Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from Boston Library Consortium Member Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/handbookofbirdsochap By FRANK M. CHAPMAN, Curator of Birds in the American Museum of Natural History. HANDBOOK OF BIRDS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA. With Keys to the Species, Descriptions of their Plumages, Nests, etc., and their Distribution and Migrations. With over 200 Illustrations. i2mo. Library Edition, $3.00. Pocket Edition, flexible covers, $3.50. BIRD-LIFE. A Guide (0 the Study of Our Common Birds. Popular Edition in colors, $2.00 net. BIRD STUDIES WITH A CAMERA. Witli Introductory Chapters on the Outfit and Methods of the Bird Photographer. Illustrated with over 100 Photographs from Nature by the Author. i2mo. Cloth, $1.75. THE WARBLERS OF NORTH AMERICA. With Contributions from other Ornithologists and 24 full-page Colored Plates illustrating every Species, from Drawings by L. A. Fuertes and B. Horsfall, and Plalf-tones of Nests and Eggs. 8vo. Cloth, I3.00 net. CAMPS AND CRUISES OF AN ORNITHOLOGIST. Illustrated by 250 Photographs from Nature by the Author. 8vo. Cloth, $3.00 net. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. BOB-WHITE. HANDBOOK OF BIRDS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA WITH KEYS TO THE SPECIES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF THEIR PLUMAGES, NESTS, AND EGGS THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATIONS AND A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THEIR HAUNTS AND HABITS WITH INTRODUCTORY CHAPTERS ON THE STUDY OF ORNITHOLOGY, HOW TO IDENTIFY BIRDS AND HOW TO COLLECT AND PRESERVE BIRDS THEIR NESTS, AND EGGS BY FRANK M. CHAPMAN ASSISTANT CURATOR OF THE DEPARTMENT OF MAMMALOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY IN THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, NEW YORK CITY " MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS' UNION, ETC. WITH FULL-PAGE PLATES IN COLORS AND BLACK AND WHITE AND UPWARD OF ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY CUTS IN THE TEXT NEW YORK AND LONDON D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1910 Copyright, 1895, B1^ D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. 341058 BOSTON COLLEGE LIBRARI^ CHESTNUT HILL, MASS. TO MY MOTHER WHO HAS EVER ENCOURAGED HER SON IN HIS NATURAL HISTORY STUDIES THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED PKEFACE. If this book had been written in the last century it might have been entitled " Ornithology made Simple, or How to Identify Birds with Ease, Certainty, and Dispatch." It may be unworthy so com- prehensive a title, nevertheless I have made an honest endeavor to write a book on birds so free from technicalities that it would be in- telligible without reference to a glossary, and I have tried to do this in a volume which could be taken afield in the pocket. I have not addressed an imaginary audience, nor have I given my prospective readers what, theoretically, I thought they ought to have, but what personal experience with students of birds has led me to believe would meet their wants. The preparation of this work has firmly convinced me that the poet would have been nearer the truth had he written " One touch of nature makes the whole world kind." In the succeeding pages I have attempted to express my appreciation of the assistance which natural- ist friends and associates have generously given me, but here I desire to especially thank Miss Florence A. Merriam, Dr. J. A. Allen, and Mr. Ernest E. Thompson for much valuable criticism and advice. Frank M. Chapman, American Museum op Natural History, New York City, January, 1895. CONTENTS. PAGE Introduction . " 1 Chapter I. — The Study of Ornithology 1 Systematic Ornithology 2 Philosophic Ornithology 3 Economic Ornithology . ....... 6 Sentiment of Ornithology .8 Chapter II. — The Study of Birds Out-of-Doors . . .10 How to Identify Birds . . • 10 How to Find Birds 11 When to Find Birds . .12 Tables of Migration 15 The Nesting Season 19 Note-books and Journals .20 Chapter III. — Collecting Birds, their Nests, and Eggs . 23 Collecting Birds 23 Making Birdskins 24 Sexing Birds 27 Cataloguing and Labeling 28 Care of a Collection 29 Collecting and Preserving Nests and Eggs . . . . 29 Plan of the Work . . . . . . . . . .32 Nomenclature adopted 32 Definition of Terms 32 The Key to Families 32 The Keys to Species . 34 Measurements 37 Range 37 Biographies 38 Illustrations 39 Color Chart 39 List of Abbreviations 40 vii Vlll CONTENTS. PAGE THE BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA BAST OF THE NINE- TIETH MERIDIAN 41 Key to Orders and Families I. Order Pygopodes : Diving Birds 1. Family PodicipidaB : Grebes 2. Family UrinatoridaB : Loons 3. Family Alcidae : Auks, Murres, and Puffins II. Order Longipennes : Long-winged Swimmers 4. Family Stercorariidse : Skuas and Jaegers 5. Family Laridae : Gulls and Terns 6. Rynchopidas; Skimmers III. Order Tubinares : Tube-nosed Swimmers 7. Family Diomedeidae : Albatrosses 8. Procellariidae : Petrels, Fulmars, and Shearwaters IV. Order Steganopodes : Totipalmate Swimmers 9. Family Phaethontidee : Tropic Birds . 10. Family Sulidag : Gannets . 11. Family Anhingidae : Darters 13. Family Phalacrocoracidae : Cormorants 13. Family Pelecanidae : Pelicans . 14. Family Fregatidae : Man-o'-War Birds V. Order Anseres : Lamellirostral Swimmers 15. Family Anatidae: Ducks, Geese, and Swans VI. Order Odontogloss^ : Lamellirostral Grallatores 16. Family Phoenicopteridae : Flamingoes VII. Order Herodiones : Herons, Storks, Ibises, etc. . 17. Family Plataleidae : Spoonbills. 18. Family Ibididas : Ibises 19. Family Ciconiidae : Storks and Wood Ibises 20. Family Ardeidae: Herons, Egrets, and Bitterns VIII. Order Paludicol^ : Cranes, Rails, etc. 21. Family Gruidae : Cranes .... 22. Family Aramidae : Courlans 23. Family Rallidae : Rails, Gallimiles, and Coots IX. Order Limicol^ : Shore Birds 24. Family Phalaropodida? : Phalaropes . 25. Family Recurvirostridas : Stilts and Avocets 26. Family Scolopacidas : Snipes, Sandpipers, etc. 41 56 56 58 60 65 65 67 85 86 86 86 91 91 92 93 94 95 97 97 97 125 125 125 125 126 127 128 137 137 138 139 147 147 149 150 CONTENTS. IX 27. Family Charadriidae : Plovers . 28. Family Aphrizidae : Turnstones, etc. . 29. Family HaematopodidaB : Oyster-catchers X. Order Galling : Gallinaceous Birds . 30. Family TetraonidaB : Grouse, Bob-whites, etc. 31. Family Phasianidae : Pheasants, etc. . XI. Order Columb^ : Pigeons and Doves . 32. Family Columbidae : Pigeons and Doves XII. Order Raptores: Birds of Prey . 33. Family Cathartidae : American Vultures 34. Family Falconidae : Falcons, Hawks, Eagles, etc. 35. Family Strigidae : Barn Owls .... 36. Family Bubonidas : Horned Owls, Hoot Owls . XIII. Order Psittaci : Parrots, Macaws, Paroquets, etc 37. Family Psittacidae : Parrots and Paroquets XIV. Order Coccyges : Cuckoos, Kingfishers, etc. 38. Family Cuculidae : Cuckoos .... 39. Family Alcedinida? : Kingfishers . . XV. Order Pici : Woodpeckers, Wrynecks, etc . 40. Family Picidae : Woodpeckers .... XVI. Order Macrochires : Goatsuckers, Hummingbirds, Swifts, etc. . 41. Family Caprimulgidae : Nighthawks, Whip-poor- wills, etc 42. Family Micropodidae : Swifts . 43. Family Trochilidae : Hummingbirds XVII. Order Passeres : Perching Birds . 44. Family Tyrannidse : Flycatchers 45. Family Alaudidae : Larks . 46. Family Corvidae : Crows and Jays 47. Family Sturnidae : Starlings 48. Family Icteridae : Blackbirds, Orioles, etc. 49. Family Fringillidae : Finches, Sparrows, etc. 50. Family Tanagridae : Tanagers . 51. Family Hirundinidae : Swallows 52. Family Ampelidae : Waxwings . 53. Family Laniidae : Shrikes . 54. Family Vireonidae : Vireos . 55. Family Mniotiltidae : Wood Warblers 171 176 177 178 178 185 187 187 191 191 193 213 213 222 222 224 224 226 227 227 226 236 239 240 242 242 252 253 259 260 271 316 318 323 325 327 333 CONTENTS. PAGE 56. Family Motacillidae : Wagtails and Pipits . . 375 57. Family Troglodytidge : Thrashers, Wrens, etc. . . 376 58. Family Certhiidae : Creepers 385 59. Family Paridae : Nuthatches and Titmice. . . 386 60. Family Sylviidae : Kinglets and Gnateatchers . . 391 61. Family Turdidas : Thrushes, Bluebirds, etc. . . 394 Appendix : A Field Key to our Commoner Eastern Land Birds . 404 List of Principal Works referred to 411 Index . 415 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FULL-PAGE PLATES. TO FACE PAGE Bob-white Frontispiece. Color Chart . . .39 Pied-billed Grebe and Young 57 Heads of Ducks 97 Little Blue Herons 135 Clapper Rail 140 Woodcock and Young 153 Spotted Sandpiper and Young .169 Ruffed Grouse and Young 181 Sparrow Hawk and Young . . . ... . . .211 Hairy Woodpecker; Yellow-bellied Sapsucker . . . 329 Whip-poor-will 237 Least Flycatcher ; Phcebe 245 Bobolink 262 Meadowlark 265 White-throated Sparrow; White-crowned Sparrow . . 300 Song Sparrow ; Swamp Sparrow 306 Yellow-throated Vireo; Warbling Vireo . . . . 330 Louisiana Water-Thrush 368 Wood Thrush; Wilson's Thrush 395 FIGURES IN THE TEXT. FIGURE PAGE 1. A completed birdskin 28 2. Topography of a bird . . . . . . . . 33 3. (a) Spotted, (b) streaked, (c) barred, (d) margined feathers . 34 4. Rule showing inches and tenths 37 5. Feet of (a) Pied-billed Grebe, (&) Loon, (c) Puffin . . . 41 6. (a) Bill of Parasitic Jaeger ; (b) bill and foot of Laughing Gull 41 7. Bill of Common Tern 42 8. Bill of Skimmer 42 xi xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIGURE PAGE 9. {a) Bill and foot of Black- footed Albatross ; (&) bill and foot of Fulmar 42 10. Foot of Cormorant 43 11. Bill of Yellow-billed Tropic Bird . . . . . .43 12. Bill of Gannet 43 13. Bill of Anhinga 43 14. Bill of Cormorant . 43 15. Bill of Man-o'-War Bird 43 16. Bill of Merganser 44 17. {a) Bill and foot of Mallard ; (b) foot of Canvasback . . 44 18. Bill of Flamingo 45 19. Bill and toe-nail of Little Green Heron 45 20. Bill of White Ibis 45 21. Bill of Roseate Spoonbill 45 22. {a) Bill and foot of Clapper Rail : bills of {b) Yellow Rail, (c) Sora, {d) Florida Gallinule ; (e) bill and foot of Coot . 46 23. Bill of Sandhill Crane 46 24. Bill of Limpkin 46 25. Bills of (a) Dowitcher, (6) Knot, (c) Black-bellied Plover, {d) Semipalmated Plover 47 26. Feet of (a) Red Phalarope, (6) Knot, (c) Dowitcher, {d) Black- bellied Plover, (e) Semipalmated Plover . . . .47 27. Bill of Rufeed Grouse 48 28. Bill of Wild Pigeon 48 29. Feet of {a) Barred Owl, (&) Red-shouldered Hawk . ' . .48 30. Head of Barn Owl 48 31. Head of Barred Owl 48 32. Head of Turkey Vulture 49 33. Head of Red-shouldered Hawk 49 34. Bill and foot of Carolina Paroquet 49 35. Bill and foot of Belted Kingfisher . . . . . ' . 49 36. Bill and foot of Yellow-billed Cuckoo 49 37. (a) Bill and foot of Hairy Woodpecker, (6) foot of Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker 50 38. Bill and foot of Nighthawk . . . ... . .50 39. Bill and tail-feather of Chimney Swift 50 40. Bill of Hummingbird . . . . . . . .50 41. Foot of Robin 51 42. Bill and wing of Phoebe 51 43. Bill and hind-toe of Horned Lark 51 44. {a) Bill and wang of Blue Jay, (5) bill of Crow . . . 51 45. Bill and wing of Starling . . . . . . . .52 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xiii FIGURE PAGE 46. (a) Bill and wing of Baltimore Oriole ; bills of (6) Meadow- lark, (c) Purple Grackle . 52 47. Bills of (a) Cardinal, (b) Pine Grosbeak, (c) Purple Finch, (d) Red Crossbill, (e) Seaside Finch, (/) Goldfinch . . 53 48. Bill of Scarlet Tanager . . 53 49. Bill and foot of Cliff Swallow 53 50. Head of Cedar Waxwing 53 51. Bill of Loggerhead Shrike 53 52. Bill of Blue-headed Vireo 53 53. (a) Bill of Tennessee Warbler ; (b) bill, wing, and hind-toe of Pine Warbler; bills of (c) Redstart, (d) Water-Thrush; (e) Chat 53 54. Bill and hind-toe of American Pipit 54 55. {a) Bill of Brown Thrasher, (b) bill and wing of Catbird; bills of (c) Carolina Wren, (d) House Wren . . . ,54 56. Bill and tail of Brown Creeper 54 57. (a) Bill of White-breasted Nuthatch, (b) bill and wing of Chickadee 55 58. (a) Bill and wing of Golden-crowned Kinglet, (6) bill of Blue Gray Gnatcatcher 55 59. (a) Bill of Robin, (b) bill and wing of Bluebird . . .55 60. First primaries of (a) American Herring Gull, (b) Ring-billed Gull, (c) Laughing Gull, (d) Franklin's Gull, (e) Bona- parte's Gull 69 61. First primaries of (a) Caspian Tern, (b) Royal Tern, (c) Com- mon Tern, (d) Arctic Tern, (e) Royal Tern . . . .78 63. Head of Least Sandpiper 160 63. Head of Red-backed Sandpiper 161 64. Wing of Solitary Sandpiper 166 65. Head of Semipalmated Plover . . . . . . .174 66. Head of Wilson's Plover 176 67. Tail of Sharp-shinned Hawk .198 68. Tail of Cooper's Hawk 199 69. Primaries of Red-shouldered Hawk 303 70. Primaries of Broad-winged Hawk 304 71. Foot of Golden Eagle 306 73. Foot of Bald Eagle .307 73. Tail-feathers of Yellow-billed Cuckoo 335 74. Tail-feathers of Black-billed Cuckoo 336 75. Head of Crested Flycatcher 345 ■ 76. Head of Prairie Horned Lark 353 - 77. Head of Cowbird 363 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIGURE p^Qj. 78. Head of Orchard Oriole 267 79. Head of Purple Finch 281 80. Head of Redpoll . 285 81. Hind-toe of Lapland Longspur 289 83. Tail-feathers of Vesper Sparrow 290 83. Tail of Grasshopper Sparrow 293 84. Head of Seaside Sparrow 297 85. Head of Lark Sparrow . . . . . . . . 299 86. Head of Chipping Sparrow 302 87. Head of Fox Sparrow 309 88. Head of Dickcissel . . . . . . . . .315 89. Barn, Cliff, Tree, and Bank Swallows 318 90. Section of primary of Rough- winged Swallow . . . 323 91. Head of Red-eyed Vireo 328 93. Wing of Warbling Vireo , . . . . . . . 329 93. Head of Black and White Warbler . . , . . .351 94. Head of Worm-eating Warbler . . . . . . 351 95. Head of Blue-winged Warbler 351 96. Head of Golden-winged Warbler 351 97. Head of Parula Warbler .351 98. Head of Myrtle Warbler . . . . . . . .351 99. Head of Magnolia Warbler 351 100. Head of Chestnut-sided Warbler 351 101. Black-throated Blue Warbler 354 103. Head of Black-poll Warbler 366 103. Head of Prairie Warbler ........ 366 104. Head of Oven-bird 366 105. Head of Kentucky Warbler 366 106. Head of Maryland Yellow-throat 366 107. Head of Wilson's Warbler ....... 366 108. Head of Hooded Warbler , . . .366 109. Head of Canadian Warbler 366 110. Head of Yellow-breasted Chat ....... 373 111. Head of Short-billed Marsh Wren 383 113. Head of Long-billed Marsh Wren 384 113. Head of Red-breasted Nuthatch 388 114. Head of Tufted Titmouse 389 115. Head of Golden-crowned Kinglet ...... 393 A HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA. INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER I. THE STUDY OF ORNITHOLOGY. Birds, because of their beauty, the charm of their songs, and the ease with which they may be observed, are doubtless the forms of animal life which first attract the young naturalist's attention. His interest in them gives evidence of an inborn love of Nature. Too often this priceless gift is lost simply through lack of encouragement and instruction. Properly developed it should prove a never-failing source of pleasure and inspiration, if indeed its influence does not become the most potent factor in our lives. Let us hope that the day is not distant when the importance of in- troducing natural-history studies into our schools will be generally recognized. The young student of Nature will then be helped over the repelling technicalities which render so difficult the first steps to a knowledge of his chosen subject. Without a guide he now either loses his way completely or travels under disadvantages which handi- cap him for the whole journey. The uninstructed beginner in ornithology usually expends his en- ergies in forming a collection, and he knows no better way of pursuing his study of birds than to kill and stuff them ! Collecting specimens is a step in the scientific study of birds, but ornithology would have small claim to our consideration if its possibilities ended here. Prop- erly considered, it includes what may be termed the science of orni- thology and the sentiment of ornithology. As a science it treats of birds as the exponents of natural laws and seeks to determine their place in the scale of life. In the sentiment of ornithology Nature ap- peals to us through the most interesting and beautiful of her animate forms. 2 i 2 SYSTEMATIC ORNITHOLOGY. The Science of Ornithology. — The science of ornithology may be divided into three branches — systematic, philosophic, and economic. The systematist aims to classify birds according to what are appar- ently their true relationships. He is the ornithological storekeeper, and having taken an account of stock it is his duty to keep the books of the firm in order. The philosophic ornithologist accepts as a fact the statement of affairs given hiui by his fellow-worker the systemat- ist, and tries to explain the wherefore and why. He is a seeker of causes. The economist is of a more practical turn of mind. He is impressed by the incalculable influence which birds exert over our agricultural interests, and the necessity for learning with exactness whether this influence is for good or evil. But let us describe these three departments of scientific ornithology more fully. Systematic Ornithology. — The first step in the scientific study of any group of animals is to name and classify them. Orders, families, genera, species, and subspecies are to be described and arranged in what appears to be the most natural manner. Thus all the Perching Birds, for example, are placed in the order Passeres, and this order is divided into numerous families — for instance, the Thrushes or family Turdidce. But how are we to know which are Perching Birds and which of the Perching Birds are Thrushes *? The systematist answers, by studying a bird's structure. Generally speaking, orders and fami- lies are based on skeletal, muscular, and visceral characters which may be termed internal characters. Genera are based on the form of bill, feet, wings, and tail, or on external characters, while species and sub- species are based mainly on color and size. Thus all the members of a family or order agree more or less in their principal internal charac- ters : those of a genus agree in external characters, and the individ- uals of a species or subspecies resemble one another in color and size. The object of classification is to aid us in understanding not alone the relationships of one bird to another bird, or of one family or order of birds to another family or order, or even of living to extinct birds, but also to assist us in explaining the relationships of all the classes of the animal and vegetable kingdoms — mammals, birds, rep- tiles, fishes — and thus down the scale to the lowest forms of life. This systematic study of the relationships of birds has taught us that they have been evolved from reptilian ancestors. There is much evidence in support of this fact, but the most conclusive is furnished by the discovery in the lithographic slate of Solenhofen, Bavaria, of several specimens of a remarkable fossil, a reptilelike bird, which has been named Archceopteryx lithographica. It is the earliest known direct progenitor of the great class Aves. PHILOSOPHIC ORNITHOLOGY. 3 The importance of systematic classification is also shown in the ne- cessity of naming objects before we can study them to advantage. As the alphabet is the foundation of a written language, so this great series of scientific names, which appears so formidable to the student, is the groundwork for all ornithological research. Philosophic Ornithology. — Having learned the alphabet of orni- thology, we may pass from the systematic to the philosophic study of birds ; from the study of dead birds to that of living ones. A study of specimens shows their relationships through structure, but a study of the living bird in its haunts may tell us the cause of structure. In classifying birds we have taken note of their form and coloration ; our object now is to determine how these characters were acquired. As Prof. E. S. Morse has said, "There is no group of animals which exceeds birds in varied and suggestive material for the evolu- tionist." Compare a Hummingbird with an Ostrich, a Swallow with a Penguin, and the enormous variation in the structure and habits of birds is brought very forcibly to our minds. When we remember that these widely divergent types descended from a reptilian ancestor, we are impressed anew with the truth of Prof. Morse's remark. A brief review of the more important branches of philosophic ornithology will show how rich a field is open to the student of birds. They are : (1) The origin of birds and their place in Nature ; * (2) their distribution in time and space, and the influences which determine their present ranges ; f (3) the migration of birds, its origin, object, ex- tent, and manner ; % (4) the nesting of birds, including a study of the significance of sexual differences in form, color, and voice, the location and construction of the nest, the number and color of the eggs, together with the. habits of birds during the entire nesting season ; (5) the effect * See Newton's Dictionary of Birds (London : Adam and Charles Black, 1893) ,' articles, "Anatomy of Birds " and " Fossil Birds" ; Coues's Key to N. A. Birds. t Read The Geographical Distribution of North American Mammals, by J. A. Allen, Bull. Am. Mas. Nat. Hist., iv, 1892, pp. 199-244 ; four maps. The Geo- graphical Origin and Distribution of North American Birds, considered in Rela- tion to Faunal Areas of North America, by J. A. Allen, The Auk, x, 1893, pp. 97-150 ; two maps. The Geographic Distribution of Life in North America with Special Reference to the Mammalia, by C. Hart Merriam, M. D., Proc. of the Biological Soc. of Washington, vii, 1892, pp. 1-64 ; one map. Laws of Tempera- ture Control, by Dr. C. Hart Merriam, Nat. Geog. Mag., vi, 1894, pp. 229-238 ; three maps. X On this subject read articles by the following authors : J. A. Allen, Scrib- ner's Magazine, xxii, 1881, pp. 932-938 ; Bull. Nuttall Orn. Club, v, 1880, pp. 151- 154 ; Scott, ibid., vi, 1881, pp. 97-100 ; Brewster, Memoirs Nuttall Orn. Club (Cam- bridge, Mass.), No. 1, pp. 22 ; Cooke and Merriam, Bird Migration in the Mississippi Valley (Washinjjton. 1888) : Chapman. Auk, v. 1888, pp. 37-39 ; xi, 1894, pp. 12-17 ; Loomis, Auk, ix. 1892, pp. 28-39 ; xi, 1894, pp. 26-39, 94-117 ; Stone, Birds of E. Penn. and N. J., Bird Migration, pp. 15-28. 4. GEOGRAPHICAL RACES. of climate upon the color and size of birds;* (6) the relation of a bird's color to its haunts and habits.f Besides these general subjects which enter into our study of the life-history of every bird, we have the special instances of intelligent adaptation to changed conditions of life, and, most interesting of all, the relation between structure and habits, or the part played by a bird's habits in determining the form of its bill, feet, wings, and tail. Thus the Crook-billed Plover of New Zealand turns over or probes under stones and shells in search of food, not because its crooked bill makes an excellent lever or probe, but it has acquired a crooked bill through this habit. Again, the Gallinules of certain islands in southern seas are flightless, not because their wings are too small to support them, but because after having flown to these islands they had no further use for wings, which in time, through dis- use, became so small that the birds have lost the power of flight. In other words, it is not because their wings are small that they do not fly, but because they do not fly their wings are small. But to enlarge upon these problems which confront the philo- sophic ornithologist would require a volume. It is important, how- ever, that the student should have in the beginning at least a general idea of the effect of climate on the size and color of birds and the migration of birds. The first is well illustrated by our Bob-white or Quail. In New England, at the northern limit of its range, it is a fine, large bird with a light-brown back and a white breast narrowly barred with black. As we proceed southward it becomes smaller, the brown is of a deeper shade, the black bars of greater extent. Finally, when we have reached the humid region of southern Florida, the minimum in size is attained, the back is dark, rich chestnut barred with black, and the breast is almost wholly black. No one who compared this small, dark Florida Quail with the large, pale Quail of New England would consider them the same species. But on examining a series of Quails from all the Atlantic States one sees how gradually this change in color and decrease in size occurs, and that nowhere would it be possible to draw a line separating the two extremes. They are species in process of formation still connected by a chain of natural links. Ornithology presents many similar cases. They illustrate two laws in the evolution of animals — decrease in size southward and greater * Read Part III of Dr. .T. A. Allen's Mammals and Winter Birds of East Florida, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., vol. ii, No. 3. Cambridge, 1871. t Consult Poulton's Colors of Animals (D. Appleton & Co., 1890); Bed- dard's Animal Coloration (Macmillan & Co.) ; Keeler's Evolution of the Colors of North American Land-birds (Occasional Papers of California Academy of Sciences, iii, 1893) ; also reviews of last two works in The Auk, x, 1893, pp. 189- 199, 373-380. MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 5 intensity of color in regions of greatest rainfall. They are thus evi- dences of an evolution so recent that we can assign its cause. In nomenclature these partly formed species are termed subspecies or races. Under the trinomial system they are distinguished by a third name : thus Colinus vii^ginianus floridanus is a subspecies or race of Colinus virginianus. But if through any change in the earth's sur^ face the region? occupied by the large, light Quail and the small, dark one should be separated, the intermediates would disappear and in- stead of a race or subspecies we would have a full species — Colinus floridanus. The Migration of Birds. — Certain insects, fishes, and mammals migrate, but no animals compare with birds in the extent of their migrations. Some birds nest within the Arctic Circle and winter in the southern parts of the southern hemisphere, performing this jour- ney of thousands of miles year after year and returning to their sum- mer or winter haunts with marvelous certainty and regularity. Not only is the migration of birds an interesting subject in itself, but the almost constant changes it causes in the bird-life of the same region gives an interest to the study of ornithology which is ever re- newed with the changing seasons. Indeed, to the lover of Nature birds are a living calendar. " What was that sound that came on the softened air? It was the warble of the Bluebird from the scraggy orchard yonder. When this is heard, then has spring arrived." A discussion of the origin of bird migration will be found in the books and papers on this subject to which reference has been given. Here it is possible only to outline its principal features as they exist to-day. Generally speaking, birds migrate at the" approach of winter, in search of food. The reason why they leave a land of plenty in the tropics and follow the footsteps of retreating winter to nest in the comparatively barren north is as yet not satisfactorily explained. As a rule, the, extent of a bird's migration depends upon the nature of its food. Insect-eating birds are forced to extend their migrations much farther than the seed-eaters, many of which are permanent residents at their place of birth. The land-birds of the Western States winter in Mexico. A few cross the Isthmus of Tehuantepee into Central America, but practically no species cross the Isthmus of Panama. Our Eastern birds have a longer and more perilous journey to perform. They leave the mainland by way of Florida, and some species find congenial winter haunts in the West Indies or Central America, while others go as far south as the Argentine Republic. Birds of strong flight, like Swallows, can easily escape from bird- killing Hawks, and so migrate boldly by day. But the shy, retiring inhabitants of woods and thickets await the coming of darkness, and 6 ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. then, mounting high in the air, pursue their journey under cover of the night. Birds direct their flight by coast lines and river valleys which are easily distinguishable in clear weather. On favorable nights these natural highways of migration are thronged by a continuous stream of aerial voyagers passing from dusk until dawn. Looking through a telescope at the moon, one may see numbers of birds cross its glowing surface. From such observations it is com- puted that migrating birds fly at a height of from one to three miles. The eyesight of birds is so far superior to ours that we do not realize its value to them while migrating. The height at which they fly gives them command of a wide range of country, and on clear nights they can undoubtedly distinguish its prominent features with ease. But when fogs or clouds obscure these landmarks, they lose their way. It is then that lighthouses prove beacons luring them to destruction. The Bartholdi Statue, at the mouth of the Hudson River, is directly in the path of the great streams of migrants which flow up and down this natural highway of migration, and for this reason is particularly destructive to birds which travel at night. On one occasion after a storm no less than fourteen hundred birds were picked up at its base, having been killed by striking the statue or pedestal upon which it rests. But while sight is of the first importance to the older and more experienced birds who know the way, young birds, who are making the journey for the first time, doubtless rely on their hearing to guide them. Birds' ears are exceedingly acute. They readily detect sounds which to us would be inaudible. Almost invariably they respond to an imitation of their notes, and, when under way, frequently chirp and call. When we consider their power of hearing and their abundance in routes of migration, it seems probable that at no time during the night is a bird beyond the hearing of his fellow-travelers. The line of flight once established, therefore, by the older birds, who leave flrst, it becomes a comparatively easy matter for the younger birds to join the throng. Economic Ornithology. — This branch of the study of ornithology treats of the relationships of bird to man from the standpoint of dollars and cents. Civilized man is Nature's worst enemy. He is a disturbing element whose presence is a constant menace to the balance of life. It is of the utmost importance, therefore, that we should acquaint ourselves with the conditions which make a true equilibrium and endeavor to sustain them when it proves to our advantage to do so. The disastrous results which have followed man's introduction of the English or House Sparrow in America, the mongoose in the West ECONOMIC ORNITHOLOGY. 7 Indies, and the rabbit in Australia, clearly show that our attempts to improve upon Nature must be directed, not by haphazard methods, but by knowledge gained through a careful study of Nature's laws. Few persons realize the value of birds to man. They are the natural check upon the increase of insect life. Consider the incal- culable number of insects destroyed by the birds which pass the greater part of each day hunting through our lawns, orchards, fields, and woods for the pests that destroy vegetation. Of almost equal im- portance are the birds of prey whose food consists largely of the small rodents which are among the farmer's worst enemies. Indeed, it is not too much to say that without birds the earth would not long be habitable. As yet we are on the threshold of an exact knowledge of the value of birds to man ; but let us cite one easily demonstrable case where ignorance of birds' habits resulted in direct pecuniary loss. Quoting from the report for 1886 of Dr. C. Hart Merriam, Ornithologist and Mammalogist of the United States Department of Agriculture : " On the 23d of June, 1885, the Legislature of Pennsylvania passed an act known as the ' scalp act,' ostensibly ' for the benefit of agriculture,' which provides a bounty of fifty cents each on hawks, owls, weasels, and minks killed within the limits of the State, and a fee of twenty cents to the notary or justice taking the affidavit. " By virtue of this act about |90,000 has been paid in bounties during the year and a half that has elapsed since the law went into effect. This represents the destruction of at least 128,571 of the above-mentioned animals, most of which were hawks and owls. " Granting that 5,000 chickens are killed annually in Pennsylvania oy hawks and owls, and that they are worth twenty-five cents each (a liberal estimate in view of the fact that a large proportion of them are killed when very young), the total loss would be 1,250, and the poultry killed in a year and a half would be worth $1,875. Hence it appears that during the past eighteen months the State of Pennsylvania has Expended |90,000 to save its farmers a loss of $1,875. But this esti- mate by no means represents the actual loss to the farmer and the tax- payer of the State. It is within bounds to say that in the course of a year every hawk and owl destroys at least a thousand mice or their equivalent in insects, and that each mouse or its equivalent so de- stroyed would cause the farmer a loss of two cents per annum. There- fore, omitting all reference to the enormous increase in the numbers of these noxious animals when Nature's means of holding them in check has been removed, the lowest possible estimate of the value to the farmer of each hawk, owl, and weasel would be $20 a year, or $30 in a year and a half. 8 SENTIMENT OF OfiNlTHOLOGY. " Hence, in addition to the $90,000 actually expended by the State in destroying 128,571 of its benefactors, it has incurred a loss to its agricultural interests of at least $3,857,130, or a total loss of $3,947,130 in a year and a half, which is at the rate of 2,631,420 per annum. In other words, the State has thrown away $2,105 for every dollar saved ! And even this does not represent fairly the full loss, for the slaughter of such a vast number of predaceous birds and mammals is almost certain to be followed by a correspondingly enormous increase in the numbers of mice and insects formerly held in check by them, and it will take many years to restore the balance thus blindly destroyed through ignorance of the economic relations of our common birds and mammals." To their credit be it said, the legislators of Pennsylvania were not slow to recognize the error which a lack of proper information had caused them to make. A State ornithologist was appointed, and through his efforts this ruinous and absurd law was repealed. In 1893 the Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy of the Department of Agriculture issued a report upon the food of the Hawks and Owls of the United States based upon the examination of the contents of 2,690 stomachs. It proves conclusively the value of most of these misjudged birds to the agriculturist. It is need- less to draw a comparison between legislation based upon information derived from such reports and that based solely on ignorant preju- dices. The Sentiment of Ornithology. — We may accept as true Prof. Morse's estimate of the value of birds to the scientist ; we need not question their importance in the economics of Nature, but we are still far from recognizing the possibilities of their influence upon our lives. An inherent love of birds is an undeniable psychological fact which finds its most frequent expression in the general fondness for cage- birds. If we can learn to regard the birds of the woods and fields with all the affection we lavish on our poor captives in their gilded homes, what an inexhaustible store of enjoyment is ours ! It is not alone the beauty, power of song, or intelligence of birds which attract us, it is their human attributes. Man exhibits hardly a trait which he will not find reflected in the life of a bird. Love, hate; courage, fear; anger, pleasure; vanity, modesty; virtue, vice; constancy, fickleness ; generosity, selfishness ; wit, curiosity, memory, reason — we may find them all exhibited in the lives of birds. Birds have thus become symbolic of certain human characteristics, and the more common species are so interwoven in our art and literature that by name at least they are known to all of us. Shakespeare makes over six hundred references to birds or bird-life. If we should rob SENTIMENT OF ORNITHOLOGY. 9 Wordsworth's verses of their birds, how sadly mutilated what re- mained would be ! But why leave a knowledge of birds to poets and naturalists'? Gro yourself to the field and learn that birds do not exist solely in books, but are concrete, sentient beings, whose acquaintance may bring you more unalloyed happiness than the wealth of the Indies, John Bur- roughs understands this when he writes of the study of birds : " There is a fascination about it quite overpowering. It fits so well with other things — with fishing, hunting, farming, walking, camping out — with all that takes one to the fields and woods. One may go a blackberry- ing and make some rare discovery ; or while driving his cow to pas- ture, hear a new song, or make a new observation. Secrets lurk on all sides. There is news in every bush. What no man ever saw before may the next moment be revealed to you. What a new interest the woods have! How you long to explore every nook and corner of them ! " Human friends may pass beyond our ken, but our list of acquaint- ances in the bird world increases to the end and shows no vacancies. The marsh the Blackbirds loved may become the site of a factory, but no event on the calendar is more certain than that in due time and place we shall hear the tinkling chorus of the epauleted minstrels rising and falling on the crisp morning air. " . . . . Time may come when never more The wilderness shall hear the lion roar ; But, long as cock shall crow from household perch To rouse the dawn, soft gales shall speed thy wing, And thy erratic voice he faithful to the spring ! " The woods of our youth may disappear, but the Thrushes will always sing for us, and their voices, endeared by cherished associa- tions, arouse echoes of a hundred songs and awaken memories before which the years will vanish. CHAPTER II. THE STUDY OF BIRDS OUT-OF-DOORS. How to Identify Birds. — Whether your object be to study birds as a scientist or simply as a lover of Nature, the first step is the same — you must learn to know them. This problem of identification has been given up in despair by many would-be ornithologists. We can neither pick, press, net, nor impale birds ; and here the botanist and the entomologist have a distinct advantage. Even if we have the desire to resort to a gun its use is not always possible. But with patience and practice the identification of birds is a comparatively easy matter, and m the end you will name them with surprising ease and certainty. There is generally more character in the flight of a bird than there is in the gait of a man. Both are frequently inde- scribable but perfectly diagnostic, and you learn to recognize bird friends as you do human ones — by experience. If you confine your studies to one locality, probably not more than one third of the species described in this volume will come within the field of your observation. To aid you in learning which species should be included in this third, the paragraphs on Range are followed by a statement of the bird's standing at Washington, D. C, Sing Sing, N. Y., and Cambridge, Mass., while the water-birds of Long Island are treated specially. Take the list of birds from the point nearest your home as an index of those you may expect to find. This may be abridged for a given season by considering the times of the year at which a bird is present.* * It is sometimes possible to secure a list of birds of your own vicinity. These " local lists " are generally published in scientific journals, but one may fre- quently secure a copy of the author's edition. On this subject correspond with S. N. Rhoads, 121 S. Third Street, Philadelphia. Among the local lists of east. ern birds which were issued as separate publications and are now for sale aie— 1. A Catalogue of the Birds of the Virginias, by Wm. C. Rives, M. A.. M. D. Proc. Newport [R. I.] Nat. Hist. Soc, Document VII, 1890, 8vo, pp. 100, one map, 305 species. 2. The Birds of Eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey, with Introductory 10 HOW TO FIND BIRDS. H After this slight prepiaration you may take to the field with a much clearer understanding of the situation. Two quite different ways of identifying birds are open to you. Either you may shoot them, or study them through a field- or opera-glass. A " bird in the hand " is a definite object whose structure and color can be studied to such ad- vantage that in most cases you will afterward recognize it at sight. After learning the names of its parts, its identity is simply a question of keys and descriptions. If you would " name the birds without a gun," by all means first visit a museum, and, with text-book in hand, study those species which you have previously found are to be looked for near your home. This preliminary introduction will serve to ripen your acquaintance in the field. A good field- or opera-glass is absolutely indispensable. A strong opera-glass with a large eye-piece is most useful in the woods, while a field-glass is more serviceable in observing water-birds. Study your bird as closely as circumstances will permit, and write on the spot a comparative description of its size, the shape of its bill, tail, etc., and a detailed description of its colors. In describing form take a Robin, Chipping Sparrow, or any bird you know, which best serves the pur- pose, as a basis for comparison. A bird's bill is generally its most diagnostic external character. A sketch of it in your note-book will frequently give you a good clew to its owner's family. It is of the utmost importance that this description should be written in the field. Not only do our memories sometimes deceive us, but we really see nothing with exactness until we attempt to describe it. Haunts, ac- tions, and notes should also be carefully recorded. This account is your " bird in the hand," and while you can not hope to identify it as easily as you could a specimen, you will rarely fail to learn its name, and experience will render each attempt less difficult than the pre- ceding. How to Find Birds. — The best times of the day in which to look for birds are early morning and late afternoon. After a night of fasting and resting, birds are active and hungry. When their appe- tites are satisfied they rest quietly until afternoon, hunger again send- ing them forth in search of food. Chapters on Geographical Distribution and Migration, prepared under the Direc- tion of the Delaware Valley Ornithological Club, by Witmer Stone, Conservator Ornithological Section Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 8vo, pp. 185, two diagrams, two maps, 352 species. Price, %\. 3. An Annotated List of the Birds known to occur within Fifty Miles of New York City, by Frank M. Chapman. Published by the American Museum of Natu- ral History, New York city, as a guide to its collection of local birds. 8vo, pp. 100, 36 cuts, 4 full-page plates, 348 species. For sale at the Museum. Price, 15 cents. 12 WHEN TO FIND BIRDS. Experience will soon show you the places where birds are most abundant. The more varied the nature of the country the greater number of species you may expect to find inhabiting it. An ideal locality would be a bit of tree-dotted meadow with a reed-bordered pond or stream, surrounded by woods, rolling uplands, and orchards. Common sense will tell you how to act in the field. Birds are gen- erally shy creatures and must be approached with caution. You must not, therefore, go observing or collecting dressed in flaming red, but in some inconspicuous garb and as quietly as a cat. Furthermore, go alone and keep the sun at your back — two apparently unrelated but equally important bits of advice. The collector generally has the instincts of a hunter, and practice will develop them. The " squeak " is one of his most valuable aids. It is made by placing the lips to the back of the hand or finger and kissing vigorously. The sound produced bears some resemblance to the cries of a wounded or young bird. In the nesting season its utter- ance frequently creates much excitement in the bird world, and at all times it is useful as a means of drawing bush- or reed-haunting species from their retreats. One may enter an apparently deserted thicket, and, after a few minutes' squeaking, find himself surrounded by an anxious or curious group of its feathered inhabitants. The observer of birds will find that by far the best way to study their habits is to take a sheltered seat in some favored locality and become a part of the background. Your passage through the woods is generally attended by sufficient noise to warn birds of your coming long before you see them. They are then suspicious and ill at ease. But secrete yourself near some spot loved by birds, and it may be your privilege to learn the secrets of the forest. When to Find Birds. — During the year the bird-life of temperate and boreal regions fluctuates with the changing seasons. Birds may thus be classed in the following groups according to the manner of their occurrence : Permanent residents are birds found in one locality throughout the year. Summer residents come from the south in the spring, rear their young, and leave in the fall. Winter visitants come from the north in the fall, pass the winter, and leave in the spring. Transient visitants pass through a given place in migrating to and from their summer homes north of it. Accidental visitants are birds which have lost their way. They are generally young and inexperi- enced, and are usually found in the fall. The best time of the year to begin studying birds is in the winter, when the bird population of temperate regions is at the minimum. The problem of identification is thus reduced to its simplest terms, and should be mastered before spring introduces new elements. THE ORNITHOLOGICAL YEAR. 13 The commoner permanent residents of the middle Eastern States are the following : Bob-white. Hairy Woodpecker, Ruflfed Grouse, Flicker, Red-shouldered Hawk, Blue Jay, Red-tailed Hawk, Crow, Sharp-shinned Hawk, Meadowlark, Barred Owl, American Goldfinch, Long-eared Owl, Purple Finch, Screech Owl, Song Sparrow, Great Horned Owl, White-breasted Nuthatch, Downy Woodpecker, Chickadee, and occasionally the Waxwing, Bluebird, and Robin pass the winter. To these should be added the following more or less common winter visitant land-birds : Saw- whet Owl, Tree Sparrow, Horned Lark, J unco, Snowflake, Northern Shrike, Lapland Longspur, Winter Wren, Redpoll, Golden-crowned Kinglet, American Crossbill, Brown Creeper. White-throated Sparrow, Let us now begin with the opening of the spring migration and briefly review the ornithological year. In the vicinity of New York city the first birds arrive from the south late in February or early in March. There is much variation in the coming of these early birds. Later, when the weather is more settled, migrants arrive within a few days of a given date. In April most of our winter visitants leave for the north. The current of migration grows steadily stronger until about May 13, when high-water mark is reached. Then it rapidly subsides and the spring migration is practically over by June 1. The winter visitants have gone, the great army of transients has passed us, and our bird population is now composed of permanent residents with the addition of about ninety summer residents. Nesting-time has arrived, and birds which for nearly a year have been free to go and come as inclination directed, now have homes where, day after day, they may be found in tireless attendance upon the nest and its treasures. Courtship, the construction of a dwelling, the task of incubation, and care of the young, all tend to stimulate the characteristic traits of the bird, and at no other time can its habits be studied to better advantage. But resident birds begin building long before the migration is con- 14 THE ORNITHOLOGICAL YEAR. eluded. The Great Horned Owl lays in February, other birds in March and April ; still, the height of the breeding season is not reached until June 1. Another period in the avian year closely connected with the spring migration and nesting-time is the song season. Near New York city it is inaugurated late in February by the Song Sparrow. Voice after voice is added to the choir, and in June our woods and fields ring with the chorus so dear to lovers of Nature. By the middle of July it is on the wane, and early in August it is practically over. Some birds have a brief second song season in the fall, but as a rule it lasts only a few days — it is a farewell to their summer homes.