING. The process of peeling the bark off the trees, which must be done in the month of May. BARLEY. A sort of corn or grain which is sown in March, April, or May, and suc- ceeds best in light dry soils. From barley, when converted into malt, beer is made. BARLEY^ or Pearl-Barley. Barley stripped of its first coat, and used in mak- ing a diet drink. BARLEYCORN. The least of our long measures, being the third of an inch. BARLEY-MOW. The . place where reaped barley is laid up. BARLEY WATER. A decoction of pearl-barley. BARM, or Yeast. The head or working out of beer, which is used as a ferment to lighten bread. BARN. A storehouse for grain, in which it is deposited and threshed. BARNACLE. A species of shell-fish which sticks to the bottom of ships, rocks. &c. BARNACLE-GOOSE. A large \yater- fowl, with a broad flat bill. BAR 49 BAROLITE, A stone of the ponderous order, called also the carbonite of barytes. BAROMETER. An instrument for mea- suring the weight of the atmosphere, in- vented by Torricelli. The common ba- rometer is a glass tube hermetically sealed at one end, and filled with mercury, so as 5 to have no air over. Then the maker, put- ting his finger on the open end, immerses it in a bason of quicksilver or water ; and on his removing his finger, the quicksilver in the tube endeavours, by its own weight, to descend into the bason, but by the pres- sure of the external air on the surface of the fluid in the bason, and no air being in the tube at the top, the quicksilver will rise from 28 to 31 inches in mercury, and from 30 to 33 inches in water. In dry weather, the air, being free from vapours, is consequently heavy, and presses up the quicksilver ; but in moist rainy weather, the atmosphere being charged with clouds and fogs, the air is lighter, and presses with less force on the quicksilver. In high winds the atmosphere is light, and the quicksilver low ; it also rises higher in cold weather than in warm. BARON. In England, a degree of nobili- ty next to a viscount. All barons are lords of parliament and peers of the realm. Barons were originally so by tenure, that is, by virtue of the barony annexed to their lands or office. BARON AND FEME, A term in Law for husband and wife, who are deemed but one person. BARON'S CORONET. On a sold circle six pearls, which were assigned to barons by King Charles II. after the Restoration. BARONET. The lowest degree of here- 50 BAS ditary honour created by letters patent. It was founded by James I. in 1604. BARONS OF THE EXCHEQUEIl. In England the four judges who officiate in the court of exchequer at Westminster. BARONY, In England, the honour and territory which gave title to a baron, in- cluding the fees and lands of lords, both temporal and spiritual. BARRACKS. Places erected for the accommodation of both men and horses in the army. BARRAS. A substance consisting of re- sin and oil, which exudes from the wounds of fir trees in winter. BARRATOR (in Law). A common mover of suits and quarrels, either in courts or elsewhere. BARREL. A cask or vessel for holding liquor, that is, thirty-one and a half gallons of wine, &c. and thirty-two gallons of beer. BARREL. The cylinder of a watch, about whicli the spring is wrapped. BARRIER. A kind offence, composed of great stakes, and serving to defend the entrance of a passage. BARRISTER. In England a counsellor admitted to plead at the bar. An inner Barrister is one who is a serjeant, or king's counsel, and is admitted to plead within the bar ; but an outer barrister is one who pleads without the bar. BARROW (in Husbandry). An imple- ment of conveyance with a single wheel, and driven with the two hands. It is made of different forms, according to the purpose for which it is intended ; the com- mon barrow, called the wheelbarrow, is represented underneath. BARROW. A large hillock or mound, of which many are to be met with in dif- ferent parts of England, and are supposed to be the tumuli or tombs of the Romans. BARTER. The exchanging one commo- dity for another ; also the rule in Arithme- tic by wliich the proportionate value of commodities is found. BARYTES. A sort of ponderous earth, very brittle, and perfectly soluble in boil- ing sulphuric acid. It is compounded of oxygen and barium. BASALT. A sort of argillaceous earth, consisting of silica, with a certain portion of alumina and oxyde of iron, lime, and BAS magnesia. It is always found near vol- canoes. BASE (in Architecture). The foot of a pillar, by which it is sustained ; in Geome- try, the base of a figure is the lowest plain side, or that on which it stands. BASE (in Chymistry). The inert sub- stance which combines with, and is acted upon, by the more volatile and active men- strua, as the alkalies, earths, and metallic oxydes, which are the principal ingredi- ents in the formation of salts. BASE LINE (in Perspective). The common section of a picture, and the geo- metrical plane. BASEMENT. A continued base ex- tended along any building, as the base- ment or lower story of a house. BASE TENURE, or Base Estate (in Law). A holding by villanage, or other customary service. BASHAW, or Pacha. The title given to the grand officers of the court at Con- stantinople ; as the capudan bashaw, the admiral or commander at sea •, bostangi bashaw, the chief officer of the garden,&;c. Their degrees of dignity were marked by their bearing one, two, orthree horses tails. The ruler of Tripoli is called Bashaw. BASIL. The sloping edge of a chisel, or of the iron of a plane. BASIL, A plant which has an aromatic smell. BASILICON. An ointment, consisting of resin, pitch, oil, wax, &c, BASILISK. A serpent of the lizard tribe, with remarkably piercing eyes, and a white spot on its head, resembling a diamond. It was formerly called a cocka- trice, and fabled to be produced from the eggs of a cock. BASIN. Any hollow place capable of holding liquids. Basin of a dock, a place where the water is confined by double floodgates. The basin of a haven is that part which opens from a narrow passage into a spacious receptacle. The basin of a river, includes the whole valley which empties its waters into the river or its branches. BASKET. A vessel made either of rush- es, splinters, willows, osiers, or any otiier flexible material that can be interwoven. To render osiers fit for use, they must be soaked for some time. Those that are in- tended for the finer kind of work, as wash- ing-baskets or market baskets, and the like, must be peeled while they are green, and then steeped. Hampers, and the coarser kind of work, do not require that preparation : basket making was one of the arts that was carried to a considerable BAT degree of perfection among the ancient Britons. BASKING SHARK, A species of tlae shark, which lies much on the surface of the water, basking in the sun. It grows to a prodigious size, but is not very fierce. BAS-RELIEF. See Basso Relievo. BASS. A sort of cushion made of rush or straw. BASS (in Music). The lowest or deepest part of any composition. This note is play- ed on the largest pipes or strings of instru- ments of the common size, as the organ, lute, &c., or on the largest kind of instru- ments. The bass is the principal part of a musical composition, and the foundation of harmony, whence it is called the fun- damental bass. Thorough bass is that which includes the fundamental rules of composition. Ground bass is that which commences with some subject of its own, that is continually repeated throughout the movement, whilst the upper parts pursue a separate air. BASS CLIFF, or F Cliff. The charac- ter marked thus, BAT 51 and placed at the beginning of a stave in which the bass or lower notes are placed. BASSO RELIEVO. In English, bass- relief, a sort of sculpture in which the figures are represented, as projecting not far above the plane on which they are formed. Figures cut, are said to be done in relief, and when the work is low or flat it is called bass-relief, or basso relievo, in distinction from alto relievo, and mezzo relievo. BASSOON. A musical wind instrument blown with a reed, and has eleven holes. It serves to play the bass part in concerts. BASS VIOL. A stringed musical in- strument of the same shape as a violin, but much larger. BASS VOICE. The gravest and deepest of the male voices. BASTARD (in Law). One born out of wedlock, who cannot inherit. BASTILE. A fortress in Paris, which was used as a prison, and destroyed during the French revolution. BASTINADO. A mode of punishment usual among the Turks, of beating the offender on the soles of the feet. BASTION. A large mass of earth, stand- ing out from a rampart, of which it forms the principal part. BAT. An animal resembling both a bird and a mouse. It has wings not of feathers, but of a skin distended, and flies only at night. It lays no eggs, but brings forth its young alive, and suckles them. ^^^S-^ EATABLE GROUND. Land formerly so called, which lay between England and Scotland, and was the subject of debate to whom it belonged. BATEMENT (in Carpentry). The wast- ing of stuff, in cutting it for the purpose designed. BAT-FOWLING. A mode of catching birds at night, when they are at roost. BATH. Any receptacle for water which is convenient for bathing ; also any artifi- cial contrivance which is to supply the place of a bath, as a shower bath, or an apparatus for applying water to the body in the form of a shower ; a vapour bath, or a mode of conveying moisture to the body by means of steam ; a medicinal bath is that in which certain chymical preparations are mingled. BATH (in Chymistry). A contrivance by which heat is conveyed to any substance; also in the refining of metals, the fusion of the metallic matter is called a bath. BATH, KNIGHTS OF THE. In Eng- land, a military order of knighthood, re- stored, if not instituted, by Henry IV. These knights wear a red ribbon, and their motto is, Tria juncta in uno, alluding to the three cardinal virtues, faith, hope, and charity, which every knight ought to possess. BATON. The staff or truncheon, given as a symbol of authority, to generals in the French army. B ATTA. Allowances made to trov ps in India. Dry batta is money given in lieu of rations ; wet batta, what is given in kind. BATTALION. A body of foot soldiers offrom600to800men. BATTEL. An ancient mode of trial by single combat, which has lately been abo- lished in England. BATTEN. A scantling or piece of wood- en stuff, from two to four inches broad, and one inch thick. BATTERING. A cannonade of heavy ordnance against any fortress or works. BATTERING-RAM. A military ma- chine, with which the ancients effected 52 BAT breaches in fortifications. Tlaese engines were variously constructed,and of different sizes, Plutarch informs us that Marc An- tony, in the Parthian war, used a ram of 80 feet long ; and, according to Vitruvius, they were sometimes 106, and even 120 feet long, and weighed 100,000 lbs. This engine was frequently used in the four- teenth century, and occasionally for other purposes besides that of war in later peri- ods. Sir Christopher Wren is said to have employed it in demolishing the walls of the old church of St. Paul, previously to his rebuilding it. BATTERY (in i;aw).The striking,beat- ing, or offering any violence to the person of another, as by spitting in his face, or any way touching him in anger, or vio- lently jostling against him. It is distin- guished from an assault, inasmuch as the latter does not necessarily imply a hitting, or blow. There may be an assault with- out battery, but there cannot be a battery without an assault. BATTERY (in Military Affairs). Any raised place on vs^hich cannon are placed. Batteries are of different kinds, as open batteries, which -are exposed to view ; masked batteries, which are hidden by a breastwork ; cross batteries, two batteries firing athwart each other on the same ob- ject, &c. A floating battery is a battery erected on simple rafts, or the hulls of ships. BATTERY (in Electricity). A combina- tion of coated surfaces of glass jars, so connected, that they may be charged at once, and discharged by a common con- ductor. A battery or pile, is also an appa- ratus employed for accumulating the elec- tricity of galvanism. BATTLEDORE. An instrument used either with a shuttlecock, or a tennis ball. BATTLEMEx\TS. Notches or inden- tures in the top of a wall or building, like embrasures, to look through. BEA BATTLE AXE. An ancient sort of weapon, having an axe and a point at the end, for cutting or thrusting. BATTON. A staff or truncheon, used by the English in coats of arms, to denote illegitimacy. BAWLING. Thenoise of dogs in sport- ing, who are too busy before they find the scent. BAY. Any inlet of the sea between two capes, or promontories, where ships may ride ; it is defined in geograpliy, an arm of the sea stretching inland. BAY, or Bay Tree . The female laurel tree, an evergreen, which grows wild in Italy and France. BAY. A colour in horses resembling tlie dried bay leaf. BAYONET. A short triangular dagger, made to fix on the muzzle of a firelock or musket. BAY-SALT. A salt which is made from seawater in France, by letting the water into pits or basins, where, by the heat of the sun, it is evaporated, and the residue is converted into crystals of salt. BAZAAR. A place mostly covered, and fitted up with shops in Eastern countries ; also a similar collection of shops lately in- troduced into England. BDELLIUM. The gum of an Arabian tree about the size of an olive tree. The gum resembles wax, and consists of resin, guin, cerasin, and volatile oil. BEACH. The seashore, or margin of the sea, which is washed by the tides.' BEACON. A signal by fire, placed on some eminence, to prevent shipwrecks, or give some alarm. BEAD (in Architecture). A round mould- ing, carved in short embossments, like the bead of a necklace. BEADLE, or BEDEL. In England an officer of a court, of the university, or of BEA any corporate body, -who acts as a mes- senger and attends to keep order. BEAD PROOF. A method of deter- mining the strength of spirituous liquors, from the continuance of the bubbles or beads on the surface. BEAD TREE. A shrub, the fruit of which is a nut, that is bored through, and strung as beads by the Roman Catholics in Spain and Portugal. BEAGLE. A sort of hunting dog. BEAK, or Beak-head of a Ship. That part of it, which is without before the fore- castle, and serves by way of ornament. Among the ancients it was a piece of brass, like a bird's beak. BEAM. The largest piece of wood in a building, which is its main support ; in Naval Architecture, beams are the large main timbers that stretch across a ship to support a deck. BEAM- COMPASS. An instrument con- sisting of a square wooden or brass beam, having sliding sockets, used for describing large circles. BEAM-TREE. A tree which grows to the height of thirty or forty feet, so called, because it is particularly fitted for making axletrees and the like. BEAN. An edible pulse, of which there are several sorts, as the kidney or French bean, the broad Windsor bean, the horse bean, &;c. BEAR. A wild beast, covered with shaggy hair, and having hooked claws for climbing trees. It feeds on honey, insects, and carcasses, and lies torpid during the winter. The black bear is a native of the north of Europe, Asia and America ; but the polar bear, which is white, lives with- in the arctic circle. The brown bear is found in Europe, but not in America. Asia has several varieties of the bear. The grisly bear figured below, is found only near the Rocky mountains in the United States. BEA 53 BEAR'S-BREECH. An herb, from the smooth leaved sort of which, is extracted a mucilage. BEARD (with Botanists). The under lip of a labiated flower, and in corn and grass, 5* that hair or bristle which serves to defend the ear, as in barley, rye, wheat, and oats. BEARD OF A COMET (in Astronomy). The rays which a comet emits towards that part of the heavens, to which, its course seems to direct it. , BEARD OF A HORSE (in Farriery). The chuck, or that part under the lower jaw, on the outside, and above the chin, which bears the curb of the bridle. BEAR-GARDEN. A place formerly set apart in England for the baiting of bears BEARER OF A BILL (in Commerce). The person in whose hands the bill is, and in favour of whom the last indorsement was made. BEARERS. Posts or brick walls, which are trimmed up between two ends of a piece of timber, to shorten its bearing, or to prevent its bearing with the whole weight at the ends only. i BEARING (in Architecture). The dis- tance between the bearer, or support, and each end of the timber. BEARING. A sea term, to denote the situation of any distant object with regard to the ship's position, whether ahead, astern, or abreast, &c. BEARING (in Heraldry). Whatever is borne in, or fills the escutcheon. BEAT. The walk or round, which a watchman has to take at stated intervals. BEATING TIME (in Music). That mo- tion of the hand or foot, by which some person marks and regulates the movements of the performers. BEATS (in a Clock or V/atch). The strokes made by the pallets or fangs of the spindle. BEAVER. An amphibious four footed animal, that lives on the banks of rivers and unfrequented lakes, and is remarkable for its ingenuity in building its habitation. It walks slowly, swims dexterously, eats sitting on its haunches, and conveys its food to its mouth with its fore paws. This animal is valued both for its fur and for the oil which it yields, called castor oil. 54 BEE BEAVER. That part of the hehnet which defends the sight, and opens in front. BEAU MONDE. The gay fashionable world. BED (in Gunnery). A thick plank which lies under a piece of ordnance, on the car- riage. BED (in Masonry). A range or course of stones. BED (in Mineralogy). A stratum or layer of any earth or stone. BED OF A RIVER. The bottom of a channel, in which the stream or current usually flows. BEE. An insect which cai'ries on the operation of making honey and wax. Bees begin to swarm, that is to form new colo- nies, in May or June, according to the state of the weather. The swarm consists of a female, called the queen, who is distin- guished by her size ; the drones, who are supposed to be males, that do not work ; and the mules, or common bees, who are of neither sex, and do the work of the hive. BEEHIVE. A particular kind of box or basket in which bees are kept. BEER. A drink made of malt and hops by the process of brewing ; it is of three kinds, namely, strong beer, ale, and table beer, or small beer. BEESTINGS. A term in Husbandry for the first milk taken from a cow after she calves. BEET. A garden herb and root, which is thick and fleshy. The leaves are used as potherbs, and the root is boiled for the table. BEL BEETLE. The scarabseus of Linnaeus, a well known insect, produced from the lar- va3 or grubs that live under ground. It has six feet, is hairy at one end, and lives in dry decayed wood, &;q. BEETLE. A large wooden hammer for driving palisadoes. BELFRY. That part of a church steeple in which the bells are hung. BELL. The well known metallic ma- chine, which is ranked among musical instruments ; it consists of three parts, the body, or barrel, the clapper, and the ear, or cannon. The use of bells in churches was introduced into England, in the eighth century. They were commonly baptized before they were hung BELLES LETTRES. A French term for polite literature. BELLIGERENT. An epithet applied to states that are at war. BELL METAL. A metal employed in the manufacture of bells, which usually consists of three parts of copper and one of tin. BELLONA. The goddess of war, and sister of Mars. BELLOWS. A machine for blowing the fire. This machine is so contrived as to expire and respire the air alternately, by enlarging and contracting its capacity. The air which enters the bellows is com- pressed when they are closed, and flows out of the pipe with a velocity proportion- ed to the force by which it is compressed. The bellows of smiths and founders are worked by a rocker. BEN BELLOWS OF AN ORGAN. The pneumatic part of the machine, by wliich it is supplied with wind. The bellows of a large organ are worked by a man called the blower ; those of smaller organs by the foot of the player. BELLU^. The sixth order of animals in the Linnsan system, having their feet hoofed, as the equus, or horse ; sus, the swine -, the hippopotamus, and the tapir. BELT. A girdle for hanging a sword or any other weapon in. BELT (in Heraldry). A badge of the knightly order, given to a person when he was raised to the knighthood. BELT (in Surgery). A bandage applied round the body. BELT (in Masonry). A range or course of bricks projecting from the rest, BELTEIN. An ancient festival in Ire- land, celebrated on the 21st of June, tlie summer solstice, when fires were made on the tops of the hills. BELTS, or Fascije. Two zones or girdles round the planet Jupiter, more lucid than the other parts of his body, and terminated by parallel straight lines, some- times broader and sometimes narrower, varying both in magnitude and position. These belts were first observed at Na- ples, by Zuppi and Bartoli, two Jesuits. BENCH. A seat of justices, or judges, as the King's Bench, at Westminster, Eng. BENCHER. In England, a lawyer of the oldest standing in the inns of court. BEND (in Heraldry). One of the ten honourable ordinaries, drawn from the dexter, or right corner, at the top of the escutcheon, to the sinister base, or left corner, at the bottom. It is supposed to represent a shoulder belt, or scarf, and to Bhow the wearer to be valiant in war. It is sometimes called a bend dexter, to dis- tinguish it from the bend sinister, which is drawn from the left side of the shield to the right. BER 55 BEND. A sea term for the knot, by which one rope is fastened to another or lo an anchor. BENDING. A sea term, for the tying two cables or ropes together, or to anything BENDING (in Physiology). The reduc- ing a body to a curved or crooked form. The bending of boards, planks, &c. is effected by means of heat, whether by boil- ing or otherwise, by which the fibres be- come relaxed and flexible. BENDS IN A SHIP. The outermost timbers of the side, to set the foot on in climbing up the side. They are reckoned from the water, first, second, and third bend, and are of great service in strength- ening the ship, as into them the beams, knees, and foothooks are bolted. BENEFICE. In England, any ecclesias- tical living, but particularly rectories and vicarages. BENEFIT OF CLERGY. In England, a privilege in law, at first peculiar to the clergy, but in after times made common to the laity. When any one was convicted of certain crimes, he had a book given him to read, and if the ordinary or his deputy pronounced these words, ' Legit ut cleri- cus, he reads like a clergyman, or scho- lar,' he was only burnt in the hand, and set free for the first offence, otherwise he was to suffer death. BENZOIN. A dry solid resin, of a fragrant smell, produced by incision from the styrax, an Indian tree. It is brought to us from the East Indies, particularly Siam and the islands of Java and Sumatra, in masses of various sizes, composed of small granules of a whitish or yellowish colour, with a purple cast on the surface. It is very inflammable, and diff'uses a fra- grant smell while burning, and so in like manner when rubbed in the hand. When the benzoin tree is six years old, the na- tives cut it in several places, in an ob- lique direction, and the benzoin flows from the wounds. Benzoin is used by perfumers in making sweet bags, &c. and was formerly very much esteemed as an expectorant. The tree was introduced from Virginia into England. BEaUEST. A legacy; what Is be- queathed or left by will. BERENICE'S HAIR. A constellation in the northern hemisphere. BERGAMOT. A fine sort of pear, which is of two sorts, namely, the sum- mer bergamot and the autumn bergamot. BERGAMOT (in ChymistryJ. A fragrant essence, extracted from a fruit which ia produced by ingrafting a branch of a lemon tree, upon the stock of a bergamot pear. This essence is got by cutting the external rind of the fruit into small pieces, and squeezing them into a glass vessel, in the same manner aa the juice of a lemon is 56 BIB squeezed out, by which means an ffitherial oil is procured of a very fragrant smell. BERRY. A round fruit, for the most part soft, and covered with a thin skin, containing seeds in a pulpy substance. BERYL. A precious stone, which, in its purity, is of a perfectly seagreen colour, and on that account called aqua marina. Beryl is also (in Painting) the seagreen colour, in imitation of this stone. BETA. The second letter in the Greek alphabet. BETEL. A sort of pepper plant, the leaf of which is universally chewed by the southern Asiatics, to sweeten the breath and strengthen the stomach. It is a slen- der-stemmed climbing plant. BEVEL. An instrument with a mov- able tongue, to strike angles of a greater or less magnitude. BEVELLING (in Carpentry). Hewing timber with a proper or regular curve. BEY. An officer of high rank among the Turks, inferior to none but the pacha. The ruler of Tunis, has this title. BEZANTS. Round flat pieces of bul- lion without any impression, which are supposed to have been the current coin of Byzantium. This coin was probably in- troduced into coat armour by those who went to the wars. BEZOAR. A medicinal stone, brought from the East and West Indies, which was formerly reckoned a sovereign antidote against poisons. Jt is found to be a morbid concretion in the intestines of some ani- mals. BIBLE. The collection of the books of the Old and New Testament. The Old Testament was first translated by the 72 interpreters, and thence called the Septua- gint: of the Latin versions, that of St. Je- rome was confirmed by the council of Trent for vulgar use, and thence got the BIL name of the Vulgate. The Bible was translated into the Saxon tongue about the year 940 ; and into the English, by Wil- liam Tindal, in the twenty-first year of the reign of Henry the Eighth, when it was printed. The present authorized English version of the Holy Scriptures was completed in the reign of James the First, about the year 1611. BIBLIOGRAPHER. A person conver- sant with books. BIBLIOGRAPHY. The knowledge of books as to their several editions, time, and form of being printed, type, and other par- ticulars connected with their publication. BIBLIOMANIA. A rage for scarce and old editions of books. BICE (in Painting). A blue colour pre- pared from the lapis armenus ; it bears the best body of all bright blues used in cora^ mon work. BIENNIALS. Plants that flourish for two years, and seldom more. BIGAMY. Double marriage, or the mar- rying of two wives or two husbands while the first is alive, which is felony by statute. Bigamy, in the Civil Law, is the marrying a plurality of wives or husbands. BIGHT. The double part of a rope where it is folded, in distinction from the end. BILBOES. A term at sea, for the long bars of iron with which the feet of offen- ders are confined, the irons being more or less heavy, according to the nature of the offence. BILE. A bitter fluid secreted in the glandular substance of the liver, and pass- ing through the gall bladder and the porus biliarius, is discharged into the duodenum, where it converts the chyme into chyle and excrement. The constituent parts of bile are water, soda in a caustic state, phosphate of lime, and a resinous albu- minous principle. BILGE. A sea term, for the bottom of the floor of a ship, the compass or breadth of its bottom. A vessel is said to bilge when she has struck off some of her tim- ber against a rock." . BILL. An edged tool, or hatchet, with a hooked point, for lopping of trees and making hedges ; if it have a short handle it is a handbill ; if a long handle, a hedg- ingbill. BILIj (in Law). A declaration in writ- ing expressing any grievance or wrong which one person has suffered from an- other ; also an instrument drawn up by any member and presented to a legislature for its approbation or rejection. BIP BILL OF EXCHANGE (in Commerce). A note containing an order for the pay- ment of a sum of money, to a person call- ed the drawer, who when he has signed it with liis name, and written the word ac- cepted, he is called the acceptor. The person in whose favour it is drawn, or to whom it is ordered to be paid, is called the drawee, or payee, who, when he has in- dorsed it, is called the indorser. He, who is in possession of the bill, is the holder. BILL OF FARE. An account of such provisions as are in season, or are to be supplied for the table. BILL OF LADING, or Invoice. A deed signed by the master of a ship, by which he acknowledges the receipt of the merchant's goods, and obliges himself to deliver them at the place to which they are consigned. BILL OF PARCELS. A tradesman's account of goods sold and delivered. BILLET. A ticket for quartering sol- diers : also a small paper, or note, folded up as a billet doux, or love-letter. BILLET. A small log of wood ; also in Heraldry, a bearing in the form of a square, supposed to represent cloth of gold and silver. BILLETING (in Military Affairs). Ordering soldiers to be quartered in par- ticular houses by a billet or small ticket. BILLIARDS. A game played on an oblong table, exactly level, and covered with cloth, by the means of ivory balls, which are struck or driven with sticks, made bending, so as to drive the antago- nist's ball into holes, called hazards or pockets, at the corners or by the sides of the table. The art of the game lies in pocketing your antagonist's ball without putting in your own. BILLION. The sum of a million mil- lions. BILLS OF MORTALITY. Annual re- gisters of the deaths and burials, which take place in the different pai-ishes in and near London. The term is also applied to a register of deaths, in any town. BINDING OF BOOKS. The art of doing up books in leather or vellum, as distinguished from those done up in boards or only sewed. BINNACLE. A wooden case, contain- ing the compasses, log glasses, watch glas- ses, &e. BINOMIAL. A term in algebra for any quantity consisting of two names, or terms, connected together by the sign -f-, or — , as a-\- b. BIPED. An animal with only two legs, as men and birds. BIS 57 BiaUADRATIC. The square squared, or the fourth power of any quantity. BIRCH TREE. A tree with leaves like the poplar, the fruit of which is a squamosa cone. The timber is used for hop-poles. BIRD-BOLT. A small arrow with three heads, which was discharged at birds from a cross-bow ; The bird-bolt is still used in England as a bearing in coat armour. BIRDCALL. A whistle or pipe to decoy birds. BIRDCATCHING. The art of taking birds or wild fowl, by birdlime, nets, and decoys, which, as respects the more artful modes of catching birds, is called fowling. In the western islands of Scotland, where the birds live in rocks, a dangerous mode of bird catching is in use. BIRDLIME. A glutinous substance, made of the bark of holly, which is spread on the twigs of trees to catch birds. BIRD OF PARADISE. See Pakadise, Bird of. BIRTH. A sea term for the station in which a ship rides at anchoring ground, as a good birth, for a good anchoring ground. BIRTHRIGHT (in Law). Honour or estate belonging to a person by right of his birth. BIRTHWORT. A herb having a peren- nial root. BISCUIT (from biscoctus, twice baked). A sort of bread much dried in baking; sea biscuit is dried harder than any other, that it may be better preserved. BISECTION. The cutting any quantity, as a line or angle, into two equal parts. BISON. A variety of the ox, which has its horns bent forwards, back gibbous, and mane long. It is very common in the western prairies. Herds^of ten thousand are sometimes seen together. It is im- properly called Buffalo, in the United BISHOP. A dignitary in the Greek, Romish and English churches. In the lat- ter he presides over the clergy within a certain district, called his diocess Bi- 58 BIT shops in England are suffraganSj or assist- ants, to the archbishop, wlio is the chief of the clergy in his province. The bishop is said to be installed, the archbishop to be enthroned. In America there is no arch- bishop. BISHOPRIC. The diocess, or district, over which a bishop presides. BISMUTH. A metal of a yellowish or reddish white colour. It is rather harder than lead, and scarcely if at all malleable, being very brittle ; it melts easily, and is soluble in acids. BISSEXTILE, or Leap Year. A year consisting of 366 days, by the addition of a day in the month of February, when that year consists of 29 instead of 28 days. This happens every fourth year. The day thus added is also called Bissextile, and on this account, that Caesar appointed it to be introduced by reckoning the twenty- fourth of February twice, and as that day was the same as the sixth of the calends of March, a day celebrated among the Romans on account of the expulsion of the Tarquins, it was called bis sextus calenda- rum Martii, and afterwards Bissextile. By the Stat. 21 Hen. III. De Anno Bissextile, to prevent misunderstandings, the inter- calary day and that next before it, are to be accounted as one day. BISTER. A colour made of chimney Boot boiled and diluted. BISTOURY. A small surgical knife of various forms, according to the purpose for which it is intended. BIT (in Carpentry). A boring instrument so constructed as to be taken out of the handle. BIT, orBiTT OF A BRIDLE. Thc iron attached to the bridle, which ia put into the horse's mouth. BITT. A sea term for the two pieces of timber to which the anchor cables are attached. BITTER. A sea term for the turn of the cable round the bitts. BITTER ALMOND. A sort of almond tree, the fruit of which is bitter. BITTER-APPLE. See CoLOftUiNTiDA. BITTER PRINCIPLE. The bitter parts of vegetable substances, which may be ex- tracted by a chymical process. Artificial bitter is any bitter formed by the action of nitric acid on vegetable and other sub- stances. BITTER-SWEET. A sort of solanum, a perennial. BITTERN, or BITTOUR. Abirdofthe heron kind, of retired habits, that conceals itself in the reeds and marshes. It sends forth a croaking note when it is disturbed. BLA The American Bittern differs from that of Europe which is here figured. BITUMEN. A sort of mineral substance easily combustible with flame, greasy to the touch, and when ignited emits a strong odour. Naphtha is a fluid bitumen, asphalt a hard species, and petrolium a viscid species of the bitumen. BIVALVES. One of the three general classes of shellfish, the shells of which are composed of two pieces, joined together by a hinge. BLACK. A colour which is supposed to be produced by the peculiar texture of bodies, which deaden as it were the light falling upon them, and reflect none, or very little of it, outwards towards the eye. BLACK. A colour or dye, as lamp black, the smoke of resin, prepared by melting it in iron vessels ; ivory black, made of burnt ivory, and used in miniatures ; Spanish black, made of burnt cork, and first used by the Spaniards. BLACKBIRD. A well known bird of a beautiful black colour and an exquisite note. It sings in the spring, and makes its nest of moss and grass. We have no bird in America precisely similar to the European bird which is here described. Our crow blackbird resembles it, but ia larger. BLA BLACKBERRY. The fruit of the bram- ble, or blackberry bush. BLACK BOOK (in England). A book kept in the Exchequer, which contains the orders of that court. BLxlCKCAP. A little bird with a fine black crown on its head. BLACK HOLE. A place of confinement for soldiers. BLACK LEAD. A mineral, the plum- bago or graphites of Linnaeus. It is found in lead mines, and is fusible only by a violent heat. Lead pencils and crucibles are made of it. BLACK LETTER. A sort of old English alphabet. BLADDER. A thin membranous sub- stance, which serves as the receptacle of some fluid, as the urinary bladder, and the gall bladder. BLADDER-NUT. A tree, the fruit of which is contained in a membrane inflat- ed like a bladder. BLADDER SENNA. A shrub which yields a papilionaceous flower, that is suc- ceeded by pods resembling the Inflated bladder of fishes. BLADE. The flat part of a sword or knife, resembling the blade or leaf of grass in shape. BLADEBONE. The shoulder bone. BLAIN (in Farriery). A distemper in- cident to animals, being a bladder at the root of the tongue, which stops the breath. BLANCHFARM (in English Law). A term for a farm where the rent is paid in silver, not in black cattle. BLANCHING. The art of making any thing white, as (in horticulture) the me- thod of whitening salads. Blanching mo- ney is the annealing, boiling, and cleans- ing it when it is coined. Blanching cop- per is done in various ways, so as to make it resemble silver. Blanching is also the operation of covering iron plates with a^ thin coat or crust of tin. Blanching al- monds is the skinning them by means of &ot water. BLANK. A void space in any writing or printing. BLANK VERSE. That which has no rhymes. BLANKETS (in Printing). Woollen cloths to lay between the tympans of a printing press, in order to produce a fair impression. BLANKETS. A sea term, for combus- tibles made of coarse brown paper steeped in nitre, dried, and then steeped again in tallow, resin, and sulphur ; they are used in fireships. BLO 59 BLAST. A disease in grain and trees ; called also a blight. BLASTING (among Miners). The tearing up rocks by the force of gun- powder. BLASTING - BELLOWS. Bellows which are used to produce a more than or- dinary degree of heat in furnaces. BLAZONRY, or BLAZONING. That branch of the art of heraldry which con- sists in expressing in proper terms all that belongs to coats of arms. The word comes from the German blasen, to blow ; be- cause a trumpet used to be blown at justs, &c. previously to the herald's recording the achievements of the knights. BLEACHING. The process of white- ning linen by exposure to the sun and air; or, as is now more commonly in use, by the application of chymical prepara- tions. BLEMISH (in Farriery). Any imper- fection in a horse which impedes a sound warrant, as broken knees, cracked heels, &c. BLENDE. The ore of zinc. BLIGHT. A disease incident to plants, which consists in a sort of fungus, that converts the affected part into a sooty mass. BLINDS. A contrivance to prevent any one seeing through a window ; in Military Affairs, bundles of osiers used at the heads of trenches, to protect the men. BLINDWORM, or Slowworm. A worm so called from the smallness of its eyes and the slowness of its motion. BLISTER. A pustule in the skin, filled with serum ; in general, any swelling caused by the separation of the outer in- tegument of any substance from that which is underneath. BLISTER (in Medicine). The plas- ter or application that raises a blister, mostly made of the cantharides, or Span- ish flies. BLOCK. A sea term for a pulley, or series of pulleys, mounted in a frame, or shell, Vv^hich serves to facilitate the pas- sage of the ropes. Blocks are single, dou- ble, treble, &c. according to the number of shivers in them through which the run- ning ropes run. SINGLE BLOCK. 60 BLO DOUBLE BLOCK, TREBLE BLOCK. BLOCKADE. The blocking up the roads and avenues to a place, by means of soldiers, so as to prevent any ingress or egress. BLOOD. A warm red fluid, of a salt- ish taste and urinous smell, circulating through every part of the body by means of arteries and veins. The blood is found to contain an insipid water, which soon becomes putrid, an empyreumatic oil, an ammoniacal spirit, and the remainder car- bon. BLOOD (in Law). Is regarded in de- scent of lands, for a person must be next and most worthy of blood in order to in- herit his ancestor's estate. BLOOD-HORSE. A breed of horses originally from the Arabian stock, the ex- cellence of which consists in the compact- ness of his fibre, that adds to his strength without increasing his bulk. BLOODHOUND. A hunting dog, of Buch exquisite scent, that he will follow the track of men as well as of animals, BLOOD-RED-HOT. The last degree of heat given by smiths to their iron in the forge. BLOODSHOT. A distemper in the eyes, when the vessels are so distended as to make them appear red. BLOOD-STONE J^ stone which serves to stop bleeding. BLOODSUCKER. A leach which sucks the blood of any animal to which it is ap- plied. BLOWING GLASS. The process in glass houses of forming glass into various shapes, by means of blowing through a blow-pipe dipped into the melted glass. BLOW-PIPE. A wind instrument, which consists of a hollow tube, ending in a cavity as fine as a wire, through which air may be directed with considerable force against a flame, so as to heat substances BOA with great rapidity. It is used by chy- mists, enamellers, glassmakers, &c. BLUBBER. The fat of the whale be- fore it is boiled. Sea blubber, the vulgar name of a shellfish. BLUE. One of the seven primitive colours into which they are divided when refracted through a glass prism. Blue, as a colour in painting, is distinguished into ultramarine, from the azure stone ; blue ashes, used in limning, fresco, and minia- ture ; blue verditer, a blue somewhat in- clining to a green ; Prussian blue, a colour next to ultramarine for beauty. BLUE BIRD. A beautiful North Ame- rican bird, with a soft warbling note, which is one of the first harbingers of spring. BLUEBOTTLE. An animal, having a bellshaped flower. The flower is borne in coats of arras. BLUEBOTTLE. A large kind of fly with a blue body. BLUEING. The process of heating iron and other metals in the fire, until they assume a blue colour, which is the practice of gilders before they apply the gold and silver leaf to them. BLUFF. A sea term for a high land projecting almost perpendicularly into the sea. BLUNDERBUSS, A short brass gun with a large bore. BOA CONSTRICTOR. A serpent of immense size and strength, a native of Africa and India, measuring sometimes ten yards in length. It will twist itself round the bodies of oxen and other ani- mals, and, breaking their bones, swallow them whole. BOAR. The male of the swine. The boar's head is often borne in coats of arms- BOARD. A sea term, for the space a BOD ship runs over between tack and tack, as to make short boards, that is, to tack fre- quently ; also the ship itself, as to go aboard, that is, into the ship ; so board and board is said of two ships coming so near to each other as to touch by the board over the ship's side. BOARD (in Carpentry). Any piece of timber sawed to a less thickness than about an inch ; all above this thickness are planks. BOARD, or Pasteboard. Layers of paper so pasted together as to make a sub- stance as hard as a board. BOARDIxVG. The fixing of boards for any purpose, as a floor •, (in Naval Tactics) the entering a ship in a forcible manner. BOARDS, or by way of contraction, Bds. The manner of doing books up in pasteboard covers, without leather. BOARD WAGES. Money given to ser- vants in lieu of diet. BOAT. A small open vessel worked on rivers or small waters by rowing or sailing. BOM 61 BOATBILL. A bird of South America., havin'g a bill that resembles a boat in shape. It lives upon fiislj, and darts down upon them as they are swimming. BOATFLY. An insect with an inflected snout, that lives in stagnant waters. BOATSWAIN. A sea term, for the offi- cer who has the boats, anchors, &c. in his charge. BOB, The metallic weight attached to a pendulum. BOBBIN. A sort of tape. BOBBINS. Little pins of wood with a notch, on which thread, &:c. is wound. BODKIN. A long sort of pin, on which women used to roll their hair. BODY (in Geometry). Any solid having three dimensions, length, breadth, and thickness. Regular bodies, which have all their angles and sides similar and equal, are of five kinds, namely, tetrae- dron, a body contained under four equi- lateral triangles ; hexaedron, a body con- taining six squares ; octaedron, a body hav- ing eight triangles ; dodecaedron, a body containing twelve pentagons ; icosaedron, a body containing twenty triangles. Ir- regular bodies are solids which are not bounded by equal, and like surfaces. 6 BODY (in Physics). An extended solid substance, consisting of hard, impenetra- ble, moveable particles. It is a hard body when its parts do not easily yield to any stroke or percussion ; a soft body when it yields to every stroke, and thereby under- goes a change ; an elastic body, that changes its form with every stroke, but re- covers it again when the impelling force is removed. BODY. In the phrase ' to bear a body,' a term applied by painters to any colour which is of a nature to be ground so free- ly, and to mix with oil so entirely, as to seem one thick oil of the same colour. BODY. Of a chymical vessel, that which holds the matter in distillation. Body of a punip, the tliickest part of the barrel or pipe. Body, in an army, any number of forces united under one com- mander. BOHEA TEA. One of the superior kinds of tea that comes from China. BOILING POINT. The fixed point or degree of heat required to produce the ebullition or boiling of a fluid. Every li- quid has a fixed point at which boiling commences, and this is called the boiling point. Thus water begins to boil at the temperature of 212°. After a liquid has begun to boil, it will not become hotter, for although a stronger heat makes all li- quids boil more rapidly, yet it does not in- crease their temperature. BOLE. A friable earth of the argillace- ous kind, which unites with water so as to form a paste. The Armenian bole, or bole armeniac, is a bright red coloured earth, so called from Armenia, the country from which it is procured. BOLL. A measure of two bushels. BOLOGNA STONE. A phosphoric stone, first found at Bologna in Italy. It is a gray soft sulph\ireous stone, about the size of a large walnut, which shines in the dark after calcination. This stone is the native sulphate of carytes. BOLSTER. A soft pillow for a broken limb 5 in Farriery, it is the name of those parts of a saddle which are raised upon the bows to receive the rider's thighs. BOLSTER. A sea term, for a piece of timber cut and placed for the easement of the cable. BOLT. An iron pin used for strength- ening timber. BOLUS. An internal medicine, of a consistency thicker than honey, BOMB. A hollow hall of cast iron, filled with combustibles, and discharged from a mortar into towns, when, by burst- ing, it causes much mischief. 62 BON BOMBARDMENT. The discharging of bombs into a besieged place. BOMBIC ACID. An acid liquor con- tained in a reservoir near the anns of the silkworm. BOMBKETCH. A small vessel built and strengthened with large beams, for the use of mortars at sea. BOMPERNICKEL. A name given in derision to the German rye-bread, signify- ing, good for nothing. BONA FIDE. With good faith ; with- out fraud or subterfuge. BOND (in Law). An obligation or covenant in writing to pay any sum, or perform any contract. BOND (in Carpentry). The binding of any two pieces together by tenanting, mor- ticing, &.C. In Masonry, it is the disposi- tion of stones or bricivs in a building, so that they most aptly fit together ; stones having their length placed in the thick- ness of the wall are called headers, and those whose length extends along the face or exterior of the wall are called stretchers. BOND-TIMBERS. The horizontal tim- bers bedded in stone or brick wails, for etrengthsning the masonry. BONDSMAN. One bound or giving se- curity for another. BONE. A hard, dry, insensible part of the body, composed of a spongy reticular substance, and an oily matter called mar- row. There is also a considerable portion of phosphate of lime that enters into their composition. The bones of the human body are in number about 250. BONE. A sea term, in the phrase ' To carry a bone in her mouth,' applied to a fihip when she makes the water foam be- fore her in sailing. BONE-LACE. Lacs made of bobbins that are formed from bones. BONES. A sort of bobbins made of trotter-bones, for weaving bone lace. BONES. A name in Matliematics given to Lord Napier's rods for facilitating arith- metical calculations. BONING. A term among surveyors, to BOO denote the laying poles upon the ground in such a manner that all may lie in a straight line. BONNET (in Heraldry). A cap of vel- vet worn without a coronet. BONNET. A sea term, for the addition of a small sail made to fasten with latct>- ings to the foot of the other sails. BONNET (in Fortification). A small work composed of two faces, usually raised before the saliant angle of the counteii»- scarp. BONZE. A priest in China, Japan, and Farther India who wears a chaplet of beads about his neck, and carries a staff, having a wooden bird at one end. BOOBY. A South American bird of the pelican tribe. BOOK. Any folded leaves vs^hich are or may be written upon ; also a general name for any literary composition, but more particularly any composition large enough tobs formed into a volume. Before the ase of books or volumes things wera committed to writing on stone, wood, bark, &c. The Decalogue was written on tables of stone ; so likewise, as we learn from Josephus, the children of Seth wrote their inventions and astronomical observations on two columns, one of brick and the other of stone, the latter of which was standing in his day. Hesiod's works were originally written upon tables of lead ; Solon's laws upon wooden planks, &c. and the Parian Chronicle, or a chronicle of the affairs of Athens, on marbles, which are now known by the name of the Arundelian. The Scythians, Celts, and their several de^ scendants, the Goths, Teutones, &c. also used to write on trees vv^hatever they thought worthy to preserve in writing. Tables of wood, box, and ivory were also common among the ancients ; but we find that the Romans were accustomed to write upon tables of wax, by means of a style or bodkin, so contrived that they could also erase what they pleased. The finest and thinnest parts of the bark of trees, as of the lime, the ash, the maple, and the elm, were also employed, whence the Lat- in name liber signifies both book and bark. The English word book is derived imme>» diately from the Saxon boec, Low Gep- man bok. High German buch ; and is either from buch, which signifies a beech, because the bark of this kind of tree was used ; or from biegen, to bend, because the leaves were folded or bent into the form of a book. When books were rolled up, they were on that account called volumen, a volume, a name afterwards given to paper and parchment folded toge- BOO ther. Sometimes the roil consisted of seve- ral sheets of bark fastened together and rolled upon a stick, called an umbilicus. Before the introduction of printing, books were become so scarce in the middle ages, that, in Spain, one and the same copy of the Bible, St. Jerome's Epistles, and some few volumes of ecclesiastical offices served several different monasteries. Since that period the increase of books has been pro- digious ; and in consequence of the dilfer- ent editions, modes of printing, size, type, and other particulars connected either with the external form or internal con- tents, the knowledge cf books has become a particular study and pursuit, under the name of bibliography. BOOKBINDING. The process of bind- ing books, or putting the sheets together into the form of books. The bookbinder receives the sheets which compose a book immediately from the prmter, and after having folded them in the order of the sig- natures, or letters at the bottom of the page, they are first beaten with a hammer on a stone, to make them lie close and smooth ; after which they are put into a press, and sewed with bands, or strips of leather fas- tened at certain distances, which, being all glued together very firmly, form the back of tlie book, to which the pasteboards are attached by means of the bands, so as to form the sides. In all this process of fix- ing on the sides, much art and nicety is required in rounding the back, and keeping the whole firmly fixed in the press. After this the book is put into the cutting-press between two boards, one lying even w^ith the press for the knife to run upon, the other above, for the knife to run against. In this manner the leaves and boards are cut to form an even edge. The next ope- ration is the sprinkling ofthe leaves, which 15 done by means of a brush dipped in vermilion and sap green. The covers of leather, &c. being first moistened, are cut to the size ofthe book, smeared with paste, and then stretched successively over the back and the two sides, after having taken off the four angles, and indented and plat- ted the cover at the head band. When thus far finished, the book is covered and bound between two bands and set to dry. It is aftei-wards washed with paste and water, and then sprinkled with a brush, unless it is to be marbled, which is done by making spots with vitriol. The book is then glazed with the white of an eggr, and, lastly, polished with a hort iron. The letters and ornaments are made with gilding tools, or brass cylinders, rolled along by a handle : to apply the gold, the BOO 63 leather is glazed with a liquor made of the white of eggs, diluted with water, and when nearly dry the gold is laid on. Such is the process when a book is fully bound ; but books may sometimes be only sewed and have a paper cover, when they are said to be sewed : sometimes the boards are covered with paper oni}'^ when they are said to be in boards ; and some- times they have a leather covering on the back, extending a small way over each side, when they are said to be half bound. EOOK-KEEl'iNG. The art of keeping accounts, or recording tlie mercantile trans- actions of a man, so thathe may thoroughly know the whole state of his affairs, or any part of them, with ease and despatch. Accounts may be kept either by single or double entry ; the former of which may answer the purpose wliere the dealings are on a small scale, but merchants, whose con- cerns are extensive, keep their books accor- ding to the double entry, or Italian method. In single entry two books only are wanted, namely, a journal, or day book, in which the transactions of the day, as they occur in the course of business, are entered ; and the ledger, or post book, in which all the accounts drawn out of the journal are placed under the proper name, either on the debtor or creditor side. Those who keep their accounts by double entry, iiave occasion for several books, the three prin- cipal of which are, the waste book, the journal, and the ledger. The waste book is a book containing an inventory of a merchant's effects and debts, with a dis- tinct record of all his dealings. The act of placmg any transaction under a given ac- count is called the entry ; if placed on the Dr. or debtor's side, it is debiting the account : if placed on the Cr. or creditor's side, it is crediting. The waste book opens with the inventory, which consists of two parts ; namely , in the first place, of a man's effects, and what is due to him ; and in the next place, what is due by him. After the inventory follow the daily transactions as they occur in business. The accounts of persons are debited under their respective names when they become indebted to the merchant, and credited when the merchant becomes indebted to them. Accounts of property are debited when they come into his possession, and credited when they go out of it. In the same manner the accounts of profit and loss are kept, which are de- bited on account of a loss, and credited on account of a gain. Those marked Dr. are placed on the left side, and those marked Cr. on the opposite side, marked Contra Cr. This book should contain the names of per- 64 BOO Bons with whom the merchant deals, the conditions of bargains, the terms of pay- ment, the quantity, quality, and prices of goods, with every other particular needful to be recorded. The journal, or day book, is intermediate between the waste book and the ledger, wherein the transactions recorded in the waste book are prepared to be carried to the ledger, by having the proper debtors and creditors ascertained and placed in order. In the journal, per- sons and things are debtors to other persons and things as creditors, and in this it agrees with the ledger, but in other respects it agrees with the waste book. Every case or transaction entered into the journal is called a journal post, or entrance. The ledger is the principal book, in which all the several articles of each particular ac- count that lie scattered in other books, according to their several dates, are col- lected and placed together in such manner that the opposite parts of every account are directly set fronting one another, on opposite sides of the same folio ; that is to say, the debtor, or dz^btor part, is entered on the left or debtor sid* of its own account, where it is charged debtor to the cr&ditor part ; and the creditor, or creditor part, is posted to the right or creditor side of its account, and made creditor by the debtor part. Hence it is that the Italian method of book-keeping is said to be by double entry, because every single case of the waste book requires to be entered twice in the ledger, that is, once for the debtor and once for the creditor. In addition to the above three books, most merchants have several other books, as the cash book, which contains in debtor and creditor all the cash that comes in and goes out ; the debt book, in which are entered all sums that become due, either to be received or paid, by bills of exchange, notes of hand, &c. ; besides this, some merchants require a book of invoices, a book of commissions, a book of orders or advices, &c. according to the nature of their transactions. BOOKSELLER. One who deals or trades in books, particularly one who sells the books printed by others, as distin- guished from the publisher, who sells the books, that are printed on his own account. The bookselling business has always held a higher rank than any other common trade ; and on the continent, as at Tubingen, Salis- burg, and Paris, booksellers class with the members of the learned professions, and have the privileges of students at the uni- versity. On the introduction of printing, the bookseller, printer, and scholar were one aF»d the same person. BOR BOOKWORM. A little insect which breeds and eats holes in books, especially when damp. BOOM. A sea term, for a long pole to extend the bottoms of particular sails, as the jib boom, studding sail boom. The boom of a harbour, a strong iron chain thrown across a harbour, to prevent the entrance of an enemy. BOOR. Properly, a peasant ; particu- larly applied to the rude peasantry of Russia. BOOT OF A COACH. The space un- derneath between the coachman and the body of the coach. BOOTES. A northern constellation, con- sisting of fifty-four stars, according to Mr. Flamstead. BORACIC ACID. An acid drawn from borax by combustion. BORAX. A substance dug out of wells in Thibet, and imported from India. It is sometimes in the form of solid grains, sometimes in large crystals, enclosed in a fatty matter. BORDER, or BORDURE. An ordinary in Heraldry, so called because it borders round, and as it were hems in the field. Borders are charged with things natural and artificial, in the same manner as the field BORDERERS. Those who lived on the borders of England and Scotland, and were formerly engaged in perpetual hostilities. BORE. The hollow of a piece of ord- nance. BORE-COLE, or Curled Colewort. A hardy sort of kale, which is improved by the frost. BORER.. A piercer, or instrument to bore holes with. BORING. The method of piercing the earth in search of minerals. BOROUGH. From the German burg ; it formerly signified a fenced town, but in England is now taken for any corporate town that is not a city, and that sends members to parliament : in Scotland there are still royal burghs, or boroughs, that are held of the king. Rotten Boroughs, are ancient towns, with the privilege of send- ing members to Parliament, which are now reduced, and have but a few persons ' living in them, BOT BOROUGH-ENGLISH. A customary descent of land in some places to the younger sons. BOS. The generic name in the Linneean system for all animals of the ox tribe, as the bison, buffaloe, common ox, musk ox, &c. BOTANY. The science which teaches the knowledge of plants, as to their dis- criminating characters, structure, growth, culture, diseases, and the like. Plants are distinguished into natural orders, as trees, the stems of which send forth branches from the middle and top : shrubs, the stems of which send forth branches from the bottom : undershrubs, when the stems of the shrubs perish: herbs, which bear flowers and seeds, and then die ; if they die at the end of one year they are called annuals, if at the end of two years biennials, if they last three or more years they are perennials: fungi are fleshy, coriaceous, or woody : algcG, or seaweeds, have neither stems nor leaves : mosses, which have only leaves and fruit : ferns, that never send forth more than one leaf on a footstalk : grasses, which are distinguished by their stem, which is a culm or straw : lilies, which have a tuberous or bulbous root : palms, which have an arboreous stem, from which the leaves grow, and not the branches. The parts of plants are distinguished generally into the root, the stem, the bud, the leaf, tlie inflorescence, and the fructifi- cation. The root is the part through which the plant derives nourishment from the earth ; a plant is either annual, biennial, or perennial, according to the time that the root lasts. Roots are sometimes called Jleshy, when they consist of a fleshy pro- longation ; fibrous, when they consist of many fibrous prolongations ; tuberoius, when they consist of a thick fleshy sub- stance, as the potatoe ; bulbous, when they consist of a bulb or fleshy body, provided with several coats, as the onion or the lily ; granulated, when they have a cluster of little bulbs, as in the saxifrage ; creeping, when they have a horizontal prolongation of the root growing under the earth, and sending forth new plants of its kind, as couchgrass. The stem is the prolongation of the plant above the soil, proceeding from the root. The woody stem of trees is the trunk •, that which is herbaceous is the stalk, and be- longs only to herbaceous plants ; but the stalk of grasses, rushes, and similar plants, is called the culm ; and when the stalk bears flowers and fruits immediately from the root, and not leaves, it is a scape, as In the primrose and cowslip ; the stalk BOT ^ which springs from the stem or branches, bearing the flower and fruit, is the pedun- cle or flower stalk ; that which bears the leaf only is the petiole, or footstalk. The bud is that part of the plant which contains the embryo of the leaves, flowers, &c., and serves as their hybernaculum, or winter receptacle. The bud is guarded by scales, and furnished with gum, or wool, as an additional defence. The moss bud is a roundish longish body, proceeding from the mother plant, and becoming itself a new one ; the gongylus is a knob belong- ing to the seaweed, which falls off" on the death of the mother plant, and becomes a new one. The leaf is the herbaceous production from the ascending stem; when tlie stalk and leaf are so intimately connected that they cannot be distinguished, this is called a frond, as in the palms and the algte. To the leaf belong several appendages, which serve either for ornament or some specific use, as the bractes, or floral leaf, that stands near or between the flowers, form- ing a tuft, as in the pineapple; the stipula, a small leaf that appears on the stem, in the place of a footstalk; the sheath, a pro- longation of the leaf that rolls itself round the stem, as in grasses; the ascidium, or bottle, afoliaceous cylindrical hollow body, ■which is generally furnished with a cover, andcontains water; theampulla, or bladder, a round hollow body at the roots of water plants; the gland, a round body situated on the leaves, which serves as an organ of respiration; the spine, or thorn, that rises in the interior of the plant, as in the sloe; the aculeus, or prickle, that issues from the bark; the cirous clasper, or tendril, a fili- form body which serves to support weak plants, as in the vine, &c.; the arista, or awn, a pointed beard in grasses; the pili, hairs, fine slender bodies, Avhich include all kinds of pubescence, as bristles, wool, &c. some of which discharge a poison, as in the nettle. The inflorescence is the mode of flower- ing, which differs very much in different plants, and is distinguished intoverticillus, the whorl,whichconsists of several flowers, standing at intervals, surrounding thestem, as in the mint; the racemus, the raceme, a peduncle with short lateral branches, as in the currant and the vine,&c. ; the corym- bus, or corymb, an erect raceme, the lower peduncles of which are so lengthened as to be of equal height with the upper; when the peduncles take their rise from the same centre, but the subdivisions are irregular, it is a cyme; when the peduncles riso from the same centre, but the whole is 66 BOTANY. disposed in regular order, it is an umbel; the capital uni has many flowers, standing thick, so as to form, a head, as in the globe- amaranth; the fasciculus, fascicle or bundle, a number of simple peduncles rising at the foot of the stem from several points, as in the sweetwilliam; the spica, or ear, as in wheat and barley; the panicula, or pani- cle, in which the flowers or fruits are scattered on branches unequally divided, as in the oat grass; the spadix, so called from the spadix vagina, or sheath, which contains the flower stalks; the amentum, or catkin, a long stem thickly covered with scales, under which are the flowers or essential parts, as in the willow and hazel; the sorus, or mass, an inflorescence peculiar to the ferns, which have masses of seed capsules in their fronds. The fructification consists of the flower and the fruit. The principal parts of the flower are, 1. The calyx, or flowercap, or envelope of green leaves, which, when it immediately encloses the flower, is a peri- anth; when it contains many flowers in one is an anthodium; when it consists of many leaves surrounding the flower, as in umbelliferous plants, is an involuere. The calyx of grasses is called the glume; when it rolls itself round the stem, as in some grasses, it is called the vagina, or sheath; and in some aquatic plants the spatha, or spathe. 