* August is a most discouraging month to the student of birds. Birds leave their accustomed haunts and retire to secluded places to renew their worn plumages. They are silent and inactive, and there- fore difficult to find. Late in the month they reappear clad in travel- ing costumes and ready for their southern journey. One by one they leave us, and there are days late in August and early in September when the woods are almost deserted of birds. Later the fall migra- tion becomes continuous, and each night brings a host of new arrivals. The spring migration is scarcely concluded before the fall migra- tion begins. July 1, Tree Swallows, which rarely nest near New York city, appear in numbers from the north and gather in immense flocks in our marshes. Later in the month they are joined by Bobolinks. Early in August the careful observer will detect occasional small flights of Warblers passing southward, and by September 10 the great southern march of the birds is well under way'; it reaches its height between the 20th and last of the month, when most of the win- ter residents arrive, and from this time our bird-life rapidly decreases. Some of the seed- and berry-eaters remain until driven southward by the cold weather in December. When they have gone our bird popu- lation is again reduced to the ever-present permanent residents and hardy winter visitants. The appended tables graphically illustrate the rise and fall of the migrations and of the nesting season. The first is based on my own observations at Englewood, N. J., kindly revised and supplemented by Mr. Eugene P. Bicknell from extended observations at Riverdale, on the opposite side of the Hudson River. The second was compiled from data accompanying the collections of the American Museum of Natural History. * See a series of papers by Mr. E. P. Bicknell entitled " A Study of the Sing- ing of our Birds." The Auk, i, 1884, pp. 60-71, 126-140, 209-218, 322-332 ; ii, 1885, pp. 144-154, 249-262. THE SPRINC^ MIGRATION. 15 Date of arrival. Feb. 15-Mar. 10. March 10-20. March 20-31. April 1-10. April 10-20. April 20-30. SPRING MIGRATION. Date of departure. Purple Grackle November 1-30. Easty Blackbird April-May. Ked-winged Blackbird November 1-30. Kobin November 1-30. Bluebird November 1-30. Woodcock November 1-30. Phoebe October 20-30. Meadowlark November 1-30. Cowbird November 1-30. Fox Sparrow April 1-15. Wilson's Snipe May 1-10. Kingfisher November 1-30. Mourning Dove November 1-30. Swamp Sparrow November 1-30. Field Sparrow November 1-30. Great Blue Heron November 1-30. Purple Finch November 1-30. Vesper Sparrow November 1-30. Savanna Sparrow May 1-15. Chipping Sparrow November 1-30. Tree Swallow May 15-31. Myrtle Warbler May 10-20, American Pipit April 15-25. Hermit Thrush April 25-May 10. Yellow-bellied Woodpecker April 20-30. Barn Swallow October 1-10. Yellow Palm Warbler April 25-May 10. Pine Warbler May 1-10. Louisiana Water Thrush September 20-30. Kuby-crowned Kinglet May 1-15. Green Heron October 10-20. Spotted Sandpiper September 20-30. Whip-poor-will October 10-20. Chimney Swift October 1-10. Least Flycatcher October 1-10. Towhee October 20-30. Blue-headed Vireo May 10-20. Purple Martin September 20-30. Cliff Swallow October 1-10. Bank Swallow October 1-10. Eough-winged Swallow September 1-10. Black and White Warbler October 1-10. Black-throated Green Warbler May 15-25. Oven-bird October 1-10. House Wren October 10-20. Brown Thrasher October 10-20. 16 THE SPRING MIGRATION. Date of arrival. Date of departure. April 20-30. Catbird October 10-20. Wood Thrush October 1-10. May i-10. Solitary Sandpiper May 15-25. Yellow-billed Cuckoo October 1-10. Black-billed Cuckoo October 1-10. Nighthawk October 10-20. Euby-throated Hummingbird September 20-30. Crested Flycatcher September 20-30. Kingbird September 20-30. Baltimore Oriole September 10-20. Orchard Oriole. September 1-10. Bobolink October 1-10, Yellow- winged Sparrow October 1-10. Indigo Bunting October 1-10. Eose-breasted Grosbeak September 20-30. Scarlet Tanager October 1-10. Eed-eyed Vireo October 10-20. Warbling Vireo September 20-30. Yellow-throated Vireo September 20-30. White-eyed Vireo October 1-10. Nashville Warbler May 20-30. Blue-winged Warbler September 1-10. Parula Warbler May 20-30. Yellow Warbler September 10-20. Black-throated Blue Warbler May 15-30. Magnolia Warbler May 15-30. Chestnut-sided Warbler May 20-30. Prairie Warbler May 20-30. Maryland Yellow-throat October 10-20. Small-billed Water Thrush May 15-30. Hooded Warbler September 20-30. Yellow-breasted Chat September 10-20. Eedstart. . October 1-10. Wilson's Thrush September 20-30. May 10-20. Wood Pewee September 20-30. Acadian Flycatcher September 1-10. Yellow-bellied Flycatcher May 20-30. White-crowned Sparrow May 15-25. Golden-winged Warbler May 15-25. Tennessee Warbler May 15-25. Worm-eating Warbler September 1-10. Cape May Warbler May 15-25. Blackburnian Warbler May 15-25. Bay-breasted Warbler May 20-30. BlackpoU Warbler May 25-June 5. Wilson's Warbler May 20-30. Canadian Warbler May 25-Jiine 6. THE FALL MIGRATION. 17 Date of arrival. May 10-20. May 20-30. Date of arrival. August 1-15. August 15-31. September 1-10. September 10-20. September 20-30. October 1-10. Date of departure. Long-billed Marsh Wren October 10-20. Short-billed Marsh Wren October 10-20. Olive-backed Thrush May 20- June 1. Gray-cheeked Thrush May 25- June 5. Traill's Flycatcher (?) Mourning Warbler May 30-June 5. Bicknell's Thrush (?) FALL MIGRATION. MIGRANTS AEKIVING FROM THE NORTH. Date of departure. Yellow-bellied Flycatcher September 20-30. Golden-winged Warbler September 1-10. Chestnut-sided Warbler Sept. 30-Oct. 10. Canadian Warbler September 20-30. Small-billed Water Thrush Sept. 25-Oct. 5. Olive-sided Flycatcher September 10-20. Tennessee Warbler Sept. 25-Oct. 5. Nashville Warbler Sept. 25-Oct, 5. Parula Warbler October 15-25. Cape May Warbler Sept. 25-Oct. 5. Black-throated Green Warbler October 15-25. Black-throated Blue Warbler October 15-25. Magnolia Warbler October 10-20. Blackburnian Warbler September 20-30, Wilson's Warbler September 20-30. Canadian Nuthatch November 1-30. Eed-headed Woodpecker November 1-30. Blackpoll Warbler . . October 15-25. Connecticut Warbler September 20-30. Blue-headed Vireo October 15-25. Philadelphia Vireo September 20-30. Olive-backed Thrush October 1-10. Bicknell's Thrush October 1-10. Yellow-bellied Woodpecker October 20-30. Junco April 10-May 10. White-throated Sparrow May 1-25. Myrtle Warbler May 5-20. Yellow Palm Warbler October 15-30. Brown Creeper April 1-30. Golden-crowned Kinglet April 1-20. Euby-crowned Kinglet October 20-30. Winter Wren April 1-30. Gray-cheeked Thrush October 15-25. Bronzed Grackle December 1-30. Eusty Blackbird December 1-30. American Pipit Oct, 25-Nov, 5. 18 THE FALL MIGRATION. Date of arrival. Date of departure. Oct. 1-10. Hermit Thrush November 1-30. October 10-20. Fox Sparrow Nov, 25-Dec. 5. October 20-31. Pine Tinch May 1-31. Tree Sparrow April 1-30. Northern Shrike March 1-31. SUMMER RESIDENTS LEAVING FOR THE SOUTH. Date of departure. September 1-10. Acadian Flycatcher Orchard Oriole Eough- winged Swallow Worm-eating Warbler Blue-winged Warbler September 10-20. Baltimore Oriole Purple Martin Yellow Warbler Yellow-breasted Chat September 20-30. Hummingbird Kingbird Great-crested Flycatcher Wood Pewee Rose- breasted Grosbeak Yellow-throated Vireo. Warbling Vireo ' Hooded Warbler Louisiana Water Thrush Wilson's Thrush October 1-10. Yellow-billed Cuckoo Black-billed Cuckoo Chimney Swift Least Flycatcher Bobolink Yellow-winged Sparrow Indigo Bunting Scarlet Tanager Barn Swallow Cliff Swallow , Bank Swallow White-eyed Vireo Black and White Warbler Eedstart ven-bird Wood Thrush October 10-20. Whip-poor-will Nighthawk Red-eyed Vireo Maryland Yellow-throat THE NESTING SEASON. 19 Date of departure. Oct. 10-20. Long-billed Marsh Wren Short- billed Marsh Wren , House Wren Brown Thrasher Catbird October 20-31. Phoebe Towhee Tree Swallow November 1-30.* Woodcock Mourning Dove Kingfisher Ked-winged Blackbird Purple Grackle Cowbird Vesper Sparrow Field Sparrow Chipping Sparrow Swamp Sparrow DATES AT WHICH BIRDS BEGIN TO NEST IN THE VICINITY OF NEW YORK CITY.t Feb. 28. Great Horned Owl. May 2. Osprey. Mar. 12. Barred Owl. 3. Cardinal. 28. Carolina Wren. 5. Cowbird. [In Song Spar- 30. Duck Hawk. row's nest.] April 1. Woodcock. 6. Wood Duck. 3. Eed-shouldered Hawk. 6. Green Heron. 3. Screech Owl. 7. Flicker. 6. Red-tailed Hawk. 8. Barn Swallow. 9. American Crow. 10. Clapper Rail. 9. Long-eared Owl. 10. Killdeer. 10. Bluebird. 10. Rufi'ed Grouse. 17. White- breasted Nuthatch. 10. Sparrow Hawk. 18. Broad-winged Hawk. 10. Savanna Sparrow. 20. Robin. 10. Vesper Sparrow. 25. Mourning Dove. 11. Louisiana Water-Thrush. 25. Purple Grackle. 12. Ruby-throated Hummingbird. 28. Phoebe. 13. Red-headed Woodpecker. 29. Song Sparrow. 14. Acadian Flycatcher. May 1. Black-crowned Night Heron. 14. Blue Jay. 1. Cooper's Hawk. 14. Chipping Sparrow. 1. Kingfisher. 14. Towhee. * Should the season be an exceptionally mild one, many of these birds may remain until late in December. t Based on data accompanying the oological collections of the American Museum, and on the observations of Prof. Marston T. Bogert, Dr. J. Dwight, Jr., Dr. Evan M. Evans, Mr. W. P. Lemmon, and the author. The dates given are those on which, with some exceptions, full sets of eggs have been taken. 20 THE NESTING SEASON. May 15. King Rail. May 25. Maryland Yellow-throat. 15. Virginia Kail. 26. Bob-white. 15. Meadowlark. 26. Marsh Hawk. 16. Field Sparrow. 28. Grasshopper Sparrow. 15. Swamp Sparrow. 28. Red-eyed Vireo. 16. Hooded Warbler. 28. Yellow- throated Vireo. 16. Blue-winged Warbler. 29. Black-billed Cuckoo. 16. Brown Thrasher. 29. Kingbird. 17. Fish Crow. 29. Bobolink. 17. Redstart. 29. Indigo Bunting. 17. Catbird. 29. Chestnut-sided Warbler. 17. Wood Thrush. 30. Yellow-billed Cuckoo. 18. Red-winged Blackbird. 30. Orchard Oriole. 18. Black and White Warbler. 30. Seaside Sparrow. 18. House Wren. 30. Sharp-tailed Sparrow. 19. Tree Swallow. 30. Rough-winged Swallow, 19. Bank Swallow. 30. Cliff Swallow. 19. Chickadee. 30. Warbling Vireo. 20. Rose-breasted Grosbeak. 30. Prairie Warbler. 20. Worm-eating Warbler. 31. Long-billed Marsh Wren, 20. Oven-bird. 31. Least Bittern. 20. Veery. June 1. Bartramian Sandpiper. 21. Sharp-shinned Hawk. 1. Piping Plover. 21. Downy Woodpecker. 1. Nighthawk, 21. Least Flycatcher. 1. Kentucky Warbler. 22. Parula Warbler. 3. Whip-poor-will. 23. Hairy Woodpecker. 3. Great- crested Flycatcher. 23. Chat. 3. Scarlet Tanager. 24. Purple Finch. 6. Wood Pewee. 24. Spotted Sandpiper. 7. Short-billed Marsh Wren. 25. Chimney Swift. 8. Laughing Gull. 25. Baltimore Oriole. 12. Common Tern. 25. Purple Martin. 19. Cedar Waxwing. 25. White-eyed Vireo. 20. American Goldfinch. Hints on keeping Note-Boohs and Journals. — The necessity of a well-kept journal can not be too strongly urged. Specimens may be duplicated, but no one can ever see with your eyes. Do not attempt to trust to your memory — a willing servant of the mind too frequently imposed upon. It may receive and retain one impression clearly, but as others are added the earlier ones lose their distinctness or become entirely effaced. The system adopted for recording notes should be simple to keep and easy of reference. The one here recommended has stood the test of ten years' experience. After returning from the field I enter in my "roll-book," at once, a record of the weather, temperature, direction and force of the wind, locality visited, time of starting and returning, NOTE-BOOKS AND JOURNALS. 21 and incidental observations on the blooming of flowers, appearance of certain insects, calling of frogs, etc. Then follows a statement of the numbers of every species of birds seen, with various remarks concern- ing them. One might suppose that much time would be required to make a detailed record of this kind, but, on the contrary, it seldom takes five minutes. Almost any stationer can supply you with a " roll-" or " time-book " having a space at the left side of the left-hand page for the entry of names, and the rest of both pages ruled in squares. The best plan is to have sheets of paper ruled in this way. These sheets should have holes punched in their margins for binding in covers, when new sheets can be inserted as desired. Some idea of their appearance may be gathered from the appended part of a left-hand page : Date Weather Temperature Wind Locality Start Return Remarks Bluebird Robin 22 NOTE-BOOKS AND JOURNALS. After filling in the preliminary data I write after the name of each bird either the exact or approximate number of individuals seen, or else the letters " A.," •' C," or " T. C," meaning abundant, common, or tol- erably common. This is accompanied by an " s " if the bird is in song, or "calls " if it is simply heard calling. The possibilities of abbrevia- tion are unlimited, but use no abbreviation which is not fully explained. If you wish to make a record of some length concerning a certain species, place a cross or asterisk in its square. This refers to your journal of the same date. Read from left to right, the roll-book gives in a graphic, condensed form the standing of a species during the period of observation. Read from the top to the bottom of the page, it gives in an easily comparable way the complete record of each day, and at the same time it becomes an index to the bird-notes in your journal. To prevent needlessly multiplying your roll-books the series of birds' names should be made to last at least during an entire season. To this end do not completely fill the right-hand page, but when you have used all of it but a space equal in width to the space occupied by the column of birds' names, cut this part of the page — the ex- treme right- off; the part remaining will, when turned over to the left, just meet the column of names, and the lines of this column and the new page will thus run continuously. As before remarked, the roll-book should be attended to immediately on returning from the field, while your impressions are fresh. The journal may wait, when a reference to the roll-book will aid in recalling the day's experiences. In addition to these two books, both of which should be quarto size, you need a small, leather-covered, pocket note-book for use in jotting memoranda in the field. CHAPTER III. COLLECTING BIRDS, THEIR NESTS, AND EGGS. Collecting Birds. — With few exceptions, the plumages of the birds of the eastern United States are well known to science. You will col- lect them, therefore, purely for the purpose of self-education. To this end it is not necessary that you should acquire the large series of speci- mens found in museums. From two to five specimens of each kind are enough, and when through their medium you have become famil- iar with the appearance of the species they represent, use the gun only to add to your list of acquaintances. If you wish to make a detailed, critical study of changes in the plumage of species due to age, sex, or season, or to compare some apparently abnormal specimen, visit the nearest museum, the collections of which should be accessible to every earnest student. Our eastern birds have been measured and described, their varia- tions noted and recorded, and there is little left to learn in study- ing their skins from a local standpoint. What we want now is knowl- edge of the living, not the dead, bird. A thoroughly exhaustive account of the habits of any one of our commonest birds is still to be written. Remember, then, that collections are a means, not the end, of ornithological research. When armed and ready for the field, you should have a canvas hunting-coat, a pair of field- or opera-glasses, a fisherman's basket or "creel," a discarded octaA'^o pamphlet or catalogue of rather heavy paper, cotton, a small bottle of corn-meal, and a 16-bore shot-gun with a 0*32 auxiliary barrel, and the necessary complement of shells. The auxiliary barrel can be purchased of dealers in natural history supplies ; it should not exceed ten inches in length. The shells for it should be of brass, center-fire, and strong enough to stand reloading many times. Load them with a fine-grained powder and No. 12 shot — about three fifths powder and two fifths shot. For killing birds from the size of a Blue Jay downward they will be effective at a dis- tance of twenty to twenty-five yards. In other words, fully three fourths of your shooting will be done with them. Of 16-bore shells 33 24 MAKING BIRDSKINS. carry some loaded with two and a half drachms of powder and three fourths of an ounce of No. 10 shot, and a few others loaded with the same charge of powder and an ounce of No. 6 shot. On killing a bird, pick it up by the bill or feet, and at once sprinkle meal or dry earth on any blood which may be visible. When this is saturated, scrape it off with a knife-blade and repeat the operation until all the blood is absorbed. Sprinkle some meal at the base of the feathers about the shot-holes from which the blood appears, or, if necessary, plug these holes with bits of cotton. Place a large plug of cotton in the mouth and force it well down the throat to prevent bleeding at the mouth from an internal wound. In some cases it is necessary to also plug the nostrils. Now make a cornucopia from a leaf of the pamphlet, drop the bird in it head foremost, taking care that the bill is not turned forward on to the throat, and, if the bird is not too large, fold in the edges of the cornucopia and place the specimen in your basket. In the case of very large specimens — Hawks, Owls, etc. — it is advisable to skin out the body in the field, when they can be packed in much smaller space. Making Birdskins. — If you have fully decided to make a collection of birds, the very best and cheapest way to begin it is to get some one to give you two or three lessons in the art of preparing birdskins. With proper instruction it is not difficult to learn to skin birds. I have known beginners who had closely watched experts at work, make fair skins at their first attempt — better skins, indeed, than the person who learns only from written directions may ever make. I am speak- ing from experience. Only too clearly do I remember my own first attempts at skinning birds and their hopelessly wretched results. In despair I at last sought the assistance of a distant ornithological friend. In one lesson he made the process so clear to me that I was at once enabled to make skins twice as quickly and twice as well. However, we unfortunately are not all blessed with ornithological friends to whom we can turn for advice, and I therefore append the following directions for making birdskins : First procure a scalpel with a well-rounded end, a pair of sharp- pointed scissors with rather long handles, a pair of blunt-ended, rather strong scissors, and a pair of flat-ended forceps. These may be pur- chased of any dealer in naturalists' supplies or at a surgical instrument maker's. Procure also a quart or so of fine corn-meal to use as an ab- sorbent, a pound or two of powdered arsenic and alum mixed in equal parts, and an abundance of the best cotton batting money will buy. Now we are ready to begin with a bird, say, the size of a Robin : 1. Plug the bird's throat and nostrils tightly with fresh cotton. If the eyeball is ruptured, pull it out with the forceps and fill the cavity MAKING BIRDSKINS. 25 with meal. 2. Lay the bird before you on its back, its bill pointing to the left ; place your open left hand lengthwise on it, so that the base of your first and second fingers rests on the middle of the breast- bone ; use these fingers and the handle of the scalpel to separate the feathers from near the end of the breastbone to the vent, and when the parting is made use the same fingers to hold the feathers aside. 3. With the scalpel make an incision in the skin from just in front of the end of the breastbone, or at the base of the V formed by the spread fingers, to the vent, being careful not to cut through into the abdomen. 4. Sprinkle a pinch of meal along the cut. 5. Lift the skin at the front end of the cut and insert the end of the scalpel handle between it and the breastbone. If you try to do this lower down on the cut, over the belly, you will find it difficult to separate the skin on which the feathers grow from the immediately underlying skin which covers the abdomen. Separate the skin from the body the whole length of the cut and as far down toward the backbone as possible, thus exposing the bare knee. 6. Take hold of the foot and push the knee farther up into view, then take the blunt-ended scissors and, on the inside of the skin, clip the leg entirely in two. 7. Repeat opera- tions 5 and 6 on the other side of the body. 8. Press away the skin as much as possible on either side of the rump, and place the thumb at the left side (left, seen from above) of the base of the tail or " pope's nose," with the first finger on the other side (both inside the skin) and the second finger behind (above) on the rump ; now with the blunt scissors cut through the flesh between the thumb and first finger toward the second finger, which serves the purpose of a guard to pre- vent you from cutting through the skin. 9. Stand the bird on its breastbone, the belly toward you, and with both thumbs press the tail and skin of the rump over and down off the stump from which you have just cut it. 10. When the stump is free from the skin, take hold of it with the right hand and with the fingers of the left gently press the skin from the body, keeping it constantly turned inside out and using an abundance of meal. 11. Soon the wing-bones (humerus) will appear. Clip them off at either side close to the body, and re- sume skinning as before. 12. The skin will slip easily over the neck, and you will then meet with an obstruction in the head. 13. Work the skin carefully over the head, using the tips of the first two' fingers of either hand, placing the thumbs as a brace farther forward over the eyes.* 14. Pull the ears carefully from their sockets. 15. The eyes * In large-headed birds, like Ducks and Woodpeckers, this is impossible, and it is necessary to slit the skin down the back of the neck and push the skull through the opening. 20 MAKING A BIHDSKIN. will now appear ; carefully cut the membrane joining the skin and eyeball, making the incision as far back as possible, in order to avoid cutting the skin, which should be pulled forward until it is entirely free of the eyeball. 16. Remove the eyes with the forceps. 17. With the sharp-pointed scissors make an incision directly across the roof of tue mouth, inside the branches of the lower mandible, just back of the skin, and below the eye-sockets. 18. With the sharp-pointed scissors make incisions from either end of this cut back along the branches of the lower mandible through the base of the skull on either side of the neck at its junction with the skull. 19. Connect these cuts by a fourth, which passes through the base of the skull just above the neck, and pull the body and neck from the skull. 20. Scoop out what brains remain with the handle of the scalpel. 21. Pull the end of the wing- bone (humerus) inward, skinning the feathers off the bones of the fore- arm (radius and ulna), and remove the flesh. 22. Do the same thing for the legs, but, after cleaning, do not in either case pull the bones back. 23. Remove as much flesh as possible from the base of the tail, including the oil-gland at the base of the tail above. 24. Hold the skin over the arsenic and alum box, and with a bit of fluffy cotton at the end of a stick, or held in the forceps, dust it thoroughly with the poison, giving an extra allowance to the base of the tail and bones of the skull, wings, and legs. 25. Pull the legs back into place. 26. Place a fluff of cotton on the end of a wire and roll it into a firm, smooth ball, placing one in each eye-socket. 27. Coax the skin back over the head, using the first two fingers of each hand and placing the thumbs at the base of the skull. When the tip of the bill appears through the feathers, use the fingers outside, on the feathers, pressing the skin back over the head, and keeping the thumbs in the same position. When the bill is free, take it with the right hand, and use the fingers of the left to urge the skin over the skull, being careful to get it in its former place so that the feathers of the head will lie smoothly. 28. Dress the feathers of the head, particularly those about the eye. 29. Take hold of the tip of the bill and shake the skin gently but vigorously to aid in settling the plumage. 30. Lay the skin on its back, the bill pointing from you, and turn back the feathers about the opening on the belly. 31. See that the wing-bones lie flat on the Back of the skin, with their ends touching each other.* 32. * The most difficult part in making a birdskin is to induce the wings to aS' sume anything like their natural position when closed. This is because the arti- ficial, cotton body is apt to force them outward on to the sides rather than on the back, where they belong. In the bird in the flesh the wings are held in place by being attached to the body ; in the skin they are loose and hanging. To remedy this, after drawing sExma. 27 Take a bit of fluffy cotton, press it lightly together, and draw out one end to form a neck. When released from your grasp this cotton body should be but little larger than the body you have removed from the skin. 33. Take the end of the neck with the forceps and insert it gently into the neck of the skin, working the skin down on to it in order to avoid stretching the neck, until the points of the forceps ap- pear in the mouth, then hold the cotton there and withdraw the for- ceps. 34. Carefully fit the cotton body into the skin. 35. Put one or two stitches in the incision on the belly. 36. Ascertain the sex of the bird (see beyond). 37. Cross the legs, and at the point of intersection attach a label (see beyond). 38. Squeeze the wing-bones together until you feel the tips of your fingers meet over the bird's back. 39. Pre- pare a sheet of cotton about five inches square and as thin as you can make it ; lay the bird on this on its right side, the bill pointing to your right hand. 40. Put the left wing in place and dress the feathers about it. 41. Take hold of the sheet of cotton, and turn the bird over in it in order that you may dress the right wing. 42. Roll the bird on to its belly, holding the wings in position with the thumb and first finger of the left hand, and with the right hand bring the tips of the wing- feathers into their proper place over the back. 43. Roll the bird back on to its back, the bill pointing to your right hand ; take the end of the sheet of cotton farthest from you and draw it lightly over the bird to the side nearest you. 44. Draw the end nearest you in the opposite direction. 45. See that the feet, tail, and tips of the wings are in their proper position, and place your specimen out of harm's way to dry. It will doubtless take you from half an hour to an hour to make your first birdskin. It will probably be a sorry-looking object, per- haps minus a head or tail or half its feathers ; but do not let this dis- courage you. An expert can make ten birdskins an hour, and you need only practice to approach this. There are endless variations of the method here described. It is not possible to go into further details here, and if you have taxider- mic ambitions I would advise you to procure a copy of Mr. W. T. Hornaday's excellent Taxidermy and Zoological Collecting (Scribner, 12.50). Sexing. — A specimen without a sex mark on its label is of com- paratively little value. The sex in many birds can of course be dis- the wing-bones in to remove the flesh from them, they should be pushed back only far enough to enable one to see plainly the elbow or bend of the wing out- side of the skin. This prevents the wings from hanging, and, to further keep them in place, it will be well at first to tie the ends of the bones (.humeri) to- gether. 28 ' CATALOGUING AND LABELING. tinguished by their color, but the young male frequently resembles the female, while in some instances the female has been known to as- sume the plumage of the male. Dissection, therefore, is the only safe way to determine sex. Upon reaching stage 36, in the operation of making a birdskin, cut through the left side of the body from the vent to the neck, taking care not to disturb the internal organs. Force the edges of the opening apart, and, pressing the intestines gently to , Fig. 1.— a completed birdskin. (Reduced). one side, look for the sexual organs, which will be found on the walls of the small of the back very near to the backbone. The male organs (testes), two in number, are usually dull-white, elongate bodies lying side by side. The female organs (ovaries) are composed of numerous round bodies lying in a mass or cluster. In the breeding season the sexual organs of birds become much enlarged, and at this season the testes of a male Chipping Sparrow are about the size of a pea, while the ovaries of the female have been likened to a bunch of grapes, the largest being the size of the yolk of the egg of this species. After the breeding season the sexual organs decrease in size, and in adults in the winter and young birds are sometimes difficult to find. The testes of a male Chipping Sparrow at that season are about as large as a small pinhead, while a hand-lens is required to plainly distinguish the ova- ries of the female. The arrow of Mars ( (?) is used to indicate the male sex ; the mirror of Venus ( 9 ) the female sex. Cataloguing and Labeling. — Before skinning your birds you should catalogue them. The catalogue should have columns giving (1) the date, (2) your serial collection number, (3) name of the bird, (4) sex, (5) place of capture, (6) name of collector, and (7) remarks. In the last column enter any notes on the color of the eyes, or parts which will change color when drying, contents of the stomach, and other notes. In addition to this " day-book " or " blotter " some ornithologists open a ledger account with their collection, and devote a folio to each spe- cies where are posted the entries made in the collection register. Labels should be of strong bond paper, two inches and a half long and half an inch wide. They are attached to the crossed legs of the bird by linen thread strung through their left end. The face of the label bears the name and sex of the bird, place and date of capture, CARE OF COLLECTIONS. 29 name of collector, and serial collection number. The label shown in Fig. 1 is small, bat will illustrate the appearance and manner of at- tachment. The name of the owner of the collection is printed on the back of the label, preceded by the words " Collection of." Many collectors prefer to use as a field label a small jeweler's tag upon which the collection number, sex, and date are written. The large label is added after the specimen is dry. Care of a Collection. — The best cases in which to keep a collection of birdskins are known as " Cambridge cans." They are made of tin with covers which fit into grooves lined with rubber tubing, and aie practically air-tight. The smaller sizes cost from five dollars to seven dollars and a half each, and can be obtained of Muller and Wood, 731 Seventh Avenue, New York city. A wooden cabinet with tight-fitting drawers and door is less ex- pensive, and with ordinary care will preserve specimens for a prac- tically indefinite period. The drawers should be thirty inches long by sixteen inches in width. For birds the size of a Robin a depth of one inch and three quarters is sufficient, while drawers four inches deep will take the largest Hawks or Owls. These drawers will hold about thirty birds the size of a Robin, eighty the size of a Chickadee, and eight to ten Hawks and Owls. Well cleaned and thoroughly poisoned specimens of small birds are not likely to be attacked by the moth {Tinea) or beetles (Dermestes and Anthrenus) which so often infest poorly prepared or nonpoisoned skins. Naphthaline crystals or camphor gum should be placed in each drawer of the cabinet, the door of which should not be left open needlessly. If a specimen falls a victim to insects, the better plan is to discard it at once. If, however, it is rare, it may be taken out-of- doors and placed in an air-tight box with a few tablespoonfuls of bisulphuret of carbon. Collecting and Preserving Nests and Eggs. — No one, I think, will venture to dispute the assertion that Captain Charles Bendire, Hon- orary Curator of the Department of Oology in the United States Na- tional Museum, is our leading authority on the study of birds' eggs. The following quotation, therefore, from Captain Bendire's Instruc- tions for Collecting, Preparing, and Preserving Birds' Eggs and Nests * may be taken as the opinion of one who knows whereof he speaks : " Unless the would-be collector intends to make an especial study of oology and has a higher aim than the mere desire to take and accu- mulate as large a number of eggs as possible regardless of their proper identification, he had better not begin at all, but leave the nests and * Part D, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 39, 1891, pp. 3-10. 30 COLLECTING NESTS AND EGGS. eggs of our birds alone and undisturbed. They have too many ene- mies to contend with, without adding the average egg collector to the number. The mere accumulation of specimens is the least important object of the true oologist. His principal aim should be to make care- ful observations on the habits, call notes, song, the character of the food, mode and length of incubation, and the actions of the species generally, from the beginning of the mating season to the time the young are able to leave the nest. This period comprises the most in- teresting and instructive part of the life-history of our birds." Very heartily do I indorse every word of this, and to the concluding sen- tence I would add : and there can be no better way to avoid increasing our knowledge of a bird's domestic life than to rob it of its eggs, and destroy its home and our own opportunities at the same time. Studied from a local standpoint, I confess I can see only two points of interest in a bird's egg — one is what the egg is in, the other is what is in the Nevertheless, I can understand the pleasure attending the legiti- mate formation of what Captain Bendire calls " a small, thoroughly identified, well-prepared, and neatly cared for collection," which, as the same author adds, " is worth far more scientifically and in every other way than a more extensive one gained by exchange or purchase." An egg-collector's outfit consists of several drills, an embryo-hook, a blowpipe, forceps, and scissors. A fresh egg should be blown through a hole slightly larger than the tip of the blowpipe. Drill the hole in the side of the egg, and, after inserting the blowpipe about one sixteenth of an inch, blow gently and steadily until the contents have been removed. Then rinse the egg thoroughly with water and lay it hole downward on corn-meal to drain. In eggs containing embryos it is necessary to make a hole large enough to permit of the use of the embryo-hook, scissors, or forceps, as the case may be. Each egg should be marked with the number of the species in the Check List of the American Ornithologists' Union, the number of the set in your collection, and the number of eggs in the set. Thus, if I were going to label my second set of four eggs of the Bluebird, I should write with a lead pencil on each egg, near the hole, 766|. There are many ways of displaying collections of eggs. Some col- lectors place their eggs in little boxes or partitions filled with sawdust or cotton ; Captain Bendire uses small pasteboard trays lined, bottom and sides, with cotton wadding, and divided into partitions for each egg by strips of cotton wadding set on edge. It is, however, very largely a matter of taste, and collectors generally have their own ideas on these matters. COLLECTING NESTS AND EGGS. 3^^ A collection of birds' nests is a telling object lesson in the study of ornithology. Familiar as I am with them, I never see the nests of some birds without feeling the most intense admiration for the mar- velous skill which has aided them in forming a structure man would find it difficult, if not impossible, to duplicate. A bird's nest in its original site is a concrete expression of the intelligence of its maker ; for the foresight displayed in the choice of a situation, and the inge- nuity shown in the construction of the nest, even if largely instinctive now, originated in the intelligence of a line of ancestors. Nests may be collected before they have been used, when the birds will generally build again ; or you may wait and take them after the birds have left them, labeling each nest with what you have learned of the history of its owners. For example : Time required for its con- struction ; whether made by one or both sexes ; notes on the laying of the eggs ; period of incubation ; whether both sexes assisted in incu- bation ; care of the young ; number of days they were in the nest, etc. Some nests, for example the pendent " baskets " of Vireos or such as are placed in crotches, should be taken with the crotch or branch to which they are attached. With others it is obviously impossible to do this. They should therefore be placed in a frame of wire and wrapped about with fine wire thread. To make this frame, twist two pieces of annealed wire, painted brown, into the shape of a letter X. About midway from the point of intersection and the end of the arm, bend the wires upward at right angles. Now take the fine hair or thread wire and wind it about the four horizontal arms of the frame until its bottom looks like a spider's web ; place the nest in this half-formed basket, bend the upright wires inward or outward as the case requires, and continue winding until the nest is bound firmly. The size of the frame and the wire used in its construction may be varied to suit the nest. PLAN OF THE WORK. Nomenclature. — The nomenclature of the American Ornithologists Union's * Check-List of North American Birds has been adopted. The number preceding the name of each species is its permanent number in the Union's " Check-List." Definition of Terms. — The accompanying figure with its named parts will explain the meaning of the terms used in the following de- scriptions of birds. The words, upper parts and under parts, men- tioned so frequently, refer respectively to the whole upper or under surfaces of the iody of the bird from the base of the bill to the root of the tail, but are not applied to either wings or tail. There are infinite variations in the markings of feathers, and those figured present only the patterns most frequently met with. The shaft of the feather is the midrib, to either side of which the vanes or webs are attached. The Keys. — It is of the utmost importance to thoroughly under- stand the use of the keys. At first sight they will, no doubt, appear confusing, but in reality they are exceedingly simple. The system upon which they are arranged may be mastered in a few minutes, and you will then be surprised at the ease and rapidity with which, even in large families, you can "run a bird down." The Key to Families. — Strictly speaking this is not one key but a series of keys, one under each order. The orders are placed in a natural sequence — that is, we begin with the oldest or lowest forms of birds. Loons, Grebes, etc., and end with * The American Ornithologists' Union is the leading society of its kind in this country. Its membership includes the foremost ornithologists of the world, and is divided into four classes : 1. Honorary members, limited to 25 in number. 2. Active members, limited to 50 in number, who must be residents of North America. 3. Corresponding members, limited to 100 in number ; and 4. Asso- ciate members, who must be residents of North America, and are not limited as to number. The total membership of the Union in December, 1894, was 616. Annual meetings are held, usually in Washington, New York, or Cambridge. The Auk, the official organ of the Union, is a quarterly journal under the editor- ship of Dr. J. A. Allen, at the American Museum of Natural History. 32 USE OF THE KEYS. 33 the most highly developed ones, Thrushes, Bluebirds, etc. Two main divisions are given : first, Water Birds ; second, Land Birds. In no o IS J3 be a O o H case will it be difficult to decide in which of these groups a bird be- longs. Now glance over the illustrations and select the one which you think most nearly resembles the bird you are identifying. At 34 USE OF THE KEYS. each step test your decision by reading the brief diagnoses of orders and families. In this way you may readily place your bird in its proper family. The Keys to Species.— \i a bird always wore the same plumage it would be a comparatively easy matter to place it in a certain section Fig. 3.— Spotted (a), streaked (6), barred (c), and margined (d) feathers. of a key and keep it there. But, unfortunately, not only are the males and females of the same species frequently quite unlike, and the young different from either, but their plumages may vary with the season. Thus, you see, a bird's color is a most uncertain quantity. An individ- ual of a given species may not only wear two very different costumes, but, in doffing one for another, he does it gradually, and in the mean- time appears in changing or transition plumage. For this reason it has been customary to base keys on only adult males. Such keys do very well in the nesting season, when birds are in song, and when males constitute probably nine tenths of the birds one sees. But at other times of the year young birds outnumber the old ones, and the adults themselves may lose their breeding plumage and wear quite a different one. I have, therefore, attempted to make keys which will identify a bird in any plumage. To do this it was necessary to use many more specimens than there were species. For example, the key to our some 40 species of Warblers is based on 110 specimens representing as many phases of plumage. With identification as the sole end in view I have, in the keys, abandoned all attempts to follow the current system of classification, and, taking color as the most tangible character, have to a great extent arranged the species on this character alone. The result, from the sys- tematist's standpoint, is most unnatural. Species of different genera USE OF THE KEYS. 35 are brought into the same subsections, and the more variable species may be placed in several widely separated sections. The maker of keys, however, should not try to serve two masters. If the keys will identify, they will have accomplished their purpose. The classification of our birds is shown in the body of the book, where the species are arranged according to the system adopted by the Ameri- can Ornithologists' Union. In making these keys the birds are first assorted into several major sections or groups, according to the markings of some one part of the body. Each one of these sections is preceded by the same kind of number or letter. The heading of a group or section applies to all the species included in it. Thus, if I does not apply to the bird you are identifying, you must pass at once to II, or III, or IV, as the case may be. In like manner, if the bird does not fall into sections 1, A, or a, we go to 2, B, or b, respectively. Even should the first section describe your bird, it is well to read the sections which are contrasted with it. As a model to show how the keys are used, let us identify, first, a male adult Red-winged Blackbird — a black bird with a red and buff shoulder-patch. Turning to the key to the family Icteridce, or Black- birds, Orioles, etc., we read : "I. With yellow or orange in the under parts. " II. Under parts black, with or without metallic reflections. " III. Under parts grayish, slate color, chestnut, or buffy. " IV. Under parts black and white, or black tipped and margined with rusty." Our bird has the under parts entirely black, so it evidently belongs in Section II. Under this section we read : " A. Outer tail-feather 0*75 or more shorter than middle ones; bill 1*00 or more in length." Our bird has all the tail-feathers of nearly equal length, the bill less than an inch long. It can not therefore belong in A, so we go to B and read : " Outer tail-feather little if any shorter than middle ones ; bill less than 1-00 in length." There is no other section, and we con- clude that our bird belongs here. Now we find a, h, c, d, each one placed directly beneath the other, and each one leading to the name of a species. This means that the statement following these letters refers to some mark or character by which one of these species may be known from the other, and that we should read them all. First comes "a. Entire plumage bluish black." That will not do. Second, "6. A red and buff shoulder-patch." Evidently this refers to our bird, but we confirm our belief by glancing at c and d, neither of which can apply to our specimen ; we decide, therefore, that it is a Red-winged Blackbird, and turning to the extended description of Agelaius phm- niceus verify our identification. 36 USE OF THE KEYS. Now let us take a somewhat less simple case — a male English Spar- row. This bird, you will doubtless remember, has a black patch on the throat and breast, a slate-colored crown, chestnut marks on the sides of the head, and a streaked back. Turning to the key to the family FringillidcB, or Finches, Sparrows, etc., we read first the head- ings to the main divisions which, in the larger families, are placed at the beginning of the key in order that they may be more readily com- pared. " I. Under parts with red. *' II. Under parts with no red, and without distinct streaks ; throat or breast sometimes with a patch or spot. " III. Under parts without red, and with numerous streaks." Our bird undoubtedly belongs in Section II. Under this section we read first : " 1. Tail with white spots, bars, or patches." Our bird has no white in the tail, so we go to " 2 " and read : '• Without large white spots or patches in the tail." There is no number 3, so we have no hesitation in placing our bird in Section " 2." The first subsection here is " A. Back without distinct streaks." Our bird is unquestion- ably streaked, and we therefore go to " B. Back distinctly streaked." There is no Section G, and it follows that our bird belongs in '' B." Under B we have " a. Bend of the wing yellow " and " h. Bend of the wing not yellow." Our bird has no yellow on the wing, and we therefore place it in subsection h. This subsection is subdivided into '' h^. Crown bright reddish brown," etc., " c\ Crown streaked or spotted," etc., and " d}. Crown mixed grayish brown and rufous, ashy, or slate-color, without black streaks." Evidently our bird belongs in the group headed d}, which we find includes four species, rf', d^, d\ and d^. After reading the characters assigned to each of these, we have no hesitation in deciding that those under d^ apply to our bird, and we prove our identification by turning to the description of Passer domesticiis. I have purposely taken a comparatively complicated case. If I have made it clear, you will have no further difficulty in using the keys, so far as their construction goes. It might be supposed, from this somewhat lengthy description, that the process required much time ; but as you become familiar with the use of the keys it should never take you more than five minutes to identify a bird with them. Descriptions of Plumage. — The descriptions, with quoted excep- tions, are from specimens in the American Museum of Natural His- tory, and my thanks are due the authorities of that mstitution for permission to use its valuable collections. I have tried to make them as concise and simple and, at the same time, as detailed as seemed necessary for the purpose of identification. MEASUREMENTS— RANGE. 