2. The corolla, or blossom, the envelope of small leaves of various colours which constitute the flower properly so called; the divisions of the corolla are called the petals; the parts of the corolla are the tubus, the tube, the hollow under- part of a corolla that has but one petal; limbus, the border or opening of the co- rolla; labia, the lips; barba, the beard; rictus, the gape between the extremities of the lips; faux, the throat or the opening of the tube; nectarium, the nectary, which commonly serves to secrete a sweet juice; this is sometimes in, the shape of a hood, and is called the cucuUus, or hood, as in the aconite or monkshood; sometimes in the shape of a spur, called calcar, as in the violet; also in that of an arch, a crown, &c. 3. The stamen is an essential part of the flower, which consists of the filament or thread that supports the anther; anthera, the anther, a hollow cellular body; and pollen, the powder or fine dust contained in the anther. 4. The pistil, the second essential part of a flower, stands in the centre of the cirrle formed by the stamen, and consists of the gerrnen, the rudiments of the future fr'-.it or seed; the stylus, style or shaft, asmail stalk seated on the germen; «.nd the stigma, the top of the style. The fruit proceeds from the germen, and consists of, 1, the pericarpium, pericarp, or seed vessel, a hard hollow body, that ia of different kinds, as capsula, a capsule, or thin coat, divided into cells; a siliqua, or pod, a dry elongated pericarp, consisting of halves or valves, as in the mustard; the legumen, the legume, as in the pea kind; nux, the nut, a pericarp covered with a hard shell; drupa, or drupe, a nut covered with a fleshy coat, as in the plum; bacca., the berry , a succulent fruit containing many seeds, as the gooseberry, the currant, &c. 2. The semen, or seed, that part of the plant destined for propagation, consists of dif- ferent parts, as the cotyledones, colyledona or seed leaves; corculum, the circle or little heart, the germ of the new plant; hylum, the eye, the deep sear in the seed which has been occupied by the circle; plumula, the plumule, or that part of the circle which ascends to form the leaves; rostel- lum, the other part of the circle, which descends to form the root. Besides the seed is furnished with different appendages, as arillus, the aril, a soft membrane ex- tended over the seed; pappus, the down; Cauda, the tail; rostrum, the beak; and various spines, or hooks, &c. which serve to attach the seeds to difterent bodies, and promote their dispersion. 3. 1 he basis, or base, is the receptacle or body on which the flower stands, the principal part of which is the thalamus, or fruit bed; when this is round or oblong it is called pelta, a target ; when plateshaped, scutella, a shield; when convex, tuberculum, &c. Besides the science of botany compre- hends also a knowledge of plants a^ to their vegetation, anatomy, chymical composi- tion, and diseases, which are all included under the physiology of plants. The veg etation of plants may be distinguished into germination, when the seed begins to burst; vernation, when the buds begin to burst; virginity, when the flowers or buds are not yet unfolded; defoliation, when the leaves in autumn begin to fall ofl"; sleep, when during the night the leaves hang down; ffistivation, when the flower is in perfec- tion; fructification, when the anthers communicate the fructifying dust to tho neighbouring parts. 1 he anatomical structure of plants com- prehends the cuticle, the cortex or outer bark; the liber, or inner hark; the libur- num, or soft wood; lignum, the wood; medulla, the pith; the air vessels, which are the conductors of the air; the adducent or spiral vessels, which proceed with or are entwined round the air vessels; the reducent vessels, which are supposed to BOTANY. 67 eerve the purpose of transpiration; the lymphatics, which are reticularly united; the cellular texture, a delicate membrane surrounding all the vessels, and containing a resinous juice, as in the fir tribe, and a gummy juice in fruit trees; the glands, which serve as secretory vessels. The principal chymical constituents of plants are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but chiefly the former, besides which azote, sulphur, and other simple substances, may be found in small quantities. The princi- pal compound substances which form the sensible ingredients of plants are, the acids, mucilage, sugar, starch, albumen, gluten, fixed and volatile oil, wax, resin, camphor, The principal diseases to which plants are incident are, fissures,, or a separ-atixju of the solids into long clefts, arising from an extreme fulness of juice; premature defoliation, when the leaves fall off before the usual period; albigo mildew, a whitish mucilaginous coating of the leaves of plants, which causes their decay; rubigo, rust which appears on the leaves and stems of many plants; lepra, leprosy, which af- fects the trunk ; gallie, galls, occasioned by flying insects; verrucas, warts; besides hiBmorrage, canker, exulceration, &c. BOTANY, History of. As the practice of cultivating plants both for pleasure and utility was coeval with the first formation of man, it is natural to suppose that the science of botany was one of the earliest studies which engaged the attention of in- quirers. Aristotle, in his history of ani- mals, has many remarks on pla-nts, draw- ing a comparison between their mod« of growth and that of animals, and pointing out in what animal and vegetable life agree and in what they differ. His disciple, Theophrastus, has devoted a whole work to his favourite subject, and has not only marked the distinctions between trees, shrubs, herbs, and- flowers, but treated of the different parts of plants, as the root, stem, Jeaf, and fruit; showing their diver- sity in form, habit, colour, mode of growth, and other interesting particulars, which he has illustrated by giving the names of not less than five hundred different plants, by way of example. Except the descrip- tions or allusions of the poets to favourite plants, there is nothing further to be found on the subject of botany until the time of the Romans. Virgil, in his Georgics, speaks }f the uses and culture' of several p'ants ionnected with husbandry. Pliny, in his ■Statural History, describes not less than one housand species of plants, but without any •ther order than in connexion with the places where they were indigenous. An- tonius Musa describes the virtues of the plant betony. Columella treats of plants in an agricultural point of view. Dioscorides, Galen, Ombasiris, Paulus -^geneta, and Artius have described the medicinal vk- tues of plants much at large. After these writers the subject of botany appears to have been almost forgotten, otherwise than it was pursued by the Arabians in conjunctictn with the science of medicine. In Europe, at least, we find that it was altogether neglected until the sixteenth century , when a n umber of botanists sprung up in Germany, England, Holland, Italy, and France, who, as their works testify, prosecuted the subject with great zeal. Prosper ALpinus wrote several books on the plants of Egypt and other exotics. Clusius, a French botanist, wrote on the rarer kind of plants. Many other botanists in this and the following centuries wrote general histories of the plants whicli came within their observation, particularly Cas- salpinus in his work De Plantis, libri xvi.; Delechamp, in his Historia Generalis Plan- tarum; J. Bauhin, in his Historia Plan- tarum; C. Bauhin, in his Phytopinax; Gerarde, in his Herbal; Parkinson, in his Theatrum Botanicum; Ray, in his Historia Pia'ntarum; Commelinus, in his Hortus Malabaricus; Tournefort, in his Institu- tiones Rei Herbariag; Boerhaave, in his Index alter Plantarum Horti Academiei Lugduni; Vaiilant, in his Botanicon Par- isiense; besides Fuchsius, iMatthiolus,Dod- onasus, Camerarius, Bregnius, Rheedius, Brunfels, Plukenet, Plumier, &c. Cassalpinus, in the sixteenth century, was the first who properly systematized botany. He formed fifteen classes from the fruit and the situation of the corculum. Since his time many systems have been formed from different parts of the plants. Ray chose the flower, fruit, and external appearance of the plants for the founda- tion of his system. Camellus framed a system from the valves of the capsule, calling his classes pericarpia fora, uni- fora, bifora, &c. Rivinus selected the corolla, dividing the plants into flores regu- lares, compositas, and irregulares, and these again into monopetali, dipetall, &;c. Haller formed a natural system from the cotyledons, the calyx, the corolla, the stamina, and the sexes of the plants ; but the system most generally adopted before the time of Linnaus was that of Tourne- fort. He divided plants into herbce et sufFrutices, arbores et frutices, and these again into herbs floribus monopetalis, carapaniformibus,infundebi!lformibus,&;c. 68 EOT LintiiEUSj the most eminent naturalist of all who went before him or followed after him, was born the beginning of the eigh- teenth century, and having devoted his attention to the vegetable as well as the animal and mineral kingdoms, framed a system for the whole, called after him the Linnasan system, which has been univer- sally adopted by scientific men in all parts of the world. His system is composed of classes, orders, genera, species, and varie- ties. The class is the largest of all the divisions, having under it the orders as subdivisions 5 the genera are contained in the order, the species in the genera, and the variety in the species. This system, as respects plants, is also called the sexual system, because it embraces the sexes of plants in the scheme. The classes, twenty- four in number, are distinguished either according to the number or situation of the stamens, filaments, anthers, or male and female flowers, in each plant, as monan- dria, for those having one stamen ; dian- dria, for those having two stamens ; trian- dria, for those having three stamens ; so tetrandria, pentandria, hexandria, heptan- dria, octandria, enneandria, and decandi'ia for those havmg from four to ten stamens. Those having from eleven to seventeen stamens were included under the class tjo- decandria ; those having many stamens inserted in the calyx under the class icos- andria ; those having twenty stamens and upwards under polyandria ; those having four stamens in one flower, two longer than the others, didynamia ; those having six stamens, two shorter than the rest, tetradynaraia; those having their filaments connected into the form of a cylinder or tube, monodelphia ; those having two such cylinders, diadelphia ; those having the anthers formed into a tube, syngene- Bia ; those having the stamens standing in the style, gynandria ; those having sta- mens, and pistils in separate flowers, but in one plant, monoecia ; those having the stamens and pistils in separate plants, dioficia ; those having stamens and pistils separate in some flowers and united in others, polygamia ; those having these parts of fructification either not well as- certained, or not to be numbered with cer- tainty, cryptogamia. The orders, or subdivisions of the clas- ses, from the first to the thirteenth class inclusive, are marked by the number of pistils in each plant, as monogynia for those iiaving one pistil,sodigynia,trigynia, tetragynia, pentagynia, hexagyaia, and polygynia, for those having two, three, four, five, Bix, seven, or more pistils. BOW The two orders gymuospermia, fur thosa having the seed naked, and angiospermia, for those whose seeds are contained in a pericarp, belong to class didynamia ; the two orders siliculosa and siliquosa, for those whose seeds are contained in a sili- qua of different sizes, belong to class tetra;- dynamia. In most of the other classes the orders are marked by the number of stai- mens in each plant, except syngenesia, in which the orders polygamia sequalis, poly- gamia superflua, polygamia frustanea, polygamia necessaria, and polygamia seg- regata mark the connexion of the flower. Under the last class, cryptogamia, are contained four orders, filices, the ferns j musci, the mosses ; algas, the seaweeds ; and fungi, the funguses, or mushrooms. BOTTOM. The ground, or lowest part of any thing ; as the bottom of a vessel, or the bottom of the sea, or a harbour ; whence the phrases, 'to go in foreign bottoms,' speaking of ships ; ' sandy gravelly bot- toms,' speaking of harbours, &c. BOTTOMRY (in Commerce). Borrow- ing money on the bottom of a ship ; that is, when the master of a ship engages that if the money so borrowed be not paid by the time appointed, the ship itself shall be forfeited , also the lending money to a merchant on any adventure, the interest to be paid on the return of the ship, but to be lost if she is lost. BOTTS. Worms that breed in the in- testines of horses. BOULDER WALLS. Walls built of round flints or pebbles. BOUND. A sea term, for a ship cons- fined to a particular spot or direction ; as wind bound, ice bound, homeward bound. BOUNTY. A sum of money given by government to men who enlist as soldiers, BOUTS-RIMES. Certain rhymes dis- posed in order, and given to a poet, toge- ther with a subject, to be filled up with verses ending in the same word and in the same order. BOW. A sea term, for an instrument fixed on a staff", with vanes, for taking the sun's altitude at sea; also the rounding parts of the ship's side, distinguished by the starboard and leeboard into the weather and lee bow. BOW. The name of several things so called from their curved figure, as the bow of a key, the arched part to receive the finder 5 the bow of a saddle, the piece of wood on each side, laid archwise to receive the upper part of a horse's back ; bow of a violin, the round stick furnished with hair, with which the performer plays. BOW. An instrument for shooting BRA arrows. The long bow, the favourite of the English army in former times, is simply a bow with a string fixed at each end, to which the arrow was applied. It is used with great dexterity by the Tartars of Asia, and the savages of America. BRE 69 BOWSPRIT. A mast projecting over the stem or head to carry the sail forward. BOWYER. A bowmaker ; the bowyers are one of the city companies in London. BOX. Any case of wood, iron, orleather, which serves for conveying or keeping things. BOX. A plant, which is of two kinds ; namely, the dwarf box that is used for borders in gardens, and the box tree, which Is a shrub or tree. The wood of this is yellow and hard. B. R. In England, an abbreviation for Bancus Regis, the Court of King's Bench. BRACE. What holds a thing tight, as the braces of a drum ; in Carpentry, a piece of timber which serves to keep the frame work tight ; in Printing, a crooked linemarkedthus which serves to.enclose words that are to be together. BRACELET. An ornament for the arm or wrist ; also a piece of defensive armour for the arm. BRACHMANS, or BRAMINS. The priests or philosophers among the Hindoos; eo called from their god Brahma, to whose worship they devote themselves. BRACKET. A kind of stay in the form of a knee, or shoulders on which shelves are made to rest ; also in Shipbuilding, a kind of knee for the support of the gratings. BRADS (among Artificers). A kind of nails used in building, which haveno heads like other nails, as joiners' brads, flooring brads, batten brads. BRAIN, The soft contents of the cra- nium or skull, consisting of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata, which are surrounded by three membranes, called meninges, or mats, as the dura mater, pia mater, and arachnoides. The substance of the brain is distinguished into outer and inner-, the former is called corticalis, cene- rea, or glandulosa ; the latter, medullaris, alba, or nervea. It is generally supposed to be the seat of the soul, or that part where all the senses terminate. BRAN. The husk of ground wheat. BRANCH. A shoot from the main bough of a tree ; also several things similar in figure, as the antlers or shoots of a stag's horn •, the branches of veins, branches of a river, branches of abridle, that is, the two pieces of bended iron that bear the bit- mouth, the chains, and the curb. BRANCHI^. Gills in the anatomy of fishes, organs of respiration answering to the lungs in other animals, with which all fishes are provided, except the cetaceous tribe and the lamprey. They are eight ill number, and serve the fish to take in, and throw out water with the air. BRANCHiOSTEGIOUS. An order of fishes in the Linnsean system, including such as have gills without bony rays, as the pipe fish, sucker, frog fish, &c. BRANDY. A spirituous and inflamma- ble liquor, made from the lees of wine by distillation. Its constituent parts are wa- ter, alcohol, and a little oil or resin . Bran- dy is said to have been first manufactured in Languedoc. BRANT-JFOX. A sort of black and red fox. BRASIL WOOD. A sort of wood so denominated because, as is supposed, it was first brought from Brasil. It is red and heavy, so as to sink in water, takes a good polish, and yields beautiful orange and red colours, which are used by dyers. Yv^hen chewed it has a sweetish taste. BRASS. A factitious compound metal, of a yellow colour, consisting of eopper and about one third of its weight of zinc. BRAWN. The muscular or fleshy part of the body, particularly that of the boar. BREACH. A gap made in the works of a town by the besiegers. BREACH (in Law). The violation of a contract ; breach of pound, is the break- ing any place where cattle are distrained ; breach of prison, an escape by breaking out of prison. BREAD. A light, porous, spongy sub- stance, prepared by fermentation and baking, from the flour of wheat, rye, or barley. Wheaten bread is distinguished into white bread, which is made of the TO BRE finest flour, and brown bread, of flour hav- ing some of the bran in it. BREAD-FRUIT-TREE. The autocar- pus of Linnasus, a tree growing in some of the Oceanic islands, so called because the fruit, which is milky and pulpy, sup- plies the place of bread to the inhabitants. This tree grows to the height of forty feet. ^~"^ ^m i MEAK. a sea term, for that part of a deck where the descent to the next deck below it, commences j in Printing, the short line which ends a paragraph. BREAKERS. Billows that break vio- lently over rocks that lie under the surface of the sea. BREAKING GROUND. A military term, for opening the trenches and be- ginning the works for a siege. BREAKING IN. The discipline of first training a colt to be useful. BREAKWATER. The hull of a vessel or any erection of wood or stone, placed at the entrance of a harbour to break the force of the water, such as the Breakwa- ter lately erected in Plymouth Sound, England, and that in Delaware Bay. BREAM. A fish of the carp kind, that grows fast and has a broad body. The Bea Bream, otherwise called the Red Gilt Head, is a fish of a red colour, with the Iris silvery. BREAST. The anterior part of the thorax. BREASTFAST. A sea term, for the large rope employed to confine a ship sideways to a wharf or quay. BREASTPLATE. A piece of defensive armour worn on the breast ; in Ilorseman- Bhip, a leathern strap running from one BRI side of tiie saddle, across the horse's breast; to the other, to keep it in its place. BREAST PLOUGH. A sort of plough which is driven forward by the breast, and is used in England in paring off turf from the land. BREASTWORK. A military term, for works thrown up as high as the breast of the besieged ; a sea term, for the balus- trade of the quarter deck. BRECCIA, or Pudding-stonb. A sort of aggregate earth, consisting of fragments of stones conglutinated. The beautiful pillars in the Representatives Hall in the Capitol at Washington are of this stone. BREECH. The hinder part of a gun, from the cascabel to the bore ; also a sea term, for the angle of knee timber In a ship, BREEDING. That part of husbandry which consists in the rearing of cattle o» live stock of different kinds, particularly by crossing or mingling one species oi variety with another, so as to improve the breed, BRESSUMMER. A binding interstic© or girder to different parts of a house. BREVET, A military term, for pro- motion in the army without additional pay. BREVIARY. A book containing the daily service of the Romish church. BREWING. The art of making malt liquor, such as ale, beer, porter, &c. which much resembles the process of making tea. The proper ingredients used in brewing are malt, hops, and water, in certain propor- tions, according to the required strength of the liquor. Eighteen gallons of good ale and nine gallons of table beer may be drawa from a bushel and a half of malt ; but to make strong beer only six gallons are reckoned to one bushel of malt. Among the pernicious and unlawful ingredients used by brewers are an extract of the coculus indicus, hartshorn shavings, gin ger, Spanish juice, orange powder, liquo- rice, caraway seeds, and sulphuric acid^ BRIBERY. The receiving of any ra- ward or gift for corrupt purposes. BRICK. An artificial kind of stone, composed of clay, coal ashes, and sand, duly mingled together, dried by the sun and hardened by the fire. Bricks are distinguished, according to their quality, into marls and stocks, -which latter are either gray or red, according to the coloiu of the earth. BRICKLAYER. One whose trade is to build with bricks. BRIDGE. A structure raised over rivere, &c. and consisting of one or more arches. BRI The principal parts of a bridge are the piers, or avails, built for the support of the arches ; the parapet, or breastwall, made to protect the passengers, the banquet, pavement, or raised footpath, and the abut- ments or extremities of the bridge, which rest on the banks. The principal arches employed in bridge building are those of the semicircular or elliptical form, the cate- narian arch, and the arch of equilibrium, which last is esteemed to be the best, be- cause it is equally strong in every part. ES.IDGE. A milrcaiy term, for any contrivance by which soldiers can cross a river, as a bridge of boats, formed by boats joined sideways, and covered with planks; or a bridge of rushes, formed of bundles of rushes bound fast together and covered with planks. Such temporary bridges are called flying bridges. BRIDGE. The name of several things similar in figure to a bridge, as the bridge of the nose, the gristle which parts the nostrils; the bridge in a violin, &;c. the perpendicular arch which supports the Btrings; the bridge, among Gunners, is the name for the two pieces of timber which go between the transums of a gun carriage on which the bed rests. BRIDLE. A part of the furniture of a horse's head, which serves to guide the animal. The principal parts are the bitt, or snaffle, which goes into the horse's mouth; the curb, or chain of iron, that funs over the beard of the horse; the head- stall, or leather that goes round the head; the fillet, that lies over the forehead; the throatband, that goes under the throat; and the reins, which serve for the rider. BRIEF (in Law). An abridgment of a Client's case, made out for the instruction of counsel on a trial at law; also a license in England to make collections for repair- ing churches, losses by fire, &;c. This last sort of brief is now abolished by statute. BRIEF (in Music). A measure of quan- tity, which contains two strokes down in beating time, and as many up. BRIG. A small merchant's vessel with two masts. BRIGADE. A military term, for a party or division of soldiers, whether horse BRO 71 or foot, under the command of a briga- dier. BRIGANTTNE. A small light vessel, which can both row and sail well, being adapted either for fighting or for chase. BRIMSTONE. The vulgar name for sulphur. BRINE. Water impregnated with salt. BRISKET. TJiat part of the breast of an animal that lies nearest the ribs. BRISTLE. The hair of swine, which is much used by brushmakers, particularly that imported from Russia. BRISTOL HOT WATER. Mineral waters of the lowest temperature of any in England, the constituent parts of which are carbonic acid, gas, lime, and magnesia, besides the muriatic and vitriolic acids. BRITANNIA. The name given by the Romans to the island of Britain, which is represented on their medals under the figure of a female resting her left arm on a shield. Also a species of ware made of block tin. BROADSIDE. A sea term, for a dis- charge of all the guns on one side of a ship. BROADSWORD. A sword with a broad blade, chiefly designed for cutting. BROCADE. A kind of stuff or cloth of gold. BROCOLI. An Italian plant of the cauliflower kind, BROGUE. A defective pronunciatioB of a language, particularly applied to the Irish manner of speaking English. BROKEN LETTER. A term in Print- ing for the breaking the orderly succession in which the letters stood in a line or page, and mingling them together. BROKER. One who concludes bargains or contracts for merchants, as exchange brokers, ship brokers, &c. BROKERAGE. What is paid to a brokef for his trouble. 72 BUD BROME GRASS. A sort of grass much resembling the oat; whence it has also been called oat grass. BRONZE. A mixed metal, composed principally of copper, with a small portion of tin and other metals. BRONZING. The art of varnishing wood, plaster, and ivory, so as to give them the colour of bronze. BROOCH. A collar of gold formerly worn about the necks of ladies. BROOM. A flowering shrub, having a papilionaceous flower, which becomes a short roundish swelling pod, containing a kidney shaped seed in each. BROOM. A besom, which in England is frequently made of the broom shrub, and serves for sweeping a house. BRUTA. The second order of animals of the class mammalia in the Linn^an system, comprehending those animals which have no fore teeth in either jaw, as bradypus, the sloth; mynycophaga, the ant-eater; rhinoceros, the rhinocerus; ele- phas, the elephant, - ber of London, &c. CHA CHAMBER OF A MINE. The place where the powder is confined, that is to be used for blowing up the works. CHAMBERLAIN (in England). An officer who has the care of any particular chamber or place, as the Lord Great Cham- berlain of England, a great officer of state, to whom belongs the government of the palace at Westminster ; the Chamberlain of London, who receives the rents of the city, and deposits them in the chamber or treasury of London. CHAMBERS (in England). Rooms or apartments belonging to the inns of court j in Anatomy, two spaces between the ci-ys- talline lens and the cornea of the eye, di- vided off by the iris. CHAMELEON. See Chameleon, CHAMOIS, or. The Wild Goat, which inhabits the Alpine mountains, having horns erect, round, and smooth. CHA 87 CHAMOMILE. An odoriferous plant, which has a very bitter taste, but many medicinal virtues. CHAMPAGNE. A fine French wine, 80 called from Champagne, a former pro- vince of France. CHAMPION (in Law). The combatant who undertook to fight in the trial by bat- tel, formerly in use in England. CHANCE-MEDLEY (in Law). The accidental killing of a man, not without the fault of the killer, but without any evil intent. CHANCEL. That part of a church be- tween the altar and communion table, and the rails or balustrade by which it is en- closed. This applies particularly to Caih- olic, and Episcopal Churches. CHANCELLOR (in Englanu). Anoffi- cer of state, known by the title of the Lord High Chancellor of England, and the chief person next to the sovereign in the admin- istration of justice ; the Chancellor of the Exchequer is an officer who has the prin- cipal management of the king's revenue. The term is applied to the first judge of the Chancery Court in. the stats of New York. CHANCERY, The Court of (in Eng- land). The highest court of judicature in the realm next to the Parliament. The Lord Chancellor presides in this court ; and is assisted by the Vice-chancellor, the Master of the Rolls, the Masters in Chan- cery, &.C. CHANCES, Doctrine of. A branch of modern mathematics, which treats of the probabilities of certain events taking place. CHANNEL. The middle or deepest part of any sea ; also a strait or narrow sea between two lands, as St. George's Chan- nel, between Great Britain and Ireland, and the British or English Channel, prop- erly called the Channel, between England and France. CHANTRY. A chapel anciently joined to some cathedral or parish, where mass used to be said daily for the souls of the founders. CHAOS. A dark and rude mass of matter, out of which the heathen philoso- phers supposed the world was formed. CHAPEL. In England, a smaller kind of church, which, being built for the con- venience of the parish church, is denomi- nated a chapel of ease. CHAPERON. A hood or cap, particu- larly that worn by the knights of tiie garter. CHAPLAIN. In England, originally signified one who performed divine service in a chapel, but now more commonly one who attends upon the king, or other person of quality, for the performance of his cleri-- cal duties in the family. The term is also applied to the clerg>'nian attached to the navy or army. CHAPLET. A wreath or garland worn about the head. Chaplets are borne In coats of arms, as trophies or ensigns of military prowess. CHAPTER. A body of the clergy be- longing to a cathedral, collegiate, or con- ventual church ; also the place of their meeting, in England. CHARACTER. Any mark which sei vea as a sign to denote some particular object, as the astronomical characters, mathemati- cal characters, &c. CHARADE. A sort of riddle, the sub- ject of which is a word of one or two syllables. CHARCOAL. The substance from wood half burnt, which is much used in the manufacture of gunpowder. CHARDS OF ARTICHOKES. The leaves of artichoke plants bound in straw till they lose part of their bitterness, and become white. 88 CHE CHAREWOMAN, or CHARWOMAN. In England, a woman who goes out by the day to job. CHARGE (in Law). The instructions given by the judge to the jUiy 3 in Ecclesi- astical Law, the instructions given by a bishop to the clergj' of his diocess. CHARGE (in Gunnery). The quantity of powder and ball, or shot, with which a gun is loaded ; in Electricity, the accumu- lation of electric matter on one surface of an electric machine; in Heraldry, whatever is borne on coats of arms; in Painting, an exaggerated representation of a person. CH.^RGE OF LEAD. A weight con- sisting of 36 pigs, each pig containing 6 stone all but 2 lbs. CHARIOT. An ancient car, in which armed men used to ride to battle. They were furnished with scythes, hooks, and other offensive weapons. CHARMS. Incantations or verses used by magicians and sorcerers. CHARR. A small fish of the salmon kind. CHARTER. In England, a writing or letter patent, whereby the king grants pri- vileges to towns, corporations, » served in common discourse, for they say the town of Ely, which is a bishop's see, and the city of Westminster, which at present has no see. In the United States the term is applied to any incorporated town, which has a mayor and aldermen. By geographical writers it is loosely applv ed to any large town. CIVET CAT. An animal of the weasel kind, about two feet in length exclusive of the tail. It is a native of warm climates; but many of them are kept in Europe, par- ticularly in Holland, for the civet. This is taken from a bag under its tail, and is a fat substance, having the smell of musk, and used as a perfume. CIVILIAN. A doctor or professor of the civil law. CIVIL LAW, otherwise called Imferiai. Law. The law of the Roman empire, digested from the laws of the republic and 96 CLE those of the emperors, and adopted by most of the nations of Europe. This law is used under certain restrictions in the ecclesias- tical courts, England, as also in the univer- sity courts and court of the admiralty. CIVIC CROWN. A garland composed of oak leaves, which was given to a Roman soldier who had saved the life of a citizen. CIVIL YEAR. That form of the year which each nation has adopted for com- puting their time by. The civil year in Europe, and America, consists of 365 days for the common year, and 366 days for leap year, which happens eveiy fourth year. CLARIFICATION. The making any liquid, by a chymical process, clear from impurities. CLARINET. A wind instrument of the reed kind. CLARO, or Chiaro Obscuro (in Paint- ing). The art of distributing to advantage the lights and shadows of a piece. CLASS. A term applied to the general divisions of any subject, as in the Linnaean system, animals, plants, and minerals are divided into classes. CLASSICAL. A term applied to authors of standard authority, particularly the writers among the Greeks and the Romans, whose works are comprehended under the name of the Classics. CLAVICLES. The two channel bones which fasten the shoulder bones and the breast bone. CLAY. A sortof fat clammy earth, stiff, viscid, and ductile to a great degree. The clays are opaque and noncrystallized bo- dies, and of dull fracture. They form with water a plastic paste, possessing consider- able tenacity, which may be hardened with heat, so as to strike fire with steel. The principal clays are porcelain clay, consist- ing of silica and alumina; marl clay, con- taining some carbonate of lime ; pipe clay, requiring a high temperature for fusion; and potter's clay, which is used for coarse pottery. CLEMATIS. A climbing shrub, other- wise called the Virgin's Bower, or Wild CLO Climbers. The common sort, bearing a bluish flower, is a native of the south of Europe, CLERGY. A general name for all per- sons in holy orders. CLERK (in Law). A clergyman; in Commerce, one who keeps a merchant's accounts. CLIENT. One who retains a lawyer to manage or plead his cause. CLIFF or CLEF (in Music). A mark set at the beginning of a song, to show the key in which the piece is to be performed. CLIMATES. Spaces upon the surface of the terrestrial globe, contained between two parallels of latitudes, so far distant from each other, that the longest day on one parallel, ditfers half an hour, from the longest day on the other. It is also used to denote the general character of the wea- ther and temperature, in any given place. CLOAK. An upper loose garment, worn over the clothes in cold or rainy weather. CLOCK. A machine for measuring time, which tells the hour by a stroke upon a bell. In order that the clock may be an equable measure of the solar day, which is unequal, it is usual forelocks and watches to go a few minutes faster or Blower than the sun, CLOISTERS. Covered passages, such as were formerly attached to cloisters or other religious houses. CLOTH. Any kind of stuff that is wo- ven or manufactured in the loom, whether it be made of wool, hemp, or flax. CLOTHIER, or CLOTHWORKER. A manufacturer of cloth. In the United States, it is applied exclusively to those who dress and colour cloths. CLOVE. An Indian spice, the fruit of the clove tree, which grows in the spico islands in the Pacific Ocean. COA CLOUD. A mass of vapour, more or less opaque, drawn or sent out of the earth into the atmosphere. V\"hen condensed into water, they fall in rain. CLOVE GILLIFLOVVER, or CLOVE PINK. A finer kind of pink cultivated in gardens. CLOVER. A kind of three leaved giass or trefoil 3 it is much used as a food for cat- tle. CLYSTER. An instrument for the in- jection of any fluid into the body. CO. An abbreviation of company. COACH. A carriage of pleasure, state, or business, having seats to front each other. COACH DOG. A dog beautifully col- oured with round black spots on a white ground. It is supposed to be of Dalmatian origin, and is kept as a handsome atten- dant on a coach. COADJUTOR. One who assists anoth- er in any office. COAGULATION. The rendering of a fluid body of a thicker consistence, by drawing out some part of it in vapours by means of fire, or by the addition of some- thing by which it is decomposed. COAK. See Coke. COAKING. A sea term, for the opera- tion of uniting two or more pieces of tim- ber together in the centre, by means of tabular projections. COAL. A solid inflammable substance, of a bituminous nature, dug out of the earth and used as fuel. Coal is distinguished into pit coal, in respect to the place where it was dug from, and seacoal, in respect to the manner in which it is conveyed, name- ly, by sea ; in regard to its properties it is called black coal, which is composed of bitumen, charcoal, and an earthy matter ; bovey coal, having likewise a resinous substance ; slate coal, which contains a quantity of argillaceous earth ; glance coal, which contains only charcoal and earth. COALMETER. An officer in London, whose duty it is to inspect the measuring of coals that go from the v/harf. COAL MINE. An excavation regularly formed under the earth, from which coals are dug. There are many coal mines in the north of England. The most important coal mines in the United States are those on the Lehigh and Schuylkill in Pennsyl- vania. COAST. The edge of the land, next to the sea. COASTER. A vessel employed in going from one port to another along the coast. COAT. A garment worn commonly uppermost ; a thin covering laid or done over any thing, as a coat of paint, &c. ; in coc 97 Anatomy, the membraneous cover of any part of the body, as the coats of the eye, the stomach, &c. COAT ARMOUR, or Coats of Arms. Armorial ensigns or bearings, which were originally painted on the coats of arms. COATIMOUDI. An animal shaped some\A'hal like a race on with a long snout, flexible like the trunk of an Elephant. When asleep it rolls itself into a lump. COAT OF MAIL. A piece of armour made in the form of a shirty and wrought over with many iron rings. COBALT. A mineral of a gray colour, consisting of silver and arsenic, which lat- ter is obtained from it in great quantities. It has never been found pure in nature, bul mostly in the state of an oxide, or alloyed with other metals. COCAO. See Cocoa. COCCULUS INDICUS. An Indian tree producing a poisonous berry, which la one of the deleterious ingredients unlaw- fully used in the making of beer. C0CHIP;EAL. Au insect which infests different plants, but particularly the opun- tia. This insect, when dried, is used in dyeing a rich scarlet. There is a red ber- ry which grows on an American tree, called the Coccus Americanus or Ficus Indianus, which also yields a beautiful scarlet dje. COCHLEA (in Anatomy). The internal cavity of the ear, so called from its resem- blance to the spiral shape of the cochlea, or snail's shell. COCHLEA (in Mechanics). One of the five mechanical powers, otherwise called a screw^ COCK. The male of most birds, partic- ularly of the well known domestic fowl in a farmyard. COCK. The name of a part of several instruments, as that part of the lock of a musket which sustains the jaws, or piecesf of iron that reY. A dramatic representatioa COM of the ligbt, Iiumor&us, and pleasant kind, particularly intended to ridicule the follies of men. COMET. An opaque, spherical, and solid body, like a planet, performing revolutions about the sun in eiliptieal orbits, which have the sun in one of the foci. It is divided into the nucleus or dense part ; the head ; the coma, a faint light surrounding the head ; and the tail, vi-hich is the long train of light by vi'hich these bodies are distinguished. The comet is sometimes borne in coats of arms, when it is said to be streaming. COMMA (in Grammar). A point marked thus (,) and put between ft'ords and sen- tences. C03IMANDER. A military term, for one who has the command of a body of men. The Commander in Chief in the British army is he who has the supreme command over all his majesty's land forces in Great Britain. In the naval service the Commander in Chief is the chief ad- miral in any port or station. COMMANDER OF A SHIP, other- wise called the Master ; he is an officer in the British navy next in rank to a post captain. COMMENTARY. An explanation of the obscure passages in an author. COMMERCE. A trafficking or dealing with foreign countries, by means of export- ing and importing different commodities. COMMERCE, History of. The inter- course between different nations for pur- poses of commerce, doubtless took place soon after the dispersion of mankind, for we find it recorded in holy writ that the Ishmaelites, who were settled in higher parts of Arabia, carried on a trade with Egypt in spices, balm, and myrrh, and that in one of their journeys Joseph was sold to them by his brethren. As the commodities in vi'hicli they dealt, as gums and sweet scented woods, which were to be procured only from the East Indies, there is no doubt that these people and the Egyptians were among the first who made distant voyages and travels in the way of trade. They were succeeded by the Phoe- nicians, an adventurous people who were the first that raised any naval power that makes any figure in history. By their enterprise and industry they became a wealthy and luxurious people, and their two cities. Tyre and Sidon, became the emporiums of the universe. In the time of David and Solomon we find the Jewish nation availed themselves of the assistance of this people in equipping their fleets. After the destruction of old Tyre, a new 9* COM 101 city arose out of the ruins, which rivalled the other in wealth, industiy, and com- merce ; and while in her glory she planted the colony of Carthage, on the coast of Africa, which from the convenience of her situation and the industry of her inhabit- ants, rose to an extraordinary pitch of prosperity. The Carthaginians made them- selves masters of Spain, and of the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, discovered the greatest part of the coast of Africa and the Canary Islands, traded with Britain by the route of the Scilly Islands, and are supposed to have made their way even to America. In the mean time Egypt, under the Ptolemies, also attained a high degree of grandeur and affluence. Ptolemy Phila- delphus in particular, by encouraging trade, made his people rich and himself power- ful. Such was the greatness of Alexandria alone, that the produce of the customs feU little short of two millions annually. Under the Romans commerce was encouraged in every part of the world where they had any influence, as may be learned not only from historians but also from various medals and inscriptions, showing that every con- siderable city had several colleges or trading companies. On the decline of the empire, commerce was, owing to the unsettled state of all Europe, and the constant irruption of the barbarous tribes, almost at a stand. About this period it happened that some straggling people, either forced by necessity or led by inclination, took their abode in a few scattered islands that lay near the coast of Italy, and as these islands were separated from each other by narrow channels, full of shallows, that prevented strangers from navigating, the inhabitants found them- selves protected from all hostile inroads, and in the midst of this security they fol- lowed their pursuits with so much industry and success, that these once insignificant islands rose in the space of two centuries, that is from the sixth to the eighth century, into a great city and a powerful republic. Such was the humble origin of the once potent state of Venice, which by degrees acquired an extent of commerce and a naval power that had not for a length of time any rival. She drew to herself the profits of the Indian trade, and by availing herself of every favourable conjuncture, she not only monopolized the trade of all Italy, but of all the countries in subjection to the Maho- metans ; but as other countries in Europe began to enlarge their commerce, Venice lost the monopoly, and this combining with her own immoderate ambition, caused the decay of her trade and the decline of her 1^ COMMERCE. power. From the leagueofCambray, which was formed against her by the powers of Europe, Venice may be said to have ceased to hold the first rank as a commercial state. The origin of the proud city of Genoa, as it was called, was very similar to tliat of Venice. Like Venice, she rose from an assemblage of fugitives and adventurers on the rocky, barren, and inhospitable shores of Liguria ; and like her she gained, by the industry and perseverance of her inhabit- ants, a prodigious extent of commerce. Her merchants traded with all countries, and throve by becoming the carriers from one country to another. Her fleets were formidable and her conciuests numerous, but after perpetual v/ars with her rival, Venice, she was at length compelled to yield the dominion of the sea, and finally lost all lier consequence.. In the meantime, the trade of Germany was rising in consequence. Some commer- cjal cities, confederating together, formed a commercial league, known by the name of the Hanseatic League, the object of whicli was, by combining their resources, to form a fleet for the protection of their trade with other countries. These cities not only associated among themselves, but also formed alliances with other states, as England and France, and had a code of laws which weie respected and observed, under the name of the Lex Mercatorla, for a long time thoughout all Europe. In„ this manner the Hanse Towns acquired a considerable share of influence, and were respected by all the sovereigns in Europe. The kings of France and England granted them considerable privileges, exempting their vessels in case of shipwreck from all demands whatsoever, either on the part of the admiralty or of private persons, and respecting their flag in times of war. Tlijs good understanding between them, and the states of Europe was considerably in- creased by the freedom with which they lent their money to different princes in time of need, particularly during the cru- sades, when they gave powerful succours both in ships as well as in money. This confederacy did not, however, always re- tain its moderation ; for, as they increased Jn wealth and power, so they grew ambi- tious and domineering, and more than once they ventured to set themselves up against the states of Germany ; in consequence of this, the German princes gradually with- drew the cities that were subject to them- eelves from the confederacy, and thus .■sflfected its dissolution. The only cities Which now retain the name of Hanse '■ 'owns, and some other vestiges of the Hanseatic league, are Hamburg, Bremerr, and Lubeck. The next important change in the state of European commerce was brought about in Portugal and Spain, by means of the discoveries which took place in the fifteenth and subsequent centuries. To the spirit and enterprise of Emanuel, King of Por- tugal, we are indebted for the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, which was effected by Vasco de Gama, in 14B8, and by open- ing a new way to the Indies afforded to the Portuguese an opportunity of making conquests and settlements which secured to them the commerce of India, which the Venetians had hitherto enjoyed through the medium of the Arabians. The discovery of America by Columbus, which followed quickly after, paved the way for a still greater extension of mercantile enterprise, wliich, though at first enjoyed only by the Portuguese and Spaniards, was at length shared by other states. The Dutch, an enterprising people, were the first who wrested from the Spaniards a portion of thoir conquered possessions, and made so good a use of the advantages they gained as to become one of the greatest trading people in Europe. By the help of increas- ing wealth, they converted their little fishing villages into large and populous cities and towns. Although their country was far from being fertile, and tiieir native commodities few or none, yet by commerce they succeeded in filling their storehouses with all the productions and manufactures of the world. Having given this general sketch of com- merce from its earliest beginnings, we must not close this account without making men- tion of the commerce of England, which, though among the last to avail itself of this source of wealth and aggrandizement, has by slow and gradual steps raised its com- merce to a pitch which has never been surjjassed by any nation. It appears that a commercial intercourse with Britain was begun at a very early period, and tliat the Pliojnicians and Carthaginians traded with this island for the tin of Cornwall, but it is probable that the native Britons did not for many' ages take any active part in this traffic, or make any attempt to share in the advantages of commerce beyond the giving their commodities to such as wished to trade with them. They had nothing better than leather or wicker boats, which were too slight to enable them to leave their shores, even so as to cross the Channel. The Saxons made considerable endea- vours to extend their intercourse with foreign nations, particularly in the time of COM Alfred the Great, who sent people as far as the East for commercial purposes, as also for the sake of procuring information. After the Conquest, the English princes were for a long time too much engaged in political and military concerns to turn their attention to this subject, and little was done beyond that of giving encouragement to foreigners to settle in England, or to have dealings with the people. One provision of Magna Charta held forth indemnity and protection to foreign merchants in the pas- sage to and fro, as also during their stay in the country. Safe conducts were afterwards given to the English going abroad, which afforded them the opportunity of carrying on a traf- fic for their commodities with foreign na- tions. In consequence we find that staples or markets were established both in Eng- land and on the continent, where English wool, lead, and other productions were bought and sold; and as encouragement was given to the Hanseatic League, a tra- ding company was in consequence formed in the reign of Edward I. first called the Company of Merchants trading to Calais, &c., afterwards the Merchant Adventurers of England, or the Company of Merchant Adventurers trading to Hamburg. This company, which is the first of the kind in England, was incorporated by Edward I. in 1296. In the reign of Edward III. com- merce and manufactures both met with considerable encouragement, but the inter- course of foreigners with England was now more encouraged than that of Englishmen with foreign nations. In consequence the staple or mart was confined to certain towns, where, by the statute of the staple as it was called, it was ordained that for- eigners miglit resort for the purchase of English commodities, but Englishmen were prohibited under great penalties from ex- porting any themselves. A number of other laws were made for the establishment and governmentof the staple, which form- ed that branch of the English law since known by the name of the Law-PJerchant. For the encouragement of manufactures, protection was given to cloth makers to come from foreign parts and reside here. In the reign of Edward VI. the principle of confining commerce within the limit of the country was, in consequence of the recent discoveries, somewhat altered. An intercourse with Russia was commenced by means of some English adventurers, who, going on a voyage of discoveiy in or- der to find out a north-east passage to Chi- na, came to the port of Archangel, where they were well received by the Muscovites, COM 103 whence they afterwards formed a company and received a charter to secure to them- selves the trade to Russia. This company was incorporated in the reign of Philip and Mary, under the name of the Russia Com- pany. The reign of Elizabeth was still more favourable to commercial adventures of every kind. Drake, Sir Walter Raleigh, and Henry de Clifford, Earl of Cumberland, distinguished themselves by their voyages and discoveries ; besides which several fresh companies were formed under the auspices of this queen. The Eastland Compajiy was incorporated under the title of the Company of Merchants to the East 3 the Turkey or Levant Company was also incorporated in 1581 ; but the most impor- tant of all the companies which had hith- erto been formed was the East India Com- pany, which was first established by char- ter in 1600. In the reign of William III. a new East India Company was formed, which was for a time a rival to the old one, but in 1708 the two companies were con- solidated into one ; since which they have experienced considerable vicissitudes, and in consequence of the numerous wars in whicli th-ey have been engaged their affairs were at one time so reduced that they were obliged to apply to the government for as- sistance, in consequence of which they have lost much of their independence, and are necessarily subject to more control than they were formerly. English com- merce continued to increase from the reign of Elizabeth until the last war, when Eng- land had at one time almost the whole trade of the universe in its hands, with the exception of what fell to the share of the Americans. The imports of England have sometimes exceeded thirty millions, and the exports fifty millions. COxMMISSARY (in IMilitary Affairs). An officer appointed to inspect musters, &c. ; in Ecclesiastical Aflairs, a deputy, or one who supplies the place of the bish- op. COMMISSION (in Law). The warrant, or letters patent by which one is authorized to exercise jurisdiction ; in Military Affairs, the warrant or authority by which one holds any post in the army ; in Commerce, the order by which any one trafficks or ne- gotiates for another ; also the per centage given to factors and agents for transacting the business of others. COMMITTEE (in a Legislature). A certain number of members appointed by the house, for the examination of any mat- ter ; in general, he or they to whom any matter is referred by some body for farthejj examination. 104 COM COMMODITY^. Any merchandise or ware which a person deals or trades in. COMMODORE. An officer in the British or American navy, invested with the command of a detachment of ships of war destined for a particular purpose. The Commodore of a convoy is the lead- ing ship in a fleet of merchantmen. COMMON (in Law). A right or privi- lege claimed by more persons in another man's lauds, waters, woods, &:c. COMxMON COUNCIL. A court in the !ity of London, composed of the Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and a certain number of citizens called common councilman. COMMONER. One who is not noble ; also a member of the English house of commons. COMMON HALL. A court in the city of London, at which all the citizens, or such as are free of the city, have a right to attend. COMMON LAW. The law of the realm grounded on general customs or immemo- rial usage. In general the common law of England is common in this country. COMxMON PLACE BOOK. A sort of register, or orderly collection of things worthy to be noted in a book. COMMON PLEAS. One of the king's courts at Westminster Hall, where pleas or causes are heard between subject and subject. Similar courts exist in most of the United States. COMMON PRAYER. The liturgy, or public form of prayer prescribed by the church of England to be used in all church- es and chapels at stated periods. The book of common prayer used by episcopa- lians in the United States is so altered from the English copy as to adapt it to the local circumstances of the church. COMxMONS (in England). In a gene- ral sense, the whole people, as distinguish- ed from the nobility ; in a particular sense, the knights and burgesses who represent the Commons in parliament, whence the house in which they sit is called the House of Commons. COMMONS (in Law). See Doctoks Commons. COxAIMONWEALTH. That form of government in which the administration of public affairs is common or open to all with few or no exceptions. It is distin- guished from monarchy or aristocracy. COMMUNION. A name given to the sacrament of the Lord's supper. COMxMUNION SERVICE. The office for the administration of the holy sacra- ment in the church of England. COMMUNION TABLE. The table COM erected at the east end of the church, round which the communicants kneel to partake of the Lord's supper. COxMMUTATION (in Law). The sub- stitution of one punishment for another. COxMPANY (in Law). A society of persons forming a corporate bodyj in Com- merce, a trading association, in which several merchants form a joint stock, with which they trade for the common interest of the stockholders, such as the East India and other companies. CSee Commerce.) COMPANY (in Sea Affairs). The whole crew of a ship, including the officers. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. The science which teaches the structure of the body in animals. COMPARATIVE DEGREE (in Gram- mar). The second degree, as, better. COMPASS, or the Mariner's Compass. An instrument used by mariners to point out the course at sea. It consists of a card or fly, on which are drawn the several points of the compass ; the needle, or mag- netic needle, a small bar of steel, which has the property of turning one of its ends to the north pole ; and the box, which con- tains the card and needle. COMPASSES, or Pair of Compasses. A mathematical instrument, consisting of two sharp pointed branches or legs of iron, brass, or steel. COMPLEMENT (in Astronomy). The distance of a star from the zenith. COMPLEMENT (in Military Affairs), The full establishment of a regiment. COM COMPLEMENT OF AN ARC (in Ge- ometry). What an arc wants of 90'^ or the quadrant of a circle ; thus the comple- ment of 50° is 40°, and the complement of 40° is 50°. COMPOSING. That branch of the art of printing which consists in arranging the tj'pes or letters in such an order, as to fit them for the press. This the compositor performs, by gathering a letter at a time into his composing stick, which when full he empties into a frame called a galley. Of the several lines arranged in order in the galley he makes a page, and of several pages he makes a form. COJN 105 COMPOSING-STICK. A compositor's tool made of iron plate, and consisting of the head, the bottom, the back, the two slides, and the two screws. While the compositor is in the act of composing he holds the composing-stick in his left hand, placing the second joint of his thumb over the slides of the stick, so as to keep the letter tight and square together, as he pla- ces them in the stick. When the compo- sing stick is full, he proceeds to empty it into the galley. COMPOSIT^E. One of Linnssus' natu- ral orders, comprehending the plants with compound flowers, as the dandelion, sun- flower, &c. COMPOSITION (in Music). A piece of music composed according to the rules of art. COMPOSITION (in Painting). The putting together the several parts of a picture, so as to set off the whole to the best advantage. COMPOSITION (in Commerce). An ©greement entered into between an insol- vent debtor and his creditor, by which the latter accepts a part of the debt, in concb- pensation for the whole. COMPOSITE NUMBERS. Such nun>- bers as some other numbers besides units will measure, as 12, which is measured by 2, 3, 4, and 6. COMPOSITE ORDER (in Architec- ture) One of the five orders of architec- ture, so called because it is composed of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. COMPOSITOR (among Printers). He who composes the matter for the press. COMPOST, pronounced COMPO (in Husbandry). Several sorts of soils or earths and other matters mixed together, in order to make a particularly fine kind of mould. COMPOUND. A term in botany appli. ed to a flower consisting of several distinct lesser flowers. COJ^POUND INTEREST. Is that in- terest which arises from principal and in- terest put together. COMPOUNDING FELONY, or Theft Bote (in Law). Where the party robbed takes his goods again of the thief, upon an agreement not to prosecute. COMPOUNDING WITH ONE'S CREDITORS. Where the debtor, not be- ing able to pay all his debts, agrees with his creditors to pay a part. CONCAVE LENS. An epithet for glasses ground hollow on the inside, so as to reflect on the hollow side. 106 CON CONCENTRATION (in Chymistry). The act of increasing the strength of fluids by volatilizing part of their water. CONCENTIIIC. An epithet for figures having one common centre. CONCERT. A musical performance in which any number of practical musicians unite in the exercise of their talent. CONCERTO. A piece of music consist- ing of several parts that are all to be per- formed together. CONCHOLOGY. That branch of natu- ral history which treats of testaceous ani- mals, or such animals as have a perma- nently testaceous covering, which are com- prehended under the testacea in the Lin- nsan system. CONCLAVE. The room in the Vatican at Rome where the cardinals assemble to ehoose a pope ; also the assembly itself. CONCORD (in Grammar). That part of syntax which treats of the agreement of words according to their several inflec- tions. CONCORD (in Law). An agreement between parties who intend to levy a fine. CONCORD (in Music). The union of two or more sounds in such manner as to render them agreeable. CONCORDANCE. A sort of dictionary of the Bible, in which every word is given with references to the book, chapter, and verse in which it is to be found. CONCORDAT. A treaty or public act of agreement, between the pope and any prince. CONCRETION. The growing together of several substances or parts of substances into one body. CONCRETION (in Surgery). Morbid concretions are substances formed in the animal body, as the calculus or stone, &c. CONDENSER. A pneumatic engine or syringe, whereby an uncommon quantity of air may be crowded into a given space. CONDITION (in Common Law). A restraint annexed to a thing, so that by the nonperformance, the party to it shall sus- tain loss, and by the performance receive advantage. CONDITION (in Civil Law). A clause of obligation stipulated, as an article of a treaty or contract. CONDUCTOR. A name given to those substances which are capable of receiving and transmitting electricity. CONDUCTOR OF LIGHTNING. A pointed metallic rod, contrived by Dr. Franklin, to be fixed to buildings, to secure them from the effects of lightning. CONDUIT. A pipe for the conveyance of water to any particular part. CON CONDOR. A large kind of South Amer- ican vulture, measuring with the wings ex- tended, from tip to tip, twelve or sixteen feet. It preys on birds, lambs, and kids. It is the largest bird of flight. CONE (in Geometry). A solid figure, having a circle for its base, and its top terminating in a point or vertex. It is produced by the revolution of a right angled triangle about its perpendicular leg, called the axis of the cone. CONE (in Botany). The fruit of several evergreen trees, as of the fir, cedar, cypress, so called from its conical shape. It is com- posed of woody scales, that are usually open, each of which has a seed at the end. CONE (in Conchology). A beautiful sort of shell, inhabited by the limax. Shells of this sort mostly bear the highest price of CON any, one species being valued as high as five hundred dollars. CON 107 CONFESSION (in Theology). A public declaration of one's faith, or the faith of a public body; also a part of the Liturgy, in which an acknowledgment of guilt is made by the whole congregation. Auricular confession, a private confession or acknow- ledgment of one's sins, made by each individual in the Romish church to his priest or father confessor. It is so called because it is made by whispering in his ear. CONFESSIONAL. The place in a Ca- tholic church or chapel, where confession is made to the priest, usually through a small latticed aperture. CONFIRMATION. A ceremony in the English church, by which baptized per- sons are confirmed in their baptismal vows by the laying on of hands. What is pre- pared for in catechising, is performed by confirmation. This ceremony is performed by the bishop. CONFLUENCE. The meeting of two rivers, or the place where they meet. CONGELATION. A condensation of any fluid by means of cold. CONGER, or CONGER EEL. An eel of an extraordinary size, and extremely voracious, which preys on carcasses, and other fish. CONGREGATION (in Ecclesiastical AlFairs). An assembly of persons who meet together for purposes of divine worship ; (in Physics) a term for the least degree of mixture, in which the parts of the mixed body do not touch each other in more than one point. CONGRESS. An assembly of envoys, commissioners, deputies, &c. from different courts, who meet to agree on matters of general interest ; also an assembly of the deputies from the different states in the republics of America. The Congress of the United States consists of a Senate and House of Representatives. Each state sends two senators, and one representative for every 40,000 inhabitants. In the slave states five slaves are reckoned as three freemen. Senators are chosen for six years, representatives for two. CONGREVE ROCKET. An invention so called from the inventor. Sir William Congreve, by which balls and other com- bustibles are discharged to an immense distance. CONIC SECTIONS. Curve lines and plane figures produced by the intersection of a plane with a cone. These sections are derived from the different directions in which the solid cone is cut by a plane passing through it ; they are the triangle, circle, ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola. The doctrine of Conic Sections, which is one of the abstrusest branches of geome- try, was particularly cultivated by the an- cients. Aristeus is said to have composed five books relating to this subject, but they have not been handed down to us. The most ancient treatise extant is that of Apollonius, in eight books, the first four of which is said to have been written by Euclid, and afterwards perfected by Apol- lonius, with the addition of four other books. Among the moderns the principal treatises are those of Mydorgius, De la Hire, De I'Hopital, Emerson, Hutton, Vince, and Robertson. CONIFERS. One of Linna3us's natural orders, containing the cone bearing trees. CONJUGAL RIGHTS, RESTITU- TION OF. In England, a species of mat- rimonial suit, which may be brought either by the husband or the wife, against the party who is guilty of the injury of subtrac- tion or living in a state of separation. CONJUGATE. An epithet to denote the junction of two lines, as a conjugate axis, that which crosses another axis. CONJUGATING (in Grammar), The act of going through the inflections of a 108 CON verb according to its several moods, tenses, and persons. CONJUGATION (in Grammar). The moods, tenses, and persons of a verb coupled together in regular order. CONJUNCTION. A term in Astronomy for the meeting of two planets in the same degree of the zodiac, which is marked thus (6), CONJUNCTION (in Grammar). A part of speech which joins words and sen- tences. CONNOISSEUR. A person well versed in any art or science. CONOID (in Geometry). A figure re- Bembling a cone. CONQ,UEROR. In a general sense, one who has gained a battle or any thing by means of fighting ; particularly applied to William I. who succeeded to the throne of England after having gained the battle of Hastings. CONSANGUINITY. Kindred by blood and birth between persons descended from the same common slock. CONSCRIPT FATHERS. An appel- lation for the Roman senators, so called because they were enrolled from the eques- trian order into the list of senators. CONSCRIPTS. Recruits in the French army. CONSEaUENCE. That which follows from any principle by way of inference ; among logicians, the last part or propo- sition of an argument, in distinction from the antecedents, being something gathered from a preceding argument. CONSEQUENT (in Geometry). The latter of two terms of proportion, in dis- tinction from tiie former, or antecedent. CONSIGNMExN^T. The sending or de- livering over of goods to another person. CONSISTORY, or CONSISTORY COURT. In England, the session or as- sembly of ecclesiastical persons held by the bishop or his chancellor. CONSONANCE (in Music). An agree- ment of two sounds. CONSONANT (in Grammar). A letter which cannot be sounded by itself without the help of a vowel ; in Music, an epithet for that interval which produces consonant concords. CONSTABLE. A civil officer, anciently of great dignity, as the lord hi(rh constable of England, and also the constables or keep- ers of castles, &c.; now an inferior officer of justice. CONSTELLATION. An assemblage of fixed stars, imagined to represent the form of some creature or other object, as a bear. CON a ship, and the like ; whence they have derived those appellations which are con- venient in describing the stars. The divi- sion of tlie heavens into constellations is very ancient, probably coeval with astro- nomy itself. Frequent mention is made of them by name in the sacred writings, as in the book of Job, and in the prophecy of Amos. Some of the constellations are also mentioned by Homer and Hesiod, who flourished above 900 years before Christ ; and Aratus, who lived about 277 years before Christ, professedly treats of all such as were marked out by the ancients, and were afterwards admitted into the Almagest of Ptolemy. These were forty- eight in number, called the Old Constella- tions, to which have since been added others, called New Constellations. CONSTITUENT (in Law). In England, one who by his vote, constitutes or elects a member of parliament. The term is also applied to voters in the United States. CONSTITUENTS (in Physics). The elementary parts of any substance. CONSTITUTION (in Law). Properly, any form of government regularly consti- tutedj in a particular sense, the mixed and popular form of government in England, consisting of king, lords, and commons, or the free constitution of the United States. CONSTITUTION (in Civil Law). A law made by some king or emperor ; and in the canon law, the same as an ecclesi- astical law or canon. CONSTITUTION (in Medicine). The temperament of the whole body, arising from the q\iality and proportion of the parts. CONSUL. A chief magistrate among the Romans, of which there were two that were elected every year. CONSUL. An officer commissioned by government, to reside in foreign coun- tries of any considerable trade, to facilitate and despatch business and protect the merchants of the nation. CONSUMPTION. The wasting and de- cay of the body by disease. CONTEMPT (in Law). A disobedience to the rules, orders, or process of a court. CONTINENT. The main land, as dis- tinguished from the sea. CONTORTiE. One of Linnteus' natural orders, including plants with a single twisted petal. CONTOUR. The outline of a figure. CONTRABAND GOODS. Goods pro- hibited by law t() be exported or imported. CONTRACT. A covenant or agreement between two or more persons, with a law- ful consideration or cause. CON CONTRACTION. In general, the di- minishing the extent or dimensions of a body, CONTRACTION (in Smgeiy). The shrinking up of the muscles or arteries. CONTRx-lCTION (in Grammar). The reducing two syllables into one. CONTRACTION (in Arithmetic). The shortening of operations, CONTRAST (iti Painting). The due placing the different parts and objects of a figure, that they may be suitably opposed to each other, CONTRA VALLATION, Line of. A line or trench, cut round a place by the be- siegers, to defend themselves against the sallies of the garrison. CONTRAVENTION (in Law). The in- fringement of a contract. CONTROLLER (in Law). An overseer or officer appointed to control or oversee the accounts of other officers. CONTUMACY (in Law). A refusal to appear in court when legally summoned. CONVALESCENCE. That period be- twixt the departure of a disease, and the recovery of one's health. CONVENTICLE. A term applied first to the little private meetings of the follow- ers of John Wickliflfe, and afterwards to the religious meetings of the Nonconform- ists, CONVENTION (in Law). Any assem- bly of the states of the realm or their depu- ties ; in military affairs, an agreement entered into between two bodies of troops, opposed to each other. CONVERGING LINES. Lines which continually approximate. CONVERGING RAYS (in Optics). Those rays that issue from divers points of an object, and incline towards one another until they meet. CONVEX, Curved, or protuberant out- wards ; as a convex lens, mirror, &c. CONVEYANCE (in Law). A deed or instrument by which lands, &c, are con- veyed or made over to another, CONVEYANCER, One who follows the business of conveyancing, or drawing up conveyances, CONVOCATION. In England, an as- eembly of the clergy, consisting of an up- per and lower house, which meet when the parliament meets, to consult on the affairs of the church. CONVOLVULUS, or Bindweed. A plant so called, because it creeps up and twists itself round whatever is near it. Some few sorts are cultivated in gardens, and bear a beautiful blue flower. CONVOY. A sea term, for ships of war 10 COP 109 which accompany merchantmen in time of war, to protect them from the attacks of the enemy ; in military affairs, a detach- ment of troops employed to guard any sup- ply of money, ammunition, DiPTERA (in Entomology). An order in the LinnEcan system, conipiehending in- sects that have two vvin<;3, \V:tJi a poiser, as the fly, the gnat, &c. DIRECTION (in Astronomy). The motion and other phenomena of a planet when it is direct, or going forward in the zodiac according to the natural order of the signs. DIRECTION, LINE OF (in Gunnery). The direct line in which a piece is pointed. DIRECTION OF A LETTER. The superscription or address. DfRECTlON POST. A post set up in roads, to direct the traveller to particular places. DIRECTION WORD (in Printing). The word which begins the next page, which used to be set at the bottom of the page preceding. rJlRECTORi^ (in England). A form of prayer set forth by the assembly of divines, and used by order of the Long Parliament, instead of the Common Prayer. I'he word is applied in the United States to books in the large cities which point out tlie names and residences of the inhabi- tants. DIRGE. A song of lamentation at fune- rals. DIRK. A kind of dagger. DISBANDED. An epithet used for a -;giment discharged from service. DISC. The body or face of the sun or moon as it appears to us. DISC (in Optics). The magnitude of a telescope glass, or the width of its aper- ture. DISCHARGE (in Law). A release from confinement. DISCHARGE (in Military Affairs). A remission of service for the time that a soldier has been engaged. DISCHARGER, or DISCHARGING ROD. An instrument made of glass or baked wool, by the help of which an electric jar is discharged. DISCLAIMER (in Law). A plea con- taining an express denial. DISCIPLINE. In general, a rule or method of eovernment. DISCIPLINE (in Military Affairs). The training up soldiers for service. DISCORD. An inharmonious combina- tioD of PoundjJ. DIS DISCOVERY (in Law). The disclosing or revealing any thing by a defendant, in his answer to a bill, riled against him in a court of equity. Discount (in Commerce}. An allow- ance made on a bill, or any other debt not yet become due, in consideration of imme- diate payment. DISEASE. That state of a living body which interrupts any of its functions. DISEMBOGUING. A term applied to rivers, which discharge themselves into the sea. DISJUNCTIVE. An epithet for con- junctions, which separate the sense, as but, nor, &c. DISLOCATION. The putting a bone out of its place. DlSPAl'CHES. Letters sent to, or from government, on public business. DISPENSARY. A charitable institu- tion, where medicine and advice are given gratis to the poor. DISPENSATION (in Law). In Eng- land, an exclusive privilege, to do any thing that is otherwise prohibited by law, granted by the King in council. DISPENSATION (in Ecclesiastical Affairs). An indulgence granted by the Pope, to do what is otherwise forbidden by the church, as the marriage of first cousins, er and lower ; the mandibles, or horny substances, one on each side of the mouth; the maxillas, or jaws, two membranaceous substances, differing in figure from the mandibles, under which they are situated; the tongue, an involuted tubular organ, which constitutes the whole mouth in some insects, as the sphinx ; the rostrum, beak, or snout, a moveable articulated member in the grasshopper, the aphis, &;c. ; the proboscis, or trunk, which serves as a mouth in the house fly, bee, and some ENTOMOLOGY. 143 other insects ; the feelers, small moveable filiform organs, placed mostly on each side the jaw, and resembling the antennae, but much smaller 3 these vary in number from two to six in different insects. The trunk, which is the second general division of which an insect consists, com- prehends that portion situated between the head and the abdomen. This consists of the thorax, or upper part of the body, to which the first pair of legs is attached ; the breast, or under part of the thorax, to which the four posterior feet are attached; the breast bone, a ridge running under the breast, which is conspicuous in some in- sects ; and the scutellum, or escutcheon, a lobe-like process, situated at the posterior part of the thorax. The abdomen, or third principal portion of an insect's body, is composed of annular joints, or segments, which vary in form and number in different insects ; this is distinguished into the back, or upper part, and the belly, or under part. The motion of the abdomen is most visible in the fly and bee tribes. To this division belong also the tail and the sting. The tail some- times spreads like a leaf, as in the cock- roach ; and in other insects is bristle- shaped. The sting, which is peculiar to insects of the bee tribe and some few others, is sometimes simple, having but one dart, and sometimes compound, having two darts. In bees and wasps the sting is retractile, that is, capable of being drawn in ; but in other insects it is almost always hid in the body, or seldom thrust out. In some tribes of insects it exists in the males, in others in the females only, but seldom in both sexes. The members or extremities of insects are the legs and the wings. Insects have sometimes six legs, but never more, except what are observable in the larvje, which are termed spirious feet. The feet vary in their form and use, being formed either for running, swimming, or leaping, with or without claws or spines, &c. The wings are mostly two, but sometimes four in number ; mostly placed on each side the insect, so as that each pair should corres- pond in situation, form, &c. ; but where there is more than one pair, the first are mostly larger than those behind. The wings are greatly diversified as to form, figure, texture, construction, &c. To the wings belong also the elytra, or wing cases, and the halteres, or poisers. The elytra are two coriaceous wings, which are expanded in flight, but when at rest serve to cover the abdomen and enclose their membranaceous wings, as in insects of the beetle tribe; the poisers are two globular bodies placed on slender stalks behind the wings in the tribe of winged insects, so called because they are sup- posed to keep the insect gteady in its flight. The internal parts of insects are less perfect and distinct than those of larger animals, and of course less known. The brain of insects is altogether different from the substance which bears that name in other animals, being little more than gan- glions of nerves, two in number, that are observed in the crab, lobster, &c. The muscles consist of fasciculi of fibres, that serve apparently the office of producing two motions, namely, that of extending and that of bending. Some insects appear to be furnished with some floating vessels, which secrete a fluid varying in colour in different tribes, but very similar to saliva. The oesophagus, or organ of deglutition, is a straight short tube, consisting of annular muscular fibres, like the proboscis of the common fly. The organs of digestion vaiy very much in different tribes of insects. Most have a single stomach, but some have it double, and others have a manifold stomach. In bees the stomach is membranaceous, fitted to receive the nectar of flowers : the bug, the boat fly, and such as feed on animal substances, have a muscular stomach. The beetle, ladybird, earwig, and some others that feed on other insects, have a double stomach, the first of which is muscular, after the manner of a gizzard, and the second is a membranaceous canal. Insects such as the cricket and grasshopper, which have many stomachs, seem to employ them much after the manner of the ruminating animals. Instead of organs of respiration, it has been found that they have spiracula run- ning on each side the body that serve for the reception of the air, and other vessels proceeding from these that serve for the exspiration of air. Insects, among the ancients, were reckoned to be bloodless animals ; but it has since been ascertained that the process both of circulation and secretion goes forward in the bodies of insects, although in a different manner. The process of secretion is supposed to be performed by means of a number of long slender vessels, which float in the internal cavity of the body, serving to secrete different fluids, according to the nature of the animal ; thus the bee, wasp, sphinx, &c. have two vessels situated at the bottom of the sting, through which they discharge an acrid fluid. From the ant is extracted 144 ENTOMOLOGY. an acid well known to chymists,and other insects have other iluids peculiar to them- selves. As to the process of circulation in insects, little more is known at present than that a contraction and dilatation of the vessels is observable in some kinds, particularly in caterpillars ; but the fluid which is supposed to supply the place of blood is not of the same colour. The sexes in insects are of three kinds, namely, the males, the females, and the neuters, which have not the usual marks of either sex. The sexes are distinguished by the difference of size, brightness of colours, form of the antennaj, &c. ; the male is always smaller than the female, and in some cases the female is several hundred times bigger than the male ; on the other hand, the males have brighter colours and larger antenna?. In many cases the females have no wings ; and in some instances, as that of the bee, the female has a sting, but the male none. The metamorphoses of insects is one characteristic of these animals which dis- tinguishes them from all others. In most insects the egg is the first state ; but there are examples of viviparous insects, as in the case of the aphis, the fly, &c. The insect in the second or caterpillar state, is now called the larva, but formerly the eruca. The larvae differ very much in different insects ; those of the butterfly and moth are properly called caterpillars, those of the flies and bees are called maggots. The larva? of the beetle tribe differ from the complete insect only by being destitute of wings. Butterflies, in their caterpillar state, are very voracious, but in their com- plete state they are satisfied with the lightest and most delicate nutriment. The third state into which insects transform themselves is the pupa, or chrysalis. In most of the beetle tribe the pupa is fur- nished with short legs, but the pupa of the butterfly tribe is without legs : that of the fly tribe is oval, but that of the bee tribe is very shapeless. The last and per- fect state of insects is called by Linnseus the imago, in which state it continues until its extinction. The life of insects varies as to its duration. Some, as bees and spiders, are supposed to live for a considerable time ; but others will not live beyond a year, a day, or some hours, in their perfect state, although they will con- tinue for some time in their larva state. Water insects generally live longer than land insects. As to the classification of insects, it suffices here to observe, that Linnteus, whose system is now generally followed, has classed them according to their wings into seven orders, namely, 1. Coleoptera, or such as have shells that cover the wings, as the beetle tribe. 2. Ilemiptera, or half winged insects, as the cock-roach, locust, grasshopper, bug, &:c. 3. Lepidoptera, or scaly winged insects, as tlie butterfly and the moth. 4. Neuroptera, or nerve-winged or fibre-winged insects, the wings of which are furnished with conspicuous nerves, fibres, or ramifications, as the dragon fly, May fly, trout fly. 5. Hymenoptera, or insects with four wings and a sting, astht. bee, wasp, hornet, termes, or white ant, &c. 6. Diptera, or two-winged insects, as the gnat, common fly, musquitto, horse- leech, &c. 7. Aptera, or insects without wings, as the spider, flea, lobster, scorpion, &c. ENTOMOLOGY, IIistort of. There are scattered notices respecting insects at an earjy period, from which we may infer that they had not escaped the notice of inquirers into the animal kingdom. Among the books of Solomon now lost to the world, it is recorded that he treated on insects or creeping things. Hippocrates wrote a work on insects, from which Pliny has given some few extracts. The labours of Aristotle on this subject are still extant, and show that he had made insects his particular study. What he has written on this subject has not been surpassed in accuracy by any thing that has followed. Nicander, Callimachus, and above all The- ophrastus, are mentioned as writers on in- sects ; but there is no work extant on that subject before the time of the Romans. Virgil treats on the subject of bees, which were much cultivated in his time. Pliny has devoted the eleventh book of his Natural History to this subject, and men- tions several Latin writers who had direct- ed their attention to it. ^lian, in his work on animals, devotes several chaptei-s to particular insects, as the spider, scorpion, cricket, &c. ; besides that, the subject is slightly touched upon by the medical writers /Etius, Paulus ^gineta, Trallian, and Oribasius, and also by the Arabian authors Rhazes, Avicenna, Avenzoar, and Averrhoes. From the twelfth to the fif- teenth century no writer of any note occurs on the subject of entomology. Albertus Magnus has devoted some small part of his work De Animalibus to this subject. Agricola, in his work De Animantibus Subteraneis, which appeared in 1549, has given the first systematic arrangement of insects, by dividing them into creeping insects, flying insects, and swimming in- sects. This work was followed in the ENT same century by Dr. Wotton's work, De DiJfferentiis Animalium, and cursory re- marks on insects in Rondeletius Libri de Piscibus Marinis, and in Conrad Gesner's work De Serpentium Natura. A far more important production on tlie subject of insects appeared in 1602> from the pen of that industrious naturalist Al- drovandus, entitled De Animalibus Insec- tis, in which he divided them into two classes, terrestria and aquatica, and sub- divided them into orders, according to the number, nature, position, &c. of their wings. This work was followed by the Historia Animalium Sacra of Wolfang Frenzius, and other works from the pen of Fabius Columna, Hoefnagle, and Archibald Simpson. This latter work is entitled to notice because it was the first work on en- tomology that had appeared in Britain. The graphic art was also called into aid about this period, to illustrate the subject of entomology, as appears from the works of the celebrated engravers Hoefnagle, Robert Aubret, De Bry, Vallet, Robin, Jonston, &.C. The invention of the micro- scope also afforded great facilities to the study of entomologj', and enlarged the sphere of observation very considerably. Of these facilities many naturalists amply availed themselves, as Hooke, Leuwen- hoek, Hartsoeker, and others. The latter writer discovered the circulation of the flu- ids in insects. Christopher Marret publish- ed, in 1667, a work containing an account of British insects ; and a particular descrip- tion of the tarantula was published about the same time by Wolferdus Sanguerdius ; but the most important work on this sub- ject was Swammerdam's General History of Insects, which displayed an anatomical knowledge of these animals that raised the reputation of this writer very high. This appeared in 1669, and in 1578 Lis- ter's valuable History of English Spiders ; the year following the first part of Madame Merian's extensive work on the metamor- phoses of lepidopterous insects, which was followed by other parts in 1683, 1718, and 1726, which last is a splended performance on the insects of Surinam. Leuwenhoek also, about the same time, added materially to the stock of entomological knowledge, by giving an account of the anatomy of insects, drawn from microscopical obser- vations. Ray published, in 1710, his His- toria Insectorum, which was the joint labour of himself and his friend Willough- by. In this history insects are divided into the transmutabilia and intransmuta- bilia. The transmutabilia are divided into four orders namely, vaginipennes, those 13 EPH 145 which have wings covered with a sheath ; papiliones, the lepidopterous insects ; qua- dripennes, four winged insects ; and bi- pennes, two winged insects : which are again subdivided into families. In 1735, the system of Linnseus was published, which has since been universally adopted. It consisted at first of four orders, which he afterwards increased to the number of seven. Some writers, as Deger, Reitzius, and Fabricius, have attempted to improve upon the Linnsan system, but their alter- ations have not been admitted. As to the history of insects, many natu- ralists since his time have contributed their share to the stock of information, either by the description of the insects in par- ticular parts, or by the description of in- sects generally. In 1753, appeared the Entomologia Carniolica of Scopoli; in 1789, Birkinfront published Outlines of Natural History of Britain ; in Seward's Natural History is given an account of many exotic insects. In 1770 were pub- lished Illustrations of Natural History ; in 177.5 Fabricius published his Systema En- tomologiae ; and within the last few years we have had Donovan's Natural History of British Insects, in 15 vols. ; Lamarck's Systeme des Animaux sans vertebres ; Marcham's Entomologia Britannica, and Kirby's Monogi-aphia Apium Anglite. ENTRY (in Commerce). The act of setting down in merchant's account books the particulars of trade. ENTRY (at the Custom House). The passing the bills through the hands of the proper officers. ENTRY (in Law). The taking posses- sion of lands. ENVELOPE. The cover that encloses a letter or note. ENVIRONS. The country lying round a large town or city. ENVOY. A person in degree lower than an ambassador, sent on some par- ticular occasion from one government to another. EPACT (in Chronology). A number arising from the excess of the common solar year above the lunar, by which the age of the moon may be found every year. EPAULETTE. The shoulder knot worn by a soldier or footman. EPAULEMENT. A work raised to cover sidewise, made of earth, gabions, &c. EPHEMERAL. Beginning and ending in a day ; an ephemeral insect lives but for a day, as the day fly. EPHEMERIS. An astronomical alma- 146 EPI nack or table, showing the state of the heavens for every day at noon. EPHOD. A garment worn by the priests of the Jews. EPIC POEM. A narrative poem formed upon a story, partly real and partly ficti- tious, the subject of which, is always some hero or distinguished person. EPICENE (in Grammar). An epithet for the gender of such words as are com- mon to both sexes, as in the Latin, hie et hajc parens. EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. The doctrine tauglit by Epicurus, that the uni- verse consisted of atoms or corpuscles of various forms, magnitudes, and weights, which, having been dispersed at random through the immense space, fortuitously concurred into innumerable systems. To this scheme of infidelity he added the notion that happiness consisted in sensual indul- gence, particularly in the pleasures of the table. EPICUREANISM, or EPICURISM. The doctrine of Epicurus: the practice of an epicurean or epicure, or of one wlio is addicted to his sensual gratifications. EPICYCLE. A little circle that is in the centre of a greater circle. EPIDEMIC DISEASES. Such as pre- vail at particular seasons, and spread among the inhabitants of a country. EPIDERMIS (in Anatomy). The cuticle or scarf skin, that which rises in a blister EPIGRAM. A short, witty, pointed poem. EPIGRAPHE. An inscription on a building, stone, &c. EPILEPSY, or the Falling Sickness. A convulsion of the whole body, with a privation of sense. EPILOGUE (in Dramatic Poetry). A speech addressed to the audience when the play is ended. EPILOGUE (in Rhetoric). The conclu- sion of a speech, a recapitulation of the whole. EPIPHANY, vulgarly called Twelfth Day. a festival celebrated on the twelfth day after Christmas by some Christians, in commemoration of the manifestation made to the Gentiles of our Saviour's na- tivity. EPISCOPACY. A form of church go- vernment by bi&'hops. It is generally applied to the English church. EPISCOPALIAxV. One who supports episcopacy, or a member of the English church. EPISODE (in Poetry). A separate in- cident or story, which the poet introduces EQU into his narrative as connected with the principal action. EPITAPH. An inscription on a tomb- stone. EPITHALAMIUM. A song sung at weddings. EPITHET. A word expressive of a quality. EPITOME. An abridgment or short draught of a book. EPOCH, or EPOCH A. A terra or fixed point of time, whence years are num- bered, sucli as .the Creation, 4004 b. c. ; the Taking of Troy, 1184 b. c. ; the Build- ing of Rome, 753 b. c. ; the Birth of our Saviour, the commencement of the Chris- tian era, and the Hegira, or the flight of Mahomet from Mecca, a. d. 622. EPODE (in Lyric Poetry). The third or last part of the ode. EPOPGEIA (in Poetry). The fable or subject of an epic poem. EPSOM SALTS. Sulphate of magnesia, formerly procured by boiling down the mineral water from the spring at Epsom, but now prepared from sea water. They are used as an aperient. EaUABLE. An epithet for uniform motion. Sec. EaUALITY. A term of relation be- tween things the same in magnitude, quan- tity, or quality. ECIUATION (in Algebra). An expres- sion in which two quantities differently represented are put equal to each other by means of the sign of equality, as 7ax-[-3x=zb. EQUATION, or the EQUATION OF TIME (in Astronomy). The difference be- tween mean and apparent time, or the reduction of the apparent unequal time or motion of the sun, &c. to equable time or motioK. EQUATION, or EQUATION OF PAY- MENTS (in Arithmetic). A rule for find- ing a time when if a sum be paid which is equal to the sum of several others due at ditferent times, no loss will be sustained by either party. EQUATOR. A great circle on the ter- restrial sphere, equidistant from the pole. •EQUATORIAL, or Portable Observa- tory. An instrument by which most of tlie problems in astronomy may be per- formed. EQUERRY. In England, an officer who has the care of the king's horses. EQUES AUR ATUS. A knight, socalled because none but knights were allowed to gild their armour. EQUESTRIAN. One on horseback. ERI EaUESTRlAN ORDER. The second rank in Rome, next to the senators. EaUESTRIAN STATUE. The repre- sentation of a person mounted on a horse. EaUI ANGULAR. Having equal an- gles. EaUiDISTANT. At an equal distance. EQ.UILATE11AL. Having equal sides. EaUlLlBRIUM An equal balance or equality of weight and poise, as when two ends of a lever hang so even, as to poise neither way EaUIMULTiPLES (in Arithmetic or Geometry). Numbers and quantities multi- plied by one and the same mnnber and quantity, as 12 and 6, wliicli are equi- multiples of 4 and 2, called their sub- multiples. EaUlNOCTiAL, or EaUINOCTIAL LINE. A great circle of the celestial globe, answering to the equator on the terrestrial globe. Whenever the sun comes to this circle the days and nights are equal all over the globe. EQUINOXES. Thetiir.es when the sun enters the first points of Aries and Libra, that is, about the twenty-first of March and the twenty-first of September, when the days and nights are equal all over the world. EQUIPAGE (among Travellers). What- ever is necessary for a voyage or journey, as horses, attendants, attire, &.o; EQUIPAGE (in Military Affairs). .What- ever is necessary for an army on its march, as tents, baggage, kitchen furniturej &c. EQUIPOLLENCE. Equality of force and power; as equipollent propositions, such as have the same meaning, though differently expressed. EQUITY (in Law). A correction of the common law wlierein it is deficient. EQUITY, Court of. A title given by way of distinction to the Court of Chan- cery, in which the rigour of other courts is moderated, and controversies are supposed to be determined, according to the exact rules of equity and conscience. EQUIVOCAL. An epithet for words which have a doubJe meaning, and may be applied equally well in both. EQUIVOCATION. The use of equivocal terms, which may be understood by the hearer in a different sense from that in which they are taken by the speaker. EQUULECS. An old constellation, having from four to six stars. ERA. See .Era. ERIDANUS. A constellation in the southern hemisphere, containing, accord- ing to different authors, from nineteen to eighty-four stars. ESC 147 ERMINE. A little animal about the size of a squirrel, the fur of which, bearing the same name, is very valuable. This animal is white all over, except the tip of the tail, which is black. The common weasel of the United States, which in winter is white, is an ermine. In some parts of the conn try it is sometimes called Stoat. :.^^a ERMINE (in Heraldry). A fur used in coat annour, and supposed to represent the linings and doublings of mantles and robes. It is represented by a white field pow- dered or seme with black spots. * s ^ ! t % % S t ■& ; t t 4 t I t 1 ERRATUM. An error of the press; in the plural. Errata, errors of the press. ERRATIC. Wandering, not fixed. ERUPTION (in Medicine). A breaking forth in a morbid manner, as spots on the skin. ERUPTION (in IMineralogy). The breaking forth of fire, ashes, stones, &c. from a volcano. ERYSIPELAS, vulgarly called Saint Anthony's Fire. A disorder in the skin, which consists in a swelling, with redness, heat, and pain. ESCALADE. An attack of a fortified place by scaling the walls with ladders, without breaking ground or carrying on a regular siege. ESCALOP SHELLS. The shells of escalops, a sort of fish, which are regularly indented. ESCAPE (in Law). A violent or privy- evasion out of some lawful restraint. ESCAPEMENT. See Scapement. ESCARBUNCLE. See Carbuncle. 148 EST ESCHEAT. In England, lands or profits that fall to a lord within his manor, either by forfeiture or the death of the tenant. ESCHEATOR. In England, an officer formerly appointed to make inquests of titles by escheats. ESCORT. A company of armed men , attending by way of distinction or pro- tection. ESCUAGE. A kind of knight's service. ESCULENT. A plant that may be eaten. ESCUTCHEON, or Shield. Therepre- sentation of the ancient shields used in war, on which armorial bearings are uainted. ESPALIER. A low branching fruit tree, having the branches trained to a frame. ESPIONAGE. A system of employing spies either in military or political affairs. ESPLANADE (in Fortification). The slophig of the parapet of the covered way towards the campaign. ESQ-UIRE. In England, anciently, the person that attended a knight in time of war, and carried his shield; now, a title of honour given to the sons of knights, or those who serve the king in any worship- ful calling, as officers of the king's courts, counsellors at law, &c. In the United States this title is given to lawyers, and by courtesy to many other persons. ESSAY. A short discourse or treatise on some subject. ESSAYIST. A writer of essays, of which there have been many in England, as Addison, Steele, Swift, Pope, Johnson, Hawkesworth, Goldsmith, Mackenzie, &c. whose works have been collected un- der the name of the British Essayists. ESSENCE (in Chymistry). The purest and subtlest parts of a body, drawn by means of fire, &c. ESSENTIAL OILS. Acrid, volatile oils, having a strong aromatic smell, which are drawn from plants by distillation, in distinction from native oils procured by coction. ESSOIN (in Law). An excuse by rea- son of sickness or any other just cause, for one that is summoned to appear and answer an action, &c. ESTABLISHMENT (in Military Af- fairs). The quota of officers, and men in an army. ESTABLISHMENT (in Trade). The Btock, capital, &c. which are essential for carrying on a business. ESTAFETTE. A military courier, sent from one part of an army to another. EUD ESTATE (in Law). The title or interest a man has in lands or tenements. ESTATES OF THE REALM. In Eu rope, the distinct parts of any state or government, as the King, Lords, and Com- mons in England. ESTIMATE. A calculation of the ex- penses of any undertaking, made according to the regular charges of trade, as the estimate of builders, engineers, printers, publishers, &lc. ESTOPPEL. An impediment or bar to an action. ESTRAY. A tame beast found without any owner known. ESTREAT (in Law). The copy of an original writing, particularly of the penal- ties or fines, to be levied by the bailifi:'or other officer, of every man for his offence. ESTUARY. The mouth of a lake or river, or any place where the tide comes. ETC. or&c. i. e.Ex Cetera. Literally, And other things not mentioned. ETCHING. A method of engraving, in which the lines and strokes are eaten in, with aquafortis. ETHER. A very volatile fluid, produced by the distillation of alcohol with an acid. ETHICS. The science of moral duties, showing the rules and measures of human conduct which tend to happiness. ETIQUETTE. Rules and ceremonies of good manners, observed either at court or in genteel life. ETYMOLOGY. A branch of grammar, which teaches the original and derivation of words. ETYMOLOGIST. One who traces words from their original sources. EVACUATION (in Medicine). The dis- charge of superfluous humours or excre- ments out of the body. EVACUATION (in Military Affairs). The leaving a town, fortress, or any place which has been occupied as a military post or position. EVANGELIST. Literally, the bringer of good tidings; particularly, the writers of our Saviour's history, as Matthew,Mark, Luke, and John. EVAPORATION (in Chymistry). A process in which the superfluous moisture of any liquid substance is dispersed by means of fire. EUCHARIST. The sacrament of the Lord's Supper, so called, because the death of our Redeemer is thereby commemorated with thankful remembrance. EUDIOMETER. An instrument for ascertaining the purity of air, or the quan- EXC tity of oxygen and nitrogen in atmospheri- cal air. EVERGREEN (in Gardening). A spe- cies of perennials which preserve their verdure all the year rounds such as hollies, laurustinus, bays, pines, firs, &c. EVERLASTING PEA. A perennial of the vetch kind, which grows naturally in some places, and may be cultivated with advantage as food for cattle. EVIDENCE (in Law). The testimony adduced in a court, which may either be written, as by deeds, bonds^ and other documents, or verbal, by witnesses ex- ammed vivsL voce. EULOGY. Praise or commendation of a person. EVOLUTION (in Arithmetic). The ex- traction of the roots of any power. EVOLUTION (in Military Tactics). Tlie complicated movement of a body of men when they change their position. EVOLUTION (in Geometry). The un- folding of a curve. EVOLUTION (in Botany). The expan- sion or opening of the bud., EUPHONY (in Grammar). Good sound in pronouncing a word: It is properly a figure, whereby a letter that is too harsh is converted into a smoother, contrary to the ordinary rules, for the purpose of pro- moting smoothness and elegance- in pro- nunciation. EURITHMY (in Paintings Architec- ture, and Sculpture). A certain majesty and elegance of appearance in the compo- sition of diverse parts of a body, painting, or piece of sculpture. Vitruvms, who ranks eurithmy among the essentials in architecture, makes it to consist in the beauty of the construction or assemblage of the several parts of the work. EWE. The female of the sheep. EX (in Composition). Now signifies late, as the ex-minister, the late minister. EXACTION (in Law). Injury done by an officer, or one who, under colour of his office, takes more than what the law allows, EXAGGERATION. The making things appear, more than they really are. EXALTATION (in Chymistry). The raising a thing to a higher degree of virtue, or increasing the principal property in a body. EXAMINATION (in Law). The ex- amining of witnesses by questions. EXAMINERS (in Law). Two officers in the Court of Chancery, in England, ap- pointed to examine witnesses. EXCELLENCY. In England, the title given to ambEissadors, commanders, and 13* EXE 149 others not entitled T,o that of highness. In America the title is given to the Presi- dent, to ambassadors, and governors of states. EXCENTRICITY'. See Eccentricitt. EXCEPTION (in Law). A stop or stay to any action, which consists either of a denial of the matter alleged in bar to the action j or, in the Court of Chancery, it is what is alleged against the sufficiency of an answer. EXCHANGE (in Commerce). The trucking or bartering one thing for ano- ther; also the place where merchants meet for, tlie purpose of transacting business; and. likewise the giving a sum of money in one place for a bill, ordering the pay- ment of it in another place. EXCHANGE (in Arithmetic). The re- ducing of moneys of difl^erent denomina- tions from-ojie to another, or the method of finding what quantity of the money of one place is-eqyal-to a given sum of ano- ther, according, to a certain course of exchange. EXCHANGE (in Law). A mutual grant of equal interests-, the one in consideration of the other. EXCHANGE BROKERS. Men who give the merchants information how the exchange goeSf EXCHEGtUER (in Law). In England the office or place, where the king's cash is kept and paid. EXCHEQUER COURT. In England, a court in which all causes relating to the revenue are tried; also the Prerogative Court of the Archbishop of York. EXCHEai.TERED. Summoned before the Exchequer, in England, to answer any charge of defrauding the revenue, &c. EXCISE DUTIES. Inland taxes on commodities of general consumption. EXCOMMUNICATION. An ecclesi- astical censure, whereby a person is ex- cluded from communion with the church, and in England deprived of some civil riglits. EXCORIATION. The rubbing or peel- ing away the cuticle or external skin. EXCORTICATION. The stripping a tree of its bark. EXCRESCENCE (in Surgery). Any preternatural formation of flesh on any part of the body, as warts, wens, &;c. EXECUTION (in Law). A judicial writ granted on the judgment of the court whence it issues. EXECUTION (in Military A ff^airs). The plundering and wasting a country in time of war. EXECUTIVE (in Law). That branch 150 EXP of the government, which executes the functions of governing the state. EXECUTOR (in Law). One appointed by a testator to see that his will is exe- cuted. EXECUTRIX. A female executor. EXEMPLIFICATION. A duplicate of letters patent. EXERCISE (in Military Tactics). The practice of all military movements. EXHALATION. A fume or vapour rising from the earth. EXHIBITION. A public display of whatever is interesting, either as a matter of art, or a natural curiosity; in England, particularly the exhibition of paintings at Somerset House, which is by distinction called The Exhibition. EXHUMATION. The act of digging up a body that has been interred. EXIGENT (in Law). A writ or part of the process of outlawry. EXILE (in Law). A person sent into some place distant from his native country, under a penalty not to return within a certain period. EXIT (in Theatricals). Going off the stage. EX OFFICIO. By virtue of one's office, as, in England, ex officio informations, prosecutions commenced by the king's at- torney general by virtue of his office, witli- out applying to the court for permission. EXORCIST. One, who by prayers and incantations, professes to cast out evil spirits. EXORDIUM. The commencement of a speech, serving to prepare the audience. EXOTIC PLANTS. Plants of foreign growth, which in this climate require a hothouse and every kind of nurture. EXPANSION. An increase of the bulk of any body by a power acting within, particularly by the action of heat. EX PARTE (in Law). On one side. as exparte statements, a partial statement, or tliat which is made on one side only. EXPECTATION. In the doctrine of chances, is applied to any contingent event, upon the happening of which, some bene- fit is expected. EXPECTORANTS. Medicines which promote expectoration, or a discharge of mucus from the breast. EXPERIMENT. A trial of the results of certain applications and motions of natu- ral bodies, in order to discover something of their laws, nature, Slc. EXPERIMENTAL . PHILOSOPHY. That philosophy, which deduces the laws of nature, from sensible experiments and observations. EXT EXPERIMENTUM CRUCIS. A lead- ing or decisive experiment. EXPIRATION. A breathing out air from the lungs. EXPLOSION. A sudden and violent expansion of an aerial or elastic fluid, ac- companied with a noise. EXPONENT (in Algebra). The number or quantity expressing the degree or eleva- tion of a power, as, in x^, 2 is tlie exponent of the square number. EXPORTS (in Commerce). Goods ex- ported or sent out of one's own country to a foreign land. EXPOSITOR. One who explains the writings of otliers, particularly one who professes to expound the Scriptures. EX POST FACTO. Literally, from something done afterwards, as an ex post facto law, a law which operates upon a subject not liable to it at the time the law was made. EXPRESS. A messenger sent with di- rect and specific instructions. EXPRESSED OILS. Oils obtained from bodies by pressing. EXPRESSION (in Chymistry or Phar- macy). The pressing of tlie oils or juices of vegetables. EXPRESSION (in Painting). The dis- tinct exhibition of character or of senti- ment, in the characters represented. EXTEMPORE, or EXTEMPORANE- OUSLY. Without preparation or premed- itation. EXTENSION. One of the essential pro- perties of a body, to occupy some space, EXTENT (in Law). A writ of execu- tion for valuing lands and tenements. EXTENT (in Music). The compass of a voice or instrument. EXTENT IN AID. In England, a seiz- ure made by the crown, when a public accountant becomes a defaulter. EXTINGUISHMENT (in Law). The annihilation of an estate, &c. by means of its being merged or consolidated witli another. EXTIRPATION (in Surgery). The com- plete removal or destruction of any part, either by excision or by means of caustics. EXTORTION The unlawful act of an officer who, by colour of his office, takes money or any other thing when none at all is due. EXTRACT (in Chymistry). The purer parts of any substance extracted from its grosser parts by means of decoction, and formerly also ity distillation, until they were of the consistence of paste or honey. EXTRACT (in Literature). Some select matter or sentences taken from a book. FAC EXTRACT (in Law). A draught or copy of a writing. EXTRACTION (in Surgery). The draw- ing any foreign matter out of the body. EXTRACTION (in Arithmetic). The finding out tlie true root of any number or quantity. EXTRACTION (in Genealogy). The line, stem, or branch of a family from which a person is descended. EXTRACTOR (in Surgery). An instru- ment for drawing the stone from the body. EXTRAORDINARY. Out of the com- mon course; as an Extraordinary Courier, one sent on an urgent occasion; Extraor- dinary Gazette, one published to announce some particular event. EXTRAVASATION. The state of the fluids when they are out of their proper vessels, as when by the breaking of a blood vessel in the dura mater, the blood is effus- ed in the ventricles of the brain. EXTREME UNCTION. A solemn anointing of any person in the Romish church, who is at the point of death. EXUDATION. The emitting of moisture FAC 151 through the pores, as the exudation of gums through the bark of trees. EXUVIAE. The slough or cast otf cover- ings of animals, particularly those of the snake kind. EYE (in Anatomy). The organ of sight, whereby visible objects are represented to the mind. The external parts of the eye are the eyebrows, eyelashes, eyelids, the lachrymal ducts, &c.; the internal parts of the eye, which compose the ball or globe of the eye, consist of membranes, chambers, and humours, EYE. A term applied to different ob- jects from some supposed resemblance to the natural eye. EYE (in Architecture). The aperture at the top of a dome, and to the centre of a volute. EYE (in Botany). That part of a potatoe and other things where the bud puts forth. EYE (in Printing). The graving in re- lievo, on the top or face of the letter. EYEGLASS. A glass put close to the eye, for the purpose of bringing objects nearer. F. F, the sixth letter in the alphabet, stood as a numeral for 40, and with a dash over it, for 40,000; it now stands for one of the Dominical or Sunday letters, and also, in Music, for the fourth note in the diatonic scale. FA (in Music). The fourth note of the modern scale, which is either flat or sharp; the flat is marked thus \), and the sharp thus ■jp^. FABLE. A tale or fictitious narration intended to instruct or convey a moral, as the Fables of ^sop; also the principal part of an epic or dramatic piece. FABRIC (in Commerce). The same as manufacture; lace of the fabric of Brus- sels, (fcC. FACADE. The front or the principal side of a building. FACE (in Anatomy). The lower and anterior part of the skull; in general, the fore part of any thing, as the face of a stone, anvil, &c. FACE (in Fortification). The face of a bastion, the most advanced part towards the field. FACE (in Gunnery). The metal at the extremity of the muzzle of a gun. FACE (in Military Tactics). The side of a battalion formed into a squaie. FACET. The small side of a diamond. FAC SIMILE, The copy of a person's writing, as of a letter in imitation of his own handwriting. FACTITIOUS. Made by art, as facti- tious cinnabar; in distinction from that procured naturally. FACTOR (in Commerce). An agent commissioned by merchants to buy or sell goods on their account. FACTORS (in Arithmetic). The two numbers that are multiplied together. FACTORY. A place in a distant coun> try, where factors reside for purposes of trade; also the trades themselves collec- tively. FACULiE (in Astronomy). Bright spots on the surface of the sun, FACULTIES, Court of. In England, a court under the archbishop of Canterbu- ry for granting faculties or privileges. FACULTIES t,in the Universities). The divisions under which the arts and sciences are classed, and degrees granted. These are for the most part four, as 1. Arts, in- cluding Humanity and Philosophy; 2. The- ology; 3. Physic; and 4. Civil Law. FACULTY (in Law). A dispensation or privilege. FACULTY (in Physics). That power by which a living creature moves and acts. This may be either an animal, or corporeal 152 FAL faculty belonging to the body ,01- a rational faculty belonging to the mind. F^'ECES. The dregs or gross substances which settle after fermentation. F^CULiE. Small dregs or lees. FAGG, A sea term, for the end of the strands which do not go through the tops when a cable or rope is closed. FAINTS (in Chymistry). The weak spi- rituous liquor that runs off from the still after the proof spirit is taken away. FAIR. A larger kind of market, held once, twice, or ofteaer in the year, ac- cording to the charter granted to any par- ticular place. FAIR MAID OF FRANCE. A plant of the ranunculus tribe, bearing an ex- ceedingly white flower. FAIRY. A kind of genii or imaginary spirits of a diminutive size, and fabled to haunt houses and revel in meadows du- ring night, &c. FAIRY CIRCLE or RING, A pheno- menon frequently seen in the fields, con- sisting of a round bare path with grass in the middle, formerly ascribed to the dances of the fairies. It is supposed by some to be a fungus which eats away the grass in this circular form, or by others the effect of lightning. FAIRY TALES. Eastern tales of the wonderful proceedings wrought by fairies. FAKIR. A sort of dervises or Maho- metan monks. Religious devotees of Hin- dostan. FALCHION. A kind of sword turned up somewhat like a hook. FALCON. A bird of the hawk tribe, about the size of a raven, and capable of being trained for spoit, in which it was formerly much employed. It is usually represented in coats of arms with bells on its legs, and also decorated with a hood, virols, rings, &c. The falcon gentii is here represented. FALCONER. One who looks after, and trains hawks. FAR FALL (in Physics). The descent or na- tural motion of bodies towaras the earth. FALL (in Military Affairs). The sur- render of a town) among Seamen, the loose end of a tackle. FALL (in Husbandry). The descent of ground which serves to carry off the water. FALLACY. A logical artifice, or an argument framed so as to deceive; a so- phism. FALLING SICKNESS. See Epilepsy. FALLOW. Land laid up and left with- out a crop for a year, in order to give tlie soil time to recover itself; the act of so doing is called fallowing. FALLOVV-DEER. The common deer seen in the parks of England. The Vir- ginia deer of America. FALLOW-FINCH. A bird, otherwise named Wheat Ear. FALSE. An epithet used in Law, as False. Imprisonment, the trespass of im- prisoning a man without lawful cause; in Mineralogy, as False Diamond, a diamond counterfeited with glass. FALSE FLOWER (in Botany). A flower, which does not seem to produce any fruit. FALSE ROOF (in Carpentry). That part of a house which is between the roof and the covering. FALSIFYING (in Law). Proving a thing to be false, as falsifying records. FAMILY (in Law). All living in one house under one head; also the kindred or lineage of a person. FAMILY (in Natural History). Any order of animals, or other natural produc- tion of the same class. FAN. A sort of basket in which the corn is winnowed, to separate the chaff from it. FANDANGO. A dance much used in Spain. FAR. An abbreviation for farthing. FARCE. A sort of mock comedy, in which there is nmch grimace and buf- foonery. FARCY. A sort of leprosy in horses. FARE. Money paid for the passage of a person in any vehicle, either by land or by water. FARtNA. The pulverulent and gluti- nous part of wheat and other seeds, ob- tained by grinding. FARM. In England, part of an estate in land employed in husbandry, and let to a tenant on condition of paying rent to the owner thereof. In the United States, the term is applied to any estate in land whetlier rented or cultivated by the pro- prietor. FAT FARMER. Properly, one who occupies and cultivates a farm or hired ground; a cultivator of ground generally. In Eng- land the farmers are not proprietors of the lands which usually belong to rich per- Bons, who let them to tenants. FARMIiNG. The cultivating of land for the purposes of profit. FARRAGO. A mixture of several sorts of seed sown in the same plot of ground. FARRIER. One who shoes horses, and also cures their diseases. In London, the farriers are one of the oldest of the city companies. As farriers worked most in iron, they were originally called ferrers or ferriers, from ferrum, iron. FARRIERY. The art of shoeing and managing a horse altogether, including also the cure of his diseases. On the application of science to this art, it rose in importance and estimation; a college was formed some years ago in England for practitioners in animal medicine and surgery, which, in imitation of the French, was called the Veterinary College, and the art itself the Veterinary Art, FARTHING. The fourth part of a penny. F. A. S. i. e. Fraternitas Antiquariorum Socius, or Fellow of the Antiquarian So- ciety in England. FASCES. Bundles of rods bound round the helves of hatchets, which were carried before the Roman consuls as insignia of their office. FASCETS. Irons used in a glass manu- factory. FASCINES (in Fortification). Small branches of trees bound up in bundles for gUing ditches, &c. FAST. An abstinence from food on a religious account. FASTI. The Roman calendar, in which were set down the feasts, games, cere- monies, &c. FAT. A concrete oily matter contained In the cellular membrane of animals. FATES. The destinies; according to the poets, the three fatal sisters, Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos, who determined the duration of life. FATHER LASHER. A voracious fish, Inhabiting the shores of Greenland and Newfoundland. FATHER LONG-LEGS. A harmless insect, with a small body and exceedingly long legs. FATHOM. A long measure of six feet. FEL 153 FAUNS. Rural deities having horns on their heads, with pointed ears and tails. FAWN. A young deer; a buck or doe of the first year. F. E. An abbreviation for Flemish Ells. FEASTS. Anniversary times of feasting and thanksgiving, such as Christmas and Easter, &:c. Some feasts are moveable, that is, not confined to any particular day, as Easter and all that are governed by it; others, as Christmas, &c. are immoveable, that is, fixed to a day. FEATHER. That which forms the co- vering of birds. The constituent parts of feathers are, for the most part, albumen, with a little gelatin. FEATHER (in the Manege). A row of hair turned back and raised on the neck of a horse. FEATHER-EDGED BOARDS. Boards having one edge thinner than the other. FEATHERS. The finest kind of feathers, as Ostrich Feathers, which are used for ornament. The Prince's Feathers are those which adorn the cognizance of the Prince of Wales. FEB. An abbreviation for February. FEBRIFUGE. A sort of medicines which abate the violence of fever. FEDERAL. United by a compact, as Federal States. FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. The constitution of the United States in which the several states are united, or federated under one general government. FEE. An estate of inheritance, or the interest Avhich a man has in land or some other immoveable: this is called a fee simple when it is unconditional, and a fee tail, when limited to certain heirs ac- cording to the will of the first donor. FEED. What is given to a horse at one time, either of hay or corn. FEEDER. A sort of drain which carries the water into other drains, FEELERS. Organs fixed to the mouth of insects, which are vulgarly called horns: the feelers are, however, smaller than the antennee, or horns, in some insects. FEELING. One ofthe five senses, which acts by means of the nerves, that are dis- tributed in all parts ofthe body. FEES. Perquisites allowed to officers in the administration of justice. FEIGNED ACTIOJNr. An action which is brought simply to try the merits of a question, FEINT (in Military Tactics). A mock attack, made to conceal the true one. FELLOES, The pieces of wood which form the circumference or circular part of the wheel. 154 FEO FELLOW. The member of a college or I of a corporate body. FELLOWSHIP fin Arithmetic). A rule by which the loss and gain of each parti- cular person in a joint stock concern, is discovered. FELO DE SE, i. e. properly Felonia DE SE. A suicide, or one who commits a felony on himself by self-murder. FELONY. Any offence next to treason, such as murder, burglary, (Slc. the punish- ment of which in England is death. FELSPAR. A siliceous mineral found mostly in mountains. FELT. A sort of coarse wool or hair used in the making of hats. FELT-GRAIN. The grain of cut timber that runs transversely to the annular rings or plates. FELTING. The process of working felt into hats. FELTING (in Carpentry). The splitting of timber by the felt-grain. FELUCCA. A light open vessel with six oars, much used in the Mediterranean. Its helm may be used either at the head or the stern. FEMALE FLOWER. A flower having pistils or stigmas without stamens. FEMALE SCREW. A screw, the spiral thread of which is cut in the cavity of the cylinder. FEME COVERT (in Law). A marded woman. FEME SOLE. A single woman. FEMININE GENDER (in Grammar). Nouns which, by their ending, denote the female sex. FEN. A place overflowed with water, and abounding in bogs. FENCE (in Husbandry). A hedge, wall, or ditch, &c. made to part off a field or garden. FENCING. The art of using the sword, either in attack or defence. In the exer- cise of this art, foils or thin swords are used, which, being blunted at the points and bending readily, are perfectly harm- less. FENDER. An iron plate to keep the fire and ashes from the room. FENDERS. A sea term for pieces of old cable, &c. hung over the sides of a ship to keep off other ships. FENNEC. An animal found in Africa resembling a dog. FEOFFEE (in Law). He to whom a feoff'ment is made. FEOFFMENT (in Law). The gift or grant of any hereditament to another in fee simple. FEOFFOR. He who maltes a feoffment. FET FERiE. The third order of animals in the Linnaean system, including such as have from six to ten conic fore teeth and one tusk, as the seal, the dog, the wolf, the hytena, the jackal, the lynx, the tiger, the panther, &c. FERMENT. Any substance which has the property of causing fermentation in another body, as the acid in leaven. FERMENTATION. The intestine com- motion in the small insensible particles of a mixed body, usually caused by the ope- ration of acid matter. When animal liquids alone, or mixed with vegetable, become sour, this is called acetous fermentation, and the product is, generally speaking, acetic acid or vinegar. When saccharine matter, or the sweet juices of fruits, undergo this intestine change, it is called vinous fermentation, and the result is an intoxicating liquor, as wine or beer, &c. FERN. A weed, very common in dry and barren places, which is very injurious to the land in which it has once taken root. FERRET. An animal of the weasel tribe, with red eyes and a long snout ; it is much used in Europe, in catching rabbits and rats FERRUGINOUS. An epithet for any thing partaking of iron, or containing any particles of that metal. FERRY. A vessel employed for con- veying persons and goods over a narrov/ piece of water. FERRYMAN. One who keeps a ferry. FERULA. An instrument of correction in schools, with which boys are beaten on the hand. FERULA (in Botany). A plant, other- wise called Fennel Giant, which is an herbaceous perennial. FESCUE-GRASS. A sort of grass cul- tivated as food for cattle. FESTOON. An ornament of carved wood, in manner of wreaths or garlands hanging down. FETLOCK. A tuft of hair that grows FIE behind the pastern joint in the feet of many horses. FESSE (in Heraldry). One of the hon- ourable ordinaries, which occupies the third part and the middle of the field. FIG 155 FETTERS (in Law). A sort of irons put on the legs of malefactors. FEUD. In England, the right which the vassal or tenant had in lands and other immoveable things of his lord's, to use the same and take the profits thereof, ren- dering unto his lord such duties and services as belonged to military tenure, the property of the soil, &c. always remaining to the lord. The laws respecting these feuds, which are comprehended under the name of the Feudal System, regulated all the principles of landed property in this king- dom until the reign of Charles II. ; and vestiges of this system are still to be seen in the modern tenures, particularly in copyholds. FEVER. A disease characterized by an increase of heat, an accelerated pulse, a foul tongue, and an impaired state of se- veral functions. FIAT, i. e. Let it be done. In Eng. A short order or warrant of some judge, for making out and allowing certain pro- cesses. FIBRE (in Anatomy). Asimple filament, serving to form other parts, as the muscles, nerves, &c. FIBRE (in Botany). Threads or hair-like strings in plants, roots, Sec. ; the first con- stituent parts of bodies. FIBRIL. A small fibre. FIBRINA (in Cliymistry). That sub- stance which const! tiites the fibrous part of muscles. It is of a v.'hite colour, with- out taste or smell, and not soluble in alco- hol or water. FIBROLITE. A mineral consisting of alumina, silica, and iron. FIBULA (in Anatomy). The lesser and outer bone of the leg. FICTION (in Law). A supposition that a thing is true, so that it may have the effect of truth as far as is consistent with equity. FIELD. Arable land, or any plot of ground parted off for cultivation. FIELD (in Heraldry). The whole sur- face of the shield or escutcheon, FIELD (in Military Tactics). The ground chosen for any battle. FIELD (in Painting). The ground or blank space on which any tiling may he drawn. FIELD-BED (in Military Affairs). A folding bed used by officers in their tents. FIELDFARE. A migratory bird of the thrush tribe, that visits England about Michaelmas and leaves it in March. FIELD-OFFICERS. Those who com- mand a whole regiment. FIELD-PIECE. A sort of cannons, con- sisting of eighteen-pounders and less. FIELD-WORKS (in Fortification). Works thrown up by an army in be- sieging a fortress. FIERI FACIAS. A writ commanding a sheriff to levy the debt or damages on the goods of one, against whom judgment has been had in an action of debt. FIFE. A shrill wind instrument of the martial kind, consisting of a short narrow tube, with holes disposed along the side for the rejTulation of its tones. FIFER. One who plays on the fife in the army. FIG. A tree, with an upright stem branching fifteen or twenty feet high, with large palmated or hand-shaped leaves. It flourishes in warm climates, and bears a fruit as represented underneath, which, when dried, is remarkable for its luscious sweetness. FIG (in Farriery). A kind of wart on the flesh of a horse, that is often filled with foul humours. FIGHTS. Waste clothes hung round a ship in battle, to prevent the men from being seen. FIGURE (in Painting). The lines and colours which form the representation of an object. FIGURE (in Geometry). A space ter- minated on all parts by lines curved or straight. FIGURE (in Arithmetic). One of the nine digits, as 1, 2, 3, Sec. FIGURE (in Grammar and Rhetoric). A word or form of expression which de- 156 FIN viates from the common and natural meaning. FILACER. In England, an officer of the Court of Common Pleas who files the writs, whereon he makes out process. FILAGREE, or FILIGRANE. An or- namental work in which flowers or other figures are wrought with gold or silver threads. FILAMENT (in Botany). The thread- like part of the stamen, which supports the anther. FILBERT. A sort of nut tree cultivated in gardens, the fruit of which is larger and finer than the common wild nut. FILE (in Trade and Law). A wire or thread on which loose papers are filed up together. FILE (among Mechanics). A tool of steel, with which iron or any other metal is polished. Files are cut in little furrows in a certain direction, and of a certain depth, according to the grain or touch required. Files are either cut by the hand with a chisel and mallet, or by means of a ma- chine ; but the latter mode is not so good. FILE (in Military Tactics). A straight line or row formed by soldiers. FILICES. An order of plants of the class cryptogamia in the Linufean system, including the fern, horse-tail, adder's tongue, maiden-hair, spleenwort, polypo- dy, &c. FILLET (in Heraldry). A kind of bor- dure. FILLET (in Architecture). A little member that connects the other members. FILLET (in Painting). A little ringlet of leaf gold. FILM (in Surgery). A thin skin that covers the eye. FILM (in Botany). The thin woody skin that separates the seed in the pod. FILTER (in Chymistry). A strainer through which any fluid is passed so as to separate the grosser particles from it. FILTERING PAPER. Paper without size, that may be used in filtering. FILTER [NG-STONE. A sort of stone or basin which is sometimes used for puri- fying water. It is artificial as well as natural, and has been variously constructed to answer the i)urpose. FIN. The membrane in fishes by which they perform their movements in the wa- ter. FINAL. The last or concluding. Final letters are those which are used only at the end of words, as in the Hebrew and other oriental languages. FINAL (in Music). The last sound of a verse in a chant. FIR FINALE. The last piece in a concert, &c . FINANCES (in Political Economy). The treasures or revenue of the country. FINANCIER. An officer who manages the finances of the country. FINE (in Lavi^). A penalty or amends made in money for an offence ; also money paid for the renewal of a lease, and a con- veyance of lands or tenements in order to cut oft' all controversies. FINE-DRAWING. Se win g up the rents in woollen cloths so finely that they can- not be seen. FINERS OF GOLD AND SILVER. Those who separate the metals from coarser ores, FINERY. The furnace in which met- als are refined, that is, hammered and fashioned into what is called a bloom or square bar. FIN-FISH. A smaller sort of whale. FIR, or FIR TREE. A tree valuable for the timber, pitch, tar, &c. which it yields in abundance. The sorts most esteemed in England, are the Scotch fir, Norway fir, Spruce fir, and Canada fir. In the United States, the white and yellow pine, are the most valued. FIRE (in Chymistry). Was formerly reckoned one of the four elements ; but it is now a matter of dispute whether it be a distinct substance, or whether it arises solely from the intestine and violent mo- tion of the parts of bodies. FIRE-ENGINE. An engine for the extinguishing of fire, which consists of two forcing pumps so combined that their joint action produces a constant and powerful stream of water, which, by means of a pipe, may be directed at pleasure to any point. FIREBALLS. Luminous bodies usually appearing at a great height. FIREBRAND. A piece of burning wood taken out of the fire. FIRE-DAMPS. See Damps. FIRE-FLY. A species of flies common in Guiana, having on each side of the head, a globular luminous body, that shines like a star. They live in rotten trees in tho day, and always appear at night. FIX FIRE-MAN. One who is employed in extinguishing fires. FIRE-SHIP. A ship filled with com- bustibles, to set fire to the vessels of the enemy. FIRE-WORKS, Compositions of sul- phur, saltpetre, and charcoal, which exhib- it a handsome appearance when fired off. FIRKIN. An English measure of capa- city, containing nine gallons of beer. FIRMAN. A passport granted in Tur- key and India for the liberty of trade. FIRST-FRUITS (in England.) The profits of every spiritual living for one year, given to the king. FIRSTLING. The young of cattle which are first brought forth. FISH, or FISHES (in Natural Histo- ry). Water animals in general ; one class of the animal kingdom in the Linnaean system. FISH, or Royal Fish (in Law). The whale and sturgeon, so denominated hi England, because the king is entitled to them whenever they are thrown on shore, or caught near the coasts. FISH (among Mariners). A machine employed to hoist and draw up the flooks of ships' anchors towards the top of the bow. FISHERY. The place where fish are caught for tlie purposes of trade. FISH-GIG. An instrument for striking fish at sea. FISHING-FLY. A bait used fot catch- ing fish. FISHING-HOOK. An instrument of steel wire, fitted for catching and retaining fish. FISHTNG-LIxNE. A line of twisted hair fixed to a rod called the fishing-rod, and having at one end the fishing-hook. FISHMONGER. A dealer in fish. There were formerly two companies of fishmongers in London, namely, the stock- fishmongers and salt-fishmongers, which were united in 1536. FISTULA. A long and sinuous ulcer. FITCHET. An animal of the weasel or ferret kind. FIXATION. The making any volatile spirituous body endure tlie fire. FIXED AIR. A name formerly given by chymists, to the air which was extri- cated from lime, magnesia, and alkalies, now commonly cn.lled, carbonic acid gas. FIXED BODIES. Such as neither fire nor any corrosive menstruum, have the power of reducing to their component elements, as ammonia. FIXED STARS. Such as do not change their positions in respect to one another. 14 FLA 157 FLAG (in Naval or Military Affairs). The colours or ensign of a ship, or of a regiment of land forces. The first flag in Great Britain is the standard, only to be hoisted when the king or queen is on board. FLAG (in Botany). A sort of rush with a large leaf. It is of diflerent kinds, as the common flag^ or water iris, that grows in rivers and bears a yellow flower ; the corn flag, or gladiole, a bulbous plant ; and the sweet flag, a perennial j which two last are cultivated in gardens. FLAGEOLET. A little flute. FLAG-OFFICER. An officer command- ing a squadron. FLAGON. A large drinking vessel. FLAG-SHIP. A ship commanded by a flag-officer. FLAG-STAFF. The staff" set on the head of the topgallant mast, on which the flag is placed. FLAGSTONE. A sort of stone used for smooth pavement. FLAIL. An instrument used for thresh- ing cora. FLAME. The most subtle part of fire, which is properly the fume or vapour of fire, heated red-hot so as to shine. FLAMINGO. A sort of bird in Africa and America. FLANK. The side of an army, or a bat- talion encamped on the right and left. FLANK (in Fortification). Any part of a work that defends another work along the outside of its parapet. FLANNEL. A slight, loose, woollen stuff", woven on a loom with two treadles after the manner of baize. It serves to keep the body warm, because, from its light and spongy texture, it does not ad- mit of a passage for the heat. FLASK. A measure for holding gun- powdet. FLAT (in Music). A character marked thus [7, vi'hich lowers a note one semitone. FLAX. A plant, from tlie fibres of which linen thread is made. Common flax, as 158 FLO represented underneath, is an annual 5 but the other kinds are perennials. FLAX EARTH, or Mountain Flax. See Asbestos. FLEA. A little insect of a deep purple colour, remarkable for its agility in leap- ing, for which it has three pair of Jegs^ It sucks the blood of larger animals. FLEAM. An instrument for lancing the gums or bleeding cattle. FLEECE. A flock of wool, or what comes from a sheep at one shearing. FLEET. A number of ships together in company or under one commander. FLEET. A prison in London, where debtors are confined. FLESH (in Anatomy). The soft and fibrous part of an animal body; also the red part of a muscle. FLESH (in Botany). The pulpy sub- stance of any fruit or root. FLEUR DE LIS, or Flower de Luce (in Heraldry). A bearing in the arms of France, and in other coats of arms. FLINT. A semitransparent and hard stone, which possesses the property of emitting fire when struck. FLINT (among Gunsmiths). Apiece of flint, cut so as to go between the jaws of the cock of a gun. FLOAT. A raft or number of pieces of timber, fastened together with rafters athwart, to be driven down a riv«r with the tide. FLOATING BATTERY. Vessels used as batteries to cover troops in landing on an enemy's coast. FLOCK. A number of sheep in com- pany; also a lock of wool. FLOETZ. Beds or strata of earth, con- taining the remains of animal or vegetable substances, &c. FLO FLOOD. The flux of the tide when the water continues rising. FLOOD-GATE. A sluice or gate that may be opened or shut, for the admission or exclusion of the water. FLOOR. The area or surface of a room. FLOOR (in Ship Building). The bottom of the ship which rests on the ground. FLORA (in the Heathen Mythology). The goddess of flowers; in Botany, the title of some botanical works. FLORIN. A coin of different value; the silver florin of Holland is worth about Is. M. FLOUR. The fine parts of wheat or rye ground and sifted. FLOWER. The beautiful part of a plant, the blossom; the parts or divisions of which are called petals. It contains the parts of fructification, or the germ of the fruit. FLOWER DE LUCE. A species of the iris; a bulbous root having a lily flower of one leaf, shaped like that of the common iris. FLOWERS (in Chymistry). The fine mealy matter which, in sublimation, ia carried up to the head of the vessel, as the flowers of benjamin, zinc, &:c. FLUATES. A kind of salts formed by the combination of fluoric acid with difle- rent bases, as the fluate of ammonia. FLUE. The small winding chimney in a furnace for conveying smoke, air, and heat into a larger chimney; also the down or soft hair of rabbits and feathers. FLUELLEN. An annual that grows in gardens. FLUID (in Physiology). A fluid body, or one whose parts yield to the smallest force impressed, and are easily moved among each other. Fluids are either elas- tic, as the air, or non-elastic, as water, mercury, &:c. FLUID (in Anatomy). The fluids of the animal body are the humours and juices, as the blood, chyle, saliva, &c. FLUIDITY, The state of bodies when their parts are very readily moveable in all directions with respect to each other. It stands directly opposed to solidity or firmness, and is distinguished from liquid- ity and humidity, inasmuch as the latter imply also wetting and adhering. Melted metals, air, ether, smoke, and flame are fluid but not liquid bodies, their parts being dry and leaving no sense of moisture. Solids are converted into fluids by means of heat. FLUOR SPAR. A species of salt which abounds in nature, and consists of a cal- careous earth in combination with fluoric FLY acid. It is called fliior because it melts readily; it is called spar because it has a sparry form and fracture; and it is also called vitreous spar because it has the ap- pearance of glass. FLUORIC ACID. A gaseous substance procured from fluor spar, which is of a corroding nature, and will dissolve glass, for which reason it has been used for etching on glass. This acid gas readily combines with water; and when dropped in, a hissing noise is produced with much heat. FLUTE. A wind instrument, and the simplest of its kind, with stops for the fingers. FLUTES. The hollow channels found along the surface of a column. FLUX (in Physiology). That motion of the water by which it rises. FLUX (in Chymistry). Any substance or mixture added to assist the fusion of minerals and metals. In assaying, alkalies are used as fluxes, which render the earthy mixtures fusible by connecting them with glass. FLUXIONS. That branch of algebra which treats of the velocities with which the fluents or flowing quantities increase or decrease. The variable or flowing quan- tities are represented by the letters w, ic, X, 7j, z j tbe invariable quantities, by the letters a, b, c, d, &c. The fluxion is re- presented by a dot thus y, z. FLY (in Natural History). A small winged insect, that is always flying about in houses. FLY (among Mechanics). That part of a jack which puts the rest of the machine in motion. FLY (among Mariners). That part of a compass on which the thirty-two points are described. FLY (among Carpenters). Flies or flyers are the series of steps which go straight forward without winding. FLY-BOAT. A large vessel with a broad bow, used in the coasting trade. FLY-BLOW. The deposit of the eggs, maggots, or nymphse of flies in meat. FLY-CATCHER. A sort of bird inha- biting Asia, Africa, and America, so called because it lives upon flies. The king bird is a well known variety in this country. FLYING BRIDGE. See Bridge. FLYING-FISH. A fish inhabiting the European and American seas, which, by the help of its long pectoral fins, is ena- bled to raise itself out of the water and to fly a short distance when pursued by other fish. FLYING SaUIRREL. A beautiful FOL 159 American Squirrel, which by the use of membranes attached to its legs sails from the tops of trees to a great distance. FLYING DRAGON. A four-footed rep- tile of the lizard tribe, inhabiting Africa and India, which has a lateral membrane serving as a wing. FLY-ORCHIS. A plant,so called from the resemblance it bears in its figure to a fly. FLY-TRAP, or Venus's Fly-Trap. A sensitive plant, the leaves of which consist of two lobes, that close when they are irritated within, and consequently entrap any insect that lights upon them. FOAL. The young of a horse, or ass. FOCUS (in Optics). The point of con- vergence or concourse, where all the rays meet after passing through a convex lens. FOCUS (in Geometry and Conic Sec- tions). A certain point in the parabola and ellipses, &c. where the rays reflected from all parts of these curves concur. FODDER. Dry food for cattle. FODDER (in England). The prerogative of the king formerly, to be provided with fodder for his horses in any warlike ex- pedition. FOG, or Mist. A meteor consisting of condensed vapours floating near the surface of the earth. FOIL (in Fencing). An instrument with- out a point, to fence with by way of exer- cise. FOIL (among Glass-grinders). A sheet of tin laid on the back of a looking-glass, to make it reflect. FOIL (among Jewellers), A thin leaf of metal placed under a precious stone, to increase its brilliancy. FOLD. An enclosed place in which sheep are confined. FOLIAGE. A cluster or assemblage of the leaves of trees. FOLIAGE (in Architecture). Ornaments representing leaves, used in cornices, &c. FOLIATING. Spreading the plates of glass over with the foil, in order to make them reflect. FOLIO. The full size of paper as it comes from the manufacturer; also books printed on paper of that size. 160 FOR FOLIO (in Merchants' Accounts). The page, including the right and left hand page, in a merchant's ledger, which are numbered by the same figure, so that they may correspond. FOMENTATION. The batliing any part of the body with a decoction of herbs, &;c. A similar application with bags of herbs and other ingredients, is called a dry fo- mentation. FOOT. A measure of length consisting of twelve inches. FOOT (in Poetry). A certain number of syllables which serve for measuring the verse. FOOT (in Military Tactics). Soldiers who serve on foot, FORAGE. Provender for horses in an army. FORCE (in Physiology). Whatever is, or may be made, the primary cause of motion in bodies. FORCE (in Law). Unlawful violence. FORCE (in Military Affairs). Any body of men that may be employed in action. FORCEPS. A siiigeon's tongs, pin- cers, &G. FORCER, or FORCING-PUMP. A pump with a forcer or piston without a valve. FORCING (among Gardeners). A me- thod of obtaining fruits and flowers before their season, by the application of heat. FORCING (in Commerce). The fining down wines so as to render tliem fit for immediate use. FORE. A sea term for near the stem; as ' fore and aft,' that is, from stem to stern. FORECASTLE. A short deck in the fore part of the ship. FORECLOSED (in Law). Excluded or barred the equity of redemption on mort- gages, &CC. FOREIGN ATTACHMENT (in Law), an attachment of foreigners'goods. FORENSIC. Belonging to the bar or courts of law. FORESHORTEIVING (in Painting). The making a head or face in a drawing appear shorter before. FOREST. In England, a large wood privileged to hold the king's game of all kinds. FORESTALLING. The buying or bar- gaining for corn or other merchandise, be- fore it comes into the market. FORESTER. In England, the keeper of a forest. FORFEITURE (in Law). The loss of goods, lands, or employments, &c. for neg- lecting to do one's duty, or for some crime committed. FOR FORGE. A furnace, in which smiths heat their metals red-hot, orjn which the ore taken out of the mine is melted down. FORGERY (in Law). The fraudulen- making or altering any record, deed, or writing, &c. to tlie prejudice of another man's right, particularly the counterfeiting the signature of another with intent to de- fraud, which, by the law of England, is made a capital felony.. In the United States,, it is punished by ianprisonment. FORGING (in Smithgry). The beating or hammering iron on an anvil. FORK. An instrument divided at the end into two or more prongs, for various uses. FORM (in Physiology). The essential and distinguishing modification of the mat- ter of which any body is composed. FORM (among Mechanics). A kind of mould in which any thing is wrought. FORM (among Printers). The chase or frame filled with type or letter the size and form of a page, made ready for the press. This form will be quarto if the sheet consist of 8 pages, octavo if it con- sist of 16 pages, and duodecimo if it con- sist of 24 pages. FORMA PAUPERIS, i. e. In the Form of a Paupbr. In England, a form in which any one may sue who swears that he is not worth five pounds, and brings a certificate from some lawyer that he has just cause of suit. In that case he has counsel assigned, and is released from costs of suit, &c. FORMIC ACID. The acid of ants, which is obtained chiefly from the red ant. FORMULA (in Mathematics). A general theorem or literal expression, for resolving any part of a problem. FORMULA (in Theology). A profession of faith. FORMULARY. A book of forms and precedents for law matters. FORT. A small castle or strong hold, a place of small extent, fortified either by art or nature, being encompassed with a moat, rampart, and parapet, as represented underneath, to secure some high ground, or the passage of a river. FORTIFICATION. The science of mili- tary architecture, which teaches the best mode of putting a city, town, or any other FOR place, into a state of defence by making works around it. A fortification is eitlier regular or irregular: a regular fortification is built in a regular polygon, as in the subjoined figure; an irregular fortification is where the sides and angles are not uniform. A temporary fortification is that which is raised for any particular emer- gency, as fieldworks, &c. This is distin- guished from a durable fortification, which serves as a permanent defence of a place. A defensive fortification is that by which a town is defended in case of a siege, in distinction from an offensive fortification, which is raised by besiegers for the attack of a place. The works of a place are those about the place, in distinction from the outworks, which are constructed before the body of the place. The principal works belonging to a fortification are, the ditch or trench made round each work; the rampart, or elevation of earth, raised along the faces of any work, to cover the inner part; the parapet, or that part of a rampart which serves to cover the troops planted there; the bastion, that part of the inner enclosure of a fortification making an angle towards the field; the counterscarp, the slope of the ditch facing the body of the place; the covert way, the space extending round the counterscarp; the glacis, the part beyond the covert way, to which it serves as a parapet; the curtain, the front of a wall between two bastions; the flank, any part of a work which defends another; the gorge, that part next to the body of the place where there is no rampart: the epaule, the shoulder of the bastion; besides the barriers, palisades, portcullis, place of arms, &c. FOU 161 FORTIORI, or A FORTIORI. A term used in reasoning, for any conclusion or inference that is much stronger than an- other. FORUM. A public place in Rome, where causes were tried and business transacted, FOSS (in Fortification). A hollow ditch, commonly full of water, lying between the scarp and the counterscarp. FOSSAN. An animal ofthe weasel kind, found in the Asiatic islands, about the size ofthe ferret. FOSSILS. All manner of things dug out of the earth, whether they be native fossils growing in and of the earth, as metals, stones, salts, earths, and other min- erals; or whether they be foreign substan- ces, as the exuviffi of sea and land animals, namely, shells, bones, teeth, &:c.; or whe- ther they be vegetables, as leaves, wood, &.C. which have lain long buried in the earth. FOUL. A sea term for the running of one ship against another. FOUNDATION (in Architecture). That part of a building which is under ground. FOUNDATION (in Law). A donation in money or lands for the maintenance and support of some community, as an hospital, a school, &c. FOUNDER (in Law). One who founds and endows a church, school, college, &c. FOUNDER (in Trade). One who casts metals in various forms, as gun-founders, bell-founders, &c. The company of foun- ders was incorporated in London, in 1614. FOUNDRY. The art of casting metals in various forms; also the place where this business is done. Small works are cast in sand, which, being duly prepared, is put into a wooden frame; then wooden or metal models of what is intended to be cast are put into the sand so as to leave their impression, and along the middle of the mould is laid a small brass cylinder to form a chief canal for the metal to run through, from which canal run others ex- tending to each model or pattern placed in the frame. When the moulds are fully prepared, the fused metal is poured out of the crucible intothechief canal, and thence conveyed to each pattern. After the whole has been set to cool, the cast work is taken out ofthe sand. The mould for very large articles is made of wet tempered loam, built up by degrees in a pit, into which the melted metal is made to run along a channel on the ground to the mould. The composition used in casting bells Is termed bell metal. FOUNT, or FONT. A set or certain quantity of letters cast at one time by a letter-founder for the use of a printer. Founts are large or small, according to 162 FOU the wants of a printer, who orders them by the hundred, weight or by the sheet. A fount of five hundred, including letters, points, spaces, quadrats, &:c. is to weigh 500 lb. A fount of ten sheets is expected to contain a sufficiency for composing ten sheets without being obliged to distribute ; in the making of which the founder takes care that those sorts of letters should be best supplied for which there are the greatest calls in composition ,so thatscarcely any two boxes will contain the same num- ber of letters. The proportion which the different sorts of characters in a fount should bear to each other has been now reduced to a rule, which by the French is called the police. FOUNTAIN. A natural spring of water rising out of the ground ; also a stream of water ejected through a pipe by means of a machine contrived for this purpose. Arti- ficial fountains are various in their forms, but they all act on the principle of a pres- sure, either from a head of water, or arising from the spring and elasticity of the air. When fountains are formed by the pressure of a head of water, or any other fluid of the same kind, with the fountain or jet, then will this spout up nearly to the same height as tliat head, allowing a, little for the resistance of the air, with that of the adjutage, &c. in the fluid rushing through;, but when the fountain is produced by any otlier force than the pressure of a column of the same fluid as itself, it will rise nearly to the altitude of the fluid, whose pressure is equal to the given force that produces the fountain. The subjoined figure repre- sents the circulating fountain, or the foun- tain of Hero of Alexandria, so called be- cause it was invented by him, in which the air, being compressed by a concealed fall of water, forms a jet that appears as if FRA it had a perpetual, motion, and that the same water which fell from the jet rose again ; but, in reality, that water does not come up again, for^ running down through a pipe into the bottom box, it drives out the air through an ascending pipe into the box at the top containing water, which, being pressed upon, is forced through the spout as long as there is any in it. FOWL. The largest sort of birds, whether domestic or wild, as geese, pheasants, par- tridges, &c. ; also a full grown chicken, or young hen. FOWLING: The art of taking or killing birds, either by means of snares or nets, or by various devices, as imitating their voices or using decoy birds and the like. FOWLINGriECE. A light gun for shooting birds. FOX. A crafty, lively animal, nearly allied to the dog, which seeks its food by night among the poultry, rabbits, and hares. The fox is borne in coats of arms, and as a charge, is supposed to denote a subtle wit by which a man has served his country. FOXGLOVE. See Digitalis. FOX-TAIL-GRASS. An herbaceous plant. F. R. S. Fellow of the Royal Society in London. FRACTURE (in Mineralogy). The break- in g of minerals, or the manner in which they break, which is one of their specific characters. FRACTURE (in Surgery). The break- ing of any bone by an external act of violence. FR^NUM LINGUiE (in Anatomy). The ligament under the tongue. FRAME (with Painters). A kind of square, composed of four long pieces or slips of wood joined together, the inter- mediate space of which is divided by little strings or thre.-ids into a great number of little squares, like the meshes of a net, used in reducing figures from great to small or from small to great. FRANCHISE (in Law). A privilege or exemption from ordinary jurisdic tion. FRE FRANK FREE. A term much used in the old English law, as Frank pledge free- men, who used to be pledges or sureties, for the good behaviour of those wlio were of their community ; in modern law, an exemption from paying postage for letters, which is enjoyed by members of parliament in England, and members of Congress to a certain extent. FRANK. A French coin, worth twenty sols, or about eighteen cents and 3-4. FRANKINCENSE. An odoriferous, dry, resinous substance, procured from the juniper tree in Turkey and the East In- dies. FREEBOOTER. A soldier that serves for plunder, without pay. FREEHOLD. That land or tenement which a man holds in fee simple, fee tail, or for term of life. FREEHOLDERS. Possessors of a free- hold estate. FREEMAN(in Ancient Law). In Eng. one free from servitude, as distinguished from a villain or bondsman ; also one who enjoys the freedom of a city or borough. A freeman in the United States, is one who has a right to vote. FREE SCHOOL. An endowed school, where children are taught free of expense. FREESTONE. A sort of stone used in building, that may be cut freely in any manner. FREIGHT (in Commerce). The sum of money agreed to be paid for the burden of a ship 3 also the burden itself, or the cargo of a ship. FRENCH HORN. A musical instru- ment, bent into a circle, and going two or three times round. It grows gradually larger and wider towards the end, and in some horns is nine or ten inches over. FRI 163 freezing mixtures, or compositions of such ingredients as- when mixed with other bodies, cause them to congeal ; such as snow and common salt, or muriate of am- monia, nitre and water, &c. FRESCO. A method of painting in relievo on walls, so as to endure the weather ; it is performed with water colours on fresh plaster, so that the colours incor- porate with the mortar. FRESHES. A sea term for an impetu- ous ebb tide increased by heavy rains. FRET (in Architecture). An ornament consisting of small fillets interlaced, that were used by the ancients on flat mem- bers.. 1 Ef- ^1 L FREEZING (in Physiolog}')- The fixing a fluid body into a firm and solid mass by the action of cold. The process of freezing may be artificially produced by means of the air pump, and sometimes by certain FRET (in Music). A kind of stop on some instruments-, particularly bass viols and lutes. FRICTION (in Mechanics). The rub- bing of the parts of engines and machines against each other, by which means a great part of their effect is destroyed. FRIENDLY SOCIETIES. In England, associations chiefly among the lower clas- ses, for affording relief to each other in time of sickness, or to the widows and children at their death. FRIGATE. A light built ship of war, from twenty to fifty guns, fitted for iX sailing.. FRIGID ZONES. The two zones or divisions of the earth, comprehended be- tween the poles and the polar circles. They are the north frigid zone, at the north pole, and the south frigid zone, at the south pole. 164 FRU FRIT, or FRITT (in the Glass Manu- facture). The matter or ingredients of which glass is to be made, after they have been calcined or baked in a furnace. It is of different kinds, according to the quality of the glass. Crystal frit, for the best kind, is made with salt of pulverine and sand. The ordinary or common glass is made of the bare ashes of pulverine, or barilla, without extracting the salt from them ; this is the second kind of frit. The third kind of frit, for green glass, is made of common ashes, without any preparation. FRITH (in Geography). An arm of the sea, as the Frith of Forth, or of Edinburgh, the Frith of Clyde, &c. FRIZING CLOTH. A process in the woollen manufacture, of forming the nap of cloth or stuff into a number of little hard burrs or prominences, sp as to cover almost the whole ground. This process is now performed by machinery. FROG. An amphibious animal, having a smooth body, and longer legs than the toad. FROG (in Farriery). The hard project- ing substance in the hollow of a horse's foot. FROG-FISH, or Fishing Frog. A kind of fish resembling a frog in the tadpole state, that puts forth its slender horns and entices the little fish to itself, in order to seize them. FRONT. The principal face or side of a building. FRONTIER. The boundary of a king- dom, which separates it from another king- dom on the land side. FRONTISPIECE. The ornament or picture which faces the title page in a book. FRONTLET. A band worn on the forehead . FRUCTIFICATION (in Botany). The temporary part of vegetables, appropriated to their propagation, consisting of the flow- er and the fruit. FRUIT (in Botany). That which suc- ceeds the flower; it may either be seed FUL only, or it may be an esculent pulpy sub- stance, as the apple or the pear ; or it may be hard, like the nut, pea, &c. FRUITERER. One who deals in fruit- The company of fruiterers in London, was incorporated in 1604. FRUSH. The tender part of a horse's heel, next the hoof. FRUSTUM (in Mathematics). A part of some solid body separated from the rest. FRUSTUM OF A CONE. The part of a cone that remains when the top is cut off by a plane parallel to the base ; it is otherwise called a truncated cone. FRUSTUM of a GLOBE or SPHERE. Any part of it cut off by a plane. F. S. A. An abbreviation for Fellow of the Society of Arts. FUCI. A genus of plants in the Linnje- an system, comprehending most of those which are commonly called seaweeds, from which, when burnt, an impure alkali is procured called kelp. FUCUS. The name given by the an- cients to a sea plant, from which a dye was procured, for dyeing woollen and lin- en cloths of that colour. FUGITIVE PIECES. Little pieces of composition of temporary interest. FUGITIVE'S GOODS (in Law). The goods of one who flies upon felony. FUGUE (in Music). A species of com- position, in which the different parts follow each other, each repeating in order what the first had performed. FULCRUM (in Mechanics). The prop or support by which a lever is sustained. FULLER. One who cleans and scours cloth. FULLER'S EARTH. A species of clay remarkable for the property of absorbing FUN oil, wherefore it is used by fullers to take grease out of cloth. FULLING. The art of cleansing, scour- ing, and pressing cloths, to make them stronger, closer, and firmer, which is done by means of a water mill, called a fulling or scouring mill. These mills are nearly the same as corn mills, except in the mill- stones and the hopper. In France, corn is ground and cloth is fulled by the motion of the same wheel : cloths and woollen stuffs are sometimes fulled by means of soap, in the following manner ; the cloth is laid in the trough of the fulling mill, and then the soap dissolved in pails of river or spring water is to be poured upon it by little and little. The cloth, after lying two hours in the soap, is taken out, stretch- ed, and then returned to the trough. Up- on being taken out a second tune, the grease and filth is. then wrung out. This process is afterwards repeated, and when the cloth has thus been brought to the quality and thickness required, it is scour- ed in hot water until it is quite clean. FULMINATION. The noise which some minerals or metals make when heat- ed in a crucible ; as fulminating powder, which is made- of nitre, potash, and the flowers of sulphur, triturated in a warm mortar. If this powder be fused in a ladle, and then set on fire, it will explode with a noise like thunder. If a solution of gold be precipitated by ammonia, the product will be fulminating gold, a grain of which, if held over a flame, will explode with a sharp loud noise. FUMIGATION. A process by means of which the nitrous and other mineral acids, in a state of vapour, are dispersed through any place. FUNCTION. The performance of any duty. FUNCTION (in Physiology). The ex- ercise of any faculty or power, as the vital functions, or those which are necessary to life. FUNCTION (in Algebra). An algebra- ical expression of a certain letter or quan- tity. FUND (in Commerce). The capital or stock of a public company. FUNDAMENTAL NOTE (in Music). The lowest note of the chord, to which all the rest are in some measure adapted, and by which they are regulated 5 it is other- wise called the key to the song. FUNDS, PUBLIC FUNDS, or STOCKS. The national debt formed into different capitals, upon which interest is payable. FUNGI. The fourth order of the class FUS 165 Cryptogamia in the Linnaean system, con- sisting of funguses, mushrooms, truffles, &c. A fungus of this order is represented underneath. FURLONG.. A measure of length, con- sisting of forty poles.. FURLOUGH. Leave of absence given to a soldier, or noncommissioned officer. FURNACE. A fire place for melting, distilling, and other chymical processes, so built as to cause the fire to burn vehe- mently. FUR. The coat or covering of some animals, as sables, beavers, martens, squirrels, &c. which is used in various ar- ticles of dress, either for ornament or warmth. FURS. Tinctures in coats of arms, which are supposed to represent the furs of animals. FURRIER. One who deals in furs, and prepares them for the manufacturer. FURRING (in Carpentrj ). The fixing thin scantlings or laths on the edges of timbers, to bring them to the even surface they were^^ intended to form. FURRINGS (in Carpentry). The pie- ces of timber employed in making an even surface. FURROW. A small trench cast up by the plough between the lands. FUSEE (in Clockwork). A mechanical contrivance for equalizing the power of 166 GAG the main spring of a watch. The fusee on which the chain or catgut is wound, is made somewhat conical, so that its radius at every point may correspond with the strength of the spring, being greater and greater as the action of the spring becomes more and more weakened by unbending. FUSEE (in Gunnery). The tube fixed into a bomb or grenade shell, which is filled with combustible materials, and fur- nished with a quick match on the top of it. When it is used it is driven into the bomb, being cut to a length proportioned to the distance that the bomb is to be thrown, that it may be spent and the bomb break when it falls. GAL FUSIL. A small light musket. FUSIL (in Heraldry). An artificial charge, representing a spindle. It is of the same shape as the lozenge, but it is longer. FUSION. The art of reducing bodies to a fluid state by the artificial application of heat ; as in the case of metals, glass, and similar bodies. Those substances which admit of being fused are termed fusible, but those which resist the action of fire or heat are termed refractory. FUST. The shaft of a column. FUSTIAN. A sort of nappy cotton. FUSTIC. A dyeing wood brought from the West Indies. G, the seventh letter in the alphabet, as a numeral, formerly stood for 400 ; as a sign, it stands for the treble cliff, or the highest of the three cliffs ; as an abbreviation, for grand, as G. C. B. Knight Grand Cross of the Bath. GABEL. Formerly an excise in France on salt ; in old English records, a rent, cus- tom, or duty due to the lord. GABIONS. Baskets of willow filled with earth to make a parapet or cover. GABLE END. The triangular end of a house, from the cornice or eaves to the top. GADFLY. An insect which has a face resembling that of an ape. It deposits its eggs on the backs of horses and other cattle. GAGE, or GAUGE. An instrument for ascertainingmeasures of different kinds, as for measuring the state of rarefaction in the air pump, or determining the variations in the barometer, or for measuring the force of the winds, &c. GAL. An abbreviation for gallon or Galatians. GALAXY, or Milky Wat. A long white luminous tract which seems to en- compass the heavens like a girdle, formed by innumerable stars. GALBANUM. A resinous substance like frankincense. GALE (among Mariners). A storm or violent wind. GALL. Another name for the bile. GALL BLADDER. An oblong mem- braneous receptacle for the bile. GALLERY. A passage leading to sev- eral apartments. GALLERY (among Miners). A long narrow passage under ground. GALLERY (in Fortification). Acovered walk across a ditch in a besieged town, made of strong planks and covered with earth. It was formerly used for carrying a mine to the foot of the ramparts. It ought to be eight feet higli and ten or twelve feet wide. The beams ought to be half a foot thick, and planks nailed on each side. GAL GALLEY (in Printing). A frame into which the compositor empties his stick as often as it is filled. GALLEY (in Shipbuilding). A low built vessel, much used in the Mediterra- nean. GAL 167 GALLEY-SLAVE. One condemned by way of punishment to work at the oar, to which he is chained, on board of a gal- ley. GALL-FLY. An insect which produces the galls or excrescences on the branches and leaves of trees. GALLICISM. A form of expression peculiar to the French. GALL NUTS, or GALLS. Excrescen- ces on trees, which are occasioned by the gall-flies. Those whicli come on the oak, vulgarly called oak apples, are used in making ink, dyeing, and dressing leather. They are represented underneath. GALLOWAY. A kind of Scotch horse not more than fourteen hands high. GALVANIC BATTERY. An appara- tus which is employed in accumulating the electricity of galvanism by the mutual agencies of certain metallic and carbona- ceous substances and peculiar fluids. See Galvanism. This battery, as represented nnderneath, consists of pieces of zinc, sil- ver, and wet cloth, disposed in threes al- ternately, to the number of twenty or thir- ty triplicates, as may be thought proper. GALVANISM. A branch of the science of electricity, first discovered accidentally by Galvani, a professor of Bologna, from whom it derives its name. This science treats of the effects of applying metals to the nerves and muscles of dead animals, which has been found to produce strong contractions and convulsions. The first observation on this extraordinary effect of electricity was made in the laboratory of M. Galvani, when one of his assistants happened to bring the point of his scalpel to the crural nerves of a skinned frog lying near the conductor, upon which the mus- cles of the limb were agitated with strong convulsions. Madame Galvani, who was present at the time, was struck with the circumstance, and communicated it in- stantly to M. Galvani, who repeated the experiment, and found that the convulsion only took place when a spark was drawn from the conductor at the time the scalpel was in contact with the nerve. After this, Galvani continued his experiments in vari- ous ways, and ascertained that the mere agency of metallic substances, provided they were dissimilar metals, would produce such convulsions. This subject engaged the attention of experimentalists both be- fore and after the death of M. Galvani, which happened in 1798 ; but none added any thing materially to his discovery ex- cept M. Volta, who repeated the experi- ments of the former, and found that when two pieces of metal of different kinds were placed in difl'erent parts of an animal, and were either brought into contact or into connexion by means of a metallic arc, con- vulsions ensued every time, and that this effect was strongest when the metals were zinc and silver, particularly when several pairs of metals were employed, having pieces of moist cloth between them. This led him to the idea of constructing a batte- ry, for the purpose of accumulating elec- tricity, which has since been called the galvanic battery, or Voltaic pile. The apparatus first m.ade by Volta, in 1800, consisted of a certain number of pairs of zinc and silver plates, separated from each other by pieces of wet cloth, in the order of zinc, silver, wet cloth, zinc, sil- ver, wet cloth, in regular succession. The silver plates were chiefly pieces of coins, the plates of zinc and the pieces of wet cloth being of the same size. He found this much more powerful when the pieces of cloth were moistened with a solution of common salt instead of pure water, and an apparatus thus prepared was found to 168 GAN possess the power of giving a very smart shock, similar to that of a small electric jar ; and this effect took place as often as a communication was made between each end of the pile, and as long as the pieces of cloth remained moist : an improvement was made on this apparatus by Mr. Cruick- shank, of Woolwich, which was denomi- nated a galvanic trough, and consists of a box of baked wood, in which plates of copper, or of silver and zinc, soldered to- gether at their edges, are cemented in such a manner as to leave a number of water- tight cells, corresponding to the number of the series ; this serves to remedy the defect of the Voltaic pile, which, on account of the loss of moisture, loses its electrical action in a few days ; but by Mr. Cruick- shank's contrivance its activity may be renewed by filling the cells with the proper saline fluid. GAMBOGE. A yellow resinous sub- stance used by painters. It is the produce of a tree native of Cambogia or Cambaja, in the East Indies. GAME. All sorts of birds and beasts that are objects of Ihe chase. The laws which in England particularly protect this sort of property, are known by the name of the Game Laws By these laws certain qualifications of property are required, to give a person the privilege of being allowed to kill game ; and penalties are imposed on all persons who kill game, either without such qualification or at improper seasons ; likewise the sale of game is prohibited un- der every circumstance. Attempts have been repeatedly made in parliament to procure a repeal, either wholly or in part, of these laws, which are thought to be oppressive in their operation. GAME. Any sport or amusement which affords a subject of contest, and a display of skill or superiority. GAMECOCK. A cock bred to fight. GAMESTER. One who is viciously addicted to playing at games. GAMING. The wanton and extravagant playing at games for purposes of gain. GAMUT (in Music). The table or scale of notes laid down by Guido, and marked by the monosyllables ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la ; also the first note in the scale. GANG (among Mariners-). A select num- ber of a ship's crew, appointed on any , particular service. GANG. A number of persons who go or herd together for wicked purposes. GANGLIONS. Suiall, hard, knotty tu mours, formed on the nervous and tendi nous parts. GAR GANGRENE. A mortification in its first beginning. GANGWAY (among Mariners). The name of several ways or passages from one part of a ship to another. GANNET. A large water bird, common on the coasts of Scotland. GANTLOPE, or GANTLET (in Mili- tary Affairs), An old punishment in which the criminal, running between the ranks, receives a lash from every man. GAOL (in Law). A prison for the con- finement of criminals or debtors. GAOL DELIVERY. In England, the clearing of a prison by a judicial condem- nation or acquittal of the prisoners ; also a commission from the king to deliver or clear the gaols. GARB. A wheatsheaf, signifying peace and plenty, in coats of arms. GARBLERS. In England, officers of the city, authorized to examine spices and drugs offered in shops for sale. GARDE JV. A plot of ground enclosed and cultivated with extraordinary care, and furnished with the fine kinds of plants and flowers, for pleasure and use. GARDENING. The process of tilling a garden and keeping it in order. GARDENING, History of. Gardening is one of those domestic arts so essentially connected with the refined enjoyments of mankind, that with a garden has ever been associated every idea of cultivation and pure pleasure. From Holy Writ we learn that our first parents, before their fall, passed their lives in a garden, and their posterity, although, according to the denun- ciation of their Maker, doomed to till the ground with the sweat of their brow, never- theless have at all times endeavoured to sweeten their labour by bringing home to themselves the enjoyments of cultivation within the narrow circle of their own habitation. The accounts of gardens among the ancients are confined to those of princes or great men, as the garden of Solomon and the garden of Alcinous the Pha;acian king, which is minutely described by Homer in his Odyssey. The hanging gar- dens of Babylon, particularly spoken of by Diodorus and Strabo, may be reckoned among the wonders of art. Each side ex- tended four hundred feet, so that the area of the base was nearly an acre. They rose with terraces, constructed one above ano- ther, and supported with pillars to the height of four hundred feet. These ter- races were formed of stone, covered with reeds, and cemented with bitumen, over which was laid a double row of bricks, GAR and then a layer of earth of sufficient depth for plants to grow in it. The Per- sian kings also displayed their magnifi- cence in their gardens, which they took care should contain all that was useful as well as beautiful. Their trees were ranged in straight lines and regular figures, and the margins of the walks were lined with tufts of roses, violets, and other odoriferous flowers. Firs and planes were their fa- vourite trees. The Greeks appear to have derived their ideas of gardening from the Persians, if we may judge from the allusions of writers to this subject. Xenophon particularly admires the garden of Cyrus at Sardis. The narcissus, the violet, the rose, the ivy, the pines, and other plants chosen by the Persians, either for their beauty or their fragrance, were the theme of praise among the Grecian poets and philosophers. They also consulted shade, fresh breezes, and the beauties of verdant scenery, as we learn from the vale of Tempe described by iElian, and the shady groves of Athens described by Plutarch. With the beauties of nature they also associated those of art, particularly such as derived an interest from their religious or social attachments. Hence we find that their gardens were decorated with temples or altars dedicated to their gods, or the tombs of their ances- tors or of great men whose memory they held dear. Their favourite fruits were the vine, the fig, the pomegranate, and the melon. The first garden mentioned among the Romans is that of Tarquinius Superbus, which abounded with flowers, chiefly roses and poppies. As the Roman people exten- ded their conquests, and their intercourse with other nations became more frequent, they increased in luxurious and expensive indulgences, which they displayed in the decorations of their gardens. Lucullus, the conqueror of Mithridates, who introduced from Asia the cherry, the peach, and the apricot, first gave the Romans a specimen of Asiatic grandeur, in his garden near BaiEe, in Naples, which was remarkable for prodigious works of art, as artificial mountains, immense pieces of v/ater, and numerous costly embellishments. This gave that tone of artificiality to the Roman gardens which was for so many centuries after retained in Europe. Slopes, terraces, a wilderness, shrubs methodically trimmed or cut into certain shapes, a marble basin, artificial fountains, or a cascade falling into the basin, bay trees alternately planted with planes, a straight walk, from which issued others, parted off by hedges of box, 15 GAS 169 and apple trees, with obelisks placed be- tween every two 3 these were the ingredi- ents of a Roman garden, as described by Pliny the younger, in which was wanted nothing but the decoration of a parterre to make a garden in the reign of Trajan to serve for a description of one in the seven- teenth century. A more correct taste in the art of gardening has obtained within the last century. Nature now derives every possible assistance from art, without losing any thing of her simplicity. GARLAND. An ornament of flowers made for the head or other purposes. GARLAND (among Mariners). A collar of rope wound up about the head of a main mast, to keep the shrouds from galling. GARLIC. A bulbous root, consisting of many small tubercles included in its coats. It has a strong smell and an acrid taste, but is much used for food. GARNET. A sort of carbuncle, so called from its red colour, resembling the seed of a pomegranate. GARNISHMENT (in Law). A warning given to any one for his appearance in court. GARRET. The uppermost floor in a house. GARRISON. A place of defence occu- pied by troops ; also the troops themselves. GARTER. A bandage for the leg. GARTER (in Heraldry). The principal badge of the highest order of knighthood in the kingdom, called the most Noble Order of the Garter. GARTER KING AT ARMS. The chief of the three kings at arms. GARTER, Order of the. In England, an order of knights instituted by Edward III. which consists of twenty-six knights companions. The habit and ensigns of this order are the garter, mantle, cap, and collar. The badge of the order is the im- age of Saint George, called the George. GAS. A chymical term derived from the German geist, spirit, denoting an elas- tic aerial fluid, of which there are different kinds, some being acid, as carbonic acid ; some alkalies, as ammonia, &c. GAS LIGHT. Light produced by gas burning in lamps, &:c. This gas, which is a combination of oxygen and hydrogen, is carried away by pipes and burnt at the orifice of escape. It is produced either from pit coal or whale oil. The process for producing coal gas is as follows. The coal, being broken to a convenient size, is placed in oblong cast iron retorts, ranged in furnaces to keep them at a red heat, and all the volatile products are conveyed 170 GAT by a common tube into a condensing vessel, which is kept cool by being im- mersed in water. In the condenser are retained the water, tar, and other con- densible vapours, while the gaseous pro- ducts, namely, the carburetted hydrogen, the sulphuretted hydrogen,and the carbonic oxyde and acid are passed through strata of slaked lime, by which the sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic gases are absorbed, and the carburetted hydrogen and hydro- gen gases in their purified state are trans- mitted into the gasometers, from which the several pipes are supplied that convey the gas to the lamps. The best kind of coal for distillation is that which contains most bitumen and least sulphur. After the discovery of obtaining gas from coal, attempts were made to extract it from other substances. The method of pro- cuiing it from oil is said to have originated in an attempt made in 1814 to convert coal tar into gas. Since that period, numerous works have been constructed for fche man- ufacture of oil gas, which, in tlie opinion of many, is preferable to the coal gas. GASOMETER, or GAZOMETER. A reservoir for holding a considerable quan- tity of gas. It is made of thin tinned iron plate, and mostly provided with some contrivance for measuring the quantity of gas it contains. GASTRIC JUICE. A fluid separated by the capillary vessels of the stomach, and serving as the principal solvent of the food. Tliis juice in a healthy subject is inodorous, of a saltish taste, and limpid like water. GATE. A moveable part of a fence, made of wood or iron. Gates with five or six bars, large enough to admit of carts GEM GAVELKIND. A tenure or custom in Kent in England, whereby the lands of the father were divided equally at his death among his sons. GAUGING. The art of measuring the capacities of all kinds of vessels. GAUNTLET. An iron glove for the hand, which was formerly used in single combat. It is borne in coat armour, as in tlie annexed figure. passing through, are most commonly em- ployed in fences for parting off fields. GAUZE. A very thin sort of silk. GAZELLE. A beautiful species of the Antelope frequently alluded to, in Persian poetry. GAZETTE. A newspaper; particularly that published by authority. The first Gazette in England was published in 1665, at Oxford, where the court then was. GAZETTEER. A writer or publisher of a Gazette; also the title of a geographi cal dictionary. GELATINE, or Jelly. An animal sub- stance, soluble in water, and capable of assuming an elastic or tremulous consist- ence when cooled, and liquifying again by the application of heat. GEM. A precious stone; or a sort of siliceous earth, consisting of silica and alumina, with a small portion of lime and oxyde of iron. The gem is remarkable for its hardness and internal lustre. Under this name is comprehended the diamond, ruby, sapphire, hyacinth, beryl, garnet, clirysolite, &c. To these have been added rock crystals, the finer flints of pebbles, the cat's eye, the oculus mundi, the chalcedo- ny, the moon stones, the onyx, the corne- lian, the sardonyx, agate, &c. The imitation of antique gems, by taking the impressions and figures upon them, in glass of the colour of the original gem, or on sealing wax or brimstone, has been practised at different times by persons who, in respect to the first method of taking them on glass, have kept the art to them- selves, and suffered it to die with them. But the process adopted by Mr. Homberg, which has also been communicated by him to the world, is highly esteemed for the perfection to which he has brought the art. From the engraved gems of the king's cabinet, he took such exact resemblances of the originals as sometimes to deceive GEN the nicestjudges, who mistook them for the true antique stones. His method consists in taking the impression of the gem in a very fine earth, and then conveying the impression from the earth to a piece of half melted glass. GEMINI, the Twins. A constellation, and sign in the zodiac, marked thus II- GEN. An abbreviation for General and Genesis. GENDARMES, or GENS D'ARMES. A select body of soldiers in the French army, who are now much employed by the police. GENDER (in Grammar). A distinction in nouns to mark the sexes; genders are either masculine, for the male sex; femi- nine, for the female sex; or neuter, for those which are of neither sex. GENEALOGY. A series or succession of ancestors; also an account of the rela- tions and alliances of any person or family. GENERAL (in Military Affairs). An officer in chief, to whom the command of troops is intrusted; also a particular beat of drum in the morning, to give notice to the foot to march. GENERALISSIMO. The supreme gene- ral or commander in chief of an army. GENERAL ISSUE (in Law). That plea which traverses ordeuies atoncetlie whole declaration or indictment. GENERAL OFFICERS. All officers above the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the line. GENERATING (in Geometry). A term for a line or figure, which by its motion produces any other figure. GENERIC CHARACTER (in Natural History). The character which distin- guishes the genera or general kinds of plants, animals, &c. from each other. This character belongs to all the species of the same genus or kind. GENERIC iYAME (in Natural History). The name of any genus or kind of animal, plant, or mineral. This name can be de- scribed only by describing the generic character. GENET, An animal of the weasel kind, resembling the civet cat in its musk smell. GENEVA. See Gin. GENITIVE CASE. The second case in Latin and Greek nouns, which denote pos- session. It is marked in English by s with an apostrophe, thus ('s). GENII. Good or evil spirits, much thought of in the eastern nations. The Tales of the Genii profess to give an ac- count of their proceedings and dealings with mankind. GENTILES. A name given by the Jews GEO 171 to all who were not of the twelve tribes of Israel; among Christians, it is the name of all heathens who did not embrace the Christian faith. GENTLEMAN. Anciently, one above the state of a yeoman. GENTRY (in Law). The order and rank ofgentlemen,descended from ancient fami- lies, that had always borne coat armour. GENTOO. A native of Hindostan. GENUS (in Natural History). A sub- division of a class or order of natural ob- jects, animal, vegetable, or mineral, and having under it different species or variety. GENUS (among Logicians). That which is common to a number of individuals; the summum genus, or highest genus, is that which appertains to the greatest number of individuals, as substance, which belongs to all material. GEOCENTRIC. Being concentric with the earth, or having the earth for its centre ; a term applied to a planet in its orbit. GEOGRAPHICAL MILE. The 60th part of a degree. GEOGRAPHY. The science which treats of the earth as an habitable world, comprehending a description of the whole globe, together with an account of all its parts, limits, inhabitants, &.c. Geography is either general or particular. General geography comprehends the knowledge of the earth in general, and the affections common to the whole globe, as its figure, magnitude, motions, circles, winds, tides, meteors, divisions into land and water, &c. Particular geography has respect to particular countries, showing their boun- daries, figure, climate, seasons, inhabitants, arts, customs,language, history, &c. When it respects regions, districts, or parts of countries, it is called chorography, and when particular cities, towns, or villages, (fee. it is called topography. Particular geography is also distinguished into ancient geography, when it treats of the countries and places existing among the ancients ; modern geography, when it treats of mo- dern places; the geojrraphy of the middle ages, which treatsof places that flourished in the middle ages ; and lastly, sacred geography, which treats of places men- tioned in the Bible. The earth, considered as a planet, is supposed to be marked by circles corres- ponding to those which the sun apparently describes in the heavens, as the horizon, which divides the sphere into two parts or hemispheres, the one upper and visible, the other lower and invisible; the equator, which is equidistant from both the poles, and divides the globe into northern and 172 GEOGRAPHY. southern hemispheres; the azimuth, or ver- tical circles, which intersect each other at the zenith and nadir; the meridian, which crosses the equator at right angles, and from which the distance of places east and west is reckoned ; the parallels of latitude, small circles supposed to be parallel to the equator, which show the latitude of places, or their distance north and south from the equator ; the arctic and antarctic circles, two circles at the distance of tvyen- ty three degrees and a half from the north and south poles; the two tropics, namely, the tropic of Cancer and the tropic of Capricorn, the first north and the second south, twenty-three degrees and a half dis- tant from the equator; to these might be added the hour circles, or the twenty-four circles passing through the equator, and corresponding to the twenty-four hours of the day. From the diversity in the length of the days and nights, geographers divide the globe into certain districts, called climates, measured either by hours or half hours ; and from the effects of light and heat upon the earth in different parts, it is distin- guished into five zones, namely, one torrid or burning zone, between the tropics; two temperate, between the polar circles and the tropics; two frigid or frozen zones, between the polar circles and the poles. The inhabitants of the earth, as to their relative situation in regard to each other, are distinguished into the antipodes, who live directly opposite to each other; the antoeci, who live under the same meridian, but opposite parallels of latitude; the pe- rioeci, who live under the same parallels of latitude, but opposite meridians. The earth is naturally divided into land and water, and according to some compu- tations about three-fourths of it is occupied by water, and the remaining fourth by land. The land is distinguished into con- tinents, or large portions not separated by any sea, as the four great continents, Eu- rope, Asia, Africa, and America, which are the four quarters of the world; islands, smaller portions, entirely surrounded by water, as Great Britain, Ireland, &c.; peninsulas, or tracts of land almost sur- rounded by water, as the Morea, in Greece; isthmuses, or necks of land joining two continents, as the isthmus of Suez, joining Africa to Asia; promontories, or capes, high portions of land stretching out into the sea, as the Cape of Good Hope; moun- tains, or elevations of the earth's surface, such as the Alps and Pyrenees in Europe, the Caucasus and Uralian Mountains in j Asia, and the Andes in America. The water is distinguished into oceans, which are vast collections which separate the continents from each other, as the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans; seas, or smaller col- lections of water, as the Indian Sea, Black Sea, &c.; gulfs, parts of any sea surrounded nearly with land, as the Gulf of Venice, if they have a wide entrance they are bays, as the Bay of Biscay; straits, narrow pas- sages joining two seas, as the Strait of Gibraltar; lakes, large collections entirely surrounded by land, as the Lake of Geneva; rivers, streams of water which have their source in some spring, and empty them- selves into some other river or piece of water. The principal rivers, as to their magnitudes, are the Amazons, Senegal, Nile, St. Lawrence, La Plata, Mississippi, Volga, Oronooko, Ganges, Euphrates, Da- nube, Don, Indus, Dnieper, and Dwina, but if estimated according to the length of course which they run, their order will be rather different, but the Amazons is the largest in every respect. The earth is politically divided into countrie3,which, according to their govern- ment, are distinguished into empires, if they are of great extent, as the Russian and Austrian empires; or kingdoms, aa the kingdoms of Great Britain, France, Spain, &,c.; or states, as the states of Hol- land and America; or republics, as the republics of Venice, Genoa, &;c. Under this head geography treats of the subdi- visions of each country into provinces, cities, towns, &c.; also of the number of inhabitants, the nature and produce of the soil, the animals peculiar to each place, the state of the arts, manufactures, com- merce, &c. which constitute the wealth of each country, and is comprehended under the name of statistics. To all this may be added an account of curiosities, natural and artificial, as volcanoes, caverns, canals, springs, fountains, and the like. Besides geography treats not only of the earth's surface, but also of the affections which it is exposed to from the waters of the ocean which produce the flux -and reflux of the tide, and the currents belonging to par- ticular seas, as in the Mediterranean and Euxine seas; likewise of the winds which blow in particular manners and directions, such as the monsoons, or trade winds, which blow for some months in the year one way and the rest another; and, lastly, the meteorological peculiarities of each coun- try, such as regards the degree of heat and cold, the quantity of rain which falls in particular places, or within a given period, GEOGRAPHY. 