37 Measurements. — All the measurements given are in English inches and hundredths. Those of birds are average measurements, taken for the most part from specimens in the American Museum of Natural His- tory. I have also, with the author's permission, made use of the excellent series of measurements in Dr. E. A. Mearns's Birds of the Hudson Highlands. A variation of about ten per cent from the figures given may be expected. The total length {= L.) of a bird is found by gently stretching the specimen, laying it on its back, and measuring the distance from the end of its bill to the tip of its longest tail-feather. The length of the wing (r= W.) is the distance from the " bend of the wing " to the end of the longest primary. The length of the tail (= T.) is the distance from the base, or insertion of the middle feather, to the end of the longest feather. The length of the tarsus (= Tar.) is the distance from the base, or insertion of the toes, to the end of the tibia, or what in reality is the heel. The " tarsus " is therefore the true foot of the bird, while the part to which this name is generally applied consists only of the toes. The length of the bill (= B.), or '• culmen," is the dis- tance from the anterior base of the feathers on the forehead to the tip of the upper mandible. With the exception of total length these measurements are gen- erally taken with a pair of dividers. Range. — The paragraphs under this heading have been prepared with special reference to the bird's dis- tribution in eastern North America. They are sup- plemented by a concise statement of the bird's manner of occurrence and the usual times of migration of the nonresident species at three or four localities This information is the best it is possible to obtain, and has not been previously published. Each locality is treated by a recognized authority on its bird-life from notes based on observations extending over many years. The data from Washington, D. C, were supplied by Mr. 0. W. Richmond, of the Smithsonian Institution. Not only has Mr. Richmond given years to field work in the District of Columbia, but he has had access to the notes of the numerous ornithologists who have observed in the same region. - - ^ - CO 38 LOCAL BIRD-LISTS. The water-birds of Long Island are treated by Mr. William Dutcher, of New York city, who has for years made our coast birds a subject of especial investigation. Sportsmen, lighthouse-keepers, and ornitholo- gists have all aided him in acquiring an unrivaled series of observa- tions upon the movements of waterfowl and bay birds. Dr. A. K. Fisher, of the Division of Ornithology in the U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, has supplied the notes from Sing Sing, N. Y. This locality formed the field of his ornithological labors for fifteen years. Within the limits of the town of Ossining Dr. Fisher has ob- served no le^ than two hundred and thirty-six species of birds. Prob- ably no area of similar extent in the United States has been more carefully studied or yielded better results. Cambridge, Mass., is historic ground in the annals of ornithology. From the time of Nuttall it has never lacked for earnest students of its :bird-life.- Nevertheless, no list of Cambridge birds has ever ap- peared. It is with unusual pleasure, therefore, that I include annota- tions on the, birds of this region by Mr. William Brewster, who has made a lifelong study of New England birds, and particularly of those found in the vicinity of his home at Cambridge.* The value of their contributions renders it evident that I am under deep obligations to these gentlemen, and I thank them most sincerely for their generous assistance. ■Nests and Eggs. — The brief descriptions of nests and eggs are r»ased on the collections of the American Museum of Natural History, sup- plemented by the use of Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway's Hisiory of North, American Birds, Davie's Nests and Eggs of North American Birds, Ridgway's Manual, and Captain Bendire's Life Histories of North American Birds. In describing the eggs the color chart was used when possible ; but it was designed with particular reference to the plumages of our birds, and is of less assistance in describing their eggs. The measurements of eggs are mostly from series of measure- ments made by Mr. H. B. Bailey, accompanying the Bailey collection in the American Museum, supplemented by reference to the works men- tioned above. Biographies. — After devoting separate paragraphs to the bird's general range, its manner of occurrence, comparative numbers, times of migration at several specific points, and its nest and eggs, the space remaining is given to a brief sketch of its haunts, notes, and disposi- tion, with the particular object of aiding in its identification in the field. * Strictly maritime birds whose occurrence within five miles of Cambridge is casual or accidental are, as a rule, excluded. UJ h < J 1 > > < (A O -> < X I to (/> z ^ z ^ ^ o o cc oc CQ £D h q: < I u q: J BIOGRAPHIES-ILLUSTRATIONS. 39 In preparing these biographical sketches I have aimed to secure the best material possible, using my own notes only when I felt they were based on adequate observations. Not only have I carefully ex- amined the literature relating to the habits of our birds, selecting what seemed to be the most trustworthy accounts of their appearance in life, but through the generous co-operation of fellow-students of living birds I am able to present character sketches of some of our birds, written by observers who are everywhere known for their sym- pathy with birds out-of-doors. Thus I have to thank Mrs. Miller, Miss Merriam, Mr. Bicknell, Mr. Brewster, Dr. Dwight, Mr. Thomp- son, and Mr. Torrey for pen pictures of birds with which they are especially familiar, each sketch being signed by its author. Illusirations. — The colored frontispiece is by Mr. Ernest E. Thomp- son, whom I have to thank for assistance in preparing the color chart and Key to Families. The scheme of this key, which is founded on natural arrangement and on drawings of anatomical details, is original with him, and that here presented is a slight modification of the one he completed and contributed at a time when he was expected to be a joint author of this work. The numerous pen-and-ink drawings, which add so largely to the value of the work, were made by Mr. Tappan Adney from specimens in the American Museum of Natural History. Some of the full-page half-tone plates are from photographs of groups in the American Museum of Natural History ; the larger number, how- ever, were especially designed for this work, with the assistance of Mr. J. Rowley, Jr. The Color Chart. — It must not be supposed for a moment that the colors on the Plate II. represent the colors of all the birds of eastern North America. It does not do so any more than an artist's palette shows all the colors of his picture — in fact, I have called this plate my mental palette, and have frequently used two and even three terms to describe a given shade or tint. It should be clearly understood, therefore, that when grayish brown, for example, is mentioned, it does not follow that the feathers to which the term is applied are of exactly the same color as the plate, but that they are nearer to this color than to any other in the plate. Used even in this general way, the plate will prove a far more definite basis for description than if every one were left to form his own idea of the colors named. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. Ad. Adult ; a fully matured bird. A. V. Accidental visitant (see page 12). B. Bill. B. from N. Bill from nostril. $ The sign employed to designate female sex (see page 27). Im. Immature; the term is generally applied to birds less than a year old, or to those which have not acquired the plumage of the adult. L. Total length. $ The sign employed to designate male sex (see page 27). P. R. Permanent resident (see page 12). S. R. Summer resident (see page 12). T. Tail. Tar. Tarsus. T. V. Transient visitant (see page 12). W. Wing. W. V. Winter visitant (see page 12). 40 THE BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA EAST OF THE NINETIETH MERIDIAN. KEY TO ORDERS AND FAMILIES. THE WATER BIRDS. Fig. 5. Order I* Pygopodes* — Grebes, Loons, and Auks. Ducklike birds with generally sharply pointed bills ; feet webbed, placed far back near the tail ; tarsus much flattened ; hind toe, when present, with a lobe or flap ; bill without toothlike projections ; tail very short and sometimes apparently wanting. A. Toes four, tipped with a broad nail. a. Toes with lobate webs. . . . Family Grebes (Fig. 5, a), p. 56. b. Toes webbed. . . . Family drinatoridoe, : 5, 0), p. 58. £. Toes three, tipped with a sharp nail. Fodicipidce : LooNS (Fig. Alcidce: Auks, Murres, and Puffins (Fig. 5, c), p. 60o Order U, Liongipennes. — Jaegers, Gulls, and Terns. Birds with sharply pointed and frequently hooked or hawklike bills ; toes four (ex- cept in one genus — Kissn), the front ones webbed ; wings long and pointed. 41 Fig 6. 42 KEY TO FAMILIES. A. Tip of the upper mandible more or less swollen, rounded, and sharply pointed; upper parts, including wings, and sometimes the entire plumage, dark sooty blackish, sometimes irregularly barre'd ; tail always dark, the middle feathers longest. . . . Family Sterco- rariidiE : Skuas and Jaegers (Fig. 6, a), p. 65. £. Upper mandible curved but not swollen at the end ; tail generally white, sometimes tipped with black ; the tail-feathers usually of about equal length. . . . Subfamily LarincB : Gulls (Fig. 6, J), p. 67. Fig. 8. C. Bill straight, not hooked and sharply pointed ; outer tail-feathers generally longer than the middle ones. Subfamily Sterninoe : Terns (Fig. 7), p. 76. ■ ,; ^ D. Bill thin and bladelike, the lower mandible much longer than the upper one. . . . Family Rynchopidce, : Skimmers (Fig. 8), p. 85. Fig. 9. Order III. Tubina/res. — Albatrosses, Petrels, and Fulmars. Bill hawklike, the tip of the upper mandible generally much enlarged; nostrils opening through tubes ; hind toe reduced to a mere nail, and sometimes entirely wanting. A. Size very large, nostrils separated and on eithier side of the bill. . . . Family Diomedeidce : Albatrosses (Fig. 9, a), p. 86. B. Size smaller, nostrils joined and placed on top of the bill. . . . Family ProceUariidce : Petrels, Fulmars, and Shearwaters (Fig. 9, &), p. 86. KEY TO FAMILIES. 43 Fio. 13. Fig. 13. (S^Hi Fig. 11. Fig. 14. Fig. 10. Fig. 15. Order IV. Steganopodes. — Gannets, Cormorants, Pelicans (Fig. 10), etc. All the toes, including the hind one, connected by webs. A,. Bill, generally sharply pointed, without a hawklike hook at its tip. - yd! CSin,- or spaije between the forks of the lower mandible, feath C ■• ered. ■ i ■ Fa^il^. i^haethontidce : Tropic Birds (Fig. 11), p. 91. lb. Chin bare. ■ [ ' i^. Bill stout aiid slightly curved at the tip; middle tail-feathers without "flutings". . . . Family tiulidoe: Gannets (Fig. 12), ' ':\. ^p. 92. ;. 4. -,i*. Bill straight and slender; middle tail-feathers fluted, . . . •";;;Family AnMngidce '. Darters (Fig. 13), p. 93. B. Biik^vith a hawklike hook at the tip. a. Lores hare. ai. Bill over 12-00, with a large pouch. Pelicans, p. 95. a^. Bill under 12-00, no large pouch. . cidce: Cormorants (Fig. 14), p. 94. b. Lores feathered. . . . Family FregatidcB : Man-o'-war Birds (Fig. . Family Felecanidoe : Family Phalacrocora- 44 KEY TO FAMILIES. Order V. Anseres. — Ducks, Geese, and Swans. Toes four, the front ones fully webbed ; tarsus not strikingly flattened as in the Grebes; tail always well developed; bill with toothlike projec- tions, fluted ridges, or gutters along its sides, 1. Bill very long, narrow, and rounded, with numerous toothlike pro- jections along its sides. . . . Subfamily Mergince : Mebqansebs (Fig. 16), p. 98. Fig. 16. Bill more or less flattened and ducklike. A. Lores feathered, a. Tarsus shorter than the middle toe, without nail; scales on its front transverse, more or less square, o^. Hind toe without a flap or lobe. . . . Subfamily Anatinoi'. River Ducks (Fig, 17, a), p, 100, a^". Hind toe with a flap or lobe, . . , Subfamily Fulignlince; Sea and Bay Ducks (Fig. 17, b), p. 107. Fig. 17. b. Tarsus generally longer than the middle toe, without nail ; scales on its front rounded. . . . Subfamily Anserince : Geese, p. 119. £. Lores bare. . . . Subfamily Cygnina, : Swans, p. 124. KEY TO FAMILIES. 45 Order VI. Odontoglossse Large red or reddish birds ; bill with tooth like ridges as in some Ducks, the end half bent down- ward ; tarsus 12-00 or more -Flamingoes. in length. . . . Phmnicopteridee MINGOES, p. 125., Family Fla- FiG. 18. Order VII. Herodiones.— Herons, Storks, Ibises, etc. Toes four, all on the same level, slightly or not at all webbed ; lores bare; legs and neck generally much lengthened. ^TH' Fig. 19. Fi&. 20. Fig. 21. A. Bill straight and sharply pointed ; inner border of the middle toe- nail with a comblike edge. . . . Family Ardeidce : Herons, Egrets, and Bitterns (Fig. 19), p. 128. £. Bill rounded, more or less curved downward ; no comb on the mid- dle toe-nail. a. Size large, tarsus over 5-00. . . . Family Ciconiidce: Storks and Wood Ibises, p. 127. f>. Size smaller, tarsus under 5*00. . . . Family Ibididce: Ibises (Fig. 20), p. 126. C. Bill flattened and much broadened at the end. . . . Family Plata- leidcB : Spoonbills (Fig. 21), p. 125. 46 KEY TO FAMILIES. Fig. 22 Order VHI. Paludicolae. — Cranes, Eails, etc. Toes four ; middle toe without a comb, generally not webbed ; hind -toe generally small, higher than the front ones, or, if on the same level (G'al- linules and Coots only), the bill is then comparatively short and stout and the forehead has a bare shield; lores feathered, or (Cranes) -iisvith hairlike bristles. Fig. 24. A. Smaller, bill under 3-00. . and Coots rFig. 22), p. 139 £. Larger, bill over 3*00 a. Tarsus over 6'00. . , b. Tarsus under 6-00. p. 138. Family Rallidoe : Kails, Gallinules, Family GruidcB: Cranes (Fig. 23), p. 137. . Family AramidcB: Courlans (Fig. 24), KEY TO FAMILIES. a 47 Fi&. 25. Order IX. LiimicolaB.— Phalaropes, Snipes, Plovers, etc. Toes four, or (Plovers) tliree; the hind toe, when present, less than half the length of the inner one, and always elevated above the others; legs generally long and slender, the lower half of the tibiae bare ; bill, except in the Plovers, generally long, slender, and soft, the nostrils opening through slits or grooves ; wings long and pointed, the first primary gen- erally the longest. Fig. 26. I. Tarsus oyer 3; 50, ... . . Yaixiilj Becurvirostridce : Stilts and Avocets, p. 149. II. Tarsus under 3-50. A. Sidesof the toes with lobes or webs. . . . 'Family Phalaro2)odidcB : Ph u.akopk'j (Fig. 26, a), p. 147. B. i^ide-^ of tlie tocb without lobed webs. a. Tot'S ftmr (e\oept in the Sanderling) ; front of the tarsus with transverse, more or less square, scales. . . . Family Scolopacidce. ; Snipes, Sandpipers, etc. (Fig. 25, a, b ; Fig. 26, b, c), p. 150. b. Whole lower back white, a black band across the rump. . . , Family Aphrizidie : Turnstones, etc., p. 176. c. Toes three (except in the Black-bellied Plover); front of the tarsus with small, rounded scales. oi. Bill under 2-00. . . . Family Charadriidoe : Plovers (Fig. 25, c, d ; Fig. 26, d, e), p. 171. ' • c'. Bill ov€r iVOO. . . . Family Hcematopodidoe : Oyster-catchers, p. 177. 48 KEY TO FAMILIES. THE L,AND BIRDS. Order X. GallinSB. — Turkeys, Grouse, Bob-whites, etc. Toes four, the hind one small and elevated above the front ones ; bill generally short, stout, hard, and horny ; wings rather short, the outer primaries curved and much stiffened. A. Size very large. . . . Subfamily Meleag- rinoe : Turkeys, p. 186. £. Size smaller. . . . Family Tetraonidce : Grouse, Bob-whites, etc. (Fig. 27), p. 178. fxq. 27. Order XI. Columbae.— Pigeons and Doves. Toes four, all on the same level, the hind one about as long as the shortest front one; bill rather slender, deeply grooved, the nostrils open- ing in a soft, lieshy membrane or skin. . . . Family Oolumbidce : Pigeons and Doves (Fig. 28j, p. 187. Fig. 29. Order XII. Raptores. — Vultures, Hawks, and Owls. Toes four, three in front, the hind one, except in the Vultures, generally as long as or longer than the shortest front one ; all the toes armed with strong, sharp, curved nails or talons ; bill with a cere, or covering of skin, at its base, through which the nostrils open, very stout and strong, the tip of the upper mandible with a sharply pointed hook. „^_, '^••N^.? Fig. 30. Fio. 31. A. Eyes set in a striking facial disk ; tarsus generally feathered ; plum age soft and fluffy. KEY TO FAMILIES. 49 a. Middle toe-nail with a comblike edge. Owls (Fig. 30j, p. 213. b. Middle toe-nail without a eomblike edge. . . Horned Owls, Hoot Owls (Fig. 29, a), p. 213, Family Strigidce : Barn Family Buhonidas, : Fig. 32 Fig. 33. £. Eyes not set in a striking facial disk ; tarsus mostly bare, plumage firm and close. a. Plumage, in our species, black ; hind toe small, claws blunt ; bill not sharply hooked ; head generally bare. . . . Family Cathartidce : American Vultures (Fig. 32), p. 191. b. Hind toe generally as long as or longer than the shortest front one ; toes armed with sharp, curved nails or talons ; bill with a sharp hook, head not bare. . . . Family Falconidce : Falcons, Kites, Hawks, Eagles (Figs. 29, *, 83), etc., p. 193. Order XIII. Psittaci.— Parrots, Paroquets, etc. Toes four, two in front and two behind ; bill with a cere. . . . Family Psittacidoe : Par- rots and Paroquets (Fig. 34), p. 222. Fig. 34. Order XIV. Coccyges.— Cuckoos and Kingfishers. Toes four, the middle and outer ones joined for half their length (Kingfishers), or two in front and two behind (Cuckoos) ; bill without a cere; tail-feathers not stiff and pointed. Fig. 36. 50 KEY TO FAMILIES. A. Middle and outer toes joined for half their length. . . . Family Al- cedinidce: Kingfishers (Fig. 35), p. 226. B. Two toes in front and two behind. . . . Family Cuculidce: Cuckoos (Fig. 36), p. 224. Fig. 37. Order XV. Pici.— Woodpeckers. Toes four, two in front and two behind, or toes three, two in front and one behind ; bill strong ; tail-feathers stiff and pointed ; nostrils more or less concealed by bristles. . . . Family Picidce: Woodpeckers (Fig. 37). p. 227. Fig. 38.. Fig. 40. Order XVI. Ma,crochires. — Goatsuckers, Swifts, and Hummingbirds. Feet very small and weak ; bill short and small and mouth large, or bill long and exceedingly slender and mouth small ; wings generally long and pointed. A. Size comparatively large ; plumage variegated, black and brown ; middle toe-nail with a comblike edge. . . . Family Caprhaulgidm : NiGHTHAWKS, Whip-poor-wills, etc. (Fig. 38), p. 236. £. Size medium; plumage sooty black; no comb on the middle toe- nail ; tips of the tail-feathers with spines. . . . Family Micropodidoe : Swifts (Fig. 39), p. 239. O. Size very small; upper parts shining green; bill long and slender . . . Family Trochilidce: Hummingbirds (Fig. 40), p. 240. KEY TO FAMILIES. 51 Family 1. TyrannidoB.- Order XVII. Passeres. — Perching Birds : Flycatch- EKS, Blackbirds, Jays, Orioles, Sparrows, Finches, Swallows, Vireos, "Warblers, Weens, Thrushes, etc. Toes four, without webs, all on the same level ; hind toe as large as the middle one, its nail generally longer than that of the middle one ; tail of twelve feathers. [The following synoptical table of the characters of the eighteen families which we have in this order seems more satis- _,^ factory than an artificial — ""^ "7^^=^ J-^ ^^^^ (^- Fia. 41. -Flycatchers (Fig. 42). Bill wider than high at the base, slightly hooked at the tip ; base with conspicuous bristles ; wings longer than the tail, the second to fourth primaries longest, the first but little shorter and generally equal to the fifth or sixth ; back of tarsus rounded^ like the front ; plumage generally olive-green or grayish ; tail, except in the King- bird, without white spots, p. 242. Family 2. Alaudidce. — Larks (Fig. 43). Bill rather stout and rounded ; nos- trils with bristly tufts ; nail of hind toe much lengthened, as long as the middle toe without nail ; back of the tarsus rounded like the front, p. 252. Fio. 44. Family 3. Corvidce. — Crows and Jays (Fig. 44). Large birds, over 10-00 in length ; bill stout, the nostrils concealed by tufts of bristly feathers ; fourth to fifth primary the longest, the first about half as long ; outer tail-feathers shortest ; feet and legs stout, p. 253. 62 KEY TO FAMILIES. Fig. 45. Family 4. iSturnidce.-^^TAj^ LINGS (Fig. 46). Bill flattened, wider than high at the base ; tail short and square ; wings long and pointed, second pri- mary longest, the first very small, less than half an inch in length, p. 259. Family 5. Icteridce. — Blackbirds, Orioles, etc. (Fig. 46). Length 7"00-17'00 ; base of the bill, between the nostrils, extending back- ward and dividing the feathers of the forehead ; nostrils not concealed by bristles ; first three primaries of about equal length ; outer tail-feathers generally shortest, p. 260. ^K-^ Fig. 47. Family 6. Fringillidoe. — Spar- rows, Finches, Gros- beaks, etc. (Fig. 47). Length 4-75-9'00, generally under 8-00 ; bill short, stout, and conical, admirably fit- ted to crush seeds ; third and fourth primaries gen- erally about the same length, the first never more than half an inch shorter than the longest, p. 271. Family 7. Tanagridoe. — Tanagers (Fig. 48). Length about 7*00 ; the males of our species mostly red ; bill finchlike, but less conical, somewhat swollen, the outline of the upper mandible curved, its sides v/ith a slight but generally evident " tooth " near the middle ; tail-feathers of equal length, p. 316. Fig. 48. KEY TO FAMILIES. 53 Family 8. Hirandinidce. — Swallows (Fig. 49) Bill short and flattened, much wider than high at the base ; no bristles at the base of the bill ; wings long and pointed, tips, when closed, generally reaching beyond the end of the tail ; first primary the longest ; outer tail- feathers longest; feet small, tarsus short, round in front, narrower and sharper in the back, p, 318. Fig. 49. Family 9. Ampelidce. — Waxwings (Fig. 50). Plumage generally soft, brownish gray or grayish brown ; a black band across the forehead and through the eyes ; tail tipped with yellow; bill short, notched at the tip; head conspicuously crested, p. 323. Fig. 50. Family 10. Laniidce. — Shrikes (Fig. 51). Grayish birds, 8-00-9-00 in length, most of the tail-feathers tipped with white; bill hooked and hawklike, p. 325. Family 11. Vireonidce. — Vireos (Fig. 52) Small birds, 5-00- 7'00 in length, with generally olive- green backs ; tail- .,,. feathers without ^^ 7 white spots ; bill rather stout, higher than broad at the base, the tip of the upper mandible notched and hooked, bristles at the base of the bill barely evident ; tarsi scaled, round in front, narrower and sharper behind ; toes united at the base, p. 327. Family 12. Mniotiltidce. — Wood War- blers (Fig. 53). Small birds, length generally under 6-00, but in four species 6-50-7'50, with, as a rule, brightly colored Fig. 52. 54 KEY TO FAMILIES. plumage, olive-green or yellow being the most frequent ; bill various, never notched at the tip, usually slender and sharply pointed, without conspicuous bristles, but sometimes flattened and broader than high at the base, when the bristles are evident (thus resembling the bill of a true Flyeatcher, but the back of the tarsus is always thin and narrow, and never rounded as in front) ; rarely the bill is heavier, more thrushlike or linchlike ; second or third primary longest, the first little if any shorter ; tail generally square, sometimes rounded, the outer feathers frequently blotched with white, p. 333. Family 13. MotacUUdce. — Wagtails and Pipits (Fig. 54). No bristles over the nostrils; bill slender, much as in the preceding ; hind toe-nail much lengthened, as long as or longer than the toe ; first three primaries of equal length, p. 375. Family 14. Troglodytidce. — Thrash- ers, Wrens, etc. (Fig. 55). Subfamily Mimince. — Thrashers, Mockingbirds, and Catbirds. Length 8'00-12-00 ; tarsus scaled ; tail rounded, the outer feathers at least half an inch shorter than the middle ones, third to fifth primary longest, the first about half as long, p. 376. Subfamily Troglodytinoe. — Wrens. Length 4-00-6-00 ; bill moderate, the upper mandible slightly curved, no bristles at its base; third to fourth primary longest, first about half as long ; tail short and round- ed ; brown or brownish birds with indistinctly barred wings and tail, p. 376. Family 15. OertJdidoe. — Creepers (Fig. 56). Bill slender and much curved ; tail- feathers pointed and slightly stiffened, p. 385. Fig. 56. KEY TO FAMILIES. 55 family 16. Paridx. — Nuthatches and Titmice (Fig. 57) Subfamily SittincE. — Nuthatches. Bill rather long and slender, the end slightly upward; wings long and pointed, the third or fourth primary the longest, the first very small, not an inch in length ; tail short i<,nd square, the outer feathers blotched with white, p. 386. Subfamily ParincB. — Titmice. Length 4-50-6-50 ; bill short, stout, and rounded, less than half an inch in length ; fourth or fifth primary longest, first very short, not more than one third as long ; tail rather long, dull ashy gray without white blotches, p. 389. of the lower mandible slanting Fig. 57. Family 17. Sylmidoi. — Kihglets and Gnatcatchers (Fig. 58). Length 3-50-5-00 ; bill slender, re- sembling that of some Warblers, but the first primary is very short, only about one third as long as the longest, p. 391. Fig. 58. Family 18. Turdidce. — Thrushes, Bluebirds, etc. (Fig. 59). Length over 5-50 ; bill mod- erate, the tip of the upper mandible notched ; tarsus smooth, the scales, if any, fused and indistinct: tail sQuare ; wings long: and pointed, 3*75 or over, third primary the longest, the first very short, less than one inch in length, p. 394. Fig. 59. 56 GREBES. OBDEB. PYGOPODES. DIVING BIRDS. Family Podicipid^. Grebes. The Grebes, or lobe-footed divers, number about thirty species, distributed throughout the world. Six species are found in North America. Grebes are eminently aquatic birds, and rarely if ever ven- ture upon land, where they are almost helpless. The marvelous rapid- ity with which Grebes dive, and the ease with which this power for- merly enabled them to escape the shot of the fowler, have won for them their various popular names of " Hell-diver," " Water-witch," etc. The cartridges of the modern breech-loader do not give the warning of the discarded flint-lock or percussion cap, and " to dive at the flash " is an expression which now has lost half its meaning. Grebes possess the power of swimming with only the tip of the bill above water, a habit which accounts for many mysterious disappearances. They feed largely on fish, which they pursue and catch under water, progressing by aid of the feet alone. KEY TO THE SPECIES. A. Depth of bill at nostril over '35. a. Wing over 6-00 2. Holboell's Grebe. b. Wing under 6-00 6. Pied-billed Grebe. B. Depth of bill at nostril less than -35 3. Horned Grebe. 2» Colymbus holboBllii (^6mA.). Holbcell's Grebe, Ad. in sum- mer. — Top of the head, small crest, and back of the neck, glossy black ; back blackish ; throat and sides of the head silvery white ; front and sides of the neck rufous, changing gradually over the breast into the silvery white belly ; sides tinged with rufous. Ad. in winter. — Upper parts blackish brown: throat and under parts whitish ; front and sides of the neck pale rufous. Im. — Upper parts blackish ; throat and under parts silvery white ; neck and sides grayish. L., 19-00; W., 7-50; Tar., 2-20; B., 1-90, Range. — Breeds in the interior of North America, from northern Minne- sota northward ; in winter migrates southward as far as South Carolina and Nebraska. Washington, uncommon W. V., Sept. 30 to Mch. or Apl. Long Island irregular W, V., (3ct. to Apl. Sing Sing, rare T. V., Oct. to Dec. Cam- bridge, casual. Ned., a mass of water-soaked, decaying vegetation floating among rushes in a slough, generally attached to its surroundings. Eggs., two to five, dull white, more or less soiled, 2*25 x 1-35. *• In common with others of the family, this Grebe is an expert diver. Often it will sink into the water without any apparent effort, though more generally it Jumps forward, throwing the head into the ^ .--1 "&.0 , •■'«• -•» «. ..^..fr-^T '*:€*'• .' '/ PlED-BILLED GrEBE AND YOUNG. GREBES. 57 water and the body into the air. It is an expert and rapid swimmer also, and all its movements on the water are exceedingly graceful. When pursued, these birds invariably endeavor to escape by diving, though when on the wing they iiy rapidly, their necks and feet stretched at full length " (Chamberlain). 3* Colymbus a. j^la.cia;lis {Temm.). Large-billed Puffin. — Similar to the preceding, but larger. W., 6'80-7-40 ; B., 2-00-2-30 (B., B., and E.). Range. — ■'' Coast and islands of the Arctic Ocean from Spitzbergen to Baffin's Bay" (A. 0. U.). The Tufted Puffin {12. Lunda cirrhata) inhabits the North Pacific from California to Alaska. The specimen figured by Audubon was said by him to have been procured at the mouth of the Kennebec Eiver, Maine. There is no other record of its occurrence on the Atlantic coast. S*?. Cepphus grylle {Linn.). Black Guillemot ; Sea Pigeon. Ad. in summer. — Sooty black, lighter below and with slight greenish reflections above ; lesser wing-coverts and terminal half of the greater wing-coverts white, the basal half of the greater coverts black ; linings of the wings white. Ad. in winter. — Upper parts gray or black, the feathers all more or less tipped with white; wings as in summer; under parts white Im. — Upper parts as in winter adults ; under parts white, mottled with black ; wing-coverts tipped with black. L., 13-00 ; W., 6-25 ; Tar., 1-25 ; B., 1-20. Range.— ^XQ^di's, in North America from the Bay of Fundy (Grand Menan) northward, and migrates southward regularly to Cape Cod, and rarely to Con- necticut and Long Island ; accidental in Pennsylvania. Long Island, A. V. in winter. Nest.^ in the crevices and fissures of cliffs and rocky places. Eggs., two to three, dull white, sometimes with a greenish tinge, more or less heavily spotted with clear and obscure dark chocolate markings, more numerous and sometimes confluent at the larger end. 2-18 x 1-40. "They were wary and alert, but allowed me to paddle within easy shooting distance without displaying much alarm. When they finally concluded I was an unsafe neighbor, they lost no time in getting out of sight, diving with surprising suddenness. They usually swam a 52 AUKS, MUKRES, AND PUFFINS. long distance under water with great rapidity, using their wings as well as their feet, and coming to the surface far beyond gunshot range. " The Sea Pigeons are met usually in small flocks of half a dozen or more, and generally feed in the open sea at the base of bold cliffs. When on the wing they proceed rapidly and in a straight line, and rarely more than a few feet from the surface of the water. On ap- proaching their nesting-site they rise rather abruptly, and fly directly to their nests" (Chamberlain). 28. Cepphus maudtii {LicM.). Mandt's Guillemot. — Resembles the preceding, but the bases of the greater wing-coverts are white instead of black. Range. — ■" Arctic regions of both continents " (A. O. U.) ; in America breeding from Labrador and Hudson Bay northward, migrating southward as far as Massachusetts. Nest., in crevices and fissures of clifi's and rocky places. Eggs., two to three, not distinguishable from those of G. grylle., 2-84 x 1-15. A more northern species than the preceding, which it doubtless re- sembles in habits. 30. Uria troile (Linn.). Murre. Ad. in summer. — Upper parts, wings, tail, and neck all around, dark sooty brown, blacker on the back, wings, and tail ; tips of secondaries, breast, and belly white, the sides more or less streaked with blackish. Ad. in ivinter and Im. — Upper parts, wings, and tail much as in summer; under parts white, the throat more or less washed with sooty brown, the flanks sometimes streaked with brownish, and the feathers of the belly more or less lightly margined with blackish. L., 16-00; W., 8-00; Tar., 1-40; B., 1-75; depth of B. at nostril, -50. RemarJcs. — Some specimens have a white ring around the e^^e and a white stripe behind it. They have been named U. ringvia (Briinn.), but it is un- certain as to whether the species is a distinct one or is based on a mere varia- tion of plumage. Range. — " Coasts and islands of the North Atlantic" (A. 0. U.). In North America, breeding from Nova Scotia northward, and migrating southward as far as Massachusetts. Neds in communities, side by side on the bare ledges of rocky cliffs. Egg.^ one, pyriform, varying from pale blue or greenish blue to whitish or buffy singularly spotted, scrawled, or streaked with shades of chocolate, rarely un- marked, 3-25 X 2-00. " These birds begin to assemble on their customary cliffs in Eng- land early in May, and crowd together in such numbers that it is not uncommon to see hundreds sitting upon their eggs on the ledge of a rock, all in a line, and nearly touching each other" (Nuttall). " The bird usually sits facing the cliff, holding the ^^% between her legs, with its point outward ; if robbed, she will lay at least one more, AUKS, MURRES, AND PUFFINS. 63 similar in character. . . . Considerable force is exercised in diving, and the wings are used for propulsion under water " (Saunders). 31* Uria lomvia {Linn.). BrUnnich's Muere. Ad. in summer. — Upper parts, wings, and tail sooty black, foreneck somewhat browner; tips ot secondaries, breast, and belly white ; base of the upper mandible greenish, rounded outward beyond the edge of the lower mandible. L., 16*50 ; W., 8-40 ; Tar., 1--S0 ; B., 1-25 ; depth of B. at nostril, -47. Retnarlcs. — xldults are to be distinguished from adults of TT. troile by the darker color of the head, which in lomvia is darker than the throat, by the size of tlie bill and thickening of its cutting edge at the base. Winter and immature birds can be distinguished from those of U. troile only by the size of the bill, which, as the measurements show, is longer in that species. Range. — " Coasts and islands of the North Atlantic and eastern Arctic Oceans " (A. 0. U.). Breeds from the Magdalen Islands northward ; in win- ter migrates as far south as New Jersey. Long Island, irregular W. V. Sing Sing, A. V. Hests in communities, side by side on the bare ledges of rocky clift's. Egg., one, not distinguishable from that of U. troile. " During the winter it lives on the open sea, and in the breeding season assembles in large flocks on bold cliffs and rocky headlands. It is an expert diver, using wings and feet to get under water and to swim through it " (Chamberlain). 3S* Alca torda Linn. Kazor-billed Auk ; Tinker. Ad. in sum- mer. — Upper parts, wings, and tail sooty black ; foreneck somewhat browner ; tips of the secondaries, a line from the eye to the bill, breast, and belly white ; bill black, crossed by a white band. Ad. in ivinter. — Similar to ad. in the summer, but with the sides and front of the neck white. Jm. — Similar to ad. in winter, but with the bill smaller and without the white bar. L.- 16-50; W., Y-90; Tar., 1-35; B., 1-25. Range.— '•'• Coasts and islands of the North Atlantic" (A. O. IT.). Breeds from the Magdalen Islands northward ; in winter migrates southward regu- larly to Long Island and rarely to Virginia and North Carolina. Long Island, irregular W. V. Nest., in the crevices and fissures of cliffs and rocky places. Eggs., one to two, pale bluish white or buffy, thickly spotted and speckled with chocolate markings most numerous and sometimes confluent at the larger end, 3-00 x 1-90. " When brooding, it crouches along, not across, the ^%g, its mate often standing near ; and both sexes incubate, though the male may be seen bringing food to the sitting female. . . . The young flutter from the rocks to the sea, or are taken by the neck and carried down by the parents. They are at first very loath to follow the old bird in diving, and remain ci'ying plaintively on the surface of the water. The food consists of small fish, which are carried diagonally in the bill = — not at right angles, as by the Puffin — and crustaceans. The Razor- 64 AUKS, MURRES, AND PUFFINS. bill utters a peculiar grunting or groaning, especially when sitting. On the water it may be distinguished from the Guillemot, at a dis- tance, by its upturned tail " (Saunders). 33* Plautus impennis {Linn.). Gbeat Auk. — Upper parts fuscous black, a large white spot before the eye ; secondaries tipped with white ; sides of the neck and throat seal-brown, rest of the under parts silvery white. L., 28-00-30-00 ; W., 5-75 ; B., 3-15-3-50 ; greatest depth of B., 1-50 (Eidgw.). Range. — "Formerly the coasts and islands of the j^orth Atlantic, from Massachusetts and Ireland northward nearly to the Arctic Circle " (A. O. U.). Now extinct. Egg^ pyriform-ovate, pale olive buflfy, variously marked with brown and black, 4-67 x 2-91 (Eidgw.). The Great Auk was flightless. Like other birds of this family, it frequented certain localities in large numbers each year to breed. Early voyagers and fishermen visited its nesting grounds, killing the helpless birds in enormous numbers for their flesh, feathers, and oil. The result was extinction, and no living Great Auk has been observed since 1842. About seventy specimens are known to be preserved in collections. (See Lucas, Rep. Smith. Inst., 1891, pp. 638-641.) 34. Alle adle {Linn.). Dovekie ; Sea Dove. Ad. in summer. — Upper parts, wings, and tail sooty black ; sides and front of the neck and upper breast somewhat browner; secondaries tipped and scapulars streaked with white; lower breast and belly white. Ad. in winter and Im. — Similar to the above, but throat whiter or washed with dusky, and sometimes a gray collar on the nape. L., 8-00 ; W., 4-50 ; Tar., -70; B., -50. Eange. — " Coasts and islands of the North Atlantic and eastern Arctic Oceans " (A. O. U.). Breeds from latitude 69° northward ; in winter migrates southward, rarely to Long Island and New Jersey ; accidental in Pennsylva- nia and Virginia. Long Island, irregular W. V. Sing Sing, A. V. Mst., on the ledges and in the crevices of rocky cliffs. Egg., one, pale bluish white, 1-85 x 1-27. " On the approach of a vessel this bird has a peculiar way of splash- ing along the surface of the water, as if unable to fly, and then diving through the crest of an advancing wave ; it swims rather deep and very much ' by the stern.' . . ." (Saunders). " Its wings are small, but they are moved almost as rapidly as a Hummingbird's, and propel the bird through the air with great rapid- ity. This bird is an expert diver too, and, though awkward on land, swims with ease and grace. . . ." (Chamberlain). JAEGERS AND SKUAS. 65 ORDER LONGIPENNES. LONG- WINGED SWIMMERS. Family Stercorarud^. Jaegers and Skuas. Two of the six known members of this family are found in the antarctic regions, while the remaining four inhabit the northern parts of the northern hemisphere. Except during the nesting season, ttie Jaegers are as a rule pelagic, though they sometimes visit large bodies of water inland. They generally obtain their food by robbing Gulls and Terns, and have been well named the Hawks of the sea. Their greater power of flight enables them to successfully pursue these birds and force them to disgorge their recently captured prey. KEY TO THE SPECIES. A. Bill over 1-35 ; tarsus over 1-70 ; middle tail-feathers never pointed. a. Bill over 1-90 35. Skua. b. Bill under 1-90 36. Pomarine Jaeger. £. Bill under 1-35 ; tarsus under 1-70 ; middle tail-feathers generally pointed. a. Scaly shield on the bill longer than the distance from its end to the tip of the bill 37. Parasitic Jaeger. b. Scaly shield on the bill shorter than the distance from its end to the tip of the bill 38. Long-tailed Jaeger. 35. Megalestris skua {Brilnn.). Skua. Ad. — Upper parts, tail, and wings dark, dirty brown ; shafts of the wing and tail-feathers white, except at the tip ; outer wing-feathers with inner vanes white at the base ; under parts somewhat lighter; neck more or less streaked with whitish. Irn. — " Similar to adult, but more distinctly streaked with yellowish, especially on the head and neck." L., 22-00 ; W., 15-91 ; Tar., 2-63 ; B., 2-06 (Kidgw.). Range.— "■ Coa&l and islands of the North Atlantic, chiefly northward. South to Spain and Massachusetts. Apparently rare off the coast of North America" (A. 0. U.). Long Island, A. V., one record. Nest, on rocky clifis. Eggs, two, pale olive-brown or greenish gray spot- ted with chocolate, 2-80 x 1-90. 36. Stercorarius pomarinus {Temm.). Pomarine Jaeger. Ad.., iigJit phase.— Very similar in color to corresponding phase of ;S. parasiticus., but with the upper parts darker, nearly black. Ad., darh phase and Im.— Similar in color to corresponding stages of S. parasiticus. L., 22-00 ; W., 13-50; T., Ad., 8-00, Im., 5-40; Tar., 2-00; B., 1-55. Remarks. — This species is to be distinguished from the two following bj its larger size and the rounded ends of its central tail-feathers. Range. — " Kesident during the summer in high northern latitudes, chiefly within the Arctic Circle, and extending from Siberia in eastern Asia entirely around the zone " (B., B., and E.). Migrates southward along the Atlantis QQ JAEGERS AND SKUAS. coast, and more rarely through the Great Lakes, and winters from Long Island southward. Long Island, regular from June 15 to Oct. 30. Sing Sing, A. V. JS^est, on the ground. J^ggs, two to three, deep olive-drab sparingly spot- ted with slate color, and light and dark raw-umber markings and black dots, chiefly at the larger end, where they become confluent, 2-25 x 1-70 (Brewer). 37. Stercorarius parasiticus (Linn.). Paeasitic Jaeger (see Fig. 6, a). Ad.^ light phase. — Back, wings, and tail slaty fuscous ; top of the head and lores nearly black ; sides of the head and back of the neck straw- yellow, this color sometimes spreading down the sides of the neck and on the throat; breast and belly white; sides of the breast, flanks, lower belly, and crissum slaty fuscous ; tarsi and feet (in dried specimens) black ; middle tail-feathers pointed and extending about 3-00 beyond the others. Ad.., darh phase. — Entire plumage dark, slaty brown, darker on the top of the head ; under parts slightly lighter; sometimes a trace of straw-yellow on the sides and back of the neck ; tarsi, feet, and tail as in the preceding, /m., light phase. — Upper parts, wings, and tail fuscous; the feathers of the back, neck, and head more or less bordered, tipped, or barred with bufiy ; hind-neck and head sometimes bufty, streaked or barred with fuscous, and varying from this color to plain fuscous ; longer, lateral upper tail-coverts barred with bufiy ; tail bufiy, whitish at the base ; under wing-coverts barred with bufiy ; under parts white, washed with bufiy, and irregularly barred with sooty fuscous ; these bars sometimes very numerous when the under parts looked as if washed with sooty fuscous ; again, they may be less numerous and con- fined to the breast and sides, leaving the belly white; central tail-feathers pointed, projecting more or less beyond the rest. /»i., darJc phase. — Sooty fus- cous, the feathers, particularly on the under parts, more or less marked with ochraceous-bufi". L., 17-00 ; W., 13-00 : T., Ad., 8-60, Im., 6-40 ; B., 1-15. Eemarlcs. — This species closely resembles S. longicandus. Adults of both species, whether in the dark or light phase of plumage, may always be dis- tinguished from each other by the difference in the length of their central tail-feathers, in addition to the characters given in the key. Young birds can not be distinguished by color, but may be identified by the differences in relative proportions of the bill. Range. — " Northern parts of the northern hemisphere, southward in win- ter to South Africa and South America" (A. O. U.). In America breeds in the Barren Grounds and Greenland ; migrates southward through the Great Lakes and along the Atlantic coasts, and winters from the Middle States southward. Long Island, regular from June 15 to Oct. 30. Nest., on the moors or tundras, a slight depression in the ground scantily lined with grasses, etc., or on rocks by the sea. Eggs., two to four, light olive- brown, with frequently a strong greenish tinge and chocolate markings, more numerous and sometimes confluent at the larger end, 2-25 x 1-65. 38. Stercorarius longicaudus Vieill. Long-tailed Jaegeb. Ad., light phase. — Back, wings, and tail slaty fuscous; top of head and lores nearly black; sides of the head, back and sides of the neck straw-yellowy GULLS. 67 throat sometimes wasAed with the same color ; under parts white ; sides, lower belly, and crissum slaty fuscous ; central tail-feathers extending about 7"00 beyond the others, the projecting ends narrow and pointed. (No dark phase of this species has been described.) Im. — Similar in plumage to im. of S. parasiticus^ but differing otherwise as pointed out under that species. L., 21-00 ; W., 12-50 ; T., Ad., 12-00, Im., 5-50 ; B., 1-08. Range. — Northern part of the northern hemisphere; in America nests in Greenland and quite abundantly " along the Anderson, in the ' Ban-ens,' and also on the arctic coast" (Macfarlane) ; migrates southward along the coasts, and rarely through the Great Lakes, to the Gulf of Mexico and West Indies. Nest^ a slight depression in the ground, sometimes scantily lined with grasses. Eggs^ two to three, similar in color to those of the preceding, 2-10 X 1-50. Family Larid^. Gulls and Terns. This family contains about one hundred species divided equally between the subfamily Larinm (Gulls) and subfamily Stemmm (Terns). They are distributed throughout the world. Some forty species in- habit North America. With few exceptions they agree in possessing the marked characters of their respective subfamilies, under which they may be more conveniently treated. Subfamily Larince. Gulls. Generally speaking, Gulls are maritime and pelagic, though some species are found inland. As compared with Terns, Gulls are less graceful and active on the wing. In flight the bill points forward in the plane of the body, not downward toward the earth, as in the Terns. They procure their food largely by picking it from the surface of the water or land with their strongly hooked bills, not by plunging or darting, as do the Terns. Some of the species are true birds of prey, and feed on small mammals and the eggs and young of other birds. Gulls are better swimmers than Terns, and pass much time resting on the water. They nest in colonies, generally on the ground, sometimes on rocky ledges, and rarely in trees. KEY TO THE SPECIES. L Wing over 15-00. A. Back dark slaty black 47. Black-backed Gull. £. Back pearl-gray. a. Outer primaries marked with black. 51a. Am. Herring Gull. 51. Herring Gull. h. No black on primaries. b\ Bill under 2-00. h*. Primaries light pearl-gray, fading gradually into white at their tips 43. Iceland Gull. 68 GULLS. J8. Primaries pearl-gray, tipped with white, and with well-defined gray spaces on the outer webs of the two outer primaries and on both webs of the third and fourth primaries. 45. Kumlien's Gull. c^. Bill over 2-00 42. Glaucous Gull. C. Back grayish, whitish, or brownish, or mottled or spotted with gray- ish or brownish. a. Tail black or blackish, with or without irregular white markings. o». Wing over 17*50 ; depth of bill at nostril over -70. 47. Black-backed Gull (Im.). a^. Wing under 17"50 ; depth of bill at nostril under "70. 51a. Am. Hekring Gull (Im.). 51. Herring Gull (Im.). b. Tail white or whitish or grayish brown, with or without black markings. &i. Bill under 2-00 43. Iceland Gull (Im.). b^. Bill over 2-00 42. Glaucous Gull (Im.). II. Wing under 15-00. 