173 the duration of frosts, and other particulars respecting the climate, and its eftects upon the surrounding objects. Geographical descriptions are moreover illustrated by engraved delineations, which when they represent an ocean, sea, or any piece of water, is called a chart, but when they represent any parts of the earth gene- rally are termed maps. In all maps the north is at the top and the south at the bottom, the east on the right and the west on the left. Maps are alw-ays laid down according to a certain scale, taken from the degrees of latitude which are marked on tlie east and west side of the map, those of longitude being marked on the north and south side. As the earth is a globe, a map of the whole earth must necessarily consist of two parts, both sides of the globe not being visible at once; according y in a universal map the right hand circle shows the old world; that is, Europe, Asia, and Africa, and the left hand circle tlie new world, or America. Upon the general map are marked the circles correspondent to those of the sphere, as the equator, (fee. Particular maps, be- ing parts of this globe, retain the meridians and parallels belonging to the particular part, which are made smaller or larger according to the size of the map, and the distance of the places mentioned are pro- portioned to the breadth of the parallels as nearly as they can be. In maps the sea is denoted by an open space, the thick shadowing denotes the sea- coast, rivers are marked by shadowed ser- pentine lines, if large by double and treble lines made strong and black, roads by double lines,divi3ionsofcountries by dotted lilies, and sometimes distinct colours, those for kingdoms and provinces being larger tUAH the rest; forests are represented by trees, mountains by rising shadows, sands by dotted beds, lakes by shadowed coasts, rocks by pointed things sticking up sharp in the sea, the course of the winds by arrows. The names of villages are written in a running hand, those of towns in a Roman character, those of cities in small capitals, and those of provinces in large capitals. Cities or great towns are made like small houses, with a little circle in the middle of them, but smaller towns or villages are marked only with little circles; bridges by a double line across the river. In some maps, particularly old maps, cities, as the sees of bishops, were marked with a cross or mitre, and those of archbishops with a double cross, universities with a 6tar or a caduceus, abbeys with a crook or pastoral staff, fortresses with an angle, as 15* ofa bastion, castles with alittle flag, gentle- men's seats with a single house only, &.c. The apparatus called the terrestrial globe, has a complete map of the earth drawn on its surface, with the several imaginary circles, and is moreover fitted to illustrate the movements of the earth as a planet, the latitudes, longitudes, and distances of places, the hours of day and night in different part, with a number of other in- teresting problems. GEOGRAPHY, History of. The study of geography, as far as it was connected with or depended upon astronomy, in all probability began and kept pace with it. Thales, the Grecian astronomer, construct- ed a globe, representing the land and sea upon a table, which art he derived from the Egyptians, among whom maps were in use even as early as the days of Sesostris. This conqueror is said to have represented in this manner the conquests he made and the countries he marched through. That the Israelites practised the art of geography at an early period is clear from the account we have in Scripture of Joshua having sent men to walk through the land of Canaan, which they described in seven parts, in a book. The first map among the Greeks on record is that of Anaxi- mander, which is probably referred to by Hipparchus, under the designation of the ancient map. Geographical descriptions were, however, prior to this, for the works of Homer abound with the names of places and an account of several particulars re- specting them. The first professed writer on the subject of geography was Scylax, if the author of the Periplus now extant be the same as the philosopher of that name mentioned by Herodotus. Herodotus the historian has interspersed his work with a minute geographical description of the places which occur in the course of hig narrative; and geographical notices are also to be found scattered in the writings of Thucydidesand Xenophon. The conquests of Alexander doubtless increased the de- sire to know more of the habitable world, which that prin^^ encouraged by sending Nearchus on a voyage of discovery in the Red Sea, a description of which is still extant. About the same time flourished the geographer Dicearchus, of whose works some fragments remain. Eratosthenes is said to have been the first who attempted to reduce the science of geo- graphy to a system, by the application of astronomical principles. He introduced a regular parallel of latitude, which began at the Straits of Giba'tar, and proceeded through the isle of Rhodes to the moun- 174 GEOGRAPHY. tains of India, noting all the places it passed through. He drew this parallel not by the sameness of the latitude, but by observing where the longest day was four- teen hours and a half, which Hipparchus afterwards found to be thirty-six. Eratos- thenes also drew maps of the countries then known, with as much accuracy as his scanty information would enable him, but they contained little more than an imperfect representation of the states of Greece and the dominions of Alexander's successors. He was ignorant, as Strabo informs us, of Gaul, Spain, Germany, Britain, Italy, and the coast of the Adriatic, and had only a faint idea of the western parts of Europe. Hipparchus improved upon the labours of Eratosthenes, and de- termined both the latitudes and longitudes from celestial observations. Under the Roman emperors geography acquired an increasing interest, from the perpetual accessions which were made by conquest to the empire. Accordingly, we find the number of geographical writers to be greatly increased, and their writings to be more correct and particular. Besides Pomponius Mela, who, in his Cosmogra- phia, has given a neat and comprehensive account of the known world, and Diony- sius Perigetes, who has written a system of geography in verse, Strabo has left a work on this subject which, in point of methodical arrangement and extent of in- formation, exceeded ariy thing that had been hitherto published. This was fol- lowed, after the interval of more than a century, by the great work of Ptolemy on this subject, in the execution of which he took astronomy to his aid for determining the situation of places. He fixed the lati- tudes and longitudes of all the principal places in the known world, and expressed them In degrees, after the manner of Hip- parchus, making his calculations from the proportions of the gnomon to its shadow, as observed by different astronomers at the time of the equinoxes and solstices, and deduced from these the length of the long- est days. He also measured and computed the distances of the principal roads men- tioned in the different surveys and itine- raries which had been made at different times by order of the emperors, and coin- pared them with such reports as he could gather from travellers. In this "manner did Ptolemy execute his system of geography, which, as a work of science, has desarved- ly held the first rank among the works of tlie ancients, and, considered as the labour of one man, was never surpassed, and scarcely ever equalled. With the exception of the Geographical Dictionary of Stephanus Byzantinus, in the fifth and sixth centuries, and the scat- tered geographical notices interspersed in the works of the Byzantine historians, the subject of geography was neglected until the thirteenth century, when John Sacro de Bosco published his treatise on the sphere, which contained an account of the earth as far as it was connected with the doctrine of the sphere. Nothing farther was done towards the advancement of this science until the discovery of the New World, when geographical knowledge re- ceived continual accessions by new dis- coveries, and the spirit of investigation and research which they awakened. Since that time the writers on geography have been exceedingly numerous. Among those who have treated it in immediate connex- ion with astronomy and the other sciences may be reckoned Piccioli, in his Geogra- phia et Hydrographia Reformataj Des- chales, in his Mundus Mathematicus ; and Wolfius, in his Elementa Matheseos. Among those who have written on ancient and modern geography, Cellarius, Cluveri- us, and Baudrand are the most distinguish- ed : the most esteemed modern works on this subject are the systems of Busching, Salmon, Guthrie, Pilkington, Playfair, and Myer, &c. The most recent, that of Malte BruH, is undoubtedly the best system of geography that has ever been compiled. GEOLOGY. The science which treats of the structure of the earth, or of the different minerals, stones, earths, &c. which enter into its composition, and the manner in which they are disposed in re- gard to each other. This science has of late attracted particular notice, and from the important facts which have thus been brought to light, the subject has jus^y awakened a considerable interest. Geol- ogy may be considered under two heads, namely, first, as regards those bodies which naturally form constituent parts of this globe ; and, secondly, as regards those for- eign bodies which have been buried in the earth and partly amalgamated with it. These are now distinguished by the name of fossil or organic remains. In the con- sideration of these two branches of the science of geology, it will appear that the earth has undergone such changes, since its original formation, as nothing but a universal deluge could have produced, and in tliis point of view it furnishes to the be- liever a wonderful and gratifyingcoufirma- tion of the Scripture account of that great and miraculous convulsion. The study of geology having been mosl GEOLOGY. 175 effectually pursued by inquiring into the structure of mountains, it has been on that account likewise designated by the name of orychthiology. Mountains have been found by geologists to consist, at a consid- erable depth, of strata regularly disposed, which have been classed under the heads of granite, gneiss, mica slate, clay slate, primitive limestone, primitive trap, serpen- tine porphyry, syenite topaz, quartz rock, primitive flinty slate, primitive gypsum. These are altogether denominated primi- tive rocks, which have no organic remains, and appear to have been undisturbed. But in the strata above these there are evident signs of violent fractures caused by the action of waters. In this manner valleys have been excavated, and a separation thus occasioned in strata that once evi- dently formed one continuous range. Such water-worn fragments have, from the cause of their existence, been denominated dilu- vium, to distinguish them from other de- bris produced by causes still in operation, such as the alluvium or the accession to lands by inundations, torrents, and tlie like, as also the volcanic rocks formed by the eruptions of mountains. Besides the rocky fragments and insulated hills above men- tioned, the strata above these primitive rocks contain also organic remains. In those immediately above, called transition rocks, fossil remains of corals and shells are found in small quantities, as also in the carboniferous limestone that lies next to these rocks. The coal strata, wliich follow, abound with vegetable remains of ferns, flags, reeds of unknown species, and large trunks of succulent plants, which are altogether unknown either in description or in nature. Above the coals are beds containing corals and shells, which, like those in the strata below, are characterized by this peculiarity, that in some places they are to be found in families, and that in other places there will be found beds of marine shells in one layer, and those pe- culiar to fresh water in another layer, resting one over the other in alternate succession. In the highest of the regular strata, called the crag, will be found the shells at present existing in the same coast, and, lastly, over all these strata is a cover- ing of gravel, which is remarkable for containing the remains of numerous quad- rupeds, as the bones, horns, teeth, shells, scales, &c. These animals are for the most part either foreign to the climates where their remains are found, or they are of a larger size than any now known, or they are altogether different from any species of animal hitherto known or mentioned. Among those animals whose remains have been found in countries far distant from the places which they inhabit are the ele- phant and the rhinoceros, nunjerous re- mains of which have been found in Eng- land, France, Germany, Italy, and other parts of Europe, but still more in Siberia, where, throughout the whole extent of that country, there is scarcely a river or a shore in which have not been found the bones of elephants and other animals. Near the river Willioni, in the eastern part of Sibe- ria, has been dug up a rhinoceros still pos- sessing the skin, fat, and muscles ; and fossil ivory has been procured in immense quantities in the countries nearest to the arctic circle. So numerous are the remains that have already been dug up, as to form immense collections in the cabinets of the great, particularly in that of the Prince of Hesse Darmstadt and the Elector of Man- heim. Naturalists have also been enabled, in part, to ascertain the species of these animals, at least as far as regards the rhi- noceros, which is of the double horned kind j but in regard to the elephantine re- mains, although very numerous, it is not so certain whether they are of any known species or otherwise. As to tlie animals differing in size from those of their own species at present, Ireland furnishes speci- mens of deer that have been dug up of an extraordinary magnitude ; and in Scotland, a kind of oxen has been found bigger than the largest species existing at present. Of animals altogether unknown, both North and South America, and other parts, fur- nish several examples, as the mammoth, the mastodon, and other nameless animals of a prodigious size. This remarkable fact, of the fossil re- mains of animals, did not escape the notice of the ancients, for Xenophanes, above four hundred years before the Christian era, is said to have discovered the remains of some marine animals imbedded in rocks, from which he absurdly inferred the eternity of the world. Herodotus also ascertained the existence of fossil shells, from ivhich, with much greater reason, he was led to conclude that the sea had once occupied those parts. Also in the pyra- mids, the stones were found to contain the remains of animals, of which there existed in his time no corresponding species. Strabo, who saw these fragments of stone lying about the pyramids, took them to be petrified lentils, that had been used by the workmen ; at the same time this writer, as well as Pliny and others, attest the exist- ence of such animal remains, and in a high state of perfection. In the Natural Histo- 176 GEOMETRY. ry of Pliny many fossil remains are spoken of, as the bucardia, resembling an ox's heart ; the glossopetra, having the form of a tongue ; the horns of ammon, resembling a ram's horn ; the lepidptes, like the scales of fishes, &c. GEOMETRY. That branch of mathe- matics which treats of the properties of extension and figure. Geometry is distin- guished into the theoretical and the practi- cal. Theoretical or speculative geometry treats of the various properties and rela- tions in magnitudes, &c. Practical geom- etry comprehends the construction of fig- ures, the drawing of lines in certain posi- tions, as parallel or perpendicular to each other, &c. Speculative geometry is again distinguished into elementary geometry, that treats of the properties and proportions of right lines and right lined figures, as also of the circle and its several parts ; and the sublime or transcendental geometry, that treats of the higher order of curves, &lc. The simple principles of geometry are explained in definitions and axioms. The following are the most important defi- nitions. A point is that which has neither length, breadth, nor thickness ; a line has length without breadth or thickness ; a superficies, or surface, has length and breadth only, the boundaries of which are lines; a solid has length, breadth, and thickness, the boundaries of a solid are surfaces. Astiaight line lies evenly be- tween the parts, parallel lines keep at the same distance from each other when ex- tended indefinitely. A perpendicular line is perpendicular to another line. An angle is formed by the meeting of two lines in a point; it is a right angle when formed by one line falling perpendicularly on another line; an obtuse angle, when it is greater than a right angle ; and an acute angle when it is less. A figure is a space in- cluded within one or more boundaries, called sides; it is rectilinear when contain- ed by right lines, and curvilinear when contained by curved lines; a rectilinear figure contained by three right lines is a triangle; if by four, quadnlar. ral ; if by five, a pentagon ; if by six, a hexagon, Slc. ; if by more than twelve, a polygon. Triangles are distinguished according to the length of their sides, into equilateral, having all the sides equal ; isoceles, having two sides equal ; and scalene, having all the sides unequal ; or according to their angles, into right angled, if they have one right angle; obtuse angled, if they have one obtuse angle; and acute angled, if they have all acute angles. Every quadrilateral or four-sided figure is called a parallelogram when it has its sides parallel , and a rectan gle when all its angles are right angles. Four- sided figures are moreover distinguished according to their sides and angles, into a square, which has all its sides equal and its angles right ones ; an oblong square, which has its opposite sides equal and its angles right ones ; a rhombus, having all the sides equal, but the angles not right ones; and a rhomboid, having the opposite sides equal and the angles not right ones. When a quadrilateral has none of its sides parallel it is a trapezium, and when only two of its sides parallel a trapezoid. The diagonal is the right line which divides a parallelo- gram into two equal parts. The base of a figure is the side on which it is supposed to stand. The vertex is the extreme point opposite to the base ; the altitude is the perpendicular distance from the vertex to the base. The area of a figure is the quan- tity of space contained within its bounda- ries. Of curvilinear figures in common geo- metry is the circle, which is a plane figure bounded by a curve line called the circum- ference, which is equally distant from a point called the centre. The diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn from one side of the circumference to the other, through the centre, so as to divide it into two equal parts. The radius of a circle is a straight line drawn from the centre to the circumference : the segment of a circle is a part cut off by a line called the chord. The circumference of every circle is sup- posed to be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees, every degree into 60 parts called minutes, and every minute into 60 parts culled seconds. Solids are distinguished into a prism, the sides of which are parallelograms, and the two ends or bases are similar ; poly- gons, parallel to each other ; the cube, con- sisting of six equal square sides or faces; the pyramid, having any plane figure for its base and triangles for its sides, all termi- nating in one common point or vertex ; the cylinder, which is generated by the rotation of a rectangle about one of its sides supposed to be at rest;' the cone, a solid having a circular base, and its other ex- tremity terminated in a single point or vertex. Those curves which are formed by the intersection of a plane with a cone form the subject of conic sections, which is a branch of sublime geometry. Ratio is the njutual relation of two mag- nitudes of the same kind to one another, in respect to quantity, as 2 to 1, which is double ; the former of these is called the antecedent and the latter the consequent : GEOMETRY. 177 proportion is the similitude of ratios, as 6 is to 2 as 3 is to 1, that Is a triple ratio in both cases. An axiom is a plain truth that wants no demonstration, as that the whole is greater than a part. A postulate is that which requires to be granted as true before ano- ther thing can be demonstrated. A propo- sition is that which proposes something to be done or demonstrated ; it is a problem when it proposes any thing to be done, as to divide a given line into two equal parts, or to raise a perpendicular, &c. ; and a theorem when it proposes something to be shown, as that triangles of the same base and altitude are equal to each other, or that all the angles in the same segment of an arch are equal, &e. GEOMETRY, History of. The origin of geometry is ascribed by Herodotus to the Egyptians, who, in consequence of the inundations of the Nile, which carried away all their landmarks, were under the necessity of distinguishing and laying out their lands by the consideration of their figure and quantity, whence the word geo- metry in the Greek signifies literally land- measuring. The Greeks, who cultivated this science more than any other people, doubtless learned the rudiments from the Egyptians •, for Thales, who travelled into Egypt and acquired a sufficient knowledge of astronomy to calculate, must also have first become acquainted with the principles of geometry to assist him in his astro- nomical inquiries. Pythagoras, the pupil and friend of Thales, distinguished himself by his discoveries in arithmetic, as well as geometry. He invented the multiplica- tion table, called after him the Abacus Pythagoricus, and in geometry he disco- vered the thirty-second and forty-seventh propositions in the first book of Euclid's Elements. Soon after this flourished Anax- imander, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Cle- ostratus, ^nopides, and Zenodorus, all celebrated geometricians, of whose works nothing remains except of the last. They were succeeded by Hipparchus, who ren- dered himself celebrated by the quadrature of the lines called after him, as also by his attempt at the quadrature of the cube, which was a matter of great interest among the ancient mathematicians, and is said to have taken its rise in an answer of the oracle at Delphi, which, when consulted on the occasion of some public calamity, answered ' Double the altar,' which was an exact cube. Notwithstanding the failure of Hip- parchus, others renewed the attempt, which although it proved unsuccessful as to that particular object, nevertheless is said to have led to the discoveries of other geo- metrical properties, as the conchoid of Nicomedes, the cissoid of Diodes, and the quadratrix of Dinostratus. This latter ge- ometrician was the follower and friend of Plato, whose devotion to the science of geometry was such that he caused it to be inscribed over the door of his school, ' Let no one enter here who is ignorant of geometry.' To Plato we are indebted for that branch of geometry known by the name of conic sections, of which his scholar Aristeus is said to have composed five books that are highly spoken of by the ancients, but are not now extant. Eudoxus and Menechemus were also disciples of Plato, and distinguished themselves, the former in geometry as well as astronomy, the latter by his application of conic sections to many problems. After an in- terval of ninety years from their time, that is, about three hundred years before Christ, flourished Euclid, who, by collecting and methodizing all the principles of geo- metry then known into a regular system, called his Elements of Geometry, secured to himself a celebrity which, in point of extent, has never been surpassed, and per- haps scarcely ever equalled, his work having ever since been considered as the standard of all geometrical knowledge. Euclid was quickly followed by Archi- medes, a mathematical genius, who added many discoveries to the sciences of geome- try, mechanics, optics, and hydrodynamics. In geometry he discovered the ratio be- tween the sphere and the circumscribing cylinder, found the quadrature of the para- bola, and the solidity of its conoid ; he invented the spiral vi'hich bears his name, and discovered its rectification, besides a variety of other important geometrical propositions, many of which are extant, and attest the skill and ingenuity of the author. Apollonius of Perga, who, from his writings, acquired the name of the Great Geometrician, flourished about thirty years after Archimedes. His work on the Conic Sections, which is the principal piece of his extant, was in all probability the best of its kind in that day, and has since been the groundwork of all works published on that subject. Of those who after Apollo- nius distinguished themselves in their time in the cultivation ofthe geometrical science, there are but few who added any thing worthy of particular notice. Eratosthenes attempted to measure the circumference of the earth ; Ctesibius invented water pumps ; Hero of Alexandria, clepsydra ; Theodosius, who lived in the first century 178 GEO of the Christian aera, wrote a treatise on the sphere, which was one of the first on spherical trigonometry. Afler an interval of three or four cen- turies from the time of Theodosius, we meet with the names of Pappus the com- mentator of Apollonius, Theon, the com- mentator of Ptolemy, and of Proclus ano- ther commentator on the ancient matlie- maticians. The destruction of the library of Alexandria by the Saracens was very fatal to the cultivation of geometry, which had flourished there more than any where else ; all the geometricians from every part had assembled there, and when driven away they were deprived both of their books and instruments. It is not surprising, therefore, that the study of geometry was for many centuries almost entirely for- gotten amidst the troubles which desolated all Europe on the irruption of the northern tribes. The Arabs, who by the ravages they committed at Alexandria had done the most injury to the science of geometry, were, after the lapse of two centuries, the cultivators of that which they had nearly annihilated. They studied the works of the Greeks, and showed their proficiency in the correctness of their comments on these writings. Whilst the Arabs were thus promoting the cause of science generally, Europe remained in a state of comparative barba- rism, nor was the study of geometry re- vived among the Europeans before the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when by the translations of the ancient writings, the taste for geometry became very general among the thinking part of the community. In the following century there arose mathe- maticians who added' very materially to the stock of geometrical knowledge. Car- dan applied algebra to the resolution of geometrical problems; and Descartes, who followed at the distance of nearly a cen- tury, pursued this application of algebra to geometry still farther. At the same period with Descartes flourished Cavelerius who, in his work on 'Indivisibles,' struck out a new path to himself, in which he was followed by many writers of great celebrity, as Wallis, Pascal, Fermat, Roberval, Leib- nitz, Newton, and many others, who set forth geometry in a new light, and formed a new system of the science. Among the treatises in which are embodied the geo- metrical principles of the moderns and ancients may be reckoned the Elements of Euclid by Simson and Playfair, the treatises of Ozanam, Clavius, Bonnycastle, Hutt«jn, &c. GEORGE St. The patron saint of GIN England, is said to have been a great warrior of Cappadocia, and a martyr in the Christian cause. GEORGICS. Books treating of husban- dry, after the manner of Virgil's poems on rural subjects, which are so called. GERANIUM. A genus of plants, the numerous species of which are remarkable for the beauty either of their leaves or their flowers, or both. The seeds of the flower are contained in a husk, which resembles a stork's beak, whence it has acquired the English name of crane's bill. GERMAN (in Law). Whole or entire as respects genealogy or descent, as bro- thers gernian, those who are so on both father and mother's side. GERMEN (in Botany). The germ, ovary, or seed bud, which is the lower part or base of the pistil. GERMINATION. The act of sprouting forth, as applied to the seeds of vegeta- bles; also the time when they vegetate. GIANTS CAUSEWAY. A vast collec- tion of a black kind of marie, called ba- saltes, in the county of Antrim in Ireland. The masses of rock are there disposed in such regular order, and to such an extent, as to make this causeway one of the great- est curiosities in nature. GIBBOUS (in Astronomy). A term ap- plied to the enlightened part of the moon, during her course from full to new, when the dark part appears falcated or horned, and the light part convex or gibbous. GIFT (in Law). A conveyance which passeth either lands or goods; a transfer of any thing without a valuable conside- ration. GIG. A very light kind of two-wheeled chaise. GILD. See Guild. GILDING. The art of covering the sur- face of bodies with gold. GILLIFLOWER, or July Flower. A smaller kind of carnation that flowers in July. GIMLET. A carpenter's tool for boring holes. GIN, or Geneva. A hot fiery spirit, for- merly drawn from the' berries of the genevre or juniper tree, but now made by the distillers of the oil of turpentine and malt spirits. The Hollands Geneva is manufactured chiefly at a village near Rotterdam, and is drawn from wheat and the juniper berries. The English gin is a destructive drink among the lower orders. GIN (among Sportsmen). A machine which serves as a trap or snare for catch- ing beasts. GLA GIN (among Mechanics). A machine for driving piles. GINGER. An Indian root of a biting hot taste; the flower consists of five petals, shaped something like those of the iris. GIPSIES. A wandering tribe, who are to be found in different countries of Eu- rope, and are supposed to be of Egyptian origin. They are altogether a distinct class of people, both in their habits, which are predatory and uncivilized ; and in their complexion, wliich is sallow and brownish. But they are now beginning to follow the occupations of civilized life, and in winter to reside in towns, where they occasion- ally send their children to school. GIRAFFE. See Camelopard. GIRDERS (in Architecture). Soma of the largest pieces of timber in a floor. GIRT. The circumference of a tree. GLACIERS. A name in Switzerland for the extensive tracts of ice and snow which occur in the Alps. GLACIS (in Fortification). A mass of earth serving as a parapet to the covered way. GLADIATORS. Persons who fought in the arena at Rome for the amusement of the people. These were usually slaves, who fought until one was killed. This cruel custom was abolished by Constantine the Great. GLANDS. A sort of kernels in the ani- mal body, which serve to secrete the fluids. They are composed of blood vessels, nerves, and absorbents. GLANDERS. A virulent disease in horses, which shows itself by a discharge of mucus from the nostrils. GLASIER. See Glazier. GLASS, An artificial substance formed by the action of fire on sand, or siliceous earth with salts and metallic oxides. It is remarkable for its brittleness and transpa- rency, which latter quality renders it avail- able for many purposes of domestic use- There are five kinds of glass, namely, flint glass, or glass of lead; plate glass, or glass of pure soda; crown glass, the best window glass; broad glass, a coarse window glass; and bottle glass, a coarse green glass. GLASS (among Mariners). Sometimes the telescope, and sometimes the hourglass or sand glass. GLASSBLOWER. One who blows glass in a glasshouse. GLASSHOUSE. A house where glass is manufactured. GLAUBERS SALTS. The sulphate of soda; a purgative. GLAZIER. One who works with glass, or makes glass windows. The company GLU 179 of glaziers in London, were incorporated in the reign of Elizabeth. GLAZING. The crusting over earthen- ware with a vitreous substance; also the putting glass into windows, or making glass lights for windows. GLEANING, Picking up the scattered ears of wheat after the wheat is cut and carried. It was once thought in England, that, by the common law, the poor might claim this liberty as their right; but it has been adjudged by a solemn judgment of the Court of Common Pleas, that no such right exists by the common law of the land. GLEBE LAND. In England, a portion of land belonging to a parsonage or vicarage. GLEE (in Music). A composition of three or more parts; originally used for convivial purposes. GLIRES. The fourth order of the class mammalia in the Linnaean system, includ- ing such animals as have two fore teeth, a cutting one in each jaw, no tusks, and feet with claws formed for running, as the beaver, the hare, &:c. GLOBE (in Geometry). A round spheri- cal body, more commonly called a sphere; as the armillary sphere, GLOBE (in Astronomy). An artificial sphere, or a round solid body, on which is drawn a representation of the earth, as on the terrestrial globe; or of the heavens, as on the celestial globe. GLOBULES. Little globes or round bodies observable in fluids. GLOSSARY. A vocabulary or small dictionary, attached for the most part to any work, and serving to explain the ob- scure words used therein. GLOVERS. Those who make gloves. The company of glovers in London, were incorporated in the reign of Charles I. GLOWWORM. An^ insect that shines in the dark. The female is larger than the male, and emits a beautiful phosphoric light. GLUCINE. An earth of a sweetish taste, which has been lately discovered by Vauquelin in analyzing the beryl. It is infusible in the fire and insoluble in water, but combines with acids, making witli them soluble salts. GLUE. A^n inspissated jelly, made from the parings of hides and other otFals, by boiling them in water, then straining off the impurities, and boiling them again. GLUME (in Botany). The calyx or corolla of grasses. GLUTEN. An adhesive, tenacious, and elastic substance, similar to glue, which is procured by the decomposition of wheat flour, or other vegetable substances, of which it forms a part. ISO GQh GLUTTON. A cunning voracious ani- mal, larger than a badper, Avliich inhabits Europe, Asia, ami America, and preys on the carcasses of hares, mice, &c. GNAT. An active little insect, which lives by sucking the blood of other ani- mals. GNEISS. A sort of rock that lies imme- diately over granite. GNOMON (in Dialling). The stile or pin of a dial, the shadow of which points out tlie hours. GNOMON (in Astronomy). An instru- ment or apparatus for measuring altitudes. GNOMON (in Geometry). A figure formed by the two complements with either of the parallelograms about the diameter. GNLT. A particular kind of antelope, having horns bent forward at the base and backward in the middle. GOAD. A staff pointed with a sharp iron for driving cattle. GOAT. A quadruped fond of dry, rocky situations, and feeding on aromatic vege- tables. The varieties of the goat are distin- guished principally by their horns. GOAT-SUCKER. An American bird, so called because it was supposed to suck the teats of the goats. GODFATHER. One who stands sponsor for a child in baptism. GODWIT. A bird resembling the Plo- ver, that feeds on worms on the sea shore. GOLD. The richest find heaviest metal except platina, being tlie most solid and the least porous. The ductility and malle- ability of gold is such, that one grain of it will cover upwards of fifty square inches, and an ounce is capable of being extended in the form of wire many hundred miles. Gold is found in beds of quartz, sand stone, &c. and also in many rivers, par- ticularly in Peru, in minute and irregular grains, which are known by the name of gold dust. GOLDBEATERS SKIN. The skin or membrane of any animal, which is used by the goldbeaters in preparing gold leaf GOLDEN NUMBER. A number be- ginning with one and increasing one every year till it comes to nineteen, when it begins with one aga'n, and is used to show what year in the lunar cycle any given year is. GOLDEN ROD. A plant which is for the most part a native of North America. Two species only are found in Europe. GOLDEN RULE. A name given to the Rule of Three. GOLDFINCH. A beautiful European bird with a fine yellow mark in its black GOT quill feathers. It sings very charmingly, and is very docile. See Yellow Bird. GOLD FISH. An elegant fish of a gold colour, originally brought from China, and now kept by way of ornament. GOLD LEAF, or Leaf Gold. Gold that is hammered by the beaters, until it becomes as thin and extended as a leaf. GOLDSMITH. A worker or seller of gold or silver vessels. The company of goldsmiths in London, were incorporated in the reign of Richard II. GONDOLA. A sort of Venetian plea- sure barge. GONG (in Music). A Chinese instru- ment, the form of which is a shallow circu- lar concave. GOODS (in Law), The valuables of which a man is possessed. GOOSANDER. A water bird, the size of a goose. GOOSE. A well known domestic fowl, which exists in a wild as well as a tame state. The gray lay goose, or common wild goose, is easily tamed : from this sort has sprung the domestic breed. GOOSEBERRY (in Botany). A plant that is set with prickles, and yields a fruit of an oval and globular figure, containing many small seeds in a pulpy substance. It is a bush much cultivated in gardens. GORGE (in Fortification). The entrance of a bastion, ravelin, or other outwork. GORGET. A piece of armour round the neck ; something similar is now worn by officers on duty by way of ornament. GOSHAWK. That species of hawk which was formerly much used in falconry. GOSPEL. The four bopks in the New Testannnit written by the Evangelists, Pt. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, and St. John. GOSSAMER. A fine filmy substance, like a cobweb, which is seen in clear days in autumn in stiibblH fields, and is proba- bly worked by spiders for catching flies. GOTHIC STYLE. A style of architec- ture in which pointed aiches of greater height than breadth, and a profusion of ornaments, in imitation of leaves and GRA flowers, are the principal cliaracteristics. GOTHIC ARCH. An arcli callel by tlie Italians arciie de terzo el di quarto acuto, i. e. of the third and fourth point, consisting of two arcs of a circle meeting in an angle at the top. GRA 181 GOVERNMENT. The power in a state by which the whole is governed ; if this power be in the hands of one it is a Mo- narchy ; if in the iiands of the nobility, an Aristocracy ; and if in the hands of the people, or those chosen by tliem, a De- mocracy. The executive government is the power of administering public affairs, the Legislative (Government that of making the laws. In England, the Executive Go- vernment is in tiie king and his ministers ; but the Legislative Government is in the Parliament, that is, the King, Lords, and Commons ; whence the constitution of England is denominated a Mixed Govern- ment. GOUGE. An instrument for boring holes. GOURD. A plant nearly allied to the cucumber, and still nearer to the melon. The fruit of some species are long, and others round or bottle-shaped. GOURDWORM. A worm which infests the intestines of animals. GOUT. A painful periodical disease, which may affect any menihraiieous part, but commonly those at the greatest dis- tance from the heart and the brain, as the feet or hands. GOUTWEED. A perennial, so called from its supposed efficacy in curing the gout. GRACE, Act of. In England, an act of parliament for the relief of insolvent debtors. GRACE, Days of (in Commercial Law). Three days allowed for the payment of a bill after it has become due. GRACE (in Heraldry). The style used in speaking of, or to, a duke oi- dutchess, as your Grace, his or her Grace. GRADATIOJSr (in Chymistryj. A pro- cess by which metals are gradually raised to a still higher degree of purity. GRADUATE. One who has taken a de- gree in a university. 16 GRADUATION. Dividing any tiling into e(inal parts or degrees. GRAFTING (in Horticulture). The pro- cess of inserting a branch of one tree, into the stock of another, so that it may receive nourishment from it, while at the same tiuie it produces r new tree, like the old one whence the graft was taken. GRAFTING-TOOL. A kind of curved spade fit for cutting trenches. GRAIN. A general name for all kinds of seed corn. GRAIN (in Commerce), A small weight, the twentieth part of a scruple in Apothe- caries weight, and twenty-fourth in Troy v\"€ight. GRAIN fui Mineralogy). The veins of wood, or the component particles of stone and metals as they are disposed in the mass, &c. GRAINS OF PARADISE. The seeds of the ammonitim, which have a pungent taste like pepper. GRAIN TREE. The cochineal tree. GRAKLE. A bird not inhabiting Eu- rope, having a thick bill and sharp hooked claws. GRALLiE. An order of birds in the Linmean system, with obtuse bills and long legs, as the crane, snipe, stork, and ostrich. GRAMINA. Grasses; the fifth family in the Linntean system, comprehending among the species the ray grass, clover, tref()il,sanfoin,lucern,&c. which are called artificial grasses, as distinguished from the meadow gras& GRAMMAR, The art of speaking and writing truly, according to the rules estab- lished by custom and the authority of good writers. Universal Grammar is that which treats of the first principles or ele- ments of language, which are founded on logic 5 Particvilar Grammar is the gi-ammar of each language, containing not only the general principles of grammar, but also the peculiarities in the structure of each language. Grammar is divided into four parts, namely, 1. Orthography, or the right mode of writing and spelling, which treats of letters, their powers, different offices, and divisions into vowels, consonants, diph- thongs, mutes, liquids, syllable3,words,&c. together with punctuation, or the right mode of distinguishing words, &c. by points or accents, &c. 2. Etymology, whidi treats of the formation or derivation of worda from one another, and their distribution into the several parts of speech, accoi'ding to their several offices, into nouns, adjec- tives, pronouns, Verbs, adverbs, preposi- tionSjConjunctions, and interjections. Ety- 182 GRA mology also treats of the several inflections to express number, gender, case, mood, tense, person, &:c. Sometimes etymology treats of the derivation of words of one language from those of another, which is called remote etymology. 3. Syntax treats of words as they are connected with or dependant on each other, giving rules for the right construction and disposition of words in a sentence. 4. Prosody treats of the quantities and accents of syllables as parts of a verse, and the right rules of versification. GRAMMAR, History of. Grammar, as a practical art, must have existed long before it was considered as a science, and the rules of grammar must have been formed after language had assumed a settled shape by the practice of good writers. The works of Homer contained a practical illustration of all the rules of the Greek grammar long before the subject of gram- mar excited any attention. It is likewise clear that as there is a close connexion between correctness of thinking and cor- rectness of speaking, the study of logic preceded that of grammar; hence we find that Aristotle makes a logical distinction between words denoting time and words not denoting time, the former of which he denominates by a word answering to the verb in grammar, and the latter by a word answering to the noun. But although the Greeks, particularly the Athenians, cul- tivated their language for purposes of ora- tory, yet there appears to have been no particular advances made towards bring- ing it under grammatical rules. They seem to have studied their language by the ear, which was so universally nice that a herb woman at Athens is said to have distinguished Theophrastus to be a stranger from the affectation of a single word in expressing himself; and for the same reason the orators were careful not to let a single injudicious expression escape them which might offend the audience. We are likewise informed that it was a common thing for the young people to get the tragedies of their favourite authors by heart, which they would recite on various occasi^ons. AVhen the Athenians, aftertheir defeat at Syracuse, were made slaves, they softened their slavery by reciting the works of Euripides to their masters, who treated them the better on that account. In this manner the Grecian youth were taught their lansuage at school, where a Homer was looked upon as indispensable. To a light minded people, like the Athe- nians, this mode of learning a language GRA would be far more agreeable than the dry method of studying grammar; but as this former course was not so practicable in the acquiring a foreign language, this is probably the reason why grammar seems first to have been cultivated among the Romans, who, being studious of the Greek, were naturally led to a comparison of lan- guages, and to a logical and abstract con- sideration of language in general. Certain it is, that the study of grammar com- menced with the Romans, and that the names of all the parts of speech are Latin, and to be found in the writings of authors subsequent to the age of Varro and Cicero, as iElius Dionysius, Julius Pollux, Vale- rius Probus, Herodian, Suetonius, Chari- sius, Macrobins, Diomedes, Augustin, Pris- cian, ^lius Donatus, &c. GRAMMARIAN. One who is skilled in grammar learning. GRAMMAR SCHOOL. A school in which the learned languages are gram- matically taught. GRAMME. A small French weight GRANARY. A storehouse for threshed corn. GRAND JURY (in Law). The jury which find bills of indictment against offenders, who are afterwards tried before a petty jury, in case the former find a true bill against the party accused. GRAND SEIGNIOR. The title of the Turkisli sultan. GRANITE. A compound rock, consist- ing of quartz, felspar, and mica, crystal- lized and cohering without cement. Granite is hard, and admits of an elegant polish, GRANT (in Law). A gift in writing, of such things as cannot conveniently be passed, or conveyed by word of mouth. GRANULATION (in Chymistry). Pour- ing melted metals into cold water, that they may divide themselves into grains. GRAPE. The fruit of the vine, growing in clusters, from which wine is expressed. Grapes are found by a chymical analysis to contain supertartrate of potash, tartaric acid, citric and malic acids, abundance of sugar, a portion of mucilage jelly, some albumen, and also, as is said, some gluten. GRAPESHOT (in Artillery). A combi- nation of small shot, put into a thick canvass bag, and corded so as to form a kind of cylinder. GRASSES. See Gramina. GRASSHOPPER. An insect that hops in the summer grass : it is allied to the locust in its make, but is very harmless, GRAVEL. A kind of loamy sand mixed GRE with pebbles, which adhere so as to form a solid handsome path. GRAVER. A tool used in engraving. GRO 183 GRAVE SOUND. A low deep note. GRAVIMETER. An instrument for measuring the specific gravities ol bodies. GRAVITATION. The pressure that a body, by the force of its gravity, exerts on another body under it. GRAVITY. The force by which bodies are carried or tend towards the centre of the earth. GREEK FIRE. An artificial five in- vented by the Greeks in the middle ages, during their wars witli the Arabs and Turks. It consists of naphtha, bitumen, Bulphur, gum, &c. GREEN. One of the seven original colours excited by the rays of light, wliich is the most grateful to the eye and most favourable to the sight. GREEN CLOTH, Board of. In Eng- land, a court of justice held in the counting house of the king's household. GREENFINCH. A yellowish green bird, an inhabitant of Europe, which lays green eggs, GREENHOUSE. A place of shelter for exotics and tender plants. GREENSHANK. A sort of snipe. GREGORIAN STYLE, or the New Style (in Chronology). Anew account of time, according to the improved Calendar made by order of Pope Gregory XIII. GRENADE. A hollow globe of iron, filled with combustibles, and thrown out of a mortar. GRENADIERS. Foot soldiers, selected for their stature, being the tallest and stoutest men in the army. GREYHOUND. A slender dog, fitted for running with great swiftness, who is employed mostly in coursing hares. GREYSaUIRREL. A beautiful squirrel common in America. GREYWACKE. A mountain forma- tion, consisting mostly of a sort of slate. GRIDIRON. A utensil for broiling meat. GRINDERS. The large teeth which serve best for grinding the food. GRIST. Corn ground. GRIT. The smallest particles of sand; also the coarser parts of meal. GROAT. In England, a silver coin, first struck in the reign of Edward I. It has since been used as a money of account equal to four pence. GROCER. One who sells tea, sugar, plums, spices, &:c. The company of gro- cers in London, were incorporated in 1344. GROOM. A servant who looks after GROOM OF THE STOLE. In Eng- land an ofiicer of the court, who has the charge of the king's wardrobe. GROOVE. A hollow channel cut with a tool. GROSS-BEAK. A bird with a stout bill, and of a fiery red colour, except round the bill and on the throat, which is black. It is to be met with in North America, and is called the Virginia nightingale, on account of the fineness of its song. GROSS WEIGHT. The weight of goods together with the cask or vessel. GROT, or GROTTO. A hollow under ground; also an artificial hollow made in a garden. GROTESQUE (in Painting and Sculp- 184 GUA ture). A work or composition in the gro- tesque or wild taste. GROVE. A small wood or place set with trees. GROUND (in Hushandry). Any piece of land in cultivation, or set apart for cul- tivation. GROUND (in Architecture). The ground plot, or piece of ground selected for a building. GROUND (in Military Tactics). The field or place for action. GROUND (in Painting). The surface on which the figures and objects are raised and represented. GROUND (ia Music). The phiin song or tune in vv'hich the descents are raised. GROUND (among Mariners). The place where the anchor is fixed. GROUNDASH. A sapling of ash taken from the ground, in distinction from a branch cut from a tree.. GROUND IVY. A herb, the shoots of which trail upon the ground, and take root at their different joints. GROUNDLING. A fish, so called be- cause it keeps under stones in small brooks. GROUND-PINE. A plant, the smell of which resembles resin. It grows on dry and barren hills-, and.on the ditchbanks by the roadside. GROUNDSILL. The lowest horizontal timber on which the exterior wall is erected.^ GROUND-SaUIRREL. See Cmp- Squirrel. GROUP (in Painting). An assemblage of figures, appearing to have a connexion with each other. GROUPING (among Painters). Putting figures together in groups. GP^OUSE. A bird larger than a partridge, living, in the mou-ntainous parts of Europe and Asia. The American partridge is pro- perly the ruffed Grouse. GRUB. The worm or maggot produced from the beetle, which afterwards becomes a winged insect. GRUINALES. One of Linnajus's natu- ral orders of plants, containing the gera^ niums, flax, lignum vitse, &c. GRUS. One of the new constellations. GUIACUM. A resinous substance pro- cured from a tree of the same name in the West Indies. GUARANTEE (in Diplomacy). A prince or power appointed by the stipu- lating powers, to see that the articles of any treaty or agreement are performed on each side. GUARD. The duty of guarding or de- fending any post or person from an attack GUI or surprise; also the soldiers who do this duty. GUARD (in Fencing). A posture or action proper to defend the body. GUARDBOAT (in Naval Tactics). A boat appointed to row among ships of war, to see that the officers keep a good look out. GUARDIAN. One who has the charge of a person comraitted to him ; as the guardian of an infant, who sees to his education and manages his affairs, &c. GUARDSHIP. A vessel appointed to superintend the marine affairs iii a liarbour or river. GUDGEON. A fresh water fish, of the carp kind, the flesh of which is very deli- cate. GUIDE (among Travellers).. One who accompanies another in order to show him the way. GUIDE (in Music). The leading note in a figure.. GUILD (in England). A company or incorporated society. GUILDHALL (in London). The com- mon hall of the guilds or companies, which was built in 1411, by Thomas Knolls, then mayor. GUILLOTINE,, A machine for behead- ing, first invented by a Scotchman and now used in France. It was introduced durin;f the revolution. GUINEA HEN or- PINTANO. An Afri- can bird domesticated in Europe, which makes a harsh unpleasant cry. GUINEA PIG. An animal betwixt a rabbit and a mouse, an inhabitant of Bra- zil. GUIxNTEA. An English gold coin, first GUN coined in the reign of Charles II. and till lately current for 21s. It was so called because it was made from the gold that was brought from Guinea, on the coast of Africa. GUITAR. A musical stringed instru- ment, rather larger than a violin, and played with the fingers. GULES. A tincture in heraldry, marked in engraving by straight lines. GYP 185 GULF. A part of the sea running in land, as the Gulf of Mexico. GULL. A species of sea bird, of which there are many varieties. GUM. A concreted vegetable juice, which exudes through the bark of trees, A gum, properly speaking. Is that only among chymists which is soluble in water; that which is insoluble in water is a gum resin. The gum arabic flows from the acacia, in Africa and Arabia; gum lac is the juice of the croton lacifera; gum ammoni- ac was first drawn from ammonia. GUMS. The vascular and elastic sub- stance that covers the arches of the upper and under jaws, embracing the roots of the teeth. GUN. Any sort of offensive weapon from which shot, huUetSi &c. are discharged. GUNBOAT. A boat with a flat bottom, serving as a floating battery. GUNNER. One who manages the artil- lery. GUNNERY. The art of determining the course and directing the motions of bodies shot from the artillery. GUNPOWDER. A composition of salt- petre, sulphur, and charcoal, duly mixed 81* together, and pounded with a small quan- tity of water. GUNPOWDER-PLOT (in England.) The plot or conspiracy in which Guy Faux was the principal agent, to blow up the parliament house, by means of gunpowder placed underneath, which was to have been set fire to when King James I. was assembled with his parliament; also the anniversary of that day, namely , the fifth of November, when this plot was discovered. GUNSHOT. The reach or range of a gun. GUNSTOCK. The wood to which the barrel of a gun is fixed. GUNTER'S CHAIN. The chain com- monly used in measuring or surveying land, so called from Mr. Gunter, the in- ventor. TJie chain is 66 feet in length, and is divided into 100 links of 7.92 inches each, consequently an acre of land is equal to 10 square chains. GUNTER'S LINE. A logarithmic line, usually graduated upon scales, sectors, &c. GUNWALE or GUNNEL. The upper- most wale of a ship. GUST (among Mariners). A sudden and violent squall of wind. GUTT A SERENA. A disease in the eye, which deprives the patient of his sight. GUTT URAL LETTERS. Letters which are pronounced with the throat. GYMNASIUM. A place among the ancients where the youth were trained in gymnastic exercises; also a public school of learning, in which latter sense, it is now frequently employed. GYMNASTICS. Athletic exercises, such as wrestling, leaping, running, and throw- ing the dart or quoit, which were much in use among the Greeks, from whom the word is derived. GYMNOSOPHISTS. A sect of Indian philosophers, v>'ho always went naked, and lived a solitary life. GYNANDRIA. One of the classes in the Linnaean system, consisting of plants with hermaphrodite flowers, in which the stamina are placed on the style. GYPSUM. A sort of calcareous earth, consisting of sulphate of lime. Whea highly burnt it falls into powder, frors which plaster of Paris is made. 18Q. HAX HAxN y. H, the eighth letter of the alphabet, for- merly stood as a numeral for 200, with a dash over it for 20,000; in Heraldry, it stands for the middle base, a point in the escutcheon ; as an abbreviation, for hour. HAARTE BESTE. A variety of the Af- rican Antelope. HABEAS CORPUS. In England, a writ which may be made use of by the courts at Westminster for removing pris- oners to answer any cause, as a Habeas Corpus ad respondendum, ad, satisfacien- dum, ifcc; but the most celebrated; writ of this kind is that of Habeas Corpus ad sub- jiciendum, which a man who is, or supr- poses himself to be aggrieved by an unlaw- ful imprisonment, may have out of the King's Bench, directed to the person de- taining him, and commanding him to pro- duce the body of the prisoner, to submit to or receive whatever the court shall consider in that behalf. This writ was founded on the common law, and secured by many statutes, particularly that of the '31 Chas. II. which is by distinction called the Habeas Corpus Act. The writ of Habeas Corpus in the United States is that, by which a ma.n in prison may claim an immediate trial, or examination. HABERDASHER. A dealer in small wares, as tape, thread, pins, needles, &c. The company of haberdashei-s in London was incorporated in 1447. HADDOCK. A fish of the cod kind, which inhabits the northern, coast, HADLEY'S aUADRANT.. A quadrant that is particularly used for taking altitudes at sea. HEMORRHAGE. A, fl.ux of blood from any part of the body. HAIL. Ameteor, which consistsoffrozen rain, or drops of rain agglutinated together by the frost, so as to form little pieces of ice, called hailstones. HAILING (among Mariners). Saluting or accosting a ship at a distance. HAIR. Small filaments issuing out of the pores of the skin of animals, and serv- ing for the most p&^t as a- covering.. The principal constituent parts of hair are ani- mal matter, oil, siiex, sulphur, carboyate of lime, &c. HAIR (in Botany). The down, or hair- like threads on the surface of plants.. HAIR-GRASS. A plant, some species of which are perennials and some annuals. HAIR'S BREADTH. A measure of length, equal to the forty-eighth part of an inch., HALBERT. A weapon something like a spear, formerly carried by the Serjeants of foot and artillery. HALCYON. A name for the kingfisher. HALF-BLOOD (in Law). Relationship by the father's or the mother's side only. HALF-MOON (in Fortification). An outwork having two faces. HALFPENNY. An English copper coin, the half of a penny. HALL. A public edifice, a court of jus- tice. HALL (in Architecture). A large room at the entrance of a fine house. HALLELUJAH. A part of church music in which these words are repeated. HALLIARDS. Ropes for hoisting up the yards. HALLOO. A hunter's cry after the dogs. HALLUCINATION. An affection either in the senses or the imagination, which causes a person to feel, see, or hear what does not exist. HALM. In England, the stalk of corn which is left on the ground when it is cut. HALO. A meteor, in the form of alumi- nous ring or circle, appearing round the bodies.of thesun, moon, orstars. HAMMOCK (among Mariners). A piece of hempen cloth, six feet long and three feet wide. HAMSTER. An animal of the mouse tribe, entirely black, except at the tip of the nose, edges of the ears, feet, and some- times the tail, which are white. HANAPER OFFICE. In England, an office in the Court of Chancery, out of which issue all original writs. HAND (in the Manege). The fist clenched or a measure of three inches, by which the height of a horse is computed ; also the p;irts of a horse, as the forehand, for the liead, neck, and fore quarters ; the hind- hand, which includes the rest; and also the horseman's hand, as the spur hand, II A R which is his right Ijand ; and the bridle hand, whicli is iiis left lirdul. HAND. An important member of the body, which consists of the carpus, or wrist; the metacarpus, or the four bones, within the pahn and the fingers. IIAR 1S7 HAND (among Watchmakers). The in- dex of a clock or watch, HAND-BARROW. A barrow without wheels. HANDCUFFS. Two circular pieces of iron locked over the wrists of a prisoner to prevent him using his hands. HANDSPIKES. Wooden levers used at sea. HANGINGS. Tapestiy hungor fastened against the wall. HANSE TOWNS. Port towns of Ger- many, which were incorporated for the purpose of protecting their trade. The three principal of these towns were Ham- burgh, Bremen, and Lubec, which still retain the name. HARBOUR. A place where ships may ride in safety. HARDxNESS (in Physiology). The re- sistance opposed by a body to the separa- tion of its parts. HARE. A timid animal of exquisite sight and hearing, with a short tail. It is in Europe a beast of chase, and is some- times pursued by greyhounds in open ground, which is called coursing; and sometimes by harriers, or liare hounds, which is called hare hunting. Shooting of hares is not lawful in England. A spe- cies of hare common in America, passes under the name of rabbit. HARELIP. A lip cloven or parted like that of a hare. HARMATTUN. A wind which blows periodically from the interior parts of Africa towards the Atlantic. This wind is remark- able for its dry and parching character. HARMONICA. A musical instrument constructed with drinking glasses. HARMONICS. That branch of music which considers the differences and pro- portions of sounds. HARMOxVY (in Music). The agreeable result or union of several musical sounds lieard at one and the same time. Melody is produced by a succession of musical souiuls, as harmony is produced by their combination. HARMONY OF THE SPHERES. A kind of music, supposed by the ancients to be produced by the accordant motions of the stars and planets. HARP. A musical stringed instrument of great antiquity, of a triangular form, and played with tlie fingers. HARPER. One who plays upon the harp. HARPINS (among Mariners). The breadth of a ship at the bow. HARPOONS, or Harping Irons. Irons formed at one end like a barbed arrow, and having a rope at the other, for the purpose of spearing the whale. HARPSICHORD. A stringed and keyed instrument in a mahogany case. HARROW. A drag with iron teeth, to break the clods after ploughing. HARPY. A fabulous monster, with the head of a woman, the wings of a bird, and the tail of a beast. 