1. Tail pure white. A. Head and throat slaty black. a. Outer primary black or mostly black, ai. Outer primary entirely black .... 58. Laughing Gull. a>. Inner half of inner webs of first primary white. 62. Sabine's Gull. 6. Outer primary mostly white. b^. Tip of first primary white 59. Franklin's Gull. b^. Tip of first primary black 60. Bonaparte's Gull. £. Head white, sometimes washed with pearl-gray. a. Wings white 39. Ivory Gull. b. Primaries with more or less black. bh Wing over 11-00. &2. Hind toe very small, without a nail ... 40. Kittiwake. b^. Hind toe normal, with a nail ... 54. Eing-billed Gull. c^. Wing under ll'OO 61. Boss's Gull. 2. Tail marked with black. A. Wing over 13"25. a. Primaries mostly white 89. Ivory Gull (Im.). b. Primaries black or mostly black . 54. Eing-billed Gull (Im.). B. Wing under 13-25. a. Hind toe very small, without a nail ... 40. Kittiwake (Im.). b. Hind toe normal, with a nail. R Tarsus 1-50 or over 58. Laughing Gull (Im.). cK Tarsus under 1-50. d*. Secondaries pearl color, tail square. 60. Bonaparte's Gull (Im.). c3. Secondaries mostly white, tail rounded. 61. Boss's Gull (Im.). 39> Gavia alba (Gunn.). Ivory Gull. Ad. — Entire plumage pure white; bill yellow, feet black. Im. — Similar to ad., but the wing and tail GULLS. 69 feathers, and sometimes the wing-coverts, with a black spot at their tips. L., 17-00; W., 13-25; T., 5-50; B., 1-35. Range. — "Arctic seas, south in winter on the Atlantic coast of North America to Labrador and Newfoundland, casually to New Brunswick, and on the Pacific side to Bering Sea " (A. 0. U.). Long Island, A. V., one record. Nest^i of grass, moss, and feathers on rocky cliffs. Eggs.^ light yellowish olive, marked with small blotches of brown and larger cloudings of lilac, 2-45 X 1-70 (Brewer). " The Ivory Gulls appear to spend most of the time amid the pack- ice, often at a long distance from land " (Chamberlain). Fig. 60.— First primaries of adult Gulls, seen from below : (a) Am. Herring Gull ; (6) Ring-billed Gull ; (c) Laughing Gull ; (d) Franklin^s Gull ; (e) Bona- parte's Gull. 40. Rissai trida/Ctyla; {Linn.). Kittiwake. Ad. in summer. — Head, neck, tail, and under part§ pure white ; back and wings pearl-gray ; outer web of first primary and 3*00 of the ends of first and second primaries black ; 70 GULLS. third to fifth primaries black at the ends and with white tips ; hind toe very small, a mere hnob without a iiail / bill yellowish, feet black. Ad. in winter. — Similar to above, but the top of the head and back of the neck washed with pearl-gray, and a dark spot about the eye. Im. — Similar to winter adults, but with the back of the neck, lesser wing-coverts, and part of the tertials black ; tail, except outer pair of feathers, with a black band at its tip ; four outer primaries black, except the inner half or more of their inner webs ; fifth ' apd sixth tipped with black and white ; bill black, feet yellowish. L., 16*00 ; W., 12-00; T., 4-50; B., 1-30. Memarhs. — This species can always be distinguished by the small size of the hind toe. Range. — Northern parts of the northern hemisphere ; in America, breed- ing commonly from the Magdalen Islands northward, and wintering as far soutli as the Great Lakes in the interior, and, on the coast, commonly to Long Island, and rarely to Virginia. Long Island, common T. V., a few v/inter, Nov. to Mch. liest., of grass, moss, and seaweed on the ledges of rocky cliffs. Eggs., three to four, varying from shades of buffy to grayish brown, distinctly and obscurely marked with chocolate, 2-25 x 1-60. " Our bird differs but little in its habits from other oceanic Gulls. Feeding chiefly on fish, but accepting any diet that drifts within range of its keen sight ; drinking salt water in preference to fresh ; breasting a gale with ease and grace — soaring in midair, skimming close above the crested waves, or swooping into the trough for a coveted morsel ; resting upon the rolling billows, and sleeping serenely as they roll, with head tucked snugly under a wing; wandering in loose flocks, and making comrades of other wanderers ; devoted to mate and young, and attached to all its kin — wherever seen or however employed, the Kittiwake is revealed as a typical gleaner of the sea. " The name is derived from the bird's singular cry, which resembles the syllables kitti-aa, hitti-aa " (Chamberlain). 42. Larus glaucus Brunn. Glaucous Gull ; Burgomasteb. Ad. in summer.— Back and wings pale pearl -gray ; primaries lightly tinted with pearl, inner half of their inner webs and tips fading gradually into white ; rest of the plumage pure white. Ad. in winter.— Similar to the above, but with the head and neck lightly streaked with grayish, /w.— Upper parts varying from ashy gray to white, the feathers widely barred, mottled, or streaked with bufty or ashy gray ; primaries varying from pale smoky gray to pure wliite ; tail ashy or brownish gray ; under parts varying from dirty whitish to ashy gray, generally darker on the belly, sometimes mottled with buffy or grayish. (Birds of the second year are said to be pure white.) L., 28-00 ; W., 17-10 ; B., 2-35 ; depth of B. at projection on the lower mandible, •75 to 1-00 ; Tar., 2-60. 7?a/?^^.— Northern parts of the northern hemisphere; in North America breeding commonly from southern Labrador northward and migrating south- ward to the Great Lakes and Long Island. GULLS. 71 Long Island, irregular W. V. Nest^ of grasses, moss, etc., on the ground. Eggs^ two to three, varying from pale olive-brown to grayish white, spotted or speckled with shades of chocolate, 3-10 x 2-20. Mr. Chamberlain remarks that this species combines " with some gull-like traits many of the coarse characteristics of both Falcon and Vulture." " Some observers have reported that flocks are at times very noisy, particularly when settling for the night ; but those I have met with in winter have been rather silent. Their cry is harsh and at times very loud ; it sounds something like the syllables Tcuk-lak. I have seen it written cut-leek.''^ 43* liarus leucopterus Faber. Iceland Gull. Eesembles the preceding species in color, but generally is much smaller ; specimens occur, however, which appear to be intermediate. W., 15-40-16-50; B., 1-65-1-90; depth of B. at projection on the lower mandible, •60--70 ; Tar., 2-05-2-20 (B., B., and R.). Range. — Arctic regions ; in North America migrates south in winter, rarely to Long Island. Long Island, A. V. in winter. Nest., of grasses, moss, etc., on the ground. Eggs., clay-color with numerous chocolate markings, 2-79 x 1-89. " The flight of the Iceland Gull, its feeding habits, and its manners generally, suggest a close affinity to the Herring Gull rather than to the Burgomaster " (Chamberlain). 45* liarus kumlieni Brewst. Kcmlien's Gull. Very similar in gen- eral color to the two preceding species, but diifers from them in the color of the primaries. These, instead of being uniformly pure white or but lightly tinted with gray, are marked with sharply defined spaces of ashy gray. The first primary is tipped with white and marked with ashy gray on the outer web and shaft part of the inner web ; the second primary is ashy gray on only part of the outer web ; the third and fourth primaries have smaller white tips and are marked with ashy gray near their ends on both webs. W., 15-50- 17"00 ; B., 1*65-1'88 ; depth of B. at projection on the lower mandible, -eO-ee ; Tar., 2-10-2-35 (Brewster). Range. — North Atlantic coast of North America; south in winter to Massachusetts. Nest., on " the shelving rocks of high cliiffs." " Mr. Kumlien found this bird breeding in considerable numbers near the head of Cumberland Gulf," but, owing to the difficulty of distinguishing immature specimens from those of L. leucopterus, its status on our coast in winter is not clearly determined. 47. Liarus marinus Linn. Great Black-backed Gull ; Saddle- back. Ad. in summer.— ^s^dk and wings slaty black ; wing-feathers tipped 72 GULLS. with white ; rest of plumage white ; tail sometimes mottled with dusky. Ad. in winter.— Similar to the above, but with the head and neck streaked with grayish, /in.— Head and nape whitish, streaked with grayish; back and wings, except primaries, brownish, the feathers margined and irregularly marked with pale bufty ; primaries dark brownish black, the inner ones with small white tips ; tail mottled with black and white ; under parts whitish, more or less streaked or barred with grayish. L., 29-00; W., 18-50 ; T., 8-00 ; B., 2-50. Range. — North x\tlantic ; breeds in North America from the Bay of Fundy northward ; migrates southward in winter regularly to the Great Lakes and Virginia, and less frequently to South Carolina. Long Island, common W. V., Sept. to Apl. I^est.^ of grasses, seaweed, etc., on the ground. Eggs., two to three, clay- color, brownish ashy or bufiy, rather evenly spotted with chocolate, 3-00 x 2-15. A more northern species than the Herring Gull. Mr. Brewster, who observed it in numbers in the island of Anticosti in July, writes : " The Black-backs are exceedingly noisy birds, especially when their young are in danger, as well as toward evening. ... I identified four distinct cries : a braying ha-ha-ha, a deep keow, keoiv, a short barking note, and a long-drawn groan, very loud and decidedly impressive. . . . At all times of the year, during the breeding season as well as in win- ter, it is by far the wariest bird that I have ever met." The Siberian Gull (50. Lams affinis) — a large Gull inhabiting north- ern Asia — is sometimes found in Greenland. 51a. Larus argentatus smithsonianus Cmies. American Her- ring Gull. Ad. in summer. — Back and wings deep pearl-gray ; first primary tipped with white, then crossed by a small black mark, then a much larger white one ; this is followed by a black space ; the black runs down the outer web of the feather to near its base and the shaft part of the inner web nearly as far, leaving the inner two thirds of the web below the black mark white (Fig. 60, a) ; the second primary is similar, but the second white mark is a round spot on the inner web and the black occupies a greater space near the tip, but does not continue so far down on the feather ; the third to sixth primaries are tipped with white, which is succeeded by a gradually dimin- ishing black band which extends farther down on the outer web of the feather than on the inner; the rest of the plumage is pure white. Ad. in. winter. — Similar to the above, but with the head and neck streaked or spotted with grayish. Im. — Upper parts ashy fuscous ; head and nape more or less streaked with pale huffy ; back and wings margined or irregularly marked with the same color ; primaries brownish black ; tail the same, sometimes tipped or margined with huffy; under parts ashy fuscous, sometimes lightly haired or streaked. L., 24-00 ; W., 17-50 ; T., 7-50 ; B., 2-30. Range. — " North America generally, breeding on the Atlantic coast from Maine northward " (A. O. U.). In the interior breeds from Minnesota north- ward ; winters from Nova Scotia to Cuba. GULLS. 73 Washington, common W. V., Oct. to Mch. Long Island, abundant W. V., Sept. to May, a few in summer. Sing Sing, common T. V., Sept. 21 to May 9; common W. V. when river is open. Cambridge, abundant W. V., Nov. to Apl. Nest^ of grasses, moss, seaweed, etc., on the ground, but, where the birds have been persistently robbed, it is more compactly built and placed in trees, sometimes fifty feet or more from the ground. £ggs^ two to three, grayish olive-brown, rarely whitish, spotted, blotched, and scrawled with distinct and obscure chocolate markings, 2-85 x 1-90. This species is by far the most abundant winter Gull along the coasts of the Middle and Southern States. Unlike the more pelagic species, it frequents our rivers and harbors, feeding about piers and wharves, and near the cities showing comparatively little fear of man. Sometimes one may see them " bedded " in flocks on the water, where they alight to rest. It is generally this species which follows in the wake of our coastwise vessels, sailing astern, when the wind is from ahead, without the slightest perceptible movement of the wings. (For an interesting life-history of the Herring Gull see Mackay, Auk, ix, 1892, pp. 221-228.) The European Herring Gull {51. Larus argentatus) differs from our species in being slightly smaller and in having the two white spaces at the tip of the first primary joined, the black spot, therefore, being broken or entirely absent. It is of rare occurrence on the Atlantic coast of North America. 54. Liarus dela^rarensis Ord. Ring-billed Gull. Ad. in sum- mer. — Back and wings pearl -gray ; first primary black, with a white spot near the tip, the base of the inner half of the inner web pearl-gray (Fig. 60, b) ; second primary black, the basal half of the inner web pearl-gray ; on the third to sixth primaries the black decreases rapidly, and each one is tipped with white ; rest of the plumage pure white ; bill greenish yellow with a black band in front of the nostril. Ad. in winter. — Similar to the above, but the head and nape streaked with grayish. Im. — Upper parts varying from ashy fuscous, the feathers margined with whitish, to pearl-gray, the feathers more or less mottled, spotted, or, on the head and neck, streaked with ashy fus- cous ; outer primaries black, tail varying from pearl-gray, more or less mottled with blackish, to white, and crossed near the end by a wide band of black ; basal half of the bill yellowish, end black. L., 18-50 ; W., 14-00 ; T., 6-00 ; B., 1-60. Range. — North America, more common in the interior ; breeds from southern Minnesota and Newfoundland northward ; winters from Long Island to Cuba and Mexico. Washington, very common T. V., Feb. to Apl. 5 ; Oct. to Nov. ; rare in winter. Long Island, common W. V., Aug. to Apl. Sing Sing, casual T. V. Nest., of grasses, etc., on the ground. Eggs^ two to three, clay-color, buflTy, or whitish, rather evenly spotted with chocolate, 2-30 x 1-65. 74 GULLS. The coast-inhabiting individuals of this species resemble the Her- ring Gull in habits, and are not easily identifiable from that species unless the two be seen together, when the smaller size of the Ring-bill is noticeable. In the interior, where the species is locally common, it feeds on insects, which it catches both on the ground and in the air. The Mew Gull {56. Larus canus) — a European species — has been found once in Labrador. 58. Liarus atricilla; Linn. Laughikg Gull ; Black-headed Gull„ (See Fig. 6, b.) Ad. in summer. — Back and wings dark pearl-gray ; primaries black, the inner ones with small white tips (Fig. 60, c) ; whole head and throat deep slate-color; rest of the plumage, including the nape, pure white, the breast sometimes suffused by a delicate peach-blossom tint; bill dark red- dish, brighter at the tip. Ad. in winter. — Eesembles the above, but has the head and throat white, the crown and sides of the head and sometimes the nape spotted or streaked with grayish. Im. — Upper parts light ashy fuscous, the feathers margined with whitish ; primaries black ; forehead and under parts white, sometimes washed in places with dusky ; tail dark pearl-gray, broadly tipped with black. L., 16-50 ; W., 12-50 ; T., 4-90 ; B., 1-65. Range. — Breeds from Texas and Florida to Maine; rare in the interior; winters from South Carolina to northern South America. Washington, irregular in fall. Long Island, rare S. E., irregular T. V., Apl. to Sept. Nest., of grasses, seaweed, etc., on the ground in grassy marshes. Eggs., three to five, varying from grayish olive-brown to greenish gray, spotted, blotched, and scrawled with chocolate, 2-15 x 1-55. " From the hoarse clatter of the Terns one could distinguish its long-drawn, clear note on a high key, sounding not unlike the more excited call-note of the Domestic Goose ; and every now and then it would give its prolonged, weird laughter, which has given rise to its common name. To one who has heard it, it might be imitated bj the syllables hah-ha-ha-ha-ha, hah-hah-hah, all of which are uttered on a high, clear tone, the last three or four syllables, and especially the last one, being drawn out with peculiar and prolonged effect, the whole sounding like the odd and excited laughter of an Indian squaw, and giving marked propriety to the name of the bird " (Langille). 59. Larus franklini Su\ and Rich.. Franklin's Gull. Ad. in sum- mer. — Whole head and throat sooty black, nape, sides of the neck, and under parts, except throat, white, generally suffused (in fresh specimens) with an exquisite peach-blossom tint ; tail white ; back and wings pearl-gray ; first primary white, the outer web black, except at the tip, the shaft part of the inner web grayish on the basal half (Fig. 60, d,) ; second primary white, with a black mark on the inner web and a hlack stripe on the outer web near the tip, the rest of the outer web and shaft part of the inner web pearl-gray ; third GULLS. Y5 to sixth, primaries tipped with white, then banded with gradually diminishing bars of black, which are succeeded by a whitish space, while the rest of the feather is pearl-gray ; bill dark coral-red. Jd. in winter. — '' Similar, but head and neck white, the occiput, with orbital and auricular regions, grayish dusky ; bill and feet dusky, the former tipped with orange reddish." Young, first plumage. — " Top and sides of the head (except forehead and lores), back and scapulars grayish brown, the longer scapulars bordered terminally with pale grayish buff; wing-coverts bluish gray tinged with grayish brown; seconda- ries dusky, edged with pale grayish blue and broadly tipped with white ; pri- maries dusky, the inner more plumbeous, all broadly tipped with white. Central portion of the rump uniform light bluish gray ; lateral and posterior portions of the rump, upper tail-coverts, entire lower parts, forehead, lores, and eyelids white. Bill brownish, dusky terminally ; feet brown (in skin)." W., 11-25; B., 1-30; depth through nostrils, -35 ; Tar., 1-60 (B., B., and E.). Hange. — " Breeds from southern Minneso^ and Dakota northward ; win- ters in the Southern States, and migrates principally west of the Mississippi River" (Cooke and Merriam). Not found on the Atlantic coast. Nest.1 of grasses, etc., in reedy or bush-grown marshes, ^^^s, one to three, varying from dark chocolate to creamy brown and sooty white, irregularly marked with small spots or large blotches of umber, and with obsolete lilac shell markings, 2'12 x 1-40 (Preston). This inland species reaches our western limits. An excellent ac- count of its habits, by J. W. Preston, will be found in the Ornitholo- gist and Oologist, xi, pp. 54, 55. 60. Larus Philadelphia; ( Ord). Bonaparte's Gtjll. Ad. in summer. — Whole head and throat dark, sooty slate-color; nape and sides of the neck, under parts, except throat, and tail white ; back and wings pearl -gray ; first primary, seen from above, white, the outer web and tip black (Fig. 60, e) ; second and third primaries white, tipped with black ; third to sixth primaries with small whitish tips, then large black spaces, the rest of the feather white or pearl-gray ; bill black. Ad. in winter. — Similar to the preceding, but head and throat white, the back and sides of the head washed with grayish. Im. — Top of the head and nape and a spot on the auriculars more or less washed with grayish ; back varying from brownish gray to pearl-gray ; lesser wing- coverts grayish brown, secondaries mostly pearl-gray ; first primary with the outer web, tip, and most of the shaft part of the inner web black; inner mar- gin of the inner web at the end of the feather narrowly bordered with black ; second and third primaries much the same, but with slightly more black at the ends ; tail white, banded with black and narrowly tipped with white ; under parts white. L., 14-00 ; W., 10-30 ; T., 4-00 ; B., 1-15. Range. — Breeds) from Manitoba northward; apparently no record of its breeding on the Atlantic coast ; winters southward to the Gulf of Mexico. Washington, common T. V., Mch. to May 5 ; Oct. and Nov. Long Island, common T. V., a few winter, Oct. to Apl. Sing Sing, rather rare T. V., Apl. and Oct. Nest^ of sticks lined with grasses, etc., on stumps, in bushes or trees four 76 TERNS. to twenty feet from the ground. Eggs^ three to four, grayish olive with a greenish tint and small clove-brown spots, chiefly about the larger end, 1-97 X 1-40 (B., B., and R.). " The flight is easy and graceful, each stroke of the long, pointed wings throwing the body up a little, while the bird peers this way and that in quest of its small prey. If it fly toward one, the white front of its wings, added to its white breast and neck, gives it the appear- ance of a white bird with a black head. It often has a noticeable way of turning partly around or cutting backward as it drops in securing some object detected on or near the surface of the water, thus making it appear decidedly lithe and agile on the wing " (Langille). The Little Gull {GO-1. Larus minutus)^ a European species, has beer, taken only once in America — on Long Island, in September, 1887 (Dutcher Auk, V, 1888, p. 171). Eoss's Gull {61. Rhodostethia rosea)., an arctic species, is known from Point Barrow, Alaska ; Melville Peninsula ; England, Faroes, and Heligoland : but has been found in numbers only at the first-mentioned locality. (See Murdoch, Rep. of the Exp. to Point Barrow, p. 123.) 62* Xema saibinii {Sab.). Sabine's Gull. Ad. in summer.— ^ho\Q head and throat slate-color, bordered posteriorly by black ; back and sides of the neck, under parts, except throat, and slightly forTced tail pure white ; back and wings dark pearl-gray ; secondaries tipped with white ; first primary black, the inner half of the inner web, except at the end, white ; second to fourth primaries similar, but tipped with white ; bill black, the end yellow. Ad. in winter. — " Similar to the summer plumage, but the head and neck white, except occiput, nape, and auricular region, which are dull, dusky plumbeous" (B., B., and R.). Im. — Forehead and lores white, rest of the upper parts ashy brown, the feathers slightly tipped with whitish ; tail white, broadly tipped with blackish ; under parts white. L., 14-00 ; W., 10-50 ; T., 4-50; B., 95. Range. — Arctic regions, in winter migrating only a short distance south- ward and rarely reaching the United States. Long Island, A. V., one record. Nest., of grasses, etc., on the ground. Eggs., two to five, deep olive (vary- ing in intensity, however), rather indistinctly spotted or blotched with brown. 1-78 X 1-26 (Ridgw.). This boreal species is of rare occurrence in the northern United States in the winter. Suhfamily Sternince. Terns. Terns are littoral ; never, I believe, pelagic. They inhabit the shores of bodies of both fresh and salt water, but are more abundant on the seacoast than in the interior. Their principal characters, as compared with the Grulls, are mentioned under the subfamily Larince. Their TERNS. 77 power of flight has deservedly won for them the name of Sea Swal- lows. They capture their prey of small fish by plunging into the water, frequently disappearing and swimming a few feet beneath the surface. They nest in colonies. The nest is usually on the ground. Q-enerally it is simply a slight depression in the sand, shells, or pebbles of a beach, or in the near-by seaweed, moss, or grasses. Sometimes it is scantily lined with bits of grass, seaweed, moss, etc., but these are frequently wanting. KEY TO THE SPECIES. I. Wing under 13-00. 1. Entire top of the head jet-black. A. Bill black, or mostly black. a. Feet black or blackish. ai. Under parts black or blackish 77. Black Tern. a^. Under parts white ; bill black .... 63. Gull-billed Tern. a3. Under parts white; bill black, broadly tipped with yellow. 67. Cabot's Tern. b. Feet yellowish or orange. Ji. Outer tail-feathers pure white ; outer web of first primary black. 72. KosEATE Tern. 5'. Inner web of outer tail-feather gray ; outer web of first primary gray 69. Forster's Tern. B. Bill mostly or entirely yellowish, reddish, brownish, or orange. a. Under parts tinged with grayish ; outer web of outer tail-feather gray ; inner web white. ai. Bill broadly tipped with blackish ; tarsus generally over -70. 70. Common Tern. o3. Bill without a distinct black tip ; tarsus generally under -70. 71. Arctic Tern. b. Under parts pure white ; inner web of outer tail-feather gray ; outer web white 69. Forster's Tern. 2. Forehead white; lores black; crown jet-black. J. Wing under 8-00; back pearl -gray . 74. Least Tern. £. Wing over 8*00 ; back grayish brown or blackish. a. Back grayish brown ; a white stripe from the forehead over the eye. 76. Bridled Tern. b. Back blackish ; white of forehead not reaching over the eye. 75. Sooty Tern. 3. Forehead or crown white or grayish, sometimes speckled with black; lores not entirely black. A. Wing pearl-gray, over 9-00. a. Outer tail-feather entirely pure white. fli. Bill over 1-75, tipped with yellowish ... 67. Cabot's Tern. a". Bill under 1-75, without a yellow tip . 72. Eoseate Tern (Im.). b. Outer tail-feather not pure white. b^. Inner web of outer tail-feather darker than outer web ; outer web 78 TERNS. mostly or entirely white ; a black space generally on the side of the head inclosing the eye 69. Forster's Tern (Im.). 52. Outer web of outer tail-feather darker than inner web; tarsus over "70 70. Common Tern (Im.). b^. Outer web of outer tail-feather darker than inner web ; tarsus under '70 71. Arctic Tern (Im.)„ £. "Wing blackish, over 9*00. a. Under parts blackish 75. Sooty Tern (Im.). b. Under parts white 76. Bridled Tern (Im.). 4. Crown silvery gray ; lores black ; rest of plumage sooty . 79. Noddy. C. Wing under 9-00 77. Black Tern (Im.). II. Wing over 13-00. A. Wing 15-00 or over ; outer primary mostly gray. 64. Caspian Tern. £. Wing under 15-00 ; inner half of inner web of first primary white. 65. KoYAL Tern. Fig. 61.— First primaries of adult Terns, seen from below, (a) Caspian Tern ; (6) Royal Tern ; (c) Common Tern ; (d) Arctic Tern ; (e) Roseat* Tern. 63* Gelochelidon nilotica Hasselq. Gull-billed Tern; Marsh Tern. Ad. in summer. — Top of the head and nape black; back and wings pale pearl-gray; outer web of outer primaries silvery; tip and shaft part of the inner web darker; inner part of the inner web, except for a narrow mar- TERNS. 79 gin at the end of the feather, white ; tail white, slightly forked, the middle feathers grayish ; under parts white ; bill and feet black, the former rather short and stout. Ad. in winter. — Similar to the above, but top of the head white, auriculars grayish, and a space in front of the eye blackish. L., 14-50 ; W., 12-00; T., 5-50; B., 1-40; depth of B. at base, -50. Range. — Cosmopolitan ; in North America breeds along the Gulf coast from Mexico to Florida, and on the Atlantic coast north to Virginia, straying northward rarely to Maine. Washington, casual. Long Island, A. V. in summer. Eggs., three to Ave, rather uniform buffy white, with numerous distinct and obscure chocolate markings, 1-80 x 1-30. This is a common species on the coast of our Southern States. It is said to prefer insects, which it catches on the wing, to fish. Its voice is harsh and easily distinguishable from that of other Terns, while its heavy black bill will also serve to identify it. 64. Sterna tsche^ava Lepech. Caspian Tern. Ad. in spring. — Top and back of the head shining black, the feathers lengthened to form a crest ; back of the neck, under parts, and tail white ; back and wings pearl- gray ; primaries dark slaty, silvery on the outer web (Fig. 61, a) ; bill coral- red, darker near the tip ; feet black. Ad. after the breeding season and in winter. — Similar to the above, but top of the head streaked with black. Im. — Top of head streaked with black and white ; back of neck and under parts white ; back, wing-coverts, and tertials pearl-gray, spotted or barred with brownish black ; primaries dark slaty, silvery on the outer web ; tail pearl- gray, more or less barred with brownish black ; bill orange-red ; feet black- ish brown. L., 21-00; W., 16-20; T., 6-00; B., 2-80. Range. — A cosmopolitan species of irregular distribution ; in North Amer- ica, breeds locally from Texas to Great Slave Lake ; migrates through the in- terior and on the coast, and apparently does not winter within our limits. Long Island, uncommon T. V., Aug. and Sept. Eggs., two to three, grayish white or buffy white, with rather small, dis- tinct, and obscure chocolate markings, 2-70 x 1-83. This large Tern of local distribution is to be known by its size and red bill. Unless the two were seen together, however, I do not believe it could with certainty be distinguished in life from the Royal Tern. 65. Sterna maxima Bodd. Eoyal Tern. Ad. in spring. — Top and back of the head shining black, the feathers lengthened to form a crest ; back of the neck, under parts, and tail white ; back and wings pearl-gray ; inner web of primaries, except at the tip, white ; tip, outer web, and shaft part of inner web dark, silvery slate-color (Fig. 61, b). Ad. after the breeding season and in winter. — Similar to the above, but top of the head streaked with black and white. Im. — Eesembling the young of S. tschegrava., but smaller and with the inner half of the inner web of the primaries white. L., 19-00; W., 14-00 ; T., 7-00 ; B., 2-50. Range. — Breeding in North America along the Gulf coast from Texas to 80 TERNS. Florida, and on the Atlantic coast to Virginia ; occasionally wanders north- ward to the Great Lakes and Massachusetts. Long Island, A. V. in summer. Eggs^ one to four, more pointed than those of the preceding, grayish white, with rather small, distinct, and obscure chocolate markings, 2*65 x 1-75. A common species on our southern coasts. During the winter it is about the only Tern one sees in Florida waters. It is a strong, active bird on the wing, and a reckless, dashing diver, frequently dis- appearing beneath the surface in catching its prey. The slow-flying Pelicans are at its mercy, and it often deftly robs them of their well- earned gains. Both this species and the preceding, and indeed all the Terns, are to be known from the Gulls by the very different manner in which they hold their bills. A Tern points its bill directly downward, and looks, as Coues says, like a big mosquito, while a Gull's bill points for- ward in the plane of its body. 67. Sterna sandvicensis acuflavida {Cabot). Cabot's Tern; Sakdwich Tern. Ad. in spring. — Whole top of the head and crest black ; back and wings light pearl-gray ; primaries silvery gray ; the shaft part of the inner web white except at the tip ; rest of the plumage white ; feet and bill black, the latter with a conspicuous yellowish tip. Ad. after the breeding season and in winter. — Similar to the above, but crown white, sometimes spotted with black ; back of the head and crest more or less streaked with white. Im. — Similar to the preceding, but back spotted with blackish ; tail slaty gray and much shorter ; bill slightly if at all tipped with yellow. L., 16-00; W., 10-50; T., 5-50; B., 2-05. ^a72-^e.— Tropical America, breeding on the Gulf coast from Texas to Florida, and on the Atlantic coast to South Carolina ; accidental in Massa- chusetts. Eggs^ two to three, huffy white, spotted, speckled, and scrawled with dis- tinct and obscure chocolate markings, 2-05 x 1*40. This is an abundant summer resident on the coasts of southern Florida, and in winter is common as far north as Key West. It is said by Audubon to somewhat resemble the Marsh Tern on the wing, and to have a loud, sharp, grating voice, which can be heard half a mile or more. I have never seen it alive, but I believe its yellow-tipped, black bill would enable one to identify it at some dis- tance. Trudeatj's Tern {68. Sterna trudeaui) is a South American species which has been taken once on Long Island and once on the New Jersey coast. 69. Sterna forsteri Nutt. Forster's Tern. Ad. in summer. — Whole top of the head black ; back and wings pearl-gray ; inner border of inner web of the outer primaries white, except at the tip ; rump and entire TERNB. 81 under parts white ; tail light pearl-gray, the outer feather darker toward the end, where the inner web is always darlcer than the outer ; bill dull orange, the end third blackish ; feet orange. Ad. in winter. — Similar to the above, but head white, more or less washed with grayish or spotted with black, a large black spot on the side of the head inclosing the eye ; bill mostly black ; feet brownish. Im. — Similar to the preceding, but the back and wings more or less mottled or washed with light brownish, and the tail much shorter. L., 15-00 ; W., 10-25 ; T., 7-00 ; Tar., 90 ; B., 1-50. Range. — Of more or less general distribution throughout North America, breeding in the east locally from Texas northward through the Mississippi Valley to St. Clair Flats and Manitoba — recorded from Lake Mistassini — ap- parently not breeding on the Atlantic coast north of Virginia, but wandering irregularly to Massachusetts. Washington, rare and irregular T. V. Long Island, rare T. V. in fall. Kest.^ of seaweed, flags, or weeds on a slight elevation in grassy marshes. Eggs., three, very variable, olive-gray, or olive brownish ashy, more rarely whitish or buff", heavily marked with chocolate, 1-80 x 1-30. Dr. Brewer, writing of Mr. Ridgway's experience with this species on Cobb's Island, Virginia, where it was found breeding in numbers, says : " It was only less abundant than the Anglica [= nilotica], and quite as numerous as the hirundo, frequenting especially grassy marshes, in which it nests. He found it pre-eminently a marsh Tern. It nested in company with, or in close proximity to, colonies of the Black-headed Gull. It could be readily distinguished from the Com- mon Tern, which it closely resembles when on the wing, by its grating monotonous note, which very closely resembles one frequently uttered by the Loggerhead Shrike" (B. B., and R.). VO. Sterna himndo Linn. Common Tern ; Wilson's Teen ; Sea Swallow (see Fig. 7). Ad. in summer. — Whole top of the head black ; back and wings pearl-gray ; inner border of inner web of outer primaries white, except at the tip (Fig. 61, c) ; throat white ; breast and belly pale pearl-gray ; tail white, the outer webs of the outer feathers gray or pearl-gray ; bill red at the base, the end third black ; feet orange-red. Ad. in winter. — Similar to the above, but front part of the head and under parts white: bill mostly black. Im. — Similar to the preceding, but the back more or less washed or mottled with light brownish ; lesser wing-coverts slaty gray, and tail much shorter. L., 15-00 ; W., 10-25; T., 5-50 ; Tar., -75 ; B., 1-40. Remarks. — The Common Tern is closely related to Forster's Tern and also to the Arctic Tern. From the former it is to be distinguished by the color of the long outer tail-feathers. In the Common Tern the outer web of these feathers Is always darker than the inner web; in Forster's Tej-n the inner web is always darker than the outer one. Adult Common Terns have the breast and belly washed wMh. pearl-gray., while in Forster's Tern these parts are pure white. The Common Tern differs from the Arctic Tern in having the bill tipped 7 82 TERNS. with black instead of being entirely red ; in having longer tarsi, and in the color of the primaries. Range. — ^" Greater part of the northern hemisphere and Africa; in North America chiefly confined to the eastern province " (A. O. U,). Breeds locally both on the coast and in the interior from the Gulf States to the Barren Grounds and Greenland. Washington, irregular T. V., sometimes common. Long Island, common S. E., May through Sept. Sing Sing, casual in late summer. Cambridge^ casual in Sept. Eggs., three to four, not distinguishable with certainty from those ot the preceding, but averaging paler and greener, and less heavily marked, 1-60 X 1-20. It is five years since I visited the breeding grounds of the colony of Common Terns on Gull Island, L. I., but 1 can close my eyes and still feel the air vibrate with the harsh, half-threatening, half-pleading chorus of nearly two thousand excited voices. There is a dull, heavy, hopeless monotone, broken only by the scream of some half-maddened bird who fearlessly darts downward to protect its nest at my feet. A shot is fired ; there is a moment of awe-struck silence, then, with re- newed violence, the screaming is resumed. Pandemonium reigns: /ea)*r, terrrr, swish I the air is full of darting, diving, crying Terns. It was useless to attempt to secrete myself. At no time during my stay did the outcry cease or hovering flock disperse. This little, barren, uninhabited, sandy island — only a few acres in extent — and Muskeget Island, off the Massachusetts coast, are the only localities, from New Jersey to Maine, where the once abundant Common Tern, or Sea Swallow, can be found in any numbers. What an illus- tration of the results of man's greed and woman's thoughtlessness ! The fickle fashion which indorsed the poor Tern's spotless plumage has long since found new favorites, and the sadly mangled pearl-gray feathers have gone to graves in the ash-heap. Now it is the Egret's turn. Even the protection afforded by an insular home was not sufficient. Feather hunters, egg robbers, and self-styled oologists came in boats to drive the Sea Swallows from their last resort ; but the law inter- fered, and both Gull and Muskeget Islands now have a paid keeper whose duty it is to protect the Terns, 71. Sterna paradissea Brunn. Arctic Tern. — Very similar in color to the Common Tern, from which it diff'ers in having less gray on the shaft part of the inner M-eb of the outer primaries (Fig. 61, <^) ; in having the tail somewhat longer, the tarsi and bill shorter, while the latter, in the adult, is generally without a black tip. L., 15-50 ; W., 10-25 ; T., 7-50 ; Tar., -65 ; B., 1-30. Bange. — " Northern hemisphere ; in North America, breeding from Massa TERNS, 83 chusetts to the arctic regions, and wintering southward to Virginia and Cali- fornia" (A. O. U.). Long Island, rare in summer. Eggs^ three to four, not distinguishable with certainty from those of the preceding, 1-62 x 1-15. Comparing the notes of this bird with those of the Common Tern, Mr. Brewster writes : " Their notes are similar, but several of them can be distinguished. The usual cry of S. macrura [= paradiscea] cor- responds to the tearr of S. hirundo, but is shriller, ending in a rising inflection, and sounding very like the squeal of a pig. The bird also has a short, harsh note similar to that of Forster's Tern. At any dis- tance within fair gun-range I could usually separate it from Wilson's [= Common] Tern by its longer tail, and by the uniform and deeper color of the bill. In flight and habits the two seemed to me identical " (Birds Observed on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., xxii, 1883, p. 403). "72. Sterna douga/lli Montag. Koseate Tern. Ad. in summer. — Top of head black; back and wings pearl-gray; outer web of outer pri- maries and shaft part of the inner web slaty black (Fig. 61, 6) ; under parts white, generally delicately tinted with pinkish; tail pure white; bill black, the base reddish ; feet red. Ad. in wifiter. — Similar to the above, but front of the head white, more or less streaked or spotted with black ; under parts pure white. Im.., first plumage. — " Pileum and nape pale buffy grayish, finely mottled or sprinkled with darker, and streaked, especially on the crown, with dusky ; orbital and auricular regions dusky blackish ; remainder of the head, extreme lower part of the nape, and entire lower parts white, the nape, and sometimes the breast, finely mottled with buffy gray ; back, scapulars, wing- coverts, rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail pale pearl-blue, the back and scapu- lars overlaid with pale buff irregularly mottled with dusky, each feather with a submarginal dusky V-shaped mark ; primary coverts and primaries dark bluish-gray edged with paler, the inner webs of the latter broadly edged with white ; tail-feathers marked near their ends much like the longer scapulars, their outer webs rather dark grayish ; bill brownish dusky ; feet dusky." L., 15-50; W., 9-50; T., 7-50; B., 1-50 (B., B., and K.). Range. — Temperate and tropical regions ; in America apparently confined to the Atlantic coast, breeding from Florida northward to Maine ; compara- tively rare north of southern New Jersey ; winters south of the United States. Long Island, uncommon but regular S. E., May through Sept. Eggs.^ three, not distinguishable with certainty from those of S.forsteri or S. Mrttndo, but averaging paler and less heavily marked, 1-65 x 1-20. This species is found associated with colonies of Common Terns, apparently making its nest among theirs. It is a less excitable, wilder bird than Mru7ido, and its single harsh note, cack, may be distinctly heard above the uproar of Common Terns, as it hovers somewhat in 84 TERNS. the background. Its white breast and long outer tail-feathers also aid in distinguishing it. . 74. Sterna antillamm (Less.). Least Tekn. Ad. in summer.— Forehead white, Zo/'^s and crown black; back, tail, and wings pearl-gray; outer M'^eb of outer primaries and shaft part of the inner web slaty black ; under parts white; bill yellow, generally tipped with black; feet orange. Ad. in winter. — Top of head white, more or less spotted with black ; back of head black ; bill blackish. I?n. — Upper parts and tail at the end mottled with blackish and huffy, primaries as in the adult, under parts white, bill blackish. L., 9-00 ; W., 6-90 ; T., 3-50 ; B., 1-10. Range. — Northern South America northward to California, Dakota, and Massachusetts, rarely to Labrador ; breeds locally throughout its range, and winters south of the United States. Washington, casual T. V. Long Island, rare in summer. Eggs., three to four, buify white, speckled or spotted with chocolate, 1-25 X -90. This, the smallest of our Terns, resembles its congeners in habits, though it is said to add insects to its usual fare of fish. Its voice is described as " a sharp squeak, much like the cry of a very young pig following its mother." TS. Sterna fuliginosa Gmel. Sooty Teen. Ad. — Forehead and a line reaching to the eye white, lores and rest of the head black ; nape, back, and wings brownish black, nearly as dark as the head ; outer tail-feathers white, brownish on the end half of the inner web ; rest of tail-feathers of the same color as the back ; under parts white ; bill and feet black, /m., first flumage. — Sooty slate-color ; linings of the wings and under tail-coverts whitish ; wing-coverts, scapulars, upper tail-coverts, and tail-feathers more or less tipped with white. L., 17-00 : W., 11-50 ; T., 7-25 ; B., 1-75. Mange. — Tropical and siibtropical regions ; in North America breeds rarely as far north as North Carolina; occasionally wanders northward to Maine; winters south of the United States. Long Island, A. V. in summer. Eggs., one to three, whitish or buff", speckled or spotted with chocolate, 2-00 X 1-45. A regular summer visitant to our southern coasts and occasionally wandering northward. It breeds in colonies in little-frequented islands in the West Indies, and may be seen fishing in flocks, which hover low over the water. The Bridled Tern (76. Sterna anmtTietus)., o. tropical species, has been taken once in Florida, but may prove to be a regular summer visitant to some of the Florida keys. 77. Hydrochelidon nigra surinamensis ( Gmel.). Black Tern, Ad. in summer. — Whole head and under parts, except under tail-coverts, black; back, wings, and tail slate-color; bill and feet black. Ad. in winter. SKIMMERS. 85 .—Forehead, nape, and under parts white : back of the head black mixed with white ; back, wings, and tail desp pearl-gray. Im. — Similar to the pre- ceding, but upper parts more or less washed and tipped with brownish ; sides washed with grayish. L., 10-00 ; W„, 8-30 ; T., 3-30 ; B., 1-00. Eange. — Temperate and tropical America; breeds in the interior from Kansas and Illinois to Alaska; not known to breed on the Atlantic coast, where it is found from Prince Edward's Island southward as an irregular migrant, occurring at times in considerable numbers. Washington, irregular T. V., Sept. Long Island, irregular T. V. in vary- ing numbers, Aug. and Sept. Sing Sing, A. V., Sept. Kest^ of reeds, grasses, etc., rather closely woven, in grassy marshes or vegetation floating in a slough, Egcjs^ two to three, grayish olive-brown, rarely whitish, heavily spotted and blotched with chocolate markings, fre- quently confluent about the larger end, 1-35 x -98. This is an abundant species at favorable localities in the interior. " It seems not to subsist on fish at all, but chiefly on dragon flies and various aquatic insects. It finds both its home and its food in the marshes usually, but its powers of flight are so great that it may also be seen far out on the dry open plains, scouring the country for food at a distance of miles from its nesting ground. . . . " The bird may frequently be seen dashing about in a zigzag man- ner so swiftly, the eye can ofl'er no explanation of its motive until, on the resumption of its ordinary flight, a large dragon fly is seen hang- ing from its bill. . . ." (Thompson). The White-winged Black Tern {78. Hydrochelidon leucoptera)., an Old World species, has been taken once in Wisconsin, and is recorded as " seen " on a lake near Winnipeg. 79. Anous stoMdus (Z*«?i.). Noddy. Ad. — Top of the head silvery whitish, lores blacti;; rest of the plumage dark sooty brown ; tail rounded, the central tail-feathers longest. Imi. — Similar, but the top of the head is like the rest of the plumage and the silvery whitish appears as a line from the bill to above the eye. L., 15-00 ; W., 10-25 ; T., 5-90 ; B., 1-70. Range. — " Tropical and subtropical regions ; in America, from Brazil and Chili north to the Gulf and South Atlantic States" (A. 0. U.). Nest., of sticks, grasses, etc., on a mangrove bush, in a tree, sometimes on the beach or in crevices of rocks. Egg., pale butty white, sparingly marked with rufous, 2-05 x 1-35. This is a summer visitant to our South Atlantic and Gulf coasts, and nests on some of the Florida keys. Family Rynchopid^. Skimmers. The three closely allied species constituting this small but distinct family are found in the warmer parts of the earth. Only one species 86 ALBATROSSES. inhabits the western hemisphere. Skimmers are unique both in the form of the bill and in their manner of feeding. Opening the mouth, the bladelike lower mandible is dropped just beneath the surface of the water ; then, flying rapidly, they may be said to literally " plow the main " in search of their food of small aquatic animals. 80. Rynchops nigra Linn. Black Skimmer; Scissoe-bill (see Fig. 8). Ad. — Forehead, sides of the head, under parts, and tips of the sec- ondaries white ; upper parts and wings black ; outer tail-feathers white, inner ones more or less brownish. L., 18-00 ; W., 14-50 ; T., 4 75 ; B., 2-60. Range. — Coasts of the warmer parts of America, breeding regularly as far north as southern New Jersey, and, after the breeding season, occasionally wandering northward as far as the Bay of Fundy. Washington, A. V. Long Island, occasional in summer. A(^s^, a slight depression in the sand or shells of a beach. Eggs., three to four, white or buffy white, heavily blotched with chocolate, 1-80 x 1*35. A not uncommon species on our southern coasts, resembling other members of this family in habits. ORDER TUBINARES. TUBE-NOSED SWIMMERS. Family DioMEDEiDiE. Albatrosses. The Albatrosses, numbering eight or ten species, are confined chiefly to the seas of the southern hemisphere. They are eminently pelagic birds, possessed of untiring powers of flight. Four species visit our Pacific coast, but on the Atlantic coast of North America Albatrosses are almost unknown, and there are but few records of their occurrence. The Wandering Albatross (80-1. Dioraedea exulans)., the largest of all sea birds, with an expanse of wing which measures from twelve to fourteen feet, inhabits antarctic seas, but sometimes wanders northward, and is said to have been seen in Tampa Bay, Florida. The Yellow-nosed Albatross {8S. Thalassogeron culminatus) is also a southern species which is said to have been taken once in Quebec (Chamber- lain, NuttalPs Manual, 2d ed., ii, p. 277). Family Procellariid^. Shearwaters and Petrels. The seventy known species of Petrels are distributed over the seas of the world. Some thirty species have been found in North America, of which seven occur regularly on our Atlantic coast. Like their large relatives, the Albatrosses, they are strictly pelagic, and visit the land only to nest. The strong, swift flig-ht of Shearwaters, and the graceful movements of the smaller " Mother Carey's Chickens," are familiar sights to those who go " down to the sea in ships." SHEARWATERS AND PETRELS. 87 KEY TO THE SPECIES, I. Wing over 10-50. A. U nder parts dusky 94. Sooty Shearwateb. £. Under parts white. a. Bill under 1-50 98. Black-capped Petrel. b. Bill over 1-50. b^. Under tail-coverts white 88. Cory's Shearwater. J'. Under tail-coverts grayish brown . . 89. Greater Shearwater. [I. Wing under 10-50. A. Wing over 7-25. a. Depth of bill at base over -50. . 86. Fulmar. 86a. Lesser Fulmar. b. Depth of bill at base under -50. b^. Upper parts bluish gray 99. Scaled Petrel. b^. Upper parts sooty black 92. Audubon's Shearwater. B. Wing under 7-25. a. Upper tail-coverts more or less white. a^. Tail forked 106. Leach's Petrel. b^. Tail square. 5'. Webs of feet marked with yellow ; upper tail-coverts not tipped with black 109. Wilson's Petrel. b^. Webs of feet without yellow ; tail-coverts tipped with black. 104. Stormy Petrel. b. Upper tail-coverts grayish or brownish. b^. Entire under parts brownish 101. Bulwer's Petrel. b^. Breast grayish 110. White-bellied Petrel. ¥. Entire under parts white 111. White-faced Petrel. 86. Fulmarus glacialis (Linn.). Fulmar; Noddy (see Fig. 9, b). Light phase. — Head, neck, and under parts white or whitish ; back, wings, and tail slaty gray. Darlc jyhase. — Entire plumage nearly uniform dark, slaty gray. L., 19-00 ; W., 13-04 ; B., 1-50 ; depth of B. at base, -75 (Pddgw.). Range. — North Atlantic ; south in winter on the American coast to Massa- chusetts ; accidental in northern New Jersey. Nest., on the ledges of rocky cliffs. Egg., one, dull white, 2-85 x 2-01. " The Fulmar is a constant attendant on whalers, sealers, etc. — who know it as the ' Mollimoke ' — in order to obtain fatty substances and animal offal ; but I never saw it take any while on the wing, and it always settles on the water to feed, like an Albatross. The pinions are often flapped slowly in an owl-like manner, but in scudding they are held very straight — a peculiarity by which it may easily be distin- guished from a Gull at a distance " (Saunders). 86ai. F. g. minor Kjaerb. Lesser Fulmar; Noddy. "Similar in color to F. glacialis, but much smaller. W., 11-80-12-00; B., 1-30-1-38; depth of B. at base, •60--70." Range. — " North Atlantic, south on American side to coast of New Eng- land " (kidgw.). 88 SHEARWATERS AND PETRELS. 88. Puffinus borealis Cory. Cory's Sheabwater. .4t^.— Upper parts ashy fuscous, wings and tail darker; sides of head and neck slightly lighter ; under parts white, sometimes washed with grayish on the breast ; under wing-coverts and under tail-coverts white^ the latter more or less mot- tled with grayish ; bill yellowish. L., 21-00 ; W., 14-00 ; Tar., 2-20 ; B., 2-10. Range. — Known as yet only oif the Atlantic coast from Massachusetts to Long Island. Long Island, uncommon from Aug. to Oct. Nest and etjgs unknown. Cory's Shearwater has been found as a not uncommon summer visitant off the coast of Massachusetts, but its range is unknown. 89. Puffinus major Faber. Greater Shearwater ; Hagdon. Ad. — Upper parts fuscous, wings and tail slightly darker ; longer upper tail- coverts tipped with whitish ; under parts white ; belly more or less ashy gray ; under tail-coverts ashy gray ; bill blackish. L., 20-00 ; W., 12-25 ; Tar., 2-20; B., 1-85. i?a«^e.—" Atlantic Ocean, south to Cape Horn and Cape of Good Hope" (A. 0. U.) ; north to Greenland. Long Island, uncommon in summer. Nest and eggs unknown. " The long, narrow wings are set stiffly at right angles with the body, and the bird frequently glides half a mile at a time without moving them perceptibly. It usually follows a direct course, and in- variably skims close over the waves. I know of no other sea bird whose movements are as easy and graceful. Indeed, at times, espe- cially during a gale, its evolutions will compare in grace and spirit with those of the Mississippi or Swallow-tailed Kites " (Brewster). Manx's Shearwater {90. Puffinus puffinus) resembles the next in color, but is larger. W., 8-50-9-25 ; B., 1-35-1-40 ; depth of B. through base, •40--45 ; Tar., 1-70-1-80 " (B., B., and K.). It is a European species of exceedingly rare or accidental occurrence on the North Atlantic coast. 92. Puffinus auduboni Finsch. Audubon's Shearwater. Ad. — Upper parts, wings, and tail dark, sooty, brownish black ; under parts white ; sides of the breast grayish ; a patch on the flanks and under tail-coverts sooty brownish black ; inner side of tarsi yellowish, outer brownish ; bill blackish. L., 12-00; W., 8-00; Tar., 1-60; B., 1-20. Range. — Warmer parts of the Atlantic, north rarely to Long Island ; breeds in the Antilles and Bahamas, but not, so far as known, on our coasts. Long Island, A. V., one record. Nest.^ of a few bits of sticks in a hole in the rocks. Egg^ one, chalky white, 2-05 x 1-40. An abundant West Indian species which breeds in the Bahamas md Antilles, and is doubtless not uncommon off our southern coasts. SHEARWATERS AND PETRELS. 89 Its flight, low over the water, is strong and swift, five or six rapid wing-beats being followed by a short sail. 94. PuflBnus stricklandi Bidgw. Sooty Shearwater; Black Hagdon. Ad. — Upper parts, wings, and tail dark, sooty, brownish black ; under parts somewhat grayer ; bill blackish. L., 17*00; VV., 12-00; Tar., 2-10; B., 1-65. Range. — As far as known. North Atlantic ; south on the American coast to South Carolina. Long Island, uncommon in summer. Nest and eggs unknown. " Its flight and habits seem to be identical with those of major, but its uniform dark coloring gives it a very different appearance. At a distance it looks as black as a Crow " (Brewster). The Black-capped Petrel {98. jEstrelata hasitata) is a southern species, which has been found on Long Island, in Florida, West Virginia, and Ver- mont. It bears a general resemblance to Puffinus major., but is much smaller and has the upper and under tail-coverts white. The Scaled Petrel {99. vEstrelata scalaris) is known from one individual which had wandered to western New York. Its true home has not been dis- covered, but is doubtless in the Antarctic Ocean. Bulwer's Petrel {101. Bulweria bulweri) inhabits the eastern Atlanti(? Ocean, including the coasts of Europe and Africa, and is of accidental occur- rence in Greenland. 104. Procellaria pelagica Linn. Stormy Petrel. ^<^.— Upper parts, wings, and tail sooty black ; under parts slightly browner ; upper tail- coverts white, the longer ones broadly tipped with hlach ; under tail-coverts mixed with whitish ; bill and feet black. L., 5*50 ; W., 4-80 ; T., 2-50 ; B., -45. Range. — '' Atlantic Ocean, south on the American side to the Newfound- land Banks, west coast of Africa and coast of Europe " (A. O. U.). Nest.^ of a few bits of sticks and grasses in a burrow in the ground or be- neath a rock. Egg, one, dull white, sometimes with a wreath of minute or obscure markings at the larger end, 1*10 x -80. This is the common Stormy Petrel of the east side of the Atlantic. It nests in numbers on the small islands along the coast of Great Britain, but is only a transient visitant in our waters. It resembles the two following species in habits. 106. Oceanodroma leucorhoa ( Vieill.). Leach's Petrel. Ad. —Upper parts, wings, and tail sooty brown ; under parts slightly browner ; wing-coverts grayish brown; longer upper tail-coverts white, shorter ones mixed with sooty brownish ; tail forked^ outer feathers more than -50 longer than middle pair ; bill and feet black. L., 8*00 ; W., 6-20 ; T., 3-50 ; B., -62. Range.— '•'• North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans ; south on the coast of the United States to Virginia and California ; breeds from Maine and the Hebrides northward on the coasts of the Atlantic " (A. 0. U.). 90 SHEARWATERS AND PETRELS. Washington, A. V., several records. Long Island, uncommon T. V., May and June. Cambridge, A. V., one instance, Oct. jVest, of a few bits of sticks and grasses in a burrow in the ground, or be- neath a rock, ^^ffg, one, creamy white, sometimes with a wreath of minute or obscure markings at the larger end, 1*34 x 1-00. " This is a bird of the northern hemisphere, being as common on the Pacific Ocean as on the Atlantic. Its chief breeding station on our shores is among the islands at the mouth of the Bay of Fundy ; but the open ocean is the bird's true home. " Leach's Petrels are seldom seen about their nesting site during the day, though in the evening they assemble there ; and when flut- tering through the twilight or under the moon's guidance they have the appearance of a foraging squad of bats, though the birds' wild, plaintive notes betray their race. The Petrels are not strictly noc- turnal, however, for while one of a pair sits close on the nest all day — and this one has been generally the male, in my experience — the mate is out at sea. " When handled, these birds emit from mouth and nostrils a small quantity of oil-like fluid of a reddish color and pungent, musklike odor. The air at the nesting site is strongly impregnated with this odor, and it guides a searcher to the nest " (Chamberlain). 109. Oceanites oceanicus {KuM). Wilson's Petrel. Ad. — Up- per parts, wings, and tail sooty black ; under parts somewhat lighter ; under tail-coverts mixed with whitish, longer upper tail-coverts white, shorter ones marked with sooty black ; wing-coverts grayish, margined with whitish ; bill and feet black, the webs of the latter mostly yellow. L., 7*00 ; W., 5-90 ; T., 2-80 ; B., -50. ^05^(76.— Atlantic Ocean ; breeds in southern seas (Kerguelen Island) and migrates northward, spending the summer off our coasts. Washington, A. V., one record. Long Island, common from May to Sept. Nest., in the crevices of rocks. Egg., one, white. It is generally known that some birds which nest in the northern parts of our continent, in the winter migrate as far south as Patago- nia; but comparatively few are aware that during the summer we receive several visitors from the southern parts of the southern hemi- sphere. They are all included in the family Procellariidce, and Wil- son's Petrel is doubtless the most common. It breeds in the islands of the Soath Atlantic in February, and after the cares of the breeding season are over migrates northward to pass its winter off our coasts. At this season its home is the sea, and its occurrence on land is gener- ally due to storms. For this reason, and because of its long migra- tion, it is the Petrel most frequently observed in western Atlantic waters during the summer. TROPIC BIRDS. 91 Under the name of " Stormy Petrel," or " Mother Carey's Chicken," they are familiar to most people who have made sea voyages. On tireless wing they follow in the track of a ship, coursing ceaselessly back and forth, now beneath the stern, now hovering over the foam- flecked wake, reminding one of white-rumped Martins in their easy, graceful flight. If food be thrown overboard, they are at once attracted to it, and soon are left far behind, a little group of black, fluttering forms on the surface of the ocean. The meal disposed of, a few rapid wing-beats bring them to us, and again they resume their patient beat- ing to and fro. The White-bellied Petrel {110. Cymodroma grallaria) is a tropical species which has been taken once in North America — at St. Marks, Florida. The White- FACED Petrel {HI. Felagodroma marina) inhabits the South Atlantic and southern seas. It is of casual occurrence ofi'the coast of Massa- chusetts. It may be distinguished from any of our small Petrels by its white under parts. ORDER STEGANOFODES. TOTIPALMATE SWIMMERS. Family Phaethontid^. Tropic Birds. The three species composing this small but distinct family are found throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. They are littoral rather than pelagic, but make long journeys across the open sea. Their flight when migrating is strong, rapid, and direct. In feeding, they course over the water, beating back and forth at a height of about forty feet. Their long, willowy tail-feathers add greatly to the grace and beauty of their appearance when on the wing. 112. Phaethon fiavirostris Brandt. Yellow-billed Tropic Bird (see Fig. 11). ^^6^.— White; a mark before and through the eye; outer web of primaries, lesser wing-coverts, and tertials black ; Hanks streaked with slate ; bill yellow ; tail tinged- with salmon, shafts of the feathers black. W., 10-75 ; T., 19-00 ; B., 2-00. Range. — Tropical coasts ; Atlantic coasts of tropical America, West Indies, Bahamas, Bermudas ; casual in Florida and accidental in western New York and Nova Scotia. This species breeds abundantly in the limestone cliffs of the Ber- mudas, but is of rare and probably accidental occurrence on our coasts. The Eed-billed Tropic Bird {113. Phaethon cethereus) resembles the preceding species, but has the bill red and the upper parts finely barred with black. Its range in the Atlantic is more southern than that of the Yellow- billed Tropic Bird, and in eastern North America it is accidental. The only record of its occurrence is off the Newfoundland Banks. 92 GANNETS. Family Sulid^. Gannets. The Gannets number about eight species, of which one is northern while the remaining seven are distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical coasts of the world. They are strictly maritime, but, ex- cept when migrating, do not venture far from land. Their flight is strong and rapid, the vigorous strokes of the wing being interrupted at intervals by a short sail. They obtain their food of fish by plung- ing for it from the air. The northern species is migatory ; the others are roving, but all return with regularity to their nesting places, gen- erally on some inaccessible islet, where, during the breeding season, they may be found associated in large numbers. 115. Sula Siila {Linn.). Booby. (See Fig. 12.) Ad. — Breast and belly white, sometimes washed with grayish ; rest of the plumage brownish fuscous ; head and neck sometimes streaked with grayish brown and white ; bill and feet yellowish, /m.— Entire plumage brownish fuscous, lighter be- low ; bill blackish, feet yellow. L., 30-00 ; W., 15-50 : T., 8-00 ; B., 3-80. Range. — " Coasts of tropical and subtropical America, north to Georgia." Long Island, A. V., one record. Nest., on the shore of a barren islet. Eggs., two, chalky white, 2-30 x 1-55. This inhabitant of barren shores and lonely islets is a summer visitant to the Florida keys. It is a strong flier, and when on the wing reminds one of both a Cormorant and a Gull. The Blue-faced Booby {114- Sula cyanops) is found in the " South Pa- cific, West Indies, and northward to Florida," but there are no recent records of its occurrence in the last-named locality. The Eed-footed Booby {116. Sula piscator) inhabits the coasts and islands of tropical and subtropical seas, north to western Mexico, and is said to occur in Florida, but, like S. cyanops., it is of accidental occurrence within our limits. 117. Sula bassana (Z*n«.). Gannet. Ad. — White, head and neck tinged with pale straw-yellow; primaries fuscous. Int. — Throat and upper parts, including wing-coverts, dark grayish brown, each feather with a small white wedge-shaped spot; breast and belly white, margined with grayish brown. L., 35-00 ; W., 19-00 ; T., 9-50 ; B., 4-00. Range. — " Coasts of the North Atlantic, south in winter to the Gulf of Mexico and Africa ; breeds from Nova Scotia and the British Islands north- ward." Long Island, T. V., May ; Oct. and Nov. ; a few winter. Nest., on rocky cliffs. Egg., one, pale bluish white, overlaid by a chalky deposit, more or less soiled and stained, 3-20 x 1-90. " The birds are usually associated in small, straggling flocks, and with outstretched necks, and eyes ever on the lookout for fish, they fly at a height of from seventy-five to a hundred feet above the water, or DARTERS. 93 occasionally somewhat more. The height at which the Gannet flies above the water is proportioned to the depth at which the fish are swimming beneath, and Captain Collins tells me that when fish are swimming near the surface the Gannet flies very low and darts ob- liquely instead of vertically upon his prey. Should any finny game be seen within range, down goes the Gannet headlong, the nearly closed wings being used to guide the living arrow in its downward flight. Just above the surface the wings are firmly closed, and a small splash of spray shows where the winged fisher cleaves the water to transfix his prey. Disappearing for a few seconds, the bird reappears, rests for a moment on the water, long enough to swallow his catch, and then rises in pursuit of other game " (Lucas, Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1891, p. 712). Family Anhingid^. Darters. There are four species of Darters or Snakebirds, one each in Africa, southern Asia, Australia, and tropical and subtropical America. They are silent birds, generally living in pairs on bodies of fresh water with wooded shores. They select a perch over the water, and when alarmed sometimes drop into the element below and disappear beneath its sur- face, or fly upward to a considerable height and circle about like sail- ing Hawks. They swim well, and when approached too closely quietly sink backward, frequently leaving the long, thin neck and narrow, pointed head above the surface, when one at once observes the origin of the name "Snakebird." They obtain their food by pursuing it under water, and their finely serrated bill assists them in retaining their hold upon it. 118. Anhinga> smhingSL (Linn.). Anhinga; Snakebird; Watek Turkey. (See Fig. 13.) Ad. S in summer. — General plumage glossy black with greenish reflections ; back of the head and neck with scattered grayish plumes ; upper back with numerous elongated silvery white spots, which on the scapulars become streaks ; lesser wing-coverts spotted like the back ; ex- posed portion of median and greater coverts silvery gray ; tail tipped with whitish, the outer webs of the middle pair of feathers with transverse flutings. Ad. S in winter. — Similar, but without the grayish plumes on the head and neck. Ad. 9 . — Similar to S , hut with the whole head, neck, and breast brownish, darker above. Jm. — Similar to 9 , but with the black parts of the plumage brownish. L., 34-00 ; W., 13-50 ; T., 10-50 ; B., 3-25. -Range. — Tropical and subtropical America ; breeds as far north as south- ern Illinois and South Carolina ; winters from the Gulf States southward. JVest, of sticks lined with moss, rootlets, etc., over the water in a bush or tree. F^gs, two to four, bluish white with a chalky deposit, 2-15 x 1-35. This singular bird is common in the Gulf States. It has the habits of other members of this small family. 94 CORMORANTS. Family Phalacrocoracid^. Cormorants. Cormorants are found in all parts of the world. Ten of the thirty known species inhabit North America. As a rule they are maritime, but they also frequent bodies of fresh water far from the seacoast. They are gregarious at all times of the year and breed in large colo- nies. Their flight is strong and ducklike, but, except when migrat- ing, is generally not far above the surface of the water. They secure their food of fish by pursuing it under water, their hooked bill assist- ing them in its capture. Unlike the Gannets, they do not dive from the air, but from the water or a low perch. 119. Phalacrocorax carbo {Linn.). Cormorant; Shag. (See Fig. 10.) Ad. in breeding plumage. — Region about the base of the lower man- dible white or whitish ; head, upper neck, and throat glossy black, thickly sprinkled with white ; rest of the neck, under parts, and rump glossy black ; a white patch on the flanks; upper back, scapulars, and wing-coverts light olive-brown, each feather bordered by glossy black ; tail black, composed of fourteen feathers. Ad. in winter. — Similar, but without white on the head. Im. — Top of the head and hind neck brownish black ; upper back, scapulars, and wing-coverts grayish brown, the feathers bordered by blackish ; rump glossy black ; throat and breast grayish brown, changing to white on the belly; sides and under tail-coverts glossy black. L., 36-00; W., 14-00; T., 7-00 ; B., 3-00. Range. — " Coasts of the North Atlantic, south in winter on the coast of the United States casually to the Carolinas " (A. O. U.). Breeds from the Bay of Fundy to northern Greenland. Long Island, regular T. V. in limited numbers. Nest., of sticks and seaweed, in colonies generally on the ledges of rocky cliffs. Eggs.^ four to six, pale bluish white, more or less overlaid with a chalky deposit, 2-50 x 1-50. This northern species is of uncommon occurrence on our coast south of its breeding range. 120* Phalacrocoras dilophus {Sw. and Mch.). Double-crested Cormorant. Ad. in breeding plitmage.^'H.ead.i neck, rump, and under parts glossy black ; upper back, scapulars, and wing-coverts light grayish brown, each feather margined with glossy black ; tail black, composed of twelve feath- ers ; SL tuft of black feathers on either side of the head. Ad. in winter. — Similar, but without tufts on the head. Im. — Top of the head and back of the neck blackish brown ; upper back, scapulars, and wing-coverts brownish gray, each feather margined with black ; rump glossy black ; sides of the head and fore neck grayish white, whiter on the breast and changing gradu- ally to black on the lower belly. L., 30-00 ; W., 12-50 ; T., 6-20 ; B., 2-30. Range. — Eastern North America, breeding from Dakota, and the Bay of Fundy northward ; winters from southern Illinois and Virginia southward. Washington, casual, several records. Long Island, common T. V., Apl. PELICANS. 95 and May ; Aug. to Nov. Sing Sing, A. V., June. Cambridge, casual, one instance, Sept. Nest^ of sticlis, seaweed, etc., on tlie ledges of clift's, low bushes, bushy trees, or on the ground. Eggs^ two to four, similar in color to those of the preceding, 2-40 x 1-40. This is the common Cormorant of the middle Eastern States. We see it chiefly as migrant when in flocks of varying size it passes far overhead, or pauses to rest on our shores. In migrating the flock is formed in a long line, comparatively few birds deep. On the wing they bear a general resemblance to large Ducks. 130a/« P. d. florida/UUS {Aud.). Florida Cormorant. Eesembles the preceding species in color, but is smaller. W., 12'00 ; T., 5*50 ; B., 2'10. This is an abundant bird on the Florida coast and westward along the shores of the Gulf. Almost every buoy in the harbors of Florida is capped by a Cormorant. They are shy birds, but may easily be se- cured by placing traps on the buoys or snags, to which they regularly return to roost. The Mexican Cormorant {121. Phalacrocorax mexicanus) — a species found on the west Gulf coast and southward — sometimes wanders up the Mis- sissippi as far as Illinois. Family Pelecanid^. Pelicans. The twelve known species of Pelicans are distributed throughout the warmer parts of the world. Three species are North American, of which two are exclusively maritime, while the third is found both on the coast and in the interior. Pelicans are gregarious and nest in large colonies. Their flight is strong but leisurely, six or seven wing- strokes being followed by a short sail, all the members of a flock flap- ping and sailing in unison. They feed on fish, for which some species plunge from the air, while others capture small fry with their scoop- like pouches while swimming. 125. Pelecanus erjrthrorhynchus Gmel. American White Pelican. Ad. in breeding plumage. — White, primaries black, whitish at the base ; an occipital crest and a horny prominence on the bill. Ad. in winter. — -Similar, but without the crest or horny prominence. Im. — Similar, but top of the head brownish gray. L., 60*00; W., 22-00; Tar., 4*50; B., 14-00. Bange.—l:^orth America, now rare or accidental on the Atlantic coast; breeds from southern Minnesota northward ; winters along the Gulf coast. Washington, casual, four records. Long Island, A. V. Nest.! of small sticks, on the ground. Eggs^ two to four, creamy or bluish white with a chalky deposit, more or less stained, 3-45 x 2-30. 96 PELICANS. The White Pelican winters in numbers on the Gulf coast of Florida and westward, but rarely occurs on the Atlantic coast. Its snowy white plumage renders it conspicuous at a great distance, and a far- away Pelican on the water is sometimes mistaken for a distant sail. The White Pelican catches his food while swimming. A flock of Pelicans will sometimes surround a school of small fry and with beat- ing wings drive them toward the shore, all the time eagerly scooping the unfortunate fish into their great pouches. At the conclusion of a successful " drive " they go ashore or rest quietly on the water and devour their prey at leisure. They migrate by day — and perhaps by night also — flying at a great height, and sometimes pausing to sail in wide circles far up in the sky. 1S6. Pelecanus fuscus Linn. Brown Pelican. Ad. in breed- ing plumage. — Top of the head and a spot on the upper breast straw-yellow ; line down either side of the breast white ; hind head, neck, and a spot on the fore neck seal-brown ; sides and back silvery gray bordered by brownish black ; scapulars, wing-coverts, secondaries, and tail silvery gray ; primaries black ; under parts dark blackish brown narrowly streaked with white. Ad. after the breeding season. — Similar, but with the hind head and whole neck white, more or less tinged with straw-yellow. Im. — Similar to the preceding, but the head and neck grayish and rest of the plumage duller. L., 50-00 ; W., 19-50 ; Tar., 2-65 ; B., 11-00. Range. — Atlantic coast of tropical and subtropical America ; breeds abun- dantly along the Gulf coast and northward to South Carolina ; occasionally strays to Illinois and Massachusetts. Long Island, A. V. Nest., of sticks, in mangrove bushes or on the ground. Eggs., two to five, similar in color to those of the preceding species, 3-00 x 1*95. Brown Pelicans are abundant residents on the Florida and Gulf coast. They are generally seen in flocks of four to eight birds flying one after the other. The leader beats time, as it were, and they all flap in unison for a certain number of wing-beats, then sail for a short distance, and then flap again. The coast line is their favorite high- way to and from their roosts or nesting grounds. They fly low over the water just outside the breakers, following the trough of the sea — now disappearing behind the advancing wall of water, now reappear- ing as the wave breaks on the shore. Unlike the White Pelican, this species secures his prey by diving. Singly, in pairs, or in small flocks, they beat back and forth, generally about twenty feet above the water, and when opportunity offers plunge downward with such force that the spray dashes high about them, and the resulting splash may be heard a half a mile. They sometimes catch fish twelve to fifteen inches in length, but as a rule feed on smaller ones. 1. Baldpate. 2. Green-winged Teal. 3. Blue-winged Teal. 4. Shoveler. 5. Pintail. 6. Wood Duck. 7. Redhead. 8. Canvasback. 9. Am. Scaup Duck. 10. Am. Golden-eye. 11. Bufflehead. 12. Old Squaw. 13. Greenland Eider. 14. White-winged Scoter. 15. Ruddy Duck. MAN-O'-WAR BIRDS. 97 Family Fregatid^. Man-o'-war Birds. Man-o'-war Birds, or Frigate Birds, are found throughout inter- tropical seas. One of the two known species occurs in America. They are strictly maritime, and, while sometimes observed at great distances from the land, are met with in numbers only near the coasts. They have a greater expanse of wing in proportion to the weight of their body than any other bird, and in power of flight are unsurpassed. They rarely alight upon the water, but, facing the wind, pass hours resting motionless on outstretched wings, sometimes ascending to great heights and calmly soaring far above storms. It is when feed- ing that their marvelous aerial powers are displayed to the best advan- tage. By swift, indescribably graceful darts they secure fish which are near the surface or capture those which have leaped from the water to escape some enemy below. They also pursue Gulls and Terns, and, forcing them to disgorge their prey, catch it in midair. As a rule they are gregarious at all seasons, and nest and roost on bushes near the shore. 128* Fregata aquila {Linn.). Man-o'-war Bird; Frigate Bird. (See Fig. 15.) Ad. $ . — Entire plumage black, more glossy above. 9 . — Simi- lar, but browner ; lesser wing-coverts grayish brown ; breast and upper belly white. Im. — Similar to the 9 , but whole head and neck white. L., 40-00 ; W., 25-00 ; T., 17-00 ; B., 4-50. Range. — Tropical and subtropical coasts generally; in America north to Florida, Texas, and California, and casually to Kansas, Ohio, and Nova Scotia, Long Island, A. V., one record. Nest.^ of sticks, in colonies, on bushes or rocks. Egg., one, chalky white, 2-65 X 1-75. This species is not uncommon on the coasts of southern Florida, but. does not, so far as I know, nest there. It resembles other mem- bers of the family in habits. OB.DEB ANSERES. LAMELLIROSTRAL SWIMMERS. Family Anatid^. Ducks, Geese, and Swans. The two hundred species included in this family are placed in the five subfamilies, Mergince, or Mergansers, Anatinm or River Ducks, Fuligulinm or Sea Ducks, Anserince or Geese, and Cygninm or Swans. The characters given in the Key to Families should enable one to easily refer a specimen to its proper group. These subfamilies are so well defined that it seems advisable to treat of each one separately. 8 98 MERGANSERS. Aside from the general remarks at the head of each subfamily I can add little which will aid in the identification of the species in the field. Ducks are shy creatures, and familiarity with their habits is gained only by long experience. Suhfamily MergincB. Mergansers. The Shelldrakes or Sawbills are fish-eating Ducks. They pursue and capture their prey under water, and their serrate bills seem espe- cially adapted to this mode of feeding. The flesh of adult Sheldrakes is rank and fishy; but the Hooded Merganser is an excellent table Duck. KEY TO SPECIES. A. Bill under 1-75, wing 8-00 or under .... 131. Hooded Mebganser. £. Bill over 1-75, wing over 8-00. a. Head and throat black. ai. Breast and belly white, tinged with salmon. 129. Am. Merganser ( $ ad.). a". Breast brownish, thickly streaked and spotted with black. 130. Red-breasted Merganser ( S ad.). b. Head and sides of the neck rich rufous- brown ; distance from nostril to end of bill less than 1-50 . . . . 129. Am. Merganser ( 9 and im.). c. Crown grayish brown, more or less washed with cinnamon-rufous ; sides of the neck cinnamon-rufous ; distance from nostril to end of bill over 1-50 130. Eed-breasted Merganser ( 9 and im.). 129* Merganser a/Xnericanus (Cass.). American Merganser; Goosander; Shelldrake. (See Fig, 16.) Ad. 6 .—Whole head and upper neck glossy greenish black ; hind neck, secondaries, lesser wing-coverts, and ends of greater ones white ; back black, rump and tail ashy gray ; breast and belly white, delicately tinged with salmon. Ad. 9 and Im. — Chin and upper throat white ; lower throat and entire top of the head rufous-brown ; rest of upper parts and tail ashy gray ; speculum * white ; breast and belly white. L., 25-00; W., 10-50; Tar., 1-85; B. from N., 1-50. Range. — North America generally ; breeds from Minnesota and southern New Brunswick northward; winters from Kansas, Hlinois, and Maine south- ward to South Carolina. Washington, rare W. V. Long Island, uncommon W. V., Nov. to Mch. Sing Sing, tolerably common T. V., Jan. 1 to Mch. 8. Cambridge, formerly common T. V., Oct. to Dec. Nest., of leaves, grasses, and moss, lined with down, in a hole in a tree or cliff. Eggs., six to ten, creamy buff, 2-65 x 1-75. " This bird is fond of plunging beneath rushing currents for its food, and should it encounter a raft of floating rubbish or an ice-cake * A patch in the wing formed by the end half of the secondaries, which in Ducks are generally of a different color from the rest of the wing-feathers. MERGANSERS. 99 it will readily pass underneath it. It swims so deeply as to afford the gunner but a small mark, and dives so quickly at the snap or flash of his gun that he stands but a small chance of killing it. " On being surprised the Goosander may rise directly out of the water, but more commonly pats the surface with his feet for some yards and then rises to windward. A whole flock thus rising from some foaming current affords a spirited scene. Once on the wing, the flight is straight, strong, and rapid " (Langille). 130. Merganser serra>tor {Linn.). Eed-breasted Merganser; Shelldrake. Ad. 5 . — Whole head and throat black, more greenish above; a white ring around the neck ; a broad cinnamon-riifous band with black streaks on the upper breast and sides of the lower neck ; lesser wing-coverts, tips of greater ones, secondaries, breast, and belly white; rump and sides finely barred with black and white. Ad. 9 and Im. — Top and back of head grayish brown washed with cinnamon-rufous ; sides of the head and throat cinnamon-rufous, paler on the throat; rest of under parts white; back and tail ashy gray; speculum white. L., 22*00; W., 9-00; Tar., 1-70; B. from N., 1-80. Remarks. — Adults of this and the preceding species may always be dis- tinguished by the color of the breast ; females and young, by the difi'erently colored heads, while the position of the nostril is always diagnostic. Range. — Northern parts of the northern hemisphere; in America breeds from northern Illinois and New Brunswick northward to the arctic regions : winters from near the southern limits of its breeding range southward to Cuba. Washington, uncommon W. V. Long Island, abundant T. V., Mch. 1 to May 1 ; Oct. 15 to Dec. 1, a few winter. Sing Sing, common T. V., Dec. to Apl. 30. Cambridge, casual, one instance, Oct. Fest., of leaves, grasses, mosses, etc., lined with down, on the ground near water, among rocks or scrubby bushes. Eggs., six to twelve, creamy buflf, 2-55 X 1-75. This is a more common species than the preceding, which it resem- bles in habits. Its note is described as a " croak." 131« LiOphodytescuciillaitus(Zi;?72..). Hooded Merganser. Ad. 4. — Front part of large circular crest black ; remaining part white, bordered by black ; rest of head, the neck, and back black ; breast and belly white ; sides cinnamon-rufous, finely barred with black. Ad. 9 . — Upper throat white ; head, neck, and upper breast grayish brown, more or less tinged with cinnamon, especially on the small crest ; lower breast and belly white ; sides grayish brown; back fuscous. Im. — Similar, but with no crest. L., 17*50; W., 7*50; Tar., 1-10; B., 1*45. Range. — North America generally, south in winter to Cuba and Mexico; breeds locally throughout its North American range. Washington, uncommon W. V. Long Island, uncommon T. V., rare W. V., Nov. to May. Sing Sing, rare T. V., Mch. Cambridge, formerly common T, v., Oct. to Dec. loo RIVER DUCKS. liest^ of grasses, leaves, moss, etc., lined with down, in a hollow tree or stump near water. Eggs^ eight to ten, butfy white, 2'10 x 1-75. According to Ernest E. Thompson, both the preceding species fre- quent chiefly " living " or running water, while this bird prefers " dead " waters, or quiet ponds and lakes. In Florida it lives in small ponds in the hummocks, where one expects to find Wood Ducks, and feeds on roots, seeds, etc. It visits also the lakes frequented by Black Ducks, Mallards, and other AnatiiKB. The male is a striking bird in life, and can not be mistaken for any other species. Subfamily Anatince. River and Pond Ducks. The Ducks of this subfamily are distinguished by the absence of a lobe on the hind toe. They are, for the most part, northern breeding birds, and appear on our waters chiefly as migrants. At this time they differ but little in habits, and as a rule frequent sluggish streams, shallow ponds, arms of bays, and marshes. In comparison with the deep-water FiUigiilincB they might be called "dabblers" or "tip-ups," and any one who has seen them dabbling along the shore, or with up- turned tail and head immersed probing the bottom in shallow water, like a flock of animated tenpins, will recognize the appropriateness of these terms. They feed upon mollusks, crustaceans, insects and their larvae, seeds and roots of aquatic plants. The " gutters " on the sides of the bill act as strainers, and, after probing the bottom, the mere act of closing the bill forces out the mud and water taken in with the food. As a rule, they feed more commonly by night than by day. They do not gather in such large flocks as the Sea Ducks, and in our waters are generally found in groups of less than fifty. They spring from the water at a bound, and on whistling wing are soon beyond the fowler's reach. Their speed is variously estimated for different species at a hundred to a hundred and sixty miles an hour. Doubtless the first-named distance is nearer the truth. Their nest is composed of twigs, rootlets, grasses, leaves, moss, feathers, etc., lined with down from the breast of the incubating bird. All our species, except the Wood Duck, place their nest on the ground, generally in grassy sloughs or marshes, but sometimes in dry places some distance from the water. KEY TO THE SPECIES. I. Wing under 8*50. a. Lesser wing-coverts gray. 139. Green-winged Teal. 138. European Teal. b. Lesser wing-coverts blue. b^. Cheeks slate-color, a broad white mark near the front of the face. 140. Blue-wingeb Teal ( & ad.). RIVER DUCKS. 101 6a. Cheeks and under parts chestnut-rufous. 141. Cinnamon Teal ( 3 ad.). ci. Cheeks finely 'streaked with blackish, c*. Under parts whitish, sometimes washed with brownish, streaked or spotted with blackish ....... 140. Blue- winged Teal 9 . (*. Under parts heavily washed with chestnut-ruibus and mottled with black 141. Cinnamon Teal ? ^ [I Wing over 8-50. A. Belly white or grayish white, not conspicuously streaked or spotted. a. Whole head shining dark green 132. Mallard ( $ ad.), I. Center of head white or whitish, a large streak behind the eye. 137. Baldpate ( $ ad.). c. Throat white, crown green or grayish green, tips of primaries greenish. 144. Wood Duck. d. Throat blackish, center of crown buffy, rest of head rufous. 136. Widgeon ( 6 ad.). e. Throat and sides of head olive- brown, darker on the crown. 143. Pintail ( ? ad.). /. Throat, crown, and sides of head more or less finely streaked with blackish. f^. Wing-coverts with more or less chestnut .... 135. Gad wall. g^. No chestnut in wing-coverts. g^. Axillars * and sides barred with black .... 143. Pintail 9 • g^. Axillars white or speckled with black, sides plain brownish. 137. Baldpate 9 . g*. Axillars white, sides thickly spotted or barred with black. 135. Gad WALL 9 . B. Under parts conspicuously mottled, spotted, or streaked, or feathers margined with chestnut-rufous. a. With white in wing-coverts. a>. Lesser wing-coverts ashy blue 142- Shoveler 9 . b^. Lesser wing-coverts brownish gray, bordered with white or tipped with black. h^. Speculum t purple 132. Mallard 9. &3. Speculum gray and white 135. Gadwall 9 . b. No white in wing-coverts. a. Throat fulvous or buffy without streaks. . . 134. Florida Duok- b. Throat finely streaked with black 133. Black Duck, C. Belly chestnut 142. Shoveler i . 132. Anas boschas Linn. Mallard (see Fig. 17, a). Ad. $ . — Whole head and throat glossy greenish or bluish black; a white ring around the neck ; breast rich chestnut ; belly grayish white, finely marked with wavy black lines ; under tail-coverts black ; upper back dark grayish brown ; rump and upper tail-coverts black ; longer upper tail-coverts recurved ; speculum rich purple, bordered at the base and tip by narrow bands of blach and tvTiite. Ad. 9 . — Top and sides of head streaked with fuscous and buflFy ; back fuscous, * See Fig. 64. t A colored patch in the wing. 102 RIVER DUCKS. the feathers with internal rings or loops and sometimes borders of pale ochra- ceous butfy ; speculum as in the preceding ; breast and belly ochraceous bufty, mottled with dusky grayish brown, L., 23-00; W., 11-00; Tar., 1-75; B., 2-25. Range. — Northern parts of the northern hemisphere ; in America breeds in the interior from Indiana and Iowa, and on the Atlantic coast rarely south of Labrador, northward to the arctic regions ; winters from southern Kansas and Delaware southward to Central America and the island of Granada. Washington, common W. V. Long Island, uncommon T. V., Sept. to ApL Sing Sing, rare T. V., Oct., Mch. Eggs.^ six to ten, pale greenish or bluish white, 2-30 x 1-70. The Mallard is far more common in the interior than on the coasts. Its loud, sonorous quack is not distinguishable from that of its domes- ticated descendants. 133. Anas obscura Gmel. Black Duck; Dusky Duck. Ad.— Top of the head rich fuscous, slightly streaked with pale buffy ; sides of the head and throat pale butfy, thickly streaked with blackish ; rest of under parts fuscous brown, the feathers all bordered by ochraceous-buff ; back slightly darker and narrowly margined with butfy ; speculum rich purple, bordered by black. L., 22-00; W., 11-00; Tar., 1-75; B., 2-20. Remarks. — Always to be distinguished from the Mallard by the lack of white in the wing. Range. — North America; breeds from Illinois and New Jersey to Hudson Bay and Labrador; winters southward to the Greater Antilles, Washington, common W. V. Long Island, abundant W. V., Sept. to May ; a few breed. Sing Sing, tolerably common S. E., Mch. 6 to Nov. 13. Cam- bridge, very common T. V., Mch. and Apl ; late Aug. to Nov, ; a few breed. Eggs^ eight to twelve, pale greenish or bluish white, or creamy buff, 2-43 X 1-75. This species resembles the Mallard in general habits, and the voices of the two are indistinguishable. The Black Duck, however, is com- moner near the seacoasts, and when molested will sometimes pass the day at sea, returning at night to feed in the marshes and ponds near the shore. 134. Anas fUl-vigula Ridgw. Florida Duck. Ad. — Top of head streaked with black and buffy ; sides of the head and entire throat bufty, without streaks ; rest of under parts rich bufty ochraceous, widely streaked with black ; back black, the feathers broadly margined and sometimes inter- nally striped with ochraceous-buft"; speculum rich purple bordered by black ; bill olive-yellow, its nail black. L., 20-00 ; W., 10-50 ; Tar., 1-65 ; B., 2-05. Remarks. — Easily distinguished from A. obscura by the absence of streaks on the throat. Range. — Florida and Gulf coast to Louisiana. Eggs, eight to ten, pale dull buff or pale grayish buff, 2-15 x 1-61 (Ridgw.). This is a common resident species in Florida. Its habits and voice are practically the same as those of the Black Duck. RIVER DUCKS. IO3 135. Anas strepera Linn. Gadwall; Gkay Duck. Ad. 4 .— Top of the head streaked with rufous-brown and black ; sides of the head and Qeck pale bulfy, thickly streaked or spotted with black ; breast and neck all around black, each feather with a border and an internal ring of white, giving the plumage a beautifully scaled appearance ; belly white or grayish ; rump, upper and under tail-coverts black ; lesser wing-coverts chestnut. Ad. 9 . — Head and throat as in the male ; back fuscous margined with buffy ; breast and sides ochraceous bufty, thickly spotted with blackish ; belly and under tail-coverts white, more or less thickly spotted with blackish ; little or no chestnut on wing-coverts ; speculum ashy gray and white ; axillars and under wing-coverts j9wre white. L., 19-50 ; W., 10-4:0 ; Tar., 1-55 ; B., 1-70. Range.— l^artYiQxn hemisphere ; in America, breeds in the interior locally from Kansas northward to the arctic regions ; known to breed on the Atlantic coast only at Anticosti ; winters from Virginia to Florida and Texas. Washington, common W. V., Sept. to Apl. Long Island, A. V. Eggs., eight to twelve, pale buff or butfy white, 2-09 x 1-57 (Kidgw.). This species is common in the interior and in Florida, but is rather rare in the other Atlantic States. Its call-note is said to resemble that of the Mallard, " but is rather more shrill, and frequently repeated." 136. Anas penelope Xm/?. European Widgeon. Ad. $. — Crown creamy buff; throat blackish, rest of head and neck rufous-brown ; upper breast vinaceous, lower breast and belly white ; sides and back finely marked with wavy black and white lines. Ad. 9 . — Head and throat deep ochraceous- buff, finely streaked and barred with black, darker above ; upper breast and sides much the same color, but without black markings ; lower breast and belly white ; back grayish brown, the feathers with small ochraceous buffy bars; tertials fuscous, bordered by deep ochraceous huffy ; greater wing-cov- erts hrownish gray., usually whiter on the outer webs and tipped with black. W., 10-50 ; B., 1-40. Remar]cs.—llh.e, females of the European and American Widgeons bear a general resemblance to one another. Their distinguishing characters are mainly in the color of the head and throat, which are brown in the European species, and in the color of the greater wing-coverts, which are whiter in the American bird. I have seen a caged male in the summer in a plumage closely resembling that of the female. Probably a similar change of plumage occurs in our A. americana. Range. — Northern parts of the Old World; in North America breeds in the Aleutian Islands, and occurs occasionally in the eastern United States. Washington, A. V., two records. Long Island, A. V. Eggs., five to eight, buffy white, 2-23 x 1-53. " The call-note of the male is a shrill, whistling whee-you, whence the local names ' Whew Duck ' and ' Whewer ' ; but the female utters a low pu7T-u\g growl. Both sexes, however, rise in silence " (Saunders). 137. Anas americana Gmel. Baldpate; American Widgeon. Ad. (J .—Middle of the crown white or buffy ; sides of the crown, from the eye 104 RIVER DUCKS. to the nape, glossy green, more or less sprinkled with black ; lores, cheeks, and throat bufFy, finely barred with black ; upper breast and sides vinaceous, the latter more or less finely barred with wavy black lines ; lower breast and belly white; back grayish brown, more or less tinged with vinaceous and finely barred with black. Ad. 9 . — Head and throat white or pale, creamy buff, finely streaked and barred with black, darker above ; upper breast and sides pale vinaceous washed with grayish ; lower breast and belly white ; back grayish brown, the feathers with small creamy buif bars ; tertials fuscous, bor- dered with whitish or creamy butf ; greater wing-coverts brownish gray, their outer webs mostly or entirely white^ their ends black, sometimes tipped with white. L., 19-00 ; W., 10-50; Tar., 1-50 ; B., 1-40. Range. — North America ; breeds in the interior regularly from Minnesota northward, and casually as far south as Texas ; not known to breed on the Atlantic coast ; winters from open water south to Central America and north- ern South America. Washington, common W. K., Oct. to Apl. Long Island, uncommon T. V., Oct. to Apl. Sing Sing, common T. V., Mch. 11 to Apl. 12 ; Oct. 4 to Oct. 28. Eggs., seven to twelve, butfy white, 2-05 x 1-50. Colonel N. S. Goss writes that, as a rule, Widgeons are " not shy, and their note, a sort of wheiv, whew, whew, uttered while feeding and swimming, enables the hunter to locate them in the thickest growth of water plants : and when in the air the whistling noise made by their wings heralds their approach." They are fond of wild celery, which they procure by robbing the Canvasback and other diving Ducks, " snatching their catch from their bills the moment their heads appear above the water." 