188 HAW HARRIER. A hunting dog who pursues hares. HART. A stag or male deer of the forest, which if hunted by the king or queen, and he escape alive, is styled a Hart Royal. HARTSHORN. A volatile alkali, origi- nally dravi'n from the horn of the stag ; it is now known by chymists under the name of the subcarbonate of ammonia. HARVEST MOON. The moon which, in the season of harvest, rises several nights successively soon after sunset. HATCHING. The act of maturing fecun- dated eggs, so that they should produce young birds. This is commonly done by the incubation of the mother ; but some- times by means of artificial heat in ovens, as is practised in Egypt. HATCHMENT. See Achievement. HATCHWAY (among Mariners). An opening in the deck, to serve as a passage from one deck to another. HATTER. A manufacturer and seller of hats. The company of hatters, or hat- makers in London, is very ancient. HAVERSACK. A kind of bag of strong coarse linen, to carry bread and provisions on a march. HAUL, or YAUL (among Ropemakers). A yarn of four hundred threads. HAUNCH. The hind part of a stag, or of a horse, &c. HAUNT. The walk of a deer. HAUTBOY. A musical wind instru- ment, shaped much like the flute, only that it spreads and widens at the bottom, and is sounded through a reed at one end. HAWFINCH. A sort of finch, so called because it feeds on haws and cherries. HAWK. A bird of prey of the eagle and falcon tribe, the two principal species of which are the sparrovvhawk and the gos- hawk, both used formerly in falconry. HAWKERS. In England, itinerant petty chapmen, who go m ith their goods from town to town and from house to house. They are obliged by law to have a license. HAWKING. The ancient sport of fowl- ing with hawks. HAWKING (in Trade). The going about with commodities to sell, after the manner of a hawker. HAWK'S BELL. The bell put about the feet of a bawk. HAWKWEED. A plant which bears a flower in the form of a marigold. The whole plant lias a milky juice. HAWSE. A sea term, for the situation of the cables before the ship's stern, when HEA she is moored v.ith two anchors out from the bows, as ' a clear or open liawse,' ' a foul hawse,' &c. HAWSER. A small cable. HAZARD. A game of chance, played much by gamesters and gamblers. HAZLE NUT. A shrub having male flowers growing at remote distances from the fruit on the same tree. The nuts grow in clusters, and are of three kinds, the common hazel nut, the cob nut, and the filbert, which latter are the most es- teemed. HEAD (in Anatomy). The superior part of the body, placed on the neck, and con- sisting externally of the face and the hairy scalp; internally, of the brain and the medulla oblongata. HEAD (among Mechanics). The upper and more solid part of inanimate bodies, as the head of a nail, the head of a gate, the head of a hammer. HEAD (in Painting). The representation of the head of a person. HEAD (in Architecture). An ornament of sculpture or carved work. HEAD (in Gunnery). The fore part of the cheeks of a gun. HEAD (in Printing). In England, the top of a page. HEADBOROUGH. Formerly the chief of a borough, or frankpledge ; now a sort of petty constable. HEADER (in Masonry). A name for the bricks which are inserted lengthwise in the thickness of a wall. HEADLAND, A point of land lying farther out at sea than the rest. HEADSTALL. That part of a bridle that goes about the head ; also a kind of halter. HEALING (in Surgery). , Curing a wound. HEALING (among Bricklayers). The covering a roof with any thing, as lead, slates, &;c. HEARING. One of the five senses, of which the ear is the organ, with the help of the auditory nerves and membrane. HEARSE. A close carriage for convey- ing dead bodies. HEART. The seat of life in the animal body, is situated in the thorax, and divided externally into the base, which is the broad part ; the superior and inferior surface ; and the anterior and posterior margin. Internally, it is divided into two ventri- cles, right and left. HEARTBURN. A burning pain in the stomach. HEARTSEASE. A plant cultivated La HED gardens, that yields a variegated, sweet- smelling flower. HEARTH. The paveraerit oi a fire- place. HEAT (in Phj'siology). See Calokic. HEAT (among Geographers). The heat of different climates, which arises from the different angles under which the sun's rays strike upon the surface of the earth ; added to which, the heat of different places is: either increased or dim-inished by the acci- dents of situation, with regard to moun- tains and valleys, proximity to the sea, and the like. HEAT (among Smiths). The degree of heat requisite for iron work, namely, the blood-red heat, the smallest degree ; the flame, or white heat, the second degree ; and the sparkling, or welding heat, which is the strongest degree. HEAT (among Sportsmen). A certain prescribed distance which a horse runs on the course.. HEATH.. A wide open place, generally overgrown with heath. HEATH (in Botany). A shrub, which either grows wild, or is cultivated with great care in hothouses. The cultivated sorts are remarkahle for their variety and beauty. HEAVEN (in Astronomy). That im- mense region wherein the planets, stars, and comets are disposed, and perform their motions ; among the ancients, a heaven denoted an orb or circular region of the ethereal heaven. Astronomers therefore assumed as many different h.eaveus as they observed different celestial motions ; thus they had seven heavens for the seven planets, the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The eighth was the fixed stars, which was par- ticularly denominated the firmament. Pto- lemy added a ninth heaven, which he calls the Primum Mobile ; Alphonsus afterwards added two crystalline heavens, to account for some irregularities in the motions of the other heavens, Otiier ancient astrono- mers admitted more heavens, according to their different hypotheses. HEB. An abbreviation for Hebrews. HECATOMB. The sacrifice of a hundred oxen. HECTIC FEVER. An, habitusa fever, or one which is slow and continued, endr ing in a consumption. HEDGE. A fence of thorns or shrubs to part off land, HEDGEHOG. A quadruped defended all over with sharp prickles, which is a native of Europe, and found also in Mada- gascar. It lives in thickets, and swims HEL 189 easily. When frightened, it rolls itself up in its spiry skin, and presents nothing but a ball of prickles. HEDGESPARROW. A kind of spar- row that lives in the fields and about the hedges. HEEL. The back of the foot protuberat- ing behind. HEEL (among. Mariners). The heel of a mast, that part at the foot of a ship's mast that is pared away slanting. HEELPIECE. A piece of leather put upon the heel of a shoe. HEGIRA (in Chronology). An tera which takes its date from Mahomet's flight from Mecca, a. d. C22. HEIR (in Law),, One who succeeds by descent to lands and tenements. HEIRLOOM. Household goods and fur- niture which have for several descents belonged to a house, and necessarily come to clie heir wit-li the house. HELIACAL (in Astronomy). A term applied to the stars or planets when they rise and set with or at the same time as the sun. HELIOCENTRIC. An epithet for what relates to the centre of the sun. HELIOMETER. An instrument for measuring the dian3,efcer of the heavenly bodies. This instrument is a kind of tele- scope, consisting of two object glasses of equal focal distance, placed one by the side of the otiier, so that the same eyeglass serves for both. HELIOTROPE, or TrRN'soLE. A plant which is said always to follow the course of the sun. HELLEBORE. A plant, the flower of which expands in the form of a rose. The seed is oblong, like a grain of wheat. It is very doubtful whether the plant now so named be the true hellebore so famous for its poisonous quality among the ancients. HELM (in Naval Architecture). A long flat piece of timber suspended at the hind part of a ship's sternpost, which serves to direct the course of the ship. It is com- posed of three parts, namely, the rudder, which turns upon its hinges ; the tiller, 190 HER which serves to direct the rudder; and the wheel, round which the tiller rope is wound in large vessels. HELMET. A headpiece, or armour for the head, which was formerly the noblest piece of coat armour. HELMINTHOLOGY. The science of worms. HELVE. The handle of an axe. HEM. The edge part of cloth. HEMIPTERA. The second order of in- sects in the Linnisan system, including those which have their upper wings semi- crustaceous, as the cock-roach, mantis or walking leaf, locust, cricket, grasshopper, lanthorn-fly, boat-fly, water scorpion, aphis or plant louse, and the coccus or cochineal. HEMISPHERE. One half of the mun- dane sphere. HEMLOCK , A narcotic plant, the leaves of which are cut into many minute seg- ments, like parsley. It is doubtful wheth- er this be the true hemlock of the ancients. HEMP. A fibrous plant, of which linen and ropes are made. HEN. A female bird of any species, par- ticularly the domestic fowl. HENBANE. A poisonous plant that grows in hedges. HENDECAGON. A figure of eleven Bides. HEPTAGON. A figure of seven sides and seven angles. HEPTANDRIA. One of the Linnrean classes, including those plants which have seven stamens to the flower, as the horse- chestnut, chickweed, lizard's tail, &;e. HEPTARCHY. The seven kingdoms formed by the Saxons on their first settle- ment in England. They were all united into one kingdom by Egbert. HERALD (in England). An officer HER whose business it is to proclaim war and peace, to marshal processions, and regulate armorial ensigns, &c. The heralds are six in number, and are distinguished by the names of Richmond, Lancaster, Chester, Windsor, Somerset, and York. They are all equal in degree, and have precedence only according to the seniority of their creation. HERALDRY. An ancient art which professed to teach the true use of arms; as how to blazon or describe them in proper terms, and how to marshal or dispose the difi"erent arms in an escutcheon or shield. HERALDRY, History of. Although the science of heraldry, as far as regarda the distinctions of families by means of coat armour, is comparatively of modern date, yet the Romans were not without their marks of honour, which, being here- ditary, served as a proof of nobility, and a title to a certain rank. This was known among them by the name of jus imaginum, which was the right of having the statues or images of their ancestors; that belonged to those only who were either of patrician rank or had risen to distinction in the state. He who had the privilege of using the statues or images of his ancestors was termed 'nobilis;' he who could only use his own was a ' novushomo,' or an upstart, like one who first procures a coat of arms; and he who had neither his own statues nor those of his ancestors was termed 'ig- nobilis.' These images or statues were made of wood, brass, marble, and some- times in waxwork, and were painted, ac- cording to the life, with the several em- blems of military honour which belonged to the individual. Thus the collar or chain on the statue of Torquatus, and the tuft of hair on that of Cincinnatus, were the trophies of which these brave warriors had despoiled their enemies. These statues commonly stood in their courts in a cabinet of wood, whence pro- bably originated our cabinets of arms, where the helmet, crest, gauntlet, spurs, banner, &c. were kept; and as, upon par- ticular occasions, these cabinets were set open, and the statues were exposed to public view before the porch or gate of their houses, so our nobility and gentry have their coats of arms cut in stone, and painted in escutcheons over their gates. At their funerals those statues were borne before such as had the jus imaginum, whence in after times it became the prac- tice, at the funerals of great men, to carry their ensigns of nobility, and the arms of those from whom they were descended, which, being all painted, are placed under HER the name of an achievement on the house of the person deceased. As a farther proof that our heraldic distinctions take their rise from the jus iraaginum of the Romans, it appears that the law of arms among the Europeans in the middle ages was regu- lated by the civil law. The introduction of armorial bearings, in place of the images and statues of the Romans, is to be ascribed to the northern tribes who overran Europe on the decline and fall of the empire. The Goths, Van- dals, and other such people, were in the practice, like their ancestors the Celts and Scythians, of painting on their shields the figures of animals, either for the purpose of rendering themselves formidable, or more probably by way of distinction; and al- though, from their martial character, their ensigns of honour were at first purely mili- tary, yet, by being transmitted to their posterity, they became badges of civil rank and honour; ;ind, in process of time, other circumstances gave rise to bearings which were not purely military. Thus, on the establishment of the feudal system, the tenants of the king, or the great lords, re- presented on their shields the services they owed to their superiors by way of an ac- knowledgement of their fidelity, whence originated roses, cinque-foils, spurrowels, bows and arrows, hunting-horns, ships,&c. which are to be found so frequently in coats of arms. So, in like manner, the crusades gave rise to the figures of the cross, which is borne in a diversity of forms; and tournaments, which were intro- duced by Henry the Fowler in the tenifi century, are supposed to have given rise to the fesse, pale, bend, and other ordinaries which represented the fillets or lists of different kinds which were worn by the combatants and those who attended. From the practice and ceremony of the herald's recording the n'^mes, arms, and proofs of the nobility of the knights at tournaments, the science of heraldry took its name; and as this ceremony was preceded by the blow- ing of a horn, blazon, which comes from the German ' blason,' to blow, is now used for a scientific description of coats of arms. HERB (in Botany). That part of the vegetable which rises from the root, and comprehends the stem and leaves, &;c. HERBiE, Herbs; the fourth tribe into which Linnaeus divided the vegetable kingdom. HERBAL. A book giving an account of the names, natures, and uses of plants. HERCULANEUM. An ancient city of Naples, overwhelmed by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius in the reign of Titus; it HER 191 was discovered in the year 1689, since which time many manuscripts, paintings, statues, and other relics of antiquity, have been discovered by digging. HERCULES. A celebrated hero of an- tiquity, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena, who travelled as far as the Straits of Gib- raltar, and is said to have erected two pillars, one at Cadiz in Spain, and the other at Ceuta in Africa. His exploits are celebrated by the poets and historians of antiquity. HEREDITAMENTS (in I aw). Im- moveables, which a man may have to him and his heirs. HERESY. An error in some fundamen- tal doctrine of the Christian faith, or a private opinion different from that of the orthodox church. HERETIC. One tainted with heresy. HERIOT (in England.) The best beast that the tenant died possessed of, which was due to the lord of the manor. HERON. A bird similar in form to the crane and stork, but much larger, being seven feet in standmg. HERISON. A barrier made of beams stuck with spikes, to block up a passage. HERMETICAL SEAL (among Chyni- ists). A method of stopping glass vessels so closely that the subtlest spirit cannot escape. HERNIA. Every kind of rupture, va- ried according to the part affected. 192 HIC HEROIC POEM. A poem setting forth the exploits of some hero. HEROIC VERSE. Hexameter verse, so called because it is used by poets in their heroic poems. HERRING. A small seafish of a green colour, which inhabits the North seas, and migrates southerly in immense shoals, par- ticularly in the month of June. Their progress is marked by the number of birds which follow them to prey upon them. Tiiose which flock to tlie British coasts are to be found in the greatest number off Yarmouth, the mart for herrings. HERSE (in Fortification). An engine like a harrow, stuck full of spikes. HESPERID^ (in Botany). A natural order of plants, including the myrtle tribe. HETEROSCII (in Geography). Those inhabitants of the e:vrth which have their shadows failing but one way, as those liv- ing between the tropic and polar circles. HEXAEDRON (in Geometry). A solid figure of six equal sides. HEXAGON (in Geometry) A figure of six sides and six angles. HEXAGYNIA (in Botany). An order of plants, which have six styles in the flowers, HEXAMETER (in Poetry). A verse consisting of six feet. HEXANDRIA (in Botany). One of the Linnffian classes, comprehending those plants which have six stamens in each flower, as the pineapp'e, bamboo, spider- wort, lily of the valley, arrow grass, &,c. HHD. An abbreviation for hogshead. HIATUS. A gap or chasm in verses; also any deficiency in a manuscript which destroys the connexion. HICCOUGH, or HICCUP. A convul- eive motion of the stomach. HIP HIDE (in Law). A portion of land, from 100 to 120 acres. HIDE (among Tanners). The skins of beasts after they are taken off. HIDEBOUND (in Farriery). A disease in horses and cattle when the skin cleaves to the sides, HIDEBOUND (in Botany). A disease in trees when the bark cleaves to the wood. HIERARCHY, Church government, or the subordination of rank among the dif- ferent orders of clergy. HIEROGLYPHICS. Certain charac- ters, figures, or signs, made use of by the Egyptians instead of letters, to express the conceptions of men, particularly the mys- teries of their religion. In ageneral sense, an hieroglyphic is any symbol or figure which may serve to represent an object; thus the astronomical characters are many of them of this nature, as the character for Mercury, $ , which is the figure of his caduceus; that of Mars, ^ , which is sup- posed to represtint his shield and spear; that of Saturn, 1^ , which represents his sickle, &c, HIGHNESS. In Europe, a title of hon- our given to a prince. HIlJH-WATER. When the tide is at its highest point, HIGHWAY (in Law). A public or free passage for the people. HIGHWAYMEN. Robbers on the high- ways. HiGLER. In England one who buys poultry in the country, and carries them up to town. HIND. The female of the stag. HINGE. The iron work on which a door is made to turn. HIP. The upper part of the thigh. HIPPOPOTAMUS, or The River Horse. An amphibious creature found in the rivers of Africa. HIP-ROOF (in Architecture). A parti- cular kind of roof, which has neither gable heads, shred heads, nor jerkin heads. HIPS (in Botany). The ripe fruit of the dog-rose, which is principally made into a sweetmeat. HOM HISTORY. In its most general sense, an: account or description of events and things in an orderly series, compreliendiug Civil or Political History, Sacred History, Ecclesiastical History, and Natural Histo- ry; in a particular sense, a narrative of political events in the order of time. HISTORY (in Painting). Ji picture composed of diverse figures or persons, representing some transaction, HITCH (among Mariners). A sort of knot or noose for fastening a rope to any thing. HIVE. A basket or box, which serves as a receptacle for bees. H. M. S. In England, an abbreviation for His Majesty's Ship. HOBSON'S CHOICE. A by-word, sig- nifying that or none, taken from one Ilob- son, a livery-stable keeper at Cambridge England, who obliged his customers eith- er to take the horse that stood next the stable door, or to go without, HODMAN. A bricklayer's labourer. HOB, A husbandman's tool for cutting up weeds, HOEING (in Husbandry), The process of clearing the weeds with a hoe, and breaking up the earth on planted ground, HOG, A domestic quadruped, very vo- racious and very prolific. HOGSHEAD (in Commerce). A mea- sure of capacity, containing 63 gallons. HOLD. The whole interior cavity or belly of the ship, where, in merchantmen, the goods are commonly stowed. HOLDFAST. An iron hook for fixing any thing to a wall. HOLERACE/E. One of LinntEus's na- tural orders of plants, including shrubs and perennials, as rhubarb, &c. HOLLOW (in Architecture). A con- cave moulding. HOLLY. A prickly shrub, which forms an impenetrable hedge. The variegated hollies are remarkable for their beauty ; some bear yellow berries, and others white. HOLM-OAK. The evergreen oak. HOLY GHOST. The third person of the Holy Trinity. HOMAGE. In England, the oath of sub- mission and loyalty, which the tenant, under the feudal system, used to take to his lord when first admitted to his land. HOME. A sea phrase for the situation which belongs properly to the tackling or parts of the vessel, as the anchor comes home when it is drawn out of the ground. HOMICIDE (in Law). The causing the death of a human creature, which is justi- fiable, if justified by unavoidable necessity; 17 HON 193 excusable if it happens by misadventure ; and felonious if done without excuse. HOMILY. A plain discoui-se made to the people, instructing them in matters of religion. HOxMOGENEAL (in Physiology). Of the same nature and properties as homo- geneal particles. HONE. A fine kind of whetstone used for setting razors. HONEY, A thick, viscid fluid substance, collected by the bees from vegetables and flowers. It is distinguished into three kinds, namely, first, the virgin honey, which is the first produce of the swarm, obtained by draining from the combs without pressing; the second sort is thicker than the first, and is procured by pressure ; the third is the vvorst sort, which is extracted by heating the combs over the fire, and then pressing them. In the flowers of plants, near the basis of the petals, are certain glands containing a sweet juice, which the bees suck up by means of their proboscis or trunk, and, flying with it to their hives, discharge it again from the stomach through the mouth into some of the cells of the comb. This lioney is destined for the food of the young, but, in hard seasons, the bees are sometimes reduced to the necessity of feeding on it themselves, and die of hunger after they have eaten it all up. In France, a good sv\'arm of bees will yield, in two years, nearly thirty pounds of honey ; but honey is most abundant in the islands of the Archipelago, and other countries which abound with flowers throughout the year. From honey i£ made the strong liquor called mead. HONEY-BAG. The stomach of the bee, which is the reservoir of the honey. HONEY-COMB (in Husbandry). The repository which the bees make in the hive for saving their honey in. HONEY-COMB (in Gunnery). A flaw in the metal of a piece of ordnance, when it is badly cast. HONEY-DEW. A sort of mildew of a sweet taste, found early in the morning on plants, flowers, &c. HONEY-FLOWER (in Botany). A plant having the appearance of a shrub, and bearing spikes of chocolate-coloured flowers in May, in each of which a quan- tity of black sweet liquor is found. HONEY-SUCKLE (in Botany). A shrub with a climbing stalk, the flowers of which form a tube in the shape of a huntsman's horn. They are produced in clusters, and are very sweet. HONI SOIT aUI MAL Y PENSE. 194 HOP In England, the motto of the order of the Garter, signifying, Evil be to him that evil thinks. HONOUR. In England, the most noble part of seignories. HONOUR (in Military Affairs). External marks of honour paid to superior officers. HONOUR COURTS. In England, courts held within the bounds of an honour. HONOUR, Maids of (in Court Eti- quette). In England, ladies in the queen's household, who attend the queen when she goes out. HONOURS OF WAR. HoBOurabJe terms granted to a vanquished enemy, when he Is permitted to march out of a town v/ith all the iiisignia of military etiquette. IIOOD. An upper covering for the head of a woman. HOOD (at the University). In England, an ornamental fold that hangs down the back of a graduate, to mark his degree. HOOF. The horny part of the foot of a horse or other cattle. HOOK. A bended iron to hang things upon ; also a bent piece of iron or wire attached to a fishing-rod for catching fish. HOOP, or HOOPOE. A bird inhabit- ing Europe, Asia, and Afric^ij wMch is solitary and migratoiy. HOP. A plant with a creeping root, the stalks of which climb and twist about whatever is near them ; wherefore, in hop grounds, poles are fixed near to the plant for them to rise upon. Hops are said to liave been introduced into England from the Netherlands iii the sixteenth century : they are principally used to boil up with beer, in order to prevent it from turning sour, and to give it a strengthening quality. Hops require to be planted in open situa- tions, and in a rich strong ground. The two best sorts are the wliite and the gray bind. These should be planted in hills about eiglit or nine feet asunder. About the beginning of July hops begin to blow, HOR and are ready to gather about the latter end of August J when, by their strong scent, their hardness, and the brown colour of the seed, they may be known to be fit. The best method of drying hops is on a kiln over a charcoal fire ; when the stalks are brittle, and the top leaves easily fall off, they are properly dried. When taken from the kiln, tliey should be laid to cool for three weeks or a month before they are bagged. HORIZON (in Astronomy). A great circle of the sphere, which divides it into upper and lower hemispheres. The appa- rent or sensible horizon is that circle of the heavens which bounds the view of the observer, in distinction from the rational or real horizon, which is a circle encom- passing the earth exactly in the middle. It is represented in the globes by the wooden frame which contains the globe. HORN (in Natural History). The hard, pointed bodies which grow on the heads of some granivorous animals, and serve either for defence or ornament ; also the slender bodies on the heads of insects, &c. HORN (in Chymistry). Is mostly com- posed of albumen, gelatin, and phosphate of lime, but the horns of the buck and stag are of an intermediate nature between horn and bone. HORN (in Music). A wind instrument, chiefly used in hunting and in the chase. HORNBEAM. A tree that has leaves like the elm or beech tree ; it was formerly used in hedgerows. The timber is very tough and inflexible. HORNBLENDE (in Mineralogy). A sort of slaty stoae, of a green and blackish green colour. It is a, very abundant min- eral. HORN-BOOK. The first book for chil- dren, containing the alphabet, which was formerly covered with transparent horn. HORNET. A large, strong, and stinging insect, of the wasp kind. HORN-ORE (in Mineralogy). One of the species of silver ore. HORNPIPE. An animated sort of dance. HORN-STONE. A species of flint. HORNWORK (in Fortification). An outwork which advances towards the field. HOROLOGY. The science which treats on the measuring of portions of time. The principal instruments used in the measur- ing of time are dials, clepsydree or water- clocks, clocks, watches, and in some cases also hour-glasses. The dial was doubtless one of the first instruments contrived for the measuringof time by means of the sun. The first on HOR record is the dial of Ahaz mentioned in Isaiah. TJiis king began to reign 400 years before Alexander, and within 12 years of the building of Rome. The Chal- dee historian Berosus is said to have con- structed a dial on a reclining plane almost parallel to the equator. Aristarchus the Samean, Thales, and others are also men- tioned as the makers of dials. The first sun-dial at Rome was set up by Papirius Cursor in the 460th year of tlie building of the city. The subject of dialling, or of making dials, has particularly occupied the attention of matheuiaticia«s Vvithin the last three centuries. Clavius is tlie first professed writer on the subject. Descliales and Ozanam in their Courses, and WoUius in his Elements,havesimplified the science. M. Picard gave a new metliod of making large dials by calculating the hour lines, and De la Hire, in his Dialling, gave a geometrical method of drawing hour lines from certain points determined by obser- vation. The method of drawing primary dials on easy principles is to be found in the Dialling of Everhard Walper, and the Rudimenta Mathematica of Sebastian jMuu- ster. Among the more modern treatises on this subject may be reckoned that of Wells in his Art of Shadows, Ferguson in his Lectures on Mechanics, Emerson in his Dialling, Leadbetter in his Mechanic Dial- ling, Mr. W. Jones in his Instrumental Dialling, and Bishop Horsley in his Mathe- matical Tracts. Scipio Nasica Was the lirst who con- structed the clepsydra, although it is sup- posed to have been invented by the Egyp- tians under the Ptolemies about 150 years before the Christian era. They serve for measuring time in the winter, as tlie sun- dials do in the summer ; but they had two great defects : the one, that the water ran out with greater or less facility, as the air was more or less dense ; and the other, that the water ran more readily at the beginning than towards the conclusion. The Egyptians, by this machine, measured the course of the sun ; and Tycho Brahe, in modern times, made use of it to mea- sure the motion of the stars, &:c. Dudley also used the same contrivance in making all his maritime observations. The invention of clocks has been ascribed to different authors ; namely, to Boetius in the sixth century, to Paciticus, Archdeacon of Verona, and to Silvester in the tentli century. HOROMETRY. The art of measuring hours. HOROPTER (in Optics). A right line drawn through the point where the two HOR 195 optic axes meet, jjarallel to that which joins the two pupils, HOROSCOPE (in the exploded Science of Astrology) The degree or point of the horizon rising above tlie eastern point of the horizon at any given time, when a prediction was to be made of a future event ; also a scheme or figure of the twelve houses. HORSE. A domestic animal, that excels all others in beauty and usefulness. The most esteemed breeds of horses are, the Barbary or Arabian horses, remarkable for their fleetness ; the English racehorse and hunter, ^vhich combines beauty with swiftne3s; and the English draught-horses, which are distinguished for their size and strength, &c. There is no creature so valuable as the horse, and none that often- times fares worse. The age of a horse under eight years old is mostly to be known by his teeth. The horse has twenty-four grinders ; four tushes, or single teeth ; and twelve front teeth, or gatherers. Mares in general have no tushes. The black mark or cavities denoting the age, are to be found in the corner front teeth, adjoining the tushes. At four years and a half old, the mark teeth are just visible above the gum, and the cavity is distinctly to be seen. At five, the remaining colt's teeth are shed, and the tushes appear. At six, the tushes are up, and appear white, small, and sharp, with a small circle of flesh growing near themj the horse's mouth is then completed, the corner teeth being filled up. At eight, the black marks disappear. HORSE (in Military AfTairs). A body of horsemen. HORSE (among Carpenters). A frame or trestle on which boards or planks are laid to be cut and otherwise worked. HORSE (among Printers). A stage on which pressmen set their heaps of paper for printing, HORSE, A sea term for a rope made 196 HOR fast to one of the shrouds, having a dead man's eye at the end. HORSE-BEAN. A small bean usually given to horses. HORSE-BREAKER. One who breaks in young horses, and fits them for use. HORSE-CHESTNUT. A tree, which yields a prickly nut. HORSEDE ALER. One who buys horses to sell them again. HORSE-DOCTOR. One who undertakes to cure the diseases of horses. HORSE-LEECH.. A large sort of leech that fastens on horses. HORSEMAN. One skilled in riding. HORSEMANSHIP. The art of riding and managing horses. HORSERACE. A match of horses in running. HORSESHOE (in Smithery). A circu- lar piece of iron fitted to the foot of a horse. This shoe is sometimes turned up in the winter season, to prevent the horse from slip)ping : this is called rough-shoeing. As an improvement upon this sort of shoeing, the clips have been made removeable at pleasure by means of a screw. HORSESHOE (in Fortification). A work, sometimes of an oval figure, raised in marshy grounds. HORSESHOEING. The fitting and nailing a shoe to a horse's foot. HORTICULTURE, The art of culti- vating a garden, and rearing the finest kinds of plants.. HORTUS SICCUS. Literally, a dry garden ; an appellation given to a collection of specimens of plants carefully dried and preserved. Various methods have been adopted by botanists for obtaining a hortus siccus 5 but that of pressing the plants, that are to be dried, in a box of sand or with a hot smoothing iron, has been recom- mended. If pressure be employed, that is best effected by means of a botanical press made for the purpose, in which the plants are put, with sheets of dry paper between. At first they ought to be pressed gently, and occasionally taken out in order to see that none of the leaves are rumpled or folded. As they continue to dry, the pres- sure may be increased. When they are sufficiently dried, they may be taken out HOU and laid on dry paper. Plants that are succulent require a longer and harder pres- sure, but for the most part three days' pressure is sufficient. HOS ANNA. A solemn acclamation used by the Jews in the Feast of Tabernacles. HOSE (among Mariners). A leathern tube for conveying water from the main decks into the casks. HOSIERY. Stockings, and other goods in a shop that are spun or wove. HOSPITAL. A house, erected out of charity, for the support and relief of the sick and poor. HOSPITALLERS. An order of knights who built an hospital at Jerusalem for the entertainment of pilgrims. HOST. The consecrated wafers in the Roman Catholic communion. HOSTAGE. A person left as a surety for the performance of the articles of a treaty HOTBED. A bed made in a wooden frame with horse-dung, and covered with glasses, for raising early plants. HOTCH-POT. Properly, flesh cut into small pieces, and stewed with herbs and roots; in Law, in England, the putting lands together, that belong to coparceners, for the purpose of distributing them equally. HOTHOUSE. A building, constructed in a garden, for the rearing of exotics and tender plants that require heat, HOUND. A kind of sporting dog. having pendulous ears, and very strong scent. HOUND'S TONGUE. A plant culti- vated in gardens, bearing a pink flower. HOUR. The twenty-fourth part of a natural day; the space of sixty minutes. HOUR-GLASS. A glass for measuring the hours by the running of the sand from one part of the vessel to another. HOUSE. A building, constructed with all conveniences for habitation. HOUSE (among Genealogists). A noble family, or an illustrious race descended from the same stock. HOUSE (in Astrology). The twelfth part of the heavens. HOUSEHOLD. The whole of a family. HUR including the mistress, children, and ser- vants. To his majesty's household in England, belong several officers, as the lord steward, the lord chamberlain, &c. HOUSEHOLDER. An occupier or master of a house. HOUSELEEK. A plant with a perennial root, that grows on the roofs of houses or the tops of walls. HOWITZER. A kind of mortar, mount- ed upon a carriage like a gun. HOY. A small vessel for carrj'ing pas- sengers from one place to another. HUE AND CRY (in Law). The com- mon law process of pursuing a felon. HUGUENOTS. The Protestants of France, so called by way of contempt in the sixteenth century. HULK. Any old vessel.- that is laid by, unfit for further service. HULKS. Old vessels, stationed in the river Thames, in England, wherein con- victs are kept to hard labour. HULL. The main body of a ship. HUMMING-BIRD- The smallest of all birds, which extracts the nectar from the flowers with a humming noise like tliat of a bee. HYD 197 HUMOURS OF THE EYE. Are three ; namely, the aqueous or wateiy humour, which lies in the fore part of the globe ; the crystalline, or icy, next to the aqueous ; and the vitreous or glassy humour, which is larger than the rest, and fills the back- ward cavity of the eye. HUNDRED. A number consisting of ten multiplied by ten. HUNDRED (in Law). A part of a shire or county, which formerly consisted often tithings, or ten times ten households. HUNDRED-WEIGHT. A measure of weight, equal to 112 lbs. 5 commonly de- noted by the abbreviation cict. HURDLES. Frames of split wood or willows wattled together, serving for sheepfolds or fences. HURDLES (in Fortification). Frames of osier twigs laden with earth, for making batteries. ! HURRICANE. A storm of wind, fre- quent in the East and West Indies, which arises from the conflict of opposite winds. HUSBANDRY. The practical part of agriculture. HUSH-MONEY (in Law). A bribe given to a person not to reveal something to which he is privy. HUSSARS. Hungarian horsemen, said to be so called from the huzza or shout which they gave at the onset in battle. HYACINTH (in Botany). A bulbous plant, the leaves of which are long and nar- row, the stalk upright and naked, and the flower growing on the upper part of a spike. HYACINTH (in Mineralogy). A sort of pellucid gem of a red colour with a mixture of yellow. HYADES. A cluster of five stars in tlie face of the constellation Taurus. HY/ENA. A ferocious beast, nearly al- lied to the wolf and dog. It infests burying grounds, and seizes whatever comes in its way. HYBRID. An epithet for any animal whose sire is of one kind, and dam of another kind. HYDATID. An animal substance, in shape like a bladder, and distended with an aqueous fluid, which grows in the vis- cera of the human body. HYDRA. A fabulous monster with many heads, that is said to have infested the lake Leonoea. HYDRA (in Asttonomy). A southern constellation. HYDRANGEA. A greenhouse plant, bearing a flower with a large head. HYDRATE (in Modern Chymistry). The combination of water with other bodies in a solid state, as slacked lime, which, being a combination of lime and water, is a hydrate of lime. HYDRAULICON, or Water-Orgait (in Music). An instrument acted upon by wa- ter. HYDRAULICS. That part of statics which treats of the motions of fluids, par- ticularly of water issuing from orifices in reservoirs, or moving pipes, tubes, canals, rivers, &c. Among the machines which serve for the display of the phenomena of hydraulics, are the syphon, the pump, and the fire-engine. Among the moderns, the terms Hydraulics and Hydrodynamics are employed indifferently to denote this sci- ence. See HyDRODTNAMics. HYDRODYNAMICS. Is properly that science which treats of the power or force of water, whether it acts by impulse or pressure ; but in an extended sense, it is that branch of mechanics which treats of the motion of liquids or nonelastic fluids, and the forces with which they act on other bodies. 198 HYD HYDRODYNAMICS, History of. Al- though the doctrine of fluids and their motion is but partially treated by the an- cients, yet, as respects the action of water in rivers, fountains, and aqueducts, it is certain that they must have had a consi- derable portion of practical knowledge. Aristotle treats on the nature of subterra- neous waters, as also of those which are above. Hero of Alexandria made an arti- ficial fountain, which bears his name. The Romans displayed their acquaintance with the art of carrying waters, in their famous aqueducts; and Frontinus, an engineer, who wrote on this subject, has given some few rules and hints on the motion of fluids. It is, however, only within the three last centuries, that this subject has attracted any particular notice. Benedict Castelli was the first who, in his treatise Dell' Amesura dell' Acque Current!, investigated the measure of the flux of waters, which lie found to depend upon the area of the section and the velocity of the water con- jointly . Since his time, many discoveries and theorems have been made on the mo- tions of fluids by Sir Isaac Newton in his Principia; Daniel Bernouilli, in his Hy- drodynamique ; D' Alembert, in his. Traite des Flu ides 5 M. Bossut, in his Hydrody- namique; M. Buat, in his Principes d?Hy,- draulique; and M, Ey telwein, in his Hand- buch der Mechanik und der Hydraulik. HYDROGEN GAS. A constituent of water and the lightest species of ponder- able matter hitherto known, which was discovered by Mr. Cavendish in 1766. It is an inflammable air, or an invisible aeri- form fluid, which burns rapidly when kin- dled, in contact with atmospheric air, and forms what are now termed gas-lights. When combined with oxygen, it produces water. It is unfit for respiration, so that animals, when obliged to breathe it, die almost immediately. HYDROGRAPHY. A description of rivers, bays, lakes,, and other pieces of water. I HYDROLOGY. That part of natural history which treats of and explains the nature and properties of waters in general. HYDROMETER.. An- instrument- for measuring the density and gravity, &c. of water and other liquids. That which is designed simply for ascertaining the specif- ic gravity of different waters ismore conir monly called an aerometer or watcrpoise, the term hydrometer being more commonly used to denote an instrument for measuring the specific gravity of spirits, though some- times used indifferently for either. Dr. Desaguliers contrived an hydrometer for HYD determining the specific gravities of differ- ent waters to such a nicety, that it would show when one kind of water was but the 40,000th part heavier than another. HYDROMETRY. The mensuration of fluids, as to their density, gravity, &c. HYDROPHOBIA, i. e. A Dread of Ys^ATER. A distemper arising from the bite of a mad dog, which is always accompanied with a horror of water and other liquids, HYDROSCOPE. An instrument an- ciently used for the measuring of time. HYDROSTATICAL BALANCE. A kind of balance contrived for the finding the specific gravities of bodies solid as well as fluid. HYDROSTATICAL BELLOWS. A machine for showing the upward pressure of fluids, and the hydrostatical paradox. HYDROSTATICAL PARADOX. A principle in hydrostatics, so called because it has a paradoxical appearance at first view; it is this, that any quantity of water or other fluid, how small soever, may be made to balance and support any quantity or any weight, however great it may be. HYDROSTATICS. The science which treats of the laws regulating the motions, pressure, gravitation, and equilibrium of fluid bodies, particularly water, and also lAM of solid bodies immerged therein. This science is divided into three branches, namely, hydrostatics, properly so called, which treats of fluids in an equilibrium, their density, gravity, &c.; hydraulics, which treats of fluids in a state of motion; and pneumatics, which treats of elastic fluids. These two last branches will be found explained in their respective places. The first branch of hj^drostatics engaged the attention of Archimedes, who appears to have first attempted to determine the specific gravity of bodies, in consequence of the following circumstance. Hiero, king of Syracuse, having reason to suspect that a goldsmith, whom he employed to make him a crown ofgold, had adulterated it with a quantity of silver, he requested Archimedes to detect the cheat. Accord- ingly this philosopher procured two masses of gold and silver of equal weight with the crown, which he immersed in a vessel full of water, at the same time carefully noticing the quantity of water which each displaced; after which he immersed the crown of gold also in the same vessel, and, by comparing the quantity of water which flowed over each time, he was enabled to ascertain the proportions ofgold and silver in the crown. He is said to have been led to this idea by observing on one occa- sion, whilst he was bathing, that as he immerged his body, the water ran over the bath, whence he concluded that the water which ran out when his whole body was immerged was equal in bulk to his body; and on the same principle he con- sidered that if the crown were altogether of gold, the ball of gold, being of the same bulk as the crown, would, when immersed, raise the water just as high as the crown immersed, but if it were wholly of silver, the ball of silver being immersed would raise the water no higher than the crown immersed; and if the crown was of gold and silver mixed in a certain propor- tion, this proportion would be discovered ICH 199 by the height to which the crown would raise the water higher than the gold and lower than the silver. The authors who have treated further on this subject may be found under the article Hydrodynamics. HYGROMETER. An instrument for measuring the degree of moisture and dry- ness of the atmosphere. HYMEiV. The god of marriage. HYMENOPTERA. An order of insects in the Linntean system, having membra- naceous wings, as the gall-fly, the saw-fly, the bee, the wasp, the ichneumon, &.c. HYPERBOLA. One of the curves formed by cutting a cone obliquely to its axis; and if the plane be produced so as to cut the opposite cone, another hyper- bola will be formed, which is called the opposite hyperbola to the former. HYPERBOLE. An exaggerated repre- sentation of any thing. HYPOCHONDRIAC. One troubled with the spleen or melancholy. HYPOTHENUSE. The longest side of a right-angled triangle. HYPOTHESIS. A principle taken for granted, in order to draw conclusions therefrom for the proof of a point in question. HYSSOP. A plant with long narrow leaves, bearing a crest of flowers. It is doubtful whether this be the hyssop men- tioned in Scriiiture. HYSTERICS. Spasmodic, convulsive affections of the nerves, to which women are particularly subject. I, the ninth letter of the alphabet, used as a numeral signifies one, and stands for any numbers of units as often as it is re- peated, as II, two, III, three, &c. When placed before a higher numeral, it dimi- nishes it by one, as IV, four, IX, nine; and when after, it increases it by one, as XI, eleven, XII, twelve, XIII, thirteen, &c. IAMBIC VERSE. Verses composed of iambic feet, that is, a short and a long foot alternately. IBIS. A bird like a stork, which was worshipped in Egypt. ICEHOUSE. A house in which ice is deposited against the warm months. ICH DIEN, i. e. I serve. The motto on the arms of the Prince of Wales in Eng- land, first taken by Edward the Black Prince. 200 ICH IB. IBID, or IBIDEM. The same. IBEX. An European variety of the goat with very long horns. ICHNEUMON. An Egyptian animal of the weasel kind that feeds upon the eggs of the crocodile. ICHNEUMON (in Entomology). A sort of fly, which deposits its eggs in the bodies of other insects. ICHNOGRAPHY (in Architecture). The ground plan of a building. ICHNOGRAPHY (in Fortification). A draught of the length and breadth of the works raised about a place. ICHTHYOLOGY. That branch of gene- ral zoology which treats of fishes. These animals are divided into five orders, name- ly, into apodal, or those which have no ventral fins; jugular, which have the ven- tral fins placed more forward than the pectoral; abdominal, or those which have the ventral fins situated behind; thoracic, or those which have their ventral fins situ- ated immediately under the pectoral; and the cartilaginous fishes, which have a car- tilaginous instead of a bony skeleton. ICHTHYOLOGY, History of. The subject of fishes has engaged the attention of naturalists from the time of Aristotle to the present period. Aristotle, probably the first writer on the subject, divided fishes into cetaceous, spinose, and cartilaginous; he was, after a long interval, followed by several others, who treated of the fishes of particular places, as Ovid, v/ho treats of IHS the fishes of the Euxine, Appian of those of the Adriatic, and Ausonius of those of the Moselle, &c.; among the moderns there are also some who have treated this subject partially, as Paul Jovius, who described the fishes of the Mediterranean, Schwenk- felt those of Silesia, Schonefelt those of Hamburgh, Marcgrave the fishes of Brazil, Russell and Francis Valentine those of Amboyna. Pliny was a general writer on the subject, and pursued no method; iElian and Athenceus have only scattered notices of some few fishes. Among the moderns, Bellonius, Rondeletius, Gesner, Willughby, Ray, Artedi, and LinnBeus have done most towards reducing this science to a systematic order. ICOSANDRIA (in Botany). The twelfth class in the Linneean system, including plants with twenty stamens or more to their flowers, as the melon, Indian fig, pomegranate, plum, &o. IDIOM. A manner of expression pecn- liar to any language. IDIOSYNCRACY. A peculiarity of constitution. IDOL. Properly an image; but particu- larly the image of any false god. IDOLATRY. The worshipping of idols. IDYLL. A little pastoral poem, treating of shepherds and shepherdesses, such aa the Idylls of Theocritus, Gesner, &c. I. E. ID EST. That is. IGNIS FATUU9. See Jack with the Lantern. IGNITION (in Chymistry.) The appli- cation of fire to metals, till they become red hot without melting. IGNORAMUS. An ignorant fellow, a pretender to knowledge. IGNORAMUS (in Law). The term used by the Grand Jury when they ignore or throw out a bill of indictment. It denotes ' We know nothing about it, or have not sufficient evidence respecting it.' IGNORING A BILL (in Law). The throwing out a bill of indictment by a grand jury, who indorse it with the word ' ignoramus,' I. 11, S. An abbreviation for Jesus Ho- minum Salvator, i. e. Jesus the Saviour of Mankind. IMP ILEX. The name formerly for the holm oak, but now the generic name for the holly, ILIAC PASSION. A nervous colic. ILLUMINATING. The art of laying colours on initial capitals in books, or otherwise embellishing manuscript books, as was formerly done by artists called illuminators. IMAGE (in Optics). The appearance of an object made either by reflection or re- fraction. IMMEMORIAL (in Law). An epithet for any custom that has existed time out of mind, or beyond the memory of man. IMMERSION (in Physiology), The act of plunging any thing into water, or any other fluid. IMMERSION (in Astronomy). The term is applied to a planet when it comes so near the sun that we cannot see it; also the beginning of the eclipse of the moon, or that moment when she begins to be darkened. IMMOVEABLE (in Law). Things not liable to be carried away, real property, as land, &g. IMMOVEABLE FEASTS. Such as are constantly on the same day of the month, a§ Christmas, Sec. IMPACT. The single or simple act of one body upon another, so as to put it in motion. IMPARLANCE (in Law). A petition in court for a day to consider or advise, what answer the defendant shall make to the plaintiff's declaration. IMPEACHMENT (in Law). The accu- sation of a person for treason or other crimes and misdemeanors. In England, an impeachment by the commons is of the nature of a presentment to the house of lords, the supreme court of criminal juris- diction. The articles of impeachment found by the commons are tlie same as a bill of indictment, which is to be tried by the lords. In the case of Warren Hastings, it was determined that an mipeachment does not abate by the dissolution of parlia- ment. IMPERATIVE (in Grammar). One of the moods of a verb, used when we would command, entreat, or advise. IMPERSONAL VERB (in Grammar). A verb used only in the third person. IMPLEMENTS. All things necessary for following any mechanical business, as tools, furniture, &c. IMPORTATION. The bringing goods into a country. IMPOSTS (in Architecture). The capi- tals of pillars which support arches. IMPRESSING (in England). A compul- INC 201 scry mode of obtaining men for the king's service in the navy. IMPRESSION (among Printers). The number of copies of any book printed off at one time. IMPRIMATUR, i. e. Let it be printed. The form of a license for printing a book, which was formerly required in England. IMPRIMIS. In the first place. IMPROMPTU, i. e. off hand, without preparation, applied particularly to poetic efl'usions of the moment. IMPROPRIATION (in England). The act of impropriating or employing the reve- nues of a church living to one's own use. Lay impropriation is an ecclesiastical living in the hands of a layman. IMPROVISATORE. One who repeats or recites verses extemporaneously, as is the practice in Italy. This gift of reciting extemporaneous verses has been carried to a high pitch, it being no uncommon thing to see two masks meeting during the car- nival, and challenging each other in verse, and answering stanza for stanza in a sur- prising manner. j IMPULSE, or Impetus (in Mechanics). The single or momentary force with which one body strikes or impels another. IN. An abbreviation for inch. INACCESSIBLE HEIGHT. A dis- tance which cannot be measured by reason of some obstacle in the way, as a river, a ditch, &.C. INARCHING. A method of ingrafting called grafting by approach, where the stock and tree are properly joined. INAUGURATION (in England). The ceremony performed at the coronation of a king, or making a knight of the garter. INCA. The prince of the ancient Pe- ruvians. INCARNATION. The act of assuming body, or taking flesh, as the Incarnation of our blessed Saviour. INCENDIARY (in Law). He who seta fire to houses maliciously. INCH. A measure of length, being the twelfth part of a foot. INCIDENCE, or Line of Incidence (in Mechanics). The direction or inclina- tion, in which one body acts or strikes on another. INCIDENCE (in Optics). The place where two rays meet. INCLINATION. The mutual tendency of two bodies or planes to each other. INCOME. Revenue, profit, or produce from any thing. INCOME TAX (in England). A tax imposed, during the late war, on the an- nual gains of every person. 202 INC INCOGNITO, or INCOG (in Europe). Literally, unknown, not to be recognised; a mode of travelling without any mark of distinction, which is sometimes adopted by princes and great people who do not wish to be recognised. INCLINED PLANE (in Mechanics). A plane inclined to the horizon, or making an angle with it, which is one of the me- chal^icaJ powers. INCOMBUSTIBLE. A body that is incapable of undergoing combustion. INCOMBUSTIBLE CLOTH. A sort of cloth made from a stone in the form of a talc; which stone is called lapis amianthus, and asbestos. INCOMMENSURABLE (in Geometry). A term applied to two lines or quantities which have no common measure by which they can be divided. INCORPORATION (in Law). The formation of a body politic. INCORPORATION (in Chymistry). The mingling the particles of different bodies together into one mass, in such manner that the different ingredients can- not be distinguished. INCREMENT (in Fluxions). The small increase of a variable body. Dr. Brook Taylor, to whom we are indebted for the doctrine of increments or finite differences, denoted his increments by a dot under the variable quantity, thus the increment of a; was denoted by x; others have employed a Bmall accent, thus z', or thus ,x. M. Nicole uses another letter to denote the increment of X, or any variable, as by n; but Euler employs the character A, thus Az the in- crement of X, and Ay the increment of y. Pr. Brook Taylor first published his Me- thodus Incrementorumin 1715, which was afterwards illustrated by M. Nicole in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences for the years 1717, 1723, and 1724. In 1723, Emerson published his method of Increments; but the writer who contri- buted most to the elucidation of this sub- ject was Euler, who, in his Institutiones Calculi Differentialis, gave a new and ex- tended form to this branch of analysis. Various other writers have since treated on this subject, among whom Lacroix, in his Traites des Differences, &c. is thought to have been the most happy. INCUBATION. The process of a bird sitting on eggs and hatching its youngj IND the time required for this varies in differ- ent birds, domestic fowls sit three weeka ducks, geese, and turkeys a month, pigeons eighteen days, &c. INCUBUS, or Night Mare. A disease which consists in an obstructed respira- tion, that produces the sensation in sleep, of a vi^eight pressing on the breast. INCUMBENT. One in present posses- sion of a benefice. INDECLINABLE. Not varied by ter- minations, as an indeclinable noun. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. Words that are loose and undetermined in their meaning, as whatsoever, any, every, &c. INDEMNITY (in Law). The saving harmless; or a writing to secure one from all damage and danger that may ensue from any act. INDEMNITY, Act of (in England). An act passed every session of parliament, for the relief of those who have neglected to take the necessary oaths, &:,c. INDENTURE (in Law). An agreement or contract made between two or more persons, so called, because it was indented or cut scollop wise, so as to correspond with another writing containing the same words. INDEPENDENTS. A sect of Protest- ants in England and Holland, who govern themselves in their own congregations, without acknowledging any dependance u^pon, or connexion with any other church. INDEX (in Arithmetic and Algebra). The number that shows to what power the quantity is to be raised, as in 10^, the figure 3 is the exponent or index. INDEX (in Watchmaking). The little stile or hand fitted either to a clock oj watch, &c. INDEX (in Literature). An alphabetical table of the Contents of a book. INDIAN ARROW ROOT. The root of a plant growing in the West Indies, where it was formerly used as an antidote against poisons. INDIAN FIG. Ficus Indica in the Lin- ntean system; another name for the Banian tree. INDIAN RUBBER, or Caout-chouc. An elastic gum, a substance procured from a tree in South America, called the sypho- nia elastica. It is mostly brought into Europe in the shape of bottles, which are formed by spreading the gum over a mould of clay. INDIAN WHEAT. See Maize. INDICATIVE MOOD (in Grammar). That mood of a verb which simply affirms or denies. INDICTED (in Law). That is, accused INF of some offence by bill preferred to jurors. INDICTION, or Cycle of Indiction (in Chronology). A mode of computing time by the space of fifteen years, instituted by Constantine the Great. The popes, since the time of Charlemagne, have dated their acts by the year of the indiction, which was fixed on the first of January. At the time of the reformation of the calendar the year 1582 was reckoned the tenth year of the indiction. Now this date when divided by fifteen leaves a remainder seven, that is three less than the indiction, and the same must necessarily be the case in all subse- quent cases, so that in order to find the indiction for any year divide the date by fifteen and add three to the remainder. INDICTMENT. A bill or accusation drawn up in form of law, and exhibiting some offence, which is preferred to a grand jury preparatory to the trial in open court. INDIGENOUS. Native, as applied to animals and plants. INDIGO. A beautiful blue colour or dye procured from a plant called by the Americans, anil; in the Linnaean system, Indigofera. The indigo used by the diers is a ffficula procured from the leaves of the plant, which are laid in vats full of water, and left to ferment. The liquor is then drawn off into another vat, and after having been well stirred up, it is drawn off, and what remains at tJie bottom is ex- posed to the air until it is thoroughly dry, when it is fit for use. The principal con- stituent parts of indigo are mucilaginous, resinous, and earthy matter, with some oxide of iron. INDORSING. See Endorsing. INDUCTION (in England). Putting a clerk in possession of his living. INDUCTION (in Logic). A mode of argumentation or reasoning, wben the species is gathered ont of the individuals, and the genus out of tbe species, S (among Mariners). Short pieces of rope fastened to several parts of a ship. LAPIDARY (in Commerce). One who polishes and engraves stones. LAPIS INFERNALIS. A sort of caustic composition. LAPIS LAZULI (in Painting). A stone of an azure or blue colour, of which the paint called ultramarine is made. It is a copper ore, very compact and hard, and is found in lumps of a beautiful blue colour, richly variegated with clouds of white and veins, of shining gold colon:;. LAPSE (in Law). An omission on the- part of the patron to present to a benefice withhi six months after it is vacant, upon wliich default the ordinary has a right to collate to the said benefice. LAPSED LEGACY. Fallen or lost by a lapse, as where the legatee dies before the testator, &c. LAPWING. See Peewit. LARBOARD. A sea term for the left hand side of a ship, when looking towards the stem or head. L ARC ENY. The felonious and fraudu- lent taking away the personal goods of another, which in England, is petty larceny if the thing be of the value of twelve pence or under, and grand larceny if above that value. LARCH. A lofty tree of the pine kind, bearing leaves like those of the pine, and a sort of mushroom for the fruit. The gum of this tree is called Venice turpentine. The leaves fall off in winter. The timber, which is remarkably durable, is used in building ships. LARDER. The room where meat is kept and salted. LARES. The domestic or household gods among the Romans, placed in soma private part of the house, which the family honoured as their protector. LARGE (in Music). The greatest mea- .<3ure of musical quantities ; one large con- taining two longs. LARGE, A sea phrase for the wind, when it crosses the line of a ship's course in a favourable direction. LARGESS (in Husbandry). A gift to the labourers in the harvest season. LARGO (in Music). A slow move- ment. LARK. A well known singing bird, the most remarkable species of which is the skylark, that sings so beautifully as it is soaring in the air. This bird is not found in America. Our meadow lark bears some resemblance to it, but is nearly twice as large. LARKSPUR. A plant cultivated in gardens, the flower of which consists of many dissimilar petals or leaves, some of which end in a tail or spur. LARVA. The grub or caterpillar state of some insects so called by Linneeus, but by others the eruca or caterpillar. LARUM. A sort of clock that makes a noise or alarm at a certain hour. LARYNX (in Anatomy). The top of the windpipe, below the root of the tongue. LASSO. A rope with a noose, used in South America for catching wild cattle." LAST. A measure or weight, as a last of corn, &c. equal to ten quarters, and a last of cod fish, &:c. equal to from twelve to twenty-four barrels. LATH (in Carpentry). A long, thin, piece of wood, nailed to the rafters of a wall or roof to receive the plaster or covering. Laths are distinguished accord- ing to tlie wood of whicli they are made, into hearts of oak, sap laths, and deal laths. LATHE (in Turnery). The engine used in turning wood, EECIIES. A sea term for the edges of a sail. LEEK. A potherb having long cylindri- cal and coated roots. It has sometliing of the fiavour of the onion. LEES. The dregs-of wine. LEET. In England, a little court within a manor, having a criminal jurisdiction. LEG (in. Anatomy). A limb, and that part of the animal body which serves for walking. LEG (among Artificers). Whatever serves for the support of a thing, as the leg of a stool, &:c. LEG (in Mathematics). The two sides of a triangle are called the legs. LEG. A sea term for ropes put through the bolt ropes of the main and foresail. LEGACY (in Law). A bequest or gift by testament of any personal effects ; the person bequeathing is called the testator, and he to whom it is bequeathed Che legatee. LEGATE,. A cardinal or bishop sent by the pope as his ambassador to sovereign princes. LEGEND. A book used in the ancient Roman churoliesj containing the lessons that were to be read ; also a chronicle or register of the- lives of saints. LEGEND (among Antiquarians). The inscription on the edge of a medal or coin.. LEGERDEMAIN, or Slight of Hakd. Tricks which,, from the dexterity of the performer, ai-e made to deceive the ob- server. LEGION (in thg Roman army). A body of 6000 foot and 300 horse, or less. LEGUMEN. All manner of pulse. LEGUMEN (in Botany). That species of seed vessel vulgarly termed a pod, as the seed vessel of the pea, vetch, lupine, LEMMA. A proposition in Mathematics, which serves to prepare the way for the demonstration of some theorem. LEMMING. A species of animals of the rat kind; the Lapland lemming migrates LEN at the approach of winter, and rather than deviate from his straiglit course he will perish in attempting to surmount obstacles that lie in his way. LEMONADE. A drink made of water, lemons, and sugar. LEMON TREE. A varietj' of the citron tree, which grows in the south of Europe, and yields the fruit that bears the same name. LET 223 LEMUR. A genus of quadrupeds some- what resembling the monkey in the form of the feet, but widely different from that- animal in its manners and temper. Two of these animals brought from India lately, and exhibited in Boston, would walk back- ward and forward on a small tight cord, usijig their tails for balance poles,. LENS. A piece of glass or other trans- parent substance of the figure of a lentil, which either collects the rays of light into a point, in their passage through ir, or dis- perses them according to their form and the laws of refraction. The convex lens converges the rays of light, and the con- cave disperses the rays. If only one side is convex and the other plane, it is called a plano-convex lens, such as A in the fol- lowing figure ; if convex on both sides, it is a double convex lens, as B. The con- cave lenses are also divided into the plano- concave, as C, concavo-concave, as D, and the meniscus, which is concave on one side and convex on the other, as B. LENT. A time of fasting and abstinence for forty days before Easter. LENTILS. A sort of pulse. LEO (in Astronomy). A constellation, and one of the twelve signs of the zodiac, marked thus ^. LEOPARD. An African animal of the cat kind covered with black spots upon a yellow ground, so disposed, as to resemble the print of its foot. It is one of the most beautifuLof all quadrupeds. LEPIDOPTERA. An order of insects in the Linna?an system, which have their wings imbricated with scales, as the but- terfly, moth, &.C. LEPROSY (in Medicine). A foul cuta- neous disease^ appearing in dr>', white, thin, scurfy scabs. LEPUS (in Astronomy). The Hare, a constellation in the southern hemisphere. LE ROY LE VEUT,i. e. The king wills it. In England the form of words by which the king signifies his assent to the bills that have passed the two houses, after which they acquire the force of laws. LE ROY S'AVISERA, i. e. The king will consider of it. The form of words by which he refuses his assent to any bills that are presented to him. LETHARGY. A disease arising from cold, phlegmatic humours which oppress the brain, and cause an incessant drowsi- ness. LETHE. A river in hell, which, accord- ing to the poets, caused all who drank of it to forpet the past. LETTER (in Grammar). A character in the alphabet, used to express the simple sounds of the voice, which in every lan- guage are collected into a series called the 224 LEV alphabet. Letters are composed of vowels and consonants, and form words. LETTER (in Printing). The type or character which is used in composing. LETTER (in Commerce). Any writing sent from one person to another. LETTER OF ADVICE. A letter written by a merchant to his correspondent, ad- vising or giving him notice of what bills he has drawn upon him. LETTER OF ATTORNEY (in Law). A writing whereby a person constitutes another to do a lawful act in his stead, as to receive debts, &c. LETTER OF CREDIT (among Mer- chants). A writing by one merchant to another, desiring him to credit the bearer with a certain sum of money. LETTER OF MARaUE. An extraor- dinary commission, granted under the king's seal, to merchants or others in the time of war, to make reprisals on the enemy. LETTUCE. A garden herb much used as a salad. LEUCITE. A stone of the garnet kind. LEVEL. An instrument used to make a line parallel to the horizon. The plumb level is that which shows the horizontal line by means of another line perpendicu- lar to that described by a plummet or pendulum, which instrument consists of two legs or branches, joined together at right angles, whereof that which carries the thread and plummet is about a foot and a half long, the tln-ead is hung towards the top of the branch. A telescope is placed on the horizontal branch of the in- strument, having a hair placed horizontally across the focus of the object glass, which determines the point of the level. The telescope is fastened by a ball and socket. LEVEE. In England, a company of the nobility, gentry, fee. who assemble to pay their respects to the king. It consists of gentlemen only, by which it is distin- LEY guished from a drawingroom, where ladies as well as gentlemen attend. The term is also applied to the evening assemblies at the president's house in Washington. LEVELLING. The art of finding a line parallel to the horizon at one or more stations, in order to determine the height of one place in respect to another. The subjoined figure shows the manner of find- ing the diffei-ence of the level of a place, where there is a level line and two sights level with each other, whereby the per- pendicular distance between the surface of the ground and any point in the level line may be discovered. The art of levelling is particularly applied to the laying out grounds even, regulating descents, drain- ing morasses, conducting water, &;c. LEVELLING (in Fortification). The reducing an uneven surface to that of a plane, so that the works may be of a cor- responding height and figure. LEVER. One of the six powers, which m^ay consist of any instrument, as a straight bar of iron or wood, as A B, supported upon a fulcrum or prop, C, having a weight, W, at one end, a power, P, at the other. Then A C and B C are the arms of the lever. Of this kind are balances, scales, pincers, &c. LEVERET. A young hare. LEVIGATION. The mechanical pro- cess of grinding the parts of bodies to a fine paste, by rubbing the flat face of a stone called a muUer, upon another stone called the table or slab. LEVITE. One of the tribe of Levi, or belonging to the priestly office. LEXICOGRAPHY. The art of writing dictionaries. LEYDEN PHIAL, or Leitden Jar. LIB So called from M. Vankleigh, of Leydon, who first observed its properties. A glass jar, having the outside and the inside coated with tin foil, and a brass wire, the upper part of which terminates in a ball of the same metal, and the lower part in a chain that communicates with the in- side. This jar admits of being charged so as to produce the electrical shock and various other experiments illustrative of the power of electricity. LIG 225 LIBATION. A sacrifice among the Greeks and Romans, which consisted in offering up some liquid to the gods. LIBEL (in Law). An injurious reproach or accusation written or published against the government, a magistrate, or a private person. LIBEL (in the Ciril Law). The decla- ration or charge drawn up in writing, as is used in the ecclesiastical courts. LIBERAL ARTS. Such as are fit for gentlemen and scholars. LIBERTY (in Law). A privilege by which men enjoy some favour or benefit, beyond the ordinary subject. LIBERTY OF CONSCIENCE. The liberty of following any profession of reli- gion, which one pleases, without any con- ti'ol from government. LIBERTY (in the Manege). A void space in the middle of a bitt of a bridle, to give place to the tongue of a horse. LIBRA (in Astronomy). A constellation, and one of the twelve signs of the zodiac, marked thus (i£b). LIBRARIAN. One who has charge of a library. LIBRARY. A large collection of books, also the place which contains them. The first library spoken of in history was that formed by Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens. Euraenes, king of Pergamus, also formed a library of 200,000 volumes ; but the li- brary of Alexandria, formed by Ptolemy Philadelphus, contained 700,000. Among the libraries of the moderns, that of the Bodleian, at Oxford, England, holds a high rank. The king's library at Paris has 400,000 volumes. LIBRATION (in Mechanics). The swinging motion of a pendulum. LIBRATION OF THE MOON (in As- tronomy). An apparent irregularity in her motion. LIBRATION OF THE EARTH. That motion of the earth by vvliich.it always retains the parallelism of its axis in its orbit round the sun. LICENSE (in Law). A power or au- thority given to a person to do some act that is not unlawful. LICHENS. A kind of plant, otherwise called liverwort, which is of the natural order of the algte. LIEUTENANT. In England, one who supplies the place of another, as the lord lieutenant of Ireland, who is a viceroy, or the lord lieutenant of a countj', &c. LIEUTENANT (in Military and Naval AlTairs). The officer next in rank and pow- er to a captain ; also one who conunands in the absence of his superior officer, as the lieutenant-general, the officer next to the general, who in battle commands one of the wings, in a march a detacbment, at a siege a quarter, when it is bis day of duty; so likewise the lieutenant-gene lal of the artillery, the lieutenant-colonel, ifcc. Lieutenants in ships of war are next ia rank to the captain. LIFE ANNUITIES. Annual payments depending on the life of another. LIFE BOAT. A particular kind of boat used on the coast, to preserve persons from the wrecks of vessels. LIFE ESTATES. Estates not of inher* itance. LIFE GUARDS (in England). The body guard of the king. LIGAMENTS. Substances in an animal body, between a cartilage and a membrane, harder than the latter and softer than the former, which serve to strengthen the juncture, particularly of the bones. 