139. Anas carolinensis Gmel. Green- winged Teal. Ad. $ . — Chin black, sides of the head from the eye to the nape shining green, rest of the head and neck rufous-chestnut ; breast washed with vinaceous and spotted with black ; belly white ; sides finely marked with wavy black and white lines ; middle under tail-coverts black, lateral ones creamy buff; upper back like the sides, lower back grayish fuscous ; a white har in front of the bend of the wing ; wing-coverts brownish gray, tipped with ochraceous bufFy. Ad. 9 . — Top of the head brownish fuscous, margined with cinnamon ; throat and sides of the neck white, finely spotted with black ; breast and sides washed with cinnamon and spotted or barred with black ; belly and under tail-coverts white, sometimes spotted with black ; back fuscous, the feathers with crescent- shaped marks of ochraceous bufFy, and bordered with grayish ; wmgs as in the male. L., 14-50; W., 7-00 ; Tar., 1-10 : B., 1-35. Range. — North America ; breeds from Minnesota and New Brunswick northward ; winters from Kansas and Virginia southward to the West Indies and Central America. Washington, common W. V., Sept. to Apl. Long Island, uncommon T. V. and W. v., Oct. to Apl. Sing Sing, common T. V., Apl. ; Sept. 11 to Oct. 28, Cambridge, uncommon T. V., Apl. ; Sept. to Nov. Eggs., six to twelve, bufFy white or creamy buff, 1-80 x 1-25. RIVER DUCKS. 105 "In autumn the males usually keep in separate flocks from the females and young. Their notes are faint and piping, and their wings make a loud whistling during flight. . . ." (B., B., and R.). The European Teal {138. Anas crecca) is of casual occurrence in North America. The adult male resembles that of A. carolinensis^ but the white bar in front of the wing is lacking, and the inner scapulars are creamy buff, with a sharply defined black mark on their outer webs. The female can not be distinguished from that of A. carolinensis. 140* Ana>S discox*s Linn. Bltje-winged Teal. Ad. 6 . — Crown fuscous, chin and sides of the base of the bill black ; a broad white band across the front of the head, its hinder margin bordered by black ; rest of the head and throat dark ashy with purplish reflections ; breast and belly cinna- mon-rufous, thickly spotted with black ; back fuscous, the feathers with cres- cents of ochraceous-butf ; lesser and median icing-coverts grayish blue, end half of the greater ones white ; speculum green. Ad. $ and S in suinmer. — Crown fuscous, lightly margined with grayish ; sides of the head and the neck whitish, finely spotted with blackish, except on the throat ; breast and belly with less cinnamon wash than in the preceding ; back and wings quite similar to the preceding, but ochraceous bars sometimes wanting , speculum darker and greater coverts with less white. L., 16'00 ; W., 7'25 ; Tar., 1*20 ; B., 1-60. Range. — Chiefly eastern North America; breeds from Kansas, northern Ohio, and New Brunswick northward ; winters from Virginia and tlie Lower Mississippi Valley to northern South America. Washington, common W. V., Sept. to Apl. Long Island, common T. V. in Sept., rare T. V. in spring. Sing Sing, common T. V. in fall, Sept. 24 to Oct. 17. Cambridge, rare in spring; very common (at least formerly) Aug. to Oct. Eggs.1 six to twelve, huffy white or creamy buff, 1-85 x 1-30. This generally silent species flies in densely massed, small flocks, which move as one bird. The white face-mark can be discerned at some distance, and, in connection with the bird's small size, is a good field-mark. The Cinnamon Teal {141- Anas cyanoptera), a species of vfestem North America, sometimes occurs east of the Mississippi. It has been recorded from Illinois and Florida. The male has the under parts deep cinnamon; the female closely resembles the same sex of our Anas discors. 142. Spatula clypeata (Linn.). Shoveler. Ad. 6 . — ^Head and neck fuscous, glossed with bluish green ; back and a broken line down the back of the lower neck fuscous ; rest of the lower neck and breast white ; lower breast and belly rufous-chestnut ; upper and under tail-coverts dark greenish ; lesser wing-coverts grayish blue, greater ones brownish gray tipped with white ; speculum green. Ad. 9 . — Throat huffy white ; head and neck streaked with bufl'y and black ; rest of under parts more or less washed with 106 RIVER DUCKS. buffy ochraceous, everywhere indistinctly spotted with fuscous except on the middle of the belly ; back fuscous, the feathers with margins and internal crescents of whitish and buffy ; wing-coverts and speculum much as in the male. Im. — The im. 5 is intermediate between the ad. 6 and 9 ; the im. 9 resemble the ad. 5 , but the wing-coverts are slaty gray, the speculum with little or no green. L., 2000 ; W., 9-50 ; B., 2-50 ; greatest width of B., 1-20. Range. — Northern hemisphere : in America, more common in the interior ; breeds regularly from Minnesota northward and locally as far south as Texas ; not known to breed in the Atlantic States ; winters from southern Illinois and Virginia southward to northern South America. Washington, not uncommon W. V. Long Island, rare T. V. Sing Sing, A. v., Oct. Eggs.^ six to ten, pale buffy white or bluish white, 2-10 x 1-50. The Shoveler, like most of the members of this subfamily, is more common in the Mississippi Valley than on the coast. It is generally a silent bird, but its note in the breeding season is said to be " took, took."' It feeds largely by tipping in shallow water. 143. Dafila; acuta {Linn.). Pintail ; Spkigtail. Ad. 6 . — Head and throat olive-brown ; back of the neck blackish, bordered by white stripes, which pass to the breast ; breast and belly white ; the abdomen faintly and the sides strongly marked with wavy lines of black and white ; back some- what darker than the sides ; scapulars black, bordered or streaked with buffy white ; wing-coverts brownish gray, the greater ones tipped with rufous ; speculum green ; central tail-feathers glossed with green and much elongated. Ad. 9 . — Throat white or whitish, crown and sides of the head streaked with blackish and buffy ochraceous, darker above; breast washed with buffy ochraceous and spotted with blackish ; belly white ; abdomen more or less indistinctly mottled with blackish ; sides with bars and lengthened black and white crescents ; under wing-coverts fuscous, bordered with whitish ; axillars barred' or mottled with black ; back fuscous, the feathers with borders, bars, or crescents of white or buffy; speculum grayish brown boi'dered with white. 5 in breeding plumage.— '■'• Similar to ad. 9 , but wings as in spring or winter plumage" (Ridgw.). Im. — The im. 6 is variously intermediate between the ad. 4 and 9 ; the im. 9 resembles the ad. 9 , but the under parts are more heavily streaked or spotted. L., 6 , 28-00, 9 , 22-00 ; W., 10-00 ; T., $ , 7-50, 9 , 3-60 ; B., 2-00. EemMrhs. — The female of this species is a rather obscure-looking bird, but may always be knoAvn by its broad, sharply pointed central tail-feathers and dusky under wing-coverts. Range. — Northern hemisphere ; in America, breeds from Iowa and Illinois to the Arctic Ocean ; not known to breed on the Atlantic coast ; winters from Virginia southward to the Greater Antilles and Central America. Washington, W. V., Oct. to Apl. Long Island, very common T. V., Sept, 15 to Apl. 15 ; a few winter. Sing Sing, common T. V., Mch. 15 to Apl. 10; Sept. 26 to Dec. 4. Cambridge, casual T. V., Apl. ; Sept. and Oct. Eggs., eight to twelve, buffy white or pale bluish white, 2-20 x 1-50. SEA DUCKS. 107 The Pintail is frequently found associated with the Black Dack and Widgeon. As a rule it is voiceless, but is said to utter "a low- toned quack at night." The long neck and tail of the male make its identification easy even at a distance. 144. Ai:s sponsa< {Linn.). Wood Duck. Ad. $. — A line from the bill over the eye, a similar line at the base of the side of the crest, and some of the elongated crest-feathers white ; throat, a band from it up the side of the head, and a wider one to the nape, white ; rest of the cheeks and crown green with purplish reflections; a white band in front of the wings ; breast and a spot at either side of the base of the tail purplish chestnut, the former spotted with white ; belly white ; sides bufiy ochraceous, linely barred with black, the longer iiank feathers tipped with wider bars of black and white ; back greenish brown; scapulars blacker; speculum steel-blue; primaries tipped with greenish blue. — Ad. 9 . — Throat and a stripe from the eye back- ward white ; crown purplish brown ; sides of the head ashy brown ; breast and sides grayish brown streaked with butty ; belly white ; back olive-brown glossed with greenish ; inner primaries tipped with greenish blue. Im. — The im. 6 resembles the 9 . L., 18-50 ; W., 9-00 ; Tar., 1-35 ; B., 1-30. Range. — North America ; breeds from Florida to Hudson Bay, and winters southward to southern Mexico, Cuba, and Jamaica. Washington, uncommon P. E. Long Island, uncommon T. V. and W. V., Sept. to Apl. ; rare S. R. Sing Sing, tolerably common S. E. Cambridge, common T. V., Mch. and Apl. ; Aug. to Nov. ; a few breed. Nest.^ of grasses, leaves, twigs, etc., in a hole in a tree or stump. Lgcj^., eight to fourteen, pale butfy white, 2-05 x 1-50. Woodland ponds and forest-bordered streams make a proper setting for the grace and beauty of these richly attired birds. Several times it has been my fortune to see them in the unconscious enjoyment of their secluded homes, and I know of no sight in the bird world which so fully satisfies the eye. Alarm them, and with a frightened, plaintive whistle, " oo-eeA;," they spring from the water and make off through the woods. At other times they will swim ahead of one's canoe, and, rounding a bend in the stream, go ashore and walk rapidly away. The young are brought from the nest to the ground in the bill of the parent. Sub family FuligulincB. Bay a?id Sea Ducks. The members of this subfamily are to be distinguished from those of the preceding by the presence of a lobe or web on the hind toe. They are open-water Ducks, frequenting our large lakes, liays, and sea- coasts. Their food consists chiefly of mollusks. crustaceans, and the seeds and roots of aquatic plants. They obtain it principally by div- ing, sometimes descending one hundred and fifty feet or more. The 108 SEA DUCKS. Dill, as in the Anatinm, acts as a sieve or strainer. As a rule they feed by day and pass the night at a distance from the shore or at sea. Some of the species occur in our waters in large flocks — indeed, our most abundant Ducks are members of this subfamily. With one exception they are northern breeding birds, seldom nesting south of our north- ern tier of States. Their nest is composed of twigs, leaves, grasses, stems of aquatic plants, seaweed, etc., lined with down from the breast of the incubat- ing bird. KEY TO THE SPECIES. I. Feathers at the base of the bill not reaching "50 forward along its sides. A. Wing over 7"00 ; axillars and most if not all the linings of the wings white. a. Head and neck black, with greenish or purplish reflections, fli. Back black ; bill with a bluish band near its tip. 150. RiNG-NECKED DuCK S . ^1. Back finely barred with black and white. J*. Back of head generally with purplish reflections ; wing generally under 8"25 ; nail of bill genei'ally under -25 in width. 149. Lesser Scaup Duck S. b^. Back of head generally with greenish reflections ; wing gener ally over 8-25 ; nail of bill over '25 in width. 148. Am. Scaup Duck S . b. Head anc^ neck rufous or rufous-brown, sharply defined from the black breast. b^. Head and upper neck rich rufous ; bill 2-00 or under ; flanks flnely barred, like the back 146. Eedhead 5 . J2. Head and neck rufous-brown ; crown blackish ; bill over 2-00 ; flanks very slightly if at all barred 147. Canvasback S . c. Head and neck brownish or grayish. c^. A white patch in the wing. 6'2. Feathers at base of bill white ; wing generally under 8-25 ; nail of bill generally under -25 in width . . 149. Lesser Scaup Duck 9 ■ c^. Feathers at base of bill white ; wing generally over 8*25 ; nail of bill generally over -25 in width . . . 148. Am. Scaup Duck 9 - d^. No white in wing. d^. An indistinct bluish band near the tip of bill; bill under 2-00. d^. Wing under 8'00 150. Eing-necked Duck 9. d*. Wing over 8-00 146. Eedhead 9 . e^. No band on bill ; bill over 2-00 147. Canvasback 9 . £. Wing over 7"00 ; axillars and most if not all the under wing-coverta blackish. a. Head and throat dark steel-blue or steel-green. «!. Head and throat steel-blue ; white patch at base of bill 1-00 or more in height 152. Barrow's Golden-eye $ . a*. Head and throat steel-green; white patch at base of bill less than 1-00 in height 151. Am. Golden-eye $ SEA DUCKS. 109 k. Whole head and throat brown, sharply defined from the gray or white neck ; a white patch (speculum) in the wing. fti. Nostril nearer the tip than the base of the bill. 151. Am. Golden-eye 9 . b^. Nostril in the middle of the bill . 152. Barrow's Golden-eye 9 . c. Whole head and neck black 163. Am. Scoter S . d. A white patch on the top of the head and another on the back of the neck ...,..., , 166. Surf Scoter $ . e. Middle of crown black, bordered by chestnut ; front half of the face white 155. Harlequin Duck 6 . /. Head and neck whitish, grayish, or brownish ; no white in the wing. /I. Bill over 1-25. /*. Feathers on culmen reaching much farther forward than those at the sides of the bill 166. Surf Scoter 9 . /^. Feathers on culmen reaching little if any beyond those at the sides of the bill 163. Am. Scoter 9 . gK Bill under 1-25. g^. Central tail-feathers longest, sharply pointed , under tail-coverts white 154. Old Squaw. g^. Central tail-feathers not sharply pointed ; under tail-coverts gray- ish brown 155. Harlequin Duck. C. Wing under 7-00. a. Tail-feathers stiff and narrow ; upper tail-coverts very short. a^. Upper parts mostly rich chestnut-rufous. a». Cheeks white 167. Euddy Duck S. a^. Cheeks black 168. Masked Duck $. b^. Upper parts grayish or brownish, with sometimes rufous markings. J'. Lining of wing blackish ; under parts grayish. 168. Masked Duck 9. h^. Lining of wing whitish ; under parts grayish. 167. Ruddy Duck 9 . b. Tail-feathers normal ; upper tail-coverts about half as long as tail. 153. Bufflehead. IL Feathers at sides or top of bill extending forward generally as far as nostril. A. Feathers on sides of bill not reaching nostril. a. Nostril narrow, elongate ; feathers on culmen extending forward in a narrow line, a V-shaped mark on throat .... 162. King Eider. b. Nostril large, rounded ; feathers on culmen not extending forward in a narrow line 165. White-winged Scoter. B. Feathers on sides of bill extending as far as nostril. a. Bare base of bill on top narrow, ending posteriorly in a sharp point. 159. Greenland Eider. b. Bare base of bill on top broad, the posterior end rounded. 160. Am. Eider. The EuFous-CRESTED Duck [145. Netta rufina) is an Old- World species which has been taken once in America. The record is based on an immature male found in Fulton Market, New York city, which was supposed to have been shot on Long Island. 110 SEA DUCKS. 146. Aythya americana (Eyt.). Redhead. Ad. $ . — Head and throal bright rufous; lower neck, breast, back of the neck, and upper back black ; rest of the back and scapulars finely barred with wavy black and white lines of e^MaZ tvidth ; wmg-coverts brownish gray; upper tail -coverts black; belly white, the lower belly more or less finely barred with black ; under tail- coverts black; sides like the bach. Ad. 9 . — Upper parts dark grayish brown, darker on the rump, the feathers more or less margined with buify or ashy ; sides of the head lighter ; upper throat white ; neck bufty ochraceous ; breast and sides grayish brown, more or less washed or margined with buffy or buffy ochraceous ; belly white ; lower belly and under tail-coverts tinged with ochraceous ; an indistinct bluish-gray band across the end of the bill. L., 19-00; W., 8-90; Tar., 1-55; B., 1-85. ■ Eemarhs. — This species is frequently confused with the Canvasback, from which it may be distinguished by the chai'acters given under that species. The female Redhead is much like the female Ring-neck in coloration ; the latter is generally browner, but they can be distinguished with certainty only by the dift'erence in their size. Bange. — North America; breeds from California and Minnesota north- ward to the fur countries ; rare on the North Atlantic coast, where it has been found breeding only once (Calais, Me.) ; winters from Virginia southward to Cuba and Jamaica. Washington, common W. V. Long Island, T. V. in irregular numbers, Oct. 1 to Apl. 15, few W. V. Sing Sing, common T. V,, Apl. 1 to Apl. 24 ; Oct. 12 to Oct. 28. Cambridge, casual ; one instance, Oct. Nest., on the ground in grassy sloughs or marshy lake sides. Eggs., six to twelve, buflry white, 2-40 x 1-70. The Ducks of the genus Aythya possess to some extent the habits of both the River Ducks and true Sea Ducks, They are divers in deep water, but along the shores or in shallow water they are also " dab- blers." On our coasts the Redhead is a Bay Duck, and feeds in salt and brackish water. 147. Aythya vallisneria (Wils.). Canvasback. Ad. i. — Head and neck rufous-brown, the chin and crown generally hlachisli ; breast and upper back black; rest of the back and gQx\^x2^\^ wing -coverts finely barred with wavy lines of black and white, the white lines the wider ; belly white ; lower belly more or less finely barred with black ; upper and under tail-cov- erts black ; sides loMte^ much less lightly barred with wavy black lines than the back, or even entirely without bars. Ad. 9 . — Head, neck, upper breast, and upper back cinnamon, the throat lighter, and, with the front parts of the head, more or less washed with rufous; back grayish brown, the featliers more or less barred with wavy white lines; belly white or grayish white; sides the same or grayish brown, generally marked like the back. L., 21-00; W., 900 ; Tar., 1-60 ; B., 2-40. Remarhs. — This species is sometimes mistaken for the Redhead, to which it bears a general resemblance. The males of the two species may be distin- guished (1) by the color of the head and neck, which is rufous in the Red- SEA DUCKS. Ill head and rufous-brown in the Canvasback ; (2) by the generally blackish chin and crown of the Canvasback, these parts in the Eedhead being colored like the rest of the head; (3) by the ditference in the mai'kings of the back, wing-coverts, and sides ; and (4) by the difference in the size and shape of the bill, as shown by the accompanying measurements. The females of the two species may be at once distinguished by the color of the back, which in the Canvasback is finely barred with wavy white lines, markings which do not appear on the back of the female Redhead. Range. — North xlmerica ; breeds only in the interior, from Minnesota to the Arctic Circle ; rare on the Atlantic coast north of Delaware ; winters from the Chesapeake Bay to the Greater Antilles. Washington, rare W. V. Long Island, rare T. V. Sing Sing, rare T, V., Oct. Nest., on the ground, in grassy sloughs or marshy lake sides. Eggs., six to ten, buft'y white with a bluish tinge, 2-40 x 1'70. There's much in a name. The reputation of the Canvasback, among gourmands, is too firmly established to be questioned ; but, given the same chef, and- half st dozen of our Ducks can be made to do duty for this favorite of epicures. In some parts of the west, where folks have a way of thinking for themselves, the Canvasback is frankly placed second to his cousin the Redhead. The Canvasback is at its best when the bird has been for some time feeding on wild celery— a diet which equally improves the flesh of other species. 148. Aythya marila. nearctica Stejn. Am. ScatjpDuok; Greater Scaup Duck ; Broadbill ; Bluebill ; Blackhead. Ad. $ . — Head, neck, breast, and upper back black, the top and sides of the head with generally greenish reflections; back and scapulars with wavy black and white bars; speculum white ; upper and under tail-coverts black ; belly white ; lower belly strongly and sides faintly marked with wavy black bars. Ad. 9 . — Region around the base of the bill 'wJiite ; head, neck, breast, and upper back umber, margined with ochraceous on the breast ; back and scapulars fuscous- brown; sides dark grayish brown, both generally marked with fine, wavy bars, of white ; speculum and belly white. $ L., 18'50 ; W., 8"75 ; Tar., 1'40 ; B., 1-65; greatest width of B., 1-00. 9 L., 17-50; W., 8-25; Tar., 1-36; B., 1-65; greatest width of B., 1-00. Range. — -North America; breeds in the interior rarely from Minnesota and. regularly from Manitoba northward to Alaska ; reported on the Atlan- tic from as far north as Greenland, but not known to breed and not common north of Massachusetts ; winters from Long Island to northern South America. Washington, rather common W. V. Long Island, abundant T. V., Sept. 25 to May 1, some winter. Sing Sing, common T. V., Mch. 22 to Apl. 13; Oct. 4 to.Dec. 3.* * The presence or absence of Ducks in the winter depends upon whether the river is frozen or open. 112 SEA DUCKS. Nest^ on the ground, in grassy sloughs or marshy lake sides. Eggs^ six to ten, pale olive-buff, 2-54 x 1-71. This is one of our most common Bay Ducks. While with us it seems to prefer salt and brackish water. It feeds largely on mollusks, which it obtains by diving. Its note is said to be a discordant scaup. 149. Aythya affinis {Eyt.). Lesser Scaup Duck; Little Black- head ; Little Bluebill ; Creek Broadbill. Ad. & . — Similar to the pre- ceding species but smaller, the head, as a rule, glossed with purplish instead of greenish, and the flanks strongly instead of faintly marked with wavy black bars. Ad. 2 . — Similar to the 9 of the preceding species, but smaller. $ L., 16-50; W., 8-00; Tar., 1-35; B., 1-60; greatest width of B., -95. ? L., 16-50; W., 7-60; Tar., 1-30; B., 1-55; greatest width of B., -90. Eemarhs. — The Scaup Ducks resemble each other so closely that it is sometimes impossible to tell them apart, but they may generally be distin- guished by the characters given above. Range. — North America; breeds only in the interior, rarely from Iowa and commonly from Manitoba northward; not common on the Atlantic coast north of Massachusetts ; wintei-s from Virginia to the Greater Antilles. Washington, not uncommon W. R., Oct. to Apl. Long Island, common T. V. Sing Sing, common T. V., Jan. 28 to Apl. 12 ; Aug. 31 to Nov. Cam- bridge, common in Oct. and Nov. ; rare in spring. Aes^, on the ground, in grassy sloughs and marshy lake sides. Eggs^ six to ten, similar in color to those of the preceding, 2-25 x 1-58. This species has much the same habits as the preceding, but is more often found in fresh water, and I think is more southern in its distri- bution during the winter. It is by far the most abundant Duck in Florida waters at that season, where it occurs in enormous flocks in the rivers and bays along the coasts. 150. Aythya collaris {Donov.). Ring-necked Duck. Ad. $. — Chin tvhite ; head, neck, breast, and upper back black, the head with bluish reflections, the neck with a not sharply defined chestnut collar ; back and scapulars black., speculum gray ; upper and under tail-coverts black, belly white, lower belly and sides finely barred with wavy black lines ; bill black, the base and a band across the end bluish gray. Ad. 9 . — Upper parts fus- cous brown, more or less margined with ochraceous ; speculum gray / sides of the head and neck mixed grayish brown and white ; breast, sides, and lower belly grayish brown, more or less margined with ochraceous ; upper belly white or whitish ; bill blackish, an indistinct band of bluish gray across its end. L., 16-50 ; W., 7-50 ; Tar., 1-25 ; B., 1-80. Remarks. — The male Ring-neck may be known from any of its allies by its chestnut collar and other excellent characters ; the female resembles the female Redhead, but is smaller and generally browner. Range. — North America, breeding only in the interior from Iowa north- ward ; not common on the Atlantic coast north of Virginia. SEA DUCKS. 113 Washington, not rare, W. V. Long Island, A. V. Sing Sing, A. V., Apl. Cambridge, casual ; one instance, Nov. Nest^ on the ground, in grassy sloughs or marshy lake sides. Eggs-, six to twelve, similar in color to those of the two preceding species, 2-28 x 1-63. This is more of a fresh-water bird than either of the preceding. It is not common in the Atlantic States north of Florida, where during the winter it is abundant on fresh-water lakes. 151. Glaucionetta clangula americana {JBonap.). Americak Golden-eye ; Whistler. Ad. 6 . — Head and throat dark, glossy green., a circular white patch at the base of the bill measuring, along the bill, less than half an inch in height ; neck all around, breast, belly, exposed part of wing-coverts, speculum, and most of the scapulars white ; rest of plumage black. Ad. 9 . — Head and throat cinnamon-brown, fore neck white ; upper breast, back, and sides ashy gray bordered with grayish ; wing-coverts tipped with white ; speculum, lower breast, and belly white. L., 20-00 ; W., 9-00 ; B, from anterior margin of white patch to anterior margin of nostril, 1-00 ; from anterior margin of nostril to tip, "75. Range. — North America, breeding from Manitoba and Maine northward, and wintering from the southern limit of its breeding range to Cuba. Washington, not rare, W. V. Long Island, common T. V. and W. V., Nov. 15 to Apl. 15. Sing Sing, common T. V. and W. V., Nov. to May. Cambridge, rather common, Oct. and Nov. Nest., in a stump or hollow tree. Eggs., six to ten, pale bluish, 2-35 x 1-75, The rapidly moving wings of most Ducks make a whistling sound, but this species excels in wing music. As a diver it can also claim high rank. 152. Glaucionetta islandica {Gmel.\ Barrow's Golden-eye. Ad. $ .-Head and throat dark, glossy, purplish blue, an irregular, somewhat spread-wi?ig-shaped white patch at the base of the bill measuring, along the bill, about one inch in height; neck all around, breast, belly, speculum, lesser wing-coverts, ends of greater ones, and the shaft part of the scapulars white; rest of the plumage black. Ad. 9 .-Kesembles the 9 of the preceding species in color; there is some difference in the size and proportions of the'bill, but the two birds can not always be distinguished with certainty. W., 9-25 ; B. from anterior margin of white patch to anterior margin of nostril, -80 ; from anterior margin of nostril to tip, -66. Bemarks.—The males of this and the preceding species may always be distinguished by the difference in the color of the head and size and shape of the white spot at the base of the bill. Bange.— Breeds in the far north— Greenland, Iceland, and Alaska-and southward in the Eocky Mountains ; winters as far south as Illinois and Vir- ginia. Washington, A. V., one record. Long Island, A. V. JVest, in a stump or hollow tree. Eggs, six to ten, pale bluish, 2-40 x 1-70- 114 SEA DUCKS. A more northern species than the preceding, which it resembles in habits. 153. Charitonetta SiVbeolSi (Limi.). Bufflehkad; Butter-ball: Spirit Duck. Ad. $ . — A broad white band passes around the back of the head from eye to eye ; rest of the head, upper neck, and throat beautifully glossed with purple, greenish, and bluish ; lower neck all around, breast, belly, wing-coverts, speculum, and outer scapulars white ; back black ; upper tail- coverts and tail ashy-grayish. Ad. 9 . — A white patch on either side of the head, throat, and entire upper parts fuscous-brown ; speculum, breast, and belly white. L., 14-75 ; W., 6-50 ; Tar., 1-25 ; B., 1-05. .Ea?ige.— 'North America:, breeds from Iowa and Maine northward ; win- ters from near the southern limit of its breeding range to the West Indies and Mexico. Washington, common W, V., Sept. to Apl. Long Island, common T. V. and W. v., Oct. 1 to Apl. Sing Sing, tolerably common T. V, CambridgBf common in Oct. and Nov. JVest, in a stump or hollow tree, ^ffffs, six to twelve, dull light buff, 1-98 X 1-46 (Kidgw.). This small Duck has won deserved distinction through its powers as a diver. Like the Grebes, it " dives at the flash," though this well- worn expression has lost half its meaning since flintlocks and percus- sion caps have become things of the past. The Bufflehead feeds to some extent on small fish, which it pursues and catches under water. 154. Clangula hyemalis (Linn.). Old Squaw ; Old Wife; South Southerly. Ad. 6 in winter. — Sides of the front of the head washed with grayish brown; sides of the back of the head and sides of the upper neck black, more or less margined with ochraceous ; rest of the head, neck all around, upper back, scapulars, and lower belly white ; back, breast, and upper belly black ; tail pointed, the middle feathers very long and narrow ; band across the end of the bill yellowish orange. Ad. $ in summer. — Sides of the front of the head white; crest of the head, neck, throat, breast, and upper belly black ; back and scapulars black, the latter margined with dark buify ochraceous ; lower belly white ; tail and bill as in the preceding. 9 in winter. — Upper parts black or fuscous; scapulars and upper back more or less margined with grayish or grayish brown ; sides of the head and neck and sometimes the back of the neck white or whitish ; breast grayish ; belly white; tail pointed, but without the long feathers of the male; under wing- coverts dark. Ad. 9 in summer. — Generally similar to the above, but the sides of the head and throat mostly blackish, and the feathers of the upper parts more or less margined with ochraceous. L., 5 , 21-00, 9 , 16-00 ; W., 8-60; T., 5, 8-00, 9, 2-50; B., 1-05. Remarlcs. — The male Old Squaw is too distinct to be confused with any other species, its long tail-feathers beinor its most striking character; the female bears some resemblance to the female of the Harlequin Duck, but has the belly pure white instead of grayish dusky. SEA DUCKS. 115 Range. — Northern hemisphere ; breeds in the far north, and, in America, winters as far south as the upper Mississippi Valley and Virginia. Washington, rare W, V., Nov. to Apl. Long Island, abundant W. V., Nov. 1 to Apl. 15. Sing Sing, tolerably common W. V., Dec. 4 to Apl. 6. Cambridge, rather common in Oct. and Nov. Aes^, on the ground near water, under low bushes or tall grasses. Eggs^ six to twelve, pale bluish tinged with olive, 2-05 x 1'49. In The Auk for 1892, pp. 330-337, Mr. George H. Mackay gives a capital account of the habits of this species in our waters. He speaks of them as the swiftest flying as well as the noisiest (in the spring) of all the sea fowl which tarry with us, and gives their curious scolding or talking notes as o-onc-o-onc-ough, egh-ough-egh. Their flight is gen- erally near the water, and when shot at while flying they sometimes dive from the wing. He also mentions their habit of towering, " usually in the afternoon, collecting in mild weather in large flocks if undis- turbed, and going up in circles so high as to be scarcely discernible, often coming down with a rush and great velocity, a portion of the flock scattering and coming down, in a zigzag course similar to the Scoters when whistled down." 155. Histrionicusliistrionicus(Z^»/^.). Harlequin Duck. Ad. 6. '—Center of the crown black, margined by white and rufous ; front of the sides of the head, a spot on the ear, a stripe back of it, and a collar around the back and sides of the neck white ; rest of the head and throat rich slaty blue ; a band in front of the wing white, margined with black ; inner scapulars white ; back and breast bluish slate ; belly fuscous ; sides rufous-chestnut. Ad. $ .— Front of the head whitish ; a white spot on the ears; upper parts brownish fuscous; throat, breast, and sides lighter; belly grayish brown, margined with whitish. L., 17-00 ; W., 7-80 ; Tar., 1-50 ; B., 1-05. Range.— '•'■ Northern North America, breeding from Newfoundland, the northern Eocky Mountains, and the Sierra Nevada, northward; south in winter to the Middle States and California" (A. O. U.). Long Island, rare W. V. Nest, on the ground or in hollow stumps near water. Eggs, six to eight, yellowish butf or greenish yellow, 2-30 x 1-62 (Davie). Unlike other members of this subfamily, this species passes the breeding season on rapid dashing streams, but during the winter it occurs as a Sea Duck off our more northern coasts. 156. Camptolaimus labradorius (GmeL). Labradob Duck; Pied Duck. Ad. $ .—Center of crown black ; rest of head, throat, and upper neck white; a black band around the lower neck connected behind with the black back ; primaries fuscous, rest of wing white ; front and sides of the upper breast white, lower breast and belly black. Ad. 9 .—Brownish gray, the speculum white. Im. S .—Like the 9 , but with the throat and ends of the greater wing-coverts white. L., 2000 ; W., 8-40 ; Tar., 1-50 ; B., 1-58. lie SEA DUCKS. Range. — Formerly, North Atlantic coast, breeding from Labrador north- ward, and in winter migrating southward to Long Island ; doubtless now extinct. In a recent paper* on this species Mr. William Butcher quotes the late Mr. George N. Lawrence, as follows : " I recollect that about forty or more years ago it was not unusual to see them in Fulton Market, and without doubt killed on Long Island; at one time I remember seeing six fine males, which hung in the market until spoiled for want of a purchaser ; they were not considered de- sirable for the table, and collectors had a sufiicient number, at that time a pair being considered enough to represent a species in a col- lection." The cause of this Duck's extinction is unknown. The last speci- men, so far as known, was taken at Grand Menan in 1871. f Forty-two specimens have been recorded as existing in collections. Steller's Duck {157. Eniconetta stelleri)., an arctic species, was observed by Kumlien in Greenland. 159. Somateria moUissima borealis (Brelim). GnEEi^LAifit Eider. Ad. $, . — Top of the head black, a greenish white line on the crown ; rest of the head, throat, neck, upper breast, back, scapulars, and lesser wing- coverts white, tinged with greenish on the sides and back of the head, and with vinacfeous on the breast ; middle of the rump, upper and under tail- coverts, lower breast, and belly black. Ad. 9 . — Head, throat, and neck buffy ochraceous, darker above and streaked with black ; back black, the feathers all widely margined and sometimes partly barred with buffy ochraceous ; breast buffy ochraceous, barred with black ; belly gi-ayish brown or olive- brown, indistinctly margined or barred with buffy. Im.. — Similar, but dis- tinctly marked with buffy. L., 23-00 ; W., 11-00 ; Tar., 1-80 ; B., 2-10. Range. — Breeds from Labrador northward ; winters southward to Maine. Nest., on the ground, amid coarse herbage and rocks. Eggs., five to eight, pale bluish or greenish, tinged with olive, 2-'95 x 2-00. This is the American representative of the Eider Duck of north- ern Europe, from which it differs only slightly. The highly prized Eider down is taken from the nest of this bird and its allies. As in- cubation progresses the sitting bird plucks the down from her breast to serve as a nest lining. In Iceland, according to Saunders, the aver- age yield from each nest is about one sixth of a pound. When the females begin to sit the males leave them and, gathering in small flocks, live at sea. 160* Somatena dresseiri tSharpe. American Eider. Kesembles the preceding in color, but differs in the feathering of the base of the cul- * The Auk, vol. viii, 1891, pp. 201-216. t Ibid., vol. xi, 1894, pp. 4-12. SEA DUCKS. 117 men. In both species the culmen is divided by a wedge of feathers reaching forward from the forehead. Looked at from the tip of the bill, the base of the culmen is thus V-shaped. In dresseri the arms of the V are very broad and rounded at the ends, while in borealis they are much narrower and gen- erally pointed at the ends. L., 23-00 ; W., 1 1-30 ; Tar., I'YO ; B., 2-10. Range. — Breeds from the Bay of Fundy to Labrador ; winters southward to Delaware ; occasional in winter on the Great Lakes. Long Island, rare W. V. Sing Sing, A. V., Dec. Nest.^ on the ground, generally sheltered by rocks. Eggs., five to eight pale bluish or greenish, tinged with olive, 3-00 x 2*00. This species is of more southern distribution than the preceding, which it resembles in habits. During their visits to the coasts of the United States the Eiders are true Sea Ducks, living some distance off shore, generally over a bed of mussels, which they secure by diving, and which constitute their chief food. 162. Somateria spectabilis {Linn.). King Eider. Ad. $. — Eegion about the base of the upper mandible and a large V-shaped mark on the throat black ; top of the head bluish gray ; cheeks greenish ; neck all around white; front and sides of the breast creamy bull'; upper back, sides of the rump, and wing-coverts white ; rest of the plumage black. Ad. 9 .— Head and throat buffy ochraceous, the former streaked with black; back black, the feathers widely margined with ochraceous or rufous ; under parts varying from brownish gray to fuscous, more or less washed, especially on the breast, with ochraceous or rufous, /w.— Paler and with less ochraceous. L., 23-00 ; W., 10-80 ; Tar., 1-80 ; B., 1-30. Bemarh.— The adult male of this species may at once be known by its bluish-gray head and the V-shaped mark on its throat. Females and young birds resemble those of the two preceding species, but are to be distinguished by the generally unstreaked throat and the feathering of the side of the base of the bill, which in this species does not, as in the two preceding, reach to the nostril. Bange.— Breeds from Gulf of St. Lawrence northward, and winters south- ward more or less regularly to Long Island and the Great Lakes ; casually as far as Virginia, and on one occasion Georgia. Long Island, regular W. V. JVest, on the ground, among rocks or herbage. Eggs, six to ten, light olive- gray to grayish green, 3-12 x 1-92 (Davie). While in our waters this species does not differ from the preceding in habits. 163. Oidemia americana Sw. and Rich. American Scoter; Black Coot. Ad. S .—Entire plumage black, feathers on the side of the bill extending little if any forward beyond the corner of the mouth; bill black; upper mandible orange or yellowish at the base. L., 19-00 ; W., 9-00 ; Tar., 1-70 ; B. along culmen, 1-75 ; B. along side, 1-85. Range. — Coasts and larger lakes of northern North America ; breeds in lis SEA DUCKS. Labrador and the northern interior ; south in winter to Virginia, the Great Lakes, and California. Washington, casual "W. V. Long Island, common W. V., Oct. through Apl. Sing Sing, rare T. V., Oct. Cambridge, occasional in fall. Nest, on the ground, near water. EggSy " six to ten, pale dull buff or pale brownish buff", 2-55 x 1-80 " (Kidgw.). All three species of Surf Scoters, or " Coots," are abundant winter residents off the coasts of the New England and northern Middle States. At this time their habits are practically alike — indeed, they are often found associated. As a rule, they frequent only the sea and its estuaries, where they live over beds of mussels, clams, or scallops, which they obtain by diving ; but they are sometimes found in ponds near the coast, where food of this nature is abundant. In The Auk for 1891, pp. 279-290, Mr. George H. Mackay gives the results of a long-continued study of Scoters on the Massachusetts coast. The Velvet Scoter {I64. Oidemia fvsca) is an Old- World species which has been recorded from Greenland. 165. Oidemia. deglandi Bonap. White-winged Scoter; White- winged Coot. Ad. $, . — A spot below the eye and the speculum wldte., rest of the plumage black; bill orange-black at the base, the feathers on it reach- ing forward far beyond the corners of the mouth. Im. $, . — Grayish or fus- cous-brown, lighter below ; speculum wMte, feathers at the base of the upper bill and a spot on the ears whitish. Ad. in winter and Im. ? . — Similar to the preceding, but generally without whitish spots on the head. L., 22'00 ; W., 11-00 ; Tar., 2-00 ; B. along culmen, 1*50 ; B. along side, 1-55. Eemarls. — The white speculum and feathering of the bill will always serve to distinguish this species from its allies. Range. — Northern North America, breeding in Labrador and the fur countries ; south in winter to Virginia, southern Illinois, and California. Washington, casual W. V., Oct. to Apl. Long Island, abundant W. V., Sept. 15 to May 15. Sing Sing, tolerably common T. V. Cambridge, occa- sional in fall. Mst., on the ground, beneath bushes, frequently some distance from water. Eggs, " six to ten, pale dull buff, varying to cream-color, 2-68 x 1-83 " (Eidgw.). 166. Oidemia perspicillata (Linn.). Surf Scoter; Sea Coot. Ad. 6 .—A square mark on the crown and a triangular one on the nape white, rest of the plumage black ; bill orange- v ell ow, a large circular black spot on its side at the base ; feathers on the culmen extending nearly to a level with the nostril, feathers on tlie side of the bill not extending forward. Ad. 9 and 7m.— A whitish spot at the base of the bill and on the ears ; upper parts fuscous brown ; throat, breast, sides, and lower belly grayer, belly white. L., 20-00 ; W., 9-30 ; Tar., 1-60 ; B. along culmen, 1-55 ; B. along t>ide, 2-30. Eemarks.— The forward extension of the feathers on the culmen will GEESE. 119 always distinguish this species from 0. americaiw.., while it may be known from deglandi by the absence of white in the wings. Range. — Breeds from the Gulf of St. Lawrence northward ; winters south- ward to the Great Lakes and Virginia, and casually to Florida. Washington, casual W. V. Long Island, common W. V., Oct. through Apl. Sing Sing, common T. V., Oct. 7 to Oct. 22. Cambridge, occasional in fall. Nest^i in tall grasses near water. Eggs., " five to eight, pale buff or pale creamy buff", 2-47 x 170 " (Kidgw.). 167. Erismatura rubida ( WiU.). Kuddy Duck. Ad. ^ .—Top oi the head black, cheeks and chin white, throat and back rufous-chestnut, lower back blackish ; breast and belly silvery white ; upper tail-coverts very short, tail-feathers stiff and pointed. Ad. 5 and Im. — Upper parts dark gray- ish brown, the feathers marked with fine wavy bars of buffy ; sides of the head and upper throat whitish, lower throat grayish, rest of the under parts silvery white. L., 15-00 ; W., 5-90 ; Tar., 1-15 ; B., 1-55. Remarks. — The short upper tail-coverts and stiff, pointed tail-feathers will always serve to identify this species. Range. — Of general distribution from nortiiern South America to the fur countries, breeding largely northward, but locally throughout its range (Granada, Wells ; Guatemala, Salvin ; Cuba, Gundlach ; Cape Cod, Miller). Washington, common W. V., Sept. to Apl. Long Island, irregular T. V. Sing Sing, common T. V., Mch. 14 to Apl. 6; Oct. 5 to Oct. 28. Cambridge, very common in Oct. and Nov. Nest., in a slough or marshy place, generally on a mass of floating vegeta- tion. Eggs., six to ten, creamy or buffy white, 2-50 x 1-80. " When rising from the water, it runs on the surface for some dis tance. and generally against the wind. If it can not command a fair open space for flight, it will dive, using its tail either as a rudder or as a paddle in a vertical motion, and will hide itself away among the grass and sedges. When on the wing, it flies low along the surface of tlie water, with a rapid beat of its broad wings, making a short, plump figure quite uncommon for a Duck ; and it generally flies quite a dis- tance before alighting " (Langiile). In swimming, the tail is sometimes held erect at right angles to the body. The Masked Duck {168. Nomonyx dominicus) is a tropical species of rare occurrence in North America. Single specimens have been taken in Wisconsin, New York, and near Cambridge, Mass. Subfamily Anserinm. Geese. Geese are vegetarians. When on the water, they feed largely by tipping, as with head and neck immersed and tail pointing skyward they search for the roots or seeds of aquatic plants. They are far more terrestrial than Ducks, and visit the land to nip the herbage, 120 GEESE. young corn, or cereals. When wounded, they dive readily and, with their body just below the surface of the water and only the bill ex- posed, head for the shore, where they attempt to hide in the vegetation. In migrating, the flock is formed in a V-shaped wedge, the lead, it is said, being taken by an old gander. KEY TO THE SPECIES. i. Whole head or forehead white. A. Bill yellowish. a. Forehead and feathers at the base of bill white. 171a. Am. White-fronted Goose (Ad.), b. Head and neck white or grayish, sometimes tinged with rusty. b^. Primaries black, rest of plumage white. 169. Lesser Snow Goose. 169a. Greater Snow Goose. b^. Back grayish brown, rump and belly whitish, wing-coverts and tertials widely margined with white. . . . 169. Lesser Snow Goose (Im.). 169a. Greater Snow Goose (Im.). b*. Back grayish brown, rump, belly, and wing-coverts gray, the lat- ter not conspicuously margined with white. 169.1. Blue Goose (Ad.). JS. Bill black, throat and sides of the head white, lores black. 175. Barnacle Goose. IL Head and neck brown, bill yellow or yellowish. A. Nail of bill black, rump fuscous. 171a. Am. White-fronted Goose (Im.). B. Nail of bill yellow, rump gray 169.1. Blue Goose (Im.). III. Head black or brownish black, bill black. A. Throat white . . . 172. Canada Goose. 172a. Hutchins's Goose. jB. Throat black or brownish black, neck speckled with white. a. Belly white 173. Brant. b. Belly brownish gray 174. Black Brant. 169. Chen hyperborea (Pall). Lesser Snow Goose. Ad.— En- tire plumage, except the primaries with their coverts, white; primaries black, their bases and coverts ashy. Im. — " Head, neck, and upper parts pale gray- ish, the feathers of the latter with whitish edges and (especially wing-coverts and tertials) striped medially with darker ; rump, upper tail-coverts, tail, and lower parts plain white. L., 23-00-28-00 ; W., 14-50-17-00; B., 1-95-2-30; Tar., 2-80-3-25" (Ridgw.). Range. — Western North America, breeding in Alaska and migrating south- ward to the Gulf; rarely found east of the Mississippi. £ggs, uniform dirty, chalky white, 3-40 x 2-20 (B., B., and R.). 169a;* C. h. nivalis (Forst.). Greater Snow Goose.— Resembles the preceding in color, but is larger. L., 30-00-38-00; W., 17-35-17-50; B., 2-55- 2-70; Tar., 8-15-3-50 CRidgw.). Range. — Eastern North America, breeding in the far north (exact breed- ing range unknown) ; winters from Chesapeake Bay to Cuba ; rare on the Atlantic coast north of Virginia, GEESE. 121 Long Island, irregular from Oct. to Apl. Sing Sing, A. V., Apl. Nest and eggs unknown. The Snow Goose does not appear to be a common bird on any part of the Atlantic coast. It migrates both by night and day, and when on the wing its white plumage and black-tipped primaries render it easily identifiable. It is a noisier bird than the Canada Goose, and its voice is higher and more cackling. 169.1. Chen caerulescens {Linn.). Blue Goose. Ad. — Head and upper neck white ; middle of the hind neck sometimes blackish, lower neck all around fuscous, rest of under parts brownish gray edged with butfy ; the lower belly generally paler, sometimes white ; upper back and scapulars like the breast ; lower back, rump, and upper tail-coverts gray ; tail fuscous gray edged with whitish; wing-coverts like the rump or slightly darker, with little or no whitish margins ; wing-quills and tertials fuscous, the latter more or less margined with whitish. Im. — " Similar to adult, but head and neck uniform deep grayish brown, only the chin being white. L., 26"50-30-00 ; W., 15-00- 17-00 ; B., 2-10-2-30 ; Tar., 3-00-3-30 " (Eidgw.). Range. — North America; breeds in the Hudson Bay region and migrates southward, chiefly through the interior, to Texas. Long Island, A. V. Nest and eggs unknown. The Blue Goose is apparently nowhere a common bird, and on the Atlantic coast it is even less common than in the interior. It was at one time supposed to be the young of the Snow Goose, which it doubt- less resembles in habits. 171a. Anser albifrons gambeli {Hartl.). American White- fronted Goose. Ad. — Forehead and region bordering the base of the bill white ; upper parts and ' foreneck grayish brown, more or less margined on the back with lighter; longer and lateral upper tail-coverts white; breast somewhat lighter than the throat, more or less irregularly marked with black, and fading gradually into pure white on the lower belly ; sides like the back. Im. — Similar, but no white at the base of the bill or black marks on the breast ; nail of the bill black. " L., 27-00-30-00 ; W., 14-25-17-50 ; B., 1-80-2-35 ; depth of mandible at base, -90-1-20 ; width, -85-1-05 ; Tar., 2-60-3-20 " (Eidgw.). Range. — "North America, breeding far northward; in winter south to Mexico and Cuba" (A. O. U.) ; rare on the Atlantic coast. Long Island, A. V. Nest.