226 LIM LIGATURE (in Surgery). The disposing of bandages for closing wounds. LIGATURE (among Printers). Type consisting of two letters in one piece, as ff, &c. LIGHT (in Optics'). The sensation which arises from beholding any objectj or the cause of that sensation. The nature and properties of light, and the changes which it undergoes in passing through bodies, form a principal part of the science of op- tics. LIGHT (in Painting). That part of a piece which is illumined. LIGHT (in Architecture). Lights are the apertures in a house. LIGHT (in Military Affairs). An epithet for soldiers lightly armed, as lighthorse, or lightinfantry. LIGHTER. A large vessel for carrying goods. LIGHTERAGE. Money paid for the carrying goods in a lighter. LIGHTERMAN. One who conducts a lighter. LIGHTHOUSE. A tower or lofty build- ing on the seacoast, having a light in it, for the guidance of mariners at night. It is mostly erected upon a cape or promon- tory, or upon some rock in the sea, and is furnished with several lamps, for the pur- pose of giving a great light that may be seen at a distance, and prevent the marin- ers from running ashore or steering a wrong course. LIGHTNING. A flash of light issuing from the clouds, that accompanies thunder. It is properly an electrical explosion, which sometimes bursts upon houses, trees, or other objects, and does much mis- chief. LIGNUM VIT^. A hard wood, the produce of a West Indian tree. LILAC. A tree of the syringa tribe, which bears a pretty flower early in the spring. LILY. A plant with a bulbous and perennial root, the flower of which is six petalled and campanulated. LIMB. A jointed or articulated part of an animal body. LIMB (in Astronomy). The utmost edge or border of the body of the sun or moon. LIMB (in Mathematics). The utmost edge or border of an instrument. LliME. A fruit like a lemon, the juice of which is a strong acid. LIME (in Mineralogy). An earthy sub- stance, which is found purest in limestone, marble, and chalk, and is procured by burning in a white heat. It is of a white LIN colour, and easily reduced to a powder. If water be poured on newly burnt lime, it swells and falls to a powder, in which state it is called slacked lime. LIME (in Botany). A tree of the orange kind, that grows in warm climates. LIME KILNS. Furnaces in which lime- stone is converted into lime by burning. LIMESTONE. The native carbonate of lime, which is generally rather blue, from the presence of iron. LIMIT (in Mathematics). A determi- nate quantity, to which a variable one continually approaches. LIMITATION (in Law). A certain time prescribed by statute, within which an action must be brought. LIMNING. The art of painting in wa- ter colours. LINCHPIN, or LINSPIN. An iron pin that keeps the wheel on the axle-tree. LINE (in Geometry). A quantity ex- tended in length only. Lines are either curves or right lines. LINE (in Fortification). Whatever is drawn on the ground of the field, as a trench, or a row of gabions, &c. LINE (in Military Affairs). Regular troops, in distinction from the militia, volunteers, &c. LINE, or a Ship of the Line (in Naval Affairs). Is any vessel of war large enough to be drawn up in the line of battle. LINE (in Geography). Another name for the equator, or equinoctial line. LINE OF BATTLE. The disposition of an army for battle. LINEN. A kind of cloth made of flax. LING, A sort of cod fish. LINN^AN kSYSTEM. A system of natural history, so called from Linnaeus, the Swedish naturalist. It comprehends a scientific arrangement of all natural ob- jects, as animals, plants, and minerals into three kingdoms, subdivided into classes, orders, genera, species, and varieties, with LIS a description of their generic and specific characters. LINNET. A small singing bird, of the finch kind. The bird in America called indigo bird is a variety of the linnet. LIV 227 LINSEED. The seed of hemp or flax, from which an oil is extracted. LINT. Linen scraped into a soft, wool- ly substance, fit for applying to wounds. LINTEL. The upper part of a door or window frame. LION. The fiercest and noblest of all wild beasts, which is made to be the em- blem of strength and valour, and is on that account the most frequently borne in coats of arms. It is a native of Africa and In- dia, and being nearly allied to the cat tribe, is classed by Linnaeus under the same genus. LiaUIDS (in Chymistry). Fluids which are not elastic, nor diminish sensibly in bulk, in distinction from gases or elastic fluids. LiaUIDS (in Grammar). The letters 1, m, n, r, so called from their soft and melting sound. LiaUOR. Any thing liquid that may be drank, particularly what is of a spiritu- ous nature. LiaUORICE. A shrub, the root of which is full of a sickly sweet juice. LIST. A roll or catalogue of names. LIST, Civil (in England). The whole of the king's revenue. LIST (among Mariners). An inclination to one side, applied to a ship. LIST (among Clothiers). A border or edge of cloth. LIST, or LISTELL (in Architecture). A small band or square moulding, serving to crown larger mouldings. LISTS. A place enclosed with rails, within which tournaments or feats of arms were exhibited. LITANY. A general supplication or prayer sung or said in churches, especially that in the Book of Common Prayer. LITERARY PROPERTY. The right which authors have in their works. LITHARGE. The scum or dross that arises in purifjing silver with lead. It is an oxide of lead. LITIIIC ACID. An acid extracted from the urinary calculi. LITHOGRAPHIC. An epithet for what pertains to engraving on stone, as litho- graphic impressions, those which are taken on paper from engravings on stone. LITHOGRAPHY. The art of cutting or engraving on stone, from which impres- sions are taken on paper. LITHOMARGE. An earth of the clay kind, which is known by the name of fuller's earth and potter's clay. LITHOTOMY (in Surgery). The ope- ration of removing a calculus or stone from the bladder. LITMUS (in Chymistry). A substance from which is formed a tincture that serves as a test of the presence of an acid or an alkali. All acids and salts change the natural violet of the litmus into red, and all alkalies restore it to its natural colour the violet. LITURGY. A set form of prayer, or a formulary of public devotion, called by the Romanists the Mass, and in the English church the Common Prayer. LIVER (in Anatomy). A very large viscus of a red colour, situated in the right hypochondrium, and divided into two lobes, which serves for the secretion of the bile. LIVERY (in Domestic Economy). In England, a dress of a certain form and colour, which gentlemen require their ser- vants to wear by way of distinction. LIVERY, or Livery of Seisin (in Law). Is a delivery of possession of lands, tenements, or other corporeal things. LIVERYMEN (of London). A certain number of persons chosen from among the freemen of each company in the city. Out of this body are chosen the common coun- cil, sheriff, and other superior officers of the city, and they alone have the privilege of voting at the election of members of parliament. LIVERY STABLES. Public stables, w here horses are let out to hire. 228 LOA LIVRE. A money of account formerly used in France, equal to twenty sous, or ten pence sterling. LIXIVIUM. A lye made of ashes. LIZARD. An extensive tribe of ani- mals, classed by Linnaeus under the genus lacesta, comprehending the crocodile, bas- ilisk, chameleon, and salamander. The lizard, properly so called, is a little reptile of a green colour, and is frequently to be met with in gardens or under dunghills, &c. LLAMA (in Natural History). An ani- mal of the camel kind in Peru and Chili, which has a bunch on the breast, long, soft hair, and defends itself by ejecting its saliva. LL. D. i. e. Legum Doctor, or Doctor of tlie Civil and Canon Laws. LOAD (in Commerce). A certain quan- tity of hay or timber, about 2000 lbs. of hay, and of timber fifty feet. LOAD (among Miners). A vein of ore, the leading vein of a mine. LOAD (in Husbandi^). A trench to drain fens. LOADING A GUN. Charging a gun. LOADSMAN. The pilot. LOADSTONE. A sort of ore dug out of iron mines, on which the needle of the mariner's compass is touched, to give it a direction north or south. It is a peculiarly rich ore of iron, found in large masses in England, and most otlier places where there are mines of that metal. It is of a deep iron gray, and when fresh broken, it is often tinged with a brownish or reddish colour. LOAF. A Jump of bread of a certain weight, worked by the baker into a par- LOC ticular form, of quarterns or half quai*. terns; about eighty quarterns are made from a sack of flour. LOAF (among Sugar-bakers). A lump of sugar of a conical form. LOAM, or LOME. A particular kind of fat, unctuous, and tenacious earth, that is used much by gardeners in making com- post. LOAN. In general, any thing intrusted to another to be returned again ; particu- larly money. LOAN (in Political Economy). Sum.^ of money borrowed from individuals or public bodies for the service of the state. This practice of borrowing money to defray the extraordinary expenses in time of war, which has been adopted in Great Britain during several of her late wars, has given rise to the national debt. All loans on the part of government in England, are con- tracted for by the Chancellor of the Exche- quer, and afterwards confirmed by parlia- ment. Loans used formerly to be granted by public bodies to the king in considera- tion of certain privileges that were secured to them, but now money is commonly advanced by individuals, in consideration of receiving interest. LOBBY (in Architecture). A kind of passage, room, or gallery, as the lobby in a theatre. LOBBY (in Naval Architecture). A small room near the bread-room in a vessel of war, appropriated to the use of the surgeon. LOBE (in Anatomy). A division in any body, as the lungs or liver. LOBE (in Botany). A division in seeds, such as beans, peas, &c. LOBSTER. A small crustaceous fish, having a cylindrical body, with a long tail and long antennse. Lobsters are found on most of the rocky coasts of England, and are abundant in this country. LOCAL (in Law). Tied or joined to a place ; thus real actions are local, because they must be brought in the country where the lands, &c. lie. LOCAL COLOURS (in Painting). Such as are natural and proper for each par- ticular object in a picture. LOG LOCAL PROBLEM (in Mathematics). That which admits of innumerable solu- tions. LOCK (among Smiths). A piece of iron work, which is looked upon as a master- piece in smithery, as much art and nicety is required in contriving and varying the springs, bolts, and different parts to the uses for which they are intended. Locks intended for outer doors are called stock- locks, those on chamber doors spring-locks, besides which there are padlocks, trunk- locks, &c. The principle on which all locks depend is the application of a lever, that is the key, to an interior bolt, by means of a communication from without ; and the security of locks depends upon the impediments which may be interposed between this lever and the bolt. These impediments have commonly been pro- duced by means of the wards of the key so artfully contrived as to preclude the access of all other instruments besides the key to the bolt. As these contrivances have not, however, been always an effec- tual bar, Mr. Bramah has constructed a lock on such a principle that the office which in other locks is performed by the extreme point of the key is here assigned to a lever, which cannot approach the bolt until every part of the lock has undergone a change of position. LOCK, or Weir (in Inland Navigation). A name for all works of wood or stone which are made to confine or raise the water of a river or canal. In artificial navigations the lock consists of two gates, the upper one called the sluice gate, and the under one the flood gate. LOCK (among Gunsmiths). That part of a musket by which fire is produced for the discharge of the piece. LOCKED JAW. A spasmodic affec- tion which prevents the motion of the jaws. LOCKER (among Mariners). A box or chest in which things are stowed. LOCKET. A little lock of a gold chain ; also a spring or catch to fasten a necklace. LOCK-UP-HOUSE. In En gland, a place where persons arrested for debt are imme- diately taken to, by the sheriff's officers, before they are conducted to prison. LOCOMOTIVE FACULTY. The power possessed by animals of changing their place, or moving from one place to ano- ther. LOCUM TENENS. A deputy, or one acting in the place of another. LOCUS GEOMETRICUS. A line by which a local or indeterminate problem is solved. 20 LOG 229 LOCUST. A voracious insect, like the grasshopper, which in some parts, particu- larly in Africa and Asia Minor, fall like a cloud upon the country, and lay waste all before them. They are no less terrible dead than alive, for their pulrified carcas- ses cause a pestilence where they happen to alight. LODE (among Miners). See Load. LODEWORKS. One of the works be' longing to the tin mines in Cornwall, Eng- land. LODGE. In England, a cottage at a park gate. LODGEMENT (in Fortification). A work raised by way of shelter for the be- siegers ; also a place of defence raised by the besiegers, when in an attack they have gained possession of a post. LOG (in Husbandry). A piece of wood attached to a chain, for the confinement of cattle. LOG (among Mariners). A fiat piece of wood, with lead at one end and a line at the other, for measuring the rate of a ship's sailing. LOGARITHMS. Numbers so contrived and adapted to other numbers, that the sums and differences of the former shall correspond to and show the products and quotients of the latter, or more properly a series of numbers in arithmetical progres- sion answering to another series in geo- metrical progression, thus, 0, 1, 9, 3, 4, 5, &c. Indices or Logarithms. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, &c. Geomet. Progression. Or, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. Indices or Logs, 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, &c. Geomet. Prog. Or, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. Indices or Log. 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10,000, &c. Geom. Prog. Where it is evident that the same numbers in arithmetical progression, which are the logarithms or indices, serve equally for any geometrical series, consequently there may be an endless variety of systems of loga- rithms to the same common numbers, by only changing the second term, 2, 3, 10, &c. of the geometrical series. If any two indices be added together their sum will be equal to the product of the two terms in 230 LOa geometrical progression with which those indices correspond, thus, 2 and 3 added together are equal to 5, and the nuiiibers 4 and 8 corresponding with those indices being multiplied together are equal to 32, which is the number answering to the index 5, So if any index be subtracted from another, the difference will be the index of that number, which is equal to the quotient of the two terms to which those indices belong, thus the index 6 — 4=2, then 64 divided by 16, the terms corresponding to these two indices leaves the quotient 4, which answers to the index 2. Logaiithms being the exponents of ratios are on that account called iiidices, thus the logarithm 2 is the exponent or index of the several numbers in the geo- metrical series over which it stands, as 2"^? or the square of 2 equal to 4 in the first series, 32 or square of 3, that is 9, in the second series, and 10^ or the square of 10, that is 100, in the third series; so likewise 3 is the index or exponent for the cube numbers 8, 27, 1000, &;c. over which it stands. LOG-BOARD. A table on which an account of the ship's way is marked. LOG-BOOK. The book in which the account of the log is transcribed. LOGIC. The art which teaches the right use of reason, and tre;its of the several operations of the nnnd which are em- ployed in argumentation or reasoning. LOG LLVE. The line fastened to the log, which is divided into certain spaces fifty feet in length, by knots or pieces of knotted twine, unreeved between the strands of the line, which show, by means of a half-minute glass, how many of these spaces or knots are run out in half a minute, and as the distance of the knots bears the same proportion to a mile that half a minute does to an hour, whatever number of knots the ship runs in half a minute, the same number of miles she runs in an hour. LOGOGRAPHY. A method of printing in which the types form whole words in- stead of letters. By this method the me- mory of the compositor is less burdened, and the business proceeds with more ex- pedition and less liability to err. It is also said that the logographic method is not more expensive than the common method. LOGWOOD. A sort of wood used by dyers, called also Carnpeche wood, be- cause it was originally brought from Cam- pechy, in New Spain. Logwood is very dense and firm in its texture, exceedingly heavy, so as to sink into water, of a deep red colour, and admits of a fine polish. LOO It yields its colour both to spirituous and watery menstrua, but alcohol extracts it more readily than water. Acids turn its dye to a yellow, alkalies deepen its colour, and give it a purple or violet hue. LOMENTACE^ (in Botany). The name of tlie thirty -third natural order in Linnceus's Fragments, consisting of plants many of which furnish beautiful dyes, and the pericarpium of which is always a pod containing seeds that are carinaceous, or rneally , 1 ike those of the bean, as the cassia, the wild senna, logwood, mimosa, or the sensitive plant, on the ter- restrial sphere, passing through, tiie polea 21* of the world and the zenith or vertex of any place, exactly dividing the east from the west. Tlie meridians are as numerous as the places on the earth ; and the first meridian is that from which the reckoning commences, which is mostly fixed from the capital of each country. MERLIN. The smallest bird of the Hawk kind. MESNE PROCESS (in Law), An in- termediate process, which issues pending tJie suit, upon some collateral matter ; also, all such process as intervenes between the beginning and end of a suit. MESSENGER, or King's Messenger. In England, an officer chiefly employed under the direction of the secretaries of state, to convey despatches foreign and do- mestic. METALLURGY. The art of working metals, so as to separate them from the ore. It may also comprehend the several operations by which they are rendered available to particular purposes, as assay- ing, gilding, refining, smelting, &;c. METALS. Compact bodies generated in the earth, which are heavy, hard, opaque, possessed of a remarkable lustre, fusible, and malleable in diflerent degrees. There were originally reckoned but seven metals, namely, gold, silver, copper, tin, iron, lead, and quicksilver ; but this number has since been increased to thirty, some of which have the metallic properties in a small degree. Of the primitive metals, gold is the heaviest ; but platinum, one of the newly discovered metals, is found to be still heavier. METAMORPHOSIS (in Entomology). The change which insects undergo in pass- ing from one state to another. METAPHOR. Tlie application of a word in some other than its ordinary use, on ac- count of some resemblance between the two objects : thus the king is, by a meta- phor, said to be the head of his kingdom, because the head is the chief part of the body. METAPHYSICS. The science which considers beings as abstracted from all matter, as accidents, relations, and the like, but particularly beings in their nature purely spiritual, as God, angels, and the soul of man. METEMPSYCHOSIS. The migration or passing of the soul out of one body into another, which is said to have been the doctrine maintained by Pythagoras, and is now held by the Brahmins and Bud- hists, in India. METEOR. A general term for all the piienomena of the atmosphere, but particu- 246 MEZ MIL larly for such sudden and luminous appear- ances as are occasionally visible, such as fireballs or luminous bodies of considerable magnitude, that are frequently to be seen in the tropical climates ; shooting or falling stars, that are of common occurrence ; and the ignis fatuus, seen in marshes. METEORIC STONES.. Heavy, stony bodies, that are supposed to fall from the fireballs after they have exploded. These stones, which are looked upon by soin,e as concretions formed in the atmosphere, are by a chymical analysis found to contain silica, oxide of iron, magnesia, sulphur, lime and oxide of nickel. METEOROLOGY. The doctrine of me- teors in general, or the study of the vari- able phenomena of the atmosphere. The changes to which the atmosphere is most subject are such as respect its temperature, weight, moisture, and electricity, which are marked and measured by the barome- ter, thermometer, hygrometer, and electro- meter. The results of these changes are winds, rains, snow, heats, colds, dews, &,c. The intensity of the winds is measured by the aerometer-, and the quantity of rain is measured by the pluviometer or rain-gauge. METER, or Coal-Meter. A measurer of coals before they are delivered out to sale. METHODISTS.. A sect of physicians who flourished at Rome, and professed to follow the rules of Galen ; also a sect of religionists, who, in the seventeenth centu- 13% professed to defend the tenets of the Church of Rome against the Protestants ; and in modern times, another sect, who profess to act by a rule of their own, as dis- tinguished from the doctrine and disci- pline of the Church of England. The leaders of this latter sect were Wesley and Whitfield, the followers of whom are divi- ded into two parties. METONYMY (in Rhetoric). A figure of speech, whereby one thing is put for another, as the cause for the effect, the part for the whole, and the like. METRE (in Poetry). A system of feet composing a verse ; as pentameter, a verse of five feet, hexameter, a verse of six feet, &c. METRE (in. Commerce). A French measure, equal to rather more than thirty- nine inches; METROPOLIS. The chief city of a kingdom or province. METROPOLITAN. A bishop of the mother church ; an archbishop, who is bishop of tlis metropolis. MEZZOTINTO. A particular kind of engraving, so called from its resemblance to drawings in India ink. This is per- formed by punching the copper plates with the grounding tool, scraping them with the scraper, and then rubbing them with the burnisher or smooth piece of steel, to produce the effect desired. MIASMA. The contagious effluvia of pestilential diseases. MICA, or Muscovy Glass. A stone which forms the essential part of many mountains. It consists of a number of thin, laminae adhering to each other. It has long been used as a substitute for glass, particularly in Russia. MICROMETER. An astronomical ma- chine which serves to measure extremely small distances in the heavens, &c. MICROSCOPE. An optical instrument which magnifies objects, so that the small- est may be distinctly seen and described. The invention of microscopes, like many other in-genious discoveries, has been claimed for different authors. Huygens informs us that Drebell, a Dutchman, con- structed the first microscope in 1621 ; but Borelli states, in a letter to his brother, that when he was ambassador in England in 1619, Cornelius Drebell showed him a microscope, which he said was given him by the archduke Albert, and had been made by Jansen, whom he considers to have been the real inventor, although F. Fontana, a Neapolitan, claimed, in 1646, the honour of the invention to himself, and dated it from the year 1618. MIDRIFF, or Diaphragm (in Anato- my) . A membrane which divides the trunk of the body into the thorax and abdomen, the upper and lower cavity. PrIIDSHlPMAN. An officer in the navy, who assists on all occasions, both in stow- ing and rummaging the hold, sailing the ship, &c. MIDSUMMER. The summer solstice. The 24th of June is the Midsummer Day, which is also quarter day. MIDWIFERY. The art of assisting women in childbirth. MILE. A long measure, which, in Eng- land, contains 8 furlongs, or 1760 yards, or 5230 Xeet. MILIARY GLANDS. The small and infinitely numerous glands, which secrete the perspiration. MILITARY. A name for the whole body of soldiery, with their equipments, &c.. MILITARY. An epithet for what belongs to soldiers, as Military Architecture, Mili- tary Exercises, &:c. MILITARY ARCHITECTURE. See Fortification. MIM MILITARY EXECUTION. Ravaging a countrj^ that refuses to pay the contribu- tion levied upon it ; also the punishment in- flicted by the sentence of a court-martial. MILITARY ROAD or WAY. A road made for the passage of armies, like those constructed by the Romans in Britain. MILITIA. A military force raised by ballot, for the permanent defence of a country. MILK. A fluid which serves for the nourishment of young animals. It is se- creted by particular glands in the female of all animals vvhich suckle their young, which, on that account, are denominated mammalia. The constituent parts of cows' milk, procured by cliymical analysis, are, aroma, an odorous, volatile principle ; water, which forms a considerable part ; bland oil, from which the cream is formed ; curd, or animal gluten ; sugar or the serum of milk; and some neutral salts. Human milk is the thinnest of all, and next to that, asses' milk, which is prescribed for consumptive persons. MILK-THISTLE. A biennial, the leaves of which are eaten as a salad. MILKY WAY, or Via Lactea (in As- tronomy). A broad track or path encom- passing the whole heavens, which is easily discernible, from its milky-white appear- ance. MILL. A machine for grinding wheat,&c. of which there are different kinds, accord- ing to the different methods of putting them in motion, as watermills, windmills, horse- mills, handmills, and also steammills. They are also distinguished according to the uses they serve, as cornmills, cotton- mills, papermills, barkmills, &c. Corn is ground by two millstones placed one above the other witiiout touching, the space be- tween them beins; made greater or less, ac- cording as the miller would have the flour finer or coarser. MILLENNIUM. A thousand years, generally taken for tlie thousand years of Christ's reign here on earth. MILLET. A plant thatbears an immense number of small grains. In Central Afri- ca, it is the common food of the inhabi- tants. MILLING. The same as fulling. MILLING. The stamping of coin by means of a mill. This is one part of the process in coining. MILLION. The number often hundred thousand. MILLREA. A Portuguese gold coin, equal to five shillings and sevenpence halfpenny sterling. MIMOSA, or The Sensitive Plant, MIN 247 so called on account of the sensibility of its leaves. It is a numerous tribe of plants, which are all natives of warm climates. They have all the singular property that their leaves recede from the touch, and run rapidly together ; in some, the foot- stalks and all are affected. The humble sensitives instantly t\ill downward, as if fastened by hinges. These plants have all winged leaves, each wing consisting of many small pinnae. From the Mimosa Nilotica, represented underneath, is pro- cured the gum arable. MINE. A deep hollow, running unde ground, whence various minerals, particu larly the metallic kind, are dug out. These mines are mostly dug through vari- ous strata or beds of substances, of which the interior of the earth is composed. In tJiese strata are found innumerable fissures, called by the miners lodes, which contain the metal sought for. The passage or de- scent to the mine is by means of a pit called a shaft. The principal signs, by which metallic veins are discovered, are miiieral waters, pieces of ore found on the surface of the ground, warm exhalations, metallic sands, &c. MINE (in Fortification). A subterrane- ous passage dug under the wall or rampart of a fortification, for the purpose of blow- ing it up by gunpowder. The place where the powder is lodged is called the chamber. MINER. One who digs mines or works in mines. MINERALOGY. That science which treats of the solid and hard component parts of the earth. Minerals have been variously classed by different writers. The system of Werner comprehends them under the four classes of earths, salts, inflamma- bles, and metals. To this Linnaeus has' added a fifth class of petrifactions. MINERAL WATERS. Springs im- pregnated with mineral substances. MINERVA. The daughter of Jupiter, and goddess of wisdom and the fine arts. 248 MIS She is commonly represented with all the emblems of war, as the helmet, spear, and Ehield. MINERVALIA. Presents among the ancients, made by the boys to their mas-' ters before the feast of Minerva. MINIATURE. A delicate kind of paint- ing, consisting of little points or dots in- stead of lines, commonly done on ivory, and used in taking portraits 3 also the por- trait itself. MINIM (in Music). A measure of time marked thus, C], equal to two crotchets. MINIMUM (in Mathematics). The least quantity attainable in a given case. MINISTER OF STATE. In England, one who conducts the affairs of state by an authority from the king. MINISTER, Foreign. A person sent into a foreign country, to manage the af- fairs of the state by which he is sent. MINIUM, or Red Lead. An oxide of lead, procured by exposing this metal to a great heat and a free access of air. MINK. An animal of the weasel kind, common in North America, that frequents the banks of streams. MINOR (in Law). An heir, male or female, within the age of twenty-one. MINORITY (in Law). A state of non- age J also the smaller number of persons who give their votes on any questions. MINSTREL. A player on any musical instrument ; an itinerant performer. MINT (in Botany). A pot-herb, which has a creeping root and a strong aromatic scent. MINT. The place where coin is made. MINUTE (in Geometry, marked thus('). The sixtieth part of the degree of a circle ; also the sixtieth part of an hour. MIRACLES. Works effected in a man- ner different from the ordinary course of nature, by the immediate power of the Almighty, for some particular purpose. MiRKOR. The surface of any opaque body polished, and adapted to reflect the rays of light which fall upon it, and to represent objects. Mirrors are either flat, as looking-glasses ; concave, for tlie pur- pose of converging the rays of light ; or con- vex, for the purpose of diverging the rays of light. MISADVENTURE (in Law). A sort of homicide against the mind of the kill- er, partly by negligence and partly by chance. MISCELLANEtE. One of Linnmus's natural orders of plants, comprehending such as were not included in the other orders. MISCHIEF (in Law). Damage or inju- MIT ry done to the property of another, not for gain, but with a malicious intent. MISDEMEANOUR. An offence lesa than felony. MISLETOE. A plant which always grows on trees, and was thought, therefore, to be an excrescence of the tree ; but it has been found to be propagated by the seed or berry which is conveyed by the misletoe thrush from one tree to another : this bird being fond of these seeds, it sometimes happens that the viscous part of tlie berry sticks to his beak, and, in his attempts to disengage himself from it by striking his beak against the bark of the tree, the berry sticks to the latter ; and if it happen to light on a smooth part, it will take root, and sprout out the next winter. This plant adheres most readily to the ash and other smooth-rinded trees, as the apple, &c. MISNAII. The code or collection of the civil law of the Jews. MISNOMER (in Law), The giving a person a wrong name. MISPRISION. In general, a neglect, as misprision of treason, a neglect to reveal treason j which was formerly high treason in England. MISSAL. The book of the Romish cer- emonies. MISSILE. Any weapon thrown or dis- charged from a machine, as stones from a sling. MISSIONARIES. Ministers sent into any country to preach Christianity. MISTS. Vapours hovering over the earth, which are either drawn upwards by the rays of the sun, or fall down by their own weight in the shape of dew, or, in cold weather, in that of hoar frost. MITE. One of the smallest insects, that is scarcely visible to the naked eye, except by its motion. As seen through a micro- scope, it is found to have eight legs, two eyes, one on each side of the head, and two jointed tentacula. It mostly lives in cheeses. MITE (in Commerce). A small coin formerly current, equal to about one third part of a farthing ; also a weight among the moneyers, equal to the twentieth part of a grain. MITRR (among Carpenters). An angle just 45 degrees, or half a right angle. MOL MON 249 MITRE. A sacerdotal ornament worn on the head by bishops on solemn occa- sions ; it is a cap of a conical form. MIZEN. See Mast. MNEMONICS. Precepts, rules, and common-places, to help the memory. MOAT (in Fortification). A deep trench dug round the ramparts of a fortified place. MOCKING-BIRD. A sort of American thrush, which has the faculty of imitating the notes of other birds. Tliis bird is so perfect an imitator, that it will catcli parts of tunes from a flute, and repeat them with great sweetness and accuracy. It seldom migrates farther north tlian Penn- sylvania. MODE (in Music). A regular disposition of the tune in relation to certain principal sounds, which ai-e called the essential chords of the bass. MODEL. An original pattern, or the shape or design of any thing in miniature ; particularly applied to an artificial pattern made in wood, stone, plaster, or other matter, with all its parts and proportions, in order to give a full idea of the work that is to be executed. MODERNS. A name given generally to those who have distinguished them- selves since the revival of learning, as compared with the ancients, and also with those of the middle ages. MODULE (in Architecture). A certain measure by which the proportions of col- umns are regulated. MODUS DECIMANDT. In England, something paid as a compensation for tithes, on the principle of a moderate equivalent. MOHAIR. The hair of a kind of goat at Angora in Turkey, of which the natives make camblets. MOIDORE. A Portuguese coin, equal to 27s. sterling. MOLASSES. The gross fluid matter that remains of sugar after boiling j the scum of the sugar-cane. MOLE (among Mariners). A long pier or artificial bulwark of masoniy, extending obliquely across a harbour. MOLE. An animal that lives under ground, and, on account of the smallness of its eyes, was formerly supposed to be blind. ISIOLLUSC A. An order of animals un- der the class vermes in the Linnajan sys- tem, comprehending naked simple animals not included in a shell, but furnished with limbs, as the snail, star-fish, cuttle-fish, sea-urchin, &c. MOLTING. The changing of feathers, hair, or horns, in birds and beasts. MOLYB DATES. Salts formed from molybdic acid in combination with earths, alkalies, &c. MOLYBDENUM. A metal Avhich ex- ists, mineralized by sulphur, in the ore called the ore of Molybdena. INIolybdenum has hitherto been obtained only in small globules. MOjMENTUAI. The quantity of motion in a moving body. MONADELPHIA (in Botany). One of the Linucean classes, consisting of plants in which all the stamens are united below into one cylindrical body. MONANDRIA (in Botany). One of the Linneean classes, consisting of plants that have only one stamen. MONARCHY. A government in which the supreme power is vested in one person. 250 MON MONASTERY. A college of monks or nuns ; a house of religious retirement. MONDAY. The second day of the week. MONEY, Whatever is made the me- dium of trade for determining the value of commodities in buying or selling. It consists either of coins, orpieces of stamped metal, or of paper money or moneys of account. Paper money is called paper currency, to distinguish it from specie, metallic currency, or cash : it comprehends notes of hand, bills of exchange, bonds, mortgages &c. Moneys of account are imaginary moneys, used only in keeping accounts; such was the English pound until sovereigns were coined. MONEYERS. In England, officers in the king's mint, who make and coin the money. MONGREL. Any creature of a mixed breed. MONK. One of a religious community ; one who dwells in a monastery, under a vow of observing the rules of the order he belongs to. MONKEY. A well known animal, with a long tail, cheeks pouched, and haunches naked. The cut below represents a small epeciesj called the striated monkey. MONKEY (in Military Affairs). A machine used for driving large piles of wood. MONKSHOOD, or Aconite. A poi- sonous plant bearing a fine blue flov/er. MONOCEROS- One of the new con- stellations in the northern hemisphere. MONOCHORD. A musical instrument with one string. MONODY. A funeral ditty. MONOGYNIA (in Botany). An order In the Linnsean system, comprehending plants that have only one pistil or stigma in a flower. MONOECIA (in Botany). One of the LinnjeanclasseSjincluding plants that have male and female flowers on the same plant, MOO as the plane-tree, hazel, chestnut, cucum- ber, &c. MONOLOGUE. A soliloquy, or scene where one only speaks. MONOPETALOUS. One-petalled, ap- plied to flowers the corolla of which con- sists of one petal only. MONOPOLY. In England, a grant from the king to any person or persons for the sole trading in any commodity ; also the unlawful engrossing to one's self any trade, or the sale of any commodity, in order to enhance the price. MONOSYLLABLE. A word of one syllable. MONOTONY. Sameness in the tone of the voice ; a fault in elocution or delivery. MONSOONS, or Trade-Winds. Peri- odical winds in the Indian sea, that blow one half the year one way, and the other half on the opposite points. These points and times of shifting are different in differ- ent parts of the ocean. MONTH (in Chronology). The twelfth part of a year, otherwise called a calendar month, to distinguish it from the astronom- ical month, which is either solar or lunar. A solar month, or the time in which the sun passes through a whole sign of the zodiac, is 30 days 16 hours 29 minutes 5 seconds ; a lunar month, or the period of one lunation, is 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes, MOOD (in Grammar). The manner of forming a verb, or the manner of the verb's inflections, so as to express the dif- ferent forms and manners of the action, or the different intentions of the speaker; as the indicative mood, which declares a thing; the imperative mood, by which one commands; the subjunctive mood, which implies a conditional action ; the potential mood, which denotes the possi- bility of doing the thing ; and the infinitive mood, which expresses the action indefi- nitely. MOON. One of the secondary planets, and a satellite to the earth, marked thus (J ; is in diameter 2144 miles, and fifty times less than the earth. The surface of the moon is diversified with mountains and valleys. Her sidereal or periodical motion on her own axis she performs in 27 days 7 hours 43 minutes and 11 seconds ; hey MOS synodical motion, or her motion in her orbit round the earth, she performs in 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes 12 seconds : the former is called the periodical, and the latter the synodical month. MOONSTONE. A pure kind of feld- sparj found in Ceylon and Switzerland. MOOR-COCK. A bird of the grouse tribe, inhabiting the heaths of Scotland and the north of England. MOOR-HEx\. A water-fowl of the coot tribe MOORING. Laying out the anchors for the secure riding of the ship. MOOSE. See Elk. MORAVIANS, or Hernhutters. A sect of professing Christians, who prevail in Germany, and are distinguished both by the singularity of their doctrine and their manners. MORDANTS (in Dyeing). Substances combined with the vegetable or animal fibre, in order to fix the dye-stuff. MOROCCO. A fine kind of leather prepared from the skin of an animal of the goat kind, and imported from the Le- vant. MOROXYLIC ACID. An acid pro- cured from the white mulberry. MORSE. A species of sea animal of the seal kind, of which there are several va- rieties inhabiting the northern seas. The most remarkable of these is the walrus, or great morse. MORTALITY, Bills of. See Bills. MORTAR. A thick, short cannon, hav- ing a large bore, and mounted on a low strong carriage, which serves for throwing bombs, &c. MORTAR (with Apothecaries). A strong vessel for pounding things in with a pestle. MORTAR (among Masons). Lime, sand, and hair mixed together, so as to make a cement. MORTGAGE (in Law). A dead pledge, or a pawn of lands and tenements, or any thing immovable, given on condition that it should be the creditor's for ever, if the money be not paid on the day appointed. MORTISE, or MORTOIS" (among Car- penters). A kind of joint consisting of a hole of a certain depth cut in a piece of timber so as to receive another piece called the tenon. MORTMAIN. In England, an aliena- tion of lands and tenements to any guild, corporation, or fraternity, and their succes- sors, which may not be done without the king's license. MOSAIC, or Mosaic Work. An as- semblage of little pieces of glass, marble, precious stones, Sec, of various colours, cut MOT 251 square and cemented on a ground of stucco in imitation of painting. MOSaUE. A temple or place of reli- gious worship among the Mahometans. The church of St. Sophia at Constantino- ple is converted into a Turkish mosque. MOSaUITO. A large kind of gnat in warm climates, which inflicts deep wounds on those whom it attacks. MOSS. A parasitic plant, something like down, that adheres to the trunks of trees, and was formerly supposed to be merely an excrescence, but is now found to be a perfect plant, having roots, flower, and seeds, yet cannot be propagated by seed. It is oftentimes very injurious to fruit trees, and ought to be scraped oft' in the spring season and in moist weather. MOTH. An insect something similar to the butterfly, but not so large. It is very injurious to cloth and furniture. MOTHER. The mouldy lees of wine, beer, &c. MOTHER OF PEARL. The shell of pearl fish. MOTION (in Physiology). A change of place, which is absolute if it be indepen- dent of any other body, and relative if it changes the relative place of a moving body, as in the case of two vessels sailing in the same or contrary directions with different velocities. Animal motion is that by which the situation, figure, magnitude of the parts of animals is changed, which takes place in the act of their growth. MOTION (in Law). An application in court, either by the parties themselves or their counsel, in order to obtain some order or rule of court. MOTION (in Parliament or any other public assembly). The proposing of any matter for the consideration of those present. MOTTO. A word or short sentence, put to an emblem or device, or to a coat of arms in a scroll, at the bottom of ihit escutcheon. 252 MOU MOVABLES. Personal goods. MOVEMENT (in Military Affairs). The regular, orderly motion of an army, for some particular purpose. MOVEMENT (in Music). The progress of sounds from grave to acute, or from acute to grave. MOVEMENT (among Watchmakers). A name for the inner works of a watch, &c., that move. MOULD (in Horticulture). Earth mixed with dung, &c., fit for the reception of seeds. MOULD (among Mechanics). A form or frame in which any thing is cast, as glaziers' moulds, tallowchandlers' moulds, and the like. MOULDINESS. A term applied to bodies, as bread, <&:c., which are in a state of corruption, from the action of the damp or air. This shows itself by a white down, which, when seen through a microscope, appears, like the moss, to be a kind of plants, although some have imagined it to look like animalculaj. MOULDINGS (in Architecture). Pro- jectures beyond the naked wall, such as cornices, door-cAses, &c., which are cut so as to be ornamental. MOUND (among Antiquarians). A ball or globe with a cross upon it, which kings are represented as holding in their hands, to designate their sovereign majesty. MOUND (in Fortification). Any thin? raised, as a bank of earth, &c., to fortify or defend a place. MOUNT. An artificial elevation of earth. MOUNTAIN ASH. An ornamental tree, which in its leaf resembles the com- mon ash ; but it bears a clustered flower, that is succeeded by a beautiful red berry. MOUNTAINS. Extraordinary eleva- tions of the earth, such as the Alps and Pyrenees in Europe, the Caucasus and Uralian mountains in Asia, and the Andes in America. Mountains mostly consist of Btone. MOUNTING (in Military Affairs). Go- ing upon some arduous or specific duty, as mounting a breach, that is, running up MUL to it ; mounting the trenches, going upon duty in the trenches, &c. j but mounting a cannon is setting it on its carriage. MOUSE. A little animal that haunts houses and fields. It is nearly allied to the rat, and is classed with it under the name of Mus in the Linnaean system. Field mice are frequently white. MOUSE-EAR. A plant very similar to chickweed ; but the flower is larger, and the fruit shaped like an ox's horn, gaping at the top. MOUTH. The aperture in the head of any animal at which the food is received, and by which the inspiration and expira- tion of the air is performed ; also the aper- ture of many other things, so called from the similarity of situation or use, as the mouth of a cannon, where the powder and ball go in and out ; the mouth of a river, where the water passes in and out ; and the mouth of a vessel, &c. M. P. An abbreviation for Member of Parliament. MS. An abbreviation for Manuscript. MSS. An abbreviation for Manuscripts. MUCILAGE. A slimy substance of suf- ficient consistence to hold together, as a solution of gum or any tenacious liquid, or a viscous extraction from roots and other parts of vegetables. MUCUS. A viscous fluid secreted by certain glands in the body. MUFFLE. A small earthen oven used for cupellation. MUFTI. The chief priest among the Mussulmen, appointed by the grand seign- ior himself. He is the oracle in all doubt- ful questions of their law. MULATTO. Any one born of a black man and white woman, and vice versa. MULBERRY TREE. A large, spread- ing tree, the fruit of which resembles the raspberry in its seedy make, but is much larger. The white mulberry is cultivated in France, Italy, and the United States, for its leaves, to fe:;d silkworm^, but the Persians make use of the common black mulberry for this purpose. MULE. A mongrel kind of quadruped, generated between an ass and a mare, MUN MUS 253 and sometimes between a horse and a she- ass. Mules are hardy, sure-footed animals, used much in mountainous countries, as about the Alps and Pyrenees ; but they are incapable of propagating their species. MULE (in Botany). Any flower or fruit produced from two sorts. MULETEER. A driver of mules. MULLET. A fish with a head almost square, and a silvery body. MULTIPLE. A number which includes another a certain number of times, as 6, the multiple of 2. MULTIPLICATION. One of the four simple rules of arithmetic, which consists in the increasing of any one number by another as often as there are units in that number by which the one is increased. The number multiplying is the multiplier ; the number multiplied, the multiplicand ; and the result of the operation is the pro- duct. MULTIPLYING-GLASS. A glass other- wise called a polyhedron, being ground into several planes that make angles with each other, and cause objects to appear increased in number. MULTUM IN PARVO. Much in a small compass. MUM. A kind of liquor made of wheat, and brought from Brunswick in Germany. MUMMIES. The name of dead bodies which have been preserved for ages from corruption in Egypt, by a particular me- thod of embalming; also the liquor run- ning from such mummies, which ap- proaches more or less to a state of solidity, MUNDIC. A sort of copper ore ; a sul- phuret of copper of a gi-eenisli yellow colour. MUNICIPAL (in the Civil Law). An epithet signifying 'invested with the civil rights of a citizen ;' with us, it is an epi- thet for what belongs to a town or city, as municipal laws, laws enjoyed by the inhabitants of a free town or city ; and in 22 an extended sense, municipal law is the law by which any particular state or coun- tiy is governed. MURAL CROWN. A crown among the Romans, given to him who first scaled the walls of a city. MURDER (in Law), The wilful and felonious killing a man with malice pre- pense. MUREX. A shell-fish noted among the ancients for its purple dye ; in the Linnjean system, it is a genus of insects under the class vermes, the animal of which is a limax : the shell is univalve and spiral. MURIATES, Salts formed from muri- atic acid with certain bases, as the muriate of ammonia, of soda, &c. MURIATIC ACID (otherwise called Spirit of Salt). An acid procured from salt, consisting of hydrogen combined with chlorine gas. Its odour is pungent, and its taste acid and corrosive. If an inflamed taper be immersed in it, it is instantly extinguished : it is also destructive of hu- man life. MURRAIN. A wasting, contagious dis- order among cattle. MUS (in Zoolog}')' A generic term, in the Linnajan system, for a tribe of animals of the class mammalia, and order glires, distinguished principally by their teeth. The most remarkable species are the com- mon rat and mouse, tlie musk rat, the Norway rat, &c. MUSCI. Mosses; one of the families into which Linn;eus has divided the vege- table kingdom. It is of the class crypto- gamia, and comprehends a vast variety of species, as the earth-moss, bristle-moss, spring-moss, water-moss, &c. MUSCLE (in Anatomy). Afleshy,fibrous part of the body, consisting of a bundle of thin, parallel plates, divided into a great number of fasciculi, or little threads and fibres, so constructed as to admit of relax- ation and contraction, and serving as the organ of motion. The extremities of the muscles are inserted into the bones. MUSES (in the Heathen Mythology). Divinities supposed to preside over the 254 MUS MUS arts and sciences. They were nine in ' number, namely, Clio, to whom they at- tributed the invention of history ; Melpo- mene, the inventor of tragedy 3 Thalia, of comedy ; Euterpe, of the use of the flute 5 Terpsichore, of the harp 5 Erato, of the lyre and lute ; Calliope, of heroic verse ; Urania, of astrology; Polyhymnia, of rhe- toric. Herodotus divided his history into nine books, to each of which he gave tlie name of one of the muses. MUSEUM. A collection of rare and interesting objects, particularly in the de- partments of Natural History; also the place where the collection is deposited. The term was originally appilied to a study, or a place set apart for learned men, in the royal palace of Alexandria, by I'toleiny Philadelphus, who founded a college, and gave salaries to the several membex's, add- ing also an extensive library, which was one of the most celebrated in the world. INIUSHROOM. A plant, the generic name of which, in the Linnsean system, is agaricus. It is a spongy substance, which grows up to its bulk on a sudden. The seeds of mjishrooms have not long been discovered. MUSIC. The science which treats of the number, time, division, succession, and combination of sounds, so as to produce harmony. It is divided into Theoretical Music, which inquires into the properties of concords and discords, and explains their combinations and proportions for the production of melody and harmony ; and Practical Music, which is the art of applj'- ing the theory of music in the composition of all sorts of tunes and airs. MUSIC, History of. The first traces of music are to be found in Egypt, where musical instruments, capable of much va- riety and expression, existed at a time when other nations were in an uncivilized state. The invention of the lyre is by them ascribed to Hermes Trismegistus, the Mer- cury of the Egyptians, which is a proof of its antiquity ; but a still greater proof of the existence of musical instruments amongst them at a very early period is drawn from the figure of an instrument said to be represented on an obelisk, erected, as is supposed, by Sesostris at Heliopolis. This instrument, by means of its neck, was capable, with only two strings, if tuned fourths, of furnishing that series of sounds called by the ancients a heptachord j and if tuned fifths, of producing an octave. As Aloses was skilled in all the learning of the Egyptians, it is probable that the Israelites, who interwove music in all their religious ceremonies, borrowed much from tliat people. 'I'hat the Greeks took their first ideas of music from the Egj^p- tians is clear from tliis : that they ascribed the invention of the lyre to Mercury, al- though they jnade Apollo to be the god of music, and gave him that instrument to play upon. In no country was music so much cultivated as in Greece. The muses, as well as Apollo, Bacchus, and other gods and demigods, practised or promoted it in some way or other. Their poets are sup- posed to have been like the Celtic and German bards, and the scalds of Iceland and Scandinavia, who went about singing their poems in the streets, and the palaces of princes. In this manner did Orpheus, Homer, Hesiod, Sappho, and others recite their verses ; and in after times, on the institution of the games, Simonides, Pin- dar, and other posts celebrated in public the exploits of the victors. The instruments known in the time of Homer were the lyre, flute, syrinx, and trumpet. The in- vention of notation and musical characters is ascribed to Terpander, a poet and nmsi- cian,who flourished 671 years before Christ. We afterwards find philosophers, as well as poets, among the number of those who admired and cultivated music,theoretically as well as practically, as Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Aristoxenus, Euclid, and many others. Pythagoras is celebrated for his discoveries in this science ; namely, for that of musical ratios, and the addition of an eighth string to the lyre. The former of these he is supposed to have derived from the Egyptians. He also explained the theory of sounds, and reduced it to a science. Aristoxenus is the most ancient writer on music of whose works there are any remains. Euclid followed up the idea of Pythagoras' ratios, which he reduced to mathematical demonstration. To this list of Greek writers may be added Ni- chomachus Gerasenus, Alypius, Gaudenti- us, Bacchius senior, Ptolemy the astrono- mer,and Aristides Giuintilian, whose works are still extant. These wrote under the Roman emperors, many of whom cultiva- MUS ted music and followed the theory of the Greeks. Amongthe Roman writers maybe reckoned Vitruvius, who, in liis architec- ture, touches lightly on this subject ; also Martianus Capellaand BoethiuSjWho wrote on the decline of the empire. After them some centuries elapsed l)efore the science of music met with any particular attention. Its introduction into the cliurch service prevented it from falling, like other arts, into total neglect. Instrumental music was introduced into the public service of the church under Constantine the Great. The practice of chanting the psalms was begun in the western churches by St. Am- brose, about 350 years after Christ ; three hundred years after, tlie metliod of chant- ing was improved by St. Gregory the Great. It was probably introduced into England by St. Augustine, and greatly improved by St. Dunstan. The use of the organ probably commenced in the Greek church, were it was called hydraulicon, or the water-organ. The first organ known in Europe was sent as a present to King Pepin from the emperor Constantine Co- pronymus. It came into general use in France, Germany, and England, in the tenth century. Soon after this, music be- gan again to be cultivated as a science, particularly in Italy, where Guido, a monk of Arezzo, first conceived the idea of coun- terpoint, or the division of music into parts by points set opposite to each other, and formed the scale afterwards known by the name of the gamut. This was fol- lowed by the invention of the time-table, and afterwards by regular compositions of music. But the exercise of the art was for a long time confined to sacred music, during which period secular music was followed by itinerant poets and musicians, after the manner of the ancients. Of this description were the troubadours in France, the Welsh bards or harpers in England, and the Scotch minstrels. MUSICIAN. A professor of, and prac- titioner in music ; one wlio performs on any musical instrument. The musicians in London form one of the city compa- nies. MUSK. An oily, friable, brownish sub- stance, generated in the body of the musk, of the most powerful and penetrating smell, which is used as a perfume. It is partially soluble in water, which receives its smell, and also in alcohol,t.o which, how- ever, it does not communicate its odour. MUSK. A quadruped, in size and figure resembling a small roebuck. It is a native of Thibet and other parts of Asia, and is remarkable for having an oval bag in the MUT 255 lower part of its belly, containing the per- fume called musk. MUSK-APPLE and MUSK-PEAR. A sort of apple and pear having the perfume of musk ; also other plants or flowers, so called from their having the same perfume, as the musk cranesbill, and the musk ochra, a West Indian plant. MUSKET. A commodious sort of fire- arms used by soldiers. The regular length of a musket is 3 feet 8 inches from the muzzle to the pan. MUSKET-SHOT. The distance that a musket will carry, which is about 120 fathoms. MUSK-OX. An animal with short legs, and long hair, that resembles the Bison, and inhabits the frigid regions of North America. ]MUSK-RAT. An animal of the beaver kind, which yields an oily fluid, having the perfume of musk. Its fur is valuable. I\IUSK-ROSE. A sort of rose, from wliich a highly odorous oil is extracted at Tunis. MUSLIN. A fine sort of cotton cloth, MUSaUETEERS. Soldiers armed with muskets. MUSSEL. A testaceous animal found lodged in limestone, or in deep beds under water. MUSSULMAN, or Moslem, i. e. Faith- ful. The name assumed by Mahometans. MUST. The newly pressed juice of the grape, which, by a chymical analysis, is found to contain v.'ater, sugar, jelly, glu- ten, and bitartrate of potash. MUSTER. A reviev,' of soldiers under arms. MUSTER-ROLL. A specific list of the oflicers and men in every regiment, troop, or company. MUTATIS MUTANDIS. Things being changed as they ought to be. MUTE (in Law). Not answering direct- ly to the arraignment, on an indictment for felony. A prisoner is said to stand mute 256 NAK when he will not put himself upon the inquest. MUTE (in Mineralogy). An epithet for minerals which do not ring when they are struck. MUTES (in Grammar). Letters which cannot form a sound witJiout a vowel after them, as b, c, d, g, k, p, q, t. MUTES (in the Grand Seignior's Se- raglio). Dumb officers, who are sent to strangle, witli the bow-sti'ing, basliaws or other persons who fall under the sultan's displeasure. MUTES (among Undertakers). Those men who are employed to stand at the door of the deceased, until the body is carried out. flIUTINY. A revolting from lawful au- thority, particularly among soldiers and sailors. MYRMELEON. A genus of insects in the Linntean system, one species of which is remarkable on account of its larva. NAS which has the property of preparing a sort of pitfall for the ensnaring of other insects. MYRRH. A resinous concrete juice, procured from a tree growing in Arabia and Abyssinia. The sort of tree which yields this substance is not exactly known, but, according to Bruce, it is a sort of mimosa. Myrrh is in the form of tears, brittle, of an aromatic taste, not melting when heated, and burning with difficulty ; yields oil by distillation, and forms a yel- low solution with water. MYRTLE. A fragrant shrub, which, among the ancients, was sacred to Venus. The common myrtle is a native of Asia, Africa, and Europe. MYRTUS. The generic name of the myrtle in the Linnasan system ; includes also among its species the pimento or all- spice tree. MYTHOLOGY. The fabulous history of the heathen deities and heroes, and divine honours paid to them. N. N, the thirteenth letter of the alphabet, stood as a numeral for 900, and, with a dash over it, thus, N, 9000. N, or No. stands as an abbreviation for numero, number ; also for north, note, noun, &c. NABOB, or NAVOUB, An Indian word for a deputy ; a title of dignity and power applied to tliose who act under the soubahs or viceroys. NABONASSAR. First king of Baby- lon, in whose reign, according to Ptolemy, astronomical observations were made ; whence an sera was formed from this king's reign, called the aera of Nabonas- sar, dated 747 years before Christ. NADIR (in Astronomy). That point in the heavens opposite to the zenith, and directly under our feet, or a point in a right line, supposed to be drawn from our feet through the centre of the earth, and terminating in the lower hemisphere. NAIL (in Anatomy). The horny lamina on the extremity of the fingers and toes. NAIL (with Ironmongers). Spikes of iron and brass, having heads, and fitted for binding several pieces of wood together. NAIL (in Commerce). A measure of length, containing the sixteenth part of a yard. NAKED. A term in Architecture, ap- plied either to a column or a v/all, to denote the face or plain surface from which the projections take their rise. NANKIN. A well known stuff, so call- ed from Nanking, a city in China. NAPE. The hinder part of the neck. NAPHTHA. A native combustible li- quid, and one of the thinnest of the liquid bitumens issuing from the earth, and found on the borders of springs on the shores of the Caspian Sea, and many other places. It feels greasy, has a bituminous smell, takes fire on the approach of flame, and is so light as to float on the water. NARCISSUS. A genus of plants, which is cultivated in gardens on account of its sweet-smelling flowers, which are either yellow or white. NARCOTICS (in Medicine). Soporife- rous and stupifying medicines, as opium and its preparations. NARROW. A small passage between two lands. NARVAL. An animal of the whale tribe, remarkable for its single tooth stand- ing out like the horn of the unicorn. NASTURTIUM. A plant, which is cul- tivated in gardens, and bears a flower of a deep crimson colour. The seeds, when NAV NAV 257 bruised, have a pungent smell that causes sneezing. NATIONAL DEBT. Loans advanced to government, which constitute the funds or stocks, for which interest is paid from revenues set apart for the purpose. NATRON. Native carbonate of soda. NATURAL HISTORY. That branch of knowledge which treats of the charac- teristics or distinctive marks of each indi- vidual object, whether animal, vegetable, or mineral j as also of its peculiar habits, qualities, uses, &c. NATURALiZATIOx\ (in Law). The admitting af an alien into the number of natural subjects. NATURAL ORDERS (in Botany). A mode of classifying plants according to their natiual or more obvious character- istics. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. That branch of science which treats of the pow- ers of nature, the properties of natural bodies, and their actions on one another, comprehending under it the several divi- sions of astronomy, chymistiy, electricity, galvanism, hydraulics or hydrostatics, magnetism, mechanics, optics, pneuma- tics, &c. NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. The sci- ence of shipbuilding, comprehending the theory of delineating marine vessels upon a plane surface, and the art of framing them upon the stocks according to the proportions exhibited in a regular design. NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, History OF. The first example of any construction fitted to be borne up by the waters is re- corded in Scripture in the case of the ark built by Noah under the divine assistance and commands. As this was built by more than human aid, it is not surprising tliat we hear of no farther attempts at building vessels of any kind until the nation of the Egyptians was formed, who doubtless pro- fited by those arts and sciences which, as is generally admitted, were practised be- fore the fiood, and transmitted by Noah and his family to his posterity. The EgAp- tians, we are told, cons' ;d the barks which they used on ,ile of planks cutout of the acacia, ^ ,ptian thorn; the planks were nev tare, measuring about three feet uach way, and, being lapped over each other like tiles, were fastened together with wooden pins. The joints and seams were carefully calked with the papyrus, and benches of the same material were formed for the rowers. As the nacessity of some impelling and direct- ing force in aid of human labour was soon felt, a rudder and a sail were quickly added. The sail, which was made of the papyrus, was fastened to a pole serving as a mast, which was made of the acantha. As such vessels were incapable of stem- ming the current of the river when the wind was unfavourable, they used to be towed by persons on the bank, and when they went with the current, the Egj'ptians used to accelerate their motion by tying a hurdle of tamarisk to the prow of the vessel, and letting it down into the water ; the stream acted on the hurdle more strongly than it would on the sides of the vessel, and thus increased the velocity of its motion very materially. In order to preserve a due balance between the head and the stern, which might otherwise have been destroyed by the action of the hurdle, they caused a stone of consider- able magnitude, pierced through the mid- dle, to be suspended by a I'ope from the stern, which enabled them to swim nearly with an even keel. The first contrivance to supply the place of a commercial vessel is generally ad- mitted to have been a kind of raft, or collection of trees fastened together with ropes, made from the bark. But as in a structure so rude they were altogether without the power of directing their course, they set about remedying this inconveni- ence, by putting a few thick planks to the depth of three or four feet in the water between the joists of the trees which com- posed the raft. These, being raised or lowered at the pleasure of the pilot, served in som-e measure the purpose proposed. With no better contrivances than this, the Phoenicians are said to have visited the islands of Sicily, Corsica, and various other islands in the Mediterranean. It is also worthy of observation, that floats an- swering to the description of these were found in the south seas in the last century. Although the Greeks were not remark- able for a spirit of commercial enterprise, yet the remains of antiquity furnish us with ample evidence of the advances wliicli they made in the art of ship-build- ing. They had vessels of diiferent forms and sizes, distinguished, according to their use, into ships of passage, ships of burden, and ships of war. The latter were like- wise designated triremes, quadremes, and quinquiremes, according to the number of banks of oars, which were raised in a sloping direction one above another. Those which had most banks were built highest, and rowed with the greatest strength. The Greeks, in all probability, derived their knowledge of ship-building from the Car- thaginians, a warlike and trading people 258 NAV descended from the Phoenicians, who were celebrated for their skill in the construc- tion and management of vessels. In con- sequence of their contests with the Romans, the latter, after having suffered one or two defeats in naval engagements, acquired the art of building ships from their rivals, and successfully employed it to their over- throw. The modern art of ship-building appears to have been derived from the northern tribes, among whom we find that trees hollowed out like canoes were first used. The crusades first gave the impulse to im- provements in ship-building, which, not- withstanding, continued for some time at a low ebb. Even in the reign of Edward the First, ships were very insignificant in point of size, for it appears that forty men were deemed sufficient to man the largest vessels in England. The states of Venice and Genoa probably first increased the size of their ships, but they were soon sur- passed by the Spaniards, who first em- ployed cannon. The Hanse Towns made such advances in naval architecture, that in the fourteenth century it was usual for them to let their ships out to foreign princes. In the reign of Henry IV. ships of considerable size began to be built in England, and they continued to increase in magnitude until the reign of Henry VIII. when two very large ships were built, namely, the Regent, of 1000 tons burthen, and the Henry Grace Dieu, which was larger. From the reign of Charles II. the navy of Great Britain acquired great im- portance, and in consequence of the wars which have been since carried on in seve- ral subsequent reigns, it has risen to its present state. In 1673 the British navy consisted of 83 ships, of which 58 were of the line ; in 1689 there were 173 ships, and in 1791, above 430. NAVAL CROWN. A crown among the Romans, given to him who first boarded an enemy's ship ; it was a circle of gold representing the beaks of ships. NAVE. The body or main part of a church. NAV NAVIGATION. The art of conducting a vessel at sea from one port to another. This is navigation, properly so called, to distinguish it from common navigation or coasting, that is, conducting vessels from one port to another lying on the same coast; and inland navigation, which is performed by small craft on canals. There is also a submarine navigation, that is, the art of sailing under water by means of the diving bell, &c. Navigation is divided into theoretical navigation, which treats of the ditference of latitude, tiie difference of longitude, the reckoning or distance run, the course or rhumb run on, besides the different modes of sailing — plain sailing, in which the plane chart is made use of; Mer- cator's or globular sailing, in which Merca- tor's chart is used, &c. Practical navigation has respect to the places sailed to, or the waters sailed over, and is either proper, common, inland, &;c. as before explained. NAVIGATION, History- of. Naviga- tion and commerce without doubt took their rise together ; for the desire of gain, being one of the most powerful incentives to action, would naturally lead men to explore distant countries. Hence we find that the Phoenicians, particularly those of Tyre, who were the first trading people on record, were also the first to make fleets, and by the aid of astronomical observa- tions to extend their voyages to some dis- tance from tlieir own shores. The Cartha- ginians followed the course of their an- cestors the Tyrians, and addicted them- selves so thoroughly to trade and navigation that they surpassed every other nation of antiquity in the cultivation of these two arts. They first made the quadremes, or four -oared galleys, and probably were the first who made cables for their large vessels of the shrub spatum. They like- wise pushed their discoveries to a vast extent. They were perfectly acquainted with the Mediterranean and all the ports in it, and proceeded to the westward far- ther than any other nation. Britain and the Canaries were known to them, and in the opinion of some they even went as far as America. The formidable fleets they fitted out, the quantity of shipping they always kept in their employ, and the honour they so long eryoyed of being the masters of the sea, sufficiently attest the advances wliich they made in navigation. As the Greeks and Ronians were more addicted to war than commerce, they em- ployed their shipping principally in trans- porting their men to the countries they were going to attack, or in engaging their i enemies at sea. Tliat the Athenians ex- NAVIGATION. 259 celled all the other Greeks in their mari- time warfare is evident from the victories, which they gained over tlie Persians by sea. As to the llomans, they are said by Polybius to Iiave been utter strangers to naval affairs, and quite ignorant of ship- building, before tlie first Punic war, when a Carthaginian galley, having accidentally stranded on the coast of Italy, was taken by them, and served as a model for the construction of vessels.. Of this they made so good a use as to raise a fleet of one hundred and twenty galleys, with which they were enabled to beat the Carthagi- nians on their own element. It does not appear, however, that either of these peo- ple went to, any distance in their vessels, either for purposes of trade or curiosity. The only voyage of discovery we read of in antiquity was that made by Nearchus, under the auspices of Alexander. In all other countries, navigation was encouraged solely for the purposes of cotnmerce, as by the Egyptians and the Byzantines, and subsequently by the Venetians and Geno- ese until the time of the crusades, when a spirit of adventure was excited through- out all Europe, and preparations were made for voyages to the Holy Land, which led to tlie improvement of naviga- tion. The laws of Oleron, framed and established by our king Richard I., show tliat a system of maritime policy was now tliought necessary. Of the progress of the English navy, it suffices here to observe, tliat the first statutes respecting it were passed in the reign of Richard II. and that from that period to the present it has been the object of government to raise it to the highest pitch of perfection. As to the art of navigation generally, nothing contribu- "^led so much to its advancement as the in- vention of the mariner's compass, in the fourteenth century, which gave so great a facility to the exploring of unknown re- gions. From this time many considerable voyages were made, particularly by the Portuguese, under the auspices of Henry Duke of Visco, who was particularly skilled in cosmography, and employed a person from the island of Majorca to teach navigation and to make instruments and charts. In the subsequent reign of John lU one Martin de Bohemia, a Portuguese, native of the island of Fayal, a pupil of Eegiomontanus, calculated, about 1485, for the use of navigators, tables of the sun's declination, and recommended tlie astro- labe for taking observations at sea. About the same time, Columbus conceived the idea of exploring a passage to India by flailing directly towards the west across the Atlantic ocean, and being furnished with a small armament of three ships by Fenlinand and Isabella of Spain, he set sail in August, 1492, and steered directly for the Canary Islands ; thence holding his course due west, he stretched away into unfrequented and unknown seas . After en- countering incredible difficulties and hard- ships from the elements, and a scarcity of provisions, but above all from the muti- nous spirit of his crew, he arrived at Gua- nami, one of the large cluster of islands called the Lucaya, or Bahama Isles. He also discovered Cuba, Hispaniola, and seve- ral other small islands, and, having left a colony in a fort at Hispaniola, returned to Spain in Marcli, 1493. In September following, he set out on his second voyage, and sailed by the Leeward Islands to Hispaniola 5 and in a third voyage, under- taken in 149S, he discovered the continent of America. In the same year, Vasco de Gama returned to Lisbon from a voyage to the East Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. As from practice the art of navi- gation was thus materially improved, so likewise addilibnal eflbrts were now made to advance it IhcoreticaUy, and to extend its cultivation » The emperor Charles V. founded a lecture at Seville for the im- provement of navigation, which derived much advantage from the discovery of the variation of the compass, and the use of the cross stafi'. The subject also now be- gan to engage the pens of the learned. Two treatises, the first of the kind, con- taining a system of the art, were published in Spanish, the first by Pedro de Medina, at Valladolid, in 1545, called 'Arte de A^avegar,' the other at Seville, in 1556, by Martin Cortes, under the title of ' Breve Compendio de la Sphera y de la Arte de Navegar, &c.' which was translated into English and passed through several im- pressions. . , _ The finding' of the longitude, which is still a desideratum in the art, had even early engaged the attention of writers ; for we find that Pedro Nunez, or Nonius, published a treatise on this subject in 1537 in the Portuguese language, which was afterwards printed at Basil in Latin, under the title of ' De Arte et Ratione Navi- gandi.' In this work the problem of deter- mining the latitude from two observations of the sun's altitude and the intermediate . azimuth is resolved. In 1557, Bourne ; published his ' Regiment for the Sea,' in- tended as a supplement to Cortes ; and in 1581, Michael Coignet, a native of Antwerp, published his ' Instruction Nouvelle des I Points plus excellens ~ei ^necessaires tou- 260 NAU NEE chant I'Art de Naviger,' intended as an improvement upon Medina. Tlie discov- ery of the dipping-needle was explained by Robert Norman, in his ' New Attrac- tive,' a pamphlet, to which is commonly subjoined William Burrough's ' Discourse of the Variation of the Compass.' In 1594, Captain John Davis published a small treatise entitled the 'Seaman's Secrets,' which was much esteemed at that time. As the errors of the plane chart had been much complained of by those who were conversant with the subject, Gerard Mer- cator was led to construct a universal map, for the pm-pose of obviating those objec- tions, the use of which was afterwards fully illustrated by Mr. Edward Wright of Cambridge, who, in his ' Correction of cer- tain Errors in Navigation,' printed in 1599, showed the true method of dividing the meridian from Cambridge, as also the man- ner of constructing the table, and its uses in navigation. The method of approxima- tion by what is called the middle latitude is mentioned by Gunter in his works, printed in 1623, but was not brought into general use until some time after. The ap- plication of logarithms to navigation was also made by this author in a variety of ways ; but Thomas Addison, in his ' Arith- metical Navigation,' is said to have been the first to apply logarithmic tables to the cases of sailing. From this time several writers in England and elsewhere contrib- uted to the improvement of the science, as Gellibrand, in a ' Discourse Mathematical on the Variation of the Needle ;' Norwood, in his ' Seaman's Practice j' John Baptist Riccioli, at Bologna, in 1661; Father Mil- let Dechals, in 1674 and 1677 ; M. Bougier, in 1693 ; William Jones, in a ' New Com- pendium of the whole Art of Navigation ;' Peter Bouque, in his ' Nouveau Traite de Navigation;' and I'r. Robertson's ' Elements of Navigation,' to whicli was added a valuable preface by Dr. James Wilson, NAVIGATOR. One who follows the practical part of navigation ; particularly one who goes on voyages of discovery. NAUMACerA. The representation of a sea fight, which among the Romans formed a part of the Circensian games. NAUTICAL. An epithet for what be- longs to the navy or navigation, as tlie Nautical Almanack, which in Enirland is published under the direction of tlie Board of Longitude, for the use of inariners. NAUTILUS. A genus of testaceous worms, one species of which, called the sail shell, floats on the surface of the sea in its shell, by the help of a membrane which it extends, so as to make it serve the purpose of a sail. NAVF. The whole naval establish- ment of any country, comprehending the ships, oflicers, men, stores, &c. &c. That part of the navy of England, which is dis- tinguished by the title of the Royal Navy, comprehends all ships of war and their crews, &c. NAVY BOARD (in the English Navy) consists of a lord high admiral or lords commissioners, with a number of inferior officers. NAZARENES, A term of reproach among the Jews for our Saviour and liis disciples. NAZARITES. A sect among the Jews afiectmg certain peculiarities. N. B. i. e. NoTA Bene. Take notice. NEAP TIDES. Tides in the second and last quarter of the moon, not so high as the spring tides. NEAT. All kinds of beeves, as the ox, cow, &;c. NEAT'S FOOT OIL, An oil extracted from the feet of oxen or cows. NEAT'S LEATHER. Leather made of the skins of cattle. NEAT WEIGHT. The weight of a commodity without the bag, &:c. NEBUL.^. Spots in the heavens, some of which consist of clusters of exceedingly small stars, others appear like luminous spots of different forms. NECK. That part between the head and the body. NECK. Any thing long in the form of the neck, as the neck of a bottle, a violin, &c. NECROLOGY. A register of the deaths of benefactors in a monastery ; also a reg- ister of distinguished persons who die within a certain period. NECROMANCY. A sort of magic prac- tised by the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, by which they attempted to raise the dead or make them appear. NECTAR (in Mythology). The drink of the gods, according to the poets. NECTAR (in Medicine). A drink of a delightful taste, smell, and color. NlilCTARrNE. A sort of peach, having a smooth rind and a firm flesh. NECTARY, The melliferous part of a vegetable, NEEDLE. An instrument of steel for sewing, having a sharp point for piercing, and an eye to receive the thread ; also an instrument for knitting, wjiich is a simple steel wire. NEEDLE, or Magnetical Needle. A needle touched with the loadstone, and NEP suspended on a pivot, on which, playing at liberty, it directs itself to the north and south of the horizon. Magnetical needles are called horizontal when balanced equal- ly on both sides, and inclinatory or dipping when they are constructed so as to show tiie dip of the needle, or how far it points below the horizon. NEGATIVE. An epithet for what im- plies negation. NEGATIVE ELECTRICITY. That state of bodies, in which they are deprived of some portion of the electricity which they naturally contain. NEGATIVE PREGNANT (in Law). A negative which implies an affirmation, as when a person deuies having done a thing in a certain manner or at a cer- tain time, as stated in the declaration, wliicli implies that he did it in sojne man- ner. NEGATIVE QUANTITIES (in Alge- bra). Quantities ha\'ing the negative sign set before tiiem. NEGATIVE SIGN (in Algebra). A sign marked thus — , to denote less than nothing. NEGOTIATION. The conducting a treaty, either in political or commercial matters. NEGROES. Tlie black inhabitants of Africa, having woolly hair and a peculiar complexion. They have hitherto been the objects of the inhuman traffic called the slave-trade. TJiey are very numerous in the central parts of Africa, and it appears by the late Travels of Denliam and Clap- perton and others, that powerful king- doms exist there, in a state further advan- ced toward civilization, than was suppos- ed. It has been imagined that the ne- groes are inferior in capacity to the other races of mankind, but a better knowledge of Africa may throw doubt upon this opinion. NEAI. CON. An abbreviation for nem- ine contradicente, that is, no one opposing, applied to the decisions of the English par- liament and other public assemblies. NEM. DISS. An abbreviation for nom- ine dissentiente, no one dissenting, that is, with unanimous consent. NEPHRITE. A sort of stone of the talc kind, of a dark leek-green colour, verging to blue. It is found in China, America, and Egypt, and is highly prized by the Hindoos and Chinese, by whom it is made into talismans. NEPHRITIC. Relating to the kidneys. NE PLUS ULTRA, i. e. no farther. The extremity, or utmost extent to which any thing can go. NEW 261 NEPTUNE. The god of the sea, broth- er of Jupiter, in the heathen mythology, who is known by his trident. NERITA. A sort of testaceous worms, whose shells are adorned with a beautiful painting in miniature. NERVES (in Anatomy). Long white cords, the medullary prolongations of the brain which serve for sensation. NERVES (in Botany). Long tough strings, which run lengthv.ays in the leaf of a plant. NERVOUS. An epithet for what re- lates to the nerves, as the nervous system, nervous disorders, &c. NEST. The lodging prepared by birds for incubation and receiving their young. NET. A device for catching either fish or fowl, formed by threads interlaced. NETTINGS, "small ropes seized to- gether gratewise with rope-yarn, to stretch in ditferent parts of a ship. NETTLE. A stincins herb. NET WEIGHT. See Neat Weight. NEUROPTERA. An order of insects in the Linnrean system, including those which have the wings reticulate, as the dragon fly, the day fly, the lion ant, &c. NEUTRALlZATIOxN (in Chymistry). The process by which an acid and an al- kali are so combined as to disguise each other's properties. NEUTRAL SALTS. Salts which par- take of tlie nature of both an acid and an alkali. NEWFOUNDLAND DOG. A very sa- gacious kind of spaniel that is web-footed, and an excellent swimmer. NEWSPAPER. A periodical publica- tion, which appears once or oftener in the week, containing an account of the politi- cal and domestic occurrences of the time. NEW STYLE, abbreviated N. S. The Gregorian method of reckoning the days of the year, so as to adjust the odd hours and minutes in the period of the sun's revolution. 262 NIG NIS NEWT. A small animal of the lizard tribe. NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY. The doctrine of the universe as explained by Sir Isaac Newton, respecting the proper- ties, laws, affections, forces, motions, &c. of bodies, both celestial and terrestrial. The chief parts of the Newtonian philoso- phy are explained by the author in his Principia, or Principles of Natural Philo- sophy. NICENE CREED. A particular creed formed at the first general council assem- bled at the city of Nice by Constantino the Great, a. d. 315. This creed has since been adopted by the church of England. NICKEL. A metallic substance, most- ly fourid in a metallic state, but sometimes in that of an oxide. Its ores have a cop- pery red color. NICKEL KUPFER, or the Sulphuret OF Nickel, is a compound of nickel, arsenic, and a sulphuret of iron, NICTITANT MEMBRANE (in Com- parative Anatomy). A thin membrane chiefly found in birds and fishes, which covers the eyes of these animals, so as to shelter them from the dust and excess of Jight. NIGHT (in Law). The period of dark- ness, when a man's face cannot be dis- cerned. NIGHTHAWK. An American bird, that makes its appearance at evening, and is seen high in the air, flying about in pursuit of insects. It has been erro- neously supposed that it was the wliip- poorwill. NIGHTINGALE. A small brown Eu- ropean bird, that sings beautifully during the night. NIGHTSHADE, or Deadlv Night- shade. A poisonous plant, bearing a bell- shaped corolla, from the leaves of which painters extract a fine green. NIHIL DIGIT (in Law). A failure on the part of the defendant to put in an an- swer to the plaintiff's declaration, &c., by which omission, judgment is of course had against him. NILGHAU, or NYLGHAU. The Per- sian name for a species of antelope, the antilope picta of Linnteus, having short horns bent forward, and the upper and under parts of the neck maned. NIGPITM ARE. A heavy, pressing sen- sation on the breast during the night, to which nervous persons are subject. NIMBUS (among Antiquarians). A circle observed on some medals, or round the head of some emperors, answering to the circles of light drawn around the ima- ges of saints. NISI PRIUS. In England, a com- mission directed to the judges of assize, empowering them to try all questions of fact issuing out of the courts of Westmin- ster, that are then ready for trial ; and as, by the course of the court, all causes are heard at Westminster, the clause is added in such writs. Nisi prius justiciarii ad capi- endasassisas venerint ; that is, Unless be- fore the day fixed the justices come into the county in question ; whence the writ, NOC NOR 263 as well as the commission, have received the name. NITRATES. Salts formed of nitric acid with salifiable bases, as the nitrate of potash, soda, &:c. NITRE, vulgarly called Saltpetre. A neutral salt, being a crystallized, pel- lucid, and whitish substance, of an acrid and bitterish taste, impressing a strong sense of coldness on the tongue. It is found ready formed in the East Indies and in the southern parts of Europe, but by far the greater part of the nitre in common use is produced by the combination of substances in suitable situations, which tend to produce nitric acid, particularly where animal matter becomes decompos- ed by the air, such as slaughter-houses, drains, and the like. NITRIC ACID. A heavy, yellow li- quid, procured by the chymical combina- tion of oxygen and nitrogen gas. Diluted with the sulphuric and muriatic acids, it forms the well known liquid aquafortis. NITROGEN, or Azote. The principle of nitre in its gaseous state, which consti- tutes four fifths of the volume of atmos- pheric air. It has neither smell nor taste, and is not to be procured in a separate state ; but is renrarkable for the properties of extinguishing flame and animal life. NITRO MURIATIC ACID. A com- pound of nitric and muriatic acids, for- merly called aqua regia. NITROUS ACID. An acid which has less of oxygen than the nitric acid. NITROUS OXIDE OF AZOTE. A gaseous substance, best procured from ni- trate of ammonia, which if inhaled produ- ces an exhilarating and intoxicating effect. NOBILITY. In England, those who hold a rank above the degree of a knight, and are distinguished from the commonal- ty by titles and privileges. NOBLE. A coin, value 6.?. 8d., which was struck in the reign of Edward III. NOCTANTER. By night. NOCTURNAL. An epithet for what belongs to the night, as a nocturnal arch, the arch described by the sun or a star in the night. NOCTURNAL, or NocTURLABiUM. An instrument used at sea for finding the lat- itude and hour of the night. NODDY. A sea fowl of the tern kind. NODE (in Surgery). A hard tumour rising out of a bone. NODE (in Dialling). The axis or cock of a dial. NODES (in Astronomy). Two points where the orbit of a planet intersects the ecliptic : the Northern or Ascending Node, called the dragon's head, is marked thus Q, the Southern or Descending Node, the dragon's tail, marked thus y. NOLLE PROSEauI. An agreement on the part of the plaintiff not to prose- cute his suit. NO MAN'S LAND. A sea term for the space in midships, between the after part of the belfry, and the fore part of a ship's boat, when she is stowed upon the boom. NOMENCLATURE. A catalogue of the most useful and significant words in any lanjuage or in any particular science. NOMINATIVE (in Grammar). The first case of a noun, or the name itself. NONAGESIMAL. The ninetieth de- gree of the ecliptic. NONCHALANCE. An affected indif- ference. NON COMPOS MENTIS (in Law). Not of sound mind. NON CONDUCTORS (in Electricity). Bodies which do not become electric by being placed in the neighborhood of an excited body. NONCONFORMIST. In England, a person not conforming to the church of England. NON EST INVENTUS, i. e. literally. He has not been found. The answer made by the sheriff in the return of the writ, when the defendant is not to be found in his bailiwick. NONPLUS. A difficulty or embarrass- ment, when one cannot proceed any way. NON PROS. i. e. Non prosequitur. He does not prosecute. A nonsuit, or the form of renouncing or letting fall a suit by the plaintiff. NOi\RESIDENCE (in Law). In Eng- land, the not residing on their benefices, as applied to sp'ritual persons. NONSUIT. The letting fall or renounc- ing a suit. NORMAL. A perpendicular. NORROY KING AT ARMS. In Eng- land, the third king at arms. NORTH POLE. A point in the north- ern hemisphere, ninety degrees distant from the equator. 264 NUC NUT NOSOLOGY. A systematic arrange- ment and description of diseases. NOSTRUM, i. e. Ours. Tiie name giv- en to the medicines offered by quacks as universal remedies. NOTARY (in Law^). A scrivener who takes notes and draughts of contracts. NOTARY PUBLIC (in Commerce). A scrivener who witnesses deeds, in order to make tliem authentic in foreign courts. NOTATION (in Arithmetic and Alge- bra). The method of expressing numbers or quantities by signs or characters ap- propriated for that purpose. The Jews, Greeks, and Romans expressed their num- bers by the letters of their alphabet ; the Arabians had particular characters called figures, Avhich have been universally adopted in Europe in all arithmetical ope- rations. The Roman mode of notation is also still in use in marking dates, or num- bering chapters, &c. NOTATION (in Music). The manner of expressing sounds by characters. NOTE. Any short writing or memo- randum. NOTE (in fliusic). A character to dis- tinguish the pitch and time of a sound. NOTE OF HAND. A writing under a man's hand, by which one person engages to pay another a sum of money on a cer- tain day, or on demand : this may either be in the form of a bill or of a promissory note. NOT GUILTY (in Law). The general issue or plea of the defendant in a criminal action. NOTICE (in Law). The making some- thing known that a man was or might be ignorant of, and which it was proper he should be made acquainted with. NOV. An abbreviation for November. NOVEL. A narrative of fictitious events and characters. When the incidents and persons are not probable, it is called a romance ; and if only a short story, a novelette. NOVEMBER. The eleventh month of the Julian year. It was called November because it was the ninth of Romulus's year. NOVICE (in the Romish Church). One who has entered his novitiate or year of probation, before he takes his vow ; in a general sense, a learner in any profession, an unskilful person. N. S An abbreviation for new style, or the new mode of forming the calendar. NOUN (in Grammar). A part of speech, the name of the thing itself, as horse, dog, &c. NUCLEUS. The kernel of a nut, &c. NUCLEUS (in Astronomy). The body of the comet, otherwise called the head. NUDE CONTRACT. A bare, naked contract, without a consideration, v/hich ig void in law, NUISANCE (in Law). Any annoyance which tends to the hurt or inconvenience of another. NUMBER (in Arithmetic). An assem- blage of several units or of several things of the same kind. Whole numbers are otherwise called integers, as 1, 2, 3. Broken numbers are fractions, as \. Cardinal num^ bers express the number of things, as 1, 2, 3. Ordinal numbers denote the order of things, as 1st, 2d, 3d, &c. Even numbers are those which may be divided into tvi^o equal parts, without a fraction, as 6, 19, &c. Uneven numbers are such as leave a remainder after being divided, as 5, 13, &c. A square number is the product of any number multiplied by itself, as 4, the product of 2 multiplied by 2. NUMBER (in Grammar). An inflection or change of ending in nouns and verbs, to denote number. Numbers are singular to denote one, dual to denote two, or plural to denote more than one. NUMBERS (in Poetry). Measures or cadences which render a verse agreeable to the ear. NUMERAL, Any character which ex- presses a number, as, 1, 2, 3. NUMERAL LETTERS. The Roman letters I. II. III. IV. &;c. which denote numbers, NUMERATION. The art of expressing in figures any number proposed in words, or expressing in words any number pro- posed in figures. NUMERATOR. The number in the upper line of a fraction, denoting the num- ber of the given parts taken, as 3 in 5, that is, three out of the four parts of an integer. NUMERICAL. Relating to numbers, as numerical algebra, that which is per- formed by the help of numbers. NUMISMATICS. The science of medals and coins. NUNCIO, The pope's ambassador. NUNCUPATIVE WILL. A will made by word of mouth. NUNNERY (in the Romish Church). A religious house for nuns, or females who have bound themselves by vow to a single life. NURSERY. A chamber for young chil- dren. NURSERY. A place set apart for young trees and shrubs. NUTATION (in Astronomy). A tremu- lous motion of the earth's axis. OAT NUTGALLS. Excrescences on the leaf of the oak The Aleppo galls are imported for the use of dyers, calico printers, &c. NUT HATCH. A small species of Woodpecker. NUTMEG. A spice, the fruit of a tree as hig as a pear tree, growing on the island OBL 265 of Banda, in the Eastern Ocean. It is one of the finest of spices, and is carried to all parts of the world as an article of com- merce. The nutmeg is the kernel of the fi-uit, not unlike the peach, the rind or coat of which is called mace. NUX VOMICA. A flat, compressed, round fruit, about the breadth of a shilling, brought from the East Indies ; it is a cer- tain poison for dogs, cats, &c., and is one of the ingi-edients unlawfully infused into beer, to give it a stupifying quality. NYL GHAU. See Nil Ghau. NYMPHS. The chrysalis, or third stag6 of insects, between the grub and the fly. NYMPHS. The goddesses of the woods, according to the poets. They were ce- lestial and terrestrial, the former guiding tl>e heavenly bodies, the latter i)residing over the woods. They are represented as beautiful creatur-es, inhabiting every forest and glen. O. O, the fourteenth letter of the alphabet, used as a numeral for eleven, and with a stroke over it, thus o, for eleven thou- sand. OAK. A tree celebrated for its timber, which is so tough that the sharpest tools will scarcely penetrate it. It is also re- markable for its slowness of gi-owth, bulk, and longevity. Oaks have been found to grow only from fourteen to twenty inches in diameter in the space of eighty years. The live oak is a species particularly val- uable for ship-building. Great quantities are obtained in Florida. OAKUM. Old ropes untwisted and made into loose hemp for cajking ships. OAR. A long pole with a flat, thin end, by which boats are driven along in the water. OATH (in Law). A solemn affirmation or denial of a thing, accompanied with an appeal to God. OATH OF ALLEGIANCE. In Eng- land, the oath which the subject takes v/hen required to bear true allegiance to the king. OATH OP SUPREMACY. In Eng- land, the oath which establishes the supre- macy of the king over every other power, temporal or spiritual, within the realm, whereby the supremacy of the pope was renounced at the Reformation. OATH OF ABJURATION. An oath which expressly establishes the succession 23 of the reigning family to the throne of England, to the exclusion of the Stuart family or anj- other. OATS. A grain, the peculiar food of horses, and in Scotland and the north of England, also the food of man. Oatmeal, the flour of the oats, is also much used medicinally. OBELISK (in Architecture). A square stone glowing smaller from the base to the summit. OBELISK (among Printers). A mark of reference, thus (f). OBJECT GLASS. A glass hi a tele- scope or microscope, at the end of the tube next to the object. OBIT (in the Romish Church). An annual service for the dead. OBITUARY. A register of the deaths. OBLATE. Flattened, an epithet for a sphere or spheroid. OBLATION. What is laid on an altar or given at the altar by way of offering. OBLIGATION (in Law). A bond con- taining a penalty on condition of not per- forming certain covenants annexed. OBLIQ,UE. Deviating from a perpen- dicular line or direction, as an oblique angle, &c. that which is not a right one. OBLiaUE CASES (in Grammar). Tha cases of nouns declined from the nomina- tive. OBLiaUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC. The angle which the ecliptic makes with 266 OCC OES the equator, being now estimated at some- thing less than 23 degrees 28 minutes, as the ecliptic approaches nearer to a paral- lelism with the equator at the rate of about 42 seconds in 100 years. OBOLUS. A small Grecian coin, equal to one penny farthing. OBSERVATION. The observing the phenomena of the heavenly bodies by means of any instrument, OBSERVATORY. A place erected in Some lofty situation, and fitted up with telescopes, quadrants, &c. for the purpose of making astronomical observations, such as the observatories at Greenwich, Paris, Munich and Palermo, which are the most celebrated among the modern observato- ries. The ancient Chaldeans had also simi- lar places. OBSERVATORY, EQUATORIAL, or Portable. An instrument for solving ma- ny problems in astronomy, as finding the meridian, pointing the telescope on a star. thcfugh not in the meridian, in full da}^- light, &:c. OBSIDIONAL CROWN. A crown made of the grass that grew in a besieged place, which the Romans gave to the general by whom the town was taken. OBT. An abbreviation for obedient. OBTUSE ANGLE. Any angle greater than a right angle. See Angle. OCCIDENT. Westward, as the Occident equinoctial, &c. OCCIPUT. The back part of the head. OCCULT ATION. The obscuration of any star or planet by the interposition of any other body, as the moon, &c. OCCULT ATION, Circle OF. An ima- ginaiy circle round the poles, which con- tains those stars that are not visible in our hemisphere. OCCULT DISEASES. Diseases, the causes and treatment of which are not understood. OCCULT aUALITIES. Qualities in bodies which do not admit of any rational explanation. OCCUPATION (in Law). The posses- sion and use of lands or tenements. OCEAN. A vast collection of salt and navigable waters, enclosing the continents or quarters of the globe, Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, and comprehended under the several divisions of the Atlantic, the Pacific, Indian, Northern, and South- ern Oceans. OCELOT. A very fierce, but beautiful animal of the cat kind, found in South America. OCHRE. A sort of earth consisting of alumina and red oxide of iron. OCTAGON. A figure ofeight sides and angles. OCTAHEDRON. One of the five regu^ lar bodies, consisting of eight equal and equilateral triangles. OCTANDRIA (in Botany). One of the Linnaean classes, consistingof plants hav- ing eight stamina to each flower. OCTANT. An aspect of two planets when they are distant from each other 45 degrees, or the eighth part of a circle. OCTAVE (in Music). The eighth inter- val in a scale of sounds, OCTAVO, i. e. in eight, expressed by printers thus, 8vo. The form of a page by folding a sheet into eight leaves, so as to make it consist of sixteen pages. OCTOBER. The eighth month in the year, containing thirty-one days. OCULIST. One who cures the disorders of the eyes. ODD. An epithet for any number in the series of 1, 3, 5, 7, &c. ODE. A poem written to be sung to music. ODOUR. The scent or smell. OEDEMA. Any tumour or swelling. CESOPHAGUS. The gullet, a mem- branaceous canal, reaching from the faueea to the stomach. OIL OFFENCE (in Law). The violation of any law ; this is capital, if punished with death, and not capital, if visited with any other punishment. OFFERINGS (in Law). In England, Church dues, payable by custom, as the Easter offeringSj or the oiSerings at mar- riages, &c. OFFICE. That function by virtue whereof a man hath some employment, either in the public affairs or those of a private individual. OFFICER (in Law). One filling an office or post under government. OFFICER (in Military and Naval Af- fairs). One acting under government in a military or naval capacity. OFFICERS, Commissioned (in the Ar- my). Appointed by commission. OFFICERS, CoMMissioxED (in the Eng- lish Navy), hold their commissions from the Lord High Admiral or Lords of the Admiralty, OFFICERS OF THE CROWN. The great officers of the crown in England are the Lord High Chancellor, the Lord High Steward, the Lord High Treasurer, the Lord President of tJie Council, tlie Lord Privy Seal, the Lord Chamljerlain, the Lord High Constable, and the Earl Mar- shal. OFFICIAL (in Law). A deputy ap- pointed by the archdeacon for the execu- tion of his office. OFFICINAL. An epithet for what is sold in shops, as officinal plants, lierbs, medicines, &c. OFFIiVG. The open sea, or that part of the sea at a distance from the shore, where there is deep water. OFFSETS (in Botany). Young shoots that spring and grow from shoots. OFFSETS (in Surveying). Perpendic- ulars let fa!!, and measuring from the stationary lines to the hedge, fence, or ex- tremity of an enclosure. OGEE (in Architecture). A moulding formed like tlie letter S. OMN 267 OIL. A fat, unctuous substance, which derives its name from olea, the olive, be- cause it was at first principally known as the produce of the olive. Oils are distin- guished by chymistry into volatile or es- sential oils, which have a strong, acrid taste, and a strong, fragrant smell, being obtained from smelling plants ; and fixed oils, which are thick and viscid, insoluble in water, and do not boil under 600 de- grees : these latter oils are obtained from both animal and vegetable substances, aa train oil, olive oil, linseed oil, &c. OIL GAS. A gas extracted from fish oil, vrhich is more expensive and not reck- oned so good as that procured from coals. OLERACE^. One of the Linnoean natural orders of plants, containing pot- herbs, as spinage, thyme, mint, &c. OLERON, Laws of. A code of mari- time law, so called because it was framed by king Richard I. on an island off' the coast of France. OLFACTORY NERVES. The nerves which give the sense of smelling. OLIGARCHY. A form of government wherein the administration of aflairs is lodged in the hands of a few persons. OLIVE TREE. A tree, native of tlie southern parts of Europe, which rises with solid upright stems, and branches numer- ously on every side. The olive, which is the fruit of this tree, yields an oil that ia of an emollient and solvent nature. OLYMPIAD. The space of four years, wliereby the Greeks reckoned their time, from tlie circumstance of the Olympic games having lieen celebrated once in four years. The first Olympiad is dated, ac- cording to some, 774 years before Christ. OLYiMPIC GAJIES. Solemn games among the Greeks, In honour of Jupiter Olympus, at which five kinds of exercises were exhibited, namely, leaping, running, wrestling, quoiting, and whirlbats. OiMEGA, The last letter of the Greek alphabet. OMENTUM. A double netlike mem- brane spread over the entrails. OMER. A Hebrew measure, about three pints and a half English. OMNIUM. A term among stock bro- kers for all the kinds of stock, as 3 per cents, 4 per cents, fcC;, which are sold 268 OPO OPT together as they were bonght by the con- tractors from government. ONION, A bulbous edible root, grow- ing in gardens, and used for various culi- nary purposes. ONYX. A precious stone, accounted a species of opaque agate. It is a semipel- lucid gem of different colours, but the blu- ish wJiite kind is looked upon as the true onyx of the ancients. OPACITY. That property in bodies by which they are rendered impervious to the rays of tlie sun, owing probably to the density of the parts. OPAL. A precious stone of various colours, which comes under the class of pellucid gems. It is found in many parts of Europe, especially in Hungary, When first dug out of the earth, it is soft, but it hardens and diminishes in bulk by ex- posure to the air. The substance in which it is found is a ferruginous sand stone. OPERA. A dramatic composition set to music. It is sung on the stage, accom- panied and interspersed with dialogue. OPERA-GLASS, A kind of glass con- structed in a small wooden tube, so as to view a person in a theatre, and, as the glass is made to point at a different object from that which is viewed, it may be used without any one knowing exactly who is observed, OPERATION (in Surgery). Any exer- cise of the surgical art which is performed by the use of instruments. 0PERAT10x\ (in Chymistry). Any process that leads to a given result, OPERATION (in Military Affairs), Any movement of an army for the attain- ment of a particular object, OPHTHALMIA, An inflammation of the membranes of the eye, a disease which particularly affected the English soldiers during their stay in Egypt, OPIATE, A medicine made of opium, OPIUM, An inspissated gummy juice obtained from the head of the poppy. It is imported in cakes from Persia, Arabia, and other warm climates ; is of a reddish brown colour, and of a nauseous bitter taste ; and has a powerfully narcotic property. OPOBALSAMUM, Balm of Gilead. A gummy juice of the balsam tree. OPOPONAX. A gummy, resinous juice obtained from the root of an umbelliferous plant growing in warm climates. OPOSSUM. An American animal that lives in holes and woody places. The female is remarkable for having two or three pouches, wherein the young conceal themselves in time of dan- ger. It is found only in Virginia, and the vicinity. OPPOSITION (in Astronomy), One of the aspects of the planets, when they are 180 degrees distant from each other, that is, in a diametrically opposite relation to each other, OPTATIVE (in Grammar). A mode or form of a verb by which is expressed the wish or desire to do a thing, OPTIC. Pertaining to the sight ; as Optic Glasses, glasses contrived for view- ing objects which cannot otherwise be seen, as spectacles, telescopes, microscopes, &c. OPTICIAN. A dealer in or maker of optical instruments. OPTIC NERVES. The second pair of nerves of the brain, which perforate the bulb of the eye, and serve for the sense of sight. OPTIC PLACE OF A STAR. That point of its orbit in which it appears to be to our eye. OPTIC PYRAMID. A pyramid form- ed by rays drawn from the several points of the perimeter to the eye. OPTICS, That branch of natural phi- losophy which treats of the nature of light and colours, or of the general doctrine of vision. It is distinguished into three kinds : namely, optics, properly so called, which treats of direct vision ; catoptrics, which treats of reflected vision, or that which is performed by means of rays re- flected from speculums or mirrors ; and dioptrics, which treats of refracted vision, or that which is performed by means of rays refracted or turned out of their course by passing through mediums of different densities, chiefly through glasses or lenses. OPTICS, History of. The properties of light naturally attracted, at an early period, the attention of philosophers who made nature their study, Empedocles, who flourished upwards of four hundred years before Christ, is said to have written a treatise on liglit; and the works of Aris- totle present us with a number of ques- OPTICS. 269 tions and observations concerning optical appearances. This pliilosopiier was aware that it is the reflection of the liglit from the atmosphere which prevents total dark- ness after the sun sets, and in those pla- ces wliere he does not shine in the day- time. He also considered that rainbows, halos, and mock suns were all occasioned by the reflection of the sunbeams ia difler- ent cu-cumstances, by which an imperfect image of his body was produced, the col- our only, and not his proper figure, being exhibited. Euclid wrote a treatise on op- tics and catoptrics, in which he shows the chief properties of reflected rays in plane, convex, and concave surfaces, in a geo- metrical manner, beginning with that con- cerning the equality of the angles of inci- dence and reflection. He also takes some notice of dioptrics, and remarks on the effect of refraction in regard to an object at the bottom of a vessel, which, when water is poured in, is brought to view, that was not to be seen above the edge of the vessel before the water was poured in. As to the eflect of burning glasses, both by reflection and refraction, this is noticed not only by Euclid, but by many other of the ancients ; and, if we give credit to his- torians, the exploits performed by Archi- medes in setting fire to the vessels of the Romans before Syracuse, by means of burning mirrors, prove that his practical knowledge exceeded that of modern times. There is no doubt that he wrote a treatise on burning glasses, as also concerning the appearance of a ring or circle under the water, which shows that this phenomenon had not escaped his notice. The ancients were also acquainted with the production of colours by means of refracted light. Se- neca observes that when the light of the sun shines through an angular piece of glass, it shows all the colours of the rain- bow ; also that the colours seen in a pi- geon's neck wlien it changes its position, are the effect of refraction, and on the same principle that a speculum, not hav- ing any colour of its own, will assume that of any other body. Besides, the ancients were not unac- quainted with the magnifying power of glass globes filled with water, for the an- cient engravers used to employ such a glass globe, in order, as is supposed, to magnify the figures, that they might exe- cute their work with more correctness. Ptolemy, who wrote a considerable trea- tise on optics, was well acquainted with the refraction of light, and determined the ratio of the angles of refraction, as compar- ed with that of the angles of incidence, 23* with such accuracy, that there is but a trifling difference between the results of his observations and those of Newton ; not more than might arise from his having used glass and water of specific gravities something diflerent from those employed by iVewton. It appears also from this work of Ptolemy, as also from Iiis Alma- gest, that he employed his knowledge of optics in his astronomical observations, for he was fully aware that refraction de- creases from the Iiorizon to the zenith, and that, by-means of this refraction,- the intervals between the stare appear less when near the horizon than in the merid- ian. He also accounts for the remarkably great apparent size of the sun and moon when seen near the horizon, by ascribing the appearance to tJie refraction of the rays by vapours, which actually enlarge the angle under which the luminaries ap- pear, just as the angle is enlarged by which an object is seen from underwater. The next writer of any importance on the science of optics was Alhazen, an Arabian philosopher, who flourished in the twelfth century. He made many ob- servations and experiments on the effects of refraction at the surface between air and water, air and glass, and water and glass, from which he deduced that atmos- pherical refraction increases the altitudes of all objects in the heavens. He also first observed that the stars are sometimes seen above the horizon by means of re- fraction, when they are really below it ; an observation confirmed by Vitellio and other opticians. He likewise maintained that refraction contracts the diameters and distances of heavenly bodies, and that it is the cause of the twinkling of the stars. Besides, Alhazen treats largely on the m.agnifying power of glasses, so that probably his observations led to the inven- tion of spectacles. In the next century follov^'ed Vitellio, a Pole, who digested the contents of Alhazen's work, and made many additional observations on the power of refraction. He gave a table of the results of his experiments on the re- fracting power of air, water, and glass, corresponding to different angles of inci- dence. Roger Bacon, a contemporary with Vitellio, also wrote on this science, and is generally considered to be the in- ventor of the magic lantern. Maurolycus, who followed these two at the distance of nearly two centuries, explains, in his treatise De Lumine et Umbrsi, the process of vision, showing that the crystalline hu- mour of the eye is a lens which collects the rays of light issuing from the objectF, f70 ORA and throws them on the retina, where the focus of each pencil is formed. From this principle he discovered the reason why some people have a short sight and others a long one ; also why the former are as- sisted by concave glasses, and the latter fey convex ones. John Baptista Porta, his contemporary, discovered the camera ob- scura, and took the first public notice of the magic lantern, the original invention of which has been ascribed to Roger Bacon. Kircher, who followed Baptista, enlarged on his hints, and put them into execution. He also made many experiments with the camera obscura, by which he satisfied himself that vision is performed by the intromission of something into the eye, and not by visual rays proceeding from it, as had been formerly imagined. He con- sidered the eye as a camera obscura, the pupil to be the hole in, the win at Delphi, and those of Jupiter Ammon in Thebes. ORANG-OUTANG. One of the tailless species of ape, which the most resembles man in its figure. ORANGE-TREE. An evergreen, re- sembling the laurel in its leaf. It is a na- tive of warm climates, and yields a well knovv'n juicy fruit of the same name. ORA. A Saxon coin, equal to from 16d. toaod. ORACLES f among the Heathens). Am- ORATORY. The same as Rhetoric: ORB. A hollow sphere or space con- tained between two concentric spherical surfaces, as the orb of the heavens. ORBIT. The path of a planet or a com- et described by its centre in its proper mo- tion in tlte heavens. ORBITS (in Anatomy). The two large cavities in which the eyes are placed. ORCHARD. A piece of ground planted with fruit trees. ORCHESTRA. The stage or middle of the theatre among the Greeks, where the chorus used to dance, and the performers used to sit. It is now the place set apart for the musicians, as the front of the stage in a theatre, a gallery in an assembly- room, &c. ORCHEDE^. One of Linnrous's nat- ural orders of plants, containing the orchis I and other Rowers allied to it. ORD ORDEAL. A Saxon mode of trial, which consisted in trying the guilt or in- nocence of persons by appeals to Heaven, as in the ordeal by fire, when the party accused undertook to walk blindfold be- tween nine red-hot ploughshares ; and if he or she escaped unhurt, it was looked upon as a proof of innocence ; so, in the ordeal by water, wlien a person was thrown bound into a river, or put his hands or feet into scalding water, and the like. ORDER (in Military Affairs), as Order of Battle, the disposition of troops for bat- tle 5 open order, close order, &c.; also in the sense of command, as the com- mander in chief's orders, which issue im- mediately from the commander in chief's office ; so brigade orders, general orders, standing orders, &C. ORDER (in Naval Affairs). Command, as sailing orders, &:c. ORDER (in Natural History). A partic- ular division of animals, plants, or miner- als, comprehended under a class iu the Linnaean and other systems. ORDER (in Architecture). The rule of proportion to be observed in the construc- tion, of any building, which is applied mostly to the column and the entabla- ture, from the diversity in which have sprung the five several orders — the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Composite. ORDER (in Geometry). A rank or sit- uation in a series of curves, lines, &c. ; thus the first order of curve lines is ex- pressed by a simple equation, or the first power ; those of the second order, by a quadratic equation, or the second power ; and so on, ORDERS (in Law). In England, rules made by the court in causes there depend- ing. These orders are made by different courts, as the Chancery, King's Bench, &c. ; and also, on particular occasions, orders are made by magistrates at the ORG 271 ORDERS (in Ecclesiastical Affairs). Congregations or societies of religious per- sons, who bind themselves by a vow to live under a superior, according to certain rules prescribed to them by their founder, such as the monks and nuns in the Romish church ; likewise the character and office by which ecclesiastics are distinguished, that are set apart for the ministry. Since the Reformation, there are three orders of the clergy acknowledged in England, namely, bishops, priests, and deacons ; whence the phrase, ' to be in orders,' is the same as to be of the clerical order. ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD (in Her- aldry). Societies of knights instituted by princes, as marks of distinction for such as have distinguished themselves in war The British orders are the order of the Garter, and the order of the Bath, belong- ing to England 5 the Irish order of St. Patrick; and the Scotch order of the Thistle. ORDINANCE. A law or decree. ORDINARY (in the Common Law). In England, one who has ordinary, or ex- empt and immediate jurisdiction in causes ecclesiastical, as an archbishop or a bishop. The ordinary in Newgate is the clerg>-man who attends in ordinary upon condemned malefactors; also a term for the officers and servants of the king's household who attend on common occasions, as physicians in ordinary. ORDINARY (in the Navy). The esta- blishment of persons employed by govern- ment to take charge of the ships of war which are laid up in the harbours. ORDINARY (in Heraldry). Any charge in coats of arms which is proper to the- art, and in ordinary use therein ; as the chief, pale, bend, fesse,bar, chevron, cross, and saltire, in distinction from the com- mon charges, or such things as it has in common with the other arts, as animals, implements, crosses, &c. ORDINATES (in Conic Sections). Geo- metrical lines drawn parallel to each other, and cutting the curve in a certain number of points. ORDINATION (in Ecclesiastical Af- fairs). The act of ordaining, or putting into holy orders. The age of ordination for a deacon, in England, is twenty-three, and for a priest twenty-four. ORDNANCE. A general name for aU sorts of great gims. ORDNANCE, Office of. An office kept within the Tower of London, which superintends and disposes of all the arms and implements of war. ORE. A general name for metals in an unrefined state, as they are dug out of the earth, where they are found in the four following states: namely, I. Pure, that is, by themselves, in a pure metallic state, or as alloys, in combination with other met- als. 2. As sulphurets, or in combination with sulphur. 3. As oxides, or in combi- nation with oxygen : and 4. As salts, that is, in combination with acids. ORGAN (in Physiology). An instru- ment by which any natural faculty in an animal body is exercised, as the ear, which is the organ of hearing ; the eye, which is the organ of sight. ORGAN (in Music). A wind instru- ment blown by bellows, and containing 272 ORN numerous pipes of various kinds and di- mensions, which, for its solemnity, gi-an- deur, and rich volume of tone, is peculiar- ly fitted for the purpose for which it is commonly employed. Organs are some- times of an immense size : the organ in the cathedral church at Ulm, in Germany, is said to be 93 feet high and 28 broad, its largest pipe being 13 inches in diameter, and it having sixteen pair of bellows. ORGANIC REMAINS. A name ap- plied to all those animal and vegetable substances which have been dug out of the earth in a mineralized state, and serve as strong evidences of the universal del- uge, and the changes which ensued. They also afford reason to believe that the mat- ter composing the solid parts of the globe, has undergone violent and extensive rev- olutions, and that whole classes of vege- tables and animals now extinct have exist- ed on the globe, anterior to the present constitution of things. See Geology. ORIENT. The east or rising point. ORIFICE. The mouth or entrance to any cavity in the animal body. ORIGINAL. The first copy, or that from which any thing is first transcribed or translated. ORIOLE. A species of birds, of which the Baltimore oriole, or hang-bird, is a beautiful variety, well known in the U. States. ORION. A constellation in the south- ern hemisphere, containing from thirty- eight to seventy-eight stars, according to diiFerent writers. ORNAMENTS (in Architecture). Leaves, roses, channellings, and the like, which ornament the different parts of a column. ORNITHOLOGY. That branch of Na- tural History which treats of Birds, and their natures, habits, form, economy, and uses. Birds, in the Linnsean system, are divided, under the class Aves, into six orders, according to the form of their bills : as the Accipitres, including the eagle, vul- ORN ture, hawk, &c. ; Picae, including the crow, jackdaw, parrot, &:c. ; Anseres, in- cluding the duck, goose, swan, gull, &;c. ; Grallae, as the heron, woodcock, ostrich, &c. ; Gallinae, including the peacock, pheasant, turkey, domestic fowl, &c. ; Passeres, including the sparrow, lark, swallow, &:c. ORNITHOLOGY, Histort of. The only scientific writers on the subject of birds among the ancients were Aristotle and Pliny. The former of these writers speaks of the different kinds of food adapted to the different species, of which he gives an imperfect nomenclature, and adds some remarks on their various peri- ods of building their nests. Pliny's re- marks on birds are very desultory, and not very extended. The first writer among the moderns, who has treated of birds me- thodically, is Peter Belon, who has classed them principally according to their food and habitation. He has likewise added many observations on their external form and character. Conrad Gesner, his cotem- porary, has displayed much learning in his work, having given alphabetical tables of the names of birds in Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, Greek, and Latin, and numerous references to the writers from whom he collected his materials. Aldrovandus, the celebrated naturalist, followed in th-e steps of Belon and Gesner, and added much to their store of learning and research ; at the same time illustrating the subject with numerous wood cuts. The next ornithol- ogists of any distinction, after these three, were Willoughby and Ray, the latter of whom published the works of the former, his friend, with many additions of his own, in 1678. In this work, the external and internal structure of birds is described, Jacob Theodore Klein, in his History of Birds, divides them into families, orders, and tribes ; the families distinguished ac- cording to their feet, the orders by the form of the bill, and the tribes by the form of the head, &c. In the systematic arrange- ment of Moehring, the classes, orders, and genera of birds are distinguished by the form'of the feet and bill. The system of Linna;us, which follows here in order of time, is dated from the year 1766. It is formed from the manners and habits of the birds, as well as their external form (see ZooLocy). Brisson, in his system of Ornithology, has distributed birds into twenty-six orders, from the form of the bill and feet, &;c., including under these one hundred and fifteen genera, and thirteen hundred species. The work, which is in six volumes 4to., is illustrated with more ORR than two hundred and twenty excellent engravings. The work of Buflbn, though popular, has but few claims to notice in a scientific point of view. Mv. Pennant, in his distribution of birds, prefers Ray to Linnaeus ; but Mr. Latham, in his Synop- sis of Birds, adheres to the latter with very few exceptions, as does also Mr. Shaw, in his General Zoologj'. Among the writers who have treated of the birds of particular places, the most distinguished are Juan Hernandez on the birds of Mexico, jNIarcp-ave on the birds of Brazil, Sir Hans Sloane on the birds of Jamaica, Mr. Mark Catesby on the birds of Carolina, Florida, &c., Schwenckfel on those of Siberia, Brunnick on those of Den- mark, Sonnerat on those of New Guinea, Frisch on those of Germany, Vaillant on those of the Cape, and Edwards on those of the West Lidies. Wilson's Ornitholo- gy of the U. States deservedly places him among the first writers on this subject. ORNITHORUNCUS PARADOXUS. A singular quadruped from New South Wales, not yet properly classed in the Linnaean system. Its great peculiarity is that the structure of its head, externally and internally, bears a greater resemblance to that of a duck than to that of any ani- mal of the mammalia tribe. ORPHAN. One bereaved of either fa- ther or mother, or of both parents. ORPIMENT. A fine yellow powder ; a mineral composed of sulphur and arsen- ic ; one of the ores of arsenic. ORRERY. An astronomical instrument for exhibiting the several motions of the heavenly bodies. The first machine of this kind was constructed by Mr. Graham, but it derives its name from the Earl of Orrery, for whom one was made by flir. Rowley; and Sir Richard Steele suppos- ing this to be the first ever constructed, he gave it the above name in honour of the earl. Orreries are constructed so as to be more or less complete. That given in the accompanying figure has all the planets represented upon it ; that is to say, the sun, placed in the centre of the solar sys- tem ; next to the sun is the orbit of Mer- cury ; and next to that, the orbit of Venus. Next to the orbit of Venus, is the orbit of our earth, represented by a silver plate, on which the signs of the Zodiac, the degi-ees of the ecliptic, and the days of each month are drawn ; and the earth is repre- sented by an ivory ball placed upon an axis, so as to make an angle with the plane of the horizon of 66 degrees and a half. About the ivory ball there is a silver circle, which is placed so as to incline to ORT 273 the earth's orbit in an angle of 8 degrees : this represents the orbit of the moon, the moon itself being represented by a silver ball. The superior planets are Mars, Ju- piter, and Saturn, in this order: Mara stands next without our earth ; next to that, Jupiter ; and outermost of all, Saturn. By the handle, the revolutions of these planets are represented. While the earth is carried round the sun by 365 turns and a quarter, of the handle, JMercury is carri- ed round the sun in 88 turns, and Venus in 224 ; which represents that the length of the year in Mercury is 88 of our days, and the length of the year in Venus is equal to 224 of our days. Mars performs his revolution about the sun in 687 turns of the handle, Jupiter in 4332 turns, which answers to 4332 revolutions of our earth about its own axis ; and last of all, Saturn^ in 10759 turns, completes his revolution, which is the length of the Saturnian year, and is equal to about 30 of our years* ORTHODROMICS. The art of saitmg in the arc of a great circle. ORTHOEPY. Correct enunciation. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION OF THE SPHERE. That projection which is made upon a plane passing through the middle of the sphere, by an eye placed vertically at an infinite distance. ORTHOGRAPHY. That part of gi-am- mar which teaches the nature and affec- tions of letters, and the proper spelling or writing of words. ORTHOGRAPHY (in Geometiy). The art of drawing or delineating the fore right plan of any object, and of expressing the heights or elevations of each part ; so call- ed from its determining things by perpen- dicular lines falling on the geometrical plan. ORTHOGRAPHY (in Architecture). 274 OST The elevation or representation of the front of a building. ORTOLAN. A delicate bird of the bunting tribe, which visits England before the setting in of frost and snow. ORYcf OLOGY. The science of or- ganic remains. OSCILLATION. The vibration of a clock. OSCULATION. The contact between any curve and its osculatory circle. OSIER. The red water-willow, of which wicker baskets are made. OSIRIS. An Egyptian deity. OSPREY. The h^h liawk, common !h Europe and Amencd. '■'