^ on the ground, of grasses lined with down. Eggs., six to seven, dull greenish yellow with obscure darker tints, 3-10 x 2-07 (Davie). " These birds are rarely met with on the Atlantic coast, but are quite common in the Mississippi Valley and abundant on the Pacific slope. They prefer low, wet grounds in the vicinity of timber, or where the prairie is dotted here and there with bushes ; and, while they occasionally forage off the wheat fields and other grains on the 122 GEESE. bottom lands, they seldom visit the high, dry prairies like the Snow and Canada Geese " (Goss). The European White-fronted Goose {171. Anser albifrons) resembles its American representative in color, but averages smaller. It is American only as it occurs in Greenland, where gambeli is apparently unknown. 172. Branta canadensis {Linn.). Canada Goose. u4 {Linn.). Whooping Crane; White Crane. Ad.—To^ of the head, lores, and sides of the throat dull red, with a thin growth of black "hairs " ; primaries black, rest of the plumage white. Im. — Similar, but whole head feathered, and the plumage more or less washed with buff'y ochraceous. L., 50-00 ; W., 25-00 ; Tar., 11-50 ; B., 5-00. X3S COURLANS. ^a^t^e.— Interior of North America ; breeds from Illinois northward ; win- ters in the Gulf States. Washington, A. V., one record. Nest, of grasses and weed stalks, on the ground in marshy places. Eggs, two, olive-gray, spotted and blotched with distinct and obscure cinnamon- brown markings, 4-00 x 2-50. A rather rare species east of the Mississippi. " In flight their long necks and stiltlike legs are stretched out in a line with the body to the full extent, moving strongly with slowly beating wings, but not swiftly, . . . often circling spiral-like to a great height. They occa- sionally bunch up, and I have seen them in triangular form ; but as a rule they travel in single file, following their leader in a wavy line, croaking as they go, like hounds upon a cold trail " (Goss). The Little Brown Crane {205. Grus canadensis) breeds from Hudson Bay to Alaska, and winters in Texas and Mexico. There are but two in- stances of its occurrence east of the Mississippi (Rhode Island and South Carolina). It resembles 7nexicana, but is smaller; W. 18-50 ; B., 4-10. 206. Grus mexica^na; (Mull.). Sandhill Crane ; Brown Crane. Ad. — Whole top of the head to below the eyes covered with rough, minutely warty, dull reddish skin thinly grown with short, black "hairs"; plumage brownish gray, with more or less silvery gray and huffy ochraceous. Im. — Similar, but whole head feathered, and with more huffy ochraceous in the plumage. " L., 40-00-48-00 ; W., 21-83 ; Tar., 10 25 ; B., 5-47 " (Ridgw.). Range, — Florida, Georgia, and northward through the Mississippi Valley to Manitoba ; breeds locally throughout its range ; winters in the Gulf States from Florida to Texas. Nest.^ of roots, rushes, weed stalks, etc., on the ground in marshy places. Eggs, two, olive-gray, spotted and blotched with distinct and obscure cinna- mon-brown markings, 3*90 x 2-40. " These birds in their habits are similar to the Whooping [Crane], but much more numerous. Their loud, modulating, sonorous croak announces their presence, and is often heard during the night as well as the day. " During courtship and the early breeding season their actions and antics at times are ludicrous in the extreme, bowing and leaping high in the air, hopping, skipping, and circling about with drooping wings and croaking whoop, an almost indescribable dance and din, in which the females (an exception to the rule) join, all working themselves up into a fever of excitement only equaled by an Indian war dance, and, like the same, it only stops when the last one is exhausted " (Goss). Family Aramid^. Courlans. Courlans might be called large Rails with some of the habits of Herons. Two species are known, Aramus scolopaceus of South America, RAILS, GALLINULES, AND COOTS. 139 and A. giganteus of Central America, Mexico, the West Indies, and Florida. They frequent the borders of wooded streams and swamps, and at times the uplands. Their flight is short, and when on the wing their legs dangle below them. Like the Herons, they perch in trees. Their prolonged, melancholy call has won for them the name " Crying- bird." Their usual note is a loud, rather high ivah-ree-ow ; the last syllable is drawn out into a wail, and the effect is most grewsome. Courlans feed to a large extent on land shells (Ampidlaria), and, as Prof. W. B. Barrows has shown, the tip of the Courlan's bill is some- times turned slightly to one side, an evident result of forcing it into the spiral opening of the shell to extract the animal. 207. Aramus giganteus {Bonap.). Limpkin ; Crying-bikd ; Couk- LAN. (See Fig. 24.) Ad. — Glossy olive-brown, the feathers of the head and neck narrowly, those of the body broadly, striped with white ; wings and tail more bronzy. Im. — Similar, but paler and duller. L., 28-00 ; W., 13-00 ; Tar., 4-50 ; B., 4-25. Range. — Central America and West Indies north to Eio Grande Valley and Florida. Ned.^ of leaves, twigs, etc., in a bush or small tree. Eggs., four to seven, pale bufiy white, blotched, stained, and speckled with light cinnamon-brown, 2-30 X 1-70. This is a locally distributed species in Florida. Its general habits are described in the remarks on the family Aramidce. Family Rallid^. Rails, Gallinules, and Coots. The one hundred and eighty species contained in this family are distributed throughout the greater part of the world, fifteen species inhabiting North America. Rails and Gallinules are not strictly gre- garious, but are generally associated through a community of inter- ests ; Coots, however, are usually found in flocks. Rails inhabit grassy marshes, in which they seek safety by running or hiding, taking to wing when pursued only as a last resort. Their flight is then short and labored, and with dangling legs they soon drop back into cover. Nevertheless, they perform extended migrations, traveling hundreds of miles without resting. Gallinules live near the marshy borders of bodies of water, while the more aquatic Coots resemble some Ducks in habits, KEY TO THE SPECIES. L Bill over 1-75. A. Cheeks below the eye cinnamon-rufous, like the breast ; flanks black barred with white ; upper parts rich olive-brown streaked with black. 208. King Rail. £. Cheek below the eye gray ; flanks generally gray or broM^nish, barred with white ; upper parts generally grayish, streaked with black. 211. Clapper Eail and races. 140 RAILS, GALLINULES, AND COOTS. II. Bill under 1-75. A. Wing over 6*00. a. General color blue, feet yellow 218. Purple Gallinule. b. General color slaty, feet dark greenish. b^. Toes with large scalloped webs or flaps at the side. 221. Am. Coot. b^. Toes without flaps or webs . . . , . 219. Florida Gallinule. R Wing under 6-00. a. Wing under 3-50. a^. Back blackish, with small round, white spots . 216. Black Eail. a". Back blackish, barred with white and margined with buffy. 215. Yellow Kail. b. Wing over 3*50. bK Bill over 1-00 212. Virginia Rail. €\ Bill under 1*00. c". Wing over 4-50, lesser wing-coverts rufous . 217. Corn Crake. c\ Wing under 4*50, lesser wing-coverts olive .... 214. Sora. 208. "RaJlvLS elegans Aud. King Rail; Marsh Hen. ^6?.— Upper parts varying from olive-brown to black, the back and scapulars widely mar- gined with olive-gray; wings and tail olive-brown; wing-coverts rufous; throat white ; neck and breast cinnamoti-rufous ; belly and sides fuscous, sharply barred with white. Downy Young — Glossy black. L., 15-00 ; W., 6-50 ; Tar., 2-20 ; B., 2-40. Range. — Eastern North America; breeds as far north as Missouri and southern Connecticut, and occasionally strays as far as Wisconsin, Ontario, and Maine ; winters from Virginia southward. Washington, uncommon S. R., almost a P. R. Long Island, rare S. R. JVest, of grasses, on the ground in fresh-water marshes. Eggs, seven to twelve, bufiy white, more heavily spotted and speckled with rufous-brown than those of the next species, 1-68 x 1-20. The King Rail is the fresh-water representative of the Clapper Rail. It is, however, a miich less common bird, and less is known of its habits. Like other Rails, it is a skulker, and never flies when it can escape by running or hiding in the dense grass of its home. On three occasions I have heard what I am quite sure was the King Rail's call, a loud, startling hup, hup, hup, hup, hup, uttered with increasing ra- pidity until the syllables were barely distinguishable, then ending some- what as it began. The whole performa^nce occupied about five seconds. 211. Rallus longirostris crepitans {Gmel.). Clapper Rail; Marsh Hen. (See Fig. 22, a.) Ad. — Upper parts very pale greenish olive, the feathers widely margined with gray ; wings and tail grayish brown ; wing-coverts pale cinnamon, much washed with gray; throat white; neck and breast pale, between ocliraceous and cream-buff, more or less washed with grayish ; belly and sides gray or brownish gray, barred with white. Downy Young— Q\oQ^j black. L., 14-50 ; W., 5-00 ; Tar., 2-00 ; B., 2-50. Bemarhs. — The Clapper Rail may always be known from the King Rail RAILS, GALLINULES, AND COOTS. 141 by its generally grayish instead of brownish or blackish upper parts, by its much paler breast and flanks and paler wing-coverts. Range. — Breeds in salt-water marshes of eastern North America from Connecticut to the Gulf of Mexico; winters in small numbers from near the northern limit of its range southward. Washington, A. V., one record. Long Island, common S. E., Apl. to Oct., a few winter. Sing Sing, A. V. Nest., of grasses, on the ground, in grass-grown, salt-water marshes. Eggs.^ eight totwel\fe, butty white, spotted and speckled with rufous-brown, 1'72 x 1-20. The Clapper Rail is an inhabitant of grassy, salt-water marshes, and, in the southern parts of its range, of mangrove swamps. It is almost impossible to flush these birds unless their haunts are invaded by an unusually high tide, when a boat may be pushed through the meadows and the birds forced to take wing. I have heard birds calling in the tall grass within a few feet of me, and have made a wild rush in their direction, only to be mocked a moment later by apparently the same bird calling from a point almost within reach. They dodge about over well-traveled pathways like children in a game of blindman's buff. While not strictly gregarious, they live in colonies, and the long, rolling call of one bird is sometimes taken up and repeated by others until there is a general outcry through the marsh. Sllai* B* 1* satus Hensh. Louisiana Clapper Eail. — A local race of the Clapper Rail found in the marshes of Louisiana. Its characters appear not to be well understood. It is much darker than crepitans., but not so dark as scottii. " W., 5-65 ; Tar., 1-97 ; B., 2-27 " (Ridgw.). Range. — Coast of Louisiana. 211b« R. L scottii {Senn.). Florida Clapper Rail. — Differs from crepitans in being black, fuscous, or olive-brown above, with olive-gray mar- gins to the feathers ; in having the neck and breast cinnamon-rufous washed with brownish, and in having the belly and flanks black instead of gray. In fact, the general color of scottii suggests a King Rail, but the latter may always be known by its rufous wing-coverts and clear cinnamon-rufous neck and breast. W., 5-50 ; Tar., 1-90 ; B., 2-40. Range. — Gulf coast of Florida. 212. RallusvirginianusZmri.. Virginia Rail, ^c?.— Upper parts fuscous or black, the feathers bordered by pale grayish brown ; wings and tail dark grayish brown ; wing-coverts rufous, lores whitish, cheeks gray, throat white, rest of the under parts cinnamon-rufous ; flanks and under tail- coverts barred or spotted with black and white. Downy Young. — Glossy black. L., 9-50 ; W., 4-30 ; Tar., 1-30 ; R, 1-50. Range. — Breeds from northern Illinois, Pennsylvania, and Long Island to Manitoba and Labrador ; winters from near the southern limit of its breeding range southward. Washington, probably P. R. Long Island, common S. R., Apl. to Oct. ; a 142 RAILS, GALLINULES, AND COOTS. few winter. Sing Sing, tolerably common S. R. to Sept. 29. Cambridge, common S. R., Apl. 20 to Oct. 15. JVest^ of grasses, on the ground in marshes. Eggs^ six to twelve, pale buffy white, spotted and speckled with rufous-brown, 1-26 x '96. In almost any extensive fresh or brackish marsh, especially if it has beds of cat-tail flags or scattered thickets of low bushes and briers, one may hear in May and June, particularly in the early morning, late afternoon, or during cloudy weather, a succession of grunting sounds not unlike those of a hungry pig. Although by no means loud, they have a penetrating quality which makes them carry to a considerable distance ; and they are apt to attract attention even when, as is usually the case, they mingle with the songs of innumerable Hed-winged Blackbirds, Marsh Wrens, and other swamp-loving birds. It is no easy matter to trace them to their author, but if you are persevering and at the same time fortunate, you may at length discover him skulk- ing under a bush or behind a tuft of grass. He is the Virginia Rail, an odd-looking bird about the size of a Snipe. If you remain motion- less, he may presently come out into fairer view and walk slowly around the edge of some pool, lifting and putting down his large feet with curious deliberation, cocking up his absurdly short tail at each step, and every now and then stopping to thrust his bill deep into the ooze in search of food. As he pauses to look at you, you are struck by his half-quizzical, half-sinister expression, due, no doubt, to the fact that his eyes are blood-red and deeply sunk in their long, narrow head. Startle him by some sudden movement, and he will do one of three things — dart back into cover as swiftly as a frightened mouse, skip across the pool over the floating leaves of the water plants, using both wings and feet, or rise with feebly fluttering wings and hanging legs to fly only a few rods before dropping beyond some intervening screen of grass or bushes. In any case you are not likely to find him again on this occasion. Besides the grunting sound, the Virginia Rail utters during the breeding season, especially at night and in lowering weather, a gut- tural cut, cutta-cufta-cutta, often repeated at brief intervals for hours in succession. This cry appears to be peculiar to the male, and is, no doubt, his love song. When heard at a distance of only a few yards it has a vibrating, almost unearthly quality, and seems to issue from the ground directly beneath one's feet. The female, when anxious about her eggs or young, calls ki-M-ki in low tones, and km much like a Flicker. The young of both sexes in autumn give, when startled, a short, explosive kep or kik, closely similar to that of the Carolina Rail. William Brewster. RAILS, GALLINULES, AND COOTS. 143 214. Porzana Carolina (Z«Vm.). Sora ; Carolina Eail. (See Fig. 22, c.) Ad. — Kegion about the base of the bill, center of crown, and a line down the middle of the neck black ; rest of the breast and throat, sides of the head, and front part of the crown pale blue-gray ; rest of the upper parts olive-brown, most of the feathers with black centers, the scapulars and back streaked on either side with white ; wings fuscous- brown, their coverts gray- ish cinnamon, outer edge of first primary white ; lower belly white, flanks barred with black and white. Jm. — Similar, but without black at the base of the bill or on the throat ; breast washed with cinnamon and upper parts darker. L., 8-50 ; W., 4-30 ; Tar., 1-30 ; B., -80. Range. — Breeds from Kansas, Illinois, and Long Island northward to Hudson Bay ; winters from South Carolina to northern South America. Washington, common T. V., Mch. ; July to Nov. Long Island, com- mon T. v., Apl. and May; Aug. to Oct.; rare S. E. Sing Sing, common T. v., May ; Aug. 19 to Oct. 24. Cambridge, very common S. E., Apl. 20 to Oct. 20. Nest., of grasses, on the ground in marshes. Eggs., eight to fifteen, huffy white or ochraceous-buff", spotted and speckled with rufous-brown, 1*24 x -90. The Soras' summer home is in fresh-water marshes, where, if it were not for their notes, the reeds and grasses would long keep the secret of their presence. But knowing their calls, you have only to pass a May or June evening near a marsh to learn whether they in- habit it. If there, they will greet you late in the afternoon with a clear whistled ker-wee, which soon comes from dozens of invisible birds about you, and long after night has fallen it continues like a springtime chorus of piping hylas. Now and again it is interrupted by a high-voiced, rolling wMnny which, like a call of alarm, is taken up and repeated by different birds all over the marsh. They seem so absorbed by their musical devotions that even when calling continuously it requires endless patience and keen eyes to see the dull-colored, motionless forms in places where one would not sup- pose there was sufficient growth to conceal them. Floating silently near the shore on my back in a canoe, I have seen them venture out to feed. With tails erect they step gingerly along, evidently aware of their exposed position, for on the least alarm they dart back to cover. Sometimes they cross small streams by swim- ming, and they are expert divers. In the fall they gather in the wild-rice or wild-oat {Zizania aquai- ica) marshes, and a well-directed stone or unusual noise may bring a series of protesting interrogative kuks or peeps from the apparently deserted reeds. At this season "gunners" in small flat-bottomed boats are poled through the flooded meadows, and the Soras, waiting until the last moment, rise on feeble wing — a mark which few can miss. Numerous puffs of smoke float over the tall grasses, and the dull reports come booming across the marsh with fateful frequency. 144 RAILS, GALLINULES, AND COOTS. The Spotted Crake {213. Porzana porzana) — an Old World representa- tive of our Sora — is recorded as " occasional in Greenland." 215. Porzana noveboracensis {GmeL). Yellow Kail. (See Fig, 22, b.) Ad. — Upper parts black, the feathers bordered with ochraceous-butt and with from one to three narrow white bars; breast ochraceous-buft'; mid- dle of the belly white ; sides and lower belly black or brownish, barred with white. L., 7-00 ; W., 3-40 ; Tar., -95 ; B., 52. Range. — " Eastern North America from Nova Scotia and Hudson Bay west to Utah and Nevada ; no extralimital record except Cuba and the Ber- mudas " (A. 0. U.). Washington, rare T. V., Mch. and Oct. Long Island, uncommon T. V. Cambridge, rare T. V., Apl. and May; Oct. and Nov. Nest., on the ground in grassy marshes, £ggs, six or more, creamy buflf, densely sprinkled and speckled on larger end with rusty brown, 1-12 x -83 (Eidgw.). This little Rail inhabits marshes with others of its family. With them it seems to know that it can escape its enemies much more easily by hiding in the tangled grasses of its home than by taking wing, and it flies only to avoid actual capture. It can be hunted successfully, therefore, only with dogs. Nuttall describes its notes as " an abrupt and cackling cry, ^krek, 'krek, 'krek, 'krek, 'kuk, 'k'kh,^' and compares them to the croaking of the tree frog. 216. Porzana jamaicensis (GmeL). Little Black Eail. Ad.— Head, breast, and upper belly slate-color; lower belly, back, and wings brownish black, barred or spotted with white; nape dark reddish brown, L., 5-00; W., 2-80; Tar., -80; B., -60. Range. — " Temperate North America, north to Massachusetts, northern niinois, and Oregon ; south to West Indies and in western South America to Chili" (A. 0. U.). Probably breeds throughout its North America range, Washington, rare T, V., several in Sept. Long Island, rare T. V. Nest., of grasses, on the ground in marshes Eggs, ten, white, thinly sprin- kled with reddish brown dots, more numerous at the larger end, I'OO x -80 (Nelson, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, i, 1876, p. 43). This bird is about as difficult to observe as a field mouse. It is said to prefer grassy meadows, where, like others of its family, it never flies when it can escape by running or hiding. It is apparently not common. The only description of its notes I know of is given by Mr. March, of Jamaica, who, as quoted by Dr. Brewer, writes its call as ^^ chi-chi-cro-croo-croo, several times repeated dn sharp, high-toned notes, so as to be audible to a considerable distance." The Corn Crake (217. Crex crex), a bird of Europe and northern Asia, is casual in Greenland, Bermudas, and eastern North America. It is about the size of a Clapper Kail, but has a bill no larger than that of the Sora. The RAILS, GALLINULES, AND COOTS. 14-5 general color of the upper parts is between ochraceous-buff and cream-buff, the feathers with black centers ; the wing-coverts and most of the quills are pale rufous ; the breast is pale ochraceous-buff ; the sides are the same, barred with white ; the middle of the belly is white. 218. Ioiiornismartinica>(Zm72'.). Purple Gallinule. Ad. — Front of the crown with a bare bluish plumbeous plate ; rest of the head and under parts rich dark purplish blue ; under tail-coverts white ; back shining olive- green ; wings light blue, tinged with greenish ; bill carmine, tipped with pale greenish (in skins, reddish orange, tipped with yellowish) ; legs yellow. Im. ■ — Upper parts more or less washed with brownish ; under parts more or less mottled with white ; plate on the head smaller ; bill without orange-red. Downy young. — Glossy black, head with numerous white, hairlike feathers; base of the bill yellowish, end black. L., 13-00; W., 7-10; Tar., 2-40; B. from posterior margin of nostril, -80. Range. — Tropical America ; breeds as far north as southern Illinois and South Carolina, and rarely strays northward to Wisconsin and Maine ; win- ters from southern Florida southward. Long Island, A. V. Eest., a platform of reed stalks built in rushes over the water or in grassy marshes. Eggs., eight to ten, buffy white, finely speckled with rufous-brown, 1-60 X 1-15. This is a common bird in the Southern States. It winters from southern Florida southward and migrates northward in April. It is generally found associated with the Florida Gallinule, which it resem- bles in habits, but its much brighter color is apparent at a distance. 219. Gallinula galeata {LicM.). Florida Gallinule. (See Fig. 22, d.) .4^.— Dark bluish slate-color ; back and scapulars washed with olive- brown ; belly whitish; flanks with a few conspicuous wJiite streahs ; under tail-coverts white ; crown with a bare, bright-red plate ; bill the same color uipped with yellowish ; legs greenish, reddish at the tibiae, /m.— Similar, but under parts grayish white; crown plate much smaller and with the bill brownish ; no red on the legs. Doivny young. — " Glossy black, the lower parts sooty along the median line ; throat and cheeks interspersed with sil- very white hairs " (Ridgw.). L., 13-50 ; W., 7-00 ; Tar., 2-15 ; B. from poste- rior margin of nostril, -80. Range. — Temperate and tropical America ; breeds locally as far north as Minnesota and southern Maine ; winters from the Gulf States southward. Washington, rare T. V., Apl.; Aug. to Oct. Long Island, uncommon T. v.. May; Sept. and Oct. Sing Sing, rare S. K, June 5 to Nov. 5. Cam- bridge, uncommon S. R., May 10 to Oct. 1. Mst., of rushes on a bed of rushes or similar slight elevation in marshes, lagoons, or swampy lake sides. Eggs, eight to thirteen, buffy white or ochra- ceous-buff, spotted and speckled with rufous-brown, 1-80 x 1-25. There is something about the appearance and habits of Gallinules wMch always suggests to me the thought that they are chickens who 11 146 RAILS, GALLINULES, AND COOTS. for unknown reasons have been forced to adopt the ways of both Coots and Rails. Indeed, now I think of it, the names Water-hen and Moor- hen are applied to near relatives of our bird. They frequent marshy, reed- or bush-grown shores of ponds and lakes, walking gracefully through the tangled vegetation. Their flight is short and, like a Rail, with dangling legs they drop awkwardly to the ground. They swim readily, and when on the water resemble a Coot, though they are by no means so aquatic. Their notes are loud and varied, and during the nesting season they are unusually noisy. Their common note is a loud, explosive chuck ; other calls are suggestive of the barnyard, and remind one of the protest of a disturbed brooding hen or even the squawking of a struggling fowl. In The Auk, vol. viii, pages 1-7, Mr. Brewster gives a detailed account of his study of a pair of Gallinules. 221. Fulica americana G-mel. American Coot; Mud-hen; Crow Duck ; Blue Peter. (See Fig. 22, e.) Ad. — ^Head and neck blackish ; rest of the plumage dark, bluish slate-color, paler below ; edge of the wing, tips of the secondaries., and under tail-coverts white ; bill whitish, two spots near its tip and crown plate brownish ; legs and feet greenish ; toes with scalloped flaps. Ira. — Similar, but much whiter below, a slight brownish wash above ; crown plate much smaller. Downy young. — Blackish, white below ; throat and upper parts with numerous bright orange hairlike feathers ; lores red ; bill red, tipped with black. L., 15-00 ; W., 7*50 ; Tar., 2-25 ; B. from posterior margin of nostril, -80. RemarTcs. — The Coot bears a general resemblance to the Florida Gallinule, but, aside from the differences in color, the scalloped webbed feet of the Coot will always serve to distinguish them. Range. — North America as far north as Alaska and New Brunswick, and casually Greenland ; breeds locally throughout its range ; rather rare on the Atlantic coast during the nesting season. Washington, common T. V., Mch. to May ; Sept. to Oct. 15. Long Island, uncommon T. V., Apl. ; not uncommon, Sept. to Nov. Sing Sing, common T. v., Apl. 28 to May 16 ; Sept. 22 to Nov. 13. Cambridge, T. V., rare in Apl. ; common Sept. to Nov. Nest.1 of reeds, grasses, etc., among reeds in fresh-water marshes. Eggs., eight to fifteen, pale, huffy white, finely and uniformly speckled with choco- late or black, 1*85 x 1-25. As one might imagine after seeing their lobed feet. Coots are more aquatic than either of the Gallinules. In the Middle States they are found in creeks and rivers with marshy and reed-grown shores, while in Florida they resort in enormous numbers to lakes covered with the yellow lilies locally known as " bonnets " (Nuphar) ; and in some of the large, shallow rivers, like Indian River, they may be found in myriads, associated with Lesser Scaup Ducks. In my experience they are as a rule quite shy ; but near the long ( PHALAEOPES. 147 railway pier at Titusville, Florida, where shooting is prohibited, they are as tame as domestic Ducks. They evidently know the boundary line between safety and danger, however, and when beyond the pro- tected limits show their usual caution. Coots swim easily, with a peculiar bobbing motion of the head and neck. When alarmed they patter over the water, using their feet as much as their wings. The sound produced is a characteristic one. They are noisy birds, and when alarmed break out into a great chorus of high, cackling notes which I have heard at a distance of half a mile. Their ivory-white bill is an excellent field mark, and readily serves to distinguish Coots from Gallinules. The European Coot {220. Fulica atra) inhabits the northern parts of the Old World, and sometimes occurs in Greenland. It closely resembles the American Coot, but lacks the white markings on the edge of the wing and under tail-coverts. ORDER LIMIGOL^. SHORE BIRDS. Family Phalaropodid^. Phalaropes. There are three known members of this family : one is confined to the interior of North America, the other two may be called Sea Snipe, and are found in the northern parts of the northern hemisphere. The webbed feet of these pelagic species enable them to swim with ease, and during their migrations they may be found in flocks resting upon the sea far from land. Their presence on our shores is largely de- pendent upon the weather, and during severe storms many are some- times found upon our coasts. Contrary to the usual rule, the female in this family is the larger and more brightly colored — indeed, in the domestic economy of the Phalarope household the female is male, ex- cept in the prime essentials of sex. She does the wooing, takes the lead in selecting the nesting site, and, although she lays the eggs, the duties of incubation fall upon the male. KEY TO THE SPECIES. A. Bill over 1-10 224. Wilson's Phalarope. B. Bill under 1-10. a. Bill very slender ; wing under 4-75 . . . 223. Northern Phalarope. h. Bill stout ; wing over 4*75 222. Eed Phalarope. 222. Crymophilus fiilicarius {Linn.). Eed Phalarope; Gray Phalarope. (See Fig. 26, a.) Ad. in sumvier. — Crown and chin fuscous; cheeks white; back black, the feathers bordered with cream-buff; wings gray ; some of the secondaries and tips of greater coverts white ; upper tail- 148 PHALAROPES. coverts rufous ; under parts dull, reddish brown. Ad. in winter. — Top of the head and under parts white ; region about the eye and back of the neck fus- cous ; back and scapulars dark pearl-gray ; wings grayish fuscous, the coverts and secondaries tipped with white ; rump and tail fuscous, /m.— " Top of the head, hind neck, back, and scapulars dull black, the feathers edged with ochra- ceous; wing-coverts, rump, and upper tail-coverts plumbeous, the middle coverts bordered with pale buff, the tail-coverts with ochraceous ; head and neck (except as described above) and lower parts white, the throat and chest tinged with brownish buff. L., 8-12 ; W., 5-37 ; B., -87 ; Tar., -82" (Ridgw.). Range. — " Northern parts of northern hemisphere, breeding in the arctic regions and migrating south in winter; in the United States, south to the Middle States, Ohio Valley, and Cape St. Lucas ; chiefly maritime " (A. 0. U.). Washington, casual, one record, Oct. Long Island, not uncommon T. V., May ; Aug. to Nov. Nest., a slight hollow in the ground lined with a few bits of moss and grasses. Eggs., three to four, similar to those of the following species, 1-25 x -90. This pelagic species is found in numbers some distance off our coasts ; it occurs on land rarely, and generally only after storms. 2S3. Phalaropus lobatus {Linn.). Northern Phalarope. Ad. ? in summer. — Upper parts slaty gray ; back and scapulars edged with ochraceous- buff"; sides and front of the neck rufous, more or less mixed with slaty gray ; rest of under parts white. Ad. 6 in summer. — Similar, but upper parts black, and with more ochraceous ; sides and front of the neck mixed with fuscous. Ads. in winter. — Upper parts grayish, more or less mixed with white ^tips of greater wing-coverts and sometimes part of the secondaries white, occasion- ally with traces of rufous on the sides of the neck ; under parts white, more or less mottled with grayish on the breast. Im. — Upper parts black, edged with straw-color; forehead white ; under parts white, breast sometimes lightly washed with buffy. L., 7-75 ; W., 4-50 ; Tar., '80 ; B., -85. Range. — "Northern portions of the northern hemisphere, breeding in arctic latitudes ; south in winter to the tropics " (A. O. U.). Washington, casual, one record, Sept. Long Island, common T. V., Aug. to Nov. ; May. Nest., a slight hollow in the ground lined with grass and mosses. Eggs., three to four, pale olive-gray heavily blotched with deep chocolate, 1"18 x -SS, During its presence off our coasts this species resembles the pre- ceding in habits. It is, however, more common, and under proper conditions sometimes occurs in larger flights. I have seen it in great numbers about one hundred miles off Barnegat, New Jersey, in May. For several hours the steamer passed through flocks of these Sea Snipe, which were swimming on the ocean. They arose in a body at our approach, and in close rank whirled away to the right or left in search of new feeding grounds. 224. Phala>ropus tricolor ( Vieill.). Wilson's Phalarope. Ad. 5 in summer. — Top of the head and middle of the back pearl-gray, nape AVOCETS AND STILTS. 149 wliite ; a black streak passes through the eye to the side of the neck and, changing to rufous-chestnut, continues down the sides of the back and on the scapulars ; neck and upper breast washed with pale, brownish rufous ; rest of the under parts and upper tail-coverts white. Ad. $ in summer. — Upper parts fuscous-brown, bordered with grayish brown ; upper tail-coverts, nape, and a line over the eye white or whitish ; sides of the neck and breast washed with rufous ; rest of the under parts white. Ads. in ivinter. — Upper parts gray, margined with white ; upper tail-coverts white ; wings fuscous, their coverts margined with butty; under parts white. Im. — "Top of head, back, and scapulars dusky blackish, the feathers distinctly bordered with buff'; wing- coverts also bordered with pale buff or whitish ; upper tail-coverts, superciliary stripe, and lower parts white, the neck tinged with buff'" (Ridgw.). i L., 8-75 ; W., 4-75 ; Tar., 1-20 ; B., 1-20. 9 L., 9*50 ; W., 5-25 ; Tar., 1-30 ; B., 1-30. Range. — " Temperate North America, chiefly in the interior, breeding from northern Illinois and Utah northward to the Saskatchewan region ; south in winter to Brazil and Patagonia" (A. O. U.). Long Island, casual, Aug., Sept., and Oct. Nest.1 a shallow depression in soft earth lined with a thin layer of frag- ments of grass. Eggs.^ three to four, cream-buff or buffy white, heavily blotched with deep chocolate, 1-28 x -94. (See Nelson, Bull. Nutt. Orn. Club, ii, 1879, pp. 38-43.) " These birds are rare in the Eastern States, abundant in the Mis- sissippi Valley, and quite common westward within their range. They inhabit the marshes, swales, and edges of shallow ponds, feeding upon minute snails and other small forms of life that abound in their aquatic haunts, procuring the same chiefly by running over the moist ground or wading in the short growths of water grasses. They swim buoy- antly, but seldom long at a time or far from the shore, and I never saw one dive or make an attempt to do so, but, when frightened, pre- fer to escape by flight, which is strong, but at such times in a zigzag and wavy manner, dropping back as soon as out of danger. As a rule they are not timid, and are easily approached. Their motions, whether upon the land or water, are easy and pleasing, gracefully nodding the head or picking from side to side as they go " (Goss). Family Recurvirostrid^. Avocets and Stilts. The eleven species comprising this family are distributed through- out the warmer parts of the world. They are generally found in flocks, and may be called Wading Snipe. They feed in shallow water, wading to their heels, and when necessary swimming with ease. 235. Recurvirostra americana Gmel. American Avocet. Ad. in summer. — Head and neck cinnamon-rufous, back and tail white, scapulars and primaries black ; middle coverts, tips of the greater ones, and part of sec- ondaries white ; belly white, bill turned upward. Ad. in winter and Im.^ 150 SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. Generally similar, but head and neck white or pearl-gray. L., 16-50; W., 9-00 ; Tar., 3-75 ; B., 3-75. Range. — Temperate North America; rare or accidental on the Atlantic coast ; breeds from Illinois, and rarely Texas, northward to the Saskatche- wan ; winters along the Gulf coast and southward. Long Island, A. V. Nest.^ a slight depression in the ground in marshy places. Eggs., three to four, pale olive or buffy clay-color, thickly spotted with chocolate, 1-95 x 1-35. Avocets are common birds in parts of the interior, but are rare on the Atlantic coast. They frequent shores and shallow pools, and in searching for shells, crustaceans, etc., their peculiar recurved bill is used in a most interesting manner. Dropping it beneath the surface of the water until its convexity touches the bottom, they move rap- idly forward, and with every step swing their bill from side to side, as a mower does his scythe. In this way they secure food which the muddy water would prevent them from seeing. 236. TTi tn ^■■nfnpiifi mexicainus {Mull.). Black-necked Stilt. Ad. 3 .—A white spot above and another below the eye ; front of the head, front of the neck, lower back, rump, and under parts white ; tail grayish ; rest of the plumage glossy, greenish black. Ad. 9 .—Similar, but with the back fuscous-brown. Im. — Similar to the preceding, but head and neck more or less marked with white ; back and scapulars bordered with white or whitish. L., 15-00 ; W., 9-00 ; Tar., 4-15 ; B., 2-00. Range. — Tropical America, breeding northward to the Gulf coast and " locally and rarely " up the Mississippi Valley as far as Minnesota ; rare on the Atlantic coast north of Florida, but straying sometimes as far as Maine. Long Island, A. V. Nest.1 a slight depression in the ground lined with grasses. Eggs., three to four, olive or bufi'y clay-color, thickly spotted with chocolate, 1-70 x 1-25. Stilts are fond of wading in shallow ponds in salt marshes, and are graceful and alert in their movements. During the nesting season they become very noisy, and at nightfall I have heard them utter their froglike croak as they darted erratically about over the marshes. Family Scolopacid^. Snipes, Sandpipers, etc. About one hundred species are considered as belonging to this family. They are distributed throughout the world, but during the breeding season are mostly confined to the northern parts of the north- ern hemisphere. Some forty-five species are found in North America. With the Plovers they constitute the great group known as Shore Birds or Bay Birds, and with few exceptions they are rarely found far from the vicinity of water. Generally speaking, they are more abun- dant on the coast than in the interior, but many species are quite as numerous inland as they are near the sea. As a rule, they migrate SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. 151 and pass the winter in flocks, but they are not gregarious during the nesting season. Their long bills serve the purpose of both probes and forceps. Most of the species probe the soft mud for food, while some are known to have the power of moving the upper mandible independently of the lower one, curving it at the tip as one would a finger. Snipes are not supposed to be song birds, but during the breeding season inany species are highly and peculiarly musical, and at other times of the year they utter characteristic whistles. These are sus- ceptible of imitation, and the birds are quick to respond to an imita- tion of their notes. The sportsman concealed in his " blind," there- fore, calls to passing birds, and with the aid of wooden decoys easily draws them within gunshot. KEY TO THE SPECIES. I. Bill 2-00 or over. A. Axillars * barred with black. a. Bill curved downward. ai. Bill over 3-00, under 4*50 265. Hudsonian Cuklew. «2. Bill under 3-00 266. Eskimo Curlew. a3. Bill over 4-50 264. Long-billed Cuklew. b. Bill straight or curved slightly upwai'd. &i. Tail-feathers with numerous black bars. b^. Wing over 7'00, primaries black or fuscous. 254. Greater Yellow-legs. 5*. "Wing over 7'00, inner web of primaries buff or rufous. 249. Mabbled Godwit. b*. Wing under 7*00, bill widened and pitted at the tip. 231. DowiTCHER. 232. Long-billed Dowitcher. c*. Tail black with a broad rufous tip or marked with rufous. c'. Outer web of primary with rufous bars. 227. European "Woodcock. c3. Primaries not barred 230. Wilson's Snipe. £. Axillars not barred. a. Axillars rufous or ochraceous-buff. a^. Bill over 5-00, much curved downward. 264. Long-billed Curlew. a'. Bill nearly straight, between 3-50 and 5-00. 249. Marbled Godwit, a3. Bill straight, under 3*50 228. American Woodcock. b. Axillars black. b^. Under parts chestnut-rufous, barred with black. 251. Hudsonian Godwit. b'. Under parts white, with or without blackish bars. 258. WiLLET. 258a. Western Willet. * See Fig. 64. 152 SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETO. II. Bill under 200. A. Tail with cross-bars. a. Wing over 5'75. ai. Outer tail-feathers white, more or less barred ; outer primary with out bars 255. Yellow-legs, a*. Outer primary with numerous black bars. 261. Bartramian Sandpiper. b. Wing under 5-75. fti. Under parts white, with numerous round blackish spots ; upper parts brownish gray, barred with blackish . . 263. Spotted Sandpiper. b^. Under parts white, breast streaked with blackish ; upper parts fus- cous, spotted with white 256. Solitary Sandpiper. b^. Under parts tinged with buflfy, inner web of outer primary speckled with blackish 262. Buff-breasted Sandpiper. b*. Under parts white, breast washed with grayish, inner primaries and secondaries with a concealed white patch. 263. Spotted Sandpiper (Ira.). B. Tail without cross-bars, toes 4. a. Bill over 1-10. a^. Middle upper tail-coverts with cross-bars or streaks. flS. Tarsus over 1-50 233. Stilt Sandpiper. a^. Tarsus under 1-50, wing under 6'00. . 244. Curlew Sandpiper. a*. Tarsus under 1*50, wing over 6*00 234. Knot. b^. Middle upper tail-coverts black or fuscous, without bars; bill straight. b^. Tarsus under 1-50 ; upper parts blackish, more or less margined with gray 235. Purple Sandpiper. b^. Tarsus under 1"50 ; upper parts more or less margined with rufous. 239. Pectoral Sandpiper. b*. Tarsus over 1-50 260. Euff. ci. Middle upper tail-coverts grayish, bill curved slightly downward. 243a. Eed-backed Sandpiper. b. Bill under 1-10. b^. Wing under 4*00. 52. Toes partly webbed. 246. Semipalmated Sandpiper. 247. Western Sandpiper. J3. Toes not webbed 242. Least Sandpiper. (ji. Wing over 4-00, inner webs of primaries plain. c2. Breast white or whitish, streaked or spotted with blackish ; mid- dle upper tail-coverts white . . 240. White-rumped Sandpiper. c3. Breast buflPy, heavily spotted or streaked with blackish ; middle upper tail-coverts black, slightly margined with rufous. 239. Pectoral Sandpiper. c*. Breast buffy lightly spotted or streaked with black ; middle upper tail-coverts fuscous, lightly margined with buffy. 241. Baird's Sandpiper. d^. Wing over 4-00, inner webs of primaries speckled. 262. Buff-breasted Sandpiper. 0. Tail without cross-bars, toes S 248. Sanderling. SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. 153 228. Philohela minor (6^m.6^.). American Woodcock. Ad. — Front of the crown slaty, washed with buff, an indistinct blackish line in its center, •and another from the eye to the bill ; back of the head black, with two or three bars of ochraceous-butf; rest of the upper parts black, margined with slaty and barred and mottled with rufous or ochraceous-buff ; tip of the tail ashy gray above, silvery beneath ; under parts between ochraceous-butf and rufous ; three outer primaries very narrow and much stiffened. L., 11-00 ; W., 5-40 ; Tar., 1-25 ; B., 2-90. Eange. — Eastern North America north to Labrador and Manitoba, breed- ing nearly throughout its range, but not commonly in the southern part of it ; winters from southern Illinois and Virginia southward. Washington, rather common from Feb. to Nov.; a few winter. Long Island, common S. R. ; a few winter. Sing Sing, common S. K., Feb. 19 to Dec. 2. Cambridge, S. E., formerly common, fast becoming rare ; Mch. to Nov. Nest., of a few dry leaves, on the ground in the woods. Eggs., four, buffy, distinctly and obscurely spotted with shades of rufous, 1"60 x 1'23. During the spring and early summer this Owl among Snipe haunts low, wooded bottom-lands ; in August, while molting, it resorts to corn- fields near woods, and in the fall migrating birds frequent wooded up- lands. But at all times it requires a soft, moist earth in which it may easily probe with its long bill for its fare of earthworms. The holes it makes are known as " borings." They are generally found in little groups, and are, of course, certain evidence of the presence of Wood- cock. It has recently been discovered by Mr. Gurdon Trumbull that the Woodcock can move the tip of its upper mandible independently of the lower one, and this organ is made to act as a finger to assist the bird in drawing its food from the ground. The flight of the Woodcock is sometimes accompanied by a high, whistling sound produced by its narrow, stiffened primaries in beating the air. When flushed near its nest or young, the parent bird gen- erally feigns lameness or a broken wing, and leads the intruder some distance from its treasures before taking wing. The cloak of night always lends a certain mystery to the doings of nocturnal birds, and more often than not their habits justify our un- usual interest in them. How many evenings have I tempted the ma- laria germs of Jersey lowlands to watch the Woodcock perform his strange sky dance ! He begins on the ground with a formal, periodic peent, peent, an incongruous preparation for the wild rush that follows. It is repeated several times before he springs from the ground and on whistling wings sweeps out on the first loop of a spiral which may take him 300 feet from the ground. Faster and faster he goes, louder and shriller sounds his wing-song ; then, after a moment's pause, with darting, headlong flight, he pitches in zigzags to the earth, uttering as he falls a clear, twittering whistle. He generally returns to near the 154: SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. place from which he arose, and the peent is at once resumed as a pre- liminary to another round in the sky. The EuKOPEAN Woodcock {227. Scolopax rusticola) bears a general re- semblance to our Woodcock, but is much larger ; the under parts are barred with black, the wings are barred with rufous, and the outer primaries are not emarginate. It is of accidental occurrence in eastern North America. 230. GaUinagO delicata ( Orel). Wilson's Snipe ; English Snipe. Ad. — Upper parts black, barred, bordered, and mottled with dilferent shades of cream-butf ; wings fuscous ; outer edge of outer primary and tips of greater coverts white ; throat white ; neck and breast ochraceous-bufi', indistinctly streaked with blackish ; belly white, sides barred with black ; under tail- coverts huffy, barred with black ; outer tail-feathers barred with black and white, inner ones black, barred with rufous at their ends and tipped with whitish. L., 11-25 ; W., 5-00 ; Tar., 1-20 ; B., 2-50. Range. — North America, breeding from southern Minnesota, northern Illi- nois, northwestern Pennsylvania, and Connecticut northward to Hudson Bay and Labrador, and wintering from southern Illinois and South Carolina to northern South America. Washington, common T. V., Mch. to May 5; fall; occasional in winter. Long Island, common T. V., Mch. and Apl. ; Aug. to Oct. Sing Sing, tol- erably common T. V., Mch. 20 to May 6 ; Oct. 6 to Nov. 20. Cambridge, com- mon T. v., Apl. 5 to May 5 ; Sept. and Oct. Eggs.1 three to four, olive, clay-color, or brownish ashy, heavily marked with chocolate, principally at the larger end, 1-60 x 1-17. Wilson's Snipe frequents fresh-water meadows and swamps, and in spring is often found in low-lying swales in meadows or mowing fields, but, excepting in very dry seasons, it seldom alights on salt marshes. At times, especially in winter or early spring, when the meadows are covered with snow or ice, it resorts to springy runs wooded with alders, birches, and maples, but as a rule it prefers open places. Two things are essential to its requirements — ground so thoroughly water-soaked as to afford slight resistance to its long and highly sensitive bill when probing, and such concealment as tussocks, hillocks, or long grass afford, for, unlike the Sandpipers, the Snipe rarely ventures out on bare mud flats, save under cover of darkness. Although less strictly nocturnal than the Woodcock, it feeds and mi- grates chiefly by night or in " thick " weather. Its migratory move- ments are notoriously erratic, and meadows which one day are alive with birds may be quite deserted the next, or the reverse. Dear to our sportsmen is Wilson's Snipe, partly because of the ex- cellence of its flesh, but chiefly from the fact that it furnishes a mark which taxes their skill to the utmost, and which no mere novice need hope to hit, unless by accident ; for the bird's flight is swift and tortu- ous, and it springs from the grass as if thrown by a catapult, uttering SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. I55 a succession of hoarse, rasping scaipes which have a peculiarly start- ling effect on inexperienced nerves. In the springtime — and occasionally in autumn also — Wilson's Snipe mounts to a considerable height above his favorite meadows and darts downward with great velocity, making at each descent a low yet penetrating, tremulous sound which suggests the winnowing of a domes- tic Pigeon's wings, or, if heard at a distance, the bleating of a goat, and which is thought to be produced by the rushing of the air through the wings of the Snipe. This performance may be sometimes witnessed in broad daylight when the weather is stormy, but ordinarily it is re- served for the morning and evening twilight and for moonlight nights, when it is often kept up for hours in succession. Besides this "drumming" or "bleating," as it is called, the Snipe, while mating, sometimes makes another peculiar sound, a kuk-kuk- kuk-kuk-kup, evidently vocal and occasionally accompanying a slow, labored, and perfectly direct flight, at the end of which the bird alights on a tree or fence post for a few moments. — William Brewster. The European Snipe {229. GalUnago gallinago) inhabits the northern parts of the Old World, is of frequent occurrence in Greenland, and accidental in the Bermudas. 231. Macrorhamphus griseus (6^m6^.). Dowitcher. (See Figs. 25, a, 26, c.) Ad. in summer. — Upper parts, tertials, and wing-coverts black, the feathers edged or barred with ochraceous-bufl' or rufous ; rump, upper tail- coverts, and tail barred with black and more or less ochraceous-buff ; prima- ries fuscous ; under parts dull, pale rufous, whitish on the belly, more or less spotted and barred with black. Ad. in winter. — Upper parts brownish gray ; rump and tail barred with black and white ; throat and breast washed with ashy, belly white, sides and under tail-coverts barred with black. Im. — Upper parts black, the feathers edged with rufous ; rump and tail barred with black and white, and sometimes washed with rufous ; secondaries widely edged with white ; under parts more or less washed with ochraceous-buft and obscurely spotted with blackish. L., 10-50; W., 5-75; Tar., 1-30; B., 2-05-2-50. Remarhs. — The barred tail and tail-coverts, with the peculiar flattened, pitted tip of the bill, are characteristic of this and the next species. Range. — Eastern North America, breeding within the Arctic Circle, and wintering from Florida to South America. Washington, casual, one specimen, Sept. Long Island, common T. V., May ; July to Sept. 15. Eggs., four, light bufl'y olive, distinctly spotted and speckled, especially about the larger end, with deep brown, 1-65 x 1-13 (Eidgw.). The Dowitchers are among our best-known Bay Birds. They migrate in compact flocks which are easily attracted to decoys by an imitation of their call. Mud-fiats and bars exposed by the falling tide are their chosen feeding grounds. On the Gulf coast of Florida I have 156 SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. seen several hundred gathered in such close rank that they entirely concealed the sandbar on which they were resting. 232. Macrorhamphus scolopaceus {Sat/). Long-billed Dow- itcher; Western Dowitcher. Ad. in summer. — Similar to the preceding, but averaging larger ; the bill especially is longer, the under parts are more uniformly rufous, and the sides are more heavily barred with black. Ad. in lointer and Im. — To be distinguished from the corresponding stages of M. gri- seus only by their larger size. W., 6-00 ; Tar., 1-50 ; B., 2-10-2-90. Range. — " Mississippi Valley and western prQvince of North America from Mexico to Alaska ; less common, but of regular occurrence along the Atlantic coast of the United States " (A. 0. U.). Washington, casual, seven shot in Apl. Long Island, casual, July to Oct. Eggs.^ four, not distinguishable from those of the preceding species. This is a bird of the interior and Western States, and occurs on our coasts as a rare but regular late fall migrant. It resembles the pre- ceding species in habits, but the baymen who " gun " for Snipe say they can recognize it by its somewhat different notes. Like the Wood- cock, Wilson's Snipe, and its near ally, M. griseus, the male utters a flight song in the nesting season. It is well described by Mr. E. W. Nelson in his Report on Collections made in Alaska, p. 101. 233. Micropalama hixuantopus {Bonap.). Stilt Sandpiper. Ad. in summer. — Upper parts black, bordered with grayish and buffy; ear- coverts and an indistinct line around the back of the head rufous ; second- aries grayish, edged with white ; primaries fuscous ; rump ashy : upper tail- coverts barred with black and white ; outer tail-feathers with broken dusky bars, inner ones with central streaks or margins of brownish gray or white ; under parts white, heavily barred with fuscous. Ad. in winter. — Upper parts brownish gray ; upper tail-coverts white ; tail white, margined with brownish gray ; under parts white ; the throat, neck, and sides indistinctly streaked or washed with grayish. Im. — Similar to the preceding, but the upper parts black- ish, margined with ochraceous-buff. L., 8-25 ; W., 5-00 ; Tar., 1*60 ; B., 1-55. Remarks. — The distinguishing characters of this species are the flattened, pitted tip of the bill, in connection with the very long tarsi. Range. — Eastern North America, breeding within the Arctic Circle, and wintering as far south as South America. Washington, casual, one record. Long Island, not uncommon T. V., May ; July to Oct. 10. Eggs.^ three to four, pale grayish buff, or grayish buffy white, boldly spotted with rich vandyke-brown and purplish gray, 1-42 x 1-00 (Eidgw.). ■ Colonel N. S. Goss, in his admirable Birds of Kansas, writes that he has observed this species along the edges of old channels of rivers or muddy pools of water, in which it wades while feeding; immersing the head and feeling with its sensitive bill in the thin mud for food. It moves about rather slowly as compared with the true Sandpipers, and at times will try and avoid detection by squatting close to the SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. 157 ground, flying only as a last resort, and then darting swiftly away with a sharp tweet, tweet. 234. Txdnga canutus Linn. Knot; Robin Snipe; Gray Snipe. (See Figs. 25, 6, 26, h.) Ad. in summer. — Upper parts barred and streaked with black and white and rufous ; tail ashy gray, narrowly margined with whitish ; under parts dull rufous ; lower belly white or whitish, sides sometimes with black bars. (According to George H. Mackay, it requires about four years for birds to acquire this plumage. See Auk, x, 1893, p. 25.) Im. — Upper parts plain brownish gray; upper tail -coverts barred with black and white, tail brownish gray ; breast and sides barred with black, belly white. Young.— Upper parts pale brownish gray ; head streaked with blackish ; back, wing- coverts, and scapulars with distinct black and white borders ; upper tail-cov- erts barred with blackish ; tail ashy gray, narrowly margined with white ; under parts white ; breast finely streaked or spotted with blackish ; flanks barred or streaked with blackish. L., 10*50 ; W,, 6*75 ; Tar., 1-20 ; B., 1-30. Bangs. — Northern hemisphere, breeding within the Arctic Circle, and in America wintering from Florida to South America. Long Island, not uncommon T. V., May 15 to June 10 ; July 15 to Nov. Eggs^ known from only one specimen collected in the vicinity of Fort Conger by General Greely, and described as " light pea-green, closely spotted with brown in small specks about the size of a pinhead," 1*10 x 1-00 (see Merriam, Auk, ii, 1885, p. 313). Knots feed along the beaches on the small crustaceans and mol- Jusca brought in by the waves, and they also frequent muddy places, where, like the true Snipe, they probe the ground for food. They decoy with ease, " bunching " so closely as they wheel into the stools that the entire flock is sometimes killed by a single discharge. Mr. George H. Mackay, in one of his careful and detailed studies of our Shore Birds, describes their notes as a soft wah-guoif and a little honk. The first is particularly noticeable when flocks are coming to the de- coys (see Auk, x, 1893, pp. 25-35). 235* Tringa maritima Brunn. Purple Sandpiper. Ad. in sum- mer. — Upper parts black, margined with ochraceous-buff and cream-buff; wings fuscous-gray, greater coverts margined with white and some seconda- ries entirely white ; upper tail-coverts /-mscows, outer tail-feathers ashy gray, inner ones fuscous ; throat and breast brownish gray, streaked with black ; belly white, sides and under tail-coverts streaked with brownish gray. Win- ter plumage. — Head, neck, breast, and sides ashy, the two latter margined with white ; back fuscous, margined with ashy ; wings fuscous, the coverts, secondaries, and tertials distinctly bordered with white ; upper tail-coverts and middle tail-feathers black or fuscous, outer tail-feathers ashy ; belly and linings of the wings white. L., 9-00 ; W., 5-00 ; Tar., 9-00 ; B., 1-40. Bemarhs. — The brownish gray or ashy breast of this species is a good distinguishing character. Bange. — " Northern portions of the northern hemisphere ; in North Amer- 158 SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. ica chiefly in the northeastern portion, breeding in the high north," south in winter to the Great Lakes and Long Island, and casually to Florida. Long Island, uncommon W. V., Nov, 1 to Mch. 1. Cambridge, casual, one instance, Oct. Eggs^ three to four, olive clay-color or brownish ashy, heavily marked with rufous-brown, 1-45 x 1-08. This bird might be called Winter Snipe or Rock Snipe. Indeed, I find the latter name has been applied to it from its habit of frequent- ing rocky coasts, where it secures its food in the alg^ attached to rocks exposed by the falling tide. 239. Tringa; maculata Vieill. Pectoral Sandpiper; Krieker. Ad. ill surmner. — Upper parts blaclv, the feathers all heavily bordered with pale ochraceous-bufl'; rump and upper tail-coverts hlach^ lightly tipped with ochraceous-buff ; middle tail-feathers longest, pointed and margined with bufiy; outer tail-feathers brownish gray, narrowly margined with white; throat white, neck and breast heavily streaked with black and huffy ; rest of under parts white. Winter plumage. — Similar, but ochraceous-buff of upper parts replaced by rufous, and breast heavily washed with huffy. L., 9.00 ; W., 5-40; Tar., 1-10; B., 1-15. Uemarhs. — This bird somewhat resembles both T.fuscicoUis and T. bairdii, but it differs from them in its larger size, black instead of white or fuscous upper tail-coverts, and longer, more pointed middle tail-feathers. Bange. — North America ; breeds in the arctic regions and winters in the West Indies and South America. Washington, common T. V., Apl. ; Aug. to Nov. Long Island, T. V., rare in spring, common from July 15 to Nov. 1. Sing Sing, rare T. V., Sept_ 10 to Oct. 16. Cambridge, irregular and uncommon in Sept. and Oct. Eggs., four, drab, sometimes with a greenish tinge, blotched with clear amber-brown markings, more numerous at the larger end, 1-50 x 1-09 (Mur- doch). The names Grass Snipe and Krieker describe with equal truth and conciseness the haunts and notes of this Snipe. It frequents wet, grassy meadows rather than beaches, and, although it flies in flocks, the birds scatter while feeding and take wing one or more at a time. They thus remind one of Wilson's Snipe. Their note is a squeaky, grating whistle. They will respond to an imitation of it, but do not decoy so readily as the larger Bay Birds. Mr. E. W. Nelson writes * that during the breeding season the male inflates its breast and throat until they are double their normal size, and utters a deep, hollow, reso- nant note. 240. Tringa fUscicollis Vieill. White-rtimped Sandpiper. Ad. in .summer.— Upper parts black, edsred with rufous ; rump grayish fuscous, margined with ashy ; longer upper tail-coverts white., with sometimes brownish- * Rep. on Nat. Hist. Colls, made in Alaska, p. 108. SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. 159 gray markings ; central tail-feathers fuscous, outer ones brownish gray ; upper throat white ; neck, breast, and sides distinctly streaked and spotted with black and more or less washed with ochraceous-buft". Winter plumage. — " Upper parts plain brownish gray, with indistinct, narrowed, mesial streaks of dusky; otherwise as in summer, but streaks on chest, etc., less distinct" (Ridgw.). Im. — Similar to summer examples, but the feathers of the upper parts with rounded whitish or ochraceous-buft' tips; breast less distinctly streaked. L., 7-50 ; W., 4-90 ; Tar., -90 ; B., -95. Eemarlcs. — The white upper tail-coverts distinguish this species. Bange. — Eastern North America, breeding in the arctic regions and win- tering as far south as the Falkland Islands. Long Island, not uncommon T. V., July 20 to Oct 10. Sing Sing, casual T. v., Sept. Eggs^i three to four, light olive, or olive brownish, spotted (usually rather finely) with deep brown and dull, purplish gray, 1-37 x -94 (Eidgw.). "They frequent the sandy beach as well as the marshy shores upon the coast, but inland seem to prefer the edges of pools of water upon the uplands. They move in small flocks, are very social, often associating with other waders, are not as a rule shy or timid, and, when startled, usually fly but a short distance, drop back, and run about in an unconcerned and heedless manner, picking up the minute forms of life that usually abound in such places, occasionally uttering a rather sharp, piping weet, weet^ Their flight is swift and well sustained " (Goss). 241. Tringabairdii(6'ot^e«). Baikd's Sandpiper. Ad. in summer. — Upper parts fuscous ; feathers of the crown and nape margined laterally with pale buffy ; back and scapulars tipped with pale buft"y or brownish gray ; middle upper tail-coverts /-msco-ws, sometimes tipped with buft'y ; central tail- feathers fuscous, margined with whitish, outer ones pale brownish gray ; throat white ; breast washed with buft'y and ligMly spotted or streaked with fuscous ; sides and belly white. Im. — Similar, but the back, scapulars, and wing-cov- erts with rounded white tips. (In the winter these tips are more or less worn off".) L., 7-40 ; W., 4-90 ; Tar., -90 ; B., -85. Bemarks. — This bird most closely resembles T. fuscicollis. In any plum- age it may be known from that species by the fuscous instead of white middle upper tail-coverts. In summer it difters also in the absence of rufous above, the less heavily spotted throat, and the white instead of spotted sides. In winter the chief distinguishing marks of the two species, aside from the dif- ferently colored upper tail-coverts, are the buft'y breast and generally paler upper parts of bairdii. Bange. — Interior of North America, breeding in the arctic regions and migrating southward to South America; rare on the Atlantic coast. Washington, casual, one record. Long Island, casual, Aug. Eggs., three to four, light, creamy buff, sometimes tinged with rusty, thickly speckled and spotted with deep reddish brown or chestnut, 1*30 x '93 (Ridgw.). 160 SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. " In habits they are similar to the White-rumped (which they so closely resemble), but are more inclined to wander from the water's edge. I have flushed the birds on high prairie lands, at least a mile from the water " (Gross). 242. Tringa minutilla Vieill. Least Sandpiper; Meadow Oxeye; Peep. Ad. in summer. — Upper parts black or fuscous, edged and tipped with buify or rufous ; rump and middle upper tail-coverts plain black or fus- cous ; central tail-feathers black or fuscous, outer ones ashy gray ; upper throat white ; neck and breast white or buffy, streaked with fuscous ; belly and sides white. Im. — Similar, but feathers of the back with rounded rufous or buffy tips; breast not distinctly streaked. Winter plumage. — Upper parts brown- ish gray, sometimes with more or less black in the centers of the feathers ; breast white or ashy, not distinctly streaked. L., 6-00; W., 3-50; Tar., •70; B., -75. Bemarhs. — This is the smallest of our Sandpipers, and can be confused Fig. 62.— Least Sandpiper. (Natural size.) only with Ereunetes pusillus, from which, however, it may always be distin- guished by the absence of webs between the bases of the toes. Range. — ^North America, breeding in the arctic regions and wintering from the Gulf States to South America. Washington, uncommon T. V., May ; Aug. to Oct. Long Island, abun- dant T. v., Apl. 25 through May; July through Sept. Sing Sing, tolerably common T. V., May 9 to May 22 ; Oct. 3. Cambridge, very common T. V., May 25 to May 31 ; July 20 to Aug. 31. Eggs., three to four, pale, grayish buffy, varying to pale brownish^ thickly spotted, speckled, or sprinkled with deep chestnut and dull, purplish gray, 1-15 X -83 (Eidgw.). This, the smallest of our Sandpipers, is frequently associated with its larger cousin the Semipalmated Sandpiper on the shores and beaches, but it also visits the grassy meadows, and for this reason is known by baymen as the " Meadow Oxeye." 243a. Tringa alpina pacifica ( (7o't^£5). Eed-backed Sandpipeb; Leadback. Ad. in summer. — Upper parts broadly margined with rufous, the centers of the feathers black, wings brownish gray ; breast whitish, lightly streaked with blackish ; middle of the belly with a large hlacJc patch., lower belly white. Im. — Upper parts blackish, the feathers with rounded tips of rufous or buffy; breast washed with buffy and indistinctly streaked with blackish ; belly spotted with black. Winter plumage. — Upper parts brown- ish gray ; middle upper tail-coverts fuscous ; wing-coverts brownish gray margined with buffy ; throat white ; breast ashy, indistinctly streaked ; belly SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. 161 white, the sides sometimes spotted with black. L., 8-00 ; W., 4-75 ; Tar., 1*00 ; B., 1-50. Bemarhs. — There is, of course, every degree of intergradation between summer and winter plumage, but the species may always be known by its slightly curved bill. Eange. — North America, breeding in the arctic regions and wintering from Florida southward ; rare in the interior. Washington, rare T. V., Apl. ; Oct. Long Island, T. V., uncommon in Fig. 63.— Red-backed Sandpiper. (Natural size.) spring, Apl. 1 to May 15 ; common in fall, Aug. 31 through Oct. Sing Sing, tolerably common T. V. in fall, Oct. 3 to Oct. 24. Cambridge, casual, one instance, Oct. Eggs, three to four, varying from pale, bluish white to ochraceous-buff, heavily marked with chocolate, chiefly at the larger end, 1-43 x 1*01. Generally speaking, this is a shore or beach bird, though it also visits grassy marshes. • It flies and feeds in flocks, and is an unsus- picious, rather stupid little Snipe, less active than most members of this family. The gray-plumaged fall birds are known as " Leadbacks," while in the spring they go by the names " Blackbreast " or " Redback." The Dunlin" {^4^. Tringa alpina) is the Old- World representative of our Eed-backed Sandpiper, from which it difi"ers only in being less brightly colored and somewhat smaller. L., about 7*40; W., 4-12-4-50; Tar., -78-90; B., 1-05-1-25. It is of casual occurrence in North America. The Ctjblew Sandpiper {244- Tringa ferruginea) inhabits the eastern hemisphere, and occurs casually in eastern North America. It has been re- corded from Ontario, Nova Scotia, Maine, Massachusetts, and Long Island. 246» £reunetes pusillus {Linn.). Semipalmated Sandpiper ; Sand OxEYE ; Peep. Ad. in summer. — Upper parts black or fuscous, margined with brownish gray and a small amount of rufous ; rump grayish brown ; upper tail-eoverts blackish ; tail-feathers brownish gray, central ones darkest ; breast streaked or spotted with blackish. Im. — Similar, but upper parts and wing- coverts blackish, with rounded rufous or butfy tips to the feathers ; breast un- 12 162 SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. streaked, tinted with buffy. Winter plumage. — Upper parts brownish gray, with darker shaft streaks ; upper tail-coverts darker ; under parts white, some- times with faint streaks on the breast. L., 6-30 ; W., 3-75 ; Tar., -75 ; B., -GS-'SO. Remarhs. — The small size of this and the next species prevents their be- ing confused with any other except Tringa minutilla^ from which they may always be known by their partially webbed toes. Range. — Eastern North America ; breeds in the arctic regions, and winters from the Gulf States southward through Brazil. Washington, rare T. V., May ; Aug. to Oct. Long Island, abundant T. V., May ; July through Sept. Sing Sing, common T. V. in fall, Aug. 14 to Oct. 20. Cambridge, very common in Aug. and Sept. JSggs, three to four, pale, dull grayish buff, sprinkled, speckled, or spotted with dark brown and purplish gray, 1'21 x -85 (Kidgw.). The thought of these little Sandpipers always creates a mental pic- ture of a long stretch of dazzling beach with its ever-changing surf- line. I hear the oft-repeated booming of the rolling, tumbling break- ers, and in the distance see a group of tiny forms hurrying to and fro over the sand smoothed by the frothy waves. With what nimble grace- fulness they follow the receding waves, searching for treasures cast up by the sea ! What contentment and good-fellowship are expressed by their cheery, conversational twitterings ! Up and down the beach they run, now advancing, now retreating, sometimes, in their eagerness, ven- turing too far, when the waters threaten to ingulf them, and in momen- tary confusion they take wing and hover back to a place of safety. Suddenly, as though at a signal, they are off ; a compact flock moving as one bird, twisting and turning to right and left, now gleaming white as the sun strikes their snowy bodies, now dark again like a wisp of sunless cloud flying before the wind. 247. Ereimetes occidentaUs Lawr. Western Semipalmated Sandpiper. — This bird closely resembles the preceding, from which, in sum- mer plumage, it difiers in having the upper parts conspicuously margined with rufous and the breast more heavily streaked. In fall and winter plum- age the diiferences in coloration are not so apparent, but the birds are to be distinguished at any season by the size of the bill, which in the western spe- cies always averages longer. W., 3-80 ; Tar., 80 ; B., •85-1-20. Range. — Western North America ; breeds in the arctic regions, and win- ters from the Gulf States to South America; occasional on the Atlantic coast. Long Island, uncommon T. V., occurring with K pusillus. Eggs, three to four, deep cinnamon buffy, sprinkled, speckled, or thickly spotted with bright rusty brown or chestnut, the general aspect decidedly rusty, 1-24 X -87 (Eidgw.). This western representative of the preceding species is sometimes found on our coasts associated with its eastern relative. In Florida, particularly on the Gulf coast, it occurs in numbers during the winter. SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. 163 248. Ca/lidris airena>ria> {Linn.). Sanderling ; Sukf Snipe. Ad. in summer. — Feathers of the upper parts with generally black centers, bor- dered and sometimes barred with pale rufous and tipped with ashy white ; wings fuscous, the basal half of the outer web of the inner primaries white ; wing-coverts grayish fuscous, the greater one broadly tipped with white ; tail brownish gray, narrowly margined with white; throat and upper breast washed with pale rufous and spotted with blackish ; rest of the under parts fure white. Im. in fall. — Similar, but upper parts without rufous, glossy black, the feathers sometimes bordered with white, but generally with two white spots at their tips separated by the black of the central part of the feather ; nape grayish white, lightly streaked with blackish ; under parts pure white, with occasionally a few spots on the breast. Winter plumage. — Upper parts pale brownish gray, wings as in the preceding ; under parts ^wre white. L., 8-00 ; W., 6-00 ; Tar., 1-00 ; B., 1-00. Bemarhs. — The Sanderling is the only one of our Snipes or Sandpipers having three toes, and it may always be known by this character in combi- nation with its booted or transversely scaled tarsi. Range. — " Nearly cosmopolitan, breeding in arctic and subarctic regions; migrating, in America, south to Chili and Patagonia" (A. 0. U.). Washington, casual T. V., two records. Long Island, common T. V., Mch. 15 through May ; Aug. 1 through Sept. Sing Sing, tolerably common T. V., to June 5 ; Sept. 9 to Oct. 5. Cambridge, casual, one instance, Sept. Eggs., three to four, light olive-brown, finely spotted or speckled with darker, the markings larger and more blended on the larger end, 1-41 x -91 (Eidgw.). This is a true beach bird, and is usually found on shores washed by the sea. It frequently associates with the Semipalmated Sandpiper or Oxeye, which it resembles in habits, but its larger size and lighter colors distinguish it from that species. 249. Liimosa fedoa> {Linn.). Marbled Godwit; Brown Marlin. Ad. — -Upper parts black, the head and neck streaked with buffy, the back barred or the feathers spotted on the sides and sometimes tipped with buffy or ochraceous-buff ; inner web of the outer primaries and both webs of the inner ones ochraceous-buff or pale buffy, speckled with black ; tail ochraceous- buff barred with black ; throat white, rest of the under parts pale buffy, spotted or barred with black ; bill curved slightly upward, yellowish at the base, black at the end. Im. — Similar, but the under parts with few or no bars except on the flanks and under tail-coverts. L., 18-00 : W., 8*75 ; Tar., 2*75 ; B., 4-00. Range. — North America, breeding chiefly in the interior, from western Minnesota, and rarely Iowa and Nebraska, northward, and migrating south- ward to Central America and Cuba ; rare on the Atlantic coast. Long Island, rare T. V., Aug. and Sept. Eggs., three to four, clay-color or brownish ashy, blotched, spotted, and scrawled with grayish brown, 2*15 x 1'60. Colonel Goss writes that this species " inhabits the salt- and fresh- water shores, marshes, and moist ground upon the prairies. It feeds 164 SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. upon Crustacea, insects, worms, larvae, etc., moving about in a horizontal position, picking and probing as it goes. Its flight is easy and well sustained, though not very rapid ; in alighting, raises the wings over the back as it touches the ground. These birds as a rule are shy, and keep well out of reach. . . ." 251. Liimosa hsemastica {Linn.). Hidsonian God wit; Eing- TAiLED Maklin. Ad. — Upper parts black, the head and neck streaked and the back spotted or barred with ochraceous-buif ; primaries black or fuscous ; upper tail-coverts white., the lateral ones tipped or barred with black ; tail hlaclc, with a broad base and a narrow tip of white ; throat buff'y, streaked with blackish ; under parts chestnut-rufous, barred with black and sometimes tipped with whitish ; axillars hlacTc. L., 15-00 ; W., 8-25 ; Tar., 2-25 ; B., 3-20. Range. — Eastern North America; breeds in the arctic regions and mi- grates southward, chiefly through the interior, as far as Patagonia. Long Island, rare T. V., Aug. and Sept. Eggs., three to four, deep olive, hair-brown, or broccoli-brown (sometimes paler), usually more or less spotted with darker brown, but sometimes nearly uniform, 2-20 x 1-42 (Ridgw.). This bird resembles the preceding in habits, and like it is rare on the Atlantic coast. The Black-tailed Godwit {252. Limosa limosa) inhabits the northern parts of the Old- World and is of accidental occurrence in Greenland. 254. Totanus melanoleucus {Gmel.). Greater Yellow-legs. Ad. in summer. — Upper parts black, the head and neck streaked and the back spotted or barred with white or ashy ; upper tail-coverts white, more or less barred with black : tail white or ashy, barred with black ; breast heavily spotted with black ; sides barred with black ; middle of the belly white. Winter plumage.— Similar, but upper parts brownish gray, edged with whit- ish • sides of the scapulars, tcrtials, and wing-coverts with blackish and whitish spots ; breast only lightly streaked with blackish, and sides slightly barred. L., 14-00 ; W., 7-70 ; Tar., 2-40 ; B., 2-20. Range.— ^orth America ; breeds from Minnesota and rarely northern Illi- nois and Anticosti northward ; winters from the Gulf States to Patagonia. Washington, rather common T. V., Apl. and May ; July 25 to Nov. Long Island, common T. V., Apl. 10 through May; July 15 through Oct. Sing Sing, common T. V., to June 5 ;— to Oct. 28. Cambridge, common T. V., Apl. 15 to May 25 ; Sept. and Oct. I^ggs, three to four, brownish buffy, distinctly but very irregularly spotted with rich vandyke- or madder-brown, 1-43 x 1-20 (Ridgw.). It needs only the musical notes of the Yellow-leg to recall memo- ries of many days passed along the shore and in the marshes. Half reclining in my blind, I see in fancy the staring decoys, pointing like weathercocks with the wind, and hear the dull booming of surf be- hind the brown sand dunes. SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. 165 Few birds are flying ; lulled by the lap, lap of the water, I have almost fallen asleep, when from far up in the gray sky comes a soft, flutelike whistle, when, wheu-wheu-wheu-wheu, when, wheu-wheu. I re- spond quickly, and, lying on my back, look eagerly upward. Not a bird can be seen, but the questioning call grows stronger and is re- peated more frequently. Finally I distinguish five or six black points sailing in narrow circles so high that I can scarcely believe they are the birds I hear. But no bar or shoal breaks the sound waves. The birds grown larger and on widening circles sweep earthward. Their soft whistle has a plaintive tone ; their long bills turn inquiringly from side to side. The stolid decoys give no response, they repel rather than encourage, but the whistling continues, and with murmured notes of interrogation the deluded birds wheel over them, to find too late that they have blundered. 255. Totanus flavipes ( Gmel.). Yellow-legs ; Stimmek Yellow- legs. Ad. in summer. — L-pper parts generally brownish gray, the head and neck streaked with black and white, the back, scapulars, and wing-coverts with sometimes black centers, spotted or tipped with whitish or brownish gray ; upper tail-coverts white, more or less barred with black, tail varying from white to brownish gray, with numerous black or blackish cross-bars ; breast heavily spotted or streaked and sides barred with black ; belly white, legs yellow. Winter plumage.— Similar, but upper parts brownish gray, the sides of the feathers with whitish spots ; tail-bars grayish ; breast lightly streaked with ashy. L., 10-75 ; W., 6-40 ; Tar., 2-05 ; B., 1-40. Remarks. — This bird closely resembles the Greater Yellow-legs in color, but may always be distinguished by its smaller size. Hange.— North America, breeding chiefly in the interior from Minnesota, northern Illinois, Ontario County, N. Y., northward to the arctic regions; winters from the Gulf States to Patagonia. Washington, rather common T. V., Apl. to May 15 ; Aug. to Nov. Long Island, T. V., very rare in spring, abundant in fall ; July 15 to Oct. 1. Sing Sing, tolerably common T. V. in fall ; Aug. 25 to Oct. 5. Cambridge, rare in May ; sometimes common in Aug. and early Sept. I^gffs, three to four, buffy (variable as to shade), distinctly (sometimes broadly) spotted or blotched with dark madder- or vandyke-brown and pur- plish gray, 1-69 x 1-15 (Eidgw.). This species closely resembles the preceding in notes, habits, and choice of haunts. It decoys, however, more easily, and, generally speaking, is more common. The Green-shank (S5S. Totanus nehularius) is an Old-World species, of which three specimens were taken by Audubon, May 28, 1832, near Cape Sable, Florida. It resembles our Greater Yellow-legs, but differs chiefly in naving the lower back and rump white. The Gkeen Sandpipek {257. Totanus ochropus) is an Old- World species which has been recorded once from Nova Scotia. It resembles our Solitary 166 SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. Sandpiper, but is larger (W., 5-75), and has the upper tail-coverts pure white. 256. Totanus solitax*ius ( yVils.). Solitary Sandpiper. Ad. in summer. — Upper parts olive-fuscous, with a slight greenish tinge, the head and neck streaked and the back spotted with white ; upper tail-coverts fus- cous, with fine whitish spots on their sides, the lateral ones sometimes barred ; central pair of tail-feathers fuscous, the others white, barred with black \ Fig. 64.— Inner view of wing of Solitary Sandpiper, showing barred axillars. breast streaked, and sides sometimes barred with black ; belly white ; axillars barred with black and white ; legs greenish fuscous. Winter plumage. — Simi- lar, but upper parts grayish brown ; head and neck generally unstreaked, and the back only lightly spotted with buffy white ; breast streaked with brown- ish gray. L., 8-40 ; W., 5-25 ; Tar., 1-20 ; B., 1-15. Range. — Eastern North America ; breeds locally and rarely from northern Illinois, western Pennsylvania, and Maine northward ; winters in South America. Washington, common T. V., Apl. to May 25; July 25 to Nov. Long Island, common T. V., May; July 15 to Oct. 1. Sing Sing, common T. V., May 3 to 30 ; Aug. 27 to Oct 2. Cambridge, common T. V., May 15 to 25 ; July 20 to Oct. Eggs., known from only one example taken by Jenness Richardson, near Lake Bombazine, Vermont, May 28, 1878, and described by Dr. Brewer as light drab, with small, rounded, brown markings, some quite dark, nowhere confluent, and at the larger end a few faint purplish shell-marks, 1-39 x -95. This is a wood Sandpiper. It is rarely found on the beaches or salt marshes near the sea, but frequents fresh-water ponds, or lakes and woodland streams, both in the lowlands and mountains. It is gener- erally observed during the migrations, and although it occasionally breeds in the Middle States its skill in concealing its nest has defied the search of oologists. It is a quieter, more dignified bird than the Spotted Sandpiper, and as a rule only utters its " low, whistling notes " when flushed. 258. Symphemia semipalmata {Gmel.). Willet. Ad. in sum- mer. — Upper parts brownish gray, the head and neck streaked, and the back barred with black, and sometimes buffy, the centers of the feathers being oc- casionally wholly black ; basal half of the primaries and greater part of sec- ondaries white ; upper tail-coverts white with a few blackish bars ; central tail-feathers ashy, indistinctly barred with blackish ; outer ones whitish, lightly SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. 1^7 mottled with grayish ; foreneck heavily streaked ; breast and sides heavily barred with dark brownish gray and more or less washed with bufFy ; belly generally white, with sometimes a few bars. Winter plumage. — Upper parts brownish gray, unmarked ; tail without bars ; rump and wings as in the adult • breast washed with grayish ; belly white ; axillars black. L., 15-00 • W.. 8*00 • Tar., 2-30; B., 2-15. Range. — Eastern North America, breeding from Florida to southern New Jersey, and locally and rarely to Maine. Washington, rare T. V., Aug. Long Island, T. V., rare in May; uncom- mon in Aug. and Sept. Sing Sing, A. V. Eggs, three to four, clay-color or buffy, thickly spotted with chocolate, chiefly at the larger end, 2*10 x 1-55. Willets frequent both fresh- and salt-water marshes, shores, and beaches. If you visit their haunts during the nesting season, on flut- tering wings they will hover above your head or fly low over the marsh to draw you away from their home, uttering, with scarce a mo- ment's cessation, their loudly whistled call of pilly-will-willet, pilly- will-willet. All day long, and even at night, I have heard them repeat these notes until, wearied by their persistence, one is thankful to leave them in undisturbed possession of the ground. 258a. S. s. inomata JBrewst. Western Willet.— Slightly larger than the preceding, and, in summer plumage, the upper parts are paler and less heavily marked with black ; the breast is less heavily streaked and more suffused with buffy, and the middle tail-feathers are without black bars. In winter plumage the two forms can be distinguished only by the slight and inconstant character of size. W., 8-50 ; Tar., 2*50 ; B., 2-40. Range. — Western United States, breeding from Texas to Manitoba; win- ters on the Gulf coast from Florida to Texas. The EuFF (260. Pavoncella pugnax) is an Old-World species which occa- sionally wanders to eastern North America. It has been taken in Maine, Massachusetts, Ontario, Ohio, Long Island, and New Jersey. The adult male may be known by its enlarged ruff, which varies in color from black, chest- nut, and rufous to buffy and whitish. The female is without a ruff", and is otherwise very different from the male. The upper parts are grayish brown, the back, scapulars, and tertials are broadly barred with black, the outer tail-feathers are ashy, the inner ones are barred with buffy and black, the breast is ashy, with concealed black bars, the belly is white. In winter the upper parts are light grayish brown with few or no bars, $ L., 12-50 ; W., 7-50; Tar., 1-90; B., 1-50. 9 L., 10-00 ; W., 6-00; Tar., 1-40; B., 1-15. S61. Bartramia lon^cauda (BecJist.). Bartramian Sandpiper ; Upland Plover ; Field Plover. Ad. — Head and neck streaked with black and ochraceous-buff ; back and wing-coverts ochraceous-buff', barred with black ; tertials olive, barred with black and margined with ochraceous-buff; primaries fuscous, the outer one larred with white ; inner tail-feathers brown- ish gray, outer ones varying from ochraceous-buff to white, all more or less 168 SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. barred with black ; breast and sides washed with buflfy and streaked or barred with black ; belly white or whitish. Im. — Similar, but the ochraceous-buff is deeper. L., 11-50 ; W., 6-50 ; Tar., 1-90 ; B., ri5. Remarhs. — The white bars on the outer primary will always serve to iden- tify this species. Range. — Eastern North America; breeds locally from Kansas and Vir- ginia to Alaska and Nova Scotia ; winters over most of South America. Washington, common T. V., Apl. ; Aug. to Sept. Long Island, uncommon S. K., Apl. to Sept. Cambridge, not common T. V., Apl. 25 to May 5 ; July 30 to Sept. 15. Eggs^ four to live, creamy buff or white, spotted with reddish brown or chocolate, chiefly at the larger end, 1*80 x 1-30. The Upland " Plover " is at home on grassy plains and pastures. It is usually a shy bird, and can rarely be successfully approached on foot. It shows no fear, however, of a man who is riding or driving, and when on horseback I have passed within a few yards of birds which regarded me with some interest but no alarm. They so closely resemble dried grass in color that it is sometimes exceedingly diffi- cult to distinguish them from their surroundings. One may ride over a prairie upon which, at first glance, not a Plover is visible, and find, after careful scrutiny, that dozens of birds are scattered about him feeding. In alighting they stretch their wings to the utmost, high over their backs, as if to get the wrinkles out before gently folding them. When flushed they utter a soft, bubbling whistle. During their migra- tions one may clearly hear these sweet notes from birds traveling be- yond the limits of human vision. Mr. Langille describes their alarm note as a spirited and rapidly uttered quip-ip-ip-ip, quip-ip-ip-ip, and their song, given from the ground, a fence, or even a tree, as chr-r-r-r-r- ee-e-e-e-e-e-oo-o-o-o-o-oo. He remarks : " This prolonged, mournful, mel- low whistle, more like the whistling of wind than a bird's voice, may be heard even in the night, and is one of the most weird and never-to- be-forgotten sounds in Nature." 262. Tryngites subruficollis ( Vieill.). Buff-breasted Sand- piper. Ad. — Upper parts pale grayish brown, the feathers with olive cen- ters ; primaries fuscous, the inner half of their inner webs spechled with hlacTc ; longer inner wing-coverts conspicuously marked and tipped with black, then white; central tail-feathers fuscous, outer ones becoming buffy, irregularly marked and tipped with black and buffy; under parts pale ochraceous-buff, tipped with whitish, and with generally concealed black markings. Im. — Similar, but the upper parts and breast paler. L., 8-50 ; W., 5-25 ; B., -80. Remarhs. — In any plumage this bird may be known by the peculiar speck- ling on the inner webs of all the primaries, and also the markings of the under wing-coverts. Range. — " North America, especially in the interior ; breeds in the Yukon •a o Q < Q Q O cu C/2 SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, ETC. 169 district and interior of British America ; northward to the arctic coast ; South America in winter; of frequent occurrence in Europe" (A. 0. U.). Long Island, rare T. V., Aug. and Sept. £^ggs, three to four, buffy grayish white, varying to pale olive-buff, boldly spotted longitudinally (and somewhat spirally) with dark vandyke- or mad- der-brown and purplish gray, 1-53 x 1-04 (Ridgw.). This is a rare species on the Atlantic coast. Dr. Hatch writes of it as observed by him in Minnesota : " They are an extremely active species when on the wing, and essentially ploverine in all respects, seeking sandy, barren prairies, where they live upon grasshoppers, crickets, and insects generally, and ants and their eggs specially. I have found them repasting upon minute mollusks on the sandy shores of small and shallow ponds, where they were apparently little more suspicious than the Solitary Sandpipers are notably. The flight is in rather compact form, dipping and rising alternately, and with a dis- position to return again to the neighborhood of their former feeding places." 263* Actitis inanus {Coues^. Florida Bob-white; Quail ; Par- tridge. — Similar to the preceding, but smaller, the plumage throughout darker, the black of the back more extensive, the rump and upper tail-coverts grayer, 180 GROUSE, BOB-WHITES, ETC. the black throat-band wider and sometimes reaching down upon the breast, the rufous-chestnut of the sides more extensive, the blaclv bars of the breast and belly much wider. L., 8-50 ; W., 4-40 ; T., 2-50, Range. — Florida, except the northern border of the State. A common bird throughout the pine-grown portions of the Florida peninsula. It is especially numerous on old plantations, where it fre- quents patches of " cow peas." It resembles the northern Bob- white in habits, but is, I think, more inclined to take to the trees when flushed. 1 have seen a whole covey fly up into the lofty pine trees, where, squatting close to the limbs, they became almost invisible. They begin to pair early in March. The European or Migratory Quail {Coturnix coturnix) has been intro- duced into this country on several occasions, but does not appear to have sur- vived. 298. Dendragapus canadensis {Linn.). Canada Grouse ; Spruce Partridge. Ad. 6 . — Upper parts barred with black, ashy, gray, and grayish brown ; tertials and wing-coverts irregularly marked with fuscous and grayish brown; tail black, tipped with rufous; the black throat separated from the black breast by a broken circular band of black and white and a band of the same color as the back of the neck ; sides mottled with black and grayish brown, the ends of the feathers with white shaft streaks ; rest of the under parts black, broadly tipped with white, except on the middle of the lower breast ; bare skin above the eye bright red in life. Ad. 9 . — Upper parts barred with black and pale rufous and tipped with ashy gray ; tail black, mottled and tipped with rufous ; throat and upper breast barred with pale rufous and black; sides mottled with black and pale rufous, the ends of the feathers with white shaft streaks ; rest of the under parts black, broadly tipped with white and more or less washed with pale rufous. L., 15-00 ; W., 6-50 ; T., 4-75 ; B. from N., -40. Range. — From northern New England, northern New York, and northern Minnesota northwestward to Alaska. Nest.1 on the ground, l^ggs., nine to sixteen, buffy or pale brownish, more or less speckled or spotted with deep brown, 1-71 x 1-22 (Ridgw.). This species is a common inhabitant of coniferous forests, and is generally resident wherever found. An excellent account of its habits is given in Captain Bendire's Life Histories of North American Birds, p. 51. 300. Bonasa umbellus {Linn.). Ruffed Grouse ; Partridge ; Pheasant. Ad. 4 . — Prevailing color of the upper parts rufous, much varie- gated with black, ochraceous, buffy, gray, and whitish ; sides of the neck with large tufts of broad, glossy black feathers ; tail varying from gray to rufous, irregularly barred and mottled with black, a broad black or brownish band near the end ; tip gray ; throat and breast ochraceous-buff, a broken blackish band on the breast; rest of the under parts white, tinged with buffy and ID o Pi GROUSE, BOB- WHITES, ETC. 181 barred with blackish or dark grayish brown, the bars indistinct on the breast and belly, stronger on the sides. Ad. 9 , — Similar, but with the neck tufts very small. L., 17-00 ; W., 7-25 ; T., 6-25 ; B. from N., -52. Range. — Eastern United States, from Vermont to Virginia, and along the Alleghanies to northern Georgia. Washington, not common P. E. Sing Sing, common P. E. Cambridge, common P. R. JS^est., on the ground, at the base of a stump or tree, or beneath brush. Eggs., eight to fourteen, pale ochraceous-buff, 1-52 x 1-13. Of all the characteristics of this superb game bird, its habit of drumming is perhaps the most remarkable. This loud tattoo begins with the measured thump of the big drum, then gradually changes and dies away in the rumble of the kettle-drum. It may be briefly rep- resented thus: TJiump thump thump — thump, thump; thump, thump-rup rup rup rup r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r-r. The sound is produced by the male bird beating the air with his wings as he stands firmly braced on some favorite low perch ; and it is now quite well known to be the call of the male to the female ; an announcement that he is at the old rendezvous — a rendezvous that has perhaps served them for more than one season, and a place that in time becomes so fraught with delight- ful associations that even in autumn or winter the male, when he finds himself in the vicinity, can not resist the temptation to mount his wonted perch and vent his feelings in the rolling drum-beat that was in springtime his song of love. But now, alas ! there is no lady Grouse to come, shy but responsive, at the sound of his reverberating sum- mons. There is good reason for supposing that the Ruffed Grouse is po- lygamous, and that the male, if he drums in vain at one place, will fly to another retreat and there seek the society of some more compli- ant female. The young Grouse can run about as soon as they are hatched, and can fly well when about a week old. Their mother is celebrated for the variety of expedients she puts in practice to save her brood from threat- ened danger, and their father has frequently been known to divide the charge with her. The young usually continue with their parents till the following spring, though it is rare at this time to see more than three or four surviving out of the original twelve or fourteen. The food of this Grouse is largely insects and berries during the summer ; in the autumn it adds seeds to the list, and when the ground is covered with snow the staples are catkins, leaves, and buds. Its toes are provided during the winter with a curious fringe of strong, horny points which act as snowshoes. In the northern part of its range this bird commonly burrows into a snowdrift to pass the night during the season of intense cold ; but in the summer and in 182 GROUSE, BOB-WHITES, ETC. the warmer region of its range it roosts habitually among the thickets of evergreen. — Ernest E. Thompson. 300